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Life ---- ### Childhood and priesthood Giuseppe Marello was born on 26 December 1844 on Bakers' Street in [Turin](/wiki/Turin "Turin") to Vincenzo Marello and Anna Maria Viale, and he was [baptized](/wiki/Baptized "Baptized") just hours later in the Corpus Domini church. He had a younger brother named Vittorio. His [godparents](/wiki/Godparents "Godparents") were Chiaffredo Viale and Teresa Secco. He received his Confirmation on 15 August 1855 from the [Bishop of Asti](/wiki/Bishop_of_Asti "Bishop of Asti") Filippo Artico. He was an [altar server](/wiki/Altar_server "Altar server") in his childhood, and he often invited the homeless to his home for food. His father was a friend of [Giuseppe Benedetto Cottolengo](/wiki/Giuseppe_Benedetto_Cottolengo "Giuseppe Benedetto Cottolengo"). Marello's mother died on 5 April 1848, and in 1852 his father decided to relocate with his children to [San Martino Alfieri](/wiki/San_Martino_Alfieri "San Martino Alfieri"), where his paternal grandparents resided. Marello began his studies for the priesthood on 31 October 1856, but his father wished him to continue with his education and take up a career in business. But in December 1863 Giuseppe contracted [typhus](/wiki/Typhus "Typhus") and promised the [Virgin Mary](/wiki/Blessed_Virgin_Mary_%28Roman_Catholic%29 "Blessed Virgin Mary (Roman Catholic)") that if he survived he would continue his studies to become a priest. He recovered, and attributed the cure to [Our Lady of Consolation](/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Consolation "Our Lady of Consolation"). He continued on with his ecclesial studies in February 1864\. At one stage he considered becoming a [Carthusian](/wiki/Carthusian "Carthusian") monk, but the new Bishop of Asti, Carlo Savio, dissuaded him, suggesting that God had other plans for him. Marello underwent the clerical investiture on 9 January 1864, and received both the [tonsure](/wiki/Tonsure "Tonsure") and all [minor orders](/wiki/Minor_orders "Minor orders") from Bishop Savio on 21 December 1867\. He was made a subdeacon on 28 March 1868, and was elevated to the [diaconate](/wiki/Diaconate "Diaconate") on 6 June 1868\. Marello was ordained to the priesthood on 19 September 1868 with Savio again officiating. The new priest celebrated his first [Mass](/wiki/Mass_%28liturgy%29 "Mass (liturgy)") on 20 September 1868 in San Martino Alfieri. After his ordination, he became the private assistant to Bishop Savio at [Asti](/wiki/Asti "Asti") on 21 October 1868\. He served in that capacity until 1881\. On 2 March 1880 he was named a Canon of the [Asti Cathedral](/wiki/Asti_Cathedral "Asti Cathedral"). He was also friends with [Giovanni Bosco](/wiki/Giovanni_Bosco "Giovanni Bosco") and [Leonardo Murialdo](/wiki/Leonardo_Murialdo "Leonardo Murialdo"). He attended the [First Vatican Council](/wiki/First_Vatican_Council "First Vatican Council") with Bishop Savio and it was there that he met Cardinal Gioacchino Pecci – the future [Pope Leo XIII](/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII "Pope Leo XIII") – who praised the priest for his virtues and talents. He and Savio went to [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome") on 21 November 1869 and were there until late July 1870; he even had the chance to meet [Pope Pius IX](/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX "Pope Pius IX"). His father died on 17 May 1873\. Later he took over an Asti [retirement home](/wiki/Retirement_home "Retirement home") to save it from being bankrupt and he soon became the spiritual director and catechist in his local diocese. On 14 March 1878 he founded the [Oblates of Saint Joseph](/wiki/Oblates_of_Saint_Joseph "Oblates of Saint Joseph") which would be dedicated to caring for the poor and educating children and adolescents as well as rendering assisting bishops in whatever capacities were required. ### Episcopate Pope Leo XIII appointed him [Bishop of Acqui](/wiki/Bishop_of_Acqui "Bishop of Acqui") on 11 February 1889\. The formal appointment as a bishop came on 11 February 1889 during a consistory for the elevation of new cardinals after having received word of his appointment in November 1888 (in the late morning) since the pope wanted to invest new bishops with the [rochet](/wiki/Rochet "Rochet") at the consistory. From 5:30 to 6:15pm on 10 February he met with the pope and that evening had dinner with Cardinal [Luigi Oreglia di Santo Stefano](/wiki/Luigi_Oreglia_di_Santo_Stefano "Luigi Oreglia di Santo Stefano"). He received his [episcopal consecration](/wiki/Episcopal_consecration "Episcopal consecration") on 17 February, from Cardinal [Raffaele Monaco La Valletta](/wiki/Raffaele_Monaco_La_Valletta "Raffaele Monaco La Valletta") in the [Capuchin](/wiki/Order_of_Friars_Minor_Capuchin "Order of Friars Minor Capuchin") [Santa Maria della Concezione dei Cappuccini](/wiki/Santa_Maria_della_Concezione_dei_Cappuccini "Santa Maria della Concezione dei Cappuccini") in Rome. The co\-consecrators were the Archbishop of Chieti Rocco Cocchia and the Archbishop of Damiata Ignazio Persico. He visited all the parishes in his diocese and wrote six [pastoral letters](/wiki/Pastoral_letters "Pastoral letters") to his flock. He issued his first pastoral letter on the subject of peace on 31 May 1889 and issued another on 2 February 1890 regarding a pastoral visitation that he would undertake. From 13 April 1890 to 1895 he visited 143 individual parishes. On 16 December 1890 he received an [honorary degree](/wiki/Honorary_degree "Honorary degree") in [sacred theology](/wiki/Sacred_theology "Sacred theology") from the Theological College of Saint Thomas in [Genoa](/wiki/Genoa "Genoa"), and then issued a third pastoral letter regarding [penance](/wiki/Penance%2C_Sacrament_of "Penance, Sacrament of") on 13 January 1891\. On 26 September 1891 he participated in a pilgrimage to Rome for the third centennial of the death of [Aloysius Gonzaga](/wiki/Aloysius_Gonzaga "Aloysius Gonzaga") and later on 4 February 1892 issued another pastoral letter on the subject of Christian education. Bishop Marello issued another one on 25 January 1893 regarding the profession of faith. From 14 to 28 February 1893 he went to Rome to celebrate the 50th anniversary of Pope Leo XIII's episcopal consecration though on 23 February made a detour to [Naples](/wiki/Naples "Naples") to visit the [Pompeii shrine](/wiki/Shrine_of_the_Virgin_of_the_Rosary_of_Pompei "Shrine of the Virgin of the Rosary of Pompei"). He issued another pastoral letter on catechism on 20 January 1894 and a final one on 8 February 1895 regarding missions and the propagation of the faith. ### Death Marello travelled to [Savona](/wiki/Savona "Savona"), arriving on 26 May, to participate in a celebration of the third centennial of [Philip Neri](/wiki/Philip_Neri "Philip Neri"). He died of a [cerebral hemorrhage](/wiki/Cerebral_hemorrhage "Cerebral hemorrhage") on 30 May 1895\. Marello was due to leave a week after the centennial celebration, but wanted to offer his respects to Bishop Giuseppe Boraggini of the [diocese of Savona](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Savona-Noli "Roman Catholic Diocese of Savona-Noli") (1879–1897\), who was not there, and so Marello decided to stay longer in the town until Boraggini's return; this was on 27 May 1895, after he celebrated what would be his final Mass. Marello first went on a Marian pilgrimage in the town and then called on the bishop that evening; he was exhausted but accepted a dinner invitation. But as the bishop showed him the room where [Pope Pius VII](/wiki/Pope_Pius_VII "Pope Pius VII") was once confined in he fainted and was rushed to a bed. The illness did not seem at all serious, so his aide telegrammed the Acqui diocese vicar\-general to give word the illness would keep the bishop out of his see for a little while. But his acute headaches caused even the slightest noise to torment him. On 28 May his two doctors thought they saw an improvement that indicated he might soon be able to leave, but the bishop's condition deteriorated on 29 May, and grew worse around 4:30pm on 30 May, when he managed with difficulty to utter a few garbled and incoherent words. The cerebral hemorrhage claimed his life at 6:00pm on 30 May. His funeral was celebrated on 1 June. Leo XIII said of his death at a general audience in Rome in 1891: "he was a gem among bishops". His remains were exhumed and relocated to his order's motherhouse on 30 June 1923\. His order received diocesan approval on 18 March 1901 and papal approval from [Pope Pius X](/wiki/Pope_Pius_X "Pope Pius X") on 11 April 1909\.
[ "Life\n----", "### Childhood and priesthood", "Giuseppe Marello was born on 26 December 1844 on Bakers' Street in [Turin](/wiki/Turin \"Turin\") to Vincenzo Marello and Anna Maria Viale, and he was [baptized](/wiki/Baptized \"Baptized\") just hours later in the Corpus Domini church. He had a younger brother named Vittorio. His [godparents](/wiki/Godparents \"Godparents\") were Chiaffredo Viale and Teresa Secco. He received his Confirmation on 15 August 1855 from the [Bishop of Asti](/wiki/Bishop_of_Asti \"Bishop of Asti\") Filippo Artico. He was an [altar server](/wiki/Altar_server \"Altar server\") in his childhood, and he often invited the homeless to his home for food. His father was a friend of [Giuseppe Benedetto Cottolengo](/wiki/Giuseppe_Benedetto_Cottolengo \"Giuseppe Benedetto Cottolengo\").", "Marello's mother died on 5 April 1848, and in 1852 his father decided to relocate with his children to [San Martino Alfieri](/wiki/San_Martino_Alfieri \"San Martino Alfieri\"), where his paternal grandparents resided.", "Marello began his studies for the priesthood on 31 October 1856, but his father wished him to continue with his education and take up a career in business. But in December 1863 Giuseppe contracted [typhus](/wiki/Typhus \"Typhus\") and promised the [Virgin Mary](/wiki/Blessed_Virgin_Mary_%28Roman_Catholic%29 \"Blessed Virgin Mary (Roman Catholic)\") that if he survived he would continue his studies to become a priest. He recovered, and attributed the cure to [Our Lady of Consolation](/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Consolation \"Our Lady of Consolation\"). He continued on with his ecclesial studies in February 1864\\. At one stage he considered becoming a [Carthusian](/wiki/Carthusian \"Carthusian\") monk, but the new Bishop of Asti, Carlo Savio, dissuaded him, suggesting that God had other plans for him. Marello underwent the clerical investiture on 9 January 1864, and received both the [tonsure](/wiki/Tonsure \"Tonsure\") and all [minor orders](/wiki/Minor_orders \"Minor orders\") from Bishop Savio on 21 December 1867\\. He was made a subdeacon on 28 March 1868, and was elevated to the [diaconate](/wiki/Diaconate \"Diaconate\") on 6 June 1868\\. Marello was ordained to the priesthood on 19 September 1868 with Savio again officiating. The new priest celebrated his first [Mass](/wiki/Mass_%28liturgy%29 \"Mass (liturgy)\") on 20 September 1868 in San Martino Alfieri.", "After his ordination, he became the private assistant to Bishop Savio at [Asti](/wiki/Asti \"Asti\") on 21 October 1868\\. He served in that capacity until 1881\\. On 2 March 1880 he was named a Canon of the [Asti Cathedral](/wiki/Asti_Cathedral \"Asti Cathedral\"). He was also friends with [Giovanni Bosco](/wiki/Giovanni_Bosco \"Giovanni Bosco\") and [Leonardo Murialdo](/wiki/Leonardo_Murialdo \"Leonardo Murialdo\"). He attended the [First Vatican Council](/wiki/First_Vatican_Council \"First Vatican Council\") with Bishop Savio and it was there that he met Cardinal Gioacchino Pecci – the future [Pope Leo XIII](/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII \"Pope Leo XIII\") – who praised the priest for his virtues and talents. He and Savio went to [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\") on 21 November 1869 and were there until late July 1870; he even had the chance to meet [Pope Pius IX](/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX \"Pope Pius IX\"). His father died on 17 May 1873\\. Later he took over an Asti [retirement home](/wiki/Retirement_home \"Retirement home\") to save it from being bankrupt and he soon became the spiritual director and catechist in his local diocese. On 14 March 1878 he founded the [Oblates of Saint Joseph](/wiki/Oblates_of_Saint_Joseph \"Oblates of Saint Joseph\") which would be dedicated to caring for the poor and educating children and adolescents as well as rendering assisting bishops in whatever capacities were required.", "### Episcopate", "Pope Leo XIII appointed him [Bishop of Acqui](/wiki/Bishop_of_Acqui \"Bishop of Acqui\") on 11 February 1889\\. The formal appointment as a bishop came on 11 February 1889 during a consistory for the elevation of new cardinals after having received word of his appointment in November 1888 (in the late morning) since the pope wanted to invest new bishops with the [rochet](/wiki/Rochet \"Rochet\") at the consistory. From 5:30 to 6:15pm on 10 February he met with the pope and that evening had dinner with Cardinal [Luigi Oreglia di Santo Stefano](/wiki/Luigi_Oreglia_di_Santo_Stefano \"Luigi Oreglia di Santo Stefano\"). He received his [episcopal consecration](/wiki/Episcopal_consecration \"Episcopal consecration\") on 17 February, from Cardinal [Raffaele Monaco La Valletta](/wiki/Raffaele_Monaco_La_Valletta \"Raffaele Monaco La Valletta\") in the [Capuchin](/wiki/Order_of_Friars_Minor_Capuchin \"Order of Friars Minor Capuchin\") [Santa Maria della Concezione dei Cappuccini](/wiki/Santa_Maria_della_Concezione_dei_Cappuccini \"Santa Maria della Concezione dei Cappuccini\") in Rome. The co\\-consecrators were the Archbishop of Chieti Rocco Cocchia and the Archbishop of Damiata Ignazio Persico.", "He visited all the parishes in his diocese and wrote six [pastoral letters](/wiki/Pastoral_letters \"Pastoral letters\") to his flock. He issued his first pastoral letter on the subject of peace on 31 May 1889 and issued another on 2 February 1890 regarding a pastoral visitation that he would undertake. From 13 April 1890 to 1895 he visited 143 individual parishes. On 16 December 1890 he received an [honorary degree](/wiki/Honorary_degree \"Honorary degree\") in [sacred theology](/wiki/Sacred_theology \"Sacred theology\") from the Theological College of Saint Thomas in [Genoa](/wiki/Genoa \"Genoa\"), and then issued a third pastoral letter regarding [penance](/wiki/Penance%2C_Sacrament_of \"Penance, Sacrament of\") on 13 January 1891\\. On 26 September 1891 he participated in a pilgrimage to Rome for the third centennial of the death of [Aloysius Gonzaga](/wiki/Aloysius_Gonzaga \"Aloysius Gonzaga\") and later on 4 February 1892 issued another pastoral letter on the subject of Christian education. Bishop Marello issued another one on 25 January 1893 regarding the profession of faith. From 14 to 28 February 1893 he went to Rome to celebrate the 50th anniversary of Pope Leo XIII's episcopal consecration though on 23 February made a detour to [Naples](/wiki/Naples \"Naples\") to visit the [Pompeii shrine](/wiki/Shrine_of_the_Virgin_of_the_Rosary_of_Pompei \"Shrine of the Virgin of the Rosary of Pompei\"). He issued another pastoral letter on catechism on 20 January 1894 and a final one on 8 February 1895 regarding missions and the propagation of the faith.", "### Death", "Marello travelled to [Savona](/wiki/Savona \"Savona\"), arriving on 26 May, to participate in a celebration of the third centennial of [Philip Neri](/wiki/Philip_Neri \"Philip Neri\"). He died of a [cerebral hemorrhage](/wiki/Cerebral_hemorrhage \"Cerebral hemorrhage\") on 30 May 1895\\.", "Marello was due to leave a week after the centennial celebration, but wanted to offer his respects to Bishop Giuseppe Boraggini of the [diocese of Savona](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Savona-Noli \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Savona-Noli\") (1879–1897\\), who was not there, and so Marello decided to stay longer in the town until Boraggini's return; this was on 27 May 1895, after he celebrated what would be his final Mass. Marello first went on a Marian pilgrimage in the town and then called on the bishop that evening; he was exhausted but accepted a dinner invitation. But as the bishop showed him the room where [Pope Pius VII](/wiki/Pope_Pius_VII \"Pope Pius VII\") was once confined in he fainted and was rushed to a bed. The illness did not seem at all serious, so his aide telegrammed the Acqui diocese vicar\\-general to give word the illness would keep the bishop out of his see for a little while. But his acute headaches caused even the slightest noise to torment him. On 28 May his two doctors thought they saw an improvement that indicated he might soon be able to leave, but the bishop's condition deteriorated on 29 May, and grew worse around 4:30pm on 30 May, when he managed with difficulty to utter a few garbled and incoherent words.", "The cerebral hemorrhage claimed his life at 6:00pm on 30 May. His funeral was celebrated on 1 June. Leo XIII said of his death at a general audience in Rome in 1891: \"he was a gem among bishops\". His remains were exhumed and relocated to his order's motherhouse on 30 June 1923\\. His order received diocesan approval on 18 March 1901 and papal approval from [Pope Pius X](/wiki/Pope_Pius_X \"Pope Pius X\") on 11 April 1909\\.", "" ]
Chief Secretary for Ireland --------------------------- ### Suppression of the United Irishmen [thumb\|right\|Bloody Castlereagh, 1798](/wiki/File:Bloody_Castlereagh_%282%29.png "Bloody Castlereagh (2).png") In 1795, Pitt replaced [William Fitzwilliam, 4th Earl Fitzwilliam](/wiki/William_Fitzwilliam%2C_4th_Earl_Fitzwilliam "William Fitzwilliam, 4th Earl Fitzwilliam") as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland with Stewart's uncle, John Pratt the [2nd Earl Camden](/wiki/John_Pratt%2C_1st_Marquess_Camden "John Pratt, 1st Marquess Camden"). Fitzwilliam had urged that the emancipation of Catholics be completed with their admission to parliament. Camden's arrival in Dublin was greeted with riots, and that year Stewart crossed the floor of the [Irish House of Commons](/wiki/Irish_House_of_Commons "Irish House of Commons") to join the supporters of the government, the [Dublin Castle executive](/wiki/Dublin_Castle_administration "Dublin Castle administration").{{Efn\|name\=War}} Stewart became an essential adviser to the inexperienced and unpopular Lord Lieutenant, who was Stewart's senior by only ten years. In August 1796 Stewart's father was elevated to the title [Earl of Londonderry](/wiki/Earl_of_Londonderry "Earl of Londonderry").{{London Gazette\|issue\=13922 \|date\=10 August 1796\|page\=781, right column \|quote\=To Robert Lord Viscount Castlereagh, and the Heirs Male of his Body lawfully begotten, by the Name Stile and Title of Earl of Londonderry, of the County of Londonderry}} As his son, Stewart was henceforth styled [Viscount](/wiki/Viscount "Viscount") Castlereagh. In September, acting upon evidence of communication with the French, Castlereagh personally led troops in a series of raids in Belfast and its environs (the "Siege of Belfast") that netted leading members of the [United Irishmen](/wiki/United_Irishmen "United Irishmen"). Among them were men who had supported him in the election of 1790\.{{rp\|96\-100, 107\-108}} Originating in Belfast among Presbyterian celebrants of the American and French revolutions, the republican conspiracy had spread rapidly in [Ulster](/wiki/Ulster "Ulster") and, in league with the Catholic [Defenders](/wiki/Defenders_%28Ireland%29 "Defenders (Ireland)"), across the Irish midlands. In [County Down](/wiki/County_Down "County Down"), Castlereagh's father had difficulty in raising a loyalist yeomanry among his tenants and eventually, with all rent withheld, [Mount Stewart](/wiki/Mount_Stewart "Mount Stewart") was placed under armed guard.{{Cite book\|last\=Stewart\|first\=A. T. Q.\|title\=The Summer Soldiers: The 1798 Rebellion in Antrim and Down\|publisher\=Blackstaff Press\|year\=1995\|isbn\=978\-0856405587\|location\=Belfast\|pages\=22–25, 38}} In December 1796, a large [French expedition to Ireland](/wiki/Wolfe_Tone%23Hoche%27s_Expedition_and_the_1798_Rebellion "Wolfe Tone#Hoche's Expedition and the 1798 Rebellion") failed to effect a landing at [Bantry Bay](/wiki/Bantry_Bay "Bantry Bay"), but due only to contrary winds. As an officer in the militia, Castlereagh was well apprised of the lack of preparedness to meet a combination of professional French soldiery and the countrywide insurgency it would likely trigger. In February 1797, Castlereagh was at last appointed to the [Dublin Castle administration](/wiki/Dublin_Castle_administration "Dublin Castle administration") as Keeper of the King's Signet for Ireland.{{Efn\|name\=Limavedy}} Following a declaration of martial law he was made both a [Lord of the Treasury](/wiki/Lord_High_Treasurer_of_Ireland%23Commissioners_of_the_Treasury_for_Ireland_%281793-1817%29 "Lord High Treasurer of Ireland#Commissioners of the Treasury for Ireland (1793-1817)") and a Member of the [Privy Council of Ireland](/wiki/Privy_Council_of_Ireland "Privy Council of Ireland") (1797–1800\).{{Efn\|name\=Abercromby}} At the urging of Camden, Castlereagh assumed many of the onerous duties of the often\-absent [Chief Secretary for Ireland](/wiki/Chief_Secretary_for_Ireland "Chief Secretary for Ireland"), who was responsible for day\-to\-day administration and for asserting the influence of Dublin Castle in the House of Commons.{{Efn\|name\=Ireland}} In this capacity, and after March 1798 as Acting Chief Secretary, Castlereagh played a key role in crushing the [United Irish rising](/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1798 "Irish Rebellion of 1798") when it came in May and June [1798](/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1798 "Irish Rebellion of 1798"). In November 1798, Castlereagh was formally appointed to the office of Chief Secretary by Camden's successor, [Lord Cornwallis](/wiki/Lord_Cornwallis "Lord Cornwallis"). ### Executions of William Orr and James Porter Castlereagh's general policy was to offer immediate clemency to the rebel rank\-and\-file, many of whom were then inducted into the yeomanry, while still focusing on the politically committed leadership. But already before the rebellion, he had begun to earn the sobriquet "Bloody Castlereagh". In October 1797 his stepmother, Lady Frances, had petitioned Camden for the life of [William Orr](/wiki/William_Orr_%28United_Irishman%29 "William Orr (United Irishman)").{{rp\|112}} On a charge of administering the [United Irish test](/wiki/Test_of_the_Society_of_United_Irishmen "Test of the Society of United Irishmen") to two soldiers, Orr had been named on the same warrant that Castlereagh had used in the roundup of the previous September. The judge reportedly broke down in tears as he read the death sentence which the popular journalist [Peter Finnerty](/wiki/Peter_Finnerty "Peter Finnerty") credited to Castlereagh's insistence on making an example in the face of the growing French fever. In 1811, Castlereagh successfully had Finnerty convicted for libel.{{Cite book\|last\=Finnerty\|first\=Peter\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=0O8yAAAAIAAJ\|title\=Case of Peter Finnerty, Including a Full Report of All Proceedings which Took Place in the Court of King's Bench Upon the Subject ...\|publisher\=J. M'Creery\|year\=1811\|location\=London\|language\=en}}{{Cite web\|title\=Peter Finnerty – Irish Biography\|url\=https://www.libraryireland.com/biography/PeterFinnerty.php\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-27\|website\=www.libraryireland.com}} After the rebellion, during which Mount Stewart was briefly occupied,{{Cite book\|last\=The National Archives\|first\=Reference U840/C562\|url\=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/6d91b7c1\-f454\-46ce\-ae1e\-4e178dc6561c\|title\='Insurgents in occupation at Mount Stewart', John Petty to Frances Stewart, Marchioness of Londonderry\|date\=1797–1809\|language\=English}} Castlereagh was content that leading United Irishmen in the Presbyterian north be allowed American exile. An exception was made in the case of James Porter, executed, again despite the entreaties of Lady Frances, following a court martial before Castlereagh's father, Lord Londonderry.{{Cite book\|last\=Stewart\|first\=A. T. Q.\|title\=The Summer Soldiers: The 1798 Rebellion in Antrim and Down\|publisher\=The Blackstaff Press\|year\=1995\|isbn\=0856405582\|location\=Belfast\|pages\=252}} Porter, who had been his family's Presbyterian minister and, in 1790, his election agent, had become a household name in Ulster as the author of a satire of the county gentry, *Billy Bluff*, in which Londonderry was serially lampooned as an inarticulate tyrant.{{Cite DNB \|wstitle\= Porter, James (1753\-1798\) \| volume\= 46 \|last\= Gordon \|first\= Alexander \|author\-link\= Alexander Gordon (Unitarian)\|pages \= 180\-182 \|short\=1}}{{Cite book\|title\=Billy Bluff and the Squire \[1796] and Other Writing by Re. James Porter\|publisher\=Athol Books\|year\=1991\|isbn\=978\-0850340457\|editor\=Brendan Clifford\|location\=Belfast\|pages\=80}} ### The Act of Union and the promise of Emancipation In 1799, in furtherance of both his own political vision and Pitt's policies, Castlereagh began lobbying in the Irish and British Parliaments for a union that would incorporate [Ireland](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland "Kingdom of Ireland") with [Great Britain](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain "Kingdom of Great Britain") in a United Kingdom. In addition to security against the French, Castlereagh saw the principal merit of bringing Ireland directly under [the Crown](/wiki/The_Crown "The Crown") in the [Westminster](/wiki/Westminster "Westminster") Parliament as a resolution of what ultimately was the key issue for the governance of the country, the Catholic question.{{rp\|127}} "Linked with England", he reasoned that "the Protestants, feeling less exposed, would be more confident and liberal", while Catholics, reduced to a minority within the larger kingdom, would lower their expectations and moderate their demands.Castlereagh to Sir Laurence Parsons, 28 November 1798, Castlereagh Correspondence, vol. 11, pp. 32–35 During the campaign for the Act of Union, both Castlereagh and Cornwallis had, in good faith, forwarded informal assurances they had received from Pitt's Cabinet to the [Irish Catholics](/wiki/Irish_Catholics "Irish Catholics") that they would be allowed to sit in the new United Kingdom Parliament. However, opposition in England, and not least from the King, [George III](/wiki/George_III "George III"), obliged Castlereagh to defy what he saw as "the very logic of the Union."{{rp\|126}}The [Union bill](/wiki/Act_of_Union_1800 "Act of Union 1800") that, with a generous distribution of titles and favours, he helped put through the Irish Parliament omitted the provision for Catholic emancipation. A separate Irish executive in Dublin was retained, but representation, still wholly Protestant, was transferred to Westminster constituted as the Parliament of the [United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland](/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland").[Politics and Administration in Ireland, 1750–1815](http://multitext.ucc.ie/d/Politics_and_Administration_in_Ireland_1770-1815) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091112213844/http://multitext.ucc.ie/d/Politics\_and\_Administration\_in\_Ireland\_1770\-1815\|date\=12 November 2009}}, James Kelley, University College Cork, Multitext Project in Irish History Pitt had tried to follow through on his commitment, but when it came to light that the King had approached [Henry Addington](/wiki/Henry_Addington "Henry Addington"), an opponent of Catholic emancipation, about becoming Prime Minister to replace him, both Castlereagh and Pitt resigned. Castlereagh would long be held personally responsible by many Catholics in Ireland for the breach of promise and the British Government's failure to remove their remaining political disabilities.
[ "Chief Secretary for Ireland\n---------------------------", "### Suppression of the United Irishmen", "[thumb\\|right\\|Bloody Castlereagh, 1798](/wiki/File:Bloody_Castlereagh_%282%29.png \"Bloody Castlereagh (2).png\")\nIn 1795, Pitt replaced [William Fitzwilliam, 4th Earl Fitzwilliam](/wiki/William_Fitzwilliam%2C_4th_Earl_Fitzwilliam \"William Fitzwilliam, 4th Earl Fitzwilliam\") as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland with Stewart's uncle, John Pratt the [2nd Earl Camden](/wiki/John_Pratt%2C_1st_Marquess_Camden \"John Pratt, 1st Marquess Camden\"). Fitzwilliam had urged that the emancipation of Catholics be completed with their admission to parliament. Camden's arrival in Dublin was greeted with riots, and that year Stewart crossed the floor of the [Irish House of Commons](/wiki/Irish_House_of_Commons \"Irish House of Commons\") to join the supporters of the government, the [Dublin Castle executive](/wiki/Dublin_Castle_administration \"Dublin Castle administration\").{{Efn\\|name\\=War}} Stewart became an essential adviser to the inexperienced and unpopular Lord Lieutenant, who was Stewart's senior by only ten years.", "In August 1796 Stewart's father was elevated to the title [Earl of Londonderry](/wiki/Earl_of_Londonderry \"Earl of Londonderry\").{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=13922 \\|date\\=10 August 1796\\|page\\=781, right column\n\\|quote\\=To Robert Lord Viscount Castlereagh, and the Heirs Male of his Body lawfully begotten, by the Name Stile and Title of Earl of Londonderry, of the County of Londonderry}} As his son, Stewart was henceforth styled [Viscount](/wiki/Viscount \"Viscount\") Castlereagh.", "In September, acting upon evidence of communication with the French, Castlereagh personally led troops in a series of raids in Belfast and its environs (the \"Siege of Belfast\") that netted leading members of the [United Irishmen](/wiki/United_Irishmen \"United Irishmen\"). Among them were men who had supported him in the election of 1790\\.{{rp\\|96\\-100, 107\\-108}} Originating in Belfast among Presbyterian celebrants of the American and French revolutions, the republican conspiracy had spread rapidly in [Ulster](/wiki/Ulster \"Ulster\") and, in league with the Catholic [Defenders](/wiki/Defenders_%28Ireland%29 \"Defenders (Ireland)\"), across the Irish midlands. In [County Down](/wiki/County_Down \"County Down\"), Castlereagh's father had difficulty in raising a loyalist yeomanry among his tenants and eventually, with all rent withheld, [Mount Stewart](/wiki/Mount_Stewart \"Mount Stewart\") was placed under armed guard.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Stewart\\|first\\=A. T. Q.\\|title\\=The Summer Soldiers: The 1798 Rebellion in Antrim and Down\\|publisher\\=Blackstaff Press\\|year\\=1995\\|isbn\\=978\\-0856405587\\|location\\=Belfast\\|pages\\=22–25, 38}}", "In December 1796, a large [French expedition to Ireland](/wiki/Wolfe_Tone%23Hoche%27s_Expedition_and_the_1798_Rebellion \"Wolfe Tone#Hoche's Expedition and the 1798 Rebellion\") failed to effect a landing at [Bantry Bay](/wiki/Bantry_Bay \"Bantry Bay\"), but due only to contrary winds. As an officer in the militia, Castlereagh was well apprised of the lack of preparedness to meet a combination of professional French soldiery and the countrywide insurgency it would likely trigger.", "In February 1797, Castlereagh was at last appointed to the [Dublin Castle administration](/wiki/Dublin_Castle_administration \"Dublin Castle administration\") as Keeper of the King's Signet for Ireland.{{Efn\\|name\\=Limavedy}} Following a declaration of martial law he was made both a [Lord of the Treasury](/wiki/Lord_High_Treasurer_of_Ireland%23Commissioners_of_the_Treasury_for_Ireland_%281793-1817%29 \"Lord High Treasurer of Ireland#Commissioners of the Treasury for Ireland (1793-1817)\") and a Member of the [Privy Council of Ireland](/wiki/Privy_Council_of_Ireland \"Privy Council of Ireland\") (1797–1800\\).{{Efn\\|name\\=Abercromby}} At the urging of Camden, Castlereagh assumed many of the onerous duties of the often\\-absent [Chief Secretary for Ireland](/wiki/Chief_Secretary_for_Ireland \"Chief Secretary for Ireland\"), who was responsible for day\\-to\\-day administration and for asserting the influence of Dublin Castle in the House of Commons.{{Efn\\|name\\=Ireland}} In this capacity, and after March 1798 as Acting Chief Secretary, Castlereagh played a key role in crushing the [United Irish rising](/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1798 \"Irish Rebellion of 1798\") when it came in May and June [1798](/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1798 \"Irish Rebellion of 1798\").", "In November 1798, Castlereagh was formally appointed to the office of Chief Secretary by Camden's successor, [Lord Cornwallis](/wiki/Lord_Cornwallis \"Lord Cornwallis\").", "### Executions of William Orr and James Porter", "Castlereagh's general policy was to offer immediate clemency to the rebel rank\\-and\\-file, many of whom were then inducted into the yeomanry, while still focusing on the politically committed leadership. But already before the rebellion, he had begun to earn the sobriquet \"Bloody Castlereagh\".", "In October 1797 his stepmother, Lady Frances, had petitioned Camden for the life of [William Orr](/wiki/William_Orr_%28United_Irishman%29 \"William Orr (United Irishman)\").{{rp\\|112}} On a charge of administering the [United Irish test](/wiki/Test_of_the_Society_of_United_Irishmen \"Test of the Society of United Irishmen\") to two soldiers, Orr had been named on the same warrant that Castlereagh had used in the roundup of the previous September. The judge reportedly broke down in tears as he read the death sentence which the popular journalist [Peter Finnerty](/wiki/Peter_Finnerty \"Peter Finnerty\") credited to Castlereagh's insistence on making an example in the face of the growing French fever. In 1811, Castlereagh successfully had Finnerty convicted for libel.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Finnerty\\|first\\=Peter\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=0O8yAAAAIAAJ\\|title\\=Case of Peter Finnerty, Including a Full Report of All Proceedings which Took Place in the Court of King's Bench Upon the Subject ...\\|publisher\\=J. M'Creery\\|year\\=1811\\|location\\=London\\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Peter Finnerty – Irish Biography\\|url\\=https://www.libraryireland.com/biography/PeterFinnerty.php\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-27\\|website\\=www.libraryireland.com}}", "After the rebellion, during which Mount Stewart was briefly occupied,{{Cite book\\|last\\=The National Archives\\|first\\=Reference U840/C562\\|url\\=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/6d91b7c1\\-f454\\-46ce\\-ae1e\\-4e178dc6561c\\|title\\='Insurgents in occupation at Mount Stewart', John Petty to Frances Stewart, Marchioness of Londonderry\\|date\\=1797–1809\\|language\\=English}} Castlereagh was content that leading United Irishmen in the Presbyterian north be allowed American exile. An exception was made in the case of James Porter, executed, again despite the entreaties of Lady Frances, following a court martial before Castlereagh's father, Lord Londonderry.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Stewart\\|first\\=A. T. Q.\\|title\\=The Summer Soldiers: The 1798 Rebellion in Antrim and Down\\|publisher\\=The Blackstaff Press\\|year\\=1995\\|isbn\\=0856405582\\|location\\=Belfast\\|pages\\=252}} Porter, who had been his family's Presbyterian minister and, in 1790, his election agent, had become a household name in Ulster as the author of a satire of the county gentry, *Billy Bluff*, in which Londonderry was serially lampooned as an inarticulate tyrant.{{Cite DNB \\|wstitle\\= Porter, James (1753\\-1798\\) \\| volume\\= 46 \\|last\\= Gordon \\|first\\= Alexander \\|author\\-link\\= Alexander Gordon (Unitarian)\\|pages \\= 180\\-182 \\|short\\=1}}{{Cite book\\|title\\=Billy Bluff and the Squire \\[1796] and Other Writing by Re. James Porter\\|publisher\\=Athol Books\\|year\\=1991\\|isbn\\=978\\-0850340457\\|editor\\=Brendan Clifford\\|location\\=Belfast\\|pages\\=80}}", "### The Act of Union and the promise of Emancipation", "In 1799, in furtherance of both his own political vision and Pitt's policies, Castlereagh began lobbying in the Irish and British Parliaments for a union that would incorporate [Ireland](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland \"Kingdom of Ireland\") with [Great Britain](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain \"Kingdom of Great Britain\") in a United Kingdom. In addition to security against the French, Castlereagh saw the principal merit of bringing Ireland directly under [the Crown](/wiki/The_Crown \"The Crown\") in the [Westminster](/wiki/Westminster \"Westminster\") Parliament as a resolution of what ultimately was the key issue for the governance of the country, the Catholic question.{{rp\\|127}} \"Linked with England\", he reasoned that \"the Protestants, feeling less exposed, would be more confident and liberal\", while Catholics, reduced to a minority within the larger kingdom, would lower their expectations and moderate their demands.Castlereagh to Sir Laurence Parsons, 28 November 1798, Castlereagh Correspondence, vol. 11, pp. 32–35", "During the campaign for the Act of Union, both Castlereagh and Cornwallis had, in good faith, forwarded informal assurances they had received from Pitt's Cabinet to the [Irish Catholics](/wiki/Irish_Catholics \"Irish Catholics\") that they would be allowed to sit in the new United Kingdom Parliament. However, opposition in England, and not least from the King, [George III](/wiki/George_III \"George III\"), obliged Castlereagh to defy what he saw as \"the very logic of the Union.\"{{rp\\|126}}The [Union bill](/wiki/Act_of_Union_1800 \"Act of Union 1800\") that, with a generous distribution of titles and favours, he helped put through the Irish Parliament omitted the provision for Catholic emancipation. A separate Irish executive in Dublin was retained, but representation, still wholly Protestant, was transferred to Westminster constituted as the Parliament of the [United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland](/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland \"United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland\").[Politics and Administration in Ireland, 1750–1815](http://multitext.ucc.ie/d/Politics_and_Administration_in_Ireland_1770-1815) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091112213844/http://multitext.ucc.ie/d/Politics\\_and\\_Administration\\_in\\_Ireland\\_1770\\-1815\\|date\\=12 November 2009}}, James Kelley, University College Cork, Multitext Project in Irish History", "Pitt had tried to follow through on his commitment, but when it came to light that the King had approached [Henry Addington](/wiki/Henry_Addington \"Henry Addington\"), an opponent of Catholic emancipation, about becoming Prime Minister to replace him, both Castlereagh and Pitt resigned. Castlereagh would long be held personally responsible by many Catholics in Ireland for the breach of promise and the British Government's failure to remove their remaining political disabilities.", "" ]
Operations ---------- ### 1914 On November 1, in the [Bergmann Offensive](/wiki/Bergmann_Offensive "Bergmann Offensive"), Russians crossed the frontier first. They planned to capture [Doğubeyazıt](/wiki/Do%C4%9Fubeyaz%C4%B1t "Doğubeyazıt") and [Köprüköy](/wiki/K%C3%B6pr%C3%BCk%C3%B6y "Köprüköy"). The official Russian declaration of war on the Ottoman Empire came on November 2\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.firstworldwar.com/features/declarationsofwar.htm\|title\=First World War.com – Feature Articles – Who Declared War and When\|website\=firstworldwar.com\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-17}} The established force for this goal was 25 infantry battalions, 37 cavalry units and 120 artillery guns. It had two wings. On the right\-wing, the Russian I Corps crossed the border and moved from Sarikamish toward the direction of Köprüköy. They reached Köprüköy on November 4\. On the left\-wing, the Russian IV Corps moved from Yerevan to Pasinler Plains. The commander of 3rd Army, [Hasan Izzet](/wiki/Hasan_Izzet "Hasan Izzet") was not in favor of an offensive action in the harsh winter conditions. His plan was to remain in defense and launch a counterattack at the right time. This was overridden by the War Minister Enver Pasha. On November 7, the Turkish 3rd Army commenced its offensive with the participation of the XI Corps and all cavalry units. The Russians gained territory after the withdrawal of the 18th and the 30th Divisions. Ottoman forces managed to maintain their positions at Köprüköy. By November 12, the Turkish IX Corps with [Ahmet Fevzi](/wiki/Ahmet_Fevzi "Ahmet Fevzi") Pasha had reinforced the XI Corps on the left flank. The 3rd Army began to push the Russians back with the support of the cavalry. The 3rd Infantry Regiment managed to invade Köprüköy after the Azap Offensive between November 17 and 20\. The front had stabilized by the end of November, with the Russians having advanced 25 kilometers into the Ottoman Empire along the Erzurum\-Sarikamish axis. There was Russian success along the southern shoulders of the offensive where Armenian volunteers were effective and took [Karaköse](/wiki/Karak%C3%B6se "Karaköse") and Doğubeyazıt.{{cite book \|last\=Erickson \|first\=Edward J. \|year\=2001 \|title\=\[\[Ordered to Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War]] \|location\=Westport \|publisher\=\[\[Greenwood Publishing Group\|Greenwood]] \|isbn\=0\-313\-31516\-7 \|page\=54 }} Doğubeyazıt was the northern neighbor of Van Province. During December, [Nicholas II of Russia](/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia "Nicholas II of Russia") visited the Caucasus campaign. The head of the [Armenian Church](/wiki/Armenian_Church "Armenian Church"), along with the president of the [Armenian National Council of Tiflis](/wiki/Armenian_National_Council_of_Tiflis "Armenian National Council of Tiflis"), [Alexander Khatisyan](/wiki/Alexander_Khatisyan "Alexander Khatisyan"), received him: {{Blockquote\|From all countries Armenians are hurrying to enter the ranks of the glorious Russian Army, with their blood to serve the victory of the Russian Army... Let the Russian flag wave freely over the Dardanelles and the Bosporus, Let your will the peoples \[Armenian] remaining under the Turkish yoke receive freedom. Let the Armenian people of Turkey who have suffered for the faith of Christ receive resurrection for a new free life...{{cite book \|first\=Ezel Kural \|last\=Shaw \|title\=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey \|location\=New York \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|year\=1977 \|isbn\=0\-521\-21280\-4 \|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan/page/314 314–315] \|url\=https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan/page/314 }} \|Nicholas II of Russia}} [thumb\|Russian propaganda poster depicting the russian victory at the [Battle of Sarikamish](/wiki/Battle_of_Sarikamish "Battle of Sarikamish")](/wiki/File:The_Russian-Turkish_War._The_Defeat_of_the_Turks_at_Sarikamish_%28cropped%29.png "The Russian-Turkish War. The Defeat of the Turks at Sarikamish (cropped).png") On December 15, 1914, at the [Battle of Ardahan](/wiki/Battle_of_Ardahan "Battle of Ardahan"), the city was captured by the Turks. This was an operation commanded by the German Lt. Col. Stange. The mission of Stange Bey Detachment was to conduct highly visible operations to distract and pin down Russian units. Stange Bey's initial mission was to operate in the Chorok region. The unit was materially assisted by the rebellious Adjars of the country, who seized the road. Later Enver modified the original plan toward supporting the Battle of Sarikamish.{{cite book \|first\=Spencer \|last\=Tucker \|title\=The European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia \|location\=New York \|publisher\=Garland \|year\=1996 \|isbn\=0\-8153\-0399\-8 \|page\=174 }} Stange Bey Detachment was ordered to cut the Russian support link to Sarikamish\-Kars line. On January 1, this unit was in Ardahan. On December 22, at the [Battle of Sarikamish](/wiki/Battle_of_Sarikamish "Battle of Sarikamish"), the 3rd Army received the order to advance towards Kars. In the face of the 3rd Army's advance, Governor Vorontsov planned to pull the Russian Caucasus Army back to Kars. Yudenich ignored Vorontsov's wish to withdraw. He stayed to defend Sarikamis. Enver Pasha assumed personal command of the 3rd Army and ordered it into battle against the Russian troops. ### 1915 On January 6, the 3rd Army headquarters found itself under fire. [Hafiz Hakki Pasha](/wiki/Hafiz_Hakki_Pasha "Hafiz Hakki Pasha") ordered a total retreat. On January 7, the remaining forces began their march towards Erzurum. The resulting Battle of Sarikamish became a stunning defeat. Only 10% of the Army managed to retreat back to its starting position. The entire IX Corps surrendered to the Russians. By mid\-January less than 18000 of the 95000 Turks who fought the campaign survived. 30000 are said to have died of cold. The mean elevation of the district was 6500 feet above sea level and the Turkish army was supplied by a single railway and snowbound roads.{{Cite book \|last\=Keegan \|first\=John \|title\=The First World War \|publisher\=Pimlico \|year\=1999 \|isbn\=0\-7126\-6645\-1 \|location\=London \|pages\=242}} [thumb\|Attack of Russian Army in the Caucasus](/wiki/File:Attack_of_Russian_Army_in_the_Caucasus.jpg "Attack of Russian Army in the Caucasus.jpg") After this, Enver gave up command. The Armenian volunteer units were definitely a factor in their defeat, as they challenged the Ottoman operations during critical times,"the delay enabled the Russian Caucasus Army to concentrate sufficient force around Sarikamish" and his experience may have been one of the catalysts that led the Three Pashas, of which one was [Enver](/wiki/Enver_Pasha "Enver Pasha"), to their decision to conduct the [Armenian genocide](/wiki/Armenian_genocide "Armenian genocide") only a few months later.{{cite book \|title\=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War \|last\=Pasdermadjian \|first\=Garegin \|author\-link\=Karekin Pastermadjian \|author2\=Aram Torossian \|year\=1918 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/bub\_gb\_4XYMAAAAYAAJ \|publisher\=Hairenik \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/bub\_gb\_4XYMAAAAYAAJ/page/n38 22] }} After his return to Constantinople, Enver blamed this defeat on Armenians living in the region actively siding with the Russians.{{cite book \|last\=Balakian \|first\=Peter \|title\=The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response \|location\=New York \|publisher\=HarperCollins \|year\=2003 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/burningtigrisarm00bala/page/200 200] \|isbn\=0\-06\-019840\-0 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/burningtigrisarm00bala/page/200 }} On January 18, 1915, the Lt. Col. Stange's Turkish unit was recalled from the area around Ardahan. It was to stay behind the lines in the region; only on March 1, 1915, did it regain its initial position. In February, General Yudenich was praised for the victory and promoted to commander\-in\-chief of all Russian troops in the Caucasus. The Allies (British and France) asked Russia to relieve the pressure on the Western front. In return, Russia asked the Allies to relieve pressure in the Caucasus by a naval attack. The resulting operations [in the Black Sea](/wiki/Naval_warfare_of_World_War_I%23Black_Sea "Naval warfare of World War I#Black Sea") gave the Russians some respite to replenish their forces. Additionally, actions at the [Battle of Gallipoli](/wiki/Battle_of_Gallipoli "Battle of Gallipoli") which aimed at capturing the Ottoman capital helped the Russian forces on this front. On February 12, the commander of the 3rd Army Hafiz Hakki Pasha died of typhus and was replaced by Brigadier General [Mahmut Kamil](/wiki/Mahmut_Kamil "Mahmut Kamil") Pasha. Kamil faced the daunting task of putting the Ottoman army back in order. The military planners back in Istanbul were scared of the Russians advancing deeper into the mainland. During March the strategic situation remained stable. The completely devastated 3rd Army received new blood through reinforcements from the 1st and 2nd Armies, although these supplements were not stronger than a division. The Battle of Gallipoli was draining every Ottoman resource. Meanwhile, the Russians were holding the towns of Eleşkirt, Ağrı and Doğubeyazıt in the south. Military action never escalated above small\-scale skirmishes—the Ottomans simply did not have enough forces to secure the whole East Anatolian region. [thumb\|left\|[Siege of Van](/wiki/Defense_of_Van_%281915%29 "Defense of Van (1915)"), Armenian troops holding a defense line against Ottoman forces in the walled city of Van in May 1915](/wiki/File:Van_Defenders.jpg "Van Defenders.jpg") On April 20, the [resistance at the city of Van](/wiki/Defense_of_Van_%281915%29 "Defense of Van (1915)") began. The Armenian defenders were protecting 30,000 residents and 15,000 refugees with 1,500 able bodied riflemen who were supplied with 300 rifles and 1,000 pistols and antique weapons. The conflict lasted more than three weeks until General Yudenich's force came to rescue them. General Yudenich began an offensive (May 6\) moving into Ottoman territory. One wing of this offensive headed towards [Lake Van](/wiki/Lake_Van "Lake Van") to relieve the Armenian residents of Van. A [brigade](/wiki/Brigade "Brigade") of Trans\-Baikal Cossacks under General Trukhin, and some [Armenian volunteers](/wiki/Armenian_volunteer_units "Armenian volunteer units") advanced towards Van.{{cite book \| last \= Hinterhoff \| first \= Eugene \| title \=Persia: The Stepping Stone To India. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol iv \| pages \= 1153–1157}} [thumb\|1915, After the [Defense of Van](/wiki/Defense_of_Van_%281915%29 "Defense of Van (1915)") behind the retreating Russian forces, 250,000 Armenian refugees fled to the Caucasus{{cite journal \|first\=A. S. \|last\=Safrastian \|title\=Narrative of Van 1915 \|journal\=Journal Ararat \|location\=London \|date\=January 1916 }}](/wiki/File:Armenian_refugees_1915.jpg "Armenian refugees 1915.jpg") On April 24, Interior minister [Mehmed Talat](/wiki/Mehmed_Talat "Mehmed Talat") passed the [order of April 24](/wiki/s:Circular_on_April_24%2C_1915 "Circular on April 24, 1915") (known by the Armenians as [Red Sunday](/wiki/Red_Sunday "Red Sunday")), claimed that the Armenians in this region organized under the leadership of the Russians and rebelled against his government. He claimed the defense of Van from Ottoman massacres to be an example. This was the beginning of the [Armenian genocide](/wiki/Armenian_genocide "Armenian genocide"). On May 6, the Russian advance began through the Tortum Valley towards Erzurum. The Ottoman 29th and 30th Divisions managed to stop this assault. The Ottoman X Corps counter\-attacked the Russian forces. But on the southern part of this advance, Ottoman forces were not as successful as they have been in the north. On May 11 the town of [Manzikert](/wiki/Manzikert "Manzikert") [had fallen](/wiki/Battle_of_Manzikert_%281915%29 "Battle of Manzikert (1915)"). On May 17, Russian forces entered the town of Van. On May 21, General Yudenich arrived in the city, received the keys to the city and citadel and confirmed the [Armenian provisional government](/wiki/Occupation_of_Turkish_Armenia "Occupation of Turkish Armenia") in office, with [Aram Manukian](/wiki/Aram_Manukian "Aram Manukian") as governor. The [Fedayee](/wiki/Armenian_irregular_units "Armenian irregular units") turned over the city of Van. With Van secure, fighting shifted farther west for the rest of the summer. Ottoman forces continued to be pushed back. The region south of Lake Van was extremely vulnerable. The Turks had to defend a line of more than 600 kilometers with only 50,000 men and 130 pieces of artillery. They were clearly outnumbered by the Russians. The region was mountainous, thus difficult to attack or defend. [right\|180px\|thumb\|[Rafael de Nogales Méndez](/wiki/Rafael_de_Nogales_M%C3%A9ndez "Rafael de Nogales Méndez"), a [Venezuelan](/wiki/Venezuela "Venezuela") officer who served in the Ottoman army, participated in the Siege of Van and after the war wrote one of the best accounts of the battle and its aftermath.](/wiki/File:Rafael_de_Nogales_Mendez.png "Rafael de Nogales Mendez.png") On May 27, during the Russian offensive, the interior minister of Talat Pasha ordered a forced deportation of all Armenians out of region with the [Tehcir Law](/wiki/Tehcir_Law "Tehcir Law") to the Syria and Mosul. By June 13, Russian units were back to their starting line. On June 19, the Russians launched another offensive; this time northwest of Lake Van. The Russians, under Oganovski, launched an attack into the hills west of Manzikert. The Russians underestimated the size of the Ottoman army, and were surprised by a large Turkish force which [counterattacked](/wiki/Battle_of_Manzikert_%281915%29 "Battle of Manzikert (1915)"). Russian forces began to march from Manzikert towards Mush. However, they were not aware of the fact that the Turkish IX Corps, together with the 17th and 28th Divisions was moving to Mush as well. Although the conditions were extremely difficult, the Turks were executing a very efficient reorganization. 1st and 5th Expeditionary Forces were positioned to the south of the Russian offensive force and a "Right Wing Group" was established under the command of Brigadier General Abdülkerim Paşa. This group was independent from the Third Army and Abdülkerim Paşa was directly reporting to Enver Paşa. The Turks were ready to face the Russian attacks. On September 24, Grand Duke Nicholas was promoted to being in charge of all Russian forces in the Caucasus. In reality, he was removed from being Supreme Commander of the Russian Caucasus Army which was the highest executive position \[actual conduct of the war] for the Caucasus campaign. His replacement was General Yudenich. This front was quiet from October till the end of the year. Yudenich used this period to reorganize. Around the start of 1916, Russian forces reached a level of 200,000 men and 380 pieces of artillery. On the other side the situation was very different; the Ottoman High Command failed to make up the losses during this period. The war in Gallipoli was sucking all the resources and manpower. The IX, X and XI Corps could not be reinforced and in addition to that the 1st and 5th Expeditionary Forces were deployed to Mesopotamia. Enver Pasha, after not achieving his ambitions or recognizing the dire situation on other fronts, decided that the region was of secondary importance. As of January 1916, Ottoman forces were 126,000 men, with only 50,539 being combatants. There were 74,057 rifles, 77 machine guns, and 180 pieces of artillery. The Ottoman force in the Caucasus campaign was large on paper, but not on the ground. The Ottomans assumed that the Russians would not bother to attack. This assumption turned out to be false. ### 1916 [thumb\|left\|[Mustafa Kemal](/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk "Mustafa Kemal Atatürk") at [Bitlis](/wiki/Bitlis "Bitlis"), March 1916](/wiki/File:Ataturk-1916-Bitlis.jpg "Ataturk-1916-Bitlis.jpg") In early January, Yudenich secretly left his winter quarters and marched towards the major Ottoman fort at [Erzurum](/wiki/Erzurum "Erzurum"). The winter is not normally a time for military activity in this part of the world. The bitter cold and terrible roads contributed greatly to the annihilation of Enver Pasha's 3rd Army in the previous year. The Russian General Yudenich viewed this as an opportunity to take the Ottomans by surprise. The Russians achieved total surprise and destroyed an Ottoman division that was in winter quarters in the [Battle of Koprukoy](/wiki/Battle_of_Koprukoy "Battle of Koprukoy") (January 10–18\).{{citation needed\|date\=November 2020}} On February 16, Mahmut Kamil was forced to order the 3rd Army to retreat from the city, as Yudenich had a numerical advantage over the Ottoman army. The difference was not big enough to be decisive, so Yudenich's plan was to attack the center of the Ottoman defenses, with the key attack falling in a weakly held sector. While diversionary attacks held the attention of Mahmut Kamil near the Deve\-Boyun ridge, Russian forces broke through at Forts Kara\-gobek and Tafet.{{cite book \|first1\=W. E. D. \|last1\=Allen \|first2\=Paul \|last2\=Muratoff \|title\=Caucasian Battlefields: A History of Wars on the Turco\-Caucasian Border, 1828–1921 \|location\=Nashville \|publisher\=Battery Press \|year\=1999 \|pages\=361–363 \|isbn\=0\-89839\-296\-9 }} The result was that both rings of the cities' defenses had been penetrated.{{citation needed\|date\=November 2020}} In April, the Caucasus army moved in two directions from Erzurum. Part went north and captured the ancient port city of [Trabzon](/wiki/Trabzon "Trabzon"). The other part moved in the direction of Mush and Bitlis .These units pushed the 2nd Army deep into Anatolia and defeated the Turks in the Battles of Mush and [Bitlis](/wiki/Battle_of_Bitlis "Battle of Bitlis") (March 2 – August 24\), driving the Ottoman army before it. Bitlis was the last defence point for the Ottoman Army to prevent the Russians from moving into central Anatolia and Mesopotamia.{{citation needed\|date\=November 2020}} [thumb\|Russian soldiers uncover the evidence of a massacre in the former Armenian village of Sheykhalan (in [Muş](/wiki/Mu%C5%9F_Province "Muş Province")), 1916](/wiki/File:Russian_soldiers_Sheykhalan_1915.jpg "Russian soldiers Sheykhalan 1915.jpg") [thumb\|right\|The area of Russian [occupation](/wiki/Occupation_of_Turkish_Armenia "Occupation of Turkish Armenia") of that region in summer 1916 (Russian map).](/wiki/File:Western_Armenia_Russian_occupation_1916.jpg "Western Armenia Russian occupation 1916.jpg") During July, General Yudenich then countered the Ottoman attack with an offensive of his own towards Erzincan. This was the [Battle of Erzincan](/wiki/Battle_of_Erzincan "Battle of Erzincan") (July 2–25\). On July 2, Erzincan was captured. The Ottoman offensive against Trabzon was halted as they tried to stabilize their front lines to prevent the Russians from entering Anatolia and Mesopotamia.{{citation needed\|date\=November 2020}} After their defeat, the Ottoman Army gave [Mustafa Kemal](/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal "Mustafa Kemal") the organization of the defense of the region in August. The region was controlled by the 2nd Army. When Mustafa Kemal was assigned to his post, the enemy forces were in constant advance. Fighting around the east side of Lake Van continued throughout the summer but was inconclusive. In the earlier periods of the campaign, the XVI Corps managed to take Bitlis and Mush. Ahmet İzzet Paşa decided to attack one week after the conclusion of the Russian offensive. A military force was gathered and sent marching along the coast. The Second Army advanced on August 2\. While [Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich](/wiki/Nikolai_Nikolaevich_Yudenich "Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich") was in the north and pushing the [Ottoman 3rd Army](/wiki/Third_Army_%28Ottoman_Empire%29 "Third Army (Ottoman Empire)"), the [Ottoman 2nd Army](/wiki/Second_Army_%28Ottoman_Empire%29 "Second Army (Ottoman Empire)") was in the south facing the insurgency and the second branch of the Russian army under General [Tovmas Nazarbekian](/wiki/Tovmas_Nazarbekian "Tovmas Nazarbekian") and a [detachment](/wiki/Detachment_%28military%29 "Detachment (military)") of [Armenian volunteer units](/wiki/Armenian_volunteer_units "Armenian volunteer units") led by [Andranik Ozanian](/wiki/Andranik_Ozanian "Andranik Ozanian"). After fighting from 1–9 August 1916, the Ottoman Army was overwhelmed and the entire region fell to the Russian Empire and Armenian volunteers, and thus an assault on Van was prevented. By late September, the Ottoman attack ended. The cost for the 2nd Army was 30,000 killed and wounded. The Russians strengthened their lines. They were strong enough to respond with counteroffensives two weeks after the launch of the Ottoman offensive. The Russians held up the advance. From September to the Russian Revolution, the Russian Navy still dominated the Black Sea. The rest of the year 1916 was spent by the Turks making organizational and operational changes in the Caucasian front. Fortunately for the Ottoman commanders, the Russians were quiet during this period. The winter of 1916–17 was extremely harsh, which made fighting nearly impossible. ### 1917 [thumb\|right\|[Western Armenia](/wiki/Western_Armenia "Western Armenia") territory under Russian control as of September 1917](/wiki/File:Western_Armenia_September_1917.png "Western Armenia September 1917.png") The military situation did not change during the spring of 1917\. The Russian plans for a renewed attack never substantiated. Meanwhile, Russia was in political and social turmoil. It was also influencing the army ranks. The chaos caused by the [Russian Revolution](/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1917 "Russian Revolution of 1917") put a stop to all Russian military operations. The Russian forces began to conduct withdrawals. Neither the Russian soldiers nor the Russian people wanted to continue the war. The Russian army slowly disintegrated. Starting from the spring of 1917, the situation was completely disadvantageous as a renewed typhus, scurvy and similar problems resulting from hygiene and food, became very common in the Caucasian army.{{cite book \|last\=Serge \|first\=Victor \|title\=Year One of The Russian Revolution \|location\=Chicago \|publisher\=Holt, Rinehart and Winston \|year\=1972 \|isbn\=0\-7139\-0135\-7 \|page\=193 }} Until the Russian Revolution of 1917, the Ottoman Empire's possible operation in Caucasia could not be imagined. After the [Battle of Sarikamish](/wiki/Battle_of_Sarikamish "Battle of Sarikamish"), the Ottoman units were "almost always" in a disastrous situation trying to hold onto regions in the occupied Ottoman lands. The Ottoman forces could not take advantage of the chaotic situation during 1917, as their units were not in good shape. [Enver](/wiki/Enver_Pasha "Enver Pasha") moved five divisions out of the region because of the pressure from the British in Palestine and Mesopotamia. On March 1, the order "Number–1" published by Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies included paragraphs envisioning democratization of the army. This written command enabled military units to elect their representatives. On March 9, 1917, [a Special Transcaucasian Committee](/wiki/Special_Transcaucasian_Committee "Special Transcaucasian Committee") was established with Member of the State Duma [V. A. Kharlamov](/wiki/V._A._Kharlamov "V. A. Kharlamov") as the Chairman to replace the Imperial Viceroy [Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich of Russia (1856–1929\)](/wiki/Grand_Duke_Nicholas_Nikolaevich_of_Russia_%281856%E2%80%931929%29 "Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich of Russia (1856–1929)") by the [Russian Provisional Government](/wiki/Russian_Provisional_Government "Russian Provisional Government") as the highest organ of civil administrative body in Transcaucasia. The new government reassigned General Yudenich to a position in Central Asia. General Yudenich retired from the army following the assignment. During the summer, during the [occupation of Turkish Armenia](/wiki/Occupation_of_Turkish_Armenia "Occupation of Turkish Armenia") the Russians sponsored a conference to consider emergency measures and adopted plans to form a 20,000 man militia under [Andranik](/wiki/Andranik_Ozanian "Andranik Ozanian") to be ready in December 1917\. Civilian commissioner Dr. Hakob Zavriev promoted [Andranik](/wiki/Andranik_Ozanian "Andranik Ozanian") to Major General. Andranik's division's composition was this: {{tree list}} * 1st brigade: + [Erzinjan](/wiki/Erzincan "Erzincan") regiment + [Erzurum](/wiki/Erzurum "Erzurum") regiment * 2nd brigade: + [Khnus](/wiki/H%C4%B1n%C4%B1s "Hınıs") regiment + [Alashkert](/wiki/Ele%C5%9Fkirt "Eleşkirt") regiment * 3rd brigade: + [Van](/wiki/Van%2C_Turkey "Van, Turkey") regiment + mounted [Zeytoun](/wiki/S%C3%BCleymanl%C4%B1 "Süleymanlı") regiment {{tree list/end}} On September 14, 1917, the Russian army in the region, which was about to completely disintegrate, lost commanding authority, and the tendency of the villagers for plundering had increased. Towards the end of autumn, the Chief General of the Caucasus Front Przhevalskii had already ordered the establishment of national Armenian and Georgian forces within the Army to slow down the disintegration. The problems of demobilization of Russian Army (on all fronts Russians had the same problems) would in a way bring the end of the Russian government and help the Bolsheviks to come into power easily. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi as the "Transcaucasian Commissariat ([Transcaucasian Sejm](/wiki/Transcaucasian_Sejm "Transcaucasian Sejm"))" which replaced the "Transcaucasian Committee" following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg. The Transcaucasian Sejm was headed by a Georgian Menshevik, [Nikolay Chkheidze](/wiki/Nikolay_Chkheidze "Nikolay Chkheidze"). However, the Transcaucasian Sejm failed to stop the degradation of forces in the region into smaller national forces. While Armenians sent representatives to the Transcaucasian Sejm, at the same time the Eastern Armenian leaders at [Yerevan](/wiki/Yerevan "Yerevan") tried to established an Armenian Army Corps. Armenians had planned to keep their existence based on a political strategy of being supportive of the Allies and Russia and to establish their national army with Russian support.{{cite book \|first1\=W. E. D. \|last1\=Allen \|first2\=Paul \|last2\=Muratoff \|title\=Caucasian Battlefields: A History of Wars on the Turco\-Caucasian Border, 1828–1921 \|location\=Nashville \|publisher\=Battery Press \|year\=1999 \|page\=458 \|isbn\=0\-89839\-296\-9 }} [General Nazarbekov](/wiki/Tovmas_Nazarbekian "Tovmas Nazarbekian") was selected as Commanding Officer. {{tree list}} * 1st Division commander General [Christophor Araratov](/wiki/Christophor_Araratov "Christophor Araratov") was assigned by Yerevan: + 1st Erzurum and Erzinjan regiment, + 2nd Khnus regiment, + 3rd Yerevan regiment, + 4th Erzinjan and Yerevan regiments. * 2nd Division's commander Colonel [Movses Silikyan](/wiki/Movses_Silikyan "Movses Silikyan") was also assigned by Erivan: + 5th Van regiment, + 6th Yerevan regiment, + 7th and 8th Alexandropol regiments. {{tree list/end}} [left\|thumb\|An Armenian mother beside the corpses of her five childrenThe](/wiki/File:Armenianmothermourning.jpg "Armenianmothermourning.jpg") Chief of Staff of the Armenian Corps was General Vickinski. The divisions, which comprised four regiments each, also had three regular and one depot regiment. Their total strength was 32,000 enlisted men. Besides these regular structures able men were also armed. A 40 to 50,000\-strong force formed from this armed civilian population. In Baku alone, the Russian army left 160 cannons, 180 machine guns, and 160 million cartridges to the Armenians.{{citation needed\|date\=February 2020}} On October 23, during the October Revolution, the Ottoman Third Army was protecting the 190 km area from the [Munzur Mountains](/wiki/Munzur_Mountains "Munzur Mountains") to the [Black Sea](/wiki/Black_Sea "Black Sea") with 66 battalions consisting of 30,000 combatants, 177 machine guns, and 157 cannons. The number of machine guns, animals, supply, transportation and clothing were all problematic. Russia had strengthened Erzurum and Trabzon. Russia had 9; the Ottomans had 3 planes. The Russian forces were in a line from the west of Trabzon, along the Erzincan\-Kemah passage, passing through south of Tunceli and Murat waters to Lake Van and to Baskale. On this line, the Russian army against the Third Army had 86,000 combatants and 146 cannons. The situation was a stalemate.{{cite book \|first\=Stefanos \|last\=Yerasimos \|title\=Kurtulus Savası'nda Türk\-Sovyet iliskileri 1917–1923 \|location\=Istanbul \|publisher\=Boyut Kitapları \|year\=2000 \|isbn\=975\-521\-400\-3 \|page\=11 \|language\=tr}} On December 5, 1917, the [armistice of Erzincan](/wiki/Armistice_of_Erzincan "Armistice of Erzincan") (Erzincan Cease\-fire Agreement) was signed by the Russians and Ottomans in Erzincan. It ended the fighting between Russia and the Ottoman Empire.{{cite book \|first\=Tadeusz \|last\=Swietochowski \|author\-link \= Tadeusz Swietochowski\|title\=Russian Azerbaijan 1905–1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community \|location\=New York \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|year\=1985 \|isbn\=0\-521\-26310\-7 \|page\=119 }} Between December and February 7 the regiments of the Armenian Corps were immediately hustled off to the front. They created a spectacle en route, for, to the amazement of the homeward\-bound Russian soldiers, they were moving toward, not away from, the forward lines. Russian soldiers left equipment and guns to the newly constructed Armenian national army. After the nationalization (or "democratization" in some sources) of these left over forces throughout 1917, there was no effective Russian military force in the region by the end of 1917 . At the turn of 1918, the Allied Powers, the Cossacks in the south, the Georgians, the Pontic Greeks, and the Armenians were willing to build a resistance line against the Ottomans through gathering in the region. In case of an agreement between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, this was the only strategy to continue fighting against the Ottomans.{{cite book \|first\=Bülent \|last\=Gökay \|title\=A Clash of Empires: Turkey between Russian Bolshevism and British Imperialism, 1918–1923 \|location\=London \|publisher\=Tauris Academic Studies \|year\=1997 \|isbn\=1\-86064\-117\-2 \|page\=12 }} The Armenians that kept their position in the region after the withdrawal of the Russian soldiers from the Caucasian front had taken support of 1 million rubles from Britain.{{cite book \|last\=Çaglayan \|first\=Kaya Tuncer \|title\=British Policy Towards Transcaucasia 1917–1921 \|location\=Istanbul \|publisher\=Isis Press \|year\=2004 \|isbn\=975\-428\-290\-0 \|page\=52 }} ### 1918 The [Bolshevik](/wiki/Russian_Revolution "Russian Revolution") revolution left Russia's vast southern territories unguarded, except for a few thousand Armenian volunteers equipped with castoff Russian arms, commanded by [Tovmas Nazarbekian](/wiki/Tovmas_Nazarbekian "Tovmas Nazarbekian") and an even smaller force of refugees from western Anatolia led by [Andranik Ozanian](/wiki/Andranik "Andranik"), spread along a line extending from Yerevan to Van and Erzinjan. On 2 February, Turkish forces launched an attack at the disintegrated Caucasus front that was abandoned by Russian Troops. Having defeated the scattered and poorly\-organized Georgian and Armenian units, Ottoman forces quickly recovered the territories that were lost previously to Imperial Russia in 1915\-17, The Ottomans invaded the former Russian possessions in the Caucasus and the Secession of the Region from Russia.{{Cite book \|last\=გლოველი \|first\=შალვა \|url\=http://institutehist.ucoz.net/\_ld/3/330\_Proceedings\-Geo.pdf \|title\=საერთაშორისო სამეცნიერო კონფერენცია: კავკასიის კარი \- საქართველოს ჩრდილოეთი კარიბჭე : 25\-27 ივნისი, 2021 : მასალები \|date\=2021 \|publisher\=TSU, Iv. Javaxishvilis saxelobis istoriisa da etnologiis Instituti \|isbn\=978\-9941\-8\-3424\-0 \|language\=Georgian, English}} The Third Army's offense headed by Vehib Pasha began on February 5\. The Ottoman forces moved through east of the line between Tirebolu and Bitlis and took Kelkit on February 7, Erzincan on February 13, Bayburt on February 19, Tercan on February 22, and the Black Sea port of Trabzon on February 24\. The incoming sea\-borne reinforcements began to disenbark at Trabzon. Manzikert, Hınıs, Oltu, Köprüköy and Tortum followed over the following two weeks. By March 24 the Ottoman forces were crossing the 1914 frontier into what had been Russian Empire territory.Erickson 2001, p. 183 [left\|thumb\|During 1918 [General Andranik](/wiki/Andranik_Ozanian "Andranik Ozanian") made it possible for the Armenian population of Van to escape from the Ottoman Army to Eastern Armenia. He and his troops fought between Mountainous Karabagh and Zangezur where the [Republic of Mountainous Armenia](/wiki/Republic_of_Mountainous_Armenia "Republic of Mountainous Armenia") was declared.](/wiki/File:1918_-_Zoravar_Andranik_-Shishi.png "1918 - Zoravar Andranik -Shishi.png") On March 3, the Grand vizier Talat Pasha signed the [Treaty of Brest\-Litovsk](/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk "Treaty of Brest-Litovsk") with the [Russian SFSR](/wiki/Russian_SFSR "Russian SFSR"). Bolshevik Russia ceded [Batum](/wiki/Batum "Batum"), [Kars](/wiki/Kars "Kars"), and [Ardahan](/wiki/Ardahan "Ardahan"), which the Russians had captured during the [Russo\-Turkish War (1877–1878\)](/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_%281877%E2%80%931878%29 "Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)"). The treaty also stipulated that Transcaucasia was to be declared independent. In addition to these provisions, a secret clause was inserted which obliged the Russians to demobilize Armenian national forces.{{cite book \|first\=Richard G. \|last\=Hovannisian \|title\=The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times \|volume\=2 \|location\=New York \|publisher\=St. Martin's Press \|year\=2004 \|isbn\=1\-4039\-6422\-X \|pages\=288–289 }} [thumb\|Collection of civilian corpses from Erzinzan](/wiki/File:Collection_of_Muslim_corpses_from_Erzincan%E2%80%99s_Armenian_district_on_February_12%2C_1918_at_Caucasus_Campaign_in_WWI.jpg "Collection of Muslim corpses from Erzincan’s Armenian district on February 12, 1918 at Caucasus Campaign in WWI.jpg") A [peace conference](/wiki/Trabzon_peace_conference "Trabzon peace conference") between the Ottomans and a delegation of the [Transcaucasian Diet](/wiki/Transcaucasian_Sejm "Transcaucasian Sejm") convened on March 14\. Enver Pasha offered to surrender all claims in the Caucasus in return for recognition of the Ottoman re\-acquisition of the east Anatolian provinces as agreed to at Brest\-Litovsk.{{cite book \|first\=Ezel Kural \|last\=Shaw \|title\=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey \|location\=New York \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|year\=1977 \|isbn\=0\-521\-21280\-4 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan/page/326 326] \|url\=https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan/page/326 }} On April 5, the head of the Transcaucasian delegation [Akaki Chkhenkeli](/wiki/Akaki_Chkhenkeli "Akaki Chkhenkeli") accepted the Treaty of Brest\-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.{{cite book \|first\=Richard G. \|last\=Hovannisian \|title\=The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times \|volume\=2 \|location\=New York \|publisher\=St. Martin's Press \|year\=2004 \|isbn\=1\-4039\-6422\-X \|pages\=292–293 }} The mood prevailing in Tiflis was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire. On 14 April, the Ottomans with 10,000\-12,000 troopsErickson 2001, p. 184 captured the port of [Batumi](/wiki/Batumi "Batumi") and its garrison of 3,000 troops after two days of light fighting.Marshall, Alex. "The Caucasus Under Soviet Rule". p. 89\. On April 23, 1918, the Ottomans laid siege to the fortress city of Kars, now under the effective control of Armenian and non\-Bolshevik Russian troops. The fortress had been strengthened considerably by the Russians since its capture in 1877, and the garrison was strong and well\-stocked. The garrison numbered some 10,000 men, and they had at their disposal 154 fixed artillery pieces, 67 reserve artillery pieces, 46 fortress machine guns, 20 reserve machine guns, and 11,000 rifles.Erickson 2001, p. 185 [Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic](/wiki/Transcaucasian_Democratic_Federative_Republic "Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic") foreign minister [Akaki Chkhenkeli](/wiki/Akaki_Chkhenkeli "Akaki Chkhenkeli") had previously ordered the city to surrender at first contact with the Ottomans, doing so without the notice of the Armenian members of his coalition government; while not followed, the order threw the defenders into confusion and partly caused the exodus of thousands of civilians before and during the siege. Independent of this, it was clear to all involved that the Armenians, surrounded, outnumbered, and cut off from relief, could not hold the city indefinitely. As a result, the garrison scrambled for a way to negotiate their way out without having to fight for the city. The Ottomans agreed to let the garrison peacefully exit the city, but only if they would surrender the entire fortress and its armory intact. General Nazarbekov, the Armenian Corps Commander based in Yerevan acting through a French intermediary, agreed to the surrender of the city and its garrison on April 25, 1918\. At the same time the batteries surrounding the city were occupied and in the evening a regiment from the Ottoman I Caucasian Corps entered into the city and took it under control. The Ottomans obtained 11,000 rifles, 2 million bullets, 67 cannons, and 19 machine guns from the surrender.Richard G. Hovannisian. The Republic of Armenia: The first year, 1918–1919\. Page 27\. On May 11, a new peace conference opened at Batum, at which the Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation stalled. The Ottoman army moved once again on May 21, leading to the [Battle of Sardarapat](/wiki/Battle_of_Sardarapat "Battle of Sardarapat") (May 21–29\), the [Battle of Kara Killisse (1918\)](/wiki/Battle_of_Kara_Killisse_%281918%29 "Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)") (May 24–28\), and the [Battle of Bash Abaran](/wiki/Battle_of_Bash_Abaran "Battle of Bash Abaran") (May 21–24\). Although the Armenians managed to inflict a defeat on the Ottomans, the Armenian army was scattered. Meanwhile, there was a fruitless German\-mediated peace conference between the Ottoman and Transcaucasian governments at Batumi, which closed on May 24, 1918\. Two days later, Georgia withdrew from the federation and declared itself a separate republic, encouraged by the German mission led by [Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein](/wiki/Friedrich_Freiherr_Kress_von_Kressenstein "Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein") and [Friedrich Werner von der Schulenburg](/wiki/Friedrich_Werner_von_der_Schulenburg "Friedrich Werner von der Schulenburg"): the independent [Democratic Republic of Georgia](/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Georgia "Democratic Republic of Georgia") was proclaimed, formalized by the [Treaty of Poti](/wiki/Treaty_of_Poti "Treaty of Poti"). {{clarify\|date\=August 2017}}On the same day, the [First Republic of Armenia](/wiki/First_Republic_of_Armenia "First Republic of Armenia") declared its independence, followed by the [Azerbaijan Democratic Republic](/wiki/Azerbaijan_Democratic_Republic "Azerbaijan Democratic Republic"). On June 4, the [First Republic of Armenia](/wiki/First_Republic_of_Armenia "First Republic of Armenia") was forced to sign the [Treaty of Batum](/wiki/Treaty_of_Batum "Treaty of Batum"). However, under the leadership of [Andranik Ozanian](/wiki/Andranik_Ozanian "Andranik Ozanian") Armenians in the mountainous Karabag region resisted the Ottoman 3rd Army throughout the summer and established the [Republic of Mountainous Armenia](/wiki/Republic_of_Mountainous_Armenia "Republic of Mountainous Armenia").{{cite book \|first\=Mark \|last\=Malkasian \|title\=Gha\-Ra\-Bagh!: The Emergence of the National Democratic Movement in Armenia \|location\=Detroit \|publisher\=Wayne State University Press \|year\=1996 \|isbn\=0\-8143\-2604\-8 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/gharabaghemergen00malk/page/22 22] \|url\=https://archive.org/details/gharabaghemergen00malk/page/22 }} In August, they set up an independent government in Shusha, the administrative center of the region. In June, [German troops arrived](/wiki/German_Caucasus_expedition "German Caucasus expedition") to compete with the Ottomans for Caucasian influence and resources, notably the oilfields at [Baku](/wiki/Baku "Baku").{{cite book \|first\=Briton Cooper \|last\=Busch \|year\=1976 \|title\=Mudros to Lausanne: Britain's Frontier in West Asia, 1918–1923 \|page\=22 \|location\=Albany \|publisher\=\[\[SUNY Press]] \|isbn\=0\-87395\-265\-0 }} Early in June, the Ottoman army under Vehip Pasha renewed its offensive on the main road to Tiflis, where they confronted a joint German\-Georgian force. On June 10, the 3rd Army attacked and took many prisoners, leading to an official threat from Berlin to withdraw all of its troops and support for the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman government had to concede to German pressure and to halt, for the moment, a further advance into Georgia, reorienting its strategic direction towards Azerbaijan and [Iran](/wiki/Iran "Iran").Erickson 2001, p. 187 A Georgian delegation composed of Chkhenkeli, [Zurab Avalishvili](/wiki/Zurab_Avalishvili "Zurab Avalishvili"), and [Niko Nikoladze](/wiki/Niko_Nikoladze "Niko Nikoladze") went to Berlin to negotiate a treaty {{mdash}} which was aborted by the German collapse in November. [left\|thumb\|Armenian defenders during the [Battle of Baku](/wiki/Battle_of_Baku "Battle of Baku").](/wiki/File:Armenian_troops_in_a_trench_%28Battle_of_Baku%29.jpg "Armenian troops in a trench (Battle of Baku).jpg") [thumb\|Kars shopping district](/wiki/File:Kars_shopping_district_burned_down_during_Caucasus_Campaign_in_WWI.jpg "Kars shopping district burned down during Caucasus Campaign in WWI.jpg") Enver Pasha had created a new force in March, named the [Army of Islam](/wiki/Ottoman_Army_of_Islam "Ottoman Army of Islam"), although it only had somewhere between 14,000 and 25,000 men. All were Muslims and most spoke Turkish. In July, he ordered them into the [Centrocaspian Dictatorship](/wiki/Centrocaspian_Dictatorship "Centrocaspian Dictatorship"), with the goal of occupying [Baku](/wiki/Battle_of_Baku "Battle of Baku"), which they took from the British in September. In October, Ottoman troops pursued General Andranik's Armenian forces into mountainous Karabagh and Zangezur. The conflict was fierce, but indecisive. The [Armenian militia](/wiki/Armenian_militia "Armenian militia") under Andranik's command decimated an Ottoman unit trying to advance to the [Varanda River](/wiki/Varanda_River "Varanda River"). The armed conflicts between these units continued until the [Armistice of Mudros](/wiki/Armistice_of_Mudros "Armistice of Mudros") was signed on October 30\. By then the Ottomans had re\-captured all the territory which they lost to the Russians in [Eastern Anatolia](/wiki/Eastern_Anatolia "Eastern Anatolia"). The Armistice enabled General Andranik to create a base for further advancing eastward and to form a strategic corridor extending into [Nakhichevan](/wiki/Nakhichevan_uezd "Nakhichevan uezd").{{cite book \|first\=Hafeez \|last\=Malik \|title\=Central Asia: Its Strategic Importance and Future Prospects \|location\=New York \|publisher\=St. Martin's Press \|year\=1994 \|isbn\=0\-312\-10370\-0 \|page\=145 }}
[ "Operations\n----------", "### 1914", "On November 1, in the [Bergmann Offensive](/wiki/Bergmann_Offensive \"Bergmann Offensive\"), Russians crossed the frontier first. They planned to capture [Doğubeyazıt](/wiki/Do%C4%9Fubeyaz%C4%B1t \"Doğubeyazıt\") and [Köprüköy](/wiki/K%C3%B6pr%C3%BCk%C3%B6y \"Köprüköy\"). The official Russian declaration of war on the Ottoman Empire came on November 2\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.firstworldwar.com/features/declarationsofwar.htm\\|title\\=First World War.com – Feature Articles – Who Declared War and When\\|website\\=firstworldwar.com\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-17}} The established force for this goal was 25 infantry battalions, 37 cavalry units and 120 artillery guns. It had two wings. On the right\\-wing, the Russian I Corps crossed the border and moved from Sarikamish toward the direction of Köprüköy. They reached Köprüköy on November 4\\. On the left\\-wing, the Russian IV Corps moved from Yerevan to Pasinler Plains. The commander of 3rd Army, [Hasan Izzet](/wiki/Hasan_Izzet \"Hasan Izzet\") was not in favor of an offensive action in the harsh winter conditions. His plan was to remain in defense and launch a counterattack at the right time. This was overridden by the War Minister Enver Pasha. On November 7, the Turkish 3rd Army commenced its offensive with the participation of the XI Corps and all cavalry units. The Russians gained territory after the withdrawal of the 18th and the 30th Divisions. Ottoman forces managed to maintain their positions at Köprüköy. By November 12, the Turkish IX Corps with [Ahmet Fevzi](/wiki/Ahmet_Fevzi \"Ahmet Fevzi\") Pasha had reinforced the XI Corps on the left flank. The 3rd Army began to push the Russians back with the support of the cavalry. The 3rd Infantry Regiment managed to invade Köprüköy after the Azap Offensive between November 17 and 20\\. The front had stabilized by the end of November, with the Russians having advanced 25 kilometers into the Ottoman Empire along the Erzurum\\-Sarikamish axis. There was Russian success along the southern shoulders of the offensive where Armenian volunteers were effective and took [Karaköse](/wiki/Karak%C3%B6se \"Karaköse\") and Doğubeyazıt.{{cite book \\|last\\=Erickson \\|first\\=Edward J. \\|year\\=2001 \\|title\\=\\[\\[Ordered to Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War]] \\|location\\=Westport \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Greenwood Publishing Group\\|Greenwood]] \\|isbn\\=0\\-313\\-31516\\-7 \\|page\\=54 }} Doğubeyazıt was the northern neighbor of Van Province.", "During December, [Nicholas II of Russia](/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia \"Nicholas II of Russia\") visited the Caucasus campaign. The head of the [Armenian Church](/wiki/Armenian_Church \"Armenian Church\"), along with the president of the [Armenian National Council of Tiflis](/wiki/Armenian_National_Council_of_Tiflis \"Armenian National Council of Tiflis\"), [Alexander Khatisyan](/wiki/Alexander_Khatisyan \"Alexander Khatisyan\"), received him:", "{{Blockquote\\|From all countries Armenians are hurrying to enter the ranks of the glorious Russian Army, with their blood to serve the victory of the Russian Army... Let the Russian flag wave freely over the Dardanelles and the Bosporus, Let your will the peoples \\[Armenian] remaining under the Turkish yoke receive freedom. Let the Armenian people of Turkey who have suffered for the faith of Christ receive resurrection for a new free life...{{cite book \\|first\\=Ezel Kural \\|last\\=Shaw \\|title\\=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|year\\=1977 \\|isbn\\=0\\-521\\-21280\\-4 \\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan/page/314 314–315] \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan/page/314 }} \\|Nicholas II of Russia}}", "[thumb\\|Russian propaganda poster depicting the russian victory at the [Battle of Sarikamish](/wiki/Battle_of_Sarikamish \"Battle of Sarikamish\")](/wiki/File:The_Russian-Turkish_War._The_Defeat_of_the_Turks_at_Sarikamish_%28cropped%29.png \"The Russian-Turkish War. The Defeat of the Turks at Sarikamish (cropped).png\")\nOn December 15, 1914, at the [Battle of Ardahan](/wiki/Battle_of_Ardahan \"Battle of Ardahan\"), the city was captured by the Turks. This was an operation commanded by the German Lt. Col. Stange. The mission of Stange Bey Detachment was to conduct highly visible operations to distract and pin down Russian units. Stange Bey's initial mission was to operate in the Chorok region. The unit was materially assisted by the rebellious Adjars of the country, who seized the road. Later Enver modified the original plan toward supporting the Battle of Sarikamish.{{cite book \\|first\\=Spencer \\|last\\=Tucker \\|title\\=The European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=Garland \\|year\\=1996 \\|isbn\\=0\\-8153\\-0399\\-8 \\|page\\=174 }} Stange Bey Detachment was ordered to cut the Russian support link to Sarikamish\\-Kars line. On January 1, this unit was in Ardahan.", "On December 22, at the [Battle of Sarikamish](/wiki/Battle_of_Sarikamish \"Battle of Sarikamish\"), the 3rd Army received the order to advance towards Kars. In the face of the 3rd Army's advance, Governor Vorontsov planned to pull the Russian Caucasus Army back to Kars. Yudenich ignored Vorontsov's wish to withdraw. He stayed to defend Sarikamis. Enver Pasha assumed personal command of the 3rd Army and ordered it into battle against the Russian troops.", "### 1915", "On January 6, the 3rd Army headquarters found itself under fire. [Hafiz Hakki Pasha](/wiki/Hafiz_Hakki_Pasha \"Hafiz Hakki Pasha\") ordered a total retreat. On January 7, the remaining forces began their march towards Erzurum. The resulting Battle of Sarikamish became a stunning defeat. Only 10% of the Army managed to retreat back to its starting position. The entire IX Corps surrendered to the Russians. By mid\\-January less than 18000 of the 95000 Turks who fought the campaign survived. 30000 are said to have died of cold. The mean elevation of the district was 6500 feet above sea level and the Turkish army was supplied by a single railway and snowbound roads.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Keegan \\|first\\=John \\|title\\=The First World War \\|publisher\\=Pimlico \\|year\\=1999 \\|isbn\\=0\\-7126\\-6645\\-1 \\|location\\=London \\|pages\\=242}}\n[thumb\\|Attack of Russian Army in the Caucasus](/wiki/File:Attack_of_Russian_Army_in_the_Caucasus.jpg \"Attack of Russian Army in the Caucasus.jpg\")\nAfter this, Enver gave up command. The Armenian volunteer units were definitely a factor in their defeat, as they challenged the Ottoman operations during critical times,\"the delay enabled the Russian Caucasus Army to concentrate sufficient force around Sarikamish\" and his experience may have been one of the catalysts that led the Three Pashas, of which one was [Enver](/wiki/Enver_Pasha \"Enver Pasha\"), to their decision to conduct the [Armenian genocide](/wiki/Armenian_genocide \"Armenian genocide\") only a few months later.{{cite book \\|title\\=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War \\|last\\=Pasdermadjian \\|first\\=Garegin \\|author\\-link\\=Karekin Pastermadjian \\|author2\\=Aram Torossian \\|year\\=1918 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/bub\\_gb\\_4XYMAAAAYAAJ \\|publisher\\=Hairenik \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/bub\\_gb\\_4XYMAAAAYAAJ/page/n38 22] }} After his return to Constantinople, Enver blamed this defeat on Armenians living in the region actively siding with the Russians.{{cite book \\|last\\=Balakian \\|first\\=Peter \\|title\\=The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=HarperCollins \\|year\\=2003 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/burningtigrisarm00bala/page/200 200] \\|isbn\\=0\\-06\\-019840\\-0 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/burningtigrisarm00bala/page/200 }}", "On January 18, 1915, the Lt. Col. Stange's Turkish unit was recalled from the area around Ardahan. It was to stay behind the lines in the region; only on March 1, 1915, did it regain its initial position.", "In February, General Yudenich was praised for the victory and promoted to commander\\-in\\-chief of all Russian troops in the Caucasus. The Allies (British and France) asked Russia to relieve the pressure on the Western front. In return, Russia asked the Allies to relieve pressure in the Caucasus by a naval attack. The resulting operations [in the Black Sea](/wiki/Naval_warfare_of_World_War_I%23Black_Sea \"Naval warfare of World War I#Black Sea\") gave the Russians some respite to replenish their forces. Additionally, actions at the [Battle of Gallipoli](/wiki/Battle_of_Gallipoli \"Battle of Gallipoli\") which aimed at capturing the Ottoman capital helped the Russian forces on this front. On February 12, the commander of the 3rd Army Hafiz Hakki Pasha died of typhus and was replaced by Brigadier General [Mahmut Kamil](/wiki/Mahmut_Kamil \"Mahmut Kamil\") Pasha. Kamil faced the daunting task of putting the Ottoman army back in order. The military planners back in Istanbul were scared of the Russians advancing deeper into the mainland.", "During March the strategic situation remained stable. The completely devastated 3rd Army received new blood through reinforcements from the 1st and 2nd Armies, although these supplements were not stronger than a division. The Battle of Gallipoli was draining every Ottoman resource. Meanwhile, the Russians were holding the towns of Eleşkirt, Ağrı and Doğubeyazıt in the south. Military action never escalated above small\\-scale skirmishes—the Ottomans simply did not have enough forces to secure the whole East Anatolian region.", "[thumb\\|left\\|[Siege of Van](/wiki/Defense_of_Van_%281915%29 \"Defense of Van (1915)\"), Armenian troops holding a defense line against Ottoman forces in the walled city of Van in May 1915](/wiki/File:Van_Defenders.jpg \"Van Defenders.jpg\")", "On April 20, the [resistance at the city of Van](/wiki/Defense_of_Van_%281915%29 \"Defense of Van (1915)\") began. The Armenian defenders were protecting 30,000 residents and 15,000 refugees with 1,500 able bodied riflemen who were supplied with 300 rifles and 1,000 pistols and antique weapons. The conflict lasted more than three weeks until General Yudenich's force came to rescue them. General Yudenich began an offensive (May 6\\) moving into Ottoman territory. One wing of this offensive headed towards [Lake Van](/wiki/Lake_Van \"Lake Van\") to relieve the Armenian residents of Van. A [brigade](/wiki/Brigade \"Brigade\") of Trans\\-Baikal Cossacks under General Trukhin, and some [Armenian volunteers](/wiki/Armenian_volunteer_units \"Armenian volunteer units\") advanced towards Van.{{cite book \\| last \\= Hinterhoff \\| first \\= Eugene \\| title \\=Persia: The Stepping Stone To India. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol iv \\| pages \\= 1153–1157}}", "[thumb\\|1915, After the [Defense of Van](/wiki/Defense_of_Van_%281915%29 \"Defense of Van (1915)\") behind the retreating Russian forces, 250,000 Armenian refugees fled to the Caucasus{{cite journal \\|first\\=A. S. \\|last\\=Safrastian \\|title\\=Narrative of Van 1915 \\|journal\\=Journal Ararat \\|location\\=London \\|date\\=January 1916 }}](/wiki/File:Armenian_refugees_1915.jpg \"Armenian refugees 1915.jpg\")", "On April 24, Interior minister [Mehmed Talat](/wiki/Mehmed_Talat \"Mehmed Talat\") passed the [order of April 24](/wiki/s:Circular_on_April_24%2C_1915 \"Circular on April 24, 1915\") (known by the Armenians as [Red Sunday](/wiki/Red_Sunday \"Red Sunday\")), claimed that the Armenians in this region organized under the leadership of the Russians and rebelled against his government. He claimed the defense of Van from Ottoman massacres to be an example. This was the beginning of the [Armenian genocide](/wiki/Armenian_genocide \"Armenian genocide\").", "On May 6, the Russian advance began through the Tortum Valley towards Erzurum. The Ottoman 29th and 30th Divisions managed to stop this assault. The Ottoman X Corps counter\\-attacked the Russian forces. But on the southern part of this advance, Ottoman forces were not as successful as they have been in the north. On May 11 the town of [Manzikert](/wiki/Manzikert \"Manzikert\") [had fallen](/wiki/Battle_of_Manzikert_%281915%29 \"Battle of Manzikert (1915)\"). On May 17, Russian forces entered the town of Van. On May 21, General Yudenich arrived in the city, received the keys to the city and citadel and confirmed the [Armenian provisional government](/wiki/Occupation_of_Turkish_Armenia \"Occupation of Turkish Armenia\") in office, with [Aram Manukian](/wiki/Aram_Manukian \"Aram Manukian\") as governor. The [Fedayee](/wiki/Armenian_irregular_units \"Armenian irregular units\") turned over the city of Van. With Van secure, fighting shifted farther west for the rest of the summer. Ottoman forces continued to be pushed back. The region south of Lake Van was extremely vulnerable. The Turks had to defend a line of more than 600 kilometers with only 50,000 men and 130 pieces of artillery. They were clearly outnumbered by the Russians. The region was mountainous, thus difficult to attack or defend.", "[right\\|180px\\|thumb\\|[Rafael de Nogales Méndez](/wiki/Rafael_de_Nogales_M%C3%A9ndez \"Rafael de Nogales Méndez\"), a [Venezuelan](/wiki/Venezuela \"Venezuela\") officer who served in the Ottoman army, participated in the Siege of Van and after the war wrote one of the best accounts of the battle and its aftermath.](/wiki/File:Rafael_de_Nogales_Mendez.png \"Rafael de Nogales Mendez.png\")\nOn May 27, during the Russian offensive, the interior minister of Talat Pasha ordered a forced deportation of all Armenians out of region with the [Tehcir Law](/wiki/Tehcir_Law \"Tehcir Law\") to the Syria and Mosul.", "By June 13, Russian units were back to their starting line. On June 19, the Russians launched another offensive; this time northwest of Lake Van. The Russians, under Oganovski, launched an attack into the hills west of Manzikert. The Russians underestimated the size of the Ottoman army, and were surprised by a large Turkish force which [counterattacked](/wiki/Battle_of_Manzikert_%281915%29 \"Battle of Manzikert (1915)\"). Russian forces began to march from Manzikert towards Mush. However, they were not aware of the fact that the Turkish IX Corps, together with the 17th and 28th Divisions was moving to Mush as well. Although the conditions were extremely difficult, the Turks were executing a very efficient reorganization. 1st and 5th Expeditionary Forces were positioned to the south of the Russian offensive force and a \"Right Wing Group\" was established under the command of Brigadier General Abdülkerim Paşa. This group was independent from the Third Army and Abdülkerim Paşa was directly reporting to Enver Paşa. The Turks were ready to face the Russian attacks.", "On September 24, Grand Duke Nicholas was promoted to being in charge of all Russian forces in the Caucasus. In reality, he was removed from being Supreme Commander of the Russian Caucasus Army which was the highest executive position \\[actual conduct of the war] for the Caucasus campaign. His replacement was General Yudenich. This front was quiet from October till the end of the year. Yudenich used this period to reorganize. Around the start of 1916, Russian forces reached a level of 200,000 men and 380 pieces of artillery. On the other side the situation was very different; the Ottoman High Command failed to make up the losses during this period. The war in Gallipoli was sucking all the resources and manpower. The IX, X and XI Corps could not be reinforced and in addition to that the 1st and 5th Expeditionary Forces were deployed to Mesopotamia. Enver Pasha, after not achieving his ambitions or recognizing the dire situation on other fronts, decided that the region was of secondary importance. As of January 1916, Ottoman forces were 126,000 men, with only 50,539 being combatants. There were 74,057 rifles, 77 machine guns, and 180 pieces of artillery. The Ottoman force in the Caucasus campaign was large on paper, but not on the ground. The Ottomans assumed that the Russians would not bother to attack. This assumption turned out to be false.", "### 1916", "[thumb\\|left\\|[Mustafa Kemal](/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk \"Mustafa Kemal Atatürk\") at [Bitlis](/wiki/Bitlis \"Bitlis\"), March 1916](/wiki/File:Ataturk-1916-Bitlis.jpg \"Ataturk-1916-Bitlis.jpg\")\nIn early January, Yudenich secretly left his winter quarters and marched towards the major Ottoman fort at [Erzurum](/wiki/Erzurum \"Erzurum\"). The winter is not normally a time for military activity in this part of the world. The bitter cold and terrible roads contributed greatly to the annihilation of Enver Pasha's 3rd Army in the previous year. The Russian General Yudenich viewed this as an opportunity to take the Ottomans by surprise. The Russians achieved total surprise and destroyed an Ottoman division that was in winter quarters in the [Battle of Koprukoy](/wiki/Battle_of_Koprukoy \"Battle of Koprukoy\") (January 10–18\\).{{citation needed\\|date\\=November 2020}}", "On February 16, Mahmut Kamil was forced to order the 3rd Army to retreat from the city, as Yudenich had a numerical advantage over the Ottoman army. The difference was not big enough to be decisive, so Yudenich's plan was to attack the center of the Ottoman defenses, with the key attack falling in a weakly held sector. While diversionary attacks held the attention of Mahmut Kamil near the Deve\\-Boyun ridge, Russian forces broke through at Forts Kara\\-gobek and Tafet.{{cite book \\|first1\\=W. E. D. \\|last1\\=Allen \\|first2\\=Paul \\|last2\\=Muratoff \\|title\\=Caucasian Battlefields: A History of Wars on the Turco\\-Caucasian Border, 1828–1921 \\|location\\=Nashville \\|publisher\\=Battery Press \\|year\\=1999 \\|pages\\=361–363 \\|isbn\\=0\\-89839\\-296\\-9 }} The result was that both rings of the cities' defenses had been penetrated.{{citation needed\\|date\\=November 2020}}", "In April, the Caucasus army moved in two directions from Erzurum. Part went north and captured the ancient port city of [Trabzon](/wiki/Trabzon \"Trabzon\"). The other part moved in the direction of Mush and Bitlis .These units pushed the 2nd Army deep into Anatolia and defeated the Turks in the Battles of Mush and [Bitlis](/wiki/Battle_of_Bitlis \"Battle of Bitlis\") (March 2 – August 24\\), driving the Ottoman army before it. Bitlis was the last defence point for the Ottoman Army to prevent the Russians from moving into central Anatolia and Mesopotamia.{{citation needed\\|date\\=November 2020}}", "[thumb\\|Russian soldiers uncover the evidence of a massacre in the former Armenian village of Sheykhalan (in [Muş](/wiki/Mu%C5%9F_Province \"Muş Province\")), 1916](/wiki/File:Russian_soldiers_Sheykhalan_1915.jpg \"Russian soldiers Sheykhalan 1915.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|The area of Russian [occupation](/wiki/Occupation_of_Turkish_Armenia \"Occupation of Turkish Armenia\") of that region in summer 1916 (Russian map).](/wiki/File:Western_Armenia_Russian_occupation_1916.jpg \"Western Armenia Russian occupation 1916.jpg\")\nDuring July, General Yudenich then countered the Ottoman attack with an offensive of his own towards Erzincan. This was the [Battle of Erzincan](/wiki/Battle_of_Erzincan \"Battle of Erzincan\") (July 2–25\\). On July 2, Erzincan was captured. The Ottoman offensive against Trabzon was halted as they tried to stabilize their front lines to prevent the Russians from entering Anatolia and Mesopotamia.{{citation needed\\|date\\=November 2020}}", "After their defeat, the Ottoman Army gave [Mustafa Kemal](/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal \"Mustafa Kemal\") the organization of the defense of the region in August. The region was controlled by the 2nd Army. When Mustafa Kemal was assigned to his post, the enemy forces were in constant advance. Fighting around the east side of Lake Van continued throughout the summer but was inconclusive. In the earlier periods of the campaign, the XVI Corps managed to take Bitlis and Mush. Ahmet İzzet Paşa decided to attack one week after the conclusion of the Russian offensive. A military force was gathered and sent marching along the coast. The Second Army advanced on August 2\\. While [Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich](/wiki/Nikolai_Nikolaevich_Yudenich \"Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich\") was in the north and pushing the [Ottoman 3rd Army](/wiki/Third_Army_%28Ottoman_Empire%29 \"Third Army (Ottoman Empire)\"), the [Ottoman 2nd Army](/wiki/Second_Army_%28Ottoman_Empire%29 \"Second Army (Ottoman Empire)\") was in the south facing the insurgency and the second branch of the Russian army under General [Tovmas Nazarbekian](/wiki/Tovmas_Nazarbekian \"Tovmas Nazarbekian\") and a [detachment](/wiki/Detachment_%28military%29 \"Detachment (military)\") of [Armenian volunteer units](/wiki/Armenian_volunteer_units \"Armenian volunteer units\") led by [Andranik Ozanian](/wiki/Andranik_Ozanian \"Andranik Ozanian\"). After fighting from 1–9 August 1916, the Ottoman Army was overwhelmed and the entire region fell to the Russian Empire and Armenian volunteers, and thus an assault on Van was prevented.", "By late September, the Ottoman attack ended. The cost for the 2nd Army was 30,000 killed and wounded. The Russians strengthened their lines. They were strong enough to respond with counteroffensives two weeks after the launch of the Ottoman offensive. The Russians held up the advance.", "From September to the Russian Revolution, the Russian Navy still dominated the Black Sea.", "The rest of the year 1916 was spent by the Turks making organizational and operational changes in the Caucasian front. Fortunately for the Ottoman commanders, the Russians were quiet during this period. The winter of 1916–17 was extremely harsh, which made fighting nearly impossible.", "### 1917", "[thumb\\|right\\|[Western Armenia](/wiki/Western_Armenia \"Western Armenia\") territory under Russian control as of September 1917](/wiki/File:Western_Armenia_September_1917.png \"Western Armenia September 1917.png\")", "The military situation did not change during the spring of 1917\\. The Russian plans for a renewed attack never substantiated. Meanwhile, Russia was in political and social turmoil. It was also influencing the army ranks. The chaos caused by the [Russian Revolution](/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1917 \"Russian Revolution of 1917\") put a stop to all Russian military operations. The Russian forces began to conduct withdrawals. Neither the Russian soldiers nor the Russian people wanted to continue the war. The Russian army slowly disintegrated. Starting from the spring of 1917, the situation was completely disadvantageous as a renewed typhus, scurvy and similar problems resulting from hygiene and food, became very common in the Caucasian army.{{cite book \\|last\\=Serge \\|first\\=Victor \\|title\\=Year One of The Russian Revolution \\|location\\=Chicago \\|publisher\\=Holt, Rinehart and Winston \\|year\\=1972 \\|isbn\\=0\\-7139\\-0135\\-7 \\|page\\=193 }}", "Until the Russian Revolution of 1917, the Ottoman Empire's possible operation in Caucasia could not be imagined. After the [Battle of Sarikamish](/wiki/Battle_of_Sarikamish \"Battle of Sarikamish\"), the Ottoman units were \"almost always\" in a disastrous situation trying to hold onto regions in the occupied Ottoman lands. The Ottoman forces could not take advantage of the chaotic situation during 1917, as their units were not in good shape. [Enver](/wiki/Enver_Pasha \"Enver Pasha\") moved five divisions out of the region because of the pressure from the British in Palestine and Mesopotamia.", "On March 1, the order \"Number–1\" published by Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies included paragraphs envisioning democratization of the army. This written command enabled military units to elect their representatives. On March 9, 1917, [a Special Transcaucasian Committee](/wiki/Special_Transcaucasian_Committee \"Special Transcaucasian Committee\") was established with Member of the State Duma [V. A. Kharlamov](/wiki/V._A._Kharlamov \"V. A. Kharlamov\") as the Chairman to replace the Imperial Viceroy [Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich of Russia (1856–1929\\)](/wiki/Grand_Duke_Nicholas_Nikolaevich_of_Russia_%281856%E2%80%931929%29 \"Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich of Russia (1856–1929)\") by the [Russian Provisional Government](/wiki/Russian_Provisional_Government \"Russian Provisional Government\") as the highest organ of civil administrative body in Transcaucasia. The new government reassigned General Yudenich to a position in Central Asia. General Yudenich retired from the army following the assignment.", "During the summer, during the [occupation of Turkish Armenia](/wiki/Occupation_of_Turkish_Armenia \"Occupation of Turkish Armenia\") the Russians sponsored a conference to consider emergency measures and adopted plans to form a 20,000 man militia under [Andranik](/wiki/Andranik_Ozanian \"Andranik Ozanian\") to be ready in December 1917\\. Civilian commissioner Dr. Hakob Zavriev promoted [Andranik](/wiki/Andranik_Ozanian \"Andranik Ozanian\") to Major General. Andranik's division's composition was this:\n{{tree list}}\n* 1st brigade:\n\t+ [Erzinjan](/wiki/Erzincan \"Erzincan\") regiment\n\t+ [Erzurum](/wiki/Erzurum \"Erzurum\") regiment\n* 2nd brigade:\n\t+ [Khnus](/wiki/H%C4%B1n%C4%B1s \"Hınıs\") regiment\n\t+ [Alashkert](/wiki/Ele%C5%9Fkirt \"Eleşkirt\") regiment\n* 3rd brigade:\n\t+ [Van](/wiki/Van%2C_Turkey \"Van, Turkey\") regiment\n\t+ mounted [Zeytoun](/wiki/S%C3%BCleymanl%C4%B1 \"Süleymanlı\") regiment\n\t{{tree list/end}}\n\tOn September 14, 1917, the Russian army in the region, which was about to completely disintegrate, lost commanding authority, and the tendency of the villagers for plundering had increased. Towards the end of autumn, the Chief General of the Caucasus Front Przhevalskii had already ordered the establishment of national Armenian and Georgian forces within the Army to slow down the disintegration. The problems of demobilization of Russian Army (on all fronts Russians had the same problems) would in a way bring the end of the Russian government and help the Bolsheviks to come into power easily. In November 1917, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi as the \"Transcaucasian Commissariat ([Transcaucasian Sejm](/wiki/Transcaucasian_Sejm \"Transcaucasian Sejm\"))\" which replaced the \"Transcaucasian Committee\" following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St. Petersburg.", "The Transcaucasian Sejm was headed by a Georgian Menshevik, [Nikolay Chkheidze](/wiki/Nikolay_Chkheidze \"Nikolay Chkheidze\"). However, the Transcaucasian Sejm failed to stop the degradation of forces in the region into smaller national forces. While Armenians sent representatives to the Transcaucasian Sejm, at the same time the Eastern Armenian leaders at [Yerevan](/wiki/Yerevan \"Yerevan\") tried to established an Armenian Army Corps. Armenians had planned to keep their existence based on a political strategy of being supportive of the Allies and Russia and to establish their national army with Russian support.{{cite book \\|first1\\=W. E. D. \\|last1\\=Allen \\|first2\\=Paul \\|last2\\=Muratoff \\|title\\=Caucasian Battlefields: A History of Wars on the Turco\\-Caucasian Border, 1828–1921 \\|location\\=Nashville \\|publisher\\=Battery Press \\|year\\=1999 \\|page\\=458 \\|isbn\\=0\\-89839\\-296\\-9 }} [General Nazarbekov](/wiki/Tovmas_Nazarbekian \"Tovmas Nazarbekian\") was selected as Commanding Officer.\n{{tree list}}\n* 1st Division commander General [Christophor Araratov](/wiki/Christophor_Araratov \"Christophor Araratov\") was assigned by Yerevan:\n\t+ 1st Erzurum and Erzinjan regiment,\n\t+ 2nd Khnus regiment,\n\t+ 3rd Yerevan regiment,\n\t+ 4th Erzinjan and Yerevan regiments.\n* 2nd Division's commander Colonel [Movses Silikyan](/wiki/Movses_Silikyan \"Movses Silikyan\") was also assigned by Erivan:\n\t+ 5th Van regiment,\n\t+ 6th Yerevan regiment,\n\t+ 7th and 8th Alexandropol regiments.\n\t{{tree list/end}}\n\t[left\\|thumb\\|An Armenian mother beside the corpses of her five childrenThe](/wiki/File:Armenianmothermourning.jpg \"Armenianmothermourning.jpg\") Chief of Staff of the Armenian Corps was General Vickinski. The divisions, which comprised four regiments each, also had three regular and one depot regiment. Their total strength was 32,000 enlisted men. Besides these regular structures able men were also armed. A 40 to 50,000\\-strong force formed from this armed civilian population. In Baku alone, the Russian army left 160 cannons, 180 machine guns, and 160 million cartridges to the Armenians.{{citation needed\\|date\\=February 2020}}", "On October 23, during the October Revolution, the Ottoman Third Army was protecting the 190 km area from the [Munzur Mountains](/wiki/Munzur_Mountains \"Munzur Mountains\") to the [Black Sea](/wiki/Black_Sea \"Black Sea\") with 66 battalions consisting of 30,000 combatants, 177 machine guns, and 157 cannons. The number of machine guns, animals, supply, transportation and clothing were all problematic. Russia had strengthened Erzurum and Trabzon. Russia had 9; the Ottomans had 3 planes. The Russian forces were in a line from the west of Trabzon, along the Erzincan\\-Kemah passage, passing through south of Tunceli and Murat waters to Lake Van and to Baskale. On this line, the Russian army against the Third Army had 86,000 combatants and 146 cannons. The situation was a stalemate.{{cite book \\|first\\=Stefanos \\|last\\=Yerasimos \\|title\\=Kurtulus Savası'nda Türk\\-Sovyet iliskileri 1917–1923 \\|location\\=Istanbul \\|publisher\\=Boyut Kitapları \\|year\\=2000 \\|isbn\\=975\\-521\\-400\\-3 \\|page\\=11 \\|language\\=tr}}", "On December 5, 1917, the [armistice of Erzincan](/wiki/Armistice_of_Erzincan \"Armistice of Erzincan\") (Erzincan Cease\\-fire Agreement) was signed by the Russians and Ottomans in Erzincan. It ended the fighting between Russia and the Ottoman Empire.{{cite book \\|first\\=Tadeusz \\|last\\=Swietochowski \\|author\\-link \\= Tadeusz Swietochowski\\|title\\=Russian Azerbaijan 1905–1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|year\\=1985 \\|isbn\\=0\\-521\\-26310\\-7 \\|page\\=119 }} Between December and February 7 the regiments of the Armenian Corps were immediately hustled off to the front. They created a spectacle en route, for, to the amazement of the homeward\\-bound Russian soldiers, they were moving toward, not away from, the forward lines. Russian soldiers left equipment and guns to the newly constructed Armenian national army. After the nationalization (or \"democratization\" in some sources) of these left over forces throughout 1917, there was no effective Russian military force in the region by the end of 1917 .", "At the turn of 1918, the Allied Powers, the Cossacks in the south, the Georgians, the Pontic Greeks, and the Armenians were willing to build a resistance line against the Ottomans through gathering in the region. In case of an agreement between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, this was the only strategy to continue fighting against the Ottomans.{{cite book \\|first\\=Bülent \\|last\\=Gökay \\|title\\=A Clash of Empires: Turkey between Russian Bolshevism and British Imperialism, 1918–1923 \\|location\\=London \\|publisher\\=Tauris Academic Studies \\|year\\=1997 \\|isbn\\=1\\-86064\\-117\\-2 \\|page\\=12 }} The Armenians that kept their position in the region after the withdrawal of the Russian soldiers from the Caucasian front had taken support of 1 million rubles from Britain.{{cite book \\|last\\=Çaglayan \\|first\\=Kaya Tuncer \\|title\\=British Policy Towards Transcaucasia 1917–1921 \\|location\\=Istanbul \\|publisher\\=Isis Press \\|year\\=2004 \\|isbn\\=975\\-428\\-290\\-0 \\|page\\=52 }}", "### 1918", "The [Bolshevik](/wiki/Russian_Revolution \"Russian Revolution\") revolution left Russia's vast southern territories unguarded, except for a few thousand Armenian volunteers equipped with castoff Russian arms, commanded by [Tovmas Nazarbekian](/wiki/Tovmas_Nazarbekian \"Tovmas Nazarbekian\") and an even smaller force of refugees from western Anatolia led by [Andranik Ozanian](/wiki/Andranik \"Andranik\"), spread along a line extending from Yerevan to Van and Erzinjan. On 2 February, Turkish forces launched an attack at the disintegrated Caucasus front that was abandoned by Russian Troops. Having defeated the scattered and poorly\\-organized Georgian and Armenian units, Ottoman forces quickly recovered the territories that were lost previously to Imperial Russia in 1915\\-17, The Ottomans invaded the former Russian possessions in the Caucasus and the Secession of the Region from Russia.{{Cite book \\|last\\=გლოველი \\|first\\=შალვა \\|url\\=http://institutehist.ucoz.net/\\_ld/3/330\\_Proceedings\\-Geo.pdf \\|title\\=საერთაშორისო სამეცნიერო კონფერენცია: კავკასიის კარი \\- საქართველოს ჩრდილოეთი კარიბჭე : 25\\-27 ივნისი, 2021 : მასალები \\|date\\=2021 \\|publisher\\=TSU, Iv. Javaxishvilis saxelobis istoriisa da etnologiis Instituti \\|isbn\\=978\\-9941\\-8\\-3424\\-0 \\|language\\=Georgian, English}} The Third Army's offense headed by Vehib Pasha began on February 5\\. The Ottoman forces moved through east of the line between Tirebolu and Bitlis and took Kelkit on February 7, Erzincan on February 13, Bayburt on February 19, Tercan on February 22, and the Black Sea port of Trabzon on February 24\\. The incoming sea\\-borne reinforcements began to disenbark at Trabzon. Manzikert, Hınıs, Oltu, Köprüköy and Tortum followed over the following two weeks. By March 24 the Ottoman forces were crossing the 1914 frontier into what had been Russian Empire territory.Erickson 2001, p. 183", "[left\\|thumb\\|During 1918 [General Andranik](/wiki/Andranik_Ozanian \"Andranik Ozanian\") made it possible for the Armenian population of Van to escape from the Ottoman Army to Eastern Armenia. He and his troops fought between Mountainous Karabagh and Zangezur where the [Republic of Mountainous Armenia](/wiki/Republic_of_Mountainous_Armenia \"Republic of Mountainous Armenia\") was declared.](/wiki/File:1918_-_Zoravar_Andranik_-Shishi.png \"1918 - Zoravar Andranik -Shishi.png\")", "On March 3, the Grand vizier Talat Pasha signed the [Treaty of Brest\\-Litovsk](/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk \"Treaty of Brest-Litovsk\") with the [Russian SFSR](/wiki/Russian_SFSR \"Russian SFSR\"). Bolshevik Russia ceded [Batum](/wiki/Batum \"Batum\"), [Kars](/wiki/Kars \"Kars\"), and [Ardahan](/wiki/Ardahan \"Ardahan\"), which the Russians had captured during the [Russo\\-Turkish War (1877–1878\\)](/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_%281877%E2%80%931878%29 \"Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)\"). The treaty also stipulated that Transcaucasia was to be declared independent. In addition to these provisions, a secret clause was inserted which obliged the Russians to demobilize Armenian national forces.{{cite book \\|first\\=Richard G. \\|last\\=Hovannisian \\|title\\=The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times \\|volume\\=2 \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=St. Martin's Press \\|year\\=2004 \\|isbn\\=1\\-4039\\-6422\\-X \\|pages\\=288–289 }}", "[thumb\\|Collection of civilian corpses from Erzinzan](/wiki/File:Collection_of_Muslim_corpses_from_Erzincan%E2%80%99s_Armenian_district_on_February_12%2C_1918_at_Caucasus_Campaign_in_WWI.jpg \"Collection of Muslim corpses from Erzincan’s Armenian district on February 12, 1918 at Caucasus Campaign in WWI.jpg\")", "A [peace conference](/wiki/Trabzon_peace_conference \"Trabzon peace conference\") between the Ottomans and a delegation of the [Transcaucasian Diet](/wiki/Transcaucasian_Sejm \"Transcaucasian Sejm\") convened on March 14\\. Enver Pasha offered to surrender all claims in the Caucasus in return for recognition of the Ottoman re\\-acquisition of the east Anatolian provinces as agreed to at Brest\\-Litovsk.{{cite book \\|first\\=Ezel Kural \\|last\\=Shaw \\|title\\=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|year\\=1977 \\|isbn\\=0\\-521\\-21280\\-4 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan/page/326 326] \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan/page/326 }} On April 5, the head of the Transcaucasian delegation [Akaki Chkhenkeli](/wiki/Akaki_Chkhenkeli \"Akaki Chkhenkeli\") accepted the Treaty of Brest\\-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.{{cite book \\|first\\=Richard G. \\|last\\=Hovannisian \\|title\\=The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times \\|volume\\=2 \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=St. Martin's Press \\|year\\=2004 \\|isbn\\=1\\-4039\\-6422\\-X \\|pages\\=292–293 }} The mood prevailing in Tiflis was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.", "On 14 April, the Ottomans with 10,000\\-12,000 troopsErickson 2001, p. 184 captured the port of [Batumi](/wiki/Batumi \"Batumi\") and its garrison of 3,000 troops after two days of light fighting.Marshall, Alex. \"The Caucasus Under Soviet Rule\". p. 89\\. On April 23, 1918, the Ottomans laid siege to the fortress city of Kars, now under the effective control of Armenian and non\\-Bolshevik Russian troops. The fortress had been strengthened considerably by the Russians since its capture in 1877, and the garrison was strong and well\\-stocked. The garrison numbered some 10,000 men, and they had at their disposal 154 fixed artillery pieces, 67 reserve artillery pieces, 46 fortress machine guns, 20 reserve machine guns, and 11,000 rifles.Erickson 2001, p. 185", "[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic](/wiki/Transcaucasian_Democratic_Federative_Republic \"Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic\") foreign minister [Akaki Chkhenkeli](/wiki/Akaki_Chkhenkeli \"Akaki Chkhenkeli\") had previously ordered the city to surrender at first contact with the Ottomans, doing so without the notice of the Armenian members of his coalition government; while not followed, the order threw the defenders into confusion and partly caused the exodus of thousands of civilians before and during the siege. Independent of this, it was clear to all involved that the Armenians, surrounded, outnumbered, and cut off from relief, could not hold the city indefinitely. As a result, the garrison scrambled for a way to negotiate their way out without having to fight for the city. The Ottomans agreed to let the garrison peacefully exit the city, but only if they would surrender the entire fortress and its armory intact. General Nazarbekov, the Armenian Corps Commander based in Yerevan acting through a French intermediary, agreed to the surrender of the city and its garrison on April 25, 1918\\. At the same time the batteries surrounding the city were occupied and in the evening a regiment from the Ottoman I Caucasian Corps entered into the city and took it under control. The Ottomans obtained 11,000 rifles, 2 million bullets, 67 cannons, and 19 machine guns from the surrender.Richard G. Hovannisian. The Republic of Armenia: The first year, 1918–1919\\. Page 27\\.", "On May 11, a new peace conference opened at Batum, at which the Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation stalled. The Ottoman army moved once again on May 21, leading to the [Battle of Sardarapat](/wiki/Battle_of_Sardarapat \"Battle of Sardarapat\") (May 21–29\\), the [Battle of Kara Killisse (1918\\)](/wiki/Battle_of_Kara_Killisse_%281918%29 \"Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)\") (May 24–28\\), and the [Battle of Bash Abaran](/wiki/Battle_of_Bash_Abaran \"Battle of Bash Abaran\") (May 21–24\\). Although the Armenians managed to inflict a defeat on the Ottomans, the Armenian army was scattered. Meanwhile, there was a fruitless German\\-mediated peace conference between the Ottoman and Transcaucasian governments at Batumi, which closed on May 24, 1918\\. Two days later, Georgia withdrew from the federation and declared itself a separate republic, encouraged by the German mission led by [Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein](/wiki/Friedrich_Freiherr_Kress_von_Kressenstein \"Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein\") and [Friedrich Werner von der Schulenburg](/wiki/Friedrich_Werner_von_der_Schulenburg \"Friedrich Werner von der Schulenburg\"): the independent [Democratic Republic of Georgia](/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Georgia \"Democratic Republic of Georgia\") was proclaimed, formalized by the [Treaty of Poti](/wiki/Treaty_of_Poti \"Treaty of Poti\"). {{clarify\\|date\\=August 2017}}On the same day, the [First Republic of Armenia](/wiki/First_Republic_of_Armenia \"First Republic of Armenia\") declared its independence, followed by the [Azerbaijan Democratic Republic](/wiki/Azerbaijan_Democratic_Republic \"Azerbaijan Democratic Republic\").", "On June 4, the [First Republic of Armenia](/wiki/First_Republic_of_Armenia \"First Republic of Armenia\") was forced to sign the [Treaty of Batum](/wiki/Treaty_of_Batum \"Treaty of Batum\"). However, under the leadership of [Andranik Ozanian](/wiki/Andranik_Ozanian \"Andranik Ozanian\") Armenians in the mountainous Karabag region resisted the Ottoman 3rd Army throughout the summer and established the [Republic of Mountainous Armenia](/wiki/Republic_of_Mountainous_Armenia \"Republic of Mountainous Armenia\").{{cite book \\|first\\=Mark \\|last\\=Malkasian \\|title\\=Gha\\-Ra\\-Bagh!: The Emergence of the National Democratic Movement in Armenia \\|location\\=Detroit \\|publisher\\=Wayne State University Press \\|year\\=1996 \\|isbn\\=0\\-8143\\-2604\\-8 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/gharabaghemergen00malk/page/22 22] \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/gharabaghemergen00malk/page/22 }} In August, they set up an independent government in Shusha, the administrative center of the region.", "In June, [German troops arrived](/wiki/German_Caucasus_expedition \"German Caucasus expedition\") to compete with the Ottomans for Caucasian influence and resources, notably the oilfields at [Baku](/wiki/Baku \"Baku\").{{cite book \\|first\\=Briton Cooper \\|last\\=Busch \\|year\\=1976 \\|title\\=Mudros to Lausanne: Britain's Frontier in West Asia, 1918–1923 \\|page\\=22 \\|location\\=Albany \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[SUNY Press]] \\|isbn\\=0\\-87395\\-265\\-0 }} Early in June, the Ottoman army under Vehip Pasha renewed its offensive on the main road to Tiflis, where they confronted a joint German\\-Georgian force. On June 10, the 3rd Army attacked and took many prisoners, leading to an official threat from Berlin to withdraw all of its troops and support for the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman government had to concede to German pressure and to halt, for the moment, a further advance into Georgia, reorienting its strategic direction towards Azerbaijan and [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\").Erickson 2001, p. 187 A Georgian delegation composed of Chkhenkeli, [Zurab Avalishvili](/wiki/Zurab_Avalishvili \"Zurab Avalishvili\"), and [Niko Nikoladze](/wiki/Niko_Nikoladze \"Niko Nikoladze\") went to Berlin to negotiate a treaty {{mdash}} which was aborted by the German collapse in November.", "[left\\|thumb\\|Armenian defenders during the [Battle of Baku](/wiki/Battle_of_Baku \"Battle of Baku\").](/wiki/File:Armenian_troops_in_a_trench_%28Battle_of_Baku%29.jpg \"Armenian troops in a trench (Battle of Baku).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Kars shopping district](/wiki/File:Kars_shopping_district_burned_down_during_Caucasus_Campaign_in_WWI.jpg \"Kars shopping district burned down during Caucasus Campaign in WWI.jpg\")", "Enver Pasha had created a new force in March, named the [Army of Islam](/wiki/Ottoman_Army_of_Islam \"Ottoman Army of Islam\"), although it only had somewhere between 14,000 and 25,000 men. All were Muslims and most spoke Turkish. In July, he ordered them into the [Centrocaspian Dictatorship](/wiki/Centrocaspian_Dictatorship \"Centrocaspian Dictatorship\"), with the goal of occupying [Baku](/wiki/Battle_of_Baku \"Battle of Baku\"), which they took from the British in September.", "In October, Ottoman troops pursued General Andranik's Armenian forces into mountainous Karabagh and Zangezur. The conflict was fierce, but indecisive. The [Armenian militia](/wiki/Armenian_militia \"Armenian militia\") under Andranik's command decimated an Ottoman unit trying to advance to the [Varanda River](/wiki/Varanda_River \"Varanda River\"). The armed conflicts between these units continued until the [Armistice of Mudros](/wiki/Armistice_of_Mudros \"Armistice of Mudros\") was signed on October 30\\. By then the Ottomans had re\\-captured all the territory which they lost to the Russians in [Eastern Anatolia](/wiki/Eastern_Anatolia \"Eastern Anatolia\"). The Armistice enabled General Andranik to create a base for further advancing eastward and to form a strategic corridor extending into [Nakhichevan](/wiki/Nakhichevan_uezd \"Nakhichevan uezd\").{{cite book \\|first\\=Hafeez \\|last\\=Malik \\|title\\=Central Asia: Its Strategic Importance and Future Prospects \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=St. Martin's Press \\|year\\=1994 \\|isbn\\=0\\-312\\-10370\\-0 \\|page\\=145 }}", "" ]
### 1915 On January 6, the 3rd Army headquarters found itself under fire. [Hafiz Hakki Pasha](/wiki/Hafiz_Hakki_Pasha "Hafiz Hakki Pasha") ordered a total retreat. On January 7, the remaining forces began their march towards Erzurum. The resulting Battle of Sarikamish became a stunning defeat. Only 10% of the Army managed to retreat back to its starting position. The entire IX Corps surrendered to the Russians. By mid\-January less than 18000 of the 95000 Turks who fought the campaign survived. 30000 are said to have died of cold. The mean elevation of the district was 6500 feet above sea level and the Turkish army was supplied by a single railway and snowbound roads.{{Cite book \|last\=Keegan \|first\=John \|title\=The First World War \|publisher\=Pimlico \|year\=1999 \|isbn\=0\-7126\-6645\-1 \|location\=London \|pages\=242}} [thumb\|Attack of Russian Army in the Caucasus](/wiki/File:Attack_of_Russian_Army_in_the_Caucasus.jpg "Attack of Russian Army in the Caucasus.jpg") After this, Enver gave up command. The Armenian volunteer units were definitely a factor in their defeat, as they challenged the Ottoman operations during critical times,"the delay enabled the Russian Caucasus Army to concentrate sufficient force around Sarikamish" and his experience may have been one of the catalysts that led the Three Pashas, of which one was [Enver](/wiki/Enver_Pasha "Enver Pasha"), to their decision to conduct the [Armenian genocide](/wiki/Armenian_genocide "Armenian genocide") only a few months later.{{cite book \|title\=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War \|last\=Pasdermadjian \|first\=Garegin \|author\-link\=Karekin Pastermadjian \|author2\=Aram Torossian \|year\=1918 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/bub\_gb\_4XYMAAAAYAAJ \|publisher\=Hairenik \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/bub\_gb\_4XYMAAAAYAAJ/page/n38 22] }} After his return to Constantinople, Enver blamed this defeat on Armenians living in the region actively siding with the Russians.{{cite book \|last\=Balakian \|first\=Peter \|title\=The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response \|location\=New York \|publisher\=HarperCollins \|year\=2003 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/burningtigrisarm00bala/page/200 200] \|isbn\=0\-06\-019840\-0 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/burningtigrisarm00bala/page/200 }} On January 18, 1915, the Lt. Col. Stange's Turkish unit was recalled from the area around Ardahan. It was to stay behind the lines in the region; only on March 1, 1915, did it regain its initial position. In February, General Yudenich was praised for the victory and promoted to commander\-in\-chief of all Russian troops in the Caucasus. The Allies (British and France) asked Russia to relieve the pressure on the Western front. In return, Russia asked the Allies to relieve pressure in the Caucasus by a naval attack. The resulting operations [in the Black Sea](/wiki/Naval_warfare_of_World_War_I%23Black_Sea "Naval warfare of World War I#Black Sea") gave the Russians some respite to replenish their forces. Additionally, actions at the [Battle of Gallipoli](/wiki/Battle_of_Gallipoli "Battle of Gallipoli") which aimed at capturing the Ottoman capital helped the Russian forces on this front. On February 12, the commander of the 3rd Army Hafiz Hakki Pasha died of typhus and was replaced by Brigadier General [Mahmut Kamil](/wiki/Mahmut_Kamil "Mahmut Kamil") Pasha. Kamil faced the daunting task of putting the Ottoman army back in order. The military planners back in Istanbul were scared of the Russians advancing deeper into the mainland. During March the strategic situation remained stable. The completely devastated 3rd Army received new blood through reinforcements from the 1st and 2nd Armies, although these supplements were not stronger than a division. The Battle of Gallipoli was draining every Ottoman resource. Meanwhile, the Russians were holding the towns of Eleşkirt, Ağrı and Doğubeyazıt in the south. Military action never escalated above small\-scale skirmishes—the Ottomans simply did not have enough forces to secure the whole East Anatolian region. [thumb\|left\|[Siege of Van](/wiki/Defense_of_Van_%281915%29 "Defense of Van (1915)"), Armenian troops holding a defense line against Ottoman forces in the walled city of Van in May 1915](/wiki/File:Van_Defenders.jpg "Van Defenders.jpg") On April 20, the [resistance at the city of Van](/wiki/Defense_of_Van_%281915%29 "Defense of Van (1915)") began. The Armenian defenders were protecting 30,000 residents and 15,000 refugees with 1,500 able bodied riflemen who were supplied with 300 rifles and 1,000 pistols and antique weapons. The conflict lasted more than three weeks until General Yudenich's force came to rescue them. General Yudenich began an offensive (May 6\) moving into Ottoman territory. One wing of this offensive headed towards [Lake Van](/wiki/Lake_Van "Lake Van") to relieve the Armenian residents of Van. A [brigade](/wiki/Brigade "Brigade") of Trans\-Baikal Cossacks under General Trukhin, and some [Armenian volunteers](/wiki/Armenian_volunteer_units "Armenian volunteer units") advanced towards Van.{{cite book \| last \= Hinterhoff \| first \= Eugene \| title \=Persia: The Stepping Stone To India. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol iv \| pages \= 1153–1157}} [thumb\|1915, After the [Defense of Van](/wiki/Defense_of_Van_%281915%29 "Defense of Van (1915)") behind the retreating Russian forces, 250,000 Armenian refugees fled to the Caucasus{{cite journal \|first\=A. S. \|last\=Safrastian \|title\=Narrative of Van 1915 \|journal\=Journal Ararat \|location\=London \|date\=January 1916 }}](/wiki/File:Armenian_refugees_1915.jpg "Armenian refugees 1915.jpg") On April 24, Interior minister [Mehmed Talat](/wiki/Mehmed_Talat "Mehmed Talat") passed the [order of April 24](/wiki/s:Circular_on_April_24%2C_1915 "Circular on April 24, 1915") (known by the Armenians as [Red Sunday](/wiki/Red_Sunday "Red Sunday")), claimed that the Armenians in this region organized under the leadership of the Russians and rebelled against his government. He claimed the defense of Van from Ottoman massacres to be an example. This was the beginning of the [Armenian genocide](/wiki/Armenian_genocide "Armenian genocide"). On May 6, the Russian advance began through the Tortum Valley towards Erzurum. The Ottoman 29th and 30th Divisions managed to stop this assault. The Ottoman X Corps counter\-attacked the Russian forces. But on the southern part of this advance, Ottoman forces were not as successful as they have been in the north. On May 11 the town of [Manzikert](/wiki/Manzikert "Manzikert") [had fallen](/wiki/Battle_of_Manzikert_%281915%29 "Battle of Manzikert (1915)"). On May 17, Russian forces entered the town of Van. On May 21, General Yudenich arrived in the city, received the keys to the city and citadel and confirmed the [Armenian provisional government](/wiki/Occupation_of_Turkish_Armenia "Occupation of Turkish Armenia") in office, with [Aram Manukian](/wiki/Aram_Manukian "Aram Manukian") as governor. The [Fedayee](/wiki/Armenian_irregular_units "Armenian irregular units") turned over the city of Van. With Van secure, fighting shifted farther west for the rest of the summer. Ottoman forces continued to be pushed back. The region south of Lake Van was extremely vulnerable. The Turks had to defend a line of more than 600 kilometers with only 50,000 men and 130 pieces of artillery. They were clearly outnumbered by the Russians. The region was mountainous, thus difficult to attack or defend. [right\|180px\|thumb\|[Rafael de Nogales Méndez](/wiki/Rafael_de_Nogales_M%C3%A9ndez "Rafael de Nogales Méndez"), a [Venezuelan](/wiki/Venezuela "Venezuela") officer who served in the Ottoman army, participated in the Siege of Van and after the war wrote one of the best accounts of the battle and its aftermath.](/wiki/File:Rafael_de_Nogales_Mendez.png "Rafael de Nogales Mendez.png") On May 27, during the Russian offensive, the interior minister of Talat Pasha ordered a forced deportation of all Armenians out of region with the [Tehcir Law](/wiki/Tehcir_Law "Tehcir Law") to the Syria and Mosul. By June 13, Russian units were back to their starting line. On June 19, the Russians launched another offensive; this time northwest of Lake Van. The Russians, under Oganovski, launched an attack into the hills west of Manzikert. The Russians underestimated the size of the Ottoman army, and were surprised by a large Turkish force which [counterattacked](/wiki/Battle_of_Manzikert_%281915%29 "Battle of Manzikert (1915)"). Russian forces began to march from Manzikert towards Mush. However, they were not aware of the fact that the Turkish IX Corps, together with the 17th and 28th Divisions was moving to Mush as well. Although the conditions were extremely difficult, the Turks were executing a very efficient reorganization. 1st and 5th Expeditionary Forces were positioned to the south of the Russian offensive force and a "Right Wing Group" was established under the command of Brigadier General Abdülkerim Paşa. This group was independent from the Third Army and Abdülkerim Paşa was directly reporting to Enver Paşa. The Turks were ready to face the Russian attacks. On September 24, Grand Duke Nicholas was promoted to being in charge of all Russian forces in the Caucasus. In reality, he was removed from being Supreme Commander of the Russian Caucasus Army which was the highest executive position \[actual conduct of the war] for the Caucasus campaign. His replacement was General Yudenich. This front was quiet from October till the end of the year. Yudenich used this period to reorganize. Around the start of 1916, Russian forces reached a level of 200,000 men and 380 pieces of artillery. On the other side the situation was very different; the Ottoman High Command failed to make up the losses during this period. The war in Gallipoli was sucking all the resources and manpower. The IX, X and XI Corps could not be reinforced and in addition to that the 1st and 5th Expeditionary Forces were deployed to Mesopotamia. Enver Pasha, after not achieving his ambitions or recognizing the dire situation on other fronts, decided that the region was of secondary importance. As of January 1916, Ottoman forces were 126,000 men, with only 50,539 being combatants. There were 74,057 rifles, 77 machine guns, and 180 pieces of artillery. The Ottoman force in the Caucasus campaign was large on paper, but not on the ground. The Ottomans assumed that the Russians would not bother to attack. This assumption turned out to be false.
[ "### 1915", "On January 6, the 3rd Army headquarters found itself under fire. [Hafiz Hakki Pasha](/wiki/Hafiz_Hakki_Pasha \"Hafiz Hakki Pasha\") ordered a total retreat. On January 7, the remaining forces began their march towards Erzurum. The resulting Battle of Sarikamish became a stunning defeat. Only 10% of the Army managed to retreat back to its starting position. The entire IX Corps surrendered to the Russians. By mid\\-January less than 18000 of the 95000 Turks who fought the campaign survived. 30000 are said to have died of cold. The mean elevation of the district was 6500 feet above sea level and the Turkish army was supplied by a single railway and snowbound roads.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Keegan \\|first\\=John \\|title\\=The First World War \\|publisher\\=Pimlico \\|year\\=1999 \\|isbn\\=0\\-7126\\-6645\\-1 \\|location\\=London \\|pages\\=242}}\n[thumb\\|Attack of Russian Army in the Caucasus](/wiki/File:Attack_of_Russian_Army_in_the_Caucasus.jpg \"Attack of Russian Army in the Caucasus.jpg\")\nAfter this, Enver gave up command. The Armenian volunteer units were definitely a factor in their defeat, as they challenged the Ottoman operations during critical times,\"the delay enabled the Russian Caucasus Army to concentrate sufficient force around Sarikamish\" and his experience may have been one of the catalysts that led the Three Pashas, of which one was [Enver](/wiki/Enver_Pasha \"Enver Pasha\"), to their decision to conduct the [Armenian genocide](/wiki/Armenian_genocide \"Armenian genocide\") only a few months later.{{cite book \\|title\\=Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War \\|last\\=Pasdermadjian \\|first\\=Garegin \\|author\\-link\\=Karekin Pastermadjian \\|author2\\=Aram Torossian \\|year\\=1918 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/bub\\_gb\\_4XYMAAAAYAAJ \\|publisher\\=Hairenik \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/bub\\_gb\\_4XYMAAAAYAAJ/page/n38 22] }} After his return to Constantinople, Enver blamed this defeat on Armenians living in the region actively siding with the Russians.{{cite book \\|last\\=Balakian \\|first\\=Peter \\|title\\=The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=HarperCollins \\|year\\=2003 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/burningtigrisarm00bala/page/200 200] \\|isbn\\=0\\-06\\-019840\\-0 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/burningtigrisarm00bala/page/200 }}", "On January 18, 1915, the Lt. Col. Stange's Turkish unit was recalled from the area around Ardahan. It was to stay behind the lines in the region; only on March 1, 1915, did it regain its initial position.", "In February, General Yudenich was praised for the victory and promoted to commander\\-in\\-chief of all Russian troops in the Caucasus. The Allies (British and France) asked Russia to relieve the pressure on the Western front. In return, Russia asked the Allies to relieve pressure in the Caucasus by a naval attack. The resulting operations [in the Black Sea](/wiki/Naval_warfare_of_World_War_I%23Black_Sea \"Naval warfare of World War I#Black Sea\") gave the Russians some respite to replenish their forces. Additionally, actions at the [Battle of Gallipoli](/wiki/Battle_of_Gallipoli \"Battle of Gallipoli\") which aimed at capturing the Ottoman capital helped the Russian forces on this front. On February 12, the commander of the 3rd Army Hafiz Hakki Pasha died of typhus and was replaced by Brigadier General [Mahmut Kamil](/wiki/Mahmut_Kamil \"Mahmut Kamil\") Pasha. Kamil faced the daunting task of putting the Ottoman army back in order. The military planners back in Istanbul were scared of the Russians advancing deeper into the mainland.", "During March the strategic situation remained stable. The completely devastated 3rd Army received new blood through reinforcements from the 1st and 2nd Armies, although these supplements were not stronger than a division. The Battle of Gallipoli was draining every Ottoman resource. Meanwhile, the Russians were holding the towns of Eleşkirt, Ağrı and Doğubeyazıt in the south. Military action never escalated above small\\-scale skirmishes—the Ottomans simply did not have enough forces to secure the whole East Anatolian region.", "[thumb\\|left\\|[Siege of Van](/wiki/Defense_of_Van_%281915%29 \"Defense of Van (1915)\"), Armenian troops holding a defense line against Ottoman forces in the walled city of Van in May 1915](/wiki/File:Van_Defenders.jpg \"Van Defenders.jpg\")", "On April 20, the [resistance at the city of Van](/wiki/Defense_of_Van_%281915%29 \"Defense of Van (1915)\") began. The Armenian defenders were protecting 30,000 residents and 15,000 refugees with 1,500 able bodied riflemen who were supplied with 300 rifles and 1,000 pistols and antique weapons. The conflict lasted more than three weeks until General Yudenich's force came to rescue them. General Yudenich began an offensive (May 6\\) moving into Ottoman territory. One wing of this offensive headed towards [Lake Van](/wiki/Lake_Van \"Lake Van\") to relieve the Armenian residents of Van. A [brigade](/wiki/Brigade \"Brigade\") of Trans\\-Baikal Cossacks under General Trukhin, and some [Armenian volunteers](/wiki/Armenian_volunteer_units \"Armenian volunteer units\") advanced towards Van.{{cite book \\| last \\= Hinterhoff \\| first \\= Eugene \\| title \\=Persia: The Stepping Stone To India. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol iv \\| pages \\= 1153–1157}}", "[thumb\\|1915, After the [Defense of Van](/wiki/Defense_of_Van_%281915%29 \"Defense of Van (1915)\") behind the retreating Russian forces, 250,000 Armenian refugees fled to the Caucasus{{cite journal \\|first\\=A. S. \\|last\\=Safrastian \\|title\\=Narrative of Van 1915 \\|journal\\=Journal Ararat \\|location\\=London \\|date\\=January 1916 }}](/wiki/File:Armenian_refugees_1915.jpg \"Armenian refugees 1915.jpg\")", "On April 24, Interior minister [Mehmed Talat](/wiki/Mehmed_Talat \"Mehmed Talat\") passed the [order of April 24](/wiki/s:Circular_on_April_24%2C_1915 \"Circular on April 24, 1915\") (known by the Armenians as [Red Sunday](/wiki/Red_Sunday \"Red Sunday\")), claimed that the Armenians in this region organized under the leadership of the Russians and rebelled against his government. He claimed the defense of Van from Ottoman massacres to be an example. This was the beginning of the [Armenian genocide](/wiki/Armenian_genocide \"Armenian genocide\").", "On May 6, the Russian advance began through the Tortum Valley towards Erzurum. The Ottoman 29th and 30th Divisions managed to stop this assault. The Ottoman X Corps counter\\-attacked the Russian forces. But on the southern part of this advance, Ottoman forces were not as successful as they have been in the north. On May 11 the town of [Manzikert](/wiki/Manzikert \"Manzikert\") [had fallen](/wiki/Battle_of_Manzikert_%281915%29 \"Battle of Manzikert (1915)\"). On May 17, Russian forces entered the town of Van. On May 21, General Yudenich arrived in the city, received the keys to the city and citadel and confirmed the [Armenian provisional government](/wiki/Occupation_of_Turkish_Armenia \"Occupation of Turkish Armenia\") in office, with [Aram Manukian](/wiki/Aram_Manukian \"Aram Manukian\") as governor. The [Fedayee](/wiki/Armenian_irregular_units \"Armenian irregular units\") turned over the city of Van. With Van secure, fighting shifted farther west for the rest of the summer. Ottoman forces continued to be pushed back. The region south of Lake Van was extremely vulnerable. The Turks had to defend a line of more than 600 kilometers with only 50,000 men and 130 pieces of artillery. They were clearly outnumbered by the Russians. The region was mountainous, thus difficult to attack or defend.", "[right\\|180px\\|thumb\\|[Rafael de Nogales Méndez](/wiki/Rafael_de_Nogales_M%C3%A9ndez \"Rafael de Nogales Méndez\"), a [Venezuelan](/wiki/Venezuela \"Venezuela\") officer who served in the Ottoman army, participated in the Siege of Van and after the war wrote one of the best accounts of the battle and its aftermath.](/wiki/File:Rafael_de_Nogales_Mendez.png \"Rafael de Nogales Mendez.png\")\nOn May 27, during the Russian offensive, the interior minister of Talat Pasha ordered a forced deportation of all Armenians out of region with the [Tehcir Law](/wiki/Tehcir_Law \"Tehcir Law\") to the Syria and Mosul.", "By June 13, Russian units were back to their starting line. On June 19, the Russians launched another offensive; this time northwest of Lake Van. The Russians, under Oganovski, launched an attack into the hills west of Manzikert. The Russians underestimated the size of the Ottoman army, and were surprised by a large Turkish force which [counterattacked](/wiki/Battle_of_Manzikert_%281915%29 \"Battle of Manzikert (1915)\"). Russian forces began to march from Manzikert towards Mush. However, they were not aware of the fact that the Turkish IX Corps, together with the 17th and 28th Divisions was moving to Mush as well. Although the conditions were extremely difficult, the Turks were executing a very efficient reorganization. 1st and 5th Expeditionary Forces were positioned to the south of the Russian offensive force and a \"Right Wing Group\" was established under the command of Brigadier General Abdülkerim Paşa. This group was independent from the Third Army and Abdülkerim Paşa was directly reporting to Enver Paşa. The Turks were ready to face the Russian attacks.", "On September 24, Grand Duke Nicholas was promoted to being in charge of all Russian forces in the Caucasus. In reality, he was removed from being Supreme Commander of the Russian Caucasus Army which was the highest executive position \\[actual conduct of the war] for the Caucasus campaign. His replacement was General Yudenich. This front was quiet from October till the end of the year. Yudenich used this period to reorganize. Around the start of 1916, Russian forces reached a level of 200,000 men and 380 pieces of artillery. On the other side the situation was very different; the Ottoman High Command failed to make up the losses during this period. The war in Gallipoli was sucking all the resources and manpower. The IX, X and XI Corps could not be reinforced and in addition to that the 1st and 5th Expeditionary Forces were deployed to Mesopotamia. Enver Pasha, after not achieving his ambitions or recognizing the dire situation on other fronts, decided that the region was of secondary importance. As of January 1916, Ottoman forces were 126,000 men, with only 50,539 being combatants. There were 74,057 rifles, 77 machine guns, and 180 pieces of artillery. The Ottoman force in the Caucasus campaign was large on paper, but not on the ground. The Ottomans assumed that the Russians would not bother to attack. This assumption turned out to be false.", "" ]
### 1918 The [Bolshevik](/wiki/Russian_Revolution "Russian Revolution") revolution left Russia's vast southern territories unguarded, except for a few thousand Armenian volunteers equipped with castoff Russian arms, commanded by [Tovmas Nazarbekian](/wiki/Tovmas_Nazarbekian "Tovmas Nazarbekian") and an even smaller force of refugees from western Anatolia led by [Andranik Ozanian](/wiki/Andranik "Andranik"), spread along a line extending from Yerevan to Van and Erzinjan. On 2 February, Turkish forces launched an attack at the disintegrated Caucasus front that was abandoned by Russian Troops. Having defeated the scattered and poorly\-organized Georgian and Armenian units, Ottoman forces quickly recovered the territories that were lost previously to Imperial Russia in 1915\-17, The Ottomans invaded the former Russian possessions in the Caucasus and the Secession of the Region from Russia.{{Cite book \|last\=გლოველი \|first\=შალვა \|url\=http://institutehist.ucoz.net/\_ld/3/330\_Proceedings\-Geo.pdf \|title\=საერთაშორისო სამეცნიერო კონფერენცია: კავკასიის კარი \- საქართველოს ჩრდილოეთი კარიბჭე : 25\-27 ივნისი, 2021 : მასალები \|date\=2021 \|publisher\=TSU, Iv. Javaxishvilis saxelobis istoriisa da etnologiis Instituti \|isbn\=978\-9941\-8\-3424\-0 \|language\=Georgian, English}} The Third Army's offense headed by Vehib Pasha began on February 5\. The Ottoman forces moved through east of the line between Tirebolu and Bitlis and took Kelkit on February 7, Erzincan on February 13, Bayburt on February 19, Tercan on February 22, and the Black Sea port of Trabzon on February 24\. The incoming sea\-borne reinforcements began to disenbark at Trabzon. Manzikert, Hınıs, Oltu, Köprüköy and Tortum followed over the following two weeks. By March 24 the Ottoman forces were crossing the 1914 frontier into what had been Russian Empire territory.Erickson 2001, p. 183 [left\|thumb\|During 1918 [General Andranik](/wiki/Andranik_Ozanian "Andranik Ozanian") made it possible for the Armenian population of Van to escape from the Ottoman Army to Eastern Armenia. He and his troops fought between Mountainous Karabagh and Zangezur where the [Republic of Mountainous Armenia](/wiki/Republic_of_Mountainous_Armenia "Republic of Mountainous Armenia") was declared.](/wiki/File:1918_-_Zoravar_Andranik_-Shishi.png "1918 - Zoravar Andranik -Shishi.png") On March 3, the Grand vizier Talat Pasha signed the [Treaty of Brest\-Litovsk](/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk "Treaty of Brest-Litovsk") with the [Russian SFSR](/wiki/Russian_SFSR "Russian SFSR"). Bolshevik Russia ceded [Batum](/wiki/Batum "Batum"), [Kars](/wiki/Kars "Kars"), and [Ardahan](/wiki/Ardahan "Ardahan"), which the Russians had captured during the [Russo\-Turkish War (1877–1878\)](/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_%281877%E2%80%931878%29 "Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)"). The treaty also stipulated that Transcaucasia was to be declared independent. In addition to these provisions, a secret clause was inserted which obliged the Russians to demobilize Armenian national forces.{{cite book \|first\=Richard G. \|last\=Hovannisian \|title\=The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times \|volume\=2 \|location\=New York \|publisher\=St. Martin's Press \|year\=2004 \|isbn\=1\-4039\-6422\-X \|pages\=288–289 }} [thumb\|Collection of civilian corpses from Erzinzan](/wiki/File:Collection_of_Muslim_corpses_from_Erzincan%E2%80%99s_Armenian_district_on_February_12%2C_1918_at_Caucasus_Campaign_in_WWI.jpg "Collection of Muslim corpses from Erzincan’s Armenian district on February 12, 1918 at Caucasus Campaign in WWI.jpg") A [peace conference](/wiki/Trabzon_peace_conference "Trabzon peace conference") between the Ottomans and a delegation of the [Transcaucasian Diet](/wiki/Transcaucasian_Sejm "Transcaucasian Sejm") convened on March 14\. Enver Pasha offered to surrender all claims in the Caucasus in return for recognition of the Ottoman re\-acquisition of the east Anatolian provinces as agreed to at Brest\-Litovsk.{{cite book \|first\=Ezel Kural \|last\=Shaw \|title\=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey \|location\=New York \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|year\=1977 \|isbn\=0\-521\-21280\-4 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan/page/326 326] \|url\=https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan/page/326 }} On April 5, the head of the Transcaucasian delegation [Akaki Chkhenkeli](/wiki/Akaki_Chkhenkeli "Akaki Chkhenkeli") accepted the Treaty of Brest\-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.{{cite book \|first\=Richard G. \|last\=Hovannisian \|title\=The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times \|volume\=2 \|location\=New York \|publisher\=St. Martin's Press \|year\=2004 \|isbn\=1\-4039\-6422\-X \|pages\=292–293 }} The mood prevailing in Tiflis was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire. On 14 April, the Ottomans with 10,000\-12,000 troopsErickson 2001, p. 184 captured the port of [Batumi](/wiki/Batumi "Batumi") and its garrison of 3,000 troops after two days of light fighting.Marshall, Alex. "The Caucasus Under Soviet Rule". p. 89\. On April 23, 1918, the Ottomans laid siege to the fortress city of Kars, now under the effective control of Armenian and non\-Bolshevik Russian troops. The fortress had been strengthened considerably by the Russians since its capture in 1877, and the garrison was strong and well\-stocked. The garrison numbered some 10,000 men, and they had at their disposal 154 fixed artillery pieces, 67 reserve artillery pieces, 46 fortress machine guns, 20 reserve machine guns, and 11,000 rifles.Erickson 2001, p. 185 [Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic](/wiki/Transcaucasian_Democratic_Federative_Republic "Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic") foreign minister [Akaki Chkhenkeli](/wiki/Akaki_Chkhenkeli "Akaki Chkhenkeli") had previously ordered the city to surrender at first contact with the Ottomans, doing so without the notice of the Armenian members of his coalition government; while not followed, the order threw the defenders into confusion and partly caused the exodus of thousands of civilians before and during the siege. Independent of this, it was clear to all involved that the Armenians, surrounded, outnumbered, and cut off from relief, could not hold the city indefinitely. As a result, the garrison scrambled for a way to negotiate their way out without having to fight for the city. The Ottomans agreed to let the garrison peacefully exit the city, but only if they would surrender the entire fortress and its armory intact. General Nazarbekov, the Armenian Corps Commander based in Yerevan acting through a French intermediary, agreed to the surrender of the city and its garrison on April 25, 1918\. At the same time the batteries surrounding the city were occupied and in the evening a regiment from the Ottoman I Caucasian Corps entered into the city and took it under control. The Ottomans obtained 11,000 rifles, 2 million bullets, 67 cannons, and 19 machine guns from the surrender.Richard G. Hovannisian. The Republic of Armenia: The first year, 1918–1919\. Page 27\. On May 11, a new peace conference opened at Batum, at which the Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation stalled. The Ottoman army moved once again on May 21, leading to the [Battle of Sardarapat](/wiki/Battle_of_Sardarapat "Battle of Sardarapat") (May 21–29\), the [Battle of Kara Killisse (1918\)](/wiki/Battle_of_Kara_Killisse_%281918%29 "Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)") (May 24–28\), and the [Battle of Bash Abaran](/wiki/Battle_of_Bash_Abaran "Battle of Bash Abaran") (May 21–24\). Although the Armenians managed to inflict a defeat on the Ottomans, the Armenian army was scattered. Meanwhile, there was a fruitless German\-mediated peace conference between the Ottoman and Transcaucasian governments at Batumi, which closed on May 24, 1918\. Two days later, Georgia withdrew from the federation and declared itself a separate republic, encouraged by the German mission led by [Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein](/wiki/Friedrich_Freiherr_Kress_von_Kressenstein "Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein") and [Friedrich Werner von der Schulenburg](/wiki/Friedrich_Werner_von_der_Schulenburg "Friedrich Werner von der Schulenburg"): the independent [Democratic Republic of Georgia](/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Georgia "Democratic Republic of Georgia") was proclaimed, formalized by the [Treaty of Poti](/wiki/Treaty_of_Poti "Treaty of Poti"). {{clarify\|date\=August 2017}}On the same day, the [First Republic of Armenia](/wiki/First_Republic_of_Armenia "First Republic of Armenia") declared its independence, followed by the [Azerbaijan Democratic Republic](/wiki/Azerbaijan_Democratic_Republic "Azerbaijan Democratic Republic"). On June 4, the [First Republic of Armenia](/wiki/First_Republic_of_Armenia "First Republic of Armenia") was forced to sign the [Treaty of Batum](/wiki/Treaty_of_Batum "Treaty of Batum"). However, under the leadership of [Andranik Ozanian](/wiki/Andranik_Ozanian "Andranik Ozanian") Armenians in the mountainous Karabag region resisted the Ottoman 3rd Army throughout the summer and established the [Republic of Mountainous Armenia](/wiki/Republic_of_Mountainous_Armenia "Republic of Mountainous Armenia").{{cite book \|first\=Mark \|last\=Malkasian \|title\=Gha\-Ra\-Bagh!: The Emergence of the National Democratic Movement in Armenia \|location\=Detroit \|publisher\=Wayne State University Press \|year\=1996 \|isbn\=0\-8143\-2604\-8 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/gharabaghemergen00malk/page/22 22] \|url\=https://archive.org/details/gharabaghemergen00malk/page/22 }} In August, they set up an independent government in Shusha, the administrative center of the region. In June, [German troops arrived](/wiki/German_Caucasus_expedition "German Caucasus expedition") to compete with the Ottomans for Caucasian influence and resources, notably the oilfields at [Baku](/wiki/Baku "Baku").{{cite book \|first\=Briton Cooper \|last\=Busch \|year\=1976 \|title\=Mudros to Lausanne: Britain's Frontier in West Asia, 1918–1923 \|page\=22 \|location\=Albany \|publisher\=\[\[SUNY Press]] \|isbn\=0\-87395\-265\-0 }} Early in June, the Ottoman army under Vehip Pasha renewed its offensive on the main road to Tiflis, where they confronted a joint German\-Georgian force. On June 10, the 3rd Army attacked and took many prisoners, leading to an official threat from Berlin to withdraw all of its troops and support for the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman government had to concede to German pressure and to halt, for the moment, a further advance into Georgia, reorienting its strategic direction towards Azerbaijan and [Iran](/wiki/Iran "Iran").Erickson 2001, p. 187 A Georgian delegation composed of Chkhenkeli, [Zurab Avalishvili](/wiki/Zurab_Avalishvili "Zurab Avalishvili"), and [Niko Nikoladze](/wiki/Niko_Nikoladze "Niko Nikoladze") went to Berlin to negotiate a treaty {{mdash}} which was aborted by the German collapse in November. [left\|thumb\|Armenian defenders during the [Battle of Baku](/wiki/Battle_of_Baku "Battle of Baku").](/wiki/File:Armenian_troops_in_a_trench_%28Battle_of_Baku%29.jpg "Armenian troops in a trench (Battle of Baku).jpg") [thumb\|Kars shopping district](/wiki/File:Kars_shopping_district_burned_down_during_Caucasus_Campaign_in_WWI.jpg "Kars shopping district burned down during Caucasus Campaign in WWI.jpg") Enver Pasha had created a new force in March, named the [Army of Islam](/wiki/Ottoman_Army_of_Islam "Ottoman Army of Islam"), although it only had somewhere between 14,000 and 25,000 men. All were Muslims and most spoke Turkish. In July, he ordered them into the [Centrocaspian Dictatorship](/wiki/Centrocaspian_Dictatorship "Centrocaspian Dictatorship"), with the goal of occupying [Baku](/wiki/Battle_of_Baku "Battle of Baku"), which they took from the British in September. In October, Ottoman troops pursued General Andranik's Armenian forces into mountainous Karabagh and Zangezur. The conflict was fierce, but indecisive. The [Armenian militia](/wiki/Armenian_militia "Armenian militia") under Andranik's command decimated an Ottoman unit trying to advance to the [Varanda River](/wiki/Varanda_River "Varanda River"). The armed conflicts between these units continued until the [Armistice of Mudros](/wiki/Armistice_of_Mudros "Armistice of Mudros") was signed on October 30\. By then the Ottomans had re\-captured all the territory which they lost to the Russians in [Eastern Anatolia](/wiki/Eastern_Anatolia "Eastern Anatolia"). The Armistice enabled General Andranik to create a base for further advancing eastward and to form a strategic corridor extending into [Nakhichevan](/wiki/Nakhichevan_uezd "Nakhichevan uezd").{{cite book \|first\=Hafeez \|last\=Malik \|title\=Central Asia: Its Strategic Importance and Future Prospects \|location\=New York \|publisher\=St. Martin's Press \|year\=1994 \|isbn\=0\-312\-10370\-0 \|page\=145 }}
[ "### 1918", "The [Bolshevik](/wiki/Russian_Revolution \"Russian Revolution\") revolution left Russia's vast southern territories unguarded, except for a few thousand Armenian volunteers equipped with castoff Russian arms, commanded by [Tovmas Nazarbekian](/wiki/Tovmas_Nazarbekian \"Tovmas Nazarbekian\") and an even smaller force of refugees from western Anatolia led by [Andranik Ozanian](/wiki/Andranik \"Andranik\"), spread along a line extending from Yerevan to Van and Erzinjan. On 2 February, Turkish forces launched an attack at the disintegrated Caucasus front that was abandoned by Russian Troops. Having defeated the scattered and poorly\\-organized Georgian and Armenian units, Ottoman forces quickly recovered the territories that were lost previously to Imperial Russia in 1915\\-17, The Ottomans invaded the former Russian possessions in the Caucasus and the Secession of the Region from Russia.{{Cite book \\|last\\=გლოველი \\|first\\=შალვა \\|url\\=http://institutehist.ucoz.net/\\_ld/3/330\\_Proceedings\\-Geo.pdf \\|title\\=საერთაშორისო სამეცნიერო კონფერენცია: კავკასიის კარი \\- საქართველოს ჩრდილოეთი კარიბჭე : 25\\-27 ივნისი, 2021 : მასალები \\|date\\=2021 \\|publisher\\=TSU, Iv. Javaxishvilis saxelobis istoriisa da etnologiis Instituti \\|isbn\\=978\\-9941\\-8\\-3424\\-0 \\|language\\=Georgian, English}} The Third Army's offense headed by Vehib Pasha began on February 5\\. The Ottoman forces moved through east of the line between Tirebolu and Bitlis and took Kelkit on February 7, Erzincan on February 13, Bayburt on February 19, Tercan on February 22, and the Black Sea port of Trabzon on February 24\\. The incoming sea\\-borne reinforcements began to disenbark at Trabzon. Manzikert, Hınıs, Oltu, Köprüköy and Tortum followed over the following two weeks. By March 24 the Ottoman forces were crossing the 1914 frontier into what had been Russian Empire territory.Erickson 2001, p. 183", "[left\\|thumb\\|During 1918 [General Andranik](/wiki/Andranik_Ozanian \"Andranik Ozanian\") made it possible for the Armenian population of Van to escape from the Ottoman Army to Eastern Armenia. He and his troops fought between Mountainous Karabagh and Zangezur where the [Republic of Mountainous Armenia](/wiki/Republic_of_Mountainous_Armenia \"Republic of Mountainous Armenia\") was declared.](/wiki/File:1918_-_Zoravar_Andranik_-Shishi.png \"1918 - Zoravar Andranik -Shishi.png\")", "On March 3, the Grand vizier Talat Pasha signed the [Treaty of Brest\\-Litovsk](/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk \"Treaty of Brest-Litovsk\") with the [Russian SFSR](/wiki/Russian_SFSR \"Russian SFSR\"). Bolshevik Russia ceded [Batum](/wiki/Batum \"Batum\"), [Kars](/wiki/Kars \"Kars\"), and [Ardahan](/wiki/Ardahan \"Ardahan\"), which the Russians had captured during the [Russo\\-Turkish War (1877–1878\\)](/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_%281877%E2%80%931878%29 \"Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)\"). The treaty also stipulated that Transcaucasia was to be declared independent. In addition to these provisions, a secret clause was inserted which obliged the Russians to demobilize Armenian national forces.{{cite book \\|first\\=Richard G. \\|last\\=Hovannisian \\|title\\=The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times \\|volume\\=2 \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=St. Martin's Press \\|year\\=2004 \\|isbn\\=1\\-4039\\-6422\\-X \\|pages\\=288–289 }}", "[thumb\\|Collection of civilian corpses from Erzinzan](/wiki/File:Collection_of_Muslim_corpses_from_Erzincan%E2%80%99s_Armenian_district_on_February_12%2C_1918_at_Caucasus_Campaign_in_WWI.jpg \"Collection of Muslim corpses from Erzincan’s Armenian district on February 12, 1918 at Caucasus Campaign in WWI.jpg\")", "A [peace conference](/wiki/Trabzon_peace_conference \"Trabzon peace conference\") between the Ottomans and a delegation of the [Transcaucasian Diet](/wiki/Transcaucasian_Sejm \"Transcaucasian Sejm\") convened on March 14\\. Enver Pasha offered to surrender all claims in the Caucasus in return for recognition of the Ottoman re\\-acquisition of the east Anatolian provinces as agreed to at Brest\\-Litovsk.{{cite book \\|first\\=Ezel Kural \\|last\\=Shaw \\|title\\=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|year\\=1977 \\|isbn\\=0\\-521\\-21280\\-4 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan/page/326 326] \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan/page/326 }} On April 5, the head of the Transcaucasian delegation [Akaki Chkhenkeli](/wiki/Akaki_Chkhenkeli \"Akaki Chkhenkeli\") accepted the Treaty of Brest\\-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.{{cite book \\|first\\=Richard G. \\|last\\=Hovannisian \\|title\\=The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times \\|volume\\=2 \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=St. Martin's Press \\|year\\=2004 \\|isbn\\=1\\-4039\\-6422\\-X \\|pages\\=292–293 }} The mood prevailing in Tiflis was very different. Tiflis acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.", "On 14 April, the Ottomans with 10,000\\-12,000 troopsErickson 2001, p. 184 captured the port of [Batumi](/wiki/Batumi \"Batumi\") and its garrison of 3,000 troops after two days of light fighting.Marshall, Alex. \"The Caucasus Under Soviet Rule\". p. 89\\. On April 23, 1918, the Ottomans laid siege to the fortress city of Kars, now under the effective control of Armenian and non\\-Bolshevik Russian troops. The fortress had been strengthened considerably by the Russians since its capture in 1877, and the garrison was strong and well\\-stocked. The garrison numbered some 10,000 men, and they had at their disposal 154 fixed artillery pieces, 67 reserve artillery pieces, 46 fortress machine guns, 20 reserve machine guns, and 11,000 rifles.Erickson 2001, p. 185", "[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic](/wiki/Transcaucasian_Democratic_Federative_Republic \"Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic\") foreign minister [Akaki Chkhenkeli](/wiki/Akaki_Chkhenkeli \"Akaki Chkhenkeli\") had previously ordered the city to surrender at first contact with the Ottomans, doing so without the notice of the Armenian members of his coalition government; while not followed, the order threw the defenders into confusion and partly caused the exodus of thousands of civilians before and during the siege. Independent of this, it was clear to all involved that the Armenians, surrounded, outnumbered, and cut off from relief, could not hold the city indefinitely. As a result, the garrison scrambled for a way to negotiate their way out without having to fight for the city. The Ottomans agreed to let the garrison peacefully exit the city, but only if they would surrender the entire fortress and its armory intact. General Nazarbekov, the Armenian Corps Commander based in Yerevan acting through a French intermediary, agreed to the surrender of the city and its garrison on April 25, 1918\\. At the same time the batteries surrounding the city were occupied and in the evening a regiment from the Ottoman I Caucasian Corps entered into the city and took it under control. The Ottomans obtained 11,000 rifles, 2 million bullets, 67 cannons, and 19 machine guns from the surrender.Richard G. Hovannisian. The Republic of Armenia: The first year, 1918–1919\\. Page 27\\.", "On May 11, a new peace conference opened at Batum, at which the Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic's delegation stalled. The Ottoman army moved once again on May 21, leading to the [Battle of Sardarapat](/wiki/Battle_of_Sardarapat \"Battle of Sardarapat\") (May 21–29\\), the [Battle of Kara Killisse (1918\\)](/wiki/Battle_of_Kara_Killisse_%281918%29 \"Battle of Kara Killisse (1918)\") (May 24–28\\), and the [Battle of Bash Abaran](/wiki/Battle_of_Bash_Abaran \"Battle of Bash Abaran\") (May 21–24\\). Although the Armenians managed to inflict a defeat on the Ottomans, the Armenian army was scattered. Meanwhile, there was a fruitless German\\-mediated peace conference between the Ottoman and Transcaucasian governments at Batumi, which closed on May 24, 1918\\. Two days later, Georgia withdrew from the federation and declared itself a separate republic, encouraged by the German mission led by [Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein](/wiki/Friedrich_Freiherr_Kress_von_Kressenstein \"Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein\") and [Friedrich Werner von der Schulenburg](/wiki/Friedrich_Werner_von_der_Schulenburg \"Friedrich Werner von der Schulenburg\"): the independent [Democratic Republic of Georgia](/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Georgia \"Democratic Republic of Georgia\") was proclaimed, formalized by the [Treaty of Poti](/wiki/Treaty_of_Poti \"Treaty of Poti\"). {{clarify\\|date\\=August 2017}}On the same day, the [First Republic of Armenia](/wiki/First_Republic_of_Armenia \"First Republic of Armenia\") declared its independence, followed by the [Azerbaijan Democratic Republic](/wiki/Azerbaijan_Democratic_Republic \"Azerbaijan Democratic Republic\").", "On June 4, the [First Republic of Armenia](/wiki/First_Republic_of_Armenia \"First Republic of Armenia\") was forced to sign the [Treaty of Batum](/wiki/Treaty_of_Batum \"Treaty of Batum\"). However, under the leadership of [Andranik Ozanian](/wiki/Andranik_Ozanian \"Andranik Ozanian\") Armenians in the mountainous Karabag region resisted the Ottoman 3rd Army throughout the summer and established the [Republic of Mountainous Armenia](/wiki/Republic_of_Mountainous_Armenia \"Republic of Mountainous Armenia\").{{cite book \\|first\\=Mark \\|last\\=Malkasian \\|title\\=Gha\\-Ra\\-Bagh!: The Emergence of the National Democratic Movement in Armenia \\|location\\=Detroit \\|publisher\\=Wayne State University Press \\|year\\=1996 \\|isbn\\=0\\-8143\\-2604\\-8 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/gharabaghemergen00malk/page/22 22] \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/gharabaghemergen00malk/page/22 }} In August, they set up an independent government in Shusha, the administrative center of the region.", "In June, [German troops arrived](/wiki/German_Caucasus_expedition \"German Caucasus expedition\") to compete with the Ottomans for Caucasian influence and resources, notably the oilfields at [Baku](/wiki/Baku \"Baku\").{{cite book \\|first\\=Briton Cooper \\|last\\=Busch \\|year\\=1976 \\|title\\=Mudros to Lausanne: Britain's Frontier in West Asia, 1918–1923 \\|page\\=22 \\|location\\=Albany \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[SUNY Press]] \\|isbn\\=0\\-87395\\-265\\-0 }} Early in June, the Ottoman army under Vehip Pasha renewed its offensive on the main road to Tiflis, where they confronted a joint German\\-Georgian force. On June 10, the 3rd Army attacked and took many prisoners, leading to an official threat from Berlin to withdraw all of its troops and support for the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman government had to concede to German pressure and to halt, for the moment, a further advance into Georgia, reorienting its strategic direction towards Azerbaijan and [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\").Erickson 2001, p. 187 A Georgian delegation composed of Chkhenkeli, [Zurab Avalishvili](/wiki/Zurab_Avalishvili \"Zurab Avalishvili\"), and [Niko Nikoladze](/wiki/Niko_Nikoladze \"Niko Nikoladze\") went to Berlin to negotiate a treaty {{mdash}} which was aborted by the German collapse in November.", "[left\\|thumb\\|Armenian defenders during the [Battle of Baku](/wiki/Battle_of_Baku \"Battle of Baku\").](/wiki/File:Armenian_troops_in_a_trench_%28Battle_of_Baku%29.jpg \"Armenian troops in a trench (Battle of Baku).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Kars shopping district](/wiki/File:Kars_shopping_district_burned_down_during_Caucasus_Campaign_in_WWI.jpg \"Kars shopping district burned down during Caucasus Campaign in WWI.jpg\")", "Enver Pasha had created a new force in March, named the [Army of Islam](/wiki/Ottoman_Army_of_Islam \"Ottoman Army of Islam\"), although it only had somewhere between 14,000 and 25,000 men. All were Muslims and most spoke Turkish. In July, he ordered them into the [Centrocaspian Dictatorship](/wiki/Centrocaspian_Dictatorship \"Centrocaspian Dictatorship\"), with the goal of occupying [Baku](/wiki/Battle_of_Baku \"Battle of Baku\"), which they took from the British in September.", "In October, Ottoman troops pursued General Andranik's Armenian forces into mountainous Karabagh and Zangezur. The conflict was fierce, but indecisive. The [Armenian militia](/wiki/Armenian_militia \"Armenian militia\") under Andranik's command decimated an Ottoman unit trying to advance to the [Varanda River](/wiki/Varanda_River \"Varanda River\"). The armed conflicts between these units continued until the [Armistice of Mudros](/wiki/Armistice_of_Mudros \"Armistice of Mudros\") was signed on October 30\\. By then the Ottomans had re\\-captured all the territory which they lost to the Russians in [Eastern Anatolia](/wiki/Eastern_Anatolia \"Eastern Anatolia\"). The Armistice enabled General Andranik to create a base for further advancing eastward and to form a strategic corridor extending into [Nakhichevan](/wiki/Nakhichevan_uezd \"Nakhichevan uezd\").{{cite book \\|first\\=Hafeez \\|last\\=Malik \\|title\\=Central Asia: Its Strategic Importance and Future Prospects \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=St. Martin's Press \\|year\\=1994 \\|isbn\\=0\\-312\\-10370\\-0 \\|page\\=145 }}", "" ]
History ------- ### Banking house Georg Hauck \& Sohn #### Development since the foundation in 1796 On January 1, 1796 Friedrich Michael Hauck (1769–1839\) became a new partner in the existing business *Platz \& Gebhard* in Frankfurt am Main, in operation since 1753\. Gebhard \& Hauck, as the business was now called, ran the [bill of exchange](/wiki/Promissory_note "Promissory note"), commissions and freight forwarding business. Gebhard \& Hauck operated banking transactions, like many trading houses of that time, at least in the beginning probably only incidentally. It is known that as early as 1800 Gebhard \& Hauck granted the [Upper Rhenish Circle](/wiki/Upper_Rhenish_Circle "Upper Rhenish Circle") a [loan](/wiki/Loan "Loan") of 100,000 [guilders](/wiki/Guilder "Guilder") at an interest rate of 4\.5 percent.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.hauck\-aufhaeuser.com/newsroom/2016/06/geschaeftsbericht\-2015\|title\=Geschäftsbericht 2015\|website\=Hauck \& Aufhäuser\|access\-date\=5 November 2018}}{{Dead link\|date\=July 2024 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} Friedrich Michael Hauck was a member of the Permanent Citizens' Representative from 1815 to 1825 and from 1817 to 1819 a member of the [Legislative](/wiki/Legislature "Legislature") Body of the [Free City of Frankfurt](/wiki/Free_City_of_Frankfurt "Free City of Frankfurt"). From 1821 to 1829 he was Senior Manager of the Frankfurt [Chamber of Commerce](/wiki/Chamber_of_Commerce "Chamber of Commerce"). During this time, he earned honors for his services to the Frankfurt [Commercial policy](/wiki/Commercial_policy "Commercial policy"), for example, for the establishment of the Central German [Trade Association](/wiki/Trade_Association "Trade Association") in 1828\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://frankfurter\-personenlexikon.de/node/2507\|title\=Hauck, Bankiersfamilie \|website\=Frankfurter Personenlexikon\|access\-date\=5 November 2018}} In 1839 Georg Heinrich (1812–1884\) and Ferdinand Hauck (1813–1888\) took over *Gebhard \& Hauck* after the death of their father Friedrich Michael (whose partner Peter Gebhard had already died in 1814\), but went separate ways in 1861\. The Hauck brothers founded the banks *Georg Hauck \& Sohn* and *Ferdinand Hauck*. The latter bank was quite successful for a while, but was liquidated in 1926 and transferred to *Georg Hauck \& Sohn*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.hauck\-aufhaeuser.com/ueber\-uns/geschichte\|title\=Geschichte\|website\=Hauck \& Aufhäuser\|access\-date\=5 November 2018\|archive\-date\=5 November 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105204158/https://www.hauck\-aufhaeuser.com/ueber\-uns/geschichte\|url\-status\=dead}} The Bank *Georg Hauck \& Sohn* participated in the establishment and development of numerous companies in the [Rhine\-Main area](/wiki/Frankfurt_Rhine-Main "Frankfurt Rhine-Main"), including the [Frankfurter Bank](/wiki/Frankfurter_Bank "Frankfurter Bank") in 1854 and the *[Metallgesellschaft](/wiki/GEA_Group "GEA Group")*. In 1888, under the direction of Otto Hauck (\* 10\. April 1863 Frankfurt am Main, † 25\. November 1934 Frankfurt am Main), the house, together with the *Bankhaus J. J. Weiller Söhne*, marketed the *Farbwerke [Hoechst](/wiki/Hoechst_AG "Hoechst AG")* at the [stock market](/wiki/Stock_market "Stock market"). A few years later, the bank house Hauck participated as a limited partner in [Brown, Boveri \& Cie](/wiki/Brown%2C_Boveri_%26_Cie "Brown, Boveri & Cie"). The bank *Georg Hauck \& Sohn* even survived difficult periods such as the [German War in 1866](/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War "Austro-Prussian War"), the [German\-French War of 1870\-71](/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War "Franco-Prussian War"), the [founding crash in 1873](/wiki/Panic_of_1873 "Panic of 1873"), the [November Revolution](/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%9319 "German Revolution of 1918–19") and the period of [hyperinflation](/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_the_Weimar_Republic "Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic") after the [First World War](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") as well as the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression") of the late twenties and early thirties almost unscathed. #### National Socialism – Reprisals On March 31, 1933 Otto Hauck resigned as a long\-standing president of the Frankfurt Chamber of Commerce and Industry, together with the entire Bureau. In connection with the [Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses](/wiki/Nazi_boycott_of_Jewish_businesses "Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses") of 1 April 1933, he had been attacked as a "[half\-Jew](/wiki/Half-Jew "Half-Jew")" because his mother Anna Hauck born Reiss (1839\-1925\) came from the long\-established Jewish families Reiss and Flersheim. After Otto Hauck's death in 1934, his son Alexander Hauck (1893–1946\) took over the management of the bank. According to the [Nuremberg Laws](/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws "Nuremberg Laws"), he was considered a "Jewish mixed race of the second degree", which led to a restriction of his civil rights. To secure the future of the bank, in 1938, the banking house Hauck acquired the majority of the 1804 founded banking business J. Ph. Keßler. Its previous owner Adolf Melber (1894–1972\) joined the banking house Hauck as a managing director in 1939, and now represented the bank to the outside. #### War and reconstruction, last Hauck retires After the complete destruction of the bank's building in the Neue Mainzer Straße 30 in the air raids on Frankfurt am Main in March 1944, it was rebuilt after the war. In 1946 August Oswalt, Anne Marie Hauck and Michael Hauck became personally liable partners. In 1950, Georg Hauck \& Sohn was transformed into a *[Kommanditgesellschaft](/wiki/Kommanditgesellschaft "Kommanditgesellschaft")* (limited partnership), 1980 a *Kommanditgesellschaft auf Aktien* (limited partnership on shares). At the end of 1993, Michael Hauck (born 1927\), the last member of the family, left the bank after 47 years as personally liable partner. Michael Hauck is now honorary chairman of the bank Hauck \& Aufhäuser, and members of the family continue to belong to the circle of shareholders of the bank. ### Banking house H. Aufhäuser #### Founding 1870 By Heinrich Aufhäuser (1842–1917\) and Samuel Scharlach, the bank *Aufhäuser \& Scharlach* was founded on 14 May 1870 in Munich. Already in the first years from 1870 to 1876, the [balance sheet](/wiki/Balance_sheet "Balance sheet") of the new bank increased fivefold. After Heinrich Aufhäuser had paid out his former partner Scharlach by 1892, the Institute was renamed *Bankhaus H. Aufhäuser* in 1894\. The bank quickly gained a good reputation and soon counted et al. [Duke Luitpold in Bavaria](/wiki/Luitpold%2C_Prince_Regent_of_Bavaria "Luitpold, Prince Regent of Bavaria") and the family of [Thomas Mann](/wiki/Thomas_Mann "Thomas Mann") as well as Neuberger and [Alfred Einstein](/wiki/Alfred_Einstein "Alfred Einstein") to its customers. At the turn of the century, the bank, which initially specialized in securities brokerage, became a high\-volume bank. For the first time in 1913 H. Aufhäuser's balance sheet totaled over 10 million [gold marks](/wiki/German_gold_mark "German gold mark"). #### S. Bleichröder limited partner and successful 1920s One of the most renowned German private banks since the Empire and the former house bank of the former Chancellor [Otto von Bismarck](/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck "Otto von Bismarck"), the Berlin bank [Arnhold and S. Bleichroeder](/wiki/Arnhold_and_S._Bleichroeder "Arnhold and S. Bleichroeder"), became limited partner of the *Bankhaus H. Aufhäuser* in 1918 – also a hallmark of the concentration process at the banks since the turn of the century. The official name was now: *H. Aufhäuser Kommandite* von *S. Bleichröder* in Berlin. In 1921, Martin Aufhäuser's participation in *S. Bleichröder* resulted in a cross\-shareholding between the two Jewish banks. At the same time, Ernst Kritzler, a shareholder of *S. Bleichröder* since 1917, joined the *Bankhaus H. Aufhäuser*. The 1920s were very successful years for H. Aufhäuser. Martin Aufhäuser (1875–1944\) also sat on the board of the 1924 newly founded *Golddiskontbank* (Gold Discounter Bank), which was founded after the hyperinflation as a subsidiary of the *[Reichsbank](/wiki/Reichsbank "Reichsbank")* in order to provide German foreign trade with convertible means of payment. #### Aryanization The successful years were interrupted by the "[seizure of power](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler%27s_rise_to_power "Adolf Hitler's rise to power")" of the Nazis. Since the Aufhäusers belonged to the [Jewish faith](/wiki/Judaism "Judaism"), the bank was subjected to massive reprisals and it lost a large part of its customers \- by coercive measures (Jew boycott etc.), emigration or [deportation](/wiki/Deportation%23Deportation_during_World_War_II "Deportation#Deportation during World War II"). The Bankhaus H. Aufhäuser was "forcefully Aryanized " as a result of the so\-called Pogrom Night in early November and, in December 1938, Friedrich Wilhelm Seiler took over the bank. H. Aufhäuser was thus one of the last private banks and one of the most important ones that was aryanized in this way. The bank changed its name to *Seiler \& Co.* and the Jewish employees had to be dismissed. However, it must be noted that Martin Aufhäuser had led the first negotiations with Frederick Seiler in the summer of 1938 more or less voluntarily; Seiler was the one to whom the Aufhäusers wanted to hand over their bank. Only after the *[Kristallnacht](/wiki/Kristallnacht "Kristallnacht")* (Pogrom Night) did the National Socialist authorities intervene massively in the negotiations and determine the path of aryanization. From the end of 1938 onwards, the business was mainly run by the Aufhäuser's close associate, Josef Bayer (1897–1965\), who had been married to a Jewish woman since the 1920s, but could not be dismissed by the National Socialist authorities because of his knowledge of the bank. The *Bankhaus Aufhäuser/Seiler* succeeded in generating profits by 1944 without becoming involved in arms deals or the like. Josef Bayer, as well as the, since 1939, personally liable shareholder Otto Schniewind, who was temporarily scheduled to serve as minister of finance or economy in the planned government of [Carl Friedrich Goerdeler](/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Goerdeler "Carl Friedrich Goerdeler"), were taken to the [concentration camp](/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps "Nazi concentration camps") or rather taken into custody as a result of the assassination attempt of [20 July plot](/wiki/July_20%2C_1944 "July 20, 1944"), but survived the Nazi era. #### Reconstruction, Aufhäusers retire permanently The brothers Martin and Siegfried Aufhäuser (1877–1949, since 1921 partner in the bank and British citizen) had to leave Germany destitute and humiliated and emigrated to [London](/wiki/London "London") and via the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands") to the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"). In 1954, the *Münchner Institut* was renamed *Bankhaus H. Aufhäuser* again, and the descendants of the Aufhäusers were, already in 1953 retroactively to 1948, offered a 40\-percent stake in the [limited partnership](/wiki/Limited_partnership "Limited partnership"). In 1955, however, due to the events during the Nazi era, the family Aufhäuser sold its shares completely and has since ceased to be involved in the bank; however personal relationships continue to exist. ### 1998–2022: Hauck \& Aufhäuser As of January 1, 1998, the Frankfurter *Bankhaus Georg Hauck \& Sohn* and the Munich *Banking Institute H. Aufhäuser zu Hauck \& Aufhäuser KGaA*. The partner circle of the bank consists of the speaker Michael Bentlage as well as Stephan Rupprecht and Wolfgang Strobel. Hauck \& Aufhäuser sees itself as a traditional and modern private bank.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.hauck\-aufhaeuser.com/biografien/michael\-bentlage\|title\=Michael Bentlage\|website\=Hauck \& Aufhäuser\|access\-date\=17 November 2018\|archive\-date\=17 November 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117194323/https://www.hauck\-aufhaeuser.com/biografien/michael\-bentlage\|url\-status\=dead}} Until August 2016, *Hauck \& Aufhäuser* was one of the few private bank houses that was run independently by personally liable partners and independent of the group. Besides the descendants of the founding family, the shareholders included Hans Langmann, former CEO of [Merck Group](/wiki/Merck_Group "Merck Group"), Frank Asbeck, CEO of [SolarWorld](/wiki/SolarWorld "SolarWorld") AG as well as the family Findel\-Mast, which owns [Mast\-Jägermeister](/wiki/Mast-J%C3%A4germeister "Mast-Jägermeister") SE.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.handelsblatt.com/unternehmen/banken\-versicherungen/neue\-investoren\-hauck\-aufhaeuser\-jetzt\-vollstaendig\-in\-privatbesitz;2513909\|title\=Hauck und Aufhäuser jetzt vollständig in Privatbesitz\|date\=17 January 2010\|website\=Handelsblatt\|access\-date\=17 November 2018}} On July 8, 2015, it was announced that Hauck \& Aufhäuser is in sales talks with the Chinese investment group Fosun International.{{Cite web\|date\=8 July 2015\|title\=Deutsche Wirtschaftselite verkauft Traditionsbank an Chinesen\|url\=https://www.handelsblatt.com/finanzen/banken\-versicherungen/fosun\-kauft\-hauck\-und\-aufhaeuser\-deutsche\-wirtschaftselite\-verkauft\-traditionsbank\-an\-chinesen/12025572\.html\|access\-date\=5 November 2018\|website\=Handelsblatt}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.n\-tv.de/wirtschaft/Chinesen\-kaufen\-deutsche\-Traditionsbank\-article15467771\.html\|title\=Hauck \& Aufhäuser geht an Fosun: Chinesen kaufen deutsche Traditionsbank\|date\=8 July 2015\|website\=ntv\|access\-date\=17 November 2018}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.fondsprofessionell.de/news/uebersicht/headline/bafin\-gibt\-gas\-fosun\-bald\-eigentuemer\-von\-hauck\-aufhaeuser\-124772/\|title\=Bafin gibt Gas: Fosun bald Eigentümer von Hauck \& Aufhäuser?\|date\=11 May 2016\|website\=Fonds Online\|access\-date\=17 November 2018}} According to media reports the offer of Fosun amounted to €210 million.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.wiwo.de/unternehmen/banken/fosun\-kauft\-hauck\-und\-aufhaeuser\-frankfurter\-privatbank\-wird\-chinesisch/12025846\.html\|title\=Frankfurter Privatbank wird chinesisch\|date\=8 July 2015\|website\=WirtschaftsWoche\|access\-date\=17 November 2018\|archive\-date\=13 September 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913215103/http://www.wiwo.de/unternehmen/banken/fosun\-kauft\-hauck\-und\-aufhaeuser\-frankfurter\-privatbank\-wird\-chinesisch/12025846\.html\|url\-status\=dead}} In August 2016, after more than a year of auditing, the takeover was confirmed by the [European Central Bank](/wiki/European_Central_Bank "European Central Bank") (ECB) and the [Banking and Financial Supervisory Authority](/wiki/Federal_Financial_Supervisory_Authority "Federal Financial Supervisory Authority") (BaFin).{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.dasinvestment.com/hauck\-aufhaeuser\-uebernahme\-bafin\-gibt\-chinesischer\-fosun\-gruenes\-licht/\|title\=Bafin gibt chinesischer Fosun grünes Licht \|date\=18 August 2016\|website\=DasInvestment\|access\-date\=17 November 2018}} For the first time, a German bank went to a majority shareholder from China.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.hauck\-aufhaeuser.com/ueber\-uns?no\_cache\=1\#page\|title\=Vermögen verdient Beständigkeit\|website\=Hauck \& Aufhäuser\|access\-date\=17 November 2018}} The management of Hauck \& Aufhäuser remained unchanged as of January 2017\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/finanzen/fonds\-mehr/f\-a\-z\-exklusiv\-hauck\-aufhaeuser\-hat\-wieder\-einen\-echten\-chef\-14868129\.html\|title\=Hauck \& Aufhäuser hat wieder einen echten Chef\|last\=Mussler\|first\=Hanno\|date\=8 February 2017\|website\=Frankfurter Allgemeine\|access\-date\=17 November 2018}} In December 2016, the private bank announced that it would take over [Sal. Oppenheim](/wiki/Sal._Oppenheim "Sal. Oppenheim")'s fund platform business in [Luxembourg](/wiki/Luxembourg "Luxembourg") and, as a result, the two resident companies *Sal. Oppenheim jr. \& Cie. Luxemburg S.A.* and *Oppenheim Asset Management Services S.à r.l.*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.hauck\-aufhaeuser.com/newsroom/2016/12/hauck\-aufhaeuser\-erwirbt\-luxemburger\-s\|title\=Hauck \& Aufhäuser erwirbt Luxemburger Sal. Oppenheim\-Gesellschaften der Deutschen Bank\|date\=22 December 2016\|website\=Hauck \& Aufhäuser\|access\-date\=17 November 2018}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.fondsprofessionell.de/news/unternehmen/headline/ha\-uebernimmt\-luxemburger\-sal\-oppenheim\-gesellschaften\-139270/\|title\=Hauck \& Aufhäuser übernimmt Luxemburg\-Geschäft von Sal. Oppenheim\|date\=4 December 2017\|website\=Fonds Online\|access\-date\=17 November 2018}} Hauck \& Aufhäuser has been in the digital asset management business with Zeedin since 2018\.{{Cite web\|date\=2018\-10\-29\|title\=Hauck \& Aufhäuser launches digital asset management\|url\=https://www.internationalinvestment.net/internationalinvestment/news/3724252/hauck\-aufhauser\-launches\-digital\-asset\-management\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-23\|website\=www.internationalinvestment.net\|language\=en}}{{Cite web\|title\=Der Finanzprodukt Blog » Hauck \& Aufhäuser Launches Digital Asset Management With Bionic Robo Advisor\|url\=https://www.finanzprodukt.ch/finance\-2\-0/hauck\-aufhaeuser\-launches\-digital\-asset\-management\-with\-bionic\-robo\-advisor\-f/\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-23\|website\=www.finanzprodukt.ch}}{{Cite web\|last\=October 2018\|first\=26th\|date\=2018\-10\-26\|title\=Hauck \& Aufhäuser launches robo\-advisor Zeedin\|url\=https://www.fintechfutures.com/2018/10/hauck\-aufhauser\-launches\-robo\-advisor\-zeedin/\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-23\|website\=FinTech Futures\|language\=en\-GB}} ### 2022–present: Hauck Aufhäuser Lampe In May 2024, [ABN Amro](/wiki/ABN_Amro "ABN Amro") agreed to buy Hauck Aufhäuser Lampe (HAL) for 672 million euros ($730 million) from Fosun International.Nilutpal Timsina, Yantoultra Ngui and Matteo Allievi (28 May 2024\), [ABN Amro to buy German private bank in biggest deal since 2008 financial crisis](https://www.reuters.com/markets/deals/abn-amro-buy-german-lender-hauck-aufhuser-lampe-730-million-2024-05-28/) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters")*. Some of HAL's units such as those that provide alternative investment fund management or fund administration services were not part of the acquisition.Nilutpal Timsina, Yantoultra Ngui and Matteo Allievi (28 May 2024\), [ABN Amro to buy German private bank in biggest deal since 2008 financial crisis](https://www.reuters.com/markets/deals/abn-amro-buy-german-lender-hauck-aufhuser-lampe-730-million-2024-05-28/) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters")*. ### Operating subsidiaries and ownership * Hauck \& Aufhäuser Fund Services S.A., Luxembourg{{Cite web\|last\=Aufhäuser\|first\=Hauck\|date\=2020\-09\-23\|title\=annual report 2019\|url\=https://www.hauck\-aufhaeuser.com/fileadmin/Publikationen/Geschaeftsbericht/GB\_ENG\_KONZERN.pdf\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-23\|website\=www.hauck\-aufhäuser.com}} * Hauck \& Aufhäuser Alternative Investment Services S.A., Luxembourg * Hauck \& Aufhäuser Fund Platforms S.A., Luxembourg * Hauck \& Aufhäuser Pension Trust GmbH, Frankfurt am Main * H\&A Global Investment Management GmbH, Frankfurt am Main (Minority holding) * FidesKapital Gesellschaft für Kapitalbeteiligungen mbH, Munich * Hauck Investment Management (Nanjing) Co., Ltd., Nanjing (China) * Hauck Investment Management (Shanghai) Co. Ltd., Shanghai (China) *The list represents an excerpt. The complete list can be found in the current annual report.*
[ "History\n-------", "### Banking house Georg Hauck \\& Sohn", "#### Development since the foundation in 1796", "On January 1, 1796 Friedrich Michael Hauck (1769–1839\\) became a new partner in the existing business *Platz \\& Gebhard* in Frankfurt am Main, in operation since 1753\\. Gebhard \\& Hauck, as the business was now called, ran the [bill of exchange](/wiki/Promissory_note \"Promissory note\"), commissions and freight forwarding business. Gebhard \\& Hauck operated banking transactions, like many trading houses of that time, at least in the beginning probably only incidentally. It is known that as early as 1800 Gebhard \\& Hauck granted the [Upper Rhenish Circle](/wiki/Upper_Rhenish_Circle \"Upper Rhenish Circle\") a [loan](/wiki/Loan \"Loan\") of 100,000 [guilders](/wiki/Guilder \"Guilder\") at an interest rate of 4\\.5 percent.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hauck\\-aufhaeuser.com/newsroom/2016/06/geschaeftsbericht\\-2015\\|title\\=Geschäftsbericht 2015\\|website\\=Hauck \\& Aufhäuser\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2018}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=July 2024 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} Friedrich Michael Hauck was a member of the Permanent Citizens' Representative from 1815 to 1825 and from 1817 to 1819 a member of the [Legislative](/wiki/Legislature \"Legislature\") Body of the [Free City of Frankfurt](/wiki/Free_City_of_Frankfurt \"Free City of Frankfurt\"). From 1821 to 1829 he was Senior Manager of the Frankfurt [Chamber of Commerce](/wiki/Chamber_of_Commerce \"Chamber of Commerce\"). During this time, he earned honors for his services to the Frankfurt [Commercial policy](/wiki/Commercial_policy \"Commercial policy\"), for example, for the establishment of the Central German [Trade Association](/wiki/Trade_Association \"Trade Association\") in 1828\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://frankfurter\\-personenlexikon.de/node/2507\\|title\\=Hauck, Bankiersfamilie \\|website\\=Frankfurter Personenlexikon\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2018}}", "In 1839 Georg Heinrich (1812–1884\\) and Ferdinand Hauck (1813–1888\\) took over *Gebhard \\& Hauck* after the death of their father Friedrich Michael (whose partner Peter Gebhard had already died in 1814\\), but went separate ways in 1861\\. The Hauck brothers founded the banks *Georg Hauck \\& Sohn* and *Ferdinand Hauck*. The latter bank was quite successful for a while, but was liquidated in 1926 and transferred to *Georg Hauck \\& Sohn*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hauck\\-aufhaeuser.com/ueber\\-uns/geschichte\\|title\\=Geschichte\\|website\\=Hauck \\& Aufhäuser\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=5 November 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105204158/https://www.hauck\\-aufhaeuser.com/ueber\\-uns/geschichte\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The Bank *Georg Hauck \\& Sohn* participated in the establishment and development of numerous companies in the [Rhine\\-Main area](/wiki/Frankfurt_Rhine-Main \"Frankfurt Rhine-Main\"), including the [Frankfurter Bank](/wiki/Frankfurter_Bank \"Frankfurter Bank\") in 1854 and the *[Metallgesellschaft](/wiki/GEA_Group \"GEA Group\")*.", "In 1888, under the direction of Otto Hauck (\\* 10\\. April 1863 Frankfurt am Main, † 25\\. November 1934 Frankfurt am Main), the house, together with the *Bankhaus J. J. Weiller Söhne*, marketed the *Farbwerke [Hoechst](/wiki/Hoechst_AG \"Hoechst AG\")* at the [stock market](/wiki/Stock_market \"Stock market\"). A few years later, the bank house Hauck participated as a limited partner in [Brown, Boveri \\& Cie](/wiki/Brown%2C_Boveri_%26_Cie \"Brown, Boveri & Cie\").", "The bank *Georg Hauck \\& Sohn* even survived difficult periods such as the [German War in 1866](/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War \"Austro-Prussian War\"), the [German\\-French War of 1870\\-71](/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War \"Franco-Prussian War\"), the [founding crash in 1873](/wiki/Panic_of_1873 \"Panic of 1873\"), the [November Revolution](/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%9319 \"German Revolution of 1918–19\") and the period of [hyperinflation](/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_the_Weimar_Republic \"Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic\") after the [First World War](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") as well as the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\") of the late twenties and early thirties almost unscathed.", "#### National Socialism – Reprisals", "On March 31, 1933 Otto Hauck resigned as a long\\-standing president of the Frankfurt Chamber of Commerce and Industry, together with the entire Bureau. In connection with the [Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses](/wiki/Nazi_boycott_of_Jewish_businesses \"Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses\") of 1 April 1933, he had been attacked as a \"[half\\-Jew](/wiki/Half-Jew \"Half-Jew\")\" because his mother Anna Hauck born Reiss (1839\\-1925\\) came from the long\\-established Jewish families Reiss and Flersheim. After Otto Hauck's death in 1934, his son Alexander Hauck (1893–1946\\) took over the management of the bank. According to the [Nuremberg Laws](/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws \"Nuremberg Laws\"), he was considered a \"Jewish mixed race of the second degree\", which led to a restriction of his civil rights. To secure the future of the bank, in 1938, the banking house Hauck acquired the majority of the 1804 founded banking business J. Ph. Keßler. Its previous owner Adolf Melber (1894–1972\\) joined the banking house Hauck as a managing director in 1939, and now represented the bank to the outside.", "#### War and reconstruction, last Hauck retires", "After the complete destruction of the bank's building in the Neue Mainzer Straße 30 in the air raids on Frankfurt am Main in March 1944, it was rebuilt after the war. In 1946 August Oswalt, Anne Marie Hauck and Michael Hauck became personally liable partners. In 1950, Georg Hauck \\& Sohn was transformed into a *[Kommanditgesellschaft](/wiki/Kommanditgesellschaft \"Kommanditgesellschaft\")* (limited partnership), 1980 a *Kommanditgesellschaft auf Aktien* (limited partnership on shares). At the end of 1993, Michael Hauck (born 1927\\), the last member of the family, left the bank after 47 years as personally liable partner. Michael Hauck is now honorary chairman of the bank Hauck \\& Aufhäuser, and members of the family continue to belong to the circle of shareholders of the bank.", "### Banking house H. Aufhäuser", "#### Founding 1870", "By Heinrich Aufhäuser (1842–1917\\) and Samuel Scharlach, the bank *Aufhäuser \\& Scharlach* was founded on 14 May 1870 in Munich. Already in the first years from 1870 to 1876, the [balance sheet](/wiki/Balance_sheet \"Balance sheet\") of the new bank increased fivefold. After Heinrich Aufhäuser had paid out his former partner Scharlach by 1892, the Institute was renamed *Bankhaus H. Aufhäuser* in 1894\\. The bank quickly gained a good reputation and soon counted et al. [Duke Luitpold in Bavaria](/wiki/Luitpold%2C_Prince_Regent_of_Bavaria \"Luitpold, Prince Regent of Bavaria\") and the family of [Thomas Mann](/wiki/Thomas_Mann \"Thomas Mann\") as well as Neuberger and [Alfred Einstein](/wiki/Alfred_Einstein \"Alfred Einstein\") to its customers. At the turn of the century, the bank, which initially specialized in securities brokerage, became a high\\-volume bank. For the first time in 1913 H. Aufhäuser's balance sheet totaled over 10 million [gold marks](/wiki/German_gold_mark \"German gold mark\").", "#### S. Bleichröder limited partner and successful 1920s", "One of the most renowned German private banks since the Empire and the former house bank of the former Chancellor [Otto von Bismarck](/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck \"Otto von Bismarck\"), the Berlin bank [Arnhold and S. Bleichroeder](/wiki/Arnhold_and_S._Bleichroeder \"Arnhold and S. Bleichroeder\"), became limited partner of the *Bankhaus H. Aufhäuser* in 1918 – also a hallmark of the concentration process at the banks since the turn of the century. The official name was now: *H. Aufhäuser Kommandite* von *S. Bleichröder* in Berlin. In 1921, Martin Aufhäuser's participation in *S. Bleichröder* resulted in a cross\\-shareholding between the two Jewish banks. At the same time, Ernst Kritzler, a shareholder of *S. Bleichröder* since 1917, joined the *Bankhaus H. Aufhäuser*. The 1920s were very successful years for H. Aufhäuser. Martin Aufhäuser (1875–1944\\) also sat on the board of the 1924 newly founded *Golddiskontbank* (Gold Discounter Bank), which was founded after the hyperinflation as a subsidiary of the *[Reichsbank](/wiki/Reichsbank \"Reichsbank\")* in order to provide German foreign trade with convertible means of payment.", "#### Aryanization", "The successful years were interrupted by the \"[seizure of power](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler%27s_rise_to_power \"Adolf Hitler's rise to power\")\" of the Nazis. Since the Aufhäusers belonged to the [Jewish faith](/wiki/Judaism \"Judaism\"), the bank was subjected to massive reprisals and it lost a large part of its customers \\- by coercive measures (Jew boycott etc.), emigration or [deportation](/wiki/Deportation%23Deportation_during_World_War_II \"Deportation#Deportation during World War II\").", "The Bankhaus H. Aufhäuser was \"forcefully Aryanized \" as a result of the so\\-called Pogrom Night in early November and, in December 1938, Friedrich Wilhelm Seiler took over the bank. H. Aufhäuser was thus one of the last private banks and one of the most important ones that was aryanized in this way. The bank changed its name to *Seiler \\& Co.* and the Jewish employees had to be dismissed. However, it must be noted that Martin Aufhäuser had led the first negotiations with Frederick Seiler in the summer of 1938 more or less voluntarily; Seiler was the one to whom the Aufhäusers wanted to hand over their bank. Only after the *[Kristallnacht](/wiki/Kristallnacht \"Kristallnacht\")* (Pogrom Night) did the National Socialist authorities intervene massively in the negotiations and determine the path of aryanization. From the end of 1938 onwards, the business was mainly run by the Aufhäuser's close associate, Josef Bayer (1897–1965\\), who had been married to a Jewish woman since the 1920s, but could not be dismissed by the National Socialist authorities because of his knowledge of the bank. The *Bankhaus Aufhäuser/Seiler* succeeded in generating profits by 1944 without becoming involved in arms deals or the like. Josef Bayer, as well as the, since 1939, personally liable shareholder Otto Schniewind, who was temporarily scheduled to serve as minister of finance or economy in the planned government of [Carl Friedrich Goerdeler](/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Goerdeler \"Carl Friedrich Goerdeler\"), were taken to the [concentration camp](/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps \"Nazi concentration camps\") or rather taken into custody as a result of the assassination attempt of [20 July plot](/wiki/July_20%2C_1944 \"July 20, 1944\"), but survived the Nazi era.", "#### Reconstruction, Aufhäusers retire permanently", "The brothers Martin and Siegfried Aufhäuser (1877–1949, since 1921 partner in the bank and British citizen) had to leave Germany destitute and humiliated and emigrated to [London](/wiki/London \"London\") and via the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\") to the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"). In 1954, the *Münchner Institut* was renamed *Bankhaus H. Aufhäuser* again, and the descendants of the Aufhäusers were, already in 1953 retroactively to 1948, offered a 40\\-percent stake in the [limited partnership](/wiki/Limited_partnership \"Limited partnership\"). In 1955, however, due to the events during the Nazi era, the family Aufhäuser sold its shares completely and has since ceased to be involved in the bank; however personal relationships continue to exist.", "### 1998–2022: Hauck \\& Aufhäuser", "As of January 1, 1998, the Frankfurter *Bankhaus Georg Hauck \\& Sohn* and the Munich *Banking Institute H. Aufhäuser zu Hauck \\& Aufhäuser KGaA*. The partner circle of the bank consists of the speaker Michael Bentlage as well as Stephan Rupprecht and Wolfgang Strobel. Hauck \\& Aufhäuser sees itself as a traditional and modern private bank.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hauck\\-aufhaeuser.com/biografien/michael\\-bentlage\\|title\\=Michael Bentlage\\|website\\=Hauck \\& Aufhäuser\\|access\\-date\\=17 November 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=17 November 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117194323/https://www.hauck\\-aufhaeuser.com/biografien/michael\\-bentlage\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "Until August 2016, *Hauck \\& Aufhäuser* was one of the few private bank houses that was run independently by personally liable partners and independent of the group. Besides the descendants of the founding family, the shareholders included Hans Langmann, former CEO of [Merck Group](/wiki/Merck_Group \"Merck Group\"), Frank Asbeck, CEO of [SolarWorld](/wiki/SolarWorld \"SolarWorld\") AG as well as the family Findel\\-Mast, which owns [Mast\\-Jägermeister](/wiki/Mast-J%C3%A4germeister \"Mast-Jägermeister\") SE.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.handelsblatt.com/unternehmen/banken\\-versicherungen/neue\\-investoren\\-hauck\\-aufhaeuser\\-jetzt\\-vollstaendig\\-in\\-privatbesitz;2513909\\|title\\=Hauck und Aufhäuser jetzt vollständig in Privatbesitz\\|date\\=17 January 2010\\|website\\=Handelsblatt\\|access\\-date\\=17 November 2018}}", "On July 8, 2015, it was announced that Hauck \\& Aufhäuser is in sales talks with the Chinese investment group Fosun International.{{Cite web\\|date\\=8 July 2015\\|title\\=Deutsche Wirtschaftselite verkauft Traditionsbank an Chinesen\\|url\\=https://www.handelsblatt.com/finanzen/banken\\-versicherungen/fosun\\-kauft\\-hauck\\-und\\-aufhaeuser\\-deutsche\\-wirtschaftselite\\-verkauft\\-traditionsbank\\-an\\-chinesen/12025572\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2018\\|website\\=Handelsblatt}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.n\\-tv.de/wirtschaft/Chinesen\\-kaufen\\-deutsche\\-Traditionsbank\\-article15467771\\.html\\|title\\=Hauck \\& Aufhäuser geht an Fosun: Chinesen kaufen deutsche Traditionsbank\\|date\\=8 July 2015\\|website\\=ntv\\|access\\-date\\=17 November 2018}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.fondsprofessionell.de/news/uebersicht/headline/bafin\\-gibt\\-gas\\-fosun\\-bald\\-eigentuemer\\-von\\-hauck\\-aufhaeuser\\-124772/\\|title\\=Bafin gibt Gas: Fosun bald Eigentümer von Hauck \\& Aufhäuser?\\|date\\=11 May 2016\\|website\\=Fonds Online\\|access\\-date\\=17 November 2018}} According to media reports the offer of Fosun amounted to €210 million.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wiwo.de/unternehmen/banken/fosun\\-kauft\\-hauck\\-und\\-aufhaeuser\\-frankfurter\\-privatbank\\-wird\\-chinesisch/12025846\\.html\\|title\\=Frankfurter Privatbank wird chinesisch\\|date\\=8 July 2015\\|website\\=WirtschaftsWoche\\|access\\-date\\=17 November 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=13 September 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913215103/http://www.wiwo.de/unternehmen/banken/fosun\\-kauft\\-hauck\\-und\\-aufhaeuser\\-frankfurter\\-privatbank\\-wird\\-chinesisch/12025846\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} In August 2016, after more than a year of auditing, the takeover was confirmed by the [European Central Bank](/wiki/European_Central_Bank \"European Central Bank\") (ECB) and the [Banking and Financial Supervisory Authority](/wiki/Federal_Financial_Supervisory_Authority \"Federal Financial Supervisory Authority\") (BaFin).{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.dasinvestment.com/hauck\\-aufhaeuser\\-uebernahme\\-bafin\\-gibt\\-chinesischer\\-fosun\\-gruenes\\-licht/\\|title\\=Bafin gibt chinesischer Fosun grünes Licht \\|date\\=18 August 2016\\|website\\=DasInvestment\\|access\\-date\\=17 November 2018}} For the first time, a German bank went to a majority shareholder from China.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hauck\\-aufhaeuser.com/ueber\\-uns?no\\_cache\\=1\\#page\\|title\\=Vermögen verdient Beständigkeit\\|website\\=Hauck \\& Aufhäuser\\|access\\-date\\=17 November 2018}} The management of Hauck \\& Aufhäuser remained unchanged as of January 2017\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/finanzen/fonds\\-mehr/f\\-a\\-z\\-exklusiv\\-hauck\\-aufhaeuser\\-hat\\-wieder\\-einen\\-echten\\-chef\\-14868129\\.html\\|title\\=Hauck \\& Aufhäuser hat wieder einen echten Chef\\|last\\=Mussler\\|first\\=Hanno\\|date\\=8 February 2017\\|website\\=Frankfurter Allgemeine\\|access\\-date\\=17 November 2018}}", "In December 2016, the private bank announced that it would take over [Sal. Oppenheim](/wiki/Sal._Oppenheim \"Sal. Oppenheim\")'s fund platform business in [Luxembourg](/wiki/Luxembourg \"Luxembourg\") and, as a result, the two resident companies *Sal. Oppenheim jr. \\& Cie. Luxemburg S.A.* and *Oppenheim Asset Management Services S.à r.l.*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hauck\\-aufhaeuser.com/newsroom/2016/12/hauck\\-aufhaeuser\\-erwirbt\\-luxemburger\\-s\\|title\\=Hauck \\& Aufhäuser erwirbt Luxemburger Sal. Oppenheim\\-Gesellschaften der Deutschen Bank\\|date\\=22 December 2016\\|website\\=Hauck \\& Aufhäuser\\|access\\-date\\=17 November 2018}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.fondsprofessionell.de/news/unternehmen/headline/ha\\-uebernimmt\\-luxemburger\\-sal\\-oppenheim\\-gesellschaften\\-139270/\\|title\\=Hauck \\& Aufhäuser übernimmt Luxemburg\\-Geschäft von Sal. Oppenheim\\|date\\=4 December 2017\\|website\\=Fonds Online\\|access\\-date\\=17 November 2018}} Hauck \\& Aufhäuser has been in the digital asset management business with Zeedin since 2018\\.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2018\\-10\\-29\\|title\\=Hauck \\& Aufhäuser launches digital asset management\\|url\\=https://www.internationalinvestment.net/internationalinvestment/news/3724252/hauck\\-aufhauser\\-launches\\-digital\\-asset\\-management\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-23\\|website\\=www.internationalinvestment.net\\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Der Finanzprodukt Blog » Hauck \\& Aufhäuser Launches Digital Asset Management With Bionic Robo Advisor\\|url\\=https://www.finanzprodukt.ch/finance\\-2\\-0/hauck\\-aufhaeuser\\-launches\\-digital\\-asset\\-management\\-with\\-bionic\\-robo\\-advisor\\-f/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-23\\|website\\=www.finanzprodukt.ch}}{{Cite web\\|last\\=October 2018\\|first\\=26th\\|date\\=2018\\-10\\-26\\|title\\=Hauck \\& Aufhäuser launches robo\\-advisor Zeedin\\|url\\=https://www.fintechfutures.com/2018/10/hauck\\-aufhauser\\-launches\\-robo\\-advisor\\-zeedin/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-23\\|website\\=FinTech Futures\\|language\\=en\\-GB}}", "### 2022–present: Hauck Aufhäuser Lampe", "In May 2024, [ABN Amro](/wiki/ABN_Amro \"ABN Amro\") agreed to buy Hauck Aufhäuser Lampe (HAL) for 672 million euros ($730 million) from Fosun International.Nilutpal Timsina, Yantoultra Ngui and Matteo Allievi (28 May 2024\\), [ABN Amro to buy German private bank in biggest deal since 2008 financial crisis](https://www.reuters.com/markets/deals/abn-amro-buy-german-lender-hauck-aufhuser-lampe-730-million-2024-05-28/) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\")*. Some of HAL's units such as those that provide alternative investment fund management or fund administration services were not part of the acquisition.Nilutpal Timsina, Yantoultra Ngui and Matteo Allievi (28 May 2024\\), [ABN Amro to buy German private bank in biggest deal since 2008 financial crisis](https://www.reuters.com/markets/deals/abn-amro-buy-german-lender-hauck-aufhuser-lampe-730-million-2024-05-28/) *[Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\")*.", "### Operating subsidiaries and ownership", "* Hauck \\& Aufhäuser Fund Services S.A., Luxembourg{{Cite web\\|last\\=Aufhäuser\\|first\\=Hauck\\|date\\=2020\\-09\\-23\\|title\\=annual report 2019\\|url\\=https://www.hauck\\-aufhaeuser.com/fileadmin/Publikationen/Geschaeftsbericht/GB\\_ENG\\_KONZERN.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-23\\|website\\=www.hauck\\-aufhäuser.com}}\n* Hauck \\& Aufhäuser Alternative Investment Services S.A., Luxembourg\n* Hauck \\& Aufhäuser Fund Platforms S.A., Luxembourg\n* Hauck \\& Aufhäuser Pension Trust GmbH, Frankfurt am Main\n* H\\&A Global Investment Management GmbH, Frankfurt am Main (Minority holding)\n* FidesKapital Gesellschaft für Kapitalbeteiligungen mbH, Munich\n* Hauck Investment Management (Nanjing) Co., Ltd., Nanjing (China)\n* Hauck Investment Management (Shanghai) Co. Ltd., Shanghai (China)", "*The list represents an excerpt. The complete list can be found in the current annual report.*", "" ]
### Banking house Georg Hauck \& Sohn #### Development since the foundation in 1796 On January 1, 1796 Friedrich Michael Hauck (1769–1839\) became a new partner in the existing business *Platz \& Gebhard* in Frankfurt am Main, in operation since 1753\. Gebhard \& Hauck, as the business was now called, ran the [bill of exchange](/wiki/Promissory_note "Promissory note"), commissions and freight forwarding business. Gebhard \& Hauck operated banking transactions, like many trading houses of that time, at least in the beginning probably only incidentally. It is known that as early as 1800 Gebhard \& Hauck granted the [Upper Rhenish Circle](/wiki/Upper_Rhenish_Circle "Upper Rhenish Circle") a [loan](/wiki/Loan "Loan") of 100,000 [guilders](/wiki/Guilder "Guilder") at an interest rate of 4\.5 percent.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.hauck\-aufhaeuser.com/newsroom/2016/06/geschaeftsbericht\-2015\|title\=Geschäftsbericht 2015\|website\=Hauck \& Aufhäuser\|access\-date\=5 November 2018}}{{Dead link\|date\=July 2024 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} Friedrich Michael Hauck was a member of the Permanent Citizens' Representative from 1815 to 1825 and from 1817 to 1819 a member of the [Legislative](/wiki/Legislature "Legislature") Body of the [Free City of Frankfurt](/wiki/Free_City_of_Frankfurt "Free City of Frankfurt"). From 1821 to 1829 he was Senior Manager of the Frankfurt [Chamber of Commerce](/wiki/Chamber_of_Commerce "Chamber of Commerce"). During this time, he earned honors for his services to the Frankfurt [Commercial policy](/wiki/Commercial_policy "Commercial policy"), for example, for the establishment of the Central German [Trade Association](/wiki/Trade_Association "Trade Association") in 1828\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://frankfurter\-personenlexikon.de/node/2507\|title\=Hauck, Bankiersfamilie \|website\=Frankfurter Personenlexikon\|access\-date\=5 November 2018}} In 1839 Georg Heinrich (1812–1884\) and Ferdinand Hauck (1813–1888\) took over *Gebhard \& Hauck* after the death of their father Friedrich Michael (whose partner Peter Gebhard had already died in 1814\), but went separate ways in 1861\. The Hauck brothers founded the banks *Georg Hauck \& Sohn* and *Ferdinand Hauck*. The latter bank was quite successful for a while, but was liquidated in 1926 and transferred to *Georg Hauck \& Sohn*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.hauck\-aufhaeuser.com/ueber\-uns/geschichte\|title\=Geschichte\|website\=Hauck \& Aufhäuser\|access\-date\=5 November 2018\|archive\-date\=5 November 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105204158/https://www.hauck\-aufhaeuser.com/ueber\-uns/geschichte\|url\-status\=dead}} The Bank *Georg Hauck \& Sohn* participated in the establishment and development of numerous companies in the [Rhine\-Main area](/wiki/Frankfurt_Rhine-Main "Frankfurt Rhine-Main"), including the [Frankfurter Bank](/wiki/Frankfurter_Bank "Frankfurter Bank") in 1854 and the *[Metallgesellschaft](/wiki/GEA_Group "GEA Group")*. In 1888, under the direction of Otto Hauck (\* 10\. April 1863 Frankfurt am Main, † 25\. November 1934 Frankfurt am Main), the house, together with the *Bankhaus J. J. Weiller Söhne*, marketed the *Farbwerke [Hoechst](/wiki/Hoechst_AG "Hoechst AG")* at the [stock market](/wiki/Stock_market "Stock market"). A few years later, the bank house Hauck participated as a limited partner in [Brown, Boveri \& Cie](/wiki/Brown%2C_Boveri_%26_Cie "Brown, Boveri & Cie"). The bank *Georg Hauck \& Sohn* even survived difficult periods such as the [German War in 1866](/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War "Austro-Prussian War"), the [German\-French War of 1870\-71](/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War "Franco-Prussian War"), the [founding crash in 1873](/wiki/Panic_of_1873 "Panic of 1873"), the [November Revolution](/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%9319 "German Revolution of 1918–19") and the period of [hyperinflation](/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_the_Weimar_Republic "Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic") after the [First World War](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") as well as the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression") of the late twenties and early thirties almost unscathed. #### National Socialism – Reprisals On March 31, 1933 Otto Hauck resigned as a long\-standing president of the Frankfurt Chamber of Commerce and Industry, together with the entire Bureau. In connection with the [Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses](/wiki/Nazi_boycott_of_Jewish_businesses "Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses") of 1 April 1933, he had been attacked as a "[half\-Jew](/wiki/Half-Jew "Half-Jew")" because his mother Anna Hauck born Reiss (1839\-1925\) came from the long\-established Jewish families Reiss and Flersheim. After Otto Hauck's death in 1934, his son Alexander Hauck (1893–1946\) took over the management of the bank. According to the [Nuremberg Laws](/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws "Nuremberg Laws"), he was considered a "Jewish mixed race of the second degree", which led to a restriction of his civil rights. To secure the future of the bank, in 1938, the banking house Hauck acquired the majority of the 1804 founded banking business J. Ph. Keßler. Its previous owner Adolf Melber (1894–1972\) joined the banking house Hauck as a managing director in 1939, and now represented the bank to the outside. #### War and reconstruction, last Hauck retires After the complete destruction of the bank's building in the Neue Mainzer Straße 30 in the air raids on Frankfurt am Main in March 1944, it was rebuilt after the war. In 1946 August Oswalt, Anne Marie Hauck and Michael Hauck became personally liable partners. In 1950, Georg Hauck \& Sohn was transformed into a *[Kommanditgesellschaft](/wiki/Kommanditgesellschaft "Kommanditgesellschaft")* (limited partnership), 1980 a *Kommanditgesellschaft auf Aktien* (limited partnership on shares). At the end of 1993, Michael Hauck (born 1927\), the last member of the family, left the bank after 47 years as personally liable partner. Michael Hauck is now honorary chairman of the bank Hauck \& Aufhäuser, and members of the family continue to belong to the circle of shareholders of the bank.
[ "### Banking house Georg Hauck \\& Sohn", "#### Development since the foundation in 1796", "On January 1, 1796 Friedrich Michael Hauck (1769–1839\\) became a new partner in the existing business *Platz \\& Gebhard* in Frankfurt am Main, in operation since 1753\\. Gebhard \\& Hauck, as the business was now called, ran the [bill of exchange](/wiki/Promissory_note \"Promissory note\"), commissions and freight forwarding business. Gebhard \\& Hauck operated banking transactions, like many trading houses of that time, at least in the beginning probably only incidentally. It is known that as early as 1800 Gebhard \\& Hauck granted the [Upper Rhenish Circle](/wiki/Upper_Rhenish_Circle \"Upper Rhenish Circle\") a [loan](/wiki/Loan \"Loan\") of 100,000 [guilders](/wiki/Guilder \"Guilder\") at an interest rate of 4\\.5 percent.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hauck\\-aufhaeuser.com/newsroom/2016/06/geschaeftsbericht\\-2015\\|title\\=Geschäftsbericht 2015\\|website\\=Hauck \\& Aufhäuser\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2018}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=July 2024 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} Friedrich Michael Hauck was a member of the Permanent Citizens' Representative from 1815 to 1825 and from 1817 to 1819 a member of the [Legislative](/wiki/Legislature \"Legislature\") Body of the [Free City of Frankfurt](/wiki/Free_City_of_Frankfurt \"Free City of Frankfurt\"). From 1821 to 1829 he was Senior Manager of the Frankfurt [Chamber of Commerce](/wiki/Chamber_of_Commerce \"Chamber of Commerce\"). During this time, he earned honors for his services to the Frankfurt [Commercial policy](/wiki/Commercial_policy \"Commercial policy\"), for example, for the establishment of the Central German [Trade Association](/wiki/Trade_Association \"Trade Association\") in 1828\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://frankfurter\\-personenlexikon.de/node/2507\\|title\\=Hauck, Bankiersfamilie \\|website\\=Frankfurter Personenlexikon\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2018}}", "In 1839 Georg Heinrich (1812–1884\\) and Ferdinand Hauck (1813–1888\\) took over *Gebhard \\& Hauck* after the death of their father Friedrich Michael (whose partner Peter Gebhard had already died in 1814\\), but went separate ways in 1861\\. The Hauck brothers founded the banks *Georg Hauck \\& Sohn* and *Ferdinand Hauck*. The latter bank was quite successful for a while, but was liquidated in 1926 and transferred to *Georg Hauck \\& Sohn*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hauck\\-aufhaeuser.com/ueber\\-uns/geschichte\\|title\\=Geschichte\\|website\\=Hauck \\& Aufhäuser\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=5 November 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105204158/https://www.hauck\\-aufhaeuser.com/ueber\\-uns/geschichte\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The Bank *Georg Hauck \\& Sohn* participated in the establishment and development of numerous companies in the [Rhine\\-Main area](/wiki/Frankfurt_Rhine-Main \"Frankfurt Rhine-Main\"), including the [Frankfurter Bank](/wiki/Frankfurter_Bank \"Frankfurter Bank\") in 1854 and the *[Metallgesellschaft](/wiki/GEA_Group \"GEA Group\")*.", "In 1888, under the direction of Otto Hauck (\\* 10\\. April 1863 Frankfurt am Main, † 25\\. November 1934 Frankfurt am Main), the house, together with the *Bankhaus J. J. Weiller Söhne*, marketed the *Farbwerke [Hoechst](/wiki/Hoechst_AG \"Hoechst AG\")* at the [stock market](/wiki/Stock_market \"Stock market\"). A few years later, the bank house Hauck participated as a limited partner in [Brown, Boveri \\& Cie](/wiki/Brown%2C_Boveri_%26_Cie \"Brown, Boveri & Cie\").", "The bank *Georg Hauck \\& Sohn* even survived difficult periods such as the [German War in 1866](/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War \"Austro-Prussian War\"), the [German\\-French War of 1870\\-71](/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War \"Franco-Prussian War\"), the [founding crash in 1873](/wiki/Panic_of_1873 \"Panic of 1873\"), the [November Revolution](/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%9319 \"German Revolution of 1918–19\") and the period of [hyperinflation](/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_the_Weimar_Republic \"Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic\") after the [First World War](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") as well as the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\") of the late twenties and early thirties almost unscathed.", "#### National Socialism – Reprisals", "On March 31, 1933 Otto Hauck resigned as a long\\-standing president of the Frankfurt Chamber of Commerce and Industry, together with the entire Bureau. In connection with the [Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses](/wiki/Nazi_boycott_of_Jewish_businesses \"Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses\") of 1 April 1933, he had been attacked as a \"[half\\-Jew](/wiki/Half-Jew \"Half-Jew\")\" because his mother Anna Hauck born Reiss (1839\\-1925\\) came from the long\\-established Jewish families Reiss and Flersheim. After Otto Hauck's death in 1934, his son Alexander Hauck (1893–1946\\) took over the management of the bank. According to the [Nuremberg Laws](/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws \"Nuremberg Laws\"), he was considered a \"Jewish mixed race of the second degree\", which led to a restriction of his civil rights. To secure the future of the bank, in 1938, the banking house Hauck acquired the majority of the 1804 founded banking business J. Ph. Keßler. Its previous owner Adolf Melber (1894–1972\\) joined the banking house Hauck as a managing director in 1939, and now represented the bank to the outside.", "#### War and reconstruction, last Hauck retires", "After the complete destruction of the bank's building in the Neue Mainzer Straße 30 in the air raids on Frankfurt am Main in March 1944, it was rebuilt after the war. In 1946 August Oswalt, Anne Marie Hauck and Michael Hauck became personally liable partners. In 1950, Georg Hauck \\& Sohn was transformed into a *[Kommanditgesellschaft](/wiki/Kommanditgesellschaft \"Kommanditgesellschaft\")* (limited partnership), 1980 a *Kommanditgesellschaft auf Aktien* (limited partnership on shares). At the end of 1993, Michael Hauck (born 1927\\), the last member of the family, left the bank after 47 years as personally liable partner. Michael Hauck is now honorary chairman of the bank Hauck \\& Aufhäuser, and members of the family continue to belong to the circle of shareholders of the bank.", "" ]
### Banking house H. Aufhäuser #### Founding 1870 By Heinrich Aufhäuser (1842–1917\) and Samuel Scharlach, the bank *Aufhäuser \& Scharlach* was founded on 14 May 1870 in Munich. Already in the first years from 1870 to 1876, the [balance sheet](/wiki/Balance_sheet "Balance sheet") of the new bank increased fivefold. After Heinrich Aufhäuser had paid out his former partner Scharlach by 1892, the Institute was renamed *Bankhaus H. Aufhäuser* in 1894\. The bank quickly gained a good reputation and soon counted et al. [Duke Luitpold in Bavaria](/wiki/Luitpold%2C_Prince_Regent_of_Bavaria "Luitpold, Prince Regent of Bavaria") and the family of [Thomas Mann](/wiki/Thomas_Mann "Thomas Mann") as well as Neuberger and [Alfred Einstein](/wiki/Alfred_Einstein "Alfred Einstein") to its customers. At the turn of the century, the bank, which initially specialized in securities brokerage, became a high\-volume bank. For the first time in 1913 H. Aufhäuser's balance sheet totaled over 10 million [gold marks](/wiki/German_gold_mark "German gold mark"). #### S. Bleichröder limited partner and successful 1920s One of the most renowned German private banks since the Empire and the former house bank of the former Chancellor [Otto von Bismarck](/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck "Otto von Bismarck"), the Berlin bank [Arnhold and S. Bleichroeder](/wiki/Arnhold_and_S._Bleichroeder "Arnhold and S. Bleichroeder"), became limited partner of the *Bankhaus H. Aufhäuser* in 1918 – also a hallmark of the concentration process at the banks since the turn of the century. The official name was now: *H. Aufhäuser Kommandite* von *S. Bleichröder* in Berlin. In 1921, Martin Aufhäuser's participation in *S. Bleichröder* resulted in a cross\-shareholding between the two Jewish banks. At the same time, Ernst Kritzler, a shareholder of *S. Bleichröder* since 1917, joined the *Bankhaus H. Aufhäuser*. The 1920s were very successful years for H. Aufhäuser. Martin Aufhäuser (1875–1944\) also sat on the board of the 1924 newly founded *Golddiskontbank* (Gold Discounter Bank), which was founded after the hyperinflation as a subsidiary of the *[Reichsbank](/wiki/Reichsbank "Reichsbank")* in order to provide German foreign trade with convertible means of payment. #### Aryanization The successful years were interrupted by the "[seizure of power](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler%27s_rise_to_power "Adolf Hitler's rise to power")" of the Nazis. Since the Aufhäusers belonged to the [Jewish faith](/wiki/Judaism "Judaism"), the bank was subjected to massive reprisals and it lost a large part of its customers \- by coercive measures (Jew boycott etc.), emigration or [deportation](/wiki/Deportation%23Deportation_during_World_War_II "Deportation#Deportation during World War II"). The Bankhaus H. Aufhäuser was "forcefully Aryanized " as a result of the so\-called Pogrom Night in early November and, in December 1938, Friedrich Wilhelm Seiler took over the bank. H. Aufhäuser was thus one of the last private banks and one of the most important ones that was aryanized in this way. The bank changed its name to *Seiler \& Co.* and the Jewish employees had to be dismissed. However, it must be noted that Martin Aufhäuser had led the first negotiations with Frederick Seiler in the summer of 1938 more or less voluntarily; Seiler was the one to whom the Aufhäusers wanted to hand over their bank. Only after the *[Kristallnacht](/wiki/Kristallnacht "Kristallnacht")* (Pogrom Night) did the National Socialist authorities intervene massively in the negotiations and determine the path of aryanization. From the end of 1938 onwards, the business was mainly run by the Aufhäuser's close associate, Josef Bayer (1897–1965\), who had been married to a Jewish woman since the 1920s, but could not be dismissed by the National Socialist authorities because of his knowledge of the bank. The *Bankhaus Aufhäuser/Seiler* succeeded in generating profits by 1944 without becoming involved in arms deals or the like. Josef Bayer, as well as the, since 1939, personally liable shareholder Otto Schniewind, who was temporarily scheduled to serve as minister of finance or economy in the planned government of [Carl Friedrich Goerdeler](/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Goerdeler "Carl Friedrich Goerdeler"), were taken to the [concentration camp](/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps "Nazi concentration camps") or rather taken into custody as a result of the assassination attempt of [20 July plot](/wiki/July_20%2C_1944 "July 20, 1944"), but survived the Nazi era. #### Reconstruction, Aufhäusers retire permanently The brothers Martin and Siegfried Aufhäuser (1877–1949, since 1921 partner in the bank and British citizen) had to leave Germany destitute and humiliated and emigrated to [London](/wiki/London "London") and via the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands") to the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"). In 1954, the *Münchner Institut* was renamed *Bankhaus H. Aufhäuser* again, and the descendants of the Aufhäusers were, already in 1953 retroactively to 1948, offered a 40\-percent stake in the [limited partnership](/wiki/Limited_partnership "Limited partnership"). In 1955, however, due to the events during the Nazi era, the family Aufhäuser sold its shares completely and has since ceased to be involved in the bank; however personal relationships continue to exist.
[ "### Banking house H. Aufhäuser", "#### Founding 1870", "By Heinrich Aufhäuser (1842–1917\\) and Samuel Scharlach, the bank *Aufhäuser \\& Scharlach* was founded on 14 May 1870 in Munich. Already in the first years from 1870 to 1876, the [balance sheet](/wiki/Balance_sheet \"Balance sheet\") of the new bank increased fivefold. After Heinrich Aufhäuser had paid out his former partner Scharlach by 1892, the Institute was renamed *Bankhaus H. Aufhäuser* in 1894\\. The bank quickly gained a good reputation and soon counted et al. [Duke Luitpold in Bavaria](/wiki/Luitpold%2C_Prince_Regent_of_Bavaria \"Luitpold, Prince Regent of Bavaria\") and the family of [Thomas Mann](/wiki/Thomas_Mann \"Thomas Mann\") as well as Neuberger and [Alfred Einstein](/wiki/Alfred_Einstein \"Alfred Einstein\") to its customers. At the turn of the century, the bank, which initially specialized in securities brokerage, became a high\\-volume bank. For the first time in 1913 H. Aufhäuser's balance sheet totaled over 10 million [gold marks](/wiki/German_gold_mark \"German gold mark\").", "#### S. Bleichröder limited partner and successful 1920s", "One of the most renowned German private banks since the Empire and the former house bank of the former Chancellor [Otto von Bismarck](/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck \"Otto von Bismarck\"), the Berlin bank [Arnhold and S. Bleichroeder](/wiki/Arnhold_and_S._Bleichroeder \"Arnhold and S. Bleichroeder\"), became limited partner of the *Bankhaus H. Aufhäuser* in 1918 – also a hallmark of the concentration process at the banks since the turn of the century. The official name was now: *H. Aufhäuser Kommandite* von *S. Bleichröder* in Berlin. In 1921, Martin Aufhäuser's participation in *S. Bleichröder* resulted in a cross\\-shareholding between the two Jewish banks. At the same time, Ernst Kritzler, a shareholder of *S. Bleichröder* since 1917, joined the *Bankhaus H. Aufhäuser*. The 1920s were very successful years for H. Aufhäuser. Martin Aufhäuser (1875–1944\\) also sat on the board of the 1924 newly founded *Golddiskontbank* (Gold Discounter Bank), which was founded after the hyperinflation as a subsidiary of the *[Reichsbank](/wiki/Reichsbank \"Reichsbank\")* in order to provide German foreign trade with convertible means of payment.", "#### Aryanization", "The successful years were interrupted by the \"[seizure of power](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler%27s_rise_to_power \"Adolf Hitler's rise to power\")\" of the Nazis. Since the Aufhäusers belonged to the [Jewish faith](/wiki/Judaism \"Judaism\"), the bank was subjected to massive reprisals and it lost a large part of its customers \\- by coercive measures (Jew boycott etc.), emigration or [deportation](/wiki/Deportation%23Deportation_during_World_War_II \"Deportation#Deportation during World War II\").", "The Bankhaus H. Aufhäuser was \"forcefully Aryanized \" as a result of the so\\-called Pogrom Night in early November and, in December 1938, Friedrich Wilhelm Seiler took over the bank. H. Aufhäuser was thus one of the last private banks and one of the most important ones that was aryanized in this way. The bank changed its name to *Seiler \\& Co.* and the Jewish employees had to be dismissed. However, it must be noted that Martin Aufhäuser had led the first negotiations with Frederick Seiler in the summer of 1938 more or less voluntarily; Seiler was the one to whom the Aufhäusers wanted to hand over their bank. Only after the *[Kristallnacht](/wiki/Kristallnacht \"Kristallnacht\")* (Pogrom Night) did the National Socialist authorities intervene massively in the negotiations and determine the path of aryanization. From the end of 1938 onwards, the business was mainly run by the Aufhäuser's close associate, Josef Bayer (1897–1965\\), who had been married to a Jewish woman since the 1920s, but could not be dismissed by the National Socialist authorities because of his knowledge of the bank. The *Bankhaus Aufhäuser/Seiler* succeeded in generating profits by 1944 without becoming involved in arms deals or the like. Josef Bayer, as well as the, since 1939, personally liable shareholder Otto Schniewind, who was temporarily scheduled to serve as minister of finance or economy in the planned government of [Carl Friedrich Goerdeler](/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Goerdeler \"Carl Friedrich Goerdeler\"), were taken to the [concentration camp](/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps \"Nazi concentration camps\") or rather taken into custody as a result of the assassination attempt of [20 July plot](/wiki/July_20%2C_1944 \"July 20, 1944\"), but survived the Nazi era.", "#### Reconstruction, Aufhäusers retire permanently", "The brothers Martin and Siegfried Aufhäuser (1877–1949, since 1921 partner in the bank and British citizen) had to leave Germany destitute and humiliated and emigrated to [London](/wiki/London \"London\") and via the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\") to the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"). In 1954, the *Münchner Institut* was renamed *Bankhaus H. Aufhäuser* again, and the descendants of the Aufhäusers were, already in 1953 retroactively to 1948, offered a 40\\-percent stake in the [limited partnership](/wiki/Limited_partnership \"Limited partnership\"). In 1955, however, due to the events during the Nazi era, the family Aufhäuser sold its shares completely and has since ceased to be involved in the bank; however personal relationships continue to exist.", "" ]
Background ---------- [thumb\|Lead figure with glass and ivory inlays, 8th\-7th century BC. From Toprakkale, eastern Turkey, kingdom of Urartu. [British Museum](/wiki/British_Museum "British Museum")](/wiki/File:Lead_figure_with_glass_and_ivory_inlays_-_Toprakkale.jpg "Lead figure with glass and ivory inlays - Toprakkale.jpg") Before Rusa's reign had begun, his father, King [Sarduri II](/wiki/Sarduri_II "Sarduri II"), had already expanded the kingdom to southeastern Anatolia, and had managed to retake various [Anatolian](/wiki/Anatolia "Anatolia") territories from [Assyria](/wiki/Assyria "Assyria") during a brief period of weakness in the Assyrian Empire. The succession from Sarduri II is not entirely clear. There's also attested a king Sarduri III,Roaf M. (2012\), Could Rusa son of Erimena have been king of Urartu during Sargon's eight campaign? (in:) S. Kroll, C. Gruber, U. Hellwag, M. Roaf, P. Zimansky (eds), Biainili\-Urartu. The Proceedings of the Symposium Held in Munich 12\-14 October 2007, Acta Iranica 51, pp. 187–216\. p.187 so Rusa may have been his son.{{cite journal \|last1\=Hipp \|first1\=Krzysztof \|title\=Sarduri II – One of the most unfortunate rulers of the 8th century B.C.E \|journal\=Recherches Archaéologiques \|series\=Nouvelle Série \|date\=2014 \|volume\=5\-6 \|url\=https://www.academia.edu/14069481\|publisher\=Jagiellonian University \|location\=Kraków}} When Rusa I inherited the throne, the Assyrians continued campaigns against him. The Assyrian king [Tiglath\-Pileser III](/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_III "Tiglath-Pileser III") (745–727 BC) was a formidable foe, and tried to expand his empire. The Assyrians repeatedly invaded Urartu, thus forcing Rusa I to spend the early years of his reign fighting the forces of Assyria. According to an Assyrian source, Rusa managed to inflict a heavy defeat on the Assyrians, in which the Assyrian army was totally annihilated. The date of this battle is not entirely clear, but it was probably between 734 and 727 B.C.E. The same source (SAA 19, 72\), from a certain *Aššūr\-lē’i*, also reports about Rusa's further military activities. There was a war between the Urartian king and the ruler of 'the land of Etini', in which the Urartians suffered some defeats. The Mount Etini is located in eastern Kurdistan, and "the land of Aruni and Etini" is mentioned on [Black Obelisk](/wiki/Black_Obelisk "Black Obelisk") of [Shalmaneser III](/wiki/Shalmaneser_III "Shalmaneser III").[The Monolith Inscription of Shalmaneser III.](https://www.mesopotamiangods.com/category/assyria/page/8/) mesopotamiangods.com These conflicts took a heavy toll on Urartu, particularly on its economy. After suffering reverses, Urartu lost the territory it had annexed under Sarduri II to Tiglath\-Pileser III, and was forced to pay tribute to Assyria.
[ "Background\n----------", "[thumb\\|Lead figure with glass and ivory inlays, 8th\\-7th century BC. From Toprakkale, eastern Turkey, kingdom of Urartu. [British Museum](/wiki/British_Museum \"British Museum\")](/wiki/File:Lead_figure_with_glass_and_ivory_inlays_-_Toprakkale.jpg \"Lead figure with glass and ivory inlays - Toprakkale.jpg\")", "Before Rusa's reign had begun, his father, King [Sarduri II](/wiki/Sarduri_II \"Sarduri II\"), had already expanded the kingdom to southeastern Anatolia, and had managed to retake various [Anatolian](/wiki/Anatolia \"Anatolia\") territories from [Assyria](/wiki/Assyria \"Assyria\") during a brief period of weakness in the Assyrian Empire.", "The succession from Sarduri II is not entirely clear. There's also attested a king Sarduri III,Roaf M. (2012\\), Could Rusa son of Erimena have been king of Urartu during Sargon's eight campaign? (in:) S. Kroll, C. Gruber, U. Hellwag, M. Roaf, P. Zimansky (eds), Biainili\\-Urartu. The Proceedings of the Symposium Held in Munich 12\\-14 October 2007, Acta Iranica 51, pp. 187–216\\. p.187 so Rusa may have been his son.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Hipp \\|first1\\=Krzysztof \\|title\\=Sarduri II – One of the most unfortunate rulers of the 8th century B.C.E \\|journal\\=Recherches Archaéologiques \\|series\\=Nouvelle Série \\|date\\=2014 \\|volume\\=5\\-6 \\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/14069481\\|publisher\\=Jagiellonian University \\|location\\=Kraków}}", "When Rusa I inherited the throne, the Assyrians continued campaigns against him. The Assyrian king [Tiglath\\-Pileser III](/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_III \"Tiglath-Pileser III\") (745–727 BC) was a formidable foe, and tried to expand his empire. The Assyrians repeatedly invaded Urartu, thus forcing Rusa I to spend the early years of his reign fighting the forces of Assyria.", "According to an Assyrian source, Rusa managed to inflict a heavy defeat on the Assyrians, in which the Assyrian army was totally annihilated. The date of this battle is not entirely clear, but it was probably between 734 and 727 B.C.E.", "The same source (SAA 19, 72\\), from a certain *Aššūr\\-lē’i*, also reports about Rusa's further military activities. There was a war between the Urartian king and the ruler of 'the land of Etini', in which the Urartians suffered some defeats.", "The Mount Etini is located in eastern Kurdistan, and \"the land of Aruni and Etini\" is mentioned on [Black Obelisk](/wiki/Black_Obelisk \"Black Obelisk\") of [Shalmaneser III](/wiki/Shalmaneser_III \"Shalmaneser III\").[The Monolith Inscription of Shalmaneser III.](https://www.mesopotamiangods.com/category/assyria/page/8/) mesopotamiangods.com", "These conflicts took a heavy toll on Urartu, particularly on its economy. After suffering reverses, Urartu lost the territory it had annexed under Sarduri II to Tiglath\\-Pileser III, and was forced to pay tribute to Assyria.", "" ]
History ------- ### 1971–1982: DIC Audiovisuel Diffusion, Information Communications (DIC) was founded in France in 1971 by [Jean Chalopin](/wiki/Jean_Chalopin "Jean Chalopin") as part of Radio Television Luxembourg ([RTL Group](/wiki/RTL_Group "RTL Group")), a well\-established media company. DIC primarily focused on producing television content.{{cite book\|last1\=Perlmutter\|first1\=David\|title\=America Toons In: A History of Television Animation\|date\=2014\|isbn\=9780786476503\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=riYXAwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA207\|pages\=207–212\|publisher\=McFarland \|access\-date\=January 27, 2016}}{{cite news\|last1\=Bates\|first1\=James\|title\=DiC, Computer Memories Plan Merger: Cartoon Maker Seeks Easy Way to Go Public\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1987\-12\-29\-fi\-31919\-story.html\|access\-date\=May 19, 2016\|work\=Los Angeles Times\|date\=December 29, 1987}} In 1981, DIC formed a partnership with [Tokyo Movie Shinsha](/wiki/TMS_Entertainment "TMS Entertainment"), a Japanese animation studio. As part of this collaboration, DIC assisted in animating several TMS programs, including the popular series *[Ulysses 31](/wiki/Ulysses_31 "Ulysses 31")*. Additionally, DIC created an unaired pilot called *[Lupin VIII](/wiki/Lupin_the_Third%23Lupin_VIII "Lupin the Third#Lupin VIII")* during this period. This partnership between DIC and TMS continued until 1996, contributing to the production of numerous animated television shows and pilots. ### 1982–1986: U.S. DIC Audiovisuel's U.S. division, DIC Enterprises, was established in April 1982 in [Burbank, California](/wiki/Burbank%2C_California "Burbank, California") by [Andy Heyward](/wiki/Andy_Heyward "Andy Heyward"), a former writer at [Hanna\-Barbera](/wiki/Hanna-Barbera "Hanna-Barbera"). This division was created to adapt DIC productions into English for American audiences. DIC Enterprises focused on producing animated television content for both network broadcast and syndication. To reduce costs, DIC outsourced non\-creative tasks overseas and employed staff on a per\-program basis. Despite its success, some industry insiders referred to DIC as "Do It Cheap." Under the direction of [Bruno Bianchi](/wiki/Bruno_Bianchi_%28cartoonist%29 "Bruno Bianchi (cartoonist)") and Bernard Deyriès, DIC became known for its effective yet cost\-conscious approach to animation production. Shortly after its formation, DIC introduced *[Inspector Gadget](/wiki/Inspector_Gadget "Inspector Gadget")*, which became one of its most successful productions. DIC also collaborated with toy and greeting card companies to develop character\-based product lines that could be adapted into animated series, providing built\-in advertisers and financial backers. With hits like *[Inspector Gadget](/wiki/Inspector_Gadget_%281983_TV_series%29 "Inspector Gadget (1983 TV series)")*, *[The Littles](/wiki/The_Littles_%28TV_series%29 "The Littles (TV series)")*, and *[Heathcliff](/wiki/Heathcliff_%281984_TV_series%29 "Heathcliff (1984 TV series)")*, DIC became profitable.{{cite news\|last1\=Bates\|first1\=James\|title\=Huge Debt Keeps Pressure on DIC to Keep Turning Out Animated TV Hits: Cartoon Firm Deals Way to Top\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1988\-03\-08\-fi\-728\-story.html\|access\-date\=May 19, 2016\|work\=Los Angeles Times\|date\=March 8, 1988}} In 1983, DIC established its own animation facility in Japan, known as K.K. DIC Asia, to handle animation production for its shows independently. Despite facing a unionization effort in 1984, DIC remained the only non\-union animation firm. Over time, DIC expanded its operations through syndication deals with companies like LBS Communications, Columbia Pictures Television, and Access Syndication. Additionally, DIC secured home video rights for its shows through agreements with [Karl\-Lorimar Home Video](/wiki/Karl-Lorimar_Home_Video "Karl-Lorimar Home Video"), [CBS/Fox Video](/wiki/CBS/Fox_Video "CBS/Fox Video") in the US, and [The Video Collection](/wiki/The_Video_Collection_%28distributor%29 "The Video Collection (distributor)") in Great Britain.{{cite news \|date\=January 6, 1986 \|title\=The Hot Team. The Hot Programs. The New Hot Weekend Network for Kids. \|pages\=8–9 \|work\=Broadcasting (LBS ad) \|url\=http://americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-BC/BC\-1986/BC\-1986\-01\-06\.pdf \|access\-date\=May 19, 2016}}{{Cite news \|date\=August 20, 1986 \|title\=DIC Fields 8\-Pack Through LBS; Dennis Will Menace Again \|pages\=51, 74 \|work\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]}} and Access Syndication.{{Cite news \|date\=November 12, 1986 \|title\=DIC, Access Team On 3 New Kidvids \|pages\=40, 74 \|work\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]}}{{Cite news \|last\=Melanson \|first\=James \|date\=September 10, 1986 \|title\=LBS Enterprises Division Plans To Market Videocassettes \|pages\=56, 58 \|work\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]}}{{Cite news\|date\=November 26, 1986\|title\=CBS/Fox To Bow Animated 'Menace'\|page\=40\|work\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]}} ### 1987–1993: Move to North America Between late 1986 and 1987, Heyward, in collaboration with investors [Bear Stearns \& Co.](/wiki/Bear_Stearns "Bear Stearns") and [Prudential Insurance Co.](/wiki/Prudential_Financial "Prudential Financial"), acquired Chalopin and Radio Television Luxembourg's 52 per cent stake in DIC, resulting in the transformation of DIC into DIC Animation City, Inc.{{cite news \|date\=August 22, 1989 \|title\=Prudential Increases Stake in DIC Animation City \|work\=Los Angeles Times \|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1989\-08\-22\-fi\-856\-story.html \|access\-date\=May 19, 2016}} This acquisition, amounting to $70 million in a leveraged buyout, relocated the company's headquarters to the United States. Following the transaction, key personnel such as Chalopin, Bianchi, Deyriès, and producer Tetsuo Katayama departed DIC, making way for Robby London and Michael Maliani to assume pivotal roles within the organization. Additionally, Chalopin retained control of DIC's original offices in France and its Japanese animation facility, establishing the entity [Créativité et Développement](/wiki/Cr%C3%A9ativit%C3%A9_et_D%C3%A9veloppement "Créativité et Développement") (C\&D) in 1987 to continue producing animated content. Meanwhile, the Japanese studio was renamed K.K. C\&D Asia, operating until 1996\.{{cite magazine\|first\=Carl \|last\=DiOrio \|url\=https://variety.com/2000/tv/news/bain\-backing\-buyout\-of\-dic\-1117786555/\|title\=Bain backing buyout of DiC \|magazine\=Variety \|date\=September 18, 2000 \|access\-date\=January 27, 2016}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.isola\-capital.com/about\-us/heritage/deltec\-international\-group \|title\=Deltec International Group \|publisher\=Isola Capital \|access\-date\=January 27, 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304062042/http://www.isola\-capital.com/about\-us/heritage/deltec\-international\-group \|archive\-date\=March 4, 2016 \|url\-status\=dead}} Subsequent to the buyout, DIC encountered significant financial indebtedness, partly stemming from their competitive strategy of underbidding on projects to outmaneuver rival animation firms, coupled with an overestimation of the market demand for children's television shows. Consequently, DIC's debt escalated, prompting the sale of foreign rights to their library to Saban Productions in 1987, which were later transferred to Chalopin's C\&D.{{Cite news\|date\=March 18, 1987\|title\=NBC\-TV Takes 2 Kidvids Off Saban Prods.' Hands\|page\=47\|work\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]}} This transaction strained the relationship between DIC and Saban, leading to legal disputes culminating in a settlement in 1991\. Despite these challenges, DIC expanded its collaborations, partnering with NBC and Coca\-Cola Telecommunications to produce and distribute television programs.{{Cite news\|date\=January 28, 1987\|title\=Tribune \& DIC Link With Coca\-Cola Unit\|pages\=44, 54\|work\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]}} DIC also ventured into toy manufacturing with the introduction of the Old MacDonald talking toyline. Amidst legal battles and strategic maneuvers, DIC continued to navigate the evolving landscape of the animation industry. Legal disputes with [Family Home Entertainment](/wiki/Family_Home_Entertainment "Family Home Entertainment") and LBS/Lorimar Home Video were resolved, paving the way for DIC to forge partnerships with Golden Book Video and pursue distribution agreements with Bohbot Communications.{{Cite news\|date\=February 11, 1987\|title\=DIC Sues FHE\|page\=46\|work\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]}} Furthermore, DIC diversified its international collaborations, teaming up with Reteitalia, [Reteitalia, S.p.A.](/wiki/Mediaset "Mediaset") and Telecinco, among others, to co\-produce animated content. By the early 1990s, DIC expanded its operations to include subsidiaries such as Rainforest Entertainment and embarked on educational initiatives.{{Cite news \|date\=December 2, 1987 \|title\=DIC Kidvid Strips Prepped For '88 \|pages\=44, 73 \|work\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]}} DIC's growth trajectory was marked by a landmark licensing agreement with Buena Vista Home Video in 1993, facilitating the distribution of over 1,000 half\-hours of animated content and the establishment of a dedicated home video label.{{cite news \|title\=Disney signs licensing deal for DIC library \|url\=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1993/07/12/Disney\-signs\-licensing\-deal\-for\-DIC\-library/9809742449600/ \|access\-date\=February 10, 2021 \|work\=\[\[United Press International]] \|date\=July 7, 1993}} This deal bolstered DIC's presence in the home entertainment market, heralding a new phase of expansion and consolidation within the animation industry.{{Cite web \|title\=JoeGuide.com \- G.I.Joe Interviews \> Buzz Dixon (conducted by David Thornton in November 2000\) \|url\=http://joeguide.com/interviews/buzzdixon.shtml \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-25 \|website\=joeguide.com}}{{Cite news\|date\=April 20, 1987\|title\=Saturday slate\|work\=\[\[Broadcasting \& Cable\|Broadcasting]]\|url\=https://worldradiohistory.com/hd2/IDX\-Business/Magazines/Archive\-BC\-IDX/87\-OCR/BC\-1987\-04\-20\-OCR\-Page\-0059\.pdf\|access\-date\=October 21, 2021}}{{Cite news \|date\=June 3, 1987 \|title\=LBS And DIC Settle Lawsuit On Kideo Vid \|pages\=61, 76 \|work\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]}} DIC subsequently signed a deal with [Golden Book Video](/wiki/Golden_Book_Video "Golden Book Video") to market titles under the DIC Video brand.{{Cite magazine \|date\=August 29, 1987 \|title\=Convention Capsules \|url\=https://worldradiohistory.com/hd2/IDX\-Business/Music/Billboard\-Index/IDX/1987/1987\-08\-29\-Billboard\-Page\-0003\.pdf \|magazine\=\[\[Billboard (magazine)\|Billboard]] \|access\-date\=October 16, 2021}}{{cite magazine \|author\= \|title\=CBN sets DiC programing block for fall \|url\=http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-BC/BC\-1989/BC\-1989\-06\-19\.pdf \|magazine\=Broadcasting \|date\=June 19, 1989 \|access\-date\=December 27, 2016 \|pages\=39–40}}{{Cite news\|date\=May 14, 1990\|title\=DiC Enterprises gets animated with new tour\|work\=\[\[Broadcasting \& Cable\|Broadcasting]]\|url\=https://worldradiohistory.com/hd2/IDX\-Business/Magazines/Archive\-BC\-IDX/90\-OCR/BC\-1990\-05\-14\-OCR\-Page\-0038\.pdf\|access\-date\=October 16, 2021}}{{Cite news\|date\=August 24, 1992\|title\=Independent suppliers chase new opportunities\|work\=\[\[Broadcasting \& Cable\|Broadcasting]]\|url\=https://worldradiohistory.com/hd2/IDX\-Business/Magazines/Archive\-BC\-IDX/92\-OCR/BC\-1992\-08\-24\-OCR\-Page\-0108\.pdf\|access\-date\=October 16, 2021}}{{Cite magazine\|last\=McCormick\|first\=Moira\|date\=September 5, 1992\|title\=Rincon Pacts With DIC; Disney Bows New Sales Line\|magazine\=\[\[Billboard (magazine)\|Billboard]]\|url\=https://worldradiohistory.com/hd2/IDX\-Business/Music/Billboard\-Index/IDX/1992/1992\-09\-05\-Billboard\-Page\-0058\.pdf\|access\-date\=October 23, 2021}}{{cite news \|title\=DIC forms new education unit \|url\=https://variety.com/1993/tv/news/dic\-forms\-new\-education\-unit\-107671/ \|access\-date\=February 11, 2021\|work\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]] \|date\=June 10, 1993}} ### 1993–2000: Limited partnerships During the early 1990s, DIC attracted attention within the industry. The company engaged in discussions regarding a potential merger and buyout with [PolyGram](/wiki/PolyGram "PolyGram") and Capital Cities/ABC. However, no agreements materialized with either entity.{{Cite web \|date\=1992\-04\-21 \|title\=Down but Not Out: Cartoons: Insiders say the growth of cable, syndication and home video can help DIC Enterprises survive NBC's pullout from animated fare. \|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1992\-04\-21\-fi\-729\-story.html \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-15 \|website\=Los Angeles Times \|language\=en\-US}} On July 26, 1993, DIC Animation City announced the establishment of a limited partnership with Capital Cities/ABC Video Enterprises, Inc., forming a joint venture named DIC Entertainment, L.P.{{cite magazine\|first\=Brian \|last\=Lowry \|url\=https://variety.com/1993/tv/news/dic\-ent\-formed\-for\-kids\-tv\-fare\-108945/ \|title\=DiC Ent. formed for kids TV fare \|magazine\=Variety \|date\=July 26, 1993 \|access\-date\=January 27, 2016}} This venture aimed to oversee DIC's production library and supply content for international distribution through CAVE. DIC Animation City held 95% of the shares, while CAVE held the remaining 5%. At the end of the year, the two companies formed another Delaware limited partnership called DIC Productions, L.P., with Capital Cities/ABC holding a 95% majority stake and Heyward retaining the remaining 5%. Both limited partnerships became the successor to the former parent company DIC Animation City,{{cite web\|url\=https://sec.report/Document/0000950130\-94\-000530/\|title \= Capital Cities ABC Inc /Ny/ 1993 10\-K Annual report}} coinciding with the relocation of DIC's headquarters to a larger facility in [Burbank, California](/wiki/Burbank%2C_California "Burbank, California").{{cite web\|url\=https://businessprofiles.com/details/dic\-entertainment\-l\-p/DE\-2342781\|title\=DIC ENTERTAINMENT, L.P. Delaware \- THE CORPORATION TRUST COMPANY \- Business Profiles}} DIC continued its expansion and diversification efforts throughout the early 1990s. In November 1993, it established DIC Interactive, a multimedia unit.{{cite news \|title\=DIC's getting interactive \|url\=https://variety.com/1993/scene/people\-news/dic\-s\-getting\-interactive\-116006/ \|access\-date\=February 11, 2021\|work\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]] \|date\=November 21, 1993}} Subsequently, the company ventured into live\-action television production in 1994\. In response to the success of Saban's *[Mighty Morphin' Power Rangers](/wiki/Mighty_Morphin%27_Power_Rangers "Mighty Morphin' Power Rangers")*, DIC collaborated with Tsuburaya Productions to adapt the Japanese series *[Gridman the Hyper Agent](/wiki/Gridman_the_Hyper_Agent "Gridman the Hyper Agent")* into *[Superhuman Samurai Syber Squad](/wiki/Superhuman_Samurai_Syber_Squad "Superhuman Samurai Syber Squad")*. DIC also initiated partnerships in China and engaged in syndication agreements with SeaGull Entertainment.{{Cite news\|date\=December 20, 1993\|title\=More 'Power' to them\|work\=\[\[Broadcasting \& Cable\|Broadcasting]]\|url\=https://worldradiohistory.com/hd2/IDX\-Business/Magazines/Archive\-BC\-IDX/93\-OCR/BC\-1993\-12\-20\-Page\-0038\.pdf\|access\-date\=October 16, 2021}}{{Cite news\|date\=February 7, 1994\|title\=In Brief\|work\=\[\[Broadcasting \& Cable\|Broadcasting]]\|url\=https://worldradiohistory.com/hd2/IDX\-Business/Magazines/Archive\-BC\-IDX/94\-OCR/BC\-1994\-02\-07\-Page\-0064\.pdf\|access\-date\=October 16, 2021}}{{cite web\|url\=http://business.highbeam.com/3610/article\-1G1\-15738642/abc\-dic\-target\-children\-china\-twoform\-programing\-venture \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141113153508/http://business.highbeam.com/3610/article\-1G1\-15738642/abc\-dic\-target\-children\-china\-twoform\-programing\-venture \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=November 13, 2014 \|title\=ABC, DiC target children in China; two\-form programing venture to create kids programing channels there \|date\=August 22, 1994 \|access\-date\=January 27, 2016}}{{Cite news\|date\=November 14, 1994\|title\=SeaGull establishes beachhead\|work\=\[\[Broadcasting \& Cable\|Broadcasting]]\|url\=https://worldradiohistory.com/hd2/IDX\-Business/Magazines/Archive\-BC\-IDX/94\-OCR/BC\-1994\-11\-14\-Page\-0026\.pdf\|access\-date\=October 16, 2021}} In July 1995, The Walt Disney Company announced its intention to acquire Capital Cities/ABC, including all of its assets, including DIC. By October 1995, DIC announced plans to establish an animation studio in France in partnership with Hamster Productions. Following the completion of the merger between Capital Cities/ABC and Disney in January 1996, DIC became a subsidiary of The Walt Disney Company. Subsequently, DIC collaborated closely with Disney, launching DIC Films and signing a first\-look deal with Walt Disney Pictures in 1996\.{{cite news\|title\=THE MEDIA BUSINESS;Disney and ABC Shareholders Solidly Approve Merger Deal\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/01/05/business/the\-media\-business\-disney\-and\-abc\-shareholders\-solidly\-approve\-merger\-deal.html\|author\=Geraldine Fabrikant\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|date\=5 January 1996\|access\-date\=July 8, 2013}}{{cite web\|url\=https://variety.com/1995/scene/markets\-festivals/dic\-hamster\-to\-share\-paris\-animation\-firm\-99128652/\|title\=DIC, Hamster to share Paris animation firm\|work\=Variety\|date\=October 9, 1995}}{{cite web\|url\=https://variety.com/1998/film/news/dic\-s\-deal\-goosed\-1117468947/\|title \= DIC's deal goosed\|date \= March 20, 1998}}{{cite web\|url\=https://variety.com/1997/scene/vpage/dic\-eyes\-euro\-market\-1117342351/\|title\=DIC eyes Euro market\|first1\=Michael\|last1\=Mallory\|date\=March 24, 1997}}{{cite web\|url\=https://variety.com/1997/tv/news/tex\-avery\-rides\-again\-1116677622/\|title\=Tex Avery rides again\|first1\=Michael\|last1\=Mallory\|date\=September 15, 1997}} In March 1997, DIC's French animation studio commenced operations as Les Studios Tex S.A.R.L. DIC continued its expansion into various markets and mediums, extending its first\-look deal with Walt Disney Pictures in March 1998 and announcing the launch of its direct\-to\-video division in April 1998\. Additionally, DIC secured a programming agreement with [Pax TV](/wiki/Ion_Television "Ion Television") during this period.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.awn.com/mag/issue2\.3/issue2\.3pages/news2\.3\.html\|title\=June 1997 News\|website\=www.awn.com}}{{cite news\|last1\=Jackson\|first1\=Wendy\|title\=DiC Is Developing Direct\-To\-Video.\|url\=https://www.awn.com/mag/issue3\.1/3\.1pages/3\.1news.html\|access\-date\=July 2, 2016\|work\=Animation World News\|issue\=1\|publisher\=Animation World Network\|date\=April 1998\|volume\=3}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.awn.com/mag/issue3\.2/3\.2pages/3\.2television.html \|title\=Toon Disney Launch \- UPN To Air Disney Block \|publisher\=Animation World Network \|date\=May 1998 \|access\-date\=January 27, 2016}}{{Cite web \|last\=CARMAN \|first\=JOHN \|date\=1998\-08\-28 \|title\=PAX Going For Piece Of TV Pie \|url\=https://www.sfgate.com/entertainment/article/pax\-going\-for\-piece\-of\-tv\-pie\-2994282\.php \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-25 \|website\=SFGATE \|language\=en\-US}} ### 2000–2004: Return to independence In September 2000, [Andy Heyward](/wiki/Andy_Heyward "Andy Heyward"), backed by investment firms [Bain Capital](/wiki/Bain_Capital "Bain Capital") and [Chase Capital Partners](/wiki/CCMP_Capital "CCMP Capital"), began to purchase DIC from [The Walt Disney Company](/wiki/The_Walt_Disney_Company "The Walt Disney Company").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.awn.com/news/dic\-management\-buy\-dic\-disney\|title\=DIC Management to Buy DIC from Disney}} Disney agreed to sell back the company and the deal was closed on November 25,{{cite magazine\|first\=Charles \|last\=Lyons \|url\=https://variety.com/2000/biz/news/dic\-plays\-new\-toon\-1117789392/ \|title\=DIC plays new toon \|magazine\=Variety \|date\=November 19, 2000 \|access\-date\=January 27, 2016}} officially allowing DIC to produce shows alone again without the limitations of Disney, coinciding with the relaunch of DIC's international sales division at [MIPCOM](/wiki/MIPCOM "MIPCOM") that year. In 2001, DIC announced their return to the home video market, forming a new division titled DIC Home Entertainment; they intended to begin releasing products starting that May.{{cite web\|url\=http://kidscreen.com/2001/02/01/30694\-20010201/\|title \= DIC returns to home video}} This was delayed due to DIC's issues in finding a distribution partner, which eventually happened in July when DIC signed a deal with [Lions Gate Home Entertainment](/wiki/Lionsgate%23Home_entertainment "Lionsgate#Home entertainment") for North American distribution of DIC Home Entertainment products.{{cite web\|url\=http://kidscreen.com/2001/07/01/30920\-20010701/\|title \= DIC gets busy in books and vids}} In June, DIC announced a planned purchase of [Golden Books Family Entertainment](/wiki/Western_Publishing "Western Publishing") for $170 million, but they eventually backed out of the deal due to the high costs of the purchase; the company was instead co\-purchased by [Random House](/wiki/Random_House "Random House") for the book rights and [Classic Media](/wiki/DreamWorks_Classics "DreamWorks Classics") for the entertainment rights.{{cite web\|url\=http://edition.cnn.com/2001/BUSINESS/08/16/goldenbooks.re/ \|title\=Golden Books sold for poky little $84M \- Aug. 16, 2001 \|work\=CNN \|access\-date\=July 24, 2022}} In July 2002, DIC purchased the Mommy \& Me preschool label.{{cite web\|url\=http://kidscreen.com/2002/07/01/mommy\-20020701/\|title \= DIC enters the infant lifestyle brand fray with Mommy \& Me}} In January 2003, DIC announced three syndicated children's programming E/I blocks called [DIC Kids Network](/wiki/Cookie_Jar_Kids_Network "Cookie Jar Kids Network").{{cite magazine\|first\=Lily \|last\=Oei \|url\=https://variety.com/2003/scene/markets\-festivals/dic\-offers\-kidvid\-blocks\-1117879607/ \|title\=DIC offers kidvid blocks \|magazine\=Variety \|date\=January 28, 2003 \|access\-date\=January 27, 2016}}{{cite magazine\|first\=Lily \|last\=Oei \|url\=https://variety.com/2003/scene/markets\-festivals/dic\-sets\-3\-hours\-of\-kid\-programs\-1117890788/ \|title\=DiC sets 3 hours of kid programs \|magazine\=Variety \|date\=August 12, 2003 \|access\-date\=January 27, 2016}} In April, DIC sued [Speed Racer Enterprises](/wiki/Speed_Racer%23Speed_Racer_Enterprises "Speed Racer#Speed Racer Enterprises"), alleging that SRE had sub\-licensed the worldwide exploitation rights for *[Speed Racer](/wiki/Speed_Racer "Speed Racer")* to DIC the previous year and then ended the agreement without DIC knowing.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2003\-04\-25/more\-on\-speed\-racer\-lawsuit\|title \= More on Speed Racer Lawsuit\| date\=June 12, 2023 }} Later in July, DIC signed a television production deal with [POW! Entertainment](/wiki/POW%21_Entertainment "POW! Entertainment") for *Stan Lee's Secret Super Six*, a series about teens with alien superpowers who are taught about humanity by Lee (this show never made it to air).{{cite web\|last\=DeMott \|first\=Rick \|url\=https://www.awn.com/animationworld/pow\-stan\-lee\-reloaded \|title\=POW! Stan Lee Reloaded \|publisher\=Animation World Network \|date\=June 26, 2003 \|access\-date\=January 27, 2016}} ### 2004–2008: Going public and final years In 2004, Heyward acquired Bain Capital's share in DIC Entertainment and subsequently oversaw the company's public offering on the London Stock Exchange's Alternative Investment Market in 2005, trading under the symbol DEKEq.L.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.awn.com/news/dic\-goes\-public\-uk\|title \= DIC Goes Public in the U.K.\| newspaper\=Animation World Network}} In March 2006, DIC regained international rights to 20 of its shows from The Walt Disney Company and Jetix Europe, previously owned by Disney since their acquisition of Saban Entertainment in 2001\. The same month, DIC acquired the Copyright Promotions Licensing Group (CPLG) and welcomed Jeffrey Edell as president and COO. {{cite web\|url\=http://www.animationmagazine.net/tv/dic\-re\-acquires\-20\-of\-its\-animated\-shows\-from\-disney/\|title\=DIC Re\-Acquires 20 of Its Animated Shows from Disney\|first\=Ramin\|last\=Zahed\|date\=March 23, 2006}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.investegate.co.uk/article.aspx?id\=200706190954206004Y\|title \= Investegate \|DIC Entertainment Announcements \| DIC Entertainment: Earn\-out and Share Options}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/44731/jeffrey\-edell.html\|title \= Jeffrey Edell}} DIC, AOL's KOL, and CBS Corporation joined forces to introduce a new three\-hour programming block for Saturday mornings on CBS called KOL Secret Slumber Party on September 15, 2006\. A year later, on September 15, 2007, DIC, CBS, and American Greetings launched another programming block named KEWLopolis.{{cite magazine\|last1\=Paoletta\|first1\=Michaal\|title\=Pre\-Fabulous?\|magazine\=Billboard\|date\=August 12, 2006\|volume\=118\|issue\=32\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=lw0EAAAAMBAJ\&q\=KOL\+Secret\+Slumber\+Party\&pg\=PA9\|access\-date\=November 3, 2004}}{{cite magazine\|first\=Ryan \|last\=Ball \|url\=http://www.animationmagazine.net/tv/cbs\-blocks\-out\-kewlopolis/ \|title\=CBS Blocks out KEWLopolis \|magazine\=Animation Magazine \|date\=August 23, 2007 \|access\-date\=January 27, 2016}} In April 2007, DIC Entertainment, Nelvana, and NBC Universal Global Networks announced the establishment of KidsCo, an international children's entertainment network. In October of the same year, DIC filed a lawsuit against the Dam company, alleging fraud and negligent misrepresentation regarding Dam's troll doll and DIC's *[Trollz](/wiki/Trollz_%28TV_series%29 "Trollz (TV series)")* television series, which was created under a license from Dam. Dam counter\-sued DIC, accusing the company of misrepresenting its financial status and harming the troll doll's image and reputation.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.investegate.co.uk/article.aspx?id\=200704030701202871U \|title\=DiC Entertainment: Creation of KidsCo \|publisher\=InvestEgate \|date\=April 3, 2007 \|access\-date\=January 27, 2016}}{{cite web\|url\=http://kidscreen.com/2007/10/25/dic\-20071025/\|title\=DIC Entertainment slaps Troll Company with US$20 million lawsuit}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.eleconomista.es/empresas\-finanzas/noticias/305539/10/07/Lawsuit\-Charges\-Fraud\-In\-Deals\-for\-Iconic\-Troll\-Doll\-DIC\-Entertainment Cynically\-Concealed\-Financial\-Woes.html \|title\=Lawsuit Charges Fraud In Deals for Iconic Troll Doll; DIC Entertainment ''Cynically Concealed'' Financial Woes \- 31/10/07 \- 305539 \|publisher\=elEconomista.es \|date\=October 31, 2007 \|access\-date\=June 23, 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720141033/http://www.eleconomista.es/empresas\-finanzas/noticias/305539/10/07/Lawsuit\-Charges\-Fraud\-In\-Deals\-for\-Iconic\-Troll\-Doll\-DIC\-Entertainment\-Cynically\-Concealed\-Financial\-Woes.html \|archive\-date\=July 20, 2011 \|url\-status\=dead}} ### 2008–2012: Cookie Jar Group and DHX Media In June 2008, DIC Entertainment and Canadian media company Cookie Jar Group announced a merger valued at $87\.6 million. President [Jeffrey Edell](/wiki/Jeffrey_Scott_Edell "Jeffrey Scott Edell") played a key role in finalizing the deal, which was completed on July 23 of the same year. Following the merger, DIC became a subsidiary of Cookie Jar, and the company was subsequently folded into Cookie Jar's operations. DIC Entertainment Corporation was rebranded as Cookie Jar Entertainment (USA) Inc. In 2012, Cookie Jar was acquired by DHX Media, later rebranded as [DHX Media](/wiki/WildBrain "WildBrain"){{cite web\|author1\=B\&C Staff\|title\=Cookie Jar, DIC Entertainment to Merge\|url\=http://www.broadcastingcable.com/news/programming/cookie\-jar\-dic\-entertainment\-merge/32594\|website\=Broadcasting \& Cable\|access\-date\=January 27, 2016\|date\=June 20, 2008}}{{cite news \|title\=Cookie Jar, DIC Merge \|url\=https://www.animationmagazine.net/tv/cookie\-jar\-dic\-merge/ \|access\-date\=February 11, 2021\|work\=\[\[Animation Magazine]] \|date\=June 20, 2008}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.cjar.com/press/cj\_press\_20080723a.php \|title\=COOKIE JAR ENTERTAINMENT EXPANDS BRAND PORTFOLIO, TALENT AND GLOBAL REACH WITH CLOSING OF DIC TRANSACTION \|work\=Cookie Jar Group \|date\=July 23, 2008 \|access\-date\=December 20, 2008 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090531231944/http://www.cjar.com/press/cj\_press\_20080723a.php \|archive\-date\=May 31, 2009}} on October 22, 2012\.{{cite web\|url\=http://kidscreen.com/2012/10/23/dhx\-purchase\-of\-cookie\-jar\-completed/ \|last1\=Sylvian \|first1\=Matthew \|title\=DHX purchase of Cookie Jar completed \|publisher\=KidScreen \|date\=October 23, 2012 \|access\-date\=May 31, 2016}} The [DIC Kids Network](/wiki/Cookie_Jar_Kids_Network "Cookie Jar Kids Network") was renamed Cookie Jar Kids Network in 2009 and ceased operations in 2011\. Cookie Jar also produced the final season of *[Sushi Pack](/wiki/Sushi_Pack "Sushi Pack")*, one of DIC's last shows, which aired until 2009\. [KEWLopolis](/wiki/Cookie_Jar_TV "Cookie Jar TV") on CBS was renamed Cookie Jar TV in 2009 and closed down in 2013, replaced by [CBS Dream Team](/wiki/CBS_Dream_Team "CBS Dream Team"). [Cookie Jar Toons](/wiki/Cookie_Jar_Toons "Cookie Jar Toons"), a block on [This TV](/wiki/This_TV "This TV") featuring shows from Cookie Jar and DIC, ran from 2008 to 2013\. In 2014, Cookie Jar ceased operations.
[ "History\n-------", "### 1971–1982: DIC Audiovisuel", "Diffusion, Information Communications (DIC) was founded in France in 1971 by [Jean Chalopin](/wiki/Jean_Chalopin \"Jean Chalopin\") as part of Radio Television Luxembourg ([RTL Group](/wiki/RTL_Group \"RTL Group\")), a well\\-established media company. DIC primarily focused on producing television content.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Perlmutter\\|first1\\=David\\|title\\=America Toons In: A History of Television Animation\\|date\\=2014\\|isbn\\=9780786476503\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=riYXAwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA207\\|pages\\=207–212\\|publisher\\=McFarland \\|access\\-date\\=January 27, 2016}}{{cite news\\|last1\\=Bates\\|first1\\=James\\|title\\=DiC, Computer Memories Plan Merger: Cartoon Maker Seeks Easy Way to Go Public\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1987\\-12\\-29\\-fi\\-31919\\-story.html\\|access\\-date\\=May 19, 2016\\|work\\=Los Angeles Times\\|date\\=December 29, 1987}}", "In 1981, DIC formed a partnership with [Tokyo Movie Shinsha](/wiki/TMS_Entertainment \"TMS Entertainment\"), a Japanese animation studio. As part of this collaboration, DIC assisted in animating several TMS programs, including the popular series *[Ulysses 31](/wiki/Ulysses_31 \"Ulysses 31\")*. Additionally, DIC created an unaired pilot called *[Lupin VIII](/wiki/Lupin_the_Third%23Lupin_VIII \"Lupin the Third#Lupin VIII\")* during this period.", "This partnership between DIC and TMS continued until 1996, contributing to the production of numerous animated television shows and pilots.", "### 1982–1986: U.S.", "DIC Audiovisuel's U.S. division, DIC Enterprises, was established in April 1982 in [Burbank, California](/wiki/Burbank%2C_California \"Burbank, California\") by [Andy Heyward](/wiki/Andy_Heyward \"Andy Heyward\"), a former writer at [Hanna\\-Barbera](/wiki/Hanna-Barbera \"Hanna-Barbera\"). This division was created to adapt DIC productions into English for American audiences. DIC Enterprises focused on producing animated television content for both network broadcast and syndication. To reduce costs, DIC outsourced non\\-creative tasks overseas and employed staff on a per\\-program basis. Despite its success, some industry insiders referred to DIC as \"Do It Cheap.\"", "Under the direction of [Bruno Bianchi](/wiki/Bruno_Bianchi_%28cartoonist%29 \"Bruno Bianchi (cartoonist)\") and Bernard Deyriès, DIC became known for its effective yet cost\\-conscious approach to animation production. Shortly after its formation, DIC introduced *[Inspector Gadget](/wiki/Inspector_Gadget \"Inspector Gadget\")*, which became one of its most successful productions. DIC also collaborated with toy and greeting card companies to develop character\\-based product lines that could be adapted into animated series, providing built\\-in advertisers and financial backers. With hits like *[Inspector Gadget](/wiki/Inspector_Gadget_%281983_TV_series%29 \"Inspector Gadget (1983 TV series)\")*, *[The Littles](/wiki/The_Littles_%28TV_series%29 \"The Littles (TV series)\")*, and *[Heathcliff](/wiki/Heathcliff_%281984_TV_series%29 \"Heathcliff (1984 TV series)\")*, DIC became profitable.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Bates\\|first1\\=James\\|title\\=Huge Debt Keeps Pressure on DIC to Keep Turning Out Animated TV Hits: Cartoon Firm Deals Way to Top\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1988\\-03\\-08\\-fi\\-728\\-story.html\\|access\\-date\\=May 19, 2016\\|work\\=Los Angeles Times\\|date\\=March 8, 1988}}", "In 1983, DIC established its own animation facility in Japan, known as K.K. DIC Asia, to handle animation production for its shows independently. Despite facing a unionization effort in 1984, DIC remained the only non\\-union animation firm. Over time, DIC expanded its operations through syndication deals with companies like LBS Communications, Columbia Pictures Television, and Access Syndication. Additionally, DIC secured home video rights for its shows through agreements with [Karl\\-Lorimar Home Video](/wiki/Karl-Lorimar_Home_Video \"Karl-Lorimar Home Video\"), [CBS/Fox Video](/wiki/CBS/Fox_Video \"CBS/Fox Video\") in the US, and [The Video Collection](/wiki/The_Video_Collection_%28distributor%29 \"The Video Collection (distributor)\") in Great Britain.{{cite news \\|date\\=January 6, 1986 \\|title\\=The Hot Team. The Hot Programs. The New Hot Weekend Network for Kids. \\|pages\\=8–9 \\|work\\=Broadcasting (LBS ad) \\|url\\=http://americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-BC/BC\\-1986/BC\\-1986\\-01\\-06\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=May 19, 2016}}{{Cite news \\|date\\=August 20, 1986 \\|title\\=DIC Fields 8\\-Pack Through LBS; Dennis Will Menace Again \\|pages\\=51, 74 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]}} and Access Syndication.{{Cite news \\|date\\=November 12, 1986 \\|title\\=DIC, Access Team On 3 New Kidvids \\|pages\\=40, 74 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]}}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Melanson \\|first\\=James \\|date\\=September 10, 1986 \\|title\\=LBS Enterprises Division Plans To Market Videocassettes \\|pages\\=56, 58 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=November 26, 1986\\|title\\=CBS/Fox To Bow Animated 'Menace'\\|page\\=40\\|work\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]}}", "### 1987–1993: Move to North America", "Between late 1986 and 1987, Heyward, in collaboration with investors [Bear Stearns \\& Co.](/wiki/Bear_Stearns \"Bear Stearns\") and [Prudential Insurance Co.](/wiki/Prudential_Financial \"Prudential Financial\"), acquired Chalopin and Radio Television Luxembourg's 52 per cent stake in DIC, resulting in the transformation of DIC into DIC Animation City, Inc.{{cite news \\|date\\=August 22, 1989 \\|title\\=Prudential Increases Stake in DIC Animation City \\|work\\=Los Angeles Times \\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1989\\-08\\-22\\-fi\\-856\\-story.html \\|access\\-date\\=May 19, 2016}} This acquisition, amounting to $70 million in a leveraged buyout, relocated the company's headquarters to the United States. Following the transaction, key personnel such as Chalopin, Bianchi, Deyriès, and producer Tetsuo Katayama departed DIC, making way for Robby London and Michael Maliani to assume pivotal roles within the organization. Additionally, Chalopin retained control of DIC's original offices in France and its Japanese animation facility, establishing the entity [Créativité et Développement](/wiki/Cr%C3%A9ativit%C3%A9_et_D%C3%A9veloppement \"Créativité et Développement\") (C\\&D) in 1987 to continue producing animated content. Meanwhile, the Japanese studio was renamed K.K. C\\&D Asia, operating until 1996\\.{{cite magazine\\|first\\=Carl \\|last\\=DiOrio \\|url\\=https://variety.com/2000/tv/news/bain\\-backing\\-buyout\\-of\\-dic\\-1117786555/\\|title\\=Bain backing buyout of DiC \\|magazine\\=Variety \\|date\\=September 18, 2000 \\|access\\-date\\=January 27, 2016}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.isola\\-capital.com/about\\-us/heritage/deltec\\-international\\-group \\|title\\=Deltec International Group \\|publisher\\=Isola Capital \\|access\\-date\\=January 27, 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304062042/http://www.isola\\-capital.com/about\\-us/heritage/deltec\\-international\\-group \\|archive\\-date\\=March 4, 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "Subsequent to the buyout, DIC encountered significant financial indebtedness, partly stemming from their competitive strategy of underbidding on projects to outmaneuver rival animation firms, coupled with an overestimation of the market demand for children's television shows. Consequently, DIC's debt escalated, prompting the sale of foreign rights to their library to Saban Productions in 1987, which were later transferred to Chalopin's C\\&D.{{Cite news\\|date\\=March 18, 1987\\|title\\=NBC\\-TV Takes 2 Kidvids Off Saban Prods.' Hands\\|page\\=47\\|work\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]}} This transaction strained the relationship between DIC and Saban, leading to legal disputes culminating in a settlement in 1991\\. Despite these challenges, DIC expanded its collaborations, partnering with NBC and Coca\\-Cola Telecommunications to produce and distribute television programs.{{Cite news\\|date\\=January 28, 1987\\|title\\=Tribune \\& DIC Link With Coca\\-Cola Unit\\|pages\\=44, 54\\|work\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]}} DIC also ventured into toy manufacturing with the introduction of the Old MacDonald talking toyline.", "Amidst legal battles and strategic maneuvers, DIC continued to navigate the evolving landscape of the animation industry. Legal disputes with [Family Home Entertainment](/wiki/Family_Home_Entertainment \"Family Home Entertainment\") and LBS/Lorimar Home Video were resolved, paving the way for DIC to forge partnerships with Golden Book Video and pursue distribution agreements with Bohbot Communications.{{Cite news\\|date\\=February 11, 1987\\|title\\=DIC Sues FHE\\|page\\=46\\|work\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]}} Furthermore, DIC diversified its international collaborations, teaming up with Reteitalia, [Reteitalia, S.p.A.](/wiki/Mediaset \"Mediaset\") and Telecinco, among others, to co\\-produce animated content. By the early 1990s, DIC expanded its operations to include subsidiaries such as Rainforest Entertainment and embarked on educational initiatives.{{Cite news \\|date\\=December 2, 1987 \\|title\\=DIC Kidvid Strips Prepped For '88 \\|pages\\=44, 73 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]}}", "DIC's growth trajectory was marked by a landmark licensing agreement with Buena Vista Home Video in 1993, facilitating the distribution of over 1,000 half\\-hours of animated content and the establishment of a dedicated home video label.{{cite news \\|title\\=Disney signs licensing deal for DIC library \\|url\\=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1993/07/12/Disney\\-signs\\-licensing\\-deal\\-for\\-DIC\\-library/9809742449600/ \\|access\\-date\\=February 10, 2021 \\|work\\=\\[\\[United Press International]] \\|date\\=July 7, 1993}} This deal bolstered DIC's presence in the home entertainment market, heralding a new phase of expansion and consolidation within the animation industry.{{Cite web \\|title\\=JoeGuide.com \\- G.I.Joe Interviews \\> Buzz Dixon (conducted by David Thornton in November 2000\\) \\|url\\=http://joeguide.com/interviews/buzzdixon.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-25 \\|website\\=joeguide.com}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=April 20, 1987\\|title\\=Saturday slate\\|work\\=\\[\\[Broadcasting \\& Cable\\|Broadcasting]]\\|url\\=https://worldradiohistory.com/hd2/IDX\\-Business/Magazines/Archive\\-BC\\-IDX/87\\-OCR/BC\\-1987\\-04\\-20\\-OCR\\-Page\\-0059\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=October 21, 2021}}{{Cite news \\|date\\=June 3, 1987 \\|title\\=LBS And DIC Settle Lawsuit On Kideo Vid \\|pages\\=61, 76 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]}} DIC subsequently signed a deal with [Golden Book Video](/wiki/Golden_Book_Video \"Golden Book Video\") to market titles under the DIC Video brand.{{Cite magazine \\|date\\=August 29, 1987 \\|title\\=Convention Capsules \\|url\\=https://worldradiohistory.com/hd2/IDX\\-Business/Music/Billboard\\-Index/IDX/1987/1987\\-08\\-29\\-Billboard\\-Page\\-0003\\.pdf \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Billboard (magazine)\\|Billboard]] \\|access\\-date\\=October 16, 2021}}{{cite magazine \\|author\\= \\|title\\=CBN sets DiC programing block for fall \\|url\\=http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-BC/BC\\-1989/BC\\-1989\\-06\\-19\\.pdf \\|magazine\\=Broadcasting \\|date\\=June 19, 1989 \\|access\\-date\\=December 27, 2016 \\|pages\\=39–40}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=May 14, 1990\\|title\\=DiC Enterprises gets animated with new tour\\|work\\=\\[\\[Broadcasting \\& Cable\\|Broadcasting]]\\|url\\=https://worldradiohistory.com/hd2/IDX\\-Business/Magazines/Archive\\-BC\\-IDX/90\\-OCR/BC\\-1990\\-05\\-14\\-OCR\\-Page\\-0038\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=October 16, 2021}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=August 24, 1992\\|title\\=Independent suppliers chase new opportunities\\|work\\=\\[\\[Broadcasting \\& Cable\\|Broadcasting]]\\|url\\=https://worldradiohistory.com/hd2/IDX\\-Business/Magazines/Archive\\-BC\\-IDX/92\\-OCR/BC\\-1992\\-08\\-24\\-OCR\\-Page\\-0108\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=October 16, 2021}}{{Cite magazine\\|last\\=McCormick\\|first\\=Moira\\|date\\=September 5, 1992\\|title\\=Rincon Pacts With DIC; Disney Bows New Sales Line\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Billboard (magazine)\\|Billboard]]\\|url\\=https://worldradiohistory.com/hd2/IDX\\-Business/Music/Billboard\\-Index/IDX/1992/1992\\-09\\-05\\-Billboard\\-Page\\-0058\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=October 23, 2021}}{{cite news \\|title\\=DIC forms new education unit \\|url\\=https://variety.com/1993/tv/news/dic\\-forms\\-new\\-education\\-unit\\-107671/ \\|access\\-date\\=February 11, 2021\\|work\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]] \\|date\\=June 10, 1993}}", "### 1993–2000: Limited partnerships", "During the early 1990s, DIC attracted attention within the industry. The company engaged in discussions regarding a potential merger and buyout with [PolyGram](/wiki/PolyGram \"PolyGram\") and Capital Cities/ABC. However, no agreements materialized with either entity.{{Cite web \\|date\\=1992\\-04\\-21 \\|title\\=Down but Not Out: Cartoons: Insiders say the growth of cable, syndication and home video can help DIC Enterprises survive NBC's pullout from animated fare. \\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1992\\-04\\-21\\-fi\\-729\\-story.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-15 \\|website\\=Los Angeles Times \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "On July 26, 1993, DIC Animation City announced the establishment of a limited partnership with Capital Cities/ABC Video Enterprises, Inc., forming a joint venture named DIC Entertainment, L.P.{{cite magazine\\|first\\=Brian \\|last\\=Lowry \\|url\\=https://variety.com/1993/tv/news/dic\\-ent\\-formed\\-for\\-kids\\-tv\\-fare\\-108945/ \\|title\\=DiC Ent. formed for kids TV fare \\|magazine\\=Variety \\|date\\=July 26, 1993 \\|access\\-date\\=January 27, 2016}} This venture aimed to oversee DIC's production library and supply content for international distribution through CAVE. DIC Animation City held 95% of the shares, while CAVE held the remaining 5%. At the end of the year, the two companies formed another Delaware limited partnership called DIC Productions, L.P., with Capital Cities/ABC holding a 95% majority stake and Heyward retaining the remaining 5%. Both limited partnerships became the successor to the former parent company DIC Animation City,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://sec.report/Document/0000950130\\-94\\-000530/\\|title \\= Capital Cities ABC Inc /Ny/ 1993 10\\-K Annual report}} coinciding with the relocation of DIC's headquarters to a larger facility in [Burbank, California](/wiki/Burbank%2C_California \"Burbank, California\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://businessprofiles.com/details/dic\\-entertainment\\-l\\-p/DE\\-2342781\\|title\\=DIC ENTERTAINMENT, L.P. Delaware \\- THE CORPORATION TRUST COMPANY \\- Business Profiles}}", "DIC continued its expansion and diversification efforts throughout the early 1990s. In November 1993, it established DIC Interactive, a multimedia unit.{{cite news \\|title\\=DIC's getting interactive \\|url\\=https://variety.com/1993/scene/people\\-news/dic\\-s\\-getting\\-interactive\\-116006/ \\|access\\-date\\=February 11, 2021\\|work\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]] \\|date\\=November 21, 1993}} Subsequently, the company ventured into live\\-action television production in 1994\\. In response to the success of Saban's *[Mighty Morphin' Power Rangers](/wiki/Mighty_Morphin%27_Power_Rangers \"Mighty Morphin' Power Rangers\")*, DIC collaborated with Tsuburaya Productions to adapt the Japanese series *[Gridman the Hyper Agent](/wiki/Gridman_the_Hyper_Agent \"Gridman the Hyper Agent\")* into *[Superhuman Samurai Syber Squad](/wiki/Superhuman_Samurai_Syber_Squad \"Superhuman Samurai Syber Squad\")*. DIC also initiated partnerships in China and engaged in syndication agreements with SeaGull Entertainment.{{Cite news\\|date\\=December 20, 1993\\|title\\=More 'Power' to them\\|work\\=\\[\\[Broadcasting \\& Cable\\|Broadcasting]]\\|url\\=https://worldradiohistory.com/hd2/IDX\\-Business/Magazines/Archive\\-BC\\-IDX/93\\-OCR/BC\\-1993\\-12\\-20\\-Page\\-0038\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=October 16, 2021}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=February 7, 1994\\|title\\=In Brief\\|work\\=\\[\\[Broadcasting \\& Cable\\|Broadcasting]]\\|url\\=https://worldradiohistory.com/hd2/IDX\\-Business/Magazines/Archive\\-BC\\-IDX/94\\-OCR/BC\\-1994\\-02\\-07\\-Page\\-0064\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=October 16, 2021}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://business.highbeam.com/3610/article\\-1G1\\-15738642/abc\\-dic\\-target\\-children\\-china\\-twoform\\-programing\\-venture \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141113153508/http://business.highbeam.com/3610/article\\-1G1\\-15738642/abc\\-dic\\-target\\-children\\-china\\-twoform\\-programing\\-venture \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=November 13, 2014 \\|title\\=ABC, DiC target children in China; two\\-form programing venture to create kids programing channels there \\|date\\=August 22, 1994 \\|access\\-date\\=January 27, 2016}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=November 14, 1994\\|title\\=SeaGull establishes beachhead\\|work\\=\\[\\[Broadcasting \\& Cable\\|Broadcasting]]\\|url\\=https://worldradiohistory.com/hd2/IDX\\-Business/Magazines/Archive\\-BC\\-IDX/94\\-OCR/BC\\-1994\\-11\\-14\\-Page\\-0026\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=October 16, 2021}}", "In July 1995, The Walt Disney Company announced its intention to acquire Capital Cities/ABC, including all of its assets, including DIC. By October 1995, DIC announced plans to establish an animation studio in France in partnership with Hamster Productions. Following the completion of the merger between Capital Cities/ABC and Disney in January 1996, DIC became a subsidiary of The Walt Disney Company. Subsequently, DIC collaborated closely with Disney, launching DIC Films and signing a first\\-look deal with Walt Disney Pictures in 1996\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=THE MEDIA BUSINESS;Disney and ABC Shareholders Solidly Approve Merger Deal\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/01/05/business/the\\-media\\-business\\-disney\\-and\\-abc\\-shareholders\\-solidly\\-approve\\-merger\\-deal.html\\|author\\=Geraldine Fabrikant\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|date\\=5 January 1996\\|access\\-date\\=July 8, 2013}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://variety.com/1995/scene/markets\\-festivals/dic\\-hamster\\-to\\-share\\-paris\\-animation\\-firm\\-99128652/\\|title\\=DIC, Hamster to share Paris animation firm\\|work\\=Variety\\|date\\=October 9, 1995}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://variety.com/1998/film/news/dic\\-s\\-deal\\-goosed\\-1117468947/\\|title \\= DIC's deal goosed\\|date \\= March 20, 1998}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://variety.com/1997/scene/vpage/dic\\-eyes\\-euro\\-market\\-1117342351/\\|title\\=DIC eyes Euro market\\|first1\\=Michael\\|last1\\=Mallory\\|date\\=March 24, 1997}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://variety.com/1997/tv/news/tex\\-avery\\-rides\\-again\\-1116677622/\\|title\\=Tex Avery rides again\\|first1\\=Michael\\|last1\\=Mallory\\|date\\=September 15, 1997}}", "In March 1997, DIC's French animation studio commenced operations as Les Studios Tex S.A.R.L. DIC continued its expansion into various markets and mediums, extending its first\\-look deal with Walt Disney Pictures in March 1998 and announcing the launch of its direct\\-to\\-video division in April 1998\\. Additionally, DIC secured a programming agreement with [Pax TV](/wiki/Ion_Television \"Ion Television\") during this period.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.awn.com/mag/issue2\\.3/issue2\\.3pages/news2\\.3\\.html\\|title\\=June 1997 News\\|website\\=www.awn.com}}{{cite news\\|last1\\=Jackson\\|first1\\=Wendy\\|title\\=DiC Is Developing Direct\\-To\\-Video.\\|url\\=https://www.awn.com/mag/issue3\\.1/3\\.1pages/3\\.1news.html\\|access\\-date\\=July 2, 2016\\|work\\=Animation World News\\|issue\\=1\\|publisher\\=Animation World Network\\|date\\=April 1998\\|volume\\=3}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.awn.com/mag/issue3\\.2/3\\.2pages/3\\.2television.html \\|title\\=Toon Disney Launch \\- UPN To Air Disney Block \\|publisher\\=Animation World Network \\|date\\=May 1998 \\|access\\-date\\=January 27, 2016}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=CARMAN \\|first\\=JOHN \\|date\\=1998\\-08\\-28 \\|title\\=PAX Going For Piece Of TV Pie \\|url\\=https://www.sfgate.com/entertainment/article/pax\\-going\\-for\\-piece\\-of\\-tv\\-pie\\-2994282\\.php \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-25 \\|website\\=SFGATE \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "### 2000–2004: Return to independence", "In September 2000, [Andy Heyward](/wiki/Andy_Heyward \"Andy Heyward\"), backed by investment firms [Bain Capital](/wiki/Bain_Capital \"Bain Capital\") and [Chase Capital Partners](/wiki/CCMP_Capital \"CCMP Capital\"), began to purchase DIC from [The Walt Disney Company](/wiki/The_Walt_Disney_Company \"The Walt Disney Company\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.awn.com/news/dic\\-management\\-buy\\-dic\\-disney\\|title\\=DIC Management to Buy DIC from Disney}} Disney agreed to sell back the company and the deal was closed on November 25,{{cite magazine\\|first\\=Charles \\|last\\=Lyons \\|url\\=https://variety.com/2000/biz/news/dic\\-plays\\-new\\-toon\\-1117789392/ \\|title\\=DIC plays new toon \\|magazine\\=Variety \\|date\\=November 19, 2000 \\|access\\-date\\=January 27, 2016}} officially allowing DIC to produce shows alone again without the limitations of Disney, coinciding with the relaunch of DIC's international sales division at [MIPCOM](/wiki/MIPCOM \"MIPCOM\") that year.", "In 2001, DIC announced their return to the home video market, forming a new division titled DIC Home Entertainment; they intended to begin releasing products starting that May.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://kidscreen.com/2001/02/01/30694\\-20010201/\\|title \\= DIC returns to home video}} This was delayed due to DIC's issues in finding a distribution partner, which eventually happened in July when DIC signed a deal with [Lions Gate Home Entertainment](/wiki/Lionsgate%23Home_entertainment \"Lionsgate#Home entertainment\") for North American distribution of DIC Home Entertainment products.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://kidscreen.com/2001/07/01/30920\\-20010701/\\|title \\= DIC gets busy in books and vids}} In June, DIC announced a planned purchase of [Golden Books Family Entertainment](/wiki/Western_Publishing \"Western Publishing\") for $170 million, but they eventually backed out of the deal due to the high costs of the purchase; the company was instead co\\-purchased by [Random House](/wiki/Random_House \"Random House\") for the book rights and [Classic Media](/wiki/DreamWorks_Classics \"DreamWorks Classics\") for the entertainment rights.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://edition.cnn.com/2001/BUSINESS/08/16/goldenbooks.re/ \\|title\\=Golden Books sold for poky little $84M \\- Aug. 16, 2001 \\|work\\=CNN \\|access\\-date\\=July 24, 2022}}", "In July 2002, DIC purchased the Mommy \\& Me preschool label.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://kidscreen.com/2002/07/01/mommy\\-20020701/\\|title \\= DIC enters the infant lifestyle brand fray with Mommy \\& Me}}", "In January 2003, DIC announced three syndicated children's programming E/I blocks called [DIC Kids Network](/wiki/Cookie_Jar_Kids_Network \"Cookie Jar Kids Network\").{{cite magazine\\|first\\=Lily \\|last\\=Oei \\|url\\=https://variety.com/2003/scene/markets\\-festivals/dic\\-offers\\-kidvid\\-blocks\\-1117879607/ \\|title\\=DIC offers kidvid blocks \\|magazine\\=Variety \\|date\\=January 28, 2003 \\|access\\-date\\=January 27, 2016}}{{cite magazine\\|first\\=Lily \\|last\\=Oei \\|url\\=https://variety.com/2003/scene/markets\\-festivals/dic\\-sets\\-3\\-hours\\-of\\-kid\\-programs\\-1117890788/ \\|title\\=DiC sets 3 hours of kid programs \\|magazine\\=Variety \\|date\\=August 12, 2003 \\|access\\-date\\=January 27, 2016}} In April, DIC sued [Speed Racer Enterprises](/wiki/Speed_Racer%23Speed_Racer_Enterprises \"Speed Racer#Speed Racer Enterprises\"), alleging that SRE had sub\\-licensed the worldwide exploitation rights for *[Speed Racer](/wiki/Speed_Racer \"Speed Racer\")* to DIC the previous year and then ended the agreement without DIC knowing.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2003\\-04\\-25/more\\-on\\-speed\\-racer\\-lawsuit\\|title \\= More on Speed Racer Lawsuit\\| date\\=June 12, 2023 }} Later in July, DIC signed a television production deal with [POW! Entertainment](/wiki/POW%21_Entertainment \"POW! Entertainment\") for *Stan Lee's Secret Super Six*, a series about teens with alien superpowers who are taught about humanity by Lee (this show never made it to air).{{cite web\\|last\\=DeMott \\|first\\=Rick \\|url\\=https://www.awn.com/animationworld/pow\\-stan\\-lee\\-reloaded \\|title\\=POW! Stan Lee Reloaded \\|publisher\\=Animation World Network \\|date\\=June 26, 2003 \\|access\\-date\\=January 27, 2016}}", "### 2004–2008: Going public and final years", "In 2004, Heyward acquired Bain Capital's share in DIC Entertainment and subsequently oversaw the company's public offering on the London Stock Exchange's Alternative Investment Market in 2005, trading under the symbol DEKEq.L.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.awn.com/news/dic\\-goes\\-public\\-uk\\|title \\= DIC Goes Public in the U.K.\\| newspaper\\=Animation World Network}} In March 2006, DIC regained international rights to 20 of its shows from The Walt Disney Company and Jetix Europe, previously owned by Disney since their acquisition of Saban Entertainment in 2001\\. The same month, DIC acquired the Copyright Promotions Licensing Group (CPLG) and welcomed Jeffrey Edell as president and COO.\n{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.animationmagazine.net/tv/dic\\-re\\-acquires\\-20\\-of\\-its\\-animated\\-shows\\-from\\-disney/\\|title\\=DIC Re\\-Acquires 20 of Its Animated Shows from Disney\\|first\\=Ramin\\|last\\=Zahed\\|date\\=March 23, 2006}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.investegate.co.uk/article.aspx?id\\=200706190954206004Y\\|title \\= Investegate \\|DIC Entertainment Announcements \\| DIC Entertainment: Earn\\-out and Share Options}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/44731/jeffrey\\-edell.html\\|title \\= Jeffrey Edell}}", "DIC, AOL's KOL, and CBS Corporation joined forces to introduce a new three\\-hour programming block for Saturday mornings on CBS called KOL Secret Slumber Party on September 15, 2006\\. A year later, on September 15, 2007, DIC, CBS, and American Greetings launched another programming block named KEWLopolis.{{cite magazine\\|last1\\=Paoletta\\|first1\\=Michaal\\|title\\=Pre\\-Fabulous?\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|date\\=August 12, 2006\\|volume\\=118\\|issue\\=32\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=lw0EAAAAMBAJ\\&q\\=KOL\\+Secret\\+Slumber\\+Party\\&pg\\=PA9\\|access\\-date\\=November 3, 2004}}{{cite magazine\\|first\\=Ryan \\|last\\=Ball \\|url\\=http://www.animationmagazine.net/tv/cbs\\-blocks\\-out\\-kewlopolis/ \\|title\\=CBS Blocks out KEWLopolis \\|magazine\\=Animation Magazine \\|date\\=August 23, 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=January 27, 2016}}", "In April 2007, DIC Entertainment, Nelvana, and NBC Universal Global Networks announced the establishment of KidsCo, an international children's entertainment network. In October of the same year, DIC filed a lawsuit against the Dam company, alleging fraud and negligent misrepresentation regarding Dam's troll doll and DIC's *[Trollz](/wiki/Trollz_%28TV_series%29 \"Trollz (TV series)\")* television series, which was created under a license from Dam. Dam counter\\-sued DIC, accusing the company of misrepresenting its financial status and harming the troll doll's image and reputation.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.investegate.co.uk/article.aspx?id\\=200704030701202871U \\|title\\=DiC Entertainment: Creation of KidsCo \\|publisher\\=InvestEgate \\|date\\=April 3, 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=January 27, 2016}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://kidscreen.com/2007/10/25/dic\\-20071025/\\|title\\=DIC Entertainment slaps Troll Company with US$20 million lawsuit}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.eleconomista.es/empresas\\-finanzas/noticias/305539/10/07/Lawsuit\\-Charges\\-Fraud\\-In\\-Deals\\-for\\-Iconic\\-Troll\\-Doll\\-DIC\\-Entertainment Cynically\\-Concealed\\-Financial\\-Woes.html \\|title\\=Lawsuit Charges Fraud In Deals for Iconic Troll Doll; DIC Entertainment ''Cynically Concealed'' Financial Woes \\- 31/10/07 \\- 305539 \\|publisher\\=elEconomista.es \\|date\\=October 31, 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=June 23, 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720141033/http://www.eleconomista.es/empresas\\-finanzas/noticias/305539/10/07/Lawsuit\\-Charges\\-Fraud\\-In\\-Deals\\-for\\-Iconic\\-Troll\\-Doll\\-DIC\\-Entertainment\\-Cynically\\-Concealed\\-Financial\\-Woes.html \\|archive\\-date\\=July 20, 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "### 2008–2012: Cookie Jar Group and DHX Media", "In June 2008, DIC Entertainment and Canadian media company Cookie Jar Group announced a merger valued at $87\\.6 million. President [Jeffrey Edell](/wiki/Jeffrey_Scott_Edell \"Jeffrey Scott Edell\") played a key role in finalizing the deal, which was completed on July 23 of the same year. Following the merger, DIC became a subsidiary of Cookie Jar, and the company was subsequently folded into Cookie Jar's operations. DIC Entertainment Corporation was rebranded as Cookie Jar Entertainment (USA) Inc. In 2012, Cookie Jar was acquired by DHX Media, later rebranded as [DHX Media](/wiki/WildBrain \"WildBrain\"){{cite web\\|author1\\=B\\&C Staff\\|title\\=Cookie Jar, DIC Entertainment to Merge\\|url\\=http://www.broadcastingcable.com/news/programming/cookie\\-jar\\-dic\\-entertainment\\-merge/32594\\|website\\=Broadcasting \\& Cable\\|access\\-date\\=January 27, 2016\\|date\\=June 20, 2008}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Cookie Jar, DIC Merge \\|url\\=https://www.animationmagazine.net/tv/cookie\\-jar\\-dic\\-merge/ \\|access\\-date\\=February 11, 2021\\|work\\=\\[\\[Animation Magazine]] \\|date\\=June 20, 2008}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.cjar.com/press/cj\\_press\\_20080723a.php \\|title\\=COOKIE JAR ENTERTAINMENT EXPANDS BRAND PORTFOLIO, TALENT AND GLOBAL REACH WITH CLOSING OF DIC TRANSACTION \\|work\\=Cookie Jar Group \\|date\\=July 23, 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=December 20, 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090531231944/http://www.cjar.com/press/cj\\_press\\_20080723a.php \\|archive\\-date\\=May 31, 2009}} on October 22, 2012\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://kidscreen.com/2012/10/23/dhx\\-purchase\\-of\\-cookie\\-jar\\-completed/ \\|last1\\=Sylvian \\|first1\\=Matthew \\|title\\=DHX purchase of Cookie Jar completed \\|publisher\\=KidScreen \\|date\\=October 23, 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=May 31, 2016}}", "The [DIC Kids Network](/wiki/Cookie_Jar_Kids_Network \"Cookie Jar Kids Network\") was renamed Cookie Jar Kids Network in 2009 and ceased operations in 2011\\. Cookie Jar also produced the final season of *[Sushi Pack](/wiki/Sushi_Pack \"Sushi Pack\")*, one of DIC's last shows, which aired until 2009\\. [KEWLopolis](/wiki/Cookie_Jar_TV \"Cookie Jar TV\") on CBS was renamed Cookie Jar TV in 2009 and closed down in 2013, replaced by [CBS Dream Team](/wiki/CBS_Dream_Team \"CBS Dream Team\"). [Cookie Jar Toons](/wiki/Cookie_Jar_Toons \"Cookie Jar Toons\"), a block on [This TV](/wiki/This_TV \"This TV\") featuring shows from Cookie Jar and DIC, ran from 2008 to 2013\\. In 2014, Cookie Jar ceased operations.", "" ]
Programming blocks ------------------ DIC operated many programming blocks for various television stations across the United States. ### Kideo TV {{main article\|Kideo TV}} **Kideo TV** was an anthology series that was produced as a joint\-venture between DIC Enterprises and their US syndicator [LBS Communications](/wiki/Lexington_Broadcast_Services_Company "Lexington Broadcast Services Company"), with [Mattel](/wiki/Mattel "Mattel") handling sponsorships. The block aired on syndicated television stations, with Metromedia stations agreeing to carry the block by January 1986\., and launched in April 1986\. Kideo TV aired for 90 minutes and consisted of live\-action material with three cartoons from DIC's library used as framing material. *[Rainbow Brite](/wiki/Rainbow_Brite "Rainbow Brite")*, *[Popples](/wiki/Popples_%281986_TV_series%29 "Popples (1986 TV series)")* and *[Ulysses 31](/wiki/Ulysses_31 "Ulysses 31")* first aired on the block, while *[The Get Along Gang](/wiki/The_Get_Along_Gang "The Get Along Gang")* and *[Lady Lovely Locks](/wiki/Lady_Lovely_Locks "Lady Lovely Locks")* were added later on. The "Kideo" brand was also used by LBS as a joint\-venture home video line which released various DIC cartoons on VHS. ### Weekend Funday **Weekend Funday** was a 90\-minute weekend strand produced by DIC that was syndicated through [Coca\-Cola Telecommunications](/wiki/Coca-Cola_Telecommunications "Coca-Cola Telecommunications") during the Fall of 1987\. Weekend Funday normally ran on Sundays under the name of *Funday Sunday*. However, it would also run on Saturdays as *Funtastic Saturday*, if it wanted to go head\-to\-head with the other kidvid blocks.{{Cite news\|date\=1987\-01\-28\|title\=Tribune \& DIC Link With Coca\-Cola Unit\|pages\=44, 54\|work\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]}} It consisted of various half\-hour cartoons from the DIC lineup, including *[Sylvanian Families](/wiki/Sylvanian_Families_%281987_TV_series%29 "Sylvanian Families (1987 TV series)")* and *[Starcom: The U.S. Space Force](/wiki/Starcom:The_U.S._Space_Force "The U.S. Space Force")*. ### Funtown **Funtown** was a daily children's programming block on the [CBN Family Channel](/wiki/Freeform_%28TV_channel%29 "Freeform (TV channel)") that launched on September 11, 1989\. It ran for 26 hours a week, broadcasting from 7:00am–9:00am on weekdays, and 8:00am–11:00am and 4:00pm–6:00pm on weekends. DIC handled the advertising sales of the block, while the CBN Family Channel handled the distribution and marketing. The lineup of shows was a mix of formats, from live\-action\-animated hybrids to live\-action, and programs ranging from original to off\-network shows, whether produced by DIC or other companies. In addition, a companion club program was supposed to be developed. DIC also planned to produce four specials each quarter with the launching of Funtown, combined with the others, mostly holiday specials, for the fourth quarter of 1989\. However, nothing came out of these initial plans. ### Dragon Club **Dragon Club** (Chinese: **小神龙俱乐部** (*Little Dragon Club*)) was a daily television strand operated and distributed through [Capital Cities/ABC](/wiki/Capital_Cities/ABC "Capital Cities/ABC") through various syndicated television stations in China. It launched on September 19, 1994, and broadcast various DIC and ABC programs in addition to third\-party, live\-action and local offerings. After the Disney purchase of Capital Cities/ABC, the strand transitioned to airing Disney\-produced content and continued to broadcast until the start of 2019\. #### Panda Club **Panda Club** (Chinese: **熊猫俱乐部**) was the short\-lived sister strand of *Dragon Club* that launched on October 2, 1994, and broadcast on a smaller selection of stations. Its programming was similar to that of Dragon Club, and broadcast until 1999\. ### Freddy's Firehouse **Freddy's Firehouse** (FFH) was a planned [children's](/wiki/Children%27s_television_series "Children's television series") [educational](/wiki/Educational_program "Educational program") [programming block](/wiki/Block_programming "Block programming") that would broadcast various programs from DIC Entertainment's library, initially announced in May 1998\. In the United States, it was planned to air on [Pax TV](/wiki/Ion_Television "Ion Television") after DIC signed a deal with the broadcaster to become the exclusive supplier of animated programming on the network. The plan was for the block to run on weekends, running for three hours on Saturday and two hours on Sunday. [Buena Vista International Television](/wiki/Disney_Platform_Distribution "Disney Platform Distribution") handled syndication sales, and would also allow for the strand to be sold to other outlets internationally.{{cite magazine\|first\=Richard \|last\=Katz \|url\=https://variety.com/1998/biz/news/paxson\-dic\-in\-kidstuff\-deal\-for\-pax\-net\-1117469438/ \|title\=Paxson, DIC in kidstuff deal for Pax Net \|magazine\=Variety \|date\=April 2, 1998 \|access\-date\=January 27, 2016}} However, the block was rejected in favor of Pax producing the children's block in\-house, with "Cloud 9" (later renamed "Pax Kids") launching with Pax TV on August 31, 1998, and broadcasting until the end of the contract with DIC in 2000\.{{cite web\|first\=John \|last\=Carman \|url\=http://www.sfgate.com/entertainment/article/PAX\-Going\-For\-Piece\-Of\-TV\-Pie\-2994282\.php \|title\=PAX Going For Piece Of TV Pie \|publisher\=SFGate \|date\=August 28, 1998 \|access\-date\=January 27, 2016}} ### National and syndicated broadcast blocks {{See also\|Cookie Jar TV}} * DiC Kids Network – a set of three syndicated children's programming E/I blocks launched on September 1, 2003\. * KOL Secret Slumber Party – a three\-hour long block launched on September 16, 2006, a programming block with partner KOL ([AOL](/wiki/AOL "AOL")'s kids online). * KEWLopolis – launched on September 15, 2007, a programming block with partner [American Greetings](/wiki/American_Greetings "American Greetings").
[ "Programming blocks\n------------------", "DIC operated many programming blocks for various television stations across the United States.", "### Kideo TV", "{{main article\\|Kideo TV}}\n**Kideo TV** was an anthology series that was produced as a joint\\-venture between DIC Enterprises and their US syndicator [LBS Communications](/wiki/Lexington_Broadcast_Services_Company \"Lexington Broadcast Services Company\"), with [Mattel](/wiki/Mattel \"Mattel\") handling sponsorships. The block aired on syndicated television stations, with Metromedia stations agreeing to carry the block by January 1986\\., and launched in April 1986\\.", "Kideo TV aired for 90 minutes and consisted of live\\-action material with three cartoons from DIC's library used as framing material. *[Rainbow Brite](/wiki/Rainbow_Brite \"Rainbow Brite\")*, *[Popples](/wiki/Popples_%281986_TV_series%29 \"Popples (1986 TV series)\")* and *[Ulysses 31](/wiki/Ulysses_31 \"Ulysses 31\")* first aired on the block, while *[The Get Along Gang](/wiki/The_Get_Along_Gang \"The Get Along Gang\")* and *[Lady Lovely Locks](/wiki/Lady_Lovely_Locks \"Lady Lovely Locks\")* were added later on.", "The \"Kideo\" brand was also used by LBS as a joint\\-venture home video line which released various DIC cartoons on VHS.", "### Weekend Funday", "**Weekend Funday** was a 90\\-minute weekend strand produced by DIC that was syndicated through [Coca\\-Cola Telecommunications](/wiki/Coca-Cola_Telecommunications \"Coca-Cola Telecommunications\") during the Fall of 1987\\. Weekend Funday normally ran on Sundays under the name of *Funday Sunday*. However, it would also run on Saturdays as *Funtastic Saturday*, if it wanted to go head\\-to\\-head with the other kidvid blocks.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1987\\-01\\-28\\|title\\=Tribune \\& DIC Link With Coca\\-Cola Unit\\|pages\\=44, 54\\|work\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]}}", "It consisted of various half\\-hour cartoons from the DIC lineup, including *[Sylvanian Families](/wiki/Sylvanian_Families_%281987_TV_series%29 \"Sylvanian Families (1987 TV series)\")* and *[Starcom: The U.S. Space Force](/wiki/Starcom:The_U.S._Space_Force \"The U.S. Space Force\")*.", "### Funtown", "**Funtown** was a daily children's programming block on the [CBN Family Channel](/wiki/Freeform_%28TV_channel%29 \"Freeform (TV channel)\") that launched on September 11, 1989\\. It ran for 26 hours a week, broadcasting from 7:00am–9:00am on weekdays, and 8:00am–11:00am and 4:00pm–6:00pm on weekends. DIC handled the advertising sales of the block, while the CBN Family Channel handled the distribution and marketing.", "The lineup of shows was a mix of formats, from live\\-action\\-animated hybrids to live\\-action, and programs ranging from original to off\\-network shows, whether produced by DIC or other companies. In addition, a companion club program was supposed to be developed. DIC also planned to produce four specials each quarter with the launching of Funtown, combined with the others, mostly holiday specials, for the fourth quarter of 1989\\. However, nothing came out of these initial plans.", "### Dragon Club", "**Dragon Club** (Chinese: **小神龙俱乐部** (*Little Dragon Club*)) was a daily television strand operated and distributed through [Capital Cities/ABC](/wiki/Capital_Cities/ABC \"Capital Cities/ABC\") through various syndicated television stations in China. It launched on September 19, 1994, and broadcast various DIC and ABC programs in addition to third\\-party, live\\-action and local offerings.", "After the Disney purchase of Capital Cities/ABC, the strand transitioned to airing Disney\\-produced content and continued to broadcast until the start of 2019\\.", "#### Panda Club", "**Panda Club** (Chinese: **熊猫俱乐部**) was the short\\-lived sister strand of *Dragon Club* that launched on October 2, 1994, and broadcast on a smaller selection of stations. Its programming was similar to that of Dragon Club, and broadcast until 1999\\.", "### Freddy's Firehouse", "**Freddy's Firehouse** (FFH) was a planned [children's](/wiki/Children%27s_television_series \"Children's television series\") [educational](/wiki/Educational_program \"Educational program\") [programming block](/wiki/Block_programming \"Block programming\") that would broadcast various programs from DIC Entertainment's library, initially announced in May 1998\\. In the United States, it was planned to air on [Pax TV](/wiki/Ion_Television \"Ion Television\") after DIC signed a deal with the broadcaster to become the exclusive supplier of animated programming on the network. The plan was for the block to run on weekends, running for three hours on Saturday and two hours on Sunday. [Buena Vista International Television](/wiki/Disney_Platform_Distribution \"Disney Platform Distribution\") handled syndication sales, and would also allow for the strand to be sold to other outlets internationally.{{cite magazine\\|first\\=Richard \\|last\\=Katz \\|url\\=https://variety.com/1998/biz/news/paxson\\-dic\\-in\\-kidstuff\\-deal\\-for\\-pax\\-net\\-1117469438/ \\|title\\=Paxson, DIC in kidstuff deal for Pax Net \\|magazine\\=Variety \\|date\\=April 2, 1998 \\|access\\-date\\=January 27, 2016}}", "However, the block was rejected in favor of Pax producing the children's block in\\-house, with \"Cloud 9\" (later renamed \"Pax Kids\") launching with Pax TV on August 31, 1998, and broadcasting until the end of the contract with DIC in 2000\\.{{cite web\\|first\\=John \\|last\\=Carman \\|url\\=http://www.sfgate.com/entertainment/article/PAX\\-Going\\-For\\-Piece\\-Of\\-TV\\-Pie\\-2994282\\.php \\|title\\=PAX Going For Piece Of TV Pie \\|publisher\\=SFGate \\|date\\=August 28, 1998 \\|access\\-date\\=January 27, 2016}}", "### National and syndicated broadcast blocks", "{{See also\\|Cookie Jar TV}}\n* DiC Kids Network – a set of three syndicated children's programming E/I blocks launched on September 1, 2003\\.\n* KOL Secret Slumber Party – a three\\-hour long block launched on September 16, 2006, a programming block with partner KOL ([AOL](/wiki/AOL \"AOL\")'s kids online).\n* KEWLopolis – launched on September 15, 2007, a programming block with partner [American Greetings](/wiki/American_Greetings \"American Greetings\").", "" ]
Biography --------- ### Youth General Leiser was born in [Portland, Oregon](/wiki/Portland%2C_Oregon "Portland, Oregon"), in 1927\. He was raised in [Twin Falls, Idaho](/wiki/Twin_Falls%2C_Idaho "Twin Falls, Idaho"), where he graduated from high school in 1945\. He enlisted in the [U.S. Army](/wiki/United_States_Army "United States Army") in May 1945 and entered the [United States Military Academy](/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy "United States Military Academy") at [West Point, New York](/wiki/West_Point%2C_New_York "West Point, New York"), in July 1946\. ### Military career He graduated from the academy in June 1950 with a commission as a second lieutenant and a bachelor of science degree. In December 1951, after completion of pilot training at [Williams Air Force Base](/wiki/Williams_Air_Force_Base "Williams Air Force Base"), [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona "Arizona"), and gunnery training at [Nellis Air Force Base](/wiki/Nellis_Air_Force_Base "Nellis Air Force Base"), [Nevada](/wiki/Nevada "Nevada"), General Leiser was assigned to the 44th Fighter\-Bomber Squadron at [Clark Air Base](/wiki/Clark_Air_Base "Clark Air Base") in the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines"). In February 1952 he went to Korea to serve as a pilot and flight commander with the 35th Fighter\-Bomber Squadron, 8th Fighter\-Bomber Wing, at Suwon, and flew 100 combat missions in the F\-80\. He returned to the United States in August 1952 to serve as F\-94 and F\-89 pilot and assistant operations officer with the 74th Fighter\-Interceptor Squadron at Presque Isle Air Force Base, Maine. General Leiser was maintenance officer for that unit when the squadron went to Thule Air Base, Greenland, in August 1954, the first F\-89 unit to deploy from the United States. His next assignment was in October 1955 as a flight commander with the 460th Fighter\-Interceptor Squadron at [Portland International Airport](/wiki/Portland_International_Airport "Portland International Airport") in Oregon. During this four\-year tour of duty, he flew both the F\-89 and F\-102 aircraft and attained the Air Defense Command Skill Rating of Expert. In September 1959, General Leiser was selected for an [Air Force Institute of Technology](/wiki/Air_Force_Institute_of_Technology "Air Force Institute of Technology") graduate program at [Wright\-Patterson Air Force Base](/wiki/Wright-Patterson_Air_Force_Base "Wright-Patterson Air Force Base"), [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio "Ohio"). Two years later he graduated with a Master of Science degree in astronautical engineering. He was assigned in August 1961 to the [U.S. Air Force Academy](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Academy "United States Air Force Academy") at [Colorado Springs, Colorado](/wiki/Colorado_Springs%2C_Colorado "Colorado Springs, Colorado"), as an instructor with the Department of Mechanics, and later served as assistant professor and associate professor with the Department of Astronautics. He also established the course of instruction adopted as the general engineering major. General Leiser completed F\-100 transition and combat crew training at [Luke Air Force Base](/wiki/Luke_Air_Force_Base "Luke Air Force Base"), Arizona, in December 1966, and was transferred to the Republic of Vietnam. He served as executive officer, Current Plans Division, Directorate of Combat Operations, at Seventh Air Force Headquarters, Tan Son Nhut Air Base, Saigon. He returned to the United States in December 1967 and was assigned to Headquarters Air Force Systems Command at [Andrews Air Force Base](/wiki/Andrews_Air_Force_Base "Andrews Air Force Base"), [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland "Maryland"), in the Strategic Analysis Division, Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Development Plans, as lead staff analyst for the B\-1 Bomber Defense Missile and Subsonic Cruise Armed Decoy. He attended the [Naval War College](/wiki/Naval_War_College "Naval War College") at [Newport, Rhode Island](/wiki/Newport%2C_Rhode_Island "Newport, Rhode Island"), from August 1969 to July 1970\. He then was assigned to [North American Air Defense Command](/wiki/North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command "North American Aerospace Defense Command") at [Ent Air Force Base](/wiki/Ent_Air_Force_Base "Ent Air Force Base"), Colorado, where he was command director for the deputy chief of staff for combat operations. In March 1972, General Leiser was named commander, 23d Air Division, Aerospace Defense Command, with additional duty as deputy commander, 23d North American Air Defense/Continental Air Defense Region, with headquarters at [Duluth International Airport](/wiki/Duluth_International_Airport "Duluth International Airport"), Minnesota. In July 1974 he became commander of the 24th NORAD/CONAD Region and the 24th Air Division, ADC, Malmstrom Air Force Base, Mont. After a command reorganization on July 1, 1975, General Leiser had a position title change to commander, 24th NORAD Region, with additional duty as commander, 24th Air Division, ADCOM. The division was awarded the Air Force Outstanding Unit Award during his tenure. General Leiser assumed the position of chief of staff of Allied Air Forces Southern Europe at Naples, Italy, April 1, 1977\. He is a command pilot, whose military decorations and awards include the [Legion of Merit](/wiki/Legion_of_Merit "Legion of Merit") with oak leaf cluster, [Distinguished Flying Cross](/wiki/Distinguished_Flying_Cross_%28United_States%29 "Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)"), [Bronze Star Medal](/wiki/Bronze_Star_Medal "Bronze Star Medal"), [Air Medal](/wiki/Air_Medal "Air Medal") with three oak leaf clusters, and the [Air Force Commendation Medal](/wiki/Air_Force_Commendation_Medal "Air Force Commendation Medal").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.af.mil/information/bios/bio.asp?bioID\=6177 \|title\=Information \> Biographies \> MAJOR GENERAL LOUIS G. LEISER \|publisher\=United States Air Force \|accessdate\=2009\-11\-13 \|archiveurl\=https://archive.today/20120716182932/http://www.af.mil/information/bios/bio.asp?bioID\=6177 \|archivedate\=2012\-07\-16 \|url\-status\=dead }} ### Decorations * [60px](/wiki/Image:Legion_of_Merit_ribbon.svg "Legion of Merit ribbon.svg")  [Legion of Merit](/wiki/Legion_of_Merit "Legion of Merit") with one oak leaf clusters * [60px](/wiki/Image:Distinguished_Flying_Cross_ribbon.svg "Distinguished Flying Cross ribbon.svg")  [Distinguished Flying Cross](/wiki/Distinguished_Flying_Cross_%28United_States%29 "Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)") * [60px](/wiki/Image:Bronze_Star_Medal_ribbon.svg "Bronze Star Medal ribbon.svg")  [Bronze Star Medal](/wiki/Bronze_Star_Medal "Bronze Star Medal") * [60px](/wiki/Image:Air_Medal_ribbon.svg "Air Medal ribbon.svg")  [Air Medal](/wiki/Air_Medal "Air Medal") with three oak leaf clusters * [60px](/wiki/Image:Outstanding_Unit_ribbon.svg "Outstanding Unit ribbon.svg")  [Air Force Outstanding Unit Award](/wiki/Air_Force_Outstanding_Unit_Award "Air Force Outstanding Unit Award") ### Activities after retirement He moved to the [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C.") area in the mid 1980s.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\-dyn/content/article/2009/11/11/AR2009111126950\.html?wprss\=rss\_metro/obituaries\|title\=Obituaries: Louis G. Leiser, Air Force Major General \|date\=12 November 2009\|work\=The Washington Post\|accessdate\=2009\-11\-13}}
[ "Biography\n---------", "### Youth", "General Leiser was born in [Portland, Oregon](/wiki/Portland%2C_Oregon \"Portland, Oregon\"), in 1927\\. He was raised in [Twin Falls, Idaho](/wiki/Twin_Falls%2C_Idaho \"Twin Falls, Idaho\"), where he graduated from high school in 1945\\. He enlisted in the [U.S. Army](/wiki/United_States_Army \"United States Army\") in May 1945 and entered the [United States Military Academy](/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy \"United States Military Academy\") at [West Point, New York](/wiki/West_Point%2C_New_York \"West Point, New York\"), in July 1946\\.", "### Military career", "He graduated from the academy in June 1950 with a commission as a second lieutenant and a bachelor of science degree.\nIn December 1951, after completion of pilot training at [Williams Air Force Base](/wiki/Williams_Air_Force_Base \"Williams Air Force Base\"), [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona \"Arizona\"), and gunnery training at [Nellis Air Force Base](/wiki/Nellis_Air_Force_Base \"Nellis Air Force Base\"), [Nevada](/wiki/Nevada \"Nevada\"), General Leiser was assigned to the 44th Fighter\\-Bomber Squadron at [Clark Air Base](/wiki/Clark_Air_Base \"Clark Air Base\") in the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\"). In February 1952 he went to Korea to serve as a pilot and flight commander with the 35th Fighter\\-Bomber Squadron, 8th Fighter\\-Bomber Wing, at Suwon, and flew 100 combat missions in the F\\-80\\.", "He returned to the United States in August 1952 to serve as F\\-94 and F\\-89 pilot and assistant operations officer with the 74th Fighter\\-Interceptor Squadron at Presque Isle Air Force Base, Maine. General Leiser was maintenance officer for that unit when the squadron went to Thule Air Base, Greenland, in August 1954, the first F\\-89 unit to deploy from the United States.", "His next assignment was in October 1955 as a flight commander with the 460th Fighter\\-Interceptor Squadron at [Portland International Airport](/wiki/Portland_International_Airport \"Portland International Airport\") in Oregon. During this four\\-year tour of duty, he flew both the F\\-89 and F\\-102 aircraft and attained the Air Defense Command Skill Rating of Expert.", "In September 1959, General Leiser was selected for an [Air Force Institute of Technology](/wiki/Air_Force_Institute_of_Technology \"Air Force Institute of Technology\") graduate program at [Wright\\-Patterson Air Force Base](/wiki/Wright-Patterson_Air_Force_Base \"Wright-Patterson Air Force Base\"), [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio \"Ohio\"). Two years later he graduated with a Master of Science degree in astronautical engineering.", "He was assigned in August 1961 to the [U.S. Air Force Academy](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Academy \"United States Air Force Academy\") at [Colorado Springs, Colorado](/wiki/Colorado_Springs%2C_Colorado \"Colorado Springs, Colorado\"), as an instructor with the Department of Mechanics, and later served as assistant professor and associate professor with the Department of Astronautics. He also established the course of instruction adopted as the general engineering major.", "General Leiser completed F\\-100 transition and combat crew training at [Luke Air Force Base](/wiki/Luke_Air_Force_Base \"Luke Air Force Base\"), Arizona, in December 1966, and was transferred to the Republic of Vietnam. He served as executive officer, Current Plans Division, Directorate of Combat Operations, at Seventh Air Force Headquarters, Tan Son Nhut Air Base, Saigon.", "He returned to the United States in December 1967 and was assigned to Headquarters Air Force Systems Command at [Andrews Air Force Base](/wiki/Andrews_Air_Force_Base \"Andrews Air Force Base\"), [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland \"Maryland\"), in the Strategic Analysis Division, Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Development Plans, as lead staff analyst for the B\\-1 Bomber Defense Missile and Subsonic Cruise Armed Decoy. He attended the [Naval War College](/wiki/Naval_War_College \"Naval War College\") at [Newport, Rhode Island](/wiki/Newport%2C_Rhode_Island \"Newport, Rhode Island\"), from August 1969 to July 1970\\.", "He then was assigned to [North American Air Defense Command](/wiki/North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command \"North American Aerospace Defense Command\") at [Ent Air Force Base](/wiki/Ent_Air_Force_Base \"Ent Air Force Base\"), Colorado, where he was command director for the deputy chief of staff for combat operations.", "In March 1972, General Leiser was named commander, 23d Air Division, Aerospace Defense Command, with additional duty as deputy commander, 23d North American Air Defense/Continental Air Defense Region, with headquarters at [Duluth International Airport](/wiki/Duluth_International_Airport \"Duluth International Airport\"), Minnesota.", "In July 1974 he became commander of the 24th NORAD/CONAD Region and the 24th Air Division, ADC, Malmstrom Air Force Base, Mont. After a command reorganization on July 1, 1975, General Leiser had a position title change to commander, 24th NORAD Region, with additional duty as commander, 24th Air Division, ADCOM. The division was awarded the Air Force Outstanding Unit Award during his tenure.", "General Leiser assumed the position of chief of staff of Allied Air Forces Southern Europe at Naples, Italy, April 1, 1977\\.", "He is a command pilot, whose military decorations and awards include the [Legion of Merit](/wiki/Legion_of_Merit \"Legion of Merit\") with oak leaf cluster, [Distinguished Flying Cross](/wiki/Distinguished_Flying_Cross_%28United_States%29 \"Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)\"), [Bronze Star Medal](/wiki/Bronze_Star_Medal \"Bronze Star Medal\"), [Air Medal](/wiki/Air_Medal \"Air Medal\") with three oak leaf clusters, and the [Air Force Commendation Medal](/wiki/Air_Force_Commendation_Medal \"Air Force Commendation Medal\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.af.mil/information/bios/bio.asp?bioID\\=6177 \\|title\\=Information \\> Biographies \\> MAJOR GENERAL LOUIS G. LEISER \\|publisher\\=United States Air Force \\|accessdate\\=2009\\-11\\-13 \\|archiveurl\\=https://archive.today/20120716182932/http://www.af.mil/information/bios/bio.asp?bioID\\=6177 \\|archivedate\\=2012\\-07\\-16 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "### Decorations", "* [60px](/wiki/Image:Legion_of_Merit_ribbon.svg \"Legion of Merit ribbon.svg\")  [Legion of Merit](/wiki/Legion_of_Merit \"Legion of Merit\") with one oak leaf clusters\n* [60px](/wiki/Image:Distinguished_Flying_Cross_ribbon.svg \"Distinguished Flying Cross ribbon.svg\")  [Distinguished Flying Cross](/wiki/Distinguished_Flying_Cross_%28United_States%29 \"Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)\")\n* [60px](/wiki/Image:Bronze_Star_Medal_ribbon.svg \"Bronze Star Medal ribbon.svg\")  [Bronze Star Medal](/wiki/Bronze_Star_Medal \"Bronze Star Medal\")\n* [60px](/wiki/Image:Air_Medal_ribbon.svg \"Air Medal ribbon.svg\")  [Air Medal](/wiki/Air_Medal \"Air Medal\") with three oak leaf clusters\n* [60px](/wiki/Image:Outstanding_Unit_ribbon.svg \"Outstanding Unit ribbon.svg\")  [Air Force Outstanding Unit Award](/wiki/Air_Force_Outstanding_Unit_Award \"Air Force Outstanding Unit Award\")", "### Activities after retirement", "He moved to the [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\") area in the mid 1980s.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\\-dyn/content/article/2009/11/11/AR2009111126950\\.html?wprss\\=rss\\_metro/obituaries\\|title\\=Obituaries: Louis G. Leiser, Air Force Major General \\|date\\=12 November 2009\\|work\\=The Washington Post\\|accessdate\\=2009\\-11\\-13}}", "" ]
### Military career He graduated from the academy in June 1950 with a commission as a second lieutenant and a bachelor of science degree. In December 1951, after completion of pilot training at [Williams Air Force Base](/wiki/Williams_Air_Force_Base "Williams Air Force Base"), [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona "Arizona"), and gunnery training at [Nellis Air Force Base](/wiki/Nellis_Air_Force_Base "Nellis Air Force Base"), [Nevada](/wiki/Nevada "Nevada"), General Leiser was assigned to the 44th Fighter\-Bomber Squadron at [Clark Air Base](/wiki/Clark_Air_Base "Clark Air Base") in the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines"). In February 1952 he went to Korea to serve as a pilot and flight commander with the 35th Fighter\-Bomber Squadron, 8th Fighter\-Bomber Wing, at Suwon, and flew 100 combat missions in the F\-80\. He returned to the United States in August 1952 to serve as F\-94 and F\-89 pilot and assistant operations officer with the 74th Fighter\-Interceptor Squadron at Presque Isle Air Force Base, Maine. General Leiser was maintenance officer for that unit when the squadron went to Thule Air Base, Greenland, in August 1954, the first F\-89 unit to deploy from the United States. His next assignment was in October 1955 as a flight commander with the 460th Fighter\-Interceptor Squadron at [Portland International Airport](/wiki/Portland_International_Airport "Portland International Airport") in Oregon. During this four\-year tour of duty, he flew both the F\-89 and F\-102 aircraft and attained the Air Defense Command Skill Rating of Expert. In September 1959, General Leiser was selected for an [Air Force Institute of Technology](/wiki/Air_Force_Institute_of_Technology "Air Force Institute of Technology") graduate program at [Wright\-Patterson Air Force Base](/wiki/Wright-Patterson_Air_Force_Base "Wright-Patterson Air Force Base"), [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio "Ohio"). Two years later he graduated with a Master of Science degree in astronautical engineering. He was assigned in August 1961 to the [U.S. Air Force Academy](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Academy "United States Air Force Academy") at [Colorado Springs, Colorado](/wiki/Colorado_Springs%2C_Colorado "Colorado Springs, Colorado"), as an instructor with the Department of Mechanics, and later served as assistant professor and associate professor with the Department of Astronautics. He also established the course of instruction adopted as the general engineering major. General Leiser completed F\-100 transition and combat crew training at [Luke Air Force Base](/wiki/Luke_Air_Force_Base "Luke Air Force Base"), Arizona, in December 1966, and was transferred to the Republic of Vietnam. He served as executive officer, Current Plans Division, Directorate of Combat Operations, at Seventh Air Force Headquarters, Tan Son Nhut Air Base, Saigon. He returned to the United States in December 1967 and was assigned to Headquarters Air Force Systems Command at [Andrews Air Force Base](/wiki/Andrews_Air_Force_Base "Andrews Air Force Base"), [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland "Maryland"), in the Strategic Analysis Division, Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Development Plans, as lead staff analyst for the B\-1 Bomber Defense Missile and Subsonic Cruise Armed Decoy. He attended the [Naval War College](/wiki/Naval_War_College "Naval War College") at [Newport, Rhode Island](/wiki/Newport%2C_Rhode_Island "Newport, Rhode Island"), from August 1969 to July 1970\. He then was assigned to [North American Air Defense Command](/wiki/North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command "North American Aerospace Defense Command") at [Ent Air Force Base](/wiki/Ent_Air_Force_Base "Ent Air Force Base"), Colorado, where he was command director for the deputy chief of staff for combat operations. In March 1972, General Leiser was named commander, 23d Air Division, Aerospace Defense Command, with additional duty as deputy commander, 23d North American Air Defense/Continental Air Defense Region, with headquarters at [Duluth International Airport](/wiki/Duluth_International_Airport "Duluth International Airport"), Minnesota. In July 1974 he became commander of the 24th NORAD/CONAD Region and the 24th Air Division, ADC, Malmstrom Air Force Base, Mont. After a command reorganization on July 1, 1975, General Leiser had a position title change to commander, 24th NORAD Region, with additional duty as commander, 24th Air Division, ADCOM. The division was awarded the Air Force Outstanding Unit Award during his tenure. General Leiser assumed the position of chief of staff of Allied Air Forces Southern Europe at Naples, Italy, April 1, 1977\. He is a command pilot, whose military decorations and awards include the [Legion of Merit](/wiki/Legion_of_Merit "Legion of Merit") with oak leaf cluster, [Distinguished Flying Cross](/wiki/Distinguished_Flying_Cross_%28United_States%29 "Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)"), [Bronze Star Medal](/wiki/Bronze_Star_Medal "Bronze Star Medal"), [Air Medal](/wiki/Air_Medal "Air Medal") with three oak leaf clusters, and the [Air Force Commendation Medal](/wiki/Air_Force_Commendation_Medal "Air Force Commendation Medal").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.af.mil/information/bios/bio.asp?bioID\=6177 \|title\=Information \> Biographies \> MAJOR GENERAL LOUIS G. LEISER \|publisher\=United States Air Force \|accessdate\=2009\-11\-13 \|archiveurl\=https://archive.today/20120716182932/http://www.af.mil/information/bios/bio.asp?bioID\=6177 \|archivedate\=2012\-07\-16 \|url\-status\=dead }}
[ "### Military career", "He graduated from the academy in June 1950 with a commission as a second lieutenant and a bachelor of science degree.\nIn December 1951, after completion of pilot training at [Williams Air Force Base](/wiki/Williams_Air_Force_Base \"Williams Air Force Base\"), [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona \"Arizona\"), and gunnery training at [Nellis Air Force Base](/wiki/Nellis_Air_Force_Base \"Nellis Air Force Base\"), [Nevada](/wiki/Nevada \"Nevada\"), General Leiser was assigned to the 44th Fighter\\-Bomber Squadron at [Clark Air Base](/wiki/Clark_Air_Base \"Clark Air Base\") in the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\"). In February 1952 he went to Korea to serve as a pilot and flight commander with the 35th Fighter\\-Bomber Squadron, 8th Fighter\\-Bomber Wing, at Suwon, and flew 100 combat missions in the F\\-80\\.", "He returned to the United States in August 1952 to serve as F\\-94 and F\\-89 pilot and assistant operations officer with the 74th Fighter\\-Interceptor Squadron at Presque Isle Air Force Base, Maine. General Leiser was maintenance officer for that unit when the squadron went to Thule Air Base, Greenland, in August 1954, the first F\\-89 unit to deploy from the United States.", "His next assignment was in October 1955 as a flight commander with the 460th Fighter\\-Interceptor Squadron at [Portland International Airport](/wiki/Portland_International_Airport \"Portland International Airport\") in Oregon. During this four\\-year tour of duty, he flew both the F\\-89 and F\\-102 aircraft and attained the Air Defense Command Skill Rating of Expert.", "In September 1959, General Leiser was selected for an [Air Force Institute of Technology](/wiki/Air_Force_Institute_of_Technology \"Air Force Institute of Technology\") graduate program at [Wright\\-Patterson Air Force Base](/wiki/Wright-Patterson_Air_Force_Base \"Wright-Patterson Air Force Base\"), [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio \"Ohio\"). Two years later he graduated with a Master of Science degree in astronautical engineering.", "He was assigned in August 1961 to the [U.S. Air Force Academy](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Academy \"United States Air Force Academy\") at [Colorado Springs, Colorado](/wiki/Colorado_Springs%2C_Colorado \"Colorado Springs, Colorado\"), as an instructor with the Department of Mechanics, and later served as assistant professor and associate professor with the Department of Astronautics. He also established the course of instruction adopted as the general engineering major.", "General Leiser completed F\\-100 transition and combat crew training at [Luke Air Force Base](/wiki/Luke_Air_Force_Base \"Luke Air Force Base\"), Arizona, in December 1966, and was transferred to the Republic of Vietnam. He served as executive officer, Current Plans Division, Directorate of Combat Operations, at Seventh Air Force Headquarters, Tan Son Nhut Air Base, Saigon.", "He returned to the United States in December 1967 and was assigned to Headquarters Air Force Systems Command at [Andrews Air Force Base](/wiki/Andrews_Air_Force_Base \"Andrews Air Force Base\"), [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland \"Maryland\"), in the Strategic Analysis Division, Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Development Plans, as lead staff analyst for the B\\-1 Bomber Defense Missile and Subsonic Cruise Armed Decoy. He attended the [Naval War College](/wiki/Naval_War_College \"Naval War College\") at [Newport, Rhode Island](/wiki/Newport%2C_Rhode_Island \"Newport, Rhode Island\"), from August 1969 to July 1970\\.", "He then was assigned to [North American Air Defense Command](/wiki/North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command \"North American Aerospace Defense Command\") at [Ent Air Force Base](/wiki/Ent_Air_Force_Base \"Ent Air Force Base\"), Colorado, where he was command director for the deputy chief of staff for combat operations.", "In March 1972, General Leiser was named commander, 23d Air Division, Aerospace Defense Command, with additional duty as deputy commander, 23d North American Air Defense/Continental Air Defense Region, with headquarters at [Duluth International Airport](/wiki/Duluth_International_Airport \"Duluth International Airport\"), Minnesota.", "In July 1974 he became commander of the 24th NORAD/CONAD Region and the 24th Air Division, ADC, Malmstrom Air Force Base, Mont. After a command reorganization on July 1, 1975, General Leiser had a position title change to commander, 24th NORAD Region, with additional duty as commander, 24th Air Division, ADCOM. The division was awarded the Air Force Outstanding Unit Award during his tenure.", "General Leiser assumed the position of chief of staff of Allied Air Forces Southern Europe at Naples, Italy, April 1, 1977\\.", "He is a command pilot, whose military decorations and awards include the [Legion of Merit](/wiki/Legion_of_Merit \"Legion of Merit\") with oak leaf cluster, [Distinguished Flying Cross](/wiki/Distinguished_Flying_Cross_%28United_States%29 \"Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)\"), [Bronze Star Medal](/wiki/Bronze_Star_Medal \"Bronze Star Medal\"), [Air Medal](/wiki/Air_Medal \"Air Medal\") with three oak leaf clusters, and the [Air Force Commendation Medal](/wiki/Air_Force_Commendation_Medal \"Air Force Commendation Medal\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.af.mil/information/bios/bio.asp?bioID\\=6177 \\|title\\=Information \\> Biographies \\> MAJOR GENERAL LOUIS G. LEISER \\|publisher\\=United States Air Force \\|accessdate\\=2009\\-11\\-13 \\|archiveurl\\=https://archive.today/20120716182932/http://www.af.mil/information/bios/bio.asp?bioID\\=6177 \\|archivedate\\=2012\\-07\\-16 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "" ]
Function -------- ### Regulation of degradation through phosphorylation The cellular level of β\-catenin is mostly controlled by its [ubiquitination](/wiki/Ubiquitination "Ubiquitination") and [proteosomal degradation](/wiki/Proteasome "Proteasome"). The [E3 ubiquitin ligase](/wiki/Ubiquitin_ligase "Ubiquitin ligase") [TrCP1](/wiki/BTRC_%28gene%29 "BTRC (gene)") (also known as β\-TrCP) can recognize β\-catenin as its substrate through a short linear motif on the disordered N\-terminus. However, this motif (Asp\-Ser\-Gly\-Ile\-His\-Ser) of β\-catenin needs to be [phosphorylated](/wiki/Protein_phosphorylation "Protein phosphorylation") on the two [serines](/wiki/Serine "Serine") in order to be capable to bind β\-TrCP. Phosphorylation of the motif is performed by [Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3](/wiki/GSK-3 "GSK-3") alpha and beta (GSK3α and GSK3β). GSK3s are constitutively active enzymes implicated in several important regulatory processes. There is one requirement, though: substrates of GSK3 need to be pre\-phosphorylated four amino acids downstream (C\-terminally) of the actual target site. Thus it also requires a "priming kinase" for its activities. In the case of β\-catenin, the most important priming kinase is [Casein Kinase I](/wiki/Casein_kinase_1 "Casein kinase 1") (CKI). Once a serine\-threonine rich substrate has been "primed", GSK3 can "walk" across it from C\-terminal to N\-terminal direction, phosphorylating every 4th serine or [threonine](/wiki/Threonine "Threonine") residues in a row. This process will result in dual phosphorylation of the aforementioned β\-TrCP recognition motif as well. ### The beta\-catenin destruction complex For [GSK3](/wiki/GSK-3 "GSK-3") to be a highly effective [kinase](/wiki/Protein_kinase "Protein kinase") on a substrate, pre\-phosphorylation is not enough. There is one additional requirement: Similar to the [mitogen\-activated protein kinases](/wiki/Mitogen-activated_protein_kinases "Mitogen-activated protein kinases") (MAPKs), substrates need to associate with this enzyme through high\-affinity *docking motifs*. β\-Catenin contains no such motifs, but a special protein does: [axin](/wiki/AXIN1 "AXIN1"). What is more, its GSK3 docking motif is directly adjacent to a β\-catenin binding motif. This way, *axin* acts as a true [scaffold protein](/wiki/Scaffold_protein "Scaffold protein"), bringing an enzyme (GSK3\) together with its substrate (β\-catenin) into close physical proximity. [thumb\|left\|upright\=1\.5\|Simplified structure of the β\-catenin destruction complex. Note the high proportion of intrinsically disordered segments in the axin and APC proteins.](/wiki/File:Beta-catenin-destruction-complex.png "Beta-catenin-destruction-complex.png") But even *axin* does not act alone. Through its N\-terminal [regulator of G\-protein signaling](/wiki/Regulator_of_G_protein_signalling "Regulator of G protein signalling") (RGS) domain, it recruits the [adenomatous polyposis coli](/wiki/Adenomatous_polyposis_coli "Adenomatous polyposis coli") (APC) protein. *APC* is like a huge "Christmas tree": with a multitude of β\-catenin binding motifs (one *APC* molecule alone possesses 11 such motifs ), it may collect as many β\-catenin molecules as possible.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Liu J, Xing Y, Hinds TR, Zheng J, Xu W \| title \= The third 20 amino acid repeat is the tightest binding site of APC for beta\-catenin \| journal \= Journal of Molecular Biology \| volume \= 360 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 133–144 \| date \= June 2006 \| pmid \= 16753179 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.jmb.2006\.04\.064 }} *APC* can interact with multiple *axin* molecules at the same time as it has three *SAMP motifs* (Ser\-Ala\-Met\-Pro) to bind the [RGS domains](/wiki/Regulator_of_G_protein_signalling "Regulator of G protein signalling") found in *axin*. In addition, axin also has the potential to oligomerize through its C\-terminal DIX domain. The result is a huge, multimeric protein assembly dedicated to β\-catenin phosphorylation. This complex is usually called the *beta\-catenin destruction complex*, although it is distinct from the [proteosome](/wiki/Proteosome "Proteosome") machinery actually responsible for β\-catenin degradation.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Kimelman D, Xu W \| title \= beta\-catenin destruction complex: insights and questions from a structural perspective \| journal \= Oncogene \| volume \= 25 \| issue \= 57 \| pages \= 7482–7491 \| date \= December 2006 \| pmid \= 17143292 \| doi \= 10\.1038/sj.onc.1210055 \| s2cid \= 20529520 \| doi\-access \= }} It only marks β\-catenin molecules for subsequent destruction. ### Wnt signaling and the regulation of destruction In resting cells, [axin](/wiki/AXIN1 "AXIN1") molecules oligomerize with each other through their C\-terminal DIX domains, which have two binding interfaces. Thus they can build linear oligomers or even polymers inside the cytoplasm of cells. DIX domains are unique: the only other proteins known to have a DIX domain are [Dishevelled](/wiki/Dishevelled "Dishevelled") and [DIXDC1](/wiki/DIXDC1 "DIXDC1"). (The single *Dsh* protein of *[Drosophila](/wiki/Drosophila "Drosophila")* corresponds to three paralogous genes, *Dvl1*, *Dvl2* and *Dvl3* in [mammals](/wiki/Mammals "Mammals").) [Dsh](/wiki/Dishevelled "Dishevelled") associates with the cytoplasmic regions of [Frizzled](/wiki/Frizzled "Frizzled") receptors with its [PDZ](/wiki/PDZ_domain "PDZ domain") and [DEP](/wiki/DEP_domain "DEP domain") [domains](/wiki/Protein_domain "Protein domain"). When a [Wnt](/wiki/Wnt_signaling_pathway "Wnt signaling pathway") molecule binds to *Frizzled*, it induces a poorly known cascade of events, that result in the exposure of dishevelled's DIX domain and the creation of a perfect binding site for *axin*. Axin is then titrated away from its oligomeric assemblies – the β\-catenin destruction complex – by *Dsh*.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Fiedler M, Mendoza\-Topaz C, Rutherford TJ, Mieszczanek J, Bienz M \| title \= Dishevelled interacts with the DIX domain polymerization interface of Axin to interfere with its function in down\-regulating β\-catenin \| journal \= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \| volume \= 108 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 1937–1942 \| date \= February 2011 \| pmid \= 21245303 \| pmc \= 3033301 \| doi \= 10\.1073/pnas.1017063108 \| doi\-access \= free \| bibcode \= 2011PNAS..108\.1937F }} Once bound to the receptor complex, *axin* will be rendered incompetent for β\-catenin binding and GSK3 activity. Importantly, the cytoplasmic segments of the Frizzled\-associated [LRP5](/wiki/LRP5 "LRP5") and [LRP6](/wiki/LRP6 "LRP6") proteins contain GSK3 pseudo\-substrate sequences (Pro\-Pro\-Pro\-Ser\-Pro\-x\-Ser), appropriately "primed" (pre\-phosphorylated) by [CKI](/wiki/Casein_kinase_1 "Casein kinase 1"), as if it were a true substrate of GSK3\. These false target sites greatly inhibit GSK3 activity in a competitive manner.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Metcalfe C, Bienz M \| title \= Inhibition of GSK3 by Wnt signalling\-\-two contrasting models \| journal \= Journal of Cell Science \| volume \= 124 \| issue \= Pt 21 \| pages \= 3537–3544 \| date \= November 2011 \| pmid \= 22083140 \| doi \= 10\.1242/jcs.091991 \| doi\-access \= free }} This way receptor\-bound *axin* will abolish mediating the phosphorylation of β\-catenin. Since β\-catenin is no longer marked for destruction, but continues to be produced, its concentration will increase. Once β\-catenin levels rise high enough to saturate all binding sites in the cytoplasm, it will also translocate into the nucleus. Upon engaging the transcription factors [LEF1](/wiki/Lymphoid_enhancer-binding_factor_1 "Lymphoid enhancer-binding factor 1"), [TCF1](/wiki/TCF1 "TCF1"), [TCF2](/wiki/TCF2 "TCF2") or [TCF3](/wiki/TCF3 "TCF3"), β\-catenin forces them to disengage their previous partners: Groucho proteins. Unlike *Groucho*, that recruit [transcriptional repressors](/wiki/Repressor "Repressor") (e.g. [histone\-lysine methyltransferases](/wiki/Histone_methyltransferase "Histone methyltransferase")), β\-catenin will bind [transcriptional activators](/wiki/Coactivator_%28genetics%29 "Coactivator (genetics)"), switching on target genes. ### Role in cell–cell adhesion [thumb\|left\|upright\=1\.25\|The moonlighting of β\-catenin.](/wiki/File:Beta-catenin-moonlighting.png "Beta-catenin-moonlighting.png") [Cell–cell adhesion](/wiki/Cell%E2%80%93cell_adhesion "Cell–cell adhesion") complexes are essential for the formation of complex animal tissues. β\-catenin is part of a [protein complex](/wiki/Protein_complex "Protein complex") that form [adherens junctions](/wiki/Adherens_junctions "Adherens junctions").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Brembeck FH, Rosário M, Birchmeier W \| title \= Balancing cell adhesion and Wnt signaling, the key role of beta\-catenin \| journal \= Current Opinion in Genetics \& Development \| volume \= 16 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 51–59 \| date \= February 2006 \| pmid \= 16377174 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.gde.2005\.12\.007 }} These cell–cell adhesion complexes are necessary for the creation and maintenance of [epithelial cell](/wiki/Epithelium "Epithelium") layers and barriers. As a component of the complex, β\-catenin can regulate cell growth and adhesion between cells. It may also be responsible for transmitting the contact inhibition signal that causes cells to stop dividing once the epithelial sheet is complete.{{cite web \| title \= Entrez Gene: catenin (cadherin\-associated protein)\| url \= https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db\=gene\&Cmd\=ShowDetailView\&TermToSearch\=1499}} The E\-cadherin – β\-catenin – α\-catenin complex is weakly associated to [actin filaments](/wiki/Actin "Actin"). Adherens junctions require significant [protein dynamics](/wiki/Protein_dynamics "Protein dynamics") in order to link to the actin cytoskeleton, thereby enabling [mechanotransduction](/wiki/Mechanotransduction "Mechanotransduction").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Bush M, Alhanshali BM, Qian S, Stanley CB, Heller WT, Matsui T, Weiss TM, Nicholl ID, Walz T, Callaway DJ, Bu Z \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= An ensemble of flexible conformations underlies mechanotransduction by the cadherin\-catenin adhesion complex \| journal \= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \| volume \= 116 \| issue \= 43 \| pages \= 21545–21555 \| date \= October 2019 \| pmid \= 31591245 \| pmc \= 6815173 \| doi \= 10\.1073/pnas.1911489116 \| doi\-access \= free \| bibcode \= 2019PNAS..11621545B }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Röper JC, Mitrossilis D, Stirnemann G, Waharte F, Brito I, Fernandez\-Sanchez ME, Baaden M, Salamero J, Farge E \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= The major β\-catenin/E\-cadherin junctional binding site is a primary molecular mechano\-transductor of differentiation ''in vivo'' \| journal \= eLife \| volume \= 7 \| date \= July 2018 \| pmid \= 30024850 \| doi \= 10\.7554/eLife.33381 \| pmc \= 6053302 \| doi\-access \= free }} An important component of the adherens junctions are the cadherin proteins. Cadherins form the cell–cell junctional structures known as adherens junctions as well as the [desmosomes](/wiki/Desmosome "Desmosome"). Cadherins are capable of homophilic interactions through their extracellular cadherin repeat domains, in a Ca2\+\-dependent manner; this can hold adjacent epithelial cells together. While in the adherens junction, cadherins recruit β\-catenin molecules onto their intracellular regions{{clarify\|date\=May 2021}}. β\-catenin, in turn, associates with another highly [dynamic](/wiki/Protein_dynamics "Protein dynamics") protein, [α\-catenin](/wiki/Alpha-catenin "Alpha-catenin"), which directly binds to the actin filaments.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Farago B, Nicholl ID, Wang S, Cheng X, Callaway DJ, Bu Z \| title \= Activated nanoscale actin\-binding domain motion in the catenin\-cadherin complex revealed by neutron spin echo spectroscopy \| journal \= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \| volume \= 118 \| issue \= 13 \| pages \= e2025012118 \| date \= March 2021 \| pmid \= 33753508 \| pmc \= 8020631 \| doi \= 10\.1073/pnas.2025012118 \| bibcode \= 2021PNAS..11825012F \| doi\-access \= free }} This is possible because α\-catenin and cadherins bind at distinct sites to β\-catenin.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Nelson WJ \| title \= Regulation of cell\-cell adhesion by the cadherin\-catenin complex \| journal \= Biochemical Society Transactions \| volume \= 36 \| issue \= Pt 2 \| pages \= 149–155 \| date \= April 2008 \| pmid \= 18363555 \| pmc \= 3368607 \| doi \= 10\.1042/BST0360149 }} The β\-catenin – α\-catenin complex can thus physically form a bridge between cadherins and the [actin cytoskeleton](/wiki/Actin "Actin").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Bienz M \| title \= beta\-Catenin: a pivot between cell adhesion and Wnt signalling \| journal \= Current Biology \| volume \= 15 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= R64–R67 \| date \= January 2005 \| pmid \= 15668160 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.cub.2004\.12\.058 \| s2cid \= 12352182 \| doi\-access \= free \| bibcode \= 2005CBio...15\..R64B }} Organization of the cadherin–catenin complex is additionally regulated through [phosphorylation](/wiki/Protein_phosphorylation "Protein phosphorylation") and [endocytosis](/wiki/Endocytosis "Endocytosis") of its components.{{citation needed\|date\=August 2019}} ### Roles in development β\-Catenin has a central role in directing several developmental processes, as it can directly bind [transcription factors](/wiki/Transcription_factors "Transcription factors") and be regulated by a diffusible extracellular substance: Wnt. It acts upon early embryos to induce entire body regions, as well as individual cells in later stages of development. It also regulates physiological regeneration processes. #### Early embryonic patterning Wnt signaling and β\-catenin dependent gene expression plays a critical role during the formation of different body regions in the early embryo. Experimentally modified embryos that do not express this protein will fail to develop [mesoderm](/wiki/Mesoderm "Mesoderm") and initiate [gastrulation](/wiki/Gastrulation "Gastrulation").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Haegel H, Larue L, Ohsugi M, Fedorov L, Herrenknecht K, Kemler R \| title \= Lack of beta\-catenin affects mouse development at gastrulation \| journal \= Development \| volume \= 121 \| issue \= 11 \| pages \= 3529–3537 \| date \= November 1995 \| pmid \= 8582267 \| doi \= 10\.1242/dev.121\.11\.3529 }} Early embryos endomesoderm specification also involves the activation of the β\-catenin dependent transcripional activity by the first morphogenetic movements of embryogenesis, though mechanotransduction processes. This feature being shared by vertebrate and arthropod bilateria, and by cnidaria, it was proposed to have been evolutionary inherited from its possible involvement in the endomesoderm specification of first metazoa.{{Cite journal \| vauthors \= Farge E \|year\=2003 \|title\=Mechanical induction of twist in the Drosophila foregut/stomodeal primordium\|journal\=Current Biology \|volume\=13 \|issue\=16 \|pages\=1365–1377 \|doi\=10\.1016/s0960\-9822(03\)00576\-1 \|pmid\=1293230 \|doi\-access\=free \|bibcode\=2003CBio...13\.1365F }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Brunet T, Bouclet A, Ahmadi P, Mitrossilis D, Driquez B, Brunet AC, Henry L, Serman F, Béalle G, Ménager C, Dumas\-Bouchiat F, Givord D, Yanicostas C, Le\-Roy D, Dempsey NM, Plessis A, Farge E \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Evolutionary conservation of early mesoderm specification by mechanotransduction in Bilateria \| journal \= Nature Communications \| volume \= 4 \| pages \= 2821 \| year \= 2013 \| pmid \= 24281726 \| doi \= 10\.1038/ncomms3821 \| pmc \= 3868206 \| bibcode \= 2013NatCo...4\.2821B }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Nguyen NM, Merle T, Broders\-Bondon F, Brunet AC, Battistella A, Land EB, Sarron F, Jha A, Gennisson JL, Röttinger E, Fernández\-Sánchez ME, Farge E \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Mechano\-biochemical marine stimulation of inversion, gastrulation, and endomesoderm specification in multicellular Eukaryota \| journal \= Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology \| volume \= 10 \| pages \= 992371 \| year \= 2022 \| pmid \= 36531949 \| doi \= 10\.3389/fcell.2022\.992371 \| pmc \= 9754125 \| doi\-access \= free }} During the blastula and gastrula stages, *Wnt* as well as [BMP](/wiki/Bone_morphogenetic_protein "Bone morphogenetic protein") and [FGF](/wiki/Fibroblast_growth_factor "Fibroblast growth factor") pathways will induce the antero\-posterior axis formation, regulate the precise placement of the primitive streak (gastrulation and mesoderm formation) as well as the process of neurulation (central nervous system development).{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Sokol SY \| title \= Maintaining embryonic stem cell pluripotency with Wnt signaling \| journal \= Development \| volume \= 138 \| issue \= 20 \| pages \= 4341–4350 \| date \= October 2011 \| pmid \= 21903672 \| pmc \= 3177306 \| doi \= 10\.1242/dev.066209 }} In [Xenopus](/wiki/Xenopus "Xenopus") oocytes, β\-catenin is initially equally localized to all regions of the egg, but it is targeted for ubiquitination and degradation by the β\-catenin destruction complex. [Fertilization](/wiki/Fertilization "Fertilization") of the egg causes a rotation of the outer cortical layers, moving clusters of the *Frizzled* and *Dsh* proteins closer to the equatorial region. β\-catenin will be enriched locally under the influence of Wnt signaling pathway in the cells that inherit this portion of the cytoplasm. It will eventually translocate to the nucleus to bind [TCF3](/wiki/TCF3 "TCF3") in order to activate several genes that induce dorsal cell characteristics.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Schneider S, Steinbeisser H, Warga RM, Hausen P \| title \= Beta\-catenin translocation into nuclei demarcates the dorsalizing centers in frog and fish embryos \| journal \= Mechanisms of Development \| volume \= 57 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 191–198 \| date \= July 1996 \| pmid \= 8843396 \| doi \= 10\.1016/0925\-4773(96\)00546\-1 \| s2cid \= 12694740 \| doi\-access \= free }} This signaling results in a region of cells known as the grey crescent, which is a classical organizer of embryonic development. If this region is surgically removed from the embryo, gastrulation does not occur at all. β\-Catenin also plays a crucial role in the induction of the [blastopore](/wiki/Blastopore "Blastopore") lip, which in turn initiates gastrulation.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Larabell CA, Torres M, Rowning BA, Yost C, Miller JR, Wu M, Kimelman D, Moon RT \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Establishment of the dorso\-ventral axis in Xenopus embryos is presaged by early asymmetries in β\-catenin that are modulated by the Wnt signaling pathway \| journal \= The Journal of Cell Biology \| volume \= 136 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 1123–1136 \| date \= March 1997 \| pmid \= 9060476 \| pmc \= 2132470 \| doi \= 10\.1083/jcb.136\.5\.1123 }} Inhibition of GSK\-3 translation by injection of antisense mRNA may cause a second blastopore and a superfluous body axis to form. A similar effect can result from the overexpression of β\-catenin.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Kelly GM, Erezyilmaz DF, Moon RT \| title \= Induction of a secondary embryonic axis in zebrafish occurs following the overexpression of beta\-catenin \| journal \= Mechanisms of Development \| volume \= 53 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 261–273 \| date \= October 1995 \| pmid \= 8562427 \| doi \= 10\.1016/0925\-4773(95\)00442\-4 \| s2cid \= 14885037 \| doi\-access \= free }} #### Asymmetric cell division β\-catenin has also been implicated in regulation of cell fates through [asymmetric cell division](/wiki/Asymmetric_cell_division "Asymmetric cell division") in the model organism *C. elegans*. Similarly to the *Xenopus* oocytes, this is essentially the result of non\-equal distribution of *Dsh*, *Frizzled*, *axin* and *APC* in the cytoplasm of the mother cell.{{cite book \| vauthors \= Sawa H \| title \= Planar Cell Polarity During Development \| chapter \= Chapter 3: Control of cell polarity and asymmetric division in ''C. elegans'' \| series\= Current Topics in Developmental Biology\|veditors\=Yang Y\| volume \= 101 \| pages \= 55–76 \| year \= 2012 \| pmid \= 23140625 \| doi \= 10\.1016/B978\-0\-12\-394592\-1\.00003\-X \| isbn \= 978\-0\-12\-394592\-1 }} #### Stem cell renewal One of the most important results of Wnt signaling and the elevated level of β\-catenin in certain cell types is the maintenance of [pluripotency](/wiki/Pluripotency "Pluripotency"). The rate of stem cells in the colon is for instance ensured by such accumulation of β\-catenin, which can be stimulated by the Wnt pathway.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Barker N, van Es JH, Kuipers J, Kujala P, van den Born M, Cozijnsen M, Haegebarth A, Korving J, Begthel H, Peters PJ, Clevers H \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Identification of stem cells in small intestine and colon by marker gene Lgr5 \| journal \= Nature \| volume \= 449 \| issue \= 7165 \| pages \= 1003–1007 \| date \= October 2007 \| pmid \= 17934449 \| doi \= 10\.1038/nature06196 \| bibcode \= 2007Natur.449\.1003B \| s2cid \= 4349637 }} High frequency peristaltic mechanical strains of the colon are also involved in the β\-catenin dependent maintenance of homeostatic levels of colonic stem cells through processes of mechanotransduction. This feature is pathologically enhanced towards tumorigenic hyperproliferation in healthy cells compressed by pressure due genetically altered hyperproliferative tumorous cells.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Nguyen Ho\-Bouldoires TH, Sollier K, Zamfirov L, Broders\-Bondon F, Mitrossilis D, Bermeo S, Guerin CL, Chipont A, Champenois G, Leclère R, André N, Ranno L, Michel A, Ménager C, Meseure D, Demené C, Tanter M, Fernández\-Sánchez ME, Farge E \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Ret kinase\-mediated mechanical induction of colon stem cells by tumor growth pressure stimulates cancer progression in vivo \| journal \= Communications Biology \| volume \= 5 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 137 \| date \= February 2022 \| pmid \= 35177769 \| doi \= 10\.1038/s42003\-022\-03079\-4 \| pmc \= 8854631 }} In other cell types and developmental stages, β\-catenin may promote [differentiation](/wiki/Cell_differentiation "Cell differentiation"), especially towards [mesodermal](/wiki/Mesoderm "Mesoderm") cell lineages. #### Epithelial\-to\-mesenchymal transition β\-Catenin also acts as a morphogen in later stages of embryonic development. Together with [TGF\-β](/wiki/Transforming_growth_factor_beta "Transforming growth factor beta"), an important role of β\-catenin is to induce a morphogenic change in epithelial cells. It induces them to abandon their tight adhesion and assume a more mobile and loosely associated [mesenchymal](/wiki/Mesenchyme "Mesenchyme") phenotype. During this process, epithelial cells lose expression of proteins like [E\-cadherin](/wiki/Cadherin "Cadherin"), [Zonula occludens 1](/wiki/Tight_junction_protein_1 "Tight junction protein 1") (ZO1\), and [cytokeratin](/wiki/Cytokeratin "Cytokeratin"). At the same time they turn on the expression of [vimentin](/wiki/Vimentin "Vimentin"), [alpha smooth muscle actin](/wiki/ACTA2 "ACTA2") (ACTA2\), and fibroblast\-specific protein 1 (FSP1\). They also produce extracellular matrix components, such as [type I collagen](/wiki/Type-I_collagen "Type-I collagen") and [fibronectin](/wiki/Fibronectin "Fibronectin"). Aberrant activation of the Wnt pathway has been implicated in pathological processes such as fibrosis and cancer.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Tian X, Liu Z, Niu B, Zhang J, Tan TK, Lee SR, Zhao Y, Harris DC, Zheng G \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= E\-cadherin/β\-catenin complex and the epithelial barrier \| journal \= Journal of Biomedicine \& Biotechnology \| volume \= 2011 \| pages \= 567305 \| year \= 2011 \| pmid \= 22007144 \| pmc \= 3191826 \| doi \= 10\.1155/2011/567305 \| doi\-access \= free }} In cardiac muscle development, β\-catenin performs a biphasic role. Initially, the activation of Wnt/β\-catenin is essential for committing mesenchymal cells to a cardiac lineage; however, in later stages of development, the downregulation of β\-catenin is required.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Zelarayan L, Gehrke C, Bergmann MW \| title \= Role of beta\-catenin in adult cardiac remodeling \| journal \= Cell Cycle \| volume \= 6 \| issue \= 17 \| pages \= 2120–2126 \| date \= September 2007 \| pmid \= 17786052 \| doi \= 10\.4161/cc.6\.17\.4632 \| doi\-access \= free }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Lickert H, Kutsch S, Kanzler B, Tamai Y, Taketo MM, Kemler R \| title \= Formation of multiple hearts in mice following deletion of beta\-catenin in the embryonic endoderm \| journal \= Developmental Cell \| volume \= 3 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 171–181 \| date \= August 2002 \| pmid \= 12194849 \| doi \= 10\.1016/s1534\-5807(02\)00206\-x \| doi\-access \= free }} ### Involvement in cardiac physiology In [cardiac muscle](/wiki/Cardiac_muscle "Cardiac muscle"), β\-catenin forms a complex with [N\-cadherin](/wiki/CDH2 "CDH2") at [adherens junctions](/wiki/Adherens_junction "Adherens junction") within [intercalated disc](/wiki/Intercalated_disc "Intercalated disc") structures, which are responsible for electrical and mechanical coupling of adjacent cardiac cells. Studies in a model of adult rat [ventricular](/wiki/Ventricle_%28heart%29 "Ventricle (heart)") [cardiomyocytes](/wiki/Cardiomyocytes "Cardiomyocytes") have shown that the appearance and distribution of β\-catenin is spatio\-temporally regulated during the redifferentiation of these cells in culture. Specifically, β\-catenin is part of a distinct complex with N\-cadherin and [alpha\-catenin](/wiki/CTNNA1 "CTNNA1"), which is abundant at adherens junctions in early stages following [cardiomyocyte](/wiki/Cardiomyocyte "Cardiomyocyte") isolation for the reformation of cell–cell contacts.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Hertig CM, Butz S, Koch S, Eppenberger\-Eberhardt M, Kemler R, Eppenberger HM \| title \= N\-cadherin in adult rat cardiomyocytes in culture. II. Spatio\-temporal appearance of proteins involved in cell\-cell contact and communication. Formation of two distinct N\-cadherin/catenin complexes \| journal \= Journal of Cell Science \| volume \= 109 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 11–20 \| date \= January 1996 \| pmid \= 8834786 \| doi \= 10\.1242/jcs.109\.1\.11 }} It has been shown that β\-catenin forms a complex with [emerin](/wiki/Emerin "Emerin") in cardiomyocytes at adherens junctions within intercalated discs; and this interaction is dependent on the presence of [GSK 3\-beta](/wiki/GSK3B "GSK3B") [phosphorylation](/wiki/Phosphorylation "Phosphorylation") sites on β\-catenin. Knocking out emerin significantly altered β\-catenin localization and the overall intercalated disc architecture, which resembled a [dilated cardiomyopathy](/wiki/Dilated_cardiomyopathy "Dilated cardiomyopathy") phenotype.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Wheeler MA, Warley A, Roberts RG, Ehler E, Ellis JA \| title \= Identification of an emerin\-beta\-catenin complex in the heart important for intercalated disc architecture and beta\-catenin localisation \| journal \= Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences \| volume \= 67 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 781–796 \| date \= March 2010 \| pmid \= 19997769 \| doi \= 10\.1007/s00018\-009\-0219\-8 \| s2cid \= 27205170 \| pmc \= 11115513 }} In animal models of [cardiac](/wiki/Cardiac "Cardiac") disease, functions of β\-catenin have been unveiled. In a guinea pig model of [aortic stenosis](/wiki/Aortic_stenosis "Aortic stenosis") and left ventricular [hypertrophy](/wiki/Hypertrophy "Hypertrophy"), β\-catenin was shown to change subcellular localization from intercalated discs to the [cytosol](/wiki/Cytosol "Cytosol"), despite no change in the overall cellular abundance of β\-catenin. [vinculin](/wiki/Vinculin "Vinculin") showed a similar profile of change. N\-cadherin showed no change, and there was no compensatory upregulation of [plakoglobin](/wiki/Plakoglobin "Plakoglobin") at intercalated discs in the absence of β\-catenin.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Wang X, Gerdes AM \| title \= Chronic pressure overload cardiac hypertrophy and failure in guinea pigs: III. Intercalated disc remodeling \| journal \= Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology \| volume \= 31 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 333–343 \| date \= February 1999 \| pmid \= 10093046 \| doi \= 10\.1006/jmcc.1998\.0886 }} In a hamster model of [cardiomyopathy](/wiki/Cardiomyopathy "Cardiomyopathy") and [heart failure](/wiki/Heart_failure "Heart failure"), cell–cell adhesions were irregular and disorganized, and expression levels of adherens junction/intercalated disc and [nuclear](/wiki/Cell_nucleus "Cell nucleus") pools of β\-catenin were decreased.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Yoshida M, Ohkusa T, Nakashima T, Takanari H, Yano M, Takemura G, Honjo H, Kodama I, Mizukami Y, Matsuzaki M \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Alterations in adhesion junction precede gap junction remodelling during the development of heart failure in cardiomyopathic hamsters \| journal \= Cardiovascular Research \| volume \= 92 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 95–105 \| date \= October 2011 \| pmid \= 21693625 \| doi \= 10\.1093/cvr/cvr182 \| doi\-access \= free }} These data suggest that a loss of β\-catenin may play a role in the diseased intercalated discs that have been associated with cardiac muscle hypertrophy and heart failure. In a rat model of [myocardial infarction](/wiki/Myocardial_infarction "Myocardial infarction"), [adenoviral](/wiki/Adenovirus "Adenovirus") gene transfer of non[phosphorylatable](/wiki/Phosphorylation "Phosphorylation"), constitutively\-active β\-catenin decreased MI size, activated the [cell cycle](/wiki/Cell_cycle "Cell cycle"), and reduced the amount of [apoptosis](/wiki/Apoptosis "Apoptosis") in cardiomyocytes and cardiac [myofibroblasts](/wiki/Myofibroblast "Myofibroblast"). This finding was coordinate with enhanced expression of pro\-survival proteins, [survivin](/wiki/Survivin "Survivin") and [Bcl\-2](/wiki/Bcl-2 "Bcl-2"), and [vascular endothelial growth factor](/wiki/Vascular_endothelial_growth_factor "Vascular endothelial growth factor") while promoting the differentiation of cardiac [fibroblasts](/wiki/Fibroblast "Fibroblast") into myofibroblasts. These findings suggest that β\-catenin can promote the regeneration and healing process following myocardial infarction.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Hahn JY, Cho HJ, Bae JW, Yuk HS, Kim KI, Park KW, Koo BK, Chae IH, Shin CS, Oh BH, Choi YS, Park YB, Kim HS \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Beta\-catenin overexpression reduces myocardial infarct size through differential effects on cardiomyocytes and cardiac fibroblasts \| journal \= The Journal of Biological Chemistry \| volume \= 281 \| issue \= 41 \| pages \= 30979–30989 \| date \= October 2006 \| pmid \= 16920707 \| doi \= 10\.1074/jbc.M603916200 \| doi\-access \= free }} In a spontaneously\-[hypertensive](/wiki/Hypertension "Hypertension") [heart failure](/wiki/Heart_failure "Heart failure") rat model, investigators detected a shuttling of β\-catenin from the intercalated disc/[sarcolemma](/wiki/Sarcolemma "Sarcolemma") to the [nucleus](/wiki/Cell_nucleus "Cell nucleus"), evidenced by a reduction of β\-catenin expression in the membrane protein fraction and an increase in the nuclear fraction. Additionally, they found a weakening in the association between [glycogen synthase kinase\-3β](/wiki/GSK3B "GSK3B") and β\-catenin, which may indicate altered protein stability. Overall, results suggest that an enhanced nuclear localization of β\-catenin may be important in the progression of [cardiac hypertrophy](/wiki/Cardiac_hypertrophy "Cardiac hypertrophy").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Zheng Q, Chen P, Xu Z, Li F, Yi XP \| title \= Expression and redistribution of β\-catenin in the cardiac myocytes of left ventricle of spontaneously hypertensive rat \| journal \= Journal of Molecular Histology \| volume \= 44 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 565–573 \| date \= October 2013 \| pmid \= 23591738 \| doi \= 10\.1007/s10735\-013\-9507\-6 \| s2cid \= 18997718 }} Regarding the mechanistic role of β\-catenin in cardiac hypertrophy, transgenic mouse studies have shown somewhat conflicting results regarding whether upregulation of β\-catenin is beneficial or detrimental.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Baurand A, Zelarayan L, Betney R, Gehrke C, Dunger S, Noack C, Busjahn A, Huelsken J, Taketo MM, Birchmeier W, Dietz R, Bergmann MW \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Beta\-catenin downregulation is required for adaptive cardiac remodeling \| journal \= Circulation Research \| volume \= 100 \| issue \= 9 \| pages \= 1353–1362 \| date \= May 2007 \| pmid \= 17413044 \| doi \= 10\.1161/01\.RES.0000266605\.63681\.5a \| doi\-access \= free }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Chen X, Shevtsov SP, Hsich E, Cui L, Haq S, Aronovitz M, Kerkelä R, Molkentin JD, Liao R, Salomon RN, Patten R, Force T \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= The beta\-catenin/T\-cell factor/lymphocyte enhancer factor signaling pathway is required for normal and stress\-induced cardiac hypertrophy \| journal \= Molecular and Cellular Biology \| volume \= 26 \| issue \= 12 \| pages \= 4462–4473 \| date \= June 2006 \| pmid \= 16738313 \| pmc \= 1489123 \| doi \= 10\.1128/MCB.02157\-05 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Haq S, Michael A, Andreucci M, Bhattacharya K, Dotto P, Walters B, Woodgett J, Kilter H, Force T \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Stabilization of beta\-catenin by a Wnt\-independent mechanism regulates cardiomyocyte growth \| journal \= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \| volume \= 100 \| issue \= 8 \| pages \= 4610–4615 \| date \= April 2003 \| pmid \= 12668767 \| pmc \= 153603 \| doi \= 10\.1073/pnas.0835895100 \| doi\-access \= free \| bibcode \= 2003PNAS..100\.4610H }} A recent study using a conditional knockout mouse that either lacked β\-catenin altogether or expressed a non\-degradable form of β\-catenin in cardiomyocytes reconciled a potential reason for these discrepancies. There appears to be strict control over the subcellular localization of β\-catenin in cardiac muscle. Mice lacking β\-catenin had no overt phenotype in the left ventricular [myocardium](/wiki/Myocardium "Myocardium"); however, mice harboring a stabilized form of β\-catenin developed [dilated cardiomyopathy](/wiki/Dilated_cardiomyopathy "Dilated cardiomyopathy"), suggesting that the temporal regulation of β\-catenin by protein degradation mechanisms is critical for normal functioning of β\-catenin in cardiac cells.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Hirschy A, Croquelois A, Perriard E, Schoenauer R, Agarkova I, Hoerstrup SP, Taketo MM, Pedrazzini T, Perriard JC, Ehler E \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Stabilised beta\-catenin in postnatal ventricular myocardium leads to dilated cardiomyopathy and premature death \| journal \= Basic Research in Cardiology \| volume \= 105 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 597–608 \| date \= September 2010 \| pmid \= 20376467 \| doi \= 10\.1007/s00395\-010\-0101\-8 \| s2cid \= 21789076 \| url \= https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/34179/7/Hirschy.pdf }} In a mouse model harboring knockout of a desmosomal protein, plakoglobin, implicated in [arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy](/wiki/Arrhythmogenic_right_ventricular_cardiomyopathy "Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy"), the stabilization of β\-catenin was also enhanced, presumably to compensate for the loss of its plakoglobin homolog. These changes were coordinate with Akt activation and [glycogen synthase kinase 3β](/wiki/GSK3B "GSK3B") inhibition, suggesting once again that the abnormal stabilization of β\-catenin may be involved in the development of cardiomyopathy.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Li J, Swope D, Raess N, Cheng L, Muller EJ, Radice GL \| title \= Cardiac tissue\-restricted deletion of plakoglobin results in progressive cardiomyopathy and activation of {beta}\-catenin signaling \| journal \= Molecular and Cellular Biology \| volume \= 31 \| issue \= 6 \| pages \= 1134–1144 \| date \= March 2011 \| pmid \= 21245375 \| pmc \= 3067899 \| doi \= 10\.1128/MCB.01025\-10 }} Further studies employing a double knockout of plakoglobin and β\-catenin showed that the double knockout developed cardiomyopathy, [fibrosis](/wiki/Fibrosis "Fibrosis") and [arrhythmias](/wiki/Heart_arrhythmia "Heart arrhythmia") resulting in [sudden cardiac death](/wiki/Sudden_cardiac_death "Sudden cardiac death"). Intercalated disc architecture was severely impaired and [connexin 43](/wiki/GJA1 "GJA1")\-resident [gap junctions](/wiki/Gap_junction "Gap junction") were markedly reduced. [Electrocardiogram](/wiki/Electrocardiogram "Electrocardiogram") measurements captured spontaneous lethal ventricular arrhythmias in the double transgenic animals, suggesting that the two catenins—β\-catenin and plakoglobin—are critical and indispensable for mechanoelectrical coupling in cardiomyocytes.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Swope D, Cheng L, Gao E, Li J, Radice GL \| title \= Loss of cadherin\-binding proteins β\-catenin and plakoglobin in the heart leads to gap junction remodeling and arrhythmogenesis \| journal \= Molecular and Cellular Biology \| volume \= 32 \| issue \= 6 \| pages \= 1056–1067 \| date \= March 2012 \| pmid \= 22252313 \| pmc \= 3295003 \| doi \= 10\.1128/MCB.06188\-11 }}
[ "Function\n--------", "### Regulation of degradation through phosphorylation", "The cellular level of β\\-catenin is mostly controlled by its [ubiquitination](/wiki/Ubiquitination \"Ubiquitination\") and [proteosomal degradation](/wiki/Proteasome \"Proteasome\"). The [E3 ubiquitin ligase](/wiki/Ubiquitin_ligase \"Ubiquitin ligase\") [TrCP1](/wiki/BTRC_%28gene%29 \"BTRC (gene)\") (also known as β\\-TrCP) can recognize β\\-catenin as its substrate through a short linear motif on the disordered N\\-terminus. However, this motif (Asp\\-Ser\\-Gly\\-Ile\\-His\\-Ser) of β\\-catenin needs to be [phosphorylated](/wiki/Protein_phosphorylation \"Protein phosphorylation\") on the two [serines](/wiki/Serine \"Serine\") in order to be capable to bind β\\-TrCP. Phosphorylation of the motif is performed by [Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3](/wiki/GSK-3 \"GSK-3\") alpha and beta (GSK3α and GSK3β). GSK3s are constitutively active enzymes implicated in several important regulatory processes. There is one requirement, though: substrates of GSK3 need to be pre\\-phosphorylated four amino acids downstream (C\\-terminally) of the actual target site. Thus it also requires a \"priming kinase\" for its activities. In the case of β\\-catenin, the most important priming kinase is [Casein Kinase I](/wiki/Casein_kinase_1 \"Casein kinase 1\") (CKI). Once a serine\\-threonine rich substrate has been \"primed\", GSK3 can \"walk\" across it from C\\-terminal to N\\-terminal direction, phosphorylating every 4th serine or [threonine](/wiki/Threonine \"Threonine\") residues in a row. This process will result in dual phosphorylation of the aforementioned β\\-TrCP recognition motif as well.", "### The beta\\-catenin destruction complex", "For [GSK3](/wiki/GSK-3 \"GSK-3\") to be a highly effective [kinase](/wiki/Protein_kinase \"Protein kinase\") on a substrate, pre\\-phosphorylation is not enough. There is one additional requirement: Similar to the [mitogen\\-activated protein kinases](/wiki/Mitogen-activated_protein_kinases \"Mitogen-activated protein kinases\") (MAPKs), substrates need to associate with this enzyme through high\\-affinity *docking motifs*. β\\-Catenin contains no such motifs, but a special protein does: [axin](/wiki/AXIN1 \"AXIN1\"). What is more, its GSK3 docking motif is directly adjacent to a β\\-catenin binding motif. This way, *axin* acts as a true [scaffold protein](/wiki/Scaffold_protein \"Scaffold protein\"), bringing an enzyme (GSK3\\) together with its substrate (β\\-catenin) into close physical proximity.", "[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\=1\\.5\\|Simplified structure of the β\\-catenin destruction complex. Note the high proportion of intrinsically disordered segments in the axin and APC proteins.](/wiki/File:Beta-catenin-destruction-complex.png \"Beta-catenin-destruction-complex.png\")", "But even *axin* does not act alone. Through its N\\-terminal [regulator of G\\-protein signaling](/wiki/Regulator_of_G_protein_signalling \"Regulator of G protein signalling\") (RGS) domain, it recruits the [adenomatous polyposis coli](/wiki/Adenomatous_polyposis_coli \"Adenomatous polyposis coli\") (APC) protein. *APC* is like a huge \"Christmas tree\": with a multitude of β\\-catenin binding motifs (one *APC* molecule alone possesses 11 such motifs ), it may collect as many β\\-catenin molecules as possible.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Liu J, Xing Y, Hinds TR, Zheng J, Xu W \\| title \\= The third 20 amino acid repeat is the tightest binding site of APC for beta\\-catenin \\| journal \\= Journal of Molecular Biology \\| volume \\= 360 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 133–144 \\| date \\= June 2006 \\| pmid \\= 16753179 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.jmb.2006\\.04\\.064 }} *APC* can interact with multiple *axin* molecules at the same time as it has three *SAMP motifs* (Ser\\-Ala\\-Met\\-Pro) to bind the [RGS domains](/wiki/Regulator_of_G_protein_signalling \"Regulator of G protein signalling\") found in *axin*. In addition, axin also has the potential to oligomerize through its C\\-terminal DIX domain. The result is a huge, multimeric protein assembly dedicated to β\\-catenin phosphorylation. This complex is usually called the *beta\\-catenin destruction complex*, although it is distinct from the [proteosome](/wiki/Proteosome \"Proteosome\") machinery actually responsible for β\\-catenin degradation.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Kimelman D, Xu W \\| title \\= beta\\-catenin destruction complex: insights and questions from a structural perspective \\| journal \\= Oncogene \\| volume \\= 25 \\| issue \\= 57 \\| pages \\= 7482–7491 \\| date \\= December 2006 \\| pmid \\= 17143292 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/sj.onc.1210055 \\| s2cid \\= 20529520 \\| doi\\-access \\= }} It only marks β\\-catenin molecules for subsequent destruction.", "### Wnt signaling and the regulation of destruction", "In resting cells, [axin](/wiki/AXIN1 \"AXIN1\") molecules oligomerize with each other through their C\\-terminal DIX domains, which have two binding interfaces. Thus they can build linear oligomers or even polymers inside the cytoplasm of cells. DIX domains are unique: the only other proteins known to have a DIX domain are [Dishevelled](/wiki/Dishevelled \"Dishevelled\") and [DIXDC1](/wiki/DIXDC1 \"DIXDC1\"). (The single *Dsh* protein of *[Drosophila](/wiki/Drosophila \"Drosophila\")* corresponds to three paralogous genes, *Dvl1*, *Dvl2* and *Dvl3* in [mammals](/wiki/Mammals \"Mammals\").) [Dsh](/wiki/Dishevelled \"Dishevelled\") associates with the cytoplasmic regions of [Frizzled](/wiki/Frizzled \"Frizzled\") receptors with its [PDZ](/wiki/PDZ_domain \"PDZ domain\") and [DEP](/wiki/DEP_domain \"DEP domain\") [domains](/wiki/Protein_domain \"Protein domain\"). When a [Wnt](/wiki/Wnt_signaling_pathway \"Wnt signaling pathway\") molecule binds to *Frizzled*, it induces a poorly known cascade of events, that result in the exposure of dishevelled's DIX domain and the creation of a perfect binding site for *axin*. Axin is then titrated away from its oligomeric assemblies – the β\\-catenin destruction complex – by *Dsh*.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Fiedler M, Mendoza\\-Topaz C, Rutherford TJ, Mieszczanek J, Bienz M \\| title \\= Dishevelled interacts with the DIX domain polymerization interface of Axin to interfere with its function in down\\-regulating β\\-catenin \\| journal \\= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \\| volume \\= 108 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 1937–1942 \\| date \\= February 2011 \\| pmid \\= 21245303 \\| pmc \\= 3033301 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1073/pnas.1017063108 \\| doi\\-access \\= free \\| bibcode \\= 2011PNAS..108\\.1937F }} Once bound to the receptor complex, *axin* will be rendered incompetent for β\\-catenin binding and GSK3 activity. Importantly, the cytoplasmic segments of the Frizzled\\-associated [LRP5](/wiki/LRP5 \"LRP5\") and [LRP6](/wiki/LRP6 \"LRP6\") proteins contain GSK3 pseudo\\-substrate sequences (Pro\\-Pro\\-Pro\\-Ser\\-Pro\\-x\\-Ser), appropriately \"primed\" (pre\\-phosphorylated) by [CKI](/wiki/Casein_kinase_1 \"Casein kinase 1\"), as if it were a true substrate of GSK3\\. These false target sites greatly inhibit GSK3 activity in a competitive manner.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Metcalfe C, Bienz M \\| title \\= Inhibition of GSK3 by Wnt signalling\\-\\-two contrasting models \\| journal \\= Journal of Cell Science \\| volume \\= 124 \\| issue \\= Pt 21 \\| pages \\= 3537–3544 \\| date \\= November 2011 \\| pmid \\= 22083140 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1242/jcs.091991 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} This way receptor\\-bound *axin* will abolish mediating the phosphorylation of β\\-catenin. Since β\\-catenin is no longer marked for destruction, but continues to be produced, its concentration will increase. Once β\\-catenin levels rise high enough to saturate all binding sites in the cytoplasm, it will also translocate into the nucleus. Upon engaging the transcription factors [LEF1](/wiki/Lymphoid_enhancer-binding_factor_1 \"Lymphoid enhancer-binding factor 1\"), [TCF1](/wiki/TCF1 \"TCF1\"), [TCF2](/wiki/TCF2 \"TCF2\") or [TCF3](/wiki/TCF3 \"TCF3\"), β\\-catenin forces them to disengage their previous partners: Groucho proteins. Unlike *Groucho*, that recruit [transcriptional repressors](/wiki/Repressor \"Repressor\") (e.g. [histone\\-lysine methyltransferases](/wiki/Histone_methyltransferase \"Histone methyltransferase\")), β\\-catenin will bind [transcriptional activators](/wiki/Coactivator_%28genetics%29 \"Coactivator (genetics)\"), switching on target genes.", "### Role in cell–cell adhesion", "[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\=1\\.25\\|The moonlighting of β\\-catenin.](/wiki/File:Beta-catenin-moonlighting.png \"Beta-catenin-moonlighting.png\")", "[Cell–cell adhesion](/wiki/Cell%E2%80%93cell_adhesion \"Cell–cell adhesion\") complexes are essential for the formation of complex animal tissues. β\\-catenin is part of a [protein complex](/wiki/Protein_complex \"Protein complex\") that form [adherens junctions](/wiki/Adherens_junctions \"Adherens junctions\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Brembeck FH, Rosário M, Birchmeier W \\| title \\= Balancing cell adhesion and Wnt signaling, the key role of beta\\-catenin \\| journal \\= Current Opinion in Genetics \\& Development \\| volume \\= 16 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 51–59 \\| date \\= February 2006 \\| pmid \\= 16377174 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.gde.2005\\.12\\.007 }} These cell–cell adhesion complexes are necessary for the creation and maintenance of [epithelial cell](/wiki/Epithelium \"Epithelium\") layers and barriers. As a component of the complex, β\\-catenin can regulate cell growth and adhesion between cells. It may also be responsible for transmitting the contact inhibition signal that causes cells to stop dividing once the epithelial sheet is complete.{{cite web \\| title \\= Entrez Gene: catenin (cadherin\\-associated protein)\\| url \\= https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db\\=gene\\&Cmd\\=ShowDetailView\\&TermToSearch\\=1499}} The E\\-cadherin – β\\-catenin – α\\-catenin complex is weakly associated to [actin filaments](/wiki/Actin \"Actin\"). Adherens junctions require significant [protein dynamics](/wiki/Protein_dynamics \"Protein dynamics\") in order to link to the actin cytoskeleton,\nthereby enabling [mechanotransduction](/wiki/Mechanotransduction \"Mechanotransduction\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Bush M, Alhanshali BM, Qian S, Stanley CB, Heller WT, Matsui T, Weiss TM, Nicholl ID, Walz T, Callaway DJ, Bu Z \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= An ensemble of flexible conformations underlies mechanotransduction by the cadherin\\-catenin adhesion complex \\| journal \\= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \\| volume \\= 116 \\| issue \\= 43 \\| pages \\= 21545–21555 \\| date \\= October 2019 \\| pmid \\= 31591245 \\| pmc \\= 6815173 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1073/pnas.1911489116 \\| doi\\-access \\= free \\| bibcode \\= 2019PNAS..11621545B }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Röper JC, Mitrossilis D, Stirnemann G, Waharte F, Brito I, Fernandez\\-Sanchez ME, Baaden M, Salamero J, Farge E \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= The major β\\-catenin/E\\-cadherin junctional binding site is a primary molecular mechano\\-transductor of differentiation ''in vivo'' \\| journal \\= eLife \\| volume \\= 7 \\| date \\= July 2018 \\| pmid \\= 30024850 \\| doi \\= 10\\.7554/eLife.33381 \\| pmc \\= 6053302 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}", "An important component of the adherens junctions are the cadherin proteins. Cadherins form the cell–cell junctional structures known as adherens junctions as well as the [desmosomes](/wiki/Desmosome \"Desmosome\"). Cadherins are capable of homophilic interactions through their extracellular cadherin repeat domains, in a Ca2\\+\\-dependent manner; this can hold adjacent epithelial cells together. While in the adherens junction, cadherins recruit β\\-catenin molecules onto their intracellular regions{{clarify\\|date\\=May 2021}}. β\\-catenin, in turn, associates with another highly [dynamic](/wiki/Protein_dynamics \"Protein dynamics\") protein, [α\\-catenin](/wiki/Alpha-catenin \"Alpha-catenin\"), which directly binds to the actin filaments.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Farago B, Nicholl ID, Wang S, Cheng X, Callaway DJ, Bu Z \\| title \\= Activated nanoscale actin\\-binding domain motion in the catenin\\-cadherin complex revealed by neutron spin echo spectroscopy \\| journal \\= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \\| volume \\= 118 \\| issue \\= 13 \\| pages \\= e2025012118 \\| date \\= March 2021 \\| pmid \\= 33753508 \\| pmc \\= 8020631 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1073/pnas.2025012118 \\| bibcode \\= 2021PNAS..11825012F \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} This is possible because α\\-catenin and cadherins bind at distinct sites to β\\-catenin.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Nelson WJ \\| title \\= Regulation of cell\\-cell adhesion by the cadherin\\-catenin complex \\| journal \\= Biochemical Society Transactions \\| volume \\= 36 \\| issue \\= Pt 2 \\| pages \\= 149–155 \\| date \\= April 2008 \\| pmid \\= 18363555 \\| pmc \\= 3368607 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1042/BST0360149 }} The β\\-catenin – α\\-catenin complex can thus physically form a bridge between cadherins and the [actin cytoskeleton](/wiki/Actin \"Actin\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Bienz M \\| title \\= beta\\-Catenin: a pivot between cell adhesion and Wnt signalling \\| journal \\= Current Biology \\| volume \\= 15 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= R64–R67 \\| date \\= January 2005 \\| pmid \\= 15668160 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.cub.2004\\.12\\.058 \\| s2cid \\= 12352182 \\| doi\\-access \\= free \\| bibcode \\= 2005CBio...15\\..R64B }} Organization of the cadherin–catenin complex is additionally regulated through [phosphorylation](/wiki/Protein_phosphorylation \"Protein phosphorylation\") and [endocytosis](/wiki/Endocytosis \"Endocytosis\") of its components.{{citation needed\\|date\\=August 2019}}", "### Roles in development", "β\\-Catenin has a central role in directing several developmental processes, as it can directly bind [transcription factors](/wiki/Transcription_factors \"Transcription factors\") and be regulated by a diffusible extracellular substance: Wnt. It acts upon early embryos to induce entire body regions, as well as individual cells in later stages of development. It also regulates physiological regeneration processes.", "#### Early embryonic patterning", "Wnt signaling and β\\-catenin dependent gene expression plays a critical role during the formation of different body regions in the early embryo. Experimentally modified embryos that do not express this protein will fail to develop [mesoderm](/wiki/Mesoderm \"Mesoderm\") and initiate [gastrulation](/wiki/Gastrulation \"Gastrulation\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Haegel H, Larue L, Ohsugi M, Fedorov L, Herrenknecht K, Kemler R \\| title \\= Lack of beta\\-catenin affects mouse development at gastrulation \\| journal \\= Development \\| volume \\= 121 \\| issue \\= 11 \\| pages \\= 3529–3537 \\| date \\= November 1995 \\| pmid \\= 8582267 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1242/dev.121\\.11\\.3529 }}\nEarly embryos endomesoderm specification also involves the activation of the β\\-catenin dependent transcripional activity by the first morphogenetic movements of embryogenesis, though mechanotransduction processes. This feature being shared by vertebrate and arthropod bilateria, and by cnidaria, it was proposed to have been evolutionary inherited from its possible involvement in the endomesoderm specification of first metazoa.{{Cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Farge E \\|year\\=2003 \\|title\\=Mechanical induction of twist in the Drosophila foregut/stomodeal primordium\\|journal\\=Current Biology \\|volume\\=13 \\|issue\\=16 \\|pages\\=1365–1377 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/s0960\\-9822(03\\)00576\\-1 \\|pmid\\=1293230 \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|bibcode\\=2003CBio...13\\.1365F }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Brunet T, Bouclet A, Ahmadi P, Mitrossilis D, Driquez B, Brunet AC, Henry L, Serman F, Béalle G, Ménager C, Dumas\\-Bouchiat F, Givord D, Yanicostas C, Le\\-Roy D, Dempsey NM, Plessis A, Farge E \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Evolutionary conservation of early mesoderm specification by mechanotransduction in Bilateria \\| journal \\= Nature Communications \\| volume \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 2821 \\| year \\= 2013 \\| pmid \\= 24281726 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/ncomms3821 \\| pmc \\= 3868206 \\| bibcode \\= 2013NatCo...4\\.2821B }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Nguyen NM, Merle T, Broders\\-Bondon F, Brunet AC, Battistella A, Land EB, Sarron F, Jha A, Gennisson JL, Röttinger E, Fernández\\-Sánchez ME, Farge E \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Mechano\\-biochemical marine stimulation of inversion, gastrulation, and endomesoderm specification in multicellular Eukaryota \\| journal \\= Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology \\| volume \\= 10 \\| pages \\= 992371 \\| year \\= 2022 \\| pmid \\= 36531949 \\| doi \\= 10\\.3389/fcell.2022\\.992371 \\| pmc \\= 9754125 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}", "During the blastula and gastrula stages, *Wnt* as well as [BMP](/wiki/Bone_morphogenetic_protein \"Bone morphogenetic protein\") and [FGF](/wiki/Fibroblast_growth_factor \"Fibroblast growth factor\") pathways will induce the antero\\-posterior axis formation, regulate the precise placement of the primitive streak (gastrulation and mesoderm formation) as well as the process of neurulation (central nervous system development).{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Sokol SY \\| title \\= Maintaining embryonic stem cell pluripotency with Wnt signaling \\| journal \\= Development \\| volume \\= 138 \\| issue \\= 20 \\| pages \\= 4341–4350 \\| date \\= October 2011 \\| pmid \\= 21903672 \\| pmc \\= 3177306 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1242/dev.066209 }}", "In [Xenopus](/wiki/Xenopus \"Xenopus\") oocytes, β\\-catenin is initially equally localized to all regions of the egg, but it is targeted for ubiquitination and degradation by the β\\-catenin destruction complex. [Fertilization](/wiki/Fertilization \"Fertilization\") of the egg causes a rotation of the outer cortical layers, moving clusters of the *Frizzled* and *Dsh* proteins closer to the equatorial region. β\\-catenin will be enriched locally under the influence of Wnt signaling pathway in the cells that inherit this portion of the cytoplasm. It will eventually translocate to the nucleus to bind [TCF3](/wiki/TCF3 \"TCF3\") in order to activate several genes that induce dorsal cell characteristics.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Schneider S, Steinbeisser H, Warga RM, Hausen P \\| title \\= Beta\\-catenin translocation into nuclei demarcates the dorsalizing centers in frog and fish embryos \\| journal \\= Mechanisms of Development \\| volume \\= 57 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 191–198 \\| date \\= July 1996 \\| pmid \\= 8843396 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/0925\\-4773(96\\)00546\\-1 \\| s2cid \\= 12694740 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} This signaling results in a region of cells known as the grey crescent, which is a classical organizer of embryonic development. If this region is surgically removed from the embryo, gastrulation does not occur at all. β\\-Catenin also plays a crucial role in the induction of the [blastopore](/wiki/Blastopore \"Blastopore\") lip, which in turn initiates gastrulation.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Larabell CA, Torres M, Rowning BA, Yost C, Miller JR, Wu M, Kimelman D, Moon RT \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Establishment of the dorso\\-ventral axis in Xenopus embryos is presaged by early asymmetries in β\\-catenin that are modulated by the Wnt signaling pathway \\| journal \\= The Journal of Cell Biology \\| volume \\= 136 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 1123–1136 \\| date \\= March 1997 \\| pmid \\= 9060476 \\| pmc \\= 2132470 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1083/jcb.136\\.5\\.1123 }} Inhibition of GSK\\-3 translation by injection of antisense mRNA may cause a second blastopore and a superfluous body axis to form. A similar effect can result from the overexpression of β\\-catenin.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Kelly GM, Erezyilmaz DF, Moon RT \\| title \\= Induction of a secondary embryonic axis in zebrafish occurs following the overexpression of beta\\-catenin \\| journal \\= Mechanisms of Development \\| volume \\= 53 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 261–273 \\| date \\= October 1995 \\| pmid \\= 8562427 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/0925\\-4773(95\\)00442\\-4 \\| s2cid \\= 14885037 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}", "#### Asymmetric cell division", "β\\-catenin has also been implicated in regulation of cell fates through [asymmetric cell division](/wiki/Asymmetric_cell_division \"Asymmetric cell division\") in the model organism *C. elegans*. Similarly to the *Xenopus* oocytes, this is essentially the result of non\\-equal distribution of *Dsh*, *Frizzled*, *axin* and *APC* in the cytoplasm of the mother cell.{{cite book \\| vauthors \\= Sawa H \\| title \\= Planar Cell Polarity During Development \\| chapter \\= Chapter 3: Control of cell polarity and asymmetric division in ''C. elegans'' \\| series\\= Current Topics in Developmental Biology\\|veditors\\=Yang Y\\| volume \\= 101 \\| pages \\= 55–76 \\| year \\= 2012 \\| pmid \\= 23140625 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/B978\\-0\\-12\\-394592\\-1\\.00003\\-X \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-12\\-394592\\-1 }}", "#### Stem cell renewal", "One of the most important results of Wnt signaling and the elevated level of β\\-catenin in certain cell types is the maintenance of [pluripotency](/wiki/Pluripotency \"Pluripotency\"). The rate of stem cells in the colon is for instance ensured by such accumulation of β\\-catenin, which can be stimulated by the Wnt pathway.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Barker N, van Es JH, Kuipers J, Kujala P, van den Born M, Cozijnsen M, Haegebarth A, Korving J, Begthel H, Peters PJ, Clevers H \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Identification of stem cells in small intestine and colon by marker gene Lgr5 \\| journal \\= Nature \\| volume \\= 449 \\| issue \\= 7165 \\| pages \\= 1003–1007 \\| date \\= October 2007 \\| pmid \\= 17934449 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/nature06196 \\| bibcode \\= 2007Natur.449\\.1003B \\| s2cid \\= 4349637 }} High frequency peristaltic mechanical strains of the colon are also involved in the β\\-catenin dependent maintenance of homeostatic levels of colonic stem cells through processes of mechanotransduction. This feature is pathologically enhanced towards tumorigenic hyperproliferation in healthy cells compressed by pressure due genetically altered hyperproliferative tumorous cells.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Nguyen Ho\\-Bouldoires TH, Sollier K, Zamfirov L, Broders\\-Bondon F, Mitrossilis D, Bermeo S, Guerin CL, Chipont A, Champenois G, Leclère R, André N, Ranno L, Michel A, Ménager C, Meseure D, Demené C, Tanter M, Fernández\\-Sánchez ME, Farge E \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Ret kinase\\-mediated mechanical induction of colon stem cells by tumor growth pressure stimulates cancer progression in vivo \\| journal \\= Communications Biology \\| volume \\= 5 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 137 \\| date \\= February 2022 \\| pmid \\= 35177769 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/s42003\\-022\\-03079\\-4 \\| pmc \\= 8854631 }}", "In other cell types and developmental stages, β\\-catenin may promote [differentiation](/wiki/Cell_differentiation \"Cell differentiation\"), especially towards [mesodermal](/wiki/Mesoderm \"Mesoderm\") cell lineages.", "#### Epithelial\\-to\\-mesenchymal transition", "β\\-Catenin also acts as a morphogen in later stages of embryonic development. Together with [TGF\\-β](/wiki/Transforming_growth_factor_beta \"Transforming growth factor beta\"), an important role of β\\-catenin is to induce a morphogenic change in epithelial cells. It induces them to abandon their tight adhesion and assume a more mobile and loosely associated [mesenchymal](/wiki/Mesenchyme \"Mesenchyme\") phenotype. During this process, epithelial cells lose expression of proteins like [E\\-cadherin](/wiki/Cadherin \"Cadherin\"), [Zonula occludens 1](/wiki/Tight_junction_protein_1 \"Tight junction protein 1\") (ZO1\\), and [cytokeratin](/wiki/Cytokeratin \"Cytokeratin\"). At the same time they turn on the expression of [vimentin](/wiki/Vimentin \"Vimentin\"), [alpha smooth muscle actin](/wiki/ACTA2 \"ACTA2\") (ACTA2\\), and fibroblast\\-specific protein 1 (FSP1\\). They also produce extracellular matrix components, such as [type I collagen](/wiki/Type-I_collagen \"Type-I collagen\") and [fibronectin](/wiki/Fibronectin \"Fibronectin\"). Aberrant activation of the Wnt pathway has been implicated in pathological processes such as fibrosis and cancer.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Tian X, Liu Z, Niu B, Zhang J, Tan TK, Lee SR, Zhao Y, Harris DC, Zheng G \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= E\\-cadherin/β\\-catenin complex and the epithelial barrier \\| journal \\= Journal of Biomedicine \\& Biotechnology \\| volume \\= 2011 \\| pages \\= 567305 \\| year \\= 2011 \\| pmid \\= 22007144 \\| pmc \\= 3191826 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1155/2011/567305 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} In cardiac muscle development, β\\-catenin performs a biphasic role. Initially, the activation of Wnt/β\\-catenin is essential for committing mesenchymal cells to a cardiac lineage; however, in later stages of development, the downregulation of β\\-catenin is required.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Zelarayan L, Gehrke C, Bergmann MW \\| title \\= Role of beta\\-catenin in adult cardiac remodeling \\| journal \\= Cell Cycle \\| volume \\= 6 \\| issue \\= 17 \\| pages \\= 2120–2126 \\| date \\= September 2007 \\| pmid \\= 17786052 \\| doi \\= 10\\.4161/cc.6\\.17\\.4632 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Lickert H, Kutsch S, Kanzler B, Tamai Y, Taketo MM, Kemler R \\| title \\= Formation of multiple hearts in mice following deletion of beta\\-catenin in the embryonic endoderm \\| journal \\= Developmental Cell \\| volume \\= 3 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 171–181 \\| date \\= August 2002 \\| pmid \\= 12194849 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/s1534\\-5807(02\\)00206\\-x \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}", "### Involvement in cardiac physiology", "In [cardiac muscle](/wiki/Cardiac_muscle \"Cardiac muscle\"), β\\-catenin forms a complex with [N\\-cadherin](/wiki/CDH2 \"CDH2\") at [adherens junctions](/wiki/Adherens_junction \"Adherens junction\") within [intercalated disc](/wiki/Intercalated_disc \"Intercalated disc\") structures, which are responsible for electrical and mechanical coupling of adjacent cardiac cells. Studies in a model of adult rat [ventricular](/wiki/Ventricle_%28heart%29 \"Ventricle (heart)\") [cardiomyocytes](/wiki/Cardiomyocytes \"Cardiomyocytes\") have shown that the appearance and distribution of β\\-catenin is spatio\\-temporally regulated during the redifferentiation of these cells in culture. Specifically, β\\-catenin is part of a distinct complex with N\\-cadherin and [alpha\\-catenin](/wiki/CTNNA1 \"CTNNA1\"), which is abundant at adherens junctions in early stages following [cardiomyocyte](/wiki/Cardiomyocyte \"Cardiomyocyte\") isolation for the reformation of cell–cell contacts.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Hertig CM, Butz S, Koch S, Eppenberger\\-Eberhardt M, Kemler R, Eppenberger HM \\| title \\= N\\-cadherin in adult rat cardiomyocytes in culture. II. Spatio\\-temporal appearance of proteins involved in cell\\-cell contact and communication. Formation of two distinct N\\-cadherin/catenin complexes \\| journal \\= Journal of Cell Science \\| volume \\= 109 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 11–20 \\| date \\= January 1996 \\| pmid \\= 8834786 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1242/jcs.109\\.1\\.11 }} It has been shown that β\\-catenin forms a complex with [emerin](/wiki/Emerin \"Emerin\") in cardiomyocytes at adherens junctions within intercalated discs; and this interaction is dependent on the presence of [GSK 3\\-beta](/wiki/GSK3B \"GSK3B\") [phosphorylation](/wiki/Phosphorylation \"Phosphorylation\") sites on β\\-catenin. Knocking out emerin significantly altered β\\-catenin localization and the overall intercalated disc architecture, which resembled a [dilated cardiomyopathy](/wiki/Dilated_cardiomyopathy \"Dilated cardiomyopathy\") phenotype.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Wheeler MA, Warley A, Roberts RG, Ehler E, Ellis JA \\| title \\= Identification of an emerin\\-beta\\-catenin complex in the heart important for intercalated disc architecture and beta\\-catenin localisation \\| journal \\= Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences \\| volume \\= 67 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 781–796 \\| date \\= March 2010 \\| pmid \\= 19997769 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1007/s00018\\-009\\-0219\\-8 \\| s2cid \\= 27205170 \\| pmc \\= 11115513 }}", "In animal models of [cardiac](/wiki/Cardiac \"Cardiac\") disease, functions of β\\-catenin have been unveiled. In a guinea pig model of [aortic stenosis](/wiki/Aortic_stenosis \"Aortic stenosis\") and left ventricular [hypertrophy](/wiki/Hypertrophy \"Hypertrophy\"), β\\-catenin was shown to change subcellular localization from intercalated discs to the [cytosol](/wiki/Cytosol \"Cytosol\"), despite no change in the overall cellular abundance of β\\-catenin. [vinculin](/wiki/Vinculin \"Vinculin\") showed a similar profile of change. N\\-cadherin showed no change, and there was no compensatory upregulation of [plakoglobin](/wiki/Plakoglobin \"Plakoglobin\") at intercalated discs in the absence of β\\-catenin.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Wang X, Gerdes AM \\| title \\= Chronic pressure overload cardiac hypertrophy and failure in guinea pigs: III. Intercalated disc remodeling \\| journal \\= Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology \\| volume \\= 31 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 333–343 \\| date \\= February 1999 \\| pmid \\= 10093046 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1006/jmcc.1998\\.0886 }} In a hamster model of [cardiomyopathy](/wiki/Cardiomyopathy \"Cardiomyopathy\") and [heart failure](/wiki/Heart_failure \"Heart failure\"), cell–cell adhesions were irregular and disorganized, and expression levels of adherens junction/intercalated disc and [nuclear](/wiki/Cell_nucleus \"Cell nucleus\") pools of β\\-catenin were decreased.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Yoshida M, Ohkusa T, Nakashima T, Takanari H, Yano M, Takemura G, Honjo H, Kodama I, Mizukami Y, Matsuzaki M \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Alterations in adhesion junction precede gap junction remodelling during the development of heart failure in cardiomyopathic hamsters \\| journal \\= Cardiovascular Research \\| volume \\= 92 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 95–105 \\| date \\= October 2011 \\| pmid \\= 21693625 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1093/cvr/cvr182 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} These data suggest that a loss of β\\-catenin may play a role in the diseased intercalated discs that have been associated with cardiac muscle hypertrophy and heart failure. In a rat model of [myocardial infarction](/wiki/Myocardial_infarction \"Myocardial infarction\"), [adenoviral](/wiki/Adenovirus \"Adenovirus\") gene transfer of non[phosphorylatable](/wiki/Phosphorylation \"Phosphorylation\"), constitutively\\-active β\\-catenin decreased MI size, activated the [cell cycle](/wiki/Cell_cycle \"Cell cycle\"), and reduced the amount of [apoptosis](/wiki/Apoptosis \"Apoptosis\") in cardiomyocytes and cardiac [myofibroblasts](/wiki/Myofibroblast \"Myofibroblast\"). This finding was coordinate with enhanced expression of pro\\-survival proteins, [survivin](/wiki/Survivin \"Survivin\") and [Bcl\\-2](/wiki/Bcl-2 \"Bcl-2\"), and [vascular endothelial growth factor](/wiki/Vascular_endothelial_growth_factor \"Vascular endothelial growth factor\") while promoting the differentiation of cardiac [fibroblasts](/wiki/Fibroblast \"Fibroblast\") into myofibroblasts. These findings suggest that β\\-catenin can promote the regeneration and healing process following myocardial infarction.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Hahn JY, Cho HJ, Bae JW, Yuk HS, Kim KI, Park KW, Koo BK, Chae IH, Shin CS, Oh BH, Choi YS, Park YB, Kim HS \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Beta\\-catenin overexpression reduces myocardial infarct size through differential effects on cardiomyocytes and cardiac fibroblasts \\| journal \\= The Journal of Biological Chemistry \\| volume \\= 281 \\| issue \\= 41 \\| pages \\= 30979–30989 \\| date \\= October 2006 \\| pmid \\= 16920707 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1074/jbc.M603916200 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} In a spontaneously\\-[hypertensive](/wiki/Hypertension \"Hypertension\") [heart failure](/wiki/Heart_failure \"Heart failure\") rat model, investigators detected a shuttling of β\\-catenin from the intercalated disc/[sarcolemma](/wiki/Sarcolemma \"Sarcolemma\") to the [nucleus](/wiki/Cell_nucleus \"Cell nucleus\"), evidenced by a reduction of β\\-catenin expression in the membrane protein fraction and an increase in the nuclear fraction. Additionally, they found a weakening in the association between [glycogen synthase kinase\\-3β](/wiki/GSK3B \"GSK3B\") and β\\-catenin, which may indicate altered protein stability. Overall, results suggest that an enhanced nuclear localization of β\\-catenin may be important in the progression of [cardiac hypertrophy](/wiki/Cardiac_hypertrophy \"Cardiac hypertrophy\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Zheng Q, Chen P, Xu Z, Li F, Yi XP \\| title \\= Expression and redistribution of β\\-catenin in the cardiac myocytes of left ventricle of spontaneously hypertensive rat \\| journal \\= Journal of Molecular Histology \\| volume \\= 44 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 565–573 \\| date \\= October 2013 \\| pmid \\= 23591738 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1007/s10735\\-013\\-9507\\-6 \\| s2cid \\= 18997718 }}", "Regarding the mechanistic role of β\\-catenin in cardiac hypertrophy, transgenic mouse studies have shown somewhat conflicting results regarding whether upregulation of β\\-catenin is beneficial or detrimental.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Baurand A, Zelarayan L, Betney R, Gehrke C, Dunger S, Noack C, Busjahn A, Huelsken J, Taketo MM, Birchmeier W, Dietz R, Bergmann MW \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Beta\\-catenin downregulation is required for adaptive cardiac remodeling \\| journal \\= Circulation Research \\| volume \\= 100 \\| issue \\= 9 \\| pages \\= 1353–1362 \\| date \\= May 2007 \\| pmid \\= 17413044 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1161/01\\.RES.0000266605\\.63681\\.5a \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Chen X, Shevtsov SP, Hsich E, Cui L, Haq S, Aronovitz M, Kerkelä R, Molkentin JD, Liao R, Salomon RN, Patten R, Force T \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= The beta\\-catenin/T\\-cell factor/lymphocyte enhancer factor signaling pathway is required for normal and stress\\-induced cardiac hypertrophy \\| journal \\= Molecular and Cellular Biology \\| volume \\= 26 \\| issue \\= 12 \\| pages \\= 4462–4473 \\| date \\= June 2006 \\| pmid \\= 16738313 \\| pmc \\= 1489123 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1128/MCB.02157\\-05 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Haq S, Michael A, Andreucci M, Bhattacharya K, Dotto P, Walters B, Woodgett J, Kilter H, Force T \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Stabilization of beta\\-catenin by a Wnt\\-independent mechanism regulates cardiomyocyte growth \\| journal \\= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \\| volume \\= 100 \\| issue \\= 8 \\| pages \\= 4610–4615 \\| date \\= April 2003 \\| pmid \\= 12668767 \\| pmc \\= 153603 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1073/pnas.0835895100 \\| doi\\-access \\= free \\| bibcode \\= 2003PNAS..100\\.4610H }} A recent study using a conditional knockout mouse that either lacked β\\-catenin altogether or expressed a non\\-degradable form of β\\-catenin in cardiomyocytes reconciled a potential reason for these discrepancies. There appears to be strict control over the subcellular localization of β\\-catenin in cardiac muscle. Mice lacking β\\-catenin had no overt phenotype in the left ventricular [myocardium](/wiki/Myocardium \"Myocardium\"); however, mice harboring a stabilized form of β\\-catenin developed [dilated cardiomyopathy](/wiki/Dilated_cardiomyopathy \"Dilated cardiomyopathy\"), suggesting that the temporal regulation of β\\-catenin by protein degradation mechanisms is critical for normal functioning of β\\-catenin in cardiac cells.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Hirschy A, Croquelois A, Perriard E, Schoenauer R, Agarkova I, Hoerstrup SP, Taketo MM, Pedrazzini T, Perriard JC, Ehler E \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Stabilised beta\\-catenin in postnatal ventricular myocardium leads to dilated cardiomyopathy and premature death \\| journal \\= Basic Research in Cardiology \\| volume \\= 105 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 597–608 \\| date \\= September 2010 \\| pmid \\= 20376467 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1007/s00395\\-010\\-0101\\-8 \\| s2cid \\= 21789076 \\| url \\= https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/34179/7/Hirschy.pdf }} In a mouse model harboring knockout of a desmosomal protein, plakoglobin, implicated in [arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy](/wiki/Arrhythmogenic_right_ventricular_cardiomyopathy \"Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy\"), the stabilization of β\\-catenin was also enhanced, presumably to compensate for the loss of its plakoglobin homolog. These changes were coordinate with Akt activation and [glycogen synthase kinase 3β](/wiki/GSK3B \"GSK3B\") inhibition, suggesting once again that the abnormal stabilization of β\\-catenin may be involved in the development of cardiomyopathy.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Li J, Swope D, Raess N, Cheng L, Muller EJ, Radice GL \\| title \\= Cardiac tissue\\-restricted deletion of plakoglobin results in progressive cardiomyopathy and activation of {beta}\\-catenin signaling \\| journal \\= Molecular and Cellular Biology \\| volume \\= 31 \\| issue \\= 6 \\| pages \\= 1134–1144 \\| date \\= March 2011 \\| pmid \\= 21245375 \\| pmc \\= 3067899 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1128/MCB.01025\\-10 }} Further studies employing a double knockout of plakoglobin and β\\-catenin showed that the double knockout developed cardiomyopathy, [fibrosis](/wiki/Fibrosis \"Fibrosis\") and [arrhythmias](/wiki/Heart_arrhythmia \"Heart arrhythmia\") resulting in [sudden cardiac death](/wiki/Sudden_cardiac_death \"Sudden cardiac death\"). Intercalated disc architecture was severely impaired and [connexin 43](/wiki/GJA1 \"GJA1\")\\-resident [gap junctions](/wiki/Gap_junction \"Gap junction\") were markedly reduced. [Electrocardiogram](/wiki/Electrocardiogram \"Electrocardiogram\") measurements captured spontaneous lethal ventricular arrhythmias in the double transgenic animals, suggesting that the two catenins—β\\-catenin and plakoglobin—are critical and indispensable for mechanoelectrical coupling in cardiomyocytes.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Swope D, Cheng L, Gao E, Li J, Radice GL \\| title \\= Loss of cadherin\\-binding proteins β\\-catenin and plakoglobin in the heart leads to gap junction remodeling and arrhythmogenesis \\| journal \\= Molecular and Cellular Biology \\| volume \\= 32 \\| issue \\= 6 \\| pages \\= 1056–1067 \\| date \\= March 2012 \\| pmid \\= 22252313 \\| pmc \\= 3295003 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1128/MCB.06188\\-11 }}", "" ]
Gameplay -------- {{More citations needed\|section\|date\=August 2021}} The object of *Mr. Do!* is to score as many points as possible by digging tunnels through the ground and collecting cherries. The title character, Mr. Do (a circus clown—except for the original Japanese version of the game, in which he is a snowman), is constantly chased by red dinosaur\-like monsters called creeps,{{cite magazine\|title\=Mr. Do!: The Do Dude Returns \|magazine\=\[\[Electronic Gaming Monthly]]\|issue\=88 \|publisher\=\[\[Ziff Davis]]\|date\=November 1996 \|page\=252}} and the player loses a life if Mr. Do is caught by one. The game ends when the last life is lost. [thumb\|left\|Mr. Do collecting cherries while avoiding creeps](/wiki/Image:Mrdo.png "Mrdo.png") Cherries are distributed throughout the level in groups of eight, and collecting all the cherries in one group without a pause awards bonus points. A level is complete either when all cherries are removed, all creeps are destroyed, "EXTRA" is spelled, or a diamond is found. Mr. Do can defeat creeps by hitting them with his bouncing "power ball" or by dropping large apples on them. While the power ball is bouncing toward a creep, Mr. Do is defenseless. If the ball bounces into an area where there are no creeps to hit (such as behind a fallen apple), Mr. Do cannot use it again until he has retrieved it. When the power ball hits a creep, it then reforms in Mr. Do's hands after a delay that increases with each use. Mr. Do or the creeps can push an apple off the edge of a vertical tunnel and crush one or more creeps. If an apple falls more than its own height, it breaks and disappears. Mr. Do can also be crushed by a falling apple, causing a loss of life. Occasionally, the creeps transform briefly into more powerful multicolored monsters that can tunnel through the ground. If one of these digs through a cherry, it leaves fewer cherries for Mr. Do to collect. When it digs under an apple, it often crushes itself, other creeps, and/or Mr. Do. As the game progresses, a display at the top of the screen cycles through the letters in the word EXTRA. Every time the player's score reaches a multiple of 5,000 points, the highlighted letter enters the playfield as an Alphamonster, which can be defeated in the same manner as a creep. Defeating the Alphamonster awards its letter; collecting all five letters ends the level, plays a cut scene accompanied by the theme to *[Astro Boy](/wiki/Astro_Boy "Astro Boy")*, and awards the player an extra life. Alphamonsters attempt to eat any apples they encounter, which makes them difficult to crush. The creeps spawn at the center of the screen. After they have all appeared, the generator will turn into a food item; picking this up scores bonus points, freezes all the creeps, and calls out an Alphamonster (if one is not already on the field) and three large blue monsters. The latter can eat apples as well. The creeps stay frozen until the player either defeats all three blue monsters, defeats the Alphamonster (in which case any remaining blue monsters are turned into apples), loses a life, or completes the stage. Rarely, dropping an apple reveals a diamond which, if collected, completes the level and awards a bonus credit to the player.
[ "Gameplay\n--------", "{{More citations needed\\|section\\|date\\=August 2021}}\nThe object of *Mr. Do!* is to score as many points as possible by digging tunnels through the ground and collecting cherries. The title character, Mr. Do (a circus clown—except for the original Japanese version of the game, in which he is a snowman), is constantly chased by red dinosaur\\-like monsters called creeps,{{cite magazine\\|title\\=Mr. Do!: The Do Dude Returns \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Electronic Gaming Monthly]]\\|issue\\=88 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Ziff Davis]]\\|date\\=November 1996 \\|page\\=252}} and the player loses a life if Mr. Do is caught by one. The game ends when the last life is lost.", "[thumb\\|left\\|Mr. Do collecting cherries while avoiding creeps](/wiki/Image:Mrdo.png \"Mrdo.png\")", "Cherries are distributed throughout the level in groups of eight, and collecting all the cherries in one group without a pause awards bonus points. A level is complete either when all cherries are removed, all creeps are destroyed, \"EXTRA\" is spelled, or a diamond is found.", "Mr. Do can defeat creeps by hitting them with his bouncing \"power ball\" or by dropping large apples on them. While the power ball is bouncing toward a creep, Mr. Do is defenseless. If the ball bounces into an area where there are no creeps to hit (such as behind a fallen apple), Mr. Do cannot use it again until he has retrieved it. When the power ball hits a creep, it then reforms in Mr. Do's hands after a delay that increases with each use.", "Mr. Do or the creeps can push an apple off the edge of a vertical tunnel and crush one or more creeps. If an apple falls more than its own height, it breaks and disappears. Mr. Do can also be crushed by a falling apple, causing a loss of life.", "Occasionally, the creeps transform briefly into more powerful multicolored monsters that can tunnel through the ground. If one of these digs through a cherry, it leaves fewer cherries for Mr. Do to collect. When it digs under an apple, it often crushes itself, other creeps, and/or Mr. Do.", "As the game progresses, a display at the top of the screen cycles through the letters in the word EXTRA. Every time the player's score reaches a multiple of 5,000 points, the highlighted letter enters the playfield as an Alphamonster, which can be defeated in the same manner as a creep. Defeating the Alphamonster awards its letter; collecting all five letters ends the level, plays a cut scene accompanied by the theme to *[Astro Boy](/wiki/Astro_Boy \"Astro Boy\")*, and awards the player an extra life. Alphamonsters attempt to eat any apples they encounter, which makes them difficult to crush.", "The creeps spawn at the center of the screen. After they have all appeared, the generator will turn into a food item; picking this up scores bonus points, freezes all the creeps, and calls out an Alphamonster (if one is not already on the field) and three large blue monsters. The latter can eat apples as well. The creeps stay frozen until the player either defeats all three blue monsters, defeats the Alphamonster (in which case any remaining blue monsters are turned into apples), loses a life, or completes the stage.", "Rarely, dropping an apple reveals a diamond which, if collected, completes the level and awards a bonus credit to the player.", "" ]
Plot ---- The sun is gradually moving towards the Earth, causing massive heat waves, birds to fall from the sky, and a lack of rain. A group of children perform a [rain dance](/wiki/Rain_dance "Rain dance"), believing that the gods will solve the problem, while Dr. Wisut, a scientist at a nearby missile site, plans to launch rockets that will conduct a [weather modification](/wiki/Weather_modification "Weather modification") experiment, although his assistant Marissa believes that they should also ask the gods for rain. Three robbers break into the temple where the children are dancing and take priceless artifacts. The robbers beat up a boy named Piko when he tries to step in, but when he gets up and climbs into their jeep, he is shot in the face, killing him. Fortunately, the Mother of Ultra, witnessing the incident from Nebula M78, revives the child, believing his death to be unfair, granting him the ability to transform into the legendary deity [Hanuman](/wiki/Hanuman "Hanuman"). Hanuman flies away to persuade the Sun to enact revenge on the robbers who killed Piko, but Piko's friend Anan attempts to follow him, collapsing due to the intense heat, and dreaming about the *[Phra Lak Phra Ram](/wiki/Phra_Lak_Phra_Ram "Phra Lak Phra Ram")* story featuring Hanuman. Hanuman then successfully persuades the Sun to move back to its original location, and revives Anan. Meanwhile, Dr. Wisut's experiment begins, launching the first rocket, which is successful, however he ignores a problem that Marissa tells him headquarters have found, which causes the second rocket to explode on its launchpad, causing a chain reaction that destroys the others at the test site in a massive detonation. The explosion creates an earthquake which in turn causes a fissure to form in the ground, from which emerge five evil monsters. They are Gomora (from *[Ultraman](/wiki/Ultraman "Ultraman")*), Dustpan (originally from *[Mirrorman](/wiki/Mirrorman "Mirrorman")*, being the only monster out of the set to not originate in a main *Ultra Series* entry), Astromons, Tyrant and Dorobon (all from *[Ultraman Taro](/wiki/Ultraman_Taro "Ultraman Taro")*). Marissa finds her younger brother Anan, who forces her to search for Piko/Hanuman, who transforms to fight the monsters. Gomora chases Marissa and Anan, causing Marissa to injure her leg. Meanwhile, Hanuman is overpowered by the other monsters, but the Ultra Brothers arrive on Earth to help him. Eventually, the seven heroes triumph over the monsters, and all return home.
[ "Plot\n----", "The sun is gradually moving towards the Earth, causing massive heat waves, birds to fall from the sky, and a lack of rain. A group of children perform a [rain dance](/wiki/Rain_dance \"Rain dance\"), believing that the gods will solve the problem, while Dr. Wisut, a scientist at a nearby missile site, plans to launch rockets that will conduct a [weather modification](/wiki/Weather_modification \"Weather modification\") experiment, although his assistant Marissa believes that they should also ask the gods for rain.", "Three robbers break into the temple where the children are dancing and take priceless artifacts. The robbers beat up a boy named Piko when he tries to step in, but when he gets up and climbs into their jeep, he is shot in the face, killing him. Fortunately, the Mother of Ultra, witnessing the incident from Nebula M78, revives the child, believing his death to be unfair, granting him the ability to transform into the legendary deity [Hanuman](/wiki/Hanuman \"Hanuman\").", "Hanuman flies away to persuade the Sun to enact revenge on the robbers who killed Piko, but Piko's friend Anan attempts to follow him, collapsing due to the intense heat, and dreaming about the *[Phra Lak Phra Ram](/wiki/Phra_Lak_Phra_Ram \"Phra Lak Phra Ram\")* story featuring Hanuman. Hanuman then successfully persuades the Sun to move back to its original location, and revives Anan.", "Meanwhile, Dr. Wisut's experiment begins, launching the first rocket, which is successful, however he ignores a problem that Marissa tells him headquarters have found, which causes the second rocket to explode on its launchpad, causing a chain reaction that destroys the others at the test site in a massive detonation. The explosion creates an earthquake which in turn causes a fissure to form in the ground, from which emerge five evil monsters. They are Gomora (from *[Ultraman](/wiki/Ultraman \"Ultraman\")*), Dustpan (originally from *[Mirrorman](/wiki/Mirrorman \"Mirrorman\")*, being the only monster out of the set to not originate in a main *Ultra Series* entry), Astromons, Tyrant and Dorobon (all from *[Ultraman Taro](/wiki/Ultraman_Taro \"Ultraman Taro\")*).", "Marissa finds her younger brother Anan, who forces her to search for Piko/Hanuman, who transforms to fight the monsters. Gomora chases Marissa and Anan, causing Marissa to injure her leg. Meanwhile, Hanuman is overpowered by the other monsters, but the Ultra Brothers arrive on Earth to help him. Eventually, the seven heroes triumph over the monsters, and all return home.", "" ]
List of documents ----------------- The documents are from a variety of sources. Only some are leaked internal memos (documents I, II, VII, VIII, and X). One is a public statement (document III). The others are responses by Eric Raymond to various columns, news articles, and other works. | No. | Name | Author | Date | Brief description | | I | "Open Source Software: A (New?) Development Methodology" | Microsoft / Vinod Valloppillil | {{Date table sorting\|August 1998}} | A leaked internal report | | II | "Linux OS Competitive Analysis: The Next Java VM?" | Microsoft / Vinod Valloppillil | {{Date table sorting\|August 1998}} | A leaked internal report | | III | Untitled statement | Microsoft / Aurelia van den Berg | {{Date table sorting\|November 1998}} | Press statement from Microsoft Netherlands | | IV | "When Software Things Were Rotten" | Eric S. Raymond | {{Date table sorting\|December 1998}} | A satire piece based on Microsoft's [Ed Muth](/wiki/Ed_Muth "Ed Muth") comparing open source developers to [Robin Hood](/wiki/Robin_Hood "Robin Hood"). | | V | "The FUD Begins" | Eric S. Raymond | {{Date table sorting\|March 1999}} | A response by Raymond to Ed Muth's allegations that Linux has a "weak [value proposition](/wiki/Value_proposition "Value proposition")". | | VI | "The Fatal Anniversary" | Eric S. Raymond | {{Date table sorting\|October 1999}} | A response by Raymond to studies authored by the [Gartner](/wiki/Gartner "Gartner") group for Microsoft. | | VII | "Research E\-Bulletin: Attitudes Towards Shared Source and Open Source Research Study" | Microsoft | {{Date table sorting\|September 2002}} | A summary of the results of a Microsoft survey describing reactions to Microsoft's [Shared Source Initiative](/wiki/Shared_Source_Initiative "Shared Source Initiative"). | | VIII | "OSS and Government" | Microsoft / Orlando Ayala | {{Date table sorting\|November 2002}} | Describes Microsoft's procedures for responding to notable conversions away from Microsoft software | | IX | "It Ain't Necessarily SCO" | Eric S. Raymond and Rob Landley | {{Date table sorting\|August 2003}} | A response to the allegations made by the [SCO Group](/wiki/SCO_Group "SCO Group") in its initial filings in *[SCO v. IBM](/wiki/SCO_v._IBM "SCO v. IBM")*. | | X | "Follow The Money" | Mike Anderer | {{Date table sorting\|March 2004}} | An e\-mail from consultant Mike Anderer to SCO's Chris Sontag revealing Microsoft's channeling of $86{{nbsp}}million (equivalent to ${{Inflation\|US\|86\|2004\|r\=\-1}}{{nbsp}}million in {{Inflation/year\|US}}) to SCO. | | XI | "Get The FUD" | Eric S. Raymond | {{Date table sorting\|June 2004}} | A response to Microsoft's "[Get the Facts](/wiki/Get_the_Facts "Get the Facts")" campaign | ### Documents I and II These are leaked reports for Microsoft's own use, both written by Vinod Valloppillil, a program manager at Microsoft. Document I provides a detailed introduction to the concepts behind open source software and its possible impact on Microsoft products and services. It outlines the strengths and weaknesses of open source software. Document II describes the basic architecture of the Linux system, and its relation to Unix and Windows NT. Document I revealed that "FUD" (spreading [fear, uncertainty, and doubt](/wiki/Fear%2C_uncertainty%2C_and_doubt "Fear, uncertainty, and doubt")) was a traditional Microsoft marketing strategy, acknowledged and understood internally. Examples of Microsoft's FUD tactics are [announcing nonexistent products](/wiki/Vaporware "Vaporware") or spreading rumors that competing products will crash Windows. Raymond suggests that the documents show that while Microsoft may have been dismissive of open source software in public, it privately considers it a serious competitor. In discussing ways of competing with open source, Document I suggests that one reason that open source projects had been able to enter the [server](/wiki/Webserver "Webserver") market is the market's use of standardized protocols. The document then suggests that this can be stopped by "extending these protocols and developing new protocols" and "de\-commoditiz\[ing] protocols \& applications". This policy has been internally nicknamed "[embrace, extend, extinguish](/wiki/Embrace%2C_extend%2C_extinguish "Embrace, extend, extinguish")". Document I also suggests that open source software "is long\-term credible ... FUD tactics can not be used to combat it", and "Recent case studies (the Internet) provide very dramatic evidence ... that commercial quality can be achieved / exceeded by OSS projects." Documents I and II were filed as evidence on January 16, 2007, in the case of *[Comes v. Microsoft](/wiki/Comes_v._Microsoft "Comes v. Microsoft")*. ### Document III The statement from Aurelia van den Berg, the Press and Public Relations manager of Microsoft Netherlands, puts forward Microsoft's view on the first two documents. It says that the documents are not an "official position", but that "it is routine and appropriate" to research competitors. This statement is only a brief response, but many points were later incorporated into an official response from Microsoft. ### Document VII This document is a summary of the results of a survey of developers and IT managers, carried out by Microsoft, describing reactions to Microsoft's [shared\-source](/wiki/Shared_source "Shared source") program. Eric Raymond provides commentary suggesting ways that the open\-source community can promote itself based on the results of the survey. The results show favorable responses about both open\-source and shared\-source principles. It also describes low [total cost of ownership](/wiki/Total_cost_of_ownership "Total cost of ownership") (TCO) as a major reason for Linux adoption, in contradiction to many documents released by the company suggesting that Windows has a lower TCO than Linux solutions. ### Document VIII "OSS and Government", aka "**Halloween VIII: Doing the Damage\-Control Dance**", is a memo from Group Vice President of Worldwide Sales, Orlando Ayala, to general managers of Microsoft regional subsidiaries. It describes the availability of support from Microsoft corporate for regional sales personnel facing competition from Linux in government markets. ### Document X An e\-mail from consultant Mike Anderer to [SCO Group](/wiki/SCO_Group "SCO Group")'s Chris Sontag, also known as "**Halloween X: Follow The Money**". The document describes, among other points, Microsoft's channeling of $86 million (equivalent to ${{Inflation\|US\|86\|2004}} million in {{Inflation\-year\|US}}) to SCO.
[ "List of documents\n-----------------", "The documents are from a variety of sources. Only some are leaked internal memos (documents I, II, VII, VIII, and X). One is a public statement (document III). The others are responses by Eric Raymond to various columns, news articles, and other works.", "", "| No. | Name | Author | Date | Brief description |\n| I | \"Open Source Software: A (New?) Development Methodology\" | Microsoft / Vinod Valloppillil | {{Date table sorting\\|August 1998}} | A leaked internal report |\n| II | \"Linux OS Competitive Analysis: The Next Java VM?\" | Microsoft / Vinod Valloppillil | {{Date table sorting\\|August 1998}} | A leaked internal report |\n| III | Untitled statement | Microsoft / Aurelia van den Berg | {{Date table sorting\\|November 1998}} | Press statement from Microsoft Netherlands |\n| IV | \"When Software Things Were Rotten\" | Eric S. Raymond | {{Date table sorting\\|December 1998}} | A satire piece based on Microsoft's [Ed Muth](/wiki/Ed_Muth \"Ed Muth\") comparing open source developers to [Robin Hood](/wiki/Robin_Hood \"Robin Hood\"). |\n| V | \"The FUD Begins\" | Eric S. Raymond | {{Date table sorting\\|March 1999}} | A response by Raymond to Ed Muth's allegations that Linux has a \"weak [value proposition](/wiki/Value_proposition \"Value proposition\")\". |\n| VI | \"The Fatal Anniversary\" | Eric S. Raymond | {{Date table sorting\\|October 1999}} | A response by Raymond to studies authored by the [Gartner](/wiki/Gartner \"Gartner\") group for Microsoft. |\n| VII | \"Research E\\-Bulletin: Attitudes Towards Shared Source and Open Source Research Study\" | Microsoft | {{Date table sorting\\|September 2002}} | A summary of the results of a Microsoft survey describing reactions to Microsoft's [Shared Source Initiative](/wiki/Shared_Source_Initiative \"Shared Source Initiative\"). |\n| VIII | \"OSS and Government\" | Microsoft / Orlando Ayala | {{Date table sorting\\|November 2002}} | Describes Microsoft's procedures for responding to notable conversions away from Microsoft software |\n| IX | \"It Ain't Necessarily SCO\" | Eric S. Raymond and Rob Landley | {{Date table sorting\\|August 2003}} | A response to the allegations made by the [SCO Group](/wiki/SCO_Group \"SCO Group\") in its initial filings in *[SCO v. IBM](/wiki/SCO_v._IBM \"SCO v. IBM\")*. |\n| X | \"Follow The Money\" | Mike Anderer | {{Date table sorting\\|March 2004}} | An e\\-mail from consultant Mike Anderer to SCO's Chris Sontag revealing Microsoft's channeling of $86{{nbsp}}million (equivalent to ${{Inflation\\|US\\|86\\|2004\\|r\\=\\-1}}{{nbsp}}million in {{Inflation/year\\|US}}) to SCO. |\n| XI | \"Get The FUD\" | Eric S. Raymond | {{Date table sorting\\|June 2004}} | A response to Microsoft's \"[Get the Facts](/wiki/Get_the_Facts \"Get the Facts\")\" campaign |", "### Documents I and II", "These are leaked reports for Microsoft's own use, both written by Vinod Valloppillil, a program manager at Microsoft.", "Document I provides a detailed introduction to the concepts behind open source software and its possible impact on Microsoft products and services. It outlines the strengths and weaknesses of open source software. Document II describes the basic architecture of the Linux system, and its relation to Unix and Windows NT.", "Document I revealed that \"FUD\" (spreading [fear, uncertainty, and doubt](/wiki/Fear%2C_uncertainty%2C_and_doubt \"Fear, uncertainty, and doubt\")) was a traditional Microsoft marketing strategy, acknowledged and understood internally. Examples of Microsoft's FUD tactics are [announcing nonexistent products](/wiki/Vaporware \"Vaporware\") or spreading rumors that competing products will crash Windows. Raymond suggests that the documents show that while Microsoft may have been dismissive of open source software in public, it privately considers it a serious competitor.", "In discussing ways of competing with open source, Document I suggests that one reason that open source projects had been able to enter the [server](/wiki/Webserver \"Webserver\") market is the market's use of standardized protocols. The document then suggests that this can be stopped by \"extending these protocols and developing new protocols\" and \"de\\-commoditiz\\[ing] protocols \\& applications\". This policy has been internally nicknamed \"[embrace, extend, extinguish](/wiki/Embrace%2C_extend%2C_extinguish \"Embrace, extend, extinguish\")\". Document I also suggests that open source software \"is long\\-term credible ... FUD tactics can not be used to combat it\", and \"Recent case studies (the Internet) provide very dramatic evidence ... that commercial quality can be achieved / exceeded by OSS projects.\"", "Documents I and II were filed as evidence on January 16, 2007, in the case of *[Comes v. Microsoft](/wiki/Comes_v._Microsoft \"Comes v. Microsoft\")*.", "### Document III", "The statement from Aurelia van den Berg, the Press and Public Relations manager of Microsoft Netherlands, puts forward Microsoft's view on the first two documents. It says that the documents are not an \"official position\", but that \"it is routine and appropriate\" to research competitors. This statement is only a brief response, but many points were later incorporated into an official response from Microsoft.", "### Document VII", "This document is a summary of the results of a survey of developers and IT managers, carried out by Microsoft, describing reactions to Microsoft's [shared\\-source](/wiki/Shared_source \"Shared source\") program. Eric Raymond provides commentary suggesting ways that the open\\-source community can promote itself based on the results of the survey. The results show favorable responses about both open\\-source and shared\\-source principles. It also describes low [total cost of ownership](/wiki/Total_cost_of_ownership \"Total cost of ownership\") (TCO) as a major reason for Linux adoption, in contradiction to many documents released by the company suggesting that Windows has a lower TCO than Linux solutions.", "### Document VIII", "\"OSS and Government\", aka \"**Halloween VIII: Doing the Damage\\-Control Dance**\", is a memo from Group Vice President of Worldwide Sales, Orlando Ayala, to general managers of Microsoft regional subsidiaries. It describes the availability of support from Microsoft corporate for regional sales personnel facing competition from Linux in government markets.", "### Document X", "An e\\-mail from consultant Mike Anderer to [SCO Group](/wiki/SCO_Group \"SCO Group\")'s Chris Sontag, also known as \"**Halloween X: Follow The Money**\". The document describes, among other points, Microsoft's channeling of $86 million (equivalent to ${{Inflation\\|US\\|86\\|2004}} million in {{Inflation\\-year\\|US}}) to SCO.", "" ]
Profile ------- ### Steering committee A core group of well\-known and respected NGOs form the Steering Committee of the Coalition, which provide policy and program coherence for the Coalition’s efforts and activities.{{Cite web\|title\=Who we are {{!}} Coalition for the International Criminal Court\|url\=http://www.coalitionfortheicc.org/about/who\-we\-are\|access\-date\=2020\-07\-27\|website\=www.coalitionfortheicc.org}} Adapting and adjusting to political developments, the Steering Committee helps guide the work of the coalition's secretariat, serving as an advisory body not only to provide global policy coherence, but to ensure cooperation and provide crucial strategic oversight. Each of these organisations has its own ICC programs, staff and resources. Steering committee members include: * [Amnesty International](/wiki/Amnesty_International "Amnesty International") * *[Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos](/wiki/Asociaci%C3%B3n_Pro_Derechos_Humanos "Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos")* * *[International Federation for Human Rights](/wiki/International_Federation_for_Human_Rights "International Federation for Human Rights")* * [Human Rights First](/wiki/Human_Rights_First "Human Rights First") * [Human Rights Watch](/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch "Human Rights Watch") * [No Peace Without Justice](/wiki/No_Peace_Without_Justice "No Peace Without Justice") * [Parliamentarians for Global Action](/wiki/Parliamentarians_for_Global_Action "Parliamentarians for Global Action") * [Women's Initiatives for Gender Justice](/wiki/Women%27s_Initiatives_for_Gender_Justice "Women's Initiatives for Gender Justice") * [World Federalist Movement/Institute for Global Policy](/wiki/World_Federalist_Movement/Institute_for_Global_Policy "World Federalist Movement/Institute for Global Policy") * Emeritus steering committee members: [European Law Students' Association](/wiki/European_Law_Students%27_Association "European Law Students' Association") * [Rights and Democracy](/wiki/Rights_and_Democracy "Rights and Democracy") * [Asian Forum for Human Rights and Development](/wiki/Asian_Forum_for_Human_Rights_and_Development "Asian Forum for Human Rights and Development") (FORUM\-ASIA) – Bangkok, Thailand * [Civil Resource Development and Documentation Centre](/wiki/Civil_Resource_Development_and_Documentation_Centre "Civil Resource Development and Documentation Centre") (CIRDDOC) – Enugu, Nigeria * *[Comisión Andina de Juristas](/wiki/Comisi%C3%B3n_Andina_de_Juristas "Comisión Andina de Juristas")* (Andean Commission of Jurists) – Lima, Peru * [Human Rights Network Uganda](/wiki/Human_Rights_Network_Uganda "Human Rights Network Uganda") (HURINET\-Uganda) – Kampala, Uganda * [The Redress Trust](/wiki/The_Redress_Trust "The Redress Trust") – London, United Kingdom ### Membership In 1995, the CICC consisted of 25\-member organizations, but today—with a global membership of more than 2500 organizations—the Coalition has become a major actor in the global fight to end impunity. Coalition members represent vast geographic and thematic interests, including human rights, women's issues, children's rights, peace, international law, humanitarian assistance, the rights of victims, faith\-based issues, and disarmament. ### Regional and national networks The Coalition for the ICC has established strong national and regional networks all over the world. The CICC national coalitions and regional networks typically comprise a diverse range of civil society groups working within a single country or region, including NGOs, academics, lawyers, and bar associations. Through these networks, strategic plans to achieve the goals of this campaign, in particular ratification and implementation of the Rome Statute, and widespread education about the court and the statute, are developed and carried out. By 2009, there were 14 national coalitions in [Asia](/wiki/Asia "Asia") and the Pacific, 14 in [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe"), 21 in [Africa](/wiki/Africa "Africa"), 11 in the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East "Middle East") and [North Africa](/wiki/North_Africa "North Africa"), and nine in [Latin America](/wiki/Latin_America "Latin America"), for a total of 69 national coalitions advocating for the ICC. The CICC secretariat's regional section, its regional coordinators based around the world and its outreach liaisons in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"), support the development and capacity\-building of the CICC networks and work closely with them at every stage. ### NGO teams and issues The CICC monitors a wide range of issues relating to the work of the ICC through issue\-specific teams and working groups composed of NGO representatives. Membership to these teams is open to all CICC members. Currently these include topics such as: * Budget and finance * Building \- ICC premises * Children * Communications and outreach * Cooperation agreements and enforcement * Crimes of aggression * ICC and ASP Elections * Gender justice * Legal representation * Recruitment of ICC staff * Review conferences * Strategic planning * Trust funds for victims Purpose * The key purpose of the teams is to help coordinate and focus the input of member NGOs on particular issues, and facilitate the efficient division of labor among NGO experts. Most teams have a designated leader and a CICC secretariat focal point that helps coordinate the work. Teams operate on the principles of collaboration and transparency, and respect the diversity, mandates and independence of members. Teams monitor key developments related to their particular area of focus and recommend strategies to be considered by the coalition as a whole or by individual members. Background * The coalition's team structure developed informally during the 1995\-1998 Ad Hoc and Preparatory Committee meetings leading up to the Rome Conference. The structure was formally implemented during the Rome Conference during which 13 teams monitored various aspects of the statute, the final act and the preamble. Throughout the preparatory commissions and the Assembly of States Parties, the teams worked in conjunction with the coalition's steering committee, sectoral caucuses, working groups such as the Faith and Ethics Network and the Victims’ Rights Working Group, and regional teams working on issues such as ratification and implementation as well as regional and national networks.
[ "Profile\n-------", "### Steering committee", "A core group of well\\-known and respected NGOs form the Steering Committee of the Coalition, which provide policy and program coherence for the Coalition’s efforts and activities.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Who we are {{!}} Coalition for the International Criminal Court\\|url\\=http://www.coalitionfortheicc.org/about/who\\-we\\-are\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-07\\-27\\|website\\=www.coalitionfortheicc.org}} Adapting and adjusting to political developments, the Steering Committee helps guide the work of the coalition's secretariat, serving as an advisory body not only to provide global policy coherence, but to ensure cooperation and provide crucial strategic oversight. Each of these organisations has its own ICC programs, staff and resources.", "Steering committee members include: \n* [Amnesty International](/wiki/Amnesty_International \"Amnesty International\")\n* *[Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos](/wiki/Asociaci%C3%B3n_Pro_Derechos_Humanos \"Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos\")*\n* *[International Federation for Human Rights](/wiki/International_Federation_for_Human_Rights \"International Federation for Human Rights\")*\n* [Human Rights First](/wiki/Human_Rights_First \"Human Rights First\")\n* [Human Rights Watch](/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch \"Human Rights Watch\")\n* [No Peace Without Justice](/wiki/No_Peace_Without_Justice \"No Peace Without Justice\")\n* [Parliamentarians for Global Action](/wiki/Parliamentarians_for_Global_Action \"Parliamentarians for Global Action\")\n* [Women's Initiatives for Gender Justice](/wiki/Women%27s_Initiatives_for_Gender_Justice \"Women's Initiatives for Gender Justice\")\n* [World Federalist Movement/Institute for Global Policy](/wiki/World_Federalist_Movement/Institute_for_Global_Policy \"World Federalist Movement/Institute for Global Policy\")\n* Emeritus steering committee members: [European Law Students' Association](/wiki/European_Law_Students%27_Association \"European Law Students' Association\")\n* [Rights and Democracy](/wiki/Rights_and_Democracy \"Rights and Democracy\")\n* [Asian Forum for Human Rights and Development](/wiki/Asian_Forum_for_Human_Rights_and_Development \"Asian Forum for Human Rights and Development\") (FORUM\\-ASIA) – Bangkok, Thailand\n* [Civil Resource Development and Documentation Centre](/wiki/Civil_Resource_Development_and_Documentation_Centre \"Civil Resource Development and Documentation Centre\") (CIRDDOC) – Enugu, Nigeria\n* *[Comisión Andina de Juristas](/wiki/Comisi%C3%B3n_Andina_de_Juristas \"Comisión Andina de Juristas\")* (Andean Commission of Jurists) – Lima, Peru\n* [Human Rights Network Uganda](/wiki/Human_Rights_Network_Uganda \"Human Rights Network Uganda\") (HURINET\\-Uganda) – Kampala, Uganda\n* [The Redress Trust](/wiki/The_Redress_Trust \"The Redress Trust\") – London, United Kingdom", "### Membership", "In 1995, the CICC consisted of 25\\-member organizations, but today—with a global membership of more than 2500 organizations—the Coalition has become a major actor in the global fight to end impunity. Coalition members represent vast geographic and thematic interests, including human rights, women's issues, children's rights, peace, international law, humanitarian assistance, the rights of victims, faith\\-based issues, and disarmament.", "### Regional and national networks", "The Coalition for the ICC has established strong national and regional networks all over the world. The CICC national coalitions and regional networks typically comprise a diverse range of civil society groups working within a single country or region, including NGOs, academics, lawyers, and bar associations. Through these networks, strategic plans to achieve the goals of this campaign, in particular ratification and implementation of the Rome Statute, and widespread education about the court and the statute, are developed and carried out.", "By 2009, there were 14 national coalitions in [Asia](/wiki/Asia \"Asia\") and the Pacific, 14 in [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\"), 21 in [Africa](/wiki/Africa \"Africa\"), 11 in the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East \"Middle East\") and [North Africa](/wiki/North_Africa \"North Africa\"), and nine in [Latin America](/wiki/Latin_America \"Latin America\"), for a total of 69 national coalitions advocating for the ICC.", "The CICC secretariat's regional section, its regional coordinators based around the world and its outreach liaisons in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), support the development and capacity\\-building of the CICC networks and work closely with them at every stage.", "### NGO teams and issues", "The CICC monitors a wide range of issues relating to the work of the ICC through issue\\-specific teams and working groups composed of NGO representatives. Membership to these teams is open to all CICC members.", "Currently these include topics such as: \n* Budget and finance\n* Building \\- ICC premises\n* Children\n* Communications and outreach\n* Cooperation agreements and enforcement\n* Crimes of aggression\n* ICC and ASP Elections\n* Gender justice\n* Legal representation\n* Recruitment of ICC staff\n* Review conferences\n* Strategic planning\n* Trust funds for victims", "Purpose\n* The key purpose of the teams is to help coordinate and focus the input of member NGOs on particular issues, and facilitate the efficient division of labor among NGO experts. Most teams have a designated leader and a CICC secretariat focal point that helps coordinate the work. Teams operate on the principles of collaboration and transparency, and respect the diversity, mandates and independence of members. Teams monitor key developments related to their particular area of focus and recommend strategies to be considered by the coalition as a whole or by individual members.", "Background\n* The coalition's team structure developed informally during the 1995\\-1998 Ad Hoc and Preparatory Committee meetings leading up to the Rome Conference. The structure was formally implemented during the Rome Conference during which 13 teams monitored various aspects of the statute, the final act and the preamble. Throughout the preparatory commissions and the Assembly of States Parties, the teams worked in conjunction with the coalition's steering committee, sectoral caucuses, working groups such as the Faith and Ethics Network and the Victims’ Rights Working Group, and regional teams working on issues such as ratification and implementation as well as regional and national networks.", "" ]
Pollution due to PCBs --------------------- ### Belgium In 1999, the [Dioxin Affair](/wiki/Dioxin_Affair "Dioxin Affair") occurred when 50 kg of PCB transformer oils were added to a stock of recycled fat used for the production of 500 tonnes of animal feed, eventually affecting around 2,500 farms in several countries.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Bernard A, Broeckaert F, De Poorter G, De Cock A, Hermans C, Saegerman C, Houins G \|display\-authors\=3\| title \= The Belgian PCB/dioxin incident: analysis of the food chain contamination and health risk evaluation \| journal \= Environmental Research \| volume \= 88 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 1–18 \| date \= January 2002 \| pmid \= 11896663 \| doi \= 10\.1006/enrs.2001\.4274 \| bibcode \= 2002ER.....88\....1B }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Covaci A, Voorspoels S, Schepens P, Jorens P, Blust R, Neels H \|display\-authors\=3\| title \= The Belgian PCB/dioxin crisis\-8 years later An overview \| journal \= Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology \| volume \= 25 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 164–170 \| date \= March 2008 \| pmid \= 21783853 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.etap.2007\.10\.003 \| bibcode \= 2008EnvTP..25\..164C }} The name *Dioxin Affair* was coined from early misdiagnosis of dioxins as the primary contaminants, when in fact they turned out to be a relatively small part of the contamination caused by thermal reactions of PCBs. The PCB congener pattern suggested the contamination was from a mixture of Aroclor 1260 and 1254\. Over 9 million chickens, and 60,000 pigs were destroyed because of the contamination. The extent of human health effects has been debated, in part because of the use of differing risk assessment methods. One group predicted increased cancer rates, and increased rates of neurological problems in those exposed as neonates. A second study suggested carcinogenic effects were unlikely and that the primary risk would be associated with developmental effects due to exposure in pregnancy and neonates. Two businessmen who knowingly sold the contaminated feed ingredient received two\-year suspended sentences for their role in the crisis.{{cite web\|title\=Dioxin scandal: 2 year suspended prison sentence\|url\=http://www.expatica.com/be/news/country\-news/Dioxin\-scandal\-2\-year\-suspended\-prison\-sentence\_158523\.html\|website\=www.expatica.com\|access\-date\=9 June 2016\|date\=2009\-02\-05\|archive\-date\=2016\-01\-02\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102025210/http://www.expatica.com/be/news/country\-news/Dioxin\-scandal\-2\-year\-suspended\-prison\-sentence\_158523\.html\|url\-status\=dead}} ### Italy The Italian company Caffaro, located in [Brescia](/wiki/Brescia "Brescia"), specialized in producing PCBs from 1938 to 1984, following the acquisition of the exclusive rights to use the patent in Italy from Monsanto.{{Cite web \|date\=2016\-05\-11 \|title\=Effetto PCB \|url\=http://www.faustosalvi.net/en/portfolio/effetto\-pcb/ \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-17 \|website\=Fausto Salvi \|language\=en\-US}} The pollution resulting from this factory and the case of Anniston, in the US, are the largest known cases in the world of PCB contamination in water and soil, in terms of the amount of toxic substance dispersed, size of the area contaminated, number of people involved and duration of production. The values reported by the local health authority (ASL) of Brescia since 1999 are 5,000 times above the limits set by Ministerial Decree 471/1999 (levels for residential areas, 0\.001 mg/kg). As a result of this and other investigations, in June 2001, a complaint of an environmental disaster was presented to the Public Prosecutor's Office of Brescia. Research on the adult population of Brescia showed that residents of some urban areas, former workers of the plant, and consumers of contaminated food, have PCB levels in their bodies that are in many cases 10–20 times higher than reference values in comparable general populations.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Turrio\-Baldassarri L, Abate V, Battistelli CL, Carasi S, Casella M, Iacovella N, Indelicato A, La Rocca C, Scarcella C, Alivernini S \| display\-authors \= 3 \| title \= PCDD/F and PCB in human serum of differently exposed population groups of an Italian city \| journal \= Chemosphere \| volume \= 73 \| issue \= 1 Suppl \| pages \= S228–S234 \| date \= August 2008 \| pmid \= 18514762 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.chemosphere.2008\.01\.081 \| bibcode \= 2008Chmsp..73S.228T }}{{medical citation needed\|date\=May 2015}} PCBs entered the human food supply by animals grazing on contaminated pastures near the factory, especially in local veal mostly eaten by farmers' families.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= La Rocca C, Mantovani A \| title \= From environment to food: the case of PCB \| journal \= Annali dell'Istituto Superiore di Sanità \| volume \= 42 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 410–416 \| date \= 2006 \| pmid \= 17361063 }} The exposed population showed an elevated risk of [Non\-Hodgkin lymphoma](/wiki/Non-Hodgkin_lymphoma "Non-Hodgkin lymphoma"), but not for other specific cancers.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Zani C, Toninelli G, Filisetti B, Donato F \| title \= Polychlorinated biphenyls and cancer: an epidemiological assessment \| journal \= Journal of Environmental Science and Health. Part C, Environmental Carcinogenesis \& Ecotoxicology Reviews \| volume \= 31 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 99–144 \| date \= 2013 \| pmid \= 23672403 \| doi \= 10\.1080/10590501\.2013\.782174 \| bibcode \= 2013JESHC..31\...99Z \| s2cid \= 5294247 }} ### Japan In 1968, a mixture of dioxins and PCBs got into rice bran oil produced in northern [Kyushu](/wiki/Kyushu "Kyushu"). Contaminated cooking oil sickened more than 1,860 people. The symptoms were called [Yushō disease](/wiki/Yush%C5%8D_disease "Yushō disease").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Aoki Y \| title \= Polychlorinated biphenyls, polychlorinated dibenzo\-p\-dioxins, and polychlorinated dibenzofurans as endocrine disrupters—what we have learned from Yusho disease \| journal \= Environmental Research \| volume \= 86 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 2–11 \| date \= May 2001 \| pmid \= 11386736 \| doi \= 10\.1006/enrs.2001\.4244 \| bibcode \= 2001ER.....86\....2A }} In Okinawa, high levels of PCB contamination in soil on [Kadena Air Base](/wiki/Kadena_Air_Base "Kadena Air Base") were reported in 1987 at thousands of parts per million, some of the highest levels found in any pollution site in the world.{{cite web\|title\=U.S. military report suggests cover\-up over toxic pollution in Okinawa\|url\=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2014/03/17/issues/u\-s\-military\-report\-suggests\-cover\-up\-over\-toxic\-pollution\-in\-okinawa/\|website\=The Japan Times\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-09\| vauthors \= Mitchell J \|date\=March 17, 2014}} ### Republic of Ireland {{Main\|2008 Irish pork crisis}} In December 2008, a number of Irish news sources reported testing had revealed "extremely high" levels of dioxins, by [toxic equivalent](/wiki/Toxic_equivalent "Toxic equivalent"), in pork products, ranging from 80 to 200 times the [EU's](/wiki/European_Union "European Union") upper safe limit of 1\.5 pg WHO\-TEQDFP/μg i.e. 0\.12 to 0\.3 parts per billion.{{cite news\|title\=Food body to meet on pork recall\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk\_news/northern\_ireland/7769871\.stm\|access\-date\=27 October 2014\|work\=BBC\|publisher\=BBC\|date\=7 December 2008}}{{cite web \|title\=Commission Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006\. Setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs \|url\=http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri\=OJ:L:2006:364:0005:0024:EN:PDF\|website\=Official Journal of the European Union \|publisher\=European Union \|location\=Brussels \|date\=9 December 2006}} [Brendan Smith](/wiki/Brendan_Smith_%28politician%29 "Brendan Smith (politician)"), the Minister for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, stated the pork contamination was caused by PCB\-contaminated feed that was used on 9 of Ireland's 400 pig farms, and only one feed supplier was involved.{{cite news\|title\=Firm at centre of toxin scare investigated\|url\=http://www.rte.ie/news/2008/1207/111373\-pork/\|access\-date\=27 October 2014\|publisher\=RTE news\|date\=9 December 2008}} Smith added that 38 beef farms also used the same contaminated feed, but those farms were quickly isolated and no contaminated beef entered the food chain.{{Cite news \|title\= Q\&A: The recall of Irish pork \|work\= BBC \|access\-date\= 2008\-12\-08 \|date\= 2008\-12\-07 \|url\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk\_news/7769893\.stm}} While the contamination was limited to just 9 pig farms, the Irish government requested the immediate withdrawal and disposal of all pork\-containing products produced in Ireland and purchased since September 1, 2008\. This request for withdrawal of pork products was confirmed in a press release by the [Food Safety Authority of Ireland](/wiki/Food_Safety_Authority_of_Ireland "Food Safety Authority of Ireland") on December 6\.{{cite press release \|title\= Recall of Pork and Bacon Products December 2008 \|publisher\= Food Safety Authority of Ireland \|date\= December 2008 \|url\= http://www.fsai.ie/food\_businesses/topics\_of\_interest/recall\_of\_pork\_dec08/recall\_information.html \|access\-date\= 27 May 2013 \|url\-status\= dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130817023437/http://www.fsai.ie/food\_businesses/topics\_of\_interest/recall\_of\_pork\_dec08/recall\_information.html \|archive\-date\= 17 August 2013}} It is thought that the incident resulted from the contamination of fuel oil used in a drying burner at a single feed processor, with PCBs. The resulting combustion produced a highly toxic mixture of PCBs, dioxins and [furans](/wiki/Furan "Furan"), which was included in the feed produced and subsequently fed to a large number of pigs.{{cite web \|title\= Report of the Inter\-Agency Review Group on the Dioxin Contamination Incident in Ireland in December 2008 \|publisher\= Department of Agriculture, Food \& the Marine \|date\= Dec 2009 \|url\= http://www.agriculture.gov.ie/media/migration/publications/2010/DioxinReport211209revised190110\.pdf \|access\-date\= 2010\-09\-02 \|archive\-date\= 2010\-12\-09 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20101209121430/http://www.agriculture.gov.ie/media/migration/publications/2010/DioxinReport211209revised190110\.pdf \|url\-status\= dead }} ### Kenya In Kenya, a number of cases have been reported in the 2010s of thieves selling [transformer oil](/wiki/Transformer_oil "Transformer oil"), stolen from electric [transformers](/wiki/Transformer "Transformer"), to the operators of roadside [food stalls](/wiki/Food_stall "Food stall") for use in [deep frying](/wiki/Deep_frying "Deep frying"). When used for frying, it is reported that transformer oil lasts much longer than regular [cooking oil](/wiki/Cooking_oil "Cooking oil"). The downside of this misuse of the transformer oil is the threat to the health of the consumers, due to the presence of PCBs.{{cite web\| vauthors \= Iraki XN \|title\=Thieves fry Kenya's power grid for fast food\|url\=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2014/12/thieves\-fry\-kenya\-power\-grid\-fast\-food\-2014122884728785480\.html\|website\=www.aljazeera.com\|access\-date\=9 June 2016}} ### Slovakia The chemical plant Chemko in [Strážske](/wiki/Str%C3%A1%C5%BEske "Strážske") (east [Slovakia](/wiki/Slovakia "Slovakia")) was an important producer of polychlorinated biphenyls for the former communist bloc ([Comecon](/wiki/Comecon "Comecon")) until 1984\. Chemko contaminated a large part of east Slovakia, especially the sediments of the [Laborec](/wiki/Laborec "Laborec") river and [reservoir](/wiki/Reservoir "Reservoir") [Zemplínska šírava](/wiki/Zempl%C3%ADnska_%C5%A1%C3%ADrava "Zemplínska šírava").{{cite news \|url\=http://zivot.azet.sk/clanok/6399/viete\-co\-doma\-dychate \|title\=Viete, čo doma dýchate? \|trans\-title\=Do you know what you breathe at home? \|language\=sk \|work\=Život \|issue\=33 \|year\=2009 \|vauthors\=Himič D \|access\-date\=2013\-05\-12 \|archive\-date\=2014\-10\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027043653/http://zivot.azet.sk/clanok/6399/viete\-co\-doma\-dychate \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.greenpeace.org/slovakia/zataze/arealy\-podnikov\-a\-priemyselne/projekt\-implementacie \|title\=Chemko Strážske \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516215920/http://www.greenpeace.org/slovakia/zataze/arealy\-podnikov\-a\-priemyselne/projekt\-implementacie \|archive\-date\=May 16, 2011 \|publisher\=\[\[Greenpeace]] \|language\=sk}} ### Slovenia Between 1962 and 1983, the [Iskra Kondenzatorji](/wiki/Iskra_%28company%29 "Iskra (company)") company in [Semič](/wiki/Semi%C4%8D "Semič") ([White Carniola](/wiki/White_Carniola "White Carniola"), Southeast [Slovenia](/wiki/Slovenia "Slovenia")) manufactured [capacitors](/wiki/Capacitor "Capacitor") using PCBs. Due to the wastewater and improperly disposed waste products, the area (including the [Krupa](/wiki/Krupa_%28Lahinja%29 "Krupa (Lahinja)") and [Lahinja](/wiki/Lahinja "Lahinja") rivers) became highly contaminated with PCBs. The pollution was discovered in 1983, when the Krupa river was meant to become a water supply source. The area was sanitized then, but the soil and water are still highly polluted. Traces of PCBs were found in food (eggs, cow milk, walnuts) and Krupa is still the most PCB\-polluted river in the world. ### Spain and Portugal Several [cetacean](/wiki/Cetacean "Cetacean") species have very high mean [blubber](/wiki/Blubber "Blubber") PCB concentrations likely to cause population declines and suppress population recovery. [Striped dolphins](/wiki/Striped_dolphin "Striped dolphin"), [bottlenose dolphins](/wiki/Bottlenose_dolphin "Bottlenose dolphin") and [orcas](/wiki/Orca "Orca") were found to have mean levels that markedly exceeded all known marine mammal PCB toxicity thresholds. The western Mediterranean Sea and the south\-west Iberian Peninsula were identified as "hotspots".{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Jepson PD, Deaville R, Barber JL, Aguilar À, Borrell A, Murphy S, Barry J, Brownlow A, Barnett J, Berrow S, Cunningham AA, Davison NJ, Ten Doeschate M, Esteban R, Ferreira M, Foote AD, Genov T, Giménez J, Loveridge J, Llavona Á, Martin V, Maxwell DL, Papachlimitzou A, Penrose R, Perkins MW, Smith B, de Stephanis R, Tregenza N, Verborgh P, Fernandez A, Law RJ \| display\-authors \= 3 \| title \= PCB pollution continues to impact populations of orcas and other dolphins in European waters \| journal \= Scientific Reports \| volume \= 6 \| pages \= 18573 \| date \= January 2016 \| pmid \= 26766430 \| pmc \= 4725908 \| doi \= 10\.1038/srep18573 \| bibcode \= 2016NatSR...618573J }} ### United Kingdom [Monsanto](/wiki/Monsanto "Monsanto") manufactured PCBs at its chemical plant in [Newport](/wiki/Newport%2C_Wales "Newport, Wales"), South Wales, until the mid\- to late\-1970s. During this period, waste matter, including PCBs, from the Newport site was dumped at a disused quarry near [Groes\-faen](/wiki/Groes-faen "Groes-faen"), west of [Cardiff](/wiki/Cardiff "Cardiff"), and Penhros landfill site{{cite news \| url\=http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales\-news/tip\-fumes\-felt\-like\-terror\-2435122\|title\=Tip fumes "felt like terror attack"\|author\= \|date\=June 30, 2004 \|website\=WalesOnline \|publisher\=Media Wales Ltd}} from where it continues to be released in waste water discharges.{{cite news \| url\= https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/feb/21/monsanto\-brofiscin\-pollution \| title\=Monsanto agrees to clean up toxic chemicals in South Wales quarry \| date\=21 February 2011 \| access\-date\=16 September 2013 \| vauthors \= Levitt T \| newspaper\=The Guardian}} ### United States Monsanto was the only company that manufactured PCBs in the US. Its production was entirely halted in 1977\. (Kimbrough, 1987, 1995\) On November 25, 2020, U.S. District Judge [Fernando M. Olguin](/wiki/Fernando_M._Olguin "Fernando M. Olguin") rejected a proposed $650 million settlement from Bayer, the company which acquired Monsanto in 2018, and allowed Monsanto\-related lawsuits involving PCB to proceed.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.semissourian.com/story/2853810\.html\|title\=Bayer's $650 Million PCB Pollution Settlement Rejected by Judge\| vauthors \= Rosenblatt J, Chediak M \|publisher\=Claims Journal\|date\=December 1, 2020\|access\-date\=December 15, 2020}}{{dead link\|date\=June 2022\|bot\=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}} #### Alabama PCBs originating from [Monsanto Chemical Company](/wiki/Monsanto_Chemical_Company "Monsanto Chemical Company") in [Anniston](/wiki/Anniston%2C_Alabama "Anniston, Alabama"), Alabama, were dumped into Snow Creek, which then spread to [Choccolocco Creek](/wiki/Choccolocco_Creek "Choccolocco Creek"), then [Logan Martin Lake](/wiki/Logan_Martin_Lake "Logan Martin Lake").{{cite web \|title\=Anniston PCB Site (Monsanto Co), Anniston, AL \|url\=http://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id\=0400123 \|website\=Superfund Site Profile \|access\-date\=2020\-05\-24 \|publisher\=EPA \|location\=Atlanta, GA \|archive\-date\=2016\-12\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227015252/https://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id\=0400123 \|url\-status\=dead }} In the early 2000s, class action lawsuits were settled by local land owners, including those on Logan Martin Lake, and [Lay Reservoir](/wiki/Lay_Dam "Lay Dam") (downstream on the [Coosa River](/wiki/Coosa_River "Coosa River")), for the PCB pollution. Donald Stewart, former Senator from Alabama, first learned of the concerns of hundreds of west Anniston residents after representing a church which had been approached about selling its property by Monsanto. Stewart went on to be the pioneer and lead attorney in the first and majority of cases against Monsanto and focused on residents in the immediate area known to be most polluted. Other attorneys later joined in to file suits for those outside the main immediate area around the plant; one of these was the late [Johnnie Cochran](/wiki/Johnnie_Cochran "Johnnie Cochran"). In 2007, the highest pollution levels remained concentrated in Snow and Choccolocco Creeks.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Rypel AL, Findlay RH, Mitchell JB, Bayne DR \| title \= Variations in PCB concentrations between genders of six warmwater fish species in Lake Logan Martin, Alabama, USA \| journal \= Chemosphere \| volume \= 68 \| issue \= 9 \| pages \= 1707–1715 \| date \= August 2007 \| pmid \= 17490714 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.chemosphere.2007\.03\.046 \| bibcode \= 2007Chmsp..68\.1707R }} Concentrations in fish have declined and continue to decline over time; sediment disturbance, however, can resuspend the PCBs from the sediment back into the water column and food web. #### California [thumb\|Fish consumption advisory poster for San Francisco Bay](/wiki/File:Fish_Sign.png "Fish Sign.png") San Francisco Bay has been contaminated by PCBs, "a legacy of PCBs spread widely across the land surface of the watershed, mixed deep into the sediment of the Bay, and contaminating the Bay food web".{{Cite journal\| doi \= 10\.1016/j.envres.2007\.01\.013\| issn \= 0013\-9351\| volume \= 105\| issue \= 1\| pages \= 67–86\| last1 \= Davis\| first1 \= Jay\| last2 \= Hetzel\| first2 \= F.\| last3 \= Oram\| first3 \= J. J.\| last4 \= McKee\| first4 \= L. J.\| title \= Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in San Francisco Bay\| journal \= Environmental Research\| series \= Pollutants in the San Francisco Bay Estuary\| access\-date \= 2023\-04\-27\| date \= 2007\-09\-01\| url \= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935107000400}} Levels of PCBs in fish and shellfish exceed thresholds for safe consumption. Signs around the Bay warn anglers of which species to avoid. State water quality regulators set a [Total Maximum Daily Load](/wiki/Total_Maximum_Daily_Load "Total Maximum Daily Load") for PCBs require city and county governments around the Bay to implement control measures to limit PCBs in urban runoff.{{Cite conference\| publisher \= California Regional Water Quality Control Board, San Francisco Bay Region\| pages \= 279\| last \= California Water Boards\| title \= Municipal Regional Stormwater NPDES permit. Order R2\-2009\-0074 NPDES Permit No. CAS612008 October 14, 2009\| location \= San Francisco\| access\-date \= 2023\-04\-27\| date \= 2009\-10\-14\| url \= https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/water\_issues/programs/stormwater/docs/phase1r2\_2009\_0074\.pdf}} An important part of the second, revised version of this permit was the requirement for municipalities to install [green infrastructure](/wiki/Green_infrastructure "Green infrastructure") with a goal of reducing pollutant levels in stormwater.{{Cite conference\| publisher \= California Regional Water Quality Control Board, San Francisco Bay Region\| pages \= 350\| last \= California Water Boards\| title \= Municipal Regional Stormwater NPDES permit. Order No. R2\-2015\-0049, NPDES Permit No. CAS612008\| location \= San Francisco\| access\-date \= 2023\-04\-27\| date \= 2015\-11\-19\| url \= https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/sanfranciscobay/water\_issues/programs/stormwater/Municipal/R2\-2015\-0049\.pdf}} #### Connecticut In [New Haven](/wiki/New_Haven "New Haven"), the decommissioned [English Station](/wiki/English_Station "English Station") has a high concentration of PCB contamination due to the chemicals used in the running of the plant. This, along with [asbestos](/wiki/Asbestos "Asbestos") contamination, has made cleaning and demolishing the abandoned site extremely difficult. The PCB contamination has spread to the soil, and to the river, where locals will sometimes fish unaware of the danger.{{cite web \| vauthors \= Leff L \| title\=Demolition Derailed; English Station In Limbo \| website\=New Haven Independent \| date\=19 August 2011 \| url\=https://www.newhavenindependent.org/index.php/archives/entry/english\_station/ \| access\-date\=2020\-12\-03}}{{cite web \| vauthors\=Haar D \| title\=Dan Haar: English Station cleanup, at least a year away, should now wait for redevelopment \| website\=The Middletown Press \| date\=2019\-08\-25 \| url\=https://www.middletownpress.com/news/article/Dan\-Haar\-English\-Station\-cleanup\-at\-least\-a\-14374967\.php \| access\-date\=2020\-12\-03 \| archive\-date\=2021\-05\-06 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506121936/https://www.middletownpress.com/news/article/Dan\-Haar\-English\-Station\-cleanup\-at\-least\-a\-14374967\.php \| url\-status\=dead }}{{cite web \| vauthors \= Chedekel L \| title\=State Orders Clean\-Up Of English Station In New Haven \| website\=Connecticut Health Investigative Team \| date\=2013\-04\-11 \| url\=http://c\-hit.org/2013/04/11/state\-orders\-clean\-up\-of\-english\-station\-in\-new\-haven/ \| access\-date\=2020\-12\-03}} #### Great Lakes In 1976, environmentalists found PCBs in the sludge at [Waukegan](/wiki/Waukegan%2C_Illinois "Waukegan, Illinois") Harbor, the southwest end of [Lake Michigan](/wiki/Lake_Michigan "Lake Michigan"). They were able to trace the source of the PCBs back to the Outboard Marine Corporation that was producing boat motors next to the harbor. By 1982, the Outboard Marine Corporation was court\-ordered to release quantitative data referring to their PCB waste released. The data stated that from 1954 they released 100,000 tons of PCB into the environment, and that the sludge contained PCBs in concentrations as high as 50%.{{cite book \| vauthors \= Ashworth W \|title\=The Late, Great Lakes \|publisher\=Wayne State University Press \|year\=1987 \|isbn\=978\-0\-8143\-1887\-4}}{{Page needed\|date\=May 2013}}{{cite web\| vauthors \= Mahan ML \|date\=May 4, 1998 \|title\=Are PCBs still a problem in the great lakes? \|url\=http://www.cevl.msu.edu/\~long/pcb.htm \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120722012319/http://www.cevl.msu.edu/\~long/pcb.htm \|archive\-date\=July 22, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead}}{{self\-published source\|date\=May 2013}}{{self\-published inline\|date\=May 2013}} In 1989, during construction near the [Zilwaukee](/wiki/Zilwaukee%2C_Michigan "Zilwaukee, Michigan") bridge, workers uncovered an uncharted landfill containing PCB\-contaminated waste which cost $100,000 to clean up.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.michiganhighways.org/indepth/zilwaukee.html\|title\=Michigan Highways: In Depth: The Milwaukee Bridge \| vauthors \= Bessert CJ \|work\=michiganhighways.org}} Much of the [Great Lakes](/wiki/Great_Lakes "Great Lakes") area were still heavily polluted with PCBs in 1988, despite extensive remediation work.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Hileman B \|title\=Great Lakes Cleanup Effort \|journal\=Chemical and Engineering News \|volume\=66 \|issue\=6 \|date\=February 8, 1988 \|pages\=22–39 \|doi\=10\.1021/cen\-v066n006\.p022}} #### Indiana From the late 1950s through 1977, [Westinghouse Electric](/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric "Westinghouse Electric") used PCBs in the manufacture of capacitors in its [Bloomington](/wiki/Bloomington%2C_Indiana "Bloomington, Indiana"), Indiana, plant. Reject capacitors were hauled and dumped in area salvage yards and landfills, including Bennett's Dump, Neal's Landfill and Lemon Lane Landfill. Workers also dumped PCB oil down factory drains, which contaminated the city sewage treatment plant.{{Cite web\|url\=http://copa.org/abb.html\|access\-date\=2010\-02\-24\|title\=Westinghouse/ABB Plant Facility\|year\=2006\|archive\-date\=2002\-02\-11\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020211012517/http://copa.org/abb.html\|url\-status\=dead}} The City of Bloomington gave away the sludge to area farmers and gardeners, creating anywhere from 200 to 2,000 sites, which remain unaddressed. Over 1,000 tons of PCBs were estimated to have been dumped in [Monroe](/wiki/Monroe_County%2C_Indiana "Monroe County, Indiana") and [Owen](/wiki/Owen_County%2C_Indiana "Owen County, Indiana") counties.{{Citation needed\|date\=May 2007}} Although federal and state authorities have been working on the sites' [environmental remediation](/wiki/Environmental_remediation "Environmental remediation"), many areas remain contaminated. Concerns have been raised regarding the removal of PCBs from the [karst](/wiki/Karst "Karst") limestone topography, and regarding the possible disposal options. To date, the Westinghouse Bloomington PCB Superfund site case does not have a Remedial Investigation/Feasibility Study (RI/FS) and Record of Decision (ROD), although Westinghouse signed a US Department of Justice Consent Decree in 1985\.{{cite web\|title\=US EPA Region 5 Superfund\|url\=http://www.epa.gov/R5Super/npl/indiana/IND006418651\.htm\|access\-date\=2009\-09\-01}} The 1985 consent decree required Westinghouse to construct an incinerator that would incinerate PCB\-contaminated materials. Because of public opposition to the incinerator, however, the State of Indiana passed a number of laws that delayed and blocked its construction. The parties to the consent decree began to explore alternative remedies in 1994 for six of the main PCB contaminated sites in the consent decree. Hundreds of sites remain unaddressed as of 2014\. Monroe County will never be PCB\-free, as noted in a 2014 Indiana University program about the local contamination. On February 15, 2008, Monroe County approved a plan to clean up the three remaining contaminated sites in the City of Bloomington, at a cost of [$](/wiki/United_States_dollar "United States dollar")9\.6 million to [CBS Corp.](/wiki/CBS_Corporation "CBS Corporation"), the successor of Westinghouse. In 1999, Viacom bought CBS, so they are current responsible party for the PCB sites.{{cite web \|title\=Monroe Co. approves PCB clean up \|url\=http://www.indystar.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID\=/20080218/LOCAL/802180394 \|publisher\=IndyStar.com\|access\-date\=2008\-02\-18 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022065825/http://www.indystar.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID\=/20080218/LOCAL/802180394 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=2012\-10\-22}} #### Massachusetts [Pittsfield](/wiki/Pittsfield%2C_Massachusetts "Pittsfield, Massachusetts"), in western Massachusetts, was home to the [General Electric (GE) transformer, capacitor, and electrical generating equipment divisions](/wiki/General_Electric_Pittsfield_Plant "General Electric Pittsfield Plant"). The electrical generating division built and repaired equipment that was used to power the electrical utility grid throughout the nation. PCB\-contaminated oil routinely migrated from GE's {{convert\|254\|acre\|km2\|adj\=on}} industrial plant located in the very center of the city to the surrounding groundwater, nearby Silver Lake, and to the [Housatonic River](/wiki/Housatonic_River "Housatonic River"), which flows through Massachusetts, Connecticut, and down to Long Island Sound.{{cite web \|title\=Site History \& Description \|website\=GE/Housatonic River Site in New England \|url\=http://www.epa.gov/NE/ge/sitehistory.html \|date\=2011 \|publisher\=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) \|location\=Boston, MA \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519121339/http://www.epa.gov/NE/ge/sitehistory.html \|archive\-date\=2011\-05\-19}} PCB\-containing solid material was widely used as fill, including [oxbows](/wiki/Meander "Meander") of the Housatonic River. Fish and waterfowl which live in and around the river contain significant levels of PCBs and are not safe to eat.{{cite web \|title\=Rest of River of the GE\-Pittsfield/Housatonic River Site \|url\=https://www.epa.gov/ge\-housatonic/rest\-river\-ge\-pittsfieldhousatonic\-river\-site \|website\=EPA Cleanups \|date\=2020\-08\-06 \|publisher\=EPA}} EPA designated the Pittsfield plant and several miles of the river as a [Superfund](/wiki/Superfund "Superfund") site in 1997, and ordered GE to remediate the site. EPA and GE began a cleanup of the area in 1999\. [New Bedford Harbor](/wiki/New_Bedford%2C_Massachusetts%23Geography "New Bedford, Massachusetts#Geography"), which is a listed Superfund site,{{cite web \|title\=General Information about the New Bedford Harbor Cleanup \|url\=https://www.epa.gov/new\-bedford\-harbor/general\-information\-about\-new\-bedford\-harbor\-cleanup \|date\=2020\-09\-15 \|publisher\=EPA}} contained some of the highest sediment concentrations of PCBs in the marine environment.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.darrp.noaa.gov/northeast/new\_bedford/ \|title\=Case: New Bedford Harbor, MA \|website\=Damage Assessment, Remediation \& Restoration Program \|publisher\=U.S. National Ocean Service \|location\=Silver Spring, MD \|date\=2009\-10\-19 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100712092247/http://www.darrp.noaa.gov/northeast/new\_bedford/\|archive\-date\=2010\-07\-12 \|url\-status\=dead}} Cleanup of the area began in 1994 and is mostly complete as of 2020\. Investigations into historic waste dumping in the [Bliss Corner](/wiki/Bliss_Corner%2C_Massachusetts "Bliss Corner, Massachusetts") neighborhood have revealed the existence of PCBs, among other hazardous materials, buried in soil and waste material.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.mass.gov/service\-details/bliss\-corner\-neighborhood\-dartmouth\-ma \|title\=Bliss Corner Neighborhood, Dartmouth, MA \|website\=Environmental Issues \& Sites in Southeastern Massachusetts \|publisher\=Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection \|location\=Lakeville, MA \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-15}} #### Missouri In 1982, Martha C. Rose Chemical Inc. began processing and disposing of materials contaminated with PCBs in [Holden, Missouri](/wiki/Holden%2C_Missouri "Holden, Missouri"), a small rural community about {{convert\|40\|mi}} east of Kansas City. From 1982 until 1986, nearly 750 companies, including General Motors Corp., Commonwealth Edison, Illinois Power Co. and West Texas Utilities, sent millions of pounds of PCB contaminated materials to Holden for disposal.{{Cite news\|url\=https://apnews.com/c83b34f4cdcddc21aff592829725dff4\|title\=Nearly a Decade After Spill, Cleanup of Toxic Site Drags On With PM\-Rusted Legacy II\|work\=AP NEWS\|access\-date\=2020\-02\-19}} Instead, according to prosecutors, the company began storing the contaminated materials while falsifying its reports to the EPA to show they had been removed. After investigators learned of the deception, Rose Chemical was closed and filed for bankruptcy. The site had become the nation's largest waste site for the chemical PCB.{{Cite web\|url\=https://apnews.com/4b94dd89b0231fd8df1ba7a512dcba42 \|title\=Lawmakers Warned That PCB Contamination Threatens Missouri Town\|website\=AP NEWS\|access\-date\=2020\-02\-19}} In the four years the company was operational, the EPA inspected it four times and assessed $206,000 in fines but managed to collect only $50,000\.{{Cite web \|url\= https://www.westword.com/news/a\-dirty\-shame\-5058546 \|title\=A Dirty Shame\| vauthors \= Dexheimer E \|date\=1998\-04\-16\|website\=Westword\|access\-date\=2020\-02\-20}} After the plant closed the state environmental agency found PCB contamination in streams near the plant and in the city's sewage treatment sludge. A 100,000 square\-foot warehouse and unknown amounts of contaminated soil and water around the site had to be cleaned up. Most of the surface debris, including close to 13 million pounds of contaminated equipment, carcasses and tanks of contaminated oil, had to be removed.{{Cite journal \|vauthors\=Steinzor RI \|title\=The lessons of Rose Chemical \|journal\=Public Power \|volume\=47\|issue\=2 \|osti\=5152472}} Walter C. Carolan, owner of Rose Chemical, and five others pleaded guilty in 1989 to committing fraud or falsifying documents. Carolan and two other executives served sentences of less than 18 months; the others received fines and were placed on probation. Cleanup costs at the site are estimated at $35 million. #### Montana Two launch facilities at [Malmstrom Air Force Base](/wiki/Malmstrom_Air_Force_Base "Malmstrom Air Force Base") showed PCB levels higher than the thresholds recommended by the Environmental Protection Agency when extensive sampling began of active U.S. intercontinental ballistic missile bases to address specific cancer concerns in 2023\.{{Cite news \|last\=Copp \|first\=Tara \|date\=2023\-08\-07 \|title\=Carcinogens found at Montana nuclear missile sites as reports of hundreds of cancers surface \|url\=https://apnews.com/article/missile\-bases\-cancer\-air\-force\-malmstrom\-military\-1999fad70393f0d141676b7faa587eda \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-08 \|work\=AP News \|language\=en}} #### New York [Pollution of the Hudson River](/wiki/Pollution_of_the_Hudson_River "Pollution of the Hudson River") is largely due to dumping of PCBs by [General Electric](/wiki/General_Electric "General Electric") from 1947 to 1977\. GE dumped an estimated 1\.3 million pounds of PCBs into the Hudson River during these years. The PCBs came from the company's two capacitor manufacturing plants at [Hudson Falls](/wiki/Hudson_Falls%2C_New_York "Hudson Falls, New York") and [Fort Edward](/wiki/Fort_Edward_%28town%29%2C_New_York "Fort Edward (town), New York"), New York. This pollution caused a range of harmful effects to wildlife and people who eat fish from the river or drink the water.{{cite web\|title\=Hudson River Cleanup \|publisher\=EPA \|url\=https://www.epa.gov/hudsonriverpcbs/hudson\-river\-cleanup \|date\=2020\-08\-25}} In 1984, EPA declared a 200\-mile (320 km) stretch of the river, from Hudson Falls to New York City, to be a Superfund site requiring cleanup.{{cite web \|title\=Hudson River PCBs Superfund Site \|url\=https://www.epa.gov/superfund/superfund\-success\-stories\-epa\-region\-2\#hudson \|website\=Superfund Success Stories: EPA Region 2 \|date\=2018\-06\-04 \|publisher\=EPA}} Extensive remediation actions on the river began in the 1970s with the implementation of [wastewater discharge permits](/wiki/Clean_Water_Act%23Point_sources "Clean Water Act#Point sources") and consequent control or reduction of wastewater discharges, and sediment removal operations, which have continued into the 21st century.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/77105\.html \|title\=How is the Hudson Doing? \|website\=Hudson River Estuary Program \|publisher\=New York State Department of Environmental Conservation \|location\=Albany, NY \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-15 \|archive\-date\=2017\-11\-19 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171119075142/http://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/77105\.html \|url\-status\=dead }} [Love Canal](/wiki/Love_Canal "Love Canal") is a neighborhood in [Niagara Falls](/wiki/Niagara_Falls%2C_New_York "Niagara Falls, New York"), New York, that was heavily contaminated with toxic waste including PCBs.{{cite magazine \| vauthors \= Brown MH \|title\=Love Canal and the Poisoning of America \|journal\=The Atlantic \|date\=December 1979 \|url\=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1979/12/love\-canal\-and\-the\-poisoning\-of\-america/376297/}} [Eighteen Mile Creek](/wiki/Eighteen_Mile_Creek_%28Niagara_County%29 "Eighteen Mile Creek (Niagara County)") in [Lockport](/wiki/Lockport_%28town%29%2C_New_York "Lockport (town), New York"), New York, is an EPA Superfund site for PCBs contamination.{{cite web \|title\= Superfund Site: Eighteen Mile Creek, Lockport, NY \|url\= http://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id\=0206456 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20170306235101/http://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id\=0206456 \| archive\-date \= 6 March 2017 \|website\=Superfund Program \|publisher\=EPA}} PCB pollution at the [State Office Building](/wiki/Government_Plaza%2C_Binghamton "Government Plaza, Binghamton") in [Binghamton](/wiki/Binghamton%2C_New_York "Binghamton, New York") was responsible for what is now considered to be the first indoor environmental disaster in the United States.{{cite web \| url \= https://nypost.com/2011/08/07/former\-ny\-governor\-hugh\-carey\-dead\-at\-92/ \| title \= Former NY governor Hugh Carey dead at 92 \| work \= New York Post \| date \= 7 August 2011 }} In 1981, a transformer explosion in the basement spewed PCBs throughout the entire 18\-story building.{{cite report \| title \= Spill closes offices \| work \= Syracuse Herald\-Journal \| date \= 5 February 1981 \| page \= D1 }} The contamination was so severe that cleanup efforts kept the building closed for 13 years.{{cite web \| title \= State Building Finally Reopens in Binghamton \| url \= https://buffalonews.com/news/state\-building\-finally\-reopens\-in\-binghamton/article\_fc156754\-8eee\-5d3a\-9b79\-e1f791b85250\.html \| work \= The Buffalo News \| date \= 12 October 1994 }}{{cite web \| vauthors \= Steinberg J \| url \= https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/11/nyregion/13\-year\-cleaning\-job\-after\-53\-million\-17\-million\-state\-building\-finally\-declared.html?pagewanted\=1 \| title \= The 13\-Year Cleaning Job; After $53 Million, a $17 Million State Building Finally Is Declared Safe From Toxins \| work \= New York Times \| date \= 11 October 1994 }} #### North Carolina One of the largest deliberate PCB spills in American history occurred in the summer of 1978 when 31,000 gallons (117 m^3\) of PCB\-contaminated oil were illegally sprayed by the Ward PCB Transformer Company in {{convert\|3\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} swaths along the roadsides of some {{convert\|240\|mi\|km}} of North Carolina highway shoulders in 14 counties and at the [Fort Liberty](/wiki/Fort_Liberty "Fort Liberty") Army Base. The crime, known as "[the midnight dumpings](/wiki/Warren_County_PCB_Landfill "Warren County PCB Landfill")", occurred over nearly two weeks, as drivers of a black\-painted tanker truck drove down one side of rural Piedmont highways spraying PCB\-laden waste and then up the other side the following night.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/08/11/us/carolinians\-angry\-over\-pcb\-landfill.html \|title\=Carolinians Angry Over PCB Landfill\|work\=NY Times \|date\=11 August 1982}} Under Governor [James B. Hunt](/wiki/Jim_Hunt "Jim Hunt"), Jr., state officials then erected large, yellow warning signs along the contaminated highways that read: "CAUTION: PCB Chemical Spills Along Highway Shoulders". The illegal dumping is believed to have been motivated by the passing of the [Toxic Substances Control Act](/wiki/Toxic_Substances_Control_Act "Toxic Substances Control Act") (TSCA), which became effective on August 2, 1978, and increased the expense of chemical waste disposal. Within a couple of weeks of the crime, Robert Burns and his sons, Timothy and Randall, were arrested for dumping the PCBs along the roadsides. Burns was a business partner of Robert "Buck" Ward Jr., of the Ward PCB Transformer Company, in Raleigh. Burns and sons pleaded guilty to state and Federal criminal charges; Burns received a three to five\-year prison sentence. Ward was acquitted of state charges in the dumping, but was sentenced to 18 months prison time for violation of TSCA. Cleanup and disposal of the roadside PCBs generated controversy, as the Governor's plan to pick up the roadside PCBs and to bury them in a landfill in rural [Warren County](/wiki/Warren_County%2C_North_Carolina "Warren County, North Carolina") were strongly opposed in 1982 by local residents. In October 2013, at the request of the South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control (SCDHEC), the City of [Charlotte](/wiki/Charlotte%2C_North_Carolina "Charlotte, North Carolina"), North Carolina, decided to stop applying [sewage sludge](/wiki/Biosolids "Biosolids") to land while authorities investigated the source of PCB contamination.{{cite web\| url\=http://charmeck.org/city/charlotte/Utilities/AboutUs/Documents/Minutes%20October%202013\.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221223705/http://charmeck.org/city/charlotte/Utilities/AboutUs/Documents/Minutes%20October%202013\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2014\-02\-21 \|url\-status\=live\|author\=Charlotte\-Mecklenburg Utilities Advisory Committee\|title\=Charlotte\-Mecklenburg Utilities Advisory Committee Minutes\|date\=October 17, 2013\|page\=3}} In February 2014, the City of Charlotte admitted PCBs have entered their sewage treatment centers as well.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.charlotteobserver.com/2014/02/07/4670710/chemical\-dumped\-into\-charlotte.html \|title\=Task force named to probe chemical dumping \|date\=7 February 2014 \|newspaper\=Charlotte Observer\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140213233743/https://www.charlotteobserver.com/2014/02/07/4670710/chemical\-dumped\-into\-charlotte.html\|archive\-date\=13 Feb 2014 \|vauthors\=Henderson B, Lyttle S, Bethea A}} After the 2013 SCDHEC had issued emergency regulations,{{cite web\|title\=Emergency Regulation for Management of Wastewater System Sludge\|url\=http://www.scdhec.gov/Agency/docs/NewsReleaseDocs/PCBEmergencyRegFINAL.pdf\|publisher\=South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control\|access\-date\=9 June 2016\|archive\-date\=24 June 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624030305/http://www.scdhec.gov/Agency/docs/NewsReleaseDocs/PCBEmergencyRegFINAL.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}} the City of Charlotte discovered high levels of PCBs entering its sewage waste water treatment plants, where sewage is converted to sewage sludge. The city at first denied it had a problem, then admitted an "event" occurred in February 2014, and in April that the problem had occurred much earlier.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.charlotteobserver.com/2014/04/04/4817470/more\-pcbs\-found\-in\-charlotte\-wastewater.html\|title\=More PCBs found in Charlotte wastewater, city says \|date\=4 April 2014\| newspaper\=Charlotte Observer\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016075302/http://www.charlotteobserver.com/news/local/crime/article9109955\.html\|archive\-date\=16 Oct 2015\|vauthors\=Lyttle S}} The city stated that its very first test with a newly changed test method revealed very high PCB levels in its sewage sludge farm field fertilizer. Because of the widespread use of the contaminated sludge, SCDHEC subsequently issued PCB fish advisories for nearly all streams and rivers bordering farm fields that had been applied with city waste.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.scdhec.gov/Agency/NewsReleases/2014/nr20140703\-01/\|date\=July 3, 2014\|title\=DHEC Releases Safe Fish Eating Advisory for S.C. Waters\|website\=scdhec.gov\|publisher\=South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control\|access\-date\=February 4, 2015\|archive\-date\=February 4, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150204180601/http://www.scdhec.gov/Agency/NewsReleases/2014/nr20140703\-01/\|url\-status\=dead}} #### Ohio The [Clyde cancer cluster](/wiki/Clyde_cancer_cluster "Clyde cancer cluster") (also known as the Sandusky County cancer cluster) is a [childhood](/wiki/Childhood_cancer "Childhood cancer") [cancer cluster](/wiki/Cancer_cluster "Cancer cluster") that has affected many families in [Clyde](/wiki/Clyde%2C_Ohio "Clyde, Ohio"), Ohio, and surrounding areas. PCBs were found in soil in a public park within the area of the cancer cluster.{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.toledoblade.com/news/state/2012/11/15/Toxic\-sludge\-discovered\-at\-park\-in\-Clyde\-area\-cancer\-patients\-families\-shocked\-lawyer\-says/stories/20121115077\|title\='Toxic sludge' found at Clyde are park\|newspaper\=The Blade\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-02\-20\|vauthors\=Feehan J\|date\=15 Nov 2012}} In [Akron](/wiki/Akron%2C_Ohio "Akron, Ohio"), Ohio, soil was contaminated and noxious PCB\-laden fumes had been put into the air by an electrical transformer deconstruction operation from the 1930s to the 1960s.{{cite news \| vauthors \= Harper J \|title\=When PCBs, heavy metal spewed from smokestacks in southwest Akron: Toxic Remains \|url\=http://www.cleveland.com/akron/index.ssf/2015/12/when\_pcbs\_and\_heavy\_metal\_spew.html\|access\-date\=31 December 2015 \|publisher\=Cleveland.com\|date\=December 28, 2015}} #### South Carolina From 1955 until 1977, the Sangamo Weston plant in Pickens, South Carolina, used PCBs to manufacture capacitors, and dumped 400,000 pounds of PCB contaminated wastewater into the Twelve Mile Creek. In 1990, the EPA declared the {{convert\|228\|acre\|km2}} site of the capacitor plant, its landfills and the polluted watershed, which stretches nearly {{convert\|1,000\|acre\|km2}} downstream to Lake Hartwell as a [Superfund](/wiki/Superfund "Superfund") site. Two dams on the Twelve Mile Creek are to be removed and on Feb. 22, 2011 the first of two dams began to be dismantled. Some contaminated sediment is being removed from the site and hauled away, while other sediment is pumped into a series of settling ponds.{{cite web \| title \= South Carolina NPL/NPL Caliber Cleanup Site Summaries; Sangamo Weston, Inc./Twelve\-Mile Creek/Lake Hartwell PCB Contamination \| url \= http://www.epa.gov/region4/waste/npl/nplsc/sangamsc.htm \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20061012115927/http://www.epa.gov/region4/waste/npl/nplsc/sangamsc.htm \| archive\-date \= 12 October 2006 \| work \= USEPA }}{{cite web \| url \= http://www.wyff4\.com/r/26949154/detail.html \| title \= Dam Demolition Begins On Twelve Mile River \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20110718123940/http://www.wyff4\.com/r/26949154/detail.html \| archive\-date\=2011\-07\-18 \| work \= WYFF News 4 \| date \= 22 February 2011 \|vauthors\=Muserallo S}} In 2013, the state environmental regulators issued a rare emergency order, banning all [sewage sludge](/wiki/Sewage_sludge "Sewage sludge") from being land applied or deposited on landfills, as it contained very high levels of PCBs. The problem had not been discovered until thousands of acres of farm land in the state had been contaminated by the [hazardous](/wiki/Hazardous "Hazardous") sludge. A criminal investigation to determine the perpetrator of this crime was launched.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.scdhec.gov/administration/news/2013/nr20130925\-01\.htm \|title\=DHEC: General Agency Information \|date\=2013 \|work\=scdhec.gov \|access\-date\=2013\-09\-26 \|archive\-date\=2013\-09\-26 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130926153115/http://www.scdhec.gov/administration/news/2013/nr20130925\-01\.htm \|url\-status\=dead }} #### Washington As of 2015, several bodies of water in the state of Washington were contaminated with PCBs, including the [Columbia River](/wiki/Columbia_River "Columbia River"), the [Duwamish River](/wiki/Duwamish_River "Duwamish River"), [Green Lake](/wiki/Green_Lake_%28Seattle%29 "Green Lake (Seattle)"), [Lake Washington](/wiki/Lake_Washington "Lake Washington"), the [Okanogan River](/wiki/Okanogan_River "Okanogan River"), [Puget Sound](/wiki/Puget_Sound "Puget Sound"), the [Spokane River](/wiki/Spokane_River "Spokane River"), the [Walla Walla River](/wiki/Walla_Walla_River "Walla Walla River"), the [Wenatchee River](/wiki/Wenatchee_River "Wenatchee River"), and the [Yakima River](/wiki/Yakima_River "Yakima River").{{cite web \|title\=Fish Consumption Advisories \| work \= Washington State Dept. of Health \|url\=http://www.doh.wa.gov/CommunityandEnvironment/Food/Fish/Advisories \|access\-date\=9 June 2016}} A study by Washington State published in 2011 found that the two largest sources of PCB flow into the Spokane River were City of Spokane stormwater (44%) and municipal and industrial discharges (20%).{{cite web \|title\=Spokane River PCB Source Assessment 2003–2007 \|url\=https://fortress.wa.gov/ecy/publications/documents/1103013\.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004144842/https://fortress.wa.gov/ecy/publications/documents/1103013\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2015\-10\-04 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=9 June 2016}} PCBs entered the environment through paint, hydraulic fluids, sealants, inks and have been found in river sediment and wildlife. Spokane utilities will spend $300 million to prevent PCBs from entering the river in anticipation of a 2017 federal deadline to do so.{{cite news \| vauthors \= Deshais N \|title\=Spokane sues Monsanto for PCB contamination \|url\=http://www.spokesman.com/stories/2015/aug/03/spokane\-sues\-monsanto\-pcb\-contamination/ \|access\-date\=14 August 2015 \|work\=The Spokesman\-Review\|date\=3 August 2015}} In August 2015 Spokane joined other U.S. cities like [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego") and [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California "San Jose, California"), California, and [Westport](/wiki/Westport%2C_Massachusetts "Westport, Massachusetts"), Massachusetts, in seeking damages from Monsanto.{{cite news \|agency\=Associated Press \|title\=Spokane sues Monsanto over Spokane River contamination \|url\=http://www.seattletimes.com/seattle\-news/spokane\-sues\-monsanto\-over\-spokane\-river\-contamination/ \|access\-date\=14 August 2015 \|work\=Seattle Times \|date\=August 3, 2015}} #### Wisconsin From 1954 until 1971, the Fox River in [Appleton, Wisconsin](/wiki/Appleton%2C_Wisconsin "Appleton, Wisconsin"), had PCBs deposited into it from Appleton Paper/NCR, P.H. Gladfelter, [Georgia\-Pacific](/wiki/Georgia-Pacific "Georgia-Pacific") and other notable local paper manufacturing facilities. The Wisconsin DNR estimates that after wastewater treatment the PCB discharges to the Fox River due to production losses ranged from 81,000 kg to 138,000 kg. (178,572 lbs. to 304,235 lbs). The production of Carbon Copy Paper and its byproducts led to the discharge into the river. Fox River clean up is ongoing.{{cite web \| vauthors \= Katers RL \| date \= \|title\=Sources of PCBs in the Fox River and Green Bay \|url\=http://www.foxriverwatch.com/pcb\_pcbs\_sources\_1\.html \|website\=www.foxriverwatch.com \|access\-date\=9 June 2016 \|archive\-date\=6 October 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006234908/http://www.foxriverwatch.com/pcb\_pcbs\_sources\_1\.html \|url\-status\=dead }} ### Pacific Ocean Polychlorinated biphenyls have been discovered in organisms living in the [Mariana Trench](/wiki/Mariana_Trench "Mariana Trench") in the [Pacific Ocean](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean "Pacific Ocean"). Levels were as high as 1,900 nanograms per gram of [amphipod](/wiki/Amphipoda "Amphipoda") tissue in the organisms analyzed.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.economist.com/news/science\-and\-technology/21716891\-entrenched\-nasty\-chemicals\-abound\-what\-was\-thought\-untouched\-environment\|title\=Nasty chemicals abound in what was thought an untouched environment\|newspaper\=The Economist\|access\-date\=2017\-02\-26\|date\=2017\-02\-18}}
[ "Pollution due to PCBs\n---------------------", "### Belgium", "In 1999, the [Dioxin Affair](/wiki/Dioxin_Affair \"Dioxin Affair\") occurred when 50 kg of PCB transformer oils were added to a stock of recycled fat used for the production of 500 tonnes of animal feed, eventually affecting around 2,500 farms in several countries.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Bernard A, Broeckaert F, De Poorter G, De Cock A, Hermans C, Saegerman C, Houins G \\|display\\-authors\\=3\\| title \\= The Belgian PCB/dioxin incident: analysis of the food chain contamination and health risk evaluation \\| journal \\= Environmental Research \\| volume \\= 88 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 1–18 \\| date \\= January 2002 \\| pmid \\= 11896663 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1006/enrs.2001\\.4274 \\| bibcode \\= 2002ER.....88\\....1B }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Covaci A, Voorspoels S, Schepens P, Jorens P, Blust R, Neels H \\|display\\-authors\\=3\\| title \\= The Belgian PCB/dioxin crisis\\-8 years later An overview \\| journal \\= Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology \\| volume \\= 25 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 164–170 \\| date \\= March 2008 \\| pmid \\= 21783853 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.etap.2007\\.10\\.003 \\| bibcode \\= 2008EnvTP..25\\..164C }} The name *Dioxin Affair* was coined from early misdiagnosis of dioxins as the primary contaminants, when in fact they turned out to be a relatively small part of the contamination caused by thermal reactions of PCBs. The PCB congener pattern suggested the contamination was from a mixture of Aroclor 1260 and 1254\\. Over 9 million chickens, and 60,000 pigs were destroyed because of the contamination. The extent of human health effects has been debated, in part because of the use of differing risk assessment methods. One group predicted increased cancer rates, and increased rates of neurological problems in those exposed as neonates. A second study suggested carcinogenic effects were unlikely and that the primary risk would be associated with developmental effects due to exposure in pregnancy and neonates. Two businessmen who knowingly sold the contaminated feed ingredient received two\\-year suspended sentences for their role in the crisis.{{cite web\\|title\\=Dioxin scandal: 2 year suspended prison sentence\\|url\\=http://www.expatica.com/be/news/country\\-news/Dioxin\\-scandal\\-2\\-year\\-suspended\\-prison\\-sentence\\_158523\\.html\\|website\\=www.expatica.com\\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2016\\|date\\=2009\\-02\\-05\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-01\\-02\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102025210/http://www.expatica.com/be/news/country\\-news/Dioxin\\-scandal\\-2\\-year\\-suspended\\-prison\\-sentence\\_158523\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "### Italy", "The Italian company Caffaro, located in [Brescia](/wiki/Brescia \"Brescia\"), specialized in producing PCBs from 1938 to 1984, following the acquisition of the exclusive rights to use the patent in Italy from Monsanto.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2016\\-05\\-11 \\|title\\=Effetto PCB \\|url\\=http://www.faustosalvi.net/en/portfolio/effetto\\-pcb/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-17 \\|website\\=Fausto Salvi \\|language\\=en\\-US}} The pollution resulting from this factory and the case of Anniston, in the US, are the largest known cases in the world of PCB contamination in water and soil, in terms of the amount of toxic substance dispersed, size of the area contaminated, number of people involved and duration of production.", "The values reported by the local health authority (ASL) of Brescia since 1999 are 5,000 times above the limits set by Ministerial Decree 471/1999 (levels for residential areas, 0\\.001 mg/kg). As a result of this and other investigations, in June 2001, a complaint of an environmental disaster was presented to the Public Prosecutor's Office of Brescia. Research on the adult population of Brescia showed that residents of some urban areas, former workers of the plant, and consumers of contaminated food, have PCB levels in their bodies that are in many cases 10–20 times higher than reference values in comparable general populations.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Turrio\\-Baldassarri L, Abate V, Battistelli CL, Carasi S, Casella M, Iacovella N, Indelicato A, La Rocca C, Scarcella C, Alivernini S \\| display\\-authors \\= 3 \\| title \\= PCDD/F and PCB in human serum of differently exposed population groups of an Italian city \\| journal \\= Chemosphere \\| volume \\= 73 \\| issue \\= 1 Suppl \\| pages \\= S228–S234 \\| date \\= August 2008 \\| pmid \\= 18514762 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.chemosphere.2008\\.01\\.081 \\| bibcode \\= 2008Chmsp..73S.228T }}{{medical citation needed\\|date\\=May 2015}} PCBs entered the human food supply by animals grazing on contaminated pastures near the factory, especially in local veal mostly eaten by farmers' families.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= La Rocca C, Mantovani A \\| title \\= From environment to food: the case of PCB \\| journal \\= Annali dell'Istituto Superiore di Sanità \\| volume \\= 42 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 410–416 \\| date \\= 2006 \\| pmid \\= 17361063 }} The exposed population showed an elevated risk of [Non\\-Hodgkin lymphoma](/wiki/Non-Hodgkin_lymphoma \"Non-Hodgkin lymphoma\"), but not for other specific cancers.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Zani C, Toninelli G, Filisetti B, Donato F \\| title \\= Polychlorinated biphenyls and cancer: an epidemiological assessment \\| journal \\= Journal of Environmental Science and Health. Part C, Environmental Carcinogenesis \\& Ecotoxicology Reviews \\| volume \\= 31 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 99–144 \\| date \\= 2013 \\| pmid \\= 23672403 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1080/10590501\\.2013\\.782174 \\| bibcode \\= 2013JESHC..31\\...99Z \\| s2cid \\= 5294247 }}", "### Japan", "In 1968, a mixture of dioxins and PCBs got into rice bran oil produced in northern [Kyushu](/wiki/Kyushu \"Kyushu\"). Contaminated cooking oil sickened more than 1,860 people. The symptoms were called [Yushō disease](/wiki/Yush%C5%8D_disease \"Yushō disease\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Aoki Y \\| title \\= Polychlorinated biphenyls, polychlorinated dibenzo\\-p\\-dioxins, and polychlorinated dibenzofurans as endocrine disrupters—what we have learned from Yusho disease \\| journal \\= Environmental Research \\| volume \\= 86 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 2–11 \\| date \\= May 2001 \\| pmid \\= 11386736 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1006/enrs.2001\\.4244 \\| bibcode \\= 2001ER.....86\\....2A }}", "In Okinawa, high levels of PCB contamination in soil on [Kadena Air Base](/wiki/Kadena_Air_Base \"Kadena Air Base\") were reported in 1987 at thousands of parts per million, some of the highest levels found in any pollution site in the world.{{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. military report suggests cover\\-up over toxic pollution in Okinawa\\|url\\=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2014/03/17/issues/u\\-s\\-military\\-report\\-suggests\\-cover\\-up\\-over\\-toxic\\-pollution\\-in\\-okinawa/\\|website\\=The Japan Times\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-09\\| vauthors \\= Mitchell J \\|date\\=March 17, 2014}}", "### Republic of Ireland", "{{Main\\|2008 Irish pork crisis}}\nIn December 2008, a number of Irish news sources reported testing had revealed \"extremely high\" levels of dioxins, by [toxic equivalent](/wiki/Toxic_equivalent \"Toxic equivalent\"), in pork products, ranging from 80 to 200 times the [EU's](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\") upper safe limit of 1\\.5 pg WHO\\-TEQDFP/μg i.e. 0\\.12 to 0\\.3 parts per billion.{{cite news\\|title\\=Food body to meet on pork recall\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk\\_news/northern\\_ireland/7769871\\.stm\\|access\\-date\\=27 October 2014\\|work\\=BBC\\|publisher\\=BBC\\|date\\=7 December 2008}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Commission Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006\\. Setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs \\|url\\=http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri\\=OJ:L:2006:364:0005:0024:EN:PDF\\|website\\=Official Journal of the European Union \\|publisher\\=European Union \\|location\\=Brussels \\|date\\=9 December 2006}}", "[Brendan Smith](/wiki/Brendan_Smith_%28politician%29 \"Brendan Smith (politician)\"), the Minister for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, stated the pork contamination was caused by PCB\\-contaminated feed that was used on 9 of Ireland's 400 pig farms, and only one feed supplier was involved.{{cite news\\|title\\=Firm at centre of toxin scare investigated\\|url\\=http://www.rte.ie/news/2008/1207/111373\\-pork/\\|access\\-date\\=27 October 2014\\|publisher\\=RTE news\\|date\\=9 December 2008}} Smith added that 38 beef farms also used the same contaminated feed, but those farms were quickly isolated and no contaminated beef entered the food chain.{{Cite news \\|title\\= Q\\&A: The recall of Irish pork \\|work\\= BBC \\|access\\-date\\= 2008\\-12\\-08 \\|date\\= 2008\\-12\\-07 \\|url\\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk\\_news/7769893\\.stm}} While the contamination was limited to just 9 pig farms, the Irish government requested the immediate withdrawal and disposal of all pork\\-containing products produced in Ireland and purchased since September 1, 2008\\. This request for withdrawal of pork products was confirmed in a press release by the [Food Safety Authority of Ireland](/wiki/Food_Safety_Authority_of_Ireland \"Food Safety Authority of Ireland\") on December 6\\.{{cite press release \\|title\\= Recall of Pork and Bacon Products December 2008 \\|publisher\\= Food Safety Authority of Ireland \\|date\\= December 2008 \\|url\\= http://www.fsai.ie/food\\_businesses/topics\\_of\\_interest/recall\\_of\\_pork\\_dec08/recall\\_information.html \\|access\\-date\\= 27 May 2013 \\|url\\-status\\= dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130817023437/http://www.fsai.ie/food\\_businesses/topics\\_of\\_interest/recall\\_of\\_pork\\_dec08/recall\\_information.html \\|archive\\-date\\= 17 August 2013}}", "It is thought that the incident resulted from the contamination of fuel oil used in a drying burner at a single feed processor, with PCBs. The resulting combustion produced a highly toxic mixture of PCBs, dioxins and [furans](/wiki/Furan \"Furan\"), which was included in the feed produced and subsequently fed to a large number of pigs.{{cite web \\|title\\= Report of the Inter\\-Agency Review Group on the Dioxin Contamination Incident in Ireland in December 2008 \\|publisher\\= Department of Agriculture, Food \\& the Marine \\|date\\= Dec 2009 \\|url\\= http://www.agriculture.gov.ie/media/migration/publications/2010/DioxinReport211209revised190110\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\= 2010\\-09\\-02 \\|archive\\-date\\= 2010\\-12\\-09 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20101209121430/http://www.agriculture.gov.ie/media/migration/publications/2010/DioxinReport211209revised190110\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\= dead }}", "### Kenya", "In Kenya, a number of cases have been reported in the 2010s of thieves selling [transformer oil](/wiki/Transformer_oil \"Transformer oil\"), stolen from electric [transformers](/wiki/Transformer \"Transformer\"), to the operators of roadside [food stalls](/wiki/Food_stall \"Food stall\") for use in [deep frying](/wiki/Deep_frying \"Deep frying\"). When used for frying, it is reported that transformer oil lasts much longer than regular [cooking oil](/wiki/Cooking_oil \"Cooking oil\"). The downside of this misuse of the transformer oil is the threat to the health of the consumers, due to the presence of PCBs.{{cite web\\| vauthors \\= Iraki XN \\|title\\=Thieves fry Kenya's power grid for fast food\\|url\\=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2014/12/thieves\\-fry\\-kenya\\-power\\-grid\\-fast\\-food\\-2014122884728785480\\.html\\|website\\=www.aljazeera.com\\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2016}}", "### Slovakia", "The chemical plant Chemko in [Strážske](/wiki/Str%C3%A1%C5%BEske \"Strážske\") (east [Slovakia](/wiki/Slovakia \"Slovakia\")) was an important producer of polychlorinated biphenyls for the former communist bloc ([Comecon](/wiki/Comecon \"Comecon\")) until 1984\\. Chemko contaminated a large part of east Slovakia, especially the sediments of the [Laborec](/wiki/Laborec \"Laborec\") river and [reservoir](/wiki/Reservoir \"Reservoir\") [Zemplínska šírava](/wiki/Zempl%C3%ADnska_%C5%A1%C3%ADrava \"Zemplínska šírava\").{{cite news \\|url\\=http://zivot.azet.sk/clanok/6399/viete\\-co\\-doma\\-dychate \\|title\\=Viete, čo doma dýchate? \\|trans\\-title\\=Do you know what you breathe at home? \\|language\\=sk \\|work\\=Život \\|issue\\=33 \\|year\\=2009 \\|vauthors\\=Himič D \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-05\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-10\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027043653/http://zivot.azet.sk/clanok/6399/viete\\-co\\-doma\\-dychate \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.greenpeace.org/slovakia/zataze/arealy\\-podnikov\\-a\\-priemyselne/projekt\\-implementacie \\|title\\=Chemko Strážske \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516215920/http://www.greenpeace.org/slovakia/zataze/arealy\\-podnikov\\-a\\-priemyselne/projekt\\-implementacie \\|archive\\-date\\=May 16, 2011 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Greenpeace]] \\|language\\=sk}}", "### Slovenia", "Between 1962 and 1983, the [Iskra Kondenzatorji](/wiki/Iskra_%28company%29 \"Iskra (company)\") company in [Semič](/wiki/Semi%C4%8D \"Semič\") ([White Carniola](/wiki/White_Carniola \"White Carniola\"), Southeast [Slovenia](/wiki/Slovenia \"Slovenia\")) manufactured [capacitors](/wiki/Capacitor \"Capacitor\") using PCBs. Due to the wastewater and improperly disposed waste products, the area (including the [Krupa](/wiki/Krupa_%28Lahinja%29 \"Krupa (Lahinja)\") and [Lahinja](/wiki/Lahinja \"Lahinja\") rivers) became highly contaminated with PCBs. The pollution was discovered in 1983, when the Krupa river was meant to become a water supply source. The area was sanitized then, but the soil and water are still highly polluted. Traces of PCBs were found in food (eggs, cow milk, walnuts) and Krupa is still the most PCB\\-polluted river in the world.", "### Spain and Portugal", "Several [cetacean](/wiki/Cetacean \"Cetacean\") species have very high mean [blubber](/wiki/Blubber \"Blubber\") PCB concentrations likely to cause population declines and suppress population recovery. [Striped dolphins](/wiki/Striped_dolphin \"Striped dolphin\"), [bottlenose dolphins](/wiki/Bottlenose_dolphin \"Bottlenose dolphin\") and [orcas](/wiki/Orca \"Orca\") were found to have mean levels that markedly exceeded all known marine mammal PCB toxicity thresholds. The western Mediterranean Sea and the south\\-west Iberian Peninsula were identified as \"hotspots\".{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Jepson PD, Deaville R, Barber JL, Aguilar À, Borrell A, Murphy S, Barry J, Brownlow A, Barnett J, Berrow S, Cunningham AA, Davison NJ, Ten Doeschate M, Esteban R, Ferreira M, Foote AD, Genov T, Giménez J, Loveridge J, Llavona Á, Martin V, Maxwell DL, Papachlimitzou A, Penrose R, Perkins MW, Smith B, de Stephanis R, Tregenza N, Verborgh P, Fernandez A, Law RJ \\| display\\-authors \\= 3 \\| title \\= PCB pollution continues to impact populations of orcas and other dolphins in European waters \\| journal \\= Scientific Reports \\| volume \\= 6 \\| pages \\= 18573 \\| date \\= January 2016 \\| pmid \\= 26766430 \\| pmc \\= 4725908 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/srep18573 \\| bibcode \\= 2016NatSR...618573J }}", "### United Kingdom", "[Monsanto](/wiki/Monsanto \"Monsanto\") manufactured PCBs at its chemical plant in [Newport](/wiki/Newport%2C_Wales \"Newport, Wales\"), South Wales, until the mid\\- to late\\-1970s. During this period, waste matter, including PCBs, from the Newport site was dumped at a disused quarry near [Groes\\-faen](/wiki/Groes-faen \"Groes-faen\"), west of [Cardiff](/wiki/Cardiff \"Cardiff\"), and Penhros landfill site{{cite news \\| url\\=http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales\\-news/tip\\-fumes\\-felt\\-like\\-terror\\-2435122\\|title\\=Tip fumes \"felt like terror attack\"\\|author\\= \\|date\\=June 30, 2004 \\|website\\=WalesOnline \\|publisher\\=Media Wales Ltd}} from where it continues to be released in waste water discharges.{{cite news \\| url\\= https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/feb/21/monsanto\\-brofiscin\\-pollution \\| title\\=Monsanto agrees to clean up toxic chemicals in South Wales quarry \\| date\\=21 February 2011 \\| access\\-date\\=16 September 2013 \\| vauthors \\= Levitt T \\| newspaper\\=The Guardian}}", "### United States", "Monsanto was the only company that manufactured PCBs in the US. Its production was entirely halted in 1977\\. (Kimbrough, 1987, 1995\\) On November 25, 2020, U.S. District Judge [Fernando M. Olguin](/wiki/Fernando_M._Olguin \"Fernando M. Olguin\") rejected a proposed $650 million settlement from Bayer, the company which acquired Monsanto in 2018, and allowed Monsanto\\-related lawsuits involving PCB to proceed.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.semissourian.com/story/2853810\\.html\\|title\\=Bayer's $650 Million PCB Pollution Settlement Rejected by Judge\\| vauthors \\= Rosenblatt J, Chediak M \\|publisher\\=Claims Journal\\|date\\=December 1, 2020\\|access\\-date\\=December 15, 2020}}{{dead link\\|date\\=June 2022\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}}", "#### Alabama", "PCBs originating from [Monsanto Chemical Company](/wiki/Monsanto_Chemical_Company \"Monsanto Chemical Company\") in [Anniston](/wiki/Anniston%2C_Alabama \"Anniston, Alabama\"), Alabama, were dumped into Snow Creek, which then spread to [Choccolocco Creek](/wiki/Choccolocco_Creek \"Choccolocco Creek\"), then [Logan Martin Lake](/wiki/Logan_Martin_Lake \"Logan Martin Lake\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Anniston PCB Site (Monsanto Co), Anniston, AL \\|url\\=http://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id\\=0400123 \\|website\\=Superfund Site Profile \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-24 \\|publisher\\=EPA \\|location\\=Atlanta, GA \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-12\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227015252/https://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id\\=0400123 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} In the early 2000s, class action lawsuits were settled by local land owners, including those on Logan Martin Lake, and [Lay Reservoir](/wiki/Lay_Dam \"Lay Dam\") (downstream on the [Coosa River](/wiki/Coosa_River \"Coosa River\")), for the PCB pollution. Donald Stewart, former Senator from Alabama, first learned of the concerns of hundreds of west Anniston residents after representing a church which had been approached about selling its property by Monsanto. Stewart went on to be the pioneer and lead attorney in the first and majority of cases against Monsanto and focused on residents in the immediate area known to be most polluted. Other attorneys later joined in to file suits for those outside the main immediate area around the plant; one of these was the late [Johnnie Cochran](/wiki/Johnnie_Cochran \"Johnnie Cochran\").", "In 2007, the highest pollution levels remained concentrated in Snow and Choccolocco Creeks.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Rypel AL, Findlay RH, Mitchell JB, Bayne DR \\| title \\= Variations in PCB concentrations between genders of six warmwater fish species in Lake Logan Martin, Alabama, USA \\| journal \\= Chemosphere \\| volume \\= 68 \\| issue \\= 9 \\| pages \\= 1707–1715 \\| date \\= August 2007 \\| pmid \\= 17490714 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.chemosphere.2007\\.03\\.046 \\| bibcode \\= 2007Chmsp..68\\.1707R }} Concentrations in fish have declined and continue to decline over time; sediment disturbance, however, can resuspend the PCBs from the sediment back into the water column and food web.", "#### California", "[thumb\\|Fish consumption advisory poster for San Francisco Bay](/wiki/File:Fish_Sign.png \"Fish Sign.png\")", "San Francisco Bay has been contaminated by PCBs, \"a legacy of PCBs spread widely across the land surface of the watershed, mixed deep into the sediment of the Bay, and contaminating the Bay food web\".{{Cite journal\\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.envres.2007\\.01\\.013\\| issn \\= 0013\\-9351\\| volume \\= 105\\| issue \\= 1\\| pages \\= 67–86\\| last1 \\= Davis\\| first1 \\= Jay\\| last2 \\= Hetzel\\| first2 \\= F.\\| last3 \\= Oram\\| first3 \\= J. J.\\| last4 \\= McKee\\| first4 \\= L. J.\\| title \\= Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in San Francisco Bay\\| journal \\= Environmental Research\\| series \\= Pollutants in the San Francisco Bay Estuary\\| access\\-date \\= 2023\\-04\\-27\\| date \\= 2007\\-09\\-01\\| url \\= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935107000400}} Levels of PCBs in fish and shellfish exceed thresholds for safe consumption. Signs around the Bay warn anglers of which species to avoid. State water quality regulators set a [Total Maximum Daily Load](/wiki/Total_Maximum_Daily_Load \"Total Maximum Daily Load\") for PCBs require city and county governments around the Bay to implement control measures to limit PCBs in urban runoff.{{Cite conference\\| publisher \\= California Regional Water Quality Control Board, San Francisco Bay Region\\| pages \\= 279\\| last \\= California Water Boards\\| title \\= Municipal Regional Stormwater NPDES permit. Order R2\\-2009\\-0074 NPDES Permit No. CAS612008 October 14, 2009\\| location \\= San Francisco\\| access\\-date \\= 2023\\-04\\-27\\| date \\= 2009\\-10\\-14\\| url \\= https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/water\\_issues/programs/stormwater/docs/phase1r2\\_2009\\_0074\\.pdf}} An important part of the second, revised version of this permit was the requirement for municipalities to install [green infrastructure](/wiki/Green_infrastructure \"Green infrastructure\") with a goal of reducing pollutant levels in stormwater.{{Cite conference\\| publisher \\= California Regional Water Quality Control Board, San Francisco Bay Region\\| pages \\= 350\\| last \\= California Water Boards\\| title \\= Municipal Regional Stormwater NPDES permit. Order No. R2\\-2015\\-0049, NPDES Permit No. CAS612008\\| location \\= San Francisco\\| access\\-date \\= 2023\\-04\\-27\\| date \\= 2015\\-11\\-19\\| url \\= https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/sanfranciscobay/water\\_issues/programs/stormwater/Municipal/R2\\-2015\\-0049\\.pdf}}", "#### Connecticut", "In [New Haven](/wiki/New_Haven \"New Haven\"), the decommissioned [English Station](/wiki/English_Station \"English Station\") has a high concentration of PCB contamination due to the chemicals used in the running of the plant. This, along with [asbestos](/wiki/Asbestos \"Asbestos\") contamination, has made cleaning and demolishing the abandoned site extremely difficult. The PCB contamination has spread to the soil, and to the river, where locals will sometimes fish unaware of the danger.{{cite web \\| vauthors \\= Leff L \\| title\\=Demolition Derailed; English Station In Limbo \\| website\\=New Haven Independent \\| date\\=19 August 2011 \\| url\\=https://www.newhavenindependent.org/index.php/archives/entry/english\\_station/ \\| access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-03}}{{cite web \\| vauthors\\=Haar D \\| title\\=Dan Haar: English Station cleanup, at least a year away, should now wait for redevelopment \\| website\\=The Middletown Press \\| date\\=2019\\-08\\-25 \\| url\\=https://www.middletownpress.com/news/article/Dan\\-Haar\\-English\\-Station\\-cleanup\\-at\\-least\\-a\\-14374967\\.php \\| access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-03 \\| archive\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-06 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506121936/https://www.middletownpress.com/news/article/Dan\\-Haar\\-English\\-Station\\-cleanup\\-at\\-least\\-a\\-14374967\\.php \\| url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite web \\| vauthors \\= Chedekel L \\| title\\=State Orders Clean\\-Up Of English Station In New Haven \\| website\\=Connecticut Health Investigative Team \\| date\\=2013\\-04\\-11 \\| url\\=http://c\\-hit.org/2013/04/11/state\\-orders\\-clean\\-up\\-of\\-english\\-station\\-in\\-new\\-haven/ \\| access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-03}}", "#### Great Lakes", "In 1976, environmentalists found PCBs in the sludge at [Waukegan](/wiki/Waukegan%2C_Illinois \"Waukegan, Illinois\") Harbor, the southwest end of [Lake Michigan](/wiki/Lake_Michigan \"Lake Michigan\"). They were able to trace the source of the PCBs back to the Outboard Marine Corporation that was producing boat motors next to the harbor. By 1982, the Outboard Marine Corporation was court\\-ordered to release quantitative data referring to their PCB waste released. The data stated that from 1954 they released 100,000 tons of PCB into the environment, and that the sludge contained PCBs in concentrations as high as 50%.{{cite book \\| vauthors \\= Ashworth W \\|title\\=The Late, Great Lakes \\|publisher\\=Wayne State University Press \\|year\\=1987 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8143\\-1887\\-4}}{{Page needed\\|date\\=May 2013}}{{cite web\\| vauthors \\= Mahan ML \\|date\\=May 4, 1998 \\|title\\=Are PCBs still a problem in the great lakes? \\|url\\=http://www.cevl.msu.edu/\\~long/pcb.htm \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120722012319/http://www.cevl.msu.edu/\\~long/pcb.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=July 22, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{self\\-published source\\|date\\=May 2013}}{{self\\-published inline\\|date\\=May 2013}}", "In 1989, during construction near the [Zilwaukee](/wiki/Zilwaukee%2C_Michigan \"Zilwaukee, Michigan\") bridge, workers uncovered an uncharted landfill containing PCB\\-contaminated waste which cost $100,000 to clean up.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.michiganhighways.org/indepth/zilwaukee.html\\|title\\=Michigan Highways: In Depth: The Milwaukee Bridge \\| vauthors \\= Bessert CJ \\|work\\=michiganhighways.org}}", "Much of the [Great Lakes](/wiki/Great_Lakes \"Great Lakes\") area were still heavily polluted with PCBs in 1988, despite extensive remediation work.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Hileman B \\|title\\=Great Lakes Cleanup Effort \\|journal\\=Chemical and Engineering News \\|volume\\=66 \\|issue\\=6 \\|date\\=February 8, 1988 \\|pages\\=22–39 \\|doi\\=10\\.1021/cen\\-v066n006\\.p022}}", "#### Indiana", "From the late 1950s through 1977, [Westinghouse Electric](/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric \"Westinghouse Electric\") used PCBs in the manufacture of capacitors in its [Bloomington](/wiki/Bloomington%2C_Indiana \"Bloomington, Indiana\"), Indiana, plant. Reject capacitors were hauled and dumped in area salvage yards and landfills, including Bennett's Dump, Neal's Landfill and Lemon Lane Landfill. Workers also dumped PCB oil down factory drains, which contaminated the city sewage treatment plant.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://copa.org/abb.html\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-02\\-24\\|title\\=Westinghouse/ABB Plant Facility\\|year\\=2006\\|archive\\-date\\=2002\\-02\\-11\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020211012517/http://copa.org/abb.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The City of Bloomington gave away the sludge to area farmers and gardeners, creating anywhere from 200 to 2,000 sites, which remain unaddressed.", "Over 1,000 tons of PCBs were estimated to have been dumped in [Monroe](/wiki/Monroe_County%2C_Indiana \"Monroe County, Indiana\") and [Owen](/wiki/Owen_County%2C_Indiana \"Owen County, Indiana\") counties.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=May 2007}} Although federal and state authorities have been working on the sites' [environmental remediation](/wiki/Environmental_remediation \"Environmental remediation\"), many areas remain contaminated. Concerns have been raised regarding the removal of PCBs from the [karst](/wiki/Karst \"Karst\") limestone topography, and regarding the possible disposal options. To date, the Westinghouse Bloomington PCB Superfund site case does not have a Remedial Investigation/Feasibility Study (RI/FS) and Record of Decision (ROD), although Westinghouse signed a US Department of Justice Consent Decree in 1985\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=US EPA Region 5 Superfund\\|url\\=http://www.epa.gov/R5Super/npl/indiana/IND006418651\\.htm\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-09\\-01}} The 1985 consent decree required Westinghouse to construct an incinerator that would incinerate PCB\\-contaminated materials. Because of public opposition to the incinerator, however, the State of Indiana passed a number of laws that delayed and blocked its construction. The parties to the consent decree began to explore alternative remedies in 1994 for six of the main PCB contaminated sites in the consent decree. Hundreds of sites remain unaddressed as of 2014\\. Monroe County will never be PCB\\-free, as noted in a 2014 Indiana University program about the local contamination.", "On February 15, 2008, Monroe County approved a plan to clean up the three remaining contaminated sites in the City of Bloomington, at a cost of [$](/wiki/United_States_dollar \"United States dollar\")9\\.6 million to [CBS Corp.](/wiki/CBS_Corporation \"CBS Corporation\"), the successor of Westinghouse. In 1999, Viacom bought CBS, so they are current responsible party for the PCB sites.{{cite web \\|title\\=Monroe Co. approves PCB clean up \\|url\\=http://www.indystar.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID\\=/20080218/LOCAL/802180394 \\|publisher\\=IndyStar.com\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-02\\-18 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022065825/http://www.indystar.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID\\=/20080218/LOCAL/802180394 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-10\\-22}}", "#### Massachusetts", "[Pittsfield](/wiki/Pittsfield%2C_Massachusetts \"Pittsfield, Massachusetts\"), in western Massachusetts, was home to the [General Electric (GE) transformer, capacitor, and electrical generating equipment divisions](/wiki/General_Electric_Pittsfield_Plant \"General Electric Pittsfield Plant\"). The electrical generating division built and repaired equipment that was used to power the electrical utility grid throughout the nation. PCB\\-contaminated oil routinely migrated from GE's {{convert\\|254\\|acre\\|km2\\|adj\\=on}} industrial plant located in the very center of the city to the surrounding groundwater, nearby Silver Lake, and to the [Housatonic River](/wiki/Housatonic_River \"Housatonic River\"), which flows through Massachusetts, Connecticut, and down to Long Island Sound.{{cite web \\|title\\=Site History \\& Description \\|website\\=GE/Housatonic River Site in New England \\|url\\=http://www.epa.gov/NE/ge/sitehistory.html \\|date\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) \\|location\\=Boston, MA \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519121339/http://www.epa.gov/NE/ge/sitehistory.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-05\\-19}} PCB\\-containing solid material was widely used as fill, including [oxbows](/wiki/Meander \"Meander\") of the Housatonic River. Fish and waterfowl which live in and around the river contain significant levels of PCBs and are not safe to eat.{{cite web \\|title\\=Rest of River of the GE\\-Pittsfield/Housatonic River Site \\|url\\=https://www.epa.gov/ge\\-housatonic/rest\\-river\\-ge\\-pittsfieldhousatonic\\-river\\-site \\|website\\=EPA Cleanups \\|date\\=2020\\-08\\-06 \\|publisher\\=EPA}} EPA designated the Pittsfield plant and several miles of the river as a [Superfund](/wiki/Superfund \"Superfund\") site in 1997, and ordered GE to remediate the site. EPA and GE began a cleanup of the area in 1999\\.", "[New Bedford Harbor](/wiki/New_Bedford%2C_Massachusetts%23Geography \"New Bedford, Massachusetts#Geography\"), which is a listed Superfund site,{{cite web \\|title\\=General Information about the New Bedford Harbor Cleanup \\|url\\=https://www.epa.gov/new\\-bedford\\-harbor/general\\-information\\-about\\-new\\-bedford\\-harbor\\-cleanup \\|date\\=2020\\-09\\-15 \\|publisher\\=EPA}} contained some of the highest sediment concentrations of PCBs in the marine environment.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.darrp.noaa.gov/northeast/new\\_bedford/ \\|title\\=Case: New Bedford Harbor, MA \\|website\\=Damage Assessment, Remediation \\& Restoration Program \\|publisher\\=U.S. National Ocean Service \\|location\\=Silver Spring, MD \\|date\\=2009\\-10\\-19 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100712092247/http://www.darrp.noaa.gov/northeast/new\\_bedford/\\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-07\\-12 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Cleanup of the area began in 1994 and is mostly complete as of 2020\\.", "Investigations into historic waste dumping in the [Bliss Corner](/wiki/Bliss_Corner%2C_Massachusetts \"Bliss Corner, Massachusetts\") neighborhood have revealed the existence of PCBs, among other hazardous materials, buried in soil and waste material.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.mass.gov/service\\-details/bliss\\-corner\\-neighborhood\\-dartmouth\\-ma \\|title\\=Bliss Corner Neighborhood, Dartmouth, MA \\|website\\=Environmental Issues \\& Sites in Southeastern Massachusetts \\|publisher\\=Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection \\|location\\=Lakeville, MA \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-15}}", "#### Missouri", "In 1982, Martha C. Rose Chemical Inc. began processing and disposing of materials contaminated with PCBs in [Holden, Missouri](/wiki/Holden%2C_Missouri \"Holden, Missouri\"), a small rural community about {{convert\\|40\\|mi}} east of Kansas City. From 1982 until 1986, nearly 750 companies, including General Motors Corp., Commonwealth Edison, Illinois Power Co. and West Texas Utilities, sent millions of pounds of PCB contaminated materials to Holden for disposal.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://apnews.com/c83b34f4cdcddc21aff592829725dff4\\|title\\=Nearly a Decade After Spill, Cleanup of Toxic Site Drags On With PM\\-Rusted Legacy II\\|work\\=AP NEWS\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-02\\-19}} Instead, according to prosecutors, the company began storing the contaminated materials while falsifying its reports to the EPA to show they had been removed. After investigators learned of the deception, Rose Chemical was closed and filed for bankruptcy. The site had become the nation's largest waste site for the chemical PCB.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://apnews.com/4b94dd89b0231fd8df1ba7a512dcba42 \\|title\\=Lawmakers Warned That PCB Contamination Threatens Missouri Town\\|website\\=AP NEWS\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-02\\-19}} In the four years the company was operational, the EPA inspected it four times and assessed $206,000 in fines but managed to collect only $50,000\\.{{Cite web \\|url\\= https://www.westword.com/news/a\\-dirty\\-shame\\-5058546 \\|title\\=A Dirty Shame\\| vauthors \\= Dexheimer E \\|date\\=1998\\-04\\-16\\|website\\=Westword\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-02\\-20}}", "After the plant closed the state environmental agency found PCB contamination in streams near the plant and in the city's sewage treatment sludge. A 100,000 square\\-foot warehouse and unknown amounts of contaminated soil and water around the site had to be cleaned up. Most of the surface debris, including close to 13 million pounds of contaminated equipment, carcasses and tanks of contaminated oil, had to be removed.{{Cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Steinzor RI \\|title\\=The lessons of Rose Chemical \\|journal\\=Public Power \\|volume\\=47\\|issue\\=2 \\|osti\\=5152472}} Walter C. Carolan, owner of Rose Chemical, and five others pleaded guilty in 1989 to committing fraud or falsifying documents. Carolan and two other executives served sentences of less than 18 months; the others received fines and were placed on probation. Cleanup costs at the site are estimated at $35 million.", "#### Montana", "Two launch facilities at [Malmstrom Air Force Base](/wiki/Malmstrom_Air_Force_Base \"Malmstrom Air Force Base\") showed PCB levels higher than the thresholds recommended by the Environmental Protection Agency when extensive sampling began of active U.S. intercontinental ballistic missile bases to address specific cancer concerns in 2023\\.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Copp \\|first\\=Tara \\|date\\=2023\\-08\\-07 \\|title\\=Carcinogens found at Montana nuclear missile sites as reports of hundreds of cancers surface \\|url\\=https://apnews.com/article/missile\\-bases\\-cancer\\-air\\-force\\-malmstrom\\-military\\-1999fad70393f0d141676b7faa587eda \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-08 \\|work\\=AP News \\|language\\=en}}", "#### New York", "[Pollution of the Hudson River](/wiki/Pollution_of_the_Hudson_River \"Pollution of the Hudson River\") is largely due to dumping of PCBs by [General Electric](/wiki/General_Electric \"General Electric\") from 1947 to 1977\\. GE dumped an estimated 1\\.3 million pounds of PCBs into the Hudson River during these years. The PCBs came from the company's two capacitor manufacturing plants at [Hudson Falls](/wiki/Hudson_Falls%2C_New_York \"Hudson Falls, New York\") and [Fort Edward](/wiki/Fort_Edward_%28town%29%2C_New_York \"Fort Edward (town), New York\"), New York. This pollution caused a range of harmful effects to wildlife and people who eat fish from the river or drink the water.{{cite web\\|title\\=Hudson River Cleanup \\|publisher\\=EPA \\|url\\=https://www.epa.gov/hudsonriverpcbs/hudson\\-river\\-cleanup \\|date\\=2020\\-08\\-25}} In 1984, EPA declared a 200\\-mile (320 km) stretch of the river, from Hudson Falls to New York City, to be a Superfund site requiring cleanup.{{cite web \\|title\\=Hudson River PCBs Superfund Site \\|url\\=https://www.epa.gov/superfund/superfund\\-success\\-stories\\-epa\\-region\\-2\\#hudson \\|website\\=Superfund Success Stories: EPA Region 2 \\|date\\=2018\\-06\\-04 \\|publisher\\=EPA}} Extensive remediation actions on the river began in the 1970s with the implementation of [wastewater discharge permits](/wiki/Clean_Water_Act%23Point_sources \"Clean Water Act#Point sources\") and consequent control or reduction of wastewater discharges, and sediment removal operations, which have continued into the 21st century.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/77105\\.html \\|title\\=How is the Hudson Doing? \\|website\\=Hudson River Estuary Program \\|publisher\\=New York State Department of Environmental Conservation \\|location\\=Albany, NY \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-15 \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-19 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171119075142/http://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/77105\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "[Love Canal](/wiki/Love_Canal \"Love Canal\") is a neighborhood in [Niagara Falls](/wiki/Niagara_Falls%2C_New_York \"Niagara Falls, New York\"), New York, that was heavily contaminated with toxic waste including PCBs.{{cite magazine \\| vauthors \\= Brown MH \\|title\\=Love Canal and the Poisoning of America \\|journal\\=The Atlantic \\|date\\=December 1979 \\|url\\=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1979/12/love\\-canal\\-and\\-the\\-poisoning\\-of\\-america/376297/}} [Eighteen Mile Creek](/wiki/Eighteen_Mile_Creek_%28Niagara_County%29 \"Eighteen Mile Creek (Niagara County)\") in [Lockport](/wiki/Lockport_%28town%29%2C_New_York \"Lockport (town), New York\"), New York, is an EPA Superfund site for PCBs contamination.{{cite web \\|title\\= Superfund Site: Eighteen Mile Creek, Lockport, NY \\|url\\= http://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id\\=0206456 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170306235101/http://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id\\=0206456 \\| archive\\-date \\= 6 March 2017 \\|website\\=Superfund Program \\|publisher\\=EPA}}", "PCB pollution at the [State Office Building](/wiki/Government_Plaza%2C_Binghamton \"Government Plaza, Binghamton\") in [Binghamton](/wiki/Binghamton%2C_New_York \"Binghamton, New York\") was responsible for what is now considered to be the first indoor environmental disaster in the United States.{{cite web \\| url \\= https://nypost.com/2011/08/07/former\\-ny\\-governor\\-hugh\\-carey\\-dead\\-at\\-92/ \\| title \\= Former NY governor Hugh Carey dead at 92 \\| work \\= New York Post \\| date \\= 7 August 2011 }} In 1981, a transformer explosion in the basement spewed PCBs throughout the entire 18\\-story building.{{cite report \\| title \\= Spill closes offices \\| work \\= Syracuse Herald\\-Journal \\| date \\= 5 February 1981 \\| page \\= D1 }} The contamination was so severe that cleanup efforts kept the building closed for 13 years.{{cite web \\| title \\= State Building Finally Reopens in Binghamton \\| url \\= https://buffalonews.com/news/state\\-building\\-finally\\-reopens\\-in\\-binghamton/article\\_fc156754\\-8eee\\-5d3a\\-9b79\\-e1f791b85250\\.html \\| work \\= The Buffalo News \\| date \\= 12 October 1994 }}{{cite web \\| vauthors \\= Steinberg J \\| url \\= https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/11/nyregion/13\\-year\\-cleaning\\-job\\-after\\-53\\-million\\-17\\-million\\-state\\-building\\-finally\\-declared.html?pagewanted\\=1 \\| title \\= The 13\\-Year Cleaning Job; After $53 Million, a $17 Million State Building Finally Is Declared Safe From Toxins \\| work \\= New York Times \\| date \\= 11 October 1994 }}", "#### North Carolina", "One of the largest deliberate PCB spills in American history occurred in the summer of 1978 when 31,000 gallons (117 m^3\\) of PCB\\-contaminated oil were illegally sprayed by the Ward PCB Transformer Company in {{convert\\|3\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} swaths along the roadsides of some {{convert\\|240\\|mi\\|km}} of North Carolina highway shoulders in 14 counties and at the [Fort Liberty](/wiki/Fort_Liberty \"Fort Liberty\") Army Base. The crime, known as \"[the midnight dumpings](/wiki/Warren_County_PCB_Landfill \"Warren County PCB Landfill\")\", occurred over nearly two weeks, as drivers of a black\\-painted tanker truck drove down one side of rural Piedmont highways spraying PCB\\-laden waste and then up the other side the following night.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/08/11/us/carolinians\\-angry\\-over\\-pcb\\-landfill.html \\|title\\=Carolinians Angry Over PCB Landfill\\|work\\=NY Times \\|date\\=11 August 1982}}", "Under Governor [James B. Hunt](/wiki/Jim_Hunt \"Jim Hunt\"), Jr., state officials then erected large, yellow warning signs along the contaminated highways that read: \"CAUTION: PCB Chemical Spills Along Highway Shoulders\". The illegal dumping is believed to have been motivated by the passing of the [Toxic Substances Control Act](/wiki/Toxic_Substances_Control_Act \"Toxic Substances Control Act\") (TSCA), which became effective on August 2, 1978, and increased the expense of chemical waste disposal.", "Within a couple of weeks of the crime, Robert Burns and his sons, Timothy and Randall, were arrested for dumping the PCBs along the roadsides. Burns was a business partner of Robert \"Buck\" Ward Jr., of the Ward PCB Transformer Company, in Raleigh. Burns and sons pleaded guilty to state and Federal criminal charges; Burns received a three to five\\-year prison sentence. Ward was acquitted of state charges in the dumping, but was sentenced to 18 months prison time for violation of TSCA.", "Cleanup and disposal of the roadside PCBs generated controversy, as the Governor's plan to pick up the roadside PCBs and to bury them in a landfill in rural [Warren County](/wiki/Warren_County%2C_North_Carolina \"Warren County, North Carolina\") were strongly opposed in 1982 by local residents.", "In October 2013, at the request of the South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control (SCDHEC), the City of [Charlotte](/wiki/Charlotte%2C_North_Carolina \"Charlotte, North Carolina\"), North Carolina, decided to stop applying [sewage sludge](/wiki/Biosolids \"Biosolids\") to land while authorities investigated the source of PCB contamination.{{cite web\\| url\\=http://charmeck.org/city/charlotte/Utilities/AboutUs/Documents/Minutes%20October%202013\\.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221223705/http://charmeck.org/city/charlotte/Utilities/AboutUs/Documents/Minutes%20October%202013\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-02\\-21 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|author\\=Charlotte\\-Mecklenburg Utilities Advisory Committee\\|title\\=Charlotte\\-Mecklenburg Utilities Advisory Committee Minutes\\|date\\=October 17, 2013\\|page\\=3}}\nIn February 2014, the City of Charlotte admitted PCBs have entered their sewage treatment centers as well.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.charlotteobserver.com/2014/02/07/4670710/chemical\\-dumped\\-into\\-charlotte.html \\|title\\=Task force named to probe chemical dumping \\|date\\=7 February 2014 \\|newspaper\\=Charlotte Observer\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140213233743/https://www.charlotteobserver.com/2014/02/07/4670710/chemical\\-dumped\\-into\\-charlotte.html\\|archive\\-date\\=13 Feb 2014 \\|vauthors\\=Henderson B, Lyttle S, Bethea A}}", "After the 2013 SCDHEC had issued emergency regulations,{{cite web\\|title\\=Emergency Regulation for Management of Wastewater System Sludge\\|url\\=http://www.scdhec.gov/Agency/docs/NewsReleaseDocs/PCBEmergencyRegFINAL.pdf\\|publisher\\=South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control\\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=24 June 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624030305/http://www.scdhec.gov/Agency/docs/NewsReleaseDocs/PCBEmergencyRegFINAL.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} the City of Charlotte discovered high levels of PCBs entering its sewage waste water treatment plants, where sewage is converted to sewage sludge. The city at first denied it had a problem, then admitted an \"event\" occurred in February 2014, and in April that the problem had occurred much earlier.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.charlotteobserver.com/2014/04/04/4817470/more\\-pcbs\\-found\\-in\\-charlotte\\-wastewater.html\\|title\\=More PCBs found in Charlotte wastewater, city says \\|date\\=4 April 2014\\| newspaper\\=Charlotte Observer\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016075302/http://www.charlotteobserver.com/news/local/crime/article9109955\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=16 Oct 2015\\|vauthors\\=Lyttle S}} The city stated that its very first test with a newly changed test method revealed very high PCB levels in its sewage sludge farm field fertilizer. Because of the widespread use of the contaminated sludge, SCDHEC subsequently issued PCB fish advisories for nearly all streams and rivers bordering farm fields that had been applied with city waste.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.scdhec.gov/Agency/NewsReleases/2014/nr20140703\\-01/\\|date\\=July 3, 2014\\|title\\=DHEC Releases Safe Fish Eating Advisory for S.C. Waters\\|website\\=scdhec.gov\\|publisher\\=South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control\\|access\\-date\\=February 4, 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=February 4, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150204180601/http://www.scdhec.gov/Agency/NewsReleases/2014/nr20140703\\-01/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "#### Ohio", "The [Clyde cancer cluster](/wiki/Clyde_cancer_cluster \"Clyde cancer cluster\") (also known as the Sandusky County cancer cluster) is a [childhood](/wiki/Childhood_cancer \"Childhood cancer\") [cancer cluster](/wiki/Cancer_cluster \"Cancer cluster\") that has affected many families in [Clyde](/wiki/Clyde%2C_Ohio \"Clyde, Ohio\"), Ohio, and surrounding areas. PCBs were found in soil in a public park within the area of the cancer cluster.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.toledoblade.com/news/state/2012/11/15/Toxic\\-sludge\\-discovered\\-at\\-park\\-in\\-Clyde\\-area\\-cancer\\-patients\\-families\\-shocked\\-lawyer\\-says/stories/20121115077\\|title\\='Toxic sludge' found at Clyde are park\\|newspaper\\=The Blade\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-20\\|vauthors\\=Feehan J\\|date\\=15 Nov 2012}}", "In [Akron](/wiki/Akron%2C_Ohio \"Akron, Ohio\"), Ohio, soil was contaminated and noxious PCB\\-laden fumes had been put into the air by an electrical transformer deconstruction operation from the 1930s to the 1960s.{{cite news \\| vauthors \\= Harper J \\|title\\=When PCBs, heavy metal spewed from smokestacks in southwest Akron: Toxic Remains \\|url\\=http://www.cleveland.com/akron/index.ssf/2015/12/when\\_pcbs\\_and\\_heavy\\_metal\\_spew.html\\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2015 \\|publisher\\=Cleveland.com\\|date\\=December 28, 2015}}", "#### South Carolina", "From 1955 until 1977, the Sangamo Weston plant in Pickens, South Carolina, used PCBs to manufacture capacitors, and dumped 400,000 pounds of PCB contaminated wastewater into the Twelve Mile Creek. In 1990, the EPA declared the {{convert\\|228\\|acre\\|km2}} site of the capacitor plant, its landfills and the polluted watershed, which stretches nearly {{convert\\|1,000\\|acre\\|km2}} downstream to Lake Hartwell as a [Superfund](/wiki/Superfund \"Superfund\") site. Two dams on the Twelve Mile Creek are to be removed and on Feb. 22, 2011 the first of two dams began to be dismantled. Some contaminated sediment is being removed from the site and hauled away, while other sediment is pumped into a series of settling ponds.{{cite web \\| title \\= South Carolina NPL/NPL Caliber Cleanup Site Summaries; Sangamo Weston, Inc./Twelve\\-Mile Creek/Lake Hartwell PCB Contamination \\| url \\= http://www.epa.gov/region4/waste/npl/nplsc/sangamsc.htm \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20061012115927/http://www.epa.gov/region4/waste/npl/nplsc/sangamsc.htm \\| archive\\-date \\= 12 October 2006 \\| work \\= USEPA }}{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.wyff4\\.com/r/26949154/detail.html \\| title \\= Dam Demolition Begins On Twelve Mile River \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20110718123940/http://www.wyff4\\.com/r/26949154/detail.html \\| archive\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-18 \\| work \\= WYFF News 4 \\| date \\= 22 February 2011 \\|vauthors\\=Muserallo S}}", "In 2013, the state environmental regulators issued a rare emergency order, banning all [sewage sludge](/wiki/Sewage_sludge \"Sewage sludge\") from being land applied or deposited on landfills, as it contained very high levels of PCBs. The problem had not been discovered until thousands of acres of farm land in the state had been contaminated by the [hazardous](/wiki/Hazardous \"Hazardous\") sludge. A criminal investigation to determine the perpetrator of this crime was launched.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.scdhec.gov/administration/news/2013/nr20130925\\-01\\.htm \\|title\\=DHEC: General Agency Information \\|date\\=2013 \\|work\\=scdhec.gov \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-09\\-26 \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-09\\-26 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130926153115/http://www.scdhec.gov/administration/news/2013/nr20130925\\-01\\.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "#### Washington", "As of 2015, several bodies of water in the state of Washington were contaminated with PCBs, including the [Columbia River](/wiki/Columbia_River \"Columbia River\"), the [Duwamish River](/wiki/Duwamish_River \"Duwamish River\"), [Green Lake](/wiki/Green_Lake_%28Seattle%29 \"Green Lake (Seattle)\"), [Lake Washington](/wiki/Lake_Washington \"Lake Washington\"), the [Okanogan River](/wiki/Okanogan_River \"Okanogan River\"), [Puget Sound](/wiki/Puget_Sound \"Puget Sound\"), the [Spokane River](/wiki/Spokane_River \"Spokane River\"), the [Walla Walla River](/wiki/Walla_Walla_River \"Walla Walla River\"), the [Wenatchee River](/wiki/Wenatchee_River \"Wenatchee River\"), and the [Yakima River](/wiki/Yakima_River \"Yakima River\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Fish Consumption Advisories \\| work \\= Washington State Dept. of Health \\|url\\=http://www.doh.wa.gov/CommunityandEnvironment/Food/Fish/Advisories \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2016}} A study by Washington State published in 2011 found that the two largest sources of PCB flow into the Spokane River were City of Spokane stormwater (44%) and municipal and industrial discharges (20%).{{cite web \\|title\\=Spokane River PCB Source Assessment 2003–2007 \\|url\\=https://fortress.wa.gov/ecy/publications/documents/1103013\\.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004144842/https://fortress.wa.gov/ecy/publications/documents/1103013\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-10\\-04 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2016}}", "PCBs entered the environment through paint, hydraulic fluids, sealants, inks and have been found in river sediment and wildlife. Spokane utilities will spend $300 million to prevent PCBs from entering the river in anticipation of a 2017 federal deadline to do so.{{cite news \\| vauthors \\= Deshais N \\|title\\=Spokane sues Monsanto for PCB contamination \\|url\\=http://www.spokesman.com/stories/2015/aug/03/spokane\\-sues\\-monsanto\\-pcb\\-contamination/ \\|access\\-date\\=14 August 2015 \\|work\\=The Spokesman\\-Review\\|date\\=3 August 2015}} In August 2015 Spokane joined other U.S. cities like [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\") and [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California \"San Jose, California\"), California, and [Westport](/wiki/Westport%2C_Massachusetts \"Westport, Massachusetts\"), Massachusetts, in seeking damages from Monsanto.{{cite news \\|agency\\=Associated Press \\|title\\=Spokane sues Monsanto over Spokane River contamination \\|url\\=http://www.seattletimes.com/seattle\\-news/spokane\\-sues\\-monsanto\\-over\\-spokane\\-river\\-contamination/ \\|access\\-date\\=14 August 2015 \\|work\\=Seattle Times \\|date\\=August 3, 2015}}", "#### Wisconsin", "From 1954 until 1971, the Fox River in [Appleton, Wisconsin](/wiki/Appleton%2C_Wisconsin \"Appleton, Wisconsin\"), had PCBs deposited into it from Appleton Paper/NCR, P.H. Gladfelter, [Georgia\\-Pacific](/wiki/Georgia-Pacific \"Georgia-Pacific\") and other notable local paper manufacturing facilities. The Wisconsin DNR estimates that after wastewater treatment the PCB discharges to the Fox River due to production losses ranged from 81,000 kg to 138,000 kg. (178,572 lbs. to 304,235 lbs). The production of Carbon Copy Paper and its byproducts led to the discharge into the river. Fox River clean up is ongoing.{{cite web \\| vauthors \\= Katers RL \\| date \\= \\|title\\=Sources of PCBs in the Fox River and Green Bay \\|url\\=http://www.foxriverwatch.com/pcb\\_pcbs\\_sources\\_1\\.html \\|website\\=www.foxriverwatch.com \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=6 October 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006234908/http://www.foxriverwatch.com/pcb\\_pcbs\\_sources\\_1\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "### Pacific Ocean", "Polychlorinated biphenyls have been discovered in organisms living in the [Mariana Trench](/wiki/Mariana_Trench \"Mariana Trench\") in the [Pacific Ocean](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean \"Pacific Ocean\"). Levels were as high as 1,900 nanograms per gram of [amphipod](/wiki/Amphipoda \"Amphipoda\") tissue in the organisms analyzed.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.economist.com/news/science\\-and\\-technology/21716891\\-entrenched\\-nasty\\-chemicals\\-abound\\-what\\-was\\-thought\\-untouched\\-environment\\|title\\=Nasty chemicals abound in what was thought an untouched environment\\|newspaper\\=The Economist\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-02\\-26\\|date\\=2017\\-02\\-18}}", "" ]
### United States Monsanto was the only company that manufactured PCBs in the US. Its production was entirely halted in 1977\. (Kimbrough, 1987, 1995\) On November 25, 2020, U.S. District Judge [Fernando M. Olguin](/wiki/Fernando_M._Olguin "Fernando M. Olguin") rejected a proposed $650 million settlement from Bayer, the company which acquired Monsanto in 2018, and allowed Monsanto\-related lawsuits involving PCB to proceed.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.semissourian.com/story/2853810\.html\|title\=Bayer's $650 Million PCB Pollution Settlement Rejected by Judge\| vauthors \= Rosenblatt J, Chediak M \|publisher\=Claims Journal\|date\=December 1, 2020\|access\-date\=December 15, 2020}}{{dead link\|date\=June 2022\|bot\=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}} #### Alabama PCBs originating from [Monsanto Chemical Company](/wiki/Monsanto_Chemical_Company "Monsanto Chemical Company") in [Anniston](/wiki/Anniston%2C_Alabama "Anniston, Alabama"), Alabama, were dumped into Snow Creek, which then spread to [Choccolocco Creek](/wiki/Choccolocco_Creek "Choccolocco Creek"), then [Logan Martin Lake](/wiki/Logan_Martin_Lake "Logan Martin Lake").{{cite web \|title\=Anniston PCB Site (Monsanto Co), Anniston, AL \|url\=http://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id\=0400123 \|website\=Superfund Site Profile \|access\-date\=2020\-05\-24 \|publisher\=EPA \|location\=Atlanta, GA \|archive\-date\=2016\-12\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227015252/https://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id\=0400123 \|url\-status\=dead }} In the early 2000s, class action lawsuits were settled by local land owners, including those on Logan Martin Lake, and [Lay Reservoir](/wiki/Lay_Dam "Lay Dam") (downstream on the [Coosa River](/wiki/Coosa_River "Coosa River")), for the PCB pollution. Donald Stewart, former Senator from Alabama, first learned of the concerns of hundreds of west Anniston residents after representing a church which had been approached about selling its property by Monsanto. Stewart went on to be the pioneer and lead attorney in the first and majority of cases against Monsanto and focused on residents in the immediate area known to be most polluted. Other attorneys later joined in to file suits for those outside the main immediate area around the plant; one of these was the late [Johnnie Cochran](/wiki/Johnnie_Cochran "Johnnie Cochran"). In 2007, the highest pollution levels remained concentrated in Snow and Choccolocco Creeks.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Rypel AL, Findlay RH, Mitchell JB, Bayne DR \| title \= Variations in PCB concentrations between genders of six warmwater fish species in Lake Logan Martin, Alabama, USA \| journal \= Chemosphere \| volume \= 68 \| issue \= 9 \| pages \= 1707–1715 \| date \= August 2007 \| pmid \= 17490714 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.chemosphere.2007\.03\.046 \| bibcode \= 2007Chmsp..68\.1707R }} Concentrations in fish have declined and continue to decline over time; sediment disturbance, however, can resuspend the PCBs from the sediment back into the water column and food web. #### California [thumb\|Fish consumption advisory poster for San Francisco Bay](/wiki/File:Fish_Sign.png "Fish Sign.png") San Francisco Bay has been contaminated by PCBs, "a legacy of PCBs spread widely across the land surface of the watershed, mixed deep into the sediment of the Bay, and contaminating the Bay food web".{{Cite journal\| doi \= 10\.1016/j.envres.2007\.01\.013\| issn \= 0013\-9351\| volume \= 105\| issue \= 1\| pages \= 67–86\| last1 \= Davis\| first1 \= Jay\| last2 \= Hetzel\| first2 \= F.\| last3 \= Oram\| first3 \= J. J.\| last4 \= McKee\| first4 \= L. J.\| title \= Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in San Francisco Bay\| journal \= Environmental Research\| series \= Pollutants in the San Francisco Bay Estuary\| access\-date \= 2023\-04\-27\| date \= 2007\-09\-01\| url \= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935107000400}} Levels of PCBs in fish and shellfish exceed thresholds for safe consumption. Signs around the Bay warn anglers of which species to avoid. State water quality regulators set a [Total Maximum Daily Load](/wiki/Total_Maximum_Daily_Load "Total Maximum Daily Load") for PCBs require city and county governments around the Bay to implement control measures to limit PCBs in urban runoff.{{Cite conference\| publisher \= California Regional Water Quality Control Board, San Francisco Bay Region\| pages \= 279\| last \= California Water Boards\| title \= Municipal Regional Stormwater NPDES permit. Order R2\-2009\-0074 NPDES Permit No. CAS612008 October 14, 2009\| location \= San Francisco\| access\-date \= 2023\-04\-27\| date \= 2009\-10\-14\| url \= https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/water\_issues/programs/stormwater/docs/phase1r2\_2009\_0074\.pdf}} An important part of the second, revised version of this permit was the requirement for municipalities to install [green infrastructure](/wiki/Green_infrastructure "Green infrastructure") with a goal of reducing pollutant levels in stormwater.{{Cite conference\| publisher \= California Regional Water Quality Control Board, San Francisco Bay Region\| pages \= 350\| last \= California Water Boards\| title \= Municipal Regional Stormwater NPDES permit. Order No. R2\-2015\-0049, NPDES Permit No. CAS612008\| location \= San Francisco\| access\-date \= 2023\-04\-27\| date \= 2015\-11\-19\| url \= https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/sanfranciscobay/water\_issues/programs/stormwater/Municipal/R2\-2015\-0049\.pdf}} #### Connecticut In [New Haven](/wiki/New_Haven "New Haven"), the decommissioned [English Station](/wiki/English_Station "English Station") has a high concentration of PCB contamination due to the chemicals used in the running of the plant. This, along with [asbestos](/wiki/Asbestos "Asbestos") contamination, has made cleaning and demolishing the abandoned site extremely difficult. The PCB contamination has spread to the soil, and to the river, where locals will sometimes fish unaware of the danger.{{cite web \| vauthors \= Leff L \| title\=Demolition Derailed; English Station In Limbo \| website\=New Haven Independent \| date\=19 August 2011 \| url\=https://www.newhavenindependent.org/index.php/archives/entry/english\_station/ \| access\-date\=2020\-12\-03}}{{cite web \| vauthors\=Haar D \| title\=Dan Haar: English Station cleanup, at least a year away, should now wait for redevelopment \| website\=The Middletown Press \| date\=2019\-08\-25 \| url\=https://www.middletownpress.com/news/article/Dan\-Haar\-English\-Station\-cleanup\-at\-least\-a\-14374967\.php \| access\-date\=2020\-12\-03 \| archive\-date\=2021\-05\-06 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506121936/https://www.middletownpress.com/news/article/Dan\-Haar\-English\-Station\-cleanup\-at\-least\-a\-14374967\.php \| url\-status\=dead }}{{cite web \| vauthors \= Chedekel L \| title\=State Orders Clean\-Up Of English Station In New Haven \| website\=Connecticut Health Investigative Team \| date\=2013\-04\-11 \| url\=http://c\-hit.org/2013/04/11/state\-orders\-clean\-up\-of\-english\-station\-in\-new\-haven/ \| access\-date\=2020\-12\-03}} #### Great Lakes In 1976, environmentalists found PCBs in the sludge at [Waukegan](/wiki/Waukegan%2C_Illinois "Waukegan, Illinois") Harbor, the southwest end of [Lake Michigan](/wiki/Lake_Michigan "Lake Michigan"). They were able to trace the source of the PCBs back to the Outboard Marine Corporation that was producing boat motors next to the harbor. By 1982, the Outboard Marine Corporation was court\-ordered to release quantitative data referring to their PCB waste released. The data stated that from 1954 they released 100,000 tons of PCB into the environment, and that the sludge contained PCBs in concentrations as high as 50%.{{cite book \| vauthors \= Ashworth W \|title\=The Late, Great Lakes \|publisher\=Wayne State University Press \|year\=1987 \|isbn\=978\-0\-8143\-1887\-4}}{{Page needed\|date\=May 2013}}{{cite web\| vauthors \= Mahan ML \|date\=May 4, 1998 \|title\=Are PCBs still a problem in the great lakes? \|url\=http://www.cevl.msu.edu/\~long/pcb.htm \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120722012319/http://www.cevl.msu.edu/\~long/pcb.htm \|archive\-date\=July 22, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead}}{{self\-published source\|date\=May 2013}}{{self\-published inline\|date\=May 2013}} In 1989, during construction near the [Zilwaukee](/wiki/Zilwaukee%2C_Michigan "Zilwaukee, Michigan") bridge, workers uncovered an uncharted landfill containing PCB\-contaminated waste which cost $100,000 to clean up.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.michiganhighways.org/indepth/zilwaukee.html\|title\=Michigan Highways: In Depth: The Milwaukee Bridge \| vauthors \= Bessert CJ \|work\=michiganhighways.org}} Much of the [Great Lakes](/wiki/Great_Lakes "Great Lakes") area were still heavily polluted with PCBs in 1988, despite extensive remediation work.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Hileman B \|title\=Great Lakes Cleanup Effort \|journal\=Chemical and Engineering News \|volume\=66 \|issue\=6 \|date\=February 8, 1988 \|pages\=22–39 \|doi\=10\.1021/cen\-v066n006\.p022}} #### Indiana From the late 1950s through 1977, [Westinghouse Electric](/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric "Westinghouse Electric") used PCBs in the manufacture of capacitors in its [Bloomington](/wiki/Bloomington%2C_Indiana "Bloomington, Indiana"), Indiana, plant. Reject capacitors were hauled and dumped in area salvage yards and landfills, including Bennett's Dump, Neal's Landfill and Lemon Lane Landfill. Workers also dumped PCB oil down factory drains, which contaminated the city sewage treatment plant.{{Cite web\|url\=http://copa.org/abb.html\|access\-date\=2010\-02\-24\|title\=Westinghouse/ABB Plant Facility\|year\=2006\|archive\-date\=2002\-02\-11\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020211012517/http://copa.org/abb.html\|url\-status\=dead}} The City of Bloomington gave away the sludge to area farmers and gardeners, creating anywhere from 200 to 2,000 sites, which remain unaddressed. Over 1,000 tons of PCBs were estimated to have been dumped in [Monroe](/wiki/Monroe_County%2C_Indiana "Monroe County, Indiana") and [Owen](/wiki/Owen_County%2C_Indiana "Owen County, Indiana") counties.{{Citation needed\|date\=May 2007}} Although federal and state authorities have been working on the sites' [environmental remediation](/wiki/Environmental_remediation "Environmental remediation"), many areas remain contaminated. Concerns have been raised regarding the removal of PCBs from the [karst](/wiki/Karst "Karst") limestone topography, and regarding the possible disposal options. To date, the Westinghouse Bloomington PCB Superfund site case does not have a Remedial Investigation/Feasibility Study (RI/FS) and Record of Decision (ROD), although Westinghouse signed a US Department of Justice Consent Decree in 1985\.{{cite web\|title\=US EPA Region 5 Superfund\|url\=http://www.epa.gov/R5Super/npl/indiana/IND006418651\.htm\|access\-date\=2009\-09\-01}} The 1985 consent decree required Westinghouse to construct an incinerator that would incinerate PCB\-contaminated materials. Because of public opposition to the incinerator, however, the State of Indiana passed a number of laws that delayed and blocked its construction. The parties to the consent decree began to explore alternative remedies in 1994 for six of the main PCB contaminated sites in the consent decree. Hundreds of sites remain unaddressed as of 2014\. Monroe County will never be PCB\-free, as noted in a 2014 Indiana University program about the local contamination. On February 15, 2008, Monroe County approved a plan to clean up the three remaining contaminated sites in the City of Bloomington, at a cost of [$](/wiki/United_States_dollar "United States dollar")9\.6 million to [CBS Corp.](/wiki/CBS_Corporation "CBS Corporation"), the successor of Westinghouse. In 1999, Viacom bought CBS, so they are current responsible party for the PCB sites.{{cite web \|title\=Monroe Co. approves PCB clean up \|url\=http://www.indystar.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID\=/20080218/LOCAL/802180394 \|publisher\=IndyStar.com\|access\-date\=2008\-02\-18 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022065825/http://www.indystar.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID\=/20080218/LOCAL/802180394 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=2012\-10\-22}} #### Massachusetts [Pittsfield](/wiki/Pittsfield%2C_Massachusetts "Pittsfield, Massachusetts"), in western Massachusetts, was home to the [General Electric (GE) transformer, capacitor, and electrical generating equipment divisions](/wiki/General_Electric_Pittsfield_Plant "General Electric Pittsfield Plant"). The electrical generating division built and repaired equipment that was used to power the electrical utility grid throughout the nation. PCB\-contaminated oil routinely migrated from GE's {{convert\|254\|acre\|km2\|adj\=on}} industrial plant located in the very center of the city to the surrounding groundwater, nearby Silver Lake, and to the [Housatonic River](/wiki/Housatonic_River "Housatonic River"), which flows through Massachusetts, Connecticut, and down to Long Island Sound.{{cite web \|title\=Site History \& Description \|website\=GE/Housatonic River Site in New England \|url\=http://www.epa.gov/NE/ge/sitehistory.html \|date\=2011 \|publisher\=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) \|location\=Boston, MA \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519121339/http://www.epa.gov/NE/ge/sitehistory.html \|archive\-date\=2011\-05\-19}} PCB\-containing solid material was widely used as fill, including [oxbows](/wiki/Meander "Meander") of the Housatonic River. Fish and waterfowl which live in and around the river contain significant levels of PCBs and are not safe to eat.{{cite web \|title\=Rest of River of the GE\-Pittsfield/Housatonic River Site \|url\=https://www.epa.gov/ge\-housatonic/rest\-river\-ge\-pittsfieldhousatonic\-river\-site \|website\=EPA Cleanups \|date\=2020\-08\-06 \|publisher\=EPA}} EPA designated the Pittsfield plant and several miles of the river as a [Superfund](/wiki/Superfund "Superfund") site in 1997, and ordered GE to remediate the site. EPA and GE began a cleanup of the area in 1999\. [New Bedford Harbor](/wiki/New_Bedford%2C_Massachusetts%23Geography "New Bedford, Massachusetts#Geography"), which is a listed Superfund site,{{cite web \|title\=General Information about the New Bedford Harbor Cleanup \|url\=https://www.epa.gov/new\-bedford\-harbor/general\-information\-about\-new\-bedford\-harbor\-cleanup \|date\=2020\-09\-15 \|publisher\=EPA}} contained some of the highest sediment concentrations of PCBs in the marine environment.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.darrp.noaa.gov/northeast/new\_bedford/ \|title\=Case: New Bedford Harbor, MA \|website\=Damage Assessment, Remediation \& Restoration Program \|publisher\=U.S. National Ocean Service \|location\=Silver Spring, MD \|date\=2009\-10\-19 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100712092247/http://www.darrp.noaa.gov/northeast/new\_bedford/\|archive\-date\=2010\-07\-12 \|url\-status\=dead}} Cleanup of the area began in 1994 and is mostly complete as of 2020\. Investigations into historic waste dumping in the [Bliss Corner](/wiki/Bliss_Corner%2C_Massachusetts "Bliss Corner, Massachusetts") neighborhood have revealed the existence of PCBs, among other hazardous materials, buried in soil and waste material.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.mass.gov/service\-details/bliss\-corner\-neighborhood\-dartmouth\-ma \|title\=Bliss Corner Neighborhood, Dartmouth, MA \|website\=Environmental Issues \& Sites in Southeastern Massachusetts \|publisher\=Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection \|location\=Lakeville, MA \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-15}} #### Missouri In 1982, Martha C. Rose Chemical Inc. began processing and disposing of materials contaminated with PCBs in [Holden, Missouri](/wiki/Holden%2C_Missouri "Holden, Missouri"), a small rural community about {{convert\|40\|mi}} east of Kansas City. From 1982 until 1986, nearly 750 companies, including General Motors Corp., Commonwealth Edison, Illinois Power Co. and West Texas Utilities, sent millions of pounds of PCB contaminated materials to Holden for disposal.{{Cite news\|url\=https://apnews.com/c83b34f4cdcddc21aff592829725dff4\|title\=Nearly a Decade After Spill, Cleanup of Toxic Site Drags On With PM\-Rusted Legacy II\|work\=AP NEWS\|access\-date\=2020\-02\-19}} Instead, according to prosecutors, the company began storing the contaminated materials while falsifying its reports to the EPA to show they had been removed. After investigators learned of the deception, Rose Chemical was closed and filed for bankruptcy. The site had become the nation's largest waste site for the chemical PCB.{{Cite web\|url\=https://apnews.com/4b94dd89b0231fd8df1ba7a512dcba42 \|title\=Lawmakers Warned That PCB Contamination Threatens Missouri Town\|website\=AP NEWS\|access\-date\=2020\-02\-19}} In the four years the company was operational, the EPA inspected it four times and assessed $206,000 in fines but managed to collect only $50,000\.{{Cite web \|url\= https://www.westword.com/news/a\-dirty\-shame\-5058546 \|title\=A Dirty Shame\| vauthors \= Dexheimer E \|date\=1998\-04\-16\|website\=Westword\|access\-date\=2020\-02\-20}} After the plant closed the state environmental agency found PCB contamination in streams near the plant and in the city's sewage treatment sludge. A 100,000 square\-foot warehouse and unknown amounts of contaminated soil and water around the site had to be cleaned up. Most of the surface debris, including close to 13 million pounds of contaminated equipment, carcasses and tanks of contaminated oil, had to be removed.{{Cite journal \|vauthors\=Steinzor RI \|title\=The lessons of Rose Chemical \|journal\=Public Power \|volume\=47\|issue\=2 \|osti\=5152472}} Walter C. Carolan, owner of Rose Chemical, and five others pleaded guilty in 1989 to committing fraud or falsifying documents. Carolan and two other executives served sentences of less than 18 months; the others received fines and were placed on probation. Cleanup costs at the site are estimated at $35 million. #### Montana Two launch facilities at [Malmstrom Air Force Base](/wiki/Malmstrom_Air_Force_Base "Malmstrom Air Force Base") showed PCB levels higher than the thresholds recommended by the Environmental Protection Agency when extensive sampling began of active U.S. intercontinental ballistic missile bases to address specific cancer concerns in 2023\.{{Cite news \|last\=Copp \|first\=Tara \|date\=2023\-08\-07 \|title\=Carcinogens found at Montana nuclear missile sites as reports of hundreds of cancers surface \|url\=https://apnews.com/article/missile\-bases\-cancer\-air\-force\-malmstrom\-military\-1999fad70393f0d141676b7faa587eda \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-08 \|work\=AP News \|language\=en}} #### New York [Pollution of the Hudson River](/wiki/Pollution_of_the_Hudson_River "Pollution of the Hudson River") is largely due to dumping of PCBs by [General Electric](/wiki/General_Electric "General Electric") from 1947 to 1977\. GE dumped an estimated 1\.3 million pounds of PCBs into the Hudson River during these years. The PCBs came from the company's two capacitor manufacturing plants at [Hudson Falls](/wiki/Hudson_Falls%2C_New_York "Hudson Falls, New York") and [Fort Edward](/wiki/Fort_Edward_%28town%29%2C_New_York "Fort Edward (town), New York"), New York. This pollution caused a range of harmful effects to wildlife and people who eat fish from the river or drink the water.{{cite web\|title\=Hudson River Cleanup \|publisher\=EPA \|url\=https://www.epa.gov/hudsonriverpcbs/hudson\-river\-cleanup \|date\=2020\-08\-25}} In 1984, EPA declared a 200\-mile (320 km) stretch of the river, from Hudson Falls to New York City, to be a Superfund site requiring cleanup.{{cite web \|title\=Hudson River PCBs Superfund Site \|url\=https://www.epa.gov/superfund/superfund\-success\-stories\-epa\-region\-2\#hudson \|website\=Superfund Success Stories: EPA Region 2 \|date\=2018\-06\-04 \|publisher\=EPA}} Extensive remediation actions on the river began in the 1970s with the implementation of [wastewater discharge permits](/wiki/Clean_Water_Act%23Point_sources "Clean Water Act#Point sources") and consequent control or reduction of wastewater discharges, and sediment removal operations, which have continued into the 21st century.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/77105\.html \|title\=How is the Hudson Doing? \|website\=Hudson River Estuary Program \|publisher\=New York State Department of Environmental Conservation \|location\=Albany, NY \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-15 \|archive\-date\=2017\-11\-19 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171119075142/http://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/77105\.html \|url\-status\=dead }} [Love Canal](/wiki/Love_Canal "Love Canal") is a neighborhood in [Niagara Falls](/wiki/Niagara_Falls%2C_New_York "Niagara Falls, New York"), New York, that was heavily contaminated with toxic waste including PCBs.{{cite magazine \| vauthors \= Brown MH \|title\=Love Canal and the Poisoning of America \|journal\=The Atlantic \|date\=December 1979 \|url\=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1979/12/love\-canal\-and\-the\-poisoning\-of\-america/376297/}} [Eighteen Mile Creek](/wiki/Eighteen_Mile_Creek_%28Niagara_County%29 "Eighteen Mile Creek (Niagara County)") in [Lockport](/wiki/Lockport_%28town%29%2C_New_York "Lockport (town), New York"), New York, is an EPA Superfund site for PCBs contamination.{{cite web \|title\= Superfund Site: Eighteen Mile Creek, Lockport, NY \|url\= http://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id\=0206456 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20170306235101/http://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id\=0206456 \| archive\-date \= 6 March 2017 \|website\=Superfund Program \|publisher\=EPA}} PCB pollution at the [State Office Building](/wiki/Government_Plaza%2C_Binghamton "Government Plaza, Binghamton") in [Binghamton](/wiki/Binghamton%2C_New_York "Binghamton, New York") was responsible for what is now considered to be the first indoor environmental disaster in the United States.{{cite web \| url \= https://nypost.com/2011/08/07/former\-ny\-governor\-hugh\-carey\-dead\-at\-92/ \| title \= Former NY governor Hugh Carey dead at 92 \| work \= New York Post \| date \= 7 August 2011 }} In 1981, a transformer explosion in the basement spewed PCBs throughout the entire 18\-story building.{{cite report \| title \= Spill closes offices \| work \= Syracuse Herald\-Journal \| date \= 5 February 1981 \| page \= D1 }} The contamination was so severe that cleanup efforts kept the building closed for 13 years.{{cite web \| title \= State Building Finally Reopens in Binghamton \| url \= https://buffalonews.com/news/state\-building\-finally\-reopens\-in\-binghamton/article\_fc156754\-8eee\-5d3a\-9b79\-e1f791b85250\.html \| work \= The Buffalo News \| date \= 12 October 1994 }}{{cite web \| vauthors \= Steinberg J \| url \= https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/11/nyregion/13\-year\-cleaning\-job\-after\-53\-million\-17\-million\-state\-building\-finally\-declared.html?pagewanted\=1 \| title \= The 13\-Year Cleaning Job; After $53 Million, a $17 Million State Building Finally Is Declared Safe From Toxins \| work \= New York Times \| date \= 11 October 1994 }} #### North Carolina One of the largest deliberate PCB spills in American history occurred in the summer of 1978 when 31,000 gallons (117 m^3\) of PCB\-contaminated oil were illegally sprayed by the Ward PCB Transformer Company in {{convert\|3\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} swaths along the roadsides of some {{convert\|240\|mi\|km}} of North Carolina highway shoulders in 14 counties and at the [Fort Liberty](/wiki/Fort_Liberty "Fort Liberty") Army Base. The crime, known as "[the midnight dumpings](/wiki/Warren_County_PCB_Landfill "Warren County PCB Landfill")", occurred over nearly two weeks, as drivers of a black\-painted tanker truck drove down one side of rural Piedmont highways spraying PCB\-laden waste and then up the other side the following night.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/08/11/us/carolinians\-angry\-over\-pcb\-landfill.html \|title\=Carolinians Angry Over PCB Landfill\|work\=NY Times \|date\=11 August 1982}} Under Governor [James B. Hunt](/wiki/Jim_Hunt "Jim Hunt"), Jr., state officials then erected large, yellow warning signs along the contaminated highways that read: "CAUTION: PCB Chemical Spills Along Highway Shoulders". The illegal dumping is believed to have been motivated by the passing of the [Toxic Substances Control Act](/wiki/Toxic_Substances_Control_Act "Toxic Substances Control Act") (TSCA), which became effective on August 2, 1978, and increased the expense of chemical waste disposal. Within a couple of weeks of the crime, Robert Burns and his sons, Timothy and Randall, were arrested for dumping the PCBs along the roadsides. Burns was a business partner of Robert "Buck" Ward Jr., of the Ward PCB Transformer Company, in Raleigh. Burns and sons pleaded guilty to state and Federal criminal charges; Burns received a three to five\-year prison sentence. Ward was acquitted of state charges in the dumping, but was sentenced to 18 months prison time for violation of TSCA. Cleanup and disposal of the roadside PCBs generated controversy, as the Governor's plan to pick up the roadside PCBs and to bury them in a landfill in rural [Warren County](/wiki/Warren_County%2C_North_Carolina "Warren County, North Carolina") were strongly opposed in 1982 by local residents. In October 2013, at the request of the South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control (SCDHEC), the City of [Charlotte](/wiki/Charlotte%2C_North_Carolina "Charlotte, North Carolina"), North Carolina, decided to stop applying [sewage sludge](/wiki/Biosolids "Biosolids") to land while authorities investigated the source of PCB contamination.{{cite web\| url\=http://charmeck.org/city/charlotte/Utilities/AboutUs/Documents/Minutes%20October%202013\.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221223705/http://charmeck.org/city/charlotte/Utilities/AboutUs/Documents/Minutes%20October%202013\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2014\-02\-21 \|url\-status\=live\|author\=Charlotte\-Mecklenburg Utilities Advisory Committee\|title\=Charlotte\-Mecklenburg Utilities Advisory Committee Minutes\|date\=October 17, 2013\|page\=3}} In February 2014, the City of Charlotte admitted PCBs have entered their sewage treatment centers as well.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.charlotteobserver.com/2014/02/07/4670710/chemical\-dumped\-into\-charlotte.html \|title\=Task force named to probe chemical dumping \|date\=7 February 2014 \|newspaper\=Charlotte Observer\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140213233743/https://www.charlotteobserver.com/2014/02/07/4670710/chemical\-dumped\-into\-charlotte.html\|archive\-date\=13 Feb 2014 \|vauthors\=Henderson B, Lyttle S, Bethea A}} After the 2013 SCDHEC had issued emergency regulations,{{cite web\|title\=Emergency Regulation for Management of Wastewater System Sludge\|url\=http://www.scdhec.gov/Agency/docs/NewsReleaseDocs/PCBEmergencyRegFINAL.pdf\|publisher\=South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control\|access\-date\=9 June 2016\|archive\-date\=24 June 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624030305/http://www.scdhec.gov/Agency/docs/NewsReleaseDocs/PCBEmergencyRegFINAL.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}} the City of Charlotte discovered high levels of PCBs entering its sewage waste water treatment plants, where sewage is converted to sewage sludge. The city at first denied it had a problem, then admitted an "event" occurred in February 2014, and in April that the problem had occurred much earlier.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.charlotteobserver.com/2014/04/04/4817470/more\-pcbs\-found\-in\-charlotte\-wastewater.html\|title\=More PCBs found in Charlotte wastewater, city says \|date\=4 April 2014\| newspaper\=Charlotte Observer\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016075302/http://www.charlotteobserver.com/news/local/crime/article9109955\.html\|archive\-date\=16 Oct 2015\|vauthors\=Lyttle S}} The city stated that its very first test with a newly changed test method revealed very high PCB levels in its sewage sludge farm field fertilizer. Because of the widespread use of the contaminated sludge, SCDHEC subsequently issued PCB fish advisories for nearly all streams and rivers bordering farm fields that had been applied with city waste.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.scdhec.gov/Agency/NewsReleases/2014/nr20140703\-01/\|date\=July 3, 2014\|title\=DHEC Releases Safe Fish Eating Advisory for S.C. Waters\|website\=scdhec.gov\|publisher\=South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control\|access\-date\=February 4, 2015\|archive\-date\=February 4, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150204180601/http://www.scdhec.gov/Agency/NewsReleases/2014/nr20140703\-01/\|url\-status\=dead}} #### Ohio The [Clyde cancer cluster](/wiki/Clyde_cancer_cluster "Clyde cancer cluster") (also known as the Sandusky County cancer cluster) is a [childhood](/wiki/Childhood_cancer "Childhood cancer") [cancer cluster](/wiki/Cancer_cluster "Cancer cluster") that has affected many families in [Clyde](/wiki/Clyde%2C_Ohio "Clyde, Ohio"), Ohio, and surrounding areas. PCBs were found in soil in a public park within the area of the cancer cluster.{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.toledoblade.com/news/state/2012/11/15/Toxic\-sludge\-discovered\-at\-park\-in\-Clyde\-area\-cancer\-patients\-families\-shocked\-lawyer\-says/stories/20121115077\|title\='Toxic sludge' found at Clyde are park\|newspaper\=The Blade\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-02\-20\|vauthors\=Feehan J\|date\=15 Nov 2012}} In [Akron](/wiki/Akron%2C_Ohio "Akron, Ohio"), Ohio, soil was contaminated and noxious PCB\-laden fumes had been put into the air by an electrical transformer deconstruction operation from the 1930s to the 1960s.{{cite news \| vauthors \= Harper J \|title\=When PCBs, heavy metal spewed from smokestacks in southwest Akron: Toxic Remains \|url\=http://www.cleveland.com/akron/index.ssf/2015/12/when\_pcbs\_and\_heavy\_metal\_spew.html\|access\-date\=31 December 2015 \|publisher\=Cleveland.com\|date\=December 28, 2015}} #### South Carolina From 1955 until 1977, the Sangamo Weston plant in Pickens, South Carolina, used PCBs to manufacture capacitors, and dumped 400,000 pounds of PCB contaminated wastewater into the Twelve Mile Creek. In 1990, the EPA declared the {{convert\|228\|acre\|km2}} site of the capacitor plant, its landfills and the polluted watershed, which stretches nearly {{convert\|1,000\|acre\|km2}} downstream to Lake Hartwell as a [Superfund](/wiki/Superfund "Superfund") site. Two dams on the Twelve Mile Creek are to be removed and on Feb. 22, 2011 the first of two dams began to be dismantled. Some contaminated sediment is being removed from the site and hauled away, while other sediment is pumped into a series of settling ponds.{{cite web \| title \= South Carolina NPL/NPL Caliber Cleanup Site Summaries; Sangamo Weston, Inc./Twelve\-Mile Creek/Lake Hartwell PCB Contamination \| url \= http://www.epa.gov/region4/waste/npl/nplsc/sangamsc.htm \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20061012115927/http://www.epa.gov/region4/waste/npl/nplsc/sangamsc.htm \| archive\-date \= 12 October 2006 \| work \= USEPA }}{{cite web \| url \= http://www.wyff4\.com/r/26949154/detail.html \| title \= Dam Demolition Begins On Twelve Mile River \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20110718123940/http://www.wyff4\.com/r/26949154/detail.html \| archive\-date\=2011\-07\-18 \| work \= WYFF News 4 \| date \= 22 February 2011 \|vauthors\=Muserallo S}} In 2013, the state environmental regulators issued a rare emergency order, banning all [sewage sludge](/wiki/Sewage_sludge "Sewage sludge") from being land applied or deposited on landfills, as it contained very high levels of PCBs. The problem had not been discovered until thousands of acres of farm land in the state had been contaminated by the [hazardous](/wiki/Hazardous "Hazardous") sludge. A criminal investigation to determine the perpetrator of this crime was launched.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.scdhec.gov/administration/news/2013/nr20130925\-01\.htm \|title\=DHEC: General Agency Information \|date\=2013 \|work\=scdhec.gov \|access\-date\=2013\-09\-26 \|archive\-date\=2013\-09\-26 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130926153115/http://www.scdhec.gov/administration/news/2013/nr20130925\-01\.htm \|url\-status\=dead }} #### Washington As of 2015, several bodies of water in the state of Washington were contaminated with PCBs, including the [Columbia River](/wiki/Columbia_River "Columbia River"), the [Duwamish River](/wiki/Duwamish_River "Duwamish River"), [Green Lake](/wiki/Green_Lake_%28Seattle%29 "Green Lake (Seattle)"), [Lake Washington](/wiki/Lake_Washington "Lake Washington"), the [Okanogan River](/wiki/Okanogan_River "Okanogan River"), [Puget Sound](/wiki/Puget_Sound "Puget Sound"), the [Spokane River](/wiki/Spokane_River "Spokane River"), the [Walla Walla River](/wiki/Walla_Walla_River "Walla Walla River"), the [Wenatchee River](/wiki/Wenatchee_River "Wenatchee River"), and the [Yakima River](/wiki/Yakima_River "Yakima River").{{cite web \|title\=Fish Consumption Advisories \| work \= Washington State Dept. of Health \|url\=http://www.doh.wa.gov/CommunityandEnvironment/Food/Fish/Advisories \|access\-date\=9 June 2016}} A study by Washington State published in 2011 found that the two largest sources of PCB flow into the Spokane River were City of Spokane stormwater (44%) and municipal and industrial discharges (20%).{{cite web \|title\=Spokane River PCB Source Assessment 2003–2007 \|url\=https://fortress.wa.gov/ecy/publications/documents/1103013\.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004144842/https://fortress.wa.gov/ecy/publications/documents/1103013\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2015\-10\-04 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=9 June 2016}} PCBs entered the environment through paint, hydraulic fluids, sealants, inks and have been found in river sediment and wildlife. Spokane utilities will spend $300 million to prevent PCBs from entering the river in anticipation of a 2017 federal deadline to do so.{{cite news \| vauthors \= Deshais N \|title\=Spokane sues Monsanto for PCB contamination \|url\=http://www.spokesman.com/stories/2015/aug/03/spokane\-sues\-monsanto\-pcb\-contamination/ \|access\-date\=14 August 2015 \|work\=The Spokesman\-Review\|date\=3 August 2015}} In August 2015 Spokane joined other U.S. cities like [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego") and [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California "San Jose, California"), California, and [Westport](/wiki/Westport%2C_Massachusetts "Westport, Massachusetts"), Massachusetts, in seeking damages from Monsanto.{{cite news \|agency\=Associated Press \|title\=Spokane sues Monsanto over Spokane River contamination \|url\=http://www.seattletimes.com/seattle\-news/spokane\-sues\-monsanto\-over\-spokane\-river\-contamination/ \|access\-date\=14 August 2015 \|work\=Seattle Times \|date\=August 3, 2015}} #### Wisconsin From 1954 until 1971, the Fox River in [Appleton, Wisconsin](/wiki/Appleton%2C_Wisconsin "Appleton, Wisconsin"), had PCBs deposited into it from Appleton Paper/NCR, P.H. Gladfelter, [Georgia\-Pacific](/wiki/Georgia-Pacific "Georgia-Pacific") and other notable local paper manufacturing facilities. The Wisconsin DNR estimates that after wastewater treatment the PCB discharges to the Fox River due to production losses ranged from 81,000 kg to 138,000 kg. (178,572 lbs. to 304,235 lbs). The production of Carbon Copy Paper and its byproducts led to the discharge into the river. Fox River clean up is ongoing.{{cite web \| vauthors \= Katers RL \| date \= \|title\=Sources of PCBs in the Fox River and Green Bay \|url\=http://www.foxriverwatch.com/pcb\_pcbs\_sources\_1\.html \|website\=www.foxriverwatch.com \|access\-date\=9 June 2016 \|archive\-date\=6 October 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006234908/http://www.foxriverwatch.com/pcb\_pcbs\_sources\_1\.html \|url\-status\=dead }}
[ "### United States", "Monsanto was the only company that manufactured PCBs in the US. Its production was entirely halted in 1977\\. (Kimbrough, 1987, 1995\\) On November 25, 2020, U.S. District Judge [Fernando M. Olguin](/wiki/Fernando_M._Olguin \"Fernando M. Olguin\") rejected a proposed $650 million settlement from Bayer, the company which acquired Monsanto in 2018, and allowed Monsanto\\-related lawsuits involving PCB to proceed.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.semissourian.com/story/2853810\\.html\\|title\\=Bayer's $650 Million PCB Pollution Settlement Rejected by Judge\\| vauthors \\= Rosenblatt J, Chediak M \\|publisher\\=Claims Journal\\|date\\=December 1, 2020\\|access\\-date\\=December 15, 2020}}{{dead link\\|date\\=June 2022\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}}", "#### Alabama", "PCBs originating from [Monsanto Chemical Company](/wiki/Monsanto_Chemical_Company \"Monsanto Chemical Company\") in [Anniston](/wiki/Anniston%2C_Alabama \"Anniston, Alabama\"), Alabama, were dumped into Snow Creek, which then spread to [Choccolocco Creek](/wiki/Choccolocco_Creek \"Choccolocco Creek\"), then [Logan Martin Lake](/wiki/Logan_Martin_Lake \"Logan Martin Lake\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Anniston PCB Site (Monsanto Co), Anniston, AL \\|url\\=http://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id\\=0400123 \\|website\\=Superfund Site Profile \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-24 \\|publisher\\=EPA \\|location\\=Atlanta, GA \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-12\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227015252/https://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id\\=0400123 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} In the early 2000s, class action lawsuits were settled by local land owners, including those on Logan Martin Lake, and [Lay Reservoir](/wiki/Lay_Dam \"Lay Dam\") (downstream on the [Coosa River](/wiki/Coosa_River \"Coosa River\")), for the PCB pollution. Donald Stewart, former Senator from Alabama, first learned of the concerns of hundreds of west Anniston residents after representing a church which had been approached about selling its property by Monsanto. Stewart went on to be the pioneer and lead attorney in the first and majority of cases against Monsanto and focused on residents in the immediate area known to be most polluted. Other attorneys later joined in to file suits for those outside the main immediate area around the plant; one of these was the late [Johnnie Cochran](/wiki/Johnnie_Cochran \"Johnnie Cochran\").", "In 2007, the highest pollution levels remained concentrated in Snow and Choccolocco Creeks.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Rypel AL, Findlay RH, Mitchell JB, Bayne DR \\| title \\= Variations in PCB concentrations between genders of six warmwater fish species in Lake Logan Martin, Alabama, USA \\| journal \\= Chemosphere \\| volume \\= 68 \\| issue \\= 9 \\| pages \\= 1707–1715 \\| date \\= August 2007 \\| pmid \\= 17490714 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.chemosphere.2007\\.03\\.046 \\| bibcode \\= 2007Chmsp..68\\.1707R }} Concentrations in fish have declined and continue to decline over time; sediment disturbance, however, can resuspend the PCBs from the sediment back into the water column and food web.", "#### California", "[thumb\\|Fish consumption advisory poster for San Francisco Bay](/wiki/File:Fish_Sign.png \"Fish Sign.png\")", "San Francisco Bay has been contaminated by PCBs, \"a legacy of PCBs spread widely across the land surface of the watershed, mixed deep into the sediment of the Bay, and contaminating the Bay food web\".{{Cite journal\\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.envres.2007\\.01\\.013\\| issn \\= 0013\\-9351\\| volume \\= 105\\| issue \\= 1\\| pages \\= 67–86\\| last1 \\= Davis\\| first1 \\= Jay\\| last2 \\= Hetzel\\| first2 \\= F.\\| last3 \\= Oram\\| first3 \\= J. J.\\| last4 \\= McKee\\| first4 \\= L. J.\\| title \\= Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in San Francisco Bay\\| journal \\= Environmental Research\\| series \\= Pollutants in the San Francisco Bay Estuary\\| access\\-date \\= 2023\\-04\\-27\\| date \\= 2007\\-09\\-01\\| url \\= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935107000400}} Levels of PCBs in fish and shellfish exceed thresholds for safe consumption. Signs around the Bay warn anglers of which species to avoid. State water quality regulators set a [Total Maximum Daily Load](/wiki/Total_Maximum_Daily_Load \"Total Maximum Daily Load\") for PCBs require city and county governments around the Bay to implement control measures to limit PCBs in urban runoff.{{Cite conference\\| publisher \\= California Regional Water Quality Control Board, San Francisco Bay Region\\| pages \\= 279\\| last \\= California Water Boards\\| title \\= Municipal Regional Stormwater NPDES permit. Order R2\\-2009\\-0074 NPDES Permit No. CAS612008 October 14, 2009\\| location \\= San Francisco\\| access\\-date \\= 2023\\-04\\-27\\| date \\= 2009\\-10\\-14\\| url \\= https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/water\\_issues/programs/stormwater/docs/phase1r2\\_2009\\_0074\\.pdf}} An important part of the second, revised version of this permit was the requirement for municipalities to install [green infrastructure](/wiki/Green_infrastructure \"Green infrastructure\") with a goal of reducing pollutant levels in stormwater.{{Cite conference\\| publisher \\= California Regional Water Quality Control Board, San Francisco Bay Region\\| pages \\= 350\\| last \\= California Water Boards\\| title \\= Municipal Regional Stormwater NPDES permit. Order No. R2\\-2015\\-0049, NPDES Permit No. CAS612008\\| location \\= San Francisco\\| access\\-date \\= 2023\\-04\\-27\\| date \\= 2015\\-11\\-19\\| url \\= https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/sanfranciscobay/water\\_issues/programs/stormwater/Municipal/R2\\-2015\\-0049\\.pdf}}", "#### Connecticut", "In [New Haven](/wiki/New_Haven \"New Haven\"), the decommissioned [English Station](/wiki/English_Station \"English Station\") has a high concentration of PCB contamination due to the chemicals used in the running of the plant. This, along with [asbestos](/wiki/Asbestos \"Asbestos\") contamination, has made cleaning and demolishing the abandoned site extremely difficult. The PCB contamination has spread to the soil, and to the river, where locals will sometimes fish unaware of the danger.{{cite web \\| vauthors \\= Leff L \\| title\\=Demolition Derailed; English Station In Limbo \\| website\\=New Haven Independent \\| date\\=19 August 2011 \\| url\\=https://www.newhavenindependent.org/index.php/archives/entry/english\\_station/ \\| access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-03}}{{cite web \\| vauthors\\=Haar D \\| title\\=Dan Haar: English Station cleanup, at least a year away, should now wait for redevelopment \\| website\\=The Middletown Press \\| date\\=2019\\-08\\-25 \\| url\\=https://www.middletownpress.com/news/article/Dan\\-Haar\\-English\\-Station\\-cleanup\\-at\\-least\\-a\\-14374967\\.php \\| access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-03 \\| archive\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-06 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506121936/https://www.middletownpress.com/news/article/Dan\\-Haar\\-English\\-Station\\-cleanup\\-at\\-least\\-a\\-14374967\\.php \\| url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite web \\| vauthors \\= Chedekel L \\| title\\=State Orders Clean\\-Up Of English Station In New Haven \\| website\\=Connecticut Health Investigative Team \\| date\\=2013\\-04\\-11 \\| url\\=http://c\\-hit.org/2013/04/11/state\\-orders\\-clean\\-up\\-of\\-english\\-station\\-in\\-new\\-haven/ \\| access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-03}}", "#### Great Lakes", "In 1976, environmentalists found PCBs in the sludge at [Waukegan](/wiki/Waukegan%2C_Illinois \"Waukegan, Illinois\") Harbor, the southwest end of [Lake Michigan](/wiki/Lake_Michigan \"Lake Michigan\"). They were able to trace the source of the PCBs back to the Outboard Marine Corporation that was producing boat motors next to the harbor. By 1982, the Outboard Marine Corporation was court\\-ordered to release quantitative data referring to their PCB waste released. The data stated that from 1954 they released 100,000 tons of PCB into the environment, and that the sludge contained PCBs in concentrations as high as 50%.{{cite book \\| vauthors \\= Ashworth W \\|title\\=The Late, Great Lakes \\|publisher\\=Wayne State University Press \\|year\\=1987 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8143\\-1887\\-4}}{{Page needed\\|date\\=May 2013}}{{cite web\\| vauthors \\= Mahan ML \\|date\\=May 4, 1998 \\|title\\=Are PCBs still a problem in the great lakes? \\|url\\=http://www.cevl.msu.edu/\\~long/pcb.htm \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120722012319/http://www.cevl.msu.edu/\\~long/pcb.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=July 22, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{self\\-published source\\|date\\=May 2013}}{{self\\-published inline\\|date\\=May 2013}}", "In 1989, during construction near the [Zilwaukee](/wiki/Zilwaukee%2C_Michigan \"Zilwaukee, Michigan\") bridge, workers uncovered an uncharted landfill containing PCB\\-contaminated waste which cost $100,000 to clean up.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.michiganhighways.org/indepth/zilwaukee.html\\|title\\=Michigan Highways: In Depth: The Milwaukee Bridge \\| vauthors \\= Bessert CJ \\|work\\=michiganhighways.org}}", "Much of the [Great Lakes](/wiki/Great_Lakes \"Great Lakes\") area were still heavily polluted with PCBs in 1988, despite extensive remediation work.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Hileman B \\|title\\=Great Lakes Cleanup Effort \\|journal\\=Chemical and Engineering News \\|volume\\=66 \\|issue\\=6 \\|date\\=February 8, 1988 \\|pages\\=22–39 \\|doi\\=10\\.1021/cen\\-v066n006\\.p022}}", "#### Indiana", "From the late 1950s through 1977, [Westinghouse Electric](/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric \"Westinghouse Electric\") used PCBs in the manufacture of capacitors in its [Bloomington](/wiki/Bloomington%2C_Indiana \"Bloomington, Indiana\"), Indiana, plant. Reject capacitors were hauled and dumped in area salvage yards and landfills, including Bennett's Dump, Neal's Landfill and Lemon Lane Landfill. Workers also dumped PCB oil down factory drains, which contaminated the city sewage treatment plant.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://copa.org/abb.html\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-02\\-24\\|title\\=Westinghouse/ABB Plant Facility\\|year\\=2006\\|archive\\-date\\=2002\\-02\\-11\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020211012517/http://copa.org/abb.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The City of Bloomington gave away the sludge to area farmers and gardeners, creating anywhere from 200 to 2,000 sites, which remain unaddressed.", "Over 1,000 tons of PCBs were estimated to have been dumped in [Monroe](/wiki/Monroe_County%2C_Indiana \"Monroe County, Indiana\") and [Owen](/wiki/Owen_County%2C_Indiana \"Owen County, Indiana\") counties.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=May 2007}} Although federal and state authorities have been working on the sites' [environmental remediation](/wiki/Environmental_remediation \"Environmental remediation\"), many areas remain contaminated. Concerns have been raised regarding the removal of PCBs from the [karst](/wiki/Karst \"Karst\") limestone topography, and regarding the possible disposal options. To date, the Westinghouse Bloomington PCB Superfund site case does not have a Remedial Investigation/Feasibility Study (RI/FS) and Record of Decision (ROD), although Westinghouse signed a US Department of Justice Consent Decree in 1985\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=US EPA Region 5 Superfund\\|url\\=http://www.epa.gov/R5Super/npl/indiana/IND006418651\\.htm\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-09\\-01}} The 1985 consent decree required Westinghouse to construct an incinerator that would incinerate PCB\\-contaminated materials. Because of public opposition to the incinerator, however, the State of Indiana passed a number of laws that delayed and blocked its construction. The parties to the consent decree began to explore alternative remedies in 1994 for six of the main PCB contaminated sites in the consent decree. Hundreds of sites remain unaddressed as of 2014\\. Monroe County will never be PCB\\-free, as noted in a 2014 Indiana University program about the local contamination.", "On February 15, 2008, Monroe County approved a plan to clean up the three remaining contaminated sites in the City of Bloomington, at a cost of [$](/wiki/United_States_dollar \"United States dollar\")9\\.6 million to [CBS Corp.](/wiki/CBS_Corporation \"CBS Corporation\"), the successor of Westinghouse. In 1999, Viacom bought CBS, so they are current responsible party for the PCB sites.{{cite web \\|title\\=Monroe Co. approves PCB clean up \\|url\\=http://www.indystar.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID\\=/20080218/LOCAL/802180394 \\|publisher\\=IndyStar.com\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-02\\-18 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022065825/http://www.indystar.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID\\=/20080218/LOCAL/802180394 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-10\\-22}}", "#### Massachusetts", "[Pittsfield](/wiki/Pittsfield%2C_Massachusetts \"Pittsfield, Massachusetts\"), in western Massachusetts, was home to the [General Electric (GE) transformer, capacitor, and electrical generating equipment divisions](/wiki/General_Electric_Pittsfield_Plant \"General Electric Pittsfield Plant\"). The electrical generating division built and repaired equipment that was used to power the electrical utility grid throughout the nation. PCB\\-contaminated oil routinely migrated from GE's {{convert\\|254\\|acre\\|km2\\|adj\\=on}} industrial plant located in the very center of the city to the surrounding groundwater, nearby Silver Lake, and to the [Housatonic River](/wiki/Housatonic_River \"Housatonic River\"), which flows through Massachusetts, Connecticut, and down to Long Island Sound.{{cite web \\|title\\=Site History \\& Description \\|website\\=GE/Housatonic River Site in New England \\|url\\=http://www.epa.gov/NE/ge/sitehistory.html \\|date\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) \\|location\\=Boston, MA \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519121339/http://www.epa.gov/NE/ge/sitehistory.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-05\\-19}} PCB\\-containing solid material was widely used as fill, including [oxbows](/wiki/Meander \"Meander\") of the Housatonic River. Fish and waterfowl which live in and around the river contain significant levels of PCBs and are not safe to eat.{{cite web \\|title\\=Rest of River of the GE\\-Pittsfield/Housatonic River Site \\|url\\=https://www.epa.gov/ge\\-housatonic/rest\\-river\\-ge\\-pittsfieldhousatonic\\-river\\-site \\|website\\=EPA Cleanups \\|date\\=2020\\-08\\-06 \\|publisher\\=EPA}} EPA designated the Pittsfield plant and several miles of the river as a [Superfund](/wiki/Superfund \"Superfund\") site in 1997, and ordered GE to remediate the site. EPA and GE began a cleanup of the area in 1999\\.", "[New Bedford Harbor](/wiki/New_Bedford%2C_Massachusetts%23Geography \"New Bedford, Massachusetts#Geography\"), which is a listed Superfund site,{{cite web \\|title\\=General Information about the New Bedford Harbor Cleanup \\|url\\=https://www.epa.gov/new\\-bedford\\-harbor/general\\-information\\-about\\-new\\-bedford\\-harbor\\-cleanup \\|date\\=2020\\-09\\-15 \\|publisher\\=EPA}} contained some of the highest sediment concentrations of PCBs in the marine environment.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.darrp.noaa.gov/northeast/new\\_bedford/ \\|title\\=Case: New Bedford Harbor, MA \\|website\\=Damage Assessment, Remediation \\& Restoration Program \\|publisher\\=U.S. National Ocean Service \\|location\\=Silver Spring, MD \\|date\\=2009\\-10\\-19 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100712092247/http://www.darrp.noaa.gov/northeast/new\\_bedford/\\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-07\\-12 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Cleanup of the area began in 1994 and is mostly complete as of 2020\\.", "Investigations into historic waste dumping in the [Bliss Corner](/wiki/Bliss_Corner%2C_Massachusetts \"Bliss Corner, Massachusetts\") neighborhood have revealed the existence of PCBs, among other hazardous materials, buried in soil and waste material.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.mass.gov/service\\-details/bliss\\-corner\\-neighborhood\\-dartmouth\\-ma \\|title\\=Bliss Corner Neighborhood, Dartmouth, MA \\|website\\=Environmental Issues \\& Sites in Southeastern Massachusetts \\|publisher\\=Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection \\|location\\=Lakeville, MA \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-15}}", "#### Missouri", "In 1982, Martha C. Rose Chemical Inc. began processing and disposing of materials contaminated with PCBs in [Holden, Missouri](/wiki/Holden%2C_Missouri \"Holden, Missouri\"), a small rural community about {{convert\\|40\\|mi}} east of Kansas City. From 1982 until 1986, nearly 750 companies, including General Motors Corp., Commonwealth Edison, Illinois Power Co. and West Texas Utilities, sent millions of pounds of PCB contaminated materials to Holden for disposal.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://apnews.com/c83b34f4cdcddc21aff592829725dff4\\|title\\=Nearly a Decade After Spill, Cleanup of Toxic Site Drags On With PM\\-Rusted Legacy II\\|work\\=AP NEWS\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-02\\-19}} Instead, according to prosecutors, the company began storing the contaminated materials while falsifying its reports to the EPA to show they had been removed. After investigators learned of the deception, Rose Chemical was closed and filed for bankruptcy. The site had become the nation's largest waste site for the chemical PCB.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://apnews.com/4b94dd89b0231fd8df1ba7a512dcba42 \\|title\\=Lawmakers Warned That PCB Contamination Threatens Missouri Town\\|website\\=AP NEWS\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-02\\-19}} In the four years the company was operational, the EPA inspected it four times and assessed $206,000 in fines but managed to collect only $50,000\\.{{Cite web \\|url\\= https://www.westword.com/news/a\\-dirty\\-shame\\-5058546 \\|title\\=A Dirty Shame\\| vauthors \\= Dexheimer E \\|date\\=1998\\-04\\-16\\|website\\=Westword\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-02\\-20}}", "After the plant closed the state environmental agency found PCB contamination in streams near the plant and in the city's sewage treatment sludge. A 100,000 square\\-foot warehouse and unknown amounts of contaminated soil and water around the site had to be cleaned up. Most of the surface debris, including close to 13 million pounds of contaminated equipment, carcasses and tanks of contaminated oil, had to be removed.{{Cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Steinzor RI \\|title\\=The lessons of Rose Chemical \\|journal\\=Public Power \\|volume\\=47\\|issue\\=2 \\|osti\\=5152472}} Walter C. Carolan, owner of Rose Chemical, and five others pleaded guilty in 1989 to committing fraud or falsifying documents. Carolan and two other executives served sentences of less than 18 months; the others received fines and were placed on probation. Cleanup costs at the site are estimated at $35 million.", "#### Montana", "Two launch facilities at [Malmstrom Air Force Base](/wiki/Malmstrom_Air_Force_Base \"Malmstrom Air Force Base\") showed PCB levels higher than the thresholds recommended by the Environmental Protection Agency when extensive sampling began of active U.S. intercontinental ballistic missile bases to address specific cancer concerns in 2023\\.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Copp \\|first\\=Tara \\|date\\=2023\\-08\\-07 \\|title\\=Carcinogens found at Montana nuclear missile sites as reports of hundreds of cancers surface \\|url\\=https://apnews.com/article/missile\\-bases\\-cancer\\-air\\-force\\-malmstrom\\-military\\-1999fad70393f0d141676b7faa587eda \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-08 \\|work\\=AP News \\|language\\=en}}", "#### New York", "[Pollution of the Hudson River](/wiki/Pollution_of_the_Hudson_River \"Pollution of the Hudson River\") is largely due to dumping of PCBs by [General Electric](/wiki/General_Electric \"General Electric\") from 1947 to 1977\\. GE dumped an estimated 1\\.3 million pounds of PCBs into the Hudson River during these years. The PCBs came from the company's two capacitor manufacturing plants at [Hudson Falls](/wiki/Hudson_Falls%2C_New_York \"Hudson Falls, New York\") and [Fort Edward](/wiki/Fort_Edward_%28town%29%2C_New_York \"Fort Edward (town), New York\"), New York. This pollution caused a range of harmful effects to wildlife and people who eat fish from the river or drink the water.{{cite web\\|title\\=Hudson River Cleanup \\|publisher\\=EPA \\|url\\=https://www.epa.gov/hudsonriverpcbs/hudson\\-river\\-cleanup \\|date\\=2020\\-08\\-25}} In 1984, EPA declared a 200\\-mile (320 km) stretch of the river, from Hudson Falls to New York City, to be a Superfund site requiring cleanup.{{cite web \\|title\\=Hudson River PCBs Superfund Site \\|url\\=https://www.epa.gov/superfund/superfund\\-success\\-stories\\-epa\\-region\\-2\\#hudson \\|website\\=Superfund Success Stories: EPA Region 2 \\|date\\=2018\\-06\\-04 \\|publisher\\=EPA}} Extensive remediation actions on the river began in the 1970s with the implementation of [wastewater discharge permits](/wiki/Clean_Water_Act%23Point_sources \"Clean Water Act#Point sources\") and consequent control or reduction of wastewater discharges, and sediment removal operations, which have continued into the 21st century.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/77105\\.html \\|title\\=How is the Hudson Doing? \\|website\\=Hudson River Estuary Program \\|publisher\\=New York State Department of Environmental Conservation \\|location\\=Albany, NY \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-15 \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-19 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171119075142/http://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/77105\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "[Love Canal](/wiki/Love_Canal \"Love Canal\") is a neighborhood in [Niagara Falls](/wiki/Niagara_Falls%2C_New_York \"Niagara Falls, New York\"), New York, that was heavily contaminated with toxic waste including PCBs.{{cite magazine \\| vauthors \\= Brown MH \\|title\\=Love Canal and the Poisoning of America \\|journal\\=The Atlantic \\|date\\=December 1979 \\|url\\=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1979/12/love\\-canal\\-and\\-the\\-poisoning\\-of\\-america/376297/}} [Eighteen Mile Creek](/wiki/Eighteen_Mile_Creek_%28Niagara_County%29 \"Eighteen Mile Creek (Niagara County)\") in [Lockport](/wiki/Lockport_%28town%29%2C_New_York \"Lockport (town), New York\"), New York, is an EPA Superfund site for PCBs contamination.{{cite web \\|title\\= Superfund Site: Eighteen Mile Creek, Lockport, NY \\|url\\= http://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id\\=0206456 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170306235101/http://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id\\=0206456 \\| archive\\-date \\= 6 March 2017 \\|website\\=Superfund Program \\|publisher\\=EPA}}", "PCB pollution at the [State Office Building](/wiki/Government_Plaza%2C_Binghamton \"Government Plaza, Binghamton\") in [Binghamton](/wiki/Binghamton%2C_New_York \"Binghamton, New York\") was responsible for what is now considered to be the first indoor environmental disaster in the United States.{{cite web \\| url \\= https://nypost.com/2011/08/07/former\\-ny\\-governor\\-hugh\\-carey\\-dead\\-at\\-92/ \\| title \\= Former NY governor Hugh Carey dead at 92 \\| work \\= New York Post \\| date \\= 7 August 2011 }} In 1981, a transformer explosion in the basement spewed PCBs throughout the entire 18\\-story building.{{cite report \\| title \\= Spill closes offices \\| work \\= Syracuse Herald\\-Journal \\| date \\= 5 February 1981 \\| page \\= D1 }} The contamination was so severe that cleanup efforts kept the building closed for 13 years.{{cite web \\| title \\= State Building Finally Reopens in Binghamton \\| url \\= https://buffalonews.com/news/state\\-building\\-finally\\-reopens\\-in\\-binghamton/article\\_fc156754\\-8eee\\-5d3a\\-9b79\\-e1f791b85250\\.html \\| work \\= The Buffalo News \\| date \\= 12 October 1994 }}{{cite web \\| vauthors \\= Steinberg J \\| url \\= https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/11/nyregion/13\\-year\\-cleaning\\-job\\-after\\-53\\-million\\-17\\-million\\-state\\-building\\-finally\\-declared.html?pagewanted\\=1 \\| title \\= The 13\\-Year Cleaning Job; After $53 Million, a $17 Million State Building Finally Is Declared Safe From Toxins \\| work \\= New York Times \\| date \\= 11 October 1994 }}", "#### North Carolina", "One of the largest deliberate PCB spills in American history occurred in the summer of 1978 when 31,000 gallons (117 m^3\\) of PCB\\-contaminated oil were illegally sprayed by the Ward PCB Transformer Company in {{convert\\|3\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} swaths along the roadsides of some {{convert\\|240\\|mi\\|km}} of North Carolina highway shoulders in 14 counties and at the [Fort Liberty](/wiki/Fort_Liberty \"Fort Liberty\") Army Base. The crime, known as \"[the midnight dumpings](/wiki/Warren_County_PCB_Landfill \"Warren County PCB Landfill\")\", occurred over nearly two weeks, as drivers of a black\\-painted tanker truck drove down one side of rural Piedmont highways spraying PCB\\-laden waste and then up the other side the following night.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/08/11/us/carolinians\\-angry\\-over\\-pcb\\-landfill.html \\|title\\=Carolinians Angry Over PCB Landfill\\|work\\=NY Times \\|date\\=11 August 1982}}", "Under Governor [James B. Hunt](/wiki/Jim_Hunt \"Jim Hunt\"), Jr., state officials then erected large, yellow warning signs along the contaminated highways that read: \"CAUTION: PCB Chemical Spills Along Highway Shoulders\". The illegal dumping is believed to have been motivated by the passing of the [Toxic Substances Control Act](/wiki/Toxic_Substances_Control_Act \"Toxic Substances Control Act\") (TSCA), which became effective on August 2, 1978, and increased the expense of chemical waste disposal.", "Within a couple of weeks of the crime, Robert Burns and his sons, Timothy and Randall, were arrested for dumping the PCBs along the roadsides. Burns was a business partner of Robert \"Buck\" Ward Jr., of the Ward PCB Transformer Company, in Raleigh. Burns and sons pleaded guilty to state and Federal criminal charges; Burns received a three to five\\-year prison sentence. Ward was acquitted of state charges in the dumping, but was sentenced to 18 months prison time for violation of TSCA.", "Cleanup and disposal of the roadside PCBs generated controversy, as the Governor's plan to pick up the roadside PCBs and to bury them in a landfill in rural [Warren County](/wiki/Warren_County%2C_North_Carolina \"Warren County, North Carolina\") were strongly opposed in 1982 by local residents.", "In October 2013, at the request of the South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control (SCDHEC), the City of [Charlotte](/wiki/Charlotte%2C_North_Carolina \"Charlotte, North Carolina\"), North Carolina, decided to stop applying [sewage sludge](/wiki/Biosolids \"Biosolids\") to land while authorities investigated the source of PCB contamination.{{cite web\\| url\\=http://charmeck.org/city/charlotte/Utilities/AboutUs/Documents/Minutes%20October%202013\\.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221223705/http://charmeck.org/city/charlotte/Utilities/AboutUs/Documents/Minutes%20October%202013\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-02\\-21 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|author\\=Charlotte\\-Mecklenburg Utilities Advisory Committee\\|title\\=Charlotte\\-Mecklenburg Utilities Advisory Committee Minutes\\|date\\=October 17, 2013\\|page\\=3}}\nIn February 2014, the City of Charlotte admitted PCBs have entered their sewage treatment centers as well.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.charlotteobserver.com/2014/02/07/4670710/chemical\\-dumped\\-into\\-charlotte.html \\|title\\=Task force named to probe chemical dumping \\|date\\=7 February 2014 \\|newspaper\\=Charlotte Observer\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140213233743/https://www.charlotteobserver.com/2014/02/07/4670710/chemical\\-dumped\\-into\\-charlotte.html\\|archive\\-date\\=13 Feb 2014 \\|vauthors\\=Henderson B, Lyttle S, Bethea A}}", "After the 2013 SCDHEC had issued emergency regulations,{{cite web\\|title\\=Emergency Regulation for Management of Wastewater System Sludge\\|url\\=http://www.scdhec.gov/Agency/docs/NewsReleaseDocs/PCBEmergencyRegFINAL.pdf\\|publisher\\=South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control\\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=24 June 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624030305/http://www.scdhec.gov/Agency/docs/NewsReleaseDocs/PCBEmergencyRegFINAL.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} the City of Charlotte discovered high levels of PCBs entering its sewage waste water treatment plants, where sewage is converted to sewage sludge. The city at first denied it had a problem, then admitted an \"event\" occurred in February 2014, and in April that the problem had occurred much earlier.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.charlotteobserver.com/2014/04/04/4817470/more\\-pcbs\\-found\\-in\\-charlotte\\-wastewater.html\\|title\\=More PCBs found in Charlotte wastewater, city says \\|date\\=4 April 2014\\| newspaper\\=Charlotte Observer\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016075302/http://www.charlotteobserver.com/news/local/crime/article9109955\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=16 Oct 2015\\|vauthors\\=Lyttle S}} The city stated that its very first test with a newly changed test method revealed very high PCB levels in its sewage sludge farm field fertilizer. Because of the widespread use of the contaminated sludge, SCDHEC subsequently issued PCB fish advisories for nearly all streams and rivers bordering farm fields that had been applied with city waste.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.scdhec.gov/Agency/NewsReleases/2014/nr20140703\\-01/\\|date\\=July 3, 2014\\|title\\=DHEC Releases Safe Fish Eating Advisory for S.C. Waters\\|website\\=scdhec.gov\\|publisher\\=South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control\\|access\\-date\\=February 4, 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=February 4, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150204180601/http://www.scdhec.gov/Agency/NewsReleases/2014/nr20140703\\-01/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "#### Ohio", "The [Clyde cancer cluster](/wiki/Clyde_cancer_cluster \"Clyde cancer cluster\") (also known as the Sandusky County cancer cluster) is a [childhood](/wiki/Childhood_cancer \"Childhood cancer\") [cancer cluster](/wiki/Cancer_cluster \"Cancer cluster\") that has affected many families in [Clyde](/wiki/Clyde%2C_Ohio \"Clyde, Ohio\"), Ohio, and surrounding areas. PCBs were found in soil in a public park within the area of the cancer cluster.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.toledoblade.com/news/state/2012/11/15/Toxic\\-sludge\\-discovered\\-at\\-park\\-in\\-Clyde\\-area\\-cancer\\-patients\\-families\\-shocked\\-lawyer\\-says/stories/20121115077\\|title\\='Toxic sludge' found at Clyde are park\\|newspaper\\=The Blade\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-20\\|vauthors\\=Feehan J\\|date\\=15 Nov 2012}}", "In [Akron](/wiki/Akron%2C_Ohio \"Akron, Ohio\"), Ohio, soil was contaminated and noxious PCB\\-laden fumes had been put into the air by an electrical transformer deconstruction operation from the 1930s to the 1960s.{{cite news \\| vauthors \\= Harper J \\|title\\=When PCBs, heavy metal spewed from smokestacks in southwest Akron: Toxic Remains \\|url\\=http://www.cleveland.com/akron/index.ssf/2015/12/when\\_pcbs\\_and\\_heavy\\_metal\\_spew.html\\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2015 \\|publisher\\=Cleveland.com\\|date\\=December 28, 2015}}", "#### South Carolina", "From 1955 until 1977, the Sangamo Weston plant in Pickens, South Carolina, used PCBs to manufacture capacitors, and dumped 400,000 pounds of PCB contaminated wastewater into the Twelve Mile Creek. In 1990, the EPA declared the {{convert\\|228\\|acre\\|km2}} site of the capacitor plant, its landfills and the polluted watershed, which stretches nearly {{convert\\|1,000\\|acre\\|km2}} downstream to Lake Hartwell as a [Superfund](/wiki/Superfund \"Superfund\") site. Two dams on the Twelve Mile Creek are to be removed and on Feb. 22, 2011 the first of two dams began to be dismantled. Some contaminated sediment is being removed from the site and hauled away, while other sediment is pumped into a series of settling ponds.{{cite web \\| title \\= South Carolina NPL/NPL Caliber Cleanup Site Summaries; Sangamo Weston, Inc./Twelve\\-Mile Creek/Lake Hartwell PCB Contamination \\| url \\= http://www.epa.gov/region4/waste/npl/nplsc/sangamsc.htm \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20061012115927/http://www.epa.gov/region4/waste/npl/nplsc/sangamsc.htm \\| archive\\-date \\= 12 October 2006 \\| work \\= USEPA }}{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.wyff4\\.com/r/26949154/detail.html \\| title \\= Dam Demolition Begins On Twelve Mile River \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20110718123940/http://www.wyff4\\.com/r/26949154/detail.html \\| archive\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-18 \\| work \\= WYFF News 4 \\| date \\= 22 February 2011 \\|vauthors\\=Muserallo S}}", "In 2013, the state environmental regulators issued a rare emergency order, banning all [sewage sludge](/wiki/Sewage_sludge \"Sewage sludge\") from being land applied or deposited on landfills, as it contained very high levels of PCBs. The problem had not been discovered until thousands of acres of farm land in the state had been contaminated by the [hazardous](/wiki/Hazardous \"Hazardous\") sludge. A criminal investigation to determine the perpetrator of this crime was launched.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.scdhec.gov/administration/news/2013/nr20130925\\-01\\.htm \\|title\\=DHEC: General Agency Information \\|date\\=2013 \\|work\\=scdhec.gov \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-09\\-26 \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-09\\-26 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130926153115/http://www.scdhec.gov/administration/news/2013/nr20130925\\-01\\.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "#### Washington", "As of 2015, several bodies of water in the state of Washington were contaminated with PCBs, including the [Columbia River](/wiki/Columbia_River \"Columbia River\"), the [Duwamish River](/wiki/Duwamish_River \"Duwamish River\"), [Green Lake](/wiki/Green_Lake_%28Seattle%29 \"Green Lake (Seattle)\"), [Lake Washington](/wiki/Lake_Washington \"Lake Washington\"), the [Okanogan River](/wiki/Okanogan_River \"Okanogan River\"), [Puget Sound](/wiki/Puget_Sound \"Puget Sound\"), the [Spokane River](/wiki/Spokane_River \"Spokane River\"), the [Walla Walla River](/wiki/Walla_Walla_River \"Walla Walla River\"), the [Wenatchee River](/wiki/Wenatchee_River \"Wenatchee River\"), and the [Yakima River](/wiki/Yakima_River \"Yakima River\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Fish Consumption Advisories \\| work \\= Washington State Dept. of Health \\|url\\=http://www.doh.wa.gov/CommunityandEnvironment/Food/Fish/Advisories \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2016}} A study by Washington State published in 2011 found that the two largest sources of PCB flow into the Spokane River were City of Spokane stormwater (44%) and municipal and industrial discharges (20%).{{cite web \\|title\\=Spokane River PCB Source Assessment 2003–2007 \\|url\\=https://fortress.wa.gov/ecy/publications/documents/1103013\\.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004144842/https://fortress.wa.gov/ecy/publications/documents/1103013\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-10\\-04 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2016}}", "PCBs entered the environment through paint, hydraulic fluids, sealants, inks and have been found in river sediment and wildlife. Spokane utilities will spend $300 million to prevent PCBs from entering the river in anticipation of a 2017 federal deadline to do so.{{cite news \\| vauthors \\= Deshais N \\|title\\=Spokane sues Monsanto for PCB contamination \\|url\\=http://www.spokesman.com/stories/2015/aug/03/spokane\\-sues\\-monsanto\\-pcb\\-contamination/ \\|access\\-date\\=14 August 2015 \\|work\\=The Spokesman\\-Review\\|date\\=3 August 2015}} In August 2015 Spokane joined other U.S. cities like [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\") and [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California \"San Jose, California\"), California, and [Westport](/wiki/Westport%2C_Massachusetts \"Westport, Massachusetts\"), Massachusetts, in seeking damages from Monsanto.{{cite news \\|agency\\=Associated Press \\|title\\=Spokane sues Monsanto over Spokane River contamination \\|url\\=http://www.seattletimes.com/seattle\\-news/spokane\\-sues\\-monsanto\\-over\\-spokane\\-river\\-contamination/ \\|access\\-date\\=14 August 2015 \\|work\\=Seattle Times \\|date\\=August 3, 2015}}", "#### Wisconsin", "From 1954 until 1971, the Fox River in [Appleton, Wisconsin](/wiki/Appleton%2C_Wisconsin \"Appleton, Wisconsin\"), had PCBs deposited into it from Appleton Paper/NCR, P.H. Gladfelter, [Georgia\\-Pacific](/wiki/Georgia-Pacific \"Georgia-Pacific\") and other notable local paper manufacturing facilities. The Wisconsin DNR estimates that after wastewater treatment the PCB discharges to the Fox River due to production losses ranged from 81,000 kg to 138,000 kg. (178,572 lbs. to 304,235 lbs). The production of Carbon Copy Paper and its byproducts led to the discharge into the river. Fox River clean up is ongoing.{{cite web \\| vauthors \\= Katers RL \\| date \\= \\|title\\=Sources of PCBs in the Fox River and Green Bay \\|url\\=http://www.foxriverwatch.com/pcb\\_pcbs\\_sources\\_1\\.html \\|website\\=www.foxriverwatch.com \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=6 October 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006234908/http://www.foxriverwatch.com/pcb\\_pcbs\\_sources\\_1\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "" ]
Rugby League career ------------------- Former Australian international [Bob Fulton](/wiki/Bob_Fulton "Bob Fulton") recruited Hopoate to the Manly club after witnessing his power and skill playing as a junior for a Manly Cove team before then going on to play in the New South Wales Under\-19 team.{{cn\|date\=June 2023}} ### 1993\-99 Manly\-Warringah Sea Eagles Hopoate signed with the [Manly\-Warringah Sea Eagles](/wiki/Manly-Warringah_Sea_Eagles "Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles") club in 1993 when he was 19 years old, and made his first grade debut against the [Canberra Raiders](/wiki/Canberra_Raiders "Canberra Raiders") at [Brookvale Oval](/wiki/Brookvale_Oval "Brookvale Oval") on 6 June that year. He played in the [Tonga national rugby league team](/wiki/Tonga_national_rugby_league_team "Tonga national rugby league team") in the [1994 Pacific Cup](/wiki/1994_Pacific_Cup "1994 Pacific Cup"),{{cite book \| last \=John Coffey, Bernie Wood \| title \= 100 years: Māori rugby league, 1908–2008 \| publisher \=Huia Publishers \| year \= 2008 \| pages \= 282 \| url \= https://books.google.com/books?id\=nklWo8vw\-iIC \| isbn \=978\-1\-86969\-331\-2 }} although he was regularly in and out of the first grade team, not holding down a regular position until 1995\. Hopoate's early season form in 1995 was excellent as he went on to score 11 tries from his first 11 first grade appearances and subsequently lead the try scoring table. After his form and try scoring feats during the 1995 season, Hopoate was called up to his first senior representative match for [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team "New South Wales rugby league team") in Game 1 of the [1995 State of Origin series](/wiki/1995_State_of_Origin_series "1995 State of Origin series"). After a decent performance from Hopoate he was retained for the second game but subsequently dropped from the third game because of an injury. Over the remaining rounds of the [1995 ARL season](/wiki/1995_ARL_season "1995 ARL season") Hopoate went on to score 21 tries, finishing second in the top try\-scoring table to teammate [Steve Menzies](/wiki/Steve_Menzies "Steve Menzies"). He was instrumental in Manly's good form leading into the finals series, although Manly eventually lost to the [Bulldogs](/wiki/Canterbury-Bankstown_Bulldogs "Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs"). The Tongan rugby league team looked to pick Hopoate based on his nation of birth for the [1995 World Cup](/wiki/1995_Rugby_League_World_Cup "1995 Rugby League World Cup"), but the [Australian Rugby League](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_league_team "Australia national rugby league team") selected him in the [Kangaroos](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_league_team "Australia national rugby league team") team under the residency rule. He played in the opening match of the cup but failed to score, and then made a mistake that became the turning point in a match that was eventually won by the [English team](/wiki/England_national_rugby_league_team "England national rugby league team"). In the following match, against the [South African team](/wiki/South_Africa_national_rugby_league_team "South Africa national rugby league team"), Hopoate scored three times in the 86 to 6 victory. In his fourth season at Manly, Hopoate was again instrumental in his team's fortunes. He began the season slowly in comparison to his previous year, with only five tries over the first 20 rounds of the season, but his defence had improved immensely; helping his team to concede fewer tries. He scored another six tries for the season including four in one game against the [South Sydney Rabbitohs](/wiki/South_Sydney_Rabbitohs "South Sydney Rabbitohs"), and ultimately helped his Manly team to their first premiership in eight years. In the 1997 season, Hopoate again started the season slowly, scoring only two tries in 12 games, but in the Round 12 match against the [St. George Dragons](/wiki/St._George_Dragons "St. George Dragons") he scored three tries and continued his form scoring eight tries in his next six games and a total of 15 for the season. ### 2000\-01 Wests Tigers Signing for the newly\-merged [Wests Tigers](/wiki/Wests_Tigers "Wests Tigers") in 2000, Hopoate scored just five tries in the season. He was suspended several times during the season, including being charged with 'contrary conduct' in a late season game against Melbourne as a result of more than ten separate incidents in that game. In 2001, Hopoate began the season poorly, scoring only one try in several games, before involvement in incidents of inserting his fingers into the anuses of three players which led to him being suspended for 12 weeks and agreeing to part ways with the Tigers club.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/sport/rugby\-league\-hopoate\-resigns\-from\-west\-tigers/4XAFGFSAAP2AOB2OVTXCI25DDM/ \|title\=Rugby League: Hopoate resigns from West Tigers \|publisher\=New Zealand Herald \|date\=1 April 2001 \|access\-date\=16 July 2023}} ### 2001\-02 Northern Eagles Manly reserve grade team signed him for the remainder of the season where his good form earned him a call\-up to the Northern Eagles first grade team late in the season. Hopoate ran 3,976 metres with the ball over the [2002 NRL season](/wiki/2002_NRL_season "2002 NRL season"), more than any other player in the competition.{{cite news\|last\=Proszenko\|first\=Adrian\|title\=Gallen set to smash record\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\-league/league\-news/gallen\-set\-to\-smash\-record\-20120505\-1y5lo.html\|access\-date\=7 May 2012\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\|date\=6 May 2012}} In the following year, he scored ten tries for the Eagles before the club disbanded in 2003\. ### 2003\-05 Manly\-Warringah Sea Eagles With the reinstatement of the Sea Eagles for the beginning of the 2003 season, Hopoate was re\-signed to the club where he made his debut ten years earlier. He began the season with several impressive performances but, again, his on\-field indiscretions were an issue. His following two seasons were poor, with several on\-field and off\-field incidents earning him both fines and suspensions. In a 2005 game against the Cronulla\-Sutherland Sharks, Hopoate attempted a reckless shoulder charge, making contact to the head of forward [Keith Galloway](/wiki/Keith_Galloway "Keith Galloway") with his elbow. Hopoate was suspended for 17 weeks by the NRL and the Manly club terminated his contract, effectively ending his career. He made a final statement on the Sea Eagles website thanking his fans and supporters, and apologising to his wife Brenda and eight children.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/news/League/Hopoate\-sends\-message\-to\-fans/2005/03/23/1111525220085\.html\|title\=Hopoate sends message to fans\|date\=23 March 2005\|work\=The Sydney Morning Herald\|access\-date\=9 January 2011}}
[ "Rugby League career\n-------------------", "Former Australian international [Bob Fulton](/wiki/Bob_Fulton \"Bob Fulton\") recruited Hopoate to the Manly club after witnessing his power and skill playing as a junior for a Manly Cove team before then going on to play in the New South Wales Under\\-19 team.{{cn\\|date\\=June 2023}}", "### 1993\\-99 Manly\\-Warringah Sea Eagles", "Hopoate signed with the [Manly\\-Warringah Sea Eagles](/wiki/Manly-Warringah_Sea_Eagles \"Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles\") club in 1993 when he was 19 years old, and made his first grade debut against the [Canberra Raiders](/wiki/Canberra_Raiders \"Canberra Raiders\") at [Brookvale Oval](/wiki/Brookvale_Oval \"Brookvale Oval\") on 6 June that year. He played in the [Tonga national rugby league team](/wiki/Tonga_national_rugby_league_team \"Tonga national rugby league team\") in the [1994 Pacific Cup](/wiki/1994_Pacific_Cup \"1994 Pacific Cup\"),{{cite book\n\\| last \\=John Coffey, Bernie Wood\n\\| title \\= 100 years: Māori rugby league, 1908–2008\n\\| publisher \\=Huia Publishers\n\\| year \\= 2008\n\\| pages \\= 282\n\\| url \\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=nklWo8vw\\-iIC\n\\| isbn \\=978\\-1\\-86969\\-331\\-2\n}} although he was regularly in and out of the first grade team, not holding down a regular position until 1995\\.", "Hopoate's early season form in 1995 was excellent as he went on to score 11 tries from his first 11 first grade appearances and subsequently lead the try scoring table. After his form and try scoring feats during the 1995 season, Hopoate was called up to his first senior representative match for [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team \"New South Wales rugby league team\") in Game 1 of the [1995 State of Origin series](/wiki/1995_State_of_Origin_series \"1995 State of Origin series\"). After a decent performance from Hopoate he was retained for the second game but subsequently dropped from the third game because of an injury.", "Over the remaining rounds of the [1995 ARL season](/wiki/1995_ARL_season \"1995 ARL season\") Hopoate went on to score 21 tries, finishing second in the top try\\-scoring table to teammate [Steve Menzies](/wiki/Steve_Menzies \"Steve Menzies\"). He was instrumental in Manly's good form leading into the finals series, although Manly eventually lost to the [Bulldogs](/wiki/Canterbury-Bankstown_Bulldogs \"Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs\").", "The Tongan rugby league team looked to pick Hopoate based on his nation of birth for the [1995 World Cup](/wiki/1995_Rugby_League_World_Cup \"1995 Rugby League World Cup\"), but the [Australian Rugby League](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_league_team \"Australia national rugby league team\") selected him in the [Kangaroos](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_league_team \"Australia national rugby league team\") team under the residency rule. He played in the opening match of the cup but failed to score, and then made a mistake that became the turning point in a match that was eventually won by the [English team](/wiki/England_national_rugby_league_team \"England national rugby league team\"). In the following match, against the [South African team](/wiki/South_Africa_national_rugby_league_team \"South Africa national rugby league team\"), Hopoate scored three times in the 86 to 6 victory.", "In his fourth season at Manly, Hopoate was again instrumental in his team's fortunes. He began the season slowly in comparison to his previous year, with only five tries over the first 20 rounds of the season, but his defence had improved immensely; helping his team to concede fewer tries. He scored another six tries for the season including four in one game against the [South Sydney Rabbitohs](/wiki/South_Sydney_Rabbitohs \"South Sydney Rabbitohs\"), and ultimately helped his Manly team to their first premiership in eight years.", "In the 1997 season, Hopoate again started the season slowly, scoring only two tries in 12 games, but in the Round 12 match against the [St. George Dragons](/wiki/St._George_Dragons \"St. George Dragons\") he scored three tries and continued his form scoring eight tries in his next six games and a total of 15 for the season.", "### 2000\\-01 Wests Tigers", "Signing for the newly\\-merged [Wests Tigers](/wiki/Wests_Tigers \"Wests Tigers\") in 2000, Hopoate scored just five tries in the season. He was suspended several times during the season, including being charged with 'contrary conduct' in a late season game against Melbourne as a result of more than ten separate incidents in that game.", "In 2001, Hopoate began the season poorly, scoring only one try in several games, before involvement in incidents of inserting his fingers into the anuses of three players which led to him being suspended for 12 weeks and agreeing to part ways with the Tigers club.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/sport/rugby\\-league\\-hopoate\\-resigns\\-from\\-west\\-tigers/4XAFGFSAAP2AOB2OVTXCI25DDM/ \\|title\\=Rugby League: Hopoate resigns from West Tigers \\|publisher\\=New Zealand Herald \\|date\\=1 April 2001 \\|access\\-date\\=16 July 2023}}", "### 2001\\-02 Northern Eagles", "Manly reserve grade team signed him for the remainder of the season where his good form earned him a call\\-up to the Northern Eagles first grade team late in the season. Hopoate ran 3,976 metres with the ball over the [2002 NRL season](/wiki/2002_NRL_season \"2002 NRL season\"), more than any other player in the competition.{{cite news\\|last\\=Proszenko\\|first\\=Adrian\\|title\\=Gallen set to smash record\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\\-league/league\\-news/gallen\\-set\\-to\\-smash\\-record\\-20120505\\-1y5lo.html\\|access\\-date\\=7 May 2012\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\\|date\\=6 May 2012}} In the following year, he scored ten tries for the Eagles before the club disbanded in 2003\\.", "### 2003\\-05 Manly\\-Warringah Sea Eagles", "With the reinstatement of the Sea Eagles for the beginning of the 2003 season, Hopoate was re\\-signed to the club where he made his debut ten years earlier. He began the season with several impressive performances but, again, his on\\-field indiscretions were an issue.", "His following two seasons were poor, with several on\\-field and off\\-field incidents earning him both fines and suspensions. In a 2005 game against the Cronulla\\-Sutherland Sharks, Hopoate attempted a reckless shoulder charge, making contact to the head of forward [Keith Galloway](/wiki/Keith_Galloway \"Keith Galloway\") with his elbow. Hopoate was suspended for 17 weeks by the NRL and the Manly club terminated his contract, effectively ending his career. He made a final statement on the Sea Eagles website thanking his fans and supporters, and apologising to his wife Brenda and eight children.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/news/League/Hopoate\\-sends\\-message\\-to\\-fans/2005/03/23/1111525220085\\.html\\|title\\=Hopoate sends message to fans\\|date\\=23 March 2005\\|work\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|access\\-date\\=9 January 2011}}", "" ]
### 1993\-99 Manly\-Warringah Sea Eagles Hopoate signed with the [Manly\-Warringah Sea Eagles](/wiki/Manly-Warringah_Sea_Eagles "Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles") club in 1993 when he was 19 years old, and made his first grade debut against the [Canberra Raiders](/wiki/Canberra_Raiders "Canberra Raiders") at [Brookvale Oval](/wiki/Brookvale_Oval "Brookvale Oval") on 6 June that year. He played in the [Tonga national rugby league team](/wiki/Tonga_national_rugby_league_team "Tonga national rugby league team") in the [1994 Pacific Cup](/wiki/1994_Pacific_Cup "1994 Pacific Cup"),{{cite book \| last \=John Coffey, Bernie Wood \| title \= 100 years: Māori rugby league, 1908–2008 \| publisher \=Huia Publishers \| year \= 2008 \| pages \= 282 \| url \= https://books.google.com/books?id\=nklWo8vw\-iIC \| isbn \=978\-1\-86969\-331\-2 }} although he was regularly in and out of the first grade team, not holding down a regular position until 1995\. Hopoate's early season form in 1995 was excellent as he went on to score 11 tries from his first 11 first grade appearances and subsequently lead the try scoring table. After his form and try scoring feats during the 1995 season, Hopoate was called up to his first senior representative match for [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team "New South Wales rugby league team") in Game 1 of the [1995 State of Origin series](/wiki/1995_State_of_Origin_series "1995 State of Origin series"). After a decent performance from Hopoate he was retained for the second game but subsequently dropped from the third game because of an injury. Over the remaining rounds of the [1995 ARL season](/wiki/1995_ARL_season "1995 ARL season") Hopoate went on to score 21 tries, finishing second in the top try\-scoring table to teammate [Steve Menzies](/wiki/Steve_Menzies "Steve Menzies"). He was instrumental in Manly's good form leading into the finals series, although Manly eventually lost to the [Bulldogs](/wiki/Canterbury-Bankstown_Bulldogs "Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs"). The Tongan rugby league team looked to pick Hopoate based on his nation of birth for the [1995 World Cup](/wiki/1995_Rugby_League_World_Cup "1995 Rugby League World Cup"), but the [Australian Rugby League](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_league_team "Australia national rugby league team") selected him in the [Kangaroos](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_league_team "Australia national rugby league team") team under the residency rule. He played in the opening match of the cup but failed to score, and then made a mistake that became the turning point in a match that was eventually won by the [English team](/wiki/England_national_rugby_league_team "England national rugby league team"). In the following match, against the [South African team](/wiki/South_Africa_national_rugby_league_team "South Africa national rugby league team"), Hopoate scored three times in the 86 to 6 victory. In his fourth season at Manly, Hopoate was again instrumental in his team's fortunes. He began the season slowly in comparison to his previous year, with only five tries over the first 20 rounds of the season, but his defence had improved immensely; helping his team to concede fewer tries. He scored another six tries for the season including four in one game against the [South Sydney Rabbitohs](/wiki/South_Sydney_Rabbitohs "South Sydney Rabbitohs"), and ultimately helped his Manly team to their first premiership in eight years. In the 1997 season, Hopoate again started the season slowly, scoring only two tries in 12 games, but in the Round 12 match against the [St. George Dragons](/wiki/St._George_Dragons "St. George Dragons") he scored three tries and continued his form scoring eight tries in his next six games and a total of 15 for the season.
[ "### 1993\\-99 Manly\\-Warringah Sea Eagles", "Hopoate signed with the [Manly\\-Warringah Sea Eagles](/wiki/Manly-Warringah_Sea_Eagles \"Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles\") club in 1993 when he was 19 years old, and made his first grade debut against the [Canberra Raiders](/wiki/Canberra_Raiders \"Canberra Raiders\") at [Brookvale Oval](/wiki/Brookvale_Oval \"Brookvale Oval\") on 6 June that year. He played in the [Tonga national rugby league team](/wiki/Tonga_national_rugby_league_team \"Tonga national rugby league team\") in the [1994 Pacific Cup](/wiki/1994_Pacific_Cup \"1994 Pacific Cup\"),{{cite book\n\\| last \\=John Coffey, Bernie Wood\n\\| title \\= 100 years: Māori rugby league, 1908–2008\n\\| publisher \\=Huia Publishers\n\\| year \\= 2008\n\\| pages \\= 282\n\\| url \\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=nklWo8vw\\-iIC\n\\| isbn \\=978\\-1\\-86969\\-331\\-2\n}} although he was regularly in and out of the first grade team, not holding down a regular position until 1995\\.", "Hopoate's early season form in 1995 was excellent as he went on to score 11 tries from his first 11 first grade appearances and subsequently lead the try scoring table. After his form and try scoring feats during the 1995 season, Hopoate was called up to his first senior representative match for [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team \"New South Wales rugby league team\") in Game 1 of the [1995 State of Origin series](/wiki/1995_State_of_Origin_series \"1995 State of Origin series\"). After a decent performance from Hopoate he was retained for the second game but subsequently dropped from the third game because of an injury.", "Over the remaining rounds of the [1995 ARL season](/wiki/1995_ARL_season \"1995 ARL season\") Hopoate went on to score 21 tries, finishing second in the top try\\-scoring table to teammate [Steve Menzies](/wiki/Steve_Menzies \"Steve Menzies\"). He was instrumental in Manly's good form leading into the finals series, although Manly eventually lost to the [Bulldogs](/wiki/Canterbury-Bankstown_Bulldogs \"Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs\").", "The Tongan rugby league team looked to pick Hopoate based on his nation of birth for the [1995 World Cup](/wiki/1995_Rugby_League_World_Cup \"1995 Rugby League World Cup\"), but the [Australian Rugby League](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_league_team \"Australia national rugby league team\") selected him in the [Kangaroos](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_league_team \"Australia national rugby league team\") team under the residency rule. He played in the opening match of the cup but failed to score, and then made a mistake that became the turning point in a match that was eventually won by the [English team](/wiki/England_national_rugby_league_team \"England national rugby league team\"). In the following match, against the [South African team](/wiki/South_Africa_national_rugby_league_team \"South Africa national rugby league team\"), Hopoate scored three times in the 86 to 6 victory.", "In his fourth season at Manly, Hopoate was again instrumental in his team's fortunes. He began the season slowly in comparison to his previous year, with only five tries over the first 20 rounds of the season, but his defence had improved immensely; helping his team to concede fewer tries. He scored another six tries for the season including four in one game against the [South Sydney Rabbitohs](/wiki/South_Sydney_Rabbitohs \"South Sydney Rabbitohs\"), and ultimately helped his Manly team to their first premiership in eight years.", "In the 1997 season, Hopoate again started the season slowly, scoring only two tries in 12 games, but in the Round 12 match against the [St. George Dragons](/wiki/St._George_Dragons \"St. George Dragons\") he scored three tries and continued his form scoring eight tries in his next six games and a total of 15 for the season.", "" ]
Boxing career ------------- With the termination of his Sea Eagles contract effectively bringing to an end his days of playing rugby league, Hopoate announced that he would begin training in an attempt to undertake a career in [professional boxing](/wiki/Professional_boxing "Professional boxing"). On 17 May 2006 he fought in his first professional boxing bout, on the [undercard](/wiki/Undercard "Undercard") of the [Anthony Mundine](/wiki/Anthony_Mundine "Anthony Mundine") and [Danny Green](/wiki/Danny_Green_%28boxer%29 "Danny Green (boxer)") fight. Hopoate won his debut after only 47 seconds of the opening round, [knocking out](/wiki/Knockout "Knockout") Frank "The Big Ship" Faasolo.{{Cite web \|date\=2006\-05\-17 \|title\=Hopoate makes successful start to boxing \|url\=https://www.smh.com.au/sport/hopoate\-makes\-successful\-start\-to\-boxing\-20060518\-gdnkfz.html \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-15 \|website\=The Sydney Morning Herald \|language\=en}} After the quick victory, Hopoate challenged former professional [rugby league](/wiki/Rugby_league "Rugby league") footballer [Mark Geyer](/wiki/Mark_Geyer "Mark Geyer") to a fight, citing his reasons as being "I know he hates being bagged, but for him to go sit behind a magazine and bag other players, I don't like that".{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rleague.com/db/article.php?id\=25255\|title\=Hopoate Challenges Geyer\|last\=O'Neill\|first\=Matthew\|date\=18 May 2006\|publisher\=rleague.com\|access\-date\=9 January 2011\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100409095811/http://www.rleague.com/db/article.php?id\=25255\|archive\-date\=9 April 2010}} Geyer turned down the challenge on the NRL [Footy Show](/wiki/The_Footy_Show_%28rugby_league%29 "The Footy Show (rugby league)") the following week. Instead, he followed up against New Zealand fighter Alex Mene on 4 August, whom he defeated with a somewhat controversial fourth round [technical knockout](/wiki/Technical_knockout "Technical knockout") after the referee called a halt to the bout. Hopoate's third fight was against Ipswich Brothers and former [Gold Coast Seagulls](/wiki/Gold_Coast_Seagulls "Gold Coast Seagulls") rugby league prop forward Anthony Fowler. The pair had previously fought during an under\-17 representative match 15 years earlier, but Fowler found little opportunity to trade blows with Hopoate as he was left motionless on the canvas after just 34 seconds of his only professional boxing appearance.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.eastsideboxing.com/news.php?p\=8609\&more\=1\|archive\-url\=https://wayback.archive\-it.org/all/20131021172355/http://www.eastsideboxing.com/weblog/news.php?p\=8609\&more\=1\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=21 October 2013\|title\=Hopoate Plucks Fowler!\|date\=20 October 2006\|publisher\=eastsideboxing.com\|access\-date\=9 January 2011}} Subsequently, he defeated two more heavyweights from New Zealand during bouts in Queensland. Hopoate first put a finish to one\-sided event against Oscar Talemaira with a first\-round technical knockout on 17 November. He then knocked out Hiriwa Te Rangi on 24 February 2007 after a stiffer contest that lasted five rounds, his longest fight to date. Hopoate then moved to a 6–0 record by dispatching the heavy\-hitting Richard "Tootin'" Tutaki with a series of second round body\-blows on 7 March 2007 at the [Sydney Entertainment Centre](/wiki/Sydney_Entertainment_Centre "Sydney Entertainment Centre"), again on an Anthony Mundine undercard. [Lovemore N'dou](/wiki/Lovemore_N%27dou "Lovemore N'dou"), the [IBF](/wiki/IBF "IBF") [junior welterweight](/wiki/Junior_welterweight "Junior welterweight") champion, said after watching the bout that Hopoate is an embarrassment to the sport of boxing, and that he was disgusted with what he saw. As part of his scathing criticism of Hopoate, as well as [Willie Mason](/wiki/Willie_Mason "Willie Mason")'s older brother Les, N'dou said: "Footballers like them thinking they can box turns what is a scientific and artistic sport into a circus. They are making fools out of themselves and fools out of a sport I love. I despise them and everything they stand for".{{cite news\|url\=http://www.news.com.au/hopoate\-mason\-circus\-acts/story\-e6frf5h3\-1111113123587\|title\=Hopoate, Mason 'circus acts'\|last\=Lewis\|first\=David\|date\=9 March 2007\|work\=news.com.au\|access\-date\=9 January 2011}} On 30 March 2007, Hopoate experienced his first defeat, which came by Brian Fitzgerald. The result, a [split decision](/wiki/Split_decision "Split decision") after six rounds, proved controversial and inspired Hopoate to say, "I'm being vilified again. It obviously has something to do with my playing days. I know I'm going to be 'John Hopoate' for the rest of my life. But I've tried to take a new road and I thought I was going along good, until this. They are racist cause I'm from Tonga, it's not bloody right. I never get a fair go from Aussies".{{cite news\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/news/sport/the\-kneebones\-connected\-to\-133/2007/04/05/1175366411625\.html?page\=fullpage\#contentSwap2\|title\=What They Said\|last\=FitzSimons\|first\=Peter\|date\=6 April 2007\|work\=The Sydney Morning Herald\|access\-date\=9 January 2011}} On 13 April 2007, Hopoate suffered his second straight loss, inflicted by former national [kickboxing](/wiki/Kickboxing "Kickboxing") champion, [Ben Edwards](/wiki/Ben_Edwards_%28kickboxer%29 "Ben Edwards (kickboxer)"), who was making his professional boxing debut. Hopoate's performance, which was brought to an abrupt end by technical knockout after just 90 seconds of the first round, was jeered and ridiculed by the 200\-odd paying spectators, several of whom were seen to throw plastic beer cups in the direction of Hopoate. With three further bouts scheduled before July, he aimed to continue his career. However, following his earlier criticism, [Lovemore N'dou](/wiki/Lovemore_N%27dou "Lovemore N'dou") has commented that Hopoate needs to "learn to fight properly", as well as the more inflammatory "Hoppa should stop putting his finger up other guys [anuses](/wiki/Anus "Anus") "; however, has now offered to help him out at no charge.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/hopoate\-floored\-by\-banger/story\-e6frexni\-1111113343156\|title\=Hopoate floored by banger\|last\=Nicolussi\|first\=Christian\|date\=15 April 2007\|work\=dailytelegraph.com.au\|access\-date\=9 January 2011}} On 10 September 2008, Hopoate became [Australian heavyweight boxing champion](/wiki/List_of_Australian_heavyweight_boxing_champions "List of Australian heavyweight boxing champions"). The Sydney fighter finished defending champion [Bob Mirovic](/wiki/Bob_Mirovic "Bob Mirovic") deep into the ninth round of an epic bout at the Gold Coast convention centre.{{cite news\|last\=Gandon\|first\= Mike\|url\=http://www.illawarramercury.com.au/news/local/sport/other/big\-bob\-seeks\-rematch\-with\-hopoate/1279328\.aspx\| title\= Big Bob seeks rematch with Hopoate\|publisher\= \[\[Illawarra Mercury]]\|date\=22 September 2008\|access\-date\=2010\-12\-22}} Hopoate cornered "The Big Bear" Mirovic and hit him with more than six clean punches to knock the 42\-year\-old to the floor. Mirovic got to his feet but his trainer [Jeff Fenech](/wiki/Jeff_Fenech "Jeff Fenech") threw in the towel to end the fight. After the title fight, controversy ensued, Mirovic claiming that Hopoate used illegal tactics during the bout which resulted in Mirovic having his arm broken. Mirovic believes he was illegally shoved to the ground in the sixth round, which left him with a broken arm and no hope of carrying on."I couldn't throw a punch for the final three rounds because of what Hoppa did," Mirovic said. "I'd cop it on the chin if I lost the fight fair and square, but there's no way I'll sit back if something illegal was done to me. It was a dog act by Hoppa. I can't do anything now for three months and I'm demanding Hoppa doesn't fight anybody else until he gives me a rematch."{{cite web\|last\=Nicolussi\|first\=Christian\|url\=http://www.news.com.au/dailytelegraph/story/0,22049,24361930\-5001021,00\.html\|title\=Boxer Bob Mirovic says John Hopoate broke his arm\|publisher\=News.com.au\|date\=18 September 2008\|access\-date\=2010\-08\-19}} He fought [Cliff Couser](/wiki/Cliff_Couser "Cliff Couser") on 20 March 2009 and won the fight by technical knockout after Couser did not answer the bell for the fourth round. Hopoate fought [Oliver McCall](/wiki/Oliver_McCall "Oliver McCall") on 22 May 2009 for the International Boxing Association (IBA) Intercontinental heavyweight title in a fight which he lost by second\-round technical knockout after being knocked down twice in the fight. He fought Bob Mirovic again on 23 July 2009, beating him on points after a gruelling 10\-round match. Hopoate fought [Colin Wilson](/wiki/Colin_Wilson_%28boxer%29 "Colin Wilson (boxer)") on 10 October 2009, on the undercard of the [David Tua](/wiki/David_Tua "David Tua") and [Shane Cameron](/wiki/Shane_Cameron "Shane Cameron") fight. Hopoate started the fight well scoring a knock down in the third round, before Colin Wilson came back from the knock down to knock Hopoate down late in the same round. Wilson went on to win the fight knocking Hopoate out in the fourth round. Hopoate then fought [Shane Cameron](/wiki/Shane_Cameron "Shane Cameron") on 20 March 2010, losing the fight by disqualification in the second round after Hopoate wrestled with Cameron and tried throwing him to the ground more than he tried throwing punches.{{cite news\|url\=http://news.smh.com.au/breaking\-news\-sport/hopoate\-disqualified\-hugging\-cameron\-20100319\-qirs.html\|title\=Hopoate disqualified 'hugging' Cameron\|date\=19 March 2010\|work\=The Sydney Morning Herald\|access\-date\=9 January 2011}} On 20 December 2018, Hopoate agreed to return to the ring to fight Cronulla player [Paul Gallen](/wiki/Paul_Gallen "Paul Gallen") with the match being scheduled for 9 February 2019\.{{Cite web\|date\=2018\-12\-20\|title\=Paul Gallen to fight retired rugby league identity John Hopoate\|url\=https://www.news.com.au/sport/nrl/paul\-gallen\-to\-fight\-retired\-rugby\-league\-identity\-john\-hopoate/news\-story/a63292b597df8fea7ff0c644f1a83904\|access\-date\=2020\-06\-25\|website\=NewsComAu\|language\=en}} Hopoate was knocked out in the second round of the bout. He said afterwards "I got caught by a good punch and I can’t hide from that, I went to sleep and fell over".{{cite web\|url\=https://www.news.com.au/sport/boxing/paul\-gallen\-destroys\-john\-hopoate\-in\-boxing\-bout\-but\-theres\-no\-bad\-blood\-between\-the\-pair/news\-story/eb5704c34a83617e187013bd67c7b27d/\|title\=Paul Gallen destroys John Hopoate in boxing bout – but there's no bad blood between the pair\|website\=www.news.com.au}}
[ "Boxing career\n-------------", "With the termination of his Sea Eagles contract effectively bringing to an end his days of playing rugby league, Hopoate announced that he would begin training in an attempt to undertake a career in [professional boxing](/wiki/Professional_boxing \"Professional boxing\").", "On 17 May 2006 he fought in his first professional boxing bout, on the [undercard](/wiki/Undercard \"Undercard\") of the [Anthony Mundine](/wiki/Anthony_Mundine \"Anthony Mundine\") and [Danny Green](/wiki/Danny_Green_%28boxer%29 \"Danny Green (boxer)\") fight. Hopoate won his debut after only 47 seconds of the opening round, [knocking out](/wiki/Knockout \"Knockout\") Frank \"The Big Ship\" Faasolo.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2006\\-05\\-17 \\|title\\=Hopoate makes successful start to boxing \\|url\\=https://www.smh.com.au/sport/hopoate\\-makes\\-successful\\-start\\-to\\-boxing\\-20060518\\-gdnkfz.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-15 \\|website\\=The Sydney Morning Herald \\|language\\=en}}", "After the quick victory, Hopoate challenged former professional [rugby league](/wiki/Rugby_league \"Rugby league\") footballer [Mark Geyer](/wiki/Mark_Geyer \"Mark Geyer\") to a fight, citing his reasons as being \"I know he hates being bagged, but for him to go sit behind a magazine and bag other players, I don't like that\".{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rleague.com/db/article.php?id\\=25255\\|title\\=Hopoate Challenges Geyer\\|last\\=O'Neill\\|first\\=Matthew\\|date\\=18 May 2006\\|publisher\\=rleague.com\\|access\\-date\\=9 January 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100409095811/http://www.rleague.com/db/article.php?id\\=25255\\|archive\\-date\\=9 April 2010}} Geyer turned down the challenge on the NRL [Footy Show](/wiki/The_Footy_Show_%28rugby_league%29 \"The Footy Show (rugby league)\") the following week.", "Instead, he followed up against New Zealand fighter Alex Mene on 4 August, whom he defeated with a somewhat controversial fourth round [technical knockout](/wiki/Technical_knockout \"Technical knockout\") after the referee called a halt to the bout.", "Hopoate's third fight was against Ipswich Brothers and former [Gold Coast Seagulls](/wiki/Gold_Coast_Seagulls \"Gold Coast Seagulls\") rugby league prop forward Anthony Fowler. The pair had previously fought during an under\\-17 representative match 15 years earlier, but Fowler found little opportunity to trade blows with Hopoate as he was left motionless on the canvas after just 34 seconds of his only professional boxing appearance.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.eastsideboxing.com/news.php?p\\=8609\\&more\\=1\\|archive\\-url\\=https://wayback.archive\\-it.org/all/20131021172355/http://www.eastsideboxing.com/weblog/news.php?p\\=8609\\&more\\=1\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=21 October 2013\\|title\\=Hopoate Plucks Fowler!\\|date\\=20 October 2006\\|publisher\\=eastsideboxing.com\\|access\\-date\\=9 January 2011}}", "Subsequently, he defeated two more heavyweights from New Zealand during bouts in Queensland. Hopoate first put a finish to one\\-sided event against Oscar Talemaira with a first\\-round technical knockout on 17 November. He then knocked out Hiriwa Te Rangi on 24 February 2007 after a stiffer contest that lasted five rounds, his longest fight to date.", "Hopoate then moved to a 6–0 record by dispatching the heavy\\-hitting Richard \"Tootin'\" Tutaki with a series of second round body\\-blows on 7 March 2007 at the [Sydney Entertainment Centre](/wiki/Sydney_Entertainment_Centre \"Sydney Entertainment Centre\"), again on an Anthony Mundine undercard. [Lovemore N'dou](/wiki/Lovemore_N%27dou \"Lovemore N'dou\"), the [IBF](/wiki/IBF \"IBF\") [junior welterweight](/wiki/Junior_welterweight \"Junior welterweight\") champion, said after watching the bout that Hopoate is an embarrassment to the sport of boxing, and that he was disgusted with what he saw. As part of his scathing criticism of Hopoate, as well as [Willie Mason](/wiki/Willie_Mason \"Willie Mason\")'s older brother Les, N'dou said: \"Footballers like them thinking they can box turns what is a scientific and artistic sport into a circus. They are making fools out of themselves and fools out of a sport I love. I despise them and everything they stand for\".{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.news.com.au/hopoate\\-mason\\-circus\\-acts/story\\-e6frf5h3\\-1111113123587\\|title\\=Hopoate, Mason 'circus acts'\\|last\\=Lewis\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=9 March 2007\\|work\\=news.com.au\\|access\\-date\\=9 January 2011}}", "On 30 March 2007, Hopoate experienced his first defeat, which came by Brian Fitzgerald. The result, a [split decision](/wiki/Split_decision \"Split decision\") after six rounds, proved controversial and inspired Hopoate to say, \"I'm being vilified again. It obviously has something to do with my playing days. I know I'm going to be 'John Hopoate' for the rest of my life. But I've tried to take a new road and I thought I was going along good, until this. They are racist cause I'm from Tonga, it's not bloody right. I never get a fair go from Aussies\".{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/news/sport/the\\-kneebones\\-connected\\-to\\-133/2007/04/05/1175366411625\\.html?page\\=fullpage\\#contentSwap2\\|title\\=What They Said\\|last\\=FitzSimons\\|first\\=Peter\\|date\\=6 April 2007\\|work\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|access\\-date\\=9 January 2011}}", "On 13 April 2007, Hopoate suffered his second straight loss, inflicted by former national [kickboxing](/wiki/Kickboxing \"Kickboxing\") champion, [Ben Edwards](/wiki/Ben_Edwards_%28kickboxer%29 \"Ben Edwards (kickboxer)\"), who was making his professional boxing debut. Hopoate's performance, which was brought to an abrupt end by technical knockout after just 90 seconds of the first round, was jeered and ridiculed by the 200\\-odd paying spectators, several of whom were seen to throw plastic beer cups in the direction of Hopoate.\nWith three further bouts scheduled before July, he aimed to continue his career. However, following his earlier criticism, [Lovemore N'dou](/wiki/Lovemore_N%27dou \"Lovemore N'dou\") has commented that Hopoate needs to \"learn to fight properly\", as well as the more inflammatory \"Hoppa should stop putting his finger up other guys [anuses](/wiki/Anus \"Anus\") \"; however, has now offered to help him out at no charge.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/hopoate\\-floored\\-by\\-banger/story\\-e6frexni\\-1111113343156\\|title\\=Hopoate floored by banger\\|last\\=Nicolussi\\|first\\=Christian\\|date\\=15 April 2007\\|work\\=dailytelegraph.com.au\\|access\\-date\\=9 January 2011}}", "On 10 September 2008, Hopoate became [Australian heavyweight boxing champion](/wiki/List_of_Australian_heavyweight_boxing_champions \"List of Australian heavyweight boxing champions\"). The Sydney fighter finished defending champion [Bob Mirovic](/wiki/Bob_Mirovic \"Bob Mirovic\") deep into the ninth round of an epic bout at the Gold Coast convention centre.{{cite news\\|last\\=Gandon\\|first\\= Mike\\|url\\=http://www.illawarramercury.com.au/news/local/sport/other/big\\-bob\\-seeks\\-rematch\\-with\\-hopoate/1279328\\.aspx\\| title\\= Big Bob seeks rematch with Hopoate\\|publisher\\= \\[\\[Illawarra Mercury]]\\|date\\=22 September 2008\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-12\\-22}}", "Hopoate cornered \"The Big Bear\" Mirovic and hit him with more than six clean punches to knock the 42\\-year\\-old to the floor. Mirovic got to his feet but his trainer [Jeff Fenech](/wiki/Jeff_Fenech \"Jeff Fenech\") threw in the towel to end the fight.", "After the title fight, controversy ensued, Mirovic claiming that Hopoate used illegal tactics during the bout which resulted in Mirovic having his arm broken. Mirovic believes he was illegally shoved to the ground in the sixth round, which left him with a broken arm and no hope of carrying on.\"I couldn't throw a punch for the final three rounds because of what Hoppa did,\" Mirovic said.", "\"I'd cop it on the chin if I lost the fight fair and square, but there's no way I'll sit back if something illegal was done to me. It was a dog act by Hoppa. I can't do anything now for three months and I'm demanding Hoppa doesn't fight anybody else until he gives me a rematch.\"{{cite web\\|last\\=Nicolussi\\|first\\=Christian\\|url\\=http://www.news.com.au/dailytelegraph/story/0,22049,24361930\\-5001021,00\\.html\\|title\\=Boxer Bob Mirovic says John Hopoate broke his arm\\|publisher\\=News.com.au\\|date\\=18 September 2008\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-08\\-19}}", "He fought [Cliff Couser](/wiki/Cliff_Couser \"Cliff Couser\") on 20 March 2009 and won the fight by technical knockout after Couser did not answer the bell for the fourth round.", "Hopoate fought [Oliver McCall](/wiki/Oliver_McCall \"Oliver McCall\") on 22 May 2009 for the International Boxing Association (IBA) Intercontinental heavyweight title in a fight which he lost by second\\-round technical knockout after being knocked down twice in the fight.", "He fought Bob Mirovic again on 23 July 2009, beating him on points after a gruelling 10\\-round match.", "Hopoate fought [Colin Wilson](/wiki/Colin_Wilson_%28boxer%29 \"Colin Wilson (boxer)\") on 10 October 2009, on the undercard of the [David Tua](/wiki/David_Tua \"David Tua\") and [Shane Cameron](/wiki/Shane_Cameron \"Shane Cameron\") fight. Hopoate started the fight well scoring a knock down in the third round, before Colin Wilson came back from the knock down to knock Hopoate down late in the same round. Wilson went on to win the fight knocking Hopoate out in the fourth round.", "Hopoate then fought [Shane Cameron](/wiki/Shane_Cameron \"Shane Cameron\") on 20 March 2010, losing the fight by disqualification in the second round after Hopoate wrestled with Cameron and tried throwing him to the ground more than he tried throwing punches.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://news.smh.com.au/breaking\\-news\\-sport/hopoate\\-disqualified\\-hugging\\-cameron\\-20100319\\-qirs.html\\|title\\=Hopoate disqualified 'hugging' Cameron\\|date\\=19 March 2010\\|work\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|access\\-date\\=9 January 2011}}", "On 20 December 2018, Hopoate agreed to return to the ring to fight Cronulla player [Paul Gallen](/wiki/Paul_Gallen \"Paul Gallen\") with the match being scheduled for 9 February 2019\\.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2018\\-12\\-20\\|title\\=Paul Gallen to fight retired rugby league identity John Hopoate\\|url\\=https://www.news.com.au/sport/nrl/paul\\-gallen\\-to\\-fight\\-retired\\-rugby\\-league\\-identity\\-john\\-hopoate/news\\-story/a63292b597df8fea7ff0c644f1a83904\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-06\\-25\\|website\\=NewsComAu\\|language\\=en}} Hopoate was knocked out in the second round of the bout. He said afterwards \"I got caught by a good punch and I can’t hide from that, I went to sleep and fell over\".{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.news.com.au/sport/boxing/paul\\-gallen\\-destroys\\-john\\-hopoate\\-in\\-boxing\\-bout\\-but\\-theres\\-no\\-bad\\-blood\\-between\\-the\\-pair/news\\-story/eb5704c34a83617e187013bd67c7b27d/\\|title\\=Paul Gallen destroys John Hopoate in boxing bout – but there's no bad blood between the pair\\|website\\=www.news.com.au}}", "" ]
U.S. House of Representatives ----------------------------- ### Campaigns In 1992, 28th District Congressman [Matthew F. McHugh](/wiki/Matthew_F._McHugh "Matthew F. McHugh") retired after 18 years in the House. Hinchey won the Democratic nomination for the district, which had been renumbered the 26th after New York lost three districts as a result of the 1990 census. He defeated Republican [Robert Moppert](/wiki/Robert_Moppert "Robert Moppert"), a county legislator in [Broome County](/wiki/Broome_County%2C_New_York "Broome County, New York") (which includes Binghamton) in the November general election by a 50% – 47% margin. In 1994, Hinchey faced Moppert again; in that year's [Republican Revolution](/wiki/Republican_Revolution "Republican Revolution") wave election, Hinchey won by only 1,200 votes.{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2017}} Hinchey's district was significantly reconfigured when New York lost two congressional seats after the [2000 census](/wiki/2000_United_States_census "2000 United States census"). Hinchey was threatened with dismemberment of his district or with having to run against a popular and well\-established [Republican](/wiki/United_States_Republican_Party "United States Republican Party") incumbent, either [Ben Gilman](/wiki/Benjamin_A._Gilman "Benjamin A. Gilman") or [Sherwood Boehlert](/wiki/Sherwood_Boehlert "Sherwood Boehlert").{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2017}} In the intense political infighting over the [redistricting](/wiki/Redistricting "Redistricting"), however, Hinchey emerged as one of the winners. To protect two younger Republican incumbents, the Republicans agreed to sacrifice the district of the 79\-year\-old Gilman, who chose to retire. In return, the Democrats accepted a district that threw together two of their incumbents, [Louise Slaughter](/wiki/Louise_Slaughter "Louise Slaughter") and [John LaFalce](/wiki/John_LaFalce "John LaFalce"), prompting the latter's retirement. Hinchey's district was renumbered the 22nd and wound [a narrow, contorted path](/wiki/Gerrymandering "Gerrymandering") across eight counties in the southern part of the state, from the [Hudson River](/wiki/Hudson_River "Hudson River") through the [Catskills](/wiki/Catskills "Catskills") and [Binghamton](/wiki/Binghamton%2C_New_York "Binghamton, New York") to [Ithaca](/wiki/Ithaca%2C_New_York "Ithaca, New York"), connecting the most politically liberal parts of the [Southern Tier](/wiki/Southern_Tier "Southern Tier") and [Borscht Belt](/wiki/Borscht_Belt "Borscht Belt") regions. This [gerrymandered](/wiki/Gerrymandering "Gerrymandering") configuration is similar to the former [New York's 26th congressional district](/wiki/New_York%27s_26th_congressional_district "New York's 26th congressional district").{{cite web\|url\=http://archive.fairvote.org/?page\=322\|title\=New York Redistricting 2000\|access\-date\=Dec 2, 2010\|publisher\=Voting and Democracy Research Center}} Hinchey ran in historically Republican areas throughout his career (his Assembly district was held by Republicans from 1915 until McHugh won it for the Democrats in 1975\). He is best categorized as having been a [progressive](/wiki/Progressivism_in_the_United_States "Progressivism in the United States") [populist](/wiki/Populism "Populism"). For example, he was one of the first and most outspoken opponents of the [2003 war in Iraq](/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq "2003 invasion of Iraq"), and one of only 11 co\-sponsors of the [Kucinich Resolution](/wiki/Dennis_Kucinich%23Bush_Impeachment_Articles_Introduced "Dennis Kucinich#Bush Impeachment Articles Introduced") to impeach [President Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush "George W. Bush").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill\=hr110\-1258 \|title\=H. Res. 1258 \[110th]: Impeaching George W. Bush, President of the United States, of high crimes and misdemeanors \|publisher\=GovTrack.us \|access\-date\=August 23, 2010}} He bridged the ideological gap with a reputation for supporting many measures to improve integrity in government,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.historycommons.org/entity.jsp?entity\=maurice\_hinchey\_1 \|title\=Maurice Hinchey \|publisher\=Historycommons.org \|access\-date\=August 23, 2010}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.vote\-usa.org/Intro.aspx?Id\=NYHincheyMauriceD \|title\=Maurice D. Hinchey, Currently Elected New York Rep. In Congress District 22 \|publisher\=Vote\-usa.org \|access\-date\=August 23, 2010}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.cspinet.org/integrity/watch/200605151\.html\#1 \|title\=Integrity in Science Watch \~ Newsroom \~ News from CSPI \|publisher\=Cspinet.org \|date\=May 15, 2006 \|access\-date\=August 23, 2010}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ahrp.org/infomail/04/07/15\.php \|title\=Cong. Hinchey calls for ouster of FDA Counsel – Sen. Bingaman \& Reed tell FDA: disclose all trial info \|publisher\=Ahrp.org \|access\-date\=August 23, 2010}} by popular (in New York) advocacy of strong environmental protection,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.riverkeeper.org/document.php/443/3706\_Congressma.pdf \|title\=Hinchey, New York House Colleagues Introduce Bill To Require Independent Safety Assessment Of Indian Point \|website\=www.riverkeeper.org \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070115062744/http://www.riverkeeper.org/document.php/443/3706\_Congressma.pdf \|archive\-date\=January 15, 2007}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.nylcv.org/sites/nylcv.civicactions.net/files/Maurice\_Hinchey\_pdf.PDF \|title\=Archived copy \|website\=www.nylcv.org \|access\-date\=17 January 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090203072250/http://www.nylcv.org/sites/nylcv.civicactions.net/files/Maurice\_Hinchey\_pdf.PDF \|archive\-date\=3 February 2009 \|url\-status\=dead}} and by diligent constituent services. He sat on the [Appropriations Committee](/wiki/U.S._House_Committee_on_Appropriations "U.S. House Committee on Appropriations"), a post that helped him to deliver federal support on programs important to his district.{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2017}} In 2010, Hinchey was elected to his tenth and final term, with a 52% to 48% margin over Republican George Phillips of Binghamton.{{cite news\|last\=Wind\|first\=Kyle\|url\=http://www.dailyfreeman.com/articles/2010/11/03/news/doc4cd0f478e67ba103523966\.txt\|journal\=Daily Freeman\|title\=22nd CD: Hinchey elected to 10th term (updated 6:33 a.m.)\|date\=November 3, 2010\|access\-date\=November 3, 2010}} ### Committee assignments * [Committee on Appropriations](/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Appropriations "United States House Committee on Appropriations"){{Citation needed\|date\=November 2017}} + [Subcommittee on Defense](/wiki/United_States_House_Appropriations_Subcommittee_on_Defense "United States House Appropriations Subcommittee on Defense"){{Citation needed\|date\=November 2017}} + [Subcommittee on Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies](/wiki/United_States_House_Appropriations_Subcommittee_on_Interior%2C_Environment%2C_and_Related_Agencies "United States House Appropriations Subcommittee on Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies"){{Citation needed\|date\=November 2017}} ### Caucus memberships * Congressional Narcotics Abuse and Control Caucus{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2017}} * Congressional Native American Caucus{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2017}} * [Congressional Progressive Caucus](/wiki/Congressional_Progressive_Caucus "Congressional Progressive Caucus").{{cite web\|url\=http://cpc.lee.house.gov/index.cfm?SectionID%3D2%26ParentID%3D0%26SectionTypeID%3D2%26SectionTree%3D2 \|title\=Congressional Progressive Caucus \|access\-date\=December 15, 2008 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081212012756/http://cpc.lee.house.gov/index.cfm?SectionID\=2\&ParentID\=0\&SectionTypeID\=2\&SectionTree\=2 \|archive\-date\=December 12, 2008 }} * Education Caucus{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2017}} * [International Conservation Caucus](/wiki/United_States_Congressional_International_Conservation_Caucus "United States Congressional International Conservation Caucus"){{Citation needed\|date\=November 2017}} * Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Caucus{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2017}} * Steel Caucus{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2017}} * Congressional Arts Caucus{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2017}} Hinchey was one of 31 members of the House who voted to uphold the objection to counting the 20 [electoral votes](/wiki/Electoral_College_%28United_States%29 "Electoral College (United States)") from [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio "Ohio") in the [2004 United States presidential election](/wiki/2004_United_States_presidential_election "2004 United States presidential election") put forth by Ohio [Rep. Tubbs Jones](/wiki/Stephanie_Tubbs_Jones "Stephanie Tubbs Jones") in order to encourage "a formal and legitimate debate about election irregularities".{{cite web\|url\=http://www.thegreenpapers.com/G04/EC\-Jones\-20050106\.phtml \|title\=Congresswoman Tubbs Jones' (Democrat Ohio) 6 January 2005 Objection to the Certification of Ohio Electoral Votes \|publisher\=Thegreenpapers.com \|access\-date\=August 23, 2010}}{{cite web\|url\=http://clerk.house.gov/evs/2005/roll007\.xml\|title\=Final vote results for roll call 7\|website\=clerk.house.gov\|access\-date\=18 December 2023}} Republican President George Bush had won the state by 118,457 votes after a recount.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/29/politics/ohio\-recount\-gives\-a\-smaller\-margin\-to\-bush.html\|title \= Ohio Recount Gives a Smaller Margin to Bush\|newspaper \= The New York Times\|date \= December 29, 2004\|last1 \= Salvato\|first1 \= Albert}} On June 18, 2008, he stated: "Should the people of the United States own refineries? Maybe so. Frankly, I think that's a good idea," but conceded it was unlikely the government would do so, and suggested putting national pressure on the oil companies.{{cite news\| url\=https://www.foxnews.com/story/rep\-hinchey\-steps\-off\-idea\-of\-oil\-refinery\-nationalization\|title\=Rep. Hinchey Steps Off Idea of Oil Refinery Nationalization\|access\-date\=December 2, 2010\|date\=June 19, 2008\|publisher\=Fox News.com}} ### Energy Hinchey was an original co\-sponsor of the Small Business Clean Energy Financing Act. The act contributed about $630 million in loans to environmentally friendly energy companies in the years between 2006 and 2009\.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.votesmart.org/speech\_detail.php?sc\_id\=608098\&keyword\=\&phrase\=\&contain\= \| title\=The Voter's Self Defense System }} Hinchey was a [solar energy](/wiki/Solar_energy "Solar energy") supporter; he helped organize the non\-profit organization called The Solar Energy Consortium (TSEC). TSEC supports the growth of a solar energy industry in New York, creating green jobs in the Hudson Valley area. Hinchey supported the Home Star Energy Retrofit Act. The bill supports green energy by offering rebates to homeowners who improve their homes to conserve more energy.{{cite web\|url\=http://hinchey.house.gov/index.php?option%3Dcom\_content%26view%3Darticle%26id%3D745%26Itemid%3D120 \|title\=Energy Independence \|access\-date\=November 24, 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123052224/http://hinchey.house.gov/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=745\&Itemid\=120 \|archive\-date\=November 23, 2010 }}, Energy Reform. In 2010 midterm elections, Hinchey clashed with his opponent over shale gas drilling and hydraulic fracturing in upstate New York. Hinchey was against gas drilling in this area.{{Cite web \|last\=Greenwire \|first\=MIKE SORAGHAN of \|title\=Fracking Pumps Up Pressure in Upstate N.Y. Congressional Race \|url\=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/gwire/2010/10/29/29greenwire\-fracking\-pumps\-up\-pressure\-in\-upstate\-ny\-congr\-48793\.html?scp\=2\&sq\=maurice%2520hinchey\&st\=cse \|access\-date\=2022\-10\-16 \|website\=archive.nytimes.com}} Also, the Obama administration refused a request by Hinchey to slow down drilling in New York and Pennsylvania.{{Cite web \|last\=Greenwire \|first\=MIKE SORAGHAN of \|title\=Obama's Enthusiasm for Gas Drilling Raises Eyebrows \|url\=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/gwire/2010/11/04/04greenwire\-obamas\-enthusiasm\-for\-gas\-drilling\-raises\-eyeb\-33483\.html?scp\=4\&sq\=maurice%2520hinchey\&st\=cse \|access\-date\=2022\-10\-16 \|website\=archive.nytimes.com}} Along with Rep. [Diana DeGette](/wiki/Diana_DeGette "Diana DeGette") (D\-Colo.) and Sen. [Bob Casey](/wiki/Bob_Casey_Jr. "Bob Casey Jr.") (D\-Pa.), Hinchey introduced legislation called the "[FRAC Act](/wiki/Fracturing_Responsibility_and_Awareness_of_Chemicals_Act "Fracturing Responsibility and Awareness of Chemicals Act")" which proposes lifting fracturing exemptions and forcing public disclosure of chemicals used. ### Environment Hinchey supported the Clean Air Act and did not approve of the Bush administration's decision to roll back the New Source Review (NSR) component of the Act, fearing it would result in increased acid rain and more pollution of the lakes of the area. Hinchey appeared in the 2010 documentary *[Gasland](/wiki/Gasland "Gasland")*, discussing the [FRAC Act](/wiki/FRAC_Act "FRAC Act"), which he co\-sponsored.{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2017}} ### Medical marijuana Hinchey introduced the Hinchey–Rohrabacher amendment in 2001, to prohibit the [Justice Department](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice "United States Department of Justice") from taking actions to interfere with the implementation of state [medical cannabis](/wiki/Medical_cannabis_in_the_United_States "Medical cannabis in the United States") laws.{{Cite web \|title\=Hinchey\-Rohrabacher amendment Archives \|url\=https://thecannabisindustry.org/tag/hinchey\-rohrabacher\-amendment/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-20 \|website\=The National Cannabis Industry Association \|language\=en\-US}} The amendment failed 152–273 upon its initial vote in 2003 and was defeated several more times in subsequent years up until Hinchey's 2012 retirement. In 2014, however, the amendment passed the House as the [Rohrabacher–Farr amendment](/wiki/Rohrabacher%E2%80%93Farr_amendment "Rohrabacher–Farr amendment") and was signed into law, providing supporters of medical cannabis with a key victory at the federal level.{{cite news\|last1\=Angell\|first1\=Tom\|title\=Federal Medical Marijuana Amendment Author Dies At 79\|url\=https://www.marijuanamoment.net/federal\-medical\-marijuana\-amendment\-author\-dies\-79/\|access\-date\=November 24, 2017\|work\=Marijuana Moment\|date\=November 24, 2017}} In 2009, the [U.S. House Committee on Appropriations](/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Appropriations "United States House Committee on Appropriations") approved adding a provision authored by Hinchey to the committee report on the fiscal 2010 Justice Department appropriations bill, requesting "clarification of the Department's policy regarding enforcement of federal laws and use of federal resources against individuals involved in medical marijuana activities."{{cite web\|author\=Hinchey, Maurice \|date\=June 9, 2009 \|title\=House panel approves Hinchey provision requesting clarification from Obama administration on medical marijuana policy (press release) \|publisher\=house.gov/hinchey \|url\=http://www.house.gov/list/press/ny22\_hinchey/morenews/060909MedicalMarijuanaAppropriationsReportLanguage.html \|access\-date\=June 16, 2009 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090628115018/http://www.house.gov/list/press/ny22\_hinchey/morenews/060909MedicalMarijuanaAppropriationsReportLanguage.html \|archive\-date\=June 28, 2009 }} {{cite web \|author\=U.S. House Committee on Appropriations \|date\=June 12, 2009 \|title\=Report 111\-149 on H.R. 2847 Commerce, Justice, and Related Agencies Appropriations Bill, 2010 \|publisher\=U.S. Government Printing Office \|pages\=66–7 \|url\=http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi\-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname\=111\_cong\_reports\&docid\=f:hr149\.111\.pdf \|access\-date\=June 16, 2009}} ### Abortion Hinchey supported a [pro\-choice](/wiki/Pro-choice "Pro-choice") position on abortion issues. He was a cosponsor of the [Freedom of Choice Act](/wiki/Freedom_of_Choice_Act "Freedom of Choice Act") and the [Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances Act](/wiki/Freedom_of_Access_to_Clinic_Entrances_Act "Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances Act"), which seeks federal protection of free access to women's clinics and he fought Republican attempts to reduce abortion rights.{{Cite web \|title\=The Voter's Self Defense System \|url\=http://votesmart.org/ \|access\-date\=2022\-10\-16 \|website\=Vote Smart}} Hinchey was also an advocate for family planning programs, including the [Title X](/wiki/Title_X "Title X") program. However, Hinchey opposed [late\-term abortions](/wiki/Late-term_abortions "Late-term abortions") except where necessary to protect the health of the mother. #### Other memberships * Board of Visitors for the U.S. Military Academy at West Point{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2017}} * Member, National Conference of State Legislators{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2017}} * National Guard and Reserve Components Congressional Members Organization{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2017}} * New York State Council of Governments{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2017}} * Member, board of directors, Ulster\-Greene ARC{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2017}} * Member, board of directors, WAMU Public Radio{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2017}} Member, Eastern Regional Conference of the Council of State Governments and chair of its Environment Committee ### Honors Hinchey was made an Officer of the [Order of Orange\-Nassau](/wiki/Order_of_Orange-Nassau "Order of Orange-Nassau") on September 4, 2009, by the Ambassador of the Netherlands in capacity of [Queen Beatrix](/wiki/Beatrix_of_the_Netherlands "Beatrix of the Netherlands"). He was awarded the Dutch royal order for his work to commemorate the quadricentennial anniversary of Henry Hudson's exploration and discovery of the river in New York and for Hinchey's efforts to strengthen the U.S.\-Netherlands relationship.[Queen of the Netherlands honors Hinchey](http://www.house.gov/list/press/ny22_hinchey/morenews/090109DutchRoyalMedal.html) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090907192443/http://www.house.gov/list/press/ny22\_hinchey/morenews/090109DutchRoyalMedal.html \|date\=September 7, 2009 }} – Announcement on the official U.S. government site Hinchey ### Later votes Representative Hinchey voted yes on H.R. 2433 Veterans Opportunity to Work Act of 2011\.{{cite web \| title\=H.R. 2433 (112th): Veterans Opportunity to Work Act of 2011 \-\- House Vote \#785 \-\- Oct 12, 2011 \| website\=GovTrack.us \| date\=12 October 2011 \| url\=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/112\-2011/h785 \| access\-date\=18 December 2023}} This law amended title 38, United States Code, to make certain improvements in the laws relating to the employment and training of veterans, and for other purposes.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill\=h112\-2433 \|title\=H.R. 2433: Veterans Opportunity to Work Act of 2011 \|publisher\=GovTrack.us \|access\-date\=November 21, 2011}} Hinchey, in August 2010, voted yes on the "Offshore Drilling and Other Energy Laws Amendments."{{cite web\|url\=http://www.vote\-smart.org \|title\=Project Vote Smart \|publisher\=Vote\-smart.org \|access\-date\=November 21, 2011 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111117053037/http://www.vote\-smart.org/ \|archive\-date\=November 17, 2011 }} This regulates or controls the use of oil and natural gas. It also increases safety on blowout preventers on oil wells, as well as upping the penalty for leaking or spilling of oil or "other hazardous substances" into the [Gulf of Mexico](/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico "Gulf of Mexico"). He also voted to repeal [Don't Ask, Don't Tell](/wiki/Don%27t_Ask%2C_Don%27t_Tell "Don't Ask, Don't Tell") in March 2010\. This makes it illegal to dismiss someone from the army for being homosexual, having engaged in or suspected of engaging in "homosexual acts."{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2017}} Another bill Hinchey voted yes on, the Aid to States for [Medicaid](/wiki/Medicaid "Medicaid"), Teacher Employment and Other purposes, passed in the House in August 2010\. This budgets $10 billion to the [Education Jobs Fund](/wiki/Education_Jobs_Fund "Education Jobs Fund") to be given to the states for teacher hiring and training. It also increases [Federal Medical Assistance Percentages](/wiki/Federal_Medical_Assistance_Percentages "Federal Medical Assistance Percentages") (FMAP) to states in need and lengthens the period for states to increase their FMAP. In November 2011, he voted to reaffirm "In God We Trust" as the national motto and "encourag\[e] the public display of the national motto in all public buildings, public schools, and other government institutions."{{cite web\|url\=http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill\=hc112\-13 \|title\=H. Con. Res. 13: Reaffirming "In God We Trust" \|publisher\=GovTrack.us \|access\-date\=November 22, 2011}} ### Speeches and public statements In a letter sent on November 10, 2010, to [Jeffrey Zients](/wiki/Jeffrey_Zients "Jeffrey Zients"), the acting director of the [Office of Management and Budget](/wiki/Office_of_Management_and_Budget "Office of Management and Budget"), Hinchey promoted the support of [Job Corps](/wiki/Job_Corps "Job Corps"). This program helps high\-school dropouts find careers and receive their high school diplomas or GED's. He asked Zients for increased federal funding for this recovery program in the 2012 budget. On October 18, 2010, Hinchey held a Medicare forum to reassure seniors about provisions in the health care bill that would or would not change parts of [Social Security](/wiki/Social_Security_%28United_States%29 "Social Security (United States)") and [Medicare](/wiki/Medicare_%28United_States%29 "Medicare (United States)"). He stated that the [health care reform bill](/wiki/Patient_Protection_and_Affordable_Care_Act "Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act") would increase the efficiency of Medicare; the Act would not cut into Medicare or social security funding.{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2017}} Hinchey wrote a letter to President [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama") in October 2010 regarding Social Security. In the letter, he described to Obama how he believes social security is important and urged the President to increase its budget in the upcoming year. ### Arctic offshore drilling In May 2010, Hinchey, along with two other Progressive democrats, [Lois Capps](/wiki/Lois_Capps "Lois Capps") and [Jay Inslee](/wiki/Jay_Inslee "Jay Inslee"), began a petition to ask Obama to delay [Shell](/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell "Royal Dutch Shell") from beginning exploratory drilling near [Alaska](/wiki/Alaska "Alaska"). They wanted to understand the causes of the [Gulf oil spills](/wiki/Gulf_oil_spills "Gulf oil spills") before Shell went ahead with [Offshore drilling](/wiki/Offshore_drilling "Offshore drilling"). Hinchey and the others were worried about the environmental effects if an accident were to occur; in the Arctic waters, a spill would not be contained as in the Gulf spill. Another priority was assuring native communities would not be harmed; since they often depend on fish and marine life to sustain them, their resources would be depleted if a spill happened.{{cite web \|last\=Geman \|first\=Ben \|url\=http://thehill.com/blogs/e2\-wire/677\-e2\-wire/98973\-house\-dems\-pressure\-white\-house\-to\-bock\-artic\-offshore\-drilling \|title\=House Dems Pressure White House to Block Arctic Offshore Drilling \|publisher\=Thehill.com \|date\=May 20, 2010 \|access\-date\=November 21, 2011 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629023118/http://thehill.com/blogs/e2\-wire/677\-e2\-wire/98973\-house\-dems\-pressure\-white\-house\-to\-bock\-artic\-offshore\-drilling \|archive\-date\=June 29, 2011 }} ### Bush administration's warrantless surveillance program After the *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times "New York Times")* first disclosed the existence of the Bush administration's warrantless surveillance program in late 2005, Hinchey was among the earliest members of Congress to criticize the program. Not long after, Hinchey—along with three other House Democrats—[John Lewis](/wiki/John_Lewis "John Lewis") of Georgia, [Henry Waxman](/wiki/Henry_Waxman "Henry Waxman") of California, and [Lynn Woolsey](/wiki/Lynn_Woolsey "Lynn Woolsey") of California—wrote the Justice Department, requesting an investigation to determine whether Bush administration violated any laws in authorizing and carrying out the program. As a result, the Justice Department's Office of Professional Responsibility (OPR) commenced an investigation.{{cite web \|url\=http://news.nationaljournal.com/articles/0718nj1\.htm \|title\= National Journal Magazine \- Top News\|website\=news.nationaljournal.com \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101115170639/http://news.nationaljournal.com/articles/0718nj1\.htm \|archive\-date\=November 15, 2010}} It was later disclosed the OPR investigation was closed when President Bush refused to allow the Justice Department attorneys who were to conduct the investigation to have the security clearances to conduct the inquiry. After a public outcry, President Bush capitulated and allowed the investigators to have their security clearances so they could conduct the inquiry.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/murray\-waas/justice\-department\-reopen\_b\_72527\.html \|title\=Murray Waas: Justice Department Reopens Probe Into Warrantless Domestic Spying \|publisher\=Huffingtonpost.com \|date\= December 7, 2010\|access\-date\=November 21, 2011}} [200px\|left\|thumb\|Retirement press conference\|alt\=A man at a lectern with his hand to his face. Behind him are the United States and New York flags and a wall with portrait paintings](/wiki/File:Maurice_Hinchey_at_retirement_press_conference.jpg "Maurice Hinchey at retirement press conference.jpg") ### 1994 gun incident In December 1994, Hinchey was issued a summons after X\-ray machines at [Washington National Airport](/wiki/Washington_National_Airport "Washington National Airport") found a loaded .32\-caliber handgun in his [carry\-on luggage](/wiki/Carry-on_luggage "Carry-on luggage") before he boarded a flight. Hinchey claims to have forgotten the handgun was in his luggage. He pleaded no contest and was fined.{{cite news\|last\=Solomon\|first\=John\|title\=New York Congressman Issued Summons for Loaded Gun at Airport\|url\=https://apnews.com/8e768e7dfa63d9ccf1a3b02041649367\|newspaper\=\[\[Associated Press]]\|date\=December 1, 1994\|access\-date\=November 29, 2017}} ### Retirement In January 2012, Hinchey held a [news conference](/wiki/News_conference "News conference") at [Senate House](/wiki/Senate_House_State_Historic_Site "Senate House State Historic Site") in Kingston, where he had announced his first run for Congress two decades earlier, to announce his retirement. "It's time for someone else", he told assembled reporters. His illness and age had been factors.{{cite news\|title\=Hinchey makes retirement from Congress official: 'It's time for someone else...'\|url\=http://www.recordonline.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID\=/20120119/NEWS/120119694\|newspaper\=\[\[Times\-Herald Record]]\|date\=January 19, 2012\|access\-date\=January 19, 2012}} He denied his decision to step down had anything to do with the state's pending redistricting but said he wanted to make his intentions clear before the process was completed. His departure was seen as making it easier for the state's Democratic Party to decide which member of its congressional delegation would have to give up their district since New York had to eliminate two of its seats that year.{{cite news\|last\=Hernandez\|first\=Raymond\|title\=Hudson Valley Democrat Won't Seek 11th Term in Congress\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/19/nyregion/hinchey\-new\-york\-democrat\-wont\-seek\-re\-election\-to\-congress.html\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|date\=January 19, 2012\|access\-date\=January 19, 2012}} Hinchey's seat was one of two, the other being that of newly elected Republican [Bob Turner](/wiki/Bob_L._Turner "Bob L. Turner"), eliminated in redistricting.
[ "U.S. House of Representatives\n-----------------------------", "### Campaigns", "In 1992, 28th District Congressman [Matthew F. McHugh](/wiki/Matthew_F._McHugh \"Matthew F. McHugh\") retired after 18 years in the House. Hinchey won the Democratic nomination for the district, which had been renumbered the 26th after New York lost three districts as a result of the 1990 census. He defeated Republican [Robert Moppert](/wiki/Robert_Moppert \"Robert Moppert\"), a county legislator in [Broome County](/wiki/Broome_County%2C_New_York \"Broome County, New York\") (which includes Binghamton) in the November general election by a 50% – 47% margin. In 1994, Hinchey faced Moppert again; in that year's [Republican Revolution](/wiki/Republican_Revolution \"Republican Revolution\") wave election, Hinchey won by only 1,200 votes.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2017}}", "Hinchey's district was significantly reconfigured when New York lost two congressional seats after the [2000 census](/wiki/2000_United_States_census \"2000 United States census\"). Hinchey was threatened with dismemberment of his district or with having to run against a popular and well\\-established [Republican](/wiki/United_States_Republican_Party \"United States Republican Party\") incumbent, either [Ben Gilman](/wiki/Benjamin_A._Gilman \"Benjamin A. Gilman\") or [Sherwood Boehlert](/wiki/Sherwood_Boehlert \"Sherwood Boehlert\").{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2017}} In the intense political infighting over the [redistricting](/wiki/Redistricting \"Redistricting\"), however, Hinchey emerged as one of the winners. To protect two younger Republican incumbents, the Republicans agreed to sacrifice the district of the 79\\-year\\-old Gilman, who chose to retire. In return, the Democrats accepted a district that threw together two of their incumbents, [Louise Slaughter](/wiki/Louise_Slaughter \"Louise Slaughter\") and [John LaFalce](/wiki/John_LaFalce \"John LaFalce\"), prompting the latter's retirement. Hinchey's district was renumbered the 22nd and wound [a narrow, contorted path](/wiki/Gerrymandering \"Gerrymandering\") across eight counties in the southern part of the state, from the [Hudson River](/wiki/Hudson_River \"Hudson River\") through the [Catskills](/wiki/Catskills \"Catskills\") and [Binghamton](/wiki/Binghamton%2C_New_York \"Binghamton, New York\") to [Ithaca](/wiki/Ithaca%2C_New_York \"Ithaca, New York\"), connecting the most politically liberal parts of the [Southern Tier](/wiki/Southern_Tier \"Southern Tier\") and [Borscht Belt](/wiki/Borscht_Belt \"Borscht Belt\") regions. This [gerrymandered](/wiki/Gerrymandering \"Gerrymandering\") configuration is similar to the former [New York's 26th congressional district](/wiki/New_York%27s_26th_congressional_district \"New York's 26th congressional district\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://archive.fairvote.org/?page\\=322\\|title\\=New York Redistricting 2000\\|access\\-date\\=Dec 2, 2010\\|publisher\\=Voting and Democracy Research Center}}", "Hinchey ran in historically Republican areas throughout his career (his Assembly district was held by Republicans from 1915 until McHugh won it for the Democrats in 1975\\). He is best categorized as having been a [progressive](/wiki/Progressivism_in_the_United_States \"Progressivism in the United States\") [populist](/wiki/Populism \"Populism\"). For example, he was one of the first and most outspoken opponents of the [2003 war in Iraq](/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq \"2003 invasion of Iraq\"), and one of only 11 co\\-sponsors of the [Kucinich Resolution](/wiki/Dennis_Kucinich%23Bush_Impeachment_Articles_Introduced \"Dennis Kucinich#Bush Impeachment Articles Introduced\") to impeach [President Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush \"George W. Bush\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill\\=hr110\\-1258 \\|title\\=H. Res. 1258 \\[110th]: Impeaching George W. Bush, President of the United States, of high crimes and misdemeanors \\|publisher\\=GovTrack.us \\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2010}} He bridged the ideological gap with a reputation for supporting many measures to improve integrity in government,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.historycommons.org/entity.jsp?entity\\=maurice\\_hinchey\\_1 \\|title\\=Maurice Hinchey \\|publisher\\=Historycommons.org \\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2010}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.vote\\-usa.org/Intro.aspx?Id\\=NYHincheyMauriceD \\|title\\=Maurice D. Hinchey, Currently Elected New York Rep. In Congress District 22 \\|publisher\\=Vote\\-usa.org \\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2010}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cspinet.org/integrity/watch/200605151\\.html\\#1 \\|title\\=Integrity in Science Watch \\~ Newsroom \\~ News from CSPI \\|publisher\\=Cspinet.org \\|date\\=May 15, 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2010}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ahrp.org/infomail/04/07/15\\.php \\|title\\=Cong. Hinchey calls for ouster of FDA Counsel – Sen. Bingaman \\& Reed tell FDA: disclose all trial info \\|publisher\\=Ahrp.org \\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2010}} by popular (in New York) advocacy of strong environmental protection,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.riverkeeper.org/document.php/443/3706\\_Congressma.pdf \\|title\\=Hinchey, New York House Colleagues Introduce Bill To Require Independent Safety Assessment Of Indian Point \\|website\\=www.riverkeeper.org \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070115062744/http://www.riverkeeper.org/document.php/443/3706\\_Congressma.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=January 15, 2007}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.nylcv.org/sites/nylcv.civicactions.net/files/Maurice\\_Hinchey\\_pdf.PDF \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|website\\=www.nylcv.org \\|access\\-date\\=17 January 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090203072250/http://www.nylcv.org/sites/nylcv.civicactions.net/files/Maurice\\_Hinchey\\_pdf.PDF \\|archive\\-date\\=3 February 2009 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and by diligent constituent services. He sat on the [Appropriations Committee](/wiki/U.S._House_Committee_on_Appropriations \"U.S. House Committee on Appropriations\"), a post that helped him to deliver federal support on programs important to his district.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2017}}", "In 2010, Hinchey was elected to his tenth and final term, with a 52% to 48% margin over Republican George Phillips of Binghamton.{{cite news\\|last\\=Wind\\|first\\=Kyle\\|url\\=http://www.dailyfreeman.com/articles/2010/11/03/news/doc4cd0f478e67ba103523966\\.txt\\|journal\\=Daily Freeman\\|title\\=22nd CD: Hinchey elected to 10th term (updated 6:33 a.m.)\\|date\\=November 3, 2010\\|access\\-date\\=November 3, 2010}}", "### Committee assignments", "* [Committee on Appropriations](/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Appropriations \"United States House Committee on Appropriations\"){{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2017}}\n\t+ [Subcommittee on Defense](/wiki/United_States_House_Appropriations_Subcommittee_on_Defense \"United States House Appropriations Subcommittee on Defense\"){{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2017}}\n\t+ [Subcommittee on Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies](/wiki/United_States_House_Appropriations_Subcommittee_on_Interior%2C_Environment%2C_and_Related_Agencies \"United States House Appropriations Subcommittee on Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies\"){{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2017}}", "### Caucus memberships", "* Congressional Narcotics Abuse and Control Caucus{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2017}}\n* Congressional Native American Caucus{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2017}}\n* [Congressional Progressive Caucus](/wiki/Congressional_Progressive_Caucus \"Congressional Progressive Caucus\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://cpc.lee.house.gov/index.cfm?SectionID%3D2%26ParentID%3D0%26SectionTypeID%3D2%26SectionTree%3D2 \\|title\\=Congressional Progressive Caucus \\|access\\-date\\=December 15, 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081212012756/http://cpc.lee.house.gov/index.cfm?SectionID\\=2\\&ParentID\\=0\\&SectionTypeID\\=2\\&SectionTree\\=2 \\|archive\\-date\\=December 12, 2008 }}\n* Education Caucus{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2017}}\n* [International Conservation Caucus](/wiki/United_States_Congressional_International_Conservation_Caucus \"United States Congressional International Conservation Caucus\"){{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2017}}\n* Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Caucus{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2017}}\n* Steel Caucus{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2017}}\n* Congressional Arts Caucus{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2017}}", "Hinchey was one of 31 members of the House who voted to uphold the objection to counting the 20 [electoral votes](/wiki/Electoral_College_%28United_States%29 \"Electoral College (United States)\") from [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio \"Ohio\") in the [2004 United States presidential election](/wiki/2004_United_States_presidential_election \"2004 United States presidential election\") put forth by Ohio [Rep. Tubbs Jones](/wiki/Stephanie_Tubbs_Jones \"Stephanie Tubbs Jones\") in order to encourage \"a formal and legitimate debate about election irregularities\".{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.thegreenpapers.com/G04/EC\\-Jones\\-20050106\\.phtml \\|title\\=Congresswoman Tubbs Jones' (Democrat Ohio) 6 January 2005 Objection to the Certification of Ohio Electoral Votes \\|publisher\\=Thegreenpapers.com \\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2010}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://clerk.house.gov/evs/2005/roll007\\.xml\\|title\\=Final vote results for roll call 7\\|website\\=clerk.house.gov\\|access\\-date\\=18 December 2023}} Republican President George Bush had won the state by 118,457 votes after a recount.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/29/politics/ohio\\-recount\\-gives\\-a\\-smaller\\-margin\\-to\\-bush.html\\|title \\= Ohio Recount Gives a Smaller Margin to Bush\\|newspaper \\= The New York Times\\|date \\= December 29, 2004\\|last1 \\= Salvato\\|first1 \\= Albert}}", "On June 18, 2008, he stated: \"Should the people of the United States own refineries? Maybe so. Frankly, I think that's a good idea,\" but conceded it was unlikely the government would do so, and suggested putting national pressure on the oil companies.{{cite news\\| url\\=https://www.foxnews.com/story/rep\\-hinchey\\-steps\\-off\\-idea\\-of\\-oil\\-refinery\\-nationalization\\|title\\=Rep. Hinchey Steps Off Idea of Oil Refinery Nationalization\\|access\\-date\\=December 2, 2010\\|date\\=June 19, 2008\\|publisher\\=Fox News.com}}", "### Energy", "Hinchey was an original co\\-sponsor of the Small Business Clean Energy Financing Act. The act contributed about $630 million in loans to environmentally friendly energy companies in the years between 2006 and 2009\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.votesmart.org/speech\\_detail.php?sc\\_id\\=608098\\&keyword\\=\\&phrase\\=\\&contain\\= \\| title\\=The Voter's Self Defense System }} Hinchey was a [solar energy](/wiki/Solar_energy \"Solar energy\") supporter; he helped organize the non\\-profit organization called The Solar Energy Consortium (TSEC). TSEC supports the growth of a solar energy industry in New York, creating green jobs in the Hudson Valley area. Hinchey supported the Home Star Energy Retrofit Act. The bill supports green energy by offering rebates to homeowners who improve their homes to conserve more energy.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://hinchey.house.gov/index.php?option%3Dcom\\_content%26view%3Darticle%26id%3D745%26Itemid%3D120 \\|title\\=Energy Independence \\|access\\-date\\=November 24, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123052224/http://hinchey.house.gov/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=745\\&Itemid\\=120 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 23, 2010 }}, Energy Reform.", "In 2010 midterm elections, Hinchey clashed with his opponent over shale gas drilling and hydraulic fracturing in upstate New York. Hinchey was against gas drilling in this area.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Greenwire \\|first\\=MIKE SORAGHAN of \\|title\\=Fracking Pumps Up Pressure in Upstate N.Y. Congressional Race \\|url\\=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/gwire/2010/10/29/29greenwire\\-fracking\\-pumps\\-up\\-pressure\\-in\\-upstate\\-ny\\-congr\\-48793\\.html?scp\\=2\\&sq\\=maurice%2520hinchey\\&st\\=cse \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-16 \\|website\\=archive.nytimes.com}} Also, the Obama administration refused a request by Hinchey to slow down drilling in New York and Pennsylvania.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Greenwire \\|first\\=MIKE SORAGHAN of \\|title\\=Obama's Enthusiasm for Gas Drilling Raises Eyebrows \\|url\\=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/gwire/2010/11/04/04greenwire\\-obamas\\-enthusiasm\\-for\\-gas\\-drilling\\-raises\\-eyeb\\-33483\\.html?scp\\=4\\&sq\\=maurice%2520hinchey\\&st\\=cse \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-16 \\|website\\=archive.nytimes.com}} Along with Rep. [Diana DeGette](/wiki/Diana_DeGette \"Diana DeGette\") (D\\-Colo.) and Sen. [Bob Casey](/wiki/Bob_Casey_Jr. \"Bob Casey Jr.\") (D\\-Pa.), Hinchey introduced legislation called the \"[FRAC Act](/wiki/Fracturing_Responsibility_and_Awareness_of_Chemicals_Act \"Fracturing Responsibility and Awareness of Chemicals Act\")\" which proposes lifting fracturing exemptions and forcing public disclosure of chemicals used.", "### Environment", "Hinchey supported the Clean Air Act and did not approve of the Bush administration's decision to roll back the New Source Review (NSR) component of the Act, fearing it would result in increased acid rain and more pollution of the lakes of the area.", "Hinchey appeared in the 2010 documentary *[Gasland](/wiki/Gasland \"Gasland\")*, discussing the [FRAC Act](/wiki/FRAC_Act \"FRAC Act\"), which he co\\-sponsored.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2017}}", "### Medical marijuana", "Hinchey introduced the Hinchey–Rohrabacher amendment in 2001, to prohibit the [Justice Department](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice \"United States Department of Justice\") from taking actions to interfere with the implementation of state [medical cannabis](/wiki/Medical_cannabis_in_the_United_States \"Medical cannabis in the United States\") laws.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Hinchey\\-Rohrabacher amendment Archives \\|url\\=https://thecannabisindustry.org/tag/hinchey\\-rohrabacher\\-amendment/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-20 \\|website\\=The National Cannabis Industry Association \\|language\\=en\\-US}} The amendment failed 152–273 upon its initial vote in 2003 and was defeated several more times in subsequent years up until Hinchey's 2012 retirement. In 2014, however, the amendment passed the House as the [Rohrabacher–Farr amendment](/wiki/Rohrabacher%E2%80%93Farr_amendment \"Rohrabacher–Farr amendment\") and was signed into law, providing supporters of medical cannabis with a key victory at the federal level.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Angell\\|first1\\=Tom\\|title\\=Federal Medical Marijuana Amendment Author Dies At 79\\|url\\=https://www.marijuanamoment.net/federal\\-medical\\-marijuana\\-amendment\\-author\\-dies\\-79/\\|access\\-date\\=November 24, 2017\\|work\\=Marijuana Moment\\|date\\=November 24, 2017}}", "In 2009, the [U.S. House Committee on Appropriations](/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Appropriations \"United States House Committee on Appropriations\") approved adding a provision authored by Hinchey to the committee report on the fiscal 2010 Justice Department appropriations bill, requesting \"clarification of the Department's policy regarding enforcement of federal laws and use of federal resources against individuals involved in medical marijuana activities.\"{{cite web\\|author\\=Hinchey, Maurice \\|date\\=June 9, 2009 \\|title\\=House panel approves Hinchey provision requesting clarification from Obama administration on medical marijuana policy (press release) \\|publisher\\=house.gov/hinchey \\|url\\=http://www.house.gov/list/press/ny22\\_hinchey/morenews/060909MedicalMarijuanaAppropriationsReportLanguage.html \\|access\\-date\\=June 16, 2009 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090628115018/http://www.house.gov/list/press/ny22\\_hinchey/morenews/060909MedicalMarijuanaAppropriationsReportLanguage.html \\|archive\\-date\\=June 28, 2009 }}", "{{cite web \\|author\\=U.S. House Committee on Appropriations \\|date\\=June 12, 2009 \\|title\\=Report 111\\-149 on H.R. 2847 Commerce, Justice, and Related Agencies Appropriations Bill, 2010 \\|publisher\\=U.S. Government Printing Office \\|pages\\=66–7 \\|url\\=http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi\\-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname\\=111\\_cong\\_reports\\&docid\\=f:hr149\\.111\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=June 16, 2009}}", "### Abortion", "Hinchey supported a [pro\\-choice](/wiki/Pro-choice \"Pro-choice\") position on abortion issues. He was a cosponsor of the [Freedom of Choice Act](/wiki/Freedom_of_Choice_Act \"Freedom of Choice Act\") and the [Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances Act](/wiki/Freedom_of_Access_to_Clinic_Entrances_Act \"Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances Act\"), which seeks federal protection of free access to women's clinics and he fought Republican attempts to reduce abortion rights.{{Cite web \\|title\\=The Voter's Self Defense System \\|url\\=http://votesmart.org/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-16 \\|website\\=Vote Smart}} Hinchey was also an advocate for family planning programs, including the [Title X](/wiki/Title_X \"Title X\") program.", "However, Hinchey opposed [late\\-term abortions](/wiki/Late-term_abortions \"Late-term abortions\") except where necessary to protect the health of the mother.", "#### Other memberships", "* Board of Visitors for the U.S. Military Academy at West Point{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2017}}\n* Member, National Conference of State Legislators{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2017}}\n* National Guard and Reserve Components Congressional Members Organization{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2017}}\n* New York State Council of Governments{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2017}}\n* Member, board of directors, Ulster\\-Greene ARC{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2017}}\n* Member, board of directors, WAMU Public Radio{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2017}}\nMember, Eastern Regional Conference of the Council of State Governments and chair of its Environment Committee", "### Honors", "Hinchey was made an Officer of the [Order of Orange\\-Nassau](/wiki/Order_of_Orange-Nassau \"Order of Orange-Nassau\") on September 4, 2009, by the Ambassador of the Netherlands in capacity of [Queen Beatrix](/wiki/Beatrix_of_the_Netherlands \"Beatrix of the Netherlands\"). He was awarded the Dutch royal order for his work to commemorate the quadricentennial anniversary of Henry Hudson's exploration and discovery of the river in New York and for Hinchey's efforts to strengthen the U.S.\\-Netherlands relationship.[Queen of the Netherlands honors Hinchey](http://www.house.gov/list/press/ny22_hinchey/morenews/090109DutchRoyalMedal.html) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090907192443/http://www.house.gov/list/press/ny22\\_hinchey/morenews/090109DutchRoyalMedal.html \\|date\\=September 7, 2009 }} – Announcement on the official U.S. government site Hinchey", "### Later votes", "Representative Hinchey voted yes on H.R. 2433\nVeterans Opportunity to Work Act of 2011\\.{{cite web \\| title\\=H.R. 2433 (112th): Veterans Opportunity to Work Act of 2011 \\-\\- House Vote \\#785 \\-\\- Oct 12, 2011 \\| website\\=GovTrack.us \\| date\\=12 October 2011 \\| url\\=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/112\\-2011/h785 \\| access\\-date\\=18 December 2023}} This law amended title 38, United States Code, to make certain improvements in the laws relating to the employment and training of veterans, and for other purposes.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill\\=h112\\-2433 \\|title\\=H.R. 2433: Veterans Opportunity to Work Act of 2011 \\|publisher\\=GovTrack.us \\|access\\-date\\=November 21, 2011}}", "Hinchey, in August 2010, voted yes on the \"Offshore Drilling and Other Energy Laws Amendments.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.vote\\-smart.org \\|title\\=Project Vote Smart \\|publisher\\=Vote\\-smart.org \\|access\\-date\\=November 21, 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111117053037/http://www.vote\\-smart.org/ \\|archive\\-date\\=November 17, 2011 }} This regulates or controls the use of oil and natural gas. It also increases safety on blowout preventers on oil wells, as well as upping the penalty for leaking or spilling of oil or \"other hazardous substances\" into the [Gulf of Mexico](/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico \"Gulf of Mexico\"). He also voted to repeal [Don't Ask, Don't Tell](/wiki/Don%27t_Ask%2C_Don%27t_Tell \"Don't Ask, Don't Tell\") in March 2010\\. This makes it illegal to dismiss someone from the army for being homosexual, having engaged in or suspected of engaging in \"homosexual acts.\"{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2017}}", "Another bill Hinchey voted yes on, the Aid to States for [Medicaid](/wiki/Medicaid \"Medicaid\"), Teacher Employment and Other purposes, passed in the House in August 2010\\. This budgets $10 billion to the [Education Jobs Fund](/wiki/Education_Jobs_Fund \"Education Jobs Fund\") to be given to the states for teacher hiring and training. It also increases [Federal Medical Assistance Percentages](/wiki/Federal_Medical_Assistance_Percentages \"Federal Medical Assistance Percentages\") (FMAP) to states in need and lengthens the period for states to increase their FMAP.", "In November 2011, he voted to reaffirm \"In God We Trust\" as the national motto and \"encourag\\[e] the public display of the national motto in all public buildings, public schools, and other government institutions.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill\\=hc112\\-13 \\|title\\=H. Con. Res. 13: Reaffirming \"In God We Trust\" \\|publisher\\=GovTrack.us \\|access\\-date\\=November 22, 2011}}", "### Speeches and public statements", "In a letter sent on November 10, 2010, to [Jeffrey Zients](/wiki/Jeffrey_Zients \"Jeffrey Zients\"), the acting director of the [Office of Management and Budget](/wiki/Office_of_Management_and_Budget \"Office of Management and Budget\"), Hinchey promoted the support of [Job Corps](/wiki/Job_Corps \"Job Corps\"). This program helps high\\-school dropouts find careers and receive their high school diplomas or GED's. He asked Zients for increased federal funding for this recovery program in the 2012 budget.", "On October 18, 2010, Hinchey held a Medicare forum to reassure seniors about provisions in the health care bill that would or would not change parts of [Social Security](/wiki/Social_Security_%28United_States%29 \"Social Security (United States)\") \nand [Medicare](/wiki/Medicare_%28United_States%29 \"Medicare (United States)\"). He stated that the [health care reform bill](/wiki/Patient_Protection_and_Affordable_Care_Act \"Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act\") would increase the efficiency of Medicare; the Act would not cut into Medicare or social security funding.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2017}}", "Hinchey wrote a letter to President [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\") in October 2010 regarding Social Security. In the letter, he described to Obama how he believes social security is important and urged the President to increase its budget in the upcoming year.", "### Arctic offshore drilling", "In May 2010, Hinchey, along with two other Progressive democrats, [Lois Capps](/wiki/Lois_Capps \"Lois Capps\") and [Jay Inslee](/wiki/Jay_Inslee \"Jay Inslee\"), began a petition to ask Obama to delay [Shell](/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell \"Royal Dutch Shell\") from beginning exploratory drilling near [Alaska](/wiki/Alaska \"Alaska\"). They wanted to understand the causes of the [Gulf oil spills](/wiki/Gulf_oil_spills \"Gulf oil spills\") before Shell went ahead with [Offshore drilling](/wiki/Offshore_drilling \"Offshore drilling\"). Hinchey and the others were worried about the environmental effects if an accident were to occur; in the Arctic waters, a spill would not be contained as in the Gulf spill. Another priority was assuring native communities would not be harmed; since they often depend on fish and marine life to sustain them, their resources would be depleted if a spill happened.{{cite web \\|last\\=Geman \\|first\\=Ben \\|url\\=http://thehill.com/blogs/e2\\-wire/677\\-e2\\-wire/98973\\-house\\-dems\\-pressure\\-white\\-house\\-to\\-bock\\-artic\\-offshore\\-drilling \\|title\\=House Dems Pressure White House to Block Arctic Offshore Drilling \\|publisher\\=Thehill.com \\|date\\=May 20, 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=November 21, 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629023118/http://thehill.com/blogs/e2\\-wire/677\\-e2\\-wire/98973\\-house\\-dems\\-pressure\\-white\\-house\\-to\\-bock\\-artic\\-offshore\\-drilling \\|archive\\-date\\=June 29, 2011 }}", "### Bush administration's warrantless surveillance program", "After the *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times \"New York Times\")* first disclosed the existence of the Bush administration's warrantless surveillance program in late 2005, Hinchey was among the earliest members of Congress to criticize the program. Not long after, Hinchey—along with three other House Democrats—[John Lewis](/wiki/John_Lewis \"John Lewis\") of Georgia, [Henry Waxman](/wiki/Henry_Waxman \"Henry Waxman\") of California, and [Lynn Woolsey](/wiki/Lynn_Woolsey \"Lynn Woolsey\") of California—wrote the Justice Department, requesting an investigation to determine whether Bush administration violated any laws in authorizing and carrying out the program. As a result, the Justice Department's Office of Professional Responsibility (OPR) commenced an investigation.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://news.nationaljournal.com/articles/0718nj1\\.htm \\|title\\= National Journal Magazine \\- Top News\\|website\\=news.nationaljournal.com \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101115170639/http://news.nationaljournal.com/articles/0718nj1\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=November 15, 2010}} It was later disclosed the OPR investigation was closed when President Bush refused to allow the Justice Department attorneys who were to conduct the investigation to have the security clearances to conduct the inquiry. After a public outcry, President Bush capitulated and allowed the investigators to have their security clearances so they could conduct the inquiry.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/murray\\-waas/justice\\-department\\-reopen\\_b\\_72527\\.html \\|title\\=Murray Waas: Justice Department Reopens Probe Into Warrantless Domestic Spying \\|publisher\\=Huffingtonpost.com \\|date\\= December 7, 2010\\|access\\-date\\=November 21, 2011}}\n[200px\\|left\\|thumb\\|Retirement press conference\\|alt\\=A man at a lectern with his hand to his face. Behind him are the United States and New York flags and a wall with portrait paintings](/wiki/File:Maurice_Hinchey_at_retirement_press_conference.jpg \"Maurice Hinchey at retirement press conference.jpg\")", "### 1994 gun incident", "In December 1994, Hinchey was issued a summons after X\\-ray machines at [Washington National Airport](/wiki/Washington_National_Airport \"Washington National Airport\") found a loaded .32\\-caliber handgun in his [carry\\-on luggage](/wiki/Carry-on_luggage \"Carry-on luggage\") before he boarded a flight. Hinchey claims to have forgotten the handgun was in his luggage. He pleaded no contest and was fined.{{cite news\\|last\\=Solomon\\|first\\=John\\|title\\=New York Congressman Issued Summons for Loaded Gun at Airport\\|url\\=https://apnews.com/8e768e7dfa63d9ccf1a3b02041649367\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]]\\|date\\=December 1, 1994\\|access\\-date\\=November 29, 2017}}", "### Retirement", "In January 2012, Hinchey held a [news conference](/wiki/News_conference \"News conference\") at [Senate House](/wiki/Senate_House_State_Historic_Site \"Senate House State Historic Site\") in Kingston, where he had announced his first run for Congress two decades earlier, to announce his retirement. \"It's time for someone else\", he told assembled reporters. His illness and age had been factors.{{cite news\\|title\\=Hinchey makes retirement from Congress official: 'It's time for someone else...'\\|url\\=http://www.recordonline.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID\\=/20120119/NEWS/120119694\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Times\\-Herald Record]]\\|date\\=January 19, 2012\\|access\\-date\\=January 19, 2012}}", "He denied his decision to step down had anything to do with the state's pending redistricting but said he wanted to make his intentions clear before the process was completed. His departure was seen as making it easier for the state's Democratic Party to decide which member of its congressional delegation would have to give up their district since New York had to eliminate two of its seats that year.{{cite news\\|last\\=Hernandez\\|first\\=Raymond\\|title\\=Hudson Valley Democrat Won't Seek 11th Term in Congress\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/19/nyregion/hinchey\\-new\\-york\\-democrat\\-wont\\-seek\\-re\\-election\\-to\\-congress.html\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=January 19, 2012\\|access\\-date\\=January 19, 2012}} Hinchey's seat was one of two, the other being that of newly elected Republican [Bob Turner](/wiki/Bob_L._Turner \"Bob L. Turner\"), eliminated in redistricting.", "" ]
Life and work ------------- Davis was born in [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham "Birmingham"). He moved from Birmingham to study photography at [Manchester Polytechnic](/wiki/Manchester_Metropolitan_University "Manchester Metropolitan University") (now Manchester Metropolitan University) in 1988\. Whilst living in the city, he quickly started documenting life in the inner\-city area of [Hulme](/wiki/Hulme "Hulme"), its huge brutalist inspired concrete [Crescents](/wiki/Hulme_Crescents "Hulme Crescents"), as well as its many characters that inhabited the flats, many of which were squatters. Davis also photographed stars of the [Madchester](/wiki/Madchester "Madchester") scene as well as taking early portraits of comedians [Steve Coogan](/wiki/Steve_Coogan "Steve Coogan") and [Caroline Aherne](/wiki/Caroline_Aherne "Caroline Aherne") along with the poet [Lemn Sissay](/wiki/Lemn_Sissay "Lemn Sissay"). Davis also photographed [Nirvana](/wiki/Nirvana_%28band%29 "Nirvana (band)") live on their first tour of the United Kingdom in 1989, photographs of which were used in the [BBC Two](/wiki/BBC_Two "BBC Two") documentary film, *[When Nirvana Came to Britain](/wiki/When_Nirvana_Came_to_Britain "When Nirvana Came to Britain")*. In the early 1990s Davis teamed up with author [Steve Redhead](/wiki/Steve_Redhead "Steve Redhead") to work on a project called *Football With Attitude*, his photographs making the links between music, football and fashion. More recently, Davis made a series of portraits of Mancunians under the [Mancunian Way](/wiki/Mancunian_Way "Mancunian Way"), a document of life around [Gravelly Hill Interchange](/wiki/Gravelly_Hill_Interchange "Gravelly Hill Interchange"), the original [spaghetti junction](/wiki/Spaghetti_junction "Spaghetti junction"), in Birmingham and a set of photographs capturing life in the coastal resort of [Morecambe](/wiki/Morecambe "Morecambe").
[ "Life and work\n-------------", "Davis was born in [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham \"Birmingham\"). He moved from Birmingham to study photography at [Manchester Polytechnic](/wiki/Manchester_Metropolitan_University \"Manchester Metropolitan University\") (now Manchester Metropolitan University) in 1988\\. Whilst living in the city, he quickly started documenting life in the inner\\-city area of [Hulme](/wiki/Hulme \"Hulme\"), its huge brutalist inspired concrete [Crescents](/wiki/Hulme_Crescents \"Hulme Crescents\"), as well as its many characters that inhabited the flats, many of which were squatters.", "Davis also photographed stars of the [Madchester](/wiki/Madchester \"Madchester\") scene as well as taking early portraits of comedians [Steve Coogan](/wiki/Steve_Coogan \"Steve Coogan\") and [Caroline Aherne](/wiki/Caroline_Aherne \"Caroline Aherne\") along with the poet [Lemn Sissay](/wiki/Lemn_Sissay \"Lemn Sissay\").", "Davis also photographed [Nirvana](/wiki/Nirvana_%28band%29 \"Nirvana (band)\") live on their first tour of the United Kingdom in 1989, photographs of which were used in the [BBC Two](/wiki/BBC_Two \"BBC Two\") documentary film, *[When Nirvana Came to Britain](/wiki/When_Nirvana_Came_to_Britain \"When Nirvana Came to Britain\")*.", "In the early 1990s Davis teamed up with author [Steve Redhead](/wiki/Steve_Redhead \"Steve Redhead\") to work on a project called *Football With Attitude*, his photographs making the links between music, football and fashion.", "More recently, Davis made a series of portraits of Mancunians under the [Mancunian Way](/wiki/Mancunian_Way \"Mancunian Way\"), a document of life around [Gravelly Hill Interchange](/wiki/Gravelly_Hill_Interchange \"Gravelly Hill Interchange\"), the original [spaghetti junction](/wiki/Spaghetti_junction \"Spaghetti junction\"), in Birmingham and a set of photographs capturing life in the coastal resort of [Morecambe](/wiki/Morecambe \"Morecambe\").", "" ]
Playing career -------------- As a youth Comrie attended and played junior hockey for [Stone Bridge High School](/wiki/Stone_Bridge_High_School "Stone Bridge High School") in Ashburn, Virginia. Comrie played major junior hockey in the [Ontario Hockey League](/wiki/Ontario_Hockey_League "Ontario Hockey League") (OHL) with the [Saginaw Spirit](/wiki/Saginaw_Spirit "Saginaw Spirit") and the [Guelph Storm](/wiki/Guelph_Storm "Guelph Storm"). On April 13, 2010, the [Florida Panthers](/wiki/Florida_Panthers "Florida Panthers") signed Comrie to a three\-year entry\-level contract.{{cite web\| url \= http://panthers.nhl.com/club/news.htm?id\=525298 \| title \= Panthers sign draft pick Comrie \| publisher \= \[\[Florida Panthers]] \| date \= 2010\-04\-13 \| accessdate \= 2010\-04\-29}} Comrie made his professional debut in the [American Hockey League](/wiki/American_Hockey_League "American Hockey League") with the [Rochester Americans](/wiki/Rochester_Americans "Rochester Americans") during the [2010–11](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_AHL_season "2010–11 AHL season") season. On July 10, 2013, Comrie was signed to a one\-year, two\-way contract with the [San Jose Sharks](/wiki/San_Jose_Sharks "San Jose Sharks").{{cite web\| url \= http://sharks.nhl.com/club/news.htm?id\=677574 \| title \= Sharks sign defenseman Adam Comrie \| publisher \= \[\[San Jose Sharks]] \| date \= 2013\-07\-10 \| accessdate \= 2013\-07\-10}} He never appeared with the Sharks in the [2013–14](/wiki/2013-14_AHL_season "2013-14 AHL season") season, posting 19 points in 56 games with the San Jose affiliate [Worcester Sharks](/wiki/Worcester_Sharks "Worcester Sharks"). On October 6, 2014, as an un\-signed free agent over the summer, Comrie signed to return to the ECHL with the Reading Royals on a one\-year deal.{{cite web \| url \= http://royalshockey.com/royals\-agree\-to\-terms\-with\-defenseman\-adam\-comrie/ \| title \= Royals agree to terms with Adam Comrie \| publisher \= \[\[Reading Royals]] \| date \= 2014\-10\-06 \| accessdate \= 2014\-10\-06 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20141013104321/http://royalshockey.com/royals\-agree\-to\-terms\-with\-defenseman\-adam\-comrie/ \| archive\-date \= October 13, 2014 \| url\-status \= dead }} He split the season between the Royals and affiliate club, the [Lehigh Valley Phantoms](/wiki/Lehigh_Valley_Phantoms "Lehigh Valley Phantoms") of the AHL, producing 18 points in 40 games from the blueline. On October 10, 2015, Comrie secured a one\-year AHL contract with the Phantoms and was reassigned to Royals to begin the [2015–16](/wiki/2015-16_AHL_season "2015-16 AHL season") season.{{cite web \| url \= https://royalshockey.com/royals\-announce\-training\-camp\-roster\-5/ \| title \= Royals announce training camp roster \| publisher \= \[\[Reading Royals]] \| date \= 2015\-10\-05 \| accessdate \= 2015\-10\-15 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20171116200624/https://royalshockey.com/royals\-announce\-training\-camp\-roster\-5/ \| archive\-date \= November 16, 2017 \| url\-status \= dead }} He was again shuffled between the ECHL and AHL, posting a respectable 15 points in 32 games with Lehigh Valley. As a free agent on July 26, 2016, Comrie agreed to a one\-year deal with the [Syracuse Crunch](/wiki/Syracuse_Crunch "Syracuse Crunch").{{cite web \| url \= http://syracusecrunch.com/news/2016/7/26/syracuse\-crunch\-sign\-defenseman\-adam\-comrie\-to\-ahl\-contract.aspx \| title \= Crunch sign defenseman Adam Comrie to AHL contract \| publisher \= \[\[Syracuse Crunch]] \| date \= 2016\-07\-26 \| accessdate \= 2016\-07\-26}} Comrie remained with the Crunch for the majority of the [2016–17](/wiki/2016-17_AHL_season "2016-17 AHL season") season, spending a brief stint in the ECHL with the [Kalamazoo Wings](/wiki/Kalamazoo_Wings "Kalamazoo Wings"). In adding a veteran presence, he matched a career best with 19 points in 55 games with the Crunch. With his help on defense, the Crunch would win their division and reach the Calder Cup Finals, but Comrie did not play in any of their playoff games. Comrie left Syracuse as a free agent and returned to the Reading Royals for the [2017–18](/wiki/2017-18_AHL_season "2017-18 AHL season") season.{{cite web \| url \= https://royalshockey.com/royals\-sign\-d\-adam\-comrie/ \| title \= Fan favourite returns to Reading \| publisher \= \[\[Reading Royals]] \| date \= 2017\-10\-13 \| accessdate \= 2017\-10\-13 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20171116191500/https://royalshockey.com/royals\-sign\-d\-adam\-comrie/ \| archive\-date \= November 16, 2017 \| url\-status \= dead }} On November 4, 2017, he returned on loan to the Lehigh Valley Phantoms and appeared in two games before he was released back to the ECHL.{{cite web\| url \= http://www.phantomshockey.com/phantoms\-sign\-d\-adam\-comrie\-pto/ \| title \= Phantoms sign D Comrie to PTO \| publisher \= \[\[Lehigh Valley Phantoms]] \| date \= 2017\-11\-04 \| accessdate \= 2017\-11\-04}} After 8 professional seasons in [North America](/wiki/North_America "North America"), Comrie opted to embark on a European career, agreeing to a one\-year deal with Austrian club, [EC KAC](/wiki/EC_KAC "EC KAC") of the EBEL, on July 16, 2018\.{{cite web \| url \= http://www.kac.at/de/news/spieler/adam\-comrie\-zu\-den\-rotjacken \| title \= Adam Comrie to the Red Jackets \| publisher \= \[\[EC KAC]] \| date \= 2018\-07\-16 \| accessdate \= 2018\-07\-16 \| language \= German \| archive\-date \= July 22, 2018 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20180722011448/http://www.kac.at/de/news/spieler/adam\-comrie\-zu\-den\-rotjacken \| url\-status \= dead }}
[ "Playing career\n--------------", "As a youth Comrie attended and played junior hockey for [Stone Bridge High School](/wiki/Stone_Bridge_High_School \"Stone Bridge High School\") in Ashburn, Virginia.", "Comrie played major junior hockey in the [Ontario Hockey League](/wiki/Ontario_Hockey_League \"Ontario Hockey League\") (OHL) with the [Saginaw Spirit](/wiki/Saginaw_Spirit \"Saginaw Spirit\") and the [Guelph Storm](/wiki/Guelph_Storm \"Guelph Storm\").", "On April 13, 2010, the [Florida Panthers](/wiki/Florida_Panthers \"Florida Panthers\") signed Comrie to a three\\-year entry\\-level contract.{{cite web\\| url \\= http://panthers.nhl.com/club/news.htm?id\\=525298 \\| title \\= Panthers sign draft pick Comrie \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Florida Panthers]] \\| date \\= 2010\\-04\\-13 \\| accessdate \\= 2010\\-04\\-29}} Comrie made his professional debut in the [American Hockey League](/wiki/American_Hockey_League \"American Hockey League\") with the [Rochester Americans](/wiki/Rochester_Americans \"Rochester Americans\") during the [2010–11](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_AHL_season \"2010–11 AHL season\") season.", "On July 10, 2013, Comrie was signed to a one\\-year, two\\-way contract with the [San Jose Sharks](/wiki/San_Jose_Sharks \"San Jose Sharks\").{{cite web\\| url \\= http://sharks.nhl.com/club/news.htm?id\\=677574 \\| title \\= Sharks sign defenseman Adam Comrie \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[San Jose Sharks]] \\| date \\= 2013\\-07\\-10 \\| accessdate \\= 2013\\-07\\-10}} He never appeared with the Sharks in the [2013–14](/wiki/2013-14_AHL_season \"2013-14 AHL season\") season, posting 19 points in 56 games with the San Jose affiliate [Worcester Sharks](/wiki/Worcester_Sharks \"Worcester Sharks\").", "On October 6, 2014, as an un\\-signed free agent over the summer, Comrie signed to return to the ECHL with the Reading Royals on a one\\-year deal.{{cite web \\| url \\= http://royalshockey.com/royals\\-agree\\-to\\-terms\\-with\\-defenseman\\-adam\\-comrie/ \\| title \\= Royals agree to terms with Adam Comrie \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Reading Royals]] \\| date \\= 2014\\-10\\-06 \\| accessdate \\= 2014\\-10\\-06 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20141013104321/http://royalshockey.com/royals\\-agree\\-to\\-terms\\-with\\-defenseman\\-adam\\-comrie/ \\| archive\\-date \\= October 13, 2014 \\| url\\-status \\= dead }} He split the season between the Royals and affiliate club, the [Lehigh Valley Phantoms](/wiki/Lehigh_Valley_Phantoms \"Lehigh Valley Phantoms\") of the AHL, producing 18 points in 40 games from the blueline.", "On October 10, 2015, Comrie secured a one\\-year AHL contract with the Phantoms and was reassigned to Royals to begin the [2015–16](/wiki/2015-16_AHL_season \"2015-16 AHL season\") season.{{cite web \\| url \\= https://royalshockey.com/royals\\-announce\\-training\\-camp\\-roster\\-5/ \\| title \\= Royals announce training camp roster \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Reading Royals]] \\| date \\= 2015\\-10\\-05 \\| accessdate \\= 2015\\-10\\-15 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20171116200624/https://royalshockey.com/royals\\-announce\\-training\\-camp\\-roster\\-5/ \\| archive\\-date \\= November 16, 2017 \\| url\\-status \\= dead }} He was again shuffled between the ECHL and AHL, posting a respectable 15 points in 32 games with Lehigh Valley.", "As a free agent on July 26, 2016, Comrie agreed to a one\\-year deal with the [Syracuse Crunch](/wiki/Syracuse_Crunch \"Syracuse Crunch\").{{cite web \\| url \\= http://syracusecrunch.com/news/2016/7/26/syracuse\\-crunch\\-sign\\-defenseman\\-adam\\-comrie\\-to\\-ahl\\-contract.aspx \\| title \\= Crunch sign defenseman Adam Comrie to AHL contract \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Syracuse Crunch]] \\| date \\= 2016\\-07\\-26 \\| accessdate \\= 2016\\-07\\-26}} Comrie remained with the Crunch for the majority of the [2016–17](/wiki/2016-17_AHL_season \"2016-17 AHL season\") season, spending a brief stint in the ECHL with the [Kalamazoo Wings](/wiki/Kalamazoo_Wings \"Kalamazoo Wings\"). In adding a veteran presence, he matched a career best with 19 points in 55 games with the Crunch. With his help on defense, the Crunch would win their division and reach the Calder Cup Finals, but Comrie did not play in any of their playoff games.", "Comrie left Syracuse as a free agent and returned to the Reading Royals for the [2017–18](/wiki/2017-18_AHL_season \"2017-18 AHL season\") season.{{cite web \\| url \\= https://royalshockey.com/royals\\-sign\\-d\\-adam\\-comrie/ \\| title \\= Fan favourite returns to Reading \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Reading Royals]] \\| date \\= 2017\\-10\\-13 \\| accessdate \\= 2017\\-10\\-13 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20171116191500/https://royalshockey.com/royals\\-sign\\-d\\-adam\\-comrie/ \\| archive\\-date \\= November 16, 2017 \\| url\\-status \\= dead }} On November 4, 2017, he returned on loan to the Lehigh Valley Phantoms and appeared in two games before he was released back to the ECHL.{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.phantomshockey.com/phantoms\\-sign\\-d\\-adam\\-comrie\\-pto/ \\| title \\= Phantoms sign D Comrie to PTO \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Lehigh Valley Phantoms]] \\| date \\= 2017\\-11\\-04 \\| accessdate \\= 2017\\-11\\-04}}", "After 8 professional seasons in [North America](/wiki/North_America \"North America\"), Comrie opted to embark on a European career, agreeing to a one\\-year deal with Austrian club, [EC KAC](/wiki/EC_KAC \"EC KAC\") of the EBEL, on July 16, 2018\\.{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.kac.at/de/news/spieler/adam\\-comrie\\-zu\\-den\\-rotjacken \\| title \\= Adam Comrie to the Red Jackets \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[EC KAC]] \\| date \\= 2018\\-07\\-16 \\| accessdate \\= 2018\\-07\\-16 \\| language \\= German \\| archive\\-date \\= July 22, 2018 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20180722011448/http://www.kac.at/de/news/spieler/adam\\-comrie\\-zu\\-den\\-rotjacken \\| url\\-status \\= dead }}", "" ]
Career ------ {{Organize section\|date\=May 2020}} ### 2001–2005: Early career and West End debut After moving to the United Kingdom, Karimloo's first role was in a pantomime of *[Aladdin](/wiki/Aladdin "Aladdin")* in [Chatham](/wiki/Chatham%2C_Kent "Chatham, Kent"), in which he played the title role. He joined the UK national tour of *[The Pirates of Penzance](/wiki/The_Pirates_of_Penzance "The Pirates of Penzance")* playing the role of a police officer, as well as understudying the Pirate King in 2001\. In 2002 he took the role of the Pirate King in [Bath, England](/wiki/Bath%2C_Somerset "Bath, Somerset"). During this year Karimloo joined the national tour of *[Sunset Boulevard](/wiki/Sunset_Boulevard_%28musical%29 "Sunset Boulevard (musical)")*, playing Artie Green and covering the role of Joe Gillis. Karimloo made his [West End](/wiki/West_End_theatre "West End theatre") debut in *[Les Miserables](/wiki/Les_Mis%C3%A9rables_%28musical%29 "Les Misérables (musical)")* where he played Feuilly and understudied the roles of [Marius Pontmercy](/wiki/Marius_Pontmercy "Marius Pontmercy") and [Enjolras](/wiki/Enjolras "Enjolras"). He later returned to production in 2004 as the full\-time Enjolras. In 2003, Karimloo took on the role of Raoul, Vicomte de Chagny and three years later was the standby for the Phantom in *[The Phantom of the Opera](/wiki/The_Phantom_of_the_Opera_%281986_musical%29 "The Phantom of the Opera (1986 musical)")*. His final matinee performance as Raoul was filmed for use on a behind\-the\-scenes feature on the DVD of [Joel Schumacher](/wiki/Joel_Schumacher "Joel Schumacher")'s [film adaptation of the musical](/wiki/The_Phantom_of_the_Opera_%282004_film%29 "The Phantom of the Opera (2004 film)"), in which he also appeared in a cameo role as Gustave Daaé. Karimloo appeared in two concerts: one of *Les Misérables,* as Marius Pontmercy, and one of *[Jesus Christ Superstar](/wiki/Jesus_Christ_Superstar "Jesus Christ Superstar")*, as [Simon Zealotes](/wiki/Simon_Zealotes "Simon Zealotes"), and a featured singer in "[Superstar](/wiki/Superstar_%28JCS_song%29 "Superstar (JCS song)")". In 2004, he returned to *Les Misérables* to the role of Enjolras. That December, he appeared in a concert of *Les Misérables* at [Windsor Castle](/wiki/Windsor_Castle "Windsor Castle") in honor of the French president [Jacques Chirac](/wiki/Jacques_Chirac "Jacques Chirac"). In June 2005, Karimloo joined the UK national tour of *[Miss Saigon](/wiki/Miss_Saigon "Miss Saigon")*, playing the role of Christopher Scott. ### 2006–2010: *The Phantom of the Opera* and *Love Never Dies* Karimloo started appearing in the West End production of *The Phantom of the Opera* as the Phantom in September 2007\. The role earned him a [Theatregoers' Choice Award](/wiki/Theatregoers%27_Choice_Award "Theatregoers' Choice Award") nomination for Best Actor in a Take Over Role,{{Citation needed\|date\=February 2024}} he played the role from September 2007 to November 2009\. Karimloo released an EP, *Within the Six Square Inch*, on which he duets with [Hadley Fraser](/wiki/Hadley_Fraser "Hadley Fraser") and Sophia Ragavelas, both of whom he had already appeared in *[Les Misérables](/wiki/Les_Mis%C3%A9rables_%28musical%29 "Les Misérables (musical)"),* as Marius Pontmercy and Éponine Thenardier. In July 2008, Karimloo participated in the [Sydmonton Festival](/wiki/Sydmonton_Festival "Sydmonton Festival") and was the first actor to play the Phantom in the workshop presentation of *[Love Never Dies](/wiki/Love_Never_Dies_%28musical%29 "Love Never Dies (musical)")*. It was the first act of the sequel of *The Phantom of the Opera*. He played the role alongside [Sierra Boggess](/wiki/Sierra_Boggess "Sierra Boggess") when the sequel opened in London in March 2010\. In 2008, Karimloo recorded the song "I Only Wish for You" with Shona Lindsay and [Dianne Pilkington](/wiki/Dianne_Pilkington "Dianne Pilkington") for the album *Songs from the Musicals of Alexander S. Bermange*, an album of 20 new recordings by 26 West End stars, released in November 2008 on Dress Circle Records.{{cite web \|url\=https://itunes.apple.com/gb/album/act\-one\-songs\-from\-musicals/id458358848 \|work\=\[\[iTunes]] \|title\=Act One: Songs from the Musicals of Alexander S. Bermange \|date\=November 28, 2008 \|access\-date\=April 11, 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[Apple Inc.]] \|archive\-date\=May 22, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190522050601/https://itunes.apple.com/gb/album/act\-one\-songs\-from\-musicals/id458358848 \|url\-status\=live}} In 2009, Karimloo participated in the recording of a new musical album called *Bluebird*, by Gareth Peter Dicks. *Bluebird* is a dramatic World War II musical, in which he played American serviceman Ben Breagan. The 24\-track album was released in four countries in September 2009\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.garethpeterdicks.co.uk \|work\=Gareth Peter Dicks \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120803224113/http://www.garethpeterdicks.co.uk/ \|archive\-date\=August 3, 2012 \|access\-date\=April 11, 2019 \|title\=Welcome to my new\-look website. I am Gareth Peter Dicks, a composer and lyricist from sunny Nottingham, England. \|first\=Gareth Peter \|last\=Dicks}} Karimloo's last regular performance in *The Phantom of the Opera* was on November 7, 2009\. In 2010, he moved on to playing the Phantom in [Andrew Lloyd Webber](/wiki/Andrew_Lloyd_Webber "Andrew Lloyd Webber")'s sequel to *The Phantom of the Opera*, *Love Never Dies*, alongside Sierra Boggess, performing the role until the show closed on August 27, 2011\. On October 3, 2010, Karimloo played the role of [Enjolras](/wiki/Enjolras "Enjolras") in the 25th anniversary concert of *Les Misérables* at [The O2 Arena](/wiki/The_O2_Arena "The O2 Arena") in London. ### 2011–2013: *The Phantom of the Opera at the Royal Albert Hall* and return to *Les Misérables* In 2011, he sang Andrew Lloyd Webber's "[The Music of the Night](/wiki/The_Music_of_the_Night "The Music of the Night")" from *The Phantom of the Opera* at the [Miss World](/wiki/Miss_World "Miss World") Competition, which took place in London. On October 1 and 2, 2011, he and Boggess reunited as the Phantom and [Christine Daaé](/wiki/Christine_Daa%C3%A9 "Christine Daaé") and played opposite [Hadley Fraser](/wiki/Hadley_Fraser "Hadley Fraser") as Raoul for the 25th\-anniversary production of *[The Phantom of the Opera at the Royal Albert Hall](/wiki/The_Phantom_of_the_Opera_at_the_Royal_Albert_Hall "The Phantom of the Opera at the Royal Albert Hall")*, which was streamed live to cinemas worldwide. From November 29, 2011, to March 31, 2012, Karimloo returned to *Les Misérables* to play the lead role of [Jean Valjean](/wiki/Jean_Valjean "Jean Valjean") opposite Fraser as [Javert](/wiki/Javert "Javert") at [The Queen's Theatre](/wiki/Sondheim_Theatre "Sondheim Theatre"), London, for which he won the 2013 [Theatregoers' Choice Award](/wiki/Theatregoers%27_Choice_Award "Theatregoers' Choice Award") for Best Takeover in a Role.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.whatsonstage.com/news/theatre/london/E8831360953406/Full\+list%3A\+Winners\+announced\+of\+the\+2013\+Whatsonstage.com\+Awards.html \|title\=Full list: Winners announced of the 2013 Whatsonstage.com Awards \|date\=February 17, 2013 \|access\-date\=April 11, 2019 \|work\=\[\[WhatsOnStage]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130220014142/http://www.whatsonstage.com/news/theatre/london/E8831360953406/Full\+list%3A\+Winners\+announced\+of\+the\+2013\+Whatsonstage.com\+Awards.html \|archive\-date\=February 20, 2013}} In 2011, Karimloo made a guest appearance in [Warwick Davis](/wiki/Warwick_Davis "Warwick Davis")'s [BBC2](/wiki/BBC2 "BBC2") comedy *[Life's Too Short](/wiki/Life%27s_Too_Short_%28TV_series%29 "Life's Too Short (TV series)")* as a Scientologist. He has also had a recurring role in *[The Spa (TV series)](/wiki/The_Spa_%28TV_series%29 "The Spa (TV series)")* on Sky in the United Kingdom. As part of the 25th anniversary of *The Phantom of the Opera*, Karimloo performed the title song at [The Royal Variety Performance](/wiki/The_Royal_Variety_Performance "The Royal Variety Performance") – held in [The Lowry](/wiki/The_Lowry "The Lowry"), Manchester. Performing alongside [Pussycat Dolls](/wiki/Pussycat_Dolls "Pussycat Dolls")' lead singer [Nicole Scherzinger](/wiki/Nicole_Scherzinger "Nicole Scherzinger"), he was joined by three other former Phantoms ([Simon Bowman](/wiki/Simon_Bowman "Simon Bowman"), [Earl Carpenter](/wiki/Earl_Carpenter "Earl Carpenter") and [John Owen\-Jones](/wiki/John_Owen-Jones "John Owen-Jones")). The performance was aired on [ITV1](/wiki/ITV1 "ITV1") on December 14, 2011\.{{cite AV media \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=nccH8jWtydk \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/nccH8jWtydk \|archive\-date\=2021\-12\-21 \|url\-status\=live \|title\=Rehearsals for the Royal Variety Performance \|work\=The Phantom of the Opera \|date\=December 9, 2011 \|access\-date\=April 11, 2019 \|medium\=YouTube}}{{cbignore}} Karimloo can also be found on *The Music Box* album as a hidden track. The song is from the musical *Bluebird* by Gareth Peter Dicks and is a short acoustic version of a track from the album of the same name. His solo album, *Ramin*, was released by [Sony Music Entertainment](/wiki/Sony_Music_Entertainment "Sony Music Entertainment") on April 9, 2012, in the UK. The album was released in Canada and the US in August 2012\. On January 26, 2013, Karimloo joined [John Owen\-Jones](/wiki/John_Owen-Jones "John Owen-Jones"), [Peter Joback](/wiki/Peter_Joback "Peter Joback"), and [Hugh Panaro](/wiki/Hugh_Panaro "Hugh Panaro") to sing the title song from *The Phantom of the Opera* with [Sierra Boggess](/wiki/Sierra_Boggess "Sierra Boggess") and "The Music of the Night" for the encore of *Phantom*{{'s}} 25th anniversary on Broadway. He also played a small role in the action film *Vendetta*. Karimloo then played Jean Valjean in the Canadian production of the newly staged *Les Misérables*, which opened in September 2013\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.broadway.com/buzz/166706/ramin\-karimloo\-eyes\-playing\-jean\-valjean\-in\-toronto\-run\-of\-les\-miserables/ \|title\=Ramin Karimloo Eyes Playing Jean Valjean in Toronto Run of Les Miserables \|first\=Josh \|last\=Ferri \|date\=January 17, 2013 \|access\-date\=April 11, 2019 \|work\=\[\[Broadway.com]] \|archive\-date\=November 8, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108171349/https://www.broadway.com/buzz/166706/ramin\-karimloo\-eyes\-playing\-jean\-valjean\-in\-toronto\-run\-of\-les\-miserables/ \|url\-status\=live}} ### 2014–2020: Broadway debut, *Anastasia*, and career outside of England He returned to the role of Valjean in the [2014 Broadway revival](/wiki/Les_Mis%C3%A9rables_%28musical%29%232014_Broadway_revival "Les Misérables (musical)#2014 Broadway revival") of *Les Misérables*, making his Broadway debut, and was nominated for the [Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical](/wiki/Tony_Award_for_Best_Actor_in_a_Musical "Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical"). He concluded his run on August 30, 2015, and was replaced by Alfie Boe, who portrayed Valjean in the 25th Anniversary concert. On 16 February 2015, he played Tom Watson in *[Parade](/wiki/Parade_%28musical%29 "Parade (musical)")* at [Lincoln Center](/wiki/Lincoln_Center "Lincoln Center") opposite [Jeremy Jordan](/wiki/Jeremy_Jordan_%28actor%2C_born_1984%29 "Jeremy Jordan (actor, born 1984)"), [Joshua Henry](/wiki/Joshua_Henry "Joshua Henry"), [Laura Benanti](/wiki/Laura_Benanti "Laura Benanti"), and [Davis Gaines](/wiki/Davis_Gaines "Davis Gaines").{{Cite magazine \|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/full\-cast\-revealed\-for\-parade\-in\-concert\-starring\-jeremy\-jordan\-and\-laura\-benanti\-com\-338955 \|title\=Full Cast Revealed for Parade in Concert Starring Jeremy Jordan and Laura Benanti \|last\=Hetrick \|first\=Adam \|date\=2015\-01\-09 \|magazine\=\[\[Playbill]]\|access\-date\=2020\-02\-04\|archive\-date\=April 11, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411063933/https://playbill.com/article/full\-cast\-revealed\-for\-parade\-in\-concert\-starring\-jeremy\-jordan\-and\-laura\-benanti\-com\-338955\|url\-status\=live}} On May 29, 2015, it was announced that Karimloo would be leading the musical *Prince of Broadway* which features songs from all of Harold Prince's famous musicals in Japan. Rehearsals began in September in New York.{{Citation needed\|date\=December 2023\|reason\=BroadwayWorld is considered generally unreliable (see \[\[WP:RSP]])}} On September 25, 2015, he played the role of Barry Hamidi in the sixth\-season premiere episode of the [CBS](/wiki/CBS "CBS") police procedural drama *[Blue Bloods](/wiki/Blue_Bloods_%28TV_series%29 "Blue Bloods (TV series)")*. In February 2016, Karimloo reunited with Boggess for the Manhattan Concert Productions' staging of *[The Secret Garden](/wiki/The_Secret_Garden_%28musical%29 "The Secret Garden (musical)")*. Also starring opposite [Cheyenne Jackson](/wiki/Cheyenne_Jackson "Cheyenne Jackson") and [Sydney Lucas](/wiki/Sydney_Lucas "Sydney Lucas").{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.theatermania.com/news/the\-secret\-garden\-starring\-sydney\-lucas\-and\-ramin\-karimloo\-set\-to\-begin\-performances\_76036/ \|title\=The Secret Garden, Starring Sydney Lucas and Ramin Karimloo, Set to Begin Performances \- TheaterMania.com \|date\=February 21, 2016\|access\-date\=December 21, 2023\|archive\-date\=December 21, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231221192107/https://www.theatermania.com/news/the\-secret\-garden\-starring\-sydney\-lucas\-and\-ramin\-karimloo\-set\-to\-begin\-performances\_76036/\|url\-status\=live}} In April of the same year, he played Ché in the [Vancouver Opera](/wiki/Vancouver_Opera "Vancouver Opera")'s production of *[Evita](/wiki/Evita_%28musical%29 "Evita (musical)")*, with [John Cudia](/wiki/John_Cudia "John Cudia") as [Juan Peron](/wiki/Juan_Peron "Juan Peron"). His run lasted until May 8, 2016\. From September 30 until December 3, he starred as Tom in *[Murder Ballad](/wiki/Murder_Ballad_%28musical%29 "Murder Ballad (musical)")* at the Arts Theatre in London. On September 22, 2016, it was announced that Karimloo would return to Broadway in the [stage musical adaptation](/wiki/Anastasia_%28musical%29 "Anastasia (musical)") of the film *[Anastasia](/wiki/Anastasia_%281997_film%29 "Anastasia (1997 film)")* as General Gleb Vaganov. The show began previews on March 23, 2017 and opened April 24, 2017 at Broadway's [Broadhurst Theatre](/wiki/Broadhurst_Theatre "Broadhurst Theatre").{{cite magazine \|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-joins\-broadways\-anastasia \|title\=Ramin Karimloo Joins Broadway's Anastasia \|magazine\=\[\[Playbill]] \|access\-date\=September 22, 2016 \|date\=September 22, 2016 \|first\=Adam \|last\=Hetrick \|publisher\=Brightspot \|archive\-date\=September 23, 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923102311/http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-joins\-broadways\-anastasia \|url\-status\=live}} His final performance in *Anastasia* was on December 3, 2017\.{{cite magazine \|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-sets\-final\-performance\-in\-broadways\-anastasia \|title\=Ramin Karimloo Sets Final Performance in Broadway's Anastasia \|first\=Adam \|last\=Hetrick \|date\=October 30, 2017 \|access\-date\=April 11, 2019 \|magazine\=\[\[Playbill]] \|publisher\=Brightspot \|archive\-date\=April 1, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401055311/http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-sets\-final\-performance\-in\-broadways\-anastasia \|url\-status\=live}} Karimloo took part in the [Kennedy Center](/wiki/Kennedy_Center "Kennedy Center") performance of *[Chess](/wiki/Chess_%28musical%29 "Chess (musical)")* as Anatoly, which took place February 14 through the 18th, 2018\. He starred opposite [Raul Esparza](/wiki/Raul_Esparza "Raul Esparza"), [Karen Olivo](/wiki/Karen_Olivo "Karen Olivo"), and [Ruthie Ann Miles](/wiki/Ruthie_Ann_Miles "Ruthie Ann Miles").{{Cite magazine \|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/first\-look\-at\-raul\-esparza\-ramin\-karimloo\-ruthie\-ann\-miles\-and\-karen\-olivo\-in\-chess\-at\-the\-kennedy\-center \|title\=First Look at Raúl Esparza, Ramin Karimloo, Ruthie Ann Miles, and Karen Olivo in Chess at the Kennedy Center \|magazine\=\[\[Playbill]] \|access\-date\=March 3, 2018 \|first\=Hannah \|last\=Vine \|date\=February 15, 2018 \|publisher\=Brightspot \|archive\-date\=March 3, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303225140/http://www.playbill.com/article/first\-look\-at\-raul\-esparza\-ramin\-karimloo\-ruthie\-ann\-miles\-and\-karen\-olivo\-in\-chess\-at\-the\-kennedy\-center \|url\-status\=live}} He was in the Broadway Classics in Concert at [Carnegie Hall](/wiki/Carnegie_Hall "Carnegie Hall") alongside Sierra Boggess, [Laura Osnes](/wiki/Laura_Osnes "Laura Osnes"), [Norm Lewis](/wiki/Norm_Lewis "Norm Lewis"), [Lea Salonga](/wiki/Lea_Salonga "Lea Salonga"), Ryan Silverman, [Tony Yazbeck](/wiki/Tony_Yazbeck "Tony Yazbeck"), [Michael Arden](/wiki/Michael_Arden "Michael Arden"), [Carolee Carmello](/wiki/Carolee_Carmello "Carolee Carmello"), [Allan Corduner](/wiki/Allan_Corduner "Allan Corduner"), Nikki Renêe Daniels and [Quentin Earl Darrington](/wiki/Quentin_Earl_Darrington "Quentin Earl Darrington").{{Cite magazine \|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-laura\-osnes\-lea\-salonga\-more\-are\-part\-of\-february\-20\-broadway\-classics\-concert\-at\-carnegie\-hall \|title\=Ramin Karimloo, Laura Osnes, Lea Salonga, More Part of Broadway Classics Concert at Carnegie Hall \|magazine\=\[\[Playbill]] \|access\-date\=March 3, 2018 \|first\=Andrew \|last\=Gans \|date\=February 20, 2018 \|publisher\=Brightspot \|archive\-date\=March 3, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303164754/http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-laura\-osnes\-lea\-salonga\-more\-are\-part\-of\-february\-20\-broadway\-classics\-concert\-at\-carnegie\-hall \|url\-status\=live}} Karimloo took part in the [Toronto Symphony](/wiki/Toronto_Symphony_Orchestra "Toronto Symphony Orchestra") on April 10, 11 and 12, 2018 at [Roy Thomson Hall](/wiki/Roy_Thomson_Hall "Roy Thomson Hall") alongside [Stephanie J. Block](/wiki/Stephanie_J._Block "Stephanie J. Block"). He reprised the role of the Phantom in May 2018 in a series of *The Phantom of the Opera* concerts held at the Sejong Center for the Performing Arts in Seoul, Korea alongside [Anna O'Byrne](/wiki/Anna_O%27Byrne "Anna O'Byrne") as Christine, as part of the celebration for [Andrew Lloyd Webber](/wiki/Andrew_Lloyd_Webber "Andrew Lloyd Webber")'s 70th birthday. He also performed in Gold Coast, Australia June 16, 2018, Melbourne, Australia June 20, 2018, and in Sydney, Australia on June 23, 2018, again alongside O'Byrne,{{Cite magazine \|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-will\-play\-australia\-with\-special\-guest\-anna\-obyrne \|title\=Ramin Karimloo Will Play Australia With Special Guest Anna O'Byrne \|magazine\=\[\[Playbill]] \|access\-date\=March 3, 2018 \|first\=Adam \|last\=Hetrick \|date\=February 21, 2018 \|publisher\=Brightspot \|archive\-date\=March 3, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303225115/http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-will\-play\-australia\-with\-special\-guest\-anna\-obyrne \|url\-status\=live}} followed by a special run of *Evita* in Tokyo, Japan from July 4 to the 29, 2018 at Theatre Orb, where he reprised the role of Che.{{Cite web \|url\=http://evita2018\.jp/ \|title\=奇跡の初来日公演！ ミュージカル エビータ EVITA \|website\=ミュージカル『エビー タ（EVITA）』2018年7月来日公演 \|access\-date\=March 3, 2018 \|archive\-date\=March 4, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180304054706/http://evita2018\.jp/ \|url\-status\=live}} On September 13, 2019, the BBC cast him as consultant cardiothoracic surgeon [Kian Madani](/wiki/Holby_City_%28series_23%29 "Holby City (series 23)"), the rival of [Jac Naylor](/wiki/Jac_Naylor "Jac Naylor") in *[Holby City](/wiki/Holby_City "Holby City")*.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.digitalspy.com/soaps/holby\-city/a25886876/holby\-city\-ramin\-karimloo\-jac\-naylor\-nemesis/ \|title\=Holby City casts West End star Ramin Karimloo as new nemesis for Jac Naylor \|work\=\[\[Digital Spy]] \|access\-date\=January 24, 2019 \|first\=Jess \|last\=Lee \|date\=January 14, 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[Hearst UK]] \|archive\-date\=January 26, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190126232824/https://www.digitalspy.com/soaps/holby\-city/a25886876/holby\-city\-ramin\-karimloo\-jac\-naylor\-nemesis/ \|url\-status\=live}} He stayed with the show until 2021\. On September 1, 2019, he played the lead role Yurii Zhivago in the concert production of musical *[Doctor Zhivago](/wiki/Doctor_Zhivago_%28musical%29 "Doctor Zhivago (musical)")*, with his costar [Celinde Schoenmaker](/wiki/Celinde_Schoenmaker "Celinde Schoenmaker") as Lara. The show was the UK premiere of *Doctor Zhivago* and only performed twice at [Cadogan Hall](/wiki/Cadogan_Hall "Cadogan Hall").{{Cite magazine \|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-will\-star\-in\-uk\-concert\-premiere\-of\-doctor\-zhivago \|title\=Ramin Karimloo Will Star in U.K. Concert Premiere of Doctor Zhivago \|magazine\=\[\[Playbill]] \|date\=July 11, 2019 \|access\-date\=September 16, 2019 \|archive\-date\=December 4, 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204201247/https://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-will\-star\-in\-uk\-concert\-premiere\-of\-doctor\-zhivago \|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.lambertjackson.co.uk/doctorzhivago/ \|title\=Lambert Jackson Productions \|website\=Lambert Jackson Productions \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725012550/https://www.lambertjackson.co.uk/doctorzhivago/ \|archive\-date\=2020\-07\-25}} In January 2020, he reprised his role of Anatoly opposite [Samantha Barks](/wiki/Samantha_Barks "Samantha Barks") as Florence in a Japan tour of [*Chess*](/wiki/Chess_%28musical%29 "Chess (musical)").{{Cite magazine \|url\=https://playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-and\-samantha\-barks\-star\-in\-chess\-beginning\-january\-25\-in\-japan \|title\=Ramin Karimloo and Samantha Barks Star in Chess, Beginning January 25 in Japan \|magazine\=\[\[Playbill]]\|access\-date\=January 24, 2024\|archive\-date\=April 25, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425045825/https://playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-and\-samantha\-barks\-star\-in\-chess\-beginning\-january\-25\-in\-japan\|url\-status\=live}} ### 2021–present: *Funny Girl*, *The Pirates of Penzance*, and return to *The Phantom of the Opera* In summer 2021, he starred as Joe Gillis an [Off\-West End](/wiki/Off-West_End "Off-West End") concert of *[Sunset Boulevard](/wiki/Sunset_Boulevard_%28musical%29 "Sunset Boulevard (musical)")*. In December that same year he reprised the role at the [Royal Albert Hall](/wiki/Royal_Albert_Hall "Royal Albert Hall").[Ramin Karimloo, Mazz Murray, Zizi Strallen, More Star in London Sunset Boulevard Concerts Beginning June 13](https://playbill.com/article/ramin-karimloo-mazz-murray-zizi-strallen-more-star-in-london-sunset-boulevard-concerts-beginning-june-13)[Photos: See Ramin Karimloo \& Mazz Murray in Rehearsals for SUNSET BOULEVARD at the Royal Albert Hall](https://www.broadwayworld.com/westend/article/Photos-See-Ramin-Karimloo-Mazz-Murray-in-Rehearsals-for-SUNSET-BOULEVARD-20211201) On October 6, 2021, it was announced that Karimloo would be returning to Broadway as Nick Arnstein in the Broadway revival of *[Funny Girl](/wiki/Funny_Girl_%28musical%29 "Funny Girl (musical)")*, alongside [Jane Lynch](/wiki/Jane_Lynch "Jane Lynch"), Jared Grimes, and [Beanie Feldstein](/wiki/Beanie_Feldstein "Beanie Feldstein") and was directed by Micheal Mayer. It started previews on March 26, 2022, and officially opened on April 24, 2022, at the [August Wilson Theatre](/wiki/August_Wilson_Theatre "August Wilson Theatre").{{Cite magazine \|date\=October 6, 2021 \|title\=Ramin Karimloo, Jane Lynch, Jared Grimes Join Beanie Feldstein in Funny Girl Broadway Revival \|url\=https://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-jane\-lynch\-jared\-grimes\-join\-beanie\-feldstein\-in\-funny\-girl\-broadway\-revival \|access\-date\=October 7, 2021 \|magazine\=\[\[Playbill]] \|archive\-date\=October 7, 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007032215/https://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-jane\-lynch\-jared\-grimes\-join\-beanie\-feldstein\-in\-funny\-girl\-broadway\-revival \|url\-status\=live}} He stayed with the show through its closing in September 2023 where he starred opposite [Lea Michele](/wiki/Lea_Michele "Lea Michele") as Fanny Brice.{{Cite magazine \|url\=https://www.playbill.com/article/funny\-girl\-sets\-broadway\-closing\-lea\-michele\-ramin\-karimloo\-jared\-grimes\-tovah\-feldshuh\-to\-close\-out\-the\-run \|title\=Funny Girl Sets Broadway Closing; Lea Michele, Ramin Karimloo, Jared Grimes, Tovah Feldshuh to Close Out the Run \|magazine\=\[\[Playbill]] \|date\=March 2, 2023 \|access\-date\=March 2, 2023 \|archive\-date\=March 2, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230302154156/https://playbill.com/article/funny\-girl\-sets\-broadway\-closing\-lea\-michele\-ramin\-karimloo\-jared\-grimes\-tovah\-feldshuh\-to\-close\-out\-the\-run \|url\-status\=live}} In October 2022, Karimloo played the Pirate King in a Broadway concert of *[The Pirates of Penzance](/wiki/The_Pirates_of_Penzance "The Pirates of Penzance")* at the [American Airlines Theatre](/wiki/American_Airlines_Theatre "American Airlines Theatre").{{Cite magazine \|url\=https://playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-lilli\-cooper\-david\-hyde\-pierce\-more\-will\-star\-in\-roundabouts\-the\-pirates\-of\-penzance\-concert\-on\-broadway \|title\=Ramin Karimloo, Lilli Cooper, David Hyde Pierce, More Will Star in Roundabout's The Pirates of Penzance Concert on Broadway \|magazine\=\[\[Playbill]]\|access\-date\=January 24, 2024\|archive\-date\=April 4, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404041044/https://playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-lilli\-cooper\-david\-hyde\-pierce\-more\-will\-star\-in\-roundabouts\-the\-pirates\-of\-penzance\-concert\-on\-broadway\|url\-status\=live}} In December 2022, he reprised his role of Anatoly Sergievsky in a Broadway benefit concert of [*Chess*](/wiki/Chess_%28musical%29 "Chess (musical)") opposite [Darren Criss](/wiki/Darren_Criss "Darren Criss"), [Lena Hall](/wiki/Lena_Hall "Lena Hall"), and [Solea Pfeiffer](/wiki/Solea_Pfeiffer "Solea Pfeiffer") at the [Broadhurst Theatre](/wiki/Broadhurst_Theatre "Broadhurst Theatre").{{Cite magazine \|url\=https://playbill.com/article/darren\-criss\-lena\-hall\-ramin\-karimloo\-and\-solea\-pfeiffer\-star\-in\-chess\-concert\-on\-broadway\-december\-12 \|title\=Darren Criss, Lena Hall, Ramin Karimloo, and Solea Pfeiffer Star in Chess Concert on Broadway December 12 \|magazine\=\[\[Playbill]]\|access\-date\=January 24, 2024\|archive\-date\=February 9, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230209021240/https://www.playbill.com/article/darren\-criss\-lena\-hall\-ramin\-karimloo\-and\-solea\-pfeiffer\-star\-in\-chess\-concert\-on\-broadway\-december\-12\|url\-status\=live}} He reprised his role of Yurii Zhivago in a concert production of the musical *[Doctor Zhivago](/wiki/Doctor_Zhivago_%28musical%29 "Doctor Zhivago (musical)")*, opposite [Celinde Schoenmaker](/wiki/Celinde_Schoenmaker "Celinde Schoenmaker") as Lara at the [London Palladium](/wiki/London_Palladium "London Palladium") on May 7, 2023\.{{Cite magazine \|url\=https://playbill.com/article/cast\-complete\-for\-london\-palladium\-doctor\-zhivago\-concert\-starring\-ramin\-karimloo\-and\-celinde\-schoenmaker \|title\=Cast Complete for London Palladium Doctor Zhivago Concert, Starring Ramin Karimloo and Celinde Schoenmaker \|last1\=Gans \|first1\=Andrew \|date\=2022\-11\-04 \|magazine\=\[\[Playbill]] \|access\-date\=April 18, 2023 \|archive\-date\=November 28, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128192207/https://www.playbill.com/article/cast\-complete\-for\-london\-palladium\-doctor\-zhivago\-concert\-starring\-ramin\-karimloo\-and\-celinde\-schoenmaker \|url\-status\=live}} On February 27, 2023, it was announced that Karimloo would reprise his role of the Phantom in the Italy premiere of *The Phantom of the Opera*. He starred opposite [Bradley Jaden](/wiki/Bradley_Jaden "Bradley Jaden") as Raoul, [Earl Carpenter](/wiki/Earl_Carpenter "Earl Carpenter") as Monsieur André, and Amelia Milo as Christine. Performances began on July 4, 2023 at the [Politeama Rossetti](/wiki/Politeama_Rossetti "Politeama Rossetti") in Trieste, Italy. This same production toured to [Milan](/wiki/Milan "Milan") in October 2023 and [Monaco](/wiki/Monaco "Monaco") in December 2023\.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.whatsonstage.com/news/cast\-joining\-ramin\-karimloo\-in\-phantom\-of\-the\-opera\-italian\-premiere\-revealed\_1352870/ \|title\=Cast joining Ramin Karimloo in Phantom of the Opera Italian premiere revealed \|last\=Wood \|first\=Alex \|work\=WhatsOnStage \|date\=June 14, 2023 \|access\-date\=June 28, 2023 \|archive\-date\=June 28, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230628204236/https://www.whatsonstage.com/news/cast\-joining\-ramin\-karimloo\-in\-phantom\-of\-the\-opera\-italian\-premiere\-revealed\_1352870/ \|url\-status\=live}} On October 31, 2023, it was announced Karimloo would play [Gomez Addams](/wiki/Gomez_Addams "Gomez Addams") in the musical *[The Addams Family](/wiki/The_Addams_Family_%28musical%29 "The Addams Family (musical)")* live in concert at the [London Palladium](/wiki/London_Palladium "London Palladium") in February 2024\. This would be the West End premiere of the show.{{Cite magazine \|url\=https://playbill.com/article/michelle\-visage\-and\-ramin\-karimloo\-to\-star\-in\-the\-addams\-family\-concert \|title\=Michelle Visage and Ramin Karimloo to Star in The Addams Family Concert \|magazine\=\[\[Playbill]] \|access\-date\=December 29, 2023\|archive\-date\=November 4, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231104162622/https://playbill.com/article/michelle\-visage\-and\-ramin\-karimloo\-to\-star\-in\-the\-addams\-family\-concert\|url\-status\=live}} In March 2024, Karimloo made his operatic debut in *Songbird*, playing the title role at the [Kennedy Center](/wiki/Kennedy_Center "Kennedy Center") as part of the [Washington National Opera](/wiki/Washington_National_Opera "Washington National Opera"). In June 2024, he made his [Encores!](/wiki/Encores%21 "Encores!") debut in [*Titanic*](/wiki/Titanic_%28musical%29 "Titanic (musical)") as [Frederick Barrett](/wiki/Frederick_Barrett "Frederick Barrett") at [New York City Center](/wiki/New_York_City_Center "New York City Center"). On 4 June 2024, it was announced that [*Dirty Rotten Scoundrels*](/wiki/Dirty_Rotten_Scoundrels_%28musical%29 "Dirty Rotten Scoundrels (musical)") would return to the West End for a concert run at the [London Palladium](/wiki/London_Palladium "London Palladium") on 24 November 2024, marking 20 years since the show premiered. Karimloo is set to star as Freddy Benson opposite [Hadley Fraser](/wiki/Hadley_Fraser "Hadley Fraser") as Lawrence Jamieson.[Dirty Rotten Scoundrels to be staged in concert with Ramin Karimloo and Hadley Fraser](https://www.whatsonstage.com/news/dirty-rotten-scoundrels-to-be-staged-in-concert-with-ramin-karimloo-and-hadley-fraser_1604150/) In July 2024, he performed both broadway and folk songs at Broadway by the Boardwalk, a free summer concert series by the [Hudson River](/wiki/Hudson_River_Park "Hudson River Park").{{Cite web \|title\=Ramin Karimloo \|url\=https://hudsonriverpark.org/visit/events/event/broadway\-by\-the\-boardwalk\-july\-22\-2024\-ramin\-karimloo/ \|access\-date\=2024\-08\-04 \|website\=Hudson River Park \|language\=en\-US}} In April 2025, he is set to return to Broadway in a revival of *[The Pirates of Penzance](/wiki/The_Pirates_of_Penzance "The Pirates of Penzance")* as the Pirate King at the [Todd Haimes Theatre](/wiki/American_Airlines_Theatre "American Airlines Theatre").{{Cite magazine \|url\=https://www.playbill.com/article/sanaz\-toossis\-english\-david\-henry\-hwangs\-yellow\-face\-new\-orleans\-themed\-pirates\-of\-penzance\-join\-roundabout\-season \|title\=Sanaz Toossi's English, David Henry Hwang's Yellow Face, New Orleans\-Themed Pirates of Penzance Join Roundabout Season \|magazine\=\[\[Playbill]]\|access\-date\=January 9, 2024\|archive\-date\=January 9, 2024\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240109204426/https://www.playbill.com/article/sanaz\-toossis\-english\-david\-henry\-hwangs\-yellow\-face\-new\-orleans\-themed\-pirates\-of\-penzance\-join\-roundabout\-season \|url\-status\=live}}
[ "Career\n------", "{{Organize section\\|date\\=May 2020}}", "### 2001–2005: Early career and West End debut", "After moving to the United Kingdom, Karimloo's first role was in a pantomime of *[Aladdin](/wiki/Aladdin \"Aladdin\")* in [Chatham](/wiki/Chatham%2C_Kent \"Chatham, Kent\"), in which he played the title role. He joined the UK national tour of *[The Pirates of Penzance](/wiki/The_Pirates_of_Penzance \"The Pirates of Penzance\")* playing the role of a police officer, as well as understudying the Pirate King in 2001\\.", "In 2002 he took the role of the Pirate King in [Bath, England](/wiki/Bath%2C_Somerset \"Bath, Somerset\"). During this year Karimloo joined the national tour of *[Sunset Boulevard](/wiki/Sunset_Boulevard_%28musical%29 \"Sunset Boulevard (musical)\")*, playing Artie Green and covering the role of Joe Gillis.", "Karimloo made his [West End](/wiki/West_End_theatre \"West End theatre\") debut in *[Les Miserables](/wiki/Les_Mis%C3%A9rables_%28musical%29 \"Les Misérables (musical)\")* where he played Feuilly and understudied the roles of [Marius Pontmercy](/wiki/Marius_Pontmercy \"Marius Pontmercy\") and [Enjolras](/wiki/Enjolras \"Enjolras\"). He later returned to production in 2004 as the full\\-time Enjolras.", "In 2003, Karimloo took on the role of Raoul, Vicomte de Chagny and three years later was the standby for the Phantom in *[The Phantom of the Opera](/wiki/The_Phantom_of_the_Opera_%281986_musical%29 \"The Phantom of the Opera (1986 musical)\")*. His final matinee performance as Raoul was filmed for use on a behind\\-the\\-scenes feature on the DVD of [Joel Schumacher](/wiki/Joel_Schumacher \"Joel Schumacher\")'s [film adaptation of the musical](/wiki/The_Phantom_of_the_Opera_%282004_film%29 \"The Phantom of the Opera (2004 film)\"), in which he also appeared in a cameo role as Gustave Daaé.", "Karimloo appeared in two concerts: one of *Les Misérables,* as Marius Pontmercy, and one of *[Jesus Christ Superstar](/wiki/Jesus_Christ_Superstar \"Jesus Christ Superstar\")*, as [Simon Zealotes](/wiki/Simon_Zealotes \"Simon Zealotes\"), and a featured singer in \"[Superstar](/wiki/Superstar_%28JCS_song%29 \"Superstar (JCS song)\")\". In 2004, he returned to *Les Misérables* to the role of Enjolras. That December, he appeared in a concert of *Les Misérables* at [Windsor Castle](/wiki/Windsor_Castle \"Windsor Castle\") in honor of the French president [Jacques Chirac](/wiki/Jacques_Chirac \"Jacques Chirac\").", "In June 2005, Karimloo joined the UK national tour of *[Miss Saigon](/wiki/Miss_Saigon \"Miss Saigon\")*, playing the role of Christopher Scott.", "### 2006–2010: *The Phantom of the Opera* and *Love Never Dies*", "Karimloo started appearing in the West End production of *The Phantom of the Opera* as the Phantom in September 2007\\. The role earned him a [Theatregoers' Choice Award](/wiki/Theatregoers%27_Choice_Award \"Theatregoers' Choice Award\") nomination for Best Actor in a Take Over Role,{{Citation needed\\|date\\=February 2024}} he played the role from September 2007 to November 2009\\.", "Karimloo released an EP, *Within the Six Square Inch*, on which he duets with [Hadley Fraser](/wiki/Hadley_Fraser \"Hadley Fraser\") and Sophia Ragavelas, both of whom he had already appeared in *[Les Misérables](/wiki/Les_Mis%C3%A9rables_%28musical%29 \"Les Misérables (musical)\"),* as Marius Pontmercy and Éponine Thenardier.", "In July 2008, Karimloo participated in the [Sydmonton Festival](/wiki/Sydmonton_Festival \"Sydmonton Festival\") and was the first actor to play the Phantom in the workshop presentation of *[Love Never Dies](/wiki/Love_Never_Dies_%28musical%29 \"Love Never Dies (musical)\")*. It was the first act of the sequel of *The Phantom of the Opera*. He played the role alongside [Sierra Boggess](/wiki/Sierra_Boggess \"Sierra Boggess\") when the sequel opened in London in March 2010\\.", "In 2008, Karimloo recorded the song \"I Only Wish for You\" with Shona Lindsay and [Dianne Pilkington](/wiki/Dianne_Pilkington \"Dianne Pilkington\") for the album *Songs from the Musicals of Alexander S. Bermange*, an album of 20 new recordings by 26 West End stars, released in November 2008 on Dress Circle Records.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://itunes.apple.com/gb/album/act\\-one\\-songs\\-from\\-musicals/id458358848 \\|work\\=\\[\\[iTunes]] \\|title\\=Act One: Songs from the Musicals of Alexander S. Bermange \\|date\\=November 28, 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=April 11, 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Apple Inc.]] \\|archive\\-date\\=May 22, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190522050601/https://itunes.apple.com/gb/album/act\\-one\\-songs\\-from\\-musicals/id458358848 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "In 2009, Karimloo participated in the recording of a new musical album called *Bluebird*, by Gareth Peter Dicks. *Bluebird* is a dramatic World War II musical, in which he played American serviceman Ben Breagan. The 24\\-track album was released in four countries in September 2009\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.garethpeterdicks.co.uk \\|work\\=Gareth Peter Dicks \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120803224113/http://www.garethpeterdicks.co.uk/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 3, 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=April 11, 2019 \\|title\\=Welcome to my new\\-look website. I am Gareth Peter Dicks, a composer and lyricist from sunny Nottingham, England. \\|first\\=Gareth Peter \\|last\\=Dicks}} Karimloo's last regular performance in *The Phantom of the Opera* was on November 7, 2009\\.", "In 2010, he moved on to playing the Phantom in [Andrew Lloyd Webber](/wiki/Andrew_Lloyd_Webber \"Andrew Lloyd Webber\")'s sequel to *The Phantom of the Opera*, *Love Never Dies*, alongside Sierra Boggess, performing the role until the show closed on August 27, 2011\\.", "On October 3, 2010, Karimloo played the role of [Enjolras](/wiki/Enjolras \"Enjolras\") in the 25th anniversary concert of *Les Misérables* at [The O2 Arena](/wiki/The_O2_Arena \"The O2 Arena\") in London.", "### 2011–2013: *The Phantom of the Opera at the Royal Albert Hall* and return to *Les Misérables*", "In 2011, he sang Andrew Lloyd Webber's \"[The Music of the Night](/wiki/The_Music_of_the_Night \"The Music of the Night\")\" from *The Phantom of the Opera* at the [Miss World](/wiki/Miss_World \"Miss World\") Competition, which took place in London.", "On October 1 and 2, 2011, he and Boggess reunited as the Phantom and [Christine Daaé](/wiki/Christine_Daa%C3%A9 \"Christine Daaé\") and played opposite [Hadley Fraser](/wiki/Hadley_Fraser \"Hadley Fraser\") as Raoul for the 25th\\-anniversary production of *[The Phantom of the Opera at the Royal Albert Hall](/wiki/The_Phantom_of_the_Opera_at_the_Royal_Albert_Hall \"The Phantom of the Opera at the Royal Albert Hall\")*, which was streamed live to cinemas worldwide.", "From November 29, 2011, to March 31, 2012, Karimloo returned to *Les Misérables* to play the lead role of [Jean Valjean](/wiki/Jean_Valjean \"Jean Valjean\") opposite Fraser as [Javert](/wiki/Javert \"Javert\") at [The Queen's Theatre](/wiki/Sondheim_Theatre \"Sondheim Theatre\"), London, for which he won the 2013 [Theatregoers' Choice Award](/wiki/Theatregoers%27_Choice_Award \"Theatregoers' Choice Award\") for Best Takeover in a Role.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.whatsonstage.com/news/theatre/london/E8831360953406/Full\\+list%3A\\+Winners\\+announced\\+of\\+the\\+2013\\+Whatsonstage.com\\+Awards.html \\|title\\=Full list: Winners announced of the 2013 Whatsonstage.com Awards \\|date\\=February 17, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=April 11, 2019 \\|work\\=\\[\\[WhatsOnStage]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130220014142/http://www.whatsonstage.com/news/theatre/london/E8831360953406/Full\\+list%3A\\+Winners\\+announced\\+of\\+the\\+2013\\+Whatsonstage.com\\+Awards.html \\|archive\\-date\\=February 20, 2013}}", "In 2011, Karimloo made a guest appearance in [Warwick Davis](/wiki/Warwick_Davis \"Warwick Davis\")'s [BBC2](/wiki/BBC2 \"BBC2\") comedy *[Life's Too Short](/wiki/Life%27s_Too_Short_%28TV_series%29 \"Life's Too Short (TV series)\")* as a Scientologist. He has also had a recurring role in *[The Spa (TV series)](/wiki/The_Spa_%28TV_series%29 \"The Spa (TV series)\")* on Sky in the United Kingdom.", "As part of the 25th anniversary of *The Phantom of the Opera*, Karimloo performed the title song at [The Royal Variety Performance](/wiki/The_Royal_Variety_Performance \"The Royal Variety Performance\") – held in [The Lowry](/wiki/The_Lowry \"The Lowry\"), Manchester. Performing alongside [Pussycat Dolls](/wiki/Pussycat_Dolls \"Pussycat Dolls\")' lead singer [Nicole Scherzinger](/wiki/Nicole_Scherzinger \"Nicole Scherzinger\"), he was joined by three other former Phantoms ([Simon Bowman](/wiki/Simon_Bowman \"Simon Bowman\"), [Earl Carpenter](/wiki/Earl_Carpenter \"Earl Carpenter\") and [John Owen\\-Jones](/wiki/John_Owen-Jones \"John Owen-Jones\")). The performance was aired on [ITV1](/wiki/ITV1 \"ITV1\") on December 14, 2011\\.{{cite AV media \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=nccH8jWtydk \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/nccH8jWtydk \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-21 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|title\\=Rehearsals for the Royal Variety Performance \\|work\\=The Phantom of the Opera \\|date\\=December 9, 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=April 11, 2019 \\|medium\\=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}", "Karimloo can also be found on *The Music Box* album as a hidden track. The song is from the musical *Bluebird* by Gareth Peter Dicks and is a short acoustic version of a track from the album of the same name. His solo album, *Ramin*, was released by [Sony Music Entertainment](/wiki/Sony_Music_Entertainment \"Sony Music Entertainment\") on April 9, 2012, in the UK. The album was released in Canada and the US in August 2012\\.", "On January 26, 2013, Karimloo joined [John Owen\\-Jones](/wiki/John_Owen-Jones \"John Owen-Jones\"), [Peter Joback](/wiki/Peter_Joback \"Peter Joback\"), and [Hugh Panaro](/wiki/Hugh_Panaro \"Hugh Panaro\") to sing the title song from *The Phantom of the Opera* with [Sierra Boggess](/wiki/Sierra_Boggess \"Sierra Boggess\") and \"The Music of the Night\" for the encore of *Phantom*{{'s}} 25th anniversary on Broadway.", "He also played a small role in the action film *Vendetta*.", "Karimloo then played Jean Valjean in the Canadian production of the newly staged *Les Misérables*, which opened in September 2013\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.broadway.com/buzz/166706/ramin\\-karimloo\\-eyes\\-playing\\-jean\\-valjean\\-in\\-toronto\\-run\\-of\\-les\\-miserables/ \\|title\\=Ramin Karimloo Eyes Playing Jean Valjean in Toronto Run of Les Miserables \\|first\\=Josh \\|last\\=Ferri \\|date\\=January 17, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=April 11, 2019 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Broadway.com]] \\|archive\\-date\\=November 8, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108171349/https://www.broadway.com/buzz/166706/ramin\\-karimloo\\-eyes\\-playing\\-jean\\-valjean\\-in\\-toronto\\-run\\-of\\-les\\-miserables/ \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "### 2014–2020: Broadway debut, *Anastasia*, and career outside of England", "He returned to the role of Valjean in the [2014 Broadway revival](/wiki/Les_Mis%C3%A9rables_%28musical%29%232014_Broadway_revival \"Les Misérables (musical)#2014 Broadway revival\") of *Les Misérables*, making his Broadway debut, and was nominated for the [Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical](/wiki/Tony_Award_for_Best_Actor_in_a_Musical \"Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical\"). He concluded his run on August 30, 2015, and was replaced by Alfie Boe, who portrayed Valjean in the 25th Anniversary concert.", "On 16 February 2015, he played Tom Watson in *[Parade](/wiki/Parade_%28musical%29 \"Parade (musical)\")* at [Lincoln Center](/wiki/Lincoln_Center \"Lincoln Center\") opposite [Jeremy Jordan](/wiki/Jeremy_Jordan_%28actor%2C_born_1984%29 \"Jeremy Jordan (actor, born 1984)\"), [Joshua Henry](/wiki/Joshua_Henry \"Joshua Henry\"), [Laura Benanti](/wiki/Laura_Benanti \"Laura Benanti\"), and [Davis Gaines](/wiki/Davis_Gaines \"Davis Gaines\").{{Cite magazine \\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/full\\-cast\\-revealed\\-for\\-parade\\-in\\-concert\\-starring\\-jeremy\\-jordan\\-and\\-laura\\-benanti\\-com\\-338955 \\|title\\=Full Cast Revealed for Parade in Concert Starring Jeremy Jordan and Laura Benanti \\|last\\=Hetrick \\|first\\=Adam \\|date\\=2015\\-01\\-09 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Playbill]]\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-02\\-04\\|archive\\-date\\=April 11, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411063933/https://playbill.com/article/full\\-cast\\-revealed\\-for\\-parade\\-in\\-concert\\-starring\\-jeremy\\-jordan\\-and\\-laura\\-benanti\\-com\\-338955\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "On May 29, 2015, it was announced that Karimloo would be leading the musical *Prince of Broadway* which features songs from all of Harold Prince's famous musicals in Japan. Rehearsals began in September in New York.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=December 2023\\|reason\\=BroadwayWorld is considered generally unreliable (see \\[\\[WP:RSP]])}}", "On September 25, 2015, he played the role of Barry Hamidi in the sixth\\-season premiere episode of the [CBS](/wiki/CBS \"CBS\") police procedural drama *[Blue Bloods](/wiki/Blue_Bloods_%28TV_series%29 \"Blue Bloods (TV series)\")*.", "In February 2016, Karimloo reunited with Boggess for the Manhattan Concert Productions' staging of *[The Secret Garden](/wiki/The_Secret_Garden_%28musical%29 \"The Secret Garden (musical)\")*. Also starring opposite [Cheyenne Jackson](/wiki/Cheyenne_Jackson \"Cheyenne Jackson\") and [Sydney Lucas](/wiki/Sydney_Lucas \"Sydney Lucas\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.theatermania.com/news/the\\-secret\\-garden\\-starring\\-sydney\\-lucas\\-and\\-ramin\\-karimloo\\-set\\-to\\-begin\\-performances\\_76036/ \\|title\\=The Secret Garden, Starring Sydney Lucas and Ramin Karimloo, Set to Begin Performances \\- TheaterMania.com \\|date\\=February 21, 2016\\|access\\-date\\=December 21, 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=December 21, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231221192107/https://www.theatermania.com/news/the\\-secret\\-garden\\-starring\\-sydney\\-lucas\\-and\\-ramin\\-karimloo\\-set\\-to\\-begin\\-performances\\_76036/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "In April of the same year, he played Ché in the [Vancouver Opera](/wiki/Vancouver_Opera \"Vancouver Opera\")'s production of *[Evita](/wiki/Evita_%28musical%29 \"Evita (musical)\")*, with [John Cudia](/wiki/John_Cudia \"John Cudia\") as [Juan Peron](/wiki/Juan_Peron \"Juan Peron\"). His run lasted until May 8, 2016\\.", "From September 30 until December 3, he starred as Tom in *[Murder Ballad](/wiki/Murder_Ballad_%28musical%29 \"Murder Ballad (musical)\")* at the Arts Theatre in London.", "On September 22, 2016, it was announced that Karimloo would return to Broadway in the [stage musical adaptation](/wiki/Anastasia_%28musical%29 \"Anastasia (musical)\") of the film *[Anastasia](/wiki/Anastasia_%281997_film%29 \"Anastasia (1997 film)\")* as General Gleb Vaganov. The show began previews on March 23, 2017 and opened April 24, 2017 at Broadway's [Broadhurst Theatre](/wiki/Broadhurst_Theatre \"Broadhurst Theatre\").{{cite magazine \\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-joins\\-broadways\\-anastasia \\|title\\=Ramin Karimloo Joins Broadway's Anastasia \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Playbill]] \\|access\\-date\\=September 22, 2016 \\|date\\=September 22, 2016 \\|first\\=Adam \\|last\\=Hetrick \\|publisher\\=Brightspot \\|archive\\-date\\=September 23, 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923102311/http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-joins\\-broadways\\-anastasia \\|url\\-status\\=live}} His final performance in *Anastasia* was on December 3, 2017\\.{{cite magazine \\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-sets\\-final\\-performance\\-in\\-broadways\\-anastasia \\|title\\=Ramin Karimloo Sets Final Performance in Broadway's Anastasia \\|first\\=Adam \\|last\\=Hetrick \\|date\\=October 30, 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=April 11, 2019 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Playbill]] \\|publisher\\=Brightspot \\|archive\\-date\\=April 1, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401055311/http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-sets\\-final\\-performance\\-in\\-broadways\\-anastasia \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "Karimloo took part in the [Kennedy Center](/wiki/Kennedy_Center \"Kennedy Center\") performance of *[Chess](/wiki/Chess_%28musical%29 \"Chess (musical)\")* as Anatoly, which took place February 14 through the 18th, 2018\\. He starred opposite [Raul Esparza](/wiki/Raul_Esparza \"Raul Esparza\"), [Karen Olivo](/wiki/Karen_Olivo \"Karen Olivo\"), and [Ruthie Ann Miles](/wiki/Ruthie_Ann_Miles \"Ruthie Ann Miles\").{{Cite magazine \\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/first\\-look\\-at\\-raul\\-esparza\\-ramin\\-karimloo\\-ruthie\\-ann\\-miles\\-and\\-karen\\-olivo\\-in\\-chess\\-at\\-the\\-kennedy\\-center \\|title\\=First Look at Raúl Esparza, Ramin Karimloo, Ruthie Ann Miles, and Karen Olivo in Chess at the Kennedy Center \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Playbill]] \\|access\\-date\\=March 3, 2018 \\|first\\=Hannah \\|last\\=Vine \\|date\\=February 15, 2018 \\|publisher\\=Brightspot \\|archive\\-date\\=March 3, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303225140/http://www.playbill.com/article/first\\-look\\-at\\-raul\\-esparza\\-ramin\\-karimloo\\-ruthie\\-ann\\-miles\\-and\\-karen\\-olivo\\-in\\-chess\\-at\\-the\\-kennedy\\-center \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "He was in the Broadway Classics in Concert at [Carnegie Hall](/wiki/Carnegie_Hall \"Carnegie Hall\") alongside Sierra Boggess, [Laura Osnes](/wiki/Laura_Osnes \"Laura Osnes\"), [Norm Lewis](/wiki/Norm_Lewis \"Norm Lewis\"), [Lea Salonga](/wiki/Lea_Salonga \"Lea Salonga\"), Ryan Silverman, [Tony Yazbeck](/wiki/Tony_Yazbeck \"Tony Yazbeck\"), [Michael Arden](/wiki/Michael_Arden \"Michael Arden\"), [Carolee Carmello](/wiki/Carolee_Carmello \"Carolee Carmello\"), [Allan Corduner](/wiki/Allan_Corduner \"Allan Corduner\"), Nikki Renêe Daniels and [Quentin Earl Darrington](/wiki/Quentin_Earl_Darrington \"Quentin Earl Darrington\").{{Cite magazine \\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-laura\\-osnes\\-lea\\-salonga\\-more\\-are\\-part\\-of\\-february\\-20\\-broadway\\-classics\\-concert\\-at\\-carnegie\\-hall \\|title\\=Ramin Karimloo, Laura Osnes, Lea Salonga, More Part of Broadway Classics Concert at Carnegie Hall \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Playbill]] \\|access\\-date\\=March 3, 2018 \\|first\\=Andrew \\|last\\=Gans \\|date\\=February 20, 2018 \\|publisher\\=Brightspot \\|archive\\-date\\=March 3, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303164754/http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-laura\\-osnes\\-lea\\-salonga\\-more\\-are\\-part\\-of\\-february\\-20\\-broadway\\-classics\\-concert\\-at\\-carnegie\\-hall \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "Karimloo took part in the [Toronto Symphony](/wiki/Toronto_Symphony_Orchestra \"Toronto Symphony Orchestra\") on April 10, 11 and 12, 2018 at [Roy Thomson Hall](/wiki/Roy_Thomson_Hall \"Roy Thomson Hall\") alongside [Stephanie J. Block](/wiki/Stephanie_J._Block \"Stephanie J. Block\").", "He reprised the role of the Phantom in May 2018 in a series of *The Phantom of the Opera* concerts held at the Sejong Center for the Performing Arts in Seoul, Korea alongside [Anna O'Byrne](/wiki/Anna_O%27Byrne \"Anna O'Byrne\") as Christine, as part of the celebration for [Andrew Lloyd Webber](/wiki/Andrew_Lloyd_Webber \"Andrew Lloyd Webber\")'s 70th birthday. He also performed in Gold Coast, Australia June 16, 2018, Melbourne, Australia June 20, 2018, and in Sydney, Australia on June 23, 2018, again alongside O'Byrne,{{Cite magazine \\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-will\\-play\\-australia\\-with\\-special\\-guest\\-anna\\-obyrne \\|title\\=Ramin Karimloo Will Play Australia With Special Guest Anna O'Byrne \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Playbill]] \\|access\\-date\\=March 3, 2018 \\|first\\=Adam \\|last\\=Hetrick \\|date\\=February 21, 2018 \\|publisher\\=Brightspot \\|archive\\-date\\=March 3, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303225115/http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-will\\-play\\-australia\\-with\\-special\\-guest\\-anna\\-obyrne \\|url\\-status\\=live}} followed by a special run of *Evita* in Tokyo, Japan from July 4 to the 29, 2018 at Theatre Orb, where he reprised the role of Che.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://evita2018\\.jp/ \\|title\\=奇跡の初来日公演！ ミュージカル エビータ EVITA \\|website\\=ミュージカル『エビー タ（EVITA）』2018年7月来日公演 \\|access\\-date\\=March 3, 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 4, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180304054706/http://evita2018\\.jp/ \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "On September 13, 2019, the BBC cast him as consultant cardiothoracic surgeon [Kian Madani](/wiki/Holby_City_%28series_23%29 \"Holby City (series 23)\"), the rival of [Jac Naylor](/wiki/Jac_Naylor \"Jac Naylor\") in *[Holby City](/wiki/Holby_City \"Holby City\")*.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.digitalspy.com/soaps/holby\\-city/a25886876/holby\\-city\\-ramin\\-karimloo\\-jac\\-naylor\\-nemesis/ \\|title\\=Holby City casts West End star Ramin Karimloo as new nemesis for Jac Naylor \\|work\\=\\[\\[Digital Spy]] \\|access\\-date\\=January 24, 2019 \\|first\\=Jess \\|last\\=Lee \\|date\\=January 14, 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Hearst UK]] \\|archive\\-date\\=January 26, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190126232824/https://www.digitalspy.com/soaps/holby\\-city/a25886876/holby\\-city\\-ramin\\-karimloo\\-jac\\-naylor\\-nemesis/ \\|url\\-status\\=live}} He stayed with the show until 2021\\.", "On September 1, 2019, he played the lead role Yurii Zhivago in the concert production of musical *[Doctor Zhivago](/wiki/Doctor_Zhivago_%28musical%29 \"Doctor Zhivago (musical)\")*, with his costar [Celinde Schoenmaker](/wiki/Celinde_Schoenmaker \"Celinde Schoenmaker\") as Lara. The show was the UK premiere of *Doctor Zhivago* and only performed twice at [Cadogan Hall](/wiki/Cadogan_Hall \"Cadogan Hall\").{{Cite magazine \\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-will\\-star\\-in\\-uk\\-concert\\-premiere\\-of\\-doctor\\-zhivago \\|title\\=Ramin Karimloo Will Star in U.K. Concert Premiere of Doctor Zhivago \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Playbill]] \\|date\\=July 11, 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=September 16, 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=December 4, 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204201247/https://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-will\\-star\\-in\\-uk\\-concert\\-premiere\\-of\\-doctor\\-zhivago \\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.lambertjackson.co.uk/doctorzhivago/ \\|title\\=Lambert Jackson Productions \\|website\\=Lambert Jackson Productions \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725012550/https://www.lambertjackson.co.uk/doctorzhivago/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-07\\-25}}", "In January 2020, he reprised his role of Anatoly opposite [Samantha Barks](/wiki/Samantha_Barks \"Samantha Barks\") as Florence in a Japan tour of [*Chess*](/wiki/Chess_%28musical%29 \"Chess (musical)\").{{Cite magazine \\|url\\=https://playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-and\\-samantha\\-barks\\-star\\-in\\-chess\\-beginning\\-january\\-25\\-in\\-japan \\|title\\=Ramin Karimloo and Samantha Barks Star in Chess, Beginning January 25 in Japan \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Playbill]]\\|access\\-date\\=January 24, 2024\\|archive\\-date\\=April 25, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425045825/https://playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-and\\-samantha\\-barks\\-star\\-in\\-chess\\-beginning\\-january\\-25\\-in\\-japan\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "### 2021–present: *Funny Girl*, *The Pirates of Penzance*, and return to *The Phantom of the Opera*", "In summer 2021, he starred as Joe Gillis an [Off\\-West End](/wiki/Off-West_End \"Off-West End\") concert of *[Sunset Boulevard](/wiki/Sunset_Boulevard_%28musical%29 \"Sunset Boulevard (musical)\")*. In December that same year he reprised the role at the [Royal Albert Hall](/wiki/Royal_Albert_Hall \"Royal Albert Hall\").[Ramin Karimloo, Mazz Murray, Zizi Strallen, More Star in London Sunset Boulevard Concerts Beginning June 13](https://playbill.com/article/ramin-karimloo-mazz-murray-zizi-strallen-more-star-in-london-sunset-boulevard-concerts-beginning-june-13)[Photos: See Ramin Karimloo \\& Mazz Murray in Rehearsals for SUNSET BOULEVARD at the Royal Albert Hall](https://www.broadwayworld.com/westend/article/Photos-See-Ramin-Karimloo-Mazz-Murray-in-Rehearsals-for-SUNSET-BOULEVARD-20211201)", "On October 6, 2021, it was announced that Karimloo would be returning to Broadway as Nick Arnstein in the Broadway revival of *[Funny Girl](/wiki/Funny_Girl_%28musical%29 \"Funny Girl (musical)\")*, alongside [Jane Lynch](/wiki/Jane_Lynch \"Jane Lynch\"), Jared Grimes, and [Beanie Feldstein](/wiki/Beanie_Feldstein \"Beanie Feldstein\") and was directed by Micheal Mayer. It started previews on March 26, 2022, and officially opened on April 24, 2022, at the [August Wilson Theatre](/wiki/August_Wilson_Theatre \"August Wilson Theatre\").{{Cite magazine \\|date\\=October 6, 2021 \\|title\\=Ramin Karimloo, Jane Lynch, Jared Grimes Join Beanie Feldstein in Funny Girl Broadway Revival \\|url\\=https://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-jane\\-lynch\\-jared\\-grimes\\-join\\-beanie\\-feldstein\\-in\\-funny\\-girl\\-broadway\\-revival \\|access\\-date\\=October 7, 2021 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Playbill]] \\|archive\\-date\\=October 7, 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007032215/https://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-jane\\-lynch\\-jared\\-grimes\\-join\\-beanie\\-feldstein\\-in\\-funny\\-girl\\-broadway\\-revival \\|url\\-status\\=live}} He stayed with the show through its closing in September 2023 where he starred opposite [Lea Michele](/wiki/Lea_Michele \"Lea Michele\") as Fanny Brice.{{Cite magazine \\|url\\=https://www.playbill.com/article/funny\\-girl\\-sets\\-broadway\\-closing\\-lea\\-michele\\-ramin\\-karimloo\\-jared\\-grimes\\-tovah\\-feldshuh\\-to\\-close\\-out\\-the\\-run \\|title\\=Funny Girl Sets Broadway Closing; Lea Michele, Ramin Karimloo, Jared Grimes, Tovah Feldshuh to Close Out the Run \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Playbill]] \\|date\\=March 2, 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=March 2, 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 2, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230302154156/https://playbill.com/article/funny\\-girl\\-sets\\-broadway\\-closing\\-lea\\-michele\\-ramin\\-karimloo\\-jared\\-grimes\\-tovah\\-feldshuh\\-to\\-close\\-out\\-the\\-run \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "In October 2022, Karimloo played the Pirate King in a Broadway concert of *[The Pirates of Penzance](/wiki/The_Pirates_of_Penzance \"The Pirates of Penzance\")* at the [American Airlines Theatre](/wiki/American_Airlines_Theatre \"American Airlines Theatre\").{{Cite magazine \\|url\\=https://playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-lilli\\-cooper\\-david\\-hyde\\-pierce\\-more\\-will\\-star\\-in\\-roundabouts\\-the\\-pirates\\-of\\-penzance\\-concert\\-on\\-broadway \\|title\\=Ramin Karimloo, Lilli Cooper, David Hyde Pierce, More Will Star in Roundabout's The Pirates of Penzance Concert on Broadway \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Playbill]]\\|access\\-date\\=January 24, 2024\\|archive\\-date\\=April 4, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404041044/https://playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-lilli\\-cooper\\-david\\-hyde\\-pierce\\-more\\-will\\-star\\-in\\-roundabouts\\-the\\-pirates\\-of\\-penzance\\-concert\\-on\\-broadway\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In December 2022, he reprised his role of Anatoly Sergievsky in a Broadway benefit concert of [*Chess*](/wiki/Chess_%28musical%29 \"Chess (musical)\") opposite [Darren Criss](/wiki/Darren_Criss \"Darren Criss\"), [Lena Hall](/wiki/Lena_Hall \"Lena Hall\"), and [Solea Pfeiffer](/wiki/Solea_Pfeiffer \"Solea Pfeiffer\") at the [Broadhurst Theatre](/wiki/Broadhurst_Theatre \"Broadhurst Theatre\").{{Cite magazine \\|url\\=https://playbill.com/article/darren\\-criss\\-lena\\-hall\\-ramin\\-karimloo\\-and\\-solea\\-pfeiffer\\-star\\-in\\-chess\\-concert\\-on\\-broadway\\-december\\-12 \\|title\\=Darren Criss, Lena Hall, Ramin Karimloo, and Solea Pfeiffer Star in Chess Concert on Broadway December 12 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Playbill]]\\|access\\-date\\=January 24, 2024\\|archive\\-date\\=February 9, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230209021240/https://www.playbill.com/article/darren\\-criss\\-lena\\-hall\\-ramin\\-karimloo\\-and\\-solea\\-pfeiffer\\-star\\-in\\-chess\\-concert\\-on\\-broadway\\-december\\-12\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "He reprised his role of Yurii Zhivago in a concert production of the musical *[Doctor Zhivago](/wiki/Doctor_Zhivago_%28musical%29 \"Doctor Zhivago (musical)\")*, opposite [Celinde Schoenmaker](/wiki/Celinde_Schoenmaker \"Celinde Schoenmaker\") as Lara at the [London Palladium](/wiki/London_Palladium \"London Palladium\") on May 7, 2023\\.{{Cite magazine \\|url\\=https://playbill.com/article/cast\\-complete\\-for\\-london\\-palladium\\-doctor\\-zhivago\\-concert\\-starring\\-ramin\\-karimloo\\-and\\-celinde\\-schoenmaker \\|title\\=Cast Complete for London Palladium Doctor Zhivago Concert, Starring Ramin Karimloo and Celinde Schoenmaker \\|last1\\=Gans \\|first1\\=Andrew \\|date\\=2022\\-11\\-04 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Playbill]] \\|access\\-date\\=April 18, 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 28, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128192207/https://www.playbill.com/article/cast\\-complete\\-for\\-london\\-palladium\\-doctor\\-zhivago\\-concert\\-starring\\-ramin\\-karimloo\\-and\\-celinde\\-schoenmaker \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "On February 27, 2023, it was announced that Karimloo would reprise his role of the Phantom in the Italy premiere of *The Phantom of the Opera*. He starred opposite [Bradley Jaden](/wiki/Bradley_Jaden \"Bradley Jaden\") as Raoul, [Earl Carpenter](/wiki/Earl_Carpenter \"Earl Carpenter\") as Monsieur André, and Amelia Milo as Christine. Performances began on July 4, 2023 at the [Politeama Rossetti](/wiki/Politeama_Rossetti \"Politeama Rossetti\") in Trieste, Italy. This same production toured to [Milan](/wiki/Milan \"Milan\") in October 2023 and [Monaco](/wiki/Monaco \"Monaco\") in December 2023\\.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.whatsonstage.com/news/cast\\-joining\\-ramin\\-karimloo\\-in\\-phantom\\-of\\-the\\-opera\\-italian\\-premiere\\-revealed\\_1352870/ \\|title\\=Cast joining Ramin Karimloo in Phantom of the Opera Italian premiere revealed \\|last\\=Wood \\|first\\=Alex \\|work\\=WhatsOnStage \\|date\\=June 14, 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=June 28, 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=June 28, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230628204236/https://www.whatsonstage.com/news/cast\\-joining\\-ramin\\-karimloo\\-in\\-phantom\\-of\\-the\\-opera\\-italian\\-premiere\\-revealed\\_1352870/ \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "On October 31, 2023, it was announced Karimloo would play [Gomez Addams](/wiki/Gomez_Addams \"Gomez Addams\") in the musical *[The Addams Family](/wiki/The_Addams_Family_%28musical%29 \"The Addams Family (musical)\")* live in concert at the [London Palladium](/wiki/London_Palladium \"London Palladium\") in February 2024\\. This would be the West End premiere of the show.{{Cite magazine \\|url\\=https://playbill.com/article/michelle\\-visage\\-and\\-ramin\\-karimloo\\-to\\-star\\-in\\-the\\-addams\\-family\\-concert \\|title\\=Michelle Visage and Ramin Karimloo to Star in The Addams Family Concert \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Playbill]] \\|access\\-date\\=December 29, 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=November 4, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231104162622/https://playbill.com/article/michelle\\-visage\\-and\\-ramin\\-karimloo\\-to\\-star\\-in\\-the\\-addams\\-family\\-concert\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "In March 2024, Karimloo made his operatic debut in *Songbird*, playing the title role at the [Kennedy Center](/wiki/Kennedy_Center \"Kennedy Center\") as part of the [Washington National Opera](/wiki/Washington_National_Opera \"Washington National Opera\"). In June 2024, he made his [Encores!](/wiki/Encores%21 \"Encores!\") debut in [*Titanic*](/wiki/Titanic_%28musical%29 \"Titanic (musical)\") as [Frederick Barrett](/wiki/Frederick_Barrett \"Frederick Barrett\") at [New York City Center](/wiki/New_York_City_Center \"New York City Center\").", "On 4 June 2024, it was announced that [*Dirty Rotten Scoundrels*](/wiki/Dirty_Rotten_Scoundrels_%28musical%29 \"Dirty Rotten Scoundrels (musical)\") would return to the West End for a concert run at the [London Palladium](/wiki/London_Palladium \"London Palladium\") on 24 November 2024, marking 20 years since the show premiered. Karimloo is set to star as Freddy Benson opposite [Hadley Fraser](/wiki/Hadley_Fraser \"Hadley Fraser\") as Lawrence Jamieson.[Dirty Rotten Scoundrels to be staged in concert with Ramin Karimloo and Hadley Fraser](https://www.whatsonstage.com/news/dirty-rotten-scoundrels-to-be-staged-in-concert-with-ramin-karimloo-and-hadley-fraser_1604150/)", "In July 2024, he performed both broadway and folk songs at Broadway by the Boardwalk, a free summer concert series by the [Hudson River](/wiki/Hudson_River_Park \"Hudson River Park\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Ramin Karimloo \\|url\\=https://hudsonriverpark.org/visit/events/event/broadway\\-by\\-the\\-boardwalk\\-july\\-22\\-2024\\-ramin\\-karimloo/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-08\\-04 \\|website\\=Hudson River Park \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "In April 2025, he is set to return to Broadway in a revival of *[The Pirates of Penzance](/wiki/The_Pirates_of_Penzance \"The Pirates of Penzance\")* as the Pirate King at the [Todd Haimes Theatre](/wiki/American_Airlines_Theatre \"American Airlines Theatre\").{{Cite magazine \\|url\\=https://www.playbill.com/article/sanaz\\-toossis\\-english\\-david\\-henry\\-hwangs\\-yellow\\-face\\-new\\-orleans\\-themed\\-pirates\\-of\\-penzance\\-join\\-roundabout\\-season \\|title\\=Sanaz Toossi's English, David Henry Hwang's Yellow Face, New Orleans\\-Themed Pirates of Penzance Join Roundabout Season \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Playbill]]\\|access\\-date\\=January 9, 2024\\|archive\\-date\\=January 9, 2024\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240109204426/https://www.playbill.com/article/sanaz\\-toossis\\-english\\-david\\-henry\\-hwangs\\-yellow\\-face\\-new\\-orleans\\-themed\\-pirates\\-of\\-penzance\\-join\\-roundabout\\-season \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "" ]
### 2001–2005: Early career and West End debut After moving to the United Kingdom, Karimloo's first role was in a pantomime of *[Aladdin](/wiki/Aladdin "Aladdin")* in [Chatham](/wiki/Chatham%2C_Kent "Chatham, Kent"), in which he played the title role. He joined the UK national tour of *[The Pirates of Penzance](/wiki/The_Pirates_of_Penzance "The Pirates of Penzance")* playing the role of a police officer, as well as understudying the Pirate King in 2001\. In 2002 he took the role of the Pirate King in [Bath, England](/wiki/Bath%2C_Somerset "Bath, Somerset"). During this year Karimloo joined the national tour of *[Sunset Boulevard](/wiki/Sunset_Boulevard_%28musical%29 "Sunset Boulevard (musical)")*, playing Artie Green and covering the role of Joe Gillis. Karimloo made his [West End](/wiki/West_End_theatre "West End theatre") debut in *[Les Miserables](/wiki/Les_Mis%C3%A9rables_%28musical%29 "Les Misérables (musical)")* where he played Feuilly and understudied the roles of [Marius Pontmercy](/wiki/Marius_Pontmercy "Marius Pontmercy") and [Enjolras](/wiki/Enjolras "Enjolras"). He later returned to production in 2004 as the full\-time Enjolras. In 2003, Karimloo took on the role of Raoul, Vicomte de Chagny and three years later was the standby for the Phantom in *[The Phantom of the Opera](/wiki/The_Phantom_of_the_Opera_%281986_musical%29 "The Phantom of the Opera (1986 musical)")*. His final matinee performance as Raoul was filmed for use on a behind\-the\-scenes feature on the DVD of [Joel Schumacher](/wiki/Joel_Schumacher "Joel Schumacher")'s [film adaptation of the musical](/wiki/The_Phantom_of_the_Opera_%282004_film%29 "The Phantom of the Opera (2004 film)"), in which he also appeared in a cameo role as Gustave Daaé. Karimloo appeared in two concerts: one of *Les Misérables,* as Marius Pontmercy, and one of *[Jesus Christ Superstar](/wiki/Jesus_Christ_Superstar "Jesus Christ Superstar")*, as [Simon Zealotes](/wiki/Simon_Zealotes "Simon Zealotes"), and a featured singer in "[Superstar](/wiki/Superstar_%28JCS_song%29 "Superstar (JCS song)")". In 2004, he returned to *Les Misérables* to the role of Enjolras. That December, he appeared in a concert of *Les Misérables* at [Windsor Castle](/wiki/Windsor_Castle "Windsor Castle") in honor of the French president [Jacques Chirac](/wiki/Jacques_Chirac "Jacques Chirac"). In June 2005, Karimloo joined the UK national tour of *[Miss Saigon](/wiki/Miss_Saigon "Miss Saigon")*, playing the role of Christopher Scott.
[ "### 2001–2005: Early career and West End debut", "After moving to the United Kingdom, Karimloo's first role was in a pantomime of *[Aladdin](/wiki/Aladdin \"Aladdin\")* in [Chatham](/wiki/Chatham%2C_Kent \"Chatham, Kent\"), in which he played the title role. He joined the UK national tour of *[The Pirates of Penzance](/wiki/The_Pirates_of_Penzance \"The Pirates of Penzance\")* playing the role of a police officer, as well as understudying the Pirate King in 2001\\.", "In 2002 he took the role of the Pirate King in [Bath, England](/wiki/Bath%2C_Somerset \"Bath, Somerset\"). During this year Karimloo joined the national tour of *[Sunset Boulevard](/wiki/Sunset_Boulevard_%28musical%29 \"Sunset Boulevard (musical)\")*, playing Artie Green and covering the role of Joe Gillis.", "Karimloo made his [West End](/wiki/West_End_theatre \"West End theatre\") debut in *[Les Miserables](/wiki/Les_Mis%C3%A9rables_%28musical%29 \"Les Misérables (musical)\")* where he played Feuilly and understudied the roles of [Marius Pontmercy](/wiki/Marius_Pontmercy \"Marius Pontmercy\") and [Enjolras](/wiki/Enjolras \"Enjolras\"). He later returned to production in 2004 as the full\\-time Enjolras.", "In 2003, Karimloo took on the role of Raoul, Vicomte de Chagny and three years later was the standby for the Phantom in *[The Phantom of the Opera](/wiki/The_Phantom_of_the_Opera_%281986_musical%29 \"The Phantom of the Opera (1986 musical)\")*. His final matinee performance as Raoul was filmed for use on a behind\\-the\\-scenes feature on the DVD of [Joel Schumacher](/wiki/Joel_Schumacher \"Joel Schumacher\")'s [film adaptation of the musical](/wiki/The_Phantom_of_the_Opera_%282004_film%29 \"The Phantom of the Opera (2004 film)\"), in which he also appeared in a cameo role as Gustave Daaé.", "Karimloo appeared in two concerts: one of *Les Misérables,* as Marius Pontmercy, and one of *[Jesus Christ Superstar](/wiki/Jesus_Christ_Superstar \"Jesus Christ Superstar\")*, as [Simon Zealotes](/wiki/Simon_Zealotes \"Simon Zealotes\"), and a featured singer in \"[Superstar](/wiki/Superstar_%28JCS_song%29 \"Superstar (JCS song)\")\". In 2004, he returned to *Les Misérables* to the role of Enjolras. That December, he appeared in a concert of *Les Misérables* at [Windsor Castle](/wiki/Windsor_Castle \"Windsor Castle\") in honor of the French president [Jacques Chirac](/wiki/Jacques_Chirac \"Jacques Chirac\").", "In June 2005, Karimloo joined the UK national tour of *[Miss Saigon](/wiki/Miss_Saigon \"Miss Saigon\")*, playing the role of Christopher Scott.", "" ]
### 2006–2010: *The Phantom of the Opera* and *Love Never Dies* Karimloo started appearing in the West End production of *The Phantom of the Opera* as the Phantom in September 2007\. The role earned him a [Theatregoers' Choice Award](/wiki/Theatregoers%27_Choice_Award "Theatregoers' Choice Award") nomination for Best Actor in a Take Over Role,{{Citation needed\|date\=February 2024}} he played the role from September 2007 to November 2009\. Karimloo released an EP, *Within the Six Square Inch*, on which he duets with [Hadley Fraser](/wiki/Hadley_Fraser "Hadley Fraser") and Sophia Ragavelas, both of whom he had already appeared in *[Les Misérables](/wiki/Les_Mis%C3%A9rables_%28musical%29 "Les Misérables (musical)"),* as Marius Pontmercy and Éponine Thenardier. In July 2008, Karimloo participated in the [Sydmonton Festival](/wiki/Sydmonton_Festival "Sydmonton Festival") and was the first actor to play the Phantom in the workshop presentation of *[Love Never Dies](/wiki/Love_Never_Dies_%28musical%29 "Love Never Dies (musical)")*. It was the first act of the sequel of *The Phantom of the Opera*. He played the role alongside [Sierra Boggess](/wiki/Sierra_Boggess "Sierra Boggess") when the sequel opened in London in March 2010\. In 2008, Karimloo recorded the song "I Only Wish for You" with Shona Lindsay and [Dianne Pilkington](/wiki/Dianne_Pilkington "Dianne Pilkington") for the album *Songs from the Musicals of Alexander S. Bermange*, an album of 20 new recordings by 26 West End stars, released in November 2008 on Dress Circle Records.{{cite web \|url\=https://itunes.apple.com/gb/album/act\-one\-songs\-from\-musicals/id458358848 \|work\=\[\[iTunes]] \|title\=Act One: Songs from the Musicals of Alexander S. Bermange \|date\=November 28, 2008 \|access\-date\=April 11, 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[Apple Inc.]] \|archive\-date\=May 22, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190522050601/https://itunes.apple.com/gb/album/act\-one\-songs\-from\-musicals/id458358848 \|url\-status\=live}} In 2009, Karimloo participated in the recording of a new musical album called *Bluebird*, by Gareth Peter Dicks. *Bluebird* is a dramatic World War II musical, in which he played American serviceman Ben Breagan. The 24\-track album was released in four countries in September 2009\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.garethpeterdicks.co.uk \|work\=Gareth Peter Dicks \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120803224113/http://www.garethpeterdicks.co.uk/ \|archive\-date\=August 3, 2012 \|access\-date\=April 11, 2019 \|title\=Welcome to my new\-look website. I am Gareth Peter Dicks, a composer and lyricist from sunny Nottingham, England. \|first\=Gareth Peter \|last\=Dicks}} Karimloo's last regular performance in *The Phantom of the Opera* was on November 7, 2009\. In 2010, he moved on to playing the Phantom in [Andrew Lloyd Webber](/wiki/Andrew_Lloyd_Webber "Andrew Lloyd Webber")'s sequel to *The Phantom of the Opera*, *Love Never Dies*, alongside Sierra Boggess, performing the role until the show closed on August 27, 2011\. On October 3, 2010, Karimloo played the role of [Enjolras](/wiki/Enjolras "Enjolras") in the 25th anniversary concert of *Les Misérables* at [The O2 Arena](/wiki/The_O2_Arena "The O2 Arena") in London.
[ "### 2006–2010: *The Phantom of the Opera* and *Love Never Dies*", "Karimloo started appearing in the West End production of *The Phantom of the Opera* as the Phantom in September 2007\\. The role earned him a [Theatregoers' Choice Award](/wiki/Theatregoers%27_Choice_Award \"Theatregoers' Choice Award\") nomination for Best Actor in a Take Over Role,{{Citation needed\\|date\\=February 2024}} he played the role from September 2007 to November 2009\\.", "Karimloo released an EP, *Within the Six Square Inch*, on which he duets with [Hadley Fraser](/wiki/Hadley_Fraser \"Hadley Fraser\") and Sophia Ragavelas, both of whom he had already appeared in *[Les Misérables](/wiki/Les_Mis%C3%A9rables_%28musical%29 \"Les Misérables (musical)\"),* as Marius Pontmercy and Éponine Thenardier.", "In July 2008, Karimloo participated in the [Sydmonton Festival](/wiki/Sydmonton_Festival \"Sydmonton Festival\") and was the first actor to play the Phantom in the workshop presentation of *[Love Never Dies](/wiki/Love_Never_Dies_%28musical%29 \"Love Never Dies (musical)\")*. It was the first act of the sequel of *The Phantom of the Opera*. He played the role alongside [Sierra Boggess](/wiki/Sierra_Boggess \"Sierra Boggess\") when the sequel opened in London in March 2010\\.", "In 2008, Karimloo recorded the song \"I Only Wish for You\" with Shona Lindsay and [Dianne Pilkington](/wiki/Dianne_Pilkington \"Dianne Pilkington\") for the album *Songs from the Musicals of Alexander S. Bermange*, an album of 20 new recordings by 26 West End stars, released in November 2008 on Dress Circle Records.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://itunes.apple.com/gb/album/act\\-one\\-songs\\-from\\-musicals/id458358848 \\|work\\=\\[\\[iTunes]] \\|title\\=Act One: Songs from the Musicals of Alexander S. Bermange \\|date\\=November 28, 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=April 11, 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Apple Inc.]] \\|archive\\-date\\=May 22, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190522050601/https://itunes.apple.com/gb/album/act\\-one\\-songs\\-from\\-musicals/id458358848 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "In 2009, Karimloo participated in the recording of a new musical album called *Bluebird*, by Gareth Peter Dicks. *Bluebird* is a dramatic World War II musical, in which he played American serviceman Ben Breagan. The 24\\-track album was released in four countries in September 2009\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.garethpeterdicks.co.uk \\|work\\=Gareth Peter Dicks \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120803224113/http://www.garethpeterdicks.co.uk/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 3, 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=April 11, 2019 \\|title\\=Welcome to my new\\-look website. I am Gareth Peter Dicks, a composer and lyricist from sunny Nottingham, England. \\|first\\=Gareth Peter \\|last\\=Dicks}} Karimloo's last regular performance in *The Phantom of the Opera* was on November 7, 2009\\.", "In 2010, he moved on to playing the Phantom in [Andrew Lloyd Webber](/wiki/Andrew_Lloyd_Webber \"Andrew Lloyd Webber\")'s sequel to *The Phantom of the Opera*, *Love Never Dies*, alongside Sierra Boggess, performing the role until the show closed on August 27, 2011\\.", "On October 3, 2010, Karimloo played the role of [Enjolras](/wiki/Enjolras \"Enjolras\") in the 25th anniversary concert of *Les Misérables* at [The O2 Arena](/wiki/The_O2_Arena \"The O2 Arena\") in London.", "" ]
### 2011–2013: *The Phantom of the Opera at the Royal Albert Hall* and return to *Les Misérables* In 2011, he sang Andrew Lloyd Webber's "[The Music of the Night](/wiki/The_Music_of_the_Night "The Music of the Night")" from *The Phantom of the Opera* at the [Miss World](/wiki/Miss_World "Miss World") Competition, which took place in London. On October 1 and 2, 2011, he and Boggess reunited as the Phantom and [Christine Daaé](/wiki/Christine_Daa%C3%A9 "Christine Daaé") and played opposite [Hadley Fraser](/wiki/Hadley_Fraser "Hadley Fraser") as Raoul for the 25th\-anniversary production of *[The Phantom of the Opera at the Royal Albert Hall](/wiki/The_Phantom_of_the_Opera_at_the_Royal_Albert_Hall "The Phantom of the Opera at the Royal Albert Hall")*, which was streamed live to cinemas worldwide. From November 29, 2011, to March 31, 2012, Karimloo returned to *Les Misérables* to play the lead role of [Jean Valjean](/wiki/Jean_Valjean "Jean Valjean") opposite Fraser as [Javert](/wiki/Javert "Javert") at [The Queen's Theatre](/wiki/Sondheim_Theatre "Sondheim Theatre"), London, for which he won the 2013 [Theatregoers' Choice Award](/wiki/Theatregoers%27_Choice_Award "Theatregoers' Choice Award") for Best Takeover in a Role.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.whatsonstage.com/news/theatre/london/E8831360953406/Full\+list%3A\+Winners\+announced\+of\+the\+2013\+Whatsonstage.com\+Awards.html \|title\=Full list: Winners announced of the 2013 Whatsonstage.com Awards \|date\=February 17, 2013 \|access\-date\=April 11, 2019 \|work\=\[\[WhatsOnStage]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130220014142/http://www.whatsonstage.com/news/theatre/london/E8831360953406/Full\+list%3A\+Winners\+announced\+of\+the\+2013\+Whatsonstage.com\+Awards.html \|archive\-date\=February 20, 2013}} In 2011, Karimloo made a guest appearance in [Warwick Davis](/wiki/Warwick_Davis "Warwick Davis")'s [BBC2](/wiki/BBC2 "BBC2") comedy *[Life's Too Short](/wiki/Life%27s_Too_Short_%28TV_series%29 "Life's Too Short (TV series)")* as a Scientologist. He has also had a recurring role in *[The Spa (TV series)](/wiki/The_Spa_%28TV_series%29 "The Spa (TV series)")* on Sky in the United Kingdom. As part of the 25th anniversary of *The Phantom of the Opera*, Karimloo performed the title song at [The Royal Variety Performance](/wiki/The_Royal_Variety_Performance "The Royal Variety Performance") – held in [The Lowry](/wiki/The_Lowry "The Lowry"), Manchester. Performing alongside [Pussycat Dolls](/wiki/Pussycat_Dolls "Pussycat Dolls")' lead singer [Nicole Scherzinger](/wiki/Nicole_Scherzinger "Nicole Scherzinger"), he was joined by three other former Phantoms ([Simon Bowman](/wiki/Simon_Bowman "Simon Bowman"), [Earl Carpenter](/wiki/Earl_Carpenter "Earl Carpenter") and [John Owen\-Jones](/wiki/John_Owen-Jones "John Owen-Jones")). The performance was aired on [ITV1](/wiki/ITV1 "ITV1") on December 14, 2011\.{{cite AV media \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=nccH8jWtydk \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/nccH8jWtydk \|archive\-date\=2021\-12\-21 \|url\-status\=live \|title\=Rehearsals for the Royal Variety Performance \|work\=The Phantom of the Opera \|date\=December 9, 2011 \|access\-date\=April 11, 2019 \|medium\=YouTube}}{{cbignore}} Karimloo can also be found on *The Music Box* album as a hidden track. The song is from the musical *Bluebird* by Gareth Peter Dicks and is a short acoustic version of a track from the album of the same name. His solo album, *Ramin*, was released by [Sony Music Entertainment](/wiki/Sony_Music_Entertainment "Sony Music Entertainment") on April 9, 2012, in the UK. The album was released in Canada and the US in August 2012\. On January 26, 2013, Karimloo joined [John Owen\-Jones](/wiki/John_Owen-Jones "John Owen-Jones"), [Peter Joback](/wiki/Peter_Joback "Peter Joback"), and [Hugh Panaro](/wiki/Hugh_Panaro "Hugh Panaro") to sing the title song from *The Phantom of the Opera* with [Sierra Boggess](/wiki/Sierra_Boggess "Sierra Boggess") and "The Music of the Night" for the encore of *Phantom*{{'s}} 25th anniversary on Broadway. He also played a small role in the action film *Vendetta*. Karimloo then played Jean Valjean in the Canadian production of the newly staged *Les Misérables*, which opened in September 2013\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.broadway.com/buzz/166706/ramin\-karimloo\-eyes\-playing\-jean\-valjean\-in\-toronto\-run\-of\-les\-miserables/ \|title\=Ramin Karimloo Eyes Playing Jean Valjean in Toronto Run of Les Miserables \|first\=Josh \|last\=Ferri \|date\=January 17, 2013 \|access\-date\=April 11, 2019 \|work\=\[\[Broadway.com]] \|archive\-date\=November 8, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108171349/https://www.broadway.com/buzz/166706/ramin\-karimloo\-eyes\-playing\-jean\-valjean\-in\-toronto\-run\-of\-les\-miserables/ \|url\-status\=live}}
[ "### 2011–2013: *The Phantom of the Opera at the Royal Albert Hall* and return to *Les Misérables*", "In 2011, he sang Andrew Lloyd Webber's \"[The Music of the Night](/wiki/The_Music_of_the_Night \"The Music of the Night\")\" from *The Phantom of the Opera* at the [Miss World](/wiki/Miss_World \"Miss World\") Competition, which took place in London.", "On October 1 and 2, 2011, he and Boggess reunited as the Phantom and [Christine Daaé](/wiki/Christine_Daa%C3%A9 \"Christine Daaé\") and played opposite [Hadley Fraser](/wiki/Hadley_Fraser \"Hadley Fraser\") as Raoul for the 25th\\-anniversary production of *[The Phantom of the Opera at the Royal Albert Hall](/wiki/The_Phantom_of_the_Opera_at_the_Royal_Albert_Hall \"The Phantom of the Opera at the Royal Albert Hall\")*, which was streamed live to cinemas worldwide.", "From November 29, 2011, to March 31, 2012, Karimloo returned to *Les Misérables* to play the lead role of [Jean Valjean](/wiki/Jean_Valjean \"Jean Valjean\") opposite Fraser as [Javert](/wiki/Javert \"Javert\") at [The Queen's Theatre](/wiki/Sondheim_Theatre \"Sondheim Theatre\"), London, for which he won the 2013 [Theatregoers' Choice Award](/wiki/Theatregoers%27_Choice_Award \"Theatregoers' Choice Award\") for Best Takeover in a Role.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.whatsonstage.com/news/theatre/london/E8831360953406/Full\\+list%3A\\+Winners\\+announced\\+of\\+the\\+2013\\+Whatsonstage.com\\+Awards.html \\|title\\=Full list: Winners announced of the 2013 Whatsonstage.com Awards \\|date\\=February 17, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=April 11, 2019 \\|work\\=\\[\\[WhatsOnStage]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130220014142/http://www.whatsonstage.com/news/theatre/london/E8831360953406/Full\\+list%3A\\+Winners\\+announced\\+of\\+the\\+2013\\+Whatsonstage.com\\+Awards.html \\|archive\\-date\\=February 20, 2013}}", "In 2011, Karimloo made a guest appearance in [Warwick Davis](/wiki/Warwick_Davis \"Warwick Davis\")'s [BBC2](/wiki/BBC2 \"BBC2\") comedy *[Life's Too Short](/wiki/Life%27s_Too_Short_%28TV_series%29 \"Life's Too Short (TV series)\")* as a Scientologist. He has also had a recurring role in *[The Spa (TV series)](/wiki/The_Spa_%28TV_series%29 \"The Spa (TV series)\")* on Sky in the United Kingdom.", "As part of the 25th anniversary of *The Phantom of the Opera*, Karimloo performed the title song at [The Royal Variety Performance](/wiki/The_Royal_Variety_Performance \"The Royal Variety Performance\") – held in [The Lowry](/wiki/The_Lowry \"The Lowry\"), Manchester. Performing alongside [Pussycat Dolls](/wiki/Pussycat_Dolls \"Pussycat Dolls\")' lead singer [Nicole Scherzinger](/wiki/Nicole_Scherzinger \"Nicole Scherzinger\"), he was joined by three other former Phantoms ([Simon Bowman](/wiki/Simon_Bowman \"Simon Bowman\"), [Earl Carpenter](/wiki/Earl_Carpenter \"Earl Carpenter\") and [John Owen\\-Jones](/wiki/John_Owen-Jones \"John Owen-Jones\")). The performance was aired on [ITV1](/wiki/ITV1 \"ITV1\") on December 14, 2011\\.{{cite AV media \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=nccH8jWtydk \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/nccH8jWtydk \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-21 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|title\\=Rehearsals for the Royal Variety Performance \\|work\\=The Phantom of the Opera \\|date\\=December 9, 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=April 11, 2019 \\|medium\\=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}", "Karimloo can also be found on *The Music Box* album as a hidden track. The song is from the musical *Bluebird* by Gareth Peter Dicks and is a short acoustic version of a track from the album of the same name. His solo album, *Ramin*, was released by [Sony Music Entertainment](/wiki/Sony_Music_Entertainment \"Sony Music Entertainment\") on April 9, 2012, in the UK. The album was released in Canada and the US in August 2012\\.", "On January 26, 2013, Karimloo joined [John Owen\\-Jones](/wiki/John_Owen-Jones \"John Owen-Jones\"), [Peter Joback](/wiki/Peter_Joback \"Peter Joback\"), and [Hugh Panaro](/wiki/Hugh_Panaro \"Hugh Panaro\") to sing the title song from *The Phantom of the Opera* with [Sierra Boggess](/wiki/Sierra_Boggess \"Sierra Boggess\") and \"The Music of the Night\" for the encore of *Phantom*{{'s}} 25th anniversary on Broadway.", "He also played a small role in the action film *Vendetta*.", "Karimloo then played Jean Valjean in the Canadian production of the newly staged *Les Misérables*, which opened in September 2013\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.broadway.com/buzz/166706/ramin\\-karimloo\\-eyes\\-playing\\-jean\\-valjean\\-in\\-toronto\\-run\\-of\\-les\\-miserables/ \\|title\\=Ramin Karimloo Eyes Playing Jean Valjean in Toronto Run of Les Miserables \\|first\\=Josh \\|last\\=Ferri \\|date\\=January 17, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=April 11, 2019 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Broadway.com]] \\|archive\\-date\\=November 8, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108171349/https://www.broadway.com/buzz/166706/ramin\\-karimloo\\-eyes\\-playing\\-jean\\-valjean\\-in\\-toronto\\-run\\-of\\-les\\-miserables/ \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "" ]
### 2014–2020: Broadway debut, *Anastasia*, and career outside of England He returned to the role of Valjean in the [2014 Broadway revival](/wiki/Les_Mis%C3%A9rables_%28musical%29%232014_Broadway_revival "Les Misérables (musical)#2014 Broadway revival") of *Les Misérables*, making his Broadway debut, and was nominated for the [Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical](/wiki/Tony_Award_for_Best_Actor_in_a_Musical "Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical"). He concluded his run on August 30, 2015, and was replaced by Alfie Boe, who portrayed Valjean in the 25th Anniversary concert. On 16 February 2015, he played Tom Watson in *[Parade](/wiki/Parade_%28musical%29 "Parade (musical)")* at [Lincoln Center](/wiki/Lincoln_Center "Lincoln Center") opposite [Jeremy Jordan](/wiki/Jeremy_Jordan_%28actor%2C_born_1984%29 "Jeremy Jordan (actor, born 1984)"), [Joshua Henry](/wiki/Joshua_Henry "Joshua Henry"), [Laura Benanti](/wiki/Laura_Benanti "Laura Benanti"), and [Davis Gaines](/wiki/Davis_Gaines "Davis Gaines").{{Cite magazine \|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/full\-cast\-revealed\-for\-parade\-in\-concert\-starring\-jeremy\-jordan\-and\-laura\-benanti\-com\-338955 \|title\=Full Cast Revealed for Parade in Concert Starring Jeremy Jordan and Laura Benanti \|last\=Hetrick \|first\=Adam \|date\=2015\-01\-09 \|magazine\=\[\[Playbill]]\|access\-date\=2020\-02\-04\|archive\-date\=April 11, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411063933/https://playbill.com/article/full\-cast\-revealed\-for\-parade\-in\-concert\-starring\-jeremy\-jordan\-and\-laura\-benanti\-com\-338955\|url\-status\=live}} On May 29, 2015, it was announced that Karimloo would be leading the musical *Prince of Broadway* which features songs from all of Harold Prince's famous musicals in Japan. Rehearsals began in September in New York.{{Citation needed\|date\=December 2023\|reason\=BroadwayWorld is considered generally unreliable (see \[\[WP:RSP]])}} On September 25, 2015, he played the role of Barry Hamidi in the sixth\-season premiere episode of the [CBS](/wiki/CBS "CBS") police procedural drama *[Blue Bloods](/wiki/Blue_Bloods_%28TV_series%29 "Blue Bloods (TV series)")*. In February 2016, Karimloo reunited with Boggess for the Manhattan Concert Productions' staging of *[The Secret Garden](/wiki/The_Secret_Garden_%28musical%29 "The Secret Garden (musical)")*. Also starring opposite [Cheyenne Jackson](/wiki/Cheyenne_Jackson "Cheyenne Jackson") and [Sydney Lucas](/wiki/Sydney_Lucas "Sydney Lucas").{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.theatermania.com/news/the\-secret\-garden\-starring\-sydney\-lucas\-and\-ramin\-karimloo\-set\-to\-begin\-performances\_76036/ \|title\=The Secret Garden, Starring Sydney Lucas and Ramin Karimloo, Set to Begin Performances \- TheaterMania.com \|date\=February 21, 2016\|access\-date\=December 21, 2023\|archive\-date\=December 21, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231221192107/https://www.theatermania.com/news/the\-secret\-garden\-starring\-sydney\-lucas\-and\-ramin\-karimloo\-set\-to\-begin\-performances\_76036/\|url\-status\=live}} In April of the same year, he played Ché in the [Vancouver Opera](/wiki/Vancouver_Opera "Vancouver Opera")'s production of *[Evita](/wiki/Evita_%28musical%29 "Evita (musical)")*, with [John Cudia](/wiki/John_Cudia "John Cudia") as [Juan Peron](/wiki/Juan_Peron "Juan Peron"). His run lasted until May 8, 2016\. From September 30 until December 3, he starred as Tom in *[Murder Ballad](/wiki/Murder_Ballad_%28musical%29 "Murder Ballad (musical)")* at the Arts Theatre in London. On September 22, 2016, it was announced that Karimloo would return to Broadway in the [stage musical adaptation](/wiki/Anastasia_%28musical%29 "Anastasia (musical)") of the film *[Anastasia](/wiki/Anastasia_%281997_film%29 "Anastasia (1997 film)")* as General Gleb Vaganov. The show began previews on March 23, 2017 and opened April 24, 2017 at Broadway's [Broadhurst Theatre](/wiki/Broadhurst_Theatre "Broadhurst Theatre").{{cite magazine \|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-joins\-broadways\-anastasia \|title\=Ramin Karimloo Joins Broadway's Anastasia \|magazine\=\[\[Playbill]] \|access\-date\=September 22, 2016 \|date\=September 22, 2016 \|first\=Adam \|last\=Hetrick \|publisher\=Brightspot \|archive\-date\=September 23, 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923102311/http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-joins\-broadways\-anastasia \|url\-status\=live}} His final performance in *Anastasia* was on December 3, 2017\.{{cite magazine \|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-sets\-final\-performance\-in\-broadways\-anastasia \|title\=Ramin Karimloo Sets Final Performance in Broadway's Anastasia \|first\=Adam \|last\=Hetrick \|date\=October 30, 2017 \|access\-date\=April 11, 2019 \|magazine\=\[\[Playbill]] \|publisher\=Brightspot \|archive\-date\=April 1, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401055311/http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-sets\-final\-performance\-in\-broadways\-anastasia \|url\-status\=live}} Karimloo took part in the [Kennedy Center](/wiki/Kennedy_Center "Kennedy Center") performance of *[Chess](/wiki/Chess_%28musical%29 "Chess (musical)")* as Anatoly, which took place February 14 through the 18th, 2018\. He starred opposite [Raul Esparza](/wiki/Raul_Esparza "Raul Esparza"), [Karen Olivo](/wiki/Karen_Olivo "Karen Olivo"), and [Ruthie Ann Miles](/wiki/Ruthie_Ann_Miles "Ruthie Ann Miles").{{Cite magazine \|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/first\-look\-at\-raul\-esparza\-ramin\-karimloo\-ruthie\-ann\-miles\-and\-karen\-olivo\-in\-chess\-at\-the\-kennedy\-center \|title\=First Look at Raúl Esparza, Ramin Karimloo, Ruthie Ann Miles, and Karen Olivo in Chess at the Kennedy Center \|magazine\=\[\[Playbill]] \|access\-date\=March 3, 2018 \|first\=Hannah \|last\=Vine \|date\=February 15, 2018 \|publisher\=Brightspot \|archive\-date\=March 3, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303225140/http://www.playbill.com/article/first\-look\-at\-raul\-esparza\-ramin\-karimloo\-ruthie\-ann\-miles\-and\-karen\-olivo\-in\-chess\-at\-the\-kennedy\-center \|url\-status\=live}} He was in the Broadway Classics in Concert at [Carnegie Hall](/wiki/Carnegie_Hall "Carnegie Hall") alongside Sierra Boggess, [Laura Osnes](/wiki/Laura_Osnes "Laura Osnes"), [Norm Lewis](/wiki/Norm_Lewis "Norm Lewis"), [Lea Salonga](/wiki/Lea_Salonga "Lea Salonga"), Ryan Silverman, [Tony Yazbeck](/wiki/Tony_Yazbeck "Tony Yazbeck"), [Michael Arden](/wiki/Michael_Arden "Michael Arden"), [Carolee Carmello](/wiki/Carolee_Carmello "Carolee Carmello"), [Allan Corduner](/wiki/Allan_Corduner "Allan Corduner"), Nikki Renêe Daniels and [Quentin Earl Darrington](/wiki/Quentin_Earl_Darrington "Quentin Earl Darrington").{{Cite magazine \|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-laura\-osnes\-lea\-salonga\-more\-are\-part\-of\-february\-20\-broadway\-classics\-concert\-at\-carnegie\-hall \|title\=Ramin Karimloo, Laura Osnes, Lea Salonga, More Part of Broadway Classics Concert at Carnegie Hall \|magazine\=\[\[Playbill]] \|access\-date\=March 3, 2018 \|first\=Andrew \|last\=Gans \|date\=February 20, 2018 \|publisher\=Brightspot \|archive\-date\=March 3, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303164754/http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-laura\-osnes\-lea\-salonga\-more\-are\-part\-of\-february\-20\-broadway\-classics\-concert\-at\-carnegie\-hall \|url\-status\=live}} Karimloo took part in the [Toronto Symphony](/wiki/Toronto_Symphony_Orchestra "Toronto Symphony Orchestra") on April 10, 11 and 12, 2018 at [Roy Thomson Hall](/wiki/Roy_Thomson_Hall "Roy Thomson Hall") alongside [Stephanie J. Block](/wiki/Stephanie_J._Block "Stephanie J. Block"). He reprised the role of the Phantom in May 2018 in a series of *The Phantom of the Opera* concerts held at the Sejong Center for the Performing Arts in Seoul, Korea alongside [Anna O'Byrne](/wiki/Anna_O%27Byrne "Anna O'Byrne") as Christine, as part of the celebration for [Andrew Lloyd Webber](/wiki/Andrew_Lloyd_Webber "Andrew Lloyd Webber")'s 70th birthday. He also performed in Gold Coast, Australia June 16, 2018, Melbourne, Australia June 20, 2018, and in Sydney, Australia on June 23, 2018, again alongside O'Byrne,{{Cite magazine \|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-will\-play\-australia\-with\-special\-guest\-anna\-obyrne \|title\=Ramin Karimloo Will Play Australia With Special Guest Anna O'Byrne \|magazine\=\[\[Playbill]] \|access\-date\=March 3, 2018 \|first\=Adam \|last\=Hetrick \|date\=February 21, 2018 \|publisher\=Brightspot \|archive\-date\=March 3, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303225115/http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-will\-play\-australia\-with\-special\-guest\-anna\-obyrne \|url\-status\=live}} followed by a special run of *Evita* in Tokyo, Japan from July 4 to the 29, 2018 at Theatre Orb, where he reprised the role of Che.{{Cite web \|url\=http://evita2018\.jp/ \|title\=奇跡の初来日公演！ ミュージカル エビータ EVITA \|website\=ミュージカル『エビー タ（EVITA）』2018年7月来日公演 \|access\-date\=March 3, 2018 \|archive\-date\=March 4, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180304054706/http://evita2018\.jp/ \|url\-status\=live}} On September 13, 2019, the BBC cast him as consultant cardiothoracic surgeon [Kian Madani](/wiki/Holby_City_%28series_23%29 "Holby City (series 23)"), the rival of [Jac Naylor](/wiki/Jac_Naylor "Jac Naylor") in *[Holby City](/wiki/Holby_City "Holby City")*.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.digitalspy.com/soaps/holby\-city/a25886876/holby\-city\-ramin\-karimloo\-jac\-naylor\-nemesis/ \|title\=Holby City casts West End star Ramin Karimloo as new nemesis for Jac Naylor \|work\=\[\[Digital Spy]] \|access\-date\=January 24, 2019 \|first\=Jess \|last\=Lee \|date\=January 14, 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[Hearst UK]] \|archive\-date\=January 26, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190126232824/https://www.digitalspy.com/soaps/holby\-city/a25886876/holby\-city\-ramin\-karimloo\-jac\-naylor\-nemesis/ \|url\-status\=live}} He stayed with the show until 2021\. On September 1, 2019, he played the lead role Yurii Zhivago in the concert production of musical *[Doctor Zhivago](/wiki/Doctor_Zhivago_%28musical%29 "Doctor Zhivago (musical)")*, with his costar [Celinde Schoenmaker](/wiki/Celinde_Schoenmaker "Celinde Schoenmaker") as Lara. The show was the UK premiere of *Doctor Zhivago* and only performed twice at [Cadogan Hall](/wiki/Cadogan_Hall "Cadogan Hall").{{Cite magazine \|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-will\-star\-in\-uk\-concert\-premiere\-of\-doctor\-zhivago \|title\=Ramin Karimloo Will Star in U.K. Concert Premiere of Doctor Zhivago \|magazine\=\[\[Playbill]] \|date\=July 11, 2019 \|access\-date\=September 16, 2019 \|archive\-date\=December 4, 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204201247/https://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-will\-star\-in\-uk\-concert\-premiere\-of\-doctor\-zhivago \|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.lambertjackson.co.uk/doctorzhivago/ \|title\=Lambert Jackson Productions \|website\=Lambert Jackson Productions \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725012550/https://www.lambertjackson.co.uk/doctorzhivago/ \|archive\-date\=2020\-07\-25}} In January 2020, he reprised his role of Anatoly opposite [Samantha Barks](/wiki/Samantha_Barks "Samantha Barks") as Florence in a Japan tour of [*Chess*](/wiki/Chess_%28musical%29 "Chess (musical)").{{Cite magazine \|url\=https://playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-and\-samantha\-barks\-star\-in\-chess\-beginning\-january\-25\-in\-japan \|title\=Ramin Karimloo and Samantha Barks Star in Chess, Beginning January 25 in Japan \|magazine\=\[\[Playbill]]\|access\-date\=January 24, 2024\|archive\-date\=April 25, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425045825/https://playbill.com/article/ramin\-karimloo\-and\-samantha\-barks\-star\-in\-chess\-beginning\-january\-25\-in\-japan\|url\-status\=live}}
[ "### 2014–2020: Broadway debut, *Anastasia*, and career outside of England", "He returned to the role of Valjean in the [2014 Broadway revival](/wiki/Les_Mis%C3%A9rables_%28musical%29%232014_Broadway_revival \"Les Misérables (musical)#2014 Broadway revival\") of *Les Misérables*, making his Broadway debut, and was nominated for the [Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical](/wiki/Tony_Award_for_Best_Actor_in_a_Musical \"Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical\"). He concluded his run on August 30, 2015, and was replaced by Alfie Boe, who portrayed Valjean in the 25th Anniversary concert.", "On 16 February 2015, he played Tom Watson in *[Parade](/wiki/Parade_%28musical%29 \"Parade (musical)\")* at [Lincoln Center](/wiki/Lincoln_Center \"Lincoln Center\") opposite [Jeremy Jordan](/wiki/Jeremy_Jordan_%28actor%2C_born_1984%29 \"Jeremy Jordan (actor, born 1984)\"), [Joshua Henry](/wiki/Joshua_Henry \"Joshua Henry\"), [Laura Benanti](/wiki/Laura_Benanti \"Laura Benanti\"), and [Davis Gaines](/wiki/Davis_Gaines \"Davis Gaines\").{{Cite magazine \\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/full\\-cast\\-revealed\\-for\\-parade\\-in\\-concert\\-starring\\-jeremy\\-jordan\\-and\\-laura\\-benanti\\-com\\-338955 \\|title\\=Full Cast Revealed for Parade in Concert Starring Jeremy Jordan and Laura Benanti \\|last\\=Hetrick \\|first\\=Adam \\|date\\=2015\\-01\\-09 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Playbill]]\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-02\\-04\\|archive\\-date\\=April 11, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411063933/https://playbill.com/article/full\\-cast\\-revealed\\-for\\-parade\\-in\\-concert\\-starring\\-jeremy\\-jordan\\-and\\-laura\\-benanti\\-com\\-338955\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "On May 29, 2015, it was announced that Karimloo would be leading the musical *Prince of Broadway* which features songs from all of Harold Prince's famous musicals in Japan. Rehearsals began in September in New York.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=December 2023\\|reason\\=BroadwayWorld is considered generally unreliable (see \\[\\[WP:RSP]])}}", "On September 25, 2015, he played the role of Barry Hamidi in the sixth\\-season premiere episode of the [CBS](/wiki/CBS \"CBS\") police procedural drama *[Blue Bloods](/wiki/Blue_Bloods_%28TV_series%29 \"Blue Bloods (TV series)\")*.", "In February 2016, Karimloo reunited with Boggess for the Manhattan Concert Productions' staging of *[The Secret Garden](/wiki/The_Secret_Garden_%28musical%29 \"The Secret Garden (musical)\")*. Also starring opposite [Cheyenne Jackson](/wiki/Cheyenne_Jackson \"Cheyenne Jackson\") and [Sydney Lucas](/wiki/Sydney_Lucas \"Sydney Lucas\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.theatermania.com/news/the\\-secret\\-garden\\-starring\\-sydney\\-lucas\\-and\\-ramin\\-karimloo\\-set\\-to\\-begin\\-performances\\_76036/ \\|title\\=The Secret Garden, Starring Sydney Lucas and Ramin Karimloo, Set to Begin Performances \\- TheaterMania.com \\|date\\=February 21, 2016\\|access\\-date\\=December 21, 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=December 21, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231221192107/https://www.theatermania.com/news/the\\-secret\\-garden\\-starring\\-sydney\\-lucas\\-and\\-ramin\\-karimloo\\-set\\-to\\-begin\\-performances\\_76036/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "In April of the same year, he played Ché in the [Vancouver Opera](/wiki/Vancouver_Opera \"Vancouver Opera\")'s production of *[Evita](/wiki/Evita_%28musical%29 \"Evita (musical)\")*, with [John Cudia](/wiki/John_Cudia \"John Cudia\") as [Juan Peron](/wiki/Juan_Peron \"Juan Peron\"). His run lasted until May 8, 2016\\.", "From September 30 until December 3, he starred as Tom in *[Murder Ballad](/wiki/Murder_Ballad_%28musical%29 \"Murder Ballad (musical)\")* at the Arts Theatre in London.", "On September 22, 2016, it was announced that Karimloo would return to Broadway in the [stage musical adaptation](/wiki/Anastasia_%28musical%29 \"Anastasia (musical)\") of the film *[Anastasia](/wiki/Anastasia_%281997_film%29 \"Anastasia (1997 film)\")* as General Gleb Vaganov. The show began previews on March 23, 2017 and opened April 24, 2017 at Broadway's [Broadhurst Theatre](/wiki/Broadhurst_Theatre \"Broadhurst Theatre\").{{cite magazine \\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-joins\\-broadways\\-anastasia \\|title\\=Ramin Karimloo Joins Broadway's Anastasia \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Playbill]] \\|access\\-date\\=September 22, 2016 \\|date\\=September 22, 2016 \\|first\\=Adam \\|last\\=Hetrick \\|publisher\\=Brightspot \\|archive\\-date\\=September 23, 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923102311/http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-joins\\-broadways\\-anastasia \\|url\\-status\\=live}} His final performance in *Anastasia* was on December 3, 2017\\.{{cite magazine \\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-sets\\-final\\-performance\\-in\\-broadways\\-anastasia \\|title\\=Ramin Karimloo Sets Final Performance in Broadway's Anastasia \\|first\\=Adam \\|last\\=Hetrick \\|date\\=October 30, 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=April 11, 2019 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Playbill]] \\|publisher\\=Brightspot \\|archive\\-date\\=April 1, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401055311/http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-sets\\-final\\-performance\\-in\\-broadways\\-anastasia \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "Karimloo took part in the [Kennedy Center](/wiki/Kennedy_Center \"Kennedy Center\") performance of *[Chess](/wiki/Chess_%28musical%29 \"Chess (musical)\")* as Anatoly, which took place February 14 through the 18th, 2018\\. He starred opposite [Raul Esparza](/wiki/Raul_Esparza \"Raul Esparza\"), [Karen Olivo](/wiki/Karen_Olivo \"Karen Olivo\"), and [Ruthie Ann Miles](/wiki/Ruthie_Ann_Miles \"Ruthie Ann Miles\").{{Cite magazine \\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/first\\-look\\-at\\-raul\\-esparza\\-ramin\\-karimloo\\-ruthie\\-ann\\-miles\\-and\\-karen\\-olivo\\-in\\-chess\\-at\\-the\\-kennedy\\-center \\|title\\=First Look at Raúl Esparza, Ramin Karimloo, Ruthie Ann Miles, and Karen Olivo in Chess at the Kennedy Center \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Playbill]] \\|access\\-date\\=March 3, 2018 \\|first\\=Hannah \\|last\\=Vine \\|date\\=February 15, 2018 \\|publisher\\=Brightspot \\|archive\\-date\\=March 3, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303225140/http://www.playbill.com/article/first\\-look\\-at\\-raul\\-esparza\\-ramin\\-karimloo\\-ruthie\\-ann\\-miles\\-and\\-karen\\-olivo\\-in\\-chess\\-at\\-the\\-kennedy\\-center \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "He was in the Broadway Classics in Concert at [Carnegie Hall](/wiki/Carnegie_Hall \"Carnegie Hall\") alongside Sierra Boggess, [Laura Osnes](/wiki/Laura_Osnes \"Laura Osnes\"), [Norm Lewis](/wiki/Norm_Lewis \"Norm Lewis\"), [Lea Salonga](/wiki/Lea_Salonga \"Lea Salonga\"), Ryan Silverman, [Tony Yazbeck](/wiki/Tony_Yazbeck \"Tony Yazbeck\"), [Michael Arden](/wiki/Michael_Arden \"Michael Arden\"), [Carolee Carmello](/wiki/Carolee_Carmello \"Carolee Carmello\"), [Allan Corduner](/wiki/Allan_Corduner \"Allan Corduner\"), Nikki Renêe Daniels and [Quentin Earl Darrington](/wiki/Quentin_Earl_Darrington \"Quentin Earl Darrington\").{{Cite magazine \\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-laura\\-osnes\\-lea\\-salonga\\-more\\-are\\-part\\-of\\-february\\-20\\-broadway\\-classics\\-concert\\-at\\-carnegie\\-hall \\|title\\=Ramin Karimloo, Laura Osnes, Lea Salonga, More Part of Broadway Classics Concert at Carnegie Hall \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Playbill]] \\|access\\-date\\=March 3, 2018 \\|first\\=Andrew \\|last\\=Gans \\|date\\=February 20, 2018 \\|publisher\\=Brightspot \\|archive\\-date\\=March 3, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303164754/http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-laura\\-osnes\\-lea\\-salonga\\-more\\-are\\-part\\-of\\-february\\-20\\-broadway\\-classics\\-concert\\-at\\-carnegie\\-hall \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "Karimloo took part in the [Toronto Symphony](/wiki/Toronto_Symphony_Orchestra \"Toronto Symphony Orchestra\") on April 10, 11 and 12, 2018 at [Roy Thomson Hall](/wiki/Roy_Thomson_Hall \"Roy Thomson Hall\") alongside [Stephanie J. Block](/wiki/Stephanie_J._Block \"Stephanie J. Block\").", "He reprised the role of the Phantom in May 2018 in a series of *The Phantom of the Opera* concerts held at the Sejong Center for the Performing Arts in Seoul, Korea alongside [Anna O'Byrne](/wiki/Anna_O%27Byrne \"Anna O'Byrne\") as Christine, as part of the celebration for [Andrew Lloyd Webber](/wiki/Andrew_Lloyd_Webber \"Andrew Lloyd Webber\")'s 70th birthday. He also performed in Gold Coast, Australia June 16, 2018, Melbourne, Australia June 20, 2018, and in Sydney, Australia on June 23, 2018, again alongside O'Byrne,{{Cite magazine \\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-will\\-play\\-australia\\-with\\-special\\-guest\\-anna\\-obyrne \\|title\\=Ramin Karimloo Will Play Australia With Special Guest Anna O'Byrne \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Playbill]] \\|access\\-date\\=March 3, 2018 \\|first\\=Adam \\|last\\=Hetrick \\|date\\=February 21, 2018 \\|publisher\\=Brightspot \\|archive\\-date\\=March 3, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303225115/http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-will\\-play\\-australia\\-with\\-special\\-guest\\-anna\\-obyrne \\|url\\-status\\=live}} followed by a special run of *Evita* in Tokyo, Japan from July 4 to the 29, 2018 at Theatre Orb, where he reprised the role of Che.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://evita2018\\.jp/ \\|title\\=奇跡の初来日公演！ ミュージカル エビータ EVITA \\|website\\=ミュージカル『エビー タ（EVITA）』2018年7月来日公演 \\|access\\-date\\=March 3, 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 4, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180304054706/http://evita2018\\.jp/ \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "On September 13, 2019, the BBC cast him as consultant cardiothoracic surgeon [Kian Madani](/wiki/Holby_City_%28series_23%29 \"Holby City (series 23)\"), the rival of [Jac Naylor](/wiki/Jac_Naylor \"Jac Naylor\") in *[Holby City](/wiki/Holby_City \"Holby City\")*.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.digitalspy.com/soaps/holby\\-city/a25886876/holby\\-city\\-ramin\\-karimloo\\-jac\\-naylor\\-nemesis/ \\|title\\=Holby City casts West End star Ramin Karimloo as new nemesis for Jac Naylor \\|work\\=\\[\\[Digital Spy]] \\|access\\-date\\=January 24, 2019 \\|first\\=Jess \\|last\\=Lee \\|date\\=January 14, 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Hearst UK]] \\|archive\\-date\\=January 26, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190126232824/https://www.digitalspy.com/soaps/holby\\-city/a25886876/holby\\-city\\-ramin\\-karimloo\\-jac\\-naylor\\-nemesis/ \\|url\\-status\\=live}} He stayed with the show until 2021\\.", "On September 1, 2019, he played the lead role Yurii Zhivago in the concert production of musical *[Doctor Zhivago](/wiki/Doctor_Zhivago_%28musical%29 \"Doctor Zhivago (musical)\")*, with his costar [Celinde Schoenmaker](/wiki/Celinde_Schoenmaker \"Celinde Schoenmaker\") as Lara. The show was the UK premiere of *Doctor Zhivago* and only performed twice at [Cadogan Hall](/wiki/Cadogan_Hall \"Cadogan Hall\").{{Cite magazine \\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-will\\-star\\-in\\-uk\\-concert\\-premiere\\-of\\-doctor\\-zhivago \\|title\\=Ramin Karimloo Will Star in U.K. Concert Premiere of Doctor Zhivago \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Playbill]] \\|date\\=July 11, 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=September 16, 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=December 4, 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204201247/https://www.playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-will\\-star\\-in\\-uk\\-concert\\-premiere\\-of\\-doctor\\-zhivago \\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.lambertjackson.co.uk/doctorzhivago/ \\|title\\=Lambert Jackson Productions \\|website\\=Lambert Jackson Productions \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725012550/https://www.lambertjackson.co.uk/doctorzhivago/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-07\\-25}}", "In January 2020, he reprised his role of Anatoly opposite [Samantha Barks](/wiki/Samantha_Barks \"Samantha Barks\") as Florence in a Japan tour of [*Chess*](/wiki/Chess_%28musical%29 \"Chess (musical)\").{{Cite magazine \\|url\\=https://playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-and\\-samantha\\-barks\\-star\\-in\\-chess\\-beginning\\-january\\-25\\-in\\-japan \\|title\\=Ramin Karimloo and Samantha Barks Star in Chess, Beginning January 25 in Japan \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Playbill]]\\|access\\-date\\=January 24, 2024\\|archive\\-date\\=April 25, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425045825/https://playbill.com/article/ramin\\-karimloo\\-and\\-samantha\\-barks\\-star\\-in\\-chess\\-beginning\\-january\\-25\\-in\\-japan\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "" ]
Discography ----------- | Title | Album details | Chart positions | | [UK](/wiki/UK_Albums_Chart "UK Albums Chart") | | *[Ramin](/wiki/Ramin_%28album%29 "Ramin (album)")* | {{blist \| Released: April 9, 2012 \| Label: \[\[Sony Music]] \| Formats: CD, digital download }} | 16 | | *From Now On* | {{blist \| Released: August 2, 2019 \| Label: \[\[Sony Music]] \| Formats: CD, digital download }} | | Karimloo co\-wrote the song "Why Am I Falling" with composers Daniel and Laura Curtis for the BBC Children in Need 2013 appeal. In March 2014, he released the EP *The Road to Find Out: East*, including the tracks "Oh, What A Beautiful Morning" from the musical *[Oklahoma!](/wiki/Oklahoma%21 "Oklahoma!")*; "Losing", which he and [Hadley Fraser](/wiki/Hadley_Fraser "Hadley Fraser") wrote for their band, Sheytoons; "Empty Chairs at Empty Tables" from the musical *[Les Misérables](/wiki/Les_Mis%C3%A9rables_%28musical%29 "Les Misérables (musical)")*; and "Broken", another song written by Karimloo and Fraser for Sheytoons. In 2016, Karimloo released his second EP, *The Road to Find Out: South*, including the tracks "Wings", which he co\-wrote with Fraser; "Traveller's Eyes", a song he wrote with his other band, The Broadgrass Band; "Edelweiss" from the musical *[The Sound of Music](/wiki/The_Sound_of_Music "The Sound of Music")*; "Letting the Last One Go", another song he wrote for The Broadgrass Band; and "Old Man River" from the musical *[Show Boat](/wiki/Show_Boat "Show Boat")*. He went on a UK tour, Lead Me Home, to promote the EP from January 12 to 29, 2017\. In 2022, Ramin released his third EP, "The Road to Find Out: North", including the tracks "Driftwood, Music of the Night, I Vow thee to my Country, When Does it Go Away, Once Upon A December and Androgynous." He went on concert performances to promote the EP. In May 2023 Karimloo released his Fourth and final EP "The Road To Find Out: West', including the tracks "The Road To Find Out / Wild World, Feed The Birds, Solitude, Hushabye Mountain, Bring Him Home and Will The Circle Be Unbroken?" He went on concert performances to promote the EP.
[ "Discography\n-----------", "", "| Title | Album details | Chart positions |\n| [UK](/wiki/UK_Albums_Chart \"UK Albums Chart\") |\n| *[Ramin](/wiki/Ramin_%28album%29 \"Ramin (album)\")* | {{blist \\| Released: April 9, 2012 \\| Label: \\[\\[Sony Music]] \\| Formats: CD, digital download }} | 16 |\n| *From Now On* | {{blist \\| Released: August 2, 2019 \\| Label: \\[\\[Sony Music]] \\| Formats: CD, digital download }} | |", "Karimloo co\\-wrote the song \"Why Am I Falling\" with composers Daniel and Laura Curtis for the BBC Children in Need 2013 appeal.", "In March 2014, he released the EP *The Road to Find Out: East*, including the tracks \"Oh, What A Beautiful Morning\" from the musical *[Oklahoma!](/wiki/Oklahoma%21 \"Oklahoma!\")*; \"Losing\", which he and [Hadley Fraser](/wiki/Hadley_Fraser \"Hadley Fraser\") wrote for their band, Sheytoons; \"Empty Chairs at Empty Tables\" from the musical *[Les Misérables](/wiki/Les_Mis%C3%A9rables_%28musical%29 \"Les Misérables (musical)\")*; and \"Broken\", another song written by Karimloo and Fraser for Sheytoons.", "In 2016, Karimloo released his second EP, *The Road to Find Out: South*, including the tracks \"Wings\", which he co\\-wrote with Fraser; \"Traveller's Eyes\", a song he wrote with his other band, The Broadgrass Band; \"Edelweiss\" from the musical *[The Sound of Music](/wiki/The_Sound_of_Music \"The Sound of Music\")*; \"Letting the Last One Go\", another song he wrote for The Broadgrass Band; and \"Old Man River\" from the musical *[Show Boat](/wiki/Show_Boat \"Show Boat\")*. He went on a UK tour, Lead Me Home, to promote the EP from January 12 to 29, 2017\\.", "In 2022, Ramin released his third EP, \"The Road to Find Out: North\", including the tracks\n\"Driftwood, Music of the Night, I Vow thee to my Country, When Does it Go Away, Once Upon\nA December and Androgynous.\" He went on concert performances to promote the EP.", "In May 2023 Karimloo released his Fourth and final EP \"The Road To Find Out: West', including the tracks \"The Road To Find Out / Wild World, Feed The Birds, Solitude, \nHushabye Mountain, Bring Him Home and Will The Circle Be Unbroken?\" He went on concert performances to promote the EP.", "" ]
Early life and career --------------------- Idalia Ramos Rangel was born in [Matamoros, Tamaulipas](/wiki/Matamoros%2C_Tamaulipas "Matamoros, Tamaulipas"), Mexico, on 20 May 1955\. She has naturally black hair and brown eyes and is of [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic "Hispanic") descent. According to the [Federal Bureau of Investigation](/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation "Federal Bureau of Investigation") (FBI), Ramos Rangel has been responsible for coordinating international drug trafficking activities from Mexico to the United States since the mid\-1980s. She is reportedly a high\-ranking member of the [Tamaulipas](/wiki/Tamaulipas "Tamaulipas")\-based [Gulf Cartel](/wiki/Gulf_Cartel "Gulf Cartel"). She is a particularly unusual figure in organized crime circles, given her involvement over several decades in the male\-dominated Mexican drug trafficking industry. In her FBI profile, Ramos Rangel is described as being between {{height\|ft\=5\|in\=2}} and {{height\|ft\=5\|in\=3}} tall, and weighing between {{Convert\|130\|lb\|kg\|abbr\=on}} and {{Convert\|150\|lb\|kg\|abbr\=on}}. Ramos Rangel has altered her physical appearance multiple times, by dyeing her hair blonde and through [plastic surgery](/wiki/Plastic_surgery "Plastic surgery"). The FBI suspects that her file pictures may be outdated, and that her appearance may have changed again. Among other personal details in her FBI profile, she is described as having been a business owner running multiple businesses in Mexico, including a sports bar in Matamoros. Investigators have stated that Ramos Rangel is a regular [Facebook](/wiki/Facebook "Facebook") user, and that she travels to [Monterrey, Nuevo León](/wiki/Monterrey "Monterrey") for pleasure. She is a breast cancer survivor. Ramos Rangel uses multiple identities and aliases, including Big Momma, {{lang\|es\|La Tía}} (The Aunt), Soria Cano, Idalia Ramos Martinez, Idalia Martinez, Idalia Gonzales Perez, Idalia Ramos, Idelia Ramos Rangel, Idalia Rangel, and Idelia Ramos Ramos. Her current whereabouts are unknown, but investigators believe she may be hiding in Matamoros, her center of operations. The FBI is offering a $25,000 bounty for information leading to her arrest and conviction. She faces federal drug charges in the states of [Texas](/wiki/Texas "Texas") and [Arkansas](/wiki/Arkansas "Arkansas"), and has been a fugitive of United States justice since the 1980s. In the late 1990s, U.S. authorities searched a home in [Brownsville, Texas](/wiki/Brownsville%2C_Texas "Brownsville, Texas") during an anti\-marijuana operation. The agents were investigating a Mexican drug trafficking ring smuggling marijuana through Mexico, South Texas, Houston, and other parts of the United States. Ramos Rangel was discovered living at the house. US$15,000 in cash was found in a trash can, with a list of apparent drug transactions. When questioned, Ramos Rangel refused to cooperate. She was arrested, not on drug charges but because she was in the country illegally. She had already served a prison sentence in the United States for a previous drug offense, and had been deported and ordered never to return to the country. Ramos Rangel was a low\-level criminal during that time. In subsequent years, she rose through the leadership ranks of the Gulf Cartel. United States officials have issued extradition requests to the Mexican government since her ascent, but acknowledge the legal difficulties of the process. The FBI\-led case against Ramos Rangel began in 2010\. With the joint participation of the [U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement](/wiki/U.S._Immigration_and_Customs_Enforcement "U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement") (ICE), the FBI's case has yielded arrests in Arkansas, Brownsville and [Austin](/wiki/Austin%2C_Texas "Austin, Texas"). The operation was code\-named Operation Dirty Bird.
[ "Early life and career\n---------------------", "Idalia Ramos Rangel was born in [Matamoros, Tamaulipas](/wiki/Matamoros%2C_Tamaulipas \"Matamoros, Tamaulipas\"), Mexico, on 20 May 1955\\. She has naturally black hair and brown eyes and is of [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic \"Hispanic\") descent. According to the [Federal Bureau of Investigation](/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation \"Federal Bureau of Investigation\") (FBI), Ramos Rangel has been responsible for coordinating international drug trafficking activities from Mexico to the United States since the mid\\-1980s. She is reportedly a high\\-ranking member of the [Tamaulipas](/wiki/Tamaulipas \"Tamaulipas\")\\-based [Gulf Cartel](/wiki/Gulf_Cartel \"Gulf Cartel\"). She is a particularly unusual figure in organized crime circles, given her involvement over several decades in the male\\-dominated Mexican drug trafficking industry.", "In her FBI profile, Ramos Rangel is described as being between {{height\\|ft\\=5\\|in\\=2}} and {{height\\|ft\\=5\\|in\\=3}} tall, and weighing between {{Convert\\|130\\|lb\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}} and {{Convert\\|150\\|lb\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}}. Ramos Rangel has altered her physical appearance multiple times, by dyeing her hair blonde and through [plastic surgery](/wiki/Plastic_surgery \"Plastic surgery\"). The FBI suspects that her file pictures may be outdated, and that her appearance may have changed again. Among other personal details in her FBI profile, she is described as having been a business owner running multiple businesses in Mexico, including a sports bar in Matamoros. Investigators have stated that Ramos Rangel is a regular [Facebook](/wiki/Facebook \"Facebook\") user, and that she travels to [Monterrey, Nuevo León](/wiki/Monterrey \"Monterrey\") for pleasure. She is a breast cancer survivor.", "Ramos Rangel uses multiple identities and aliases, including Big Momma, {{lang\\|es\\|La Tía}} (The Aunt), Soria Cano, Idalia Ramos Martinez, Idalia Martinez, Idalia Gonzales Perez, Idalia Ramos, Idelia Ramos Rangel, Idalia Rangel, and Idelia Ramos Ramos. Her current whereabouts are unknown, but investigators believe she may be hiding in Matamoros, her center of operations. The FBI is offering a $25,000 bounty for information leading to her arrest and conviction. She faces federal drug charges in the states of [Texas](/wiki/Texas \"Texas\") and [Arkansas](/wiki/Arkansas \"Arkansas\"), and has been a fugitive of United States justice since the 1980s.", "In the late 1990s, U.S. authorities searched a home in [Brownsville, Texas](/wiki/Brownsville%2C_Texas \"Brownsville, Texas\") during an anti\\-marijuana operation. The agents were investigating a Mexican drug trafficking ring smuggling marijuana through Mexico, South Texas, Houston, and other parts of the United States. Ramos Rangel was discovered living at the house. US$15,000 in cash was found in a trash can, with a list of apparent drug transactions. When questioned, Ramos Rangel refused to cooperate. She was arrested, not on drug charges but because she was in the country illegally. She had already served a prison sentence in the United States for a previous drug offense, and had been deported and ordered never to return to the country. Ramos Rangel was a low\\-level criminal during that time. In subsequent years, she rose through the leadership ranks of the Gulf Cartel.", "United States officials have issued extradition requests to the Mexican government since her ascent, but acknowledge the legal difficulties of the process. The FBI\\-led case against Ramos Rangel began in 2010\\. With the joint participation of the [U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement](/wiki/U.S._Immigration_and_Customs_Enforcement \"U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement\") (ICE), the FBI's case has yielded arrests in Arkansas, Brownsville and [Austin](/wiki/Austin%2C_Texas \"Austin, Texas\"). The operation was code\\-named Operation Dirty Bird.", "" ]
Life ---- ### Thanadar of Bhawal In 1612, during the Mughal battle against [Khwaja Usman](/wiki/Khwaja_Usman "Khwaja Usman") at Daulambapur, Mukarram Khan was made the [thanadar](/wiki/Thana "Thana") of Bhawal. Later that year, Mukarram Khan was appointed by his father\-in\-law, Subahdar [Islam Khan I](/wiki/Islam_Khan_I "Islam Khan I"), as the chief commander for the expedition of [Koch Hajo](/wiki/Koch_Hajo "Koch Hajo") against Raja Parikshit Narayan.{{cite book\|title\=Ain\-i\-Akbari\|last\=Blochmann\|first\=H\|year\=1873 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015\.32526/page/n555/mode/2up/}} Mukarram marched from Bhawal to [Toke](/wiki/Kapasia "Kapasia") where he awaited for Abd as\-Salam, Mirza Nathan and the other soldiers. The forces reached Mukarram in three marches and he hosted them in his camp with great veneration. Mukarram was given a horse and a number of imperial gifts. Mukarram kissed his brother's hand and the hands of the other soldiers. Three days later, Mukarram and his forces marched on from Toke and were joined by the forces of Shaykh Kamal and Raja Raghunath. During the fourth march from Toke on the last day of [Ramadan](/wiki/Ramadan "Ramadan"), a row took place between Mukarram and Mirza Nathan. Mukarram had announced that the march shall take place after [Iftar](/wiki/Iftar "Iftar"), however Nathan's colleague, Shaykh Ashraf of [Hansi](/wiki/Hansi "Hansi"), disagreed and suggested that they should start marching as there is no enemy behind them. Mirza's force started to march which angered Shaykh Kamal (who was with Mukarram's force). Kamal sent his messenger, Nizam, to Mirza reminding them that Mukarram is their commander and that it is only Mukarram's responsibility to sound the march\-drums. The [Baharistan\-i\-Ghaibi](/wiki/Baharistan-i-Ghaibi "Baharistan-i-Ghaibi") details the back\-and\-forth arguments which took place between the two forces during the Hajo expedition. Mukarram decided to leave Nathan alone and instead report the matter to the Subahdar, Islam Khan I. As the quarrels continued, Mukarram patiently awaited the Subahdar's response which finally came, ordering Mukarram to maintain peace with Nathan and continue the expedition. The expedition was successful and Mukarram was given the news of [Islam Khan I](/wiki/Islam_Khan_I "Islam Khan I")'s death when he reached back. Parikshit was defeated and Mukarram presented him and his sons to the new Subahdar, his uncle, [Qasim Khan Chishti](/wiki/Qasim_Khan_Chishti "Qasim Khan Chishti").{{rp\|289}} Mukarram was later ordered by Qasim to hand over Parikshit to him. However, Mukarram politely refused to do so. Qasim then plotted a plan for the next morning in which when Mukarram enters the court, not to allow many of his men to join him and then forcibly seize Parikshit. The plan was successful and Mukarram became helpless and returned to his home, in [Yarasindur](/wiki/Yarasindur "Yarasindur"), leaving the Raja. The success of the expedition was also noticed by Emperor [Jahangir](/wiki/Jahangir "Jahangir") who promoted Mukarram's rank by 125 soldiers.{{rp\|223–224}} Emperor [Jahangir](/wiki/Jahangir "Jahangir") gave Mukarram a flag on 11 February 1614\. In 1616, Mukarram gifted the Emperor jewels and offerings from Bengal.{{cite book\|url\=https://archive.org/details/tuzukijahangirio00jahauoft/page/256\|title\=The Tuzuk\-i\-Jahangiri; or, Memoirs of Jahangir.\|author\=Alexander Rogers\|editor\=Henry Beveridge}} ### Sardar of Sylhet Following the death of [Mubariz Khan](/wiki/Mubariz_Khan_%28Bengal%29 "Mubariz Khan (Bengal)"), in 1617, the Subahdar of Bengal [Qasim Khan Chishti](/wiki/Qasim_Khan_Chishti "Qasim Khan Chishti") intended to appoint [Mirak Bahadur Jalair](/wiki/Mirak_Bahadur_Jalair "Mirak Bahadur Jalair") to govern the Sylhet Sarkar. However, after learning that Mirak had fled from his appointed territory, which had recently been conquered by Mubariz with a lot of difficulty, to Sylhet, Qasim was not impressed at what he viewed as "cowardice". Qasim changed his mind and sent his officer, Abdul Nabi, to [Yarasindur](/wiki/Yarasindur "Yarasindur"), where Mukarram and his brothers were staying. Mukarram was brought to [Jahangirnagar](/wiki/Jahangirnagar "Jahangirnagar") and Qasim Khan visited him in his own home to give him the honour of having [sardarship](/wiki/Sardar "Sardar") over the entire [Sylhet Sarkar](/wiki/Sylhet_region "Sylhet region") as well as giving Mukarram's brothers lesser roles in Sylhet. Mukarram was later invited to join the army against the [Maghs](/wiki/Magh_people "Magh people") who had raided the [Bhulua Thana](/wiki/Noakhali "Noakhali"). Only a few months after Sardarship, the Subahdar removed Mukarram from this post out of dissatisfaction and replaced him with [Mirak Bahadur Jalair](/wiki/Mirak_Bahadur_Jalair "Mirak Bahadur Jalair"), as Sylhet's chief sardar and [Sulayman Banarsi](/wiki/Sulayman_Banarsi "Sulayman Banarsi") to govern [Uhar](/wiki/South_Sylhet "South Sylhet") and [Taraf](/wiki/Taraf_Kingdom "Taraf Kingdom"). Mukarram was very angered by Qasim's actions and marched with his brothers to [Jahangirnagar](/wiki/Jahangirnagar "Jahangirnagar") and then to [Yarasindur](/wiki/Yarasindur "Yarasindur"). Here, Mukarram told his younger brother, Abd as\-Salam, to take a boat to [Patna](/wiki/Patna "Patna") and then travel by land to the capital, at [Agra](/wiki/Agra "Agra"), to seek redress from Emperor [Jahangir](/wiki/Jahangir "Jahangir").{{cite book\|title\=Baharistan\-I\-Ghaybi – Volume 1\|author\=M. I. Borah\|year\=1936\|url\=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015\.84864/page/n7}}{{cite book\|date\=28 Jun 2019\|title\=Climate of Conquest: War, Environment, and Empire in Mughal North India\|last\=Nath\|first\=Pratyay\|publisher\=\[\[Oxford University Press]]}} ### Subahdar of Orissa Due to his experience in the military and in administration, Mukarram was able to attain the role as governor of [Orissa Subah](/wiki/Orissa "Orissa"). His rule in Orissa was said to have been very harsh. Raja Purushottama of Khurda rebelled against Mukarram and so Mukarram invaded Khurda and annexed it to the [Mughal Empire](/wiki/Mughal_Empire "Mughal Empire") in 1617\.{{cite book\|title\=Baharistan\-I\-Ghaybi – Volume II\|author\=M. I. Borah\|year\=1936\|url\=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015\.279665/page/n373}} Purushottama fled to [Rajahmundry](/wiki/Rajahmundry "Rajahmundry") but later managed to regain his seat in Khurda.{{cite book\|author\=Mohammed Yamin\|title\=Impact of Islam on Orissan Culture\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=AN5KebBJxzcC\&q\=mukarram\&pg\=PA34\|accessdate\=10 February 2013\|date\=1 July 2009\|publisher\=Readworthy\|isbn\=978\-81\-89973\-96\-4\|pages\=40}} Emperor Jahangir was informed of this and awarded him as a [mansabdar](/wiki/Mansabdar "Mansabdar") of 3,000 soldiers and 2,000 horses. Mukarram was honoured with drums, his own horse as well being gifted a robe of honour.{{rp\|433}} When Bahadur Khan Hijliwal, the [Baro\-Bhuiyan](/wiki/Baro-Bhuiyan "Baro-Bhuiyan") zamindar of [Hijli](/wiki/Hijli_Kingdom "Hijli Kingdom"), was summoned to [Jahangirnagar](/wiki/Jahangirnagar "Jahangirnagar") by the Subahdar of Bengal [Ibrahim Khan Fath\-i\-Jang](/wiki/Ibrahim_Khan_Fath-i-Jang "Ibrahim Khan Fath-i-Jang"), Bahadur openly rebelled and was supported by Mukarram. Mirza Muhammad Beg Abakash, the thanadar of [Burdwan](/wiki/Burdwan "Burdwan"), was ordered to confront Bahadur, giving him a choice to peacefully go to the Subahdar's court or be beheaded. Abakash was given 200 of [Musa Khan](/wiki/Musa_Khan_%28Bengal_Ruler%29 "Musa Khan (Bengal Ruler)") and his brothers' war boats. Bahadur then asked Mukarram for assistance, to which Mukarram sent 1000 cavalry. As the Subahdar's army advanced towards Hijli and launched a heavy attack, Bahadur expected further aid from Mukarram. However, Mukarram retreated, leaving Bahadur to give up and make peace with the Empire.{{cite Banglapedia\|article\=Bahadur\_Khan}} ### Subahdar of Delhi Mukarram later went to the imperial court of [Jahangir](/wiki/Jahangir "Jahangir") where he was made the Subahdar of [Delhi Subah](/wiki/Delhi_Subah "Delhi Subah") as well as the [Faujdar](/wiki/Faujdar "Faujdar") of [Mewat](/wiki/Mewat "Mewat") in 1621\.{{cite book\|publisher\=G. M. Rouse\|year\=1873\|title\=The Ain i Akbari, Volume 1\|author\=Abu'l\-Fazl ibn Mubarak\|author\-link\=Abu'l\-Fazl ibn Mubarak\|page\=493}} ### Subahdar of Bengal Subahdar of Bengal [Muhabbat Khan](/wiki/Muhabbat_Khan "Muhabbat Khan"), rebelled against emperor [Jahangir](/wiki/Jahangir "Jahangir") in 1626\. But after failing the attempt, Muhabbat fled to [Deccan](/wiki/Deccan_Plateau "Deccan Plateau").{{cite Banglapedia\|article\=Subahdar}} Then Mukarram Khan was appointed the new governor of [Bengal](/wiki/Bengal "Bengal"). In Bengal, he would travel around on a boat. One day, he ordered for his boat to go back to land so that he could offer the [Asr prayer](/wiki/Asr_prayer "Asr prayer"). Due to a heavy wind, Mukarram and his colleagues drowned died in 1627\. He and his colleagues are considered [shahid](/wiki/Shahid "Shahid") (martyrs) in [Islam](/wiki/Islam "Islam").{{Hadith\-usc\|bukhari\|usc\=yes\|4\|52\|82}} [Fidai Khan](/wiki/Fidai_Khan "Fidai Khan") was appointed the next subahdar.{{cite Banglapedia\|article\=Fidai\_Khan}}
[ "Life\n----", "### Thanadar of Bhawal", "In 1612, during the Mughal battle against [Khwaja Usman](/wiki/Khwaja_Usman \"Khwaja Usman\") at Daulambapur, Mukarram Khan was made the [thanadar](/wiki/Thana \"Thana\") of Bhawal.", "Later that year, Mukarram Khan was appointed by his father\\-in\\-law, Subahdar [Islam Khan I](/wiki/Islam_Khan_I \"Islam Khan I\"), as the chief commander for the expedition of [Koch Hajo](/wiki/Koch_Hajo \"Koch Hajo\") against Raja Parikshit Narayan.{{cite book\\|title\\=Ain\\-i\\-Akbari\\|last\\=Blochmann\\|first\\=H\\|year\\=1873 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015\\.32526/page/n555/mode/2up/}} Mukarram marched from Bhawal to [Toke](/wiki/Kapasia \"Kapasia\") where he awaited for Abd as\\-Salam, Mirza Nathan and the other soldiers. The forces reached Mukarram in three marches and he hosted them in his camp with great veneration. Mukarram was given a horse and a number of imperial gifts. Mukarram kissed his brother's hand and the hands of the other soldiers.", "Three days later, Mukarram and his forces marched on from Toke and were joined by the forces of Shaykh Kamal and Raja Raghunath. During the fourth march from Toke on the last day of [Ramadan](/wiki/Ramadan \"Ramadan\"), a row took place between Mukarram and Mirza Nathan. Mukarram had announced that the march shall take place after [Iftar](/wiki/Iftar \"Iftar\"), however Nathan's colleague, Shaykh Ashraf of [Hansi](/wiki/Hansi \"Hansi\"), disagreed and suggested that they should start marching as there is no enemy behind them. Mirza's force started to march which angered Shaykh Kamal (who was with Mukarram's force). Kamal sent his messenger, Nizam, to Mirza reminding them that Mukarram is their commander and that it is only Mukarram's responsibility to sound the march\\-drums. The [Baharistan\\-i\\-Ghaibi](/wiki/Baharistan-i-Ghaibi \"Baharistan-i-Ghaibi\") details the back\\-and\\-forth arguments which took place between the two forces during the Hajo expedition. Mukarram decided to leave Nathan alone and instead report the matter to the Subahdar, Islam Khan I. As the quarrels continued, Mukarram patiently awaited the Subahdar's response which finally came, ordering Mukarram to maintain peace with Nathan and continue the expedition.", "The expedition was successful and Mukarram was given the news of [Islam Khan I](/wiki/Islam_Khan_I \"Islam Khan I\")'s death when he reached back. Parikshit was defeated and Mukarram presented him and his sons to the new Subahdar, his uncle, [Qasim Khan Chishti](/wiki/Qasim_Khan_Chishti \"Qasim Khan Chishti\").{{rp\\|289}} Mukarram was later ordered by Qasim to hand over Parikshit to him. However, Mukarram politely refused to do so. Qasim then plotted a plan for the next morning in which when Mukarram enters the court, not to allow many of his men to join him and then forcibly seize Parikshit. The plan was successful and Mukarram became helpless and returned to his home, in [Yarasindur](/wiki/Yarasindur \"Yarasindur\"), leaving the Raja. The success of the expedition was also noticed by Emperor [Jahangir](/wiki/Jahangir \"Jahangir\") who promoted Mukarram's rank by 125 soldiers.{{rp\\|223–224}} Emperor [Jahangir](/wiki/Jahangir \"Jahangir\") gave Mukarram a flag on 11 February 1614\\. In 1616, Mukarram gifted the Emperor jewels and offerings from Bengal.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/tuzukijahangirio00jahauoft/page/256\\|title\\=The Tuzuk\\-i\\-Jahangiri; or, Memoirs of Jahangir.\\|author\\=Alexander Rogers\\|editor\\=Henry Beveridge}}", "### Sardar of Sylhet", "Following the death of [Mubariz Khan](/wiki/Mubariz_Khan_%28Bengal%29 \"Mubariz Khan (Bengal)\"), in 1617, the Subahdar of Bengal [Qasim Khan Chishti](/wiki/Qasim_Khan_Chishti \"Qasim Khan Chishti\") intended to appoint [Mirak Bahadur Jalair](/wiki/Mirak_Bahadur_Jalair \"Mirak Bahadur Jalair\") to govern the Sylhet Sarkar. However, after learning that Mirak had fled from his appointed territory, which had recently been conquered by Mubariz with a lot of difficulty, to Sylhet, Qasim was not impressed at what he viewed as \"cowardice\". Qasim changed his mind and sent his officer, Abdul Nabi, to [Yarasindur](/wiki/Yarasindur \"Yarasindur\"), where Mukarram and his brothers were staying. Mukarram was brought to [Jahangirnagar](/wiki/Jahangirnagar \"Jahangirnagar\") and Qasim Khan visited him in his own home to give him the honour of having [sardarship](/wiki/Sardar \"Sardar\") over the entire [Sylhet Sarkar](/wiki/Sylhet_region \"Sylhet region\") as well as giving Mukarram's brothers lesser roles in Sylhet. Mukarram was later invited to join the army against the [Maghs](/wiki/Magh_people \"Magh people\") who had raided the [Bhulua Thana](/wiki/Noakhali \"Noakhali\").", "Only a few months after Sardarship, the Subahdar removed Mukarram from this post out of dissatisfaction and replaced him with [Mirak Bahadur Jalair](/wiki/Mirak_Bahadur_Jalair \"Mirak Bahadur Jalair\"), as Sylhet's chief sardar and [Sulayman Banarsi](/wiki/Sulayman_Banarsi \"Sulayman Banarsi\") to govern [Uhar](/wiki/South_Sylhet \"South Sylhet\") and [Taraf](/wiki/Taraf_Kingdom \"Taraf Kingdom\"). Mukarram was very angered by Qasim's actions and marched with his brothers to [Jahangirnagar](/wiki/Jahangirnagar \"Jahangirnagar\") and then to [Yarasindur](/wiki/Yarasindur \"Yarasindur\"). Here, Mukarram told his younger brother, Abd as\\-Salam, to take a boat to [Patna](/wiki/Patna \"Patna\") and then travel by land to the capital, at [Agra](/wiki/Agra \"Agra\"), to seek redress from Emperor [Jahangir](/wiki/Jahangir \"Jahangir\").{{cite book\\|title\\=Baharistan\\-I\\-Ghaybi – Volume 1\\|author\\=M. I. Borah\\|year\\=1936\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015\\.84864/page/n7}}{{cite book\\|date\\=28 Jun 2019\\|title\\=Climate of Conquest: War, Environment, and Empire in Mughal North India\\|last\\=Nath\\|first\\=Pratyay\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Oxford University Press]]}}", "### Subahdar of Orissa", "Due to his experience in the military and in administration, Mukarram was able to attain the role as governor of [Orissa Subah](/wiki/Orissa \"Orissa\"). His rule in Orissa was said to have been very harsh. Raja Purushottama of Khurda rebelled against Mukarram and so Mukarram invaded Khurda and annexed it to the [Mughal Empire](/wiki/Mughal_Empire \"Mughal Empire\") in 1617\\.{{cite book\\|title\\=Baharistan\\-I\\-Ghaybi – Volume II\\|author\\=M. I. Borah\\|year\\=1936\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015\\.279665/page/n373}} Purushottama fled to [Rajahmundry](/wiki/Rajahmundry \"Rajahmundry\") but later managed to regain his seat in Khurda.{{cite book\\|author\\=Mohammed Yamin\\|title\\=Impact of Islam on Orissan Culture\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=AN5KebBJxzcC\\&q\\=mukarram\\&pg\\=PA34\\|accessdate\\=10 February 2013\\|date\\=1 July 2009\\|publisher\\=Readworthy\\|isbn\\=978\\-81\\-89973\\-96\\-4\\|pages\\=40}} Emperor Jahangir was informed of this and awarded him as a [mansabdar](/wiki/Mansabdar \"Mansabdar\") of 3,000 soldiers and 2,000 horses. Mukarram was honoured with drums, his own horse as well being gifted a robe of honour.{{rp\\|433}}", "When Bahadur Khan Hijliwal, the [Baro\\-Bhuiyan](/wiki/Baro-Bhuiyan \"Baro-Bhuiyan\") zamindar of [Hijli](/wiki/Hijli_Kingdom \"Hijli Kingdom\"), was summoned to [Jahangirnagar](/wiki/Jahangirnagar \"Jahangirnagar\") by the Subahdar of Bengal [Ibrahim Khan Fath\\-i\\-Jang](/wiki/Ibrahim_Khan_Fath-i-Jang \"Ibrahim Khan Fath-i-Jang\"), Bahadur openly rebelled and was supported by Mukarram. Mirza Muhammad Beg Abakash, the thanadar of [Burdwan](/wiki/Burdwan \"Burdwan\"), was ordered to confront Bahadur, giving him a choice to peacefully go to the Subahdar's court or be beheaded. Abakash was given 200 of [Musa Khan](/wiki/Musa_Khan_%28Bengal_Ruler%29 \"Musa Khan (Bengal Ruler)\") and his brothers' war boats. Bahadur then asked Mukarram for assistance, to which Mukarram sent 1000 cavalry. As the Subahdar's army advanced towards Hijli and launched a heavy attack, Bahadur expected further aid from Mukarram. However, Mukarram retreated, leaving Bahadur to give up and make peace with the Empire.{{cite Banglapedia\\|article\\=Bahadur\\_Khan}}", "### Subahdar of Delhi", "Mukarram later went to the imperial court of [Jahangir](/wiki/Jahangir \"Jahangir\") where he was made the Subahdar of [Delhi Subah](/wiki/Delhi_Subah \"Delhi Subah\") as well as the [Faujdar](/wiki/Faujdar \"Faujdar\") of [Mewat](/wiki/Mewat \"Mewat\") in 1621\\.{{cite book\\|publisher\\=G. M. Rouse\\|year\\=1873\\|title\\=The Ain i Akbari, Volume 1\\|author\\=Abu'l\\-Fazl ibn Mubarak\\|author\\-link\\=Abu'l\\-Fazl ibn Mubarak\\|page\\=493}}", "### Subahdar of Bengal", "Subahdar of Bengal [Muhabbat Khan](/wiki/Muhabbat_Khan \"Muhabbat Khan\"), rebelled against emperor [Jahangir](/wiki/Jahangir \"Jahangir\") in 1626\\. But after failing the attempt, Muhabbat fled to [Deccan](/wiki/Deccan_Plateau \"Deccan Plateau\").{{cite Banglapedia\\|article\\=Subahdar}} Then Mukarram Khan was appointed the new governor of [Bengal](/wiki/Bengal \"Bengal\").", "In Bengal, he would travel around on a boat. One day, he ordered for his boat to go back to land so that he could offer the [Asr prayer](/wiki/Asr_prayer \"Asr prayer\"). Due to a heavy wind, Mukarram and his colleagues drowned died in 1627\\. He and his colleagues are considered [shahid](/wiki/Shahid \"Shahid\") (martyrs) in [Islam](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\").{{Hadith\\-usc\\|bukhari\\|usc\\=yes\\|4\\|52\\|82}} [Fidai Khan](/wiki/Fidai_Khan \"Fidai Khan\") was appointed the next subahdar.{{cite Banglapedia\\|article\\=Fidai\\_Khan}}", "" ]
History ------- A separate Amish settlement on the eastern side of the county began holding church services in 1841\.James Landing, University of Chicago The land granted to the Stahly brothers was nearly contiguous farms. Because of the [tamarack](/wiki/Tamarack "Tamarack") swamp to the south of the [Continental Divide](/wiki/Continental_Divide "Continental Divide") and the heavily forested land to the north, it was the last part of the county settled by immigrants. The county was created in 1830 in Indiana out of the Indiana Territory following the creation of the State of Ohio. Colonel John Jackson was sent into the area to eradicate the [Potawatomi](/wiki/Potawatomi "Potawatomi") Indians living in a village on the [Elkhart River](/wiki/Elkhart_River "Elkhart River") near present\-day Baintertown. U.S. Government forces destroyed the abandoned village twice in the decade. Chief Five Medals had made two trips to Washington, D.C., to acquire federal grant money to help transition his village from [hunter\-gatherers](/wiki/Hunter-gatherer "Hunter-gatherer") into farmers, so as to live peacefully beside the arriving white settlers. The last of the Potawatomis were removed from Indiana by decree of the [Indian Removal Act](/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act "Indian Removal Act") signed by President [Andrew Jackson](/wiki/Andrew_Jackson "Andrew Jackson") in 1830\. In 1873 the [Baltimore, Ohio \& Chicago Railroad](/wiki/Baltimore_and_Ohio_Chicago_Terminal_Railroad "Baltimore and Ohio Chicago Terminal Railroad") surveyed a route from [Sandusky, Ohio](/wiki/Sandusky%2C_Ohio "Sandusky, Ohio"), to [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago").Levi Ulery's diary In spite of intense lobbying from [Goshen, Indiana](/wiki/Goshen%2C_Indiana "Goshen, Indiana"), the county seat, the railroad chose a bee line route through the swamp and hardwoods hugging the north\-south Continental Divide. The swamp was the headwaters of the [Kankakee River](/wiki/Kankakee_River "Kankakee River") basin, one of the largest fresh\-water swamps left in the country at that time. Government drainage programs financed ditches and clay field tile that created some of the most fertile farmland in the Midwest. The timber to the north provided the natural resources for a sawmill industry that by 1885 had 20,000 logs in its yard. A [planing mill](/wiki/Planing_mill "Planing mill") began building wooden boxes that were shipped to Elkhart, Indiana, to package Dr. Miles' patent medicine, [Nervine](/wiki/Nervine "Nervine"). In 1893 the Moses Stahly family moved to [Reno County, Kansas](/wiki/Reno_County%2C_Kansas "Reno County, Kansas"), as a result of the Windmill Controversy. It revolved around the introduction of windmills to pump water and manure spreaders and other mechanized horse\-drawn farming implements. The more conservative Amish removed themselves from the area rather than adopt the modern machines. The [Stahly farm](/wiki/Stahly--Nissley--Kuhns_Farm "Stahly--Nissley--Kuhns Farm") was purchased by Noah Nisley, a cousin of Stahly's wife. The Nisley family came from Ohio where their house had recently burned. They built a near replica of their Ohio house on the farm, connecting it to the original two\-room [clapboard](/wiki/Clapboard_%28architecture%29 "Clapboard (architecture)") house. The Nisleys moved into the *gross\-daadi* house upon retirement from active farming and son\-in\-law Manasses Kuhns took over the operation. The [Stahly\-Nissley\-Kuhns farm](/wiki/Stahly--Nissley--Kuhns_Farm "Stahly--Nissley--Kuhns Farm") is now listed in [The National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/The_National_Register_of_Historic_Places "The National Register of Historic Places"). Through years of neglect due to Manasses Kuhns' debilitating illnesses, the farm fell into disrepair by the time of his death. Because of this neglect numerous original buildings long past their usefulness were spared destruction. These outbuildings include a food\-drying house, outdoor brick bake oven, smoke house, root cellar, and apple cider mill. The orchard had been abandoned but left intact. Owner and founder Richard Pletcher announced in November 2019 that Amish Acres would close at the end of 2019\. He stated "It’s been 50 years so it’s a retirement. It will be closing after the fireworks on Dec. 31 and will be auctioned in the spring." It was auctioned in multiple parcels on February 7, 2020; multiple parties purchased the parcels, and the purchasers of the parcels with the main attractions, who include local former U.S. representative [Marlin Stutzman](/wiki/Marlin_Stutzman "Marlin Stutzman"), stated that they expected the attractions to reopen.{{cite news\|first\=Ed\|last\=Semmler\|title\=Amish Acres in Nappanee will continue as a tourist attraction, new owners say\|url\=https://www.southbendtribune.com/news/local/amish\-acres\-in\-nappanee\-will\-continue\-as\-a\-tourist\-attraction/article\_85685250\-4926\-11ea\-81b1\-bbae5901dae9\.html\|work\=\[\[South Bend Tribune]]\|date\=February 7, 2020\|access\-date\=February 7, 2020}} Plans for the reopening were announced on March 4, 2020, with the projected date to be "about five weeks" from then; the "Amish Acres" "remain\[ed] part of the property’s brand" as "The Barns at Nappanee, Home of Amish Acres".{{cite news\|title\=New owners say 'The Barns at Nappanee' to keep Amish Acres brand\|url\=https://www.southbendtribune.com/news/business/new\-owners\-say\-the\-barns\-at\-nappanee\-to\-keep\-amish/article\_b11e0a2a\-5e5c\-11ea\-a9a2\-8ffd2d208e13\.html\|work\=\[\[South Bend Tribune]]\|date\=March 4, 2020\|access\-date\=March 4, 2020}} The LaSalle Farm \& Table restaurant and The Mercantile store opened May 15, 2020 in limited function; the opening of other parts of the facility was delayed due to the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Indiana "COVID-19 pandemic in Indiana").
[ "History\n-------", "A separate Amish settlement on the eastern side of the county began holding church services in 1841\\.James Landing, University of Chicago The land granted to the Stahly brothers was nearly contiguous farms. Because of the [tamarack](/wiki/Tamarack \"Tamarack\") swamp to the south of the [Continental Divide](/wiki/Continental_Divide \"Continental Divide\") and the heavily forested land to the north, it was the last part of the county settled by immigrants. The county was created in 1830 in Indiana out of the Indiana Territory following the creation of the State of Ohio. Colonel John Jackson was sent into the area to eradicate the [Potawatomi](/wiki/Potawatomi \"Potawatomi\") Indians living in a village on the [Elkhart River](/wiki/Elkhart_River \"Elkhart River\") near present\\-day Baintertown. U.S. Government forces destroyed the abandoned village twice in the decade. Chief Five Medals had made two trips to Washington, D.C., to acquire federal grant money to help transition his village from [hunter\\-gatherers](/wiki/Hunter-gatherer \"Hunter-gatherer\") into farmers, so as to live peacefully beside the arriving white settlers. The last of the Potawatomis were removed from Indiana by decree of the [Indian Removal Act](/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act \"Indian Removal Act\") signed by President [Andrew Jackson](/wiki/Andrew_Jackson \"Andrew Jackson\") in 1830\\.", "In 1873 the [Baltimore, Ohio \\& Chicago Railroad](/wiki/Baltimore_and_Ohio_Chicago_Terminal_Railroad \"Baltimore and Ohio Chicago Terminal Railroad\") surveyed a route from [Sandusky, Ohio](/wiki/Sandusky%2C_Ohio \"Sandusky, Ohio\"), to [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\").Levi Ulery's diary In spite of intense lobbying from [Goshen, Indiana](/wiki/Goshen%2C_Indiana \"Goshen, Indiana\"), the county seat, the railroad chose a bee line route through the swamp and hardwoods hugging the north\\-south Continental Divide. The swamp was the headwaters of the [Kankakee River](/wiki/Kankakee_River \"Kankakee River\") basin, one of the largest fresh\\-water swamps left in the country at that time. Government drainage programs financed ditches and clay field tile that created some of the most fertile farmland in the Midwest. The timber to the north provided the natural resources for a sawmill industry that by 1885 had 20,000 logs in its yard. A [planing mill](/wiki/Planing_mill \"Planing mill\") began building wooden boxes that were shipped to Elkhart, Indiana, to package Dr. Miles' patent medicine, [Nervine](/wiki/Nervine \"Nervine\").", "In 1893 the Moses Stahly family moved to [Reno County, Kansas](/wiki/Reno_County%2C_Kansas \"Reno County, Kansas\"), as a result of the Windmill Controversy. It revolved around the introduction of windmills to pump water and manure spreaders and other mechanized horse\\-drawn farming implements. The more conservative Amish removed themselves from the area rather than adopt the modern machines. The [Stahly farm](/wiki/Stahly--Nissley--Kuhns_Farm \"Stahly--Nissley--Kuhns Farm\") was purchased by Noah Nisley, a cousin of Stahly's wife. The Nisley family came from Ohio where their house had recently burned. They built a near replica of their Ohio house on the farm, connecting it to the original two\\-room [clapboard](/wiki/Clapboard_%28architecture%29 \"Clapboard (architecture)\") house. The Nisleys moved into the *gross\\-daadi* house upon retirement from active farming and son\\-in\\-law Manasses Kuhns took over the operation. The [Stahly\\-Nissley\\-Kuhns farm](/wiki/Stahly--Nissley--Kuhns_Farm \"Stahly--Nissley--Kuhns Farm\") is now listed in [The National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/The_National_Register_of_Historic_Places \"The National Register of Historic Places\").", "Through years of neglect due to Manasses Kuhns' debilitating illnesses, the farm fell into disrepair by the time of his death. Because of this neglect numerous original buildings long past their usefulness were spared destruction. These outbuildings include a food\\-drying house, outdoor brick bake oven, smoke house, root cellar, and apple cider mill. The orchard had been abandoned but left intact.", "Owner and founder Richard Pletcher announced in November 2019 that Amish Acres would close at the end of 2019\\. He stated \"It’s been 50 years so it’s a retirement. It will be closing after the fireworks on Dec. 31 and will be auctioned in the spring.\" It was auctioned in multiple parcels on February 7, 2020; multiple parties purchased the parcels, and the purchasers of the parcels with the main attractions, who include local former U.S. representative [Marlin Stutzman](/wiki/Marlin_Stutzman \"Marlin Stutzman\"), stated that they expected the attractions to reopen.{{cite news\\|first\\=Ed\\|last\\=Semmler\\|title\\=Amish Acres in Nappanee will continue as a tourist attraction, new owners say\\|url\\=https://www.southbendtribune.com/news/local/amish\\-acres\\-in\\-nappanee\\-will\\-continue\\-as\\-a\\-tourist\\-attraction/article\\_85685250\\-4926\\-11ea\\-81b1\\-bbae5901dae9\\.html\\|work\\=\\[\\[South Bend Tribune]]\\|date\\=February 7, 2020\\|access\\-date\\=February 7, 2020}} Plans for the reopening were announced on March 4, 2020, with the projected date to be \"about five weeks\" from then; the \"Amish Acres\" \"remain\\[ed] part of the property’s brand\" as \"The Barns at Nappanee, Home of Amish Acres\".{{cite news\\|title\\=New owners say 'The Barns at Nappanee' to keep Amish Acres brand\\|url\\=https://www.southbendtribune.com/news/business/new\\-owners\\-say\\-the\\-barns\\-at\\-nappanee\\-to\\-keep\\-amish/article\\_b11e0a2a\\-5e5c\\-11ea\\-a9a2\\-8ffd2d208e13\\.html\\|work\\=\\[\\[South Bend Tribune]]\\|date\\=March 4, 2020\\|access\\-date\\=March 4, 2020}} The LaSalle Farm \\& Table restaurant and The Mercantile store opened May 15, 2020 in limited function; the opening of other parts of the facility was delayed due to the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Indiana \"COVID-19 pandemic in Indiana\").", "" ]
Concept ------- The concept of purchasing the farm and creating Amish Acres for the purpose of preserving and restoring the buildings and opening it to the public for guided tours with historical and cultural interpretation came from LaVern and Richard Pletcher, furniture merchants since 1933\. The secondary purpose was to introduce and formalize Amish tourism in the Indiana city. Restoration was completed by 1970 with the assistance of Fred Simic and Albert Kuhns, son of Manassas. Albert's vivid memory helped bring long\-dormant buildings and mechanisms back into working order. The farm opened to the public on the second weekend in June 1970\. A master plan was drawn by architect Robert Holdeman of [Traverse City, Michigan](/wiki/Traverse_City%2C_Michigan "Traverse City, Michigan"). Holdeman grew up in Elkhart County, and his roots remain in the Holdeman Mennonite Church near [Wakarusa, Indiana](/wiki/Wakarusa%2C_Indiana "Wakarusa, Indiana"). The plan has been executed closely over the decades and now includes the dining, lodging, and theatre programs originally envisioned. The Pletchers incorporated Amish Acres after the successful bid with investors Freemon Borkholder, Ivo Heckaman, and Gordon McCormick. These investors were successful business entrepreneurs in Nappanee. Shortly after the opening of the farm, a dispute about Sunday opening led Mr. Borkholder, an Amish\-Mennonite, to sell his interest in the project. Heckaman and McCormick were soon bought out and the Pletchers have continued to develop the attraction. Richard's daughter, Jennifer Wysong, is now president of the company. Over half of Amish Acres visitors come from outside of Indiana, although many local constituencies are served by the restaurant, musical theatre, and arts and crafts festival. Amish Acres has been recognized by [*Time*](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 "Time (magazine)"), *[Newsweek](/wiki/Newsweek "Newsweek")*, and *[U.S. News \& World Report](/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report "U.S. News & World Report")* magazines for its contributions to reviving Nappanee's economy, early Internet retail selling, and the arts and crafts festival. [*Travel Trade Magazine*](http://traveltrademagazine.com/) has named Amish Acres Indiana's number one tourist attraction, and *[Mobil Travel Guide](/wiki/Mobil_Travel_Guide "Mobil Travel Guide")* has listed Amish Acres as a must\-see Midwest attraction, the only private entity on the list.
[ "Concept\n-------", "The concept of purchasing the farm and creating Amish Acres for the purpose of preserving and restoring the buildings and opening it to the public for guided tours with historical and cultural interpretation came from LaVern and Richard Pletcher, furniture merchants since 1933\\. The secondary purpose was to introduce and formalize Amish tourism in the Indiana city.", "Restoration was completed by 1970 with the assistance of Fred Simic and Albert Kuhns, son of Manassas. Albert's vivid memory helped bring long\\-dormant buildings and mechanisms back into working order. The farm opened to the public on the second weekend in June 1970\\.", "A master plan was drawn by architect Robert Holdeman of [Traverse City, Michigan](/wiki/Traverse_City%2C_Michigan \"Traverse City, Michigan\"). Holdeman grew up in Elkhart County, and his roots remain in the Holdeman Mennonite Church near [Wakarusa, Indiana](/wiki/Wakarusa%2C_Indiana \"Wakarusa, Indiana\"). The plan has been executed closely over the decades and now includes the dining, lodging, and theatre programs originally envisioned.", "The Pletchers incorporated Amish Acres after the successful bid with investors Freemon Borkholder, Ivo Heckaman, and Gordon McCormick. These investors were successful business entrepreneurs in Nappanee. Shortly after the opening of the farm, a dispute about Sunday opening led Mr. Borkholder, an Amish\\-Mennonite, to sell his interest in the project. Heckaman and McCormick were soon bought out and the Pletchers have continued to develop the attraction. Richard's daughter, Jennifer Wysong, is now president of the company.", "Over half of Amish Acres visitors come from outside of Indiana, although many local constituencies are served by the restaurant, musical theatre, and arts and crafts festival.", "Amish Acres has been recognized by [*Time*](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 \"Time (magazine)\"), *[Newsweek](/wiki/Newsweek \"Newsweek\")*, and *[U.S. News \\& World Report](/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report \"U.S. News & World Report\")* magazines for its contributions to reviving Nappanee's economy, early Internet retail selling, and the arts and crafts festival. [*Travel Trade Magazine*](http://traveltrademagazine.com/) has named Amish Acres Indiana's number one tourist attraction, and *[Mobil Travel Guide](/wiki/Mobil_Travel_Guide \"Mobil Travel Guide\")* has listed Amish Acres as a must\\-see Midwest attraction, the only private entity on the list.", "" ]
Biography --------- ### Early life and education Ferguson was born in [Willow Springs, Missouri](/wiki/Willow_Springs%2C_Missouri "Willow Springs, Missouri"), the third son of John Carl and Mary Willie Boles Ferguson. His brothers were John Carl, [Alan Claude](/wiki/Claude_Ferguson "Claude Ferguson"), and Paul Eugene. John Carl attended the [United States Naval Academy](/wiki/United_States_Naval_Academy "United States Naval Academy") and graduated in 1944\. Alan Claude became a renowned forest ranger. Paul Eugene, as an enlisted sailor, witnessed many Pacific Proving Grounds atomic tests while aboard the {{USS\|Estes}}. The Fergusons have a rich legacy including ancestors whom participated in the [American Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution "American Revolution"). While in high school, Ferguson was a typesetter at the local newspaper, a fire tower lookout for the [U.S. Forest Service](/wiki/United_States_Forest_Service "United States Forest Service"), and a member of the [Missouri State Guard](/wiki/Missouri_National_Guard "Missouri National Guard") during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). After graduating from high school in 1945, he entered the [U.S. Army](/wiki/United_States_Army "United States Army"). He attained the rank of [sergeant](/wiki/Sergeant "Sergeant") and served as a [radioman](/wiki/Signaller "Signaller") for two winters in Alaska. He tested military equipment under Arctic conditions. He went on to study at [Southwest Missouri State University](/wiki/Missouri_State_University "Missouri State University"). After discharge from the Army, Ferguson went out West and worked for the U.S. Forest Service as a fire tower lookout and trail crew boss. He also worked as a laborer in the wheat fields and a typesetter for the newspaper in [Moses Lake, Washington](/wiki/Moses_Lake%2C_Washington "Moses Lake, Washington"). He led the Boy Scout Troop from that city to the [Boy Scout Jamboree](/wiki/Boy_Scout_Jamboree "Boy Scout Jamboree") at [Valley Forge, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Valley_Forge%2C_Pennsylvania "Valley Forge, Pennsylvania"), in 1950\. Ferguson then entered [Washington State College](/wiki/Washington_State_College "Washington State College"), [Pullman, Washington](/wiki/Pullman%2C_Washington "Pullman, Washington"), under the [G.I. Bill](/wiki/G.I._Bill "G.I. Bill") and earned a BS degree in Speech. He specialized in radio and television production. While in college, Ferguson joined a [Marine Forces Reserve](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Reserve "United States Marine Corps Reserve") unit. He was called to duty during the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War "Korean War") (1950–1952\). Ferguson served as a [drill instructor](/wiki/Drill_instructor "Drill instructor") at the [Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Recruit_Depot_San_Diego "Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego") and producer of Marine training motion pictures. ### Tennessee Game and Fish Commission From about 1955\-1961, Ferguson worked at the Tennessee Game and Fish Commission, headquartered in Nashville, where he produced films for the agency.["Bob Ferguson"](https://archive.today/20120712152952/http://orig.clarionledger.com/news/0107/23/m14.html), *Clarionledger*, 23 Jul 2001, accessed 16 Mar 2009 In 1959, Ferguson was to produce for the commission a 39 segment series on hunting, fishing, and wildlife subjects.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=RgoEAAAAMBAJ\&q\=harvie\+june\+ferguson\&pg\=PA5\|title\=Billboard\|date\=19 October 1959}} In 1960, the North American Wildlife Conservation Association named his production *The World Outdoors* the "Best Motion Picture of the Year." *The World Outdoors* influenced many wildlife television shows, most notably *[Mutual of Omaha's Wild Kingdom](/wiki/Mutual_of_Omaha%27s_Wild_Kingdom "Mutual of Omaha's Wild Kingdom")* series. While working there, Ferguson also started in the music business. In 1958 he wrote his first multi\-million seller song "On the Wings of a Dove". It was recorded by [Ferlin Husky](/wiki/Ferlin_Husky "Ferlin Husky") whom Ferguson met in [El Cajon, California](/wiki/El_Cajon%2C_California "El Cajon, California"). It has since been recorded by many artists and in many languages around the world. It was featured in the movie *[Tender Mercies](/wiki/Tender_Mercies "Tender Mercies")* (1983\), starring [Robert Duvall](/wiki/Robert_Duvall "Robert Duvall"). In 1987, "Wings of a Dove" received [BMI](/wiki/Broadcast_Music_Incorporated "Broadcast Music Incorporated")'s "One million airplays" Award. Performing with Husky, Ferguson played a character called Eli Possumtrout in *The Good Old Days*, a motion picture produced by the Tennessee Game and Fish Commission. ### Nashville record producer After graduation from college, Ferguson moved to [Nashville, Tennessee](/wiki/Nashville%2C_Tennessee "Nashville, Tennessee"), as manager for [Ferlin Husky](/wiki/Ferlin_Husky "Ferlin Husky"). {{quote box\|width\=20%\|align\=right\|quote\="Tex Ritter once explained that ... It would be impossible to point to just one example of good fortune, or good timing, and say 'Right there was my big break.'"\|source\=Burt \& Ferguson\- ''So You Want To Be In Music!'', 1970 {{cite book \| last \= Ferguson \| first \= Bob \|author2\=Jesse Burt \| title \= So You Want To Be In Music \| publisher \= Abingdon Press \| chapter \= The "Big Break" Fallacy \| page \= 42 \| isbn \= 0\-687\-39000\-1 \| year \= 1970 }} }} The success of his song "On the Wings of a Dove" {{cite book \| last \= Leverett\-Crew \| first \= Libby \| title \= Saturday Nights With Daddy At The Opry \| publisher \= Rutledge Hill Press \| chapter \= In The Circle of Family and Friends \| page \= 123 \| isbn \= 1\-4016\-0114\-6 \| year \= 2003 }} enabled Ferguson to turn full\-time to music. He became a senior producer with [RCA Victor](/wiki/RCA_Victor "RCA Victor"), where he helped create the [Nashville Sound](/wiki/Nashville_Sound "Nashville Sound") of the 1950s and 1960s. He served as executive assistant to [Chet Atkins](/wiki/Chet_Atkins "Chet Atkins") until his retirement. While there, he produced records, many in [RCA Studio A](/wiki/RCA_Studio_A "RCA Studio A"). He particularly worked with producing the acts of [Porter Wagoner](/wiki/Porter_Wagoner "Porter Wagoner"), [Dolly Parton](/wiki/Dolly_Parton "Dolly Parton"), (from 1967 \- 75 he produced nearly all of Wagoner and Parton's duet albums, as well as all of their respective solo releases during that time) and [Connie Smith](/wiki/Connie_Smith "Connie Smith"). He also produced records by [Floyd Cramer](/wiki/Floyd_Cramer "Floyd Cramer"), [Danny Davis](/wiki/Danny_Davis_%28country_musician%29 "Danny Davis (country musician)"), [The Browns](/wiki/The_Browns "The Browns"), [Helen Cornelius](/wiki/Helen_Cornelius "Helen Cornelius"), [Lester Flatt](/wiki/Lester_Flatt "Lester Flatt"), [Homer and Jethro](/wiki/Homer_and_Jethro "Homer and Jethro"), [Charlie Pride](/wiki/Charlie_Pride "Charlie Pride") and many others. With Atkins, he played a major role in the development of what was to become known as the [Nashville Sound](/wiki/Nashville_Sound "Nashville Sound") and elevated Nashville as the [country music](/wiki/Country_music "Country music") capital of the world. He also played a major role in developing the [Country Music Association](/wiki/Country_Music_Association "Country Music Association"). His first successful single was with The Avons. Ferguson developed a comedy role as "Grandpappy Eli Possumtrot", a name which he took from a crossroad community near his childhood home in [the Ozarks](/wiki/The_Ozarks "The Ozarks"). In that role, he recorded his own song, "Eli's Blue", a lament about a man who accidentally shot his dog. Ferguson wrote several other songs, including the million seller, "Carroll County Accident", first recorded by Porter Wagoner. In 1969 it received a Country Music Award for the "Song of the Year". In the 1960s Ferguson also wrote "Natividad", a Christmas song, and "Choctaw Saturday Night", a tribute to [Choctaw](/wiki/Choctaw "Choctaw") Native Americans. The country song "Carroll County Accident" was written when Ferguson passed through Carroll County when driving from Nashville to a concert for the Choctaw Indians in Philadelphia, Miss., according to an interview Ferguson granted with Steve Eng for the Wagoner biography *A Satisfied Mind*. He recounted that he passed a sign for Carroll County in Tennessee, which inspired the song's title, and when he saw a sign for Carroll County in Mississippi the song was a finished work. Wagoner took the song to No. 2 on the Billboard country singles chart (No. 92 pop) and No. 1 on the *[Cash Box](/wiki/Cash_Box "Cash Box")* country singles chart. The tune was also recorded by Wagoner's longtime duet partner Dolly Parton. ### Writer [right\|thumb\|Bob Ferguson and Dolly Parton at RCA Records, signing her initial recording contract for RCA, 1967\.](/wiki/File:BobAndDolly.jpg "BobAndDolly.jpg") With Jesse Burt as co\-author, Ferguson wrote two books: *So You Want to be in Music* and *Southeastern Indians: Then and Now*. *So You Want to be in Music* is a book about the music industry for aspiring songwriting and recording professionals. *Southeastern Indians: Then and Now* is a general\-interest book about [Native Americans](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States "Native Americans in the United States") of the [Deep South](/wiki/Deep_South "Deep South"), covering the [Choctaw](/wiki/Choctaw "Choctaw"), [Cherokee](/wiki/Cherokee "Cherokee"), [Creek](/wiki/Creek_%28American_Indians%29 "Creek (American Indians)"), [Chickasaw](/wiki/Chickasaw "Chickasaw"), and [Seminole](/wiki/Seminole "Seminole") tribes. ### Anthropology While working at RCA, Ferguson earned a Master's Degree in [anthropology](/wiki/Anthropology "Anthropology") from [Vanderbilt University](/wiki/Vanderbilt_University "Vanderbilt University"). He served as volunteer Project Director and President of Southeastern Indian Antiquities Survey and in that role oversaw the survey, recovery, and preservation of remains and artifacts unearthed during construction in the Nashville area. One startling discovery was the remains of the first [saber\-toothed tiger](/wiki/Saber-toothed_tiger "Saber-toothed tiger") found east of the Mississippi River. It was found during construction of the [Regions Center](/wiki/Regions_Center_%28Nashville%29 "Regions Center (Nashville)"), former First American Bank building, in downtown Nashville.{{Cite news \| last \= Ingram \| first \= Tom \| title \= Specialists to Study Cave Bones \| newspaper \= \[\[Nashville Tennessean]] \| pages \= 7 \| date \= 1971\-10\-02 }}{{Cite journal \| last \= Guilday \| first \= John E. \| title \= Sabertooth Cat, Smilodon Floridanus (Leidy), and Associated Fauna From a Tennessee Cave (40DV40\), the First American Bank Site. \| journal \= Journal of the Tennessee Academy of Science \| volume \= 52 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 84–94 \| date \= July 1977 }} On September 25, 1997, the newly established hockey team, the [Nashville Predators](/wiki/Nashville_Predators "Nashville Predators"), adopted the head of a saber\-toothed tiger as their logo. ### Final years and death {{quote box\|width\=20%\|align\=left\|quote\="In the rich tapestry of American life, ... the southeastern Indian and his brothers everywhere see their own special and beautiful heritage. They are Americans who happen to be Indians and are proud of it.'"\|source\=Burt \& Ferguson\- ''Indians of the Southeast: Then and Now'', 1973 {{cite book \|last \= Ferguson \|first \= Bob \|author2 \= Jesse Burt \|title \= Indians of the Southeast: Then and Now \|publisher \= Abingdon Press \|chapter \= It's Happening with Southeastern Indian Youth \|page \= \[https://archive.org/details/indiansofsouthea00burt/page/271 271] \|isbn \= 0\-687\-18793\-1 \|year \= 1973 \|chapter\-url\-access \= registration \|chapter\-url \= https://archive.org/details/indiansofsouthea00burt/page/271 }} }} After his retirement from RCA, Ferguson moved his family to live near the reservation of the [Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians](/wiki/Mississippi_Band_of_Choctaw_Indians "Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians") in [Philadelphia, Mississippi](/wiki/Philadelphia%2C_Mississippi "Philadelphia, Mississippi"). He had worked in various capacities with the tribe since the 1950s. There he served as editor of the *Choctaw Times*, and historian and audio\- visual producer for the [Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians](/wiki/Mississippi_Band_of_Choctaw_Indians "Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians"). In that role, he helped establish the Museum of the Southern Indian (Choctaw Museum) in 1981\. He also worked part\-time as promotional director of the [Chucalissa Prehistoric Indian Village](/wiki/Chucalissa_Prehistoric_Indian_Village "Chucalissa Prehistoric Indian Village") in [Memphis, Tennessee](/wiki/Memphis%2C_Tennessee "Memphis, Tennessee"). ["Bob Ferguson"](http://mdah.state.ms.us/pubs/mhn/septindex.html) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090528011659/http://mdah.state.ms.us/pubs/mhn/septindex.html \|date\=May 28, 2009 }}, *Mississippi History Newsletter*, Sept. 2001, accessed 16 Mar 2009 In 1983, he created the foundation for Choctaw Video Productions and created numerous tribal productions. In 1987, Ferguson established WHTV as local cable service for Pearl River/Philadelphia, Mississippi. He retired from that position in 1998, when he was also named Tribal Historian *Emeritus*. He established the tribe's organic gardening program in 1978\. Ferguson died of [cancer](/wiki/Cancer "Cancer") on Sunday, July 22, 2001 at 1:05 a.m. in the [University of Mississippi](/wiki/University_of_Mississippi "University of Mississippi") Medical Center in [Jackson, Mississippi](/wiki/Jackson%2C_Mississippi "Jackson, Mississippi"). He was buried at Phillip's Cemetery in rural [Neshoba County](/wiki/Neshoba_County "Neshoba County") near [Philadelphia, MS](/wiki/Philadelphia%2C_MS "Philadelphia, MS").
[ "Biography\n---------", "### Early life and education", "Ferguson was born in [Willow Springs, Missouri](/wiki/Willow_Springs%2C_Missouri \"Willow Springs, Missouri\"), the third son of John Carl and Mary Willie Boles Ferguson. His brothers were John Carl, [Alan Claude](/wiki/Claude_Ferguson \"Claude Ferguson\"), and Paul Eugene. John Carl attended the [United States Naval Academy](/wiki/United_States_Naval_Academy \"United States Naval Academy\") and graduated in 1944\\. Alan Claude became a renowned forest ranger. Paul Eugene, as an enlisted sailor, witnessed many Pacific Proving Grounds atomic tests while aboard the {{USS\\|Estes}}. The Fergusons have a rich legacy including ancestors whom participated in the [American Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution \"American Revolution\").", "While in high school, Ferguson was a typesetter at the local newspaper, a fire tower lookout for the [U.S. Forest Service](/wiki/United_States_Forest_Service \"United States Forest Service\"), and a member of the [Missouri State Guard](/wiki/Missouri_National_Guard \"Missouri National Guard\") during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). After graduating from high school in 1945, he entered the [U.S. Army](/wiki/United_States_Army \"United States Army\"). He attained the rank of [sergeant](/wiki/Sergeant \"Sergeant\") and served as a [radioman](/wiki/Signaller \"Signaller\") for two winters in Alaska. He tested military equipment under Arctic conditions. He went on to study at [Southwest Missouri State University](/wiki/Missouri_State_University \"Missouri State University\").", "After discharge from the Army, Ferguson went out West and worked for the U.S. Forest Service as a fire tower lookout and trail crew boss. He also worked as a laborer in the wheat fields and a typesetter for the newspaper in [Moses Lake, Washington](/wiki/Moses_Lake%2C_Washington \"Moses Lake, Washington\"). He led the Boy Scout Troop from that city to the [Boy Scout Jamboree](/wiki/Boy_Scout_Jamboree \"Boy Scout Jamboree\") at [Valley Forge, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Valley_Forge%2C_Pennsylvania \"Valley Forge, Pennsylvania\"), in 1950\\.", "Ferguson then entered [Washington State College](/wiki/Washington_State_College \"Washington State College\"), [Pullman, Washington](/wiki/Pullman%2C_Washington \"Pullman, Washington\"), under the [G.I. Bill](/wiki/G.I._Bill \"G.I. Bill\") and earned a BS degree in Speech. He specialized in radio and television production.", "While in college, Ferguson joined a [Marine Forces Reserve](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Reserve \"United States Marine Corps Reserve\") unit. He was called to duty during the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\") (1950–1952\\). Ferguson served as a [drill instructor](/wiki/Drill_instructor \"Drill instructor\") at the [Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Recruit_Depot_San_Diego \"Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego\") and producer of Marine training motion pictures.", "### Tennessee Game and Fish Commission", "From about 1955\\-1961, Ferguson worked at the Tennessee Game and Fish Commission, headquartered in Nashville, where he produced films for the agency.[\"Bob Ferguson\"](https://archive.today/20120712152952/http://orig.clarionledger.com/news/0107/23/m14.html), *Clarionledger*, 23 Jul 2001, accessed 16 Mar 2009 In 1959, Ferguson was to produce for the commission a 39 segment series on hunting, fishing, and wildlife subjects.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=RgoEAAAAMBAJ\\&q\\=harvie\\+june\\+ferguson\\&pg\\=PA5\\|title\\=Billboard\\|date\\=19 October 1959}} In 1960, the North American Wildlife Conservation Association named his production *The World Outdoors* the \"Best Motion Picture of the Year.\" *The World Outdoors* influenced many wildlife television shows, most notably *[Mutual of Omaha's Wild Kingdom](/wiki/Mutual_of_Omaha%27s_Wild_Kingdom \"Mutual of Omaha's Wild Kingdom\")* series.", "While working there, Ferguson also started in the music business. In 1958 he wrote his first multi\\-million seller song \"On the Wings of a Dove\". It was recorded by [Ferlin Husky](/wiki/Ferlin_Husky \"Ferlin Husky\") whom Ferguson met in [El Cajon, California](/wiki/El_Cajon%2C_California \"El Cajon, California\"). It has since been recorded by many artists and in many languages around the world. It was featured in the movie *[Tender Mercies](/wiki/Tender_Mercies \"Tender Mercies\")* (1983\\), starring [Robert Duvall](/wiki/Robert_Duvall \"Robert Duvall\"). In 1987, \"Wings of a Dove\" received [BMI](/wiki/Broadcast_Music_Incorporated \"Broadcast Music Incorporated\")'s \"One million airplays\" Award.", "Performing with Husky, Ferguson played a character called Eli Possumtrout in *The Good Old Days*, a motion picture produced by the Tennessee Game and Fish Commission.", "### Nashville record producer", "After graduation from college, Ferguson moved to [Nashville, Tennessee](/wiki/Nashville%2C_Tennessee \"Nashville, Tennessee\"), as manager for [Ferlin Husky](/wiki/Ferlin_Husky \"Ferlin Husky\").", "{{quote box\\|width\\=20%\\|align\\=right\\|quote\\=\"Tex Ritter once explained that ... It would be impossible to point to just one example of good fortune, or good timing, and say 'Right there was my big break.'\"\\|source\\=Burt \\& Ferguson\\- ''So You Want To Be In Music!'', 1970\n{{cite book\n \\| last \\= Ferguson\n \\| first \\= Bob\n \\|author2\\=Jesse Burt\n \\| title \\= So You Want To Be In Music\n \\| publisher \\= Abingdon Press\n \\| chapter \\= The \"Big Break\" Fallacy\n \\| page \\= 42\n \\| isbn \\= 0\\-687\\-39000\\-1\n \\| year \\= 1970\n}}\n }}", "The success of his song \"On the Wings of a Dove\"\n{{cite book\n \\| last \\= Leverett\\-Crew\n \\| first \\= Libby\n \\| title \\= Saturday Nights With Daddy At The Opry\n \\| publisher \\= Rutledge Hill Press\n \\| chapter \\= In The Circle of Family and Friends\n \\| page \\= 123\n \\| isbn \\= 1\\-4016\\-0114\\-6\n \\| year \\= 2003\n}}\n enabled Ferguson to turn full\\-time to music. He became a senior producer with [RCA Victor](/wiki/RCA_Victor \"RCA Victor\"), where he helped create the [Nashville Sound](/wiki/Nashville_Sound \"Nashville Sound\") of the 1950s and 1960s. He served as executive assistant to [Chet Atkins](/wiki/Chet_Atkins \"Chet Atkins\") until his retirement. While there, he produced records, many in [RCA Studio A](/wiki/RCA_Studio_A \"RCA Studio A\"). He particularly worked with producing the acts of [Porter Wagoner](/wiki/Porter_Wagoner \"Porter Wagoner\"), [Dolly Parton](/wiki/Dolly_Parton \"Dolly Parton\"), (from 1967 \\- 75 he produced nearly all of Wagoner and Parton's duet albums, as well as all of their respective solo releases during that time) and [Connie Smith](/wiki/Connie_Smith \"Connie Smith\"). He also produced records by [Floyd Cramer](/wiki/Floyd_Cramer \"Floyd Cramer\"), [Danny Davis](/wiki/Danny_Davis_%28country_musician%29 \"Danny Davis (country musician)\"), [The Browns](/wiki/The_Browns \"The Browns\"), [Helen Cornelius](/wiki/Helen_Cornelius \"Helen Cornelius\"), [Lester Flatt](/wiki/Lester_Flatt \"Lester Flatt\"), [Homer and Jethro](/wiki/Homer_and_Jethro \"Homer and Jethro\"), [Charlie Pride](/wiki/Charlie_Pride \"Charlie Pride\") and many others. With Atkins, he played a major role in the development of what was to become known as the [Nashville Sound](/wiki/Nashville_Sound \"Nashville Sound\") and elevated Nashville as the [country music](/wiki/Country_music \"Country music\") capital of the world. He also played a major role in developing the [Country Music Association](/wiki/Country_Music_Association \"Country Music Association\"). His first successful single was with The Avons.", "Ferguson developed a comedy role as \"Grandpappy Eli Possumtrot\", a name which he took from a crossroad community near his childhood home in [the Ozarks](/wiki/The_Ozarks \"The Ozarks\"). In that role, he recorded his own song, \"Eli's Blue\", a lament about a man who accidentally shot his dog.", "Ferguson wrote several other songs, including the million seller, \"Carroll County Accident\", first recorded by Porter Wagoner. In 1969 it received a Country Music Award for the \"Song of the Year\". In the 1960s Ferguson also wrote \"Natividad\", a Christmas song, and \"Choctaw Saturday Night\", a tribute to [Choctaw](/wiki/Choctaw \"Choctaw\") Native Americans.", "The country song \"Carroll County Accident\" was written when Ferguson passed through Carroll County when driving from Nashville to a concert for the Choctaw Indians in Philadelphia, Miss., according to an interview Ferguson granted with Steve Eng for the Wagoner biography *A Satisfied Mind*. He recounted that he passed a sign for Carroll County in Tennessee, which inspired the song's title, and when he saw a sign for Carroll County in Mississippi the song was a finished work. Wagoner took the song to No. 2 on the Billboard country singles chart (No. 92 pop) and No. 1 on the *[Cash Box](/wiki/Cash_Box \"Cash Box\")* country singles chart. The tune was also recorded by Wagoner's longtime duet partner Dolly Parton.", "### Writer", "[right\\|thumb\\|Bob Ferguson and Dolly Parton at RCA Records, signing her initial recording contract for RCA, 1967\\.](/wiki/File:BobAndDolly.jpg \"BobAndDolly.jpg\")", "With Jesse Burt as co\\-author, Ferguson wrote two books: *So You Want to be in Music* and *Southeastern Indians: Then and Now*.", "*So You Want to be in Music* is a book about the music industry for aspiring songwriting and recording professionals. *Southeastern Indians: Then and Now* is a general\\-interest book about [Native Americans](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States \"Native Americans in the United States\") of the [Deep South](/wiki/Deep_South \"Deep South\"), covering the [Choctaw](/wiki/Choctaw \"Choctaw\"), [Cherokee](/wiki/Cherokee \"Cherokee\"), [Creek](/wiki/Creek_%28American_Indians%29 \"Creek (American Indians)\"), [Chickasaw](/wiki/Chickasaw \"Chickasaw\"), and [Seminole](/wiki/Seminole \"Seminole\") tribes.", "### Anthropology", "While working at RCA, Ferguson earned a Master's Degree in [anthropology](/wiki/Anthropology \"Anthropology\") from [Vanderbilt University](/wiki/Vanderbilt_University \"Vanderbilt University\"). He served as volunteer Project Director and President of Southeastern Indian Antiquities Survey and in that role oversaw the survey, recovery, and preservation of remains and artifacts unearthed during construction in the Nashville area. One startling discovery was the remains of the first [saber\\-toothed tiger](/wiki/Saber-toothed_tiger \"Saber-toothed tiger\") found east of the Mississippi River. It was found during construction of the [Regions Center](/wiki/Regions_Center_%28Nashville%29 \"Regions Center (Nashville)\"), former First American Bank building, in downtown Nashville.{{Cite news\n \\| last \\= Ingram\n \\| first \\= Tom\n \\| title \\= Specialists to Study Cave Bones\n \\| newspaper \\= \\[\\[Nashville Tennessean]]\n \\| pages \\= 7\n \\| date \\= 1971\\-10\\-02\n }}{{Cite journal\n \\| last \\= Guilday\n \\| first \\= John E.\n \\| title \\= Sabertooth Cat, Smilodon Floridanus (Leidy), and Associated Fauna From a Tennessee Cave (40DV40\\), the First American Bank Site. \n \\| journal \\= Journal of the Tennessee Academy of Science\n \\| volume \\= 52\n \\| issue \\= 3\n \\| pages \\= 84–94\n \\| date \\= July 1977\n }} On September 25, 1997, the newly established hockey team, the [Nashville Predators](/wiki/Nashville_Predators \"Nashville Predators\"), adopted the head of a saber\\-toothed tiger as their logo.", "### Final years and death", "{{quote box\\|width\\=20%\\|align\\=left\\|quote\\=\"In the rich tapestry of American life, ... the southeastern Indian and his brothers everywhere see their own special and beautiful heritage. They are Americans who happen to be Indians and are proud of it.'\"\\|source\\=Burt \\& Ferguson\\- ''Indians of the Southeast: Then and Now'', 1973\n{{cite book \\|last \\= Ferguson\n \\|first \\= Bob\n \\|author2 \\= Jesse Burt\n \\|title \\= Indians of the Southeast: Then and Now\n \\|publisher \\= Abingdon Press\n \\|chapter \\= It's Happening with Southeastern Indian Youth\n \\|page \\= \\[https://archive.org/details/indiansofsouthea00burt/page/271 271]\n \\|isbn \\= 0\\-687\\-18793\\-1\n \\|year \\= 1973\n \\|chapter\\-url\\-access \\= registration\n \\|chapter\\-url \\= https://archive.org/details/indiansofsouthea00burt/page/271\n}}\n }}\nAfter his retirement from RCA, Ferguson moved his family to live near the reservation of the [Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians](/wiki/Mississippi_Band_of_Choctaw_Indians \"Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians\") in [Philadelphia, Mississippi](/wiki/Philadelphia%2C_Mississippi \"Philadelphia, Mississippi\"). He had worked in various capacities with the tribe since the 1950s. There he served as editor of the *Choctaw Times*, and historian and audio\\- visual producer for the [Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians](/wiki/Mississippi_Band_of_Choctaw_Indians \"Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians\"). In that role, he helped establish the Museum of the Southern Indian (Choctaw Museum) in 1981\\. He also worked part\\-time as promotional director of the [Chucalissa Prehistoric Indian Village](/wiki/Chucalissa_Prehistoric_Indian_Village \"Chucalissa Prehistoric Indian Village\") in [Memphis, Tennessee](/wiki/Memphis%2C_Tennessee \"Memphis, Tennessee\"). [\"Bob Ferguson\"](http://mdah.state.ms.us/pubs/mhn/septindex.html) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090528011659/http://mdah.state.ms.us/pubs/mhn/septindex.html \\|date\\=May 28, 2009 }}, *Mississippi History Newsletter*, Sept. 2001, accessed 16 Mar 2009 In 1983, he created the foundation for Choctaw Video Productions and created numerous tribal productions.", "In 1987, Ferguson established WHTV as local cable service for Pearl River/Philadelphia, Mississippi. He retired from that position in 1998, when he was also named Tribal Historian *Emeritus*. He established the tribe's organic gardening program in 1978\\.", "Ferguson died of [cancer](/wiki/Cancer \"Cancer\") on Sunday, July 22, 2001 at 1:05 a.m. in the [University of Mississippi](/wiki/University_of_Mississippi \"University of Mississippi\") Medical Center in [Jackson, Mississippi](/wiki/Jackson%2C_Mississippi \"Jackson, Mississippi\"). He was buried at Phillip's Cemetery in rural [Neshoba County](/wiki/Neshoba_County \"Neshoba County\") near [Philadelphia, MS](/wiki/Philadelphia%2C_MS \"Philadelphia, MS\").", "" ]
### Early life and education Ferguson was born in [Willow Springs, Missouri](/wiki/Willow_Springs%2C_Missouri "Willow Springs, Missouri"), the third son of John Carl and Mary Willie Boles Ferguson. His brothers were John Carl, [Alan Claude](/wiki/Claude_Ferguson "Claude Ferguson"), and Paul Eugene. John Carl attended the [United States Naval Academy](/wiki/United_States_Naval_Academy "United States Naval Academy") and graduated in 1944\. Alan Claude became a renowned forest ranger. Paul Eugene, as an enlisted sailor, witnessed many Pacific Proving Grounds atomic tests while aboard the {{USS\|Estes}}. The Fergusons have a rich legacy including ancestors whom participated in the [American Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution "American Revolution"). While in high school, Ferguson was a typesetter at the local newspaper, a fire tower lookout for the [U.S. Forest Service](/wiki/United_States_Forest_Service "United States Forest Service"), and a member of the [Missouri State Guard](/wiki/Missouri_National_Guard "Missouri National Guard") during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). After graduating from high school in 1945, he entered the [U.S. Army](/wiki/United_States_Army "United States Army"). He attained the rank of [sergeant](/wiki/Sergeant "Sergeant") and served as a [radioman](/wiki/Signaller "Signaller") for two winters in Alaska. He tested military equipment under Arctic conditions. He went on to study at [Southwest Missouri State University](/wiki/Missouri_State_University "Missouri State University"). After discharge from the Army, Ferguson went out West and worked for the U.S. Forest Service as a fire tower lookout and trail crew boss. He also worked as a laborer in the wheat fields and a typesetter for the newspaper in [Moses Lake, Washington](/wiki/Moses_Lake%2C_Washington "Moses Lake, Washington"). He led the Boy Scout Troop from that city to the [Boy Scout Jamboree](/wiki/Boy_Scout_Jamboree "Boy Scout Jamboree") at [Valley Forge, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Valley_Forge%2C_Pennsylvania "Valley Forge, Pennsylvania"), in 1950\. Ferguson then entered [Washington State College](/wiki/Washington_State_College "Washington State College"), [Pullman, Washington](/wiki/Pullman%2C_Washington "Pullman, Washington"), under the [G.I. Bill](/wiki/G.I._Bill "G.I. Bill") and earned a BS degree in Speech. He specialized in radio and television production. While in college, Ferguson joined a [Marine Forces Reserve](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Reserve "United States Marine Corps Reserve") unit. He was called to duty during the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War "Korean War") (1950–1952\). Ferguson served as a [drill instructor](/wiki/Drill_instructor "Drill instructor") at the [Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Recruit_Depot_San_Diego "Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego") and producer of Marine training motion pictures.
[ "### Early life and education", "Ferguson was born in [Willow Springs, Missouri](/wiki/Willow_Springs%2C_Missouri \"Willow Springs, Missouri\"), the third son of John Carl and Mary Willie Boles Ferguson. His brothers were John Carl, [Alan Claude](/wiki/Claude_Ferguson \"Claude Ferguson\"), and Paul Eugene. John Carl attended the [United States Naval Academy](/wiki/United_States_Naval_Academy \"United States Naval Academy\") and graduated in 1944\\. Alan Claude became a renowned forest ranger. Paul Eugene, as an enlisted sailor, witnessed many Pacific Proving Grounds atomic tests while aboard the {{USS\\|Estes}}. The Fergusons have a rich legacy including ancestors whom participated in the [American Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution \"American Revolution\").", "While in high school, Ferguson was a typesetter at the local newspaper, a fire tower lookout for the [U.S. Forest Service](/wiki/United_States_Forest_Service \"United States Forest Service\"), and a member of the [Missouri State Guard](/wiki/Missouri_National_Guard \"Missouri National Guard\") during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). After graduating from high school in 1945, he entered the [U.S. Army](/wiki/United_States_Army \"United States Army\"). He attained the rank of [sergeant](/wiki/Sergeant \"Sergeant\") and served as a [radioman](/wiki/Signaller \"Signaller\") for two winters in Alaska. He tested military equipment under Arctic conditions. He went on to study at [Southwest Missouri State University](/wiki/Missouri_State_University \"Missouri State University\").", "After discharge from the Army, Ferguson went out West and worked for the U.S. Forest Service as a fire tower lookout and trail crew boss. He also worked as a laborer in the wheat fields and a typesetter for the newspaper in [Moses Lake, Washington](/wiki/Moses_Lake%2C_Washington \"Moses Lake, Washington\"). He led the Boy Scout Troop from that city to the [Boy Scout Jamboree](/wiki/Boy_Scout_Jamboree \"Boy Scout Jamboree\") at [Valley Forge, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Valley_Forge%2C_Pennsylvania \"Valley Forge, Pennsylvania\"), in 1950\\.", "Ferguson then entered [Washington State College](/wiki/Washington_State_College \"Washington State College\"), [Pullman, Washington](/wiki/Pullman%2C_Washington \"Pullman, Washington\"), under the [G.I. Bill](/wiki/G.I._Bill \"G.I. Bill\") and earned a BS degree in Speech. He specialized in radio and television production.", "While in college, Ferguson joined a [Marine Forces Reserve](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Reserve \"United States Marine Corps Reserve\") unit. He was called to duty during the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\") (1950–1952\\). Ferguson served as a [drill instructor](/wiki/Drill_instructor \"Drill instructor\") at the [Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Recruit_Depot_San_Diego \"Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego\") and producer of Marine training motion pictures.", "" ]
### Nashville record producer After graduation from college, Ferguson moved to [Nashville, Tennessee](/wiki/Nashville%2C_Tennessee "Nashville, Tennessee"), as manager for [Ferlin Husky](/wiki/Ferlin_Husky "Ferlin Husky"). {{quote box\|width\=20%\|align\=right\|quote\="Tex Ritter once explained that ... It would be impossible to point to just one example of good fortune, or good timing, and say 'Right there was my big break.'"\|source\=Burt \& Ferguson\- ''So You Want To Be In Music!'', 1970 {{cite book \| last \= Ferguson \| first \= Bob \|author2\=Jesse Burt \| title \= So You Want To Be In Music \| publisher \= Abingdon Press \| chapter \= The "Big Break" Fallacy \| page \= 42 \| isbn \= 0\-687\-39000\-1 \| year \= 1970 }} }} The success of his song "On the Wings of a Dove" {{cite book \| last \= Leverett\-Crew \| first \= Libby \| title \= Saturday Nights With Daddy At The Opry \| publisher \= Rutledge Hill Press \| chapter \= In The Circle of Family and Friends \| page \= 123 \| isbn \= 1\-4016\-0114\-6 \| year \= 2003 }} enabled Ferguson to turn full\-time to music. He became a senior producer with [RCA Victor](/wiki/RCA_Victor "RCA Victor"), where he helped create the [Nashville Sound](/wiki/Nashville_Sound "Nashville Sound") of the 1950s and 1960s. He served as executive assistant to [Chet Atkins](/wiki/Chet_Atkins "Chet Atkins") until his retirement. While there, he produced records, many in [RCA Studio A](/wiki/RCA_Studio_A "RCA Studio A"). He particularly worked with producing the acts of [Porter Wagoner](/wiki/Porter_Wagoner "Porter Wagoner"), [Dolly Parton](/wiki/Dolly_Parton "Dolly Parton"), (from 1967 \- 75 he produced nearly all of Wagoner and Parton's duet albums, as well as all of their respective solo releases during that time) and [Connie Smith](/wiki/Connie_Smith "Connie Smith"). He also produced records by [Floyd Cramer](/wiki/Floyd_Cramer "Floyd Cramer"), [Danny Davis](/wiki/Danny_Davis_%28country_musician%29 "Danny Davis (country musician)"), [The Browns](/wiki/The_Browns "The Browns"), [Helen Cornelius](/wiki/Helen_Cornelius "Helen Cornelius"), [Lester Flatt](/wiki/Lester_Flatt "Lester Flatt"), [Homer and Jethro](/wiki/Homer_and_Jethro "Homer and Jethro"), [Charlie Pride](/wiki/Charlie_Pride "Charlie Pride") and many others. With Atkins, he played a major role in the development of what was to become known as the [Nashville Sound](/wiki/Nashville_Sound "Nashville Sound") and elevated Nashville as the [country music](/wiki/Country_music "Country music") capital of the world. He also played a major role in developing the [Country Music Association](/wiki/Country_Music_Association "Country Music Association"). His first successful single was with The Avons. Ferguson developed a comedy role as "Grandpappy Eli Possumtrot", a name which he took from a crossroad community near his childhood home in [the Ozarks](/wiki/The_Ozarks "The Ozarks"). In that role, he recorded his own song, "Eli's Blue", a lament about a man who accidentally shot his dog. Ferguson wrote several other songs, including the million seller, "Carroll County Accident", first recorded by Porter Wagoner. In 1969 it received a Country Music Award for the "Song of the Year". In the 1960s Ferguson also wrote "Natividad", a Christmas song, and "Choctaw Saturday Night", a tribute to [Choctaw](/wiki/Choctaw "Choctaw") Native Americans. The country song "Carroll County Accident" was written when Ferguson passed through Carroll County when driving from Nashville to a concert for the Choctaw Indians in Philadelphia, Miss., according to an interview Ferguson granted with Steve Eng for the Wagoner biography *A Satisfied Mind*. He recounted that he passed a sign for Carroll County in Tennessee, which inspired the song's title, and when he saw a sign for Carroll County in Mississippi the song was a finished work. Wagoner took the song to No. 2 on the Billboard country singles chart (No. 92 pop) and No. 1 on the *[Cash Box](/wiki/Cash_Box "Cash Box")* country singles chart. The tune was also recorded by Wagoner's longtime duet partner Dolly Parton.
[ "### Nashville record producer", "After graduation from college, Ferguson moved to [Nashville, Tennessee](/wiki/Nashville%2C_Tennessee \"Nashville, Tennessee\"), as manager for [Ferlin Husky](/wiki/Ferlin_Husky \"Ferlin Husky\").", "{{quote box\\|width\\=20%\\|align\\=right\\|quote\\=\"Tex Ritter once explained that ... It would be impossible to point to just one example of good fortune, or good timing, and say 'Right there was my big break.'\"\\|source\\=Burt \\& Ferguson\\- ''So You Want To Be In Music!'', 1970\n{{cite book\n \\| last \\= Ferguson\n \\| first \\= Bob\n \\|author2\\=Jesse Burt\n \\| title \\= So You Want To Be In Music\n \\| publisher \\= Abingdon Press\n \\| chapter \\= The \"Big Break\" Fallacy\n \\| page \\= 42\n \\| isbn \\= 0\\-687\\-39000\\-1\n \\| year \\= 1970\n}}\n }}", "The success of his song \"On the Wings of a Dove\"\n{{cite book\n \\| last \\= Leverett\\-Crew\n \\| first \\= Libby\n \\| title \\= Saturday Nights With Daddy At The Opry\n \\| publisher \\= Rutledge Hill Press\n \\| chapter \\= In The Circle of Family and Friends\n \\| page \\= 123\n \\| isbn \\= 1\\-4016\\-0114\\-6\n \\| year \\= 2003\n}}\n enabled Ferguson to turn full\\-time to music. He became a senior producer with [RCA Victor](/wiki/RCA_Victor \"RCA Victor\"), where he helped create the [Nashville Sound](/wiki/Nashville_Sound \"Nashville Sound\") of the 1950s and 1960s. He served as executive assistant to [Chet Atkins](/wiki/Chet_Atkins \"Chet Atkins\") until his retirement. While there, he produced records, many in [RCA Studio A](/wiki/RCA_Studio_A \"RCA Studio A\"). He particularly worked with producing the acts of [Porter Wagoner](/wiki/Porter_Wagoner \"Porter Wagoner\"), [Dolly Parton](/wiki/Dolly_Parton \"Dolly Parton\"), (from 1967 \\- 75 he produced nearly all of Wagoner and Parton's duet albums, as well as all of their respective solo releases during that time) and [Connie Smith](/wiki/Connie_Smith \"Connie Smith\"). He also produced records by [Floyd Cramer](/wiki/Floyd_Cramer \"Floyd Cramer\"), [Danny Davis](/wiki/Danny_Davis_%28country_musician%29 \"Danny Davis (country musician)\"), [The Browns](/wiki/The_Browns \"The Browns\"), [Helen Cornelius](/wiki/Helen_Cornelius \"Helen Cornelius\"), [Lester Flatt](/wiki/Lester_Flatt \"Lester Flatt\"), [Homer and Jethro](/wiki/Homer_and_Jethro \"Homer and Jethro\"), [Charlie Pride](/wiki/Charlie_Pride \"Charlie Pride\") and many others. With Atkins, he played a major role in the development of what was to become known as the [Nashville Sound](/wiki/Nashville_Sound \"Nashville Sound\") and elevated Nashville as the [country music](/wiki/Country_music \"Country music\") capital of the world. He also played a major role in developing the [Country Music Association](/wiki/Country_Music_Association \"Country Music Association\"). His first successful single was with The Avons.", "Ferguson developed a comedy role as \"Grandpappy Eli Possumtrot\", a name which he took from a crossroad community near his childhood home in [the Ozarks](/wiki/The_Ozarks \"The Ozarks\"). In that role, he recorded his own song, \"Eli's Blue\", a lament about a man who accidentally shot his dog.", "Ferguson wrote several other songs, including the million seller, \"Carroll County Accident\", first recorded by Porter Wagoner. In 1969 it received a Country Music Award for the \"Song of the Year\". In the 1960s Ferguson also wrote \"Natividad\", a Christmas song, and \"Choctaw Saturday Night\", a tribute to [Choctaw](/wiki/Choctaw \"Choctaw\") Native Americans.", "The country song \"Carroll County Accident\" was written when Ferguson passed through Carroll County when driving from Nashville to a concert for the Choctaw Indians in Philadelphia, Miss., according to an interview Ferguson granted with Steve Eng for the Wagoner biography *A Satisfied Mind*. He recounted that he passed a sign for Carroll County in Tennessee, which inspired the song's title, and when he saw a sign for Carroll County in Mississippi the song was a finished work. Wagoner took the song to No. 2 on the Billboard country singles chart (No. 92 pop) and No. 1 on the *[Cash Box](/wiki/Cash_Box \"Cash Box\")* country singles chart. The tune was also recorded by Wagoner's longtime duet partner Dolly Parton.", "" ]
Professional boxing career -------------------------- As a professional boxer, he was initially dismissed by purists as an unrefined slugger lacking the required skill to achieve at the very top, but his powerful style had proved extremely successful under the tutelage of renowned trainer [Frank Maloney](/wiki/Frank_Maloney "Frank Maloney"). He turned pro aged 35 in September 2002 with a two\-round KO of Gifford Shillingford. From this point he was moved along quickly, in 2003 scoring stoppages of respected veterans Jacklord Jacobs, Antoine Palatis, and ex\-British champ [Michael Holden](/wiki/Michael_Holden "Michael Holden"), among others. In 2004, he took his first serious step up, at 11–0 taking on ex\-British and Commonwealth champion [Julius Francis](/wiki/Julius_Francis "Julius Francis"), who he outpointed over 10 rounds. He won the [British](/wiki/List_of_British_heavyweight_boxing_champions "List of British heavyweight boxing champions") and Commonwealth titles in his next fight, stopping [Michael Sprott](/wiki/Michael_Sprott "Michael Sprott") in 12 rounds, and defending the titles against the durable [Keith Long](/wiki/Keith_Long "Keith Long"), who he stopped in 11\. In 2005, Skelton won the lowly regarded WBU belt with a 6th\-round knockout of Fabio Moli. Skelton soon vacated the belt, and began to enjoy a higher profile when his promoter [Frank Warren](/wiki/Frank_Warren_%28promoter%29 "Frank Warren (promoter)") took all his fighters to [ITV](/wiki/ITV_Network "ITV Network") for exposure on terrestrial [free\-to\-air](/wiki/Free-to-air "Free-to-air") television. Skelton was due to defend his British title against his main rival [Danny Williams](/wiki/Danny_Williams_%28boxer%29 "Danny Williams (boxer)") in July 2005, but Williams pulled out at the last minute citing a case of the [flu](/wiki/Flu "Flu"), a decision that prompted scorn from Williams' promoter [Frank Warren](/wiki/Frank_Warren_%28promoter%29 "Frank Warren (promoter)"). Skelton stopped late sub Mark Krence in 7 rounds, and scored a 1st\-round knockout of John McDermott to finish the year, whereupon he vacated his British title, having defended it three times. In February 2006, Skelton finally fought Williams, and lost on split decision handing him his first pro defeat. In July 2006, he regained his Commonwealth title from Williams. Skelton was due to defend his title against [Audley Harrison](/wiki/Audley_Harrison "Audley Harrison") in December 2006, but the fight didn't take place. Instead, the fight against [Michael Sprott](/wiki/Michael_Sprott "Michael Sprott") for the second time was rescheduled for 14 July 2007, in which Skelton defended his title in a 12\-round battle. Matt Skelton faced [WBA](/wiki/World_Boxing_Association "World Boxing Association") Heavyweight Champion [Ruslan Chagaev](/wiki/Ruslan_Chagaev "Ruslan Chagaev") on 19 January 2008 in [Düsseldorf](/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf "Düsseldorf"). The fight was marred with a lot of excessive clinching and holding initiated by Skelton and little involvement from the referee, who only deducted a point from Skelton in the eighth round.{{Cite web \|url\=https://sport.ua/news/36267\-vse\-horosho\-bratan\-chagaev\|title\=Все хорошо, братан Чагаев?\|website\=sport.ua\|access\-date\=2023\-03\-17\|lang\=ru}} Chagaev retained his WBA title via unanimous decision, with the judges scoring the fight 117–110, 117–111 and 117–111 in Chagaev's favour.{{Cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/boxing/7179677\.stm\|title\=BBC SPORT {{!}} Boxing {{!}} Skelton fails in world title bid\|website\=news.bbc.co.uk\|date\=19 January 2008 \|language\=en\-GB\|access\-date\=2017\-03\-25}} Skelton fought [Paolo Vidoz](/wiki/Paolo_Vidoz "Paolo Vidoz") for the vacant European Heavyweight Title on 19 December 2008\. Vidoz, exhausted, stopped fighting in round nine, but his corner refused to throw the towel. Skelton, recognizing this fact, refused to knock out the tormented Vidoz and even asked for the referee to quit the match. Skelton chose to defend the Commonwealth title rather than the European title against undefeated brawler [Martin Rogan](/wiki/Martin_Rogan "Martin Rogan"), who had been completely unknown before upsetting Audley Harrison in his previous fight. On 28 February 2009, Rogan scored another upset by defeating Skelton by TKO11\. On 19 September 2009, Skelton challenged for the EBU\-EU title (not the full European title) against undefeated Italian southpaw [Francesco Pianeta](/wiki/Francesco_Pianeta "Francesco Pianeta"). Skelton lost the fight after failing to come out for the 9th due to a hand injury suffered earlier in the fight. In January 2010, he lost to Bulgarian top prospect [Kubrat Pulev](/wiki/Kubrat_Pulev "Kubrat Pulev"). In July 2010, Skelton ended his run of defeats when he knocked out journeyman [Lee Swaby](/wiki/Lee_Swaby "Lee Swaby") in round 5\. Later in the year he competed in the [Prizefighter series](/wiki/Prizefighter_series "Prizefighter series") where he outpointed novice Ali Adams and [Mike Tyson](/wiki/Mike_Tyson "Mike Tyson") conqueror [Kevin McBride](/wiki/Kevin_McBride "Kevin McBride") before a split decision loss to [Michael Sprott](/wiki/Michael_Sprott "Michael Sprott"), Sprott avenging his losses to Skelton in their two previous encounters. In December 2010, Skelton was jailed for five months for perverting the course of justice after giving a false name on three occasions when caught speeding in his car." [Matt Skelton jailed for attempting to pervert course of justice](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/boxing/8194680/Matt-Skelton-jailed-for-attempting-to-pervert-course-of-justice.html#)". *The Daily Telegraph*. 2010\-12\-10\. Retrieved 2012\-08\-01\. Skelton did not fight at all during 2011\. After being released from prison, he did have two fights scheduled, first a rematch with [Martin Rogan](/wiki/Martin_Rogan "Martin Rogan") in [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast "Belfast"), which never came off. Neither did a fight against unbeaten German [Edmund Gerber](/wiki/Edmund_Gerber "Edmund Gerber"). In March 2012, Skelton pulled off a minor upset with a win over [Tom Dallas](/wiki/Tom_Dallas "Tom Dallas"), effectively ending Dallas's status as a prospect. Dallas struggled badly with Skelton's mauling style and at the end of round 4, Dallas was almost laid horizontal on the ropes as Skelton dropped blows on his head. A similar situation occurred in the following round, which led the referee to stop the fight. Another win followed in May against journeyman Ladislav Kovarik, who came in at very short notice. The fight was stopped in the third round. Skelton fought again in October 2012 on the undercard of the [David Price](/wiki/David_Price_%28boxer%29 "David Price (boxer)") versus [Audley Harrison](/wiki/Audley_Harrison "Audley Harrison") fight, stopping Jakov Gospic in the second round, after Gospic had been cut by a clash of heads. On 30 November 2012 Skelton challenged David Price for the British and Commonwealth heavyweight titles and lost via second\-round KO.
[ "Professional boxing career\n--------------------------", "As a professional boxer, he was initially dismissed by purists as an unrefined slugger lacking the required skill to achieve at the very top, but his powerful style had proved extremely successful under the tutelage of renowned trainer [Frank Maloney](/wiki/Frank_Maloney \"Frank Maloney\").", "He turned pro aged 35 in September 2002 with a two\\-round KO of Gifford Shillingford. From this point he was moved along quickly, in 2003 scoring stoppages of respected veterans Jacklord Jacobs, Antoine Palatis, and ex\\-British champ [Michael Holden](/wiki/Michael_Holden \"Michael Holden\"), among others.", "In 2004, he took his first serious step up, at 11–0 taking on ex\\-British and Commonwealth champion [Julius Francis](/wiki/Julius_Francis \"Julius Francis\"), who he outpointed over 10 rounds. He won the [British](/wiki/List_of_British_heavyweight_boxing_champions \"List of British heavyweight boxing champions\") and Commonwealth titles in his next fight, stopping [Michael Sprott](/wiki/Michael_Sprott \"Michael Sprott\") in 12 rounds, and defending the titles against the durable [Keith Long](/wiki/Keith_Long \"Keith Long\"), who he stopped in 11\\.", "In 2005, Skelton won the lowly regarded WBU belt with a 6th\\-round knockout of Fabio Moli. Skelton soon vacated the belt, and began to enjoy a higher profile when his promoter [Frank Warren](/wiki/Frank_Warren_%28promoter%29 \"Frank Warren (promoter)\") took all his fighters to [ITV](/wiki/ITV_Network \"ITV Network\") for exposure on terrestrial [free\\-to\\-air](/wiki/Free-to-air \"Free-to-air\") television.", "Skelton was due to defend his British title against his main rival [Danny Williams](/wiki/Danny_Williams_%28boxer%29 \"Danny Williams (boxer)\") in July 2005, but Williams pulled out at the last minute citing a case of the [flu](/wiki/Flu \"Flu\"), a decision that prompted scorn from Williams' promoter [Frank Warren](/wiki/Frank_Warren_%28promoter%29 \"Frank Warren (promoter)\"). Skelton stopped late sub Mark Krence in 7 rounds, and scored a 1st\\-round knockout of John McDermott to finish the year, whereupon he vacated his British title, having defended it three times. In February 2006, Skelton finally fought Williams, and lost on split decision handing him his first pro defeat. In July 2006, he regained his Commonwealth title from Williams.", "Skelton was due to defend his title against [Audley Harrison](/wiki/Audley_Harrison \"Audley Harrison\") in December 2006, but the fight didn't take place. Instead, the fight against [Michael Sprott](/wiki/Michael_Sprott \"Michael Sprott\") for the second time was rescheduled for 14 July 2007, in which Skelton defended his title in a 12\\-round battle.", "Matt Skelton faced [WBA](/wiki/World_Boxing_Association \"World Boxing Association\") Heavyweight Champion [Ruslan Chagaev](/wiki/Ruslan_Chagaev \"Ruslan Chagaev\") on 19 January 2008 in [Düsseldorf](/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf \"Düsseldorf\"). The fight was marred with a lot of excessive clinching and holding initiated by Skelton and little involvement from the referee, who only deducted a point from Skelton in the eighth round.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://sport.ua/news/36267\\-vse\\-horosho\\-bratan\\-chagaev\\|title\\=Все хорошо, братан Чагаев?\\|website\\=sport.ua\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-17\\|lang\\=ru}} Chagaev retained his WBA title via unanimous decision, with the judges scoring the fight 117–110, 117–111 and 117–111 in Chagaev's favour.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/boxing/7179677\\.stm\\|title\\=BBC SPORT {{!}} Boxing {{!}} Skelton fails in world title bid\\|website\\=news.bbc.co.uk\\|date\\=19 January 2008 \\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-25}}", "Skelton fought [Paolo Vidoz](/wiki/Paolo_Vidoz \"Paolo Vidoz\") for the vacant European Heavyweight Title on 19 December 2008\\. Vidoz, exhausted, stopped fighting in round nine, but his corner refused to throw the towel. Skelton, recognizing this fact, refused to knock out the tormented Vidoz and even asked for the referee to quit the match. Skelton chose to defend the Commonwealth title rather than the European title against undefeated brawler [Martin Rogan](/wiki/Martin_Rogan \"Martin Rogan\"), who had been completely unknown before upsetting Audley Harrison in his previous fight. On 28 February 2009, Rogan scored another upset by defeating Skelton by TKO11\\.", "On 19 September 2009, Skelton challenged for the EBU\\-EU title (not the full European title) against undefeated Italian southpaw [Francesco Pianeta](/wiki/Francesco_Pianeta \"Francesco Pianeta\"). Skelton lost the fight after failing to come out for the 9th due to a hand injury suffered earlier in the fight. In January 2010, he lost to Bulgarian top prospect [Kubrat Pulev](/wiki/Kubrat_Pulev \"Kubrat Pulev\"). In July 2010, Skelton ended his run of defeats when he knocked out journeyman [Lee Swaby](/wiki/Lee_Swaby \"Lee Swaby\") in round 5\\. Later in the year he competed in the [Prizefighter series](/wiki/Prizefighter_series \"Prizefighter series\") where he outpointed novice Ali Adams and [Mike Tyson](/wiki/Mike_Tyson \"Mike Tyson\") conqueror [Kevin McBride](/wiki/Kevin_McBride \"Kevin McBride\") before a split decision loss to [Michael Sprott](/wiki/Michael_Sprott \"Michael Sprott\"), Sprott avenging his losses to Skelton in their two previous encounters.", "In December 2010, Skelton was jailed for five months for perverting the course of justice after giving a false name on three occasions when caught speeding in his car.\" [Matt Skelton jailed for attempting to pervert course of justice](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/boxing/8194680/Matt-Skelton-jailed-for-attempting-to-pervert-course-of-justice.html#)\". *The Daily Telegraph*. 2010\\-12\\-10\\. Retrieved 2012\\-08\\-01\\. Skelton did not fight at all during 2011\\. After being released from prison, he did have two fights scheduled, first a rematch with [Martin Rogan](/wiki/Martin_Rogan \"Martin Rogan\") in [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast \"Belfast\"), which never came off. Neither did a fight against unbeaten German [Edmund Gerber](/wiki/Edmund_Gerber \"Edmund Gerber\").", "In March 2012, Skelton pulled off a minor upset with a win over [Tom Dallas](/wiki/Tom_Dallas \"Tom Dallas\"), effectively ending Dallas's status as a prospect. Dallas struggled badly with Skelton's mauling style and at the end of round 4, Dallas was almost laid horizontal on the ropes as Skelton dropped blows on his head. A similar situation occurred in the following round, which led the referee to stop the fight. Another win followed in May against journeyman Ladislav Kovarik, who came in at very short notice. The fight was stopped in the third round.", "Skelton fought again in October 2012 on the undercard of the [David Price](/wiki/David_Price_%28boxer%29 \"David Price (boxer)\") versus [Audley Harrison](/wiki/Audley_Harrison \"Audley Harrison\") fight, stopping Jakov Gospic in the second round, after Gospic had been cut by a clash of heads.", "On 30 November 2012 Skelton challenged David Price for the British and Commonwealth heavyweight titles and lost via second\\-round KO.", "" ]
Episodes -------- {{see also\|List of Charlie's Angels episodes}} {{Episode table \|background\=\#fda55b \|overall\= \|season\= \|title\= \|director\=20 \|writer\=22 \|airdate\=19 \|episodes\= {{Episode list/sublist\|Charlie's Angels season 4 \|NumParts \= 2 \|EpisodeNumber\_1 \= 73 \|EpisodeNumber\_2 \= 74 \|EpisodeNumber2\_1 \= 1 \|EpisodeNumber2\_2 \= 2 \|Title \= Love Boat Angels \|DirectedBy \= \[\[Allen Baron]] \|WrittenBy \= \[\[Edward J. Lakso]] \|OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1979\|9\|12}} \|ShortSummary \= Two\-hour season premiere. Tiffany Welles joins the Townsend Agency after Sabrina has quit to get married and start a family. Charlie tells his girls to take a cruise on the ''Pacific Princess'' to catch art thief Paul Hollister. Kris offers to get close to their target, but soon begins to feel an attraction to him. NOTE: This is a \[\[Crossover (fiction)\|crossover]] episode combining ''Charlie's Angels'' and another \[\[Aaron Spelling]]\-produced series, "\[\[The Love Boat]]". \* Originally shown as a two\-hour season premiere, but in syndication is shown as two separate episodes. Guest stars: \[\[Bert Convy]], \[\[Bo Hopkins]], \[\[Sandy McPeak]], \[\[Dick Sargent]], \[\[Barry Sullivan (American actor)\|Barry Sullivan]], Lee Travis, \[\[Gavin MacLeod]], \[\[Bernie Kopell]], \[\[Fred Grandy]], \[\[Ted Lange]], \[\[Lauren Tewes]], \[\[Judy Landers]], Louie Elias and \[\[Read Morgan]]. Cis Rundle appears uncredited. \|LineColor \= fda55b }} {{Episode list/sublist\|Charlie's Angels season 4 \|EpisodeNumber \= 75 \|EpisodeNumber2 \= 3 \|Title \= Angels Go Truckin' \|DirectedBy \= \[\[Lawrence Dobkin]] \|WrittenBy \= Richard Carr \|OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1979\|9\|19}} \|ShortSummary \= Kris and Tiffany go to trucking school to investigate an all\-female trucking line whose cargo has been stolen under their very noses. Kelly goes undercover as a waitress. Guest stars: \[\[Joanne Linville]], \[\[Royce D. Applegate]], James Carrington, John Chappell, James Crittenden, \[\[Mickey Jones]], \[\[Bill Zuckert]], \[\[Eric Lawson (actor)\|Eric Lawson]], Rosanne Covy, \[\[Gary Grubbs]], James Carroll (as James Lough), Gary Lee Davis and Lucille Meredith. Hank Robinson appears uncredited. \|LineColor \= fda55b }} {{Episode list/sublist\|Charlie's Angels season 4 \|EpisodeNumber \= 76 \|EpisodeNumber2 \= 4 \|Title \= Avenging Angel \|DirectedBy \= Allen Baron \|WrittenBy \= {{StoryTeleplay \| s \= Laurie Lakso \| t \= Edward J. Lakso \| slabel \= {{abbr\|S\|Story by}} \| tlabel \= {{abbr\|T\|Teleplay by}} \| tfirst \= y }} \|OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1979\|9\|26}} \|ShortSummary \= Frank Desmond is released from prison and proceeds to revenge himself on his jailer, Kelly Garrett, by injecting her with heroin. This leads the men he stole the drugs from to think Desmond and Kelly are partners in crime. \* NOTE: The only episode in which John Forsythe does not take part. Guest stars: \[\[Cameron Mitchell (actor)\|Cameron Mitchell]], \[\[Stephen McNally]], \[\[Richard Bakalyan]] (as Dick Bakalyan), \[\[Steve Kanaly]], Ernest Sarracino, \[\[Tim Rossovich]] and Danielle Aubry. \|LineColor \= fda55b }} {{Episode list/sublist\|Charlie's Angels season 4 \|EpisodeNumber \= 77 \|EpisodeNumber2 \= 5 \|Title \= Angels at the Altar \|DirectedBy \= Lawrence Dobkin \|WrittenBy \= Larry Alexander \|OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1979\|10\|3}} \|ShortSummary \= Kelly is to be maid of honor at her friend Sharon's wedding. When there are several attempts to murder the groom, Tiffany goes undercover as a violinist, Bosley tends bar and Kris joins the wedding party as waitress. \* Production code: H\-73 Guest stars: \[\[Kim Cattrall]], \[\[John David Carson]], \[\[Adrienne La Russa]] (as Adrienne Larussa), Joseph Hacker, \[\[Robert Walker (actor, born 1940\)\|Robert Walker]], \[\[Walter Brooke]], \[\[Marie Windsor]], \[\[Parley Baer]], \[\[Ivan Bonar]], Glenn Robards and Paula Hoffman. \|LineColor \= fda55b }} {{Episode list/sublist\|Charlie's Angels season 4 \|EpisodeNumber \= 78 \|EpisodeNumber2 \= 6 \|Title \= Fallen Angel \|DirectedBy \= Allen Baron \|WrittenBy \= \[\[Katharyn Powers\|Kathryn Michaelian Powers]] \|OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1979\|10\|24}} \|ShortSummary \= The Angels are hired to catch Damien 'Ice Cat' Roth, a millionaire playboy/jewel thief, who also happens to be in love with former Angel Jill Munroe. \* NOTE: Farrah is back yet again, but from now onward, she is known simply as Farrah Fawcett. Guest stars: \[\[Farrah Fawcett]], \[\[Timothy Dalton]], \[\[Marilù Tolo]] (as Marilu Tolo), \[\[Michael DeLano]] (as Michael De Lano), Richard Roat, Jenny Neumann, \[\[Sandra Caron]] and \[\[Gregory Itzin]] \|LineColor \= fda55b }} {{Episode list/sublist\|Charlie's Angels season 4 \|EpisodeNumber \= 79 \|EpisodeNumber2 \= 7 \|Title \= Caged Angel \|DirectedBy \= Dennis Donnelly \|WrittenBy \= B.W. Sandefur \|OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1979\|10\|31}} \|ShortSummary \= Kris goes undercover as an inmate in Colejo Prison to ferret out a gang of jewel thieves operating from there. Guest stars: \[\[Shirley Stoler]], \[\[Louise Sorel]], \[\[Sally Kirkland]], \[\[Rose Gregorio]], Bonnie Keith, \[\[Tisha Sterling]], \[\[Ellen Geer]], \[\[Walter Mathews (actor)\|Walter Mathews]], \[\[Lynn Carlin]], \[\[Harry Northup]] (as Harry Northrup) and Tyrone Van Haynes. Debra Kelly appears uncredited. \|LineColor \= fda55b }} {{Episode list/sublist\|Charlie's Angels season 4 \|EpisodeNumber \= 80 \|EpisodeNumber2 \= 8 \|Title \= Angels on the Street \|DirectedBy \= \[\[Don Chaffey]] \|WrittenBy \= {{StoryTeleplay \| s \= Laurie Lakso \| t \= Edward J. Lakso \| slabel \= {{abbr\|S\|Story by}} \| tlabel \= {{abbr\|T\|Teleplay by}} \| tfirst \= y }} \|OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1979\|11\|7}} \|ShortSummary \= When a young music teacher gets beaten up by a local pimp, Kelly and Tiffany join his stable as undercover streetwalkers to investigate. Guest stars: \[\[Richard Lynch]], \[\[Ford Rainey]], \[\[Madlyn Rhue]], Nancy Fox, \[\[Richard Karron]], Amy Johnston, Vivian Ford, Jeff Gerrard and \[\[Conrad Palmisano]]. \|LineColor \= fda55b }} {{Episode list/sublist\|Charlie's Angels season 4 \|EpisodeNumber \= 81 \|EpisodeNumber2 \= 9 \|Title \= The Prince and the Angel \|DirectedBy \= \[\[Cliff Bole]] \|WrittenBy \= {{StoryTeleplay \| s \= Laurie Lakso \| t \= Edward J. Lakso \| slabel \= {{abbr\|S\|Story by}} \| tlabel \= {{abbr\|T\|Teleplay by}} \| tfirst \= y }} \|OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1979\|11\|14}} \|ShortSummary \= Jill is wooed by a European crown prince while shopping for Charlie's birthday party and immediately gets in the way of an assassin's line of fire. The Angels help out, even though Bosley objects since they are not being paid. Guest stars: \[\[Farrah Fawcett]], \[\[Leonard Mann (actor)\|Leonard Mann]], Jesse Doran, Herb Braha, \[\[Karl Held]], \[\[Tom Spratley]] and \[\[Stacy Peralta]]. \|LineColor \= fda55b }} {{Episode list/sublist\|Charlie's Angels season 4 \|EpisodeNumber \= 82 \|EpisodeNumber2 \= 10 \|Title \= Angels on Skates \|DirectedBy \= Don Chaffey \|WrittenBy \= {{StoryTeleplay \| t \= Michael Michaelian (as Michael Michalian) \| ex1 \= John Francis Whelpley \| tlabel \= {{abbr\|T\|Teleplay by}} \| ex1label \= {{abbr\|S/T\|Story and teleplay by}} }} \|OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1979\|11\|21}} \|ShortSummary \= A young girl is kidnapped while performing as a skater on Venice Beach. The Angels investigate Freddie Fortune's rink, where Kris joins the skating chorus line. Guest stars: \[\[Ed Begley Jr.]], \[\[Roz Kelly]], \[\[Chris Mulkey]], \[\[Joanna Barnes]], Lory Walsh, \[\[René Auberjonois\|Rene Auberjonois]], \[\[Nicholas Worth]] and \[\[Virgil Frye]] \|LineColor \= fda55b }} {{Episode list/sublist\|Charlie's Angels season 4 \|EpisodeNumber \= 83 \|EpisodeNumber2 \= 11 \|Title \= Angels on Campus \|DirectedBy \= Don Chaffey \|WrittenBy \= Michael Michaelian \|OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1979\|11\|28}} \|ShortSummary \= Two young girls from Tiffany's old sorority Kappa Omega Psi have been kidnapped to be sold as white slaves to a sheik, so Tiff and Kris return to college. Guest stars: \[\[Gary Collins (actor)\|Gary Collins]], \[\[Nita Talbot]], Richard Hill, David Hayward, Janice Heiden, Sandie Newton, \[\[Jo Ann Pflug]], \[\[Paul Cavonis]], \[\[Nina Axelrod]], Helaine Lembeck, Erin Donovan, Steve Eoff and \[\[Robyn Blythe]]. Diana Valentine appears uncredited. \|LineColor \= fda55b }} {{Episode list/sublist\|Charlie's Angels season 4 \|EpisodeNumber \= 84 \|EpisodeNumber2 \= 12 \|Title \= Angel Hunt \|DirectedBy \= \[\[Paul Stanley (director)\|Paul Stanley]] \|WrittenBy \= \[\[Lee Sheldon (writer)\|Lee Sheldon]] \|OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1979\|12\|5}} \|ShortSummary \= The Angels are lured to Diablo Island by an old enemy of Charlie's, who plans to hunt them down and kill them in order to avenge himself on their boss. Guest stars: \[\[Lloyd Bochner]], \[\[L. Q. Jones]] and Paul Sylvan. \|LineColor \= fda55b }} {{Episode list/sublist\|Charlie's Angels season 4 \|EpisodeNumber \= 85 \|EpisodeNumber2 \= 13 \|Title \= Cruising Angels \|DirectedBy \= \[\[George McCowan]] \|WrittenBy \= B.W. Sandefur \|OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1979\|12\|12}} \|ShortSummary \= While Bosley is romancing the interior decorator of Charlie's brand new yacht, criminals plan on using the ''Wayward Angel'' to transport a load of gold bouillon out of the country. As the Angels investigate, the gold's previous owner is also on the smugglers' trail. Guest stars: \[\[Peter Mark Richman]], \[\[Rodolfo Hoyos Jr.]] (as Rodolfo Hoyos), \[\[Reni Santoni]], \[\[Gene Evans]], \[\[Beverly Garland]], \[\[Pepe Hern]], \[\[Noah Keen]], Zachary Lewis and Tracy Dennison. \|LineColor \= fda55b }} {{Episode list/sublist\|Charlie's Angels season 4 \|EpisodeNumber \= 86 \|EpisodeNumber2 \= 14 \|Title \= Of Ghosts and Angels \|DirectedBy \= Cliff Bole \|WrittenBy \= Kathryn Michaelian Powers \|OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|1\|2}} \|ShortSummary \= Tiffany is having psychic premonitions about history repeating itself during a costume party at the mansion of a recently married friend of hers. Guest stars: \[\[Paul Burke (actor)\|Paul Burke]], \[\[Virginia Gregg]], \[\[R. G. Armstrong]], Frank Christi, \[\[Robin Mattson]] and Lu Duffy Gardner. Cis Rundle appears uncredited. \|LineColor \= fda55b }} {{Episode list/sublist\|Charlie's Angels season 4 \|EpisodeNumber \= 87 \|EpisodeNumber2 \= 15 \|Title \= Angel's Child \|DirectedBy \= Dennis Donnelly \|WrittenBy \= Edward J. Lakso \|OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|1\|9}} \|ShortSummary \= Kelly discovers the police sergeant she is working with has a tendency to take out his rage on his young son and tries to get custody of the boy. Meanwhile, the masterminds of the case they are investigating have their own plans for Kelly, the cop and his son. Guest stars: \[\[Simon Oakland]], \[\[Michael Witney]] (as Michael Whitney), Rick Casorla, Michael Allen Harris, S. Pearl Sharp (as Saundra Sharp), Michael Hershewe, \[\[John Zaremba]] and John Petlock. David LeBell appears uncredited. \|LineColor \= fda55b }} {{Episode list/sublist\|Charlie's Angels season 4 \|EpisodeNumber \= 88 \|EpisodeNumber2 \= 16 \|Title \= One of Our Angels Is Missing \|DirectedBy \= Allen Baron \|WrittenBy \= Robert S. Biheller \& W. Dal Jenkins \|OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|1\|16}} \|ShortSummary \= Kris poses as a rich divorcée to find out why Vic Devlin has skipped parole. When the Angels proceed to lure him back to California, it turns out he is more dangerous than they first thought. Guest stars: \[\[Jonathan Goldsmith]], \[\[Don "Red" Barry]], \[\[Marc Alaimo]], Bob Levine, \[\[Warren Berlinger]], Louis Plante and \[\[John C. Becher]] (as John Becher). \|LineColor \= fda55b }} {{Episode list/sublist\|Charlie's Angels season 4 \|EpisodeNumber \= 89 \|EpisodeNumber2 \= 17 \|Title \= Catch a Falling Angel \|DirectedBy \= \[\[Kim Manners]] \|WrittenBy \= Edward J. Lakso \|OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|1\|23}} \|ShortSummary \= The Angels investigate the disappearance of a young man whose ex\-girlfriend, Bess Hemsdale, has moved to the big city and joined the adult film industry under the name of 'Sally Storm'. Kris goes undercover as a potential starlet. Guest stars: Elissa Leeds, Gary Wood, \[\[Sully Boyar]], Eugene Butler, Anthony Mannino (as R. Anthony Mannino), Richard Balin, Robert Pierce (as Robert Peirce), James Gleason and Dorit Stevens. Ron Russell appears uncredited. \|LineColor \= fda55b }} {{Episode list/sublist\|Charlie's Angels season 4 \|EpisodeNumber \= 90 \|EpisodeNumber2 \= 18 \|Title \= Homes $weet Homes \|DirectedBy \= Allen Baron \|WrittenBy \= {{StoryTeleplay \| s \= Robert E. Lee \& Ronald E. Osborn \| ex1 \= \[\[William Froug]] \| slabel \= {{abbr\|S\|Story by}} \| ex1label \= {{abbr\|S/T\|Story and teleplay by}} }} \|OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|1\|30}} \|ShortSummary \= The Kingsbrook Realty Company, which has been linked to several robberies, is the subject of the girls' latest case. Kris joins the all\-female agency, while Tiffany pretends to be selling a house (as well as being the owner of several valuable letters written by America's founding fathers). Bosley poses as a potential buyer. Guest stars: \[\[Dick Gautier]], \[\[Sherry Jackson]], Natalie Core, \[\[Vito Scotti]], \[\[Arthur Space]], Ernest Harada, William Marquez, \[\[Eugene Robert Glazer]], Mark Thomas, Anne Bruner, Paula Jones and Albert (Jaclyn Smith's poodle). \|LineColor \= fda55b }} {{Episode list/sublist\|Charlie's Angels season 4 \|EpisodeNumber \= 91 \|EpisodeNumber2 \= 19 \|Title \= Dancin' Angels \|DirectedBy \= Dennis Donnelly \|WrittenBy \= Edward J. Lakso \|OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|2\|6}} \|ShortSummary \= After a disappearance and a murder at an old\-fashioned ballroom dance contest, Bosley and Tiffany team up as a dancing couple. Meanwhile, Kris and Kelly try to get information from the club owners, who seem to think they are living in a Bogart movie. \* Filming dates: January 2–10, 1980\[https://i.imgur.com/kYAVXag.jpg Image] imgur.com \* Production code: H\-87 Guest stars: \[\[Cesar Romero]], \[\[Norman Alden]], John Lansing, \[\[Lee Delano]], Dawn Jeffory, \[\[Brad Maule]], Jason Kincaid, \[\[Lindsay Bloom]] and Pamela Peadon. \|LineColor \= fda55b }} {{Episode list/sublist\|Charlie's Angels season 4 \|EpisodeNumber \= 92 \|EpisodeNumber2 \= 20 \|Title \= Harrigan's Angel \|DirectedBy \= Don Chaffey \|WrittenBy \= Edward J. Lakso \|OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|2\|20}} \|ShortSummary \= The Angels team up with alcoholic private eye Harrigan to investigate the robbery of an electronics plant. Kris takes a liking to the old man and tries to get him back on track. Guest stars: \[\[Howard Duff]], \[\[Ed Nelson]], \[\[Michael Cavanaugh (actor)\|Michael Cavanaugh]], \[\[Robert Englund]], Michael Baseleon, Charles McDaniel and Marte Boyle Slout (as Marte Slout). \|LineColor \= fda55b }} {{Episode list/sublist\|Charlie's Angels season 4 \|EpisodeNumber \= 93 \|EpisodeNumber2 \= 21 \|Title \= An Angel's Trail \|DirectedBy \= Dennis Donnelly \|WrittenBy \= Wayne Cruseturner \|OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|2\|27}} \|ShortSummary \= Jill drives up to a robbery in progress at Pioneer Gasoline/The Rock Store. The perpetrator, along with his two sons as accomplices, decides he wants to take her as a hostage into the hills of the nearby isolated desert on their way to Canada. NOTE: This is Farrah Fawcett's final episode. Guest stars: \[\[Farrah Fawcett]], \[\[L. Q. Jones]], \[\[Tracey Walter]], \[\[John Lupton]], \[\[John Dennis Johnston]], Dorothy Dells and Cis Rundle. \|LineColor \= fda55b }} {{Episode list/sublist\|Charlie's Angels season 4 \|EpisodeNumber \= 94 \|EpisodeNumber2 \= 22 \|Title \= Nips and Tucks \|DirectedBy \= Don Chaffey \|WrittenBy \= {{StoryTeleplay \| s \= Cory Applebaum \| ex1 \= B.W. Sandefur \| slabel \= {{abbr\|S\|Story by}} \| ex1label \= {{abbr\|S/T\|Story and teleplay by}} }} \|OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|3\|5}} \|ShortSummary \= When a renowned cosmetic surgeon is suspected of giving criminals a new face, Tiffany joins his staff as a nurse, while Bosley poses as a rich patient whose wife, played by Kris, wants him to improve his looks. Guest stars: \[\[Louis Jourdan]], \[\[Tab Hunter]], Corinne Camacho (as Corinne Michaels), Barbara Iley, Lisa Shure and \[\[Joanna Pettet]]. \|LineColor \= fda55b }} {{Episode list/sublist\|Charlie's Angels season 4 \|EpisodeNumber \= 95 \|EpisodeNumber2 \= 23 \|Title \= Three for the Money \|DirectedBy \= George McCowan \|WrittenBy \= Lee Sheldon \|OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|3\|12}} \|ShortSummary \= The Townsend Agency is hired by three people who have been separately conned by Harley Dexter. In order to get their money back, the Angels counterattack with three cons of their own: one involving Mayan art, another centered around a Rolls\-Royce and the third concerning bribe money. Guest stars: \[\[Vincent Baggetta]], Lee Terri, \[\[Michael Pataki]], \[\[William Wellman Jr.]], Richard John Miller, \[\[Carol Bruce]], Conrad Bachmann (as Conrad Bachman), Andrew Masset and John Perak. \|LineColor \= fda55b }} {{Episode list/sublist\|Charlie's Angels season 4 \|EpisodeNumber \= 96 \|EpisodeNumber2 \= 24 \|Title \= Toni's Boys \|DirectedBy \= Ron Satlof \|WrittenBy \= {{StoryTeleplay \| s \= Robert Janes \| ex1 \= \[\[Katharyn Powers]] \| slabel \= {{abbr\|S\|Story by}} \| ex1label \= {{abbr\|S/T\|Story and teleplay by}} }} \|OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|4\|2}} \|ShortSummary \= After an attempt is made on the Angels' lives, Charlie hires a rival detective agency run by his old friend, Antonia Blake (Barbara Stanwyck), to keep an eye on his employees. Blake, who likes to be called 'Toni', assigns her three boys to the case. They are: former U.S. Olympic champion Bob Sorensen (Bob Seagren), master of disguise Matt Parrish (Bruce Bauer) and champion rodeo rider, roper and tracker Cotton Harper (Stephen Shortridge). The Angels, feeling they can solve the case themselves, try to ditch the men as soon as possible. \* NOTE: This was a \[\[backdoor pilot]] for a ''Charlie's Angels'' spin\-off called ''Toni's Boys'', which never became a series. \* Filming dates: February 21\-March 04, 1980\[https://i.imgur.com/EgpuTlq.jpg Image] imgur.com \* Production Code: H\-92 Guest stars: \[\[Stephen Shortridge]], Bruce Bauer, \[\[Bob Seagren]], \[\[Barbara Stanwyck]], \[\[Robert Loggia]], \[\[Andy Romano]], \[\[Tricia O'Neil]] (as Tricia O'Neill), \[\[Roz Kelly]], Jenny Sherman, James Brodhead (as James E. Brodhead), \[\[Ken Scott (actor)\|Ken Scott]], Fil Formicola, Patti Townsend, Asa Teeter, \[\[Lillian Müller\|Yulis Ruval]] and Dusty Deason. Ruby Handler and Lou Mulford appear uncredited. \|LineColor \= fda55b }} {{Episode list/sublist\|Charlie's Angels season 4 \|EpisodeNumber \= 97 \|EpisodeNumber2 \= 25 \|Title \= One Love... Two Angels: Part 1 \|DirectedBy \= Dennis Donnelly \|WrittenBy \= B.W. Sandefur \|OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|4\|30}} \|ShortSummary \= Part 1 of 2\. Kelly is contacted by an attorney who tells her she may be the long\-lost daughter of millionaire Oliver Barrows. When Barrows sees the resemblance between Kelly and his late wife, he is convinced she is his daughter, Margaret Ellen, but Kelly remains skeptical, so she hires the Townsend Agency to investigate. Guest stars: \[\[Patrick Duffy]], \[\[Lynne Marta]], \[\[Ray Milland]], \[\[Robert Reed]], \[\[Simon Scott (actor)\|Simon Scott]], \[\[William Mims]], \[\[Harry Townes]], Nancy Fox, Joe Ross, Sandy Freeman, Nigel Bullard, Diane Vincent and Bobby A. Ron Russell appears uncredited. \|LineColor \= fda55b }} {{Episode list/sublist\|Charlie's Angels season 4 \|EpisodeNumber \= 98 \|EpisodeNumber2 \= 26 \|Title \= One Love... Two Angels: Part 2 \|DirectedBy \= Dennis Donnelly \|WrittenBy \= B.W. Sandefur \|OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|5\|7}} \|ShortSummary \= Conclusion. Bill Cord has fallen in love with both Kelly and Kris, driving a wedge between the two detectives. When Bill finds out Glenn Staley stands to gain from Kelly's death, he forfeits his own life. Now it is up to Tiffany and Bosley to hold the team together and solve the case. \* NOTE: This is Shelley Hack's final episode. Guest stars: \[\[Patrick Duffy]], \[\[Lynne Marta]], \[\[Robert Reed]], \[\[Simon Scott (actor)\|Simon Scott]], \[\[Harry Townes]], Nancy Fox, Clint Young, Nigel Bullard, Bobby A., Ed Ruffalo and M. David Cohen. \|LineColor \= fda55b }} }}
[ "Episodes\n--------", "{{see also\\|List of Charlie's Angels episodes}}\n{{Episode table\n\\|background\\=\\#fda55b\n\\|overall\\=\n\\|season\\=\n\\|title\\=\n\\|director\\=20\n\\|writer\\=22\n\\|airdate\\=19\n\\|episodes\\=", "{{Episode list/sublist\\|Charlie's Angels season 4\n\\|NumParts \\= 2\n\\|EpisodeNumber\\_1 \\= 73\n\\|EpisodeNumber\\_2 \\= 74\n\\|EpisodeNumber2\\_1 \\= 1\n\\|EpisodeNumber2\\_2 \\= 2\n\\|Title \\= Love Boat Angels\n\\|DirectedBy \\= \\[\\[Allen Baron]] \n\\|WrittenBy \\= \\[\\[Edward J. Lakso]]\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1979\\|9\\|12}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\= Two\\-hour season premiere. Tiffany Welles joins the Townsend Agency after Sabrina has quit to get married and start a family. Charlie tells his girls to take a cruise on the ''Pacific Princess'' to catch art thief Paul Hollister. Kris offers to get close to their target, but soon begins to feel an attraction to him.", "NOTE: This is a \\[\\[Crossover (fiction)\\|crossover]] episode combining ''Charlie's Angels'' and another \\[\\[Aaron Spelling]]\\-produced series, \"\\[\\[The Love Boat]]\".\n\\* Originally shown as a two\\-hour season premiere, but in syndication is shown as two separate episodes.", "Guest stars: \\[\\[Bert Convy]], \\[\\[Bo Hopkins]], \\[\\[Sandy McPeak]], \\[\\[Dick Sargent]], \\[\\[Barry Sullivan (American actor)\\|Barry Sullivan]], Lee Travis, \\[\\[Gavin MacLeod]], \\[\\[Bernie Kopell]], \\[\\[Fred Grandy]], \\[\\[Ted Lange]], \\[\\[Lauren Tewes]], \\[\\[Judy Landers]], Louie Elias and \\[\\[Read Morgan]]. Cis Rundle appears uncredited.\n\\|LineColor \\= fda55b\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Charlie's Angels season 4\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 75\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 3\n\\|Title \\= Angels Go Truckin' \n\\|DirectedBy \\= \\[\\[Lawrence Dobkin]]\n\\|WrittenBy \\= Richard Carr\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1979\\|9\\|19}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\= Kris and Tiffany go to trucking school to investigate an all\\-female trucking line whose cargo has been stolen under their very noses. Kelly goes undercover as a waitress.", "Guest stars: \\[\\[Joanne Linville]], \\[\\[Royce D. Applegate]], James Carrington, John Chappell, James Crittenden, \\[\\[Mickey Jones]], \\[\\[Bill Zuckert]], \\[\\[Eric Lawson (actor)\\|Eric Lawson]], Rosanne Covy, \\[\\[Gary Grubbs]], James Carroll (as James Lough), Gary Lee Davis and Lucille Meredith. Hank Robinson appears uncredited.\n\\|LineColor \\= fda55b\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Charlie's Angels season 4\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 76\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 4\n\\|Title \\= Avenging Angel\n\\|DirectedBy \\= Allen Baron\n\\|WrittenBy \\= {{StoryTeleplay\n \\| s \\= Laurie Lakso\n \\| t \\= Edward J. Lakso\n \\| slabel \\= {{abbr\\|S\\|Story by}}\n \\| tlabel \\= {{abbr\\|T\\|Teleplay by}}\n \\| tfirst \\= y\n }}\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1979\\|9\\|26}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\= Frank Desmond is released from prison and proceeds to revenge himself on his jailer, Kelly Garrett, by injecting her with heroin. This leads the men he stole the drugs from to think Desmond and Kelly are partners in crime.", "\\* NOTE: The only episode in which John Forsythe does not take part.", "Guest stars: \\[\\[Cameron Mitchell (actor)\\|Cameron Mitchell]], \\[\\[Stephen McNally]], \\[\\[Richard Bakalyan]] (as Dick Bakalyan), \\[\\[Steve Kanaly]], Ernest Sarracino, \\[\\[Tim Rossovich]] and Danielle Aubry.\n\\|LineColor \\= fda55b\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Charlie's Angels season 4\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 77\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 5\n\\|Title \\= Angels at the Altar\n\\|DirectedBy \\= Lawrence Dobkin\n\\|WrittenBy \\= Larry Alexander\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1979\\|10\\|3}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\= Kelly is to be maid of honor at her friend Sharon's wedding. When there are several attempts to murder the groom, Tiffany goes undercover as a violinist, Bosley tends bar and Kris joins the wedding party as waitress.", "\\* Production code: H\\-73", "Guest stars: \\[\\[Kim Cattrall]], \\[\\[John David Carson]], \\[\\[Adrienne La Russa]] (as Adrienne Larussa), Joseph Hacker, \\[\\[Robert Walker (actor, born 1940\\)\\|Robert Walker]], \\[\\[Walter Brooke]], \\[\\[Marie Windsor]], \\[\\[Parley Baer]], \\[\\[Ivan Bonar]], Glenn Robards and Paula Hoffman.", "\\|LineColor \\= fda55b\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Charlie's Angels season 4\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 78\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 6\n\\|Title \\= Fallen Angel \n\\|DirectedBy \\= Allen Baron\n\\|WrittenBy \\= \\[\\[Katharyn Powers\\|Kathryn Michaelian Powers]]\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1979\\|10\\|24}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\= The Angels are hired to catch Damien 'Ice Cat' Roth, a millionaire playboy/jewel thief, who also happens to be in love with former Angel Jill Munroe.\n\\* NOTE: Farrah is back yet again, but from now onward, she is known simply as Farrah Fawcett.", "Guest stars: \\[\\[Farrah Fawcett]], \\[\\[Timothy Dalton]], \\[\\[Marilù Tolo]] (as Marilu Tolo), \\[\\[Michael DeLano]] (as Michael De Lano), Richard Roat, Jenny Neumann, \\[\\[Sandra Caron]] and \\[\\[Gregory Itzin]]\n\\|LineColor \\= fda55b\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Charlie's Angels season 4\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 79\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 7\n\\|Title \\= Caged Angel\n\\|DirectedBy \\= Dennis Donnelly\n\\|WrittenBy \\= B.W. Sandefur \n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1979\\|10\\|31}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\= Kris goes undercover as an inmate in Colejo Prison to ferret out a gang of jewel thieves operating from there.", "Guest stars: \\[\\[Shirley Stoler]], \\[\\[Louise Sorel]], \\[\\[Sally Kirkland]], \\[\\[Rose Gregorio]], Bonnie Keith, \\[\\[Tisha Sterling]], \\[\\[Ellen Geer]], \\[\\[Walter Mathews (actor)\\|Walter Mathews]], \\[\\[Lynn Carlin]], \\[\\[Harry Northup]] (as Harry Northrup) and Tyrone Van Haynes. Debra Kelly appears uncredited.\n\\|LineColor \\= fda55b\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Charlie's Angels season 4\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 80\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 8\n\\|Title \\= Angels on the Street\n\\|DirectedBy \\= \\[\\[Don Chaffey]]\n\\|WrittenBy \\= {{StoryTeleplay\n \\| s \\= Laurie Lakso\n \\| t \\= Edward J. Lakso\n \\| slabel \\= {{abbr\\|S\\|Story by}}\n \\| tlabel \\= {{abbr\\|T\\|Teleplay by}}\n \\| tfirst \\= y\n }}\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1979\\|11\\|7}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\= When a young music teacher gets beaten up by a local pimp, Kelly and Tiffany join his stable as undercover streetwalkers to investigate.", "Guest stars: \\[\\[Richard Lynch]], \\[\\[Ford Rainey]], \\[\\[Madlyn Rhue]], Nancy Fox, \\[\\[Richard Karron]], Amy Johnston, Vivian Ford, Jeff Gerrard and \\[\\[Conrad Palmisano]].\n\\|LineColor \\= fda55b\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Charlie's Angels season 4\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 81\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 9\n\\|Title \\= The Prince and the Angel\n\\|DirectedBy \\= \\[\\[Cliff Bole]]\n\\|WrittenBy \\= {{StoryTeleplay\n \\| s \\= Laurie Lakso\n \\| t \\= Edward J. Lakso\n \\| slabel \\= {{abbr\\|S\\|Story by}}\n \\| tlabel \\= {{abbr\\|T\\|Teleplay by}}\n \\| tfirst \\= y\n }}\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1979\\|11\\|14}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\= Jill is wooed by a European crown prince while shopping for Charlie's birthday party and immediately gets in the way of an assassin's line of fire. The Angels help out, even though Bosley objects since they are not being paid.", "Guest stars: \\[\\[Farrah Fawcett]], \\[\\[Leonard Mann (actor)\\|Leonard Mann]], Jesse Doran, Herb Braha, \\[\\[Karl Held]], \\[\\[Tom Spratley]] and \\[\\[Stacy Peralta]].\n\\|LineColor \\= fda55b\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Charlie's Angels season 4\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 82\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 10\n\\|Title \\= Angels on Skates\n\\|DirectedBy \\= Don Chaffey\n\\|WrittenBy \\= {{StoryTeleplay\n \\| t \\= Michael Michaelian (as Michael Michalian)\n \\| ex1 \\= John Francis Whelpley\n \\| tlabel \\= {{abbr\\|T\\|Teleplay by}}\n \\| ex1label \\= {{abbr\\|S/T\\|Story and teleplay by}}\n }}\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1979\\|11\\|21}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\= A young girl is kidnapped while performing as a skater on Venice Beach. The Angels investigate Freddie Fortune's rink, where Kris joins the skating chorus line.", "Guest stars: \\[\\[Ed Begley Jr.]], \\[\\[Roz Kelly]], \\[\\[Chris Mulkey]], \\[\\[Joanna Barnes]], Lory Walsh, \\[\\[René Auberjonois\\|Rene Auberjonois]], \\[\\[Nicholas Worth]] and \\[\\[Virgil Frye]]\n\\|LineColor \\= fda55b\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Charlie's Angels season 4\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 83\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 11\n\\|Title \\= Angels on Campus \n\\|DirectedBy \\= Don Chaffey\n\\|WrittenBy \\= Michael Michaelian\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1979\\|11\\|28}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\= Two young girls from Tiffany's old sorority Kappa Omega Psi have been kidnapped to be sold as white slaves to a sheik, so Tiff and Kris return to college.", "Guest stars: \\[\\[Gary Collins (actor)\\|Gary Collins]], \\[\\[Nita Talbot]], Richard Hill, David Hayward, Janice Heiden, Sandie Newton, \\[\\[Jo Ann Pflug]], \\[\\[Paul Cavonis]], \\[\\[Nina Axelrod]], Helaine Lembeck, Erin Donovan, Steve Eoff and \\[\\[Robyn Blythe]]. Diana Valentine appears uncredited.\n\\|LineColor \\= fda55b\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Charlie's Angels season 4\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 84\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 12\n\\|Title \\= Angel Hunt \n\\|DirectedBy \\= \\[\\[Paul Stanley (director)\\|Paul Stanley]]\n\\|WrittenBy \\= \\[\\[Lee Sheldon (writer)\\|Lee Sheldon]]\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1979\\|12\\|5}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\= The Angels are lured to Diablo Island by an old enemy of Charlie's, who plans to hunt them down and kill them in order to avenge himself on their boss.", "Guest stars: \\[\\[Lloyd Bochner]], \\[\\[L. Q. Jones]] and Paul Sylvan.\n\\|LineColor \\= fda55b\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Charlie's Angels season 4\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 85\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 13\n\\|Title \\= Cruising Angels\n\\|DirectedBy \\= \\[\\[George McCowan]]\n\\|WrittenBy \\= B.W. Sandefur\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1979\\|12\\|12}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\= While Bosley is romancing the interior decorator of Charlie's brand new yacht, criminals plan on using the ''Wayward Angel'' to transport a load of gold bouillon out of the country. As the Angels investigate, the gold's previous owner is also on the smugglers' trail.", "Guest stars: \\[\\[Peter Mark Richman]], \\[\\[Rodolfo Hoyos Jr.]] (as Rodolfo Hoyos), \\[\\[Reni Santoni]], \\[\\[Gene Evans]], \\[\\[Beverly Garland]], \\[\\[Pepe Hern]], \\[\\[Noah Keen]], Zachary Lewis and Tracy Dennison.\n\\|LineColor \\= fda55b\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Charlie's Angels season 4\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 86\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 14\n\\|Title \\= Of Ghosts and Angels\n\\|DirectedBy \\= Cliff Bole\n\\|WrittenBy \\= Kathryn Michaelian Powers\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|1\\|2}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\= Tiffany is having psychic premonitions about history repeating itself during a costume party at the mansion of a recently married friend of hers.", "Guest stars: \\[\\[Paul Burke (actor)\\|Paul Burke]], \\[\\[Virginia Gregg]], \\[\\[R. G. Armstrong]], Frank Christi, \\[\\[Robin Mattson]] and Lu Duffy Gardner. Cis Rundle appears uncredited.\n\\|LineColor \\= fda55b\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Charlie's Angels season 4\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 87\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 15\n\\|Title \\= Angel's Child\n\\|DirectedBy \\= Dennis Donnelly\n\\|WrittenBy \\= Edward J. Lakso \n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|1\\|9}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\= Kelly discovers the police sergeant she is working with has a tendency to take out his rage on his young son and tries to get custody of the boy. Meanwhile, the masterminds of the case they are investigating have their own plans for Kelly, the cop and his son.", "Guest stars: \\[\\[Simon Oakland]], \\[\\[Michael Witney]] (as Michael Whitney), Rick Casorla, Michael Allen Harris, S. Pearl Sharp (as Saundra Sharp), Michael Hershewe, \\[\\[John Zaremba]] and John Petlock. David LeBell appears uncredited.\n\\|LineColor \\= fda55b\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Charlie's Angels season 4\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 88\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 16\n\\|Title \\= One of Our Angels Is Missing\n\\|DirectedBy \\= Allen Baron\n\\|WrittenBy \\= Robert S. Biheller \\& W. Dal Jenkins \n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|1\\|16}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\= Kris poses as a rich divorcée to find out why Vic Devlin has skipped parole. When the Angels proceed to lure him back to California, it turns out he is more dangerous than they first thought.", "Guest stars: \\[\\[Jonathan Goldsmith]], \\[\\[Don \"Red\" Barry]], \\[\\[Marc Alaimo]], Bob Levine, \\[\\[Warren Berlinger]], Louis Plante and \\[\\[John C. Becher]] (as John Becher).\n\\|LineColor \\= fda55b\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Charlie's Angels season 4\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 89\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 17\n\\|Title \\= Catch a Falling Angel\n\\|DirectedBy \\= \\[\\[Kim Manners]]\n\\|WrittenBy \\= Edward J. Lakso\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|1\\|23}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\= The Angels investigate the disappearance of a young man whose ex\\-girlfriend, Bess Hemsdale, has moved to the big city and joined the adult film industry under the name of 'Sally Storm'. Kris goes undercover as a potential starlet.", "Guest stars: Elissa Leeds, Gary Wood, \\[\\[Sully Boyar]], Eugene Butler, Anthony Mannino (as R. Anthony Mannino), Richard Balin, Robert Pierce (as Robert Peirce), James Gleason and Dorit Stevens. Ron Russell appears uncredited.\n\\|LineColor \\= fda55b\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Charlie's Angels season 4\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 90\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 18\n\\|Title \\= Homes $weet Homes \n\\|DirectedBy \\= Allen Baron\n\\|WrittenBy \\= {{StoryTeleplay\n \\| s \\= Robert E. Lee \\& Ronald E. Osborn\n \\| ex1 \\= \\[\\[William Froug]]\n \\| slabel \\= {{abbr\\|S\\|Story by}}\n \\| ex1label \\= {{abbr\\|S/T\\|Story and teleplay by}}\n }}\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|1\\|30}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\= The Kingsbrook Realty Company, which has been linked to several robberies, is the subject of the girls' latest case. Kris joins the all\\-female agency, while Tiffany pretends to be selling a house (as well as being the owner of several valuable letters written by America's founding fathers). Bosley poses as a potential buyer.", "Guest stars: \\[\\[Dick Gautier]], \\[\\[Sherry Jackson]], Natalie Core, \\[\\[Vito Scotti]], \\[\\[Arthur Space]], Ernest Harada, William Marquez, \\[\\[Eugene Robert Glazer]], Mark Thomas, Anne Bruner, Paula Jones and Albert (Jaclyn Smith's poodle).\n\\|LineColor \\= fda55b\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Charlie's Angels season 4\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 91\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 19\n\\|Title \\= Dancin' Angels \n\\|DirectedBy \\= Dennis Donnelly\n\\|WrittenBy \\= Edward J. Lakso\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|2\\|6}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\= After a disappearance and a murder at an old\\-fashioned ballroom dance contest, Bosley and Tiffany team up as a dancing couple. Meanwhile, Kris and Kelly try to get information from the club owners, who seem to think they are living in a Bogart movie.", "\\* Filming dates: January 2–10, 1980\\[https://i.imgur.com/kYAVXag.jpg Image] imgur.com\n\\* Production code: H\\-87", "Guest stars: \\[\\[Cesar Romero]], \\[\\[Norman Alden]], John Lansing, \\[\\[Lee Delano]], Dawn Jeffory, \\[\\[Brad Maule]], Jason Kincaid, \\[\\[Lindsay Bloom]] and Pamela Peadon.\n\\|LineColor \\= fda55b\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Charlie's Angels season 4\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 92\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 20\n\\|Title \\= Harrigan's Angel \n\\|DirectedBy \\= Don Chaffey\n\\|WrittenBy \\= Edward J. Lakso\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|2\\|20}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\= The Angels team up with alcoholic private eye Harrigan to investigate the robbery of an electronics plant. Kris takes a liking to the old man and tries to get him back on track.", "Guest stars: \\[\\[Howard Duff]], \\[\\[Ed Nelson]], \\[\\[Michael Cavanaugh (actor)\\|Michael Cavanaugh]], \\[\\[Robert Englund]], Michael Baseleon, Charles McDaniel and Marte Boyle Slout (as Marte Slout).\n\\|LineColor \\= fda55b\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Charlie's Angels season 4\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 93\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 21\n\\|Title \\= An Angel's Trail \n\\|DirectedBy \\= Dennis Donnelly\n\\|WrittenBy \\= Wayne Cruseturner\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|2\\|27}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\= Jill drives up to a robbery in progress at Pioneer Gasoline/The Rock Store. The perpetrator, along with his two sons as accomplices, decides he wants to take her as a hostage into the hills of the nearby isolated desert on their way to Canada.", "NOTE: This is Farrah Fawcett's final episode.", "Guest stars: \\[\\[Farrah Fawcett]], \\[\\[L. Q. Jones]], \\[\\[Tracey Walter]], \\[\\[John Lupton]], \\[\\[John Dennis Johnston]], Dorothy Dells and Cis Rundle.\n\\|LineColor \\= fda55b\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Charlie's Angels season 4\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 94\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 22\n\\|Title \\= Nips and Tucks \n\\|DirectedBy \\= Don Chaffey\n\\|WrittenBy \\= {{StoryTeleplay\n \\| s \\= Cory Applebaum\n \\| ex1 \\= B.W. Sandefur\n \\| slabel \\= {{abbr\\|S\\|Story by}}\n \\| ex1label \\= {{abbr\\|S/T\\|Story and teleplay by}}\n }}\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|3\\|5}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\= When a renowned cosmetic surgeon is suspected of giving criminals a new face, Tiffany joins his staff as a nurse, while Bosley poses as a rich patient whose wife, played by Kris, wants him to improve his looks.", "Guest stars: \\[\\[Louis Jourdan]], \\[\\[Tab Hunter]], Corinne Camacho (as Corinne Michaels), Barbara Iley, Lisa Shure and \\[\\[Joanna Pettet]].\n\\|LineColor \\= fda55b\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Charlie's Angels season 4\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 95\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 23\n\\|Title \\= Three for the Money \n\\|DirectedBy \\= George McCowan\n\\|WrittenBy \\= Lee Sheldon\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|3\\|12}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\= The Townsend Agency is hired by three people who have been separately conned by Harley Dexter. In order to get their money back, the Angels counterattack with three cons of their own: one involving Mayan art, another centered around a Rolls\\-Royce and the third concerning bribe money.", "Guest stars: \\[\\[Vincent Baggetta]], Lee Terri, \\[\\[Michael Pataki]], \\[\\[William Wellman Jr.]], Richard John Miller, \\[\\[Carol Bruce]], Conrad Bachmann (as Conrad Bachman), Andrew Masset and John Perak.\n\\|LineColor \\= fda55b\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Charlie's Angels season 4\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 96\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 24\n\\|Title \\= Toni's Boys \n\\|DirectedBy \\= Ron Satlof\n\\|WrittenBy \\= {{StoryTeleplay\n \\| s \\= Robert Janes\n \\| ex1 \\= \\[\\[Katharyn Powers]]\n \\| slabel \\= {{abbr\\|S\\|Story by}}\n \\| ex1label \\= {{abbr\\|S/T\\|Story and teleplay by}}\n }}\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|4\\|2}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\= After an attempt is made on the Angels' lives, Charlie hires a rival detective agency run by his old friend, Antonia Blake (Barbara Stanwyck), to keep an eye on his employees. Blake, who likes to be called 'Toni', assigns her three boys to the case. They are: former U.S. Olympic champion Bob Sorensen (Bob Seagren), master of disguise Matt Parrish (Bruce Bauer) and champion rodeo rider, roper and tracker Cotton Harper (Stephen Shortridge). The Angels, feeling they can solve the case themselves, try to ditch the men as soon as possible.\n\\* NOTE: This was a \\[\\[backdoor pilot]] for a ''Charlie's Angels'' spin\\-off called ''Toni's Boys'', which never became a series.\n\\* Filming dates: February 21\\-March 04, 1980\\[https://i.imgur.com/EgpuTlq.jpg Image] imgur.com\n\\* Production Code: H\\-92", "Guest stars: \\[\\[Stephen Shortridge]], Bruce Bauer, \\[\\[Bob Seagren]], \\[\\[Barbara Stanwyck]], \\[\\[Robert Loggia]], \\[\\[Andy Romano]], \\[\\[Tricia O'Neil]] (as Tricia O'Neill), \\[\\[Roz Kelly]], Jenny Sherman, James Brodhead (as James E. Brodhead), \\[\\[Ken Scott (actor)\\|Ken Scott]], Fil Formicola, Patti Townsend, Asa Teeter, \\[\\[Lillian Müller\\|Yulis Ruval]] and Dusty Deason. Ruby Handler and Lou Mulford appear uncredited.\n\\|LineColor \\= fda55b\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Charlie's Angels season 4\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 97\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 25\n\\|Title \\= One Love... Two Angels: Part 1\n\\|DirectedBy \\= Dennis Donnelly\n\\|WrittenBy \\= B.W. Sandefur\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|4\\|30}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\= Part 1 of 2\\. Kelly is contacted by an attorney who tells her she may be the long\\-lost daughter of millionaire Oliver Barrows. When Barrows sees the resemblance between Kelly and his late wife, he is convinced she is his daughter, Margaret Ellen, but Kelly remains skeptical, so she hires the Townsend Agency to investigate.", "Guest stars: \\[\\[Patrick Duffy]], \\[\\[Lynne Marta]], \\[\\[Ray Milland]], \\[\\[Robert Reed]], \\[\\[Simon Scott (actor)\\|Simon Scott]], \\[\\[William Mims]], \\[\\[Harry Townes]], Nancy Fox, Joe Ross, Sandy Freeman, Nigel Bullard, Diane Vincent and Bobby A. Ron Russell appears uncredited.\n\\|LineColor \\= fda55b\n}}\n{{Episode list/sublist\\|Charlie's Angels season 4\n\\|EpisodeNumber \\= 98\n\\|EpisodeNumber2 \\= 26\n\\|Title \\= One Love... Two Angels: Part 2\n\\|DirectedBy \\= Dennis Donnelly\n\\|WrittenBy \\= B.W. Sandefur\n\\|OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|5\\|7}}\n\\|ShortSummary \\= Conclusion. Bill Cord has fallen in love with both Kelly and Kris, driving a wedge between the two detectives. When Bill finds out Glenn Staley stands to gain from Kelly's death, he forfeits his own life. Now it is up to Tiffany and Bosley to hold the team together and solve the case.", "\\* NOTE: This is Shelley Hack's final episode.", "Guest stars: \\[\\[Patrick Duffy]], \\[\\[Lynne Marta]], \\[\\[Robert Reed]], \\[\\[Simon Scott (actor)\\|Simon Scott]], \\[\\[Harry Townes]], Nancy Fox, Clint Young, Nigel Bullard, Bobby A., Ed Ruffalo and M. David Cohen.\n\\|LineColor \\= fda55b\n}}\n}}", "" ]
Taxonomy -------- {{main\|List of Lupinus species\|l1\=List of Lupinus species}} The genus *Lupinus* L. and, in particular, its North American species were divided by [Sereno Watson](/wiki/Sereno_Watson "Sereno Watson") (1873\) into three sections: *Lupinus*, *Platycarpos*, and *Lupinnelus*. Differences in habitat and in the number of [ovules](/wiki/Ovule "Ovule") were the basis for this classification. A majority of the perennial and annual species from the American continent described by Watson were referred to *Lupinus*. Some annual species with two ovules in the ovary and two seeds in the pod (*L. densiflorus*, *L. microcarpus*, etc.) were attributed to the *Platycarpos* section. Section *Lupinnelus* consisted of one species (*L. uncialis*), with axillary and solitary flowers, scarcely reflexed banner, and also with two ovules in the ovary. While Watson's work was predominantly based on study of North American species, the later research of Ascherson and Graebner (1907\) extended his principle of classification to cover all lupins from the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, also using number of ovules (seedbuds) in the ovary (and thus of seeds in the pod) as the criterion for this division. They described two subgenera, *Eulupinus* and *Platycarpos*. Most of the described species were referred to subgen. A. *Eulupinus*. Subgen. B. *Platycarpos* included several annual species from the Eastern Hemisphere with two seedbuds and seeds in the bean (the same species, as the one specified by S. Watson). A current schema retains this distinction, but uses the nomenclature for the subgenera of *Platycarpos* and *Lupinus*. In this schema, subgenus [Platycarpos](/wiki/Platycarpos "Platycarpos") (S.Wats.) [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich "Boguslav S. Kurlovich") contains perennial and annual species from the Western Hemisphere, with a minimum two or more ovules or seedbuds. Subgenus *Lupinus* consists of 12 species from Africa and the Mediterranean, with a minimum of four ovules or seedbuds.Kurlovich, B. S. and A. K. Stankevich. (eds.) [Classification of Lupins.](http://personal.inet.fi/tiede/lupin/Classific.htm) In: *Lupins: Geography, Classification, Genetic Resources and Breeding*. St. Petersburg: Intan. 2002\. pp. 42–43\. Accessed 2 August 2013\. The taxonomy of *Lupinus* has always been confusing. How many distinct species exist or how they might be organized within the genus is not clear. The plants are variable and the taxa are not always distinct from one another. Some American taxa have been described as [complexes](/wiki/Species_complex "Species complex") rather than separate species.Naganowska, B., et al. (2005\). [2C DNA variation and relationships among New World species of the genus *Lupinus* (Fabaceae).](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00606-005-0364-y#page-1) *Plant Systematics and Evolution* 256(1\-4\), 147\-57\. Estimates of the number of lupine species generally fall between 200 and 500\. One authority places the estimate at approximately 267 species worldwide. Currently, two [subgenera](/wiki/Subgenus "Subgenus") are recognized. ### Subgenus *Platycarpos* {{Main\|Lupinus subg. Platycarpos}} The ovary contains two and more ovules or seedbuds. The seed are predominantly small\-sized, with an underdeveloped embryo and small amount of endosperm. Cotyledons are small\-sized, with long caulicles. The first pair of true leaves is alternate. The stem is predominantly naked with [waxen coating](/wiki/Plant_cuticle "Plant cuticle"). Dominating is the monopodial type of branching. Leaflets are smooth, with waxen coating or slight pubescence, predominantly narrow. Pods are flat or orbicular, with two or more seeds. Represented by frutcuilose, fruticose and herbaceous perennial forms, or less often annual ones. Plants are cross\-pollinated. [Chromosome number](/wiki/Ploidy "Ploidy") 2*n* is either 36, 48, or 96\. This subgenus is distributed throughout North, Central and South America, predominantly in the mining systems of the Andes and Cordillera. Some species are cultivated (*L. mutabilis*, *L. polyphyllus*). This subgenus includes several hundred species, requiring further analysis of their authenticity. It comprises the following species:{{cite web \| url \= http://www.ildis.org/LegumeWeb?version\~10\.01\&genus\~Lupinus\&species\~ \| title \= ILDIS LegumeWeb entry for ''Lupinus'' \| author \= \| website \= International Legume Database \& Information Service \| publisher \= Cardiff School of Computer Science \& Informatics \| access\-date \= 11 April 2014 }}{{cite web \| url \= http://www.ars\-grin.gov/cgi\-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?7036 \| title \= GRIN species records of ''Lupinus'' \| author \= \[\[USDA]], \[\[Agricultural Research Service\|ARS]], National Genetic Resources Program \| website \= \[\[Germplasm Resources Information Network]]—(GRIN) \[Online Database] \| publisher \= \[\[Henry A. Wallace Beltsville Agricultural Research Center\|National Germplasm Resources Laboratory]], Beltsville, Maryland \| access\-date \= 11 April 2014 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20150924122153/http://www.ars\-grin.gov/cgi\-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?7036 \| archive\-date \= 24 September 2015 \| url\-status \= dead }}{{cite web \| url \= http://www.theplantlist.org/1\.1/browse/A/Leguminosae/Lupinus/ \| title \= The Plant List entry for ''Lupinus'' \| year \= 2013 \| website \= \[\[The Plant List]] \| publisher \= \[\[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] and the \[\[Missouri Botanical Garden]] \| access\-date \= 11 April 2014 }} {{div col\|colwidth\=300px}} * *[Lupinus aberrans](/wiki/Lupinus_aberrans "Lupinus aberrans")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus abramsii](/wiki/Lupinus_abramsii "Lupinus abramsii")* C.P. Sm. – Abrams' lupine * *[Lupinus acopalcus](/wiki/Lupinus_acopalcus "Lupinus acopalcus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus adinoanthus](/wiki/Lupinus_adinoanthus "Lupinus adinoanthus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus adsurgens](/wiki/Lupinus_adsurgens "Lupinus adsurgens")* Drew – Drew's silky lupine * *[Lupinus affinis](/wiki/Lupinus_affinis "Lupinus affinis")* J. Agardh – fleshy lupine * *[Lupinus agardhianus](/wiki/Lupinus_agardhianus "Lupinus agardhianus")* A. Heller * *[Lupinus alaristatus](/wiki/Lupinus_alaristatus "Lupinus alaristatus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus albert\-smithianus](/wiki/Lupinus_albert-smithianus "Lupinus albert-smithianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus albescens](/wiki/Lupinus_albescens "Lupinus albescens")* Hook. \& Arn. – hoary lupine * *[Lupinus albicaulis](/wiki/Lupinus_albicaulis "Lupinus albicaulis")* Douglas – sickle\-keel lupine * *[Lupinus albifrons](/wiki/Lupinus_albifrons "Lupinus albifrons")* Benth. – silver bush lupine + var. *albifrons* Benth. + var. *douglasii* (J. Agardh) C. P. Sm. + var. *hallii* (Abrams) Isely * *[Lupinus albopilosus](/wiki/Lupinus_albopilosus "Lupinus albopilosus")* A. Heller * *[Lupinus albosericeus](/wiki/Lupinus_albosericeus "Lupinus albosericeus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus alcis\-montis](/wiki/Lupinus_alcis-montis "Lupinus alcis-montis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus aliamandus](/wiki/Lupinus_aliamandus "Lupinus aliamandus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus aliattenuatus](/wiki/Lupinus_aliattenuatus "Lupinus aliattenuatus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus alibicolor](/wiki/Lupinus_alibicolor "Lupinus alibicolor")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus aliceae](/wiki/Lupinus_aliceae "Lupinus aliceae")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus alilatissimus](/wiki/Lupinus_alilatissimus "Lupinus alilatissimus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus alinanus](/wiki/Lupinus_alinanus "Lupinus alinanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus alipatulus](/wiki/Lupinus_alipatulus "Lupinus alipatulus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus alirevolutus](/wiki/Lupinus_alirevolutus "Lupinus alirevolutus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus alivillosus](/wiki/Lupinus_alivillosus "Lupinus alivillosus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus allargyreius](/wiki/Lupinus_allargyreius "Lupinus allargyreius")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus alopecuroides](/wiki/Lupinus_alopecuroides "Lupinus alopecuroides")* Desr. * *[Lupinus alpestris](/wiki/Lupinus_alpestris "Lupinus alpestris")* A. NelsonSome sources treat *Lupinus alpestris* as a synonym of *Lupinus argenteus*. * *[Lupinus altimontanus](/wiki/Lupinus_altimontanus "Lupinus altimontanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus altiplani](/wiki/Lupinus_altiplani "Lupinus altiplani")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus amabayensis](/wiki/Lupinus_amabayensis "Lupinus amabayensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus amandus](/wiki/Lupinus_amandus "Lupinus amandus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus amboensis](/wiki/Lupinus_amboensis "Lupinus amboensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus ammophilus](/wiki/Lupinus_ammophilus "Lupinus ammophilus")* Greene + var. *ammophilus* Greene + var. *crassus* (Payson) Isely * *[Lupinus amnis\-otuni](/wiki/Lupinus_amnis-otuni "Lupinus amnis-otuni")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus ampaiensis](/wiki/Lupinus_ampaiensis "Lupinus ampaiensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus amphibius](/wiki/Lupinus_amphibius "Lupinus amphibius")* Suksd. * *[Lupinus ananeanus](/wiki/Lupinus_ananeanus "Lupinus ananeanus")* Ulbr. * *[Lupinus anatolicus](/wiki/Lupinus_anatolicus "Lupinus anatolicus")* W. Święcicki \& W. K. Święcicki * *[Lupinus andersonii](/wiki/Lupinus_andersonii "Lupinus andersonii")* S. Watson – Anderson's lupine * *[Lupinus andicola](/wiki/Lupinus_andicola "Lupinus andicola")* Gillies * *[Lupinus andinus](/wiki/Lupinus_andinus "Lupinus andinus")* Rose ex J. F. Macbr. * *[Lupinus angustiflorus](/wiki/Lupinus_angustiflorus "Lupinus angustiflorus")* Eastw. – narrowflower lupine * *[Lupinus antensis](/wiki/Lupinus_antensis "Lupinus antensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus antiplani](/wiki/Lupinus_antiplani "Lupinus antiplani")* C. P. Sm. * *[Lupinus antoninus](/wiki/Lupinus_antoninus "Lupinus antoninus")* Eastw. – Anthony Peak lupine * *[Lupinus apertus](/wiki/Lupinus_apertus "Lupinus apertus")* A. Heller * *[Lupinus appositus](/wiki/Lupinus_appositus "Lupinus appositus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus arboreus](/wiki/Lupinus_arboreus "Lupinus arboreus")* Sims – yellow bush lupin, tree lupine * *[Lupinus arbustus](/wiki/Lupinus_arbustus "Lupinus arbustus")* Lindl. – longspur lupine + subsp. *arbustus* Lindl. + subsp. *neolaxiflorus* D.B.Dunn + subsp. *pseudoparviflorus* (Rydb.) D.B.Dunn * *[Lupinus arbutosocius](/wiki/Lupinus_arbutosocius "Lupinus arbutosocius")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus archeranus](/wiki/Lupinus_archeranus "Lupinus archeranus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus arcticus](/wiki/Lupinus_arcticus "Lupinus arcticus")* S. Watson – Arctic lupine + subsp. *arcticus* S. Watson + subsp. *subalpinus* (Piper \& Robinson)D.B.Dunn * *[Lupinus arenarius](/wiki/Lupinus_arenarius "Lupinus arenarius")* Gardner * *[Lupinus arequipensis](/wiki/Lupinus_arequipensis "Lupinus arequipensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus argenteus](/wiki/Lupinus_argenteus "Lupinus argenteus")* Pursh – silvery lupine + var. *argentatus* (Rydb.) Barneby + var. *argenteus* Pursh + var. *argophyllus* (A. Gray) S. Watson + var. *depressus* (Rydb.) C. L. Hitchc. + var. *fulvomaculatus* (Payson) Barneby + var. *heteranthus* (S. Watson) Barneby – Kellogg's spurred lupine + var. *hillii* (Greene) Barneby + var. *holosericeus* (Torr. \& A.Gray) Barneby + var. *montigenus* (A. Heller) Barneby + var. *palmeri* (S.Watson) Barneby + var. *rubricaulis* (Greene) S. L. Welsh + var. *utahensis* (S.Watson) Barneby * *[Lupinus argurocalyx](/wiki/Lupinus_argurocalyx "Lupinus argurocalyx")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus aridorum](/wiki/Lupinus_aridorum "Lupinus aridorum")* McFarlin ex Beckner – scrub lupineSome sources treat *Lupinus aridorum* as a synonym of *Lupinus westianus*. * *[Lupinus aridulus](/wiki/Lupinus_aridulus "Lupinus aridulus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus aridus](/wiki/Lupinus_aridus "Lupinus aridus")* Lindl.Some sources treat *Lupinus aridus* as a synonym of *[Lupinus lepidus](/wiki/Lupinus_lepidus "Lupinus lepidus")*. * *[Lupinus ariste\-josephii](/wiki/Lupinus_ariste-josephii "Lupinus ariste-josephii")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus arizelus](/wiki/Lupinus_arizelus "Lupinus arizelus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus arizonicus](/wiki/Lupinus_arizonicus "Lupinus arizonicus")* (S. Watson) S. Watson + subsp. *arizonicus* (S. Watson) S. Watson – Arizona lupine + subsp. *sonorensis* Christian \& D. Dunn – Sonora lupine * *[Lupinus arvensi\-plasketti](/wiki/Lupinus_arvensi-plasketti "Lupinus arvensi-plasketti")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus arvensis](/wiki/Lupinus_arvensis "Lupinus arvensis")* Benth. * *[Lupinus asa\-grayanus](/wiki/Lupinus_asa-grayanus "Lupinus asa-grayanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus aschenbornii](/wiki/Lupinus_aschenbornii "Lupinus aschenbornii")* S. Schauer * *[Lupinus asplundianus](/wiki/Lupinus_asplundianus "Lupinus asplundianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus asymbepus](/wiki/Lupinus_asymbepus "Lupinus asymbepus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus atropurpureus](/wiki/Lupinus_atropurpureus "Lupinus atropurpureus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus attenuatus](/wiki/Lupinus_attenuatus "Lupinus attenuatus")* GardnerSome sources treat *Lupinus attenuatus* as a synonym of *Lupinus coriaceus*. * *[Lupinus aureonitens](/wiki/Lupinus_aureonitens "Lupinus aureonitens")* Hook. \& Arn. * *[Lupinus austrobicolor](/wiki/Lupinus_austrobicolor "Lupinus austrobicolor")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus austrohumifusus](/wiki/Lupinus_austrohumifusus "Lupinus austrohumifusus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus austrorientalis](/wiki/Lupinus_austrorientalis "Lupinus austrorientalis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus austrosericeus](/wiki/Lupinus_austrosericeus "Lupinus austrosericeus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus ballianus](/wiki/Lupinus_ballianus "Lupinus ballianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus bandelierae](/wiki/Lupinus_bandelierae "Lupinus bandelierae")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus bangii](/wiki/Lupinus_bangii "Lupinus bangii")* Rusby * *[Lupinus barbatilabius](/wiki/Lupinus_barbatilabius "Lupinus barbatilabius")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus barkeri](/wiki/Lupinus_barkeri "Lupinus barkeri")* Lindl. * *[Lupinus bartlettianus](/wiki/Lupinus_bartlettianus "Lupinus bartlettianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus benthamii](/wiki/Lupinus_benthamii "Lupinus benthamii")* A. Heller * *[Lupinus bi\-inclinatus](/wiki/Lupinus_bi-inclinatus "Lupinus bi-inclinatus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus bicolor](/wiki/Lupinus_bicolor "Lupinus bicolor")* Lindl. – miniature lupine, bicolor lupine, Lindley's annual lupine + subsp. *bicolor* Lindl. + subsp. *microphyllus* (S. Watson) D. B. Dunn + subsp. *pipersmithii* (A. Heller) D. B. Dunn + subsp. *umbellatus* (Greene) D. B. Dunn * *[Lupinus bingenensis](/wiki/Lupinus_bingenensis "Lupinus bingenensis")* Suksd. – Bingen lupine * *[Lupinus blaisdellii](/wiki/Lupinus_blaisdellii "Lupinus blaisdellii")* Eastw. * *[Lupinus bogotensis](/wiki/Lupinus_bogotensis "Lupinus bogotensis")* Benth. * *[Lupinus bolivianus](/wiki/Lupinus_bolivianus "Lupinus bolivianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus bombycinocarpus](/wiki/Lupinus_bombycinocarpus "Lupinus bombycinocarpus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus bonplandius](/wiki/Lupinus_bonplandius "Lupinus bonplandius")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus boyacensis](/wiki/Lupinus_boyacensis "Lupinus boyacensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus brachypremnon](/wiki/Lupinus_brachypremnon "Lupinus brachypremnon")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus bracteolaris](/wiki/Lupinus_bracteolaris "Lupinus bracteolaris")* Desr. * *[Lupinus brandegeei](/wiki/Lupinus_brandegeei "Lupinus brandegeei")* Eastw. * *[Lupinus brevecuneus](/wiki/Lupinus_brevecuneus "Lupinus brevecuneus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus brevicaulis](/wiki/Lupinus_brevicaulis "Lupinus brevicaulis")* S. Watson – shortstem lupineSome sources treat *Lupinus brevicaulis* as a synonym of *Lupinus grisebachianus*. * *[Lupinus brevior](/wiki/Lupinus_brevior "Lupinus brevior")* (Jeps.) Christian \& D.B. Dunn * *[Lupinus breviscapus](/wiki/Lupinus_breviscapus "Lupinus breviscapus")* Ulbr. * *[Lupinus breweri](/wiki/Lupinus_breweri "Lupinus breweri")* A. Gray – Brewer's lupine * *[Lupinus bryoides](/wiki/Lupinus_bryoides "Lupinus bryoides")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus buchtienii](/wiki/Lupinus_buchtienii "Lupinus buchtienii")* Rusby * *[Lupinus burkartianus](/wiki/Lupinus_burkartianus "Lupinus burkartianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus burkei](/wiki/Lupinus_burkei "Lupinus burkei")* S. Watson – Burke's lupineSome sources treat *Lupinus burkei* as a synonym of *Lupinus polyphyllus*. * *[Lupinus burkeri](/wiki/Lupinus_burkeri "Lupinus burkeri")* Lindl. * *[Lupinus caballoanus](/wiki/Lupinus_caballoanus "Lupinus caballoanus")* B.L. Turner * *[Lupinus cachupatensis](/wiki/Lupinus_cachupatensis "Lupinus cachupatensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus cacuminis](/wiki/Lupinus_cacuminis "Lupinus cacuminis")* Standl. * *[Lupinus caeruleus](/wiki/Lupinus_caeruleus "Lupinus caeruleus")* A. Heller * *[Lupinus caesius](/wiki/Lupinus_caesius "Lupinus caesius")* Eastw. * *[Lupinus caespitosus](/wiki/Lupinus_caespitosus "Lupinus caespitosus")* Torr. \& A. Gray – stemless dwarf lupineSome sources treat *Lupinus caespitosus* as a synonym of *Lupinus lepidus*. * *[Lupinus calcensis](/wiki/Lupinus_calcensis "Lupinus calcensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus caldasensis](/wiki/Lupinus_caldasensis "Lupinus caldasensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus camiloanus](/wiki/Lupinus_camiloanus "Lupinus camiloanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus campestris](/wiki/Lupinus_campestris "Lupinus campestris")* Schltdl. \& Cham. * *[Lupinus carazensis](/wiki/Lupinus_carazensis "Lupinus carazensis")* Ulbr. * *[Lupinus carchiensis](/wiki/Lupinus_carchiensis "Lupinus carchiensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus cardenasianus](/wiki/Lupinus_cardenasianus "Lupinus cardenasianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus carhuamayus](/wiki/Lupinus_carhuamayus "Lupinus carhuamayus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus carlos\-ochoae](/wiki/Lupinus_carlos-ochoae "Lupinus carlos-ochoae")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus carpapaticus](/wiki/Lupinus_carpapaticus "Lupinus carpapaticus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus carrikeri](/wiki/Lupinus_carrikeri "Lupinus carrikeri")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus caucensis](/wiki/Lupinus_caucensis "Lupinus caucensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus cavicaulis](/wiki/Lupinus_cavicaulis "Lupinus cavicaulis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus ccorilazensis](/wiki/Lupinus_ccorilazensis "Lupinus ccorilazensis")* Vargas ex C. P. Smith * *[Lupinus celsimontanus](/wiki/Lupinus_celsimontanus "Lupinus celsimontanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus cervinus](/wiki/Lupinus_cervinus "Lupinus cervinus")* Kellogg – Santa Lucia lupine * *[Lupinus cesar\-vargasii](/wiki/Lupinus_cesar-vargasii "Lupinus cesar-vargasii")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus cesaranus](/wiki/Lupinus_cesaranus "Lupinus cesaranus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus chachas](/wiki/Lupinus_chachas "Lupinus chachas")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus chamissonis](/wiki/Lupinus_chamissonis "Lupinus chamissonis")* Eschsch. – Chamisso bush lupine * *[Lupinus chavanillensis](/wiki/Lupinus_chavanillensis "Lupinus chavanillensis")* (J.F. Macbr.) C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus chipaquensis](/wiki/Lupinus_chipaquensis "Lupinus chipaquensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus chlorolepis](/wiki/Lupinus_chlorolepis "Lupinus chlorolepis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus chocontensis](/wiki/Lupinus_chocontensis "Lupinus chocontensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus chongos\-bajous](/wiki/Lupinus_chongos-bajous "Lupinus chongos-bajous")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus christinae](/wiki/Lupinus_christinae "Lupinus christinae")* A. Heller * *[Lupinus chrysanthus](/wiki/Lupinus_chrysanthus "Lupinus chrysanthus")* Ulbr. * *[Lupinus chrysocalyx](/wiki/Lupinus_chrysocalyx "Lupinus chrysocalyx")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus chumbivilcensis](/wiki/Lupinus_chumbivilcensis "Lupinus chumbivilcensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus citrinus](/wiki/Lupinus_citrinus "Lupinus citrinus")* Kellogg – orange lupine * *[Lupinus clarkei](/wiki/Lupinus_clarkei "Lupinus clarkei")* Oerst. * *[Lupinus cochapatensis](/wiki/Lupinus_cochapatensis "Lupinus cochapatensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus colcabambensis](/wiki/Lupinus_colcabambensis "Lupinus colcabambensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus collinus](/wiki/Lupinus_collinus "Lupinus collinus")* (Greene) A. Heller * *[Lupinus colombiensis](/wiki/Lupinus_colombiensis "Lupinus colombiensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus compactiflorus](/wiki/Lupinus_compactiflorus "Lupinus compactiflorus")* Rose * *[Lupinus comptus](/wiki/Lupinus_comptus "Lupinus comptus")* Benth. * *[Lupinus concinnus](/wiki/Lupinus_concinnus "Lupinus concinnus")* J. Agardh + subsp. *concinnus* J. Agardh + subsp. *orcuttii* (S.Watson) D.B.Dunn * *[Lupinus condensiflorus](/wiki/Lupinus_condensiflorus "Lupinus condensiflorus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus confertus](/wiki/Lupinus_confertus "Lupinus confertus")* KelloggSome sources treat *Lupinus confertus* as a synonym of *Lupinus lepidus*. * *[Lupinus congdonii](/wiki/Lupinus_congdonii "Lupinus congdonii")* (C.P. Sm.) D.B. Dunn * *[Lupinus conicus](/wiki/Lupinus_conicus "Lupinus conicus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus constancei](/wiki/Lupinus_constancei "Lupinus constancei")* T.W. Nelson \& J.P. Nelson – Lassics lupine * *[Lupinus convencionensis](/wiki/Lupinus_convencionensis "Lupinus convencionensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus cookianus](/wiki/Lupinus_cookianus "Lupinus cookianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus coriaceus](/wiki/Lupinus_coriaceus "Lupinus coriaceus")* Benth. * *[Lupinus costaricensis](/wiki/Lupinus_costaricensis "Lupinus costaricensis")* D.B. Dunn * *[Lupinus cotopaxiensis](/wiki/Lupinus_cotopaxiensis "Lupinus cotopaxiensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus couthouyanus](/wiki/Lupinus_couthouyanus "Lupinus couthouyanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus covillei](/wiki/Lupinus_covillei "Lupinus covillei")* Greene – shaggy lupine * *[Lupinus crassulus](/wiki/Lupinus_crassulus "Lupinus crassulus")* Greene * *[Lupinus crassus](/wiki/Lupinus_crassus "Lupinus crassus")* PaysonSome sources treat *Lupinus crassus* as a synonym of *Lupinus ammophilus*. * *[Lupinus croceus](/wiki/Lupinus_croceus "Lupinus croceus")* Eastw. – saffron\-flowered lupine * *[Lupinus crotalarioides](/wiki/Lupinus_crotalarioides "Lupinus crotalarioides")* Benth. * *[Lupinus crucis\-viridis](/wiki/Lupinus_crucis-viridis "Lupinus crucis-viridis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus cuatrecasasii](/wiki/Lupinus_cuatrecasasii "Lupinus cuatrecasasii")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus culbertsonii](/wiki/Lupinus_culbertsonii "Lupinus culbertsonii")* Greene + subsp. *culbertsonii* Greene + subsp. *hypolasius* (Greene) B.J.Cox * *[Lupinus cumulicola](/wiki/Lupinus_cumulicola "Lupinus cumulicola")* SmallSome sources treat *Lupinus cumulicola* as a synonym of *Lupinus diffusus*. * *[Lupinus cusickii](/wiki/Lupinus_cusickii "Lupinus cusickii")* S. Watson + subsp. *abortivus* (Greene) B.J.Cox + subsp. *brachypodus* (Piper) B.J.Cox + subsp. *cusickii* S. Watson * *[Lupinus cuspidatus](/wiki/Lupinus_cuspidatus "Lupinus cuspidatus")* Rusby * *[Lupinus cuzcensis](/wiki/Lupinus_cuzcensis "Lupinus cuzcensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus cymboides](/wiki/Lupinus_cymboides "Lupinus cymboides")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus czermakii](/wiki/Lupinus_czermakii "Lupinus czermakii")* Briq. \& Hochr. * *[Lupinus dalesiae](/wiki/Lupinus_dalesiae "Lupinus dalesiae")* Eastw. – Quincy lupine * *[Lupinus decemplex](/wiki/Lupinus_decemplex "Lupinus decemplex")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus decurrens](/wiki/Lupinus_decurrens "Lupinus decurrens")* Gardner * *[Lupinus deflexus](/wiki/Lupinus_deflexus "Lupinus deflexus")* Congdon * *[Lupinus delicatulus](/wiki/Lupinus_delicatulus "Lupinus delicatulus")* Sprague \& Riley * *[Lupinus densiflorus](/wiki/Lupinus_densiflorus "Lupinus densiflorus")* Benth. – dense\-flowered lupinSome sources treat *Lupinus densiflorus* as a synonym of *Lupinus microcarpus*. + subsp. *densiflorus* Benth. + subsp. *lacteus* (Kellogg) R.M.Beauch. * *[Lupinus depressus](/wiki/Lupinus_depressus "Lupinus depressus")* Rydb.Some sources treat *Lupinus depressus* as a synonym of *Lupinus argenteus*. * *[Lupinus diasemus](/wiki/Lupinus_diasemus "Lupinus diasemus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus diehlii](/wiki/Lupinus_diehlii "Lupinus diehlii")* M.E. Jones * *[Lupinus diffusus](/wiki/Lupinus_diffusus "Lupinus diffusus")* Nutt. – spreading lupine, Oak Ridge lupine, sky\-blue lupine * *[Lupinus disjunctus](/wiki/Lupinus_disjunctus "Lupinus disjunctus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus diversalpicola](/wiki/Lupinus_diversalpicola "Lupinus diversalpicola")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus dorae](/wiki/Lupinus_dorae "Lupinus dorae")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus dotatus](/wiki/Lupinus_dotatus "Lupinus dotatus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus duranii](/wiki/Lupinus_duranii "Lupinus duranii")* Eastw. – Mono Lake lupine * *[Lupinus dusenianus](/wiki/Lupinus_dusenianus "Lupinus dusenianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus eanophyllus](/wiki/Lupinus_eanophyllus "Lupinus eanophyllus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus edysomatus](/wiki/Lupinus_edysomatus "Lupinus edysomatus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus egens](/wiki/Lupinus_egens "Lupinus egens")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus elaphoglossum](/wiki/Lupinus_elaphoglossum "Lupinus elaphoglossum")* Barneby * *[Lupinus elatus](/wiki/Lupinus_elatus "Lupinus elatus")* I.M. Johnst. – tall silky lupine * *[Lupinus elegans](/wiki/Lupinus_elegans "Lupinus elegans")* Kunth – elegant lupine * *[Lupinus elegantulus](/wiki/Lupinus_elegantulus "Lupinus elegantulus")* Eastw. * *[Lupinus ellsworthianus](/wiki/Lupinus_ellsworthianus "Lupinus ellsworthianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus elmeri](/wiki/Lupinus_elmeri "Lupinus elmeri")* Greene – Elmer's lupine * *[Lupinus eramosus](/wiki/Lupinus_eramosus "Lupinus eramosus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus erectifolius](/wiki/Lupinus_erectifolius "Lupinus erectifolius")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus eremonomus](/wiki/Lupinus_eremonomus "Lupinus eremonomus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus eriocalyx](/wiki/Lupinus_eriocalyx "Lupinus eriocalyx")* (C.P. Sm.) C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus eriocladus](/wiki/Lupinus_eriocladus "Lupinus eriocladus")* Ulbr. * *[Lupinus evermannii](/wiki/Lupinus_evermannii "Lupinus evermannii")* Rydb. * *[Lupinus espinarensis](/wiki/Lupinus_espinarensis "Lupinus espinarensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus exaltatus](/wiki/Lupinus_exaltatus "Lupinus exaltatus")* Zucc. * *[Lupinus excubitus](/wiki/Lupinus_excubitus "Lupinus excubitus")* M.E. Jones – grape soda lupine + subsp. *austromontanus* (A.Heller) R.M.Beauch. + subsp. *excubitus* M.E. Jones * *[Lupinus exochus](/wiki/Lupinus_exochus "Lupinus exochus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus expetendus](/wiki/Lupinus_expetendus "Lupinus expetendus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus extrarius](/wiki/Lupinus_extrarius "Lupinus extrarius")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus falsomutabilis](/wiki/Lupinus_falsomutabilis "Lupinus falsomutabilis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus falsoprostratus](/wiki/Lupinus_falsoprostratus "Lupinus falsoprostratus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus falsorevolutus](/wiki/Lupinus_falsorevolutus "Lupinus falsorevolutus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus famelicus](/wiki/Lupinus_famelicus "Lupinus famelicus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus fiebrigianus](/wiki/Lupinus_fiebrigianus "Lupinus fiebrigianus")* Ulbr. * *[Lupinus fieldii](/wiki/Lupinus_fieldii "Lupinus fieldii")* J.F. Macbr. * *[Lupinus fissicalyx](/wiki/Lupinus_fissicalyx "Lupinus fissicalyx")* A. Heller * *[Lupinus flavoculatus](/wiki/Lupinus_flavoculatus "Lupinus flavoculatus")* A. Heller * *[Lupinus foliolosus](/wiki/Lupinus_foliolosus "Lupinus foliolosus")* Benth. * *[Lupinus formosus](/wiki/Lupinus_formosus "Lupinus formosus")* Greene – summer lupine + var. *bridgesii* (S.Watson) Greene + var. *formosus* Greene * *[Lupinus fragrans](/wiki/Lupinus_fragrans "Lupinus fragrans")* A. Heller * *[Lupinus francis\-whittieri](/wiki/Lupinus_francis-whittieri "Lupinus francis-whittieri")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus fratrum](/wiki/Lupinus_fratrum "Lupinus fratrum")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus fulcratus](/wiki/Lupinus_fulcratus "Lupinus fulcratus")* Greene * *[Lupinus gachetensis](/wiki/Lupinus_gachetensis "Lupinus gachetensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus garfieldensis](/wiki/Lupinus_garfieldensis "Lupinus garfieldensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus gaudichaudianus](/wiki/Lupinus_gaudichaudianus "Lupinus gaudichaudianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus gayanus](/wiki/Lupinus_gayanus "Lupinus gayanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus gentryanus](/wiki/Lupinus_gentryanus "Lupinus gentryanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus geophilus](/wiki/Lupinus_geophilus "Lupinus geophilus")* Rose * *[Lupinus gibertianus](/wiki/Lupinus_gibertianus "Lupinus gibertianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus giganteus](/wiki/Lupinus_giganteus "Lupinus giganteus")* Rose * *[Lupinus glabratus](/wiki/Lupinus_glabratus "Lupinus glabratus")* J. Agardh * *[Lupinus goodspeedii](/wiki/Lupinus_goodspeedii "Lupinus goodspeedii")* J.F. Macbr. * *[Lupinus gormanii](/wiki/Lupinus_gormanii "Lupinus gormanii")* Piper * *[Lupinus gracilentus](/wiki/Lupinus_gracilentus "Lupinus gracilentus")* Greene * *[Lupinus grayi](/wiki/Lupinus_grayi "Lupinus grayi")* S. Watson – Sierra lupine * *[Lupinus grauensis](/wiki/Lupinus_grauensis "Lupinus grauensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus grisebachianus](/wiki/Lupinus_grisebachianus "Lupinus grisebachianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus guadalupensis](/wiki/Lupinus_guadalupensis "Lupinus guadalupensis")* C.P. Sm. – Guadalupe Island lupine * *[Lupinus guaraniticus](/wiki/Lupinus_guaraniticus "Lupinus guaraniticus")* (Hassl.) C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus guascensis](/wiki/Lupinus_guascensis "Lupinus guascensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus guggenheimianus](/wiki/Lupinus_guggenheimianus "Lupinus guggenheimianus")* Rusby * *[Lupinus hamaticalyx](/wiki/Lupinus_hamaticalyx "Lupinus hamaticalyx")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus hartmannii](/wiki/Lupinus_hartmannii "Lupinus hartmannii")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus hartwegii](/wiki/Lupinus_hartwegii "Lupinus hartwegii")* Lindl.Some sources treat *Lupinus hartwegii* as a synonym of *Lupinus mexicanus*. * *[Lupinus haughtianus](/wiki/Lupinus_haughtianus "Lupinus haughtianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus hautcarazensis](/wiki/Lupinus_hautcarazensis "Lupinus hautcarazensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus havardii](/wiki/Lupinus_havardii "Lupinus havardii")* S. Watson * *[Lupinus hazenanus](/wiki/Lupinus_hazenanus "Lupinus hazenanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus hendersonii](/wiki/Lupinus_hendersonii "Lupinus hendersonii")* Eastw. * *[Lupinus heptaphyllus](/wiki/Lupinus_heptaphyllus "Lupinus heptaphyllus")* (Vell.) Hassl.Some sources treat *Lupinus heptaphyllus* as a synonym of *Lupinus gibertianus*. * *[Lupinus herreranus](/wiki/Lupinus_herreranus "Lupinus herreranus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus herzogii](/wiki/Lupinus_herzogii "Lupinus herzogii")* Ulbr. * *[Lupinus hieronymii](/wiki/Lupinus_hieronymii "Lupinus hieronymii")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus hilarianus](/wiki/Lupinus_hilarianus "Lupinus hilarianus")* Benth.Some sources treat *Lupinus hilarianus* as a synonym of *Lupinus gibertianus*. * *[Lupinus hillii](/wiki/Lupinus_hillii "Lupinus hillii")* GreeneSome sources treat *Lupinus hillii* as a synonym of *Lupinus argenteus*. * *[Lupinus hinkleyorum](/wiki/Lupinus_hinkleyorum "Lupinus hinkleyorum")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus hintoniorum](/wiki/Lupinus_hintoniorum "Lupinus hintoniorum")* B.L. Turner * *[Lupinus hirsutissimus](/wiki/Lupinus_hirsutissimus "Lupinus hirsutissimus")* Benth. – stinging lupine * *[Lupinus holmgrenianus](/wiki/Lupinus_holmgrenianus "Lupinus holmgrenianus")* C.P. Sm. – Holmgren's lupine * *[Lupinus honoratus](/wiki/Lupinus_honoratus "Lupinus honoratus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus horizontalis](/wiki/Lupinus_horizontalis "Lupinus horizontalis")* A. Heller * *[Lupinus hornemanni](/wiki/Lupinus_hornemanni "Lupinus hornemanni")* J. Agardh * *[Lupinus hortonianus](/wiki/Lupinus_hortonianus "Lupinus hortonianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus hortorum](/wiki/Lupinus_hortorum "Lupinus hortorum")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus howard\-scottii](/wiki/Lupinus_howard-scottii "Lupinus howard-scottii")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus howardii](/wiki/Lupinus_howardii "Lupinus howardii")* M.E. Jones * *[Lupinus huachucanus](/wiki/Lupinus_huachucanus "Lupinus huachucanus")* M.E. Jones * *[Lupinus huancayoensis](/wiki/Lupinus_huancayoensis "Lupinus huancayoensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus huariacus](/wiki/Lupinus_huariacus "Lupinus huariacus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus huaronensis](/wiki/Lupinus_huaronensis "Lupinus huaronensis")* J.F. Macbr. * *[Lupinus huigrensis](/wiki/Lupinus_huigrensis "Lupinus huigrensis")* Rose ex C. P. Sm. * *[Lupinus humifusus](/wiki/Lupinus_humifusus "Lupinus humifusus")* Sessé \& Moc. ex G. Don * *[Lupinus hyacinthinus](/wiki/Lupinus_hyacinthinus "Lupinus hyacinthinus")* C.F. Baker – San Jacinto lupine * *[Lupinus hybridus](/wiki/Lupinus_hybridus "Lupinus hybridus")* Lem. * *[Lupinus ignobilis](/wiki/Lupinus_ignobilis "Lupinus ignobilis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus imminutus](/wiki/Lupinus_imminutus "Lupinus imminutus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus indigoticus](/wiki/Lupinus_indigoticus "Lupinus indigoticus")* Eastw. * *[Lupinus inflatus](/wiki/Lupinus_inflatus "Lupinus inflatus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus insignis](/wiki/Lupinus_insignis "Lupinus insignis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus insulae](/wiki/Lupinus_insulae "Lupinus insulae")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus interruptus](/wiki/Lupinus_interruptus "Lupinus interruptus")* Benth. * *[Lupinus intortus](/wiki/Lupinus_intortus "Lupinus intortus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus inusitatus](/wiki/Lupinus_inusitatus "Lupinus inusitatus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus involutus](/wiki/Lupinus_involutus "Lupinus involutus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus inyoensis](/wiki/Lupinus_inyoensis "Lupinus inyoensis")* A. Heller * *[Lupinus isabelianus](/wiki/Lupinus_isabelianus "Lupinus isabelianus")* Eastw. * *[Lupinus jahnii](/wiki/Lupinus_jahnii "Lupinus jahnii")* Rose ex Pittier * *[Lupinus jaimehintoniana](/wiki/Lupinus_jaimehintoniana "Lupinus jaimehintoniana")* B.L. Turner * *[Lupinus james\-westii](/wiki/Lupinus_james-westii "Lupinus james-westii")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus jean\-julesii](/wiki/Lupinus_jean-julesii "Lupinus jean-julesii")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus jelskianus](/wiki/Lupinus_jelskianus "Lupinus jelskianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus johannis\-howellii](/wiki/Lupinus_johannis-howellii "Lupinus johannis-howellii")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus jonesii](/wiki/Lupinus_jonesii "Lupinus jonesii")* Rydb. * *[Lupinus jujuyensis](/wiki/Lupinus_jujuyensis "Lupinus jujuyensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus juninensis](/wiki/Lupinus_juninensis "Lupinus juninensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus kalenbornorum](/wiki/Lupinus_kalenbornorum "Lupinus kalenbornorum")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus kellermanianus](/wiki/Lupinus_kellermanianus "Lupinus kellermanianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus kerrii](/wiki/Lupinus_kerrii "Lupinus kerrii")* Eastw. * *[Lupinus killipianus](/wiki/Lupinus_killipianus "Lupinus killipianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus kingii](/wiki/Lupinus_kingii "Lupinus kingii")* S. Watson * *[Lupinus klamathensis](/wiki/Lupinus_klamathensis "Lupinus klamathensis")* Eastw. * *[Lupinus kunthii](/wiki/Lupinus_kunthii "Lupinus kunthii")* J. Agardh * *[Lupinus kuschei](/wiki/Lupinus_kuschei "Lupinus kuschei")* Eastw. – Yukon lupine * *[Lupinus lacus](/wiki/Lupinus_lacus "Lupinus lacus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus laetus](/wiki/Lupinus_laetus "Lupinus laetus")* Wooton \& Standl. * *[Lupinus laevigatus](/wiki/Lupinus_laevigatus "Lupinus laevigatus")* Benth. * *[Lupinus lagunae\-negrae](/wiki/Lupinus_lagunae-negrae "Lupinus lagunae-negrae")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus lanatocarpus](/wiki/Lupinus_lanatocarpus "Lupinus lanatocarpus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus lanatus](/wiki/Lupinus_lanatus "Lupinus lanatus")* Benth. * *[Lupinus lapidicola](/wiki/Lupinus_lapidicola "Lupinus lapidicola")* A. Heller – Mt. Eddy lupine * *[Lupinus latifolius](/wiki/Lupinus_latifolius "Lupinus latifolius")* J. Agardh + subsp. *dudleyi* (C.P.Sm.) P.Kenney \& D.B.Dunn + subsp. *latifolius* J. Agardh - var. *latifolius* J. Agardh – broadleaf lupine - var. *[barbatus](/wiki/Lupinus_latifolius_var._barbatus "Lupinus latifolius var. barbatus")* – Klamath lupine, bearded lupine + subsp. *leucanthus* (Rydb.)P.Kenney \& D.B.Dunn + subsp. *longipes* (Greene) P.Kenney \& D.B.Dunn + subsp. *parishii* (C.P.Sm.) P.Kenney \& D.B.Dunn + subsp. *viridifolius* (A.Heller) P.Kenney \& D.B.Dunn * *[Lupinus laudandrus](/wiki/Lupinus_laudandrus "Lupinus laudandrus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus lechlerianus](/wiki/Lupinus_lechlerianus "Lupinus lechlerianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus ledigianus](/wiki/Lupinus_ledigianus "Lupinus ledigianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus lelandsmithii](/wiki/Lupinus_lelandsmithii "Lupinus lelandsmithii")* Eastw. * *[Lupinus lemmonii](/wiki/Lupinus_lemmonii "Lupinus lemmonii")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus lepidus](/wiki/Lupinus_lepidus "Lupinus lepidus")* Lindl. – prairie lupine + var. *aridus* (Douglas) Jeps. + var. *confertus* (Kellogg) C. P. Sm. + var. *lepidus* Lindl. + var. *lobbii* (A. Gray ex S. Watson) C. L. Hitchc. + var. *sellulus* (Kellogg) Barneby + var. *utahensis* (S. Watson) C. L. Hitchc. * *[Lupinus leptocarpus](/wiki/Lupinus_leptocarpus "Lupinus leptocarpus")* Benth. * *[Lupinus leptophyllus](/wiki/Lupinus_leptophyllus "Lupinus leptophyllus")* Cham. \& Schltdl. * *[Lupinus lespedezoides](/wiki/Lupinus_lespedezoides "Lupinus lespedezoides")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus leucophyllus](/wiki/Lupinus_leucophyllus "Lupinus leucophyllus")* Lindl. – woolly\-leaf lupine * *[Lupinus lilacinus](/wiki/Lupinus_lilacinus "Lupinus lilacinus")* A. Heller * *[Lupinus lindenianus](/wiki/Lupinus_lindenianus "Lupinus lindenianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus lindleyanus](/wiki/Lupinus_lindleyanus "Lupinus lindleyanus")* J. Agardh * *[Lupinus linearis](/wiki/Lupinus_linearis "Lupinus linearis")* Desr. * *[Lupinus littoralis](/wiki/Lupinus_littoralis "Lupinus littoralis")* Lindl. – seashore lupine * *[Lupinus lobbianus](/wiki/Lupinus_lobbianus "Lupinus lobbianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus longifolius](/wiki/Lupinus_longifolius "Lupinus longifolius")* (S. Watson) Abrams – longleaf bush lupine * *[Lupinus lorenzensis](/wiki/Lupinus_lorenzensis "Lupinus lorenzensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus ludovicianus](/wiki/Lupinus_ludovicianus "Lupinus ludovicianus")* Greene – San Luis Obispo County Lupine * *[Lupinus luetzelburgianus](/wiki/Lupinus_luetzelburgianus "Lupinus luetzelburgianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus luteolus](/wiki/Lupinus_luteolus "Lupinus luteolus")* Kellogg – butter lupine, pale yellow lupineSome sources treat *Lupinus luteolus* as a synonym of *Lupinus luteus*. * *[Lupinus lutescens](/wiki/Lupinus_lutescens "Lupinus lutescens")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus lutosus](/wiki/Lupinus_lutosus "Lupinus lutosus")* A. Heller * *[Lupinus lyallii](/wiki/Lupinus_lyallii "Lupinus lyallii")* A. GraySome sources treat *Lupinus lyallii* as a synonym of *Lupinus lepidus*. + subsp. *alcis\-temporis* (C.P. Sm.) B.J.Cox + subsp. *lyallii* A. Gray – Lyall's lupine + subsp. *minutifolius* (Eastw.) B.J.Cox + subsp. *washoensis* (A.Heller) B.J.Cox * *[Lupinus macbrideanus](/wiki/Lupinus_macbrideanus "Lupinus macbrideanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus macranthus](/wiki/Lupinus_macranthus "Lupinus macranthus")* Rose * *[Lupinus maculatus](/wiki/Lupinus_maculatus "Lupinus maculatus")* Rydb. * *[Lupinus madrensis](/wiki/Lupinus_madrensis "Lupinus madrensis")* Seem. * *[Lupinus magdalenensis](/wiki/Lupinus_magdalenensis "Lupinus magdalenensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus magnificus](/wiki/Lupinus_magnificus "Lupinus magnificus")* M.E. Jones * *[Lupinus magniflorus](/wiki/Lupinus_magniflorus "Lupinus magniflorus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus magnistipulatus](/wiki/Lupinus_magnistipulatus "Lupinus magnistipulatus")* Planchuelo \& D.B. Dunn * *[Lupinus malacophyllus](/wiki/Lupinus_malacophyllus "Lupinus malacophyllus")* Greene * *[Lupinus malacotrichus](/wiki/Lupinus_malacotrichus "Lupinus malacotrichus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus maleopinatus](/wiki/Lupinus_maleopinatus "Lupinus maleopinatus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus mandonanus](/wiki/Lupinus_mandonanus "Lupinus mandonanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus mantaroensis](/wiki/Lupinus_mantaroensis "Lupinus mantaroensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus marinensis](/wiki/Lupinus_marinensis "Lupinus marinensis")* Eastw. * *[Lupinus mariposanus](/wiki/Lupinus_mariposanus "Lupinus mariposanus")* Eastw. * *[Lupinus martensis](/wiki/Lupinus_martensis "Lupinus martensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus martinetianus](/wiki/Lupinus_martinetianus "Lupinus martinetianus")* (C.P. Sm.) C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus mathewsianus](/wiki/Lupinus_mathewsianus "Lupinus mathewsianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus matucanicus](/wiki/Lupinus_matucanicus "Lupinus matucanicus")* Ulbr.Some sources treat *Lupinus matucanicus* as a synonym of *Lupinus lindleyanus*. * *[Lupinus meionanthus](/wiki/Lupinus_meionanthus "Lupinus meionanthus")* A. Gray * *[Lupinus melaphyllus](/wiki/Lupinus_melaphyllus "Lupinus melaphyllus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus menziesii](/wiki/Lupinus_menziesii "Lupinus menziesii")* J. Agardh * *[Lupinus meridanus](/wiki/Lupinus_meridanus "Lupinus meridanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus metensis](/wiki/Lupinus_metensis "Lupinus metensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus mexicanus](/wiki/Lupinus_mexicanus "Lupinus mexicanus")* Lag. * *[Lupinus michelianus](/wiki/Lupinus_michelianus "Lupinus michelianus")* C. P. Sm. * *[Lupinus microcarpus](/wiki/Lupinus_microcarpus "Lupinus microcarpus")* Sims + var. *densiflorus* + var. *microcarpus* – wide\-bannered lupin, chick lupin * *[Lupinus microphyllus](/wiki/Lupinus_microphyllus "Lupinus microphyllus")* Desr. * *[Lupinus minimus](/wiki/Lupinus_minimus "Lupinus minimus")* Hook.Some sources treat *Lupinus minimus* as a synonym of *Lupinus lepidus*. * *[Lupinus mirabilis](/wiki/Lupinus_mirabilis "Lupinus mirabilis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus misticola](/wiki/Lupinus_misticola "Lupinus misticola")* Ulbr. * *[Lupinus mollendoensis](/wiki/Lupinus_mollendoensis "Lupinus mollendoensis")* Ulbr. * *[Lupinus mollis](/wiki/Lupinus_mollis "Lupinus mollis")* A. Heller * *[Lupinus monensis](/wiki/Lupinus_monensis "Lupinus monensis")* Eastw. * *[Lupinus monserratensis](/wiki/Lupinus_monserratensis "Lupinus monserratensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus montanus](/wiki/Lupinus_montanus "Lupinus montanus")* Kunth + subsp. *glabrior* (S.Watson) D.B.Dunn \& Harmon + subsp. *montanus* Kunth + subsp. *montesii* (C.P.Sm.) D.B.Dunn \& Harmon * *[Lupinus monticola](/wiki/Lupinus_monticola "Lupinus monticola")* Rydb. * *[Lupinus montigenus](/wiki/Lupinus_montigenus "Lupinus montigenus")* A. HellerSome sources treat *Lupinus montigenus* as a synonym of *Lupinus argenteus*. * *[Lupinus moritzianus](/wiki/Lupinus_moritzianus "Lupinus moritzianus")* Kunth * *[Lupinus mucronulatus](/wiki/Lupinus_mucronulatus "Lupinus mucronulatus")* Howell * *[Lupinus muelleri](/wiki/Lupinus_muelleri "Lupinus muelleri")* Standl. * *[Lupinus multiflorus](/wiki/Lupinus_multiflorus "Lupinus multiflorus")* Desr. * *[Lupinus munzianus](/wiki/Lupinus_munzianus "Lupinus munzianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus munzii](/wiki/Lupinus_munzii "Lupinus munzii")* Eastw. * *[Lupinus mutabilis](/wiki/Lupinus_mutabilis "Lupinus mutabilis")* Sweet – Andean lupin, pearl lupin, South American lupin, *tarwi*, *tarhui*, *chocho* * *[Lupinus nanus](/wiki/Lupinus_nanus "Lupinus nanus")* Benth. – dwarf lupin, field lupin, sky lupin, Douglas' annual lupin * *[Lupinus navicularius](/wiki/Lupinus_navicularius "Lupinus navicularius")* A. Heller * *[Lupinus nehmadae](/wiki/Lupinus_nehmadae "Lupinus nehmadae")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus neocotus](/wiki/Lupinus_neocotus "Lupinus neocotus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus neomexicanus](/wiki/Lupinus_neomexicanus "Lupinus neomexicanus")* Greene * *[Lupinus nepubescens](/wiki/Lupinus_nepubescens "Lupinus nepubescens")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus nevadensis](/wiki/Lupinus_nevadensis "Lupinus nevadensis")* A. Heller – Nevada lupine * *[Lupinus niederleinianus](/wiki/Lupinus_niederleinianus "Lupinus niederleinianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus nipomensis](/wiki/Lupinus_nipomensis "Lupinus nipomensis")* Eastw. – Nipomo Mesa lupine * *[Lupinus niveus](/wiki/Lupinus_niveus "Lupinus niveus")* S. Watson * *[Lupinus nonoensis](/wiki/Lupinus_nonoensis "Lupinus nonoensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus nootkatensis](/wiki/Lupinus_nootkatensis "Lupinus nootkatensis")* Sims – Nootka lupin * *[Lupinus notabilis](/wiki/Lupinus_notabilis "Lupinus notabilis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus nubigenus](/wiki/Lupinus_nubigenus "Lupinus nubigenus")* Kunth * *[Lupinus nubilorum](/wiki/Lupinus_nubilorum "Lupinus nubilorum")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus obscurus](/wiki/Lupinus_obscurus "Lupinus obscurus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus obtusilobus](/wiki/Lupinus_obtusilobus "Lupinus obtusilobus")* A. Heller – bluntlobe lupine * *[Lupinus ochoanus](/wiki/Lupinus_ochoanus "Lupinus ochoanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus ochroleucus](/wiki/Lupinus_ochroleucus "Lupinus ochroleucus")* Eastw. * *[Lupinus odoratus](/wiki/Lupinus_odoratus "Lupinus odoratus")* A. Heller – royal Mojave lupin * *[Lupinus onustus](/wiki/Lupinus_onustus "Lupinus onustus")* S. Watson – Plumas lupine * *[Lupinus opertospicus](/wiki/Lupinus_opertospicus "Lupinus opertospicus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus oquendoanus](/wiki/Lupinus_oquendoanus "Lupinus oquendoanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus oreganus](/wiki/Lupinus_oreganus "Lupinus oreganus")* A. Heller – Oregon lupinSome sources treat *Lupinus oreganus* as a synonym of *Lupinus sulphureus*. * *[Lupinus oreophilus](/wiki/Lupinus_oreophilus "Lupinus oreophilus")* Phil. * *[Lupinus ornatus](/wiki/Lupinus_ornatus "Lupinus ornatus")* Lindl.Some sources treat *Lupinus ornatus* as a synonym of *Lupinus sericeus*. * *[Lupinus oscar\-haughtii](/wiki/Lupinus_oscar-haughtii "Lupinus oscar-haughtii")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus ostiofluminis](/wiki/Lupinus_ostiofluminis "Lupinus ostiofluminis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus otto\-buchtienii](/wiki/Lupinus_otto-buchtienii "Lupinus otto-buchtienii")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus otto\-kuntzeanus](/wiki/Lupinus_otto-kuntzeanus "Lupinus otto-kuntzeanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus otuzcoensis](/wiki/Lupinus_otuzcoensis "Lupinus otuzcoensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus ovalifolius](/wiki/Lupinus_ovalifolius "Lupinus ovalifolius")* Benth. * *[Lupinus pachanoanus](/wiki/Lupinus_pachanoanus "Lupinus pachanoanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus pachitensis](/wiki/Lupinus_pachitensis "Lupinus pachitensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus pachylobus](/wiki/Lupinus_pachylobus "Lupinus pachylobus")* Greene * *[Lupinus padre\-crowleyi](/wiki/Lupinus_padre-crowleyi "Lupinus padre-crowleyi")* C.P. Sm. – DeDecker's lupine, Father Crowley's lupine * *[Lupinus pallidus](/wiki/Lupinus_pallidus "Lupinus pallidus")* Brandegee * *[Lupinus paniculatus](/wiki/Lupinus_paniculatus "Lupinus paniculatus")* Desr. * *[Lupinus paraguariensis](/wiki/Lupinus_paraguariensis "Lupinus paraguariensis")* Chodat \& Hassl. * *[Lupinus paranensis](/wiki/Lupinus_paranensis "Lupinus paranensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus paruroensis](/wiki/Lupinus_paruroensis "Lupinus paruroensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus parviflorus](/wiki/Lupinus_parviflorus "Lupinus parviflorus")* Hook. \& Arn. – lodgepole lupin + subsp. *myrianthus* (Greene) Harmon + subsp. *parviflorus* Hook. \& Arn. * *[Lupinus parvifolius](/wiki/Lupinus_parvifolius "Lupinus parvifolius")* Gardner * *[Lupinus pasachoensis](/wiki/Lupinus_pasachoensis "Lupinus pasachoensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus pasadenensis](/wiki/Lupinus_pasadenensis "Lupinus pasadenensis")* Eastw. * *[Lupinus patulus](/wiki/Lupinus_patulus "Lupinus patulus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus paucartambensis](/wiki/Lupinus_paucartambensis "Lupinus paucartambensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus paucovillosus](/wiki/Lupinus_paucovillosus "Lupinus paucovillosus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus paynei](/wiki/Lupinus_paynei "Lupinus paynei")* Davidson * *[Lupinus pearceanus](/wiki/Lupinus_pearceanus "Lupinus pearceanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus pendentiflorus](/wiki/Lupinus_pendentiflorus "Lupinus pendentiflorus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus peirsonii](/wiki/Lupinus_peirsonii "Lupinus peirsonii")* H. Mason – Peirson's lupine, long lupine * *[Lupinus penlandianus](/wiki/Lupinus_penlandianus "Lupinus penlandianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus perblandus](/wiki/Lupinus_perblandus "Lupinus perblandus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus perbonus](/wiki/Lupinus_perbonus "Lupinus perbonus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus perennis](/wiki/Lupinus_perennis "Lupinus perennis")* L. – wild perennial lupine, sundial lupine, Indian beet, old maid's bonnets + subsp. *gracilis* (Nutt.) D.B.Dunn + subsp. *occidentalis* S. Watson + subsp. *perennis* L. * *[Lupinus perglaber](/wiki/Lupinus_perglaber "Lupinus perglaber")* Eastw. * *[Lupinus perissophytus](/wiki/Lupinus_perissophytus "Lupinus perissophytus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus persistens](/wiki/Lupinus_persistens "Lupinus persistens")* Rose * *[Lupinus peruvianus](/wiki/Lupinus_peruvianus "Lupinus peruvianus")* Ulbr. * *[Lupinus philippianus](/wiki/Lupinus_philippianus "Lupinus philippianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus physodes](/wiki/Lupinus_physodes "Lupinus physodes")* Douglas * *[Lupinus pickeringii](/wiki/Lupinus_pickeringii "Lupinus pickeringii")* A. Gray * *[Lupinus pilosellus](/wiki/Lupinus_pilosellus "Lupinus pilosellus")* Eastw. * *[Lupinus pilosissimus](/wiki/Lupinus_pilosissimus "Lupinus pilosissimus")* M. Martens \& Galeotti * *[Lupinus pinguis](/wiki/Lupinus_pinguis "Lupinus pinguis")* Ulbr. * *[Lupinus pipersmithianus](/wiki/Lupinus_pipersmithianus "Lupinus pipersmithianus")* J.F. Macbr. * *[Lupinus pisacensis](/wiki/Lupinus_pisacensis "Lupinus pisacensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus piurensis](/wiki/Lupinus_piurensis "Lupinus piurensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus platamodes](/wiki/Lupinus_platamodes "Lupinus platamodes")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus plattensis](/wiki/Lupinus_plattensis "Lupinus plattensis")* S. Watson * *[Lupinus platyptenus](/wiki/Lupinus_platyptenus "Lupinus platyptenus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus polycarpus](/wiki/Lupinus_polycarpus "Lupinus polycarpus")* GreeneSome sources treat *Lupinus polycarpus* as a synonym of *Lupinus bicolor*. – smallflower lupin * *[Lupinus polyphyllus](/wiki/Lupinus_polyphyllus "Lupinus polyphyllus")* Lindl. – largeleaf lupine, bigleaf lupine, garden lupin, many\-leaved lupine + var. *burkei* (S. Watson) C. L. Hitchc. + var. *humicola* (A.Nelson) Barneby + var. *pallidipes* (A. Heller) C. P. Sm. + var. *polyphyllus* Lindl. + var. *prunophilus* (M. E. Jones) L. Ll. Phillips * *[Lupinus poopoensis](/wiki/Lupinus_poopoensis "Lupinus poopoensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus popayanensis](/wiki/Lupinus_popayanensis "Lupinus popayanensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus potosinus](/wiki/Lupinus_potosinus "Lupinus potosinus")* Rose * *[Lupinus praealtus](/wiki/Lupinus_praealtus "Lupinus praealtus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus praestabilis](/wiki/Lupinus_praestabilis "Lupinus praestabilis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus praetermissus](/wiki/Lupinus_praetermissus "Lupinus praetermissus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus pratensis](/wiki/Lupinus_pratensis "Lupinus pratensis")* A.HellerSome sources treat *Lupinus pratensis* as a synonym of *Lupinus confertus*. – Inyo Meadow lupine * *[Lupinus pringlei](/wiki/Lupinus_pringlei "Lupinus pringlei")* Rose * *[Lupinus proculaustrinus](/wiki/Lupinus_proculaustrinus "Lupinus proculaustrinus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus prostratus](/wiki/Lupinus_prostratus "Lupinus prostratus")* J. Agardh * *[Lupinus protrusus](/wiki/Lupinus_protrusus "Lupinus protrusus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus prouvensalanus](/wiki/Lupinus_prouvensalanus "Lupinus prouvensalanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus prunophilus](/wiki/Lupinus_prunophilus "Lupinus prunophilus")* M.E. JonesSome sources treat *Lupinus prunophilus* as a synonym of *Lupinus polyphyllus*. – hairy bigleaf lupin * *[Lupinus pseudopolyphyllus](/wiki/Lupinus_pseudopolyphyllus "Lupinus pseudopolyphyllus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus pseudotsugoides](/wiki/Lupinus_pseudotsugoides "Lupinus pseudotsugoides")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus pubescens](/wiki/Lupinus_pubescens "Lupinus pubescens")* Benth. * *[Lupinus pucapucensis](/wiki/Lupinus_pucapucensis "Lupinus pucapucensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus pulloviridus](/wiki/Lupinus_pulloviridus "Lupinus pulloviridus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus pulvinaris](/wiki/Lupinus_pulvinaris "Lupinus pulvinaris")* Ulbr. * *[Lupinus punto\-reyesensis](/wiki/Lupinus_punto-reyesensis "Lupinus punto-reyesensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus puracensis](/wiki/Lupinus_puracensis "Lupinus puracensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus purdieanus](/wiki/Lupinus_purdieanus "Lupinus purdieanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus pureriae](/wiki/Lupinus_pureriae "Lupinus pureriae")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus purosericeus](/wiki/Lupinus_purosericeus "Lupinus purosericeus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus pusillus](/wiki/Lupinus_pusillus "Lupinus pusillus")* Pursh – rusty lupine or dwarf lupine + subsp. *intermontanus* (A.Heller) D.B.Dunn + subsp. *pusillus* Pursh * *[Lupinus puyupatensis](/wiki/Lupinus_puyupatensis "Lupinus puyupatensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus pycnostachys](/wiki/Lupinus_pycnostachys "Lupinus pycnostachys")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus quellomayus](/wiki/Lupinus_quellomayus "Lupinus quellomayus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus quitensis](/wiki/Lupinus_quitensis "Lupinus quitensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus radiatus](/wiki/Lupinus_radiatus "Lupinus radiatus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus ramosissimus](/wiki/Lupinus_ramosissimus "Lupinus ramosissimus")* Benth. * *[Lupinus reflexus](/wiki/Lupinus_reflexus "Lupinus reflexus")* Rose * *[Lupinus regalis](/wiki/Lupinus_regalis "Lupinus regalis")* Bergmans * *[Lupinus regnellianus](/wiki/Lupinus_regnellianus "Lupinus regnellianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus reineckianus](/wiki/Lupinus_reineckianus "Lupinus reineckianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus reitzii](/wiki/Lupinus_reitzii "Lupinus reitzii")* Burkart ex M. Pinheiro \& Miotto * *[Lupinus retrorsus](/wiki/Lupinus_retrorsus "Lupinus retrorsus")* L.F. Hend. * *[Lupinus revolutus](/wiki/Lupinus_revolutus "Lupinus revolutus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus richardianus](/wiki/Lupinus_richardianus "Lupinus richardianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus rimae](/wiki/Lupinus_rimae "Lupinus rimae")* Eastw. * *[Lupinus rivularis](/wiki/Lupinus_rivularis "Lupinus rivularis")* Lindl. – riverbank lupin * *[Lupinus romasanus](/wiki/Lupinus_romasanus "Lupinus romasanus")* Ulbr. * *[Lupinus roseolus](/wiki/Lupinus_roseolus "Lupinus roseolus")* Rydb. * *[Lupinus roseorum](/wiki/Lupinus_roseorum "Lupinus roseorum")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus rotundiflorus](/wiki/Lupinus_rotundiflorus "Lupinus rotundiflorus")* M.E. Jones * *[Lupinus rowleeanus](/wiki/Lupinus_rowleeanus "Lupinus rowleeanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus ruber](/wiki/Lupinus_ruber "Lupinus ruber")* A. HellerSome sources treat *Lupinus ruber* as a synonym of *Lupinus microcarpus*. * *[Lupinus rubriflorus](/wiki/Lupinus_rubriflorus "Lupinus rubriflorus")* Planchuelo * *[Lupinus ruizensis](/wiki/Lupinus_ruizensis "Lupinus ruizensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus rupestris](/wiki/Lupinus_rupestris "Lupinus rupestris")* Kunth * *[Lupinus rusbyanus](/wiki/Lupinus_rusbyanus "Lupinus rusbyanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus russellianus](/wiki/Lupinus_russellianus "Lupinus russellianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus sabinianus](/wiki/Lupinus_sabinianus "Lupinus sabinianus")* Lindl. * *[Lupinus sabinii](/wiki/Lupinus_sabinii "Lupinus sabinii")* Hook. * *[Lupinus sabulosus](/wiki/Lupinus_sabulosus "Lupinus sabulosus")* A. Heller * *[Lupinus salticola](/wiki/Lupinus_salticola "Lupinus salticola")* Eastw. * *[Lupinus sandiensis](/wiki/Lupinus_sandiensis "Lupinus sandiensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus santanderensis](/wiki/Lupinus_santanderensis "Lupinus santanderensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus sarmentosus](/wiki/Lupinus_sarmentosus "Lupinus sarmentosus")* Desr. * *[Lupinus saxatilis](/wiki/Lupinus_saxatilis "Lupinus saxatilis")* Ulbr. * *[Lupinus saxosus](/wiki/Lupinus_saxosus "Lupinus saxosus")* Howell – rock lupine * *[Lupinus schwackeanus](/wiki/Lupinus_schwackeanus "Lupinus schwackeanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus seifrizianus](/wiki/Lupinus_seifrizianus "Lupinus seifrizianus")* (C.P. Sm.) C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus sellowianus](/wiki/Lupinus_sellowianus "Lupinus sellowianus")* Harms * *[Lupinus sellulus](/wiki/Lupinus_sellulus "Lupinus sellulus")* KelloggSome sources treat *Lupinus sellulus* as a synonym of *Lupinus lepidus*. + var. *lobbii* (S.Watson) B.J.Cox + var. *sellulus* Kellogg + var. *ursinus* (Eastw.) B.J.Cox * *[Lupinus semiprostratus](/wiki/Lupinus_semiprostratus "Lupinus semiprostratus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus semperflorens](/wiki/Lupinus_semperflorens "Lupinus semperflorens")* Benth. * *[Lupinus sericatus](/wiki/Lupinus_sericatus "Lupinus sericatus")* Kellogg – Cobb Mountain lupine * *[Lupinus sericeus](/wiki/Lupinus_sericeus "Lupinus sericeus")* Pursh – Pursh's silky lupin + var. *barbiger* (S.Watson) S.L.Welsh + var. *sericeus* Pursh * *[Lupinus setifolius](/wiki/Lupinus_setifolius "Lupinus setifolius")* Planchuelo \& D.B. Dunn * *[Lupinus shastensis](/wiki/Lupinus_shastensis "Lupinus shastensis")* Lupinus albicaulis * *[Lupinus shockleyi](/wiki/Lupinus_shockleyi "Lupinus shockleyi")* S. Watson – purple desert lupine * *[Lupinus sierrae\-blancae](/wiki/Lupinus_sierrae-blancae "Lupinus sierrae-blancae")* Wooton \& Standl. + subsp. *aquilinus* (Wooton \& Standl.) L.S.Fleak \& D.B.Dunn + subsp. *sierrae\-blancae* Wooton \& Standl. * *[Lupinus simonsianus](/wiki/Lupinus_simonsianus "Lupinus simonsianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus simulans](/wiki/Lupinus_simulans "Lupinus simulans")* Rose * *[Lupinus sinaloensis](/wiki/Lupinus_sinaloensis "Lupinus sinaloensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus sitgreavesii](/wiki/Lupinus_sitgreavesii "Lupinus sitgreavesii")* S. Watson * *[Lupinus smithianus](/wiki/Lupinus_smithianus "Lupinus smithianus")* Kunth * *[Lupinus solanagrorum](/wiki/Lupinus_solanagrorum "Lupinus solanagrorum")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus sonomensis](/wiki/Lupinus_sonomensis "Lupinus sonomensis")* A. Heller * *[Lupinus soratensis](/wiki/Lupinus_soratensis "Lupinus soratensis")* Rusby * *[Lupinus soukupianus](/wiki/Lupinus_soukupianus "Lupinus soukupianus")* C. P. Smith ex J. F. Macbr. * *[Lupinus sparsiflorus](/wiki/Lupinus_sparsiflorus "Lupinus sparsiflorus")* Benth. – desert lupin, Coulter's lupin, Mojave lupin * *[Lupinus spectabilis](/wiki/Lupinus_spectabilis "Lupinus spectabilis")* Hoover – shaggyhair lupine * *[Lupinus splendens](/wiki/Lupinus_splendens "Lupinus splendens")* Rose * *[Lupinus spragueanus](/wiki/Lupinus_spragueanus "Lupinus spragueanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus staffordiae](/wiki/Lupinus_staffordiae "Lupinus staffordiae")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus stipulatus](/wiki/Lupinus_stipulatus "Lupinus stipulatus")* J. Agardh * *[Lupinus stiversii](/wiki/Lupinus_stiversii "Lupinus stiversii")* Kellogg – harlequin annual lupine * *[Lupinus storkianus](/wiki/Lupinus_storkianus "Lupinus storkianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus subacaulis](/wiki/Lupinus_subacaulis "Lupinus subacaulis")* Griseb. * *[Lupinus subcarnosus](/wiki/Lupinus_subcarnosus "Lupinus subcarnosus")* Hook. – buffalo clover * *[Lupinus subcuneatus](/wiki/Lupinus_subcuneatus "Lupinus subcuneatus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus subhamatus](/wiki/Lupinus_subhamatus "Lupinus subhamatus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus subinflatus](/wiki/Lupinus_subinflatus "Lupinus subinflatus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus sublanatus](/wiki/Lupinus_sublanatus "Lupinus sublanatus")* Eastw. * *[Lupinus submontanus](/wiki/Lupinus_submontanus "Lupinus submontanus")* Rose * *[Lupinus subsessilis](/wiki/Lupinus_subsessilis "Lupinus subsessilis")* Benth. * *[Lupinus subtomentosus](/wiki/Lupinus_subtomentosus "Lupinus subtomentosus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus subvexus](/wiki/Lupinus_subvexus "Lupinus subvexus")* C.P. Sm.Some sources treat *Lupinus subvexus* as a synonym of *Lupinus microcarpus*. * *[Lupinus succulentus](/wiki/Lupinus_succulentus "Lupinus succulentus")* K. Koch – succulent lupin, arroyo lupin, hollowleaf annual lupin * *[Lupinus sufferrugineus](/wiki/Lupinus_sufferrugineus "Lupinus sufferrugineus")* Rusby * *[Lupinus suksdorfii](/wiki/Lupinus_suksdorfii "Lupinus suksdorfii")* Robinson * *[Lupinus sulphureus](/wiki/Lupinus_sulphureus "Lupinus sulphureus")* Douglas + subsp. *kincaidii* (Suksd.) L. Ll. Phillips – Kincaid's lupin + subsp. *subsaccatus* (Suksd.) L. Ll. Phillips + subsp. *sulphureus* Douglas – sulphur lupin, sulphur\-flowered lupin * *[Lupinus surcoensis](/wiki/Lupinus_surcoensis "Lupinus surcoensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus syriggedes](/wiki/Lupinus_syriggedes "Lupinus syriggedes")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus tacitus](/wiki/Lupinus_tacitus "Lupinus tacitus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus tafiensis](/wiki/Lupinus_tafiensis "Lupinus tafiensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus talahuensis](/wiki/Lupinus_talahuensis "Lupinus talahuensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus tamayoanus](/wiki/Lupinus_tamayoanus "Lupinus tamayoanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus tarapacensis](/wiki/Lupinus_tarapacensis "Lupinus tarapacensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus tarijensis](/wiki/Lupinus_tarijensis "Lupinus tarijensis")* Ulbr. * *[Lupinus tarmaensis](/wiki/Lupinus_tarmaensis "Lupinus tarmaensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus tatei](/wiki/Lupinus_tatei "Lupinus tatei")* Rusby * *[Lupinus taurimortuus](/wiki/Lupinus_taurimortuus "Lupinus taurimortuus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus tauris](/wiki/Lupinus_tauris "Lupinus tauris")* Benth. * *[Lupinus tayacajensis](/wiki/Lupinus_tayacajensis "Lupinus tayacajensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus tegeticulatus](/wiki/Lupinus_tegeticulatus "Lupinus tegeticulatus")* Eastw. * *[Lupinus tetracercophorus](/wiki/Lupinus_tetracercophorus "Lupinus tetracercophorus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus texanus](/wiki/Lupinus_texanus "Lupinus texanus")* Hook. * *[Lupinus texensis](/wiki/Lupinus_texensis "Lupinus texensis")* Hook. – Texas bluebonnet * *[Lupinus thompsonianus](/wiki/Lupinus_thompsonianus "Lupinus thompsonianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus tidestromii](/wiki/Lupinus_tidestromii "Lupinus tidestromii")* Greene – Tidestrøm's lupin + var. *layneae* (Eastw.) Munz + var. *tidestromii* Greene * *[Lupinus tolimensis](/wiki/Lupinus_tolimensis "Lupinus tolimensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus tomentosus](/wiki/Lupinus_tomentosus "Lupinus tomentosus")* DC. * *[Lupinus tominensis](/wiki/Lupinus_tominensis "Lupinus tominensis")* Wedd. * *[Lupinus toratensis](/wiki/Lupinus_toratensis "Lupinus toratensis")* C.P. Sm. – *warwanzo*, *lito* * *[Lupinus tracyi](/wiki/Lupinus_tracyi "Lupinus tracyi")* Eastw. – Tracy's lupine * *[Lupinus triananus](/wiki/Lupinus_triananus "Lupinus triananus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus truncatus](/wiki/Lupinus_truncatus "Lupinus truncatus")* Hook. \& Arn. – collared annual lupine * *[Lupinus tucumanensis](/wiki/Lupinus_tucumanensis "Lupinus tucumanensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus ulbrichianus](/wiki/Lupinus_ulbrichianus "Lupinus ulbrichianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus uleanus](/wiki/Lupinus_uleanus "Lupinus uleanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus ultramontanus](/wiki/Lupinus_ultramontanus "Lupinus ultramontanus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus umidicola](/wiki/Lupinus_umidicola "Lupinus umidicola")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus uncialis](/wiki/Lupinus_uncialis "Lupinus uncialis")* S. Watson * *[Lupinus uncinatus](/wiki/Lupinus_uncinatus "Lupinus uncinatus")* Schltdl. * *[Lupinus urcoensis](/wiki/Lupinus_urcoensis "Lupinus urcoensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus urubambensis](/wiki/Lupinus_urubambensis "Lupinus urubambensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus valerioi](/wiki/Lupinus_valerioi "Lupinus valerioi")* Standl. * *[Lupinus vallicola](/wiki/Lupinus_vallicola "Lupinus vallicola")* A. Heller – open lupin + subsp. *apricus* (Greene) D.B.Dunn + subsp. *vallicola* A. Heller * *[Lupinus vargasianus](/wiki/Lupinus_vargasianus "Lupinus vargasianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus varicaulis](/wiki/Lupinus_varicaulis "Lupinus varicaulis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus variicolor](/wiki/Lupinus_variicolor "Lupinus variicolor")* Steud. – varied lupin * *[Lupinus velillensis](/wiki/Lupinus_velillensis "Lupinus velillensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus velutinus](/wiki/Lupinus_velutinus "Lupinus velutinus")* Benth. * *[Lupinus venezuelensis](/wiki/Lupinus_venezuelensis "Lupinus venezuelensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus ventosus](/wiki/Lupinus_ventosus "Lupinus ventosus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus verbasciformis](/wiki/Lupinus_verbasciformis "Lupinus verbasciformis")* Sandwith * *[Lupinus verjonensis](/wiki/Lupinus_verjonensis "Lupinus verjonensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus vernicius](/wiki/Lupinus_vernicius "Lupinus vernicius")* Rose * *[Lupinus viduus](/wiki/Lupinus_viduus "Lupinus viduus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus vilcabambensis](/wiki/Lupinus_vilcabambensis "Lupinus vilcabambensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus villosus](/wiki/Lupinus_villosus "Lupinus villosus")* Willd. * *[Lupinus visoensis](/wiki/Lupinus_visoensis "Lupinus visoensis")* J.F. Macbr. * *[Lupinus volubilis](/wiki/Lupinus_volubilis "Lupinus volubilis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus weberbaueri](/wiki/Lupinus_weberbaueri "Lupinus weberbaueri")* Ulbr. * *[Lupinus werdermannianus](/wiki/Lupinus_werdermannianus "Lupinus werdermannianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus westianus](/wiki/Lupinus_westianus "Lupinus westianus")* Small + var. *aridorum* (McFarlin ex Beckner) Isely + var. *westianus* Small * *[Lupinus whiltoniae](/wiki/Lupinus_whiltoniae "Lupinus whiltoniae")* Eastw. * *[Lupinus wilkesianus](/wiki/Lupinus_wilkesianus "Lupinus wilkesianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus williamlobbii](/wiki/Lupinus_williamlobbii "Lupinus williamlobbii")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus williamsianus](/wiki/Lupinus_williamsianus "Lupinus williamsianus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus xanthophyllus](/wiki/Lupinus_xanthophyllus "Lupinus xanthophyllus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus xenophytus](/wiki/Lupinus_xenophytus "Lupinus xenophytus")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus yanahuancensis](/wiki/Lupinus_yanahuancensis "Lupinus yanahuancensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus yarushensis](/wiki/Lupinus_yarushensis "Lupinus yarushensis")* C.P. Sm. * *[Lupinus ynesiae](/wiki/Lupinus_ynesiae "Lupinus ynesiae")* C.P. Sm. {{div col end}} ### Subgenus *Lupinus* In its current [circumscription](/wiki/Circumscription_%28taxonomy%29 "Circumscription (taxonomy)"),{{Cite web \| url\=http://biodiversity.ucoz.ru/p0006\.htm \| title\=Subgen. PLATYCARPOS and Subgen. LUPINUS}} subgenus *Lupinus* includes 12 species from the Mediterranean region and Africa with at least four ovules or seedbuds in the ovary: {{div col\|colwidth\=300px}} * *[Lupinus albus](/wiki/Lupinus_albus "Lupinus albus")* L. 1753 – white lupine + subsp. *albus* L. + subsp. *graecus* (Boiss. \& Spruner) Franco \& P.Silva + subsp. *termis* (Forsk.) Ponert. * *[Lupinus angustifolius](/wiki/Lupinus_angustifolius "Lupinus angustifolius")* L. 1753 – blue lupin, narrow\-leafed lupin + var. *angustifolius* L. + var. *albopunctatus* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich "Boguslav S. Kurlovich") et Stankev. + var. *griseomaculatus* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich "Boguslav S. Kurlovich") et Stankev. + var. *chalybens* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich "Boguslav S. Kurlovich") et Stankev. + var. *corylinus* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich "Boguslav S. Kurlovich") et Stankev. + var. *purpureus* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich "Boguslav S. Kurlovich") et Stankev. + var. *rubidus* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich "Boguslav S. Kurlovich") et Stankev. + var. *atabekovae* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich "Boguslav S. Kurlovich") et Stankev. + var. *sparsiusculus* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich "Boguslav S. Kurlovich") et Stankev. + var. *brunneus* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich "Boguslav S. Kurlovich") et Stankev. + var. *albosyringeus* Taran. + var. *albidus* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich "Boguslav S. Kurlovich") et Stankev. + var. *candidus* Kuptzov. et [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich "Boguslav S. Kurlovich") * *[Lupinus atlanticus](/wiki/Lupinus_atlanticus "Lupinus atlanticus")* Gladstones 1974 * *[Lupinus cosentinii](/wiki/Lupinus_cosentinii "Lupinus cosentinii")* Guss. 1828 – sandplain lupin * *[Lupinus digitatus](/wiki/Lupinus_digitatus "Lupinus digitatus")* Forsk. 1775Some sources treat *Lupinus digitatus* as a synonym of *Lupinus cosentinii*. * *[Lupinus hispanicus](/wiki/Lupinus_hispanicus "Lupinus hispanicus")* Boiss. \& Reut. 1842 + subsp. *bicolor* (Merino) Gladst. + subsp. *hispanicus* Boiss. \& Reut. * *[Lupinus luteus](/wiki/Lupinus_luteus "Lupinus luteus")* L. 1753 – yellow lupin + var. *luteus* L. + var. *maculosus* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich "Boguslav S. Kurlovich") et Stankev. + var. *kazimierskii* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich "Boguslav S. Kurlovich") et Stankev. + var. *arcellus* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich "Boguslav S. Kurlovich") et Stankev. + var. *sempolovskii* (Atab) [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich "Boguslav S. Kurlovich") et Stankev. + var. *melanospermus* Kurl. et Stankev. + var. *niger* Kurl. et Stankev. + var. *cremeus* Kurl. et Stankev. + var. *leucospermus* Kurl. et Stankev. + var. *sulphureus* (Atab.) Kurl. et Stankev. + var. *stepanovae* Kurl. et Stankev. + var. *ochroleucus* Kurl. et Stankev. + var. *aurantiacus* Kurl. et Stankev. + var. *croceus* Kurl. et Stankev. + var. *aureus* Kurl. et Stankev. + var. *albicans* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich "Boguslav S. Kurlovich") et Stankev. + var. *sinskayae* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich "Boguslav S. Kurlovich") et Stankev. * *[Lupinus micranthus](/wiki/Lupinus_micranthus "Lupinus micranthus")* Guss. 1828 * *[Lupinus palaestinus](/wiki/Lupinus_palaestinus "Lupinus palaestinus")* Boiss. 1849 – white\-grey lupine * *[Lupinus pilosus](/wiki/Lupinus_pilosus "Lupinus pilosus")* Murr. 1774 – blue lupine * *[Lupinus princei](/wiki/Lupinus_princei "Lupinus princei")* Harms 1901 * *[Lupinus somaliensis](/wiki/Lupinus_somaliensis "Lupinus somaliensis")* Baker f. 1895 {{div col end}} ### Species names with uncertain taxonomic status The status of the following binomials is unresolved: {{div col\|colwidth\=300px}} * *Lupinus acaulis* [Larrañaga](/wiki/D%C3%A1maso_Antonio_Larra%C3%B1aga "Dámaso Antonio Larrañaga") * *Lupinus achilleaphilus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus acutilobus* A.Heller * *Lupinus aegr\-Aovium* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus africanus* Lour. * *Lupinus agninus* Gand. * *Lupinus agropyrophilus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus alaimandus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus albicaulis* Douglas ex Hook. * *Lupinus alicanescens* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus aliclementinus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus aliumbellatus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus altissimus* Sessé \& Moc. * *Lupinus alturasensis* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus alveorum* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus amabilis* A.Heller * *Lupinus amniculi\-cervi* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus amniculi\-salicis* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus amniculi\-vulpum* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus andersonianus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus anemophilus* Greene * *Lupinus angustifolius* Blanco * *Lupinus aphronorus* Blank. * *Lupinus apodotropis* A.Heller * *Lupinus aralloius* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus arborescens* Amabekova \& Maisuran * *Lupinus arceuthinus* Greene * *Lupinus argyraeus* DC. * *Lupinus atacamicus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus aureus* J.Agardh * *Lupinus axillaris* Blank. * *Lupinus barkeriae* Knowles \& Westc. * *Lupinus bartolomei* M.E.Jones * *Lupinus bassett\-maguirei* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus beaneanus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus biddleii* L.F.Hend. * *Lupinus bimaculatus* Hook. ex D.Don * *Lupinus bimaculatus* Desr. * *Lupinus bivonii* C.Presl * *Lupinus blankinshipii* A.Heller * *Lupinus blaschkeanus* Fisch. \& C.A.Mey. * *Lupinus brevior* (Jeps.) J.A. Christian \& D.B. Dunn * *Lupinus brittonii* Abrams * *Lupinus caespitosus* Nutt. * *Lupinus californicus* K.Koch * *Lupinus campbelliae* Eastw. * *Lupinus campestris* Cham. \& Schltdl. * *Lupinus campestris\-florum* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus candicans* Rydb. * *Lupinus canus* Hemsl. * *Lupinus capitatus* Greene * *Lupinus capitis\-amniculi* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus carolus\-bucarii* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus chachas* Ochoa ex C. P. Smith * *Lupinus chamissonis* Eschscholtz * *Lupinus chiapensis* Rose * *Lupinus chihuahuensis* S.Watson * *Lupinus christianus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus chrysomelas* Casar. * *Lupinus clementinus* Greene * *Lupinus comatus* Rydb. * *Lupinus consentinii* Walp. * *Lupinus cymb\-Aegressus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus dasyphyllus* Greene * *Lupinus davisianus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus debilis* Eastw. * *Lupinus decaschistus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus diaboli\-septem* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus dichrous* Greene * *Lupinus dispersus* A.Heller * *Lupinus dissimulans* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus durangensis* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus eatonanus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus equi\-coeli* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus equi\-collis* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus erectus* L.F.Hend. * *Lupinus erminens* S.Watson * *Lupinus ermineus* S.Watson * *Lupinus falcifer* Nutt. * *Lupinus falsoerectus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus falsoformosus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus falsograyi* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus fieldii* Rose ex J. F. Macbr. * *Lupinus filicaulis* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus finitus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus flavescens* Rydb. * *Lupinus foliosus* Hook. * *Lupinus foliosus* Nutt. * *Lupinus forskahlei* Boiss. * *Lupinus franciscanus* Greene * *Lupinus fraxinetorum* Greene * *Lupinus fruticosus* Steud. * *Lupinus fruticosus* Dum.Cours. * *Lupinus garcianus* Bennett \& Dunn * *Lupinus geophilus* Rose * *Lupinus geraniophilus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus glabellus* M.Martens \& Galeotti * *Lupinus graciliflorus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus gratus* Greene * *Lupinus gredensis* Gand. * *Lupinus guadalupensis* Greene * *Lupinus guadiloupensis* Steud. * *Lupinus guatimalensis* auct. * *Lupinus gussoneanus* J.Agardh * *Lupinus habrocomus* Greene * *Lupinus haudcytisoides* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus helleri* Greene * *Lupinus hexaedrus* E. Fourn. * *Lupinus hintonii* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus huigrensis* Rose ex C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus humicolus* A.Nelson * *Lupinus humifusus* Benth. * *Lupinus humilis* Rose ex Pittier * *Lupinus hyacinthinus* Greene * *Lupinus idoneus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus inamoenus* Greene ex C.F.Baker * *Lupinus indutus* Greene ex C.F.Baker * *Lupinus insignis* Glaz. ex C. P. Smith * *Lupinus integrifolius* L. * *Lupinus intergrifolius* Desr. * *Lupinus ione\-grisetae* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus ione\-walkerae* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus jamesonianus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus javanicus* Burm.f. * *Lupinus jorgensenanus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus jucundus* Greene * *Lupinus kellerrnanianus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus kyleanus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus labiatus* Nutt. * *Lupinus lacticolor* Tamayo * *Lupinus lacus\-huntingtonii* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus lacuum\-trinitatum* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus larsonanus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus lassenensis* Eastw. * *Lupinus latissimus* Greene * *Lupinus laxifolius* A.Gray * *Lupinus leptostachyus* Greene * *Lupinus lesueurii* Standl. * *Lupinus linearifolius* [Larrañaga](/wiki/D%C3%A1maso_Antonio_Larra%C3%B1aga "Dámaso Antonio Larrañaga") * *Lupinus lingulae* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus longilabrum* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus lorentzianus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus louise\-bucariae* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus louise\-grisetae* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus lucidus* Benth. ex Loudon * *Lupinus lyman\-bensonii* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus lysichitophilus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus macrocarpus* Hook. \& Arn. * *Lupinus macrocarpus* Torr. * *Lupinus macrophyllus* Benth. * *Lupinus macrorhizos* Georgi * *Lupinus magnistipulatus* Planchuelo \& Dunn * *Lupinus maissurianii* Atabek. \& Polukhina * *Lupinus marcusianus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus mariae\-josephae* H.Pascual * *Lupinus markleanus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus marschallianus* Sweet * *Lupinus mearnsii* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus meli\-campestris* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus meridanus* Moritz ex C. P. Smith * *Lupinus mexiae* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus micensis* M.E.Jones * *Lupinus micheneri* Greene * *Lupinus milleri* J.Agardh * *Lupinus minearanus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus minutissimus* Tamayo * *Lupinus molle* A.Heller * *Lupinus mollissifolius* Davidson * *Lupinus monettianus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus muellerianus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus multicincinnis* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus neglectus* Rose * *Lupinus nemoralis* Greene * *Lupinus niger* Wehmer * *Lupinus noldekae* Eastw. * *Lupinus nutcanus* Spreng. * *Lupinus nutkatensis* J.G.Cooper * *Lupinus obtunsus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus octablomus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus opsianthus* Amabekova \& Maisuran * *Lupinus pavonum* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus pendeltonii* A.Heller * *Lupinus pendletonii* A.Heller * *Lupinus perconfertus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus perplexus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus philistaeus* Boiss. * *Lupinus pinus\-contortae* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus piperi* B.L.Rob. ex Piper * *Lupinus piperitus* Davidson * *Lupinus platanophilus* M.E.Jones * *Lupinus plebeius* Greene ex C.F.Baker * *Lupinus prato\-lacuum* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus prolifer* Desr. * *Lupinus propinquus* Greene * *Lupinus proteanus* Eastw. * *Lupinus psoraleoides* Pollard * *Lupinus pumviridis* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus puroviridis* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus purpurascens* A.Heller * *Lupinus pygmaeus* Tamayo * *Lupinus quercus\-jugi* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus quercuum* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus rainierensis* Eastw. * *Lupinus regius* Rudolph ex Torr. \& A.Gray * *Lupinus rhodanthus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus rickeri* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus rivetianus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus rydbergii* Blank. * *Lupinus sabuli* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus salicisocius* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus salinensis* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus sativus* Gaterau * *Lupinus scaposus* Rydb. * *Lupinus scheuberae* Rydb. * *Lupinus schickendantzii* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus schiedeanus* Steud. * *Lupinus schumannii* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus seclusus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus semiaequus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus semiverticillatus* Desr. * *Lupinus sergenti* Tamayo ex Pittier * *Lupinus sergentii* Tamayo * *Lupinus serradentum* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus shrevei* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus sierrae\-zentae* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus sileri* S.Watson * *Lupinus sinus\-meyersii* C.P. Sm. * *Lupinus sparhawkianus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus spatulata* [Larrañaga](/wiki/D%C3%A1maso_Antonio_Larra%C3%B1aga "Dámaso Antonio Larrañaga") * *Lupinus speciosus* Voss * *Lupinus spruceanus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus standleyensis* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus stationis* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus stiveri* Kellogg * *Lupinus stoloniferus* L. * *Lupinus strigulosus* Gand. * *Lupinus subhirsutus* Davidson * *Lupinus subvolutus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus suksdorfii* B.L. Rob. ex Piper * *Lupinus summersianus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus sylvaticus* Hemsl. * *Lupinus thermis* Gasp. * *Lupinus thermus* St.\-Lag. * *Lupinus tilcaricus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus timotensis* Tamayo * *Lupinus tricolor* Greene * *Lupinus tricolor* G.Nicholson * *Lupinus trifidus* Torr. ex S.Watson * *Lupinus tristis* Sweet * *Lupinus trochophyllus* Hoffmanns. * *Lupinus tuckeranus* C.P. Sm. * *Lupinus vaginans* Benth. * *Lupinus valdepallidus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus vandykeae* Eastw. * *Lupinus variegatus* A.Heller * *Lupinus variegatus* Poir. * *Lupinus varneranus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus vavilovii* Atabekova \& Maissurjan * *Lupinus venustus* Bailly * *Lupinus violaceus* A.Heller * *Lupinus viridicalyx* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus volcanicus* Greene * *Lupinus watsonii* A.Heller * *Lupinus westiana* Small * *Lupinus wolfianus* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus yanlyensis* C.P.Sm. * *Lupinus yaruahensis* C.P.Sm. {{div col end}} ### Hybrids The following hybrids have been described: * *Lupinus* ×*alpestris* (A. Nelson) D.B. Dunn \& J.M. Gillett * *Lupinus* ×*hispanicoluteus* W.Święcicki \& W.K.Święcicki * *Lupinus* ×*hybridus* Lem. * *Lupinus* ×*insignis* Lem. * *Lupinus* ×*regalis* (auct.) Bergmans—rainbow lupin (*Lupinus arboreus* × *Lupinus polyphyllus*) * *Lupinus* ×*versicolor* Caball. ### Etymology While some sources believe the origin of the name to be in doubt, the Collins Dictionary definition asserts that the word is 14th century in origin, from the Latin *lupīnus* "wolfish" from *lupus* "wolf"{{cite dictionary \|url\= https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc\=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999\.04\.0060%3Aentry%3Dlupinus \|title\= lupīnus \|last1\= Lewis \|first1\= Charlton T. \|last2\= Short \|first2\= Charles \|dictionary\= A Latin Dictionary \|edition\= \|publisher\= Perseus Digital Library \|date \= 1879 }} as it was believed that the plant ravenously exhausted the soil.{{Cite web \|title\=Lupin definition and meaning \| Collins English Dictionary \|url\=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/lupin}} But a more likely explanation is that *lupinus* meant that the plants were as dangerous to livestock as wolves, because the alkaloid poisons of Lupines can sicken or kill grazing animals, especially sheep. Farmers have known since ancient Rome Tietz, W., \& von Minckwitz, M.\-C. (2023\). Plant Nutrition in the Roman empire. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, 186, 479–486\. [https://doi.org/10\.1002/jpln.202300152](https://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.202300152) that lupines improve soil by adding nitrogen and loosening compacted earth with their strong root systems, so the Collins explanation is improbable.
[ "Taxonomy\n--------", "{{main\\|List of Lupinus species\\|l1\\=List of Lupinus species}}\nThe genus *Lupinus* L. and, in particular, its North American species were divided by [Sereno Watson](/wiki/Sereno_Watson \"Sereno Watson\") (1873\\) into three sections: *Lupinus*, *Platycarpos*, and *Lupinnelus*. Differences in habitat and in the number of [ovules](/wiki/Ovule \"Ovule\") were the basis for this classification. A majority of the perennial and annual species from the American continent described by Watson were referred to *Lupinus*. Some annual species with two ovules in the ovary and two seeds in the pod (*L. densiflorus*, *L. microcarpus*, etc.) were attributed to the *Platycarpos* section. Section *Lupinnelus* consisted of one species (*L. uncialis*), with axillary and solitary flowers, scarcely reflexed banner, and also with two ovules in the ovary.", "While Watson's work was predominantly based on study of North American species, the later research of Ascherson and Graebner (1907\\) extended his principle of classification to cover all lupins from the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, also using number of ovules (seedbuds) in the ovary (and thus of seeds in the pod) as the criterion for this division. They described two subgenera, *Eulupinus* and *Platycarpos*. Most of the described species were referred to subgen. A. *Eulupinus*. Subgen. B. *Platycarpos* included several annual species from the Eastern Hemisphere with two seedbuds and seeds in the bean (the same species, as the one specified by S. Watson).", "A current schema retains this distinction, but uses the nomenclature for the subgenera of *Platycarpos* and *Lupinus*. In this schema, subgenus [Platycarpos](/wiki/Platycarpos \"Platycarpos\") (S.Wats.) [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich \"Boguslav S. Kurlovich\") contains perennial and annual species from the Western Hemisphere, with a minimum two or more ovules or seedbuds. Subgenus *Lupinus* consists of 12 species from Africa and the Mediterranean, with a minimum of four ovules or seedbuds.Kurlovich, B. S. and A. K. Stankevich. (eds.) [Classification of Lupins.](http://personal.inet.fi/tiede/lupin/Classific.htm) In: *Lupins: Geography, Classification, Genetic Resources and Breeding*. St. Petersburg: Intan. 2002\\. pp. 42–43\\. Accessed 2 August 2013\\.", "The taxonomy of *Lupinus* has always been confusing. How many distinct species exist or how they might be organized within the genus is not clear. The plants are variable and the taxa are not always distinct from one another. Some American taxa have been described as [complexes](/wiki/Species_complex \"Species complex\") rather than separate species.Naganowska, B., et al. (2005\\). [2C DNA variation and relationships among New World species of the genus *Lupinus* (Fabaceae).](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00606-005-0364-y#page-1) *Plant Systematics and Evolution* 256(1\\-4\\), 147\\-57\\. Estimates of the number of lupine species generally fall between 200 and 500\\. One authority places the estimate at approximately 267 species worldwide. Currently, two [subgenera](/wiki/Subgenus \"Subgenus\") are recognized.", "### Subgenus *Platycarpos*", "{{Main\\|Lupinus subg. Platycarpos}}\nThe ovary contains two and more ovules or seedbuds. The seed are predominantly small\\-sized, with an underdeveloped embryo and small amount of endosperm. Cotyledons are small\\-sized, with long caulicles. The first pair of true leaves is alternate. The stem is predominantly naked with [waxen coating](/wiki/Plant_cuticle \"Plant cuticle\"). Dominating is the monopodial type of branching. Leaflets are smooth, with waxen coating or slight pubescence, predominantly narrow. Pods are flat or orbicular, with two or more seeds. Represented by frutcuilose, fruticose and herbaceous perennial forms, or less often annual ones. Plants are cross\\-pollinated. [Chromosome number](/wiki/Ploidy \"Ploidy\") 2*n* is either 36, 48, or 96\\. This subgenus is distributed throughout North, Central and South America, predominantly in the mining systems of the Andes and Cordillera. Some species are cultivated (*L. mutabilis*, *L. polyphyllus*). This subgenus includes several hundred species, requiring further analysis of their authenticity.", "It comprises the following species:{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.ildis.org/LegumeWeb?version\\~10\\.01\\&genus\\~Lupinus\\&species\\~ \\| title \\= ILDIS LegumeWeb entry for ''Lupinus'' \\| author \\= \\| website \\= International Legume Database \\& Information Service \\| publisher \\= Cardiff School of Computer Science \\& Informatics \\| access\\-date \\= 11 April 2014 }}{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.ars\\-grin.gov/cgi\\-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?7036 \\| title \\= GRIN species records of ''Lupinus'' \\| author \\= \\[\\[USDA]], \\[\\[Agricultural Research Service\\|ARS]], National Genetic Resources Program \\| website \\= \\[\\[Germplasm Resources Information Network]]—(GRIN) \\[Online Database] \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Henry A. Wallace Beltsville Agricultural Research Center\\|National Germplasm Resources Laboratory]], Beltsville, Maryland \\| access\\-date \\= 11 April 2014 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20150924122153/http://www.ars\\-grin.gov/cgi\\-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?7036 \\| archive\\-date \\= 24 September 2015 \\| url\\-status \\= dead }}{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.theplantlist.org/1\\.1/browse/A/Leguminosae/Lupinus/ \\| title \\= The Plant List entry for ''Lupinus'' \\| year \\= 2013 \\| website \\= \\[\\[The Plant List]] \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] and the \\[\\[Missouri Botanical Garden]] \\| access\\-date \\= 11 April 2014 }}\n{{div col\\|colwidth\\=300px}}\n* *[Lupinus aberrans](/wiki/Lupinus_aberrans \"Lupinus aberrans\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus abramsii](/wiki/Lupinus_abramsii \"Lupinus abramsii\")* C.P. Sm. – Abrams' lupine\n* *[Lupinus acopalcus](/wiki/Lupinus_acopalcus \"Lupinus acopalcus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus adinoanthus](/wiki/Lupinus_adinoanthus \"Lupinus adinoanthus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus adsurgens](/wiki/Lupinus_adsurgens \"Lupinus adsurgens\")* Drew – Drew's silky lupine\n* *[Lupinus affinis](/wiki/Lupinus_affinis \"Lupinus affinis\")* J. Agardh – fleshy lupine\n* *[Lupinus agardhianus](/wiki/Lupinus_agardhianus \"Lupinus agardhianus\")* A. Heller\n* *[Lupinus alaristatus](/wiki/Lupinus_alaristatus \"Lupinus alaristatus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus albert\\-smithianus](/wiki/Lupinus_albert-smithianus \"Lupinus albert-smithianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus albescens](/wiki/Lupinus_albescens \"Lupinus albescens\")* Hook. \\& Arn. – hoary lupine\n* *[Lupinus albicaulis](/wiki/Lupinus_albicaulis \"Lupinus albicaulis\")* Douglas – sickle\\-keel lupine\n* *[Lupinus albifrons](/wiki/Lupinus_albifrons \"Lupinus albifrons\")* Benth. – silver bush lupine\n\t+ var. *albifrons* Benth.\n\t+ var. *douglasii* (J. Agardh) C. P. Sm.\n\t+ var. *hallii* (Abrams) Isely\n* *[Lupinus albopilosus](/wiki/Lupinus_albopilosus \"Lupinus albopilosus\")* A. Heller\n* *[Lupinus albosericeus](/wiki/Lupinus_albosericeus \"Lupinus albosericeus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus alcis\\-montis](/wiki/Lupinus_alcis-montis \"Lupinus alcis-montis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus aliamandus](/wiki/Lupinus_aliamandus \"Lupinus aliamandus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus aliattenuatus](/wiki/Lupinus_aliattenuatus \"Lupinus aliattenuatus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus alibicolor](/wiki/Lupinus_alibicolor \"Lupinus alibicolor\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus aliceae](/wiki/Lupinus_aliceae \"Lupinus aliceae\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus alilatissimus](/wiki/Lupinus_alilatissimus \"Lupinus alilatissimus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus alinanus](/wiki/Lupinus_alinanus \"Lupinus alinanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus alipatulus](/wiki/Lupinus_alipatulus \"Lupinus alipatulus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus alirevolutus](/wiki/Lupinus_alirevolutus \"Lupinus alirevolutus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus alivillosus](/wiki/Lupinus_alivillosus \"Lupinus alivillosus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus allargyreius](/wiki/Lupinus_allargyreius \"Lupinus allargyreius\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus alopecuroides](/wiki/Lupinus_alopecuroides \"Lupinus alopecuroides\")* Desr.\n* *[Lupinus alpestris](/wiki/Lupinus_alpestris \"Lupinus alpestris\")* A. NelsonSome sources treat *Lupinus alpestris* as a synonym of *Lupinus argenteus*.\n* *[Lupinus altimontanus](/wiki/Lupinus_altimontanus \"Lupinus altimontanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus altiplani](/wiki/Lupinus_altiplani \"Lupinus altiplani\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus amabayensis](/wiki/Lupinus_amabayensis \"Lupinus amabayensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus amandus](/wiki/Lupinus_amandus \"Lupinus amandus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus amboensis](/wiki/Lupinus_amboensis \"Lupinus amboensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus ammophilus](/wiki/Lupinus_ammophilus \"Lupinus ammophilus\")* Greene\n\t+ var. *ammophilus* Greene\n\t+ var. *crassus* (Payson) Isely\n* *[Lupinus amnis\\-otuni](/wiki/Lupinus_amnis-otuni \"Lupinus amnis-otuni\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus ampaiensis](/wiki/Lupinus_ampaiensis \"Lupinus ampaiensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus amphibius](/wiki/Lupinus_amphibius \"Lupinus amphibius\")* Suksd.\n* *[Lupinus ananeanus](/wiki/Lupinus_ananeanus \"Lupinus ananeanus\")* Ulbr.\n* *[Lupinus anatolicus](/wiki/Lupinus_anatolicus \"Lupinus anatolicus\")* W. Święcicki \\& W. K. Święcicki\n* *[Lupinus andersonii](/wiki/Lupinus_andersonii \"Lupinus andersonii\")* S. Watson – Anderson's lupine\n* *[Lupinus andicola](/wiki/Lupinus_andicola \"Lupinus andicola\")* Gillies\n* *[Lupinus andinus](/wiki/Lupinus_andinus \"Lupinus andinus\")* Rose ex J. F. Macbr.\n* *[Lupinus angustiflorus](/wiki/Lupinus_angustiflorus \"Lupinus angustiflorus\")* Eastw. – narrowflower lupine\n* *[Lupinus antensis](/wiki/Lupinus_antensis \"Lupinus antensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus antiplani](/wiki/Lupinus_antiplani \"Lupinus antiplani\")* C. P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus antoninus](/wiki/Lupinus_antoninus \"Lupinus antoninus\")* Eastw. – Anthony Peak lupine\n* *[Lupinus apertus](/wiki/Lupinus_apertus \"Lupinus apertus\")* A. Heller\n* *[Lupinus appositus](/wiki/Lupinus_appositus \"Lupinus appositus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus arboreus](/wiki/Lupinus_arboreus \"Lupinus arboreus\")* Sims – yellow bush lupin, tree lupine\n* *[Lupinus arbustus](/wiki/Lupinus_arbustus \"Lupinus arbustus\")* Lindl. – longspur lupine\n\t+ subsp. *arbustus* Lindl.\n\t+ subsp. *neolaxiflorus* D.B.Dunn\n\t+ subsp. *pseudoparviflorus* (Rydb.) D.B.Dunn\n* *[Lupinus arbutosocius](/wiki/Lupinus_arbutosocius \"Lupinus arbutosocius\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus archeranus](/wiki/Lupinus_archeranus \"Lupinus archeranus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus arcticus](/wiki/Lupinus_arcticus \"Lupinus arcticus\")* S. Watson – Arctic lupine\n\t+ subsp. *arcticus* S. Watson\n\t+ subsp. *subalpinus* (Piper \\& Robinson)D.B.Dunn\n* *[Lupinus arenarius](/wiki/Lupinus_arenarius \"Lupinus arenarius\")* Gardner\n* *[Lupinus arequipensis](/wiki/Lupinus_arequipensis \"Lupinus arequipensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus argenteus](/wiki/Lupinus_argenteus \"Lupinus argenteus\")* Pursh – silvery lupine\n\t+ var. *argentatus* (Rydb.) Barneby\n\t+ var. *argenteus* Pursh\n\t+ var. *argophyllus* (A. Gray) S. Watson\n\t+ var. *depressus* (Rydb.) C. L. Hitchc.\n\t+ var. *fulvomaculatus* (Payson) Barneby\n\t+ var. *heteranthus* (S. Watson) Barneby – Kellogg's spurred lupine\n\t+ var. *hillii* (Greene) Barneby\n\t+ var. *holosericeus* (Torr. \\& A.Gray) Barneby\n\t+ var. *montigenus* (A. Heller) Barneby\n\t+ var. *palmeri* (S.Watson) Barneby\n\t+ var. *rubricaulis* (Greene) S. L. Welsh\n\t+ var. *utahensis* (S.Watson) Barneby\n* *[Lupinus argurocalyx](/wiki/Lupinus_argurocalyx \"Lupinus argurocalyx\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus aridorum](/wiki/Lupinus_aridorum \"Lupinus aridorum\")* McFarlin ex Beckner – scrub lupineSome sources treat *Lupinus aridorum* as a synonym of *Lupinus westianus*.\n* *[Lupinus aridulus](/wiki/Lupinus_aridulus \"Lupinus aridulus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus aridus](/wiki/Lupinus_aridus \"Lupinus aridus\")* Lindl.Some sources treat *Lupinus aridus* as a synonym of *[Lupinus lepidus](/wiki/Lupinus_lepidus \"Lupinus lepidus\")*.\n* *[Lupinus ariste\\-josephii](/wiki/Lupinus_ariste-josephii \"Lupinus ariste-josephii\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus arizelus](/wiki/Lupinus_arizelus \"Lupinus arizelus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus arizonicus](/wiki/Lupinus_arizonicus \"Lupinus arizonicus\")* (S. Watson) S. Watson\n\t+ subsp. *arizonicus* (S. Watson) S. Watson – Arizona lupine\n\t+ subsp. *sonorensis* Christian \\& D. Dunn – Sonora lupine\n* *[Lupinus arvensi\\-plasketti](/wiki/Lupinus_arvensi-plasketti \"Lupinus arvensi-plasketti\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus arvensis](/wiki/Lupinus_arvensis \"Lupinus arvensis\")* Benth.\n* *[Lupinus asa\\-grayanus](/wiki/Lupinus_asa-grayanus \"Lupinus asa-grayanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus aschenbornii](/wiki/Lupinus_aschenbornii \"Lupinus aschenbornii\")* S. Schauer\n* *[Lupinus asplundianus](/wiki/Lupinus_asplundianus \"Lupinus asplundianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus asymbepus](/wiki/Lupinus_asymbepus \"Lupinus asymbepus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus atropurpureus](/wiki/Lupinus_atropurpureus \"Lupinus atropurpureus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus attenuatus](/wiki/Lupinus_attenuatus \"Lupinus attenuatus\")* GardnerSome sources treat *Lupinus attenuatus* as a synonym of *Lupinus coriaceus*.\n* *[Lupinus aureonitens](/wiki/Lupinus_aureonitens \"Lupinus aureonitens\")* Hook. \\& Arn.\n* *[Lupinus austrobicolor](/wiki/Lupinus_austrobicolor \"Lupinus austrobicolor\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus austrohumifusus](/wiki/Lupinus_austrohumifusus \"Lupinus austrohumifusus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus austrorientalis](/wiki/Lupinus_austrorientalis \"Lupinus austrorientalis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus austrosericeus](/wiki/Lupinus_austrosericeus \"Lupinus austrosericeus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus ballianus](/wiki/Lupinus_ballianus \"Lupinus ballianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus bandelierae](/wiki/Lupinus_bandelierae \"Lupinus bandelierae\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus bangii](/wiki/Lupinus_bangii \"Lupinus bangii\")* Rusby\n* *[Lupinus barbatilabius](/wiki/Lupinus_barbatilabius \"Lupinus barbatilabius\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus barkeri](/wiki/Lupinus_barkeri \"Lupinus barkeri\")* Lindl.\n* *[Lupinus bartlettianus](/wiki/Lupinus_bartlettianus \"Lupinus bartlettianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus benthamii](/wiki/Lupinus_benthamii \"Lupinus benthamii\")* A. Heller\n* *[Lupinus bi\\-inclinatus](/wiki/Lupinus_bi-inclinatus \"Lupinus bi-inclinatus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus bicolor](/wiki/Lupinus_bicolor \"Lupinus bicolor\")* Lindl. – miniature lupine, bicolor lupine, Lindley's annual lupine\n\t+ subsp. *bicolor* Lindl.\n\t+ subsp. *microphyllus* (S. Watson) D. B. Dunn\n\t+ subsp. *pipersmithii* (A. Heller) D. B. Dunn\n\t+ subsp. *umbellatus* (Greene) D. B. Dunn\n* *[Lupinus bingenensis](/wiki/Lupinus_bingenensis \"Lupinus bingenensis\")* Suksd. – Bingen lupine\n* *[Lupinus blaisdellii](/wiki/Lupinus_blaisdellii \"Lupinus blaisdellii\")* Eastw.\n* *[Lupinus bogotensis](/wiki/Lupinus_bogotensis \"Lupinus bogotensis\")* Benth.\n* *[Lupinus bolivianus](/wiki/Lupinus_bolivianus \"Lupinus bolivianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus bombycinocarpus](/wiki/Lupinus_bombycinocarpus \"Lupinus bombycinocarpus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus bonplandius](/wiki/Lupinus_bonplandius \"Lupinus bonplandius\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus boyacensis](/wiki/Lupinus_boyacensis \"Lupinus boyacensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus brachypremnon](/wiki/Lupinus_brachypremnon \"Lupinus brachypremnon\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus bracteolaris](/wiki/Lupinus_bracteolaris \"Lupinus bracteolaris\")* Desr.\n* *[Lupinus brandegeei](/wiki/Lupinus_brandegeei \"Lupinus brandegeei\")* Eastw.\n* *[Lupinus brevecuneus](/wiki/Lupinus_brevecuneus \"Lupinus brevecuneus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus brevicaulis](/wiki/Lupinus_brevicaulis \"Lupinus brevicaulis\")* S. Watson – shortstem lupineSome sources treat *Lupinus brevicaulis* as a synonym of *Lupinus grisebachianus*.\n* *[Lupinus brevior](/wiki/Lupinus_brevior \"Lupinus brevior\")* (Jeps.) Christian \\& D.B. Dunn\n* *[Lupinus breviscapus](/wiki/Lupinus_breviscapus \"Lupinus breviscapus\")* Ulbr.\n* *[Lupinus breweri](/wiki/Lupinus_breweri \"Lupinus breweri\")* A. Gray – Brewer's lupine\n* *[Lupinus bryoides](/wiki/Lupinus_bryoides \"Lupinus bryoides\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus buchtienii](/wiki/Lupinus_buchtienii \"Lupinus buchtienii\")* Rusby\n* *[Lupinus burkartianus](/wiki/Lupinus_burkartianus \"Lupinus burkartianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus burkei](/wiki/Lupinus_burkei \"Lupinus burkei\")* S. Watson – Burke's lupineSome sources treat *Lupinus burkei* as a synonym of *Lupinus polyphyllus*.\n* *[Lupinus burkeri](/wiki/Lupinus_burkeri \"Lupinus burkeri\")* Lindl.\n* *[Lupinus caballoanus](/wiki/Lupinus_caballoanus \"Lupinus caballoanus\")* B.L. Turner\n* *[Lupinus cachupatensis](/wiki/Lupinus_cachupatensis \"Lupinus cachupatensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus cacuminis](/wiki/Lupinus_cacuminis \"Lupinus cacuminis\")* Standl.\n* *[Lupinus caeruleus](/wiki/Lupinus_caeruleus \"Lupinus caeruleus\")* A. Heller\n* *[Lupinus caesius](/wiki/Lupinus_caesius \"Lupinus caesius\")* Eastw.\n* *[Lupinus caespitosus](/wiki/Lupinus_caespitosus \"Lupinus caespitosus\")* Torr. \\& A. Gray – stemless dwarf lupineSome sources treat *Lupinus caespitosus* as a synonym of *Lupinus lepidus*.\n* *[Lupinus calcensis](/wiki/Lupinus_calcensis \"Lupinus calcensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus caldasensis](/wiki/Lupinus_caldasensis \"Lupinus caldasensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus camiloanus](/wiki/Lupinus_camiloanus \"Lupinus camiloanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus campestris](/wiki/Lupinus_campestris \"Lupinus campestris\")* Schltdl. \\& Cham.\n* *[Lupinus carazensis](/wiki/Lupinus_carazensis \"Lupinus carazensis\")* Ulbr.\n* *[Lupinus carchiensis](/wiki/Lupinus_carchiensis \"Lupinus carchiensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus cardenasianus](/wiki/Lupinus_cardenasianus \"Lupinus cardenasianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus carhuamayus](/wiki/Lupinus_carhuamayus \"Lupinus carhuamayus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus carlos\\-ochoae](/wiki/Lupinus_carlos-ochoae \"Lupinus carlos-ochoae\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus carpapaticus](/wiki/Lupinus_carpapaticus \"Lupinus carpapaticus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus carrikeri](/wiki/Lupinus_carrikeri \"Lupinus carrikeri\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus caucensis](/wiki/Lupinus_caucensis \"Lupinus caucensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus cavicaulis](/wiki/Lupinus_cavicaulis \"Lupinus cavicaulis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus ccorilazensis](/wiki/Lupinus_ccorilazensis \"Lupinus ccorilazensis\")* Vargas ex C. P. Smith\n* *[Lupinus celsimontanus](/wiki/Lupinus_celsimontanus \"Lupinus celsimontanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus cervinus](/wiki/Lupinus_cervinus \"Lupinus cervinus\")* Kellogg – Santa Lucia lupine\n* *[Lupinus cesar\\-vargasii](/wiki/Lupinus_cesar-vargasii \"Lupinus cesar-vargasii\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus cesaranus](/wiki/Lupinus_cesaranus \"Lupinus cesaranus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus chachas](/wiki/Lupinus_chachas \"Lupinus chachas\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus chamissonis](/wiki/Lupinus_chamissonis \"Lupinus chamissonis\")* Eschsch. – Chamisso bush lupine\n* *[Lupinus chavanillensis](/wiki/Lupinus_chavanillensis \"Lupinus chavanillensis\")* (J.F. Macbr.) C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus chipaquensis](/wiki/Lupinus_chipaquensis \"Lupinus chipaquensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus chlorolepis](/wiki/Lupinus_chlorolepis \"Lupinus chlorolepis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus chocontensis](/wiki/Lupinus_chocontensis \"Lupinus chocontensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus chongos\\-bajous](/wiki/Lupinus_chongos-bajous \"Lupinus chongos-bajous\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus christinae](/wiki/Lupinus_christinae \"Lupinus christinae\")* A. Heller\n* *[Lupinus chrysanthus](/wiki/Lupinus_chrysanthus \"Lupinus chrysanthus\")* Ulbr.\n* *[Lupinus chrysocalyx](/wiki/Lupinus_chrysocalyx \"Lupinus chrysocalyx\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus chumbivilcensis](/wiki/Lupinus_chumbivilcensis \"Lupinus chumbivilcensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus citrinus](/wiki/Lupinus_citrinus \"Lupinus citrinus\")* Kellogg – orange lupine\n* *[Lupinus clarkei](/wiki/Lupinus_clarkei \"Lupinus clarkei\")* Oerst.\n* *[Lupinus cochapatensis](/wiki/Lupinus_cochapatensis \"Lupinus cochapatensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus colcabambensis](/wiki/Lupinus_colcabambensis \"Lupinus colcabambensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus collinus](/wiki/Lupinus_collinus \"Lupinus collinus\")* (Greene) A. Heller\n* *[Lupinus colombiensis](/wiki/Lupinus_colombiensis \"Lupinus colombiensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus compactiflorus](/wiki/Lupinus_compactiflorus \"Lupinus compactiflorus\")* Rose\n* *[Lupinus comptus](/wiki/Lupinus_comptus \"Lupinus comptus\")* Benth.\n* *[Lupinus concinnus](/wiki/Lupinus_concinnus \"Lupinus concinnus\")* J. Agardh\n\t+ subsp. *concinnus* J. Agardh\n\t+ subsp. *orcuttii* (S.Watson) D.B.Dunn\n* *[Lupinus condensiflorus](/wiki/Lupinus_condensiflorus \"Lupinus condensiflorus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus confertus](/wiki/Lupinus_confertus \"Lupinus confertus\")* KelloggSome sources treat *Lupinus confertus* as a synonym of *Lupinus lepidus*.\n* *[Lupinus congdonii](/wiki/Lupinus_congdonii \"Lupinus congdonii\")* (C.P. Sm.) D.B. Dunn\n* *[Lupinus conicus](/wiki/Lupinus_conicus \"Lupinus conicus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus constancei](/wiki/Lupinus_constancei \"Lupinus constancei\")* T.W. Nelson \\& J.P. Nelson – Lassics lupine\n* *[Lupinus convencionensis](/wiki/Lupinus_convencionensis \"Lupinus convencionensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus cookianus](/wiki/Lupinus_cookianus \"Lupinus cookianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus coriaceus](/wiki/Lupinus_coriaceus \"Lupinus coriaceus\")* Benth.\n* *[Lupinus costaricensis](/wiki/Lupinus_costaricensis \"Lupinus costaricensis\")* D.B. Dunn\n* *[Lupinus cotopaxiensis](/wiki/Lupinus_cotopaxiensis \"Lupinus cotopaxiensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus couthouyanus](/wiki/Lupinus_couthouyanus \"Lupinus couthouyanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus covillei](/wiki/Lupinus_covillei \"Lupinus covillei\")* Greene – shaggy lupine\n* *[Lupinus crassulus](/wiki/Lupinus_crassulus \"Lupinus crassulus\")* Greene\n* *[Lupinus crassus](/wiki/Lupinus_crassus \"Lupinus crassus\")* PaysonSome sources treat *Lupinus crassus* as a synonym of *Lupinus ammophilus*.\n* *[Lupinus croceus](/wiki/Lupinus_croceus \"Lupinus croceus\")* Eastw. – saffron\\-flowered lupine\n* *[Lupinus crotalarioides](/wiki/Lupinus_crotalarioides \"Lupinus crotalarioides\")* Benth.\n* *[Lupinus crucis\\-viridis](/wiki/Lupinus_crucis-viridis \"Lupinus crucis-viridis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus cuatrecasasii](/wiki/Lupinus_cuatrecasasii \"Lupinus cuatrecasasii\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus culbertsonii](/wiki/Lupinus_culbertsonii \"Lupinus culbertsonii\")* Greene\n\t+ subsp. *culbertsonii* Greene\n\t+ subsp. *hypolasius* (Greene) B.J.Cox\n* *[Lupinus cumulicola](/wiki/Lupinus_cumulicola \"Lupinus cumulicola\")* SmallSome sources treat *Lupinus cumulicola* as a synonym of *Lupinus diffusus*.\n* *[Lupinus cusickii](/wiki/Lupinus_cusickii \"Lupinus cusickii\")* S. Watson\n\t+ subsp. *abortivus* (Greene) B.J.Cox\n\t+ subsp. *brachypodus* (Piper) B.J.Cox\n\t+ subsp. *cusickii* S. Watson\n* *[Lupinus cuspidatus](/wiki/Lupinus_cuspidatus \"Lupinus cuspidatus\")* Rusby\n* *[Lupinus cuzcensis](/wiki/Lupinus_cuzcensis \"Lupinus cuzcensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus cymboides](/wiki/Lupinus_cymboides \"Lupinus cymboides\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus czermakii](/wiki/Lupinus_czermakii \"Lupinus czermakii\")* Briq. \\& Hochr.\n* *[Lupinus dalesiae](/wiki/Lupinus_dalesiae \"Lupinus dalesiae\")* Eastw. – Quincy lupine\n* *[Lupinus decemplex](/wiki/Lupinus_decemplex \"Lupinus decemplex\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus decurrens](/wiki/Lupinus_decurrens \"Lupinus decurrens\")* Gardner\n* *[Lupinus deflexus](/wiki/Lupinus_deflexus \"Lupinus deflexus\")* Congdon\n* *[Lupinus delicatulus](/wiki/Lupinus_delicatulus \"Lupinus delicatulus\")* Sprague \\& Riley\n* *[Lupinus densiflorus](/wiki/Lupinus_densiflorus \"Lupinus densiflorus\")* Benth. – dense\\-flowered lupinSome sources treat *Lupinus densiflorus* as a synonym of *Lupinus microcarpus*.\n\t+ subsp. *densiflorus* Benth.\n\t+ subsp. *lacteus* (Kellogg) R.M.Beauch.\n* *[Lupinus depressus](/wiki/Lupinus_depressus \"Lupinus depressus\")* Rydb.Some sources treat *Lupinus depressus* as a synonym of *Lupinus argenteus*.\n* *[Lupinus diasemus](/wiki/Lupinus_diasemus \"Lupinus diasemus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus diehlii](/wiki/Lupinus_diehlii \"Lupinus diehlii\")* M.E. Jones\n* *[Lupinus diffusus](/wiki/Lupinus_diffusus \"Lupinus diffusus\")* Nutt. – spreading lupine, Oak Ridge lupine, sky\\-blue lupine\n* *[Lupinus disjunctus](/wiki/Lupinus_disjunctus \"Lupinus disjunctus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus diversalpicola](/wiki/Lupinus_diversalpicola \"Lupinus diversalpicola\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus dorae](/wiki/Lupinus_dorae \"Lupinus dorae\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus dotatus](/wiki/Lupinus_dotatus \"Lupinus dotatus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus duranii](/wiki/Lupinus_duranii \"Lupinus duranii\")* Eastw. – Mono Lake lupine\n* *[Lupinus dusenianus](/wiki/Lupinus_dusenianus \"Lupinus dusenianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus eanophyllus](/wiki/Lupinus_eanophyllus \"Lupinus eanophyllus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus edysomatus](/wiki/Lupinus_edysomatus \"Lupinus edysomatus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus egens](/wiki/Lupinus_egens \"Lupinus egens\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus elaphoglossum](/wiki/Lupinus_elaphoglossum \"Lupinus elaphoglossum\")* Barneby\n* *[Lupinus elatus](/wiki/Lupinus_elatus \"Lupinus elatus\")* I.M. Johnst. – tall silky lupine\n* *[Lupinus elegans](/wiki/Lupinus_elegans \"Lupinus elegans\")* Kunth – elegant lupine\n* *[Lupinus elegantulus](/wiki/Lupinus_elegantulus \"Lupinus elegantulus\")* Eastw.\n* *[Lupinus ellsworthianus](/wiki/Lupinus_ellsworthianus \"Lupinus ellsworthianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus elmeri](/wiki/Lupinus_elmeri \"Lupinus elmeri\")* Greene – Elmer's lupine\n* *[Lupinus eramosus](/wiki/Lupinus_eramosus \"Lupinus eramosus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus erectifolius](/wiki/Lupinus_erectifolius \"Lupinus erectifolius\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus eremonomus](/wiki/Lupinus_eremonomus \"Lupinus eremonomus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus eriocalyx](/wiki/Lupinus_eriocalyx \"Lupinus eriocalyx\")* (C.P. Sm.) C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus eriocladus](/wiki/Lupinus_eriocladus \"Lupinus eriocladus\")* Ulbr.\n* *[Lupinus evermannii](/wiki/Lupinus_evermannii \"Lupinus evermannii\")* Rydb.\n* *[Lupinus espinarensis](/wiki/Lupinus_espinarensis \"Lupinus espinarensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus exaltatus](/wiki/Lupinus_exaltatus \"Lupinus exaltatus\")* Zucc.\n* *[Lupinus excubitus](/wiki/Lupinus_excubitus \"Lupinus excubitus\")* M.E. Jones – grape soda lupine\n\t+ subsp. *austromontanus* (A.Heller) R.M.Beauch.\n\t+ subsp. *excubitus* M.E. Jones\n* *[Lupinus exochus](/wiki/Lupinus_exochus \"Lupinus exochus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus expetendus](/wiki/Lupinus_expetendus \"Lupinus expetendus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus extrarius](/wiki/Lupinus_extrarius \"Lupinus extrarius\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus falsomutabilis](/wiki/Lupinus_falsomutabilis \"Lupinus falsomutabilis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus falsoprostratus](/wiki/Lupinus_falsoprostratus \"Lupinus falsoprostratus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus falsorevolutus](/wiki/Lupinus_falsorevolutus \"Lupinus falsorevolutus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus famelicus](/wiki/Lupinus_famelicus \"Lupinus famelicus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus fiebrigianus](/wiki/Lupinus_fiebrigianus \"Lupinus fiebrigianus\")* Ulbr.\n* *[Lupinus fieldii](/wiki/Lupinus_fieldii \"Lupinus fieldii\")* J.F. Macbr.\n* *[Lupinus fissicalyx](/wiki/Lupinus_fissicalyx \"Lupinus fissicalyx\")* A. Heller\n* *[Lupinus flavoculatus](/wiki/Lupinus_flavoculatus \"Lupinus flavoculatus\")* A. Heller\n* *[Lupinus foliolosus](/wiki/Lupinus_foliolosus \"Lupinus foliolosus\")* Benth.\n* *[Lupinus formosus](/wiki/Lupinus_formosus \"Lupinus formosus\")* Greene – summer lupine\n\t+ var. *bridgesii* (S.Watson) Greene\n\t+ var. *formosus* Greene\n* *[Lupinus fragrans](/wiki/Lupinus_fragrans \"Lupinus fragrans\")* A. Heller\n* *[Lupinus francis\\-whittieri](/wiki/Lupinus_francis-whittieri \"Lupinus francis-whittieri\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus fratrum](/wiki/Lupinus_fratrum \"Lupinus fratrum\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus fulcratus](/wiki/Lupinus_fulcratus \"Lupinus fulcratus\")* Greene\n* *[Lupinus gachetensis](/wiki/Lupinus_gachetensis \"Lupinus gachetensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus garfieldensis](/wiki/Lupinus_garfieldensis \"Lupinus garfieldensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus gaudichaudianus](/wiki/Lupinus_gaudichaudianus \"Lupinus gaudichaudianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus gayanus](/wiki/Lupinus_gayanus \"Lupinus gayanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus gentryanus](/wiki/Lupinus_gentryanus \"Lupinus gentryanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus geophilus](/wiki/Lupinus_geophilus \"Lupinus geophilus\")* Rose\n* *[Lupinus gibertianus](/wiki/Lupinus_gibertianus \"Lupinus gibertianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus giganteus](/wiki/Lupinus_giganteus \"Lupinus giganteus\")* Rose\n* *[Lupinus glabratus](/wiki/Lupinus_glabratus \"Lupinus glabratus\")* J. Agardh\n* *[Lupinus goodspeedii](/wiki/Lupinus_goodspeedii \"Lupinus goodspeedii\")* J.F. Macbr.\n* *[Lupinus gormanii](/wiki/Lupinus_gormanii \"Lupinus gormanii\")* Piper\n* *[Lupinus gracilentus](/wiki/Lupinus_gracilentus \"Lupinus gracilentus\")* Greene\n* *[Lupinus grayi](/wiki/Lupinus_grayi \"Lupinus grayi\")* S. Watson – Sierra lupine\n* *[Lupinus grauensis](/wiki/Lupinus_grauensis \"Lupinus grauensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus grisebachianus](/wiki/Lupinus_grisebachianus \"Lupinus grisebachianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus guadalupensis](/wiki/Lupinus_guadalupensis \"Lupinus guadalupensis\")* C.P. Sm. – Guadalupe Island lupine\n* *[Lupinus guaraniticus](/wiki/Lupinus_guaraniticus \"Lupinus guaraniticus\")* (Hassl.) C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus guascensis](/wiki/Lupinus_guascensis \"Lupinus guascensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus guggenheimianus](/wiki/Lupinus_guggenheimianus \"Lupinus guggenheimianus\")* Rusby\n* *[Lupinus hamaticalyx](/wiki/Lupinus_hamaticalyx \"Lupinus hamaticalyx\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus hartmannii](/wiki/Lupinus_hartmannii \"Lupinus hartmannii\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus hartwegii](/wiki/Lupinus_hartwegii \"Lupinus hartwegii\")* Lindl.Some sources treat *Lupinus hartwegii* as a synonym of *Lupinus mexicanus*.\n* *[Lupinus haughtianus](/wiki/Lupinus_haughtianus \"Lupinus haughtianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus hautcarazensis](/wiki/Lupinus_hautcarazensis \"Lupinus hautcarazensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus havardii](/wiki/Lupinus_havardii \"Lupinus havardii\")* S. Watson\n* *[Lupinus hazenanus](/wiki/Lupinus_hazenanus \"Lupinus hazenanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus hendersonii](/wiki/Lupinus_hendersonii \"Lupinus hendersonii\")* Eastw.\n* *[Lupinus heptaphyllus](/wiki/Lupinus_heptaphyllus \"Lupinus heptaphyllus\")* (Vell.) Hassl.Some sources treat *Lupinus heptaphyllus* as a synonym of *Lupinus gibertianus*.\n* *[Lupinus herreranus](/wiki/Lupinus_herreranus \"Lupinus herreranus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus herzogii](/wiki/Lupinus_herzogii \"Lupinus herzogii\")* Ulbr.\n* *[Lupinus hieronymii](/wiki/Lupinus_hieronymii \"Lupinus hieronymii\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus hilarianus](/wiki/Lupinus_hilarianus \"Lupinus hilarianus\")* Benth.Some sources treat *Lupinus hilarianus* as a synonym of *Lupinus gibertianus*.\n* *[Lupinus hillii](/wiki/Lupinus_hillii \"Lupinus hillii\")* GreeneSome sources treat *Lupinus hillii* as a synonym of *Lupinus argenteus*.\n* *[Lupinus hinkleyorum](/wiki/Lupinus_hinkleyorum \"Lupinus hinkleyorum\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus hintoniorum](/wiki/Lupinus_hintoniorum \"Lupinus hintoniorum\")* B.L. Turner\n* *[Lupinus hirsutissimus](/wiki/Lupinus_hirsutissimus \"Lupinus hirsutissimus\")* Benth. – stinging lupine\n* *[Lupinus holmgrenianus](/wiki/Lupinus_holmgrenianus \"Lupinus holmgrenianus\")* C.P. Sm. – Holmgren's lupine\n* *[Lupinus honoratus](/wiki/Lupinus_honoratus \"Lupinus honoratus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus horizontalis](/wiki/Lupinus_horizontalis \"Lupinus horizontalis\")* A. Heller\n* *[Lupinus hornemanni](/wiki/Lupinus_hornemanni \"Lupinus hornemanni\")* J. Agardh\n* *[Lupinus hortonianus](/wiki/Lupinus_hortonianus \"Lupinus hortonianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus hortorum](/wiki/Lupinus_hortorum \"Lupinus hortorum\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus howard\\-scottii](/wiki/Lupinus_howard-scottii \"Lupinus howard-scottii\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus howardii](/wiki/Lupinus_howardii \"Lupinus howardii\")* M.E. Jones\n* *[Lupinus huachucanus](/wiki/Lupinus_huachucanus \"Lupinus huachucanus\")* M.E. Jones\n* *[Lupinus huancayoensis](/wiki/Lupinus_huancayoensis \"Lupinus huancayoensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus huariacus](/wiki/Lupinus_huariacus \"Lupinus huariacus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus huaronensis](/wiki/Lupinus_huaronensis \"Lupinus huaronensis\")* J.F. Macbr.\n* *[Lupinus huigrensis](/wiki/Lupinus_huigrensis \"Lupinus huigrensis\")* Rose ex C. P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus humifusus](/wiki/Lupinus_humifusus \"Lupinus humifusus\")* Sessé \\& Moc. ex G. Don\n* *[Lupinus hyacinthinus](/wiki/Lupinus_hyacinthinus \"Lupinus hyacinthinus\")* C.F. Baker – San Jacinto lupine\n* *[Lupinus hybridus](/wiki/Lupinus_hybridus \"Lupinus hybridus\")* Lem.\n* *[Lupinus ignobilis](/wiki/Lupinus_ignobilis \"Lupinus ignobilis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus imminutus](/wiki/Lupinus_imminutus \"Lupinus imminutus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus indigoticus](/wiki/Lupinus_indigoticus \"Lupinus indigoticus\")* Eastw.\n* *[Lupinus inflatus](/wiki/Lupinus_inflatus \"Lupinus inflatus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus insignis](/wiki/Lupinus_insignis \"Lupinus insignis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus insulae](/wiki/Lupinus_insulae \"Lupinus insulae\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus interruptus](/wiki/Lupinus_interruptus \"Lupinus interruptus\")* Benth.\n* *[Lupinus intortus](/wiki/Lupinus_intortus \"Lupinus intortus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus inusitatus](/wiki/Lupinus_inusitatus \"Lupinus inusitatus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus involutus](/wiki/Lupinus_involutus \"Lupinus involutus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus inyoensis](/wiki/Lupinus_inyoensis \"Lupinus inyoensis\")* A. Heller\n* *[Lupinus isabelianus](/wiki/Lupinus_isabelianus \"Lupinus isabelianus\")* Eastw.\n* *[Lupinus jahnii](/wiki/Lupinus_jahnii \"Lupinus jahnii\")* Rose ex Pittier\n* *[Lupinus jaimehintoniana](/wiki/Lupinus_jaimehintoniana \"Lupinus jaimehintoniana\")* B.L. Turner\n* *[Lupinus james\\-westii](/wiki/Lupinus_james-westii \"Lupinus james-westii\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus jean\\-julesii](/wiki/Lupinus_jean-julesii \"Lupinus jean-julesii\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus jelskianus](/wiki/Lupinus_jelskianus \"Lupinus jelskianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus johannis\\-howellii](/wiki/Lupinus_johannis-howellii \"Lupinus johannis-howellii\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus jonesii](/wiki/Lupinus_jonesii \"Lupinus jonesii\")* Rydb.\n* *[Lupinus jujuyensis](/wiki/Lupinus_jujuyensis \"Lupinus jujuyensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus juninensis](/wiki/Lupinus_juninensis \"Lupinus juninensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus kalenbornorum](/wiki/Lupinus_kalenbornorum \"Lupinus kalenbornorum\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus kellermanianus](/wiki/Lupinus_kellermanianus \"Lupinus kellermanianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus kerrii](/wiki/Lupinus_kerrii \"Lupinus kerrii\")* Eastw.\n* *[Lupinus killipianus](/wiki/Lupinus_killipianus \"Lupinus killipianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus kingii](/wiki/Lupinus_kingii \"Lupinus kingii\")* S. Watson\n* *[Lupinus klamathensis](/wiki/Lupinus_klamathensis \"Lupinus klamathensis\")* Eastw.\n* *[Lupinus kunthii](/wiki/Lupinus_kunthii \"Lupinus kunthii\")* J. Agardh\n* *[Lupinus kuschei](/wiki/Lupinus_kuschei \"Lupinus kuschei\")* Eastw. – Yukon lupine\n* *[Lupinus lacus](/wiki/Lupinus_lacus \"Lupinus lacus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus laetus](/wiki/Lupinus_laetus \"Lupinus laetus\")* Wooton \\& Standl.\n* *[Lupinus laevigatus](/wiki/Lupinus_laevigatus \"Lupinus laevigatus\")* Benth.\n* *[Lupinus lagunae\\-negrae](/wiki/Lupinus_lagunae-negrae \"Lupinus lagunae-negrae\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus lanatocarpus](/wiki/Lupinus_lanatocarpus \"Lupinus lanatocarpus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus lanatus](/wiki/Lupinus_lanatus \"Lupinus lanatus\")* Benth.\n* *[Lupinus lapidicola](/wiki/Lupinus_lapidicola \"Lupinus lapidicola\")* A. Heller – Mt. Eddy lupine\n* *[Lupinus latifolius](/wiki/Lupinus_latifolius \"Lupinus latifolius\")* J. Agardh\n\t+ subsp. *dudleyi* (C.P.Sm.) P.Kenney \\& D.B.Dunn\n\t+ subsp. *latifolius* J. Agardh\n\t\t- var. *latifolius* J. Agardh – broadleaf lupine\n\t\t- var. *[barbatus](/wiki/Lupinus_latifolius_var._barbatus \"Lupinus latifolius var. barbatus\")* – Klamath lupine, bearded lupine\n\t+ subsp. *leucanthus* (Rydb.)P.Kenney \\& D.B.Dunn\n\t+ subsp. *longipes* (Greene) P.Kenney \\& D.B.Dunn\n\t+ subsp. *parishii* (C.P.Sm.) P.Kenney \\& D.B.Dunn\n\t+ subsp. *viridifolius* (A.Heller) P.Kenney \\& D.B.Dunn\n* *[Lupinus laudandrus](/wiki/Lupinus_laudandrus \"Lupinus laudandrus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus lechlerianus](/wiki/Lupinus_lechlerianus \"Lupinus lechlerianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus ledigianus](/wiki/Lupinus_ledigianus \"Lupinus ledigianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus lelandsmithii](/wiki/Lupinus_lelandsmithii \"Lupinus lelandsmithii\")* Eastw.\n* *[Lupinus lemmonii](/wiki/Lupinus_lemmonii \"Lupinus lemmonii\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus lepidus](/wiki/Lupinus_lepidus \"Lupinus lepidus\")* Lindl. – prairie lupine\n\t+ var. *aridus* (Douglas) Jeps.\n\t+ var. *confertus* (Kellogg) C. P. Sm.\n\t+ var. *lepidus* Lindl.\n\t+ var. *lobbii* (A. Gray ex S. Watson) C. L. Hitchc.\n\t+ var. *sellulus* (Kellogg) Barneby\n\t+ var. *utahensis* (S. Watson) C. L. Hitchc.\n* *[Lupinus leptocarpus](/wiki/Lupinus_leptocarpus \"Lupinus leptocarpus\")* Benth.\n* *[Lupinus leptophyllus](/wiki/Lupinus_leptophyllus \"Lupinus leptophyllus\")* Cham. \\& Schltdl.\n* *[Lupinus lespedezoides](/wiki/Lupinus_lespedezoides \"Lupinus lespedezoides\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus leucophyllus](/wiki/Lupinus_leucophyllus \"Lupinus leucophyllus\")* Lindl. – woolly\\-leaf lupine\n* *[Lupinus lilacinus](/wiki/Lupinus_lilacinus \"Lupinus lilacinus\")* A. Heller\n* *[Lupinus lindenianus](/wiki/Lupinus_lindenianus \"Lupinus lindenianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus lindleyanus](/wiki/Lupinus_lindleyanus \"Lupinus lindleyanus\")* J. Agardh\n* *[Lupinus linearis](/wiki/Lupinus_linearis \"Lupinus linearis\")* Desr.\n* *[Lupinus littoralis](/wiki/Lupinus_littoralis \"Lupinus littoralis\")* Lindl. – seashore lupine\n* *[Lupinus lobbianus](/wiki/Lupinus_lobbianus \"Lupinus lobbianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus longifolius](/wiki/Lupinus_longifolius \"Lupinus longifolius\")* (S. Watson) Abrams – longleaf bush lupine\n* *[Lupinus lorenzensis](/wiki/Lupinus_lorenzensis \"Lupinus lorenzensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus ludovicianus](/wiki/Lupinus_ludovicianus \"Lupinus ludovicianus\")* Greene – San Luis Obispo County Lupine\n* *[Lupinus luetzelburgianus](/wiki/Lupinus_luetzelburgianus \"Lupinus luetzelburgianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus luteolus](/wiki/Lupinus_luteolus \"Lupinus luteolus\")* Kellogg – butter lupine, pale yellow lupineSome sources treat *Lupinus luteolus* as a synonym of *Lupinus luteus*.\n* *[Lupinus lutescens](/wiki/Lupinus_lutescens \"Lupinus lutescens\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus lutosus](/wiki/Lupinus_lutosus \"Lupinus lutosus\")* A. Heller\n* *[Lupinus lyallii](/wiki/Lupinus_lyallii \"Lupinus lyallii\")* A. GraySome sources treat *Lupinus lyallii* as a synonym of *Lupinus lepidus*.\n\t+ subsp. *alcis\\-temporis* (C.P. Sm.) B.J.Cox\n\t+ subsp. *lyallii* A. Gray – Lyall's lupine\n\t+ subsp. *minutifolius* (Eastw.) B.J.Cox\n\t+ subsp. *washoensis* (A.Heller) B.J.Cox\n* *[Lupinus macbrideanus](/wiki/Lupinus_macbrideanus \"Lupinus macbrideanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus macranthus](/wiki/Lupinus_macranthus \"Lupinus macranthus\")* Rose\n* *[Lupinus maculatus](/wiki/Lupinus_maculatus \"Lupinus maculatus\")* Rydb.\n* *[Lupinus madrensis](/wiki/Lupinus_madrensis \"Lupinus madrensis\")* Seem.\n* *[Lupinus magdalenensis](/wiki/Lupinus_magdalenensis \"Lupinus magdalenensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus magnificus](/wiki/Lupinus_magnificus \"Lupinus magnificus\")* M.E. Jones\n* *[Lupinus magniflorus](/wiki/Lupinus_magniflorus \"Lupinus magniflorus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus magnistipulatus](/wiki/Lupinus_magnistipulatus \"Lupinus magnistipulatus\")* Planchuelo \\& D.B. Dunn\n* *[Lupinus malacophyllus](/wiki/Lupinus_malacophyllus \"Lupinus malacophyllus\")* Greene\n* *[Lupinus malacotrichus](/wiki/Lupinus_malacotrichus \"Lupinus malacotrichus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus maleopinatus](/wiki/Lupinus_maleopinatus \"Lupinus maleopinatus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus mandonanus](/wiki/Lupinus_mandonanus \"Lupinus mandonanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus mantaroensis](/wiki/Lupinus_mantaroensis \"Lupinus mantaroensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus marinensis](/wiki/Lupinus_marinensis \"Lupinus marinensis\")* Eastw.\n* *[Lupinus mariposanus](/wiki/Lupinus_mariposanus \"Lupinus mariposanus\")* Eastw.\n* *[Lupinus martensis](/wiki/Lupinus_martensis \"Lupinus martensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus martinetianus](/wiki/Lupinus_martinetianus \"Lupinus martinetianus\")* (C.P. Sm.) C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus mathewsianus](/wiki/Lupinus_mathewsianus \"Lupinus mathewsianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus matucanicus](/wiki/Lupinus_matucanicus \"Lupinus matucanicus\")* Ulbr.Some sources treat *Lupinus matucanicus* as a synonym of *Lupinus lindleyanus*.\n* *[Lupinus meionanthus](/wiki/Lupinus_meionanthus \"Lupinus meionanthus\")* A. Gray\n* *[Lupinus melaphyllus](/wiki/Lupinus_melaphyllus \"Lupinus melaphyllus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus menziesii](/wiki/Lupinus_menziesii \"Lupinus menziesii\")* J. Agardh\n* *[Lupinus meridanus](/wiki/Lupinus_meridanus \"Lupinus meridanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus metensis](/wiki/Lupinus_metensis \"Lupinus metensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus mexicanus](/wiki/Lupinus_mexicanus \"Lupinus mexicanus\")* Lag.\n* *[Lupinus michelianus](/wiki/Lupinus_michelianus \"Lupinus michelianus\")* C. P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus microcarpus](/wiki/Lupinus_microcarpus \"Lupinus microcarpus\")* Sims\n\t+ var. *densiflorus*\n\t+ var. *microcarpus* – wide\\-bannered lupin, chick lupin\n* *[Lupinus microphyllus](/wiki/Lupinus_microphyllus \"Lupinus microphyllus\")* Desr.\n* *[Lupinus minimus](/wiki/Lupinus_minimus \"Lupinus minimus\")* Hook.Some sources treat *Lupinus minimus* as a synonym of *Lupinus lepidus*.\n* *[Lupinus mirabilis](/wiki/Lupinus_mirabilis \"Lupinus mirabilis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus misticola](/wiki/Lupinus_misticola \"Lupinus misticola\")* Ulbr.\n* *[Lupinus mollendoensis](/wiki/Lupinus_mollendoensis \"Lupinus mollendoensis\")* Ulbr.\n* *[Lupinus mollis](/wiki/Lupinus_mollis \"Lupinus mollis\")* A. Heller\n* *[Lupinus monensis](/wiki/Lupinus_monensis \"Lupinus monensis\")* Eastw.\n* *[Lupinus monserratensis](/wiki/Lupinus_monserratensis \"Lupinus monserratensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus montanus](/wiki/Lupinus_montanus \"Lupinus montanus\")* Kunth\n\t+ subsp. *glabrior* (S.Watson) D.B.Dunn \\& Harmon\n\t+ subsp. *montanus* Kunth\n\t+ subsp. *montesii* (C.P.Sm.) D.B.Dunn \\& Harmon\n* *[Lupinus monticola](/wiki/Lupinus_monticola \"Lupinus monticola\")* Rydb.\n* *[Lupinus montigenus](/wiki/Lupinus_montigenus \"Lupinus montigenus\")* A. HellerSome sources treat *Lupinus montigenus* as a synonym of *Lupinus argenteus*.\n* *[Lupinus moritzianus](/wiki/Lupinus_moritzianus \"Lupinus moritzianus\")* Kunth\n* *[Lupinus mucronulatus](/wiki/Lupinus_mucronulatus \"Lupinus mucronulatus\")* Howell\n* *[Lupinus muelleri](/wiki/Lupinus_muelleri \"Lupinus muelleri\")* Standl.\n* *[Lupinus multiflorus](/wiki/Lupinus_multiflorus \"Lupinus multiflorus\")* Desr.\n* *[Lupinus munzianus](/wiki/Lupinus_munzianus \"Lupinus munzianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus munzii](/wiki/Lupinus_munzii \"Lupinus munzii\")* Eastw.\n* *[Lupinus mutabilis](/wiki/Lupinus_mutabilis \"Lupinus mutabilis\")* Sweet – Andean lupin, pearl lupin, South American lupin, *tarwi*, *tarhui*, *chocho*\n* *[Lupinus nanus](/wiki/Lupinus_nanus \"Lupinus nanus\")* Benth. – dwarf lupin, field lupin, sky lupin, Douglas' annual lupin\n* *[Lupinus navicularius](/wiki/Lupinus_navicularius \"Lupinus navicularius\")* A. Heller\n* *[Lupinus nehmadae](/wiki/Lupinus_nehmadae \"Lupinus nehmadae\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus neocotus](/wiki/Lupinus_neocotus \"Lupinus neocotus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus neomexicanus](/wiki/Lupinus_neomexicanus \"Lupinus neomexicanus\")* Greene\n* *[Lupinus nepubescens](/wiki/Lupinus_nepubescens \"Lupinus nepubescens\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus nevadensis](/wiki/Lupinus_nevadensis \"Lupinus nevadensis\")* A. Heller – Nevada lupine\n* *[Lupinus niederleinianus](/wiki/Lupinus_niederleinianus \"Lupinus niederleinianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus nipomensis](/wiki/Lupinus_nipomensis \"Lupinus nipomensis\")* Eastw. – Nipomo Mesa lupine\n* *[Lupinus niveus](/wiki/Lupinus_niveus \"Lupinus niveus\")* S. Watson\n* *[Lupinus nonoensis](/wiki/Lupinus_nonoensis \"Lupinus nonoensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus nootkatensis](/wiki/Lupinus_nootkatensis \"Lupinus nootkatensis\")* Sims – Nootka lupin\n* *[Lupinus notabilis](/wiki/Lupinus_notabilis \"Lupinus notabilis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus nubigenus](/wiki/Lupinus_nubigenus \"Lupinus nubigenus\")* Kunth\n* *[Lupinus nubilorum](/wiki/Lupinus_nubilorum \"Lupinus nubilorum\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus obscurus](/wiki/Lupinus_obscurus \"Lupinus obscurus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus obtusilobus](/wiki/Lupinus_obtusilobus \"Lupinus obtusilobus\")* A. Heller – bluntlobe lupine\n* *[Lupinus ochoanus](/wiki/Lupinus_ochoanus \"Lupinus ochoanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus ochroleucus](/wiki/Lupinus_ochroleucus \"Lupinus ochroleucus\")* Eastw.\n* *[Lupinus odoratus](/wiki/Lupinus_odoratus \"Lupinus odoratus\")* A. Heller – royal Mojave lupin\n* *[Lupinus onustus](/wiki/Lupinus_onustus \"Lupinus onustus\")* S. Watson – Plumas lupine\n* *[Lupinus opertospicus](/wiki/Lupinus_opertospicus \"Lupinus opertospicus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus oquendoanus](/wiki/Lupinus_oquendoanus \"Lupinus oquendoanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus oreganus](/wiki/Lupinus_oreganus \"Lupinus oreganus\")* A. Heller – Oregon lupinSome sources treat *Lupinus oreganus* as a synonym of *Lupinus sulphureus*.\n* *[Lupinus oreophilus](/wiki/Lupinus_oreophilus \"Lupinus oreophilus\")* Phil.\n* *[Lupinus ornatus](/wiki/Lupinus_ornatus \"Lupinus ornatus\")* Lindl.Some sources treat *Lupinus ornatus* as a synonym of *Lupinus sericeus*.\n* *[Lupinus oscar\\-haughtii](/wiki/Lupinus_oscar-haughtii \"Lupinus oscar-haughtii\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus ostiofluminis](/wiki/Lupinus_ostiofluminis \"Lupinus ostiofluminis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus otto\\-buchtienii](/wiki/Lupinus_otto-buchtienii \"Lupinus otto-buchtienii\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus otto\\-kuntzeanus](/wiki/Lupinus_otto-kuntzeanus \"Lupinus otto-kuntzeanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus otuzcoensis](/wiki/Lupinus_otuzcoensis \"Lupinus otuzcoensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus ovalifolius](/wiki/Lupinus_ovalifolius \"Lupinus ovalifolius\")* Benth.\n* *[Lupinus pachanoanus](/wiki/Lupinus_pachanoanus \"Lupinus pachanoanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus pachitensis](/wiki/Lupinus_pachitensis \"Lupinus pachitensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus pachylobus](/wiki/Lupinus_pachylobus \"Lupinus pachylobus\")* Greene\n* *[Lupinus padre\\-crowleyi](/wiki/Lupinus_padre-crowleyi \"Lupinus padre-crowleyi\")* C.P. Sm. – DeDecker's lupine, Father Crowley's lupine\n* *[Lupinus pallidus](/wiki/Lupinus_pallidus \"Lupinus pallidus\")* Brandegee\n* *[Lupinus paniculatus](/wiki/Lupinus_paniculatus \"Lupinus paniculatus\")* Desr.\n* *[Lupinus paraguariensis](/wiki/Lupinus_paraguariensis \"Lupinus paraguariensis\")* Chodat \\& Hassl.\n* *[Lupinus paranensis](/wiki/Lupinus_paranensis \"Lupinus paranensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus paruroensis](/wiki/Lupinus_paruroensis \"Lupinus paruroensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus parviflorus](/wiki/Lupinus_parviflorus \"Lupinus parviflorus\")* Hook. \\& Arn. – lodgepole lupin\n\t+ subsp. *myrianthus* (Greene) Harmon\n\t+ subsp. *parviflorus* Hook. \\& Arn.\n* *[Lupinus parvifolius](/wiki/Lupinus_parvifolius \"Lupinus parvifolius\")* Gardner\n* *[Lupinus pasachoensis](/wiki/Lupinus_pasachoensis \"Lupinus pasachoensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus pasadenensis](/wiki/Lupinus_pasadenensis \"Lupinus pasadenensis\")* Eastw.\n* *[Lupinus patulus](/wiki/Lupinus_patulus \"Lupinus patulus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus paucartambensis](/wiki/Lupinus_paucartambensis \"Lupinus paucartambensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus paucovillosus](/wiki/Lupinus_paucovillosus \"Lupinus paucovillosus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus paynei](/wiki/Lupinus_paynei \"Lupinus paynei\")* Davidson\n* *[Lupinus pearceanus](/wiki/Lupinus_pearceanus \"Lupinus pearceanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus pendentiflorus](/wiki/Lupinus_pendentiflorus \"Lupinus pendentiflorus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus peirsonii](/wiki/Lupinus_peirsonii \"Lupinus peirsonii\")* H. Mason – Peirson's lupine, long lupine\n* *[Lupinus penlandianus](/wiki/Lupinus_penlandianus \"Lupinus penlandianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus perblandus](/wiki/Lupinus_perblandus \"Lupinus perblandus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus perbonus](/wiki/Lupinus_perbonus \"Lupinus perbonus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus perennis](/wiki/Lupinus_perennis \"Lupinus perennis\")* L. – wild perennial lupine, sundial lupine, Indian beet, old maid's bonnets\n\t+ subsp. *gracilis* (Nutt.) D.B.Dunn\n\t+ subsp. *occidentalis* S. Watson\n\t+ subsp. *perennis* L.\n* *[Lupinus perglaber](/wiki/Lupinus_perglaber \"Lupinus perglaber\")* Eastw.\n* *[Lupinus perissophytus](/wiki/Lupinus_perissophytus \"Lupinus perissophytus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus persistens](/wiki/Lupinus_persistens \"Lupinus persistens\")* Rose\n* *[Lupinus peruvianus](/wiki/Lupinus_peruvianus \"Lupinus peruvianus\")* Ulbr.\n* *[Lupinus philippianus](/wiki/Lupinus_philippianus \"Lupinus philippianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus physodes](/wiki/Lupinus_physodes \"Lupinus physodes\")* Douglas\n* *[Lupinus pickeringii](/wiki/Lupinus_pickeringii \"Lupinus pickeringii\")* A. Gray\n* *[Lupinus pilosellus](/wiki/Lupinus_pilosellus \"Lupinus pilosellus\")* Eastw.\n* *[Lupinus pilosissimus](/wiki/Lupinus_pilosissimus \"Lupinus pilosissimus\")* M. Martens \\& Galeotti\n* *[Lupinus pinguis](/wiki/Lupinus_pinguis \"Lupinus pinguis\")* Ulbr.\n* *[Lupinus pipersmithianus](/wiki/Lupinus_pipersmithianus \"Lupinus pipersmithianus\")* J.F. Macbr.\n* *[Lupinus pisacensis](/wiki/Lupinus_pisacensis \"Lupinus pisacensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus piurensis](/wiki/Lupinus_piurensis \"Lupinus piurensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus platamodes](/wiki/Lupinus_platamodes \"Lupinus platamodes\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus plattensis](/wiki/Lupinus_plattensis \"Lupinus plattensis\")* S. Watson\n* *[Lupinus platyptenus](/wiki/Lupinus_platyptenus \"Lupinus platyptenus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus polycarpus](/wiki/Lupinus_polycarpus \"Lupinus polycarpus\")* GreeneSome sources treat *Lupinus polycarpus* as a synonym of *Lupinus bicolor*. – smallflower lupin\n* *[Lupinus polyphyllus](/wiki/Lupinus_polyphyllus \"Lupinus polyphyllus\")* Lindl. – largeleaf lupine, bigleaf lupine, garden lupin, many\\-leaved lupine\n\t+ var. *burkei* (S. Watson) C. L. Hitchc.\n\t+ var. *humicola* (A.Nelson) Barneby\n\t+ var. *pallidipes* (A. Heller) C. P. Sm.\n\t+ var. *polyphyllus* Lindl.\n\t+ var. *prunophilus* (M. E. Jones) L. Ll. Phillips\n* *[Lupinus poopoensis](/wiki/Lupinus_poopoensis \"Lupinus poopoensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus popayanensis](/wiki/Lupinus_popayanensis \"Lupinus popayanensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus potosinus](/wiki/Lupinus_potosinus \"Lupinus potosinus\")* Rose\n* *[Lupinus praealtus](/wiki/Lupinus_praealtus \"Lupinus praealtus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus praestabilis](/wiki/Lupinus_praestabilis \"Lupinus praestabilis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus praetermissus](/wiki/Lupinus_praetermissus \"Lupinus praetermissus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus pratensis](/wiki/Lupinus_pratensis \"Lupinus pratensis\")* A.HellerSome sources treat *Lupinus pratensis* as a synonym of *Lupinus confertus*. – Inyo Meadow lupine\n* *[Lupinus pringlei](/wiki/Lupinus_pringlei \"Lupinus pringlei\")* Rose\n* *[Lupinus proculaustrinus](/wiki/Lupinus_proculaustrinus \"Lupinus proculaustrinus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus prostratus](/wiki/Lupinus_prostratus \"Lupinus prostratus\")* J. Agardh\n* *[Lupinus protrusus](/wiki/Lupinus_protrusus \"Lupinus protrusus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus prouvensalanus](/wiki/Lupinus_prouvensalanus \"Lupinus prouvensalanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus prunophilus](/wiki/Lupinus_prunophilus \"Lupinus prunophilus\")* M.E. JonesSome sources treat *Lupinus prunophilus* as a synonym of *Lupinus polyphyllus*. – hairy bigleaf lupin\n* *[Lupinus pseudopolyphyllus](/wiki/Lupinus_pseudopolyphyllus \"Lupinus pseudopolyphyllus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus pseudotsugoides](/wiki/Lupinus_pseudotsugoides \"Lupinus pseudotsugoides\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus pubescens](/wiki/Lupinus_pubescens \"Lupinus pubescens\")* Benth.\n* *[Lupinus pucapucensis](/wiki/Lupinus_pucapucensis \"Lupinus pucapucensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus pulloviridus](/wiki/Lupinus_pulloviridus \"Lupinus pulloviridus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus pulvinaris](/wiki/Lupinus_pulvinaris \"Lupinus pulvinaris\")* Ulbr.\n* *[Lupinus punto\\-reyesensis](/wiki/Lupinus_punto-reyesensis \"Lupinus punto-reyesensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus puracensis](/wiki/Lupinus_puracensis \"Lupinus puracensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus purdieanus](/wiki/Lupinus_purdieanus \"Lupinus purdieanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus pureriae](/wiki/Lupinus_pureriae \"Lupinus pureriae\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus purosericeus](/wiki/Lupinus_purosericeus \"Lupinus purosericeus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus pusillus](/wiki/Lupinus_pusillus \"Lupinus pusillus\")* Pursh – rusty lupine or dwarf lupine\n\t+ subsp. *intermontanus* (A.Heller) D.B.Dunn\n\t+ subsp. *pusillus* Pursh\n* *[Lupinus puyupatensis](/wiki/Lupinus_puyupatensis \"Lupinus puyupatensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus pycnostachys](/wiki/Lupinus_pycnostachys \"Lupinus pycnostachys\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus quellomayus](/wiki/Lupinus_quellomayus \"Lupinus quellomayus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus quitensis](/wiki/Lupinus_quitensis \"Lupinus quitensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus radiatus](/wiki/Lupinus_radiatus \"Lupinus radiatus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus ramosissimus](/wiki/Lupinus_ramosissimus \"Lupinus ramosissimus\")* Benth.\n* *[Lupinus reflexus](/wiki/Lupinus_reflexus \"Lupinus reflexus\")* Rose\n* *[Lupinus regalis](/wiki/Lupinus_regalis \"Lupinus regalis\")* Bergmans\n* *[Lupinus regnellianus](/wiki/Lupinus_regnellianus \"Lupinus regnellianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus reineckianus](/wiki/Lupinus_reineckianus \"Lupinus reineckianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus reitzii](/wiki/Lupinus_reitzii \"Lupinus reitzii\")* Burkart ex M. Pinheiro \\& Miotto\n* *[Lupinus retrorsus](/wiki/Lupinus_retrorsus \"Lupinus retrorsus\")* L.F. Hend.\n* *[Lupinus revolutus](/wiki/Lupinus_revolutus \"Lupinus revolutus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus richardianus](/wiki/Lupinus_richardianus \"Lupinus richardianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus rimae](/wiki/Lupinus_rimae \"Lupinus rimae\")* Eastw.\n* *[Lupinus rivularis](/wiki/Lupinus_rivularis \"Lupinus rivularis\")* Lindl. – riverbank lupin\n* *[Lupinus romasanus](/wiki/Lupinus_romasanus \"Lupinus romasanus\")* Ulbr.\n* *[Lupinus roseolus](/wiki/Lupinus_roseolus \"Lupinus roseolus\")* Rydb.\n* *[Lupinus roseorum](/wiki/Lupinus_roseorum \"Lupinus roseorum\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus rotundiflorus](/wiki/Lupinus_rotundiflorus \"Lupinus rotundiflorus\")* M.E. Jones\n* *[Lupinus rowleeanus](/wiki/Lupinus_rowleeanus \"Lupinus rowleeanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus ruber](/wiki/Lupinus_ruber \"Lupinus ruber\")* A. HellerSome sources treat *Lupinus ruber* as a synonym of *Lupinus microcarpus*.\n* *[Lupinus rubriflorus](/wiki/Lupinus_rubriflorus \"Lupinus rubriflorus\")* Planchuelo\n* *[Lupinus ruizensis](/wiki/Lupinus_ruizensis \"Lupinus ruizensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus rupestris](/wiki/Lupinus_rupestris \"Lupinus rupestris\")* Kunth\n* *[Lupinus rusbyanus](/wiki/Lupinus_rusbyanus \"Lupinus rusbyanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus russellianus](/wiki/Lupinus_russellianus \"Lupinus russellianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus sabinianus](/wiki/Lupinus_sabinianus \"Lupinus sabinianus\")* Lindl.\n* *[Lupinus sabinii](/wiki/Lupinus_sabinii \"Lupinus sabinii\")* Hook.\n* *[Lupinus sabulosus](/wiki/Lupinus_sabulosus \"Lupinus sabulosus\")* A. Heller\n* *[Lupinus salticola](/wiki/Lupinus_salticola \"Lupinus salticola\")* Eastw.\n* *[Lupinus sandiensis](/wiki/Lupinus_sandiensis \"Lupinus sandiensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus santanderensis](/wiki/Lupinus_santanderensis \"Lupinus santanderensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus sarmentosus](/wiki/Lupinus_sarmentosus \"Lupinus sarmentosus\")* Desr.\n* *[Lupinus saxatilis](/wiki/Lupinus_saxatilis \"Lupinus saxatilis\")* Ulbr.\n* *[Lupinus saxosus](/wiki/Lupinus_saxosus \"Lupinus saxosus\")* Howell – rock lupine\n* *[Lupinus schwackeanus](/wiki/Lupinus_schwackeanus \"Lupinus schwackeanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus seifrizianus](/wiki/Lupinus_seifrizianus \"Lupinus seifrizianus\")* (C.P. Sm.) C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus sellowianus](/wiki/Lupinus_sellowianus \"Lupinus sellowianus\")* Harms\n* *[Lupinus sellulus](/wiki/Lupinus_sellulus \"Lupinus sellulus\")* KelloggSome sources treat *Lupinus sellulus* as a synonym of *Lupinus lepidus*.\n\t+ var. *lobbii* (S.Watson) B.J.Cox\n\t+ var. *sellulus* Kellogg\n\t+ var. *ursinus* (Eastw.) B.J.Cox\n* *[Lupinus semiprostratus](/wiki/Lupinus_semiprostratus \"Lupinus semiprostratus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus semperflorens](/wiki/Lupinus_semperflorens \"Lupinus semperflorens\")* Benth.\n* *[Lupinus sericatus](/wiki/Lupinus_sericatus \"Lupinus sericatus\")* Kellogg – Cobb Mountain lupine\n* *[Lupinus sericeus](/wiki/Lupinus_sericeus \"Lupinus sericeus\")* Pursh – Pursh's silky lupin\n\t+ var. *barbiger* (S.Watson) S.L.Welsh\n\t+ var. *sericeus* Pursh\n* *[Lupinus setifolius](/wiki/Lupinus_setifolius \"Lupinus setifolius\")* Planchuelo \\& D.B. Dunn\n* *[Lupinus shastensis](/wiki/Lupinus_shastensis \"Lupinus shastensis\")* Lupinus albicaulis\n* *[Lupinus shockleyi](/wiki/Lupinus_shockleyi \"Lupinus shockleyi\")* S. Watson – purple desert lupine\n* *[Lupinus sierrae\\-blancae](/wiki/Lupinus_sierrae-blancae \"Lupinus sierrae-blancae\")* Wooton \\& Standl.\n\t+ subsp. *aquilinus* (Wooton \\& Standl.) L.S.Fleak \\& D.B.Dunn\n\t+ subsp. *sierrae\\-blancae* Wooton \\& Standl.\n* *[Lupinus simonsianus](/wiki/Lupinus_simonsianus \"Lupinus simonsianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus simulans](/wiki/Lupinus_simulans \"Lupinus simulans\")* Rose\n* *[Lupinus sinaloensis](/wiki/Lupinus_sinaloensis \"Lupinus sinaloensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus sitgreavesii](/wiki/Lupinus_sitgreavesii \"Lupinus sitgreavesii\")* S. Watson\n* *[Lupinus smithianus](/wiki/Lupinus_smithianus \"Lupinus smithianus\")* Kunth\n* *[Lupinus solanagrorum](/wiki/Lupinus_solanagrorum \"Lupinus solanagrorum\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus sonomensis](/wiki/Lupinus_sonomensis \"Lupinus sonomensis\")* A. Heller\n* *[Lupinus soratensis](/wiki/Lupinus_soratensis \"Lupinus soratensis\")* Rusby\n* *[Lupinus soukupianus](/wiki/Lupinus_soukupianus \"Lupinus soukupianus\")* C. P. Smith ex J. F. Macbr.\n* *[Lupinus sparsiflorus](/wiki/Lupinus_sparsiflorus \"Lupinus sparsiflorus\")* Benth. – desert lupin, Coulter's lupin, Mojave lupin\n* *[Lupinus spectabilis](/wiki/Lupinus_spectabilis \"Lupinus spectabilis\")* Hoover – shaggyhair lupine\n* *[Lupinus splendens](/wiki/Lupinus_splendens \"Lupinus splendens\")* Rose\n* *[Lupinus spragueanus](/wiki/Lupinus_spragueanus \"Lupinus spragueanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus staffordiae](/wiki/Lupinus_staffordiae \"Lupinus staffordiae\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus stipulatus](/wiki/Lupinus_stipulatus \"Lupinus stipulatus\")* J. Agardh\n* *[Lupinus stiversii](/wiki/Lupinus_stiversii \"Lupinus stiversii\")* Kellogg – harlequin annual lupine\n* *[Lupinus storkianus](/wiki/Lupinus_storkianus \"Lupinus storkianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus subacaulis](/wiki/Lupinus_subacaulis \"Lupinus subacaulis\")* Griseb.\n* *[Lupinus subcarnosus](/wiki/Lupinus_subcarnosus \"Lupinus subcarnosus\")* Hook. – buffalo clover\n* *[Lupinus subcuneatus](/wiki/Lupinus_subcuneatus \"Lupinus subcuneatus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus subhamatus](/wiki/Lupinus_subhamatus \"Lupinus subhamatus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus subinflatus](/wiki/Lupinus_subinflatus \"Lupinus subinflatus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus sublanatus](/wiki/Lupinus_sublanatus \"Lupinus sublanatus\")* Eastw.\n* *[Lupinus submontanus](/wiki/Lupinus_submontanus \"Lupinus submontanus\")* Rose\n* *[Lupinus subsessilis](/wiki/Lupinus_subsessilis \"Lupinus subsessilis\")* Benth.\n* *[Lupinus subtomentosus](/wiki/Lupinus_subtomentosus \"Lupinus subtomentosus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus subvexus](/wiki/Lupinus_subvexus \"Lupinus subvexus\")* C.P. Sm.Some sources treat *Lupinus subvexus* as a synonym of *Lupinus microcarpus*.\n* *[Lupinus succulentus](/wiki/Lupinus_succulentus \"Lupinus succulentus\")* K. Koch – succulent lupin, arroyo lupin, hollowleaf annual lupin\n* *[Lupinus sufferrugineus](/wiki/Lupinus_sufferrugineus \"Lupinus sufferrugineus\")* Rusby\n* *[Lupinus suksdorfii](/wiki/Lupinus_suksdorfii \"Lupinus suksdorfii\")* Robinson\n* *[Lupinus sulphureus](/wiki/Lupinus_sulphureus \"Lupinus sulphureus\")* Douglas\n\t+ subsp. *kincaidii* (Suksd.) L. Ll. Phillips – Kincaid's lupin\n\t+ subsp. *subsaccatus* (Suksd.) L. Ll. Phillips\n\t+ subsp. *sulphureus* Douglas – sulphur lupin, sulphur\\-flowered lupin\n* *[Lupinus surcoensis](/wiki/Lupinus_surcoensis \"Lupinus surcoensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus syriggedes](/wiki/Lupinus_syriggedes \"Lupinus syriggedes\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus tacitus](/wiki/Lupinus_tacitus \"Lupinus tacitus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus tafiensis](/wiki/Lupinus_tafiensis \"Lupinus tafiensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus talahuensis](/wiki/Lupinus_talahuensis \"Lupinus talahuensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus tamayoanus](/wiki/Lupinus_tamayoanus \"Lupinus tamayoanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus tarapacensis](/wiki/Lupinus_tarapacensis \"Lupinus tarapacensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus tarijensis](/wiki/Lupinus_tarijensis \"Lupinus tarijensis\")* Ulbr.\n* *[Lupinus tarmaensis](/wiki/Lupinus_tarmaensis \"Lupinus tarmaensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus tatei](/wiki/Lupinus_tatei \"Lupinus tatei\")* Rusby\n* *[Lupinus taurimortuus](/wiki/Lupinus_taurimortuus \"Lupinus taurimortuus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus tauris](/wiki/Lupinus_tauris \"Lupinus tauris\")* Benth.\n* *[Lupinus tayacajensis](/wiki/Lupinus_tayacajensis \"Lupinus tayacajensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus tegeticulatus](/wiki/Lupinus_tegeticulatus \"Lupinus tegeticulatus\")* Eastw.\n* *[Lupinus tetracercophorus](/wiki/Lupinus_tetracercophorus \"Lupinus tetracercophorus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus texanus](/wiki/Lupinus_texanus \"Lupinus texanus\")* Hook.\n* *[Lupinus texensis](/wiki/Lupinus_texensis \"Lupinus texensis\")* Hook. – Texas bluebonnet\n* *[Lupinus thompsonianus](/wiki/Lupinus_thompsonianus \"Lupinus thompsonianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus tidestromii](/wiki/Lupinus_tidestromii \"Lupinus tidestromii\")* Greene – Tidestrøm's lupin\n\t+ var. *layneae* (Eastw.) Munz\n\t+ var. *tidestromii* Greene\n* *[Lupinus tolimensis](/wiki/Lupinus_tolimensis \"Lupinus tolimensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus tomentosus](/wiki/Lupinus_tomentosus \"Lupinus tomentosus\")* DC.\n* *[Lupinus tominensis](/wiki/Lupinus_tominensis \"Lupinus tominensis\")* Wedd.\n* *[Lupinus toratensis](/wiki/Lupinus_toratensis \"Lupinus toratensis\")* C.P. Sm. – *warwanzo*, *lito*\n* *[Lupinus tracyi](/wiki/Lupinus_tracyi \"Lupinus tracyi\")* Eastw. – Tracy's lupine\n* *[Lupinus triananus](/wiki/Lupinus_triananus \"Lupinus triananus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus truncatus](/wiki/Lupinus_truncatus \"Lupinus truncatus\")* Hook. \\& Arn. – collared annual lupine\n* *[Lupinus tucumanensis](/wiki/Lupinus_tucumanensis \"Lupinus tucumanensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus ulbrichianus](/wiki/Lupinus_ulbrichianus \"Lupinus ulbrichianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus uleanus](/wiki/Lupinus_uleanus \"Lupinus uleanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus ultramontanus](/wiki/Lupinus_ultramontanus \"Lupinus ultramontanus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus umidicola](/wiki/Lupinus_umidicola \"Lupinus umidicola\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus uncialis](/wiki/Lupinus_uncialis \"Lupinus uncialis\")* S. Watson\n* *[Lupinus uncinatus](/wiki/Lupinus_uncinatus \"Lupinus uncinatus\")* Schltdl.\n* *[Lupinus urcoensis](/wiki/Lupinus_urcoensis \"Lupinus urcoensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus urubambensis](/wiki/Lupinus_urubambensis \"Lupinus urubambensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus valerioi](/wiki/Lupinus_valerioi \"Lupinus valerioi\")* Standl.\n* *[Lupinus vallicola](/wiki/Lupinus_vallicola \"Lupinus vallicola\")* A. Heller – open lupin\n\t+ subsp. *apricus* (Greene) D.B.Dunn\n\t+ subsp. *vallicola* A. Heller\n* *[Lupinus vargasianus](/wiki/Lupinus_vargasianus \"Lupinus vargasianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus varicaulis](/wiki/Lupinus_varicaulis \"Lupinus varicaulis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus variicolor](/wiki/Lupinus_variicolor \"Lupinus variicolor\")* Steud. – varied lupin\n* *[Lupinus velillensis](/wiki/Lupinus_velillensis \"Lupinus velillensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus velutinus](/wiki/Lupinus_velutinus \"Lupinus velutinus\")* Benth.\n* *[Lupinus venezuelensis](/wiki/Lupinus_venezuelensis \"Lupinus venezuelensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus ventosus](/wiki/Lupinus_ventosus \"Lupinus ventosus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus verbasciformis](/wiki/Lupinus_verbasciformis \"Lupinus verbasciformis\")* Sandwith\n* *[Lupinus verjonensis](/wiki/Lupinus_verjonensis \"Lupinus verjonensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus vernicius](/wiki/Lupinus_vernicius \"Lupinus vernicius\")* Rose\n* *[Lupinus viduus](/wiki/Lupinus_viduus \"Lupinus viduus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus vilcabambensis](/wiki/Lupinus_vilcabambensis \"Lupinus vilcabambensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus villosus](/wiki/Lupinus_villosus \"Lupinus villosus\")* Willd.\n* *[Lupinus visoensis](/wiki/Lupinus_visoensis \"Lupinus visoensis\")* J.F. Macbr.\n* *[Lupinus volubilis](/wiki/Lupinus_volubilis \"Lupinus volubilis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus weberbaueri](/wiki/Lupinus_weberbaueri \"Lupinus weberbaueri\")* Ulbr.\n* *[Lupinus werdermannianus](/wiki/Lupinus_werdermannianus \"Lupinus werdermannianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus westianus](/wiki/Lupinus_westianus \"Lupinus westianus\")* Small\n\t+ var. *aridorum* (McFarlin ex Beckner) Isely\n\t+ var. *westianus* Small\n* *[Lupinus whiltoniae](/wiki/Lupinus_whiltoniae \"Lupinus whiltoniae\")* Eastw.\n* *[Lupinus wilkesianus](/wiki/Lupinus_wilkesianus \"Lupinus wilkesianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus williamlobbii](/wiki/Lupinus_williamlobbii \"Lupinus williamlobbii\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus williamsianus](/wiki/Lupinus_williamsianus \"Lupinus williamsianus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus xanthophyllus](/wiki/Lupinus_xanthophyllus \"Lupinus xanthophyllus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus xenophytus](/wiki/Lupinus_xenophytus \"Lupinus xenophytus\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus yanahuancensis](/wiki/Lupinus_yanahuancensis \"Lupinus yanahuancensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus yarushensis](/wiki/Lupinus_yarushensis \"Lupinus yarushensis\")* C.P. Sm.\n* *[Lupinus ynesiae](/wiki/Lupinus_ynesiae \"Lupinus ynesiae\")* C.P. Sm.\n{{div col end}}", "### Subgenus *Lupinus*", "In its current [circumscription](/wiki/Circumscription_%28taxonomy%29 \"Circumscription (taxonomy)\"),{{Cite web \\| url\\=http://biodiversity.ucoz.ru/p0006\\.htm \\| title\\=Subgen. PLATYCARPOS and Subgen. LUPINUS}} subgenus *Lupinus* includes 12 species from the Mediterranean region and Africa with at least four ovules or seedbuds in the ovary:", "{{div col\\|colwidth\\=300px}}\n* *[Lupinus albus](/wiki/Lupinus_albus \"Lupinus albus\")* L. 1753 – white lupine\n\t+ subsp. *albus* L.\n\t+ subsp. *graecus* (Boiss. \\& Spruner) Franco \\& P.Silva\n\t+ subsp. *termis* (Forsk.) Ponert.\n* *[Lupinus angustifolius](/wiki/Lupinus_angustifolius \"Lupinus angustifolius\")* L. 1753 – blue lupin, narrow\\-leafed lupin\n\t+ var. *angustifolius* L.\n\t+ var. *albopunctatus* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich \"Boguslav S. Kurlovich\") et Stankev.\n\t+ var. *griseomaculatus* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich \"Boguslav S. Kurlovich\") et Stankev.\n\t+ var. *chalybens* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich \"Boguslav S. Kurlovich\") et Stankev.\n\t+ var. *corylinus* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich \"Boguslav S. Kurlovich\") et Stankev.\n\t+ var. *purpureus* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich \"Boguslav S. Kurlovich\") et Stankev.\n\t+ var. *rubidus* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich \"Boguslav S. Kurlovich\") et Stankev.\n\t+ var. *atabekovae* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich \"Boguslav S. Kurlovich\") et Stankev.\n\t+ var. *sparsiusculus* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich \"Boguslav S. Kurlovich\") et Stankev.\n\t+ var. *brunneus* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich \"Boguslav S. Kurlovich\") et Stankev.\n\t+ var. *albosyringeus* Taran.\n\t+ var. *albidus* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich \"Boguslav S. Kurlovich\") et Stankev.\n\t+ var. *candidus* Kuptzov. et [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich \"Boguslav S. Kurlovich\")\n* *[Lupinus atlanticus](/wiki/Lupinus_atlanticus \"Lupinus atlanticus\")* Gladstones 1974\n* *[Lupinus cosentinii](/wiki/Lupinus_cosentinii \"Lupinus cosentinii\")* Guss. 1828 – sandplain lupin\n* *[Lupinus digitatus](/wiki/Lupinus_digitatus \"Lupinus digitatus\")* Forsk. 1775Some sources treat *Lupinus digitatus* as a synonym of *Lupinus cosentinii*.\n* *[Lupinus hispanicus](/wiki/Lupinus_hispanicus \"Lupinus hispanicus\")* Boiss. \\& Reut. 1842\n\t+ subsp. *bicolor* (Merino) Gladst.\n\t+ subsp. *hispanicus* Boiss. \\& Reut.\n* *[Lupinus luteus](/wiki/Lupinus_luteus \"Lupinus luteus\")* L. 1753 – yellow lupin\n\t+ var. *luteus* L.\n\t+ var. *maculosus* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich \"Boguslav S. Kurlovich\") et Stankev.\n\t+ var. *kazimierskii* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich \"Boguslav S. Kurlovich\") et Stankev.\n\t+ var. *arcellus* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich \"Boguslav S. Kurlovich\") et Stankev.\n\t+ var. *sempolovskii* (Atab) [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich \"Boguslav S. Kurlovich\") et Stankev.\n\t+ var. *melanospermus* Kurl. et Stankev.\n\t+ var. *niger* Kurl. et Stankev.\n\t+ var. *cremeus* Kurl. et Stankev.\n\t+ var. *leucospermus* Kurl. et Stankev.\n\t+ var. *sulphureus* (Atab.) Kurl. et Stankev.\n\t+ var. *stepanovae* Kurl. et Stankev.\n\t+ var. *ochroleucus* Kurl. et Stankev.\n\t+ var. *aurantiacus* Kurl. et Stankev.\n\t+ var. *croceus* Kurl. et Stankev.\n\t+ var. *aureus* Kurl. et Stankev.\n\t+ var. *albicans* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich \"Boguslav S. Kurlovich\") et Stankev.\n\t+ var. *sinskayae* [Kurl.](/wiki/Boguslav_S._Kurlovich \"Boguslav S. Kurlovich\") et Stankev.\n* *[Lupinus micranthus](/wiki/Lupinus_micranthus \"Lupinus micranthus\")* Guss. 1828\n* *[Lupinus palaestinus](/wiki/Lupinus_palaestinus \"Lupinus palaestinus\")* Boiss. 1849 – white\\-grey lupine\n* *[Lupinus pilosus](/wiki/Lupinus_pilosus \"Lupinus pilosus\")* Murr. 1774 – blue lupine\n* *[Lupinus princei](/wiki/Lupinus_princei \"Lupinus princei\")* Harms 1901\n* *[Lupinus somaliensis](/wiki/Lupinus_somaliensis \"Lupinus somaliensis\")* Baker f. 1895\n{{div col end}}", "### Species names with uncertain taxonomic status", "The status of the following binomials is unresolved:\n{{div col\\|colwidth\\=300px}}\n* *Lupinus acaulis* [Larrañaga](/wiki/D%C3%A1maso_Antonio_Larra%C3%B1aga \"Dámaso Antonio Larrañaga\")\n* *Lupinus achilleaphilus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus acutilobus* A.Heller\n* *Lupinus aegr\\-Aovium* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus africanus* Lour.\n* *Lupinus agninus* Gand.\n* *Lupinus agropyrophilus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus alaimandus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus albicaulis* Douglas ex Hook.\n* *Lupinus alicanescens* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus aliclementinus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus aliumbellatus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus altissimus* Sessé \\& Moc.\n* *Lupinus alturasensis* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus alveorum* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus amabilis* A.Heller\n* *Lupinus amniculi\\-cervi* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus amniculi\\-salicis* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus amniculi\\-vulpum* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus andersonianus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus anemophilus* Greene\n* *Lupinus angustifolius* Blanco\n* *Lupinus aphronorus* Blank.\n* *Lupinus apodotropis* A.Heller\n* *Lupinus aralloius* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus arborescens* Amabekova \\& Maisuran\n* *Lupinus arceuthinus* Greene\n* *Lupinus argyraeus* DC.\n* *Lupinus atacamicus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus aureus* J.Agardh\n* *Lupinus axillaris* Blank.\n* *Lupinus barkeriae* Knowles \\& Westc.\n* *Lupinus bartolomei* M.E.Jones\n* *Lupinus bassett\\-maguirei* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus beaneanus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus biddleii* L.F.Hend.\n* *Lupinus bimaculatus* Hook. ex D.Don\n* *Lupinus bimaculatus* Desr.\n* *Lupinus bivonii* C.Presl\n* *Lupinus blankinshipii* A.Heller\n* *Lupinus blaschkeanus* Fisch. \\& C.A.Mey.\n* *Lupinus brevior* (Jeps.) J.A. Christian \\& D.B. Dunn\n* *Lupinus brittonii* Abrams\n* *Lupinus caespitosus* Nutt.\n* *Lupinus californicus* K.Koch\n* *Lupinus campbelliae* Eastw.\n* *Lupinus campestris* Cham. \\& Schltdl.\n* *Lupinus campestris\\-florum* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus candicans* Rydb.\n* *Lupinus canus* Hemsl.\n* *Lupinus capitatus* Greene\n* *Lupinus capitis\\-amniculi* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus carolus\\-bucarii* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus chachas* Ochoa ex C. P. Smith\n* *Lupinus chamissonis* Eschscholtz\n* *Lupinus chiapensis* Rose\n* *Lupinus chihuahuensis* S.Watson\n* *Lupinus christianus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus chrysomelas* Casar.\n* *Lupinus clementinus* Greene\n* *Lupinus comatus* Rydb.\n* *Lupinus consentinii* Walp.\n* *Lupinus cymb\\-Aegressus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus dasyphyllus* Greene\n* *Lupinus davisianus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus debilis* Eastw.\n* *Lupinus decaschistus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus diaboli\\-septem* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus dichrous* Greene\n* *Lupinus dispersus* A.Heller\n* *Lupinus dissimulans* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus durangensis* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus eatonanus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus equi\\-coeli* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus equi\\-collis* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus erectus* L.F.Hend.\n* *Lupinus erminens* S.Watson\n* *Lupinus ermineus* S.Watson\n* *Lupinus falcifer* Nutt.\n* *Lupinus falsoerectus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus falsoformosus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus falsograyi* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus fieldii* Rose ex J. F. Macbr.\n* *Lupinus filicaulis* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus finitus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus flavescens* Rydb.\n* *Lupinus foliosus* Hook.\n* *Lupinus foliosus* Nutt.\n* *Lupinus forskahlei* Boiss.\n* *Lupinus franciscanus* Greene\n* *Lupinus fraxinetorum* Greene\n* *Lupinus fruticosus* Steud.\n* *Lupinus fruticosus* Dum.Cours.\n* *Lupinus garcianus* Bennett \\& Dunn\n* *Lupinus geophilus* Rose\n* *Lupinus geraniophilus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus glabellus* M.Martens \\& Galeotti\n* *Lupinus graciliflorus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus gratus* Greene\n* *Lupinus gredensis* Gand.\n* *Lupinus guadalupensis* Greene\n* *Lupinus guadiloupensis* Steud.\n* *Lupinus guatimalensis* auct.\n* *Lupinus gussoneanus* J.Agardh\n* *Lupinus habrocomus* Greene\n* *Lupinus haudcytisoides* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus helleri* Greene\n* *Lupinus hexaedrus* E. Fourn.\n* *Lupinus hintonii* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus huigrensis* Rose ex C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus humicolus* A.Nelson\n* *Lupinus humifusus* Benth.\n* *Lupinus humilis* Rose ex Pittier\n* *Lupinus hyacinthinus* Greene\n* *Lupinus idoneus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus inamoenus* Greene ex C.F.Baker\n* *Lupinus indutus* Greene ex C.F.Baker\n* *Lupinus insignis* Glaz. ex C. P. Smith\n* *Lupinus integrifolius* L.\n* *Lupinus intergrifolius* Desr.\n* *Lupinus ione\\-grisetae* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus ione\\-walkerae* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus jamesonianus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus javanicus* Burm.f.\n* *Lupinus jorgensenanus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus jucundus* Greene\n* *Lupinus kellerrnanianus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus kyleanus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus labiatus* Nutt.\n* *Lupinus lacticolor* Tamayo\n* *Lupinus lacus\\-huntingtonii* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus lacuum\\-trinitatum* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus larsonanus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus lassenensis* Eastw.\n* *Lupinus latissimus* Greene\n* *Lupinus laxifolius* A.Gray\n* *Lupinus leptostachyus* Greene\n* *Lupinus lesueurii* Standl.\n* *Lupinus linearifolius* [Larrañaga](/wiki/D%C3%A1maso_Antonio_Larra%C3%B1aga \"Dámaso Antonio Larrañaga\")\n* *Lupinus lingulae* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus longilabrum* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus lorentzianus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus louise\\-bucariae* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus louise\\-grisetae* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus lucidus* Benth. ex Loudon\n* *Lupinus lyman\\-bensonii* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus lysichitophilus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus macrocarpus* Hook. \\& Arn.\n* *Lupinus macrocarpus* Torr.\n* *Lupinus macrophyllus* Benth.\n* *Lupinus macrorhizos* Georgi\n* *Lupinus magnistipulatus* Planchuelo \\& Dunn\n* *Lupinus maissurianii* Atabek. \\& Polukhina\n* *Lupinus marcusianus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus mariae\\-josephae* H.Pascual\n* *Lupinus markleanus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus marschallianus* Sweet\n* *Lupinus mearnsii* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus meli\\-campestris* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus meridanus* Moritz ex C. P. Smith\n* *Lupinus mexiae* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus micensis* M.E.Jones\n* *Lupinus micheneri* Greene\n* *Lupinus milleri* J.Agardh\n* *Lupinus minearanus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus minutissimus* Tamayo\n* *Lupinus molle* A.Heller\n* *Lupinus mollissifolius* Davidson\n* *Lupinus monettianus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus muellerianus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus multicincinnis* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus neglectus* Rose\n* *Lupinus nemoralis* Greene\n* *Lupinus niger* Wehmer\n* *Lupinus noldekae* Eastw.\n* *Lupinus nutcanus* Spreng.\n* *Lupinus nutkatensis* J.G.Cooper\n* *Lupinus obtunsus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus octablomus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus opsianthus* Amabekova \\& Maisuran\n* *Lupinus pavonum* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus pendeltonii* A.Heller\n* *Lupinus pendletonii* A.Heller\n* *Lupinus perconfertus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus perplexus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus philistaeus* Boiss.\n* *Lupinus pinus\\-contortae* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus piperi* B.L.Rob. ex Piper\n* *Lupinus piperitus* Davidson\n* *Lupinus platanophilus* M.E.Jones\n* *Lupinus plebeius* Greene ex C.F.Baker\n* *Lupinus prato\\-lacuum* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus prolifer* Desr.\n* *Lupinus propinquus* Greene\n* *Lupinus proteanus* Eastw.\n* *Lupinus psoraleoides* Pollard\n* *Lupinus pumviridis* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus puroviridis* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus purpurascens* A.Heller\n* *Lupinus pygmaeus* Tamayo\n* *Lupinus quercus\\-jugi* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus quercuum* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus rainierensis* Eastw.\n* *Lupinus regius* Rudolph ex Torr. \\& A.Gray\n* *Lupinus rhodanthus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus rickeri* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus rivetianus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus rydbergii* Blank.\n* *Lupinus sabuli* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus salicisocius* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus salinensis* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus sativus* Gaterau\n* *Lupinus scaposus* Rydb.\n* *Lupinus scheuberae* Rydb.\n* *Lupinus schickendantzii* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus schiedeanus* Steud.\n* *Lupinus schumannii* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus seclusus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus semiaequus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus semiverticillatus* Desr.\n* *Lupinus sergenti* Tamayo ex Pittier\n* *Lupinus sergentii* Tamayo\n* *Lupinus serradentum* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus shrevei* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus sierrae\\-zentae* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus sileri* S.Watson\n* *Lupinus sinus\\-meyersii* C.P. Sm.\n* *Lupinus sparhawkianus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus spatulata* [Larrañaga](/wiki/D%C3%A1maso_Antonio_Larra%C3%B1aga \"Dámaso Antonio Larrañaga\")\n* *Lupinus speciosus* Voss\n* *Lupinus spruceanus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus standleyensis* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus stationis* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus stiveri* Kellogg\n* *Lupinus stoloniferus* L.\n* *Lupinus strigulosus* Gand.\n* *Lupinus subhirsutus* Davidson\n* *Lupinus subvolutus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus suksdorfii* B.L. Rob. ex Piper\n* *Lupinus summersianus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus sylvaticus* Hemsl.\n* *Lupinus thermis* Gasp.\n* *Lupinus thermus* St.\\-Lag.\n* *Lupinus tilcaricus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus timotensis* Tamayo\n* *Lupinus tricolor* Greene\n* *Lupinus tricolor* G.Nicholson\n* *Lupinus trifidus* Torr. ex S.Watson\n* *Lupinus tristis* Sweet\n* *Lupinus trochophyllus* Hoffmanns.\n* *Lupinus tuckeranus* C.P. Sm.\n* *Lupinus vaginans* Benth.\n* *Lupinus valdepallidus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus vandykeae* Eastw.\n* *Lupinus variegatus* A.Heller\n* *Lupinus variegatus* Poir.\n* *Lupinus varneranus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus vavilovii* Atabekova \\& Maissurjan\n* *Lupinus venustus* Bailly\n* *Lupinus violaceus* A.Heller\n* *Lupinus viridicalyx* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus volcanicus* Greene\n* *Lupinus watsonii* A.Heller\n* *Lupinus westiana* Small\n* *Lupinus wolfianus* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus yanlyensis* C.P.Sm.\n* *Lupinus yaruahensis* C.P.Sm.\n{{div col end}}", "### Hybrids", "The following hybrids have been described:\n* *Lupinus* ×*alpestris* (A. Nelson) D.B. Dunn \\& J.M. Gillett\n* *Lupinus* ×*hispanicoluteus* W.Święcicki \\& W.K.Święcicki\n* *Lupinus* ×*hybridus* Lem.\n* *Lupinus* ×*insignis* Lem.\n* *Lupinus* ×*regalis* (auct.) Bergmans—rainbow lupin (*Lupinus arboreus* × *Lupinus polyphyllus*)\n* *Lupinus* ×*versicolor* Caball.", "### Etymology", "While some sources believe the origin of the name to be in doubt, the Collins Dictionary definition asserts that the word is 14th century in origin, from the Latin *lupīnus* \"wolfish\" from *lupus* \"wolf\"{{cite dictionary \\|url\\= https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc\\=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999\\.04\\.0060%3Aentry%3Dlupinus \\|title\\= lupīnus \\|last1\\= Lewis \\|first1\\= Charlton T. \\|last2\\= Short \\|first2\\= Charles \\|dictionary\\= A Latin Dictionary \\|edition\\= \\|publisher\\= Perseus Digital Library \\|date \\= 1879 }} as it was believed that the plant ravenously exhausted the soil.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Lupin definition and meaning \\| Collins English Dictionary \\|url\\=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/lupin}}\nBut a more likely explanation is that *lupinus* meant that the plants were as dangerous to livestock as wolves, because the alkaloid poisons of Lupines can sicken or kill grazing animals, especially sheep. Farmers have known since ancient Rome Tietz, W., \\& von Minckwitz, M.\\-C. (2023\\). Plant Nutrition in the Roman empire. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, 186, 479–486\\. [https://doi.org/10\\.1002/jpln.202300152](https://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.202300152) that lupines improve soil by adding nitrogen and loosening compacted earth with their strong root systems, so the Collins explanation is improbable.", "" ]
Events ------ On October 15, 2008, the [Libyan Super Cup](/wiki/2008_Libyan_Super_Cup "2008 Libyan Super Cup") was won [Ittihad](/wiki/Al_Ittihad_Tripoli "Al Ittihad Tripoli") as they defeated [Khaleej Sirte](/wiki/Khaleej_Sirte "Khaleej Sirte") 4–0 at [11 June Stadium](/wiki/11_June_Stadium "11 June Stadium"). On October 17, 2008, the [2008–09](/wiki/Libyan_Premier_League_2008-09 "Libyan Premier League 2008-09") [Libyan Premier League](/wiki/Libyan_Premier_League "Libyan Premier League") season started at the [Green Document Stadium](/wiki/Al_Bayda_Stadium "Al Bayda Stadium"), at 14:00 [GMT](/wiki/GMT "GMT") where [Akhdar](/wiki/Al_Akhdar "Al Akhdar") defeated [Tersanah](/wiki/Al_Tersanah "Al Tersanah") by 3 goals to 1\. On November 4, 2008, the [2008–09](/wiki/Libyan_Second_Division_2008/2009 "Libyan Second Division 2008/2009") [Libyan Second Division](/wiki/Libyan_Second_Division "Libyan Second Division") season started. On February 26, 2009, the [2008–09](/wiki/Libyan_Cup_2008-09 "Libyan Cup 2008-09") [Libyan Cup](/wiki/Libyan_Cup "Libyan Cup") competition started. On May 28, 2009, [Al Wahda Tripoli](/wiki/Al_Wahda_Tripoli "Al Wahda Tripoli")'s relegation from the [Libyan Premier League](/wiki/Libyan_Premier_League "Libyan Premier League") was confirmed after a 4–1 away defeat to [Ahly Benghazi](/wiki/Ahly_Benghazi "Ahly Benghazi").
[ "Events\n------", "On October 15, 2008, the [Libyan Super Cup](/wiki/2008_Libyan_Super_Cup \"2008 Libyan Super Cup\") was won [Ittihad](/wiki/Al_Ittihad_Tripoli \"Al Ittihad Tripoli\") as they defeated [Khaleej Sirte](/wiki/Khaleej_Sirte \"Khaleej Sirte\") 4–0 at [11 June Stadium](/wiki/11_June_Stadium \"11 June Stadium\").", "On October 17, 2008, the [2008–09](/wiki/Libyan_Premier_League_2008-09 \"Libyan Premier League 2008-09\") [Libyan Premier League](/wiki/Libyan_Premier_League \"Libyan Premier League\") season started at the [Green Document Stadium](/wiki/Al_Bayda_Stadium \"Al Bayda Stadium\"), at 14:00 [GMT](/wiki/GMT \"GMT\") where [Akhdar](/wiki/Al_Akhdar \"Al Akhdar\") defeated [Tersanah](/wiki/Al_Tersanah \"Al Tersanah\") by 3 goals to 1\\.", "On November 4, 2008, the [2008–09](/wiki/Libyan_Second_Division_2008/2009 \"Libyan Second Division 2008/2009\") [Libyan Second Division](/wiki/Libyan_Second_Division \"Libyan Second Division\") season started.", "On February 26, 2009, the [2008–09](/wiki/Libyan_Cup_2008-09 \"Libyan Cup 2008-09\") [Libyan Cup](/wiki/Libyan_Cup \"Libyan Cup\") competition started.", "On May 28, 2009, [Al Wahda Tripoli](/wiki/Al_Wahda_Tripoli \"Al Wahda Tripoli\")'s relegation from the [Libyan Premier League](/wiki/Libyan_Premier_League \"Libyan Premier League\") was confirmed after a 4–1 away defeat to [Ahly Benghazi](/wiki/Ahly_Benghazi \"Ahly Benghazi\").", "" ]
Cause ----- Achalasia microcephaly has only been reported in children, despite achalasia being associated as an adult disease. The first case involved an affected family of four children, three sisters and one brother, from [northwestern Mexico](/wiki/Northern_Mexico "Northern Mexico").{{Cite journal\| vauthors \= Williams JJ, Sandlin CS, Dumars KW \|date\=1978\|title\=New syndrome: microcephaly associated with achalasia \|journal\=American Journal of Human Genetics\|volume\=30\|pages\=106}}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Dumars KW, Williams JJ, Steele\-Sandlin C \| title \= Achalasia and microcephaly \| journal \= American Journal of Medical Genetics \| volume \= 6 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 309–14 \| date \= 1980 \| pmid \= 7211947 \| doi \= 10\.1002/ajmg.1320060408 }}  All three sisters underwent the [Heller procedure](/wiki/Heller_myotomy "Heller myotomy") in order to relieve vomiting and regurgitation due to achalasia. The brother died at four and a half years old, due to the improper diagnosis of recurrent vomiting and resultant malnourishment. All siblings had slow to moderate cognitive development within the mentally disabled criteria. Both parents were unaffected and were from the same small village. The second case involved two affected brothers, aged seven and nine, from Libya, in a family of six children. By the age of two, both children were vomiting and regurgitating recurrently, had slow development and had pneumonitis. They also displayed mild micrognathia and scaphocephaly. The elder son underwent a modified Heller's operation at age six. Their parents were first cousins, however, chromosomal studies did not observe any abnormalities. The third examined case was an affected nine\-year\-old boy born to unaffected parents who were from the same north\-western Mexican area as the first reported case. It is denied but implicated that the parents were closely related. Abnormalities in motor function, physical appearance and difficulties during feeding manifested after birth. By eight months, psychomotor retardation was prominent and at nine months, malnourishment was extreme and so oesophagomyotomy ([Heller myotomy](/wiki/Heller_myotomy "Heller myotomy")) was performed. At eighteen months, microcephaly was revealed. The fourth case study involved an affected German child. Unlike previous cases, the condition was attributed to the anti\-malaria drug, Mefloquine, which was prescribed during pregnancy. There is no apparent genetic correlation between parents. At eight weeks, the child was officially diagnosed with microcephaly and displayed craniofacial dysmorphism and muscular hypotonia similar to previous cases. Vomiting, seizures and respiratory arrest were common. It was noted that only 5\.4% of pregnancies under the medication of Mefloquine experienced abnormalities. This is the first case involving a person of European descent. The fifth, most recent case, involved a girl born to consanguineous parents from Pakistan. There was  no history of abnormalities or genetic disorders in previous children in the family. Gestational diabetes during the pregnancy did not cause any significant complications. Feeding difficulties and recurrent vomiting began to occur at six weeks, resulting in severe weight loss. The girl received surgery and repeated balloon dilatations by the age of two for severe achalasia. She was diagnosed with microcephaly at age six after concerns for her delayed fine motor skills and limited understanding of speech.
[ "Cause\n-----", "Achalasia microcephaly has only been reported in children, despite achalasia being associated as an adult disease.", "The first case involved an affected family of four children, three sisters and one brother, from [northwestern Mexico](/wiki/Northern_Mexico \"Northern Mexico\").{{Cite journal\\| vauthors \\= Williams JJ, Sandlin CS, Dumars KW \\|date\\=1978\\|title\\=New syndrome: microcephaly associated with achalasia \\|journal\\=American Journal of Human Genetics\\|volume\\=30\\|pages\\=106}}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Dumars KW, Williams JJ, Steele\\-Sandlin C \\| title \\= Achalasia and microcephaly \\| journal \\= American Journal of Medical Genetics \\| volume \\= 6 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 309–14 \\| date \\= 1980 \\| pmid \\= 7211947 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1002/ajmg.1320060408 }}  All three sisters underwent the [Heller procedure](/wiki/Heller_myotomy \"Heller myotomy\") in order to relieve vomiting and regurgitation due to achalasia. The brother died at four and a half years old, due to the improper diagnosis of recurrent vomiting and resultant malnourishment. All siblings had slow to moderate cognitive development within the mentally disabled criteria. Both parents were unaffected and were from the same small village.", "The second case involved two affected brothers, aged seven and nine, from Libya, in a family of six children. By the age of two, both children were vomiting and regurgitating recurrently, had slow development and had pneumonitis. They also displayed mild micrognathia and scaphocephaly. The elder son underwent a modified Heller's operation at age six. Their parents were first cousins, however, chromosomal studies did not observe any abnormalities.", "The third examined case was an affected nine\\-year\\-old boy born to unaffected parents who were from the same north\\-western Mexican area as the first reported case. It is denied but implicated that the parents were closely related. Abnormalities in motor function, physical appearance and difficulties during feeding manifested after birth. By eight months, psychomotor retardation was prominent and at nine months, malnourishment was extreme and so oesophagomyotomy ([Heller myotomy](/wiki/Heller_myotomy \"Heller myotomy\")) was performed. At eighteen months, microcephaly was revealed.", "The fourth case study involved an affected German child. Unlike previous cases, the condition was attributed to the anti\\-malaria drug, Mefloquine, which was prescribed during pregnancy. There is no apparent genetic correlation between parents. At eight weeks, the child was officially diagnosed with microcephaly and displayed craniofacial dysmorphism and muscular hypotonia similar to previous cases. Vomiting, seizures and respiratory arrest were common. It was noted that only 5\\.4% of pregnancies under the medication of Mefloquine experienced abnormalities. This is the first case involving a person of European descent.", "The fifth, most recent case, involved a girl born to consanguineous parents from Pakistan. There was  no history of abnormalities or genetic disorders in previous children in the family. Gestational diabetes during the pregnancy did not cause any significant complications. Feeding difficulties and recurrent vomiting began to occur at six weeks, resulting in severe weight loss. The girl received surgery and repeated balloon dilatations by the age of two for severe achalasia. She was diagnosed with microcephaly at age six after concerns for her delayed fine motor skills and limited understanding of speech.", "" ]
Diagnosis --------- [thumb\|Barium swallow procedure commonly used for the diagnosis of achalasia. \|349x349px](/wiki/File:Normal_barium_swallow_animation.gif "Normal barium swallow animation.gif") Symptoms of achalasia can be detected by fluoroscopy during [barium swallow](/wiki/Barium_swallow "Barium swallow") or [oesophageal manometry](/wiki/Esophageal_manometry "Esophageal manometry"). ### Achalasia #### Barium swallow A positive barium swallow will display the narrowing of the distal oesophagus in a 'bird beak' or 'champagne class' fashion, aperistalsis, minimal LES opening and oesophageal dilation as the main indicator of the disease. Minimal barium will be present in the stomach. However, these diagnostic findings are not always present in the early onset of the disease and so a normal oesophagogram is not an indication of a lack of disease. #### Oesophageal manometry Patients with the vigorous achalasia variant of the disease, do not express dilation. Manometry is the best, most sensitive method in these cases as it can diagnose abnormalities related to achalasia based on basal pressure, without the need for the manifestation of dilation. Aperistalsis and a poorly relaxed and hypertensive LES is required for a positive diagnosis. ### Microcephaly Prenatal diagnosis of microcephaly is difficult due to the variability present in the causes of the disease. Early detection, however, is important for consanguineous parents as an autosomal recessive inheritance is highly implicated for microcephaly. Anomaly scans during pregnancy can be used to calculate the ratio between the head/abdominal circumference and head circumference/femur length which are used calculate and diagnose microcephaly. Ultrasound scans have also led to the accidental discovery of microcephaly, however this occurrence is an anomaly. Women who are at risk of contracting TORCH infections or exposure to Zika virus are recommended to undergo screening as most resultant infections are asymptomatic.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Baud\|first1\=D\|last2\=Van Mieghem\|first2\=T\|last3\=Musso\|first3\=D\|last4\=Truttmann\|first4\=A.C\|last5\=Panchaud\|first5\=A\|last6\=Vouga\|first6\=M\|date\=2016\|title\=Clinical management of pregnant women exposed to Zika virus\|journal\=The Lancet Infectious Diseases\|language\=en\|volume\=16\|issue\=5\|pages\=523\|doi\=10\.1016/S1473\-3099(16\)30008\-1\|pmid\=27056096\|doi\-access\=}} This includes testing sera and saliva for viral antigens. Prenatal diagnosis is further complicated when microcephaly manifests with achalasia as it is only possible to detect symptoms shortly after the first trimester and early into the second. Consequently, microcephaly is usually diagnosed after the onset of achalasia by eighteen months or older. An occipital\-frontal head circumference of less than three standard deviations is an indication of microcephaly. Radiography and NMR imaging of the skull can also be utilised. A physical examination of height and weight proportions as well as IQ and motor development is implemented for further confirmation as not all children with microcephaly have abnormal development A positive test will show normal to abnormal proportions, a low IQ and slow motor development.
[ "Diagnosis\n---------", "[thumb\\|Barium swallow procedure commonly used for the diagnosis of achalasia. \\|349x349px](/wiki/File:Normal_barium_swallow_animation.gif \"Normal barium swallow animation.gif\")\nSymptoms of achalasia can be detected by fluoroscopy during [barium swallow](/wiki/Barium_swallow \"Barium swallow\") or [oesophageal manometry](/wiki/Esophageal_manometry \"Esophageal manometry\").", "### Achalasia", "#### Barium swallow", "A positive barium swallow will display the narrowing of the distal oesophagus in a 'bird beak' or 'champagne class' fashion, aperistalsis, minimal LES opening and oesophageal dilation as the main indicator of the disease. Minimal barium will be present in the stomach. However, these diagnostic findings are not always present in the early onset of the disease and so a normal oesophagogram is not an indication of a lack of disease.", "#### Oesophageal manometry", "Patients with the vigorous achalasia variant of the disease, do not express dilation. Manometry is the best, most sensitive method in these cases as it can diagnose abnormalities related to achalasia based on basal pressure, without the need for the manifestation of dilation. Aperistalsis and a poorly relaxed and hypertensive LES is required for a positive diagnosis.", "### Microcephaly", "Prenatal diagnosis of microcephaly is difficult due to the variability present in the causes of the disease. Early detection, however, is important for consanguineous parents as an autosomal recessive inheritance is highly implicated for microcephaly. Anomaly scans during pregnancy can be used to calculate the ratio between the head/abdominal circumference and head circumference/femur length which are used calculate and diagnose microcephaly. Ultrasound scans have also led to the accidental discovery of microcephaly, however this occurrence is an anomaly.", "Women who are at risk of contracting TORCH infections or exposure to Zika virus are recommended to undergo screening as most resultant infections are asymptomatic.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Baud\\|first1\\=D\\|last2\\=Van Mieghem\\|first2\\=T\\|last3\\=Musso\\|first3\\=D\\|last4\\=Truttmann\\|first4\\=A.C\\|last5\\=Panchaud\\|first5\\=A\\|last6\\=Vouga\\|first6\\=M\\|date\\=2016\\|title\\=Clinical management of pregnant women exposed to Zika virus\\|journal\\=The Lancet Infectious Diseases\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=16\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=523\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S1473\\-3099(16\\)30008\\-1\\|pmid\\=27056096\\|doi\\-access\\=}} This includes testing sera and saliva for viral antigens.", "Prenatal diagnosis is further complicated when microcephaly manifests with achalasia as it is only possible to detect symptoms shortly after the first trimester and early into the second. Consequently, microcephaly is usually diagnosed after the onset of achalasia by eighteen months or older. An occipital\\-frontal head circumference of less than three standard deviations is an indication of microcephaly. Radiography and NMR imaging of the skull can also be utilised. A physical examination of height and weight proportions as well as IQ and motor development is implemented for further confirmation as not all children with microcephaly have abnormal development A positive test will show normal to abnormal proportions, a low IQ and slow motor development.", "" ]
Synopsis -------- The documentary examines a 1983 boxing match that took place between the undefeated fighter [Billy Collins Jr.](/wiki/Billy_Collins_%28boxer%29 "Billy Collins (boxer)") and [Luis Resto](/wiki/Luis_Resto_%28boxer%29 "Luis Resto (boxer)"). The fight was on the [undercard](/wiki/Undercard "Undercard") occurring before the headline or "main event" between Multi\-Division World Champion [Roberto Durán](/wiki/Roberto_Dur%C3%A1n "Roberto Durán") and [Davey Moore](/wiki/Davey_Moore_%281980s%29 "Davey Moore (1980s)"). Resto unexpectedly beat the highly touted Collins in a 10\-round unanimous decision. However, after the fight, Resto's gloves were found to be missing a significant amount of padding, which allowed Resto to increase the impact of his punches and effectiveness against Collins during the fight. This illegal tampering caused tremendous harm to Collins. Collins' suffered major eye injuries and his promising boxing career was finished. Nine months later, Collins died in an auto accident. Resto and his trainer [Panama Lewis](/wiki/Panama_Lewis "Panama Lewis") were sentenced to prison for illegal tampering with the gloves. The documentary was shot by former boxing manager [Eric Drath](/wiki/Eric_Drath "Eric Drath"), who heard the story of Luis Resto from various boxers. Drath wanted to try to and exonerate Resto in the aftermath of the fight and Resto's incarceration and ban from boxing. Drath said he believed Resto when he told him he had no knowledge of the tainted gloves. In the course of the investigation Drath uncovered a transcript of a police interview Resto gave during the criminal investigation. In the transcript, which was not admitted into evidence during Resto's assault trial, Resto admitted that his trainer Panama Lewis had taken his gloves into the bathroom with [Lee Black](/wiki/Lee_Black "Lee Black"). When Drath, who was shooting the documentary, confronted Resto with this evidence and the transcript of his own police interview, Resto admitted that Lewis had indeed taken the gloves. Resto admitted he knew during the course of the fight that the gloves had been tampered with. Resto then admitted he knew well before the fight that not only had the gloves been tampered with but that his hands were encased in [plaster of paris](/wiki/Plaster_of_paris "Plaster of paris"), essentially turning his barely\-padded fists into hardened cement casts, thus explaining the horrific damage he inflicted on Collins. The documentary focuses on Resto admitting this knowledge to members of Collins' and his own family, and asking for forgiveness. In the course of this journey, which brought Resto from the Bronx to Virginia, and through Miami and Nashville, the documentary underscores the disparity between the lives of Resto and Panama Lewis. While Resto's life was in ruins after losing his family and career and spending ten years living in the basement of the gym where he used to train, Lewis remained active in boxing community and was still able to earn a good living as a trainer in the sport he was technically "banned" from. Despite being banned from boxing, Lewis was shown making professional appearances in the documentary. Lewis appeared at the press conference for the fight featuring [Zab Judah](/wiki/Zab_Judah "Zab Judah"), one of the fighters he unofficially trained. While Lewis was still accepted by some in the boxing community despite his past, Resto was shunned entirely (even within his own family). In the documentary, Lewis was shown wearing gold chains and watches while staying at Luxury hotels. This lifestyle was in stark contrast to Resto's humble lifestyle, which included riding a bus for seven hours to visit family. Resto implicated Panama Lewis as the mastermind behind the conspiracy to taint the gloves, but many questions still remain concerning Lewis' motive for gambling his livelihood on glove tampering. While Resto's motives remain unclear, there were allegations that a cocaine dealer had wagered a large sum of money on Resto to win. Initially adamant that his trainer Lewis was the one who took the gloves into the bathroom, when confronted by Lewis in the parking lot of a gym, Resto appears to back off his allegations by stating that his boxing coach known as a [cornerman](/wiki/Cornerman "Cornerman") [Artie Curley](/wiki/Artie_Curley "Artie Curley") was the one who wrapped at least one of his hands. In addition to investigating Lewis as the primary factor to the incident, the documentary also speaks about the Collins family's litigious nature following the incident, suggesting that the family had taken advantage of Billy's injuries to get a large settlement from the New York State Athletic Commission, and their efforts to prevent Collins from fighting after the incident. The documentary suggests that this was possibly done to keep Collins from getting back in the ring, which would have invalidated the insurance claim they had made against the boxing organization.
[ "Synopsis\n--------", "The documentary examines a 1983 boxing match that took place between the undefeated fighter [Billy Collins Jr.](/wiki/Billy_Collins_%28boxer%29 \"Billy Collins (boxer)\") and [Luis Resto](/wiki/Luis_Resto_%28boxer%29 \"Luis Resto (boxer)\"). The fight was on the [undercard](/wiki/Undercard \"Undercard\") occurring before the headline or \"main event\" between Multi\\-Division World Champion [Roberto Durán](/wiki/Roberto_Dur%C3%A1n \"Roberto Durán\") and [Davey Moore](/wiki/Davey_Moore_%281980s%29 \"Davey Moore (1980s)\"). Resto unexpectedly beat the highly touted Collins in a 10\\-round unanimous decision.", "However, after the fight, Resto's gloves were found to be missing a significant amount of padding, which allowed Resto to increase the impact of his punches and effectiveness against Collins during the fight. This illegal tampering caused tremendous harm to Collins. Collins' suffered major eye injuries and his promising boxing career was finished. Nine months later, Collins died in an auto accident. Resto and his trainer [Panama Lewis](/wiki/Panama_Lewis \"Panama Lewis\") were sentenced to prison for illegal tampering with the gloves.", "The documentary was shot by former boxing manager [Eric Drath](/wiki/Eric_Drath \"Eric Drath\"), who heard the story of Luis Resto from various boxers. Drath wanted to try to and exonerate Resto in the aftermath of the fight and Resto's incarceration and ban from boxing. Drath said he believed Resto when he told him he had no knowledge of the tainted gloves. In the course of the investigation Drath uncovered a transcript of a police interview Resto gave during the criminal investigation. In the transcript, which was not admitted into evidence during Resto's assault trial, Resto admitted that his trainer Panama Lewis had taken his gloves into the bathroom with [Lee Black](/wiki/Lee_Black \"Lee Black\"). When Drath, who was shooting the documentary, confronted Resto with this evidence and the transcript of his own police interview, Resto admitted that Lewis had indeed taken the gloves.", "Resto admitted he knew during the course of the fight that the gloves had been tampered with. Resto then admitted he knew well before the fight that not only had the gloves been tampered with but that his hands were encased in [plaster of paris](/wiki/Plaster_of_paris \"Plaster of paris\"), essentially turning his barely\\-padded fists into hardened cement casts, thus explaining the horrific damage he inflicted on Collins.", "The documentary focuses on Resto admitting this knowledge to members of Collins' and his own family, and asking for forgiveness. In the course of this journey, which brought Resto from the Bronx to Virginia, and through Miami and Nashville, the documentary underscores the disparity between the lives of Resto and Panama Lewis. While Resto's life was in ruins after losing his family and career and spending ten years living in the basement of the gym where he used to train, Lewis remained active in boxing community and was still able to earn a good living as a trainer in the sport he was technically \"banned\" from. Despite being banned from boxing, Lewis was shown making professional appearances in the documentary. Lewis appeared at the press conference for the fight featuring [Zab Judah](/wiki/Zab_Judah \"Zab Judah\"), one of the fighters he unofficially trained. While Lewis was still accepted by some in the boxing community despite his past, Resto was shunned entirely (even within his own family). In the documentary, Lewis was shown wearing gold chains and watches while staying at Luxury hotels. This lifestyle was in stark contrast to Resto's humble lifestyle, which included riding a bus for seven hours to visit family.", "Resto implicated Panama Lewis as the mastermind behind the conspiracy to taint the gloves, but many questions still remain concerning Lewis' motive for gambling his livelihood on glove tampering. While Resto's motives remain unclear, there were allegations that a cocaine dealer had wagered a large sum of money on Resto to win. Initially adamant that his trainer Lewis was the one who took the gloves into the bathroom, when confronted by Lewis in the parking lot of a gym, Resto appears to back off his allegations by stating that his boxing coach known as a [cornerman](/wiki/Cornerman \"Cornerman\") [Artie Curley](/wiki/Artie_Curley \"Artie Curley\") was the one who wrapped at least one of his hands.", "In addition to investigating Lewis as the primary factor to the incident, the documentary also speaks about the Collins family's litigious nature following the incident, suggesting that the family had taken advantage of Billy's injuries to get a large settlement from the New York State Athletic Commission, and their efforts to prevent Collins from fighting after the incident. The documentary suggests that this was possibly done to keep Collins from getting back in the ring, which would have invalidated the insurance claim they had made against the boxing organization.", "" ]
History ------- 99\.5 (channel 258\) was assigned to Lubbock. It was used in the late 1940s and early 1950s as KFYO\-FM. The frequency was reactivated in 1964 as KWGN\-FM in Abernathy, Texas. Power was 57,000 watts at 150 feet from a tower a few miles north of Abernathy (25 miles north of Lubbock). The station was put on by a partnership headed by Clyde Robert "Bob" Stephens, and his brother Raymond V. Stephens. Bob Stephens had worked at KSEL radio, would work at KSEL\-TV and KCBD\-TV as TV weatherman. Raymond continued in radio throughout Texas and New Mexico. In 1966 KWGN\-FM was approached by Tribune Broadcasting (WGN Chicago *et al.*) about changing call letters. Tribune was in the process of acquiring channel 2 KCTO\-TV in Denver, CO. They wanted to change to KWGN\-TV. KWGN\-FM changed to KWGO\-FM in exchange for $28,000\. In 1970 the station moved its transmitter to 98th and University in Lubbock. Power changed to 44,000 watts and height changed to 740 feet above average terrain. City of license changed to Lubbock, Texas. Studios moved to 17th and K in downtown Lubbock. In 1974 the tower at 98th and University was sold to Ray Moran who was putting 101\.1 KTEZ on the air. KTEZ paid to move KWGO to a lower perch on the tower, using less feed line, allowing an increase to 46,000 watts at 630 feet. Studios moved to the Red Raider Inn on a traffic circle (roundabout) where avenue A, H, and Q came together between 66th street and 50th street. Various partners came and went in the next decade. In 1975, Stephens sold 49% of the station to "Mexican American Services, Inc" for 60,000 dollars. A couple of years later (1977\) Stephens sold the other 51% for another 60,000 dollars. KWGO was sold to KRLB, Inc (owner of AM 580 KRLB) in 1980 for 380,000 dollars. The station became winners in the eighties and sold to Jack Rich's AM/FM Communications (not the big AMFM that went into Clear Channel) for 1\.45MM in 1985\. In 1988, KRLB\-FM and sister AM KJBX were sold to Ken Dowe of KLIF 1190 Dallas Fame for 3\.67MM. Dowe owned several stations throughout Texas. He continued co\-ownership of KRLB\-AM\-FM until the mid\-1990s when it was sold to South Plains Broadcasting. In 1985, the station's transmitting location moved to a shared tower spearheaded by KFMX, KFYO, and KLLL, known as the Lubbock Tower. In mid\-1995, KRLB FM99, a Hot A/C format was changed for KCRM Classic Rock. Also, in the mid\-1990s, 99\.5 became the radio home for Texas Tech Red Raider Basketball games (simulcast with KKAM). 99\.5 would air Red Raider Basketball games through the 2008\-09 season (In 2009 the games moved to KTTU\-FM). In the fall of 1999, 99\.5 changed from KCRM, The Cream of Classic Rock, to KQBR 99\.5 The Bear, country music. May 5, 2012: Townsquare Media drops "The Bear" branding in favor of '99\.5 Blake FM'. Morning show hosts, Rick Gilbert and Jane Prince\-Jones and program director Kidd Manning were not retained after the rebranding. On August 30, 2014, KQBR rebranded as "Lonestar 99\.5", with no other changes. On August 30, 2024, Lonestar 99\.5's last local DJ, Kelsee Pitman, was relived of her duties.
[ "History\n-------", "99\\.5 (channel 258\\) was assigned to Lubbock. It was used in the late 1940s and early 1950s as KFYO\\-FM.", "The frequency was reactivated in 1964 as KWGN\\-FM in Abernathy, Texas. Power was 57,000 watts at 150 feet from a tower a few miles north of Abernathy (25 miles north of Lubbock). The station was put on by a partnership headed by Clyde Robert \"Bob\" Stephens, and his brother Raymond V. Stephens. Bob Stephens had worked at KSEL radio, would work at KSEL\\-TV and KCBD\\-TV as TV weatherman. Raymond continued in radio throughout Texas and New Mexico.", "In 1966 KWGN\\-FM was approached by Tribune Broadcasting (WGN Chicago *et al.*) about changing call letters. Tribune was in the process of acquiring channel 2 KCTO\\-TV in Denver, CO. They wanted to change to KWGN\\-TV. KWGN\\-FM changed to KWGO\\-FM in exchange for $28,000\\.", "In 1970 the station moved its transmitter to 98th and University in Lubbock. Power changed to 44,000 watts and height changed to 740 feet above average terrain. City of license changed to Lubbock, Texas. Studios moved to 17th and K in downtown Lubbock. In 1974 the tower at 98th and University was sold to Ray Moran who was putting 101\\.1 KTEZ on the air. KTEZ paid to move KWGO to a lower perch on the tower, using less feed line, allowing an increase to 46,000 watts at 630 feet. Studios moved to the Red Raider Inn on a traffic circle (roundabout) where avenue A, H, and Q came together between 66th street and 50th street.", "Various partners came and went in the next decade. In 1975, Stephens sold 49% of the station to \"Mexican American Services, Inc\" for 60,000 dollars. A couple of years later (1977\\) Stephens sold the other 51% for another 60,000 dollars. KWGO was sold to KRLB, Inc (owner of AM 580 KRLB) in 1980 for 380,000 dollars. The station became winners in the eighties and sold to Jack Rich's AM/FM Communications (not the big AMFM that went into Clear Channel) for 1\\.45MM in 1985\\.", "In 1988, KRLB\\-FM and sister AM KJBX were sold to Ken Dowe of KLIF 1190 Dallas Fame for 3\\.67MM. Dowe owned several stations throughout Texas. He continued co\\-ownership of KRLB\\-AM\\-FM until the mid\\-1990s when it was sold to South Plains Broadcasting.", "In 1985, the station's transmitting location moved to a shared tower spearheaded by KFMX, KFYO, and KLLL, known as the Lubbock Tower.", "In mid\\-1995, KRLB FM99, a Hot A/C format was changed for KCRM Classic Rock. Also, in the mid\\-1990s, 99\\.5 became the radio home for Texas Tech Red Raider Basketball games (simulcast with KKAM). 99\\.5 would air Red Raider Basketball games through the 2008\\-09 season (In 2009 the games moved to KTTU\\-FM). In the fall of 1999, 99\\.5 changed from KCRM, The Cream of Classic Rock, to KQBR 99\\.5 The Bear, country music.", "May 5, 2012: Townsquare Media drops \"The Bear\" branding in favor of '99\\.5 Blake FM'. Morning show hosts, Rick Gilbert and Jane Prince\\-Jones and program director Kidd Manning were not retained after the rebranding.", "On August 30, 2014, KQBR rebranded as \"Lonestar 99\\.5\", with no other changes. On August 30, 2024, Lonestar 99\\.5's last local DJ, Kelsee Pitman, was relived of her duties.", "" ]
Biography --------- Helms was a featured musician on a vast number of Hank Williams recordings and provided the high, piercing signature steel guitar sound on more than 100 of Hank's songs and on 10 of his 11 number\-one country hits.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/17/arts/music/17helms.html \|work\=The New York Times \|title\= Don Helms, 81, Who Put the Twang in the Hank Williams Songbook, Is Dead \|date\=August 16, 2008 \| first\=William \| last\=Grimes \| access\-date\=May 1, 2010}} Bill Lloyd, the curator of stringed instruments at the Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum, said of Helms: "After the great tunes and Hank's mournful voice, the next thing you think about in those songs is the steel guitar. It is the quintessential honky\-tonk steel sound — tuneful, aggressive, full of attitude." Lloyd also credits Helms's sound as a major influence in shifting the sound of country music away from the hillbilly string\-band sound popular in the 1930s and toward the more modern electric style that became prominent in the 1940s. Helms played a double\-neck 1948 Gibson Console Grande steel guitar, which lacked the foot pedals found on a more modern [pedal steel guitar](/wiki/Pedal_steel_guitar "Pedal steel guitar"), which did not come into prominence in country music until after Hank Williams's death in 1953\. He tuned the outside neck to A C\# E G\# B C\# E G\# (low to high), which he called E6, and the inside neck to F\# A B D\# F\# A C\# E, which he called B13\. Almost all of Don's classic leads were done on the E6 neck. He used the B13 neck for fills. After Williams's death, Helms went on to play on many classic country hits, including [Patsy Cline](/wiki/Patsy_Cline "Patsy Cline")'s "[Walkin' After Midnight](/wiki/Walkin%27_After_Midnight "Walkin' After Midnight")," [Stonewall Jackson](/wiki/Stonewall_Jackson_%28musician%29 "Stonewall Jackson (musician)")'s "[Waterloo](/wiki/Waterloo_%28Stonewall_Jackson_song%29 "Waterloo (Stonewall Jackson song)")," the [Louvin Brothers](/wiki/Louvin_Brothers "Louvin Brothers")' "[Cash on the Barrelhead](/wiki/Cash_on_the_Barrelhead "Cash on the Barrelhead")," [Lefty Frizzell](/wiki/Lefty_Frizzell "Lefty Frizzell")'s "[Long Black Veil](/wiki/Long_Black_Veil "Long Black Veil")" and [Loretta Lynn](/wiki/Loretta_Lynn "Loretta Lynn")'s "[Blue Kentucky Girl](/wiki/Blue_Kentucky_Girl_%28song%29 "Blue Kentucky Girl (song)")." Donald Hugh Helms was born in [New Brockton](/wiki/New_Brockton%2C_Alabama "New Brockton, Alabama"), Alabama, and performed with many [country music](/wiki/Country_music "Country music") artists throughout the years including playing steel guitar on Lefty Frizzell's recording of "Long Black Veil". In the late 1950s Don played on several early [Johnny Cash](/wiki/Johnny_Cash "Johnny Cash") recordings on [Columbia Records](/wiki/Columbia_Records "Columbia Records"), *[The Fabulous Johnny Cash](/wiki/The_Fabulous_Johnny_Cash "The Fabulous Johnny Cash")*, *[Now, There Was a Song!](/wiki/Now%2C_There_Was_a_Song%21 "Now, There Was a Song!")* and *[Hymns by Johnny Cash](/wiki/Hymns_by_Johnny_Cash "Hymns by Johnny Cash")*. During the mid\-1960s Helms played in the [Wilburn Brothers](/wiki/Wilburn_Brothers "Wilburn Brothers") backup band, The Nashville Tennesseans. He later played behind Hank Williams's daughter [Jett Williams](/wiki/Jett_Williams "Jett Williams"). Helms also played for [Hank Williams Jr.](/wiki/Hank_Williams_Jr. "Hank Williams Jr.") and wrote "The Ballad of Hank Williams" which he performed with Hank Jr. on *[The Pressure Is On](/wiki/The_Pressure_Is_On "The Pressure Is On")* LP released in 1981\. In the song, Don jokingly refers to being fired by both Hank Sr. and Hank Jr. He also performed with Jett Williams, Hank Sr.'s daughter, and with David Church, a Hank Williams tribute artist. His last four known sessions were (in order) with Mark David and The Nightly Lights on November 15, 2007, [Joey Allcorn](/wiki/Joey_Allcorn "Joey Allcorn")'s album *All Alone Again*<http://www.cdbaby.com/cd/joeyallcorn1> in early 2008 followed by sessions with Teresa Street and then what is believed to be his final ever session with [Vince Gill](/wiki/Vince_Gill "Vince Gill") recording unfinished Hank Williams Sr. tracks.
[ "Biography\n---------", "Helms was a featured musician on a vast number of Hank Williams recordings and provided the high, piercing signature steel guitar sound on more than 100 of Hank's songs and on 10 of his 11 number\\-one country hits.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/17/arts/music/17helms.html \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|title\\= Don Helms, 81, Who Put the Twang in the Hank Williams Songbook, Is Dead \\|date\\=August 16, 2008 \\| first\\=William \\| last\\=Grimes \\| access\\-date\\=May 1, 2010}}", "Bill Lloyd, the curator of stringed instruments at the Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum, said of Helms: \"After the great tunes and Hank's mournful voice, the next thing you think about in those songs is the steel guitar. It is the quintessential honky\\-tonk steel sound — tuneful, aggressive, full of attitude.\" Lloyd also credits Helms's sound as a major influence in shifting the sound of country music away from the hillbilly string\\-band sound popular in the 1930s and toward the more modern electric style that became prominent in the 1940s.", "Helms played a double\\-neck 1948 Gibson Console Grande steel guitar, which lacked the foot pedals found on a more modern [pedal steel guitar](/wiki/Pedal_steel_guitar \"Pedal steel guitar\"), which did not come into prominence in country music until after Hank Williams's death in 1953\\. He tuned the outside neck to A C\\# E G\\# B C\\# E G\\# (low to high), which he called E6, and the inside neck to F\\# A B D\\# F\\# A C\\# E, which he called B13\\. Almost all of Don's classic leads were done on the E6 neck. He used the B13 neck for fills.", "After Williams's death, Helms went on to play on many classic country hits, including [Patsy Cline](/wiki/Patsy_Cline \"Patsy Cline\")'s \"[Walkin' After Midnight](/wiki/Walkin%27_After_Midnight \"Walkin' After Midnight\"),\" [Stonewall Jackson](/wiki/Stonewall_Jackson_%28musician%29 \"Stonewall Jackson (musician)\")'s \"[Waterloo](/wiki/Waterloo_%28Stonewall_Jackson_song%29 \"Waterloo (Stonewall Jackson song)\"),\" the [Louvin Brothers](/wiki/Louvin_Brothers \"Louvin Brothers\")' \"[Cash on the Barrelhead](/wiki/Cash_on_the_Barrelhead \"Cash on the Barrelhead\"),\" [Lefty Frizzell](/wiki/Lefty_Frizzell \"Lefty Frizzell\")'s \"[Long Black Veil](/wiki/Long_Black_Veil \"Long Black Veil\")\" and [Loretta Lynn](/wiki/Loretta_Lynn \"Loretta Lynn\")'s \"[Blue Kentucky Girl](/wiki/Blue_Kentucky_Girl_%28song%29 \"Blue Kentucky Girl (song)\").\"", "Donald Hugh Helms was born in [New Brockton](/wiki/New_Brockton%2C_Alabama \"New Brockton, Alabama\"), Alabama, and performed with many [country music](/wiki/Country_music \"Country music\") artists throughout the years including playing steel guitar on Lefty Frizzell's recording of \"Long Black Veil\". In the late 1950s Don played on several early [Johnny Cash](/wiki/Johnny_Cash \"Johnny Cash\") recordings on [Columbia Records](/wiki/Columbia_Records \"Columbia Records\"), *[The Fabulous Johnny Cash](/wiki/The_Fabulous_Johnny_Cash \"The Fabulous Johnny Cash\")*, *[Now, There Was a Song!](/wiki/Now%2C_There_Was_a_Song%21 \"Now, There Was a Song!\")* and *[Hymns by Johnny Cash](/wiki/Hymns_by_Johnny_Cash \"Hymns by Johnny Cash\")*. During the mid\\-1960s Helms played in the [Wilburn Brothers](/wiki/Wilburn_Brothers \"Wilburn Brothers\") backup band, The Nashville Tennesseans. He later played behind Hank Williams's daughter [Jett Williams](/wiki/Jett_Williams \"Jett Williams\").", "Helms also played for [Hank Williams Jr.](/wiki/Hank_Williams_Jr. \"Hank Williams Jr.\") and wrote \"The Ballad of Hank Williams\" which he performed with Hank Jr. on *[The Pressure Is On](/wiki/The_Pressure_Is_On \"The Pressure Is On\")* LP released in 1981\\. In the song, Don jokingly refers to being fired by both Hank Sr. and Hank Jr. He also performed with Jett Williams, Hank Sr.'s daughter, and with David Church, a Hank Williams tribute artist.", "His last four known sessions were (in order) with Mark David and The Nightly Lights on November 15, 2007, [Joey Allcorn](/wiki/Joey_Allcorn \"Joey Allcorn\")'s album *All Alone Again*<http://www.cdbaby.com/cd/joeyallcorn1> in early 2008 followed by sessions with Teresa Street and then what is believed to be his final ever session with [Vince Gill](/wiki/Vince_Gill \"Vince Gill\") recording unfinished Hank Williams Sr. tracks.", "" ]
Resolution ---------- ### Observations In the preamble of the resolution, the Council expressed concern about the continued instability in Guinea\-Bissau, including the lack of civilian oversight of the [military](/wiki/Military_of_Guinea-Bissau "Military of Guinea-Bissau") and unlawful detentions since the [unrest in April 2010](/wiki/2010_Guinea-Bissau_military_unrest "2010 Guinea-Bissau military unrest").{{cite news\|title\=Citing ongoing instability, Security Council renews UN office in Guinea\-Bissau\|url\=http://accra\-mail.com/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=28246%3Aciting\-ongoing\-instability\-security\-council\-renews\-un\-office\-in\-guinea\-bissau\&catid\=70%3Aafrica\&Itemid\=219\|newspaper\=\[\[Accra Daily Mail]]\|date\=23 November 2010}} It stated that the situation in the country posed threats to security and stability in the region, particularly the issue of [drug trafficking](/wiki/Drug_trafficking "Drug trafficking"). All parties in Guinea\-Bissau had to continue dialogue, promote [human rights](/wiki/Human_rights "Human rights") and the [rule of law](/wiki/Rule_of_law "Rule of law") and [fight against impunity](/wiki/Anti-impunity "Anti-impunity"). Meanwhile, the resolution also praised the work of the [Economic Community of West African States](/wiki/Economic_Community_of_West_African_States "Economic Community of West African States") (ECOWAS) and the [Community of Portuguese Language Countries](/wiki/Community_of_Portuguese_Language_Countries "Community of Portuguese Language Countries") (CPLP) and affirmed that the Guinea\-Bissau government was responsible for the security of the population and development. ### Acts The [mandate](/wiki/Mandate_%28international_law%29 "Mandate (international law)") of UNIOGBIS was extended and the [Secretary\-General](/wiki/Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations "Secretary-General of the United Nations") [Ban Ki\-moon](/wiki/Ban_Ki-moon "Ban Ki-moon") was asked to monitor its progress. Guinea\-Bissau parties were urged to engage in dialogue, and the armed forces were called upon to cease interference in political issues and respect constitutional order and civilian rule. At the same time, political leaders were asked not to involve the military and [judiciary](/wiki/Judiciary "Judiciary") in politics and resolve problems through political means. The resolution further called upon the government to continue investigations into political assassinations that took place in March and June 2009 and hold those responsible accountable. It also had to ensure due process of law with respect to those responsible for crimes, release or prosecute those detained during the unrest of April 2010, and tackle [corruption](/wiki/Political_corruption "Political corruption"). Finally, UNIOGBIS, the [African Union](/wiki/African_Union "African Union"), [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union") and CPLP were asked to assist in the peacebuilding efforts in Guinea\-Bissau and tackle [organised crime](/wiki/Organised_crime "Organised crime") and drug trafficking.
[ "Resolution\n----------", "### Observations", "In the preamble of the resolution, the Council expressed concern about the continued instability in Guinea\\-Bissau, including the lack of civilian oversight of the [military](/wiki/Military_of_Guinea-Bissau \"Military of Guinea-Bissau\") and unlawful detentions since the [unrest in April 2010](/wiki/2010_Guinea-Bissau_military_unrest \"2010 Guinea-Bissau military unrest\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Citing ongoing instability, Security Council renews UN office in Guinea\\-Bissau\\|url\\=http://accra\\-mail.com/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=28246%3Aciting\\-ongoing\\-instability\\-security\\-council\\-renews\\-un\\-office\\-in\\-guinea\\-bissau\\&catid\\=70%3Aafrica\\&Itemid\\=219\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Accra Daily Mail]]\\|date\\=23 November 2010}} It stated that the situation in the country posed threats to security and stability in the region, particularly the issue of [drug trafficking](/wiki/Drug_trafficking \"Drug trafficking\"). All parties in Guinea\\-Bissau had to continue dialogue, promote [human rights](/wiki/Human_rights \"Human rights\") and the [rule of law](/wiki/Rule_of_law \"Rule of law\") and [fight against impunity](/wiki/Anti-impunity \"Anti-impunity\").", "Meanwhile, the resolution also praised the work of the [Economic Community of West African States](/wiki/Economic_Community_of_West_African_States \"Economic Community of West African States\") (ECOWAS) and the [Community of Portuguese Language Countries](/wiki/Community_of_Portuguese_Language_Countries \"Community of Portuguese Language Countries\") (CPLP) and affirmed that the Guinea\\-Bissau government was responsible for the security of the population and development.", "### Acts", "The [mandate](/wiki/Mandate_%28international_law%29 \"Mandate (international law)\") of UNIOGBIS was extended and the [Secretary\\-General](/wiki/Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations \"Secretary-General of the United Nations\") [Ban Ki\\-moon](/wiki/Ban_Ki-moon \"Ban Ki-moon\") was asked to monitor its progress. Guinea\\-Bissau parties were urged to engage in dialogue, and the armed forces were called upon to cease interference in political issues and respect constitutional order and civilian rule. At the same time, political leaders were asked not to involve the military and [judiciary](/wiki/Judiciary \"Judiciary\") in politics and resolve problems through political means.", "The resolution further called upon the government to continue investigations into political assassinations that took place in March and June 2009 and hold those responsible accountable. It also had to ensure due process of law with respect to those responsible for crimes, release or prosecute those detained during the unrest of April 2010, and tackle [corruption](/wiki/Political_corruption \"Political corruption\").", "Finally, UNIOGBIS, the [African Union](/wiki/African_Union \"African Union\"), [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\") and CPLP were asked to assist in the peacebuilding efforts in Guinea\\-Bissau and tackle [organised crime](/wiki/Organised_crime \"Organised crime\") and drug trafficking.", "" ]
Plot ---- When the father of the young Olof Persson ([Eddie Axberg](/wiki/Eddie_Axberg "Eddie Axberg")) becomes ill, he starts taking jobs as a working class Swede. His first job is [log driving](/wiki/Log_driving "Log driving"), where he meets a man named August ([Allan Edwall](/wiki/Allan_Edwall "Allan Edwall")). August tells Olof about death, and a flashback tale with August's wife chasing their twin sons, all of whom are now deceased, is played. Olof change jobs. He finds a dead moth while working and picks it up, flying it through the air. During the funeral of Olof's father, his father's old friend [Smålands](/wiki/Sm%C3%A5land "Småland")\-Pelle ([Max von Sydow](/wiki/Max_von_Sydow "Max von Sydow")) speaks fondly of the old memories of his father, and has a private conversation with Olof afterwards. Olof takes a job at a sawmill. The sawmill workers were sitting around telling stories about women, and then some of the workers harass Olof. Olof primarily works outside of the mill, transporting logs with a boy named Oskar. Oskar gets injured when a log falls on him, and he later dies in the hospital. After this incident, Olof asks for a higher position at the mill, but he is denied. He starts to read a lot of novels and books about philosophy. Later on, he quits the sawmill job and applies for a job at a cinema selling candy. In the job interview he encounters the eccentric owner ([Gunnar Björnstrand](/wiki/Gunnar_Bj%C3%B6rnstrand "Gunnar Björnstrand")), who informs him the duties of job and possible promotion to a projectionist in the future. He becomes interested in a girl named Maria ([Signe Stade](/wiki/Signe_Stade "Signe Stade")), who he later sees with another boy. He makes friends with a boy named Fredrik ([Stig Törnblom](/wiki/Stig_T%C3%B6rnblom "Stig Törnblom")). They talk about books and philosophy, and explore together. Olof visits home and his mother ([Ulla Akselson](/wiki/Ulla_Akselson "Ulla Akselson")) asks questions about the security of his new job. After an accident while selling candy, Olof asks for a new job and starts working for a touring projectionist named Mr. Larsson ([Åke Fridell](/wiki/%C3%85ke_Fridell "Åke Fridell")). They travel to participate in the circus. Mr. Larsson introduces Olof to Olivia ([Ulla Sjöblom](/wiki/Ulla_Sj%C3%B6blom "Ulla Sjöblom")), the "queen" of a travelling shooting gallery. Olof stays with a blacksmith's family on a vacation between touring and the cinema. He meets Maja ([Catti Edfeldt](/wiki/Catti_Edfeldt "Catti Edfeldt")), the blacksmith's daughter; they have sex in the field. Afterward, she cries. Olof starts going to meetings concerning [communism](/wiki/Communism "Communism") and its place working\-class Sweden, and writing poetry. When he goes back to the cinema, Olof's boss gets mad that he was handing out "socialist rags". Olof quits. He goes back on tour and works for Olivia. They enter into a relationship and then break up. Olof continues visiting home and going to communist meetings. Later on, Olof starts working for the railroad company. He works with a man named Niklas ([Per Oscarsson](/wiki/Per_Oscarsson "Per Oscarsson")), and they have similar opinions about [capitalism](/wiki/Capitalism "Capitalism"). Niklas shouts, "Damn capitalist rot!” They both proclaim their pro\-socialist opinions to their boss, Byberg ([Bengt Ekerot](/wiki/Bengt_Ekerot "Bengt Ekerot")). They prank Byberg as well. Olof spares food for hobos on the train, and starts leading communist meetings. At a party, Olof gets very drunk, throws up, and falls down. Back with the circus, Olivia gives Olof a final speech of sorts about giving up and how hard life can be. A scene with a bird flying that was shown at the beginning, with characteristic music, is repeated. Olof goes back to his foster mother ([Gudrun Brost](/wiki/Gudrun_Brost "Gudrun Brost")) before travelling on. He finally buys a hat he had been admiring earlier in the film. In the final scene, Olof walks along railroad tracks in heavy snow, onto whatever is next.{{cite AV media \| people\=Troell, Jan (Director) \| date\=1966 \| title\=Här har du ditt liv \| trans\-title \= Here's Your Life \| medium\=Motion picture \| location\=Sweden }}
[ "Plot\n----", "When the father of the young Olof Persson ([Eddie Axberg](/wiki/Eddie_Axberg \"Eddie Axberg\")) becomes ill, he starts taking jobs as a working class Swede. His first job is [log driving](/wiki/Log_driving \"Log driving\"), where he meets a man named August ([Allan Edwall](/wiki/Allan_Edwall \"Allan Edwall\")). August tells Olof about death, and a flashback tale with August's wife chasing their twin sons, all of whom are now deceased, is played. Olof change jobs. He finds a dead moth while working and picks it up, flying it through the air.", "During the funeral of Olof's father, his father's old friend [Smålands](/wiki/Sm%C3%A5land \"Småland\")\\-Pelle ([Max von Sydow](/wiki/Max_von_Sydow \"Max von Sydow\")) speaks fondly of the old memories of his father, and has a private conversation with Olof afterwards. Olof takes a job at a sawmill. The sawmill workers were sitting around telling stories about women, and then some of the workers harass Olof. Olof primarily works outside of the mill, transporting logs with a boy named Oskar. Oskar gets injured when a log falls on him, and he later dies in the hospital. After this incident, Olof asks for a higher position at the mill, but he is denied. He starts to read a lot of novels and books about philosophy.", "Later on, he quits the sawmill job and applies for a job at a cinema selling candy. In the job interview he encounters the eccentric owner ([Gunnar Björnstrand](/wiki/Gunnar_Bj%C3%B6rnstrand \"Gunnar Björnstrand\")), who informs him the duties of job and possible promotion to a projectionist in the future. He becomes interested in a girl named Maria ([Signe Stade](/wiki/Signe_Stade \"Signe Stade\")), who he later sees with another boy. He makes friends with a boy named Fredrik ([Stig Törnblom](/wiki/Stig_T%C3%B6rnblom \"Stig Törnblom\")). They talk about books and philosophy, and explore together. Olof visits home and his mother ([Ulla Akselson](/wiki/Ulla_Akselson \"Ulla Akselson\")) asks questions about the security of his new job. After an accident while selling candy, Olof asks for a new job and starts working for a touring projectionist named Mr. Larsson ([Åke Fridell](/wiki/%C3%85ke_Fridell \"Åke Fridell\")). They travel to participate in the circus. Mr. Larsson introduces Olof to Olivia ([Ulla Sjöblom](/wiki/Ulla_Sj%C3%B6blom \"Ulla Sjöblom\")), the \"queen\" of a travelling shooting gallery.", "Olof stays with a blacksmith's family on a vacation between touring and the cinema. He meets Maja ([Catti Edfeldt](/wiki/Catti_Edfeldt \"Catti Edfeldt\")), the blacksmith's daughter; they have sex in the field. Afterward, she cries. Olof starts going to meetings concerning [communism](/wiki/Communism \"Communism\") and its place working\\-class Sweden, and writing poetry. When he goes back to the cinema, Olof's boss gets mad that he was handing out \"socialist rags\". Olof quits. He goes back on tour and works for Olivia. They enter into a relationship and then break up. Olof continues visiting home and going to communist meetings.", "Later on, Olof starts working for the railroad company. He works with a man named Niklas ([Per Oscarsson](/wiki/Per_Oscarsson \"Per Oscarsson\")), and they have similar opinions about [capitalism](/wiki/Capitalism \"Capitalism\"). Niklas shouts, \"Damn capitalist rot!” They both proclaim their pro\\-socialist opinions to their boss, Byberg ([Bengt Ekerot](/wiki/Bengt_Ekerot \"Bengt Ekerot\")). They prank Byberg as well. Olof spares food for hobos on the train, and starts leading communist meetings. At a party, Olof gets very drunk, throws up, and falls down. Back with the circus, Olivia gives Olof a final speech of sorts about giving up and how hard life can be. A scene with a bird flying that was shown at the beginning, with characteristic music, is repeated.", "Olof goes back to his foster mother ([Gudrun Brost](/wiki/Gudrun_Brost \"Gudrun Brost\")) before travelling on. He finally buys a hat he had been admiring earlier in the film. In the final scene, Olof walks along railroad tracks in heavy snow, onto whatever is next.{{cite AV media \\| people\\=Troell, Jan (Director) \\| date\\=1966 \\| title\\=Här har du ditt liv \\| trans\\-title \\= Here's Your Life \\| medium\\=Motion picture \\| location\\=Sweden }}", "" ]
Historical context ------------------ Released in 1966, *Here Is Your Life* was director [Jan Troell](/wiki/Jan_Troell "Jan Troell")'s first feature\-length film.{{cite web\|title\=Here Is Your Life\|url\=http://www.criterion.com/films/28552\-here\-is\-your\-life\|website\=The Criterion Collection\|access\-date\=7 July 2015}} The main character is growing up in a Sweden that is also developing, in the midst of the early twentieth century. This film, through the lens of 1960s Sweden, tells the story of a boy learning and responding to the environment around him. Films about large\-scale wars, such as [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), are often produced in differing waves after the war is over.{{cite book\|last1\=Buelens\|first1\=Geert\|title\=The Great War in Post\-Memory Literature and Film\|date\=2014\|publisher\=De Gruyter\|location\=Berlin\|isbn\=978\-3\-11\-036290\-9\|page\=367}} The release of *Here's Your Life* marked the fiftieth anniversary of the Great War, like many other films of its time. Sweden was looking back and considering its state of [neutrality](/wiki/Swedish_neutrality "Swedish neutrality") during the war and how this neutrality affected Sweden's people. When reviewing the past effects of neutrality, Sweden was looking to the future and its position in the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War"). Like many European countries in the mid\-twentieth century, Sweden began to introduce [welfare capitalism](/wiki/Welfare_capitalism "Welfare capitalism").{{cite book\|last1\=Hunt\|first1\=Michael H.\|title\=The World Transformed : 1945 to the present\|date\=2004\|publisher\=Bedford/St. Martin's\|location\=Boston\|isbn\=9780312245832\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/worldtransformed0000hunt/page/202 202]\|url\=https://archive.org/details/worldtransformed0000hunt/page/202}} Specifically, Sweden found its place in this continental movement by following its "tradition of state intervention to promote political centralization and economic efficiency. In *Here Is Your Life*, Olof is never struggling for money and shelter, but he is constantly working and taking new jobs to sustain himself and his family. This working class portrayal is likely linked to the [welfare](/wiki/Welfare "Welfare") initiatives that were present or forthcoming when the film was produced. Sweden has been a country of neutrality, relying on peaceful interactions with other nations, since the early nineteenth century{{cite journal\|last1\=Heckscher\|first1\=Gunnar\|title\=Sweden and the Cold War\|journal\=Survival\|date\=January 1961\|volume\=3\|issue\=1\|pages\=31–34\|doi\=10\.1080/00396336108440232}} Sweden has worked to avoid alliances (such as [NATO](/wiki/NATO "NATO")) and [imperialism](/wiki/Imperialism "Imperialism") so that it will not be pulled into wars by other countries. Along with this, Sweden's economy during the twentieth century relied on trade, so this was another reason to keep peace with multiple nations. However, "Sweden was particularly active in the resumption of scientific and other cultural cooperation in the world after 1945\." During the Cold War, the Swedish government had to carefully consider the need for nuclear weapons ("armed isolation"{{cite journal\|last1\=Makko\|first1\=Aryo\|title\=Sweden, Europe, and the Cold War: A Reappraisal\|journal\=Journal of Cold War Studies\|date\=2012\|volume\=14\|issue\=2\|pages\=68–97\|publisher\=Project MUSE\|doi\=10\.1162/JCWS\_a\_00221\|s2cid\=57562337}}), and how these would influence Sweden's policy of neutrality and economic situation. In the early 1960s, the younger generations of Sweden were exposed to Western culture, and many participated in protests opposing the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War"). Because of this, the government became more progressive in order to appease the young leftists and the poor. [Olof Palme](/wiki/Olof_Palme "Olof Palme"), an adviser for Prime Minister [Tage Erlander](/wiki/Tage_Erlander "Tage Erlander") and then a prime minister himself, also protested against the Vietnam War. Palme was important to Sweden's activism and "international solidarity" during the 1960s. When *Here Is Your Life* was released and shortly after, much of Sweden's population was considering Sweden's changing foreign policy that "consisted of four elements: national neutrality, Nordic cooperation, a commitment to [UN](/wiki/UN "UN") collective security, and a nascent association with the [European Communities](/wiki/European_Communities "European Communities") and the [Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe](/wiki/Conference_on_Security_and_Cooperation_in_Europe "Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe")." In a *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times "New York Times")* film review in 1968,{{cite news\|last1\=Canby\|first1\=Vincent\|last2\=Thompson\|first2\=Howard\|title\=Screen: 'Here's Your Life,' a Swedish Import, Begins Run at the Fifth Avenue Cinema\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res\=9B05EEDA1230E034BC4851DFB4678383679EDE\&pagewanted\=print\|access\-date\=7 July 2015\|work\=New York Times\|date\=20 December 1968}} *Here Is Your Life* was praised, though many Swedes were protesting U.S. policies during this time.
[ "Historical context\n------------------", "Released in 1966, *Here Is Your Life* was director [Jan Troell](/wiki/Jan_Troell \"Jan Troell\")'s first feature\\-length film.{{cite web\\|title\\=Here Is Your Life\\|url\\=http://www.criterion.com/films/28552\\-here\\-is\\-your\\-life\\|website\\=The Criterion Collection\\|access\\-date\\=7 July 2015}} The main character is growing up in a Sweden that is also developing, in the midst of the early twentieth century. This film, through the lens of 1960s Sweden, tells the story of a boy learning and responding to the environment around him.", "Films about large\\-scale wars, such as [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), are often produced in differing waves after the war is over.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Buelens\\|first1\\=Geert\\|title\\=The Great War in Post\\-Memory Literature and Film\\|date\\=2014\\|publisher\\=De Gruyter\\|location\\=Berlin\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-11\\-036290\\-9\\|page\\=367}} The release of *Here's Your Life* marked the fiftieth anniversary of the Great War, like many other films of its time. Sweden was looking back and considering its state of [neutrality](/wiki/Swedish_neutrality \"Swedish neutrality\") during the war and how this neutrality affected Sweden's people. When reviewing the past effects of neutrality, Sweden was looking to the future and its position in the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\").", "Like many European countries in the mid\\-twentieth century, Sweden began to introduce [welfare capitalism](/wiki/Welfare_capitalism \"Welfare capitalism\").{{cite book\\|last1\\=Hunt\\|first1\\=Michael H.\\|title\\=The World Transformed : 1945 to the present\\|date\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Bedford/St. Martin's\\|location\\=Boston\\|isbn\\=9780312245832\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/worldtransformed0000hunt/page/202 202]\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/worldtransformed0000hunt/page/202}} Specifically, Sweden found its place in this continental movement by following its \"tradition of state intervention to promote political centralization and economic efficiency. In *Here Is Your Life*, Olof is never struggling for money and shelter, but he is constantly working and taking new jobs to sustain himself and his family. This working class portrayal is likely linked to the [welfare](/wiki/Welfare \"Welfare\") initiatives that were present or forthcoming when the film was produced.", "Sweden has been a country of neutrality, relying on peaceful interactions with other nations, since the early nineteenth century{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Heckscher\\|first1\\=Gunnar\\|title\\=Sweden and the Cold War\\|journal\\=Survival\\|date\\=January 1961\\|volume\\=3\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=31–34\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/00396336108440232}} Sweden has worked to avoid alliances (such as [NATO](/wiki/NATO \"NATO\")) and [imperialism](/wiki/Imperialism \"Imperialism\") so that it will not be pulled into wars by other countries. Along with this, Sweden's economy during the twentieth century relied on trade, so this was another reason to keep peace with multiple nations. However, \"Sweden was particularly active in the resumption of scientific and other cultural cooperation in the world after 1945\\.\" During the Cold War, the Swedish government had to carefully consider the need for nuclear weapons (\"armed isolation\"{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Makko\\|first1\\=Aryo\\|title\\=Sweden, Europe, and the Cold War: A Reappraisal\\|journal\\=Journal of Cold War Studies\\|date\\=2012\\|volume\\=14\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=68–97\\|publisher\\=Project MUSE\\|doi\\=10\\.1162/JCWS\\_a\\_00221\\|s2cid\\=57562337}}), and how these would influence Sweden's policy of neutrality and economic situation.", "In the early 1960s, the younger generations of Sweden were exposed to Western culture, and many participated in protests opposing the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\"). Because of this, the government became more progressive in order to appease the young leftists and the poor. [Olof Palme](/wiki/Olof_Palme \"Olof Palme\"), an adviser for Prime Minister [Tage Erlander](/wiki/Tage_Erlander \"Tage Erlander\") and then a prime minister himself, also protested against the Vietnam War. Palme was important to Sweden's activism and \"international solidarity\" during the 1960s. When *Here Is Your Life* was released and shortly after, much of Sweden's population was considering Sweden's changing foreign policy that \"consisted of four elements: national neutrality, Nordic cooperation, a commitment to [UN](/wiki/UN \"UN\") collective security, and a nascent association with the [European Communities](/wiki/European_Communities \"European Communities\") and the [Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe](/wiki/Conference_on_Security_and_Cooperation_in_Europe \"Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe\").\" In a *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times \"New York Times\")* film review in 1968,{{cite news\\|last1\\=Canby\\|first1\\=Vincent\\|last2\\=Thompson\\|first2\\=Howard\\|title\\=Screen: 'Here's Your Life,' a Swedish Import, Begins Run at the Fifth Avenue Cinema\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res\\=9B05EEDA1230E034BC4851DFB4678383679EDE\\&pagewanted\\=print\\|access\\-date\\=7 July 2015\\|work\\=New York Times\\|date\\=20 December 1968}} *Here Is Your Life* was praised, though many Swedes were protesting U.S. policies during this time.", "" ]
History ------- Founded in 1979 by Ernest L. Burdette, Frank J. Wilem, Jr., and Robert E. Sandoz, Triton Systems developed ATMjr, the world's first battery\-powered and completely portable device for training bank customers to use what was, at the time, a fairly new banking service, the ATM. Triton followed this product with the development of a Card Activation System that allowed financial institutions to instantly issue ATM cards with customized (often customer chosen) personal identification numbers (PINs). In the early 1990s, Triton pioneered in\-store cash withdrawals with the introduction of the Scrip terminal, a machine that allows a store's customers to use an ATM card to generate a voucher, redeemable for cash at the register. In 2000 Triton was acquired by [Dover Corporation](/wiki/Dover_Corporation "Dover Corporation") (NYSE\-traded DOV), a diversified manufacturer of a wide range of proprietary products and components for industrial and commercial use. In 2004, [Fujitsu](/wiki/Fujitsu "Fujitsu") and Triton entered into a strategic licensing agreement to provide a broader range of solutions for financial institutions and retailers though the deployment of Fujitsu's Windows\-based Prism software on Triton ATMs. Later that same year, Triton launched the RT2000, a smaller, low\-cost through\-the\-wall ATM that was easy to install and easy to maintain. 120,000 ATMs were shipped to 17 countries around the world. In 2005 [Hurricane Katrina](/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina "Hurricane Katrina") provided a major challenge for Triton. Its headquarters and manufacturing plant on the Mississippi Gulf coast was shut down, and the entire coastal area evacuated. Triton's Long Beach, Mississippi administrative, manufacturing and production facilities were back on\-line within two weeks. Triton opened a Memphis manufacturing and service facility in July 2006\. In 2008 Triton launched the RL2000, a stand\-alone ATM. Also that year, Triton's subsidiary, Calypso, began operations in Australia. On April 14, 2008, Calypso successfully conducted the largest migration of ATMs to be completed in a single day — 2,808 ATMs. In March 2009, Triton introduced the RL1600, a new off\-premises ATM. The RL1600 was named the Convenience Store and Petroleum (CSP) magazine Product of the Year for 2009\. Also in March 2009, Triton made the decision to sell its Calypso processing operation in order to focus on ATM manufacturing, software development and support. In September 2009, the company launched ATMGurus. ATMGurus provides customers with multi\-brand parts, repair and training support for their ATM estates. In July 2008, Nautilus Hyosung offered to acquire Triton from its parent company Dover Corporation for $63 million U.S. Dollars.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.marketwatch.com/story/dover\-corp\-to\-sell\-triton\-systems\-to\-nautilus\-hyosung \|title\=Dover Corp. to sell Triton Systems to Nautilus Hyosung \|publisher\=MarketWatch \|date\=30 July 2008}} However, in May 2009, citing anti\-trust scrutiny from regulators, the acquisition was cancelled.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.atmmarketplace.com/articles/dover\-nautilus\-hyosung\-terminate\-triton\-acquisition/ \|title\=Dover, Nautilus Hyosung terminate Triton acquisition \|publisher\=ATM Marketplace \|date\=21 May 2009}} Subsequently, in March 2010, Dover completed the sale of Triton to a group of private investors. The company is currently privately held.
[ "History\n-------", "Founded in 1979 by Ernest L. Burdette, Frank J. Wilem, Jr., and Robert E. Sandoz, Triton Systems developed ATMjr, the world's first battery\\-powered and completely portable device for training bank customers to use what was, at the time, a fairly new banking service, the ATM. Triton followed this product with the development of a Card Activation System that allowed financial institutions to instantly issue ATM cards with customized (often customer chosen) personal identification numbers (PINs).", "In the early 1990s, Triton pioneered in\\-store cash withdrawals with the introduction of the Scrip terminal, a machine that allows a store's customers to use an ATM card to generate a voucher, redeemable for cash at the register.", "In 2000 Triton was acquired by [Dover Corporation](/wiki/Dover_Corporation \"Dover Corporation\") (NYSE\\-traded DOV), a diversified manufacturer of a wide range of proprietary products and components for industrial and commercial use. In 2004, [Fujitsu](/wiki/Fujitsu \"Fujitsu\") and Triton entered into a strategic licensing agreement to provide a broader range of solutions for financial institutions and retailers though the deployment of Fujitsu's Windows\\-based Prism software on Triton ATMs. Later that same year, Triton launched the RT2000, a smaller, low\\-cost through\\-the\\-wall ATM that was easy to install and easy to maintain. 120,000 ATMs were shipped to 17 countries around the world.", "In 2005 [Hurricane Katrina](/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina \"Hurricane Katrina\") provided a major challenge for Triton. Its headquarters and manufacturing plant on the Mississippi Gulf coast was shut down, and the entire coastal area evacuated. Triton's Long Beach, Mississippi administrative, manufacturing and production facilities were back on\\-line within two weeks.", "Triton opened a Memphis manufacturing and service facility in July 2006\\. In 2008 Triton launched the RL2000, a stand\\-alone ATM. Also that year, Triton's subsidiary, Calypso, began operations in Australia. On April 14, 2008, Calypso successfully conducted the largest migration of ATMs to be completed in a single day — 2,808 ATMs.", "In March 2009, Triton introduced the RL1600, a new off\\-premises ATM. The RL1600 was named the Convenience Store and Petroleum (CSP) magazine Product of the Year for 2009\\. Also in March 2009, Triton made the decision to sell its Calypso processing operation in order to focus on ATM manufacturing, software development and support.", "In September 2009, the company launched ATMGurus. ATMGurus provides customers with multi\\-brand parts, repair and training support for their ATM estates.", "In July 2008, Nautilus Hyosung offered to acquire Triton from its parent company Dover Corporation for $63 million U.S. Dollars.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.marketwatch.com/story/dover\\-corp\\-to\\-sell\\-triton\\-systems\\-to\\-nautilus\\-hyosung \\|title\\=Dover Corp. to sell Triton Systems to Nautilus Hyosung \\|publisher\\=MarketWatch \\|date\\=30 July 2008}} However, in May 2009, citing anti\\-trust scrutiny from regulators, the acquisition was cancelled.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.atmmarketplace.com/articles/dover\\-nautilus\\-hyosung\\-terminate\\-triton\\-acquisition/ \\|title\\=Dover, Nautilus Hyosung terminate Triton acquisition \\|publisher\\=ATM Marketplace \\|date\\=21 May 2009}} Subsequently, in March 2010, Dover completed the sale of Triton to a group of private investors. The company is currently privately held.", "" ]
Course ------ The Black Pockau rises 890 metres above [sea level (NHN)](/wiki/Normalh%C3%B6hennull "Normalhöhennull") in a [raised bog](/wiki/Raised_bog "Raised bog") northeast of the [Jelení hora](/wiki/Jelen%C3%AD_hora "Jelení hora") in the Bohemian Ore Mountains. The [Chomutovka](/wiki/Chomutovka "Chomutovka") (German: *Assigbach*), which flows into the [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic "Czech Republic"), also has its source here. After {{convert\|500\|metres}}, the stream reaches the German\-Czech border at the old road between [Přísečnice](/wiki/P%C5%99%C3%ADse%C4%8Dnice "Přísečnice") (*Preßnitz*) and [Kalek](/wiki/Kalek "Kalek") (*Kallich*) and flows through the Satzung municipal pond (*Satzunger Gemeindeteich*). From here on, it forms the national border for {{convert\|13\|km}}, as far as the village of {{ill\|Kühnhaide (Marienberg)\|lt\=Kühnhaide\|de}} (a district of [Marienberg](/wiki/Marienberg "Marienberg")). In this section it passes the villages of [Satzung](/wiki/Satzung "Satzung") (the former village of Ulmbach ({{ill\|Jilmová\|de\|\|cs\|\|sk}}) on the Bohemian side opposite was demolished in 1945\) and [Reitzenhain](/wiki/Reitzenhain_%28Marienberg%29 "Reitzenhain (Marienberg)") (the village of {{ill\|Pohraniční\|de\|\|cs\|\|sk}}, that used to be on the Bohemian side, was also abandoned). In Reitzenhain, from the rafting pond (*Floßteich*) by the Neue Welt mill, a ditch known as the {{ill\|Reitzenhainer Zeuggraben\|de}} provided water from the Black Pockau for [overshot waterwheels](/wiki/Overshot_waterwheel "Overshot waterwheel") at the old mines near Marienberg. Water is also diverted from the river at the eastern end of Kühnhaide: the Green Ditch (*{{ill\|Grüner Graben (Pobershau)\|lt\=Grüner Graben\|de}}*) once fed water for overshot wheels at the mine on the *Wildsberg* mountain near [Pobershau](/wiki/Pobershau "Pobershau"). The village of [Kienhaid](/wiki/Kienhaid "Kienhaid") (*Načetín I*), that formerly stood on the Bohemian side of the border here, was abandoned. East of Kühnhaide the river changes direction from northeast to north. The next section of the valley as far as the [Kniebreche](/wiki/Pobershau "Pobershau"), the gorge\-like **Schwarzwasser valley** (*Schwarzwassertal*), is considered one of the most picturesque of German valleys in the [Central Uplands](/wiki/Central_Uplands "Central Uplands") and is protected as the [Schwarzwassertal nature reserve](/wiki/Nature_reserves_of_Germany "Nature reserves of Germany"). Around 1985, a dam with a storage capacity of {{convert\|3\.5\|e6m3}} was planned to be built in the southern section, which would have seen the loss of Kühnhaide. These plans, however, were shelved. In running through this ravine\-like valley, the river passes historically important witnesses to the settlement of the Ore Mountains located on the left and right banks or in the nearby vicinity. These include the ruined castle of {{ill\|Nonnenfelsen Castle\|lt\=Nonnenfelsen\|de\|Burg Nonnenfelsen}} and the former robber baron castle of [Liebenstein](/wiki/Liebenstein_Castle_%28Saxony%29 "Liebenstein Castle (Saxony)") as well as the [abandoned village](/wiki/Abandoned_village "Abandoned village") of {{ill\|Ullersdorf\|de\|Ullersdorf (Wüstung)}} that may have been associated with it. [thumb\|Mouth of the Black Pockau on the Flöha in Pockau](/wiki/File:Schwarze_Pockau_Muendung.JPG "Schwarze Pockau Muendung.JPG") In the remote Pobershau scattered village of *Hinterer Grund* a [hydropower](/wiki/Hydropower "Hydropower") station is fed by water from an artificial ditch or *[Kunstgraben](/wiki/Kunstgraben "Kunstgraben")*. This is the location of the Pobershau conservation station, which offers support to those interested in nature. At the *Kniebreche* near [Rittersberg](/wiki/Rittersberg%2C_Marienberg "Rittersberg, Marienberg") the river is joined by the [Red Pockau](/wiki/Red_Pockau "Red Pockau"). From here on, in old maps, the river is just known as the Pockau or Große Pockau (Great Pockau). North of the *Kniebreche* on both sides of the river are more historic sites. On the right hand bank is the ruined {{ill\|Nidberg Castle\|de\|Burg Nidberg (Sachsen)}} on the crags of the *Löwenkopffelsen* that rise {{convert\|50\|m}} above the valley floor, and the deserted village of {{ill\|Schwedengraben\|de\|Schwedengraben (Wüstung)}}, an old mining settlement, on a [slip\-off slope](/wiki/Slip-off_slope "Slip-off slope") of the river valley. Near [Niederlauterstein](/wiki/Niederlauterstein "Niederlauterstein"), where the Lautenbach stream joins the river, the Black Pockau passes the ruins of [Lauterstein Castle](/wiki/Lauterstein_Castle_%28Marienberg%29 "Lauterstein Castle (Marienberg)"). Further north the Knesenbach, which rises near {{ill\|Ansprung\|de\|\|no}} (a district of Marienberg), empties into the river. Further downstream it passes the {{ill\|Strobel Mill\|de\|Strobel\-Mühle}}, which still uses water power. Here there is a [water gauge](/wiki/Water_gauge "Water gauge") belonging to the Saxon State Office for the Environment and Geology; its readings are taken regularly and available on the internet. In the municipality of [Pockau](/wiki/Pockau "Pockau") the Black Pockau finally empties into the Flöha.
[ "Course\n------", "The Black Pockau rises 890 metres above [sea level (NHN)](/wiki/Normalh%C3%B6hennull \"Normalhöhennull\") in a [raised bog](/wiki/Raised_bog \"Raised bog\") northeast of the [Jelení hora](/wiki/Jelen%C3%AD_hora \"Jelení hora\") in the Bohemian Ore Mountains. The [Chomutovka](/wiki/Chomutovka \"Chomutovka\") (German: *Assigbach*), which flows into the [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic \"Czech Republic\"), also has its source here.", "After {{convert\\|500\\|metres}}, the stream reaches the German\\-Czech border at the old road between [Přísečnice](/wiki/P%C5%99%C3%ADse%C4%8Dnice \"Přísečnice\") (*Preßnitz*) and [Kalek](/wiki/Kalek \"Kalek\") (*Kallich*) and flows through the Satzung municipal pond (*Satzunger Gemeindeteich*). From here on, it forms the national border for {{convert\\|13\\|km}}, as far as the village of {{ill\\|Kühnhaide (Marienberg)\\|lt\\=Kühnhaide\\|de}} (a district of [Marienberg](/wiki/Marienberg \"Marienberg\")). In this section it passes the villages of [Satzung](/wiki/Satzung \"Satzung\") (the former village of Ulmbach ({{ill\\|Jilmová\\|de\\|\\|cs\\|\\|sk}}) on the Bohemian side opposite was demolished in 1945\\) and [Reitzenhain](/wiki/Reitzenhain_%28Marienberg%29 \"Reitzenhain (Marienberg)\") (the village of {{ill\\|Pohraniční\\|de\\|\\|cs\\|\\|sk}}, that used to be on the Bohemian side, was also abandoned).", "In Reitzenhain, from the rafting pond (*Floßteich*) by the Neue Welt mill, a ditch known as the {{ill\\|Reitzenhainer Zeuggraben\\|de}} provided water from the Black Pockau for [overshot waterwheels](/wiki/Overshot_waterwheel \"Overshot waterwheel\") at the old mines near Marienberg. Water is also diverted from the river at the eastern end of Kühnhaide: the Green Ditch (*{{ill\\|Grüner Graben (Pobershau)\\|lt\\=Grüner Graben\\|de}}*) once fed water for overshot wheels at the mine on the *Wildsberg* mountain near [Pobershau](/wiki/Pobershau \"Pobershau\"). The village of [Kienhaid](/wiki/Kienhaid \"Kienhaid\") (*Načetín I*), that formerly stood on the Bohemian side of the border here, was abandoned. East of Kühnhaide the river changes direction from northeast to north.", "The next section of the valley as far as the [Kniebreche](/wiki/Pobershau \"Pobershau\"), the gorge\\-like **Schwarzwasser valley** (*Schwarzwassertal*), is considered one of the most picturesque of German valleys in the [Central Uplands](/wiki/Central_Uplands \"Central Uplands\") and is protected as the [Schwarzwassertal nature reserve](/wiki/Nature_reserves_of_Germany \"Nature reserves of Germany\"). Around 1985, a dam with a storage capacity of {{convert\\|3\\.5\\|e6m3}} was planned to be built in the southern section, which would have seen the loss of Kühnhaide. These plans, however, were shelved.", "In running through this ravine\\-like valley, the river passes historically important witnesses to the settlement of the Ore Mountains located on the left and right banks or in the nearby vicinity. These include the ruined castle of {{ill\\|Nonnenfelsen Castle\\|lt\\=Nonnenfelsen\\|de\\|Burg Nonnenfelsen}} and the former robber baron castle of [Liebenstein](/wiki/Liebenstein_Castle_%28Saxony%29 \"Liebenstein Castle (Saxony)\") as well as the [abandoned village](/wiki/Abandoned_village \"Abandoned village\") of {{ill\\|Ullersdorf\\|de\\|Ullersdorf (Wüstung)}} that may have been associated with it.", "[thumb\\|Mouth of the Black Pockau on the Flöha in Pockau](/wiki/File:Schwarze_Pockau_Muendung.JPG \"Schwarze Pockau Muendung.JPG\")\nIn the remote Pobershau scattered village of *Hinterer Grund* a [hydropower](/wiki/Hydropower \"Hydropower\") station is fed by water from an artificial ditch or *[Kunstgraben](/wiki/Kunstgraben \"Kunstgraben\")*. This is the location of the Pobershau conservation station, which offers support to those interested in nature. At the *Kniebreche* near [Rittersberg](/wiki/Rittersberg%2C_Marienberg \"Rittersberg, Marienberg\") the river is joined by the [Red Pockau](/wiki/Red_Pockau \"Red Pockau\"). From here on, in old maps, the river is just known as the Pockau or Große Pockau (Great Pockau).", "North of the *Kniebreche* on both sides of the river are more historic sites. On the right hand bank is the ruined {{ill\\|Nidberg Castle\\|de\\|Burg Nidberg (Sachsen)}} on the crags of the *Löwenkopffelsen* that rise {{convert\\|50\\|m}} above the valley floor, and the deserted village of {{ill\\|Schwedengraben\\|de\\|Schwedengraben (Wüstung)}}, an old mining settlement, on a [slip\\-off slope](/wiki/Slip-off_slope \"Slip-off slope\") of the river valley.", "Near [Niederlauterstein](/wiki/Niederlauterstein \"Niederlauterstein\"), where the Lautenbach stream joins the river, the Black Pockau passes the ruins of [Lauterstein Castle](/wiki/Lauterstein_Castle_%28Marienberg%29 \"Lauterstein Castle (Marienberg)\"). Further north the Knesenbach, which rises near {{ill\\|Ansprung\\|de\\|\\|no}} (a district of Marienberg), empties into the river. Further downstream it passes the {{ill\\|Strobel Mill\\|de\\|Strobel\\-Mühle}}, which still uses water power. Here there is a [water gauge](/wiki/Water_gauge \"Water gauge\") belonging to the Saxon State Office for the Environment and Geology; its readings are taken regularly and available on the internet. In the municipality of [Pockau](/wiki/Pockau \"Pockau\") the Black Pockau finally empties into the Flöha.", "" ]
Life ---- [thumb\|Public order on the issue of arms on 14 April 1919, signed by the city commandant Rudolf Egelhofer; one of the first measures of the new communist leadership of the Council Republic after the foiled Palm Sunday Putsch](/wiki/File:Stadt-Kommandantur_M%C3%BCnchen_%E2%80%94_Beschluss%21_S%C3%A4mtliche_B%C3%BCrger_..._14._April_1919.jpg "Stadt-Kommandantur München — Beschluss! Sämtliche Bürger ... 14. April 1919.jpg") Rudolf Egelhofer was born in apparently barren conditions in the family of sign painter Friedrich Egelhofer and his wife Maria. He early on joined the [Imperial German Navy](/wiki/Imperial_German_Navy "Imperial German Navy"), but apparently still young Rudolf had a disregard for authority.{{citation needed\|date\=November 2019}} Already in 1913, as a 17\-year\-old [ship's boy](/wiki/Ship%27s_boy "Ship's boy"), he absenteed for the first time from his unit without permission, as evidenced by police files. Egelhofer also served in [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") as [Marine infantry](/wiki/Marines "Marines") on the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 "Western Front (World War I)") in [Flanders](/wiki/Flemish_Region "Flemish Region"). In 1918 he was involved in the [Kiel Mutiny](/wiki/Kiel_Mutiny "Kiel Mutiny") that triggered the [November Revolution](/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919 "German Revolution of 1918–1919"). There he was apparently arrested and allegedly [sentenced to death](/wiki/Capital_punishment "Capital punishment"). On 15 February 1919, he returned to his hometown together with 600 other armed sailors from [Wilhelmshaven](/wiki/Wilhelmshaven "Wilhelmshaven"). There, under [Kurt Eisner](/wiki/Kurt_Eisner "Kurt Eisner")'s ([USPD](/wiki/Independent_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany "Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany")) leadership the [Wittelsbach](/wiki/House_of_Wittelsbach "House of Wittelsbach") Monarchy had been overthrown on 7 November, and the [Freestate](/wiki/Free_state_%28polity%29 "Free state (polity)") [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria "Bavaria") had been proclaimed as a republic with Eisner as prime minister of an SPD/USPD government. On 10 January Egelhofer rose at a [Spartakist](/wiki/Spartacus_League "Spartacus League") protest meeting in the Bavarian Foreign Ministry building and told the Council of Ministers, that a gathering of 5000 workers demanded the proclamation of a Council Republic, removal of the city commander Oskar Dürr (1877\-1959, [SPD](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany "Social Democratic Party of Germany") politician and Tsar of Russia's vice consul in Munich), diplomatic relations with the Soviets in Russia and the establishment of a Red Army. After Eisner's murder on 21 February 1919 the situation worsened. Egelhofer was directly involved in the revolutionary soldiers' [council movement](/wiki/Council_communism "Council communism") and joined the [KPD](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany "Communist Party of Germany"). He was considered courageous, energetic and apparently also had a certain talent for speaking in public. The author [Oskar Maria Graf](/wiki/Oskar_Maria_Graf "Oskar Maria Graf") wrote in his book *Wir sind Gefangene* about the first Red Army parade in Munich's [Ludwigstrasse](/wiki/Ludwigstrasse "Ludwigstrasse"): "From an open window spoke E(n)gelhofer, the army commander. Determined and unaffected, in a sailor's uniform, he stood there, sometimes raising his fist. Whoever heard him, had to believe him." Egelhofer became active as military leader for the first time in the successful rejection of the attempted coup on 13 April known as the [Palm Sunday Putsch](/wiki/Palm_Sunday_Putsch "Palm Sunday Putsch") against the [Munich Council Republic](/wiki/Bavarian_Soviet_Republic "Bavarian Soviet Republic"), which only had been in existence for a week since 7 April. Revolutionary troops under his leadership stormed the [Munich Central Station](/wiki/M%C3%BCnchen_Hauptbahnhof "München Hauptbahnhof"), held by supporters of the SPD exile government, who had fled to [Bamberg](/wiki/Bamberg "Bamberg"). The coup failed, and the same day Egelhofer was appointed city commander by the Munich Council, now dominated by KPD members as [Eugen Leviné](/wiki/Eugen_Levin%C3%A9 "Eugen Leviné") and [Max Levien](/wiki/Max_Levien "Max Levien"). Shortly after he was appointed leader of Munich's "Red Army" consisting of soldiers and workers. He was replaced by the pacifist author [Ernst Toller](/wiki/Ernst_Toller "Ernst Toller"). The task, to within a few days organize the defense of Munich with an estimated 20,000 barely trained, poorly armed and highly motivated soldiers and workers against the approaching superiority of the "white" troops – [Reichswehr](/wiki/Reichswehr "Reichswehr") army units and right\-wing Nationalist [Freikorps](/wiki/Freikorps "Freikorps") – which were called in by the Bamberg SPD leadership under [Johannes Hoffmann](/wiki/Johannes_Hoffmann_%28SPD%29 "Johannes Hoffmann (SPD)"), was not salvageable for the young seaman. In the first days of May, the government troops overran the city. Sustained resistance only existed in a few places. Egelhofer was unable to enforce the idea of gathering relatives of the "[Bourgeoisie](/wiki/Bourgeoisie "Bourgeoisie")" in the [Theresienwiese](/wiki/Theresienwiese "Theresienwiese") and shooting them when the "whites" invaded the city. However, he gave written consent to the shooting of ten hostages, mainly from the [Thule Society](/wiki/Thule_Society "Thule Society"), in the [Luitpold Gymnasium](/wiki/Luitpold_Gymnasium "Luitpold Gymnasium"). The "Munich Hostage Murder" became the only documented evidence of the later claimed "red terror" during the council's reign.{{Cite news \|last\=Weyerer \|first\=Benedikt \|date\=2007\-09\-25 \|title\=Münchner Räterepublik \|language\=de \|work\=Der Spiegel \|url\=https://www.spiegel.de/geschichte/muenchner\-raeterepublik\-a\-947889\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-07 \|issn\=2195\-1349}} Massive terror was however, exercised in the following years by the victorious "white" troops in Munich. Hundreds were shot dead or murdered. In total, more than 2,200 supporters of the Council Republic were [condemned](/wiki/Drumhead_court-martial "Drumhead court-martial") [to death](/wiki/Capital_punishment "Capital punishment") or imprisonment by tribunals. The 23\-year\-old Egelhofer as one of the most prominent representatives of the Communist council rule was discovered and arrested on 1 May 1919 in his hiding place in an apartment on [Maximilianstraße](/wiki/Maximilianstra%C3%9Fe_%28Munich%29 "Maximilianstraße (Munich)"). After severe maltreatment he was [shot dead](/wiki/Execution_by_firing_squad "Execution by firing squad") without trial on 3 May at the [Munich Residenz](/wiki/Munich_Residenz "Munich Residenz") city palace, where he was being held.
[ "Life\n----", "[thumb\\|Public order on the issue of arms on 14 April 1919, signed by the city commandant Rudolf Egelhofer; one of the first measures of the new communist leadership of the Council Republic after the foiled Palm Sunday Putsch](/wiki/File:Stadt-Kommandantur_M%C3%BCnchen_%E2%80%94_Beschluss%21_S%C3%A4mtliche_B%C3%BCrger_..._14._April_1919.jpg \"Stadt-Kommandantur München — Beschluss! Sämtliche Bürger ... 14. April 1919.jpg\")\nRudolf Egelhofer was born in apparently barren conditions in the family of sign painter Friedrich Egelhofer and his wife Maria. He early on joined the [Imperial German Navy](/wiki/Imperial_German_Navy \"Imperial German Navy\"), but apparently still young Rudolf had a disregard for authority.{{citation needed\\|date\\=November 2019}} Already in 1913, as a 17\\-year\\-old [ship's boy](/wiki/Ship%27s_boy \"Ship's boy\"), he absenteed for the first time from his unit without permission, as evidenced by police files. Egelhofer also served in [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") as [Marine infantry](/wiki/Marines \"Marines\") on the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 \"Western Front (World War I)\") in [Flanders](/wiki/Flemish_Region \"Flemish Region\").", "In 1918 he was involved in the [Kiel Mutiny](/wiki/Kiel_Mutiny \"Kiel Mutiny\") that triggered the [November Revolution](/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919 \"German Revolution of 1918–1919\"). There he was apparently arrested and allegedly [sentenced to death](/wiki/Capital_punishment \"Capital punishment\"). On 15 February 1919, he returned to his hometown together with 600 other armed sailors from [Wilhelmshaven](/wiki/Wilhelmshaven \"Wilhelmshaven\"). There, under [Kurt Eisner](/wiki/Kurt_Eisner \"Kurt Eisner\")'s ([USPD](/wiki/Independent_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany \"Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany\")) leadership the [Wittelsbach](/wiki/House_of_Wittelsbach \"House of Wittelsbach\") Monarchy had been overthrown on 7 November, and the [Freestate](/wiki/Free_state_%28polity%29 \"Free state (polity)\") [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria \"Bavaria\") had been proclaimed as a republic with Eisner as prime minister of an SPD/USPD government.", "On 10 January Egelhofer rose at a [Spartakist](/wiki/Spartacus_League \"Spartacus League\") protest meeting in the Bavarian Foreign Ministry building and told the Council of Ministers, that a gathering of 5000 workers demanded the proclamation of a Council Republic, removal of the city commander Oskar Dürr (1877\\-1959, [SPD](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany \"Social Democratic Party of Germany\") politician and Tsar of Russia's vice consul in Munich), diplomatic relations with the Soviets in Russia and the establishment of a Red Army.", "After Eisner's murder on 21 February 1919 the situation worsened. Egelhofer was directly involved in the revolutionary soldiers' [council movement](/wiki/Council_communism \"Council communism\") and joined the [KPD](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany \"Communist Party of Germany\"). He was considered courageous, energetic and apparently also had a certain talent for speaking in public. The author [Oskar Maria Graf](/wiki/Oskar_Maria_Graf \"Oskar Maria Graf\") wrote in his book *Wir sind Gefangene* about the first Red Army parade in Munich's [Ludwigstrasse](/wiki/Ludwigstrasse \"Ludwigstrasse\"): \"From an open window spoke E(n)gelhofer, the army commander. Determined and unaffected, in a sailor's uniform, he stood there, sometimes raising his fist. Whoever heard him, had to believe him.\"\nEgelhofer became active as military leader for the first time in the successful rejection of the attempted coup on 13 April known as the [Palm Sunday Putsch](/wiki/Palm_Sunday_Putsch \"Palm Sunday Putsch\") against the [Munich Council Republic](/wiki/Bavarian_Soviet_Republic \"Bavarian Soviet Republic\"), which only had been in existence for a week since 7 April. Revolutionary troops under his leadership stormed the [Munich Central Station](/wiki/M%C3%BCnchen_Hauptbahnhof \"München Hauptbahnhof\"), held by supporters of the SPD exile government, who had fled to [Bamberg](/wiki/Bamberg \"Bamberg\"). The coup failed, and the same day Egelhofer was appointed city commander by the Munich Council, now dominated by KPD members as [Eugen Leviné](/wiki/Eugen_Levin%C3%A9 \"Eugen Leviné\") and [Max Levien](/wiki/Max_Levien \"Max Levien\"). Shortly after he was appointed leader of Munich's \"Red Army\" consisting of soldiers and workers.", "He was replaced by the pacifist author [Ernst Toller](/wiki/Ernst_Toller \"Ernst Toller\"). The task, to within a few days organize the defense of Munich with an estimated 20,000 barely trained, poorly armed and highly motivated soldiers and workers against the approaching superiority of the \"white\" troops – [Reichswehr](/wiki/Reichswehr \"Reichswehr\") army units and right\\-wing Nationalist [Freikorps](/wiki/Freikorps \"Freikorps\") – which were called in by the Bamberg SPD leadership under [Johannes Hoffmann](/wiki/Johannes_Hoffmann_%28SPD%29 \"Johannes Hoffmann (SPD)\"), was not salvageable for the young seaman.", "In the first days of May, the government troops overran the city. Sustained resistance only existed in a few places. Egelhofer was unable to enforce the idea of gathering relatives of the \"[Bourgeoisie](/wiki/Bourgeoisie \"Bourgeoisie\")\" in the [Theresienwiese](/wiki/Theresienwiese \"Theresienwiese\") and shooting them when the \"whites\" invaded the city. However, he gave written consent to the shooting of ten hostages, mainly from the [Thule Society](/wiki/Thule_Society \"Thule Society\"), in the [Luitpold Gymnasium](/wiki/Luitpold_Gymnasium \"Luitpold Gymnasium\"). The \"Munich Hostage Murder\" became the only documented evidence of the later claimed \"red terror\" during the council's reign.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Weyerer \\|first\\=Benedikt \\|date\\=2007\\-09\\-25 \\|title\\=Münchner Räterepublik \\|language\\=de \\|work\\=Der Spiegel \\|url\\=https://www.spiegel.de/geschichte/muenchner\\-raeterepublik\\-a\\-947889\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-07 \\|issn\\=2195\\-1349}}", "Massive terror was however, exercised in the following years by the victorious \"white\" troops in Munich. Hundreds were shot dead or murdered. In total, more than 2,200 supporters of the Council Republic were [condemned](/wiki/Drumhead_court-martial \"Drumhead court-martial\") [to death](/wiki/Capital_punishment \"Capital punishment\") or imprisonment by tribunals. The 23\\-year\\-old Egelhofer as one of the most prominent representatives of the Communist council rule was discovered and arrested on 1 May 1919 in his hiding place in an apartment on [Maximilianstraße](/wiki/Maximilianstra%C3%9Fe_%28Munich%29 \"Maximilianstraße (Munich)\"). After severe maltreatment he was [shot dead](/wiki/Execution_by_firing_squad \"Execution by firing squad\") without trial on 3 May at the [Munich Residenz](/wiki/Munich_Residenz \"Munich Residenz\") city palace, where he was being held.", "" ]
History ------- [Wakka Wakka](/wiki/Wakawaka_language "Wakawaka language") (Waka Waka, Wocca Wocca, Wakawaka) is an [Australian Aboriginal language](/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_languages "Australian Aboriginal languages") spoken in the Burnett River catchment. The Wakka Wakka language region includes the landscape within the local government boundaries of the North and South Burnett Regional Council, particularly the towns of Cherbourg, [Murgon](/wiki/Murgon "Murgon"), [Kingaroy](/wiki/Kingaroy "Kingaroy"), [Gayndah](/wiki/Gayndah "Gayndah"), [Eidsvold](/wiki/Eidsvold%2C_Queensland "Eidsvold, Queensland") and [Mundubbera](/wiki/Mundubbera "Mundubbera").{{Citation needed\|date\=May 2022}} The town was founded as a settlement for [Aboriginal people](/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians "Aboriginal Australians"), known as an [Aboriginal reserve](/wiki/Aboriginal_reserve "Aboriginal reserve"), under a policy of segregation being pursued by the [Government of Queensland](/wiki/Government_of_Queensland "Government of Queensland") under the *[Aboriginals Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act 1897](/wiki/Aboriginals_Protection_and_Restriction_of_the_Sale_of_Opium_Act_1897 "Aboriginals Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act 1897")*. In 1900, the [Salvation Army](/wiki/Salvation_Army "Salvation Army") negotiated for the establishment of the Barambah Aboriginal Settlement, which was gazetted over {{convert\|7000\|acre\|ha}} on 23 February 1901\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.atsip.qld.gov.au/people/communities/cherbourg/ \|title\=Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Partnerships: Cherbourg community \|access\-date\=2009\-08\-22 \|publisher\=The State of Queensland \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090912190752/http://www.atsip.qld.gov.au/people/communities/cherbourg/ \|archive\-date\=12 September 2009 \|df\=dmy\-all }}{{cite web \| title\=Our History \| website\=Cherbourg \| date\=9 September 2019 \| url\=https://cherbourg.qld.gov.au/council/our\-history/ \| access\-date\=8 April 2021 \| archive\-date\=13 April 2021 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413043818/https://cherbourg.qld.gov.au/council/our\-history/ \| url\-status\=live }} It was sponsored by the Ipswich Aboriginal Protection Society.{{cite web \| title\=Cherbourg Aboriginal Settlement (c. 1904 \- 1986\) \| website\=Find \& Connect \| date\=20 November 2018 \| url\=https://www.findandconnect.gov.au/ref/qld/biogs/QE01069b.htm \| access\-date\=8 April 2021 \| archive\-date\=16 June 2024 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240616031056/https://www.findandconnect.gov.au/ref/qld/biogs/QE01069b.htm \| url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \| title\=Cherbourg \| website\=Queensland Government \| date\=8 April 2015 \| url\=https://www.qld.gov.au/atsi/cultural\-awareness\-heritage\-arts/community\-histories/community\-histories\-c\-d/community\-histories\-cherbourg \| access\-date\=8 April 2021 \| archive\-date\=10 January 2021 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110001625/https://www.qld.gov.au/atsi/cultural\-awareness\-heritage\-arts/community\-histories/community\-histories\-c\-d/community\-histories\-cherbourg \| url\-status\=live }} [50px](/wiki/File:CC-BY_icon.svg "CC-BY icon.svg") Text may have been copied from this source, which is available under a [Attribution 4\.0 International (CC BY 4\.0\)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201016190421/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4\.0/ \|date\=16 October 2020 }} licence. [thumb\|Daniel Cobbo, an Indigenous Soldier of the [Australian Light Horse](/wiki/Australian_Light_Horse "Australian Light Horse"), 1917\. Cobbo came from the Barambah Aboriginal Mission.{{Cite web\|url\=http://blogs.slq.qld.gov.au/ww1/2017/08/28/daniel\-cabbo\-q19612/\|title\=DANIEL CABBO \#Q19612\|last1\=Powell\|first1\=Marg\|last2\=Crump\|first2\=Des\|date\=28 August 2017\|website\=Queensland's World War 1 Centenary\|publisher\=State Library of Queensland\|access\-date\=16 April 2018\|archive\-date\=16 April 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416200435/http://blogs.slq.qld.gov.au/ww1/2017/08/28/daniel\-cabbo\-q19612/\|url\-status\=live}}](/wiki/File:Cobbo%2C_Daniel._Member_of_the_Australian_Light_Horse%2C_1917.jpg "Cobbo, Daniel. Member of the Australian Light Horse, 1917.jpg") The mission took its name from the original 1840s pastoral run, "[Barambah](/wiki/Barambah_Homestead "Barambah Homestead")", which was taken up as a grazing run in 1843 by J.S. Ferriter and Edmund Uhr.{{Citation needed\|date\=May 2022}} [thumb\|Angora billy goat and goat herd from Barambah Aboriginal Settlement, 1912](/wiki/File:Beautiful_Angora_billy_goat_and_goat_herd_from_Barambah_Aboriginal_Settlement%2C_Queensland%2C_1912_%2817317337705%29.jpg "Beautiful Angora billy goat and goat herd from Barambah Aboriginal Settlement, Queensland, 1912 (17317337705).jpg") It was known as Barambah Aboriginal Settlement from {{circa}}1904 to 1932 and then Cherbourg Aboriginal Settlement until 1986\. Other names include Barambah Aboriginal Mission, Barambah Aboriginal Reserve, Barambah Mission Reserve and Barambah Mission Station.{{cite web\| title\=Barambah Aboriginal Settlement\| website\=Queensland State Archives \- Queensland Government\| url\=https://www.archivessearch.qld.gov.au/agencies/A9657\| access\-date\=8 April 2021\| archive\-date\=16 June 2024\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240616030932/https://www.archivessearch.qld.gov.au/agencies/A9657\| url\-status\=live}} The district was renamed *Cherbourg* on 8 December 1931 to avoid confusion with the mail deliveries to the Barambah pastoral station. The name *Cherbourg* derives from the parish name, which takes its name from the original 1840s pastoral run name, which is believed to be a corruption of *[Chirbury](/wiki/Chirbury "Chirbury")*, a town in [Shropshire](/wiki/Shropshire "Shropshire"), England, the birthplace of pastoralist [Richard Jones](/wiki/Richard_Jones_%281786%E2%80%931852%29 "Richard Jones (1786–1852)") who leased the pastoral run in the 1850s.{{Cite QPN\|6987\|Cherbourg\|parish in the South Burnett Region\|access\-date\=9 June 2021}} It was initially populated with a few local [Aboriginal people](/wiki/Indigenous_Australians "Indigenous Australians"), but others from the [Esk](/wiki/Esk%2C_Queensland "Esk, Queensland") region and further afield were soon sent to the reserve. Many were forcibly removed from their land and "settled" at Barambah. People from 109 different areas{{cite book \|title\=A History of Queensland \|last\=Evans \|first\=Raymond \|year\=2007 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|location\=Port Melbourne, Victoria \|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-87692\-6 \|page\=140 }} were mixed together and they were not allowed to speak their own languages. The effect of mixing these different groups of people together and forcing them to learn to speak a foreign language (English) has been an almost total loss of their cultural heritage. Many of the languages are considered to be extinct, surviving only in notes and recordings stored at the [University of Queensland](/wiki/University_of_Queensland "University of Queensland"). The settlement housed a reformatory school and training farm, a home training centre for girls, a hospital, [dormitories](/wiki/Dormitory "Dormitory") in which the women and children lived, and churches of various denominations. Training was provided in a variety of agricultural, industrial and domestic fields. People were hired out as cheap labour and at one stage they were not allowed to leave the reserve. In fact, until the [referendum in 1967](/wiki/Australian_referendum%2C_1967_%28Aboriginals%29 "Australian referendum, 1967 (Aboriginals)"), the Indigenous people at Cherbourg were not even counted in the [census](/wiki/Census_of_Australia "Census of Australia").{{cite book\|url\=https://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/amendment\-amid\-21\.html\|title\=Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act\|chapter\=Amendment to Section 127\|page\=24\|access\-date\=9 November 2016\|via\=''Documenting a Democracy'' \[\[Museum of Australian Democracy]]}} Barambah Aboriginal School opened in 1904, its name changing to Cherbourg Aboriginal School in 1931–1932\. The school was operated by the Department of Native Affairs until the 1960s when it came under the control of Queensland Department of Education and became Cherbourg State School.{{Cite web\|date\=2020\-02\-21\|title\=Our school\|url\=https://cherbourgss.eq.edu.au/our\-school\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-02\|website\=Cherbourg State School\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=13 March 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200313105517/https://cherbourgss.eq.edu.au/our\-school\|url\-status\=live}} The reserve was administered by the Aboriginal Protection Society, Ipswich, until February 1905, when control passed to the [Government of Queensland](/wiki/Government_of_Queensland "Government of Queensland") and a Superintendent was appointed, who reported to the [Chief Protector of Aborigines](/wiki/Chief_Protector_of_Aborigines "Chief Protector of Aborigines"). There were approximately 2079 documented removals of Aboriginal people to Barambah between the years of 1905 and 1939\. Cherbourg Provisional School opened on 1932 for the children of the white officials, separate to the school for the Aboriginal children. It closed in 1941\.{{Citation \| author1\=Queensland Family History Society \| title\=Queensland schools past and present \| publication\-date\=2010 \| publisher\=\[\[Queensland Family History Society]] \| edition\=Version 1\.01 \| isbn\=978\-1\-921171\-26\-0 }} The Anglican Church of the Holy Spirit was dedicated on 19 February 1939 by the Bishop\-Coadjutor. Its closure circa 2018 was approved by Bishop [Cameron Venables](/wiki/Cameron_Venables_%28bishop%29 "Cameron Venables (bishop)").{{Cite web\|title\=Closed Anglican Churches\|url\=https://www.anglicanarchives.org.au/churches/\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403003329/https://www.anglicanarchives.org.au/churches/\|archive\-date\=3 April 2019\|access\-date\=29 June 2020\|website\=Anglican Church South Queensland}} Cherbourg Post Office opened on 15 November 1965 and closed in 1986\.{{Cite web \| last \= Premier Postal History \| title \= Post Office List \| publisher \= Premier Postal Auctions \| url \= https://www.premierpostal.com/cgi\-bin/wsProd.sh/Viewpocdwrapper.p?SortBy\=QLD\&country\= \| access\-date \= 10 May 2014 \| archive\-date \= 15 May 2014 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20140515223132/http://www.premierpostal.com/cgi\-bin/wsProd.sh/Viewpocdwrapper.p?SortBy\=QLD\&country\= \| url\-status \= live }} In 1982, Cherbourg was granted a [Deed of Grant in Trust](/wiki/Deed_of_Grant_in_Trust "Deed of Grant in Trust") (DOGIT), becoming self\-managed by its own local authority. Over the years, the policies towards Aboriginal people changed from protection to [assimilation](/wiki/Cultural_assimilation "Cultural assimilation") and eventually participation and a measure of self\-government with the passage of the *Community Services (Aborigines) Act 1984*. The Act provided for elected community councils who could make recommendations to the Minister for Community Services on matters relating to the progress, development and wellbeing of the people they represented. On 28 August 1986 a [Deed of Grant in Trust](/wiki/Deed_of_Grant_in_Trust "Deed of Grant in Trust") was granted to the Cherbourg community, giving this council official status. The *Local Government (Community Government Areas) Act 2004* gave Cherbourg formal legal recognition as a local government. Alcohol limits were imposed on Cherbourg residents in March 2009 in an attempt to reduce violence.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/07/07/2618630\.htm \|title\=Cherbourg alcohol bans 'failing' \|author\=Emma Pollard \|access\-date\=2009\-10\-22 \|date\=7 July 2009 \|work\=\[\[ABC News Online]] \|publisher\=\[\[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] \|archive\-date\=21 September 2009 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090921011851/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/07/07/2618630\.htm \|url\-status\=live }} In 2009, then\-Mayor Sam Murray claimed the restrictions were not being enforced and the problem was being pushed underground. In 2022, [Fujitsu](/wiki/Fujitsu "Fujitsu") opened a First Nations Service Centre in Cherbourg. The Service Centre is part of a program to boost the economic development of Queensland First Nations communities through digital skills training and employment opportunities.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.fujitsu.com/au/about/resources/news/press\-releases/2022/fujitsu\-launches\-first\-nations\-led\-pilot\-program\-with\-qld\-gov\-to\-promote\-digital\-inclusion.html \| title\=Fujitsu launches First Nations\-led pilot program with Queensland Government to promote digital inclusion }}
[ "History\n-------", "[Wakka Wakka](/wiki/Wakawaka_language \"Wakawaka language\") (Waka Waka, Wocca Wocca, Wakawaka) is an [Australian Aboriginal language](/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_languages \"Australian Aboriginal languages\") spoken in the Burnett River catchment. The Wakka Wakka language region includes the landscape within the local government boundaries of the North and South Burnett Regional Council, particularly the towns of Cherbourg, [Murgon](/wiki/Murgon \"Murgon\"), [Kingaroy](/wiki/Kingaroy \"Kingaroy\"), [Gayndah](/wiki/Gayndah \"Gayndah\"), [Eidsvold](/wiki/Eidsvold%2C_Queensland \"Eidsvold, Queensland\") and [Mundubbera](/wiki/Mundubbera \"Mundubbera\").{{Citation needed\\|date\\=May 2022}}", "The town was founded as a settlement for [Aboriginal people](/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians \"Aboriginal Australians\"), known as an [Aboriginal reserve](/wiki/Aboriginal_reserve \"Aboriginal reserve\"), under a policy of segregation being pursued by the [Government of Queensland](/wiki/Government_of_Queensland \"Government of Queensland\") under the *[Aboriginals Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act 1897](/wiki/Aboriginals_Protection_and_Restriction_of_the_Sale_of_Opium_Act_1897 \"Aboriginals Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act 1897\")*. In 1900, the [Salvation Army](/wiki/Salvation_Army \"Salvation Army\") negotiated for the establishment of the Barambah Aboriginal Settlement, which was gazetted over {{convert\\|7000\\|acre\\|ha}} on 23 February 1901\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.atsip.qld.gov.au/people/communities/cherbourg/ \\|title\\=Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Partnerships: Cherbourg community \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-08\\-22 \\|publisher\\=The State of Queensland \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090912190752/http://www.atsip.qld.gov.au/people/communities/cherbourg/ \\|archive\\-date\\=12 September 2009 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }}{{cite web \\| title\\=Our History \\| website\\=Cherbourg \\| date\\=9 September 2019 \\| url\\=https://cherbourg.qld.gov.au/council/our\\-history/ \\| access\\-date\\=8 April 2021 \\| archive\\-date\\=13 April 2021 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413043818/https://cherbourg.qld.gov.au/council/our\\-history/ \\| url\\-status\\=live }} It was sponsored by the Ipswich Aboriginal Protection Society.{{cite web \\| title\\=Cherbourg Aboriginal Settlement (c. 1904 \\- 1986\\) \\| website\\=Find \\& Connect \\| date\\=20 November 2018 \\| url\\=https://www.findandconnect.gov.au/ref/qld/biogs/QE01069b.htm \\| access\\-date\\=8 April 2021 \\| archive\\-date\\=16 June 2024 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240616031056/https://www.findandconnect.gov.au/ref/qld/biogs/QE01069b.htm \\| url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\| title\\=Cherbourg \\| website\\=Queensland Government \\| date\\=8 April 2015 \\| url\\=https://www.qld.gov.au/atsi/cultural\\-awareness\\-heritage\\-arts/community\\-histories/community\\-histories\\-c\\-d/community\\-histories\\-cherbourg \\| access\\-date\\=8 April 2021 \\| archive\\-date\\=10 January 2021 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110001625/https://www.qld.gov.au/atsi/cultural\\-awareness\\-heritage\\-arts/community\\-histories/community\\-histories\\-c\\-d/community\\-histories\\-cherbourg \\| url\\-status\\=live }} [50px](/wiki/File:CC-BY_icon.svg \"CC-BY icon.svg\") Text may have been copied from this source, which is available under a [Attribution 4\\.0 International (CC BY 4\\.0\\)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201016190421/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4\\.0/ \\|date\\=16 October 2020 }} licence.\n[thumb\\|Daniel Cobbo, an Indigenous Soldier of the [Australian Light Horse](/wiki/Australian_Light_Horse \"Australian Light Horse\"), 1917\\. Cobbo came from the Barambah Aboriginal Mission.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://blogs.slq.qld.gov.au/ww1/2017/08/28/daniel\\-cabbo\\-q19612/\\|title\\=DANIEL CABBO \\#Q19612\\|last1\\=Powell\\|first1\\=Marg\\|last2\\=Crump\\|first2\\=Des\\|date\\=28 August 2017\\|website\\=Queensland's World War 1 Centenary\\|publisher\\=State Library of Queensland\\|access\\-date\\=16 April 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=16 April 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416200435/http://blogs.slq.qld.gov.au/ww1/2017/08/28/daniel\\-cabbo\\-q19612/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}](/wiki/File:Cobbo%2C_Daniel._Member_of_the_Australian_Light_Horse%2C_1917.jpg \"Cobbo, Daniel. Member of the Australian Light Horse, 1917.jpg\")", "The mission took its name from the original 1840s pastoral run, \"[Barambah](/wiki/Barambah_Homestead \"Barambah Homestead\")\", which was taken up as a grazing run in 1843 by J.S. Ferriter and Edmund Uhr.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=May 2022}}\n[thumb\\|Angora billy goat and goat herd from Barambah Aboriginal Settlement, 1912](/wiki/File:Beautiful_Angora_billy_goat_and_goat_herd_from_Barambah_Aboriginal_Settlement%2C_Queensland%2C_1912_%2817317337705%29.jpg \"Beautiful Angora billy goat and goat herd from Barambah Aboriginal Settlement, Queensland, 1912 (17317337705).jpg\")", "It was known as Barambah Aboriginal Settlement from {{circa}}1904 to 1932 and then Cherbourg Aboriginal Settlement until 1986\\. Other names include Barambah Aboriginal Mission, Barambah Aboriginal Reserve, Barambah Mission Reserve and Barambah Mission Station.{{cite web\\| title\\=Barambah Aboriginal Settlement\\| website\\=Queensland State Archives \\- Queensland Government\\| url\\=https://www.archivessearch.qld.gov.au/agencies/A9657\\| access\\-date\\=8 April 2021\\| archive\\-date\\=16 June 2024\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240616030932/https://www.archivessearch.qld.gov.au/agencies/A9657\\| url\\-status\\=live}}", "The district was renamed *Cherbourg* on 8 December 1931 to avoid confusion with the mail deliveries to the Barambah pastoral station. The name *Cherbourg* derives from the parish name, which takes its name from the original 1840s pastoral run name, which is believed to be a corruption of *[Chirbury](/wiki/Chirbury \"Chirbury\")*, a town in [Shropshire](/wiki/Shropshire \"Shropshire\"), England, the birthplace of pastoralist [Richard Jones](/wiki/Richard_Jones_%281786%E2%80%931852%29 \"Richard Jones (1786–1852)\") who leased the pastoral run in the 1850s.{{Cite QPN\\|6987\\|Cherbourg\\|parish in the South Burnett Region\\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2021}}", "It was initially populated with a few local [Aboriginal people](/wiki/Indigenous_Australians \"Indigenous Australians\"), but others from the [Esk](/wiki/Esk%2C_Queensland \"Esk, Queensland\") region and further afield were soon sent to the reserve. Many were forcibly removed from their land and \"settled\" at Barambah. People from 109 different areas{{cite book \\|title\\=A History of Queensland \\|last\\=Evans \\|first\\=Raymond \\|year\\=2007 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|location\\=Port Melbourne, Victoria \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-87692\\-6 \\|page\\=140 }} were mixed together and they were not allowed to speak their own languages. The effect of mixing these different groups of people together and forcing them to learn to speak a foreign language (English) has been an almost total loss of their cultural heritage. Many of the languages are considered to be extinct, surviving only in notes and recordings stored at the [University of Queensland](/wiki/University_of_Queensland \"University of Queensland\"). The settlement housed a reformatory school and training farm, a home training centre for girls, a hospital, [dormitories](/wiki/Dormitory \"Dormitory\") in which the women and children lived, and churches of various denominations. Training was provided in a variety of agricultural, industrial and domestic fields. People were hired out as cheap labour and at one stage they were not allowed to leave the reserve. In fact, until the [referendum in 1967](/wiki/Australian_referendum%2C_1967_%28Aboriginals%29 \"Australian referendum, 1967 (Aboriginals)\"), the Indigenous people at Cherbourg were not even counted in the [census](/wiki/Census_of_Australia \"Census of Australia\").{{cite book\\|url\\=https://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/amendment\\-amid\\-21\\.html\\|title\\=Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act\\|chapter\\=Amendment to Section 127\\|page\\=24\\|access\\-date\\=9 November 2016\\|via\\=''Documenting a Democracy'' \\[\\[Museum of Australian Democracy]]}}", "Barambah Aboriginal School opened in 1904, its name changing to Cherbourg Aboriginal School in 1931–1932\\. The school was operated by the Department of Native Affairs until the 1960s when it came under the control of Queensland Department of Education and became Cherbourg State School.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2020\\-02\\-21\\|title\\=Our school\\|url\\=https://cherbourgss.eq.edu.au/our\\-school\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-02\\|website\\=Cherbourg State School\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=13 March 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200313105517/https://cherbourgss.eq.edu.au/our\\-school\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "The reserve was administered by the Aboriginal Protection Society, Ipswich, until February 1905, when control passed to the [Government of Queensland](/wiki/Government_of_Queensland \"Government of Queensland\") and a Superintendent was appointed, who reported to the [Chief Protector of Aborigines](/wiki/Chief_Protector_of_Aborigines \"Chief Protector of Aborigines\"). There were approximately 2079 documented removals of Aboriginal people to Barambah between the years of 1905 and 1939\\.", "Cherbourg Provisional School opened on 1932 for the children of the white officials, separate to the school for the Aboriginal children. It closed in 1941\\.{{Citation \\| author1\\=Queensland Family History Society \\| title\\=Queensland schools past and present \\| publication\\-date\\=2010 \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Queensland Family History Society]] \\| edition\\=Version 1\\.01 \\| isbn\\=978\\-1\\-921171\\-26\\-0 }}", "The Anglican Church of the Holy Spirit was dedicated on 19 February 1939 by the Bishop\\-Coadjutor. Its closure circa 2018 was approved by Bishop [Cameron Venables](/wiki/Cameron_Venables_%28bishop%29 \"Cameron Venables (bishop)\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Closed Anglican Churches\\|url\\=https://www.anglicanarchives.org.au/churches/\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403003329/https://www.anglicanarchives.org.au/churches/\\|archive\\-date\\=3 April 2019\\|access\\-date\\=29 June 2020\\|website\\=Anglican Church South Queensland}}", "Cherbourg Post Office opened on 15 November 1965 and closed in 1986\\.{{Cite web \\| last \\= Premier Postal History \\| title \\= Post Office List \\| publisher \\= Premier Postal Auctions \\| url \\= https://www.premierpostal.com/cgi\\-bin/wsProd.sh/Viewpocdwrapper.p?SortBy\\=QLD\\&country\\= \\| access\\-date \\= 10 May 2014 \\| archive\\-date \\= 15 May 2014 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140515223132/http://www.premierpostal.com/cgi\\-bin/wsProd.sh/Viewpocdwrapper.p?SortBy\\=QLD\\&country\\= \\| url\\-status \\= live }}", "In 1982, Cherbourg was granted a [Deed of Grant in Trust](/wiki/Deed_of_Grant_in_Trust \"Deed of Grant in Trust\") (DOGIT), becoming self\\-managed by its own local authority.", "Over the years, the policies towards Aboriginal people changed from protection to [assimilation](/wiki/Cultural_assimilation \"Cultural assimilation\") and eventually participation and a measure of self\\-government with the passage of the *Community Services (Aborigines) Act 1984*. The Act provided for elected community councils who could make recommendations to the Minister for Community Services on matters relating to the progress, development and wellbeing of the people they represented. On 28 August 1986 a [Deed of Grant in Trust](/wiki/Deed_of_Grant_in_Trust \"Deed of Grant in Trust\") was granted to the Cherbourg community, giving this council official status.", "The *Local Government (Community Government Areas) Act 2004* gave Cherbourg formal legal recognition as a local government.", "Alcohol limits were imposed on Cherbourg residents in March 2009 in an attempt to reduce violence.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/07/07/2618630\\.htm \\|title\\=Cherbourg alcohol bans 'failing' \\|author\\=Emma Pollard \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-22 \\|date\\=7 July 2009 \\|work\\=\\[\\[ABC News Online]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] \\|archive\\-date\\=21 September 2009 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090921011851/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/07/07/2618630\\.htm \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In 2009, then\\-Mayor Sam Murray claimed the restrictions were not being enforced and the problem was being pushed underground.", "In 2022, [Fujitsu](/wiki/Fujitsu \"Fujitsu\") opened a First Nations Service Centre in Cherbourg. The Service Centre is part of a program to boost the economic development of Queensland First Nations communities through digital skills training and employment opportunities.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.fujitsu.com/au/about/resources/news/press\\-releases/2022/fujitsu\\-launches\\-first\\-nations\\-led\\-pilot\\-program\\-with\\-qld\\-gov\\-to\\-promote\\-digital\\-inclusion.html \\| title\\=Fujitsu launches First Nations\\-led pilot program with Queensland Government to promote digital inclusion }}", "" ]
Biography --------- Williamson rose to prominence as an official of the HSU, representing the interests of low\-paid workers in the health sector in New South Wales and then Australia. Williamson was general secretary of HSU NSW branch, later to become HSUeast, serving in this role between 1997{{cite news \|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/national/thomson\-new\-credit\-card\-claims\-20110908\-1jzz2\.html \|title\=Thomson: new credit card claims \|date\=9 September 2011 \|author\=McClymont, Kate \|work\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]] \|access\-date\=19 February 2014 }} until June 2012\. He was elected as the inaugural national president of the union in 2003{{cite speech\|title\=Address by National President to annual conference dinner \|first\=Michael \|last\=Williamson \|event\=First national conference of the Health Services Union \|location\=Sydney \|date\=6 May 2003 \|url\=http://www.hsu.net.au/speeches/1059366759\_7138\.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20031231221932/http://www.hsu.net.au/speeches/1059366759\_7138\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=31 December 2003 \|access\-date\=19 February 2014 }} until October 2011\. During his term as national president he controversially merged the NSW and two Victorian branches of the union to create HSUeast.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.crikey.com.au/2010/04/07/health\-services\-union\-in\-controversial\-merger/ \|title\=Health Services Union in controversial merger \|date\=7 April 2010 \|access\-date\=2 March 2014 \|author\=Crook, Andrew \|work\=\[\[Crikey]] }} He was elected as the national president of the [Australian Labor Party](/wiki/Australian_Labor_Party "Australian Labor Party"), serving between 2009 and 2010; and was a vice president of [NSW Labor](/wiki/NSW_Labor "NSW Labor").{{cite news \|author\=Rainford, John \|title\=Union corruption rips off workers \|work\=\[\[Green Left Weekly]] \|url\=https://www.greenleft.org.au/node/55481 \|date\=27 November 2013 \|access\-date\=19 February 2014 }} Williamson was also a vice president of [Unions NSW](/wiki/Unions_NSW "Unions NSW") until April 2012, when he resigned after being asked to explain to its executive why he should not be removed.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012\-04\-12/williamson/3946368 \|title\=HSU boss quits as Unions NSW president \|work\=\[\[7\.30]] \|publisher\=\[\[ABC1\|ABC TV]] \|location\=Australia \|author\=Cooper, Hayden \|format\=transcript \|date\=13 April 2012 \|access\-date\=19 February 2014 }}{{cite news \|url\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012\-04\-13/unions\-nsw\-boss\-welcomes\-williamson\-resignation/3947914 \|title\=Unions NSW boss welcomes Williamson's resignation \|work\=\[\[ABC News (Australia)\|ABC News]] \|location\=Australia \|date\=13 April 2012 \|access\-date\=19 February 2014 }} He was a member of the national executive of the [Australian Council of Trade Unions](/wiki/Australian_Council_of_Trade_Unions "Australian Council of Trade Unions") (ACTU); a trustee of [First State Super](/wiki/First_State_Super "First State Super"); and a non\-executive director of SGE Credit Union,{{cite news \|title\=Super fund can't sack HSU boss \|work\=\[\[The Australian Financial Review]] \|url\=http://www.afr.com/p/national/super\_fund\_can\_sack\_hsu\_boss\_g4LAQFHmbBuSnd83R9vguI \|author\=Patten, Sally \|date\=11 April 2012 \|access\-date\=19 February 2014 }} a [credit union](/wiki/Credit_union "Credit union") for [NSW Government](/wiki/Government_of_New_South_Wales "Government of New South Wales") [employees](/wiki/Civil_service "Civil service"). ### Health Services Union expenses affair {{main\|Health Services Union expenses affair}} Allegations of improprieties in the HSUeast branch were first publicly revealed in *[The Sydney Morning Herald](/wiki/The_Sydney_Morning_Herald "The Sydney Morning Herald")* on 9 September 2011\. It was alleged that [Craig Thomson](/wiki/Craig_Thomson_%28politician%29 "Craig Thomson (politician)") (while serving as national secretary of the HSU) and Williamson (as the general secretary of HSUeast) received [secret commissions](/wiki/Secret_profit "Secret profit") from a major supplier to the union. This was the first occasion that Williamson was implicated in any matter. The media report detailed that Williamson was a director of a computer company, United Edge, that provided information technology services to the HSUeast branch, without going to competitive tender. This decision was made while Williamson was general secretary of HSUeast.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/health\-services\-report\-reveals\-where\-union\-millions\-went\-20120430\-1xuq6\.html \|work\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]] \|date\=30 April 2012 \|title\=Health Services report reveals where union millions went }} Following the public airing of allegations, Williamson's position as national president of the HSU became untenable, and he was suspended as president in October 2011\.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012\-04\-09/hsu\-executives\-want\-president27s\-scalp/3939570 \|title\=HSU executives want president's scalp \|work\=\[\[ABC News (Australia)\|ABC News]] \|date\=9 April 2012 \|access\-date\=19 February 2014 \|location\=Australia }} In April 2012 he resigned as President from Unions NSW after being asked to explain to its executive why he should not be removed. Williamson's position as the general secretary of HSUeast was dissolved when the [Federal Court](/wiki/Federal_Court_of_Australia "Federal Court of Australia") declared all elected positions vacant in June 2012; appointing an [administrator](/wiki/Administration_%28law%29 "Administration (law)") to run the union's affairs.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national\-affairs/federal\-court\-splits\-up\-hsu\-east\-branch\-sacks\-leaders\-refuses\-kathy\-jackson\-bid/story\-fn59niix\-1226404247338\# \|title\=Federal Court splits up HSU East branch, sacks leaders, refuses Kathy Jackson bid \|author\=Higgins, Ean \|date\=21 June 2012 \|work\=\[\[The Australian]] \|access\-date\=24 June 2012}} The final report by [Ian Temby](/wiki/Ian_Temby "Ian Temby") {{post\-nominals\|country\=AUS\|AO\|QC}} and Dennis Robertson, an accountant, delivered at the request of the HSUeast Union Council in July 2012, made findings that Williamson engaged in irregularities, such as placing family members in union jobs, paying inflated prices for services, and heading United Edge, a company supplying information technology services to the union.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012\-04\-30/temby\-report/3981300 \|author1\=Temby, Ian \|author\-link\=Ian Temby \|author2\=Robertson, Dennis \|format\=PDF \|title\=Interim Report by Ian Temby QC and Dennis Robertson FCA to the Union Council of HSUeast and for their eyes only \|date\=26 April 2012 \|work\=\[\[ABC News (Australia)\|ABC News]] \|location\=Australia \|access\-date\=27 February 2014 }}{{cite web \|url\=http://progressivepsa.org/pdf/hsueast\_temby\_report\_final\_full\_july2012\.pdf \|author1\=Temby, Ian \|author\-link\=Ian Temby \|author2\=Robertson, Dennis \|title\=Final Report on HSUeast by Ian Temby QC and Dennis Robertson FCA \|date\=3 July 2012 \|publisher\=\[\[Public Service Association of NSW]] \|access\-date\=27 February 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227144647/http://progressivepsa.org/pdf/hsueast\_temby\_report\_final\_full\_july2012\.pdf \|archive\-date\=27 February 2014 \|df\=dmy\-all }}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012\-05\-01/actu\-responds\-to\-hsu\-report/3981706 \|title\=ACTU Responds to HSU Report \|date\=1 May 2012 \|access\-date\=24 June 2012 \|work\=\[\[ABC News (Australia)\|ABC News]] \|location\=Australia }}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national\-affairs/opinion/foul\-stench\-from\-snouts\-in\-hsu\-trough/story\-e6frgd0x\-1226321650196\|title\=Foul stench from snouts in HSU trough\|work\=\[\[The Australian]]\|access\-date\=24 June 2012\|date\=9 April 2012 \|author\=Richardson, Graham \|author\-link\=Graham Richardson }}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/health\-union\-boss\-losing\-his\-empire\-20120407\-1wi72\.html\|title\=Health union boss losing his empire\|access\-date\=25 June 2012\|date\=8 April 2012\|work\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]] }}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.news.com.au/national/michael\-williamson\-quits\-unions\-nsw\-position/story\-e6frfkvr\-1226325350130\|title\=Michael Williamson quits Unions NSW position\|work\=\[\[The Daily Telegraph (Sydney)\|The Daily Telegraph]]\|date\=13 April 2012\|access\-date\=17 July 2012}} Meanwhile, [NSW Police](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Police_Force "New South Wales Police Force") officers raided the union's Sydney office on 2 May 2012, seizing documents and computers as part of the "Strike Force Carnarvon" investigation into secret commissions allegedly received by Williamson and Thomson. Williamson was intercepted in a basement attempting to remove a bag of documents.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/1646985/Game\-over\-for\-Williamson\-says\-HSU \|title\='Game over' for Williamson, says HSU \|work\=SBS News \|access\-date\=27 June 2012 \|date\=2 May 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120503234554/http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/1646985/Game\-over\-for\-Williamson\-says\-HSU \|archive\-date\=3 May 2012 }}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national\-affairs/in\-depth/police\-extend\-probe\-on\-hsu/story\-fndsip4d\-1226396009528\|title\=Police extend probe on HSU\|work\=\[\[The Australian]]\|access\-date\=27 June 2012\|date\=15 June 2012}} On 4 October 2012, Williamson was charged with more than 50 offences relating to fraud and obstruction of justice, and was suspended as director of United Edge.{{cite news \|work\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]] \|title\=Former union boss Michael Williamson charged \|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/national/former\-union\-boss\-michael\-williamson\-charged\-20121004\-270fo.html \|date\=4 October 2012 \|last\=McClymont \|first\=Kate }} Appearing before the Sydney Magistrates Court on 15 October 2013, Williamson entered a guilty plea to four major charges related to cheating and defrauding HSUeast, creating false documents with the intention to deceive and the recruiting of others to hinder a police investigation. All other charges were dropped. No charges were laid against Williamson's wife or family members.{{cite news \|title\=Labor bloodletting has just begun as corruption shockwaves rock the party \|work\=\[\[The Daily Telegraph (Sydney)\|The Daily Telegraph]] \|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/labor\-bloodletting\-has\-just\-begun\-as\-corruption\-shockwaves\-rock\-the\-party/story\-fni0cx12\-1226741305526 \|date\=17 October 2013 \|access\-date\=2 March 2014 \|author\=Clennell, Andrew }} On 3 March 2014, legal counsel for Williamson declined to seek a [bail](/wiki/Bail%23By_a_court "Bail#By a court") extension and Williamson was imprisoned. He was sentenced in the District Court of New South Wales on 28 March 2014 to seven{{endash}}and{{endash}}a{{endash}}half years of imprisonment; with a non{{endash}}parole period of five years, ending in March 2019\. In addition to criminal charges, HSUeast filed [civil proceedings](/wiki/Civil_law_%28common_law%29 "Civil law (common law)") against Williamson. Prior to his guilty plea, the union and Williamson reached agreement on the terms of settlement via mediation supervised by [Robert McClelland](/wiki/Robert_McClelland_%28Australian_politician%29 "Robert McClelland (Australian politician)"), a former Labor [Attorney\-General](/wiki/Attorney-General_for_Australia "Attorney-General for Australia"). The terms of the settlement included [judgement](/wiki/Judgment_%28law%29 "Judgment (law)") against Williamson for $5 million in the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_New_South_Wales "Supreme Court of New South Wales"), set aside his claimed pay rates back to 2003 resulting in the union reducing defined benefits superannuation liabilities to Williamson by approximately $1\.1 million; eliminated in excess of ${{formatnum:600000}} worth of claimed leave entitlements; and received a public letter of apology to members of the Health Services Union,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.hsu.asn.au/message\-from\-secretary\-gerard\-hayes\-in\-relation\-to\-michael\-williamson/ \|title\=Message from Secretary General Gerard Hayes in relation to Michael Williamson \|date\=15 October 2013 \|access\-date\=19 February 2014 }} that the union published:{{cite web \|url\=http://www.hsu.asn.au/wp\-content/uploads/2013/10/Letter\-of\-apology\-from\-Michael\-Williamson.pdf \|title\=Letter of apology from Michael Williamson \|publisher\=\[\[Health Services Union]] \|author\=Williamson, Michael \|date\=25 September 2013 \|access\-date\=19 February 2014 }} {{quotation\|As you would be aware from media commentary I was charged by the NSW Police over a number of matters relating to the Financial Operations of the Union when I was General Secretary. The charges laid by Police will shortly be before the Local Court and at that time I intend to enter a plea of Guilty to a number of charges. The matter will now be remitted to the District Court for sentencing. I wish to place on record my sincere apology to all of you. You placed your trust in me when I was the General Secretary and I abused that trust. I apologise unreservedly to all of you for my actions which were not in keeping with the position I formerly held. I have agreed to assist the Union in recovery actions against others, and will honour that agreement. The Court will determine the penalty I am to receive, but it won't remove the fact that I have to live with the matter until the day I die. Please do not desert the Union over this issue as the Union did nothing wrong. It was me that did the wrong thing and I accept responsibility for my wrongdoing.\|Michael Williamson}} Following his conviction and imprisonment, on 4 April 2014 the New South Wales branch of the Labor Party expelled Williamson as a member of the party.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/labor\-party\-expels\-michael\-williamson\-craig\-thomson\-20140404\-363f5\.html \|title\=Labor Party expels Michael Williamson, Craig Thomson \|author\=Nicholls, Sean \|date\=4 April 2014 \|access\-date\=6 April 2014 \|work\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]] }}{{cite news \|url\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014\-04\-04/labor\-party\-expels\-michael\-williamson\-and\-craig\-thomson/5368574 \|title\=Former HSU officials Michael Williamson and Craig Thomson expelled from Labor Party \|work\=\[\[ABC News (Australia)\|ABC News]] \|location\=Australia \|date\=4 April 2014 \|access\-date\=6 April 2014 }}
[ "Biography\n---------", "Williamson rose to prominence as an official of the HSU, representing the interests of low\\-paid workers in the health sector in New South Wales and then Australia. Williamson was general secretary of HSU NSW branch, later to become HSUeast, serving in this role between 1997{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/national/thomson\\-new\\-credit\\-card\\-claims\\-20110908\\-1jzz2\\.html \\|title\\=Thomson: new credit card claims \\|date\\=9 September 2011 \\|author\\=McClymont, Kate \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]] \\|access\\-date\\=19 February 2014 }} until June 2012\\. He was elected as the inaugural national president of the union in 2003{{cite speech\\|title\\=Address by National President to annual conference dinner \\|first\\=Michael \\|last\\=Williamson \\|event\\=First national conference of the Health Services Union \\|location\\=Sydney \\|date\\=6 May 2003 \\|url\\=http://www.hsu.net.au/speeches/1059366759\\_7138\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20031231221932/http://www.hsu.net.au/speeches/1059366759\\_7138\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=31 December 2003 \\|access\\-date\\=19 February 2014 }} until October 2011\\. During his term as national president he controversially merged the NSW and two Victorian branches of the union to create HSUeast.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.crikey.com.au/2010/04/07/health\\-services\\-union\\-in\\-controversial\\-merger/ \\|title\\=Health Services Union in controversial merger \\|date\\=7 April 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2014 \\|author\\=Crook, Andrew \\|work\\=\\[\\[Crikey]] }} He was elected as the national president of the [Australian Labor Party](/wiki/Australian_Labor_Party \"Australian Labor Party\"), serving between 2009 and 2010; and was a vice president of [NSW Labor](/wiki/NSW_Labor \"NSW Labor\").{{cite news \\|author\\=Rainford, John \\|title\\=Union corruption rips off workers \\|work\\=\\[\\[Green Left Weekly]] \\|url\\=https://www.greenleft.org.au/node/55481 \\|date\\=27 November 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=19 February 2014 }} Williamson was also a vice president of [Unions NSW](/wiki/Unions_NSW \"Unions NSW\") until April 2012, when he resigned after being asked to explain to its executive why he should not be removed.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012\\-04\\-12/williamson/3946368 \\|title\\=HSU boss quits as Unions NSW president \\|work\\=\\[\\[7\\.30]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ABC1\\|ABC TV]] \\|location\\=Australia \\|author\\=Cooper, Hayden \\|format\\=transcript \\|date\\=13 April 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=19 February 2014 }}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012\\-04\\-13/unions\\-nsw\\-boss\\-welcomes\\-williamson\\-resignation/3947914 \\|title\\=Unions NSW boss welcomes Williamson's resignation \\|work\\=\\[\\[ABC News (Australia)\\|ABC News]] \\|location\\=Australia \\|date\\=13 April 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=19 February 2014 }} He was a member of the national executive of the [Australian Council of Trade Unions](/wiki/Australian_Council_of_Trade_Unions \"Australian Council of Trade Unions\") (ACTU); a trustee of [First State Super](/wiki/First_State_Super \"First State Super\"); and a non\\-executive director of SGE Credit Union,{{cite news \\|title\\=Super fund can't sack HSU boss \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Australian Financial Review]] \\|url\\=http://www.afr.com/p/national/super\\_fund\\_can\\_sack\\_hsu\\_boss\\_g4LAQFHmbBuSnd83R9vguI \\|author\\=Patten, Sally \\|date\\=11 April 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=19 February 2014 }} a [credit union](/wiki/Credit_union \"Credit union\") for [NSW Government](/wiki/Government_of_New_South_Wales \"Government of New South Wales\") [employees](/wiki/Civil_service \"Civil service\").", "### Health Services Union expenses affair", "{{main\\|Health Services Union expenses affair}}", "Allegations of improprieties in the HSUeast branch were first publicly revealed in *[The Sydney Morning Herald](/wiki/The_Sydney_Morning_Herald \"The Sydney Morning Herald\")* on 9 September 2011\\. It was alleged that [Craig Thomson](/wiki/Craig_Thomson_%28politician%29 \"Craig Thomson (politician)\") (while serving as national secretary of the HSU) and Williamson (as the general secretary of HSUeast) received [secret commissions](/wiki/Secret_profit \"Secret profit\") from a major supplier to the union. This was the first occasion that Williamson was implicated in any matter. The media report detailed that Williamson was a director of a computer company, United Edge, that provided information technology services to the HSUeast branch, without going to competitive tender. This decision was made while Williamson was general secretary of HSUeast.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/health\\-services\\-report\\-reveals\\-where\\-union\\-millions\\-went\\-20120430\\-1xuq6\\.html \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]] \\|date\\=30 April 2012 \\|title\\=Health Services report reveals where union millions went }}", "Following the public airing of allegations, Williamson's position as national president of the HSU became untenable, and he was suspended as president in October 2011\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012\\-04\\-09/hsu\\-executives\\-want\\-president27s\\-scalp/3939570 \\|title\\=HSU executives want president's scalp \\|work\\=\\[\\[ABC News (Australia)\\|ABC News]] \\|date\\=9 April 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=19 February 2014 \\|location\\=Australia }} In April 2012 he resigned as President from Unions NSW after being asked to explain to its executive why he should not be removed. Williamson's position as the general secretary of HSUeast was dissolved when the [Federal Court](/wiki/Federal_Court_of_Australia \"Federal Court of Australia\") declared all elected positions vacant in June 2012; appointing an [administrator](/wiki/Administration_%28law%29 \"Administration (law)\") to run the union's affairs.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national\\-affairs/federal\\-court\\-splits\\-up\\-hsu\\-east\\-branch\\-sacks\\-leaders\\-refuses\\-kathy\\-jackson\\-bid/story\\-fn59niix\\-1226404247338\\# \\|title\\=Federal Court splits up HSU East branch, sacks leaders, refuses Kathy Jackson bid \\|author\\=Higgins, Ean \\|date\\=21 June 2012 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Australian]] \\|access\\-date\\=24 June 2012}}", "The final report by [Ian Temby](/wiki/Ian_Temby \"Ian Temby\") {{post\\-nominals\\|country\\=AUS\\|AO\\|QC}} and Dennis Robertson, an accountant, delivered at the request of the HSUeast Union Council in July 2012, made findings that Williamson engaged in irregularities, such as placing family members in union jobs, paying inflated prices for services, and heading United Edge, a company supplying information technology services to the union.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012\\-04\\-30/temby\\-report/3981300 \\|author1\\=Temby, Ian \\|author\\-link\\=Ian Temby \\|author2\\=Robertson, Dennis \\|format\\=PDF \\|title\\=Interim Report by Ian Temby QC and Dennis Robertson FCA to the Union Council of HSUeast and for their eyes only \\|date\\=26 April 2012 \\|work\\=\\[\\[ABC News (Australia)\\|ABC News]] \\|location\\=Australia \\|access\\-date\\=27 February 2014 }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://progressivepsa.org/pdf/hsueast\\_temby\\_report\\_final\\_full\\_july2012\\.pdf \\|author1\\=Temby, Ian \\|author\\-link\\=Ian Temby \\|author2\\=Robertson, Dennis \\|title\\=Final Report on HSUeast by Ian Temby QC and Dennis Robertson FCA \\|date\\=3 July 2012 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Public Service Association of NSW]] \\|access\\-date\\=27 February 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227144647/http://progressivepsa.org/pdf/hsueast\\_temby\\_report\\_final\\_full\\_july2012\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=27 February 2014 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012\\-05\\-01/actu\\-responds\\-to\\-hsu\\-report/3981706 \\|title\\=ACTU Responds to HSU Report \\|date\\=1 May 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=24 June 2012 \\|work\\=\\[\\[ABC News (Australia)\\|ABC News]] \\|location\\=Australia }}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national\\-affairs/opinion/foul\\-stench\\-from\\-snouts\\-in\\-hsu\\-trough/story\\-e6frgd0x\\-1226321650196\\|title\\=Foul stench from snouts in HSU trough\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Australian]]\\|access\\-date\\=24 June 2012\\|date\\=9 April 2012 \\|author\\=Richardson, Graham \\|author\\-link\\=Graham Richardson }}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/health\\-union\\-boss\\-losing\\-his\\-empire\\-20120407\\-1wi72\\.html\\|title\\=Health union boss losing his empire\\|access\\-date\\=25 June 2012\\|date\\=8 April 2012\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]] }}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.news.com.au/national/michael\\-williamson\\-quits\\-unions\\-nsw\\-position/story\\-e6frfkvr\\-1226325350130\\|title\\=Michael Williamson quits Unions NSW position\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Daily Telegraph (Sydney)\\|The Daily Telegraph]]\\|date\\=13 April 2012\\|access\\-date\\=17 July 2012}} Meanwhile, [NSW Police](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Police_Force \"New South Wales Police Force\") officers raided the union's Sydney office on 2 May 2012, seizing documents and computers as part of the \"Strike Force Carnarvon\" investigation into secret commissions allegedly received by Williamson and Thomson. Williamson was intercepted in a basement attempting to remove a bag of documents.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/1646985/Game\\-over\\-for\\-Williamson\\-says\\-HSU \\|title\\='Game over' for Williamson, says HSU \\|work\\=SBS News \\|access\\-date\\=27 June 2012 \\|date\\=2 May 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120503234554/http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/1646985/Game\\-over\\-for\\-Williamson\\-says\\-HSU \\|archive\\-date\\=3 May 2012 }}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national\\-affairs/in\\-depth/police\\-extend\\-probe\\-on\\-hsu/story\\-fndsip4d\\-1226396009528\\|title\\=Police extend probe on HSU\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Australian]]\\|access\\-date\\=27 June 2012\\|date\\=15 June 2012}}", "On 4 October 2012, Williamson was charged with more than 50 offences relating to fraud and obstruction of justice, and was suspended as director of United Edge.{{cite news \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]] \\|title\\=Former union boss Michael Williamson charged \\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/national/former\\-union\\-boss\\-michael\\-williamson\\-charged\\-20121004\\-270fo.html \\|date\\=4 October 2012 \\|last\\=McClymont \\|first\\=Kate }} Appearing before the Sydney Magistrates Court on 15 October 2013, Williamson entered a guilty plea to four major charges related to cheating and defrauding HSUeast, creating false documents with the intention to deceive and the recruiting of others to hinder a police investigation. All other charges were dropped. No charges were laid against Williamson's wife or family members.{{cite news \\|title\\=Labor bloodletting has just begun as corruption shockwaves rock the party \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Daily Telegraph (Sydney)\\|The Daily Telegraph]] \\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/labor\\-bloodletting\\-has\\-just\\-begun\\-as\\-corruption\\-shockwaves\\-rock\\-the\\-party/story\\-fni0cx12\\-1226741305526 \\|date\\=17 October 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2014 \\|author\\=Clennell, Andrew }} On 3 March 2014, legal counsel for Williamson declined to seek a [bail](/wiki/Bail%23By_a_court \"Bail#By a court\") extension and Williamson was imprisoned. He was sentenced in the District Court of New South Wales on 28 March 2014 to seven{{endash}}and{{endash}}a{{endash}}half years of imprisonment; with a non{{endash}}parole period of five years, ending in March 2019\\.", "In addition to criminal charges, HSUeast filed [civil proceedings](/wiki/Civil_law_%28common_law%29 \"Civil law (common law)\") against Williamson. Prior to his guilty plea, the union and Williamson reached agreement on the terms of settlement via mediation supervised by [Robert McClelland](/wiki/Robert_McClelland_%28Australian_politician%29 \"Robert McClelland (Australian politician)\"), a former Labor [Attorney\\-General](/wiki/Attorney-General_for_Australia \"Attorney-General for Australia\"). The terms of the settlement included [judgement](/wiki/Judgment_%28law%29 \"Judgment (law)\") against Williamson for $5 million in the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_New_South_Wales \"Supreme Court of New South Wales\"), set aside his claimed pay rates back to 2003 resulting in the union reducing defined benefits superannuation liabilities to Williamson by approximately $1\\.1 million; eliminated in excess of ${{formatnum:600000}} worth of claimed leave entitlements; and received a public letter of apology to members of the Health Services Union,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.hsu.asn.au/message\\-from\\-secretary\\-gerard\\-hayes\\-in\\-relation\\-to\\-michael\\-williamson/ \\|title\\=Message from Secretary General Gerard Hayes in relation to Michael Williamson \\|date\\=15 October 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=19 February 2014 }} that the union published:{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.hsu.asn.au/wp\\-content/uploads/2013/10/Letter\\-of\\-apology\\-from\\-Michael\\-Williamson.pdf \\|title\\=Letter of apology from Michael Williamson \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Health Services Union]] \\|author\\=Williamson, Michael \\|date\\=25 September 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=19 February 2014 }}\n{{quotation\\|As you would be aware from media commentary I was charged by the NSW Police over a number of matters relating to the Financial Operations of the Union when I was General Secretary. \nThe charges laid by Police will shortly be before the Local Court and at that time I intend to enter a plea of Guilty to a number of charges. The matter will now be remitted to the District Court for sentencing.", "I wish to place on record my sincere apology to all of you. You placed your trust in me when I was the General Secretary and I abused that trust. I apologise unreservedly to all of you for my actions which were not in keeping with the position I formerly held. I have agreed to assist the Union in recovery actions against others, and will honour that agreement.", "The Court will determine the penalty I am to receive, but it won't remove the fact that I have to live with the matter until the day I die.", "Please do not desert the Union over this issue as the Union did nothing wrong. It was me that did the wrong thing and I accept responsibility for my wrongdoing.\\|Michael Williamson}}", "Following his conviction and imprisonment, on 4 April 2014 the New South Wales branch of the Labor Party expelled Williamson as a member of the party.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/labor\\-party\\-expels\\-michael\\-williamson\\-craig\\-thomson\\-20140404\\-363f5\\.html \\|title\\=Labor Party expels Michael Williamson, Craig Thomson \\|author\\=Nicholls, Sean \\|date\\=4 April 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=6 April 2014 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]] }}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014\\-04\\-04/labor\\-party\\-expels\\-michael\\-williamson\\-and\\-craig\\-thomson/5368574 \\|title\\=Former HSU officials Michael Williamson and Craig Thomson expelled from Labor Party \\|work\\=\\[\\[ABC News (Australia)\\|ABC News]] \\|location\\=Australia \\|date\\=4 April 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=6 April 2014 }}", "", "" ]
Biography --------- ### Youth and the Peace of Westphalia He came from the ancient [Lamberg](/wiki/Lamberg "Lamberg") family, dating from the 14th century. Johann Maximilian's father Georg Siegmund von Lamberg (1565–1632\) was [Empress Anna's](/wiki/Anna_of_Tyrol "Anna of Tyrol") [Obersthofmeister](/wiki/Obersthofmeister "Obersthofmeister") and had a total of fourteen children from three marriages. His third wife and mother of Johann Maximilian was Giovanna della Scala (Johanna von der Leiter, 1574–1649\), widow of Sigismund of Dietrichstein. He was therefore the half\-brother of [Maximilian, Prince of Dietrichstein](/wiki/Maximilian%2C_Prince_of_Dietrichstein "Maximilian, Prince of Dietrichstein") , and this close connection with a leading noble family helped the Lambergs to build a prestigious position at court in the 17th century. Johann Maximilian studied law in Vienna and undertook a cavalier tour of Europe, visiting Italy, France and Spain, acquiring knowledge of several languages during his studies and travels. After returning to Vienna, he was appointed Imperial Chamberlain, and as a soldier he took part in several battles of the Thirty Years' War, including the [Battle of Nördlingen (1634\)](/wiki/Battle_of_N%C3%B6rdlingen_%281634%29 "Battle of Nördlingen (1634)"). Already as an imperial court councilor, he participated in the coronation of [Ferdinand III](/wiki/Ferdinand_III%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor") in 1636 and on that occasion he was elevated to the rank of Count. As a member of the Imperial Court Council, Lamberg devoted himself to foreign policy. From 1644 he was one of the Imperial envoys in Osnabrück, where peace negotiations to end the Thirty Years' War began. While Sweden was then trying to reverse the outcome of the war by invading Moravia and later Prague, Lamberg completed a series of difficult negotiations with Swedish Chancellor [Axel Oxenstierna](/wiki/Axel_Oxenstierna "Axel Oxenstierna"). Lamberg was the co\-author and signatory of the final peace treaty known as the [Peace of Westphalia](/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia "Peace of Westphalia"). ### Career at court After returning to Vienna, he became the highest chamberlain of Archduke Leopold in 1650, and the following year he was appointed Oberhofmeister to the future Empress, [Eleonora Gonzaga von Mantua\-Nevers](/wiki/Eleonora_Gonzaga_%281630%E2%80%931686%29 "Eleonora Gonzaga (1630–1686)"), the third wife of Emperor Ferdinand III. He was sent to Mantua, where he represented the Emperor during the [marriage by proxy](/wiki/Marriage_by_proxy "Marriage by proxy") on 2 March 1651 and then accompanied Eleonora Gonzaga with her entourage to her marriage in Vienna on 2 April. In 1655 he was appointed a Knight of the [Order of the Golden Fleece](/wiki/Order_of_the_Golden_Fleece "Order of the Golden Fleece"). In 1657, he was sent to Madrid, where for 7 years he defended as Ambassador the interests of the Austrian Habsburgs. As a favorite of the imperial court, he received ample financial resources for his representation. In 1662, he obtained for his family the hereditary post of the Erb\-Stallmeister in [Carniola](/wiki/Carniola "Carniola"), and similarly in 1675 he received the hereditary office of the highest chamberlain in Upper Austria. In the years 1661–1675, he was the highest chamberlain of [Emperor Leopold I](/wiki/Leopold_I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor"), and after the forced departure of Prince [Wenzel Eusebius, Prince of Lobkowicz](/wiki/Wenzel_Eusebius%2C_Prince_of_Lobkowicz "Wenzel Eusebius, Prince of Lobkowicz"), he completed his career as the Emperor's [Obersthofmeister](/wiki/Obersthofmeister "Obersthofmeister") and member of the secret state conference (1675–1682\). He is described in the literature as an honest and educated nobleman who was not inclined to scheming and, thanks to the long\-term trust of Emperor Leopold I, he was one of the important figures of the Habsburg monarchy in the second half of the 17th century. ### Property conditions and family He inherited estates in Austria from his father, including [Kitzbühel](/wiki/Kitzb%C3%BChel "Kitzbühel") with [Lebenberg Castle](/wiki/Tscherms "Tscherms") in the Tyrolean Alps, and took over the [Amerang](/wiki/Amerang "Amerang") estate in Bavaria from his mother. In 1666, he inherited [Steyr](/wiki/Steyr "Steyr") and Lamberg castle, which became later one of the most luxurious residences in Upper Austria. In 1678, he bought the [Kunštát Castle](/wiki/Kun%C5%A1t%C3%A1t_Castle "Kunštát Castle") in Moravia, which he immediately passed on to his son Kaspar Friedrich (1648–1686\). In 1635, he married Maria Judith Johanna Eleonora Rebekka von Würben und Freudenthal (1612–1690\) in Vienna and had ten children with her. With a purposeful marriage policy, he created an influential aristocratic clan from his family, as five of his daughters married important figures of the Imperial Court. His sons also reached high positions, like his youngest son [Johann Philipp von Lamberg](/wiki/Johann_Philipp_von_Lamberg "Johann Philipp von Lamberg") (1651–1712\), who became Cardinal and [Prince\-Bishop of Passau](/wiki/Prince-Bishop_of_Passau "Prince-Bishop of Passau").[Family tree Von Lamberg](https://gw.geneanet.org/favrejhas?lang=de&m=N&v=von+lamberg) Johann Maximilian died in December 1682 and he and his wife are buried in the [Augustinian Church, Vienna](/wiki/Augustinian_Church%2C_Vienna "Augustinian Church, Vienna").
[ "Biography\n---------", "### Youth and the Peace of Westphalia", "He came from the ancient [Lamberg](/wiki/Lamberg \"Lamberg\") family, dating from the 14th century. Johann Maximilian's father Georg Siegmund von Lamberg (1565–1632\\) was [Empress Anna's](/wiki/Anna_of_Tyrol \"Anna of Tyrol\") [Obersthofmeister](/wiki/Obersthofmeister \"Obersthofmeister\") and had a total of fourteen children from three marriages. His third wife and mother of Johann Maximilian was Giovanna della Scala (Johanna von der Leiter, 1574–1649\\), widow of Sigismund of Dietrichstein. He was therefore the half\\-brother of [Maximilian, Prince of Dietrichstein](/wiki/Maximilian%2C_Prince_of_Dietrichstein \"Maximilian, Prince of Dietrichstein\") , and this close connection with a leading noble family helped the Lambergs to build a prestigious position at court in the 17th century.", "Johann Maximilian studied law in Vienna and undertook a cavalier tour of Europe, visiting Italy, France and Spain, acquiring knowledge of several languages during his studies and travels. After returning to Vienna, he was appointed Imperial Chamberlain, and as a soldier he took part in several battles of the Thirty Years' War, including the [Battle of Nördlingen (1634\\)](/wiki/Battle_of_N%C3%B6rdlingen_%281634%29 \"Battle of Nördlingen (1634)\"). Already as an imperial court councilor, he participated in the coronation of [Ferdinand III](/wiki/Ferdinand_III%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor\") in 1636 and on that occasion he was elevated to the rank of Count.", "As a member of the Imperial Court Council, Lamberg devoted himself to foreign policy. From 1644 he was one of the Imperial envoys in Osnabrück, where peace negotiations to end the Thirty Years' War began. While Sweden was then trying to reverse the outcome of the war by invading Moravia and later Prague, Lamberg completed a series of difficult negotiations with Swedish Chancellor [Axel Oxenstierna](/wiki/Axel_Oxenstierna \"Axel Oxenstierna\"). Lamberg was the co\\-author and signatory of the final peace treaty known as the [Peace of Westphalia](/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia \"Peace of Westphalia\").", "### Career at court", "After returning to Vienna, he became the highest chamberlain of Archduke Leopold in 1650, and the following year he was appointed Oberhofmeister to the future Empress, [Eleonora Gonzaga von Mantua\\-Nevers](/wiki/Eleonora_Gonzaga_%281630%E2%80%931686%29 \"Eleonora Gonzaga (1630–1686)\"), the third wife of Emperor Ferdinand III. He was sent to Mantua, where he represented the Emperor during the [marriage by proxy](/wiki/Marriage_by_proxy \"Marriage by proxy\") on 2 March 1651 and then accompanied Eleonora Gonzaga with her entourage to her marriage in Vienna on 2 April. \n \nIn 1655 he was appointed a Knight of the [Order of the Golden Fleece](/wiki/Order_of_the_Golden_Fleece \"Order of the Golden Fleece\"). In 1657, he was sent to Madrid, where for 7 years he defended as Ambassador the interests of the Austrian Habsburgs. As a favorite of the imperial court, he received ample financial resources for his representation.", "In 1662, he obtained for his family the hereditary post of the Erb\\-Stallmeister in [Carniola](/wiki/Carniola \"Carniola\"), and similarly in 1675 he received the hereditary office of the highest chamberlain in Upper Austria. In the years 1661–1675, he was the highest chamberlain of [Emperor Leopold I](/wiki/Leopold_I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor\"), and after the forced departure of Prince [Wenzel Eusebius, Prince of Lobkowicz](/wiki/Wenzel_Eusebius%2C_Prince_of_Lobkowicz \"Wenzel Eusebius, Prince of Lobkowicz\"), he completed his career as the Emperor's [Obersthofmeister](/wiki/Obersthofmeister \"Obersthofmeister\") and member of the secret state conference (1675–1682\\).", "He is described in the literature as an honest and educated nobleman who was not inclined to scheming and, thanks to the long\\-term trust of Emperor Leopold I, he was one of the important figures of the Habsburg monarchy in the second half of the 17th century.", "### Property conditions and family", "He inherited estates in Austria from his father, including [Kitzbühel](/wiki/Kitzb%C3%BChel \"Kitzbühel\") with [Lebenberg Castle](/wiki/Tscherms \"Tscherms\") in the Tyrolean Alps, and took over the [Amerang](/wiki/Amerang \"Amerang\") estate in Bavaria from his mother. In 1666, he inherited [Steyr](/wiki/Steyr \"Steyr\") and Lamberg castle, which became later one of the most luxurious residences in Upper Austria. In 1678, he bought the [Kunštát Castle](/wiki/Kun%C5%A1t%C3%A1t_Castle \"Kunštát Castle\") in Moravia, which he immediately passed on to his son Kaspar Friedrich (1648–1686\\).", "In 1635, he married Maria Judith Johanna Eleonora Rebekka von Würben und Freudenthal (1612–1690\\) in Vienna and had ten children with her. With a purposeful marriage policy, he created an influential aristocratic clan from his family, as five of his daughters married important figures of the Imperial Court. His sons also reached high positions, like his youngest son [Johann Philipp von Lamberg](/wiki/Johann_Philipp_von_Lamberg \"Johann Philipp von Lamberg\") (1651–1712\\), who became Cardinal and [Prince\\-Bishop of Passau](/wiki/Prince-Bishop_of_Passau \"Prince-Bishop of Passau\").[Family tree Von Lamberg](https://gw.geneanet.org/favrejhas?lang=de&m=N&v=von+lamberg)", "Johann Maximilian died in December 1682 and he and his wife are buried in the [Augustinian Church, Vienna](/wiki/Augustinian_Church%2C_Vienna \"Augustinian Church, Vienna\").", "" ]
Biography --------- ### Early life and career Antonio Giuseppe Franchini was born to Ercole, a [fishmonger](/wiki/Fishmonger "Fishmonger"), and Genney Franchini in [Naples](/wiki/Naples "Naples"), Italy, on August 2, 1898\. As per Italian custom at the time, he began his formal education at age two.{{cite journal \|last1\=Colton \|first1\=Bob \|date\=June 1961 \|title\=The "Legendary" Franchini \|journal\=Record Research \|issue\=35 \|pages\=3, 6}} His family moved to [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston"), United States, in 1903\. In Boston he attended Elliott Grade School, and began formal violin lessons under private tutelage the following year. He taught himself [mandolin](/wiki/Mandolin "Mandolin") and guitar as he worked out currently popular songs in recreational pursuit. He began his musical career at the age of eight in Boston. He did not finish grade school, dropping out in the eighth grade. In 1914, Franchini joined Tony Colucci and Gus Sullo in a trio of stringed instruments. The highlight of their act was to interchange instruments, in the midst of performing, while playing "[Maple Leaf Rag](/wiki/Maple_Leaf_Rag "Maple Leaf Rag")". They toured the [Keith Circuit](/wiki/B._F._Keith_Circuit "B. F. Keith Circuit") as "French, Fields and Foley". The act ended in 1917, as Colucci chose to relocate to New York. Franchini joined the [United States Army](/wiki/United_States_Army "United States Army") in June 1917, even though he was not yet a citizen of the United States. He was placed in Battery F, 5th Division of the [19th Field Artillery Regiment](/wiki/19th_Field_Artillery_Regiment "19th Field Artillery Regiment"), where he operated a 70mm gun. He spent ten months in training at a base near [Leon Springs, Texas](/wiki/Leon_Springs%2C_Texas "Leon Springs, Texas"). Sent overseas, he landed in [Brest, France](/wiki/Brest%2C_France "Brest, France"), and conditioned there before being sent to the [Vosges](/wiki/Vosges "Vosges") for combat. He spent eight months in combat, participating in the battles of [Saint\-Mihiel](/wiki/Battle_of_Saint-Mihiel "Battle of Saint-Mihiel") and [Château\-Thierry](/wiki/Battle_of_Ch%C3%A2teau-Thierry_%281918%29 "Battle of Château-Thierry (1918)"). As part of the occupation he was assigned to [Koblenz](/wiki/Koblenz "Koblenz") and remained there until he was discharged on October 18, 1919\. ### With Frank Ferera Franchini lived in a hotel in New York City upon arriving back to the States. There, he met up again with Colucci and Sullo and the three held a [jam session](/wiki/Jam_session "Jam session") in Franchini's room. Frank Ferera, who resided in a room above Franchini's, overheard the music and was impressed to the point that he requested that Franchini make a record with him. Thus Franchini began recording with Ferera in 1919, a few months before Helen Louise Greenus (Ferera's wife and recording partner) disappeared at sea.{{cite book \|last\=Troutman \|first\=John W. \|date\=2016 \|title\=Kika Kila: How the Hawaiian Steel Guitar Changed the Sound of Modern Music \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=02M3CwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA102 \|publisher\=University of North Carolina Press \|page\=102 \|isbn\=9781469627939}} Ferera asked Franchini to be his recording partner in 1920\. Together they became one of the most popular recordings artists in the 1920s. Labels that released Ferrera and Franchini duets include [Brunswick](/wiki/Brunswick_Records "Brunswick Records"), [Columbia](/wiki/Columbia_Records "Columbia Records"), [Emerson](/wiki/Emerson_Records "Emerson Records"), [Gennett](/wiki/Gennett_Records "Gennett Records"), [Lyric](/wiki/Lyric_Records_%28US%29 "Lyric Records (US)"), [Okeh](/wiki/Okeh_Records "Okeh Records"), [Pathé](/wiki/Path%C3%A9_Records "Pathé Records"), [Paramount](/wiki/Paramount_Records "Paramount Records"), and [Victor](/wiki/Victor_Records "Victor Records").{{cite book \|last\=Gracyk \|first\=Tim \|date\=2000 \|title\= Popular American Recording Pioneers 1895–1925 \|location\=New York \|publisher\=The Haworth Press \|page\=125 \|isbn\=1\-56024\-993\-5}} During their association, the duo of "Ferera and Franchini" typically recorded four to six sessions every single day. Besides records released under their names they also recorded behind [Anna Case](/wiki/Anna_Case "Anna Case"), [Vernon Dalhart](/wiki/Vernon_Dalhart "Vernon Dalhart"), [Ernest Hare](/wiki/Ernest_Hare "Ernest Hare"), [Billy Jones](/wiki/Billy_Jones_%281930s_singer%29 "Billy Jones (1930s singer)"), and [Bert Williams](/wiki/Bert_Williams "Bert Williams"). Altogether, more than 3500 sides were recorded by Ferera and Franchini. On top of this, he was also an active [session musician](/wiki/Session_musician "Session musician") in his own right, accompanying Dalhart on some of Dalhart's early country music recordings{{cite book \|last1\=Russell \|first1\=Tony\|last2\=Pinson \|first2\=Bob \|date\=2004 \|title\=Country Music Records: A Discography, 1921–1942 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=2usUpwMgx3gC\&pg\=PA244 \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|page\=244 \|isbn\=9780198032045 }} and diversely performing Spanish music in Victor's ethnic catalog.{{cite book \|last\=Spottswood \|first\=Richard K. \|date\=1990 \|title\=Ethnic Music on Records: A Discography of Ethnic Recordings Produced in the United States, 1893–1942\. Vol. 4: Spanish, Portuguese, Philippines, Basque \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=qNh8VBZHQ2YC\&pg\=PA1698 \|publisher\=Greenwood Press \|page\=1698 \|isbn\=9780252017223 }} This period of activity was financially a time of great prosperity for Franchini. Franchini did more than make phonograph records. Ferera and Franchini worked tirelessly to learn material, it took extra time as Ferera could not read music. Fortunately Franchini was a good cook, and liked to make Itialian dishes when practicing at Ferera's living quarters. Franchini took a break from recording activities in 1924 to conduct the Nat Martin Orchestra which was supporting the [Marx Brothers](/wiki/Marx_Brothers "Marx Brothers") in the revue *[I'll Say She Is](/wiki/I%27ll_Say_She_Is "I'll Say She Is")*. In 1926 he formed a school of music in which was to last through the late 1940s, serving as its director. Ferera abruptly decided to leave the music business in 1927, and a seven\-and\-a\-half year partnership ended amicably. Franchni signed as a composer to the Irving Berlin publishing company. From 1928 to 1932 he was musical arranger for the [RKO Pictures](/wiki/RKO_Pictures "RKO Pictures") program on [WEAF](/wiki/WNBC_%28AM%29 "WNBC (AM)"). At the same time, he was musical director for [Paramount](/wiki/Paramount_Pictures "Paramount Pictures")'s [Koko the Clown](/wiki/Koko_the_Clown "Koko the Clown"). However, the period was financially disastrous for Franchini. Previously wealthy, he lost his fortune in the [Wall Street Crash of 1929](/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929 "Wall Street Crash of 1929"), and as record and publishing sales subsequently dried up in the following [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"), so did his formerly lucrative royalty income. ### Post\-Ferera: a varied career Franchini spent the period of 1932 to 1936 concentrating on his compositions, working with [Claude Hopkins](/wiki/Claude_Hopkins "Claude Hopkins") and [Clarence Williams](/wiki/Clarence_Williams_%28musician%29 "Clarence Williams (musician)"), among others. Franchini wrote more than 150 compositions under the name **Mel Ball**. Most of them were in the [Hawaiian music](/wiki/Music_of_Hawaii "Music of Hawaii") genre. He then spent the next two school years teaching music at Hobbs Junior High School in [Medford, Massachusetts](/wiki/Medford%2C_Massachusetts "Medford, Massachusetts"). In 1938 he returned to songwriting, including an extended idea\-gathering tour through the [Midwest](/wiki/Midwestern_United_States "Midwestern United States") that lasted from 1939 to 1940\. He transcribed Hawaiian music into English, and wrote original songs such as "Just an Old Bouquet of a Bygone Day", "Pretending" and "Talking to My Heart", the last a collaboration with [Jimmy Dorsey](/wiki/Jimmy_Dorsey "Jimmy Dorsey"). Upon the [attack on Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor "Attack on Pearl Harbor"), Franchini drove from his home in Medford to [Camp Edwards](/wiki/Camp_Edwards "Camp Edwards") in order to volunteer again for the armed services. He was given the rank of Corporal and assigned to the 101st Engineers Band. His service was mostly non\-musical. He was sent to [Jefferson Barracks Military Post](/wiki/Jefferson_Barracks_Military_Post "Jefferson Barracks Military Post") where he became a drill sergeant, teaching obstacle course and arms nomenclature. During his World War Two service, he became a naturalized [U.S. citizen](/wiki/Citizenship_of_the_United_States "Citizenship of the United States") in 1942\. He was never sent overseas before his discharge on May 15, 1943\. His next stop was in Houston, where he joined a trio that was the resident entertainment at [Houston](/wiki/Houston "Houston")'s Cotton Club. Soon afterwards, he joined the [Houston Symphony](/wiki/Houston_Symphony "Houston Symphony") as a violinist under [Ernst Hoffmann](/wiki/Ernst_Hoffmann_%28conductor%29 "Ernst Hoffmann (conductor)"). He attended the [University of Houston](/wiki/University_of_Houston "University of Houston") at this time, taking studies in Italian and Social Studies. Franchini moved to New Orleans in 1946, under contract with Ted Phillips Orchestra at the Jung Hotel. Later in the year he was booked at the Mirror Room in the [Alexandria, Louisiana](/wiki/Alexandria%2C_Louisiana "Alexandria, Louisiana") [Bentley Hotel](/wiki/Bentley_Hotel "Bentley Hotel"). Here he was partnered with organist/showgirl [Princess White Cloud](/wiki/Princess_White_Cloud "Princess White Cloud") for what was originally to be two weeks, but the popularity of the show extended the contract to four months, upon which Princess White Cloud had to leave because of a previous agreement with a circus. Franchini found himself in [Shreveport, Louisiana](/wiki/Shreveport%2C_Louisiana "Shreveport, Louisiana"), when he met [Hank Williams](/wiki/Hank_Williams "Hank Williams"). Williams knew Franchini by reputation as a Hawaiian guitarist and a classical violinist, but asked Franchini if he could do a "hoe down". Franchini proceeded to play one, and a surprised Williams was so impressed he immediately requested that Franchini join his touring group, an offer which was accepted. Franchini, under the pseudonym Tony Zachary, played fiddle for [Hank Williams](/wiki/Hank_Williams "Hank Williams") from 1949 to 1951\. Williams, with Franchini in tow, toured as a unit with [Hank Snow](/wiki/Hank_Snow "Hank Snow") and the [Bailes Brothers](/wiki/Bailes_Brothers "Bailes Brothers"). In between tours, he spent time in Los Angeles, playing at clubs. In his spare time he learned German and improved his Spanish at the [Berlitz School of Languages](/wiki/Berlitz_Corporation "Berlitz Corporation"). He joined the [Henry Busse](/wiki/Henry_Busse "Henry Busse") orchestra in 1951 as lead violinist, touring California, Nevada, and Nebraska. Franchini left Busse in May 1953 in order to form another combo under his own control.{{cite news \|author\= \|title\=Music as Written: Chicago \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=EQ0EAAAAMBAJ\&pg\=PA17 \|work\=Billboard \|page\=17 \|date\=May 23, 1953 }} In\-between tours with Busse he played with the [Phoenix Symphony](/wiki/Phoenix_Symphony "Phoenix Symphony") and the El Paso Symphony orchestras. He spent 1953 playing nightclubs. Then he spent the following two years with the Tucson Symphony Orchestra, while simultaneously playing [Western music](/wiki/Western_music_%28North_America%29 "Western music (North America)") in nightclubs. At the end of 1955, Franchini moved to Las Vegas, where he played for the [Dunes Hotel](/wiki/Dunes_%28hotel_and_casino%29 "Dunes (hotel and casino)") as it opened, played at the [Sahara](/wiki/SLS_Las_Vegas "SLS Las Vegas") for four weeks accompanying [Marlene Dietrich](/wiki/Marlene_Dietrich "Marlene Dietrich"), and finished the year with the [Jimmie Durante](/wiki/Jimmie_Durante "Jimmie Durante") show at the [Desert Inn](/wiki/Desert_Inn "Desert Inn"). It was back to California in 1956, where he teamed with Ace and Duece Spriggins, formerly of the [Sons of the Pioneers](/wiki/Sons_of_the_Pioneers "Sons of the Pioneers"), and together they played for private occasions around [Palm Springs](/wiki/Palm_Springs%2C_California "Palm Springs, California") and at the Mirador Hotel there. Franchini left the Spriggins, as he desired to relocate back to New York City. Franchini went back to school, and in 1957 earned a college degree in biochemistry. He further expanded his musical repertoire when he played [rock and roll](/wiki/Rock_and_roll "Rock and roll") as part of the Sampson Horton Orchestra on [Jay Gee Records](/wiki/Jay_Gee_Records "Jay Gee Records"). The next three years (1958–1961\) were of a more sedate musical persuasion, as they were spent touring with the [Mantovani](/wiki/Mantovani "Mantovani") orchestra. This was in turn followed by more road time with the national touring production of [The Sound of Music](/wiki/The_Sound_of_Music "The Sound of Music"). ### Later life and career Franchini converted to the [Church of Jesus Christ of Latter\-day Saints](/wiki/Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints "Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints") in 1966\.{{cite news \|author\= \|title\=Franchini's long, music\-filled life ends at 99 \|url\=https://lasvegassun.com/news/1997/sep/23/franchinis\-long\-music\-filled\-life\-ends\-at\-99/ \|work\=Las Vegas Sun \|date\=September 23, 1997 \|access\-date\=October 12, 2017}} He moved to [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas "Las Vegas") in the 1970s, where he became an activist for the [Republican Party](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "Republican Party (United States)"), campaigning for [Ronald Reagan](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan "Ronald Reagan") and [George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush "George H. W. Bush") and volunteering at election day polls into his 90s. Franchini worked in many casino orchestras, and in his 80s also supplemented his income as a strolling violinist for local Las Vegas restaurants. In 1983, he re\-arranged "[The Star\-Spangled Banner](/wiki/The_Star-Spangled_Banner "The Star-Spangled Banner")", as he felt the song too difficult to sing for most people. The Nevada members of the [United States Congress](/wiki/United_States_congressional_delegations_from_Texas "United States congressional delegations from Texas") presented this arrangement to three presidents in hopes it would be considered. His last musical engagement was as a mandolinist as part of a trio while in his 90s. Franchini died at the age of 99 on September 17, 1997, at a Las Vegas hospital. He is buried at Veterans Memorial Cemetery in [Boulder City, Nevada](/wiki/Boulder_City%2C_Nevada "Boulder City, Nevada"). His scrapbooks and other memorabilia were donated to the [University of Nevada, Las Vegas](/wiki/University_of_Nevada%2C_Las_Vegas "University of Nevada, Las Vegas").
[ "Biography\n---------", "### Early life and career", "Antonio Giuseppe Franchini was born to Ercole, a [fishmonger](/wiki/Fishmonger \"Fishmonger\"), and Genney Franchini in [Naples](/wiki/Naples \"Naples\"), Italy, on August 2, 1898\\. As per Italian custom at the time, he began his formal education at age two.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Colton \\|first1\\=Bob \\|date\\=June 1961 \\|title\\=The \"Legendary\" Franchini \\|journal\\=Record Research \\|issue\\=35 \\|pages\\=3, 6}} His family moved to [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\"), United States, in 1903\\. In Boston he attended Elliott Grade School, and began formal violin lessons under private tutelage the following year. He taught himself [mandolin](/wiki/Mandolin \"Mandolin\") and guitar as he worked out currently popular songs in recreational pursuit. He began his musical career at the age of eight in Boston. He did not finish grade school, dropping out in the eighth grade.", "In 1914, Franchini joined Tony Colucci and Gus Sullo in a trio of stringed instruments. The highlight of their act was to interchange instruments, in the midst of performing, while playing \"[Maple Leaf Rag](/wiki/Maple_Leaf_Rag \"Maple Leaf Rag\")\". They toured the [Keith Circuit](/wiki/B._F._Keith_Circuit \"B. F. Keith Circuit\") as \"French, Fields and Foley\". The act ended in 1917, as Colucci chose to relocate to New York.", "Franchini joined the [United States Army](/wiki/United_States_Army \"United States Army\") in June 1917, even though he was not yet a citizen of the United States. He was placed in Battery F, 5th Division of the [19th Field Artillery Regiment](/wiki/19th_Field_Artillery_Regiment \"19th Field Artillery Regiment\"), where he operated a 70mm gun. He spent ten months in training at a base near [Leon Springs, Texas](/wiki/Leon_Springs%2C_Texas \"Leon Springs, Texas\"). Sent overseas, he landed in [Brest, France](/wiki/Brest%2C_France \"Brest, France\"), and conditioned there before being sent to the [Vosges](/wiki/Vosges \"Vosges\") for combat. He spent eight months in combat, participating in the battles of [Saint\\-Mihiel](/wiki/Battle_of_Saint-Mihiel \"Battle of Saint-Mihiel\") and [Château\\-Thierry](/wiki/Battle_of_Ch%C3%A2teau-Thierry_%281918%29 \"Battle of Château-Thierry (1918)\"). As part of the occupation he was assigned to [Koblenz](/wiki/Koblenz \"Koblenz\") and remained there until he was discharged on October 18, 1919\\.", "### With Frank Ferera", "Franchini lived in a hotel in New York City upon arriving back to the States. There, he met up again with Colucci and Sullo and the three held a [jam session](/wiki/Jam_session \"Jam session\") in Franchini's room. Frank Ferera, who resided in a room above Franchini's, overheard the music and was impressed to the point that he requested that Franchini make a record with him. Thus Franchini began recording with Ferera in 1919, a few months before Helen Louise Greenus (Ferera's wife and recording partner) disappeared at sea.{{cite book \\|last\\=Troutman \\|first\\=John W. \\|date\\=2016 \\|title\\=Kika Kila: How the Hawaiian Steel Guitar Changed the Sound of Modern Music \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=02M3CwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA102 \\|publisher\\=University of North Carolina Press \\|page\\=102 \\|isbn\\=9781469627939}} Ferera asked Franchini to be his recording partner in 1920\\. Together they became one of the most popular recordings artists in the 1920s. Labels that released Ferrera and Franchini duets include [Brunswick](/wiki/Brunswick_Records \"Brunswick Records\"), [Columbia](/wiki/Columbia_Records \"Columbia Records\"), [Emerson](/wiki/Emerson_Records \"Emerson Records\"), [Gennett](/wiki/Gennett_Records \"Gennett Records\"), [Lyric](/wiki/Lyric_Records_%28US%29 \"Lyric Records (US)\"), [Okeh](/wiki/Okeh_Records \"Okeh Records\"), [Pathé](/wiki/Path%C3%A9_Records \"Pathé Records\"), [Paramount](/wiki/Paramount_Records \"Paramount Records\"), and [Victor](/wiki/Victor_Records \"Victor Records\").{{cite book \\|last\\=Gracyk \\|first\\=Tim \\|date\\=2000 \\|title\\= Popular American Recording Pioneers 1895–1925 \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=The Haworth Press \\|page\\=125 \\|isbn\\=1\\-56024\\-993\\-5}} During their association, the duo of \"Ferera and Franchini\" typically recorded four to six sessions every single day. Besides records released under their names they also recorded behind [Anna Case](/wiki/Anna_Case \"Anna Case\"), [Vernon Dalhart](/wiki/Vernon_Dalhart \"Vernon Dalhart\"), [Ernest Hare](/wiki/Ernest_Hare \"Ernest Hare\"), [Billy Jones](/wiki/Billy_Jones_%281930s_singer%29 \"Billy Jones (1930s singer)\"), and [Bert Williams](/wiki/Bert_Williams \"Bert Williams\"). Altogether, more than 3500 sides were recorded by Ferera and Franchini. On top of this, he was also an active [session musician](/wiki/Session_musician \"Session musician\") in his own right, accompanying Dalhart on some of Dalhart's early country music recordings{{cite book \\|last1\\=Russell \\|first1\\=Tony\\|last2\\=Pinson \\|first2\\=Bob \\|date\\=2004 \\|title\\=Country Music Records: A Discography, 1921–1942 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=2usUpwMgx3gC\\&pg\\=PA244 \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|page\\=244 \\|isbn\\=9780198032045 }} and diversely performing Spanish music in Victor's ethnic catalog.{{cite book \\|last\\=Spottswood \\|first\\=Richard K. \\|date\\=1990 \\|title\\=Ethnic Music on Records: A Discography of Ethnic Recordings Produced in the United States, 1893–1942\\. Vol. 4: Spanish, Portuguese, Philippines, Basque \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=qNh8VBZHQ2YC\\&pg\\=PA1698 \\|publisher\\=Greenwood Press \\|page\\=1698 \\|isbn\\=9780252017223 }} This period of activity was financially a time of great prosperity for Franchini.", "Franchini did more than make phonograph records. Ferera and Franchini worked tirelessly to learn material, it took extra time as Ferera could not read music. Fortunately Franchini was a good cook, and liked to make Itialian dishes when practicing at Ferera's living quarters. Franchini took a break from recording activities in 1924 to conduct the Nat Martin Orchestra which was supporting the [Marx Brothers](/wiki/Marx_Brothers \"Marx Brothers\") in the revue *[I'll Say She Is](/wiki/I%27ll_Say_She_Is \"I'll Say She Is\")*. In 1926 he formed a school of music in which was to last through the late 1940s, serving as its director.", "Ferera abruptly decided to leave the music business in 1927, and a seven\\-and\\-a\\-half year partnership ended amicably. Franchni signed as a composer to the Irving Berlin publishing company. From 1928 to 1932 he was musical arranger for the [RKO Pictures](/wiki/RKO_Pictures \"RKO Pictures\") program on [WEAF](/wiki/WNBC_%28AM%29 \"WNBC (AM)\"). At the same time, he was musical director for [Paramount](/wiki/Paramount_Pictures \"Paramount Pictures\")'s [Koko the Clown](/wiki/Koko_the_Clown \"Koko the Clown\"). However, the period was financially disastrous for Franchini. Previously wealthy, he lost his fortune in the [Wall Street Crash of 1929](/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929 \"Wall Street Crash of 1929\"), and as record and publishing sales subsequently dried up in the following [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"), so did his formerly lucrative royalty income.", "### Post\\-Ferera: a varied career", "Franchini spent the period of 1932 to 1936 concentrating on his compositions, working with [Claude Hopkins](/wiki/Claude_Hopkins \"Claude Hopkins\") and [Clarence Williams](/wiki/Clarence_Williams_%28musician%29 \"Clarence Williams (musician)\"), among others. Franchini wrote more than 150 compositions under the name **Mel Ball**. Most of them were in the [Hawaiian music](/wiki/Music_of_Hawaii \"Music of Hawaii\") genre. He then spent the next two school years teaching music at Hobbs Junior High School in [Medford, Massachusetts](/wiki/Medford%2C_Massachusetts \"Medford, Massachusetts\"). In 1938 he returned to songwriting, including an extended idea\\-gathering tour through the [Midwest](/wiki/Midwestern_United_States \"Midwestern United States\") that lasted from 1939 to 1940\\. He transcribed Hawaiian music into English, and wrote original songs such as \"Just an Old Bouquet of a Bygone Day\", \"Pretending\" and \"Talking to My Heart\", the last a collaboration with [Jimmy Dorsey](/wiki/Jimmy_Dorsey \"Jimmy Dorsey\").", "Upon the [attack on Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor \"Attack on Pearl Harbor\"), Franchini drove from his home in Medford to [Camp Edwards](/wiki/Camp_Edwards \"Camp Edwards\") in order to volunteer again for the armed services. He was given the rank of Corporal and assigned to the 101st Engineers Band. His service was mostly non\\-musical. He was sent to [Jefferson Barracks Military Post](/wiki/Jefferson_Barracks_Military_Post \"Jefferson Barracks Military Post\") where he became a drill sergeant, teaching obstacle course and arms nomenclature. During his World War Two service, he became a naturalized [U.S. citizen](/wiki/Citizenship_of_the_United_States \"Citizenship of the United States\") in 1942\\. He was never sent overseas before his discharge on May 15, 1943\\.", "His next stop was in Houston, where he joined a trio that was the resident entertainment at [Houston](/wiki/Houston \"Houston\")'s Cotton Club. Soon afterwards, he joined the [Houston Symphony](/wiki/Houston_Symphony \"Houston Symphony\") as a violinist under [Ernst Hoffmann](/wiki/Ernst_Hoffmann_%28conductor%29 \"Ernst Hoffmann (conductor)\"). He attended the [University of Houston](/wiki/University_of_Houston \"University of Houston\") at this time, taking studies in Italian and Social Studies.", "Franchini moved to New Orleans in 1946, under contract with Ted Phillips Orchestra at the Jung Hotel. Later in the year he was booked at the Mirror Room in the [Alexandria, Louisiana](/wiki/Alexandria%2C_Louisiana \"Alexandria, Louisiana\") [Bentley Hotel](/wiki/Bentley_Hotel \"Bentley Hotel\"). Here he was partnered with organist/showgirl [Princess White Cloud](/wiki/Princess_White_Cloud \"Princess White Cloud\") for what was originally to be two weeks, but the popularity of the show extended the contract to four months, upon which Princess White Cloud had to leave because of a previous agreement with a circus.", "Franchini found himself in [Shreveport, Louisiana](/wiki/Shreveport%2C_Louisiana \"Shreveport, Louisiana\"), when he met [Hank Williams](/wiki/Hank_Williams \"Hank Williams\"). Williams knew Franchini by reputation as a Hawaiian guitarist and a classical violinist, but asked Franchini if he could do a \"hoe down\". Franchini proceeded to play one, and a surprised Williams was so impressed he immediately requested that Franchini join his touring group, an offer which was accepted. Franchini, under the pseudonym Tony Zachary, played fiddle for [Hank Williams](/wiki/Hank_Williams \"Hank Williams\") from 1949 to 1951\\. Williams, with Franchini in tow, toured as a unit with [Hank Snow](/wiki/Hank_Snow \"Hank Snow\") and the [Bailes Brothers](/wiki/Bailes_Brothers \"Bailes Brothers\").", "In between tours, he spent time in Los Angeles, playing at clubs. In his spare time he learned German and improved his Spanish at the [Berlitz School of Languages](/wiki/Berlitz_Corporation \"Berlitz Corporation\"). He joined the [Henry Busse](/wiki/Henry_Busse \"Henry Busse\") orchestra in 1951 as lead violinist, touring California, Nevada, and Nebraska. Franchini left Busse in May 1953 in order to form another combo under his own control.{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|title\\=Music as Written: Chicago \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=EQ0EAAAAMBAJ\\&pg\\=PA17 \\|work\\=Billboard \\|page\\=17 \\|date\\=May 23, 1953 }} In\\-between tours with Busse he played with the [Phoenix Symphony](/wiki/Phoenix_Symphony \"Phoenix Symphony\") and the El Paso Symphony orchestras. He spent 1953 playing nightclubs. Then he spent the following two years with the Tucson Symphony Orchestra, while simultaneously playing [Western music](/wiki/Western_music_%28North_America%29 \"Western music (North America)\") in nightclubs. At the end of 1955, Franchini moved to Las Vegas, where he played for the [Dunes Hotel](/wiki/Dunes_%28hotel_and_casino%29 \"Dunes (hotel and casino)\") as it opened, played at the [Sahara](/wiki/SLS_Las_Vegas \"SLS Las Vegas\") for four weeks accompanying [Marlene Dietrich](/wiki/Marlene_Dietrich \"Marlene Dietrich\"), and finished the year with the [Jimmie Durante](/wiki/Jimmie_Durante \"Jimmie Durante\") show at the [Desert Inn](/wiki/Desert_Inn \"Desert Inn\"). It was back to California in 1956, where he teamed with Ace and Duece Spriggins, formerly of the [Sons of the Pioneers](/wiki/Sons_of_the_Pioneers \"Sons of the Pioneers\"), and together they played for private occasions around [Palm Springs](/wiki/Palm_Springs%2C_California \"Palm Springs, California\") and at the Mirador Hotel there.", "Franchini left the Spriggins, as he desired to relocate back to New York City. Franchini went back to school, and in 1957 earned a college degree in biochemistry. He further expanded his musical repertoire when he played [rock and roll](/wiki/Rock_and_roll \"Rock and roll\") as part of the Sampson Horton Orchestra on [Jay Gee Records](/wiki/Jay_Gee_Records \"Jay Gee Records\"). The next three years (1958–1961\\) were of a more sedate musical persuasion, as they were spent touring with the [Mantovani](/wiki/Mantovani \"Mantovani\") orchestra. This was in turn followed by more road time with the national touring production of [The Sound of Music](/wiki/The_Sound_of_Music \"The Sound of Music\").", "### Later life and career", "Franchini converted to the [Church of Jesus Christ of Latter\\-day Saints](/wiki/Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints \"Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints\") in 1966\\.{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|title\\=Franchini's long, music\\-filled life ends at 99 \\|url\\=https://lasvegassun.com/news/1997/sep/23/franchinis\\-long\\-music\\-filled\\-life\\-ends\\-at\\-99/ \\|work\\=Las Vegas Sun \\|date\\=September 23, 1997 \\|access\\-date\\=October 12, 2017}} He moved to [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas \"Las Vegas\") in the 1970s, where he became an activist for the [Republican Party](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\"), campaigning for [Ronald Reagan](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan \"Ronald Reagan\") and [George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush \"George H. W. Bush\") and volunteering at election day polls into his 90s. Franchini worked in many casino orchestras, and in his 80s also supplemented his income as a strolling violinist for local Las Vegas restaurants. In 1983, he re\\-arranged \"[The Star\\-Spangled Banner](/wiki/The_Star-Spangled_Banner \"The Star-Spangled Banner\")\", as he felt the song too difficult to sing for most people. The Nevada members of the [United States Congress](/wiki/United_States_congressional_delegations_from_Texas \"United States congressional delegations from Texas\") presented this arrangement to three presidents in hopes it would be considered. His last musical engagement was as a mandolinist as part of a trio while in his 90s.", "Franchini died at the age of 99 on September 17, 1997, at a Las Vegas hospital. He is buried at Veterans Memorial Cemetery in [Boulder City, Nevada](/wiki/Boulder_City%2C_Nevada \"Boulder City, Nevada\"). His scrapbooks and other memorabilia were donated to the [University of Nevada, Las Vegas](/wiki/University_of_Nevada%2C_Las_Vegas \"University of Nevada, Las Vegas\").", "" ]
### Post\-Ferera: a varied career Franchini spent the period of 1932 to 1936 concentrating on his compositions, working with [Claude Hopkins](/wiki/Claude_Hopkins "Claude Hopkins") and [Clarence Williams](/wiki/Clarence_Williams_%28musician%29 "Clarence Williams (musician)"), among others. Franchini wrote more than 150 compositions under the name **Mel Ball**. Most of them were in the [Hawaiian music](/wiki/Music_of_Hawaii "Music of Hawaii") genre. He then spent the next two school years teaching music at Hobbs Junior High School in [Medford, Massachusetts](/wiki/Medford%2C_Massachusetts "Medford, Massachusetts"). In 1938 he returned to songwriting, including an extended idea\-gathering tour through the [Midwest](/wiki/Midwestern_United_States "Midwestern United States") that lasted from 1939 to 1940\. He transcribed Hawaiian music into English, and wrote original songs such as "Just an Old Bouquet of a Bygone Day", "Pretending" and "Talking to My Heart", the last a collaboration with [Jimmy Dorsey](/wiki/Jimmy_Dorsey "Jimmy Dorsey"). Upon the [attack on Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor "Attack on Pearl Harbor"), Franchini drove from his home in Medford to [Camp Edwards](/wiki/Camp_Edwards "Camp Edwards") in order to volunteer again for the armed services. He was given the rank of Corporal and assigned to the 101st Engineers Band. His service was mostly non\-musical. He was sent to [Jefferson Barracks Military Post](/wiki/Jefferson_Barracks_Military_Post "Jefferson Barracks Military Post") where he became a drill sergeant, teaching obstacle course and arms nomenclature. During his World War Two service, he became a naturalized [U.S. citizen](/wiki/Citizenship_of_the_United_States "Citizenship of the United States") in 1942\. He was never sent overseas before his discharge on May 15, 1943\. His next stop was in Houston, where he joined a trio that was the resident entertainment at [Houston](/wiki/Houston "Houston")'s Cotton Club. Soon afterwards, he joined the [Houston Symphony](/wiki/Houston_Symphony "Houston Symphony") as a violinist under [Ernst Hoffmann](/wiki/Ernst_Hoffmann_%28conductor%29 "Ernst Hoffmann (conductor)"). He attended the [University of Houston](/wiki/University_of_Houston "University of Houston") at this time, taking studies in Italian and Social Studies. Franchini moved to New Orleans in 1946, under contract with Ted Phillips Orchestra at the Jung Hotel. Later in the year he was booked at the Mirror Room in the [Alexandria, Louisiana](/wiki/Alexandria%2C_Louisiana "Alexandria, Louisiana") [Bentley Hotel](/wiki/Bentley_Hotel "Bentley Hotel"). Here he was partnered with organist/showgirl [Princess White Cloud](/wiki/Princess_White_Cloud "Princess White Cloud") for what was originally to be two weeks, but the popularity of the show extended the contract to four months, upon which Princess White Cloud had to leave because of a previous agreement with a circus. Franchini found himself in [Shreveport, Louisiana](/wiki/Shreveport%2C_Louisiana "Shreveport, Louisiana"), when he met [Hank Williams](/wiki/Hank_Williams "Hank Williams"). Williams knew Franchini by reputation as a Hawaiian guitarist and a classical violinist, but asked Franchini if he could do a "hoe down". Franchini proceeded to play one, and a surprised Williams was so impressed he immediately requested that Franchini join his touring group, an offer which was accepted. Franchini, under the pseudonym Tony Zachary, played fiddle for [Hank Williams](/wiki/Hank_Williams "Hank Williams") from 1949 to 1951\. Williams, with Franchini in tow, toured as a unit with [Hank Snow](/wiki/Hank_Snow "Hank Snow") and the [Bailes Brothers](/wiki/Bailes_Brothers "Bailes Brothers"). In between tours, he spent time in Los Angeles, playing at clubs. In his spare time he learned German and improved his Spanish at the [Berlitz School of Languages](/wiki/Berlitz_Corporation "Berlitz Corporation"). He joined the [Henry Busse](/wiki/Henry_Busse "Henry Busse") orchestra in 1951 as lead violinist, touring California, Nevada, and Nebraska. Franchini left Busse in May 1953 in order to form another combo under his own control.{{cite news \|author\= \|title\=Music as Written: Chicago \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=EQ0EAAAAMBAJ\&pg\=PA17 \|work\=Billboard \|page\=17 \|date\=May 23, 1953 }} In\-between tours with Busse he played with the [Phoenix Symphony](/wiki/Phoenix_Symphony "Phoenix Symphony") and the El Paso Symphony orchestras. He spent 1953 playing nightclubs. Then he spent the following two years with the Tucson Symphony Orchestra, while simultaneously playing [Western music](/wiki/Western_music_%28North_America%29 "Western music (North America)") in nightclubs. At the end of 1955, Franchini moved to Las Vegas, where he played for the [Dunes Hotel](/wiki/Dunes_%28hotel_and_casino%29 "Dunes (hotel and casino)") as it opened, played at the [Sahara](/wiki/SLS_Las_Vegas "SLS Las Vegas") for four weeks accompanying [Marlene Dietrich](/wiki/Marlene_Dietrich "Marlene Dietrich"), and finished the year with the [Jimmie Durante](/wiki/Jimmie_Durante "Jimmie Durante") show at the [Desert Inn](/wiki/Desert_Inn "Desert Inn"). It was back to California in 1956, where he teamed with Ace and Duece Spriggins, formerly of the [Sons of the Pioneers](/wiki/Sons_of_the_Pioneers "Sons of the Pioneers"), and together they played for private occasions around [Palm Springs](/wiki/Palm_Springs%2C_California "Palm Springs, California") and at the Mirador Hotel there. Franchini left the Spriggins, as he desired to relocate back to New York City. Franchini went back to school, and in 1957 earned a college degree in biochemistry. He further expanded his musical repertoire when he played [rock and roll](/wiki/Rock_and_roll "Rock and roll") as part of the Sampson Horton Orchestra on [Jay Gee Records](/wiki/Jay_Gee_Records "Jay Gee Records"). The next three years (1958–1961\) were of a more sedate musical persuasion, as they were spent touring with the [Mantovani](/wiki/Mantovani "Mantovani") orchestra. This was in turn followed by more road time with the national touring production of [The Sound of Music](/wiki/The_Sound_of_Music "The Sound of Music").
[ "### Post\\-Ferera: a varied career", "Franchini spent the period of 1932 to 1936 concentrating on his compositions, working with [Claude Hopkins](/wiki/Claude_Hopkins \"Claude Hopkins\") and [Clarence Williams](/wiki/Clarence_Williams_%28musician%29 \"Clarence Williams (musician)\"), among others. Franchini wrote more than 150 compositions under the name **Mel Ball**. Most of them were in the [Hawaiian music](/wiki/Music_of_Hawaii \"Music of Hawaii\") genre. He then spent the next two school years teaching music at Hobbs Junior High School in [Medford, Massachusetts](/wiki/Medford%2C_Massachusetts \"Medford, Massachusetts\"). In 1938 he returned to songwriting, including an extended idea\\-gathering tour through the [Midwest](/wiki/Midwestern_United_States \"Midwestern United States\") that lasted from 1939 to 1940\\. He transcribed Hawaiian music into English, and wrote original songs such as \"Just an Old Bouquet of a Bygone Day\", \"Pretending\" and \"Talking to My Heart\", the last a collaboration with [Jimmy Dorsey](/wiki/Jimmy_Dorsey \"Jimmy Dorsey\").", "Upon the [attack on Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor \"Attack on Pearl Harbor\"), Franchini drove from his home in Medford to [Camp Edwards](/wiki/Camp_Edwards \"Camp Edwards\") in order to volunteer again for the armed services. He was given the rank of Corporal and assigned to the 101st Engineers Band. His service was mostly non\\-musical. He was sent to [Jefferson Barracks Military Post](/wiki/Jefferson_Barracks_Military_Post \"Jefferson Barracks Military Post\") where he became a drill sergeant, teaching obstacle course and arms nomenclature. During his World War Two service, he became a naturalized [U.S. citizen](/wiki/Citizenship_of_the_United_States \"Citizenship of the United States\") in 1942\\. He was never sent overseas before his discharge on May 15, 1943\\.", "His next stop was in Houston, where he joined a trio that was the resident entertainment at [Houston](/wiki/Houston \"Houston\")'s Cotton Club. Soon afterwards, he joined the [Houston Symphony](/wiki/Houston_Symphony \"Houston Symphony\") as a violinist under [Ernst Hoffmann](/wiki/Ernst_Hoffmann_%28conductor%29 \"Ernst Hoffmann (conductor)\"). He attended the [University of Houston](/wiki/University_of_Houston \"University of Houston\") at this time, taking studies in Italian and Social Studies.", "Franchini moved to New Orleans in 1946, under contract with Ted Phillips Orchestra at the Jung Hotel. Later in the year he was booked at the Mirror Room in the [Alexandria, Louisiana](/wiki/Alexandria%2C_Louisiana \"Alexandria, Louisiana\") [Bentley Hotel](/wiki/Bentley_Hotel \"Bentley Hotel\"). Here he was partnered with organist/showgirl [Princess White Cloud](/wiki/Princess_White_Cloud \"Princess White Cloud\") for what was originally to be two weeks, but the popularity of the show extended the contract to four months, upon which Princess White Cloud had to leave because of a previous agreement with a circus.", "Franchini found himself in [Shreveport, Louisiana](/wiki/Shreveport%2C_Louisiana \"Shreveport, Louisiana\"), when he met [Hank Williams](/wiki/Hank_Williams \"Hank Williams\"). Williams knew Franchini by reputation as a Hawaiian guitarist and a classical violinist, but asked Franchini if he could do a \"hoe down\". Franchini proceeded to play one, and a surprised Williams was so impressed he immediately requested that Franchini join his touring group, an offer which was accepted. Franchini, under the pseudonym Tony Zachary, played fiddle for [Hank Williams](/wiki/Hank_Williams \"Hank Williams\") from 1949 to 1951\\. Williams, with Franchini in tow, toured as a unit with [Hank Snow](/wiki/Hank_Snow \"Hank Snow\") and the [Bailes Brothers](/wiki/Bailes_Brothers \"Bailes Brothers\").", "In between tours, he spent time in Los Angeles, playing at clubs. In his spare time he learned German and improved his Spanish at the [Berlitz School of Languages](/wiki/Berlitz_Corporation \"Berlitz Corporation\"). He joined the [Henry Busse](/wiki/Henry_Busse \"Henry Busse\") orchestra in 1951 as lead violinist, touring California, Nevada, and Nebraska. Franchini left Busse in May 1953 in order to form another combo under his own control.{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|title\\=Music as Written: Chicago \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=EQ0EAAAAMBAJ\\&pg\\=PA17 \\|work\\=Billboard \\|page\\=17 \\|date\\=May 23, 1953 }} In\\-between tours with Busse he played with the [Phoenix Symphony](/wiki/Phoenix_Symphony \"Phoenix Symphony\") and the El Paso Symphony orchestras. He spent 1953 playing nightclubs. Then he spent the following two years with the Tucson Symphony Orchestra, while simultaneously playing [Western music](/wiki/Western_music_%28North_America%29 \"Western music (North America)\") in nightclubs. At the end of 1955, Franchini moved to Las Vegas, where he played for the [Dunes Hotel](/wiki/Dunes_%28hotel_and_casino%29 \"Dunes (hotel and casino)\") as it opened, played at the [Sahara](/wiki/SLS_Las_Vegas \"SLS Las Vegas\") for four weeks accompanying [Marlene Dietrich](/wiki/Marlene_Dietrich \"Marlene Dietrich\"), and finished the year with the [Jimmie Durante](/wiki/Jimmie_Durante \"Jimmie Durante\") show at the [Desert Inn](/wiki/Desert_Inn \"Desert Inn\"). It was back to California in 1956, where he teamed with Ace and Duece Spriggins, formerly of the [Sons of the Pioneers](/wiki/Sons_of_the_Pioneers \"Sons of the Pioneers\"), and together they played for private occasions around [Palm Springs](/wiki/Palm_Springs%2C_California \"Palm Springs, California\") and at the Mirador Hotel there.", "Franchini left the Spriggins, as he desired to relocate back to New York City. Franchini went back to school, and in 1957 earned a college degree in biochemistry. He further expanded his musical repertoire when he played [rock and roll](/wiki/Rock_and_roll \"Rock and roll\") as part of the Sampson Horton Orchestra on [Jay Gee Records](/wiki/Jay_Gee_Records \"Jay Gee Records\"). The next three years (1958–1961\\) were of a more sedate musical persuasion, as they were spent touring with the [Mantovani](/wiki/Mantovani \"Mantovani\") orchestra. This was in turn followed by more road time with the national touring production of [The Sound of Music](/wiki/The_Sound_of_Music \"The Sound of Music\").", "" ]
Musical career -------------- Jason Wilber has released nine CDs of mostly solo work to date. His most recent album *Echoes* consisted of covers of other artists' songs. His TV appearances and radio broadcasts include The Colbert Report, Late Night with Conan O’Brien, Sessions At West 54th Street, The Grand Ole Opry, Live with Regis and Kathy Lee, CNN's Entertainment Week, The Road, Mountain Stage, E\-Town, Austin City Limits, and The Late Show with David Letterman. ### Collaborations Wilber played guitar on John Prine's [Grammy Award](/wiki/Grammy_Award "Grammy Award")\-winning album *[Fair \& Square](/wiki/Fair_%26_Square_%28John_Prine_album%29 "Fair & Square (John Prine album)")*{{Cite AV media notes \|title\=Fair \& Square \- John Prine \|year\=2005 \|url\=http://www.jpshrine.org/lyrics/liner/notes\_fas\_rt.htm \|access\-date\=2017\-04\-08 \|first\=Prine \|last\=John \|author\-link\=John Prine \|type\=Liner notes \|publisher\=Oh Boy Records}} and on Prine's two [Grammy Award](/wiki/Grammy_Award "Grammy Award")\-nominated albums *[Live on Tour](/wiki/Live_on_Tour "Live on Tour")*{{Cite AV media notes \|title\=Live On Tour \- John Prine \|year\=1995 \|url\=http://www.jpshrine.org/lyrics/liner/notes\_lot\_rt.htm \|access\-date\=2017\-04\-08 \|first\=Prine \|last\=John \|author\-link\=John Prine \|type\=Liner notes \|publisher\=Oh Boy Records}} and *[In Spite of Ourselves](/wiki/In_Spite_of_Ourselves "In Spite of Ourselves")* (which spent 32 weeks on the [Billboard Country Charts](/wiki/Billboard_charts "Billboard charts")){{Citation needed\|date\=April 2017}}. Jason has accompanied John Prine on duet recordings with Emmylou Harris, Lucinda Williams, Josh Ritter, Patty Loveless, Iris Dement, Trisha Yearwood, and Sara Watkins. He has played with other artists, including [John Prine](/wiki/John_Prine "John Prine"), [Hal Ketchum](/wiki/Hal_Ketchum "Hal Ketchum"), [Greg Brown](/wiki/Greg_Brown_%28folk_musician%29 "Greg Brown (folk musician)"), [Iris DeMent](/wiki/Iris_DeMent "Iris DeMent"), [Todd Snider](/wiki/Todd_Snider "Todd Snider"), [Greg Trooper](/wiki/Greg_Trooper "Greg Trooper"), [Carrie Newcomer](/wiki/Carrie_Newcomer "Carrie Newcomer"), [Tom Russell](/wiki/Tom_Russell "Tom Russell"){{Cite web\|url\=http://www.edmontonsun.com/2016/08/06/edmonton\-folk\-fest\-a\-mix\-of\-acoustic\-and\-electric\-sounds\|title\=Edmonton Folk Fest a mix of acoustic and electric sounds\|website\=Edmonton Sun\|access\-date\=2017\-04\-08}} and [Tim Grimm](/wiki/Tim_Grimm "Tim Grimm"), Krista Detor, Kim Fox, Bill Wilson, and Over the Rhine. Jason Wilber served as Co\-Executive Producer on the compilation CD Coal Country Music featuring Willie Nelson, Gillian Welch, Ralph Stanley, Jason and the Scorchers, Kathy Mattea, Justin Townes Earle, Natalie Merchant, Diana Jones, Tom T. Hall, Bonnie Raitt, John Prine, Jean Ritchie, and other artists, who all contributed their talents to benefit the Alliance for Appalachia's work to stop Mountain Top Removal in rural Appalachia.
[ "Musical career\n--------------", "Jason Wilber has released nine CDs of mostly solo work to date. His most recent album *Echoes* consisted of covers of other artists' songs.", "His TV appearances and radio broadcasts include The Colbert Report, Late Night with Conan O’Brien, Sessions At West 54th Street, The Grand Ole Opry, Live with Regis and Kathy Lee, CNN's Entertainment Week, The Road, Mountain Stage, E\\-Town, Austin City Limits, and The Late Show with David Letterman.", "### Collaborations", "Wilber played guitar on John Prine's [Grammy Award](/wiki/Grammy_Award \"Grammy Award\")\\-winning album *[Fair \\& Square](/wiki/Fair_%26_Square_%28John_Prine_album%29 \"Fair & Square (John Prine album)\")*{{Cite AV media notes \\|title\\=Fair \\& Square \\- John Prine \\|year\\=2005 \\|url\\=http://www.jpshrine.org/lyrics/liner/notes\\_fas\\_rt.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-08 \\|first\\=Prine \\|last\\=John \\|author\\-link\\=John Prine \\|type\\=Liner notes \\|publisher\\=Oh Boy Records}} and on Prine's two [Grammy Award](/wiki/Grammy_Award \"Grammy Award\")\\-nominated albums *[Live on Tour](/wiki/Live_on_Tour \"Live on Tour\")*{{Cite AV media notes \\|title\\=Live On Tour \\- John Prine \\|year\\=1995 \\|url\\=http://www.jpshrine.org/lyrics/liner/notes\\_lot\\_rt.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-08 \\|first\\=Prine \\|last\\=John \\|author\\-link\\=John Prine \\|type\\=Liner notes \\|publisher\\=Oh Boy Records}} and *[In Spite of Ourselves](/wiki/In_Spite_of_Ourselves \"In Spite of Ourselves\")* (which spent 32 weeks on the [Billboard Country Charts](/wiki/Billboard_charts \"Billboard charts\")){{Citation needed\\|date\\=April 2017}}.", "Jason has accompanied John Prine on duet recordings with Emmylou Harris, Lucinda Williams, Josh Ritter, Patty Loveless, Iris Dement, Trisha Yearwood, and Sara Watkins.", "He has played with other artists, including \n[John Prine](/wiki/John_Prine \"John Prine\"), [Hal Ketchum](/wiki/Hal_Ketchum \"Hal Ketchum\"), [Greg Brown](/wiki/Greg_Brown_%28folk_musician%29 \"Greg Brown (folk musician)\"), [Iris DeMent](/wiki/Iris_DeMent \"Iris DeMent\"), [Todd Snider](/wiki/Todd_Snider \"Todd Snider\"), [Greg Trooper](/wiki/Greg_Trooper \"Greg Trooper\"), [Carrie Newcomer](/wiki/Carrie_Newcomer \"Carrie Newcomer\"), [Tom Russell](/wiki/Tom_Russell \"Tom Russell\"){{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.edmontonsun.com/2016/08/06/edmonton\\-folk\\-fest\\-a\\-mix\\-of\\-acoustic\\-and\\-electric\\-sounds\\|title\\=Edmonton Folk Fest a mix of acoustic and electric sounds\\|website\\=Edmonton Sun\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-08}} and [Tim Grimm](/wiki/Tim_Grimm \"Tim Grimm\"), Krista Detor, Kim Fox, Bill Wilson, and Over the Rhine.", "Jason Wilber served as Co\\-Executive Producer on the compilation CD Coal Country Music featuring Willie Nelson, Gillian Welch, Ralph Stanley, Jason and the Scorchers, Kathy Mattea, Justin Townes Earle, Natalie Merchant, Diana Jones, Tom T. Hall, Bonnie Raitt, John Prine, Jean Ritchie, and other artists, who all contributed their talents to benefit the Alliance for Appalachia's work to stop Mountain Top Removal in rural Appalachia.", "" ]
History ------- The original song was composed by Joaquim Lima, a musician and director of the Philharmonic Band of [Rabo de Peixe](/wiki/Rabo_de_Peixe "Rabo de Peixe"), the [Filarmónica Progresso do Norte](/wiki/Filarm%C3%B3nica_Progresso_do_Norte "Filarmónica Progresso do Norte"), in the 1890s, when a movement for autonomy was growing within the archipelago. It was first played by the band on 3 February 1894 and was originally titled "**Hino Popular da Autonomia dos Açores**" ("The Popular Hymn of Autonomy for the Azores"). On the same day, António Tavares Torres, President of the Executive of the municipality of [Ribeira Grande](/wiki/Ribeira_Grande_%28Azores%29 "Ribeira Grande (Azores)"), accompanied by a group of friends from the Filarmónica Progresso do Norte, went to [Ponta Delgada](/wiki/Ponta_Delgada "Ponta Delgada") to play the hymn in public. After playing for the members of the Autonomous Electoral Commission, as it became late, they gathered at the *Campo de São Francisco* with a large group of autonomy supporters and crossed the streets towards the Centro Autonomista, where they participated in a rally for the forthcoming general elections. During this rally, several speakers promoted the autonomic agenda, including: Caetano de Andrade, Pereira Ataíde, Gil Mont'Alverne de Sequeira and Duarte de Almeida. On 14 April 1894, Gil Mont'Alverne de Sequeira, Pereira Ataíde and Duarte de Andrade Albuquerque were elected deputies under the Autonomist banner and celebrated their success with a march through the streets of Ponta Delgada accompanied by Philharmonic Bands playing the "Hino da Autonomia". On 9 March 1895, the philharmonic bands also played the "Hino da Autonomia" in the municipal square of Ponta Delgada during the festival marking the promulgation of the 2 March 1895 Decree establishing limited autonomy for the Azores. Originally, Lima's anthem had no lyrics, but as a function of political evolution, many unofficial *regional* lyrics were written to support local autonomy. The first recognized hymn became the anthem of Partido Progressista Autonomista ("Autonomous Progressive Party"), led by José Maria Raposo de Amaral, in [São Miguel](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Miguel_Island "São Miguel Island"). Its lyrics were composed by the poet António Tavares Torres, a native of [Rabo de Peixe](/wiki/Rabo_de_Peixe "Rabo de Peixe") and political militant of the Progressive Party. ### Modern anthem [thumb\|170px\|[Official flag of the Azores](/wiki/Flag_of_the_Azores "Flag of the Azores"), adopted in the same Decree that instituted the Hymn](/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Azores.svg "Flag of the Azores.svg") Following the [legal autonomy of the Azores](/wiki/Political_status_of_the_Autonomous_Region_of_the_Azores "Political status of the Autonomous Region of the Azores"), the Regional Government asked Azorean poet [Natália de Oliveira Correia](/wiki/Nat%C3%A1lia_Correia "Natália Correia") to compose official lyrics for the anthem. The government also adopted Teófilo Frazão's arrangement of the original melody as the official version of the anthem. Approved by the Regional Assembly on 19 May 1979,{{cite web\|url\=http://dre.pt/pdf1s/1979/05/11400/09810982\.pdf\|publisher\=Diário da Republica\|location\=Lisbon, Portugal\|date\=18 May 1975\|title\=Decreto Regulamentar Regional n.º 13/79/A\|pages\=3536\|access\-date\=25 August 2010}} it was promulgated and adopted on 21 October 1980 as a ceremonial anthem of the Regional Government.{{cite web\|url\=http://dre.pt/pdf1s/1980/10/24400/35363536\.pdf\|publisher\=Diário da Republica\|location\=Lisbon, Portugal\|date\=21 October 1980\|title\=Decreto Regulamentar Regional n.º 49/80/A\|pages\=3536\|access\-date\=25 August 2010}} The official version of the "Hymn of the Azores" was performed publicly on 27 June 1984 by students of the [Colégio de São Francisco Xavier](/wiki/Col%C3%A9gio_de_S%C3%A3o_Francisco_Xavier "Colégio de São Francisco Xavier"), during a ceremony that reunited the President of the Azores ([João Bosco da Mota Amaral](/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Bosco_da_Mota_Amaral "João Bosco da Mota Amaral")), members of the Regional Government, and various official attendees. It was sung by 600 children, wearing blue skirts/pants, white shirts and yellow handkerchiefs, and it was directed by professor Eduarda Cunha Ataíde. The official anthem, "A Portuguesa", with which the "Hymn of the Azores" has no legal standing, is used in all governmental capacities, in sporting venues, and during other civic ceremonies.
[ "History\n-------", "The original song was composed by Joaquim Lima, a musician and director of the Philharmonic Band of [Rabo de Peixe](/wiki/Rabo_de_Peixe \"Rabo de Peixe\"), the [Filarmónica Progresso do Norte](/wiki/Filarm%C3%B3nica_Progresso_do_Norte \"Filarmónica Progresso do Norte\"), in the 1890s, when a movement for autonomy was growing within the archipelago. It was first played by the band on 3 February 1894 and was originally titled \"**Hino Popular da Autonomia dos Açores**\" (\"The Popular Hymn of Autonomy for the Azores\").", "On the same day, António Tavares Torres, President of the Executive of the municipality of [Ribeira Grande](/wiki/Ribeira_Grande_%28Azores%29 \"Ribeira Grande (Azores)\"), accompanied by a group of friends from the Filarmónica Progresso do Norte, went to [Ponta Delgada](/wiki/Ponta_Delgada \"Ponta Delgada\") to play the hymn in public. After playing for the members of the Autonomous Electoral Commission, as it became late, they gathered at the *Campo de São Francisco* with a large group of autonomy supporters and crossed the streets towards the Centro Autonomista, where they participated in a rally for the forthcoming general elections. During this rally, several speakers promoted the autonomic agenda, including: Caetano de Andrade, Pereira Ataíde, Gil Mont'Alverne de Sequeira and Duarte de Almeida.", "On 14 April 1894, Gil Mont'Alverne de Sequeira, Pereira Ataíde and Duarte de Andrade Albuquerque were elected deputies under the Autonomist banner and celebrated their success with a march through the streets of Ponta Delgada accompanied by Philharmonic Bands playing the \"Hino da Autonomia\".", "On 9 March 1895, the philharmonic bands also played the \"Hino da Autonomia\" in the municipal square of Ponta Delgada during the festival marking the promulgation of the 2 March 1895 Decree establishing limited autonomy for the Azores.", "Originally, Lima's anthem had no lyrics, but as a function of political evolution, many unofficial *regional* lyrics were written to support local autonomy. The first recognized hymn became the anthem of Partido Progressista Autonomista (\"Autonomous Progressive Party\"), led by José Maria Raposo de Amaral, in [São Miguel](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Miguel_Island \"São Miguel Island\"). Its lyrics were composed by the poet António Tavares Torres, a native of [Rabo de Peixe](/wiki/Rabo_de_Peixe \"Rabo de Peixe\") and political militant of the Progressive Party.", "### Modern anthem", "[thumb\\|170px\\|[Official flag of the Azores](/wiki/Flag_of_the_Azores \"Flag of the Azores\"), adopted in the same Decree that instituted the Hymn](/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Azores.svg \"Flag of the Azores.svg\")", "Following the [legal autonomy of the Azores](/wiki/Political_status_of_the_Autonomous_Region_of_the_Azores \"Political status of the Autonomous Region of the Azores\"), the Regional Government asked Azorean poet [Natália de Oliveira Correia](/wiki/Nat%C3%A1lia_Correia \"Natália Correia\") to compose official lyrics for the anthem. The government also adopted Teófilo Frazão's arrangement of the original melody as the official version of the anthem.", "Approved by the Regional Assembly on 19 May 1979,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://dre.pt/pdf1s/1979/05/11400/09810982\\.pdf\\|publisher\\=Diário da Republica\\|location\\=Lisbon, Portugal\\|date\\=18 May 1975\\|title\\=Decreto Regulamentar Regional n.º 13/79/A\\|pages\\=3536\\|access\\-date\\=25 August 2010}} it was promulgated and adopted on 21 October 1980 as a ceremonial anthem of the Regional Government.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://dre.pt/pdf1s/1980/10/24400/35363536\\.pdf\\|publisher\\=Diário da Republica\\|location\\=Lisbon, Portugal\\|date\\=21 October 1980\\|title\\=Decreto Regulamentar Regional n.º 49/80/A\\|pages\\=3536\\|access\\-date\\=25 August 2010}}", "The official version of the \"Hymn of the Azores\" was performed publicly on 27 June 1984 by students of the [Colégio de São Francisco Xavier](/wiki/Col%C3%A9gio_de_S%C3%A3o_Francisco_Xavier \"Colégio de São Francisco Xavier\"), during a ceremony that reunited the President of the Azores ([João Bosco da Mota Amaral](/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Bosco_da_Mota_Amaral \"João Bosco da Mota Amaral\")), members of the Regional Government, and various official attendees. It was sung by 600 children, wearing blue skirts/pants, white shirts and yellow handkerchiefs, and it was directed by professor Eduarda Cunha Ataíde.", "The official anthem, \"A Portuguesa\", with which the \"Hymn of the Azores\" has no legal standing, is used in all governmental capacities, in sporting venues, and during other civic ceremonies.", "" ]
Mandel Wing for Jewish Art and Life ----------------------------------- The holdings of the Jack, Joseph, and [Morton Mandel](/wiki/Morton_Mandel "Morton Mandel") Wing for Jewish Art and Life represent the religious and secular material culture of Jewish communities worldwide, spanning centuries from the Middle Ages to the present day. The collection reflects the depth and beauty of Jewish heritage and creativity as well as the aesthetic and stylistic influences of other cultures in places where Jews lived. The origins of the collection can be traced to the early twentieth century with the establishment of the [Bezalel National Museum](/wiki/Bezalel_National_Museum "Bezalel National Museum") under the directorship of [Mordechai Narkiss](/wiki/Mordechai_Narkiss "Mordechai Narkiss"), who expanded significantly the collection of ritual art objects through important treasures rescued between the two world wars and after the [Holocaust](/wiki/Holocaust "Holocaust"). Later on, this treasure was integrated in the newly established Israel Museum in 1965 into the departments of Jewish Art and of Jewish Ethnography. In 1995 they were united into a new independent wing. Over the years, the wing's holdings have been strengthened through gifts and acquisitions of individual objects, gifts of private collections, and fieldwork within communities in Israel and abroad. The wing's prominent collections are the Stieglitz Collection and the Feuchtwanger Collection for Jewish ritual objects, Torah scroll ornaments, and life cycle objects, as well as the Schulmann Collection and Rathjens Collection for North African and Yemenite material culture, dress, jewelry and ritual objects. The wing's collection contains many unique treasures, among them, are rare manuscripts, four reconstructed synagogue interiors, a wide variety of ceremonial and ritual objects, as well as diverse material culture including dress, jewelry, and everyday artifacts. In the new permanent display, important objects drawn from this extensive collection from the public and the private realm, are integrated into a multifaceted narrative. This comparative display explores the objects' history and the social context in which they were used while underscoring their aesthetic qualities and emotional resonance. It reflects a vivid cultural tapestry weaving together the individual and the communal, the sacred and the mundane, the heritage of the past and the creative innovations of the present. Five principal themes unfold as you walk through the galleries: * **The Rhythm of Life: Birth, Marriage, Death** – highlighting the coexistence of joy and sadness, life, and death, memory and hope at each of these junctures in the life cycle. * **Illuminating the Script** – a display from our collection of rare medieval and Renaissance Hebrew manuscripts, shedding light on their history and revealing their artistry. * **The Synagogue Route: Holiness and Beauty** – Four restored interiors of synagogues from Europe, Asia, and the Americas, along with Torah scroll ornaments, show the unity and diversity of Jewish religious architecture and ritual objects. * **The Cycle of the Jewish Year** – The sanctity of the Sabbath and the traditional celebration of religious holidays, as well as the new commemoration of special days in the State of Israel, have given rise to a wealth of finely crafted objects and imaginative artworks. * **Costume and Jewelry: A Matter of Identity**\- Environment, custom, and religious law all play their role in creating the rich variety of Jewish dress and jewelry from East and West presented here.["Dress Codes: Revealing the Jewish Wardrobe"](http://www.imj.org.il/exhibitions/2014/dresscodes/en/home/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140703023811/http://www.imj.org.il/exhibitions/2014/dresscodes/en/home/ \|date\=2014\-07\-03}}, An exhibition focusing on this collection was presented at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem March 11, 2014\-October 18, 2014 ### Isidore and Anne Falk Information Center for Jewish Art and Life The Information Center has a research library and a unique archival collection, constantly growing, of some twenty thousand photographs. Many of them are extremely rare, documenting the daily life of Jewish communities around the world, some no longer exist, including images of synagogues, cemeteries, ceremonial objects and many other subjects. The information center offers access to resources of the collections as well as virtual tours in former exhibitions in order to broaden and deepen knowledge behind the objects in the wing's collections.
[ "Mandel Wing for Jewish Art and Life\n-----------------------------------", "The holdings of the Jack, Joseph, and [Morton Mandel](/wiki/Morton_Mandel \"Morton Mandel\") Wing for Jewish Art and Life represent the religious and secular material culture of Jewish communities worldwide, spanning centuries from the Middle Ages to the present day. The collection reflects the depth and beauty of Jewish heritage and creativity as well as the aesthetic and stylistic influences of other cultures in places where Jews lived.", "The origins of the collection can be traced to the early twentieth century with the establishment of the [Bezalel National Museum](/wiki/Bezalel_National_Museum \"Bezalel National Museum\") under the directorship of [Mordechai Narkiss](/wiki/Mordechai_Narkiss \"Mordechai Narkiss\"), who expanded significantly the collection of ritual art objects through important treasures rescued between the two world wars and after the [Holocaust](/wiki/Holocaust \"Holocaust\"). Later on, this treasure was integrated in the newly established Israel Museum in 1965 into the departments of Jewish Art and of Jewish Ethnography. In 1995 they were united into a new independent wing. Over the years, the wing's holdings have been strengthened through gifts and acquisitions of individual objects, gifts of private collections, and fieldwork within communities in Israel and abroad. The wing's prominent collections are the Stieglitz Collection and the Feuchtwanger Collection for Jewish ritual objects, Torah scroll ornaments, and life cycle objects, as well as the Schulmann Collection and Rathjens Collection for North African and Yemenite material culture, dress, jewelry and ritual objects.", "The wing's collection contains many unique treasures, among them, are rare manuscripts, four reconstructed synagogue interiors, a wide variety of ceremonial and ritual objects, as well as diverse material culture including dress, jewelry, and everyday artifacts.", "In the new permanent display, important objects drawn from this extensive collection from the public and the private realm, are integrated into a multifaceted narrative. This comparative display explores the objects' history and the social context in which they were used while underscoring their aesthetic qualities and emotional resonance. It reflects a vivid cultural tapestry weaving together the individual and the communal, the sacred and the mundane, the heritage of the past and the creative innovations of the present.", "Five principal themes unfold as you walk through the galleries:\n* **The Rhythm of Life: Birth, Marriage, Death** – highlighting the coexistence of joy and sadness, life, and death, memory and hope at each of these junctures in the life cycle.\n* **Illuminating the Script** – a display from our collection of rare medieval and Renaissance Hebrew manuscripts, shedding light on their history and revealing their artistry.\n* **The Synagogue Route: Holiness and Beauty** – Four restored interiors of synagogues from Europe, Asia, and the Americas, along with Torah scroll ornaments, show the unity and diversity of Jewish religious architecture and ritual objects.\n* **The Cycle of the Jewish Year** – The sanctity of the Sabbath and the traditional celebration of religious holidays, as well as the new commemoration of special days in the State of Israel, have given rise to a wealth of finely crafted objects and imaginative artworks.\n* **Costume and Jewelry: A Matter of Identity**\\- Environment, custom, and religious law all play their role in creating the rich variety of Jewish dress and jewelry from East and West presented here.[\"Dress Codes: Revealing the Jewish Wardrobe\"](http://www.imj.org.il/exhibitions/2014/dresscodes/en/home/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140703023811/http://www.imj.org.il/exhibitions/2014/dresscodes/en/home/ \\|date\\=2014\\-07\\-03}}, An exhibition focusing on this collection was presented at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem March 11, 2014\\-October 18, 2014", "### Isidore and Anne Falk Information Center for Jewish Art and Life", "The Information Center has a research library and a unique archival collection, constantly growing, of some twenty thousand photographs. Many of them are extremely rare, documenting the daily life of Jewish communities around the world, some no longer exist, including images of synagogues, cemeteries, ceremonial objects and many other subjects.", "The information center offers access to resources of the collections as well as virtual tours in former exhibitions in order to broaden and deepen knowledge behind the objects in the wing's collections.", "" ]
Biography --------- ### Childhood and early career During his childhood, Prigent lived with his father in [Le Relecq\-Kerhuon](/wiki/Le_Relecq-Kerhuon "Le Relecq-Kerhuon") and spent his weekends at his grandmother's, in [Santec](/wiki/Santec "Santec").{{cite web \|url\=http://prixdudisque.blogs.letelegramme.com/archive/2004/02/11/denez\-prigent\-sarac\-h.html \|title\=Denez Prigent. "Sarac'h" : Grand Prix du Disque du Télégramme \|publisher\=Le Télégramme \|author\=Frédéric Jambon \|accessdate\=5 December 2009 \|language\=fr \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527104736/http://prixdudisque.blogs.letelegramme.com/archive/2004/02/11/denez\-prigent\-sarac\-h.html \|archivedate\=27 May 2010}} His father, a primary teacher, raised him speaking French, although he spoke [Breton](/wiki/Breton_language "Breton language") fluently, because he did not see the point in teaching Breton to his son.{{cite web \|url\=http://transmediadoc.free.fr/prigent.html \|title\=Denez Prigent: Le Barde et la Jungle \|author\=Jacme Gaudàs \|accessdate\=20 December 2009\|language\=fr}} Denez thus discovered the Breton language at his grandmother's, along with its natural harmony and the tendency of Breton speakers of that time to sing written or improvised songs.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.vieillescharrues.asso.fr/festival/artistes/detail.php?artisteid\=13 \|publisher\=Festival des Vieilles Charrues \|title\=Denez Prigent \|accessdate\=20 December 2009 \|language\=fr \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204152914/http://www.vieillescharrues.asso.fr/festival/artistes/detail.php?artisteid\=13 \|archivedate\=4 December 2008 }} While in secondary in [Brest](/wiki/Brest%2C_France "Brest, France") he preferred listening to Breton songs on his portable audio player than concentrating on his studies.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.greatsong.net/BIOGRAPHIE\-DENEZ\-PRIGENT,999910118\.html \|publisher\=Greatsong \|title\=Biographie de Denez Prigent \|accessdate\=20 December 2009\|language\=fr}} At age 14, Prigent was taught [kan ha diskan](/wiki/Kan_ha_diskan "Kan ha diskan") by Alain Leclère,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.mondomix.com/denez\-prigent/fr/biographie.htm \|title\=Denez Prigent \|accessdate\=18 December 2009 \|publisher\=Mondomix \|author\=Benjamin MiNiMuM \|language\=fr \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091220211111/http://www.mondomix.com/denez\-prigent/fr/biographie.htm \|archivedate\=20 December 2009}} himself a former student of Manuel Kerjean,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.rythmes\-croises.org/ethnotempos/articles.item.11/melanz\-nasyon\-dizan\-maloya.html \|title\=Denez Prigent – sur les chemins des lueurs d'espoir \|publisher\=Ethnotempos \|author\=Stéphane Fougère \|accessdate\=20 December 2009 \|language\=fr \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717142524/http://www.rythmes\-croises.org/ethnotempos/articles.item.11/melanz\-nasyon\-dizan\-maloya.html \|archivedate\=17 July 2011}} whose other students include [Erik Marchand](/wiki/Erik_Marchand "Erik Marchand").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.chantdumonde.com/fr/label/fiche\_artiste.php?artist\_id\=62 \|title\=Erik Marchand et les Balkaniks \|author\=Jérémie Pierre JOUAN \|accessdate\=2 January 2010 \|language\=fr \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081212113333/http://chantdumonde.com/fr/label/fiche\_artiste.php?artist\_id\=62 \|archive\-date\=12 December 2008 \|url\-status\=dead }} Two years later, in 1982, he sang with Alain Leclère in [festoù\-noz](/wiki/Fest-noz "Fest-noz"). In the [Kan ar Bobl](/wiki/Kan_ar_Bobl "Kan ar Bobl"), he won the first prize in kan ha diskan in 1987, the first prize in new singing in 1988 and the first prize in traditional singing in 1990\. In 1988, driven by his passion for the Breton language, he became a Breton teacher in [Carhaix](/wiki/Carhaix-Plouguer "Carhaix-Plouguer"), during which he was regularly invited in traditional music festivals{{cite web \|url\=http://www.universalmusic.fr/artiste/denez\-\-prigent/ \|publisher\=Universal Music \|title\=Denez Prigent – sa biographie \|accessdate\=20 December 2009 \|language\=fr \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091219113544/http://www.universalmusic.fr/artiste/denez\-\-prigent/ \|archivedate\=19 December 2009}} such as the *{{lang\|fr\|Tombées de la nuit}}* (Nightfalls) and the [Festival Interceltique de Lorient](/wiki/Festival_Interceltique_de_Lorient "Festival Interceltique de Lorient"). In 1991, the city of [Rennes](/wiki/Rennes "Rennes") invited him to participate in the "[Voice of Asia](/wiki/Voice_of_Asia "Voice of Asia")" festival due to take place in its newly twinned city of [Alma Ata, Kazakhstan](/wiki/Almaty "Almaty"). Surprised by this invitation, Prigent wrote a satirical song, "Son Alma Ata" (later included on *Sarac'h*) about the incongruity for a Breton singer to be sent to perform in [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan "Kazakhstan"). This first concert abroad gave him an opportunity to discover the Kazakh people, then integrated into the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union"), and compare its situation to that of the Breton people, integrated into France. {{in lang\|br}} [Interview with Denez Prigent](http://www.antourtan.org/radio-2001-2004/culture/151203.html) in the radio program *An divskouarn o nijal*, aired on Arvorig FM and Radio Kerne, published online by An Tour Tan in December 2003\. In 1991, Prigent resigned from his teaching position in order to pursue his artistic career. While collecting the lyrics of traditional songs, he met Eugénie Ebrel born Goadec, one of the three [Goadec Sisters](/wiki/Goadec_Sisters "Goadec Sisters") who revived Breton a cappella singing in the 1960s. She provided him with the lyrics of "Ti Eliz Iza", and her daughter, [Annie Ebrel](/wiki/Annie_Ebrel "Annie Ebrel"), decided to join him on stage. In 1992, Prigent sang a cappella during the [Transmusicales](/wiki/Transmusicales "Transmusicales"), in front of an audience unused to this style. He subsequently left the band Daouarn with which he had sung in festoù\-noz. He performed in the [Montreux Jazz Festival](/wiki/Montreux_Jazz_Festival "Montreux Jazz Festival"), the [Francofolies](/wiki/Les_Francofolies_de_La_Rochelle "Les Francofolies de La Rochelle"), the [Midem](/wiki/Midem "Midem"), the [Printemps de Bourges](/wiki/Printemps_de_Bourges "Printemps de Bourges"), the Coup de Cœur francophone in [Quebec](/wiki/Quebec "Quebec"), the Mitte Europa festival, the *Celtic Connection* festival in [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland "Scotland"), [Expo '98](/wiki/Expo_%2798 "Expo '98") in [Lisbonne](/wiki/Lisbonne "Lisbonne"), and the Eisteddfod festival in [Wales](/wiki/Wales "Wales"). ### *Ar gouriz koar* (1993\) [right\|thumb\|[Kan ha diskan](/wiki/Kan_ha_diskan "Kan ha diskan") singers in [fest\-noz](/wiki/Fest-noz "Fest-noz") in [Rennes](/wiki/Rennes "Rennes") (Yaouank Festival 2015\).](/wiki/File:Annie_Ebrel_%26_Nol%C3%B9en_Le_Buh%C3%A9_-_Festival_Yaouank_2015_-_02.jpg "Annie Ebrel & Nolùen Le Buhé - Festival Yaouank 2015 - 02.jpg") In 1993, Prigent released his first album *Ar gouriz koar* (translated *The Wax Belt*) on Auvidis/Silex. Although the album was, at first, intended for promoting Prigent's songs to festival organizers rather than for being sold to the general audience, its sales approached {{formatnum:50000}} copies. Most of the songs are traditional [Breton folk](/wiki/Music_of_Brittany "Music of Brittany") songs sung [a cappella](/wiki/A_cappella "A cappella"). However, former Storlok members Denez Abernot and Bernez Tangi wrote "Plac'h Landelo" and "Gwerz ar vezhinerien", respectively, while Prigent himself wrote "Gwerz an aksidan". Like all of his subsequent recordings, *Ar gouriz koar* is sung in the [kan ha diskan](/wiki/Kan_ha_diskan "Kan ha diskan") and [gwerz](/wiki/Gwerz "Gwerz") styles. When Prigent failed to receive compensation from Auvidis/Silex for sales of the album, he sued the label and signed with [Barclay Records](/wiki/Barclay_Records "Barclay Records") for his subsequent releases. Further sales of *Ar gouriz koar* were blocked but Auvidis kept the original records, and in 1996 Prigent released a new recording of *Ar gouriz koar* with Barclay. For this and all subsequent recordings, Prigent uses the Peurunvan unified [Breton orthography](/wiki/Breton_language%23Orthography "Breton language#Orthography"). ### Introduction to electronic music and *Me 'zalcʼh ennon ur fulenn aour* (1993–1999\) [right\|thumb\|Denez on stage during [Festival de Cornouaille](/wiki/Festival_de_Cornouaille "Festival de Cornouaille") in Quimper.](/wiki/File:Photo_-_Festival_de_Cornouaille_2014_-_Denez_Prigent_en_concert_le_24_juillet_-_012.jpg "Photo - Festival de Cornouaille 2014 - Denez Prigent en concert le 24 juillet - 012.jpg") At his wife's request, Prigent attended the first [rave party](/wiki/Rave_party "Rave party") held in Rennes, in 1993, in spite of his negative prejudice. There, he discovered a music that, like Breton music, is primarily meant to support dancing. Noticing that [electronic music](/wiki/Electronic_music "Electronic music") and Breton music are based on similar rhythms and notes closed to one another, he contemplated using it to accompany his songs. In 1995, Prigent appeared in *Dao Dezi*.{{cite web\|url\=http://2007\.festival\-cornouaille.com/presse/01/dp\-fc\-2007\.pdf \|title\=Biographie de Denez Prigent (Page 10 – Le projet Dao Dezi) \|accessdate\=2010\-03\-20 \|language\=fr \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710235016/http://2007\.festival\-cornouaille.com/presse/01/dp\-fc\-2007\.pdf \|archivedate\=10 July 2011}} The goal of this project of [Éric Mouquet](/wiki/%C3%89ric_Mouquet "Éric Mouquet"), a member of [Deep Forest](/wiki/Deep_Forest "Deep Forest"), and Guilain Joncheray is to treat Breton music in the same way that Deep Forest treated African music, with traditional lyrics and electronic accompaniments. [Michel Sanchez](/wiki/Michel_Sanchez_%28musician%29 "Michel Sanchez (musician)"), the other member of Deep Forest, also worked on the album, recorded and mixed by Erwin Autrique. Breton singers Arnaud Maisonneuve and Manu Lann Huel also appear on the album, as well as [Tri Yann](/wiki/Tri_Yann "Tri Yann"). It is Prigent's first experience combining Breton lyrics and electronic music. [right\|thumb\|upright\|[Quimper Cathedral](/wiki/Quimper_Cathedral "Quimper Cathedral"), one of the stops of [Tro Breizh](/wiki/Tro_Breizh "Tro Breizh").](/wiki/File:Quimper-Cath.Saint-Corentin.jpg "Quimper-Cath.Saint-Corentin.jpg") Prigent released his second album, *Me 'zalc'h ennon ur fulenn aour* (I keep in myself a golden spark), in 1997\. He wrote all the lyrics except for the traditional song *[Ar rannoù](/wiki/Ar_ranno%C3%B9 "Ar rannoù")* that appears in the Barzaz Breiz, and most of the musics, using both traditional instruments and electronic sounds. The subjects of the lyrics are the classical topics of gwerz : injustice, disease, death. *E trouz ar gêr*, about the artificial aspects of living in a city, and *An hentoù adkavet*, about the revival of the [Tro Breizh](/wiki/Tro_Breizh "Tro Breizh"), are his first songs devoted to Brittany, its culture and its relation to [nature](/wiki/Nature "Nature"). To select electronic [samples](/wiki/Sampling_%28music%29 "Sampling (music)"), Prigent contacted [Arnaud Rebotini](/wiki/Arnaud_Rebotini "Arnaud Rebotini"), who granted him access to his collection of discs. Prigent mostly chose [jungle](/wiki/Oldschool_jungle "Oldschool jungle") sounds, finding that their rhythm, at around 160–170 bpm, was well adapted to Breton singing. In most cases, Prigent's voice was recorded first and electronic sounds were added afterwards. This combination of ancient singing and modern music is illustrated by *Ar rannoù*, one of the oldest known Breton texts, for which Prigent recomposed the traditional tune using electronic sounds. He compared this treatment of singing and music to that of [Alan Stivell](/wiki/Alan_Stivell "Alan Stivell"):{{cite web \|url\=http://www.liberation.fr/culture/0101236164\-un\-breton\-dans\-la\-jungle\-denez\-prigent\-mele\-biniou\-et\-breakbeat\-un\-album\-etonnant\-denez\-prigent\-album\-me\-zalc\-h\-ennon\-ur\-fulenn\-aour\-rosebud\-barclay \|title\=Un breton dans la jungle. Denez Prigent mêle biniou et breakbeat: un album étonnant. Denez Prigent, Album: "Me'Zalc'h Ennon Ur Fulenn Aour", Rosebud/Barclay \|author\=Alexis Bernier \|accessdate\=17 January 2010\|language\=fr}} {{blockquote\|Folklore is death. Thanks to musicians like Alan Stivell, who quickly understood that academising Breton music would shortly condemn it, it is now completely anchored in daily life. Attending any fest\-noz suffices to understand that we are not maintaining a dying fire. With this disc, I felt like showing a Breton's vision of the world today.{{lang\|fr\|Le folklore c'est la mort. Grâce à des musiciens comme Alan Stivell, qui ont vite compris qu'académiser la musique bretonne c'était la condamner à court terme, elle est maintenant totalement ancrée dans le quotidien. Il suffit d'aller dans le moindre fest\-noz pour comprendre qu'on n'est pas en train d'entretenir un feu qui s'éteint. Avec ce disque j'avais envie de montrer la vision du monde que peut avoir un Breton aujourd'hui.}}}} Although the extreme difference between his a cappella songs and his new tracks using electronic samples received mixed reviews, Prigent considered that he remained faithful to the arrhythmic, [unmeasured](/wiki/Bar_%28music%29 "Bar (music)") aspect of Breton music. Particularly in gwerz, the singer must ensure that the intensity of the event being recounted comes first, and for this purpose, not sing in rhythm, but rather make pauses when appropriate. According to Prigent, a measured gwerz loses the identity of Breton singing, while an electronic accompaniment faithful to the arrhythmic song is perfectly natural. Similarly, he attaches a great importance to the traditional pronunciation of Breton, including the *dibril*, an [alveolar trill](/wiki/Alveolar_trill "Alveolar trill") used in sung Breton only. It is also essential for him to remain faithful to the writing rules of gwerz, with very long lyrics of which only a part is recorded, and its eternal topics that prevent this genre dating back to the 5th century from going out of fashion. Fidelity to tradition is absolutely not a way of imprisoning himself in his own culture; on the contrary, for Prigent, developing the Breton culture by adapting it to modern technology is a way of opening up to other cultures.{{cite web \|url\=http://real.antourtan.org:8080/ramgen/ete2001/charrues/int\-prigent.rm \|title\=Interview with Denez Prigent by Anna Louarn during the festival des Vieilles Charrues (2001\) \|publisher\=An Tour Tan \|accessdate\=10 February 2010\|language\=br}} With this album, Prigent also affirms his writing style. His verses are mostly [octosyllables](/wiki/Octosyllable "Octosyllable") with, generally, a median [caesura](/wiki/Caesura "Caesura"). This type of verse is very frequent in Breton, since short words are common, and thus long verses unneeded. He only writes in Breton, a language that, according to Prigent, kept its sacred aspect, contrarily to French. As a consequence, some lyrics remain untranslatable, even for their bilingual author. In 1998, he took part in Alan Simon's *Excalibur, la légende des Celtes*, with [Roger Hodgson](/wiki/Roger_Hodgson "Roger Hodgson") (the singer of [Supertramp](/wiki/Supertramp "Supertramp")), [Angelo Branduardi](/wiki/Angelo_Branduardi "Angelo Branduardi") and [Didier Lockwood](/wiki/Didier_Lockwood "Didier Lockwood"). ### *Irvi* (2000–2002\) [right\|thumb\|A path to a tidal island at low tide.](/wiki/File:France_-_Passage_du_Gois_%2B_Pont_de_Noirmoutier.jpg "France - Passage du Gois + Pont de Noirmoutier.jpg") In 2000, Denez Prigent released his third album, *Irvi*. This title is the plural of the word *{{lang\|br\|erv}}*, i.e. a *foam path*, meaning a path, only usable at low tide, that links a [tidal island](/wiki/Tidal_island "Tidal island") to the [continent](/wiki/Continent "Continent") or to another island. The song *Hent\-eon* (foam path) describes the wish of a man from [Lesconil](/wiki/Plobannalec-Lesconil "Plobannalec-Lesconil") to be buried in such a path so that he will be watched over by nature. This idea of a link between two worlds, between life and death, also appears in *Daouzek huñvre*, where seven lost spirits clothed in flesh walk in line on a foam path. Like in *Me 'zalc'h ennon ur fulenn aour*, Denez Prigent wrote all the lyrics, except those of the traditional song *E ti Eliz Iza*, on the bonus CD, and most of the musics, again using both traditional instruments and electronic sounds. The latter are more discreet than on the previous album; *Irvi* thus sounds less *jungle* and more [new age](/wiki/New_age "New age").{{cite web \|url\=http://rythmes\-croises.org/ethnotempos/chroniques/denez\_prigent.htm \|publisher\=Ethnotempos \|author1\=Sylvie Hamon \|author2\=Stéphane Fougère \|author3\=Didier Le Goff \|title\=Denez Prigent \|accessdate\=20 December 2009 \|language\=fr \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091218081647/http://rythmes\-croises.org/ethnotempos/chroniques/denez\_prigent.htm \|archivedate\=18 December 2009}} The main invited musicians are the jazzman [Louis Sclavis](/wiki/Louis_Sclavis "Louis Sclavis"), the viellist [Valentin Clastrier](/wiki/Valentin_Clastrier "Valentin Clastrier"), and the [uilleann piper](/wiki/Uilleann_pipes "Uilleann pipes") [Davy Spillane](/wiki/Davy_Spillane "Davy Spillane"). For the first time, French lyrics appear on one of Prigent's albums. They are told by [Bertrand Cantat](/wiki/Bertrand_Cantat "Bertrand Cantat") on *Daouzek huñvre*, whose structure is reminiscent of the twelve series of *Ar rannoù*. The other voice that can be heard on this album is that of [Lisa Gerrard](/wiki/Lisa_Gerrard "Lisa Gerrard"), the singer of [Dead Can Dance](/wiki/Dead_Can_Dance "Dead Can Dance"), on *Gortoz a ran* (I await). This song, the first one in the album, is part of the soundtrack of *[Black Hawk Down](/wiki/Black_Hawk_Down_%28film%29 "Black Hawk Down (film)")*, a film directed by [Ridley Scott](/wiki/Ridley_Scott "Ridley Scott").{{IMDb name\|id\=1948045}} *Gortoz a ran* has garnered recent attention (2016\) after being featured in the [American](/wiki/United_States "United States") [adult](/wiki/Adult "Adult") [animated sitcom](/wiki/Animated_sitcom "Animated sitcom") [South Park](/wiki/South_Park "South Park") during the second episode of season 20: 'Skank Hunt.' Another guest, the [Bagad Kemper](/wiki/Bagad_Kemper "Bagad Kemper"), performs with Denez Prigent on *E trouz ar gêr* and *Ar sonerien du*, a gwerz about the legend of the dark [sonneurs](/wiki/Sonneur "Sonneur"), a couple of sonneurs ([biniou](/wiki/Biniou "Biniou") and [bombard](/wiki/Bombard_%28music%29 "Bombard (music)")) which the [gendarmes](/wiki/Gendarmerie "Gendarmerie") arrested, mistaking them for thieves for whom they were looking. Both were hanged and buried in [Pont\-l'Abbé](/wiki/Pont-l%27Abb%C3%A9 "Pont-l'Abbé") before their innocence was established. Their graves are, to this day, a location of pilgrimage.{{cite book \|language\=French \|last \= Collectif \|title \= La musique bretonne: Histoire des sonneurs de tradition \|publisher\=Le Chasse\-Marée \|location \= Douarnenez \|date \= 3 March 2003 \|isbn \= 978\-2\-903708\-67\-2}} In Denez Prigent's version of the legend, the gendarmes kill and hang the musicians in order not to admit to having let the real thieves escape, also insisting on the reputation of debauchery which the conformists gave, at the time, to festive music. This album was nominated for the [Victoires de la Musique](/wiki/Victoires_de_la_Musique "Victoires de la Musique") in 2001\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.mondomix.com/archives/mix\_fr/news/index.htm \|title\=Newsletter 023 – janvier 2001 \|publisher\=Mondomix \|accessdate\=29 December 2009 \|language\=fr \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090730202809/http://www.mondomix.com/archives/mix\_fr/news/index.htm \|archivedate\=30 July 2009}} After a series of concerts, Prigent recorded a live album, *Live Holl a\-gevret !*, during the Festival interceltique de Lorient in August 2001, guest\-starring the bagad Roñsed\-Mor of [Locoal\-Mendon](/wiki/Locoal-Mendon "Locoal-Mendon"). ### *Sarac'h* (2003\) [left\|thumb\|The urban setting of Rennes, which Denez Prigent sought to leave.](/wiki/File:Rennes_place_de_la_R%C3%A9publique_DSC_4521.JPG "Rennes place de la République DSC 4521.JPG") The next album, *Sarac'h* (rustle), was released in 2003\. Lisa Gerrard is again invited, as is Yanka Rupkina, the soloist of the [Bulgarian State Television Female Vocal Choir](/wiki/Bulgarian_State_Television_Female_Vocal_Choir "Bulgarian State Television Female Vocal Choir"), [Karen Matheson](/wiki/Karen_Matheson "Karen Matheson") of [Capercaillie](/wiki/Capercaillie_%28band%29 "Capercaillie (band)"), and the [Sami](/wiki/Sami_people "Sami people") singer [Mari Boine](/wiki/Mari_Boine "Mari Boine"). Also appearing are the [Dónal Lunny](/wiki/D%C3%B3nal_Lunny "Dónal Lunny") on the [bouzouki](/wiki/Bouzouki "Bouzouki"), Nabil Khalidi on the [oud](/wiki/Oud "Oud"), and Farhad Bouallagi on the violin. Although this album uses electronic sounds, the music is mostly performed on traditional instruments. The album begins with two traditional songs : *An hini a garan*, with Lisa Gerrard, and *E garnison !*, with [Louise Ebrel](/wiki/Louise_Ebrel "Louise Ebrel"), who had already toured with Prigent. Two previously unreleased songs written in the beginning of Prigent's career are part of the album, *Son Alma Ata* and *Ar gwez\-sapin*. [right\|thumb\|The [costarmorican](/wiki/C%C3%B4tes_d%27Armor "Côtes d'Armor") nature to which Denez Prigent returned.](/wiki/File:VueDeLannionEtBrelevenez.jpg "VueDeLannionEtBrelevenez.jpg") Contrarily to the previous albums, *Sarac'h* contains very personal lyrics, in which the author writes about himself. *N'eus forzh…* is about the importance of singing, thanks to which Prigent never loses hope ("{{lang\|br\|leskiñ a ra va zan atav}}" : my fire always burns). He also resumes a verse already used in E trouz ar gêr sums up his way of life: "n'eus ket un deiz na ganfen ket" (there is not a single day during which I would not sing). In *Dispi*, he expresses his very pessimistic point of view on the Breton language, an essential topic for Prigent, who only sings in Breton and taught this language. He describes his despair about this situation, writing that those who dreamt of a return to harmony between generations linked by the Breton language and culture were crazy. The eponymous song alone sums up Prigent's main convictions. It relates his own return to nature, when, used to the never\-ending noise of the cars on the highway next to which he lived in Rennes, he decided to buy a house in [Lanvellec](/wiki/Lanvellec "Lanvellec") ([Côtes d'Armor](/wiki/C%C3%B4tes_d%27Armor "Côtes d'Armor")).{{cite web \|url\=http://www.m\-la\-music.net/spip.php?article1280 \|title\=Denez Prigent \|publisher\=M\-la\-music \|author\=Stéphane Guihéneuf \|accessdate\=20 December 2009 \|language\=fr \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100730203646/http://www.m\-la\-music.net/spip.php?article1280 \|archivedate\=30 July 2010}} He then rediscovered the silence of nature, with the rustle of the wind in the trees in the background. He drew from that the impression, from which he writes the song, that modernisation cuts people from nature and encourages them to stay alone behind their screens. [thumb\|upright\|Denez Prigent in 2005\.](/wiki/File:Denez_Prigent_2005.jpeg "Denez Prigent 2005.jpeg") *Sarac'h* received the best album award of the Breton newspaper, *Le Télégramme de Brest*. [Gilles Servat](/wiki/Gilles_Servat "Gilles Servat"), who gave him the award, expressed his admiration for Denez Prigent, who he described as "an artist emblematic of the renewal in Breton expression and in the search for new musicalities". Since then, Prigent sang on such stages as the big stage of the [Vieilles Charrues Festival](/wiki/Vieilles_Charrues_Festival "Vieilles Charrues Festival"), [Rencontres Trans Musicales](/wiki/Rencontres_Trans_Musicales "Rencontres Trans Musicales") in [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing "Beijing"),{{Cite web\|language\=fr\|title\=Pékin sous le régime des Trans: Le public se lève pour la gwerz.\|url\=http://www.rfimusique.com/musiquefr/articles/066/article\_15523\.asp\|website\=rfimusique.com\|date\=20 June 2005\|access\-date\=6 December 2016}} the [Paléo Festival](/wiki/Pal%C3%A9o_Festival "Paléo Festival") [Nyon](/wiki/Nyon "Nyon") ([Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland")), the Rozrywki Theater in [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland"), the Stimmen Festival (Germany), the antique Roman Theater in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna") and the theater of [Tenerife](/wiki/Tenerife "Tenerife") ([Canary Islands](/wiki/Canary_Islands "Canary Islands")). In [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris"), he performed at the [Stade de France](/wiki/Stade_de_France "Stade de France") for [Saint Patrick's Day](/wiki/Saint_Patrick%27s_Day "Saint Patrick's Day"), in [Bercy Arena](/wiki/AccorHotels_Arena "AccorHotels Arena"), the [Bataclan](/wiki/Bataclan_%28theatre%29 "Bataclan (theatre)"), the [Casino de Paris](/wiki/Casino_de_Paris "Casino de Paris") and the [Théâtre de la Ville](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_de_la_Ville "Théâtre de la Ville") with guest singers [Mari Boine](/wiki/Mari_Boine "Mari Boine") and [Karen Matheson](/wiki/Karen_Matheson "Karen Matheson") as well as [Donald Shaw](/wiki/Donald_Shaw_%28musician%29 "Donald Shaw (musician)"). ### *An enchanting garden* (2012–present) In summer 2010, he announced to write for a next album.Jambon Frédéric, ["Denez Prigent. L’axe reste le chant"](http://www.letelegramme.com/ig/dossiers/cornouaille_quimper_2010/denez-prigent-l-axe-reste-le-chant-videos-15-07-2010-990035.php), *Le Télégramme*, 15 July 2010 A Best\-of album is published in 2011 ([Barclay Records](/wiki/Barclay_Records "Barclay Records")). In July, 2011, the Het Lindeboom festival gives to him a blank in front of an audience of 25,000: it has the occasion for him to invite the Hungarian singer [Szilvia Bognar](/wiki/Szilvia_Bognar "Szilvia Bognar"), one of the great voices of the Eastern countries, as well as the famous Welsh choir Flint Male Voice Choir.{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.dailypost.co.uk/news/local\-news/flint\-male\-voice\-choir\-perform\-2684239\|title\=Flint Male Voice Choir perform at French festival\|last\=Post\|first\=North Wales Daily\|date\=2011\-09\-07\|newspaper\=northwales\|access\-date\=2016\-12\-05}} In 2012, he presented a new show, *Beajet 'm eus* (" I travelled "). On 7 April 2015, Denez published a new studio album, "An enchanting garden \- Ul liorzh vurzhudus". This album, comprising 12 original songs written by the singer, including one in English, is the result of several years of writing (a hundred gwerzioù of 80 verses), trips and experiments on stage.{{Cite news\|language\=fr\|first\=Jean\-Laurent\|last\=Bras\|title\=Denez Prigent, le plus grand chanteur breton est de retour\|work\=Ouest\-France\|date\=7 April 2015\|url\=http://www.ouest\-france.fr/musique\-denez\-prigent\-le\-plus\-grand\-chanteur\-breton\-est\-de\-retour\-3314054}} The Breton and Celtic themes, unstructured, are interwoven with [Slavonic](/wiki/List_of_Slavic_cultures "List of Slavic cultures") and [Armenian](/wiki/Armenian_language "Armenian language") ("An tri seblant"), [Greek](/wiki/Greek_musical_instruments "Greek musical instruments") ("Krediñ 'raen"), [Andalusian](/wiki/Andalusian_classical_music "Andalusian classical music") ("Ar binioù skornet"), [Bossa nova](/wiki/Bossa_nova "Bossa nova") ("An tri amourouz"), [Gypsy](/wiki/Gypsy_%28musical%29 "Gypsy (musical)") or [Yiddish](/wiki/Yiddish "Yiddish") ("Beajet'm eus"), [African](/wiki/Music_of_Africa "Music of Africa") ("An trucher hag an Ankoù") for an entirely acoustic music. In songs in Breton, the artist invites to discover the corners of his inner garden and the plurality of his influences.{{Cite web\|title\=An Enchanting garden Ul liorzh vurzhudus\|url\=http://www.telerama.fr/musiques/an\-enchanting\-garden\-ul\-liorzh\-vurzhudus,125294\.php\|website\=www.telerama.fr\|accessdate\=2015\-07\-02\|first\=Anne\|last\=Berthod\|date\=13 April 2015}} Denez's vocal, "enigmatic and inspiring" (accompanied by the [hang](/wiki/Hang_%28instrument%29 "Hang (instrument)") on "Before dawn"), is like a link between the real and the invisible, supported by the writing of timeless stories, sometimes tragic, satirical or burlesque, such as "Peñse Nedeleg", a [Fisel dance](/wiki/Breton_dance "Breton dance") describing the shipwreck of a freighter that makes the happiness of the inhabitants for ChristmasJean\-Claude Demari, ["Denez Prigent : le chant des terres"](http://www.rfimusique.com/actu-musique/musiques-monde/album/20150416-denez-prigent-enchanting-garden), RFI, 16 April 2015 or "An tri amourouz" whose [black humor](/wiki/Black_comedy "Black comedy") recalls that of [Tim Burton](/wiki/Tim_Burton "Tim Burton"). "An Old Story", in English, couples with "Gwechall gozh", in breton, two [complaints](/wiki/Complaint "Complaint") sharing the same story: an innocent woman burnt like witch for having too many companions. [thumb\|Denez and his musicians on biggest stage of [Vieilles Charrues Festival](/wiki/Vieilles_Charrues_Festival "Vieilles Charrues Festival") in 2016\.](/wiki/File:Festival_des_Vieilles_Charrues_2016_-_Denez_Prigent_-_032.jpg "Festival des Vieilles Charrues 2016 - Denez Prigent - 032.jpg") In November 2015, beatmaker [James Digger](/wiki/James_Digger "James Digger") remixed 4 tracks for an EP.{{Cite news\|language\=fr\|first\=François\|last\=Delétraz\|title\=Le roi de la musique bretonne Denez Prigent, quel barde !\|work\=\[\[Le Figaro]]\|date\=21 January 2016\|url\=http://www.lefigaro.fr/musique/2016/01/21/03006\-20160121ARTFIG00321\-le\-roi\-de\-la\-musique\-bretonne\-denez\-prigent\-quel\-barde.php\|accessdate\=27 January 2016}}. It appealed to rapper [Masta Ace](/wiki/Masta_Ace "Masta Ace"), emblematic figure of Hip Hop, one of the references of [Eminem](/wiki/Eminem "Eminem"). In exchange, Denez participated in May 2016 to his album "[The Falling Season](/wiki/The_Falling_Season "The Falling Season")", under "Story of Me".{{Cite web\|language\=fr\-FR\|title\=Masta Ace prépare la sortie de son nouvel album\|url\=http://thebackpackerz.com/masta\-ace\-prepare\-la\-sortie\-de\-son\-nouvel\-album/\|website\=The BackPackerz\|date\=15 April 2016\|accessdate\=2016\-05\-09}} His song "Gortoz a Ran" is used for two minutes in the episode "[Skank Hunt](/wiki/Skank_Hunt "Skank Hunt")" of the animated series *[South Park](/wiki/South_Park "South Park")* which first aired on [Comedy Central](/wiki/Comedy_Central "Comedy Central") in the United States on 21 September 2016\.{{Citation\|title\=Skank Hunt: Soundtracks\|date\=2016\|url\=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt5218394/soundtrack\|accessdate\=2016\-12\-06}} In November 2016, the live album "A\-unvan gant ar stered \- In unison with the stars" released, recorded during the tour 2015\-2016\. On 19 November, after 20 years of absence on [fest noz](/wiki/Fest_noz "Fest noz") stages, the singer animated the Yaouank Festival in Rennes.
[ "Biography\n---------", "### Childhood and early career", "During his childhood, Prigent lived with his father in [Le Relecq\\-Kerhuon](/wiki/Le_Relecq-Kerhuon \"Le Relecq-Kerhuon\") and spent his weekends at his grandmother's, in [Santec](/wiki/Santec \"Santec\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://prixdudisque.blogs.letelegramme.com/archive/2004/02/11/denez\\-prigent\\-sarac\\-h.html \\|title\\=Denez Prigent. \"Sarac'h\" : Grand Prix du Disque du Télégramme \\|publisher\\=Le Télégramme \\|author\\=Frédéric Jambon \\|accessdate\\=5 December 2009 \\|language\\=fr \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527104736/http://prixdudisque.blogs.letelegramme.com/archive/2004/02/11/denez\\-prigent\\-sarac\\-h.html \\|archivedate\\=27 May 2010}}\nHis father, a primary teacher, raised him speaking French, although he spoke [Breton](/wiki/Breton_language \"Breton language\") fluently, because he did not see the point in teaching Breton to his son.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://transmediadoc.free.fr/prigent.html \\|title\\=Denez Prigent: Le Barde et la Jungle \\|author\\=Jacme Gaudàs \\|accessdate\\=20 December 2009\\|language\\=fr}} Denez thus discovered the Breton language at his grandmother's, along with its natural harmony and the tendency of Breton speakers of that time to sing written or improvised songs.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.vieillescharrues.asso.fr/festival/artistes/detail.php?artisteid\\=13 \\|publisher\\=Festival des Vieilles Charrues \\|title\\=Denez Prigent \\|accessdate\\=20 December 2009 \\|language\\=fr \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204152914/http://www.vieillescharrues.asso.fr/festival/artistes/detail.php?artisteid\\=13 \\|archivedate\\=4 December 2008 }}\nWhile in secondary in [Brest](/wiki/Brest%2C_France \"Brest, France\") he preferred listening to Breton songs on his portable audio player than concentrating on his studies.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.greatsong.net/BIOGRAPHIE\\-DENEZ\\-PRIGENT,999910118\\.html \\|publisher\\=Greatsong \\|title\\=Biographie de Denez Prigent \\|accessdate\\=20 December 2009\\|language\\=fr}}", "At age 14, Prigent was taught [kan ha diskan](/wiki/Kan_ha_diskan \"Kan ha diskan\") by Alain Leclère,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.mondomix.com/denez\\-prigent/fr/biographie.htm \\|title\\=Denez Prigent \\|accessdate\\=18 December 2009 \\|publisher\\=Mondomix \\|author\\=Benjamin MiNiMuM \\|language\\=fr \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091220211111/http://www.mondomix.com/denez\\-prigent/fr/biographie.htm \\|archivedate\\=20 December 2009}} himself a former student of Manuel Kerjean,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.rythmes\\-croises.org/ethnotempos/articles.item.11/melanz\\-nasyon\\-dizan\\-maloya.html \\|title\\=Denez Prigent – sur les chemins des lueurs d'espoir \\|publisher\\=Ethnotempos \\|author\\=Stéphane Fougère \\|accessdate\\=20 December 2009 \\|language\\=fr \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717142524/http://www.rythmes\\-croises.org/ethnotempos/articles.item.11/melanz\\-nasyon\\-dizan\\-maloya.html \\|archivedate\\=17 July 2011}} whose other students include [Erik Marchand](/wiki/Erik_Marchand \"Erik Marchand\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.chantdumonde.com/fr/label/fiche\\_artiste.php?artist\\_id\\=62 \\|title\\=Erik Marchand et les Balkaniks \\|author\\=Jérémie Pierre JOUAN \\|accessdate\\=2 January 2010 \\|language\\=fr \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081212113333/http://chantdumonde.com/fr/label/fiche\\_artiste.php?artist\\_id\\=62 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 December 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\nTwo years later, in 1982, he sang with Alain Leclère in [festoù\\-noz](/wiki/Fest-noz \"Fest-noz\"). In the [Kan ar Bobl](/wiki/Kan_ar_Bobl \"Kan ar Bobl\"), he won the first prize in kan ha diskan in 1987, the first prize in new singing in 1988 and the first prize in traditional singing in 1990\\.", "In 1988, driven by his passion for the Breton language, he became a Breton teacher in [Carhaix](/wiki/Carhaix-Plouguer \"Carhaix-Plouguer\"), during which he was regularly invited in traditional music festivals{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.universalmusic.fr/artiste/denez\\-\\-prigent/ \\|publisher\\=Universal Music \\|title\\=Denez Prigent – sa biographie \\|accessdate\\=20 December 2009 \\|language\\=fr \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091219113544/http://www.universalmusic.fr/artiste/denez\\-\\-prigent/ \\|archivedate\\=19 December 2009}} such as the *{{lang\\|fr\\|Tombées de la nuit}}* (Nightfalls) and the [Festival Interceltique de Lorient](/wiki/Festival_Interceltique_de_Lorient \"Festival Interceltique de Lorient\").\nIn 1991, the city of [Rennes](/wiki/Rennes \"Rennes\") invited him to participate in the \"[Voice of Asia](/wiki/Voice_of_Asia \"Voice of Asia\")\" festival due to take place in its newly twinned city of [Alma Ata, Kazakhstan](/wiki/Almaty \"Almaty\"). Surprised by this invitation, Prigent wrote a satirical song, \"Son Alma Ata\" (later included on *Sarac'h*) about the incongruity for a Breton singer to be sent to perform in [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan \"Kazakhstan\"). This first concert abroad gave him an opportunity to discover the Kazakh people, then integrated into the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\"), and compare its situation to that of the Breton people, integrated into France.\n{{in lang\\|br}} [Interview with Denez Prigent](http://www.antourtan.org/radio-2001-2004/culture/151203.html) in the radio program *An divskouarn o nijal*, aired on Arvorig FM and Radio Kerne, published online by An Tour Tan in December 2003\\.\nIn 1991, Prigent resigned from his teaching position in order to pursue his artistic career.\nWhile collecting the lyrics of traditional songs, he met Eugénie Ebrel born Goadec, one of the three [Goadec Sisters](/wiki/Goadec_Sisters \"Goadec Sisters\") who revived Breton a cappella singing in the 1960s. She provided him with the lyrics of \"Ti Eliz Iza\", and her daughter, [Annie Ebrel](/wiki/Annie_Ebrel \"Annie Ebrel\"), decided to join him on stage.", "In 1992, Prigent sang a cappella during the [Transmusicales](/wiki/Transmusicales \"Transmusicales\"), in front of an audience unused to this style. He subsequently left the band Daouarn with which he had sung in festoù\\-noz. He performed in the [Montreux Jazz Festival](/wiki/Montreux_Jazz_Festival \"Montreux Jazz Festival\"), the [Francofolies](/wiki/Les_Francofolies_de_La_Rochelle \"Les Francofolies de La Rochelle\"), the [Midem](/wiki/Midem \"Midem\"), the [Printemps de Bourges](/wiki/Printemps_de_Bourges \"Printemps de Bourges\"), the Coup de Cœur francophone in [Quebec](/wiki/Quebec \"Quebec\"), the Mitte Europa festival, the *Celtic Connection* festival in [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\"), [Expo '98](/wiki/Expo_%2798 \"Expo '98\") in [Lisbonne](/wiki/Lisbonne \"Lisbonne\"), and the Eisteddfod festival in [Wales](/wiki/Wales \"Wales\").", "### *Ar gouriz koar* (1993\\)", "[right\\|thumb\\|[Kan ha diskan](/wiki/Kan_ha_diskan \"Kan ha diskan\") singers in [fest\\-noz](/wiki/Fest-noz \"Fest-noz\") in [Rennes](/wiki/Rennes \"Rennes\") (Yaouank Festival 2015\\).](/wiki/File:Annie_Ebrel_%26_Nol%C3%B9en_Le_Buh%C3%A9_-_Festival_Yaouank_2015_-_02.jpg \"Annie Ebrel & Nolùen Le Buhé - Festival Yaouank 2015 - 02.jpg\")\nIn 1993, Prigent released his first album *Ar gouriz koar* (translated *The Wax Belt*) on Auvidis/Silex. Although the album was, at first, intended for promoting Prigent's songs to festival organizers rather than for being sold to the general audience, its sales approached {{formatnum:50000}} copies. Most of the songs are traditional [Breton folk](/wiki/Music_of_Brittany \"Music of Brittany\") songs sung [a cappella](/wiki/A_cappella \"A cappella\"). However, former Storlok members Denez Abernot and Bernez Tangi wrote \"Plac'h Landelo\" and \"Gwerz ar vezhinerien\", respectively, while Prigent himself wrote \"Gwerz an aksidan\". Like all of his subsequent recordings, *Ar gouriz koar* is sung in the [kan ha diskan](/wiki/Kan_ha_diskan \"Kan ha diskan\") and [gwerz](/wiki/Gwerz \"Gwerz\") styles.", "When Prigent failed to receive compensation from Auvidis/Silex for sales of the album, he sued the label and signed with [Barclay Records](/wiki/Barclay_Records \"Barclay Records\") for his subsequent releases. Further sales of *Ar gouriz koar* were blocked but Auvidis kept the original records, and in 1996 Prigent released a new recording of *Ar gouriz koar* with Barclay. For this and all subsequent recordings, Prigent uses the Peurunvan unified [Breton orthography](/wiki/Breton_language%23Orthography \"Breton language#Orthography\").", "### Introduction to electronic music and *Me 'zalcʼh ennon ur fulenn aour* (1993–1999\\)", "[right\\|thumb\\|Denez on stage during [Festival de Cornouaille](/wiki/Festival_de_Cornouaille \"Festival de Cornouaille\") in Quimper.](/wiki/File:Photo_-_Festival_de_Cornouaille_2014_-_Denez_Prigent_en_concert_le_24_juillet_-_012.jpg \"Photo - Festival de Cornouaille 2014 - Denez Prigent en concert le 24 juillet - 012.jpg\")", "At his wife's request, Prigent attended the first [rave party](/wiki/Rave_party \"Rave party\") held in Rennes, in 1993, in spite of his negative prejudice. There, he discovered a music that, like Breton music, is primarily meant to support dancing. Noticing that [electronic music](/wiki/Electronic_music \"Electronic music\") and Breton music are based on similar rhythms and notes closed to one another, he contemplated using it to accompany his songs.", "In 1995, Prigent appeared in *Dao Dezi*.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://2007\\.festival\\-cornouaille.com/presse/01/dp\\-fc\\-2007\\.pdf \\|title\\=Biographie de Denez Prigent (Page 10 – Le projet Dao Dezi) \\|accessdate\\=2010\\-03\\-20 \\|language\\=fr \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710235016/http://2007\\.festival\\-cornouaille.com/presse/01/dp\\-fc\\-2007\\.pdf \\|archivedate\\=10 July 2011}}\nThe goal of this project of [Éric Mouquet](/wiki/%C3%89ric_Mouquet \"Éric Mouquet\"), a member of [Deep Forest](/wiki/Deep_Forest \"Deep Forest\"), and Guilain Joncheray is to treat Breton music in the same way that Deep Forest treated African music, with traditional lyrics and electronic accompaniments. [Michel Sanchez](/wiki/Michel_Sanchez_%28musician%29 \"Michel Sanchez (musician)\"), the other member of Deep Forest, also worked on the album, recorded and mixed by Erwin Autrique. Breton singers Arnaud Maisonneuve and Manu Lann Huel also appear on the album, as well as [Tri Yann](/wiki/Tri_Yann \"Tri Yann\"). It is Prigent's first experience combining Breton lyrics and electronic music.", "[right\\|thumb\\|upright\\|[Quimper Cathedral](/wiki/Quimper_Cathedral \"Quimper Cathedral\"), one of the stops of [Tro Breizh](/wiki/Tro_Breizh \"Tro Breizh\").](/wiki/File:Quimper-Cath.Saint-Corentin.jpg \"Quimper-Cath.Saint-Corentin.jpg\")", "Prigent released his second album, *Me 'zalc'h ennon ur fulenn aour* (I keep in myself a golden spark), in 1997\\. He wrote all the lyrics except for the traditional song *[Ar rannoù](/wiki/Ar_ranno%C3%B9 \"Ar rannoù\")* that appears in the Barzaz Breiz, and most of the musics, using both traditional instruments and electronic sounds. The subjects of the lyrics are the classical topics of gwerz : injustice, disease, death. *E trouz ar gêr*, about the artificial aspects of living in a city, and *An hentoù adkavet*, about the revival of the [Tro Breizh](/wiki/Tro_Breizh \"Tro Breizh\"), are his first songs devoted to Brittany, its culture and its relation to [nature](/wiki/Nature \"Nature\").", "To select electronic [samples](/wiki/Sampling_%28music%29 \"Sampling (music)\"), Prigent contacted [Arnaud Rebotini](/wiki/Arnaud_Rebotini \"Arnaud Rebotini\"), who granted him access to his collection of discs.\nPrigent mostly chose [jungle](/wiki/Oldschool_jungle \"Oldschool jungle\") sounds, finding that their rhythm, at around 160–170 bpm, was well adapted to Breton singing.\nIn most cases, Prigent's voice was recorded first and electronic sounds were added afterwards. This combination of ancient singing and modern music is illustrated by *Ar rannoù*, one of the oldest known Breton texts, for which Prigent recomposed the traditional tune using electronic sounds. He compared this treatment of singing and music to that of [Alan Stivell](/wiki/Alan_Stivell \"Alan Stivell\"):{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.liberation.fr/culture/0101236164\\-un\\-breton\\-dans\\-la\\-jungle\\-denez\\-prigent\\-mele\\-biniou\\-et\\-breakbeat\\-un\\-album\\-etonnant\\-denez\\-prigent\\-album\\-me\\-zalc\\-h\\-ennon\\-ur\\-fulenn\\-aour\\-rosebud\\-barclay \\|title\\=Un breton dans la jungle. Denez Prigent mêle biniou et breakbeat: un album étonnant. Denez Prigent, Album: \"Me'Zalc'h Ennon Ur Fulenn Aour\", Rosebud/Barclay \\|author\\=Alexis Bernier \\|accessdate\\=17 January 2010\\|language\\=fr}}\n{{blockquote\\|Folklore is death. Thanks to musicians like Alan Stivell, who quickly understood that academising Breton music would shortly condemn it, it is now completely anchored in daily life. Attending any fest\\-noz suffices to understand that we are not maintaining a dying fire. With this disc, I felt like showing a Breton's vision of the world today.{{lang\\|fr\\|Le folklore c'est la mort. Grâce à des musiciens comme Alan Stivell, qui ont vite compris qu'académiser la musique bretonne c'était la condamner à court terme, elle est maintenant totalement ancrée dans le quotidien. Il suffit d'aller dans le moindre fest\\-noz pour comprendre qu'on n'est pas en train d'entretenir un feu qui s'éteint. Avec ce disque j'avais envie de montrer la vision du monde que peut avoir un Breton aujourd'hui.}}}}", "Although the extreme difference between his a cappella songs and his new tracks using electronic samples received mixed reviews, Prigent considered that he remained faithful to the arrhythmic, [unmeasured](/wiki/Bar_%28music%29 \"Bar (music)\") aspect of Breton music.\nParticularly in gwerz, the singer must ensure that the intensity of the event being recounted comes first, and for this purpose, not sing in rhythm, but rather make pauses when appropriate. According to Prigent, a measured gwerz loses the identity of Breton singing, while an electronic accompaniment faithful to the arrhythmic song is perfectly natural.\nSimilarly, he attaches a great importance to the traditional pronunciation of Breton, including the *dibril*, an [alveolar trill](/wiki/Alveolar_trill \"Alveolar trill\") used in sung Breton only.\nIt is also essential for him to remain faithful to the writing rules of gwerz, with very long lyrics of which only a part is recorded, and its eternal topics that prevent this genre dating back to the 5th century from going out of fashion.\nFidelity to tradition is absolutely not a way of imprisoning himself in his own culture; on the contrary, for Prigent, developing the Breton culture by adapting it to modern technology is a way of opening up to other cultures.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://real.antourtan.org:8080/ramgen/ete2001/charrues/int\\-prigent.rm \\|title\\=Interview with Denez Prigent by Anna Louarn during the festival des Vieilles Charrues (2001\\) \\|publisher\\=An Tour Tan \\|accessdate\\=10 February 2010\\|language\\=br}}", "With this album, Prigent also affirms his writing style. His verses are mostly [octosyllables](/wiki/Octosyllable \"Octosyllable\") with, generally, a median [caesura](/wiki/Caesura \"Caesura\"). This type of verse is very frequent in Breton, since short words are common, and thus long verses unneeded. He only writes in Breton, a language that, according to Prigent, kept its sacred aspect, contrarily to French. As a consequence, some lyrics remain untranslatable, even for their bilingual author.", "In 1998, he took part in Alan Simon's *Excalibur, la légende des Celtes*, with [Roger Hodgson](/wiki/Roger_Hodgson \"Roger Hodgson\") (the singer of [Supertramp](/wiki/Supertramp \"Supertramp\")), [Angelo Branduardi](/wiki/Angelo_Branduardi \"Angelo Branduardi\") and [Didier Lockwood](/wiki/Didier_Lockwood \"Didier Lockwood\").", "### *Irvi* (2000–2002\\)", "[right\\|thumb\\|A path to a tidal island at low tide.](/wiki/File:France_-_Passage_du_Gois_%2B_Pont_de_Noirmoutier.jpg \"France - Passage du Gois + Pont de Noirmoutier.jpg\")", "In 2000, Denez Prigent released his third album, *Irvi*. This title is the plural of the word *{{lang\\|br\\|erv}}*, i.e. a *foam path*, meaning a path, only usable at low tide, that links a [tidal island](/wiki/Tidal_island \"Tidal island\") to the [continent](/wiki/Continent \"Continent\") or to another island. The song *Hent\\-eon* (foam path) describes the wish of a man from [Lesconil](/wiki/Plobannalec-Lesconil \"Plobannalec-Lesconil\") to be buried in such a path so that he will be watched over by nature. This idea of a link between two worlds, between life and death, also appears in *Daouzek huñvre*, where seven lost spirits clothed in flesh walk in line on a foam path.", "Like in *Me 'zalc'h ennon ur fulenn aour*, Denez Prigent wrote all the lyrics, except those of the traditional song *E ti Eliz Iza*, on the bonus CD, and most of the musics, again using both traditional instruments and electronic sounds.\nThe latter are more discreet than on the previous album; *Irvi* thus sounds less *jungle* and more [new age](/wiki/New_age \"New age\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://rythmes\\-croises.org/ethnotempos/chroniques/denez\\_prigent.htm \\|publisher\\=Ethnotempos \\|author1\\=Sylvie Hamon \\|author2\\=Stéphane Fougère \\|author3\\=Didier Le Goff \\|title\\=Denez Prigent \\|accessdate\\=20 December 2009 \\|language\\=fr \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091218081647/http://rythmes\\-croises.org/ethnotempos/chroniques/denez\\_prigent.htm \\|archivedate\\=18 December 2009}} The main invited musicians are the jazzman [Louis Sclavis](/wiki/Louis_Sclavis \"Louis Sclavis\"), the viellist [Valentin Clastrier](/wiki/Valentin_Clastrier \"Valentin Clastrier\"), and the [uilleann piper](/wiki/Uilleann_pipes \"Uilleann pipes\") [Davy Spillane](/wiki/Davy_Spillane \"Davy Spillane\").", "For the first time, French lyrics appear on one of Prigent's albums. They are told by [Bertrand Cantat](/wiki/Bertrand_Cantat \"Bertrand Cantat\") on *Daouzek huñvre*, whose structure is reminiscent of the twelve series of *Ar rannoù*. The other voice that can be heard on this album is that of [Lisa Gerrard](/wiki/Lisa_Gerrard \"Lisa Gerrard\"), the singer of [Dead Can Dance](/wiki/Dead_Can_Dance \"Dead Can Dance\"), on *Gortoz a ran* (I await). This song, the first one in the album, is part of the soundtrack of *[Black Hawk Down](/wiki/Black_Hawk_Down_%28film%29 \"Black Hawk Down (film)\")*, a film directed by [Ridley Scott](/wiki/Ridley_Scott \"Ridley Scott\").{{IMDb name\\|id\\=1948045}} *Gortoz a ran* has garnered recent attention (2016\\) after being featured in the [American](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") [adult](/wiki/Adult \"Adult\") [animated sitcom](/wiki/Animated_sitcom \"Animated sitcom\") [South Park](/wiki/South_Park \"South Park\") during the second episode of season 20: 'Skank Hunt.'", "Another guest, the [Bagad Kemper](/wiki/Bagad_Kemper \"Bagad Kemper\"), performs with Denez Prigent on *E trouz ar gêr* and *Ar sonerien du*, a gwerz about the legend of the dark [sonneurs](/wiki/Sonneur \"Sonneur\"), a couple of sonneurs ([biniou](/wiki/Biniou \"Biniou\") and [bombard](/wiki/Bombard_%28music%29 \"Bombard (music)\")) which the [gendarmes](/wiki/Gendarmerie \"Gendarmerie\") arrested, mistaking them for thieves for whom they were looking.\nBoth were hanged and buried in [Pont\\-l'Abbé](/wiki/Pont-l%27Abb%C3%A9 \"Pont-l'Abbé\") before their innocence was established. Their graves are, to this day, a location of pilgrimage.{{cite book\n \\|language\\=French\n \\|last \\= Collectif\n \\|title \\= La musique bretonne: Histoire des sonneurs de tradition\n \\|publisher\\=Le Chasse\\-Marée\n \\|location \\= Douarnenez\n \\|date \\= 3 March 2003\n \\|isbn \\= 978\\-2\\-903708\\-67\\-2}}", "In Denez Prigent's version of the legend, the gendarmes kill and hang the musicians in order not to admit to having let the real thieves escape, also insisting on the reputation of debauchery which the conformists gave, at the time, to festive music.", "This album was nominated for the [Victoires de la Musique](/wiki/Victoires_de_la_Musique \"Victoires de la Musique\") in 2001\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.mondomix.com/archives/mix\\_fr/news/index.htm \\|title\\=Newsletter 023 – janvier 2001 \\|publisher\\=Mondomix \\|accessdate\\=29 December 2009 \\|language\\=fr \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090730202809/http://www.mondomix.com/archives/mix\\_fr/news/index.htm \\|archivedate\\=30 July 2009}}", "After a series of concerts, Prigent recorded a live album, *Live Holl a\\-gevret !*, during the Festival interceltique de Lorient in August 2001, guest\\-starring the bagad Roñsed\\-Mor of [Locoal\\-Mendon](/wiki/Locoal-Mendon \"Locoal-Mendon\").", "### *Sarac'h* (2003\\)", "[left\\|thumb\\|The urban setting of Rennes, which Denez Prigent sought to leave.](/wiki/File:Rennes_place_de_la_R%C3%A9publique_DSC_4521.JPG \"Rennes place de la République DSC 4521.JPG\")", "The next album, *Sarac'h* (rustle), was released in 2003\\. Lisa Gerrard is again invited, as is Yanka Rupkina, the soloist of the [Bulgarian State Television Female Vocal Choir](/wiki/Bulgarian_State_Television_Female_Vocal_Choir \"Bulgarian State Television Female Vocal Choir\"), [Karen Matheson](/wiki/Karen_Matheson \"Karen Matheson\") of [Capercaillie](/wiki/Capercaillie_%28band%29 \"Capercaillie (band)\"), and the [Sami](/wiki/Sami_people \"Sami people\") singer [Mari Boine](/wiki/Mari_Boine \"Mari Boine\"). Also appearing are the [Dónal Lunny](/wiki/D%C3%B3nal_Lunny \"Dónal Lunny\") on the [bouzouki](/wiki/Bouzouki \"Bouzouki\"), Nabil Khalidi on the [oud](/wiki/Oud \"Oud\"), and Farhad Bouallagi on the violin. Although this album uses electronic sounds, the music is mostly performed on traditional instruments.", "The album begins with two traditional songs : *An hini a garan*, with Lisa Gerrard, and *E garnison !*, with [Louise Ebrel](/wiki/Louise_Ebrel \"Louise Ebrel\"), who had already toured with Prigent.\nTwo previously unreleased songs written in the beginning of Prigent's career are part of the album, *Son Alma Ata* and *Ar gwez\\-sapin*.", "[right\\|thumb\\|The [costarmorican](/wiki/C%C3%B4tes_d%27Armor \"Côtes d'Armor\") nature to which Denez Prigent returned.](/wiki/File:VueDeLannionEtBrelevenez.jpg \"VueDeLannionEtBrelevenez.jpg\")", "Contrarily to the previous albums, *Sarac'h* contains very personal lyrics, in which the author writes about himself. *N'eus forzh…* is about the importance of singing, thanks to which Prigent never loses hope (\"{{lang\\|br\\|leskiñ a ra va zan atav}}\" : my fire always burns). He also resumes a verse already used in E trouz ar gêr sums up his way of life: \"n'eus ket un deiz na ganfen ket\" (there is not a single day during which I would not sing). In *Dispi*, he expresses his very pessimistic point of view on the Breton language, an essential topic for Prigent, who only sings in Breton and taught this language. He describes his despair about this situation, writing that those who dreamt of a return to harmony between generations linked by the Breton language and culture were crazy.", "The eponymous song alone sums up Prigent's main convictions. It relates his own return to nature, when, used to the never\\-ending noise of the cars on the highway next to which he lived in Rennes, he decided to buy a house in [Lanvellec](/wiki/Lanvellec \"Lanvellec\") ([Côtes d'Armor](/wiki/C%C3%B4tes_d%27Armor \"Côtes d'Armor\")).{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.m\\-la\\-music.net/spip.php?article1280 \\|title\\=Denez Prigent \\|publisher\\=M\\-la\\-music \\|author\\=Stéphane Guihéneuf \\|accessdate\\=20 December 2009 \\|language\\=fr \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100730203646/http://www.m\\-la\\-music.net/spip.php?article1280 \\|archivedate\\=30 July 2010}}\nHe then rediscovered the silence of nature, with the rustle of the wind in the trees in the background. He drew from that the impression, from which he writes the song, that modernisation cuts people from nature and encourages them to stay alone behind their screens.", "[thumb\\|upright\\|Denez Prigent in 2005\\.](/wiki/File:Denez_Prigent_2005.jpeg \"Denez Prigent 2005.jpeg\")\n*Sarac'h* received the best album award of the Breton newspaper, *Le Télégramme de Brest*. [Gilles Servat](/wiki/Gilles_Servat \"Gilles Servat\"), who gave him the award, expressed his admiration for Denez Prigent, who he described as \"an artist emblematic of the renewal in Breton expression and in the search for new musicalities\".", "Since then, Prigent sang on such stages as the big stage of the [Vieilles Charrues Festival](/wiki/Vieilles_Charrues_Festival \"Vieilles Charrues Festival\"), [Rencontres Trans Musicales](/wiki/Rencontres_Trans_Musicales \"Rencontres Trans Musicales\") in [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\"),{{Cite web\\|language\\=fr\\|title\\=Pékin sous le régime des Trans: Le public se lève pour la gwerz.\\|url\\=http://www.rfimusique.com/musiquefr/articles/066/article\\_15523\\.asp\\|website\\=rfimusique.com\\|date\\=20 June 2005\\|access\\-date\\=6 December 2016}} the [Paléo Festival](/wiki/Pal%C3%A9o_Festival \"Paléo Festival\") [Nyon](/wiki/Nyon \"Nyon\") ([Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\")), the Rozrywki Theater in [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\"), the Stimmen Festival (Germany), the antique Roman Theater in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\") and the theater of [Tenerife](/wiki/Tenerife \"Tenerife\") ([Canary Islands](/wiki/Canary_Islands \"Canary Islands\")). In [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\"), he performed at the [Stade de France](/wiki/Stade_de_France \"Stade de France\") for [Saint Patrick's Day](/wiki/Saint_Patrick%27s_Day \"Saint Patrick's Day\"), in [Bercy Arena](/wiki/AccorHotels_Arena \"AccorHotels Arena\"), the [Bataclan](/wiki/Bataclan_%28theatre%29 \"Bataclan (theatre)\"), the [Casino de Paris](/wiki/Casino_de_Paris \"Casino de Paris\") and the [Théâtre de la Ville](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_de_la_Ville \"Théâtre de la Ville\") with guest singers [Mari Boine](/wiki/Mari_Boine \"Mari Boine\") and [Karen Matheson](/wiki/Karen_Matheson \"Karen Matheson\") as well as [Donald Shaw](/wiki/Donald_Shaw_%28musician%29 \"Donald Shaw (musician)\").", "### *An enchanting garden* (2012–present)", "In summer 2010, he announced to write for a next album.Jambon Frédéric, [\"Denez Prigent. L’axe reste le chant\"](http://www.letelegramme.com/ig/dossiers/cornouaille_quimper_2010/denez-prigent-l-axe-reste-le-chant-videos-15-07-2010-990035.php), *Le Télégramme*, 15 July 2010 A Best\\-of album is published in 2011 ([Barclay Records](/wiki/Barclay_Records \"Barclay Records\")). In July, 2011, the Het Lindeboom festival gives to him a blank in front of an audience of 25,000: it has the occasion for him to invite the Hungarian singer [Szilvia Bognar](/wiki/Szilvia_Bognar \"Szilvia Bognar\"), one of the great voices of the Eastern countries, as well as the famous Welsh choir Flint Male Voice Choir.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.dailypost.co.uk/news/local\\-news/flint\\-male\\-voice\\-choir\\-perform\\-2684239\\|title\\=Flint Male Voice Choir perform at French festival\\|last\\=Post\\|first\\=North Wales Daily\\|date\\=2011\\-09\\-07\\|newspaper\\=northwales\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-12\\-05}}", "In 2012, he presented a new show, *Beajet 'm eus* (\" I travelled \"). On 7 April 2015, Denez published a new studio album, \"An enchanting garden \\- Ul liorzh vurzhudus\". This album, comprising 12 original songs written by the singer, including one in English, is the result of several years of writing (a hundred gwerzioù of 80 verses), trips and experiments on stage.{{Cite news\\|language\\=fr\\|first\\=Jean\\-Laurent\\|last\\=Bras\\|title\\=Denez Prigent, le plus grand chanteur breton est de retour\\|work\\=Ouest\\-France\\|date\\=7 April 2015\\|url\\=http://www.ouest\\-france.fr/musique\\-denez\\-prigent\\-le\\-plus\\-grand\\-chanteur\\-breton\\-est\\-de\\-retour\\-3314054}} The Breton and Celtic themes, unstructured, are interwoven with [Slavonic](/wiki/List_of_Slavic_cultures \"List of Slavic cultures\") and [Armenian](/wiki/Armenian_language \"Armenian language\") (\"An tri seblant\"), [Greek](/wiki/Greek_musical_instruments \"Greek musical instruments\") (\"Krediñ 'raen\"), [Andalusian](/wiki/Andalusian_classical_music \"Andalusian classical music\") (\"Ar binioù skornet\"), [Bossa nova](/wiki/Bossa_nova \"Bossa nova\") (\"An tri amourouz\"), [Gypsy](/wiki/Gypsy_%28musical%29 \"Gypsy (musical)\") or [Yiddish](/wiki/Yiddish \"Yiddish\") (\"Beajet'm eus\"), [African](/wiki/Music_of_Africa \"Music of Africa\") (\"An trucher hag an Ankoù\") for an entirely acoustic music. In songs in Breton, the artist invites to discover the corners of his inner garden and the plurality of his influences.{{Cite web\\|title\\=An Enchanting garden Ul liorzh vurzhudus\\|url\\=http://www.telerama.fr/musiques/an\\-enchanting\\-garden\\-ul\\-liorzh\\-vurzhudus,125294\\.php\\|website\\=www.telerama.fr\\|accessdate\\=2015\\-07\\-02\\|first\\=Anne\\|last\\=Berthod\\|date\\=13 April 2015}} Denez's vocal, \"enigmatic and inspiring\" (accompanied by the [hang](/wiki/Hang_%28instrument%29 \"Hang (instrument)\") on \"Before dawn\"), is like a link between the real and the invisible, supported by the writing of timeless stories, sometimes tragic, satirical or burlesque, such as \"Peñse Nedeleg\", a [Fisel dance](/wiki/Breton_dance \"Breton dance\") describing the shipwreck of a freighter that makes the happiness of the inhabitants for ChristmasJean\\-Claude Demari, [\"Denez Prigent : le chant des terres\"](http://www.rfimusique.com/actu-musique/musiques-monde/album/20150416-denez-prigent-enchanting-garden), RFI, 16 April 2015 or \"An tri amourouz\" whose [black humor](/wiki/Black_comedy \"Black comedy\") recalls that of [Tim Burton](/wiki/Tim_Burton \"Tim Burton\"). \"An Old Story\", in English, couples with \"Gwechall gozh\", in breton, two [complaints](/wiki/Complaint \"Complaint\") sharing the same story: an innocent woman burnt like witch for having too many companions.", "[thumb\\|Denez and his musicians on biggest stage of [Vieilles Charrues Festival](/wiki/Vieilles_Charrues_Festival \"Vieilles Charrues Festival\") in 2016\\.](/wiki/File:Festival_des_Vieilles_Charrues_2016_-_Denez_Prigent_-_032.jpg \"Festival des Vieilles Charrues 2016 - Denez Prigent - 032.jpg\")\nIn November 2015, beatmaker [James Digger](/wiki/James_Digger \"James Digger\") remixed 4 tracks for an EP.{{Cite news\\|language\\=fr\\|first\\=François\\|last\\=Delétraz\\|title\\=Le roi de la musique bretonne Denez Prigent, quel barde !\\|work\\=\\[\\[Le Figaro]]\\|date\\=21 January 2016\\|url\\=http://www.lefigaro.fr/musique/2016/01/21/03006\\-20160121ARTFIG00321\\-le\\-roi\\-de\\-la\\-musique\\-bretonne\\-denez\\-prigent\\-quel\\-barde.php\\|accessdate\\=27 January 2016}}. It appealed to rapper [Masta Ace](/wiki/Masta_Ace \"Masta Ace\"), emblematic figure of Hip Hop, one of the references of [Eminem](/wiki/Eminem \"Eminem\"). In exchange, Denez participated in May 2016 to his album \"[The Falling Season](/wiki/The_Falling_Season \"The Falling Season\")\", under \"Story of Me\".{{Cite web\\|language\\=fr\\-FR\\|title\\=Masta Ace prépare la sortie de son nouvel album\\|url\\=http://thebackpackerz.com/masta\\-ace\\-prepare\\-la\\-sortie\\-de\\-son\\-nouvel\\-album/\\|website\\=The BackPackerz\\|date\\=15 April 2016\\|accessdate\\=2016\\-05\\-09}} His song \"Gortoz a Ran\" is used for two minutes in the episode \"[Skank Hunt](/wiki/Skank_Hunt \"Skank Hunt\")\" of the animated series *[South Park](/wiki/South_Park \"South Park\")* which first aired on [Comedy Central](/wiki/Comedy_Central \"Comedy Central\") in the United States on 21 September 2016\\.{{Citation\\|title\\=Skank Hunt: Soundtracks\\|date\\=2016\\|url\\=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt5218394/soundtrack\\|accessdate\\=2016\\-12\\-06}}", "In November 2016, the live album \"A\\-unvan gant ar stered \\- In unison with the stars\" released, recorded during the tour 2015\\-2016\\. On 19 November, after 20 years of absence on [fest noz](/wiki/Fest_noz \"Fest noz\") stages, the singer animated the Yaouank Festival in Rennes.", "" ]
### Introduction to electronic music and *Me 'zalcʼh ennon ur fulenn aour* (1993–1999\) [right\|thumb\|Denez on stage during [Festival de Cornouaille](/wiki/Festival_de_Cornouaille "Festival de Cornouaille") in Quimper.](/wiki/File:Photo_-_Festival_de_Cornouaille_2014_-_Denez_Prigent_en_concert_le_24_juillet_-_012.jpg "Photo - Festival de Cornouaille 2014 - Denez Prigent en concert le 24 juillet - 012.jpg") At his wife's request, Prigent attended the first [rave party](/wiki/Rave_party "Rave party") held in Rennes, in 1993, in spite of his negative prejudice. There, he discovered a music that, like Breton music, is primarily meant to support dancing. Noticing that [electronic music](/wiki/Electronic_music "Electronic music") and Breton music are based on similar rhythms and notes closed to one another, he contemplated using it to accompany his songs. In 1995, Prigent appeared in *Dao Dezi*.{{cite web\|url\=http://2007\.festival\-cornouaille.com/presse/01/dp\-fc\-2007\.pdf \|title\=Biographie de Denez Prigent (Page 10 – Le projet Dao Dezi) \|accessdate\=2010\-03\-20 \|language\=fr \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710235016/http://2007\.festival\-cornouaille.com/presse/01/dp\-fc\-2007\.pdf \|archivedate\=10 July 2011}} The goal of this project of [Éric Mouquet](/wiki/%C3%89ric_Mouquet "Éric Mouquet"), a member of [Deep Forest](/wiki/Deep_Forest "Deep Forest"), and Guilain Joncheray is to treat Breton music in the same way that Deep Forest treated African music, with traditional lyrics and electronic accompaniments. [Michel Sanchez](/wiki/Michel_Sanchez_%28musician%29 "Michel Sanchez (musician)"), the other member of Deep Forest, also worked on the album, recorded and mixed by Erwin Autrique. Breton singers Arnaud Maisonneuve and Manu Lann Huel also appear on the album, as well as [Tri Yann](/wiki/Tri_Yann "Tri Yann"). It is Prigent's first experience combining Breton lyrics and electronic music. [right\|thumb\|upright\|[Quimper Cathedral](/wiki/Quimper_Cathedral "Quimper Cathedral"), one of the stops of [Tro Breizh](/wiki/Tro_Breizh "Tro Breizh").](/wiki/File:Quimper-Cath.Saint-Corentin.jpg "Quimper-Cath.Saint-Corentin.jpg") Prigent released his second album, *Me 'zalc'h ennon ur fulenn aour* (I keep in myself a golden spark), in 1997\. He wrote all the lyrics except for the traditional song *[Ar rannoù](/wiki/Ar_ranno%C3%B9 "Ar rannoù")* that appears in the Barzaz Breiz, and most of the musics, using both traditional instruments and electronic sounds. The subjects of the lyrics are the classical topics of gwerz : injustice, disease, death. *E trouz ar gêr*, about the artificial aspects of living in a city, and *An hentoù adkavet*, about the revival of the [Tro Breizh](/wiki/Tro_Breizh "Tro Breizh"), are his first songs devoted to Brittany, its culture and its relation to [nature](/wiki/Nature "Nature"). To select electronic [samples](/wiki/Sampling_%28music%29 "Sampling (music)"), Prigent contacted [Arnaud Rebotini](/wiki/Arnaud_Rebotini "Arnaud Rebotini"), who granted him access to his collection of discs. Prigent mostly chose [jungle](/wiki/Oldschool_jungle "Oldschool jungle") sounds, finding that their rhythm, at around 160–170 bpm, was well adapted to Breton singing. In most cases, Prigent's voice was recorded first and electronic sounds were added afterwards. This combination of ancient singing and modern music is illustrated by *Ar rannoù*, one of the oldest known Breton texts, for which Prigent recomposed the traditional tune using electronic sounds. He compared this treatment of singing and music to that of [Alan Stivell](/wiki/Alan_Stivell "Alan Stivell"):{{cite web \|url\=http://www.liberation.fr/culture/0101236164\-un\-breton\-dans\-la\-jungle\-denez\-prigent\-mele\-biniou\-et\-breakbeat\-un\-album\-etonnant\-denez\-prigent\-album\-me\-zalc\-h\-ennon\-ur\-fulenn\-aour\-rosebud\-barclay \|title\=Un breton dans la jungle. Denez Prigent mêle biniou et breakbeat: un album étonnant. Denez Prigent, Album: "Me'Zalc'h Ennon Ur Fulenn Aour", Rosebud/Barclay \|author\=Alexis Bernier \|accessdate\=17 January 2010\|language\=fr}} {{blockquote\|Folklore is death. Thanks to musicians like Alan Stivell, who quickly understood that academising Breton music would shortly condemn it, it is now completely anchored in daily life. Attending any fest\-noz suffices to understand that we are not maintaining a dying fire. With this disc, I felt like showing a Breton's vision of the world today.{{lang\|fr\|Le folklore c'est la mort. Grâce à des musiciens comme Alan Stivell, qui ont vite compris qu'académiser la musique bretonne c'était la condamner à court terme, elle est maintenant totalement ancrée dans le quotidien. Il suffit d'aller dans le moindre fest\-noz pour comprendre qu'on n'est pas en train d'entretenir un feu qui s'éteint. Avec ce disque j'avais envie de montrer la vision du monde que peut avoir un Breton aujourd'hui.}}}} Although the extreme difference between his a cappella songs and his new tracks using electronic samples received mixed reviews, Prigent considered that he remained faithful to the arrhythmic, [unmeasured](/wiki/Bar_%28music%29 "Bar (music)") aspect of Breton music. Particularly in gwerz, the singer must ensure that the intensity of the event being recounted comes first, and for this purpose, not sing in rhythm, but rather make pauses when appropriate. According to Prigent, a measured gwerz loses the identity of Breton singing, while an electronic accompaniment faithful to the arrhythmic song is perfectly natural. Similarly, he attaches a great importance to the traditional pronunciation of Breton, including the *dibril*, an [alveolar trill](/wiki/Alveolar_trill "Alveolar trill") used in sung Breton only. It is also essential for him to remain faithful to the writing rules of gwerz, with very long lyrics of which only a part is recorded, and its eternal topics that prevent this genre dating back to the 5th century from going out of fashion. Fidelity to tradition is absolutely not a way of imprisoning himself in his own culture; on the contrary, for Prigent, developing the Breton culture by adapting it to modern technology is a way of opening up to other cultures.{{cite web \|url\=http://real.antourtan.org:8080/ramgen/ete2001/charrues/int\-prigent.rm \|title\=Interview with Denez Prigent by Anna Louarn during the festival des Vieilles Charrues (2001\) \|publisher\=An Tour Tan \|accessdate\=10 February 2010\|language\=br}} With this album, Prigent also affirms his writing style. His verses are mostly [octosyllables](/wiki/Octosyllable "Octosyllable") with, generally, a median [caesura](/wiki/Caesura "Caesura"). This type of verse is very frequent in Breton, since short words are common, and thus long verses unneeded. He only writes in Breton, a language that, according to Prigent, kept its sacred aspect, contrarily to French. As a consequence, some lyrics remain untranslatable, even for their bilingual author. In 1998, he took part in Alan Simon's *Excalibur, la légende des Celtes*, with [Roger Hodgson](/wiki/Roger_Hodgson "Roger Hodgson") (the singer of [Supertramp](/wiki/Supertramp "Supertramp")), [Angelo Branduardi](/wiki/Angelo_Branduardi "Angelo Branduardi") and [Didier Lockwood](/wiki/Didier_Lockwood "Didier Lockwood").
[ "### Introduction to electronic music and *Me 'zalcʼh ennon ur fulenn aour* (1993–1999\\)", "[right\\|thumb\\|Denez on stage during [Festival de Cornouaille](/wiki/Festival_de_Cornouaille \"Festival de Cornouaille\") in Quimper.](/wiki/File:Photo_-_Festival_de_Cornouaille_2014_-_Denez_Prigent_en_concert_le_24_juillet_-_012.jpg \"Photo - Festival de Cornouaille 2014 - Denez Prigent en concert le 24 juillet - 012.jpg\")", "At his wife's request, Prigent attended the first [rave party](/wiki/Rave_party \"Rave party\") held in Rennes, in 1993, in spite of his negative prejudice. There, he discovered a music that, like Breton music, is primarily meant to support dancing. Noticing that [electronic music](/wiki/Electronic_music \"Electronic music\") and Breton music are based on similar rhythms and notes closed to one another, he contemplated using it to accompany his songs.", "In 1995, Prigent appeared in *Dao Dezi*.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://2007\\.festival\\-cornouaille.com/presse/01/dp\\-fc\\-2007\\.pdf \\|title\\=Biographie de Denez Prigent (Page 10 – Le projet Dao Dezi) \\|accessdate\\=2010\\-03\\-20 \\|language\\=fr \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710235016/http://2007\\.festival\\-cornouaille.com/presse/01/dp\\-fc\\-2007\\.pdf \\|archivedate\\=10 July 2011}}\nThe goal of this project of [Éric Mouquet](/wiki/%C3%89ric_Mouquet \"Éric Mouquet\"), a member of [Deep Forest](/wiki/Deep_Forest \"Deep Forest\"), and Guilain Joncheray is to treat Breton music in the same way that Deep Forest treated African music, with traditional lyrics and electronic accompaniments. [Michel Sanchez](/wiki/Michel_Sanchez_%28musician%29 \"Michel Sanchez (musician)\"), the other member of Deep Forest, also worked on the album, recorded and mixed by Erwin Autrique. Breton singers Arnaud Maisonneuve and Manu Lann Huel also appear on the album, as well as [Tri Yann](/wiki/Tri_Yann \"Tri Yann\"). It is Prigent's first experience combining Breton lyrics and electronic music.", "[right\\|thumb\\|upright\\|[Quimper Cathedral](/wiki/Quimper_Cathedral \"Quimper Cathedral\"), one of the stops of [Tro Breizh](/wiki/Tro_Breizh \"Tro Breizh\").](/wiki/File:Quimper-Cath.Saint-Corentin.jpg \"Quimper-Cath.Saint-Corentin.jpg\")", "Prigent released his second album, *Me 'zalc'h ennon ur fulenn aour* (I keep in myself a golden spark), in 1997\\. He wrote all the lyrics except for the traditional song *[Ar rannoù](/wiki/Ar_ranno%C3%B9 \"Ar rannoù\")* that appears in the Barzaz Breiz, and most of the musics, using both traditional instruments and electronic sounds. The subjects of the lyrics are the classical topics of gwerz : injustice, disease, death. *E trouz ar gêr*, about the artificial aspects of living in a city, and *An hentoù adkavet*, about the revival of the [Tro Breizh](/wiki/Tro_Breizh \"Tro Breizh\"), are his first songs devoted to Brittany, its culture and its relation to [nature](/wiki/Nature \"Nature\").", "To select electronic [samples](/wiki/Sampling_%28music%29 \"Sampling (music)\"), Prigent contacted [Arnaud Rebotini](/wiki/Arnaud_Rebotini \"Arnaud Rebotini\"), who granted him access to his collection of discs.\nPrigent mostly chose [jungle](/wiki/Oldschool_jungle \"Oldschool jungle\") sounds, finding that their rhythm, at around 160–170 bpm, was well adapted to Breton singing.\nIn most cases, Prigent's voice was recorded first and electronic sounds were added afterwards. This combination of ancient singing and modern music is illustrated by *Ar rannoù*, one of the oldest known Breton texts, for which Prigent recomposed the traditional tune using electronic sounds. He compared this treatment of singing and music to that of [Alan Stivell](/wiki/Alan_Stivell \"Alan Stivell\"):{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.liberation.fr/culture/0101236164\\-un\\-breton\\-dans\\-la\\-jungle\\-denez\\-prigent\\-mele\\-biniou\\-et\\-breakbeat\\-un\\-album\\-etonnant\\-denez\\-prigent\\-album\\-me\\-zalc\\-h\\-ennon\\-ur\\-fulenn\\-aour\\-rosebud\\-barclay \\|title\\=Un breton dans la jungle. Denez Prigent mêle biniou et breakbeat: un album étonnant. Denez Prigent, Album: \"Me'Zalc'h Ennon Ur Fulenn Aour\", Rosebud/Barclay \\|author\\=Alexis Bernier \\|accessdate\\=17 January 2010\\|language\\=fr}}\n{{blockquote\\|Folklore is death. Thanks to musicians like Alan Stivell, who quickly understood that academising Breton music would shortly condemn it, it is now completely anchored in daily life. Attending any fest\\-noz suffices to understand that we are not maintaining a dying fire. With this disc, I felt like showing a Breton's vision of the world today.{{lang\\|fr\\|Le folklore c'est la mort. Grâce à des musiciens comme Alan Stivell, qui ont vite compris qu'académiser la musique bretonne c'était la condamner à court terme, elle est maintenant totalement ancrée dans le quotidien. Il suffit d'aller dans le moindre fest\\-noz pour comprendre qu'on n'est pas en train d'entretenir un feu qui s'éteint. Avec ce disque j'avais envie de montrer la vision du monde que peut avoir un Breton aujourd'hui.}}}}", "Although the extreme difference between his a cappella songs and his new tracks using electronic samples received mixed reviews, Prigent considered that he remained faithful to the arrhythmic, [unmeasured](/wiki/Bar_%28music%29 \"Bar (music)\") aspect of Breton music.\nParticularly in gwerz, the singer must ensure that the intensity of the event being recounted comes first, and for this purpose, not sing in rhythm, but rather make pauses when appropriate. According to Prigent, a measured gwerz loses the identity of Breton singing, while an electronic accompaniment faithful to the arrhythmic song is perfectly natural.\nSimilarly, he attaches a great importance to the traditional pronunciation of Breton, including the *dibril*, an [alveolar trill](/wiki/Alveolar_trill \"Alveolar trill\") used in sung Breton only.\nIt is also essential for him to remain faithful to the writing rules of gwerz, with very long lyrics of which only a part is recorded, and its eternal topics that prevent this genre dating back to the 5th century from going out of fashion.\nFidelity to tradition is absolutely not a way of imprisoning himself in his own culture; on the contrary, for Prigent, developing the Breton culture by adapting it to modern technology is a way of opening up to other cultures.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://real.antourtan.org:8080/ramgen/ete2001/charrues/int\\-prigent.rm \\|title\\=Interview with Denez Prigent by Anna Louarn during the festival des Vieilles Charrues (2001\\) \\|publisher\\=An Tour Tan \\|accessdate\\=10 February 2010\\|language\\=br}}", "With this album, Prigent also affirms his writing style. His verses are mostly [octosyllables](/wiki/Octosyllable \"Octosyllable\") with, generally, a median [caesura](/wiki/Caesura \"Caesura\"). This type of verse is very frequent in Breton, since short words are common, and thus long verses unneeded. He only writes in Breton, a language that, according to Prigent, kept its sacred aspect, contrarily to French. As a consequence, some lyrics remain untranslatable, even for their bilingual author.", "In 1998, he took part in Alan Simon's *Excalibur, la légende des Celtes*, with [Roger Hodgson](/wiki/Roger_Hodgson \"Roger Hodgson\") (the singer of [Supertramp](/wiki/Supertramp \"Supertramp\")), [Angelo Branduardi](/wiki/Angelo_Branduardi \"Angelo Branduardi\") and [Didier Lockwood](/wiki/Didier_Lockwood \"Didier Lockwood\").", "" ]
### *Sarac'h* (2003\) [left\|thumb\|The urban setting of Rennes, which Denez Prigent sought to leave.](/wiki/File:Rennes_place_de_la_R%C3%A9publique_DSC_4521.JPG "Rennes place de la République DSC 4521.JPG") The next album, *Sarac'h* (rustle), was released in 2003\. Lisa Gerrard is again invited, as is Yanka Rupkina, the soloist of the [Bulgarian State Television Female Vocal Choir](/wiki/Bulgarian_State_Television_Female_Vocal_Choir "Bulgarian State Television Female Vocal Choir"), [Karen Matheson](/wiki/Karen_Matheson "Karen Matheson") of [Capercaillie](/wiki/Capercaillie_%28band%29 "Capercaillie (band)"), and the [Sami](/wiki/Sami_people "Sami people") singer [Mari Boine](/wiki/Mari_Boine "Mari Boine"). Also appearing are the [Dónal Lunny](/wiki/D%C3%B3nal_Lunny "Dónal Lunny") on the [bouzouki](/wiki/Bouzouki "Bouzouki"), Nabil Khalidi on the [oud](/wiki/Oud "Oud"), and Farhad Bouallagi on the violin. Although this album uses electronic sounds, the music is mostly performed on traditional instruments. The album begins with two traditional songs : *An hini a garan*, with Lisa Gerrard, and *E garnison !*, with [Louise Ebrel](/wiki/Louise_Ebrel "Louise Ebrel"), who had already toured with Prigent. Two previously unreleased songs written in the beginning of Prigent's career are part of the album, *Son Alma Ata* and *Ar gwez\-sapin*. [right\|thumb\|The [costarmorican](/wiki/C%C3%B4tes_d%27Armor "Côtes d'Armor") nature to which Denez Prigent returned.](/wiki/File:VueDeLannionEtBrelevenez.jpg "VueDeLannionEtBrelevenez.jpg") Contrarily to the previous albums, *Sarac'h* contains very personal lyrics, in which the author writes about himself. *N'eus forzh…* is about the importance of singing, thanks to which Prigent never loses hope ("{{lang\|br\|leskiñ a ra va zan atav}}" : my fire always burns). He also resumes a verse already used in E trouz ar gêr sums up his way of life: "n'eus ket un deiz na ganfen ket" (there is not a single day during which I would not sing). In *Dispi*, he expresses his very pessimistic point of view on the Breton language, an essential topic for Prigent, who only sings in Breton and taught this language. He describes his despair about this situation, writing that those who dreamt of a return to harmony between generations linked by the Breton language and culture were crazy. The eponymous song alone sums up Prigent's main convictions. It relates his own return to nature, when, used to the never\-ending noise of the cars on the highway next to which he lived in Rennes, he decided to buy a house in [Lanvellec](/wiki/Lanvellec "Lanvellec") ([Côtes d'Armor](/wiki/C%C3%B4tes_d%27Armor "Côtes d'Armor")).{{cite web \|url\=http://www.m\-la\-music.net/spip.php?article1280 \|title\=Denez Prigent \|publisher\=M\-la\-music \|author\=Stéphane Guihéneuf \|accessdate\=20 December 2009 \|language\=fr \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100730203646/http://www.m\-la\-music.net/spip.php?article1280 \|archivedate\=30 July 2010}} He then rediscovered the silence of nature, with the rustle of the wind in the trees in the background. He drew from that the impression, from which he writes the song, that modernisation cuts people from nature and encourages them to stay alone behind their screens. [thumb\|upright\|Denez Prigent in 2005\.](/wiki/File:Denez_Prigent_2005.jpeg "Denez Prigent 2005.jpeg") *Sarac'h* received the best album award of the Breton newspaper, *Le Télégramme de Brest*. [Gilles Servat](/wiki/Gilles_Servat "Gilles Servat"), who gave him the award, expressed his admiration for Denez Prigent, who he described as "an artist emblematic of the renewal in Breton expression and in the search for new musicalities". Since then, Prigent sang on such stages as the big stage of the [Vieilles Charrues Festival](/wiki/Vieilles_Charrues_Festival "Vieilles Charrues Festival"), [Rencontres Trans Musicales](/wiki/Rencontres_Trans_Musicales "Rencontres Trans Musicales") in [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing "Beijing"),{{Cite web\|language\=fr\|title\=Pékin sous le régime des Trans: Le public se lève pour la gwerz.\|url\=http://www.rfimusique.com/musiquefr/articles/066/article\_15523\.asp\|website\=rfimusique.com\|date\=20 June 2005\|access\-date\=6 December 2016}} the [Paléo Festival](/wiki/Pal%C3%A9o_Festival "Paléo Festival") [Nyon](/wiki/Nyon "Nyon") ([Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland")), the Rozrywki Theater in [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland"), the Stimmen Festival (Germany), the antique Roman Theater in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna") and the theater of [Tenerife](/wiki/Tenerife "Tenerife") ([Canary Islands](/wiki/Canary_Islands "Canary Islands")). In [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris"), he performed at the [Stade de France](/wiki/Stade_de_France "Stade de France") for [Saint Patrick's Day](/wiki/Saint_Patrick%27s_Day "Saint Patrick's Day"), in [Bercy Arena](/wiki/AccorHotels_Arena "AccorHotels Arena"), the [Bataclan](/wiki/Bataclan_%28theatre%29 "Bataclan (theatre)"), the [Casino de Paris](/wiki/Casino_de_Paris "Casino de Paris") and the [Théâtre de la Ville](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_de_la_Ville "Théâtre de la Ville") with guest singers [Mari Boine](/wiki/Mari_Boine "Mari Boine") and [Karen Matheson](/wiki/Karen_Matheson "Karen Matheson") as well as [Donald Shaw](/wiki/Donald_Shaw_%28musician%29 "Donald Shaw (musician)").
[ "### *Sarac'h* (2003\\)", "[left\\|thumb\\|The urban setting of Rennes, which Denez Prigent sought to leave.](/wiki/File:Rennes_place_de_la_R%C3%A9publique_DSC_4521.JPG \"Rennes place de la République DSC 4521.JPG\")", "The next album, *Sarac'h* (rustle), was released in 2003\\. Lisa Gerrard is again invited, as is Yanka Rupkina, the soloist of the [Bulgarian State Television Female Vocal Choir](/wiki/Bulgarian_State_Television_Female_Vocal_Choir \"Bulgarian State Television Female Vocal Choir\"), [Karen Matheson](/wiki/Karen_Matheson \"Karen Matheson\") of [Capercaillie](/wiki/Capercaillie_%28band%29 \"Capercaillie (band)\"), and the [Sami](/wiki/Sami_people \"Sami people\") singer [Mari Boine](/wiki/Mari_Boine \"Mari Boine\"). Also appearing are the [Dónal Lunny](/wiki/D%C3%B3nal_Lunny \"Dónal Lunny\") on the [bouzouki](/wiki/Bouzouki \"Bouzouki\"), Nabil Khalidi on the [oud](/wiki/Oud \"Oud\"), and Farhad Bouallagi on the violin. Although this album uses electronic sounds, the music is mostly performed on traditional instruments.", "The album begins with two traditional songs : *An hini a garan*, with Lisa Gerrard, and *E garnison !*, with [Louise Ebrel](/wiki/Louise_Ebrel \"Louise Ebrel\"), who had already toured with Prigent.\nTwo previously unreleased songs written in the beginning of Prigent's career are part of the album, *Son Alma Ata* and *Ar gwez\\-sapin*.", "[right\\|thumb\\|The [costarmorican](/wiki/C%C3%B4tes_d%27Armor \"Côtes d'Armor\") nature to which Denez Prigent returned.](/wiki/File:VueDeLannionEtBrelevenez.jpg \"VueDeLannionEtBrelevenez.jpg\")", "Contrarily to the previous albums, *Sarac'h* contains very personal lyrics, in which the author writes about himself. *N'eus forzh…* is about the importance of singing, thanks to which Prigent never loses hope (\"{{lang\\|br\\|leskiñ a ra va zan atav}}\" : my fire always burns). He also resumes a verse already used in E trouz ar gêr sums up his way of life: \"n'eus ket un deiz na ganfen ket\" (there is not a single day during which I would not sing). In *Dispi*, he expresses his very pessimistic point of view on the Breton language, an essential topic for Prigent, who only sings in Breton and taught this language. He describes his despair about this situation, writing that those who dreamt of a return to harmony between generations linked by the Breton language and culture were crazy.", "The eponymous song alone sums up Prigent's main convictions. It relates his own return to nature, when, used to the never\\-ending noise of the cars on the highway next to which he lived in Rennes, he decided to buy a house in [Lanvellec](/wiki/Lanvellec \"Lanvellec\") ([Côtes d'Armor](/wiki/C%C3%B4tes_d%27Armor \"Côtes d'Armor\")).{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.m\\-la\\-music.net/spip.php?article1280 \\|title\\=Denez Prigent \\|publisher\\=M\\-la\\-music \\|author\\=Stéphane Guihéneuf \\|accessdate\\=20 December 2009 \\|language\\=fr \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100730203646/http://www.m\\-la\\-music.net/spip.php?article1280 \\|archivedate\\=30 July 2010}}\nHe then rediscovered the silence of nature, with the rustle of the wind in the trees in the background. He drew from that the impression, from which he writes the song, that modernisation cuts people from nature and encourages them to stay alone behind their screens.", "[thumb\\|upright\\|Denez Prigent in 2005\\.](/wiki/File:Denez_Prigent_2005.jpeg \"Denez Prigent 2005.jpeg\")\n*Sarac'h* received the best album award of the Breton newspaper, *Le Télégramme de Brest*. [Gilles Servat](/wiki/Gilles_Servat \"Gilles Servat\"), who gave him the award, expressed his admiration for Denez Prigent, who he described as \"an artist emblematic of the renewal in Breton expression and in the search for new musicalities\".", "Since then, Prigent sang on such stages as the big stage of the [Vieilles Charrues Festival](/wiki/Vieilles_Charrues_Festival \"Vieilles Charrues Festival\"), [Rencontres Trans Musicales](/wiki/Rencontres_Trans_Musicales \"Rencontres Trans Musicales\") in [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\"),{{Cite web\\|language\\=fr\\|title\\=Pékin sous le régime des Trans: Le public se lève pour la gwerz.\\|url\\=http://www.rfimusique.com/musiquefr/articles/066/article\\_15523\\.asp\\|website\\=rfimusique.com\\|date\\=20 June 2005\\|access\\-date\\=6 December 2016}} the [Paléo Festival](/wiki/Pal%C3%A9o_Festival \"Paléo Festival\") [Nyon](/wiki/Nyon \"Nyon\") ([Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\")), the Rozrywki Theater in [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\"), the Stimmen Festival (Germany), the antique Roman Theater in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\") and the theater of [Tenerife](/wiki/Tenerife \"Tenerife\") ([Canary Islands](/wiki/Canary_Islands \"Canary Islands\")). In [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\"), he performed at the [Stade de France](/wiki/Stade_de_France \"Stade de France\") for [Saint Patrick's Day](/wiki/Saint_Patrick%27s_Day \"Saint Patrick's Day\"), in [Bercy Arena](/wiki/AccorHotels_Arena \"AccorHotels Arena\"), the [Bataclan](/wiki/Bataclan_%28theatre%29 \"Bataclan (theatre)\"), the [Casino de Paris](/wiki/Casino_de_Paris \"Casino de Paris\") and the [Théâtre de la Ville](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_de_la_Ville \"Théâtre de la Ville\") with guest singers [Mari Boine](/wiki/Mari_Boine \"Mari Boine\") and [Karen Matheson](/wiki/Karen_Matheson \"Karen Matheson\") as well as [Donald Shaw](/wiki/Donald_Shaw_%28musician%29 \"Donald Shaw (musician)\").", "" ]
Human characters ---------------- ### Johnny "Nny" C. [thumb\|left\|200px\|Johnny the Homicidal Maniac.](/wiki/File:JTHM.png "JTHM.png") The series focuses on the self\-titled "villain" Johnny C., also known as Nny (pronounced “knee”). He is a crazy and psychopathic [serial killer](/wiki/Serial_killer "Serial killer"), [mass murderer](/wiki/Mass_murderer "Mass murderer") and [spree killer](/wiki/Spree_killer "Spree killer"), who interacts with other characters, more often than not [torturing](/wiki/Torture "Torture") and [murdering](/wiki/Murder "Murder") them. He elaborately and [sadistically](/wiki/Sadism_and_Masochism "Sadism and Masochism") kills anyone who even slightly irritates him, then drains their blood and paints one of the walls in his house with it (to keep a monster from getting out). If the situation dictates, Johnny is willing to murder "innocent" people, though in his twisted mind, he typically manages to justify his acts. The number of Johnny's victims is in the hundreds—or perhaps even thousands. Authorities are unable to capture Johnny and seem unaware of his existence, though his crimes are often witnessed in public and reported by the few who manage to survive. Nny acknowledges this fact, and it appears that the supernatural forces at work in his life prevent his being captured or killed. He is often devoid of a conscience, and acknowledges that he is insane. This insanity manifests itself in three entities: Nailbunny, who is the closest thing to a conscience that Nny possesses; and Psychodoughboy and Mr. Eff, two styrofoam Pillsbury doughboys who argue over whether Nny should kill himself or simply continue to kill others. Sometimes, Johnny displays feelings of self\-hatred for his actions. This shows in his many monologues and suicide attempts. He even has what appear to be moments of clarity, but these are short\-lived, and quickly turn into yet more crazed rants accompanied by bloodshed. At the end of the comic, Johnny attempts to reform himself by abandoning his emotions in favor of cold intellect, going on what is referred to as a "vacation." This open\-ended conclusion leaves room for a second series of comics, but the creator has expressed no interest so far to continue Nny's story. In the final issue of [Squee](/wiki/Squee%21 "Squee!"), it is revealed that following the events of [JTHM](/wiki/JTHM "JTHM"), Nny spent some time at a mental hospital, as a participant in a sleep study, but subsequently left the hospital despite researchers' enthusiasm for analyzing his "dreams." Though his exact age is unknown, Vasquez has been quoted saying Johnny is in his early twenties. According to the *Director's Cut*, he is 5' 9" and 115 lbs, making him very underweight. In *JTHM: The Director's Cut*, it is said that Johnny's parents were murdered by an "evil man," but this is an obvious joke, as the description goes on to say that after this traumatic event, 'Nny became a masked crime fighter. Throughout the series, no information is given about Johnny's family or of his past, and even Johnny is deprived of all but occasional flashes of memory. A running theory on Johnny's origin is that he was once a brilliant artist who lost his talent, and subsequently went [insane](/wiki/Insane "Insane"). This theory is supported by Devi's recollection in issue 2 of [I Feel Sick](/wiki/I_Feel_Sick "I Feel Sick") of a conversation between herself and Johnny in which Johnny laments his loss of painting talent and implies that he began to kill as a way of filling that void. In issue 4 of [JTHM](/wiki/JTHM "JTHM"), Nailbunny chastises Johnny for drawing his Happy Noodle Boy comic instead of painting. However, Vasquez has written that he did not intend to give Johnny a concrete origin story, stating, "\[I] find the blurriness of it all much more appealing than making him go nuts over being pantsed in school once. 'YAAAARGH!! I have been pantsed!! I kill like the damned now!!' That's just not done." After the comic was released, Vasquez set up a [Twitter page](https://twitter.com/Johnny_C) for Johnny, where he puts out random comments that he makes, often about what he does while he's killing people, or just simply ideas. ### Todd "Squee" Casil {{Main article\|Squee (character)}} Also known as Todd Casil, but nicknamed Squee, the namesake originating from the sound the child makes when scared. He is Johnny's friend and next\-door neighbor. Squee's mother is implied to suffer from a vague drug addiction, and his father resents his very existence and has no qualms about constantly telling him so. Squee has a [teddy bear](/wiki/Teddy_bear "Teddy bear") named Shmee, who is conscious in Todd's own psyche; Shmee happens to be a trauma sponge, and constantly tells Squee to do evil things. Vasquez later authored a comic series, *[Squee!](/wiki/Squee%21 "Squee!")*, with this character as the [protagonist](/wiki/Protagonist "Protagonist"). Johnny is the only person who really cares about Squee, serving as his least evil friend, though he constantly frightens him unintentionally. Johnny has hinted from time to time that his interest in Squee is partially due to his desire to ensure that Squee doesn't grow up to be like him. Also, Johnny has actively taken measures to ensure the safety of Squee, by killing and mutilating a [pedophile](/wiki/Pedophile "Pedophile") poised to abduct Squee. A sad, lonely, and mistreated little boy at about 6 or 7 years old, Squee is frightened by almost everything, and is terrified of his evidently disturbed neighbor. Despite this however, Johnny takes a shine to Squee, seeing him as something of a little brother from the family he never had (or simply cannot remember).{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2008}} On several occasions Johnny talks to Squee about his opinions on humanity and the various tribulations of life, usually ending in Squee being horrified by the 'examples' Johnny uses in order to get his point across. Squee's father despises him and wishes that he was never born. Squee's mother is often so doped on various pills that she doesn't recognize Squee or is unaware of what is happening around her. Their detachment from their son also prevents them from noticing the numerous occasions in which Johnny breaks into the house. Squee's other only true friend is a teddy bear named Shmee. At one point he meets and 'befriends' the son of the Devil, a boy named Pepito. ### Devi D. Nicknamed "The One That Got Away", Devi befriends Johnny and becomes a potential love interest, though she is unaware of his antisocial behavior until he attempts to murder her. A struggling artist, she works in a bookstore for half the duration of the comic; the other half is spent painting in her apartment. Devi was one of the few people who actually met Johnny in person and lived to tell about it. She's also the only person (besides Squee) Johnny has ever truly felt any positive feelings for. They met in the bookstore she once worked in before she became a professional artist, and went on a date that ended in almost being able to kiss, but instead, Johnny felt so happy that he wanted to 'immortalize the moment' and attacked Devi. Instead, she beat him up and fled. Ever since, he has been occasionally trying to contact her to apologize and try and explain his odd reasons for trying to kill her, in which she responds to by locking herself in her apartment and screaming at him over the phone. Johnny seems to show selflessness toward her by trying to become cold so he has a lesser chance of killing her. Devi was later the subject of the doubleshot comic "[I Feel Sick](/wiki/I_Feel_Sick "I Feel Sick")" in which she struggles to maintain her own sanity. She converses with a painting of a doll named Sickness, and the ensuing power struggle hints at the possibility of the dark supernatural forces that were Johnny's undoing. ### Tess R., Dillon and Krik Tess R. and Dillon are two people who play part of the [goth](/wiki/Goth_subculture "Goth subculture") [parody](/wiki/Parody "Parody") in the series. Krik is a violent [misogynist](/wiki/Misogynist "Misogynist") (he claims to have beaten his girlfriend and her grandmother) and [chauvinist](/wiki/Chauvinist "Chauvinist") who is abducted by Johnny for drunkenly harassing him. Apparently, Johnny removed a chunk of his brain from the back of his head, making him nearly lose sanity. Tess' family moved around a lot so she has a hard time making friends. She is a pseudo\-goth in order to make friends with others. She dates Dillon because he's in a band. Dillon uses the goth culture as a means of excluding and ridiculing others. They come into Johnny's grasp due to Dillon's constant badgering during *[Kafka](/wiki/Kafka_%28film%29 "Kafka (film)")*: Johnny makes a point of ignoring Tess and tormenting Dillon, who is unaware of the fact that Tess dislikes him. After Johnny's accidental 'death', Tess and Krik try to escape, but are slowed down by running into other prisoners in the dungeons and encountering the doughboys. Although Krik (who released Tess from Johnny's captivity) and Dillon were quite literally torn apart, Tess presumably escaped—although at this point there appeared to have been no universe into which to escape. She was not actually killed but was "flushed" with the rest of reality: she survived once the universe was "reloaded." Anne Gwish (see below) makes a reference to her being just out\-of\-frame later in the series. In *[Invader Zim](/wiki/Invader_Zim "Invader Zim")*, [Jhonen Vasquez](/wiki/Jhonen_Vasquez "Jhonen Vasquez")'s later television series, the episode "[Game Slave 2](/wiki/Game_Slave_2 "Game Slave 2")" features a Battery Clerk bearing a striking resemblance to Tess, but whether or not it is her is unknown. ### Edgar Vargas Edgar Vargas is a man who is abducted and killed by Johnny early in the series. During the single short storyline in which he appears, Edgar appears strapped into one of Nny's basement torture devices. Despite his predicament, he states that he is not afraid of Johnny's threats to kill him, because according to his religion, he will go to heaven, while Nny will be punished for his crimes in hell. Nny appears to contemplate this, and even seems to enjoy talking with Edgar, referring to him as his "bestest, bestest friend in the room, currently." Nevertheless, Johnny ultimately ignores any "lesson" his meeting with Edgar may have been intended to impart, and kills him anyway. However, Nny explicitly states that this is not done out of anger or hatred, but out of a necessity to "feed" Edgar's blood to the wall monster that controls Nny. This is the first instance in the book where it is indicated that the wall has become a key reason behind Johnny's violent actions. It is also an instance in which Johnny shows some degree of remorse, or at least a lack of enjoyment in, killing someone, as he says, after the murder is complete, "Well, that did nothing for me." ### Anne Gwish Anne Gwish is a [goth](/wiki/Goth_subculture "Goth subculture") woman who is featured in her own page\-long comics in later issues of the *JTHM.* These strips are unrelated to the main storyline, though Anne lives in the same [fictional universe](/wiki/Fictional_universe "Fictional universe") as Johnny and the other characters. The strips featuring her are largely a satire on stereotypical goth culture's tendencies towards pretension and exaggeration by individuals of their personal suffering. Within the Anne Gwish strips, there are several puns and parodies on gothic subculture found in the backgrounds, including posters for "Johnny the Hamicidal Maniac" (depicting Johnny as a pig), "Ditchspade Symphony" (a parody of the band [Switchblade Symphony](/wiki/Switchblade_Symphony "Switchblade Symphony")), "The Shmoe" (a rather obvious parody of *[The Crow](/wiki/The_Crow "The Crow")*), "Nine Inch Heels" (Parody of [Nine Inch Nails](/wiki/Nine_Inch_Nails "Nine Inch Nails")), and "The Dirtman" (referencing the comic *[The Sandman](/wiki/The_Sandman_%28Vertigo%29 "The Sandman (Vertigo)")*). In the back of the *JTHM: Director's Cut*, it was revealed that Vasquez liked the idea of Anne Gwish being the "most physically attractive" of his characters, as it "only frames more distinctly how HORRIBLE a person she is inside." ### Jimmy Jimmy appears in the final issue of the comic, following Johnny's death and rebirth. Calling himself by the self\-given nicknames "Mmy" and "Darkness," he appears on Johnny's doorstep and introduces himself as Nny's fan and devotee. Jimmy has a strikingly similar appearance to Johnny, much of which, it is implied, is an affectation intended to emulate the title character: he sports Nny's original haircut, skinny body, and very similar clothes. It seems that he is younger than Nny. He is the only known person successful in tracking down Johnny's home of his own volition. That this occurs following the "reboot" of the universe after 'Nny's death may be an indication that Nny's supernatural help in avoiding detection by normal people has weakened or been removed completely by this point. Jimmy informs Johnny that his interest in the latter's "work" began when he witnessed the destruction of a "Taco Hell" outlet by Johnny from a "CD Cesspool" store across the street. At that point, he decided to mimic Johnny's actions, to the extent of assembling a suitcase full of blades and surgical equipment. He gleefully recounts to Nny the murders he has committed to date—his [first grade](/wiki/First_grade "First grade") [teacher](/wiki/Teacher "Teacher"), and a girl who resembled someone who [bullied](/wiki/Bullying "Bullying") him in [high school](/wiki/High_school "High school"). He also admits, with relish, that he [raped](/wiki/Rape "Rape") his second victim in an [alley](/wiki/Alley "Alley") behind a [mall](/wiki/Shopping_mall "Shopping mall") before killing her (this incident was referred to earlier in the series and blamed on Johnny). As Nny grows visibly more and more disgusted with Jimmy's presence, Jimmy indicates that he would like to team up with Johnny and continue their mutual killing spree. However, Jimmy's attempts at mimicking Johnny are an abomination in Nny's eyes, though Nny acknowledges that Jimmy's sociopathy "is a more reasonable facsimile of \[Johnny's] own work than \[Johnny would] like to admit." Despite being given several chances to simply leave, Jimmy persists, and Nny proceeds to kill him. During the torture that follows, Johnny makes particular reference to the rape of the girl, which he finds unforgivable, stating that he himself would never do such a thing, as he considers even basic physical contact with people to be distasteful, and that he considers such an act to be giving in to [emotion](/wiki/Emotion "Emotion"), something else which he also finds abhorrent. He also speaks at length on the subject of his distaste at being imitated at all. As Johnny is speaking, Jimmy is [vivisected](/wiki/Vivisect "Vivisect") with several [hooks](/wiki/Wiktionary:Hook "Hook"), opening his torso. Johnny replies to Jimmy's final statement that he is "just like" Nny by smashing a sledgehammer into Jimmy's open chest cavity and stating, "*I don't like myself much.*" It is generally assumed that Jimmy represents a particular breed of *JTHM* fan that seeks to emulate Johnny, Vasquez's style, and/or even Vasquez himself, as Nny is depicted as being particularly distressed at the fact that Jimmy's mimicry may be more accurate than he would prefer to believe. The idea that Jimmy may be a parody of a portion of *JTHM'''s fanbase is also indicated by the facts that Jimmy's speech and mannerisms are like that of a stereotypical teenager, and that he doesn't seem to understand the little bit of underlying reason behind Johnny's acts of murder. At one point, Jimmy suggests that "\[Johnny] should kill more, and talk less," which may refer to fan reactions to Johnny's monologues and existential angst in later installments of the series.* Johnny's "Voices" ----------------- ### Nailbunny Also known as Spooky Floating Bunny Head, Nailbunny was Johnny's first and last pet, a [rabbit](/wiki/Rabbit "Rabbit") whom he fed once and then nailed to a wall. Only the preserved head (which was torn from the body by Mr. Eff) remains by the end of the comic, the rest of the body apparently unnecessary for the [afterlife](/wiki/Afterlife "Afterlife"). It is unclear whether the disembodied head of Nailbunny was actually given the ability to levitate by the supernatural force that permeates Nny's house, or that Johnny is simply hallucinating during his interactions with the dead rabbit. Among the group of Johnny's "voices," Nailbunny appears to represent Nny's conscience and "voice of reason," a role he on occasion expresses exasperation with. He is responsible for persuading Johnny not to kill himself, and also acts as a conversation partner during some of Nny's more introspective moments regarding his life and killing sprees. After Johnny dies and is subsequently returned to the newly rebooted universe, Nailbunny no longer appears, although on at least one occasion it is suggested that Nny still hears his voice. ### The Doughboys Based on the mascots for a certain company ([Pillsbury](/wiki/Pillsbury_Company "Pillsbury Company")) that produces [muffins](/wiki/Muffin "Muffin"), "Psycho\-Doughboy" (aka "D\-Boy") and "Mr. Eff" are carved foam figures that were once part of a pastry display. After being taken home and repainted by Johnny, they were given personalities through supernatural means, and throughout the story appear to represent opposing "sides" of Nny's insanity. Later on, it is also revealed that the two are affiliated with the monster behind Johnny's blood\-painted wall: D\-Boy refers to the creature as his "Master" and expresses a wish to be reabsorbed into this master, while Mr. Eff seems to have relinquished his devotion to it, and would prefer to become a "real" entity in his own right. In his role as one of Johnny's "headvoices," Mr. Eff appears to represent Nny's more manic, homicidal side, as he encourages Nny to kill remorselessly to obtain blood to repaint the wall. However, this action also has a selfish motive, since as long as the monster remains inside the wall, it will feed more power to Mr. Eff and Psycho\-Doughboy, making them more real. Psycho\-Doughboy, on the other hand, represents the depressed, self\-loathing aspect of Nny's insanity, encourages Nny to kill himself on several occasions. D\-boy is continually infuriated with Nny's failure to commit suicide, and accuses him of sabotaging his attempts on purpose. Eventually, the Doughboys become more than just extensions of Johnny's insanity, but rather mortal, mobile creatures in their own right, as they interact with Tess and Kirk in Issue 5\. Shortly after this, the wall monster kills them both. Incidentally, Psycho\-Doughboy has "fuck" written on his chest, not Mr. Eff. ### Reverend Meat Continuing the series' trend of inanimate objects imbued with personalities, Reverend Meat is a Bub's Burger Boy statuette who begins speaking to Johnny after his rebirth. He represents the desire for instant gratification and physical sensation, and encourages Johnny to give into his every urge and desire without thinking. This perspective stands in stark contrast with Nny's decision, post\-death, to "cleanse" himself of all emotion and desire; Johnny dislikes and argues with Reverend Meat, and tends to ignore him in favor of Mr. Samsa the cockroach. Reverend Meat claims that he is not like the Doughboys (whom he characterizes as "mere manifestations of a manifestation"), and offers as proof of this statement the fact that he's holding up a giant hamburger. Reverend Meat's name is not mentioned in the comic itself, but Jhonen Vasquez provided it in an interview, and listed it in the JTHM: Director's Cut*.* Heaven and Hell --------------- ### St. Peter Works the reception desk in Heaven. He becomes violently ill when he looks up the horrible acts Nny has done. He has sunglasses, dreadlocks, a small curled beard connected to his moustache, and a T\-shirt that reads 'GOD™'. The sign that states 'Administration', also has in smaller letters under it "We sell [churros](/wiki/Churro "Churro") too". ### God [God](/wiki/God "God") is here depicted as a giant baby\-like man living in Heaven that gives Johnny no help. God openly admits to having done nothing since the creation of the universe just before going back to sleep. He created the universe, and is now very tired. Vasquez thinks he is cute, according to an author's note. ### Damned Elize Damned Elize is a character who lives in [Hell](/wiki/Hell "Hell"). She does menial tasks in Heaven as punishment for her [hedonism](/wiki/Hedonism "Hedonism") in life. She seems to be attracted to Johnny based on an offhand remark about tearing his clothes off with her teeth, which rather repels him. However, just before being sent to Hell, she remarks also in a rant of sorts that she is in so much trouble because of him due to the psychic battle he started in Heaven, and wants him to go away. She also comments that she'll probably get stuck working the giant [Taco Bell](/wiki/Taco_Bell "Taco Bell") in Heaven. ### Señor Diablo In [Jhonen Vasquez](/wiki/Jhonen_Vasquez "Jhonen Vasquez")'s works, Señor Diablo is [Satan](/wiki/Satan "Satan"), Señor Diablo being his preferred name. Standing at something like eight feet tall, with humongous, ram\-like horns and an unhappy\-face pin, he looks positively demonic. Johnny, after being dropped out of heaven with some unanswered questions, asks Señor Diablo about his true nature on earth, learning that he is in fact a 'waste\-lock', someone who holds back the vile psychic residue that humans generate on earth. A relatively sardonic and sarcastic version of the Devil, remarkably akin to [Mark Twain](/wiki/Mark_Twain "Mark Twain")'s Satan ([Letters from the Earth](/wiki/Letters_from_the_Earth "Letters from the Earth")*), Señor Diablo is really quite amused by humankind's desire to constantly look good. He finds Nny's unhappy fate rather hilarious, given that he was obviously disturbed enough to begin with. He lives in the same city as [Squee](/wiki/Squee_%28character%29 "Squee (character)") with his Christian wife (who knows him as "Juan" and is unaware of who he truly is until he finally bothers to tell her) and [Antichrist](/wiki/Antichrist "Antichrist") son, Pepito (who considers himself to be friends with Nny's neighbor Squee.). He makes another appearance in Vasquez's other work,* [Squee!](/wiki/Squee%21 "Squee!")*, as the father of the aforementioned Pepito.* Señor Diablo is the name given to the Devil in the JTHM *comic. Señor Diablo represents Johnny's understanding of evil. This understanding includes lack of caring for other people and how they feel about life. In the* JTHM *hell, Johnny sees a perfect example of a world of torture and pain which is a replication of the world that already exists (only now without the few good people that made things better, and an inability to die)* Other ----- ### The Wall Monster At one point in the series, Johnny is unable to paint the wall because of an accidentally self\-inflicted gunshot wound. This, and his approaching death, is what causes the monster to break free. This is why one of the doughboys wants Nny to kill himself; their "master" behind the wall needed Johnny dead in order to liberate it, while the other doughboy wants to keep their master imprisoned so they can be free. The monster breaks free and it goes on a rampage through Johnny's house, killing many of the victims imprisoned there. Presumably it is the animated cesspool of human negative emotional residue the devil spoke of in his monologue. Fans have named this creature "Moose" because of a caption in volume 5 that reads "Fun Fact: It's not a moose." Also, in a strip in volume 2, Johnny is wearing a shirt that reads: "777 \# of the Moose." Johnny lives in house \#777\. Krik, one of Nny's numerous captives, exclaims that he thought the noises in the wall was a "moose". The Wall Monster could also be seen as a nod towards famous horror writer, [H. P. Lovecraft](/wiki/H._P._Lovecraft "H. P. Lovecraft"), due to the fact that the wall monster has no definite shape and seems to be mostly defined by tentacles (similar to some inter\-dimensional monsters in Lovecraft stories). Kirk also mentions that the noises preceding the monster's appearance make him think there were "rats in the walls", which is the name of a famous short story by H. P. Lovecraft. The first reference to the wall was in the second "scene" in the first volume, where a surveyor comes to Johnny's house asking questions, one being about a girl found drained of her blood behind a mall, then implies that the blood was consumed, to which Johnny replies "I never drank her blood!! You see!! It changes color when it dries!" (pointing to the wall) "It NEVER stays!! I have to keep the wall wet!!" just before killing him. Invader Zim makes a subtle reference to the Wall Monster in the episode "Room With a Moose," in which Zim sentences his classmates to suffer in a room which is inhabited by an actual moose. (The Wall\-Moose connection is underscored by the fact that Dib isn't really afraid of the Moose until Zim feeds it some walnuts.) ### Mr. Samsa Named after the main character of [Franz Kafka](/wiki/Franz_Kafka "Franz Kafka")'s short story "[The Metamorphosis](/wiki/The_Metamorphosis "The Metamorphosis")", "Mr. Samsa" is the name given by Nny to a series of normal [cockroaches](/wiki/Cockroach "Cockroach") that live in his basement, which he believes to be a single [immortal](/wiki/Immortality "Immortality") cockroach that he must repeatedly kill. To Johnny, Mr. Samsa represents complete desensitization and unemotional thinking, a state for which Johnny begins a quest at the end of the series. The insects are normal bugs with no ties to the supernatural entities in the series. ### Happy Noodle Boy Johnny is also the creator of a [comic strip](/wiki/Comic_strip "Comic strip") called Happy Noodle Boy*.* Happy Noodle Boy is a stick figure character appearing in a [comic](/wiki/Comic "Comic") drawn by Johnny and read mainly by "the homeless insane". Every issue has (at least) one single\-page insert of the Happy Noodle Boy comic itself, detailing the often completely nonsensical adventures (mostly cursing, screaming, and being shot). Happy Noodle Boy spends much of his time standing on a wooden box and yelling nonsense at hapless pedestrians, often provoking his own death. He appears in the backgrounds of many of the strips of the main storyline (the mall, the movie theatre, etc.), usually in crowd scenes, and pictures of him appear frequently in Squee's room. He also appeared in I Feel Sick *\#1 in a crowded dance floor. Johnny seems to be in the habit of leaving his drawings lying around.* It is believed that Happy Noodle Boy's name is a reference to Johnny's extraordinarily thin figure. In one particular comic, Johnny says that when he was young, other kids taunted him for this, calling him "Noodle Boy." At one point it is mentioned that, while all Johnny can draw currently is Happy Noodle Boy, he used to be an artist of particular talent. According to [Jhonen Vasquez](/wiki/Jhonen_Vasquez "Jhonen Vasquez"), he created Happy Noodle Boy while attending Mount Pleasant. According to Vasquez, "So many years ago, \[my little romantical friend in high school] was the unwitting reason Happy Noodle Boy was created. \[She] always asked me for comics. But I couldn't draw as fast as she requested. Thus, I tried to create the worst abomination of a comic that I could, so as to make her not want comics anymore. That abomination, my friends, was Happy Noodle Boy". 4 strips of Happy Noodle Boy appear in Squee's Wonderful Big Giant Book Of Unspeakable Horrors. The face of Happy Noodle Boy appears on the covers of JTHM *in place of the Slave Labour Graphics logo.* ### Wobbly\-Headed Bob Living in a different [fictional universe](/wiki/Fictional_universe "Fictional universe") and receiving his own one\-page comic in each book of the series, Wobbly\-Headed Bob is a depressed, conceited outcast with rodent\-like features and a huge "freakishly overdeveloped" head. Bob believes himself to be the "ultimate being" as he is so smart, but is tortured by his own dark intelligence, and has an amazing knack for causing misery in everyone he meets. He meets cutesy, happy, ignorant, carefree characters. By showing them the horrifying reality which he perceives to be their life, Bob makes them miserable, often causing them to commit suicide, which he barely seems to notice. See also -------- [Jhonen Vasquez](/wiki/Jhonen_Vasquez "Jhonen Vasquez") * + [Johnny the Homicidal Maniac](/wiki/Johnny_the_Homicidal_Maniac "Johnny the Homicidal Maniac") * [I Feel Sick](/wiki/I_Feel_Sick "I Feel Sick") * [Squee!](/wiki/Squee%21 "Squee!") * [Invader Zim](/wiki/Invader_Zim "Invader Zim")'' {{Jhonen Vasquez}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Johnny the Homicidal Maniac}} [Category:Lists of comics characters](/wiki/Category:Lists_of_comics_characters "Lists of comics characters") [Category:Comics characters by protagonist](/wiki/Category:Comics_characters_by_protagonist "Comics characters by protagonist") [Category:Johnny the Homicidal Maniac](/wiki/Category:Johnny_the_Homicidal_Maniac "Johnny the Homicidal Maniac")
[ "Human characters\n----------------", "### Johnny \"Nny\" C.", "[thumb\\|left\\|200px\\|Johnny the Homicidal Maniac.](/wiki/File:JTHM.png \"JTHM.png\")\nThe series focuses on the self\\-titled \"villain\" Johnny C., also known as Nny (pronounced “knee”). He is a crazy and psychopathic [serial killer](/wiki/Serial_killer \"Serial killer\"), [mass murderer](/wiki/Mass_murderer \"Mass murderer\") and [spree killer](/wiki/Spree_killer \"Spree killer\"), who interacts with other characters, more often than not [torturing](/wiki/Torture \"Torture\") and [murdering](/wiki/Murder \"Murder\") them. He elaborately and [sadistically](/wiki/Sadism_and_Masochism \"Sadism and Masochism\") kills anyone who even slightly irritates him, then drains their blood and paints one of the walls in his house with it (to keep a monster from getting out). If the situation dictates, Johnny is willing to murder \"innocent\" people, though in his twisted mind, he typically manages to justify his acts. The number of Johnny's victims is in the hundreds—or perhaps even thousands. Authorities are unable to capture Johnny and seem unaware of his existence, though his crimes are often witnessed in public and reported by the few who manage to survive. Nny acknowledges this fact, and it appears that the supernatural forces at work in his life prevent his being captured or killed.", "He is often devoid of a conscience, and acknowledges that he is insane. This insanity manifests itself in three entities: Nailbunny, who is the closest thing to a conscience that Nny possesses; and Psychodoughboy and Mr. Eff, two styrofoam Pillsbury doughboys who argue over whether Nny should kill himself or simply continue to kill others.", "Sometimes, Johnny displays feelings of self\\-hatred for his actions. This shows in his many monologues and suicide attempts. He even has what appear to be moments of clarity, but these are short\\-lived, and quickly turn into yet more crazed rants accompanied by bloodshed.", "At the end of the comic, Johnny attempts to reform himself by abandoning his emotions in favor of cold intellect, going on what is referred to as a \"vacation.\" This open\\-ended conclusion leaves room for a second series of comics, but the creator has expressed no interest so far to continue Nny's story. In the final issue of [Squee](/wiki/Squee%21 \"Squee!\"), it is revealed that following the events of [JTHM](/wiki/JTHM \"JTHM\"), Nny spent some time at a mental hospital, as a participant in a sleep study, but subsequently left the hospital despite researchers' enthusiasm for analyzing his \"dreams.\"", "Though his exact age is unknown, Vasquez has been quoted saying Johnny is in his early twenties. According to the *Director's Cut*, he is 5' 9\" and 115 lbs, making him very underweight.", "In *JTHM: The Director's Cut*, it is said that Johnny's parents were murdered by an \"evil man,\" but this is an obvious joke, as the description goes on to say that after this traumatic event, 'Nny became a masked crime fighter. Throughout the series, no information is given about Johnny's family or of his past, and even Johnny is deprived of all but occasional flashes of memory. A running theory on Johnny's origin is that he was once a brilliant artist who lost his talent, and subsequently went [insane](/wiki/Insane \"Insane\"). This theory is supported by Devi's recollection in issue 2 of [I Feel Sick](/wiki/I_Feel_Sick \"I Feel Sick\") of a conversation between herself and Johnny in which Johnny laments his loss of painting talent and implies that he began to kill as a way of filling that void. In issue 4 of [JTHM](/wiki/JTHM \"JTHM\"), Nailbunny chastises Johnny for drawing his Happy Noodle Boy comic instead of painting. However, Vasquez has written that he did not intend to give Johnny a concrete origin story, stating, \"\\[I] find the blurriness of it all much more appealing than making him go nuts over being pantsed in school once. 'YAAAARGH!! I have been pantsed!! I kill like the damned now!!' That's just not done.\"", "After the comic was released, Vasquez set up a [Twitter page](https://twitter.com/Johnny_C) for Johnny, where he puts out random comments that he makes, often about what he does while he's killing people, or just simply ideas.", "### Todd \"Squee\" Casil", "{{Main article\\|Squee (character)}}", "Also known as Todd Casil, but nicknamed Squee, the namesake originating from the sound the child makes when scared. He is Johnny's friend and next\\-door neighbor. Squee's mother is implied to suffer from a vague drug addiction, and his father resents his very existence and has no qualms about constantly telling him so. Squee has a [teddy bear](/wiki/Teddy_bear \"Teddy bear\") named Shmee, who is conscious in Todd's own psyche; Shmee happens to be a trauma sponge, and constantly tells Squee to do evil things. Vasquez later authored a comic series, *[Squee!](/wiki/Squee%21 \"Squee!\")*, with this character as the [protagonist](/wiki/Protagonist \"Protagonist\"). Johnny is the only person who really cares about Squee, serving as his least evil friend, though he constantly frightens him unintentionally. Johnny has hinted from time to time that his interest in Squee is partially due to his desire to ensure that Squee doesn't grow up to be like him. Also, Johnny has actively taken measures to ensure the safety of Squee, by killing and mutilating a [pedophile](/wiki/Pedophile \"Pedophile\") poised to abduct Squee.", "A sad, lonely, and mistreated little boy at about 6 or 7 years old, Squee is frightened by almost everything, and is terrified of his evidently disturbed neighbor. Despite this however, Johnny takes a shine to Squee, seeing him as something of a little brother from the family he never had (or simply cannot remember).{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2008}} On several occasions Johnny talks to Squee about his opinions on humanity and the various tribulations of life, usually ending in Squee being horrified by the 'examples' Johnny uses in order to get his point across. Squee's father despises him and wishes that he was never born. Squee's mother is often so doped on various pills that she doesn't recognize Squee or is unaware of what is happening around her. Their detachment from their son also prevents them from noticing the numerous occasions in which Johnny breaks into the house. Squee's other only true friend is a teddy bear named Shmee. At one point he meets and 'befriends' the son of the Devil, a boy named Pepito.", "### Devi D.", "Nicknamed \"The One That Got Away\", Devi befriends Johnny and becomes a potential love interest, though she is unaware of his antisocial behavior until he attempts to murder her. A struggling artist, she works in a bookstore for half the duration of the comic; the other half is spent painting in her apartment. Devi was one of the few people who actually met Johnny in person and lived to tell about it. She's also the only person (besides Squee) Johnny has ever truly felt any positive feelings for. They met in the bookstore she once worked in before she became a professional artist, and went on a date that ended in almost being able to kiss, but instead, Johnny felt so happy that he wanted to 'immortalize the moment' and attacked Devi. Instead, she beat him up and fled. Ever since, he has been occasionally trying to contact her to apologize and try and explain his odd reasons for trying to kill her, in which she responds to by locking herself in her apartment and screaming at him over the phone. Johnny seems to show selflessness toward her by trying to become cold so he has a lesser chance of killing her.", "Devi was later the subject of the doubleshot comic \"[I Feel Sick](/wiki/I_Feel_Sick \"I Feel Sick\")\" in which she struggles to maintain her own sanity. She converses with a painting of a doll named Sickness, and the ensuing power struggle hints at the possibility of the dark supernatural forces that were Johnny's undoing.", "### Tess R., Dillon and Krik", "Tess R. and Dillon are two people who play part of the [goth](/wiki/Goth_subculture \"Goth subculture\") [parody](/wiki/Parody \"Parody\") in the series. Krik is a violent [misogynist](/wiki/Misogynist \"Misogynist\") (he claims to have beaten his girlfriend and her grandmother) and [chauvinist](/wiki/Chauvinist \"Chauvinist\") who is abducted by Johnny for drunkenly harassing him. Apparently, Johnny removed a chunk of his brain from the back of his head, making him nearly lose sanity. Tess' family moved around a lot so she has a hard time making friends. She is a pseudo\\-goth in order to make friends with others. She dates Dillon because he's in a band. Dillon uses the goth culture as a means of excluding and ridiculing others. They come into Johnny's grasp due to Dillon's constant badgering during *[Kafka](/wiki/Kafka_%28film%29 \"Kafka (film)\")*: Johnny makes a point of ignoring Tess and tormenting Dillon, who is unaware of the fact that Tess dislikes him. After Johnny's accidental 'death', Tess and Krik try to escape, but are slowed down by running into other prisoners in the dungeons and encountering the doughboys. Although Krik (who released Tess from Johnny's captivity) and Dillon were quite literally torn apart, Tess presumably escaped—although at this point there appeared to have been no universe into which to escape. She was not actually killed but was \"flushed\" with the rest of reality: she survived once the universe was \"reloaded.\" Anne Gwish (see below) makes a reference to her being just out\\-of\\-frame later in the series. In *[Invader Zim](/wiki/Invader_Zim \"Invader Zim\")*, [Jhonen Vasquez](/wiki/Jhonen_Vasquez \"Jhonen Vasquez\")'s later television series, the episode \"[Game Slave 2](/wiki/Game_Slave_2 \"Game Slave 2\")\" features a Battery Clerk bearing a striking resemblance to Tess, but whether or not it is her is unknown.", "### Edgar Vargas", "Edgar Vargas is a man who is abducted and killed by Johnny early in the series. During the single short storyline in which he appears, Edgar appears strapped into one of Nny's basement torture devices. Despite his predicament, he states that he is not afraid of Johnny's threats to kill him, because according to his religion, he will go to heaven, while Nny will be punished for his crimes in hell. Nny appears to contemplate this, and even seems to enjoy talking with Edgar, referring to him as his \"bestest, bestest friend in the room, currently.\" Nevertheless, Johnny ultimately ignores any \"lesson\" his meeting with Edgar may have been intended to impart, and kills him anyway. However, Nny explicitly states that this is not done out of anger or hatred, but out of a necessity to \"feed\" Edgar's blood to the wall monster that controls Nny. This is the first instance in the book where it is indicated that the wall has become a key reason behind Johnny's violent actions. It is also an instance in which Johnny shows some degree of remorse, or at least a lack of enjoyment in, killing someone, as he says, after the murder is complete, \"Well, that did nothing for me.\"", "### Anne Gwish", "Anne Gwish is a [goth](/wiki/Goth_subculture \"Goth subculture\") woman who is featured in her own page\\-long comics in later issues of the *JTHM.* These strips are unrelated to the main storyline, though Anne lives in the same [fictional universe](/wiki/Fictional_universe \"Fictional universe\") as Johnny and the other characters. The strips featuring her are largely a satire on stereotypical goth culture's tendencies towards pretension and exaggeration by individuals of their personal suffering.", "Within the Anne Gwish strips, there are several puns and parodies on gothic subculture found in the backgrounds, including posters for \"Johnny the Hamicidal Maniac\" (depicting Johnny as a pig), \"Ditchspade Symphony\" (a parody of the band [Switchblade Symphony](/wiki/Switchblade_Symphony \"Switchblade Symphony\")), \"The Shmoe\" (a rather obvious parody of *[The Crow](/wiki/The_Crow \"The Crow\")*), \"Nine Inch Heels\" (Parody of [Nine Inch Nails](/wiki/Nine_Inch_Nails \"Nine Inch Nails\")), and \"The Dirtman\" (referencing the comic *[The Sandman](/wiki/The_Sandman_%28Vertigo%29 \"The Sandman (Vertigo)\")*).", "In the back of the *JTHM: Director's Cut*, it was revealed that Vasquez liked the idea of Anne Gwish being the \"most physically attractive\" of his characters, as it \"only frames more distinctly how HORRIBLE a person she is inside.\"", "### Jimmy", "Jimmy appears in the final issue of the comic, following Johnny's death and rebirth. Calling himself by the self\\-given nicknames \"Mmy\" and \"Darkness,\" he appears on Johnny's doorstep and introduces himself as Nny's fan and devotee. Jimmy has a strikingly similar appearance to Johnny, much of which, it is implied, is an affectation intended to emulate the title character: he sports Nny's original haircut, skinny body, and very similar clothes. It seems that he is younger than Nny. He is the only known person successful in tracking down Johnny's home of his own volition. That this occurs following the \"reboot\" of the universe after 'Nny's death may be an indication that Nny's supernatural help in avoiding detection by normal people has weakened or been removed completely by this point.", "Jimmy informs Johnny that his interest in the latter's \"work\" began when he witnessed the destruction of a \"Taco Hell\" outlet by Johnny from a \"CD Cesspool\" store across the street. At that point, he decided to mimic Johnny's actions, to the extent of assembling a suitcase full of blades and surgical equipment. He gleefully recounts to Nny the murders he has committed to date—his [first grade](/wiki/First_grade \"First grade\") [teacher](/wiki/Teacher \"Teacher\"), and a girl who resembled someone who [bullied](/wiki/Bullying \"Bullying\") him in [high school](/wiki/High_school \"High school\"). He also admits, with relish, that he [raped](/wiki/Rape \"Rape\") his second victim in an [alley](/wiki/Alley \"Alley\") behind a [mall](/wiki/Shopping_mall \"Shopping mall\") before killing her (this incident was referred to earlier in the series and blamed on Johnny). As Nny grows visibly more and more disgusted with Jimmy's presence, Jimmy indicates that he would like to team up with Johnny and continue their mutual killing spree.", "However, Jimmy's attempts at mimicking Johnny are an abomination in Nny's eyes, though Nny acknowledges that Jimmy's sociopathy \"is a more reasonable facsimile of \\[Johnny's] own work than \\[Johnny would] like to admit.\" Despite being given several chances to simply leave, Jimmy persists, and Nny proceeds to kill him.", "During the torture that follows, Johnny makes particular reference to the rape of the girl, which he finds unforgivable, stating that he himself would never do such a thing, as he considers even basic physical contact with people to be distasteful, and that he considers such an act to be giving in to [emotion](/wiki/Emotion \"Emotion\"), something else which he also finds abhorrent. He also speaks at length on the subject of his distaste at being imitated at all. As Johnny is speaking, Jimmy is [vivisected](/wiki/Vivisect \"Vivisect\") with several [hooks](/wiki/Wiktionary:Hook \"Hook\"), opening his torso. Johnny replies to Jimmy's final statement that he is \"just like\" Nny by smashing a sledgehammer into Jimmy's open chest cavity and stating, \"*I don't like myself much.*\"", "It is generally assumed that Jimmy represents a particular breed of *JTHM* fan that seeks to emulate Johnny, Vasquez's style, and/or even Vasquez himself, as Nny is depicted as being particularly distressed at the fact that Jimmy's mimicry may be more accurate than he would prefer to believe. The idea that Jimmy may be a parody of a portion of *JTHM'''s fanbase is also indicated by the facts that Jimmy's speech and mannerisms are like that of a stereotypical teenager, and that he doesn't seem to understand the little bit of underlying reason behind Johnny's acts of murder. At one point, Jimmy suggests that \"\\[Johnny] should kill more, and talk less,\" which may refer to fan reactions to Johnny's monologues and existential angst in later installments of the series.*", "Johnny's \"Voices\"\n-----------------", "### Nailbunny", "Also known as Spooky Floating Bunny Head, Nailbunny was Johnny's first and last pet, a [rabbit](/wiki/Rabbit \"Rabbit\") whom he fed once and then nailed to a wall. Only the preserved head (which was torn from the body by Mr. Eff) remains by the end of the comic, the rest of the body apparently unnecessary for the [afterlife](/wiki/Afterlife \"Afterlife\"). It is unclear whether the disembodied head of Nailbunny was actually given the ability to levitate by the supernatural force that permeates Nny's house, or that Johnny is simply hallucinating during his interactions with the dead rabbit.\nAmong the group of Johnny's \"voices,\" Nailbunny appears to represent Nny's conscience and \"voice of reason,\" a role he on occasion expresses exasperation with. He is responsible for persuading Johnny not to kill himself, and also acts as a conversation partner during some of Nny's more introspective moments regarding his life and killing sprees. After Johnny dies and is subsequently returned to the newly rebooted universe, Nailbunny no longer appears, although on at least one occasion it is suggested that Nny still hears his voice.\n### The Doughboys", "Based on the mascots for a certain company ([Pillsbury](/wiki/Pillsbury_Company \"Pillsbury Company\")) that produces [muffins](/wiki/Muffin \"Muffin\"), \"Psycho\\-Doughboy\" (aka \"D\\-Boy\") and \"Mr. Eff\" are carved foam figures that were once part of a pastry display. After being taken home and repainted by Johnny, they were given personalities through supernatural means, and throughout the story appear to represent opposing \"sides\" of Nny's insanity. Later on, it is also revealed that the two are affiliated with the monster behind Johnny's blood\\-painted wall: D\\-Boy refers to the creature as his \"Master\" and expresses a wish to be reabsorbed into this master, while Mr. Eff seems to have relinquished his devotion to it, and would prefer to become a \"real\" entity in his own right.\nIn his role as one of Johnny's \"headvoices,\" Mr. Eff appears to represent Nny's more manic, homicidal side, as he encourages Nny to kill remorselessly to obtain blood to repaint the wall. However, this action also has a selfish motive, since as long as the monster remains inside the wall, it will feed more power to Mr. Eff and Psycho\\-Doughboy, making them more real. Psycho\\-Doughboy, on the other hand, represents the depressed, self\\-loathing aspect of Nny's insanity, encourages Nny to kill himself on several occasions. D\\-boy is continually infuriated with Nny's failure to commit suicide, and accuses him of sabotaging his attempts on purpose.\nEventually, the Doughboys become more than just extensions of Johnny's insanity, but rather mortal, mobile creatures in their own right, as they interact with Tess and Kirk in Issue 5\\. Shortly after this, the wall monster kills them both.\nIncidentally, Psycho\\-Doughboy has \"fuck\" written on his chest, not Mr. Eff.\n### Reverend Meat", "Continuing the series' trend of inanimate objects imbued with personalities, Reverend Meat is a Bub's Burger Boy statuette who begins speaking to Johnny after his rebirth. He represents the desire for instant gratification and physical sensation, and encourages Johnny to give into his every urge and desire without thinking. This perspective stands in stark contrast with Nny's decision, post\\-death, to \"cleanse\" himself of all emotion and desire; Johnny dislikes and argues with Reverend Meat, and tends to ignore him in favor of Mr. Samsa the cockroach.\nReverend Meat claims that he is not like the Doughboys (whom he characterizes as \"mere manifestations of a manifestation\"), and offers as proof of this statement the fact that he's holding up a giant hamburger. Reverend Meat's name is not mentioned in the comic itself, but Jhonen Vasquez provided it in an interview, and listed it in the JTHM: Director's Cut*.*", "Heaven and Hell\n---------------", "### St. Peter", "Works the reception desk in Heaven. He becomes violently ill when he looks up the horrible acts Nny has done. He has sunglasses, dreadlocks, a small curled beard connected to his moustache, and a T\\-shirt that reads 'GOD™'. The sign that states 'Administration', also has in smaller letters under it \"We sell [churros](/wiki/Churro \"Churro\") too\".\n### God", "[God](/wiki/God \"God\") is here depicted as a giant baby\\-like man living in Heaven that gives Johnny no help. God openly admits to having done nothing since the creation of the universe just before going back to sleep. He created the universe, and is now very tired. Vasquez thinks he is cute, according to an author's note.\n### Damned Elize", "Damned Elize is a character who lives in [Hell](/wiki/Hell \"Hell\"). She does menial tasks in Heaven as punishment for her [hedonism](/wiki/Hedonism \"Hedonism\") in life. She seems to be attracted to Johnny based on an offhand remark about tearing his clothes off with her teeth, which rather repels him. However, just before being sent to Hell, she remarks also in a rant of sorts that she is in so much trouble because of him due to the psychic battle he started in Heaven, and wants him to go away. She also comments that she'll probably get stuck working the giant [Taco Bell](/wiki/Taco_Bell \"Taco Bell\") in Heaven.\n### Señor Diablo", "In [Jhonen Vasquez](/wiki/Jhonen_Vasquez \"Jhonen Vasquez\")'s works, Señor Diablo is [Satan](/wiki/Satan \"Satan\"), Señor Diablo being his preferred name. Standing at something like eight feet tall, with humongous, ram\\-like horns and an unhappy\\-face pin, he looks positively demonic. Johnny, after being dropped out of heaven with some unanswered questions, asks Señor Diablo about his true nature on earth, learning that he is in fact a 'waste\\-lock', someone who holds back the vile psychic residue that humans generate on earth.\nA relatively sardonic and sarcastic version of the Devil, remarkably akin to [Mark Twain](/wiki/Mark_Twain \"Mark Twain\")'s Satan ([Letters from the Earth](/wiki/Letters_from_the_Earth \"Letters from the Earth\")*), Señor Diablo is really quite amused by humankind's desire to constantly look good. He finds Nny's unhappy fate rather hilarious, given that he was obviously disturbed enough to begin with. He lives in the same city as [Squee](/wiki/Squee_%28character%29 \"Squee (character)\") with his Christian wife (who knows him as \"Juan\" and is unaware of who he truly is until he finally bothers to tell her) and [Antichrist](/wiki/Antichrist \"Antichrist\") son, Pepito (who considers himself to be friends with Nny's neighbor Squee.). He makes another appearance in Vasquez's other work,* [Squee!](/wiki/Squee%21 \"Squee!\")*, as the father of the aforementioned Pepito.*", "Señor Diablo is the name given to the Devil in the JTHM *comic. Señor Diablo represents Johnny's understanding of evil. This understanding includes lack of caring for other people and how they feel about life. In the* JTHM *hell, Johnny sees a perfect example of a world of torture and pain which is a replication of the world that already exists (only now without the few good people that made things better, and an inability to die)*", "Other\n-----", "### The Wall Monster", "At one point in the series, Johnny is unable to paint the wall because of an accidentally self\\-inflicted gunshot wound. This, and his approaching death, is what causes the monster to break free. This is why one of the doughboys wants Nny to kill himself; their \"master\" behind the wall needed Johnny dead in order to liberate it, while the other doughboy wants to keep their master imprisoned so they can be free. The monster breaks free and it goes on a rampage through Johnny's house, killing many of the victims imprisoned there. Presumably it is the animated cesspool of human negative emotional residue the devil spoke of in his monologue. Fans have named this creature \"Moose\" because of a caption in volume 5 that reads \"Fun Fact: It's not a moose.\" Also, in a strip in volume 2, Johnny is wearing a shirt that reads: \"777 \\# of the Moose.\" Johnny lives in house \\#777\\. Krik, one of Nny's numerous captives, exclaims that he thought the noises in the wall was a \"moose\".\nThe Wall Monster could also be seen as a nod towards famous horror writer, [H. P. Lovecraft](/wiki/H._P._Lovecraft \"H. P. Lovecraft\"), due to the fact that the wall monster has no definite shape and seems to be mostly defined by tentacles (similar to some inter\\-dimensional monsters in Lovecraft stories). Kirk also mentions that the noises preceding the monster's appearance make him think there were \"rats in the walls\", which is the name of a famous short story by H. P. Lovecraft.\nThe first reference to the wall was in the second \"scene\" in the first volume, where a surveyor comes to Johnny's house asking questions, one being about a girl found drained of her blood behind a mall, then implies that the blood was consumed, to which Johnny replies \"I never drank her blood!! You see!! It changes color when it dries!\" (pointing to the wall) \"It NEVER stays!! I have to keep the wall wet!!\" just before killing him.\nInvader Zim makes a subtle reference to the Wall Monster in the episode \"Room With a Moose,\" in which Zim sentences his classmates to suffer in a room which is inhabited by an actual moose. (The Wall\\-Moose connection is underscored by the fact that Dib isn't really afraid of the Moose until Zim feeds it some walnuts.)\n### Mr. Samsa", "Named after the main character of [Franz Kafka](/wiki/Franz_Kafka \"Franz Kafka\")'s short story \"[The Metamorphosis](/wiki/The_Metamorphosis \"The Metamorphosis\")\", \"Mr. Samsa\" is the name given by Nny to a series of normal [cockroaches](/wiki/Cockroach \"Cockroach\") that live in his basement, which he believes to be a single [immortal](/wiki/Immortality \"Immortality\") cockroach that he must repeatedly kill. To Johnny, Mr. Samsa represents complete desensitization and unemotional thinking, a state for which Johnny begins a quest at the end of the series. The insects are normal bugs with no ties to the supernatural entities in the series.\n### Happy Noodle Boy", "Johnny is also the creator of a [comic strip](/wiki/Comic_strip \"Comic strip\") called Happy Noodle Boy*.*", "Happy Noodle Boy is a stick figure character appearing in a [comic](/wiki/Comic \"Comic\") drawn by Johnny and read mainly by \"the homeless insane\". Every issue has (at least) one single\\-page insert of the Happy Noodle Boy comic itself, detailing the often completely nonsensical adventures (mostly cursing, screaming, and being shot). Happy Noodle Boy spends much of his time standing on a wooden box and yelling nonsense at hapless pedestrians, often provoking his own death.\nHe appears in the backgrounds of many of the strips of the main storyline (the mall, the movie theatre, etc.), usually in crowd scenes, and pictures of him appear frequently in Squee's room. He also appeared in I Feel Sick *\\#1 in a crowded dance floor. Johnny seems to be in the habit of leaving his drawings lying around.*", "It is believed that Happy Noodle Boy's name is a reference to Johnny's extraordinarily thin figure. In one particular comic, Johnny says that when he was young, other kids taunted him for this, calling him \"Noodle Boy.\"\nAt one point it is mentioned that, while all Johnny can draw currently is Happy Noodle Boy, he used to be an artist of particular talent.\nAccording to [Jhonen Vasquez](/wiki/Jhonen_Vasquez \"Jhonen Vasquez\"), he created Happy Noodle Boy while attending Mount Pleasant. According to Vasquez, \"So many years ago, \\[my little romantical friend in high school] was the unwitting reason Happy Noodle Boy was created. \\[She] always asked me for comics. But I couldn't draw as fast as she requested. Thus, I tried to create the worst abomination of a comic that I could, so as to make her not want comics anymore. That abomination, my friends, was Happy Noodle Boy\".\n4 strips of Happy Noodle Boy appear in Squee's Wonderful Big Giant Book Of Unspeakable Horrors.\nThe face of Happy Noodle Boy appears on the covers of JTHM *in place of the Slave Labour Graphics logo.*", "### Wobbly\\-Headed Bob", "Living in a different [fictional universe](/wiki/Fictional_universe \"Fictional universe\") and receiving his own one\\-page comic in each book of the series, Wobbly\\-Headed Bob is a depressed, conceited outcast with rodent\\-like features and a huge \"freakishly overdeveloped\" head. Bob believes himself to be the \"ultimate being\" as he is so smart, but is tortured by his own dark intelligence, and has an amazing knack for causing misery in everyone he meets. He meets cutesy, happy, ignorant, carefree characters. By showing them the horrifying reality which he perceives to be their life, Bob makes them miserable, often causing them to commit suicide, which he barely seems to notice.\nSee also\n--------", "[Jhonen Vasquez](/wiki/Jhonen_Vasquez \"Jhonen Vasquez\")\n* + [Johnny the Homicidal Maniac](/wiki/Johnny_the_Homicidal_Maniac \"Johnny the Homicidal Maniac\")\n* [I Feel Sick](/wiki/I_Feel_Sick \"I Feel Sick\")\n* [Squee!](/wiki/Squee%21 \"Squee!\")\n* [Invader Zim](/wiki/Invader_Zim \"Invader Zim\")''", "{{Jhonen Vasquez}}", "{{DEFAULTSORT:Johnny the Homicidal Maniac}}\n[Category:Lists of comics characters](/wiki/Category:Lists_of_comics_characters \"Lists of comics characters\")\n[Category:Comics characters by protagonist](/wiki/Category:Comics_characters_by_protagonist \"Comics characters by protagonist\")\n[Category:Johnny the Homicidal Maniac](/wiki/Category:Johnny_the_Homicidal_Maniac \"Johnny the Homicidal Maniac\")", "" ]
Impact ------ Texas bore the brunt of the storm, where strong winds and heavy rainfall damaged about 3,000 homes and knocked downed numerous trees and signs. Chantal also spawned two tornadoes, one in [Crystal Beach, Texas](/wiki/Crystal_Beach%2C_Texas "Crystal Beach, Texas") and the other in [Acadia Parish, Louisiana](/wiki/Acadia_Parish%2C_Louisiana "Acadia Parish, Louisiana"); both of which caused minor damage. Additionally, 13 fatalities occurred, all of them due to drowning; 11 deaths occurred offshore in the Gulf of Mexico, while the remaining two were reported in east\-central Texas. Overall, the storm resulted in at least $100 million (1989 USD) in damage. ### Mexico Prior to becoming a tropical cyclone, the precursor tropical disturbance dropped rainfall on the [Yucatán Peninsula](/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula "Yucatán Peninsula") of Mexico. The precipitation put out fires burning in the region, which had destroyed up to {{convert\|370000\|acre\|ha\|lk\=on}} of jungle in the two months prior to the tropical disturbance, according to the Agriculture Department of Mexico.{{cite news\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=D2ZIAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=ywYEAAAAIBAJ\&dq\=hurricane%20chantal%20warning\&pg\=4976%2C946119\|title\=Chantal does little damage in Texas\|author\=Jeff Awalt\|agency\=Associated Press\|date\=August 2, 1989\|newspaper\=\[\[Star\-Banner]]\|access\-date\=January 9, 2013\|page\=27\|location\=High Island, Texas}} ### Texas [thumb\|right\|Rainfall totals in the United States associated with Hurricane Chantal](/wiki/File:Chantal_1989_rainfall.png "Chantal 1989 rainfall.png") #### Galveston County The worst effects from the storm occurred in [Galveston County](/wiki/Galveston_County%2C_Texas "Galveston County, Texas"). Waves of {{convert\|7\|ft\|m}} in height were reported on High Island during Chantal, while [Kemah](/wiki/Kemah%2C_Texas "Kemah, Texas") measured tides of {{convert\|3\.8\|ft\|m}}, and the Galveston Flagship pier reported {{convert\|3\.5\|ft\|m}} seas. The high tides eroded more than {{convert\|1\|mi\|km}} of [Texas State Highway 87](/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_87 "Texas State Highway 87"), while at least another {{convert\|15\|mi\|km}} of that highway was covered in sand and debris. As a result, the highway was expected to be closed for at least five weeks, though in October 1989, storm surge from [Hurricane Jerry](/wiki/Hurricane_Jerry_%281989%29 "Hurricane Jerry (1989)") caused more erosion, and no repairs have been made since.{{cite report\|url\=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm\_wallets/atlantic/atl1989\-prelim/jerry/prelim03\.gif\|title\=Hurricane Jerry Preliminary Report\|author\=B. Max Mayfield\|date\=November 21, 1989\|publisher\=National Hurricane Center\|page\=3\|access\-date\=January 9, 2013\|format\=GIF\|series\=Hurricane Jerry, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives\|location\=Miami, Florida}} In the northern portions of Galveston County, rainfall was generally at least {{convert\|12\|in\|mm}}, which a peak of {{convert\|20\|in\|mm}} in [Friendswood](/wiki/Friendswood%2C_Texas "Friendswood, Texas").{{cite report\|url\=http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/tropical/rain/chantal1989\.html\|title\=Hurricane Chantal \- July 31–August 4, 1989\|author\=David M. Roth\|date\=May 14, 2007\|publisher\=\[\[Hydrometeorological Prediction Center]]\|access\-date\=January 9, 2013\|location\=College Park, Maryland\|series\=Hydrometeorological Prediction Center's Rainfall Archive}} Numerous streets in [League City](/wiki/League_City%2C_Texas "League City, Texas"), [Dickinson](/wiki/Dickinson%2C_Texas "Dickinson, Texas"), and Friendswood were flooded for more than 24 hours. At least 100 homes in Friendswood were flooded, while water entered 70% of houses in Dickinson. Severe street flooding and ponding occurred in Galveston, especially in the low\-lying areas; some homes and businesses were damaged, as a result. Overall, 500 homes in the county were flooded. Strong winds also effected the county, with the highest recorded sustained wind speed being {{convert\|70\|mph\|km/h\|abbr\=on}} in Galveston; the highest gust of {{convert\|83\|mph\|km/h\|abbr\=on}} was reported at the same location. At the [National Weather Service](/wiki/National_Weather_Service "National Weather Service") Office in Downtown Galveston, sustained winds were {{convert\|53\|mph\|km/h\|abbr\=on}} and gusts reached {{convert\|69\|mph\|km/h\|abbr\=on}}. Although winds were strong, associated losses was confined to roof damage at beach homes in [Gilchrist](/wiki/Gilchrist%2C_Texas "Gilchrist, Texas") and [High Island](/wiki/High_Island%2C_Texas "High Island, Texas"). In addition to strong winds, heavy rainfall, and high tides, the storm also produced one tornado in the county. Rated as an F0 on the [Fujita scale](/wiki/Fujita_scale "Fujita scale"), the tornado was spawned in Crystal Beach, where it destroyed a boat shed; elsewhere, no damage occurred from this twister. #### Harris County Rainfall produced by Chantal in the city of [Houston](/wiki/Houston "Houston") alone varied extensively, with {{convert\|7\.14\|in\|mm}} at [William P. Hobby Airport](/wiki/William_P._Hobby_Airport "William P. Hobby Airport") after twenty\-four hours, and only {{convert\|1\.21\|in\|mm}} at [George Bush Intercontinental Airport](/wiki/George_Bush_Intercontinental_Airport "George Bush Intercontinental Airport") (then known as Houston Intercontinental Airport) in the same time lapse. In the southern portions of [Harris County](/wiki/Harris_County%2C_Texas "Harris County, Texas"), rainfall totaled ranged from {{convert\|8\|to\|12\|in\|mm}}. Significant amounts of precipitation resulted in flooding, which in turn, caused several hundred emergency crew rescues and damage to at least 500 homes. Strong winds also caused significant effects in the county. In [La Porte](/wiki/La_Porte%2C_Texas "La Porte, Texas"), where winds gusted to {{convert\|70\|mph\|km/h\|abbr\=on}}, 40 trees were toppled at a golf course, while a plane was flipped over at the [La Porte Municipal Airport](/wiki/La_Porte_Municipal_Airport_%28Texas%29 "La Porte Municipal Airport (Texas)"). The roof of a mobile home was torn off and a fence and a portable building was destroyed in [Highlands](/wiki/Highlands%2C_Texas "Highlands, Texas"). Winds damaged a [red cross](/wiki/American_Red_Cross "American Red Cross") shelter in [Pasadena](/wiki/Pasadena%2C_Texas "Pasadena, Texas") and blew out several windows at a hospital in [Baytown](/wiki/Baytown%2C_Texas "Baytown, Texas"). Throughout the county, high winds destroyed 2 mobile homes and damaged 49 apartments and 24 businesses. #### Elsewhere in Texas Heavy rainfall affected [Brazoria County](/wiki/Brazoria_County%2C_Texas "Brazoria County, Texas"), where precipitation amounts up to {{convert\|12\|in\|mm}} were reported; this caused significant flooding, especially in [Pearland](/wiki/Pearland%2C_Texas "Pearland, Texas") and [Manvel](/wiki/Manvel%2C_Texas "Manvel, Texas"). During the height of the storm, the entire town of Manvel was inundated with water, causing flood damage to at least 100 homes. Additionally, high winds in combination with floods damaged about 500 homes throughout the county. In [Chambers County](/wiki/Chambers_County%2C_Texas "Chambers County, Texas") high winds caused two injuries and tore roofing material off of homes and mobile homes; about 100 homes were effected in the area. {{convert\|6\|in\|mm}} of rain fell in the southern portions of the county, causing minor flooding. Between {{convert\|8\|and\|12\|in\|mm}} of precipitation was recorded in eastern [Fort Bend County](/wiki/Fort_Bend_County%2C_Texas "Fort Bend County, Texas"). In the city of [Fresno](/wiki/Fresno%2C_Texas "Fresno, Texas"), at least 60 homes were flooded and several families were evacuated. After {{convert\|9\.7\|in\|mm}} of rain fell in [Richmond](/wiki/Richmond%2C_Texas "Richmond, Texas"), local flooding occurred. Several mobile homes in the county also suffered wind damage.{{cite report\|url\=http://www1\.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/orders/IPS\-E0088C99\-5C8B\-457B\-90CA\-064C83CB6AAD.pdf\|title\=Storm Data \- August 1989\|publisher\=\[\[National Climatic Data Center]]\|author\=Jay Hollifield and S. C. Lackey\|access\-date\=January 9, 2013\|location\=Asheville, North Carolina\|pages\=30, 45–47, and 49}}{{Dead link\|date\=August 2024 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} In [Brazos County](/wiki/Brazos_County%2C_Texas "Brazos County, Texas"), heavy rainfall caused street flooding in [College Station](/wiki/College_Station%2C_Texas "College Station, Texas"). Precipitation in [Collin County](/wiki/Collin_County%2C_Texas "Collin County, Texas") reached as high as {{convert\|16\|in\|mm}} in [Clear Lake](/wiki/Clear_Lake%2C_Texas "Clear Lake, Texas"), though no flood damage was reported. Additionally, two fatalities occurred when two teenage boys were riding a rubber raft, swept into a drainpipe, and subsequently drowned. The highest sustained wind speed recorded in [Jefferson County](/wiki/Jefferson_County%2C_Texas "Jefferson County, Texas") was {{convert\|54\|mph\|km/h\|abbr\=on}} at [Sea Rim State Park](/wiki/Sea_Rim_State_Park "Sea Rim State Park"), while the strongest gust was {{convert\|49\|mph\|km/h\|abbr\=on}} at the [Jack Brooks Regional Airport](/wiki/Jack_Brooks_Regional_Airport "Jack Brooks Regional Airport"). Winds downed trees and limbs, while also causing minor roof damage. Tides at [Sabine Pass](/wiki/Sabine_Pass "Sabine Pass") were about {{convert\|3\.9\|ft\|m}} about mean sea level; some beach erosion was reported near that location. In [Liberty County](/wiki/Liberty_County%2C_Texas "Liberty County, Texas"), winds felled tree limbs, which damaged vehicles and portable buildings. ### Elsewhere One fatality was reported during an oil rig evacuation in the Gulf of Mexico. Ten other people perished when a [lifeboat](/wiki/Lifeboat_%28shipboard%29 "Lifeboat (shipboard)") capsized south of [Morgan City, Louisiana](/wiki/Morgan_City%2C_Louisiana "Morgan City, Louisiana"). Four others on the boat were rescued by the [United States Coast Guard](/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard "United States Coast Guard").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm\_wallets/atlantic/atl1989\-prelim/chantal/prelim04\.gif\|title\=Preliminary Report Hurricane Chantal: 30 July to 3 August 1989\|author\=Harold P. Gerrish\|date\=November 22, 1989\|publisher\=National Hurricane Center\|page\=4\|access\-date\=January 9, 2013\|format\=GIF\|series\=Hurricane Chantal, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives\|location\=Miami, Florida}} In Louisiana, high tides were only reported at one location, with seas reaching about {{convert\|4\.2\|ft\|m}} in [Cameron](/wiki/Cameron%2C_Louisiana "Cameron, Louisiana"). Winds in the state were also light, with the highest sustained wind speed being {{convert\|29\|mph\|km/h\|abbr\=on}} along the [Lake Pontchartrain Causeway](/wiki/Lake_Pontchartrain_Causeway "Lake Pontchartrain Causeway"), while the strongest gust was approximately {{convert\|42\|mph\|km/h\|abbr\=on}} in [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans%2C_Louisiana "New Orleans, Louisiana").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm\_wallets/atlantic/atl1989\-prelim/chantal/prelim07\.gif\|title\=Table 2\. Hurricane Chantal surface observations, 1 August 1989\|author\=Harold P. Gerrish\|date\=November 22, 1989\|publisher\=National Hurricane Center\|page\=7\|access\-date\=January 9, 2013\|format\=GIF\|series\=Hurricane Chantal, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives\|location\=Miami, Florida}} Rainfall was mostly minimal throughout the state and mainly less than {{convert\|3\|in\|mm}}, while the highest total recorded as {{convert\|3\.84\|in\|mm}} in [Amite City](/wiki/Amite_City%2C_Louisiana "Amite City, Louisiana").{{cite report\|url\=http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/tropical/rain/tcgulfcoast.html\|title\=Tropical Cyclone Rainfall for the Gulf Coast\|year\=2012\|publisher\=Hydrometeorological Prediction Center\|series\=Hydrometeorological Prediction Center's Rainfall Archive\|access\-date\=January 9, 2013\|location\=College Park, Maryland}} A tornado touched down in Acadia Parish, where it downed trees and removed a mobile home from its foundation. The only known impact in [Mississippi](/wiki/Mississippi "Mississippi") was tides of {{convert\|2\.6\|ft\|m}} above mean sea level. Further north in the [Midwestern United States](/wiki/Midwestern_United_States "Midwestern United States"), impact was generally minor. Chantal and its remnants dropped mostly light rainfall in the states of [Oklahoma](/wiki/Oklahoma "Oklahoma"), [Missouri](/wiki/Missouri "Missouri"), [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas "Kansas"), [Iowa](/wiki/Iowa "Iowa"), [Wisconsin](/wiki/Wisconsin "Wisconsin"), [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois "Illinois"), [Indiana](/wiki/Indiana "Indiana"), and [Michigan](/wiki/Michigan "Michigan"). Only two of those states – Illinois and Michigan – recorded more than {{convert\|4\|in\|mm}} of precipitation. In Illinois, rainfall in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago") flooded numerous streets and basements; [Lake Shore Drive](/wiki/Lake_Shore_Drive "Lake Shore Drive") and [Edens Expressway](/wiki/Edens_Expressway "Edens Expressway") were briefly closed, as a result. Outside Chicago, minor flooding also occurred along a few creeks and low\-lying areas. The rainfall rate of {{convert\|2\|in\|mm}} per hour in [Grand Rapids, Michigan](/wiki/Grand_Rapids%2C_Michigan "Grand Rapids, Michigan") caused the release of about 40 million gallons of untreated sewage into the [Grand River](/wiki/Grand_River_%28Michigan%29 "Grand River (Michigan)").{{cite news\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1989\-08\-05\-mn\-488\-story.html\|title\=Storms Cut Power in Chicago, Release Sewage in Michigan\|newspaper\=\[\[Los Angeles Times]]\|agency\=United Press International\|date\=August 5, 1989\|access\-date\=January 9, 2013\|location\=Los Angeles, California}} Despite crossing through [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario "Ontario") and [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 "New York (state)"), it is unknown if any impact occurred in those two locations. In [Vermont](/wiki/Vermont "Vermont"), the remnants of Chantal dropped rainfall in excess of {{convert\|6\|in\|mm}} along the [Caledonia](/wiki/Caledonia_County%2C_Vermont "Caledonia County, Vermont"), [Orange](/wiki/Orange_County%2C_Vermont "Orange County, Vermont"), and [Washington county](/wiki/Washington_County%2C_Vermont "Washington County, Vermont") lines. Bridges were knocked down, cars and homes were swept away, and crops were destroyed in the resultant flash floods.
[ "Impact\n------", "Texas bore the brunt of the storm, where strong winds and heavy rainfall damaged about 3,000 homes and knocked downed numerous trees and signs. Chantal also spawned two tornadoes, one in [Crystal Beach, Texas](/wiki/Crystal_Beach%2C_Texas \"Crystal Beach, Texas\") and the other in [Acadia Parish, Louisiana](/wiki/Acadia_Parish%2C_Louisiana \"Acadia Parish, Louisiana\"); both of which caused minor damage. Additionally, 13 fatalities occurred, all of them due to drowning; 11 deaths occurred offshore in the Gulf of Mexico, while the remaining two were reported in east\\-central Texas. Overall, the storm resulted in at least $100 million (1989 USD) in damage.", "### Mexico", "Prior to becoming a tropical cyclone, the precursor tropical disturbance dropped rainfall on the [Yucatán Peninsula](/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula \"Yucatán Peninsula\") of Mexico. The precipitation put out fires burning in the region, which had destroyed up to {{convert\\|370000\\|acre\\|ha\\|lk\\=on}} of jungle in the two months prior to the tropical disturbance, according to the Agriculture Department of Mexico.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=D2ZIAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=ywYEAAAAIBAJ\\&dq\\=hurricane%20chantal%20warning\\&pg\\=4976%2C946119\\|title\\=Chantal does little damage in Texas\\|author\\=Jeff Awalt\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|date\\=August 2, 1989\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Star\\-Banner]]\\|access\\-date\\=January 9, 2013\\|page\\=27\\|location\\=High Island, Texas}}", "### Texas", "[thumb\\|right\\|Rainfall totals in the United States associated with Hurricane Chantal](/wiki/File:Chantal_1989_rainfall.png \"Chantal 1989 rainfall.png\")", "#### Galveston County", "The worst effects from the storm occurred in [Galveston County](/wiki/Galveston_County%2C_Texas \"Galveston County, Texas\"). Waves of {{convert\\|7\\|ft\\|m}} in height were reported on High Island during Chantal, while [Kemah](/wiki/Kemah%2C_Texas \"Kemah, Texas\") measured tides of {{convert\\|3\\.8\\|ft\\|m}}, and the Galveston Flagship pier reported {{convert\\|3\\.5\\|ft\\|m}} seas. The high tides eroded more than {{convert\\|1\\|mi\\|km}} of [Texas State Highway 87](/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_87 \"Texas State Highway 87\"), while at least another {{convert\\|15\\|mi\\|km}} of that highway was covered in sand and debris. As a result, the highway was expected to be closed for at least five weeks, though in October 1989, storm surge from [Hurricane Jerry](/wiki/Hurricane_Jerry_%281989%29 \"Hurricane Jerry (1989)\") caused more erosion, and no repairs have been made since.{{cite report\\|url\\=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm\\_wallets/atlantic/atl1989\\-prelim/jerry/prelim03\\.gif\\|title\\=Hurricane Jerry Preliminary Report\\|author\\=B. Max Mayfield\\|date\\=November 21, 1989\\|publisher\\=National Hurricane Center\\|page\\=3\\|access\\-date\\=January 9, 2013\\|format\\=GIF\\|series\\=Hurricane Jerry, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives\\|location\\=Miami, Florida}} In the northern portions of Galveston County, rainfall was generally at least {{convert\\|12\\|in\\|mm}}, which a peak of {{convert\\|20\\|in\\|mm}} in [Friendswood](/wiki/Friendswood%2C_Texas \"Friendswood, Texas\").{{cite report\\|url\\=http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/tropical/rain/chantal1989\\.html\\|title\\=Hurricane Chantal \\- July 31–August 4, 1989\\|author\\=David M. Roth\\|date\\=May 14, 2007\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Hydrometeorological Prediction Center]]\\|access\\-date\\=January 9, 2013\\|location\\=College Park, Maryland\\|series\\=Hydrometeorological Prediction Center's Rainfall Archive}} Numerous streets in [League City](/wiki/League_City%2C_Texas \"League City, Texas\"), [Dickinson](/wiki/Dickinson%2C_Texas \"Dickinson, Texas\"), and Friendswood were flooded for more than 24 hours. At least 100 homes in Friendswood were flooded, while water entered 70% of houses in Dickinson. Severe street flooding and ponding occurred in Galveston, especially in the low\\-lying areas; some homes and businesses were damaged, as a result. Overall, 500 homes in the county were flooded.", "Strong winds also effected the county, with the highest recorded sustained wind speed being {{convert\\|70\\|mph\\|km/h\\|abbr\\=on}} in Galveston; the highest gust of {{convert\\|83\\|mph\\|km/h\\|abbr\\=on}} was reported at the same location. At the [National Weather Service](/wiki/National_Weather_Service \"National Weather Service\") Office in Downtown Galveston, sustained winds were {{convert\\|53\\|mph\\|km/h\\|abbr\\=on}} and gusts reached {{convert\\|69\\|mph\\|km/h\\|abbr\\=on}}. Although winds were strong, associated losses was confined to roof damage at beach homes in [Gilchrist](/wiki/Gilchrist%2C_Texas \"Gilchrist, Texas\") and [High Island](/wiki/High_Island%2C_Texas \"High Island, Texas\"). In addition to strong winds, heavy rainfall, and high tides, the storm also produced one tornado in the county. Rated as an F0 on the [Fujita scale](/wiki/Fujita_scale \"Fujita scale\"), the tornado was spawned in Crystal Beach, where it destroyed a boat shed; elsewhere, no damage occurred from this twister.", "#### Harris County", "Rainfall produced by Chantal in the city of [Houston](/wiki/Houston \"Houston\") alone varied extensively, with {{convert\\|7\\.14\\|in\\|mm}} at [William P. Hobby Airport](/wiki/William_P._Hobby_Airport \"William P. Hobby Airport\") after twenty\\-four hours, and only {{convert\\|1\\.21\\|in\\|mm}} at [George Bush Intercontinental Airport](/wiki/George_Bush_Intercontinental_Airport \"George Bush Intercontinental Airport\") (then known as Houston Intercontinental Airport) in the same time lapse. In the southern portions of [Harris County](/wiki/Harris_County%2C_Texas \"Harris County, Texas\"), rainfall totaled ranged from {{convert\\|8\\|to\\|12\\|in\\|mm}}. Significant amounts of precipitation resulted in flooding, which in turn, caused several hundred emergency crew rescues and damage to at least 500 homes. Strong winds also caused significant effects in the county. In [La Porte](/wiki/La_Porte%2C_Texas \"La Porte, Texas\"), where winds gusted to {{convert\\|70\\|mph\\|km/h\\|abbr\\=on}}, 40 trees were toppled at a golf course, while a plane was flipped over at the [La Porte Municipal Airport](/wiki/La_Porte_Municipal_Airport_%28Texas%29 \"La Porte Municipal Airport (Texas)\"). The roof of a mobile home was torn off and a fence and a portable building was destroyed in [Highlands](/wiki/Highlands%2C_Texas \"Highlands, Texas\"). Winds damaged a [red cross](/wiki/American_Red_Cross \"American Red Cross\") shelter in [Pasadena](/wiki/Pasadena%2C_Texas \"Pasadena, Texas\") and blew out several windows at a hospital in [Baytown](/wiki/Baytown%2C_Texas \"Baytown, Texas\"). Throughout the county, high winds destroyed 2 mobile homes and damaged 49 apartments and 24 businesses.", "#### Elsewhere in Texas", "Heavy rainfall affected [Brazoria County](/wiki/Brazoria_County%2C_Texas \"Brazoria County, Texas\"), where precipitation amounts up to {{convert\\|12\\|in\\|mm}} were reported; this caused significant flooding, especially in [Pearland](/wiki/Pearland%2C_Texas \"Pearland, Texas\") and [Manvel](/wiki/Manvel%2C_Texas \"Manvel, Texas\"). During the height of the storm, the entire town of Manvel was inundated with water, causing flood damage to at least 100 homes. Additionally, high winds in combination with floods damaged about 500 homes throughout the county. In [Chambers County](/wiki/Chambers_County%2C_Texas \"Chambers County, Texas\") high winds caused two injuries and tore roofing material off of homes and mobile homes; about 100 homes were effected in the area. {{convert\\|6\\|in\\|mm}} of rain fell in the southern portions of the county, causing minor flooding. Between {{convert\\|8\\|and\\|12\\|in\\|mm}} of precipitation was recorded in eastern [Fort Bend County](/wiki/Fort_Bend_County%2C_Texas \"Fort Bend County, Texas\"). In the city of [Fresno](/wiki/Fresno%2C_Texas \"Fresno, Texas\"), at least 60 homes were flooded and several families were evacuated. After {{convert\\|9\\.7\\|in\\|mm}} of rain fell in [Richmond](/wiki/Richmond%2C_Texas \"Richmond, Texas\"), local flooding occurred. Several mobile homes in the county also suffered wind damage.{{cite report\\|url\\=http://www1\\.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/orders/IPS\\-E0088C99\\-5C8B\\-457B\\-90CA\\-064C83CB6AAD.pdf\\|title\\=Storm Data \\- August 1989\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Climatic Data Center]]\\|author\\=Jay Hollifield and S. C. Lackey\\|access\\-date\\=January 9, 2013\\|location\\=Asheville, North Carolina\\|pages\\=30, 45–47, and 49}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=August 2024 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}", "In [Brazos County](/wiki/Brazos_County%2C_Texas \"Brazos County, Texas\"), heavy rainfall caused street flooding in [College Station](/wiki/College_Station%2C_Texas \"College Station, Texas\"). Precipitation in [Collin County](/wiki/Collin_County%2C_Texas \"Collin County, Texas\") reached as high as {{convert\\|16\\|in\\|mm}} in [Clear Lake](/wiki/Clear_Lake%2C_Texas \"Clear Lake, Texas\"), though no flood damage was reported. Additionally, two fatalities occurred when two teenage boys were riding a rubber raft, swept into a drainpipe, and subsequently drowned. The highest sustained wind speed recorded in [Jefferson County](/wiki/Jefferson_County%2C_Texas \"Jefferson County, Texas\") was {{convert\\|54\\|mph\\|km/h\\|abbr\\=on}} at [Sea Rim State Park](/wiki/Sea_Rim_State_Park \"Sea Rim State Park\"), while the strongest gust was {{convert\\|49\\|mph\\|km/h\\|abbr\\=on}} at the [Jack Brooks Regional Airport](/wiki/Jack_Brooks_Regional_Airport \"Jack Brooks Regional Airport\"). Winds downed trees and limbs, while also causing minor roof damage. Tides at [Sabine Pass](/wiki/Sabine_Pass \"Sabine Pass\") were about {{convert\\|3\\.9\\|ft\\|m}} about mean sea level; some beach erosion was reported near that location. In [Liberty County](/wiki/Liberty_County%2C_Texas \"Liberty County, Texas\"), winds felled tree limbs, which damaged vehicles and portable buildings.", "### Elsewhere", "One fatality was reported during an oil rig evacuation in the Gulf of Mexico. Ten other people perished when a [lifeboat](/wiki/Lifeboat_%28shipboard%29 \"Lifeboat (shipboard)\") capsized south of [Morgan City, Louisiana](/wiki/Morgan_City%2C_Louisiana \"Morgan City, Louisiana\"). Four others on the boat were rescued by the [United States Coast Guard](/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard \"United States Coast Guard\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm\\_wallets/atlantic/atl1989\\-prelim/chantal/prelim04\\.gif\\|title\\=Preliminary Report Hurricane Chantal: 30 July to 3 August 1989\\|author\\=Harold P. Gerrish\\|date\\=November 22, 1989\\|publisher\\=National Hurricane Center\\|page\\=4\\|access\\-date\\=January 9, 2013\\|format\\=GIF\\|series\\=Hurricane Chantal, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives\\|location\\=Miami, Florida}} In Louisiana, high tides were only reported at one location, with seas reaching about {{convert\\|4\\.2\\|ft\\|m}} in [Cameron](/wiki/Cameron%2C_Louisiana \"Cameron, Louisiana\"). Winds in the state were also light, with the highest sustained wind speed being {{convert\\|29\\|mph\\|km/h\\|abbr\\=on}} along the [Lake Pontchartrain Causeway](/wiki/Lake_Pontchartrain_Causeway \"Lake Pontchartrain Causeway\"), while the strongest gust was approximately {{convert\\|42\\|mph\\|km/h\\|abbr\\=on}} in [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans%2C_Louisiana \"New Orleans, Louisiana\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm\\_wallets/atlantic/atl1989\\-prelim/chantal/prelim07\\.gif\\|title\\=Table 2\\. Hurricane Chantal surface observations, 1 August 1989\\|author\\=Harold P. Gerrish\\|date\\=November 22, 1989\\|publisher\\=National Hurricane Center\\|page\\=7\\|access\\-date\\=January 9, 2013\\|format\\=GIF\\|series\\=Hurricane Chantal, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives\\|location\\=Miami, Florida}} Rainfall was mostly minimal throughout the state and mainly less than {{convert\\|3\\|in\\|mm}}, while the highest total recorded as {{convert\\|3\\.84\\|in\\|mm}} in [Amite City](/wiki/Amite_City%2C_Louisiana \"Amite City, Louisiana\").{{cite report\\|url\\=http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/tropical/rain/tcgulfcoast.html\\|title\\=Tropical Cyclone Rainfall for the Gulf Coast\\|year\\=2012\\|publisher\\=Hydrometeorological Prediction Center\\|series\\=Hydrometeorological Prediction Center's Rainfall Archive\\|access\\-date\\=January 9, 2013\\|location\\=College Park, Maryland}} A tornado touched down in Acadia Parish, where it downed trees and removed a mobile home from its foundation. The only known impact in [Mississippi](/wiki/Mississippi \"Mississippi\") was tides of {{convert\\|2\\.6\\|ft\\|m}} above mean sea level.", "Further north in the [Midwestern United States](/wiki/Midwestern_United_States \"Midwestern United States\"), impact was generally minor. Chantal and its remnants dropped mostly light rainfall in the states of [Oklahoma](/wiki/Oklahoma \"Oklahoma\"), [Missouri](/wiki/Missouri \"Missouri\"), [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas \"Kansas\"), [Iowa](/wiki/Iowa \"Iowa\"), [Wisconsin](/wiki/Wisconsin \"Wisconsin\"), [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois \"Illinois\"), [Indiana](/wiki/Indiana \"Indiana\"), and [Michigan](/wiki/Michigan \"Michigan\"). Only two of those states – Illinois and Michigan – recorded more than {{convert\\|4\\|in\\|mm}} of precipitation. In Illinois, rainfall in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\") flooded numerous streets and basements; [Lake Shore Drive](/wiki/Lake_Shore_Drive \"Lake Shore Drive\") and [Edens Expressway](/wiki/Edens_Expressway \"Edens Expressway\") were briefly closed, as a result. Outside Chicago, minor flooding also occurred along a few creeks and low\\-lying areas. The rainfall rate of {{convert\\|2\\|in\\|mm}} per hour in [Grand Rapids, Michigan](/wiki/Grand_Rapids%2C_Michigan \"Grand Rapids, Michigan\") caused the release of about 40 million gallons of untreated sewage into the [Grand River](/wiki/Grand_River_%28Michigan%29 \"Grand River (Michigan)\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1989\\-08\\-05\\-mn\\-488\\-story.html\\|title\\=Storms Cut Power in Chicago, Release Sewage in Michigan\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles Times]]\\|agency\\=United Press International\\|date\\=August 5, 1989\\|access\\-date\\=January 9, 2013\\|location\\=Los Angeles, California}} Despite crossing through [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario \"Ontario\") and [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 \"New York (state)\"), it is unknown if any impact occurred in those two locations. In [Vermont](/wiki/Vermont \"Vermont\"), the remnants of Chantal dropped rainfall in excess of {{convert\\|6\\|in\\|mm}} along the [Caledonia](/wiki/Caledonia_County%2C_Vermont \"Caledonia County, Vermont\"), [Orange](/wiki/Orange_County%2C_Vermont \"Orange County, Vermont\"), and [Washington county](/wiki/Washington_County%2C_Vermont \"Washington County, Vermont\") lines. Bridges were knocked down, cars and homes were swept away, and crops were destroyed in the resultant flash floods.", "" ]
Biography --------- Peter was born in [Mackay, Queensland](/wiki/Mackay%2C_Queensland "Mackay, Queensland") and worked with the [Australian Bureau of Meteorology](/wiki/Australian_Bureau_of_Meteorology "Australian Bureau of Meteorology") for over 37 years.[100 years of weather wild and fair](http://www.abc.net.au/local/photos/2008/08/21/2342594.htm) After graduating from a high school in Mackay, Byrne was appointed as a junior weather observer at the Bureau of Meteorology.Weather of not?: Peter Byrne has faced up to that question for 37 years, Tony McMahon, *The Morning Bulletin*, 11 August 2001 Byrne then went on to complete meteorological training in Brisbane and Melbourne for 18 months before being posted to Brisbane. After his marriage to a Townsville school teacher, Byrne was posted to [Madang](/wiki/Madang "Madang") on the north coast of [Papua New Guinea](/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea "Papua New Guinea") which Byrne described as a "weather man's dream" as there was a smoking volcano to the north and snow\-capped mountains to the south. Byrne undertook more training in Melbourne and after receiving the relevant qualifications in 1971, he went from being a weather observer that collected and collated information to a fully\-fledged forecaster. His new role as a forecaster required him to chart and analyse information to make forecasts. His role now also included briefing pilots \- and the media. His job as a forecaster took him Byrne to Townsville where he worked for nine years. During his time in Townsville, Byrne was heavily involved with the [Royal Australian Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Australian_Air_Force "Royal Australian Air Force") and the [United States Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force "United States Air Force") as they researched the behaviour of cyclones. In his time with the Bureau he worked in [Papua New Guinea](/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea "Papua New Guinea") and the [Solomon Islands](/wiki/Solomon_Islands "Solomon Islands") and many regional centres, including [Cairns](/wiki/Cairns "Cairns"), [Mackay](/wiki/Mackay%2C_Queensland "Mackay, Queensland"), Cloncurry, [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane "Brisbane"), [Townsville](/wiki/Townsville "Townsville") and some time in [Mount Isa](/wiki/Mount_Isa "Mount Isa") before finally settling in [Yeppoon](/wiki/Yeppoon%2C_Queensland "Yeppoon, Queensland") in 1986 where he made numerous appearances on RTQ7's local news, being regularly interviewed about storms and for other weather\-related stories. Byrne joined [RTQ7](/wiki/RTQ "RTQ") in Rockhampton in February 1990 as the local Rockhampton weather presenter, prior to the station becoming part of the WIN Television network. By his own admission, Byrne was reluctant to move into television. Byrne had already declined an offer from news director Phil Smith to fill in for the regular RTQ7 weather presenter while they were on holidays. Some months later, new news director Alastair Frew extended another invitation to Byrne to join the station as their permanent weather presenter. After some consideration, Byrne accepted the offer. However, Byrne had to seek the approval from Rex Falls, the regional director of the Bureau of Meteorology. Falls agreed to Byrne's new television commitments but it meant Byrne had to begin work at the Bureau of Meteorology earlier. This meant Byrne now had to leave his [Yeppoon](/wiki/Yeppoon%2C_Queensland "Yeppoon, Queensland") home at 2:45am each morning to start his shift in Rockhampton, and then drive back to Yeppoon after work for some sleep before driving back up to the WIN Television studio in North Rockhampton to begin recording his weather reports for the various news bulletins. While he was employed at WIN Television, his role expanded to being the weather presenter on all the local editions of WIN News weeknightly, delivering individual weather reports for the [Cairns](/wiki/Cairns "Cairns"), [Townsville](/wiki/Townsville "Townsville"), [Mackay](/wiki/Mackay%2C_Queensland "Mackay, Queensland"), [Rockhampton](/wiki/Rockhampton "Rockhampton"), [Wide Bay–Burnett](/wiki/Wide_Bay%E2%80%93Burnett "Wide Bay–Burnett"), [Toowoomba](/wiki/Toowoomba "Toowoomba") and [Sunshine Coast](/wiki/Sunshine_Coast%2C_Queensland "Sunshine Coast, Queensland") regions of Queensland.[Cyclone Ului coverage labelled 'irresponsible'](http://www.cairns.com.au/article/2010/03/16/99761_cyclone.html) Additionally, Byrne also began presenting a statewide weather report upon the introduction of the Queensland edition of *WIN Late News* in 2001\. Byrne retired from his post at the Rockhampton office of the Bureau of Meteorology in 2001, but continued his work as a weather presenter with WIN Television in Rockhampton. In 2012, Byrne made news when he used his weather reports to criticise reports made by metropolitan television stations, particularly on the breakfast programs such as *[Sunrise](/wiki/Sunrise_%28Australian_TV_program%29 "Sunrise (Australian TV program)")* and *[Today](/wiki/Today_%281982_TV_program%29 "Today (1982 TV program)")* relating to weather conditions in Queensland.[WIN weatherman criticises reports](http://www.themorningbulletin.com.au/news/win-weatherman-criticises-reports-peter-byrne/1316050), *The Morning Bulletin*, 23 March 2012\. Retrieved 20 October 2016\. In one weather report, Byrne said: *The southern media are at it again... more unprofessional claptrap on what they portray as breakfast television. Imagine the repercussions if, on national television, I forecast 200km/h winds for Sydney or Melbourne! Hooley, Dooley! Queensland deserves and demands better. Give us the factual information, not the nonsensical gobbledygook transmitted out of Sydney. Give us a break! It just makes me so angry. How do they get away with it?!* [WIN TV weatherman hits out at "unprofessional claptrap" from breakfast TV](http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2012/03/win-tv-weatherman-hits-out-at-unprofessional-claptrap-from-breakfast-tv.html), David Knox, *TV Tonight*, 22 March 2012\. Retrieved 20 October 2016\.[Weatherman storms at love of drama](http://www.couriermail.com.au/ipad/weatherman-storms-at-love-of-drama/story-fn6cc53j-1226307612258), Tristan Swanwick, *The Courier Mail*, 23 March 2012\. Retrieved 20 October 2016[Angry Weatherman In A Storm Over "Nonsensical Gobbledeegook"](http://www.triplem.com.au/brisbane/shows/marto-ed-kavalee-for-breakfast/blog/2012/3/video-angry-weatherman-in-a-storm-over-nonsensical-gobbledeegook), *The Grill Team*, Triple M (Brisbane), 23 March 2012\. Retrieved 20 October 2016 Following his on\-air outburst, there were reports that Byrne had clashed his WIN Television management which led him to storm out of the television station, which may have led to his absence on *WIN News* for the succeeding two nights following the incident. Byrne later said that while management still weren't happy with him, the issue had been reconciled and his colleagues had even handed him a "Storm in a Teacup" award after the incident, which consisted of a cut\-out of a [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm "Melbourne Storm") player in an actual teacup. Byrne also alluded to not having a job at WIN for much longer, which was likely referring to the imminent closure of the WIN Television studio facilities in Rockhampton.[Cloud over Byrne's future](http://www.themorningbulletin.com.au/news/cloud-over-byrnes-future-peter-byrne/1317520), Nikita Watts, *The Morning Bulletin*, 24 March 2012\. Retrieved 20 October 2016 In May 2012, WIN Television closed their Rockhampton studio facilities as they centralised the production of news bulletins to a new studio complex on the Sunshine Coast. While the news anchor and sports presenter relocated to commence work at WIN's new production facilities at Maroochydore, Byrne decided to stay in the local area effectively ending his relationship with 22\-year relationship with WIN Television. On his final night on 4 May 2012, WIN Television aired a special package featuring tributes from former colleagues that had previously worked at WIN Television in Rockhampton such as [Karl Stefanovic](/wiki/Karl_Stefanovic "Karl Stefanovic"), [Leila McKinnon](/wiki/Leila_McKinnon "Leila McKinnon") and [Davina Smith](/wiki/Davina_Smith "Davina Smith").[Sun sets on weatherman's career](http://www.themorningbulletin.com.au/news/sun-sets-on-popular-weathermans-career/1365491), Austin King, *The Morning Bulletin*, 2 May 2012\. Retrieved 20 October 2016\.[Peter Byrne retires from WIN News](http://www.thechronicle.com.au/news/peter-byrne-retires-win-news/1366203/), *The Chronicle* (Toowoomba), 2 May 2012\. Retrieved 20 October 2016[WIN TV weatherman Peter Byrne to retire](http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2012/05/win-tv-weatherman-peter-byrne-to-retire.html), David Knox, *TV Tonight*, 2 May 2012\. Retrieved 20 October 2016 Soon after leaving WIN Television, [Channel 7](/wiki/STQ "STQ") approached Byrne to do some work for them without having to leave the local area.[Byrnesy is returning](http://www.themorningbulletin.com.au/news/popular-weatherman-is-returning-on-channel-7/1569303), Austin King, *The Morning Bulletin*, 4 October 2012\. Retrieved 20 October 2016 Since late 2012, Byrne has presented a weekly retrospective segment called *Rewind* which airs on all local editions of *[Seven News](/wiki/Seven_News "Seven News")* across regional Queensland.
[ "Biography\n---------", "Peter was born in [Mackay, Queensland](/wiki/Mackay%2C_Queensland \"Mackay, Queensland\") and worked with the [Australian Bureau of Meteorology](/wiki/Australian_Bureau_of_Meteorology \"Australian Bureau of Meteorology\") for over 37 years.[100 years of weather wild and fair](http://www.abc.net.au/local/photos/2008/08/21/2342594.htm)", "After graduating from a high school in Mackay, Byrne was appointed as a junior weather observer at the Bureau of Meteorology.Weather of not?: Peter Byrne has faced up to that question for 37 years, Tony McMahon, *The Morning Bulletin*, 11 August 2001 Byrne then went on to complete meteorological training in Brisbane and Melbourne for 18 months before being posted to Brisbane. After his marriage to a Townsville school teacher, Byrne was posted to [Madang](/wiki/Madang \"Madang\") on the north coast of [Papua New Guinea](/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea \"Papua New Guinea\") which Byrne described as a \"weather man's dream\" as there was a smoking volcano to the north and snow\\-capped mountains to the south.", "Byrne undertook more training in Melbourne and after receiving the relevant qualifications in 1971, he went from being a weather observer that collected and collated information to a fully\\-fledged forecaster. His new role as a forecaster required him to chart and analyse information to make forecasts. His role now also included briefing pilots \\- and the media. His job as a forecaster took him Byrne to Townsville where he worked for nine years. During his time in Townsville, Byrne was heavily involved with the [Royal Australian Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Australian_Air_Force \"Royal Australian Air Force\") and the [United States Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force \"United States Air Force\") as they researched the behaviour of cyclones.", "In his time with the Bureau he worked in [Papua New Guinea](/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea \"Papua New Guinea\") and the [Solomon Islands](/wiki/Solomon_Islands \"Solomon Islands\") and many regional centres, including [Cairns](/wiki/Cairns \"Cairns\"), [Mackay](/wiki/Mackay%2C_Queensland \"Mackay, Queensland\"), Cloncurry, [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane \"Brisbane\"), [Townsville](/wiki/Townsville \"Townsville\") and some time in [Mount Isa](/wiki/Mount_Isa \"Mount Isa\") before finally settling in [Yeppoon](/wiki/Yeppoon%2C_Queensland \"Yeppoon, Queensland\") in 1986 where he made numerous appearances on RTQ7's local news, being regularly interviewed about storms and for other weather\\-related stories.", "Byrne joined [RTQ7](/wiki/RTQ \"RTQ\") in Rockhampton in February 1990 as the local Rockhampton weather presenter, prior to the station becoming part of the WIN Television network. By his own admission, Byrne was reluctant to move into television. Byrne had already declined an offer from news director Phil Smith to fill in for the regular RTQ7 weather presenter while they were on holidays. Some months later, new news director Alastair Frew extended another invitation to Byrne to join the station as their permanent weather presenter. After some consideration, Byrne accepted the offer.", "However, Byrne had to seek the approval from Rex Falls, the regional director of the Bureau of Meteorology. Falls agreed to Byrne's new television commitments but it meant Byrne had to begin work at the Bureau of Meteorology earlier. This meant Byrne now had to leave his [Yeppoon](/wiki/Yeppoon%2C_Queensland \"Yeppoon, Queensland\") home at 2:45am each morning to start his shift in Rockhampton, and then drive back to Yeppoon after work for some sleep before driving back up to the WIN Television studio in North Rockhampton to begin recording his weather reports for the various news bulletins.", "While he was employed at WIN Television, his role expanded to being the weather presenter on all the local editions of WIN News weeknightly, delivering individual weather reports for the [Cairns](/wiki/Cairns \"Cairns\"), [Townsville](/wiki/Townsville \"Townsville\"), [Mackay](/wiki/Mackay%2C_Queensland \"Mackay, Queensland\"), [Rockhampton](/wiki/Rockhampton \"Rockhampton\"), [Wide Bay–Burnett](/wiki/Wide_Bay%E2%80%93Burnett \"Wide Bay–Burnett\"), [Toowoomba](/wiki/Toowoomba \"Toowoomba\") and [Sunshine Coast](/wiki/Sunshine_Coast%2C_Queensland \"Sunshine Coast, Queensland\") regions of Queensland.[Cyclone Ului coverage labelled 'irresponsible'](http://www.cairns.com.au/article/2010/03/16/99761_cyclone.html) Additionally, Byrne also began presenting a statewide weather report upon the introduction of the Queensland edition of *WIN Late News* in 2001\\.", "Byrne retired from his post at the Rockhampton office of the Bureau of Meteorology in 2001, but continued his work as a weather presenter with WIN Television in Rockhampton.", "In 2012, Byrne made news when he used his weather reports to criticise reports made by metropolitan television stations, particularly on the breakfast programs such as *[Sunrise](/wiki/Sunrise_%28Australian_TV_program%29 \"Sunrise (Australian TV program)\")* and *[Today](/wiki/Today_%281982_TV_program%29 \"Today (1982 TV program)\")* relating to weather conditions in Queensland.[WIN weatherman criticises reports](http://www.themorningbulletin.com.au/news/win-weatherman-criticises-reports-peter-byrne/1316050), *The Morning Bulletin*, 23 March 2012\\. Retrieved 20 October 2016\\. In one weather report, Byrne said: *The southern media are at it again... more unprofessional claptrap on what they portray as breakfast television. Imagine the repercussions if, on national television, I forecast 200km/h winds for Sydney or Melbourne! Hooley, Dooley! Queensland deserves and demands better. Give us the factual information, not the nonsensical gobbledygook transmitted out of Sydney. Give us a break! It just makes me so angry. How do they get away with it?!* [WIN TV weatherman hits out at \"unprofessional claptrap\" from breakfast TV](http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2012/03/win-tv-weatherman-hits-out-at-unprofessional-claptrap-from-breakfast-tv.html), David Knox, *TV Tonight*, 22 March 2012\\. Retrieved 20 October 2016\\.[Weatherman storms at love of drama](http://www.couriermail.com.au/ipad/weatherman-storms-at-love-of-drama/story-fn6cc53j-1226307612258), Tristan Swanwick, *The Courier Mail*, 23 March 2012\\. Retrieved 20 October 2016[Angry Weatherman In A Storm Over \"Nonsensical Gobbledeegook\"](http://www.triplem.com.au/brisbane/shows/marto-ed-kavalee-for-breakfast/blog/2012/3/video-angry-weatherman-in-a-storm-over-nonsensical-gobbledeegook), *The Grill Team*, Triple M (Brisbane), 23 March 2012\\. Retrieved 20 October 2016", "Following his on\\-air outburst, there were reports that Byrne had clashed his WIN Television management which led him to storm out of the television station, which may have led to his absence on *WIN News* for the succeeding two nights following the incident. Byrne later said that while management still weren't happy with him, the issue had been reconciled and his colleagues had even handed him a \"Storm in a Teacup\" award after the incident, which consisted of a cut\\-out of a [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm \"Melbourne Storm\") player in an actual teacup. Byrne also alluded to not having a job at WIN for much longer, which was likely referring to the imminent closure of the WIN Television studio facilities in Rockhampton.[Cloud over Byrne's future](http://www.themorningbulletin.com.au/news/cloud-over-byrnes-future-peter-byrne/1317520), Nikita Watts, *The Morning Bulletin*, 24 March 2012\\. Retrieved 20 October 2016", "In May 2012, WIN Television closed their Rockhampton studio facilities as they centralised the production of news bulletins to a new studio complex on the Sunshine Coast. While the news anchor and sports presenter relocated to commence work at WIN's new production facilities at Maroochydore, Byrne decided to stay in the local area effectively ending his relationship with 22\\-year relationship with WIN Television. On his final night on 4 May 2012, WIN Television aired a special package featuring tributes from former colleagues that had previously worked at WIN Television in Rockhampton such as [Karl Stefanovic](/wiki/Karl_Stefanovic \"Karl Stefanovic\"), [Leila McKinnon](/wiki/Leila_McKinnon \"Leila McKinnon\") and [Davina Smith](/wiki/Davina_Smith \"Davina Smith\").[Sun sets on weatherman's career](http://www.themorningbulletin.com.au/news/sun-sets-on-popular-weathermans-career/1365491), Austin King, *The Morning Bulletin*, 2 May 2012\\. Retrieved 20 October 2016\\.[Peter Byrne retires from WIN News](http://www.thechronicle.com.au/news/peter-byrne-retires-win-news/1366203/), *The Chronicle* (Toowoomba), 2 May 2012\\. Retrieved 20 October 2016[WIN TV weatherman Peter Byrne to retire](http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2012/05/win-tv-weatherman-peter-byrne-to-retire.html), David Knox, *TV Tonight*, 2 May 2012\\. Retrieved 20 October 2016", "Soon after leaving WIN Television, [Channel 7](/wiki/STQ \"STQ\") approached Byrne to do some work for them without having to leave the local area.[Byrnesy is returning](http://www.themorningbulletin.com.au/news/popular-weatherman-is-returning-on-channel-7/1569303), Austin King, *The Morning Bulletin*, 4 October 2012\\. Retrieved 20 October 2016", "Since late 2012, Byrne has presented a weekly retrospective segment called *Rewind* which airs on all local editions of *[Seven News](/wiki/Seven_News \"Seven News\")* across regional Queensland.", "" ]
Economic frameworks and strategies employing tax shifting --------------------------------------------------------- [thumb\|upright\=2\|Change over time of environmental and labour tax revenues for [EU\-27](/wiki/European_Union "European Union") member states. Source: [European Environmental Agency](/wiki/European_Environmental_Agency "European Environmental Agency")](/wiki/File:Annual_average_change_in_environmental_tax_revenues_and_labour_tax_revenues_between_2002_and_2019-en.svg "Annual average change in environmental tax revenues and labour tax revenues between 2002 and 2019-en.svg") The object of a green tax shift is often to implement a "[full cost accounting](/wiki/Full_cost_accounting "Full cost accounting")" or "[true cost accounting](/wiki/True_cost_accounting "True cost accounting")", using fiscal policy to internalize market distorting externalities, which leads to [sustainable](/wiki/Sustainability "Sustainability") [wealth](/wiki/Wealth "Wealth") creation. The broader measures required for this are also sometimes called [ecological fiscal reform](/wiki/Ecological_fiscal_reform "Ecological fiscal reform"), especially in [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada"),{{cite web\|first1\=Frédéric\|last1\=Beauregard\-Tellier\|title\=Ecological fiscal reform (EFR)\|url\=http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/researchpublications/prb0595\-e.html\|website\=Parliament of Canada\|publisher\=Library of Parliament Canada\|access\-date\=13 March 2015\|date\=17 March 2006\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103043411/http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/researchpublications/prb0595\-e.html\|archive\-date\=2015\-01\-03\|url\-status\=dead}} where the government has generally employed this terminology. In some countries the name is [eco\-social market economy](/wiki/Eco-social_market_economy "Eco-social market economy"). Tax shifting usually includes balancing taxation levels to be [revenue\-neutral](/wiki/Fiscal_neutrality "Fiscal neutrality") for [government](/wiki/Government "Government") and to maintain overall [progressiveness](/wiki/Progressive_tax "Progressive tax"). It also usually includes measures to protect the most vulnerable, such as raising the minimum income to file income tax at all, or an increase to pension and social assistance levels to offset increased costs of fuel consumption. Basic economic theory recognizes the existence of [externalities](/wiki/Externalities "Externalities") and their potential negative effects. To the extent that green taxes correct for externalities such as pollution, they correspond with mainstream economic theory. In practice, however, setting the correct taxation level or the tax collection system needed to do so is difficult, and may lead to further distortions or [unintended consequences](/wiki/Unintended_consequences "Unintended consequences"). Taxes on consumption may take the "[feebate](/wiki/Feebate "Feebate")" approach advocated by [Amory Lovins](/wiki/Amory_Lovins "Amory Lovins"), in which additional fees on less sustainable products—such as [sport utility vehicles](/wiki/Sport_utility_vehicle "Sport utility vehicle")—are pooled to fund subsidies on more sustainable alternatives, such as [hybrid electric vehicles](/wiki/Hybrid_electric_vehicle "Hybrid electric vehicle"). However, they may simply act as incentives to change habits and make capital investments in newer more efficient vehicles or appliances or to upgrade buildings. Small changes in corporate tax rates for instance can radically change [return on investment](/wiki/Return_on_investment "Return on investment") of capital projects, especially if the averted costs of future fossil fuel use are taken into account. The same logic applies to major consumer purchases. A "[green mortgage](/wiki/Green_mortgage "Green mortgage")" such as a [Location Efficient Mortgage](/wiki/Location_Efficient_Mortgage "Location Efficient Mortgage"), for example, recognizes that persons who do not drive cars and live generally energy\-efficient lifestyles pay far less per month than others and accordingly have more to pay a heftier mortgage bill with. This justifies lending them much more money to upgrade a house to use even less energy overall. The result is a bank taking more per month from a consumer's income as utilities and car insurance companies take less, and housing stock upgraded to use the minimum energy feasible with current technology. Aside from energy, the refits will generally be those required to be maximally accommodating to [remote work](/wiki/Remote_work "Remote work"), [permaculture](/wiki/Permaculture "Permaculture") gardens (for example [green roofs](/wiki/Green_roof "Green roof")), and a lifestyle that is generally localized in the community not based on commuting. It raises real estate valuations for not only the neighborhood but the entire surrounding region. Consumers living sustainable lifestyles in upgraded housing will generally be unwilling to drive around aimlessly shopping, for instance, to save a few dollars on their purchases. Instead, they'll stay nearer to home and create jobs in grocery delivery and small organic grocers, spending substantially less money on gasoline and car operation costs even if they pay more for food.
[ "Economic frameworks and strategies employing tax shifting\n---------------------------------------------------------", "[thumb\\|upright\\=2\\|Change over time of environmental and labour tax revenues for [EU\\-27](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\") member states. Source: [European Environmental Agency](/wiki/European_Environmental_Agency \"European Environmental Agency\")](/wiki/File:Annual_average_change_in_environmental_tax_revenues_and_labour_tax_revenues_between_2002_and_2019-en.svg \"Annual average change in environmental tax revenues and labour tax revenues between 2002 and 2019-en.svg\")\nThe object of a green tax shift is often to implement a \"[full cost accounting](/wiki/Full_cost_accounting \"Full cost accounting\")\" or \"[true cost accounting](/wiki/True_cost_accounting \"True cost accounting\")\", using fiscal policy to internalize market distorting externalities, which leads to [sustainable](/wiki/Sustainability \"Sustainability\") [wealth](/wiki/Wealth \"Wealth\") creation. The broader measures required for this are also sometimes called [ecological fiscal reform](/wiki/Ecological_fiscal_reform \"Ecological fiscal reform\"), especially in [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\"),{{cite web\\|first1\\=Frédéric\\|last1\\=Beauregard\\-Tellier\\|title\\=Ecological fiscal reform (EFR)\\|url\\=http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/researchpublications/prb0595\\-e.html\\|website\\=Parliament of Canada\\|publisher\\=Library of Parliament Canada\\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2015\\|date\\=17 March 2006\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103043411/http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/researchpublications/prb0595\\-e.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-01\\-03\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} where the government has generally employed this terminology. In some countries the name is [eco\\-social market economy](/wiki/Eco-social_market_economy \"Eco-social market economy\").", "Tax shifting usually includes balancing taxation levels to be [revenue\\-neutral](/wiki/Fiscal_neutrality \"Fiscal neutrality\") for [government](/wiki/Government \"Government\") and to maintain overall [progressiveness](/wiki/Progressive_tax \"Progressive tax\"). It also usually includes measures to protect the most vulnerable, such as raising the minimum income to file income tax at all, or an increase to pension and social assistance levels to offset increased costs of fuel consumption.", "Basic economic theory recognizes the existence of [externalities](/wiki/Externalities \"Externalities\") and their potential negative effects. To the extent that green taxes correct for externalities such as pollution, they correspond with mainstream economic theory. In practice, however, setting the correct taxation level or the tax collection system needed to do so is difficult, and may lead to further distortions or [unintended consequences](/wiki/Unintended_consequences \"Unintended consequences\").", "Taxes on consumption may take the \"[feebate](/wiki/Feebate \"Feebate\")\" approach advocated by [Amory Lovins](/wiki/Amory_Lovins \"Amory Lovins\"), in which additional fees on less sustainable products—such as [sport utility vehicles](/wiki/Sport_utility_vehicle \"Sport utility vehicle\")—are pooled to fund subsidies on more sustainable alternatives, such as [hybrid electric vehicles](/wiki/Hybrid_electric_vehicle \"Hybrid electric vehicle\").", "However, they may simply act as incentives to change habits and make capital investments in newer more efficient vehicles or appliances or to upgrade buildings. Small changes in corporate tax rates for instance can radically change [return on investment](/wiki/Return_on_investment \"Return on investment\") of capital projects, especially if the averted costs of future fossil fuel use are taken into account.", "The same logic applies to major consumer purchases. A \"[green mortgage](/wiki/Green_mortgage \"Green mortgage\")\" such as a [Location Efficient Mortgage](/wiki/Location_Efficient_Mortgage \"Location Efficient Mortgage\"), for example, recognizes that persons who do not drive cars and live generally energy\\-efficient lifestyles pay far less per month than others and accordingly have more to pay a heftier mortgage bill with. This justifies lending them much more money to upgrade a house to use even less energy overall. The result is a bank taking more per month from a consumer's income as utilities and car insurance companies take less, and housing stock upgraded to use the minimum energy feasible with current technology.", "Aside from energy, the refits will generally be those required to be maximally accommodating to [remote work](/wiki/Remote_work \"Remote work\"), [permaculture](/wiki/Permaculture \"Permaculture\") gardens (for example [green roofs](/wiki/Green_roof \"Green roof\")), and a lifestyle that is generally localized in the community not based on commuting. It raises real estate valuations for not only the neighborhood but the entire surrounding region. Consumers living sustainable lifestyles in upgraded housing will generally be unwilling to drive around aimlessly shopping, for instance, to save a few dollars on their purchases. Instead, they'll stay nearer to home and create jobs in grocery delivery and small organic grocers, spending substantially less money on gasoline and car operation costs even if they pay more for food.", "" ]
Life ---- Stahmer was born in [Stettin](/wiki/Stettin "Stettin"). In 1945, the family fled to the West to escape the Russian military. During his school years in [Lüneburg](/wiki/L%C3%BCneburg "Lüneburg") from 1947 to 1960, he received instrumental lessons in cello and piano and participated as a choral singer in [oratorio](/wiki/Oratorio "Oratorio") and choral concerts. After completing school with the [Abitur](/wiki/Abitur "Abitur"), he embarked on a wide range of music studies, at [Dartington College of Arts](/wiki/Dartington_College_of_Arts "Dartington College of Arts") in England, at the Institute of Music in Trossingen and the [Musikhochschule Hamburg](/wiki/Musikhochschule_Hamburg "Musikhochschule Hamburg"), where he took exams in music theory and cello teaching, and the first state exam in music pedagogy for [Gymnasium](/wiki/Gymnasium_%28Germany%29 "Gymnasium (Germany)"). He studied further at the [University of Hamburg](/wiki/University_of_Hamburg "University of Hamburg") and [in Kiel](/wiki/University_of_Kiel "University of Kiel") where he was promoted to Dr. phil. in 1968\. Of his academic teachers, the musicologist [Constantin Floros](/wiki/Constantin_Floros "Constantin Floros"), encouraged and stimulated him to combine musical practice with intellectual penetration and unrestricted openness to [contemporary music](/wiki/Contemporary_music "Contemporary music"). From 1969 to 2004, Stahmer was a university lecturer at the [Hochschule für Musik Würzburg](/wiki/Hochschule_f%C3%BCr_Musik_W%C3%BCrzburg "Hochschule für Musik Würzburg"), teaching musicology, especially music history, history of instrumentation, theory of forms and ethno\-musicology,{{cite news\|title\=Ein Ständchen für Würzburg\|url\=https://www.spiegel.de/kultur/ein\-staendchen\-fuer\-wuerzburg\-a\-97023c7e\-0002\-0001\-0000\-000030612547\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-19\|newspaper\= \[\[Der Spiegel]]\|language\=de}} appointed professor in 1977\. Important impulses came from his collaboration with the Studio für Neue Musik there, beginning in 1970, which he directed from 1989 to 2004\. In 1976, he founded the festival Tage der Neuen Musik (Days of New Music) in Würzburg,{{Cite web\|last\=Meissner\|first\=Gerhard\|date\=2011\-03\-23\|title\=Im Schloss arbeiten Musiker aus dem Libanon und aus Deutschland zusammen\|url\=https://www.mainpost.de/regional/wuerzburg/im\-schloss\-arbeiten\-musiker\-aus\-dem\-libanon\-und\-aus\-deutschland\-zusammen\-art\-6057948\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-19\|website\=mainpost.de}} which he directed until 2000\. Stahmer extended his commitment to contemporary music beyond the university of Würzburg to all of Germany. In collaboration with the {{Ill\|Hindemith\-Institute\|de}} in Frankfurt, he curated and organised an exhibition entitled Musical Graphics. The [graphic notation](/wiki/Graphic_notation_%28music%29 "Graphic notation (music)") by [John Cage](/wiki/John_Cage "John Cage"), [Earle Brown](/wiki/Earle_Brown "Earle Brown"), [Dieter Schnebel](/wiki/Dieter_Schnebel "Dieter Schnebel") and other pioneers of were presented in the [Museum im Kulturspeicher Würzburg](/wiki/Museum_im_Kulturspeicher_W%C3%BCrzburg "Museum im Kulturspeicher Würzburg") and in Frankfurt, and were sonically realised in concerts. He also organised and realises an exhibition of around 40 [sound sculptures](/wiki/Sound_art "Sound art"), produced and developed by 22 artists from four European countries, which was shown as a travelling exhibition in Würzburg, [Kulturforum](/wiki/Kulturforum "Kulturforum") in Bonn, ({{Ill\|Heidelberger Kunstverein\|de}}), {{Ill\|Leopold Hoesch Museum\|de\|Leopold\-Hoesch\-Museum}} in Düren and {{Ill\|Spielboden\|de\| in Dornbirn, Austria}}, showing works by artists Bernard Baschet (Paris), {{Ill\|Edmund Kieselbach\|de}}, {{Ill\|Gerlinde Beck\|de}}, [Stephan von Huene](/wiki/Stephan_von_Huene "Stephan von Huene"), Martin Riches, [Peter Vogel](/wiki/Peter_Vogel_%28artist%29 "Peter Vogel (artist)") created with composers such as [Anestis Logothetis](/wiki/Anestis_Logothetis "Anestis Logothetis"), [Klaus Ager](/wiki/Klaus_Ager "Klaus Ager") and [Siegfried Fink](/wiki/Siegfried_Fink "Siegfried Fink"), and with musicians such as Herbert Försch\-Tenge, [Peter Giger](/wiki/Peter_Giger "Peter Giger") and {{Ill\|Hans\-Karsten Raecke\|de}}. Compositions and improvisations were documented in an LP edition.[WERGO](/wiki/WERGO "WERGO") SM 1049/50 Stahmer has published books, articles and essays on topics related to [Neue Musik](/wiki/Neue_Musik "Neue Musik"), and has worked as a journalist for radio stations and magazines. Since 2013, Stahmer has been a member of the [Freie Akademie der Künste Hamburg](/wiki/Freie_Akademie_der_K%C3%BCnste_Hamburg "Freie Akademie der Künste Hamburg"). In cultural politics, Stahmer was active in [Deutscher Musikrat](/wiki/Deutscher_Musikrat "Deutscher Musikrat"), and was president of the German section of the [Internationale Gesellschaft für Neue Musik](/wiki/Internationale_Gesellschaft_f%C3%BCr_Neue_Musik "Internationale Gesellschaft für Neue Musik") (IGNM) from 1983 to 1987 and from 2000 to 2002\. He focused on improving the relations between Germany and Israel, as well as the rapprochement of Poland and Germany. Since his retirement from university service, Stahmer has worked primarily as a composer, and has traveled to the Middle East and the Far East for lectures and study tours.
[ "Life\n----", "Stahmer was born in [Stettin](/wiki/Stettin \"Stettin\"). In 1945, the family fled to the West to escape the Russian military. During his school years in [Lüneburg](/wiki/L%C3%BCneburg \"Lüneburg\") from 1947 to 1960, he received instrumental lessons in cello and piano and participated as a choral singer in [oratorio](/wiki/Oratorio \"Oratorio\") and choral concerts. After completing school with the [Abitur](/wiki/Abitur \"Abitur\"), he embarked on a wide range of music studies, at [Dartington College of Arts](/wiki/Dartington_College_of_Arts \"Dartington College of Arts\") in England, at the Institute of Music in Trossingen and the [Musikhochschule Hamburg](/wiki/Musikhochschule_Hamburg \"Musikhochschule Hamburg\"), where he took exams in music theory and cello teaching, and the first state exam in music pedagogy for [Gymnasium](/wiki/Gymnasium_%28Germany%29 \"Gymnasium (Germany)\"). He studied further at the [University of Hamburg](/wiki/University_of_Hamburg \"University of Hamburg\") and [in Kiel](/wiki/University_of_Kiel \"University of Kiel\") where he was promoted to Dr. phil. in 1968\\. Of his academic teachers, the musicologist [Constantin Floros](/wiki/Constantin_Floros \"Constantin Floros\"), encouraged and stimulated him to combine musical practice with intellectual penetration and unrestricted openness to [contemporary music](/wiki/Contemporary_music \"Contemporary music\").", "From 1969 to 2004, Stahmer was a university lecturer at the [Hochschule für Musik Würzburg](/wiki/Hochschule_f%C3%BCr_Musik_W%C3%BCrzburg \"Hochschule für Musik Würzburg\"), teaching musicology, especially music history, history of instrumentation, theory of forms and ethno\\-musicology,{{cite news\\|title\\=Ein Ständchen für Würzburg\\|url\\=https://www.spiegel.de/kultur/ein\\-staendchen\\-fuer\\-wuerzburg\\-a\\-97023c7e\\-0002\\-0001\\-0000\\-000030612547\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-19\\|newspaper\\= \\[\\[Der Spiegel]]\\|language\\=de}} appointed professor in 1977\\. Important impulses came from his collaboration with the Studio für Neue Musik there, beginning in 1970, which he directed from 1989 to 2004\\. In 1976, he founded the festival Tage der Neuen Musik (Days of New Music) in Würzburg,{{Cite web\\|last\\=Meissner\\|first\\=Gerhard\\|date\\=2011\\-03\\-23\\|title\\=Im Schloss arbeiten Musiker aus dem Libanon und aus Deutschland zusammen\\|url\\=https://www.mainpost.de/regional/wuerzburg/im\\-schloss\\-arbeiten\\-musiker\\-aus\\-dem\\-libanon\\-und\\-aus\\-deutschland\\-zusammen\\-art\\-6057948\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-19\\|website\\=mainpost.de}} which he directed until 2000\\.", "Stahmer extended his commitment to contemporary music beyond the university of Würzburg to all of Germany. In collaboration with the {{Ill\\|Hindemith\\-Institute\\|de}} in Frankfurt, he curated and organised an exhibition entitled Musical Graphics. The [graphic notation](/wiki/Graphic_notation_%28music%29 \"Graphic notation (music)\") by [John Cage](/wiki/John_Cage \"John Cage\"), [Earle Brown](/wiki/Earle_Brown \"Earle Brown\"), [Dieter Schnebel](/wiki/Dieter_Schnebel \"Dieter Schnebel\") and other pioneers of were presented in the [Museum im Kulturspeicher Würzburg](/wiki/Museum_im_Kulturspeicher_W%C3%BCrzburg \"Museum im Kulturspeicher Würzburg\") and in Frankfurt, and were sonically realised in concerts. He also organised and realises an exhibition of around 40 [sound sculptures](/wiki/Sound_art \"Sound art\"), produced and developed by 22 artists from four European countries, which was shown as a travelling exhibition in Würzburg, [Kulturforum](/wiki/Kulturforum \"Kulturforum\") in Bonn, ({{Ill\\|Heidelberger Kunstverein\\|de}}), {{Ill\\|Leopold Hoesch Museum\\|de\\|Leopold\\-Hoesch\\-Museum}} in Düren and {{Ill\\|Spielboden\\|de\\| in Dornbirn, Austria}}, showing works by artists Bernard Baschet (Paris), {{Ill\\|Edmund Kieselbach\\|de}}, {{Ill\\|Gerlinde Beck\\|de}}, [Stephan von Huene](/wiki/Stephan_von_Huene \"Stephan von Huene\"), Martin Riches, [Peter Vogel](/wiki/Peter_Vogel_%28artist%29 \"Peter Vogel (artist)\") created with composers such as [Anestis Logothetis](/wiki/Anestis_Logothetis \"Anestis Logothetis\"), [Klaus Ager](/wiki/Klaus_Ager \"Klaus Ager\") and [Siegfried Fink](/wiki/Siegfried_Fink \"Siegfried Fink\"), and with musicians such as Herbert Försch\\-Tenge, [Peter Giger](/wiki/Peter_Giger \"Peter Giger\") and {{Ill\\|Hans\\-Karsten Raecke\\|de}}. Compositions and improvisations were documented in an LP edition.[WERGO](/wiki/WERGO \"WERGO\") SM 1049/50 Stahmer has published books, articles and essays on topics related to [Neue Musik](/wiki/Neue_Musik \"Neue Musik\"), and has worked as a journalist for radio stations and magazines. Since 2013, Stahmer has been a member of the [Freie Akademie der Künste Hamburg](/wiki/Freie_Akademie_der_K%C3%BCnste_Hamburg \"Freie Akademie der Künste Hamburg\").", "In cultural politics, Stahmer was active in [Deutscher Musikrat](/wiki/Deutscher_Musikrat \"Deutscher Musikrat\"), and was president of the German section of the [Internationale Gesellschaft für Neue Musik](/wiki/Internationale_Gesellschaft_f%C3%BCr_Neue_Musik \"Internationale Gesellschaft für Neue Musik\") (IGNM) from 1983 to 1987 and from 2000 to 2002\\. He focused on improving the relations between Germany and Israel, as well as the rapprochement of Poland and Germany.", "Since his retirement from university service, Stahmer has worked primarily as a composer, and has traveled to the Middle East and the Far East for lectures and study tours.", "" ]
Career ------ ### *Wicked* {{BLP sources section\|date\=July 2010}} Espinosa made her Broadway debut as a member of the original Broadway cast of [Stephen Schwartz](/wiki/Stephen_Schwartz_%28composer%29 "Stephen Schwartz (composer)")'s musical *[Wicked](/wiki/Wicked_%28musical%29 "Wicked (musical)")*, which opened on October 30, 2003\.{{Cite web\|title\=Eden Espinosa\|url\=https://www.playbill.com/person/eden\-espinosa\-vault\-0000036183\|access\-date\=October 9, 2017\|website\=Playbill}} She started the production as standby for [Idina Menzel](/wiki/Idina_Menzel "Idina Menzel") in the role of [Elphaba](/wiki/Elphaba "Elphaba"). She was also an understudy for the role of Nessarose. Espinosa performed the role of Elphaba for a month continuously during the summer of 2004, while Menzel was filming *[Ask the Dust](/wiki/Ask_the_Dust_%28film%29 "Ask the Dust (film)")*. Espinosa left *Wicked* on September 5, 2004, to originate the lead for the Broadway debut of *[Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn_%28musical%29 "Brooklyn (musical)")*. Following the closing of *Brooklyn the Musical*, Espinosa performed the lead role of Elphaba for the *Wicked* First National tour during the entire [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco") run, from August 5 to September 11, 2005\. She replaced [Stephanie J. Block](/wiki/Stephanie_J._Block "Stephanie J. Block") while Block recovered from an injury.{{Cite web\|last1\=Hernandez\|first1\=Ernio\|last2\=Gans\|first2\=Andrew\|date\=July 14, 2005\|title\=Former Elphaba Eden Espinosa Returns to ''Wicked'' in San Francisco as Tour Star Block Rests\|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/former\-elphaba\-eden\-espinosa\-returns\-to\-wicked\-in\-san\-francisco\-as\-tour\-star\-block\-rests\-com\-126980\|website\=Playbill}} On January 10, 2006, Espinosa returned to perform in the lead role of Elphaba for the Broadway production of *Wicked*, taking over the role from [Shoshana Bean](/wiki/Shoshana_Bean "Shoshana Bean").{{Cite web\|last\=Gans\|first\=Andrew\|date\=January 10, 2006\|title\=Quadruple Play: ''Wicked'' Welcomes Espinosa, Kane, Williams and Candler Jan. 10\|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/quadruple\-play\-wicked\-welcomes\-espinosa\-kane\-williams\-and\-candler\-jan\-10\-com\-130146\|website\=Playbill}} Espinosa performed for the *Wicked* celebration of its 1,000th performance on Broadway, on March 21, 2006\. She left the [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_theatre "Broadway theatre") production on October 8, 2006, and was replaced by [Ana Gasteyer](/wiki/Ana_Gasteyer "Ana Gasteyer").{{Cite web\|last\=Gans\|first\=Andrew\|date\=October 8, 2006\|title\=Espinosa Bids Broadway's ''Wicked'' Farewell Oct. 8\|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/espinosa\-bids\-broadways\-wicked\-farewell\-oct\-8\-com\-135441\|website\=Playbill}} Espinosa received the 2006 Broadway.com Audience Award for "Favorite Female Replacement", in recognition of her performances as Elphaba during her Broadway run as lead.[Eden Espinosa, Star File: Broadway.com Buzz](http://www.broadway.com/gen/Buzz_Star_File.aspx?ci=42113) Espinosa originated the role of Elphaba for the third U.S. production of *Wicked* in [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles"), which opened on February 21, 2007, playing the role until December 30, 2007\.{{Cite web\|last\=Gallo\|first\=Phil\|date\=December 18, 2007\|title\=JoAnne Worley joins 'Wicked'\|url\=https://variety.com/2007/legit/news/joanne\-worley\-joins\-wicked\-1117977945/\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306044426/https://variety.com/2007/legit/news/joanne\-worley\-joins\-wicked\-1117977945/\|archive\-date\=March 6, 2019\|website\=Variety}} She received broad critical acclaim for the role.{{Cite web\|last\=McNulty\|first\=Charles\|date\=February 23, 2007\|title\='Wicked' is almost sure to be evergreen\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-2007\-feb\-23\-et\-wicked23\-story.html\|access\-date\=October 30, 2021\|website\=Los Angeles Times}} She returned on October 31, 2008 and stayed with the production until its closing night on January 11, 2009\.{{Cite web \|last\=Gans \|first\=Andrew \|date\=October 17, 2008 \|title\=Espinosa and Hilty to Return to Los Angeles Cast of ''Wicked'' \|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/espinosa\-and\-hilty\-to\-return\-to\-los\-angeles\-cast\-of\-wicked\-com\-154403 \|website\=Playbill}} On March 2, 2010 until June 26, 2010, Espinosa played Elphaba in the [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco") production of *Wicked*.{{Cite web\|date\=February 11, 2010\|title\=New 'Wicked' witch flying into San Francisco\|url\=https://www.sfgate.com/performance/article/New\-Wicked\-witch\-flying\-into\-San\-Francisco\-3273366\.php\|website\=SFGATE}} This was the last time Espinosa ever played Elphaba.{{Cite web\|last\=Gans\|first\=Andrew\|date\=June 17, 2010\|title\=Marcie Dodd and Alli Mauzey to Join Cast of San Francisco's ''Wicked''\|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/marcie\-dodd\-and\-alli\-mauzey\-to\-join\-cast\-of\-san\-franciscos\-wicked\-com\-169407\|website\=Playbill}} ### *Brooklyn the Musical* Espinosa originated and workshopped the title role in *[Brooklyn the Musical](/wiki/Brooklyn_%28musical%29 "Brooklyn (musical)")* over the course of two years. Its world premiere was on April 30, 2003 (previews),{{cite web \|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/new\-brooklyn\-musical\-to\-world\-premiere\-in\-denver\-in\-spring\-2003\-com\-111627 \|title\=New ''Brooklyn'' Musical to World Premiere in Denver in Spring 2003 \|date\=18 February 2003 \|last\=Gans \|first\=Andrew \|website\=\[\[Playbill]] \|access\-date\=18 July 2016}} and it ran until June 15, 2003, at the Denver Civic Center.{{Cite web\|last\=Gans\|first\=Andrew\|date\=May 7, 2003\|title\=Broadway\-Bound Musical, ''Brooklyn'', Opens May 7 in Denver\|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/broadway\-bound\-musical\-brooklyn\-opens\-may\-7\-in\-denver\-com\-113043\|website\=Playbill}} Espinosa opened in *Brooklyn* on Broadway at the [Plymouth Theatre](/wiki/Gerald_Schoenfeld_Theatre "Gerald Schoenfeld Theatre") on October 21, 2004, and stayed with the musical until it closed on June 26, 2005\.{{Cite web\|last\=Gans\|first\=Andrew\|date\=May 24, 2005\|title\=''Brooklyn'' to Close on Broadway June 26\|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/brooklyn\-to\-close\-on\-broadway\-june\-26\-com\-126102\|website\=Playbill}} It played 27 previews and 284 regular performances. Espinosa was nominated for a 2005 [Drama League Award](/wiki/Drama_League_Award "Drama League Award") for Distinguished Performance for her performance.{{Cite web\|date\=April 19, 2005\|title\=Nominees Announced for the 71st Annual Drama League Awards\|url\=https://www.broadway.com/buzz/94381/nominees\-announced\-for\-the\-71st\-annual\-drama\-league\-awards/\|website\=Broadway.com}} She was featured on the original Broadway cast recording of *Brooklyn the Musical*.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2017}} ### *Rent* On May 30, 2008, joined the Broadway cast of [*Rent*](/wiki/Rent_%28musical%29 "Rent (musical)") at the [Nederlander Theatre](/wiki/Nederlander_Theatre "Nederlander Theatre"){{Cite web\|last1\=Gans\|first1\=Andrew\|last2\=Jones\|first2\=Kenneth\|date\=May 1, 2008\|title\=Chase and Espinosa Will Join Broadway's ''Rent'' Cast\|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/chase\-and\-espinosa\-will\-join\-broadways\-rent\-cast\-com\-149729\|website\=Playbill}} and stayed with the production until it closed on September 7, 2008\. Espinosa made appearances on *[Good Morning America](/wiki/Good_Morning_America "Good Morning America")* and at the [2008 Tony Awards](/wiki/2008_Tony_Awards "2008 Tony Awards") (which featured the original and closing Broadway casts). She also featured in the filmed final Broadway performance.{{Cite web\|date\=April 29, 2008\|title\=Will Chase and Eden Espinosa To Join Final 'Rent' Cast\|url\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/article/Will\-Chase\-and\-Eden\-Espinosa\-To\-Join\-Final\-Rent\-Cast\-20080429\|website\=BroadwayWorld}} ### Additional theatre Espinosa starred in a production of *[Flora the Red Menace](/wiki/Flora_the_Red_Menace "Flora the Red Menace")* which ran at [UCLA](/wiki/UCLA "UCLA")'s Freud Playhouse from May 6–18, 2008\.{{Cite web\|last\=Gans\|first\=Andrew\|date\=February 27, 2008\|title\=Espinosa and Felciano to Star in Reprise! ''Flora, the Red Menace''\|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/espinosa\-and\-felciano\-to\-star\-in\-reprise\-flora\-the\-red\-menace\-com\-147976\|access\-date\=October 30, 2021\|website\=Playbill}} After its closing, on September 21, 2008, Espinosa made her [West End](/wiki/West_End_theatre "West End theatre") debut in "Never Neverland", a benefit concert that raised money for British charities [Ovarian Cancer Action](/wiki/Ovarian_Cancer_Action "Ovarian Cancer Action") and [NCH](/wiki/Action_for_Children "Action for Children"). The concert took place at the [Duchess Theatre](/wiki/Duchess_Theatre "Duchess Theatre") in London. Espinosa performed as Miranda in the one\-night staging of [Howard Ashman](/wiki/Howard_Ashman "Howard Ashman")'s previously unproduced musical *Dreamstuff* on June 23, 2008, at the [Hayworth Theatre](/wiki/Hayworth_Theatre "Hayworth Theatre") in Los Angeles, directed by [Michael Urie](/wiki/Michael_Urie "Michael Urie").["*Dreamstuff* Program"](http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/cschutze/Dreamstuff%20Program.pdf), linguistics.ucla.edu; accessed December 15, 2017\. Espinosa played the Fairy Godmother in the 2011 [Nashville Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/Nashville_Symphony_Orchestra "Nashville Symphony Orchestra") concert version of *[Cinderella](/wiki/Cinderella_%28Rodgers_and_Hammerstein_musical%29 "Cinderella (Rodgers and Hammerstein musical)")* on April 15, 2011, alongside *Wicked* alum [Alli Mauzey](/wiki/Alli_Mauzey "Alli Mauzey"), who played the title character.{{Cite web\|last\=Ellis\|first\=Jeffrey\|date\=April 5, 2011\|title\=Eden Espinosa joins cast of Show Hope's second annual CINDERELLA\|url\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/nashville/article/Eden\-Espinosa\-joins\-cast\-of\-Show\-Hopes\-second\-annual\-CINDERELLA\-20010101\|access\-date\=December 15, 2017\|website\=BroadwayWorld}} She headlined the world premiere of the new musical *Rain* by [Michael John LaChiusa](/wiki/Michael_John_LaChiusa "Michael John LaChiusa") as Sadie, at the [Old Globe Theatre](/wiki/Old_Globe_Theatre "Old Globe Theatre") in [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego") from March 24 to May 1, 2016\.{{Cite web\|last\=Rosky\|first\=Nicole\|date\=January 27, 2016\|title\=Eden Espinosa Will Lead Premiere of Michael John LaChiusa's RAIN at Old Globe Theatre; Full Cast Announced!\|url\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/article/Eden\-Espinosa\-Will\-Lead\-Premiere\-of\-Michael\-John\-LaChiusas\-RAIN\-at\-Old\-Globe\-Theatre\-Full\-Cast\-Announced\-20160127\|access\-date\=January 28, 2016\|website\=BroadwayWorld}} In 2017, she played Mary in [*Merrily We Roll Along*](/wiki/Merrily_We_Roll_Along_%28musical%29 "Merrily We Roll Along (musical)") at Huntington Theatre Company. Espinosa played the lead role in Studio Tenn's production of *[Evita](/wiki/Evita_%28musical%29 "Evita (musical)")* in [Nashville, Tennessee](/wiki/Nashville%2C_Tennessee "Nashville, Tennessee"), from September 9 to 18, 2016\.{{Cite web\|date\=June 28, 2016\|title\=VIDEO: Eden Does Eva\- Watch Trailer of Espinosa in Studio Tenn's EVITA!\|url\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/article/STAGE\-TUBE\-Eden\-Does\-Eva\-\-Watch\-Trailer\-of\-Espinosa\-in\-Studio\-Tenns\-EVITA\-20160628\|access\-date\=June 29, 2016\|website\=BroadwayWorld}} In 2018, Espinosa played the role of Daniella in the concert version of [Lin\-Manuel Miranda](/wiki/Lin-Manuel_Miranda "Lin-Manuel Miranda")'s *[In the Heights](/wiki/In_the_Heights "In the Heights")*. For an entire year, Espinosa starred as Trina in the 2019 National tour of *[Falsettos](/wiki/Falsettos "Falsettos").* On February 17, 2020, Espinosa appeared as one of The Narrators in the 50th Anniversary concert of *[Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat](/wiki/Joseph_and_the_Amazing_Technicolor_Dreamcoat "Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat")* at [Lincoln Center](/wiki/Lincoln_Center "Lincoln Center"). Espinosa starred in *[The Gardens of Anuncia](/wiki/The_Gardens_of_Anuncia "The Gardens of Anuncia")*, a musical by [Michael John LaChiusa](/wiki/Michael_John_LaChiusa "Michael John LaChiusa") about the life of [Graciela Daniele](/wiki/Graciela_Daniele "Graciela Daniele"), portraying her mother.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.lct.org/shows/gardens\-anuncia/ \| title\=The Gardens of Anuncia }} Espinosa starred as the titular character in *[Lempicka](/wiki/Lempicka_%28musical%29 "Lempicka (musical)")* at the [Williamstown Theatre Festival](/wiki/Williamstown_Theatre_Festival "Williamstown Theatre Festival") in 2018 and later the [La Jolla Playhouse](/wiki/La_Jolla_Playhouse "La Jolla Playhouse") from 2019 to 2020\.{{cite web\|last\=McPhee\|first\=Ryan\|date\=October 16, 2019\|title\=''Lempicka'' Musical Will Play La Jolla Playhouse\|url\=https://www.playbill.com/article/lempicka\-musical\-will\-play\-la\-jolla\-playhouse\|website\=\[\[Playbill]]}} The musical transferred to [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_theatre "Broadway theatre")'s [Longacre Theatre](/wiki/Longacre_Theatre "Longacre Theatre") in 2024\.{{Cite news \|last\=Paulson \|first\=Michael \|date\=2023\-10\-30 \|title\='Lempicka,' New Musical About Art Deco Artist, to Open on Broadway \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/30/theater/lempicka\-broadway\-rachel\-chavkin.html \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-30}} For her performance, Espinosa received a nomination for the [Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical](/wiki/Tony_Award_for_Best_Actress_in_a_Musical "Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical").{{Cite web \|last\=Russo \|first\=Gillian \|date\=2024\-04\-23 \|title\=Tony Award Nominations: 'Hell's Kitchen', 'Sterophonic' Lead With 13 \|url\=https://deadline.com/2024/04/2024\-tonys\-nominations\-list\-1235899070/ \|access\-date\=2024\-04\-30 \|website\=Deadline Hollywood \|language\=en}} ### Solo shows/performances On October 22, 2005, Espinosa made her solo concert debut with a co\-headlining show with Tony Award nominee [Euan Morton](/wiki/Euan_Morton "Euan Morton") at [Town Hall](/wiki/The_Town_Hall_%28New_York_City%29 "The Town Hall (New York City)") in New York City part of the venue's Cabaret Festival.{{Cite web\|date\=August 2, 2005\|title\=Eden Espinosa Performs with Euan Morton October 22 at Town Hall Cabaret Festival\|url\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/article/Eden\-Espinosa\-Performs\-with\-Euan\-Morton\-October\-22\-at\-Town\-Hall\-Cabaret\-Festival\-20050802\|website\=BroadwayWorld}} In March 2009, Espinosa performed her solo show entitled "Me" at [Joe's Pub](/wiki/Joe%27s_Pub "Joe's Pub") in New York City, directed by [Billy Porter](/wiki/Billy_Porter_%28actor%29 "Billy Porter (actor)").{{Cite web\|last\=Gans\|first\=Andrew\|date\=February 12, 2009\|title\=Eden Espinosa to Offer Three Shows at Joe's Pub; Billy Porter Directs\|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/eden\-espinosa\-to\-offer\-three\-shows\-at\-joes\-pub\-billy\-porter\-directs\-com\-157939\|website\=Playbill}} She returned to Southern California with her show on Friday, July 24, 2009, at the [John Anson Ford Amphitheatre](/wiki/John_Anson_Ford_Amphitheatre "John Anson Ford Amphitheatre"). In December 2009, she performed a 2nd solo show entitled "From Eden With Love" at the Razz Room at Hotel Nikko in San Francisco, CA. In September 2012, Espinosa became one of the first few major lineup acts opening [Feinstein's/54 Below](/wiki/Feinstein%27s/54_Below "Feinstein's/54 Below") with a themed show paying tribute to the acclaimed singer\-songwriter [Eva Cassidy](/wiki/Eva_Cassidy "Eva Cassidy").54 Below Podcast. [Ep.16 – Eden Espinosa"](https://54belowpodcast.wordpress.com/2012/09/02/ep-16-eden-espinosa/) 54belowpodcast.wordpress.com, August 27, 2012 She was featured as a soloist for [Disneyland](/wiki/Disneyland "Disneyland")'s new firework spectacular "Magical" premiering in the summer of 2009, where she sang Magical's theme song as well as Disney songs such as "[Baby Mine](/wiki/Baby_Mine_%28song%29 "Baby Mine (song)")".{{Cite web\|last\=Varley\|first\=Eddie\|date\=April 27, 2009\|title\=Eden Espinosa Set to Sing New Disneyland Fireworks Spectacular 'MAGICAL' Theme Song\|url\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/los\-angeles/article/Eden\-Espinosa\-Set\-to\-Sing\-New\-Disneyland\-Fireworks\-Spectacular\-MAGICAL\-Theme\-Song\-20090427\|website\=BroadwayWorld}} In February 2020, Espinosa launched a new acoustic solo show at The Green Room 42 entitled *Unplugged \& Unplanned*.{{cite web \|last\=Mosher \|first\=Stephen \|title\=BWW Review: Eden Espinosa Turns The Green Room 42 into Paradise with UNPLUGGED AND UNPLANNED \|url\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/cabaret/article/BWW\-Review\-Eden\-Espinosa\-Turns\-The\-Green\-Room\-42\-into\-Paradise\-with\-UNPLUGGED\-AND\-UNPLANNED\-20200211 \|website\=BroadwayWorld \|access\-date\=November 30, 2021 \|date\=February 11, 2020}} Every concert, the show's setlist would be all new. The February shows were sold out; it included an extension that led into March 2020\. However, the final two shows were cancelled due to the COVID\-19 pandemic. When live performances started to resume during the spring of 2021, Espinosa returned and completed the last two shows of the residency. Today, many of the Espinosa's concerts are done in the style inspired by her *Unplugged \& Unplanned* show rotating the setlist of tunes from her Broadway career, both her solo albums, pop/rock covers, and a Musical Theater fan request section. On August 8, 2021, she headlined her first solo concert on the Las Vegas Strip at The Space Las Vegas. For fans who weren't able to make it, the concert was also livestreamed. On November 13, 2021, Espinosa performed a one night only concert in Holmdel, NJ at the Holmdel Theatre Company (part of the Broadway at the Barn series). Espinosa brought her concert overseas to London at [Cadogan Hall](/wiki/Cadogan_Hall "Cadogan Hall") on April 8, 2022\. ### Solo albums In August 2012, Espinosa announced she was in the process of recording her debut solo album, featuring modern Broadway hits with a pop sensibility, entitled *Look Around*.[Eden Espinosa's Album Project](http://www.kickstarter.com/projects/1881649891/eden-espinosas-album-project) The album was released on December 18, 2012, debuting at \#41 on the iTunes Pop Charts.{{Cite web\|date\=December 19, 2012\|title\=Eden Espinosa's New Album LOOK AROUND Hits No. 41 on iTunes Pop Chart\|url\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/article/Eden\-Espinosas\-New\-Album\-LOOK\-AROUND\-Hits\-No\-41\-on\-iTunes\-Pop\-Chart\-20121219\|website\=BroadwayWorld}} The album also went on to win multiple awards for independent artists including the Independent Music Awards for Pop Album of the Year, Female Pop Vocalist of the Year, and Producer of the Year (which went to Espinosa's producer, Joseph Abate).{{Cite web\|date\=August 15, 2014\|title\=WICKED's Eden Espinosa Wins 2014 Independent Music Award for 'Stone Cold Sober'\|url\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/article/WICKEDs\-Eden\-Espinosa\-Wins\-2014\-Independent\-Music\-Award\-for\-Stone\-Cold\-Sober\-20140815\|website\=BroadwayWorld}} On July 25, 2015, Espinosa announced she was in the early development process of her sophomore studio album. Just like with *Look Around*, she started a Kickstarter fundraiser to raise money for the album.[Eden Espinosa \- Sophomore Album](https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/1881649891/eden-espinosa-sophomore-album) The album recordings and release were delayed due to Espinosa's schedule with various theater projects, voiceover work, concerts, and personal situations that ended up inspiring the album of original songs.{{Citation needed\|date\=October 2021}} The sophomore album, entitled "Revelation", was officially released on January 23, 2019\.{{Cite web\|date\=March 30, 2019\|title\=VIDEO: Eden Espinosa Releases First Music Video from New Album REVELATION\|url\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/article/VIDEO\-Eden\-Espinosa\-Releases\-First\-Music\-Video\-from\-New\-Album\-REVELATION\-20190330\|website\=BroadwayWorld}} It debuted at \#15 on the Pop iTunes charts. ### Television Espinosa has appeared on various television shows, including *[Law \& Order](/wiki/Law_%26_Order "Law & Order")*, *[Robot Chicken](/wiki/Robot_Chicken "Robot Chicken")*, and *[Dog Whisperer](/wiki/Dog_Whisperer "Dog Whisperer")*. She had a recurring role in 2009 as the voice of Sasha Caylo on the [super robot](/wiki/Super_robot "Super robot") animated series *[Titan Maximum](/wiki/Titan_Maximum "Titan Maximum")*, an original show developed for [Adult Swim](/wiki/Adult_Swim "Adult Swim").{{Cite magazine\|last\=Thill\|first\=Scott\|date\=10 September 2009\|title\=Mecha\-Goof ''Titan Maximum'' Gets Cleared for Takeoff\|magazine\=WIRED\|url\=https://www.wired.com/2009/09/mecha\-goof\-titan\-maximum\-gets\-cleared\-for\-takeoff/\|access\-date\=13 March 2020}} In 2007, the ABC series *[Ugly Betty](/wiki/Ugly_Betty "Ugly Betty")* included performances of "I'm Not That Girl" and "Defying Gravity" in the episode "[Something Wicked This Way Comes](/wiki/Something_Wicked_This_Way_Comes_%28Ugly_Betty%29 "Something Wicked This Way Comes (Ugly Betty)")", featuring Espinosa and other members of Los Angeles *Wicked* cast.{{Cite web\|title\='Ugly Betty' Air Date: Thursday, November 01, 2007\. Episode Title: (\#206\) 'Something Wicked This Way Comes'\|url\=http://www.thefutoncritic.com/listings.aspx?id\=20071015abc11\|access\-date\=October 9, 2017\|website\=The Futon Critic}} She has also appeared on the *[Today Show](/wiki/Today_%28American_TV_program%29 "Today (American TV program)")* in 2004, the [Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade](/wiki/Macy%27s_Thanksgiving_Day_Parade "Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade") TV broadcast in 2004, *[The Tonight Show with Jay Leno](/wiki/The_Tonight_Show_with_Jay_Leno "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno")* in 2007, and as a performer on the [2008 Tony Awards](/wiki/62nd_Tony_Awards "62nd Tony Awards").{{IMDb name\|1812653}} In 2011, she appeared on the animated sketch comedy series *[Mad](/wiki/Mad_%28TV_series%29 "Mad (TV series)")* episode "Force Code / Flammable" as Katy Putty, a [Katy Perry](/wiki/Katy_Perry "Katy Perry") parody made out of [Play\-Doh](/wiki/Play-Doh "Play-Doh") who sings about flammability, and performed "Flammable", a spoof on Perry's song "[Firework](/wiki/Firework_%28song%29 "Firework (song)")". In 2016, she voiced Orizaba the moth fairy in the tenth episode of *[Elena of Avalor](/wiki/Elena_of_Avalor "Elena of Avalor")*, "The Sceptre of Light",{{Cite news\|last\=Fierberg\|first\=Ruthie\|date\=2 November 2016\|title\=Eden Espinosa to Sing in ''Elena of Avalor''\|work\=Playbill\|url\=https://www.playbill.com/article/eden\-espinosa\-to\-sing\-in\-elena\-of\-avalor\|access\-date\=17 March 2020}} and again in 2018 for season two episode 18, "Finding Zuzo".{{Cite news\|last\=Milligan\|first\=Mercedes\|url\=https://www.animationmagazine.net/tv/disney\-tv\-highlights\-for\-november\-from\-star\-wars\-to\-fancy\-nancy/\|title\=Disney TV Highlights for November, from 'Star Wars' to 'Fancy Nancy'\|date\=24 October 2018\|work\=Animation Magazine\|access\-date\=17 March 2020}} She voiced Rapunzel’s handmaiden and confidant Cassandra in the 2017 film *[Tangled: Before Ever After](/wiki/Tangled:Before_Ever_After "Before Ever After")*{{cite web\|last1\=Bryant\|first1\=Jacob\|date\=March 8, 2016\|title\=TV News Roundup: Jeffrey Tambor Joins 'Tangled' Series; George Eads Cast in 'MacGyver' Reboot\|url\=https://variety.com/2016/tv/news/tangled\-ever\-after\-jeffrey\-tambor\-jonathan\-banks\-george\-eads\-macgyver\-1201724520/\|access\-date\=25 March 2016\|website\=Variety.com}} and in *[Tangled: The Series/Rapunzel's Tangled Adventure](/wiki/Rapunzel%27s_Tangled_Adventure "Rapunzel's Tangled Adventure")*.{{cite web\|last\=Taylor\|first\=Drew\|url\=https://ohmy.disney.com/news/2016/03/08/tangled\-before\-ever\-after/\|title\=New Details and Casting Revealed for Disney Channel's Tangled: Before Ever After\|work\=Oh My Disney\|date\=March 8, 2016\|access\-date\=March 8, 2016}} For the show, she sang the lead vocals for the song "Waiting in the Wings", composed by [Alan Menken](/wiki/Alan_Menken "Alan Menken") and [Glenn Slater](/wiki/Glenn_Slater "Glenn Slater"), which won the 2020 [Daytime Emmy Award](/wiki/Daytime_Emmy_Awards "Daytime Emmy Awards") for Outstanding Original Song in a Children's, Young Adult or Animated Program.{{cite web\|last\=Kiefer\|first\=Hal\|url\=https://www.vulture.com/2020/07/alan\-menken\-achieves\-egot\-after\-daytime\-emmy\-song\-win.html\|title\=Alan Menken Takes the EGOT Following Daytime Emmy Win for Best Original Song\|website\=Vulture\|date\=July 26, 2020\|access\-date\=July 27, 2020}} In 2022, she voiced The Queen Of Hearts in Disney Junior's *[Alice's Wonderland Bakery](/wiki/Alice%27s_Wonderland_Bakery "Alice's Wonderland Bakery")*. She sang vocals in the musical number titled "TRUCKS" in the episode of the same name of *[Cars on the Road](/wiki/Cars_on_the_Road "Cars on the Road")*. ### Game Night During the COVID\-19 pandemic, Espinosa along with real life best friend vocalist and *Rent* alumna Kamilah Marshall collaborated with California based Regional house *Musical Theatre West* creating a weekly web series on Instagram Live entitled *Game Night with Eden \& Kamilah*. The series featured the duo in a friendly competition playing a series of Musical Theatre themed trivia games. The series would go Live every Thursday night on [Instagram](/wiki/Instagram "Instagram"). However, the plug got pulled from them doing the lives due to the change of restrictions of use of music on the lives on social media. They later moved it to being an interactive show on Zoom featuring fans playing along. Most recently, *Game Night* was then changed to a real live studio game show featuring both Espinosa and Marshall hosting with special Broadway guests. It was released on Broadstream on November 3, 2021\.
[ "Career\n------", "### *Wicked*", "{{BLP sources section\\|date\\=July 2010}}\nEspinosa made her Broadway debut as a member of the original Broadway cast of [Stephen Schwartz](/wiki/Stephen_Schwartz_%28composer%29 \"Stephen Schwartz (composer)\")'s musical *[Wicked](/wiki/Wicked_%28musical%29 \"Wicked (musical)\")*, which opened on October 30, 2003\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Eden Espinosa\\|url\\=https://www.playbill.com/person/eden\\-espinosa\\-vault\\-0000036183\\|access\\-date\\=October 9, 2017\\|website\\=Playbill}} She started the production as standby for [Idina Menzel](/wiki/Idina_Menzel \"Idina Menzel\") in the role of [Elphaba](/wiki/Elphaba \"Elphaba\"). She was also an understudy for the role of Nessarose. Espinosa performed the role of Elphaba for a month continuously during the summer of 2004, while Menzel was filming *[Ask the Dust](/wiki/Ask_the_Dust_%28film%29 \"Ask the Dust (film)\")*. Espinosa left *Wicked* on September 5, 2004, to originate the lead for the Broadway debut of *[Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn_%28musical%29 \"Brooklyn (musical)\")*.", "Following the closing of *Brooklyn the Musical*, Espinosa performed the lead role of Elphaba for the *Wicked* First National tour during the entire [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\") run, from August 5 to September 11, 2005\\. She replaced [Stephanie J. Block](/wiki/Stephanie_J._Block \"Stephanie J. Block\") while Block recovered from an injury.{{Cite web\\|last1\\=Hernandez\\|first1\\=Ernio\\|last2\\=Gans\\|first2\\=Andrew\\|date\\=July 14, 2005\\|title\\=Former Elphaba Eden Espinosa Returns to ''Wicked'' in San Francisco as Tour Star Block Rests\\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/former\\-elphaba\\-eden\\-espinosa\\-returns\\-to\\-wicked\\-in\\-san\\-francisco\\-as\\-tour\\-star\\-block\\-rests\\-com\\-126980\\|website\\=Playbill}}", "On January 10, 2006, Espinosa returned to perform in the lead role of Elphaba for the Broadway production of *Wicked*, taking over the role from [Shoshana Bean](/wiki/Shoshana_Bean \"Shoshana Bean\").{{Cite web\\|last\\=Gans\\|first\\=Andrew\\|date\\=January 10, 2006\\|title\\=Quadruple Play: ''Wicked'' Welcomes Espinosa, Kane, Williams and Candler Jan. 10\\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/quadruple\\-play\\-wicked\\-welcomes\\-espinosa\\-kane\\-williams\\-and\\-candler\\-jan\\-10\\-com\\-130146\\|website\\=Playbill}} Espinosa performed for the *Wicked* celebration of its 1,000th performance on Broadway, on March 21, 2006\\. She left the [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_theatre \"Broadway theatre\") production on October 8, 2006, and was replaced by [Ana Gasteyer](/wiki/Ana_Gasteyer \"Ana Gasteyer\").{{Cite web\\|last\\=Gans\\|first\\=Andrew\\|date\\=October 8, 2006\\|title\\=Espinosa Bids Broadway's ''Wicked'' Farewell Oct. 8\\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/espinosa\\-bids\\-broadways\\-wicked\\-farewell\\-oct\\-8\\-com\\-135441\\|website\\=Playbill}}", "Espinosa received the 2006 Broadway.com Audience Award for \"Favorite Female Replacement\", in recognition of her performances as Elphaba during her Broadway run as lead.[Eden Espinosa, Star File: Broadway.com Buzz](http://www.broadway.com/gen/Buzz_Star_File.aspx?ci=42113)", "Espinosa originated the role of Elphaba for the third U.S. production of *Wicked* in [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\"), which opened on February 21, 2007, playing the role until December 30, 2007\\.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Gallo\\|first\\=Phil\\|date\\=December 18, 2007\\|title\\=JoAnne Worley joins 'Wicked'\\|url\\=https://variety.com/2007/legit/news/joanne\\-worley\\-joins\\-wicked\\-1117977945/\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306044426/https://variety.com/2007/legit/news/joanne\\-worley\\-joins\\-wicked\\-1117977945/\\|archive\\-date\\=March 6, 2019\\|website\\=Variety}} She received broad critical acclaim for the role.{{Cite web\\|last\\=McNulty\\|first\\=Charles\\|date\\=February 23, 2007\\|title\\='Wicked' is almost sure to be evergreen\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-2007\\-feb\\-23\\-et\\-wicked23\\-story.html\\|access\\-date\\=October 30, 2021\\|website\\=Los Angeles Times}} She returned on October 31, 2008 and stayed with the production until its closing night on January 11, 2009\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Gans \\|first\\=Andrew \\|date\\=October 17, 2008 \\|title\\=Espinosa and Hilty to Return to Los Angeles Cast of ''Wicked'' \\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/espinosa\\-and\\-hilty\\-to\\-return\\-to\\-los\\-angeles\\-cast\\-of\\-wicked\\-com\\-154403 \\|website\\=Playbill}} On March 2, 2010 until June 26, 2010, Espinosa played Elphaba in the [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\") production of *Wicked*.{{Cite web\\|date\\=February 11, 2010\\|title\\=New 'Wicked' witch flying into San Francisco\\|url\\=https://www.sfgate.com/performance/article/New\\-Wicked\\-witch\\-flying\\-into\\-San\\-Francisco\\-3273366\\.php\\|website\\=SFGATE}} This was the last time Espinosa ever played Elphaba.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Gans\\|first\\=Andrew\\|date\\=June 17, 2010\\|title\\=Marcie Dodd and Alli Mauzey to Join Cast of San Francisco's ''Wicked''\\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/marcie\\-dodd\\-and\\-alli\\-mauzey\\-to\\-join\\-cast\\-of\\-san\\-franciscos\\-wicked\\-com\\-169407\\|website\\=Playbill}}", "### *Brooklyn the Musical*", "Espinosa originated and workshopped the title role in *[Brooklyn the Musical](/wiki/Brooklyn_%28musical%29 \"Brooklyn (musical)\")* over the course of two years. Its world premiere was on April 30, 2003 (previews),{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/new\\-brooklyn\\-musical\\-to\\-world\\-premiere\\-in\\-denver\\-in\\-spring\\-2003\\-com\\-111627 \\|title\\=New ''Brooklyn'' Musical to World Premiere in Denver in Spring 2003 \\|date\\=18 February 2003 \\|last\\=Gans \\|first\\=Andrew \\|website\\=\\[\\[Playbill]] \\|access\\-date\\=18 July 2016}} and it ran until June 15, 2003, at the Denver Civic Center.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Gans\\|first\\=Andrew\\|date\\=May 7, 2003\\|title\\=Broadway\\-Bound Musical, ''Brooklyn'', Opens May 7 in Denver\\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/broadway\\-bound\\-musical\\-brooklyn\\-opens\\-may\\-7\\-in\\-denver\\-com\\-113043\\|website\\=Playbill}}", "Espinosa opened in *Brooklyn* on Broadway at the [Plymouth Theatre](/wiki/Gerald_Schoenfeld_Theatre \"Gerald Schoenfeld Theatre\") on October 21, 2004, and stayed with the musical until it closed on June 26, 2005\\.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Gans\\|first\\=Andrew\\|date\\=May 24, 2005\\|title\\=''Brooklyn'' to Close on Broadway June 26\\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/brooklyn\\-to\\-close\\-on\\-broadway\\-june\\-26\\-com\\-126102\\|website\\=Playbill}} It played 27 previews and 284 regular performances.", "Espinosa was nominated for a 2005 [Drama League Award](/wiki/Drama_League_Award \"Drama League Award\") for Distinguished Performance for her performance.{{Cite web\\|date\\=April 19, 2005\\|title\\=Nominees Announced for the 71st Annual Drama League Awards\\|url\\=https://www.broadway.com/buzz/94381/nominees\\-announced\\-for\\-the\\-71st\\-annual\\-drama\\-league\\-awards/\\|website\\=Broadway.com}} She was featured on the original Broadway cast recording of *Brooklyn the Musical*.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2017}}", "### *Rent*", "On May 30, 2008, joined the Broadway cast of [*Rent*](/wiki/Rent_%28musical%29 \"Rent (musical)\") at the [Nederlander Theatre](/wiki/Nederlander_Theatre \"Nederlander Theatre\"){{Cite web\\|last1\\=Gans\\|first1\\=Andrew\\|last2\\=Jones\\|first2\\=Kenneth\\|date\\=May 1, 2008\\|title\\=Chase and Espinosa Will Join Broadway's ''Rent'' Cast\\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/chase\\-and\\-espinosa\\-will\\-join\\-broadways\\-rent\\-cast\\-com\\-149729\\|website\\=Playbill}} and stayed with the production until it closed on September 7, 2008\\. Espinosa made appearances on *[Good Morning America](/wiki/Good_Morning_America \"Good Morning America\")* and at the [2008 Tony Awards](/wiki/2008_Tony_Awards \"2008 Tony Awards\") (which featured the original and closing Broadway casts). She also featured in the filmed final Broadway performance.{{Cite web\\|date\\=April 29, 2008\\|title\\=Will Chase and Eden Espinosa To Join Final 'Rent' Cast\\|url\\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/article/Will\\-Chase\\-and\\-Eden\\-Espinosa\\-To\\-Join\\-Final\\-Rent\\-Cast\\-20080429\\|website\\=BroadwayWorld}}", "### Additional theatre", "Espinosa starred in a production of *[Flora the Red Menace](/wiki/Flora_the_Red_Menace \"Flora the Red Menace\")* which ran at [UCLA](/wiki/UCLA \"UCLA\")'s Freud Playhouse from May 6–18, 2008\\.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Gans\\|first\\=Andrew\\|date\\=February 27, 2008\\|title\\=Espinosa and Felciano to Star in Reprise! ''Flora, the Red Menace''\\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/espinosa\\-and\\-felciano\\-to\\-star\\-in\\-reprise\\-flora\\-the\\-red\\-menace\\-com\\-147976\\|access\\-date\\=October 30, 2021\\|website\\=Playbill}} After its closing, on September 21, 2008, Espinosa made her [West End](/wiki/West_End_theatre \"West End theatre\") debut in \"Never Neverland\", a benefit concert that raised money for British charities [Ovarian Cancer Action](/wiki/Ovarian_Cancer_Action \"Ovarian Cancer Action\") and [NCH](/wiki/Action_for_Children \"Action for Children\"). The concert took place at the [Duchess Theatre](/wiki/Duchess_Theatre \"Duchess Theatre\") in London.", "Espinosa performed as Miranda in the one\\-night staging of [Howard Ashman](/wiki/Howard_Ashman \"Howard Ashman\")'s previously unproduced musical *Dreamstuff* on June 23, 2008, at the [Hayworth Theatre](/wiki/Hayworth_Theatre \"Hayworth Theatre\") in Los Angeles, directed by [Michael Urie](/wiki/Michael_Urie \"Michael Urie\").[\"*Dreamstuff* Program\"](http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/cschutze/Dreamstuff%20Program.pdf), linguistics.ucla.edu; accessed December 15, 2017\\.", "Espinosa played the Fairy Godmother in the 2011 [Nashville Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/Nashville_Symphony_Orchestra \"Nashville Symphony Orchestra\") concert version of *[Cinderella](/wiki/Cinderella_%28Rodgers_and_Hammerstein_musical%29 \"Cinderella (Rodgers and Hammerstein musical)\")* on April 15, 2011, alongside *Wicked* alum [Alli Mauzey](/wiki/Alli_Mauzey \"Alli Mauzey\"), who played the title character.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Ellis\\|first\\=Jeffrey\\|date\\=April 5, 2011\\|title\\=Eden Espinosa joins cast of Show Hope's second annual CINDERELLA\\|url\\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/nashville/article/Eden\\-Espinosa\\-joins\\-cast\\-of\\-Show\\-Hopes\\-second\\-annual\\-CINDERELLA\\-20010101\\|access\\-date\\=December 15, 2017\\|website\\=BroadwayWorld}}", "She headlined the world premiere of the new musical *Rain* by [Michael John LaChiusa](/wiki/Michael_John_LaChiusa \"Michael John LaChiusa\") as Sadie, at the [Old Globe Theatre](/wiki/Old_Globe_Theatre \"Old Globe Theatre\") in [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\") from March 24 to May 1, 2016\\.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Rosky\\|first\\=Nicole\\|date\\=January 27, 2016\\|title\\=Eden Espinosa Will Lead Premiere of Michael John LaChiusa's RAIN at Old Globe Theatre; Full Cast Announced!\\|url\\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/article/Eden\\-Espinosa\\-Will\\-Lead\\-Premiere\\-of\\-Michael\\-John\\-LaChiusas\\-RAIN\\-at\\-Old\\-Globe\\-Theatre\\-Full\\-Cast\\-Announced\\-20160127\\|access\\-date\\=January 28, 2016\\|website\\=BroadwayWorld}} In 2017, she played Mary in [*Merrily We Roll Along*](/wiki/Merrily_We_Roll_Along_%28musical%29 \"Merrily We Roll Along (musical)\") at Huntington Theatre Company.", "Espinosa played the lead role in Studio Tenn's production of *[Evita](/wiki/Evita_%28musical%29 \"Evita (musical)\")* in [Nashville, Tennessee](/wiki/Nashville%2C_Tennessee \"Nashville, Tennessee\"), from September 9 to 18, 2016\\.{{Cite web\\|date\\=June 28, 2016\\|title\\=VIDEO: Eden Does Eva\\- Watch Trailer of Espinosa in Studio Tenn's EVITA!\\|url\\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/article/STAGE\\-TUBE\\-Eden\\-Does\\-Eva\\-\\-Watch\\-Trailer\\-of\\-Espinosa\\-in\\-Studio\\-Tenns\\-EVITA\\-20160628\\|access\\-date\\=June 29, 2016\\|website\\=BroadwayWorld}}", "In 2018, Espinosa played the role of Daniella in the concert version of [Lin\\-Manuel Miranda](/wiki/Lin-Manuel_Miranda \"Lin-Manuel Miranda\")'s *[In the Heights](/wiki/In_the_Heights \"In the Heights\")*.", "For an entire year, Espinosa starred as Trina in the 2019 National tour of *[Falsettos](/wiki/Falsettos \"Falsettos\").*", "On February 17, 2020, Espinosa appeared as one of The Narrators in the 50th Anniversary concert of *[Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat](/wiki/Joseph_and_the_Amazing_Technicolor_Dreamcoat \"Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat\")* at [Lincoln Center](/wiki/Lincoln_Center \"Lincoln Center\").", "Espinosa starred in *[The Gardens of Anuncia](/wiki/The_Gardens_of_Anuncia \"The Gardens of Anuncia\")*, a musical by [Michael John LaChiusa](/wiki/Michael_John_LaChiusa \"Michael John LaChiusa\") about the life of [Graciela Daniele](/wiki/Graciela_Daniele \"Graciela Daniele\"), portraying her mother.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.lct.org/shows/gardens\\-anuncia/ \\| title\\=The Gardens of Anuncia }}", "Espinosa starred as the titular character in *[Lempicka](/wiki/Lempicka_%28musical%29 \"Lempicka (musical)\")* at the [Williamstown Theatre Festival](/wiki/Williamstown_Theatre_Festival \"Williamstown Theatre Festival\") in 2018 and later the [La Jolla Playhouse](/wiki/La_Jolla_Playhouse \"La Jolla Playhouse\") from 2019 to 2020\\.{{cite web\\|last\\=McPhee\\|first\\=Ryan\\|date\\=October 16, 2019\\|title\\=''Lempicka'' Musical Will Play La Jolla Playhouse\\|url\\=https://www.playbill.com/article/lempicka\\-musical\\-will\\-play\\-la\\-jolla\\-playhouse\\|website\\=\\[\\[Playbill]]}} The musical transferred to [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_theatre \"Broadway theatre\")'s [Longacre Theatre](/wiki/Longacre_Theatre \"Longacre Theatre\") in 2024\\.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Paulson \\|first\\=Michael \\|date\\=2023\\-10\\-30 \\|title\\='Lempicka,' New Musical About Art Deco Artist, to Open on Broadway \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/30/theater/lempicka\\-broadway\\-rachel\\-chavkin.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-30}} For her performance, Espinosa received a nomination for the [Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical](/wiki/Tony_Award_for_Best_Actress_in_a_Musical \"Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Russo \\|first\\=Gillian \\|date\\=2024\\-04\\-23 \\|title\\=Tony Award Nominations: 'Hell's Kitchen', 'Sterophonic' Lead With 13 \\|url\\=https://deadline.com/2024/04/2024\\-tonys\\-nominations\\-list\\-1235899070/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-04\\-30 \\|website\\=Deadline Hollywood \\|language\\=en}}", "### Solo shows/performances", "On October 22, 2005, Espinosa made her solo concert debut with a co\\-headlining show with Tony Award nominee [Euan Morton](/wiki/Euan_Morton \"Euan Morton\") at [Town Hall](/wiki/The_Town_Hall_%28New_York_City%29 \"The Town Hall (New York City)\") in New York City part of the venue's Cabaret Festival.{{Cite web\\|date\\=August 2, 2005\\|title\\=Eden Espinosa Performs with Euan Morton October 22 at Town Hall Cabaret Festival\\|url\\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/article/Eden\\-Espinosa\\-Performs\\-with\\-Euan\\-Morton\\-October\\-22\\-at\\-Town\\-Hall\\-Cabaret\\-Festival\\-20050802\\|website\\=BroadwayWorld}}", "In March 2009, Espinosa performed her solo show entitled \"Me\" at [Joe's Pub](/wiki/Joe%27s_Pub \"Joe's Pub\") in New York City, directed by [Billy Porter](/wiki/Billy_Porter_%28actor%29 \"Billy Porter (actor)\").{{Cite web\\|last\\=Gans\\|first\\=Andrew\\|date\\=February 12, 2009\\|title\\=Eden Espinosa to Offer Three Shows at Joe's Pub; Billy Porter Directs\\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/eden\\-espinosa\\-to\\-offer\\-three\\-shows\\-at\\-joes\\-pub\\-billy\\-porter\\-directs\\-com\\-157939\\|website\\=Playbill}} She returned to Southern California with her show on Friday, July 24, 2009, at the [John Anson Ford Amphitheatre](/wiki/John_Anson_Ford_Amphitheatre \"John Anson Ford Amphitheatre\").", "In December 2009, she performed a 2nd solo show entitled \"From Eden With Love\" at the Razz Room at Hotel Nikko in San Francisco, CA.", "In September 2012, Espinosa became one of the first few major lineup acts opening [Feinstein's/54 Below](/wiki/Feinstein%27s/54_Below \"Feinstein's/54 Below\") with a themed show paying tribute to the acclaimed singer\\-songwriter [Eva Cassidy](/wiki/Eva_Cassidy \"Eva Cassidy\").54 Below Podcast. [Ep.16 – Eden Espinosa\"](https://54belowpodcast.wordpress.com/2012/09/02/ep-16-eden-espinosa/) 54belowpodcast.wordpress.com, August 27, 2012", "She was featured as a soloist for [Disneyland](/wiki/Disneyland \"Disneyland\")'s new firework spectacular \"Magical\" premiering in the summer of 2009, where she sang Magical's theme song as well as Disney songs such as \"[Baby Mine](/wiki/Baby_Mine_%28song%29 \"Baby Mine (song)\")\".{{Cite web\\|last\\=Varley\\|first\\=Eddie\\|date\\=April 27, 2009\\|title\\=Eden Espinosa Set to Sing New Disneyland Fireworks Spectacular 'MAGICAL' Theme Song\\|url\\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/los\\-angeles/article/Eden\\-Espinosa\\-Set\\-to\\-Sing\\-New\\-Disneyland\\-Fireworks\\-Spectacular\\-MAGICAL\\-Theme\\-Song\\-20090427\\|website\\=BroadwayWorld}}", "In February 2020, Espinosa launched a new acoustic solo show at The Green Room 42 entitled *Unplugged \\& Unplanned*.{{cite web \\|last\\=Mosher \\|first\\=Stephen \\|title\\=BWW Review: Eden Espinosa Turns The Green Room 42 into Paradise with UNPLUGGED AND UNPLANNED \\|url\\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/cabaret/article/BWW\\-Review\\-Eden\\-Espinosa\\-Turns\\-The\\-Green\\-Room\\-42\\-into\\-Paradise\\-with\\-UNPLUGGED\\-AND\\-UNPLANNED\\-20200211 \\|website\\=BroadwayWorld \\|access\\-date\\=November 30, 2021 \\|date\\=February 11, 2020}} Every concert, the show's setlist would be all new. The February shows were sold out; it included an extension that led into March 2020\\. However, the final two shows were cancelled due to the COVID\\-19 pandemic. When live performances started to resume during the spring of 2021, Espinosa returned and completed the last two shows of the residency.", "Today, many of the Espinosa's concerts are done in the style inspired by her *Unplugged \\& Unplanned* show rotating the setlist of tunes from her Broadway career, both her solo albums, pop/rock covers, and a Musical Theater fan request section. On August 8, 2021, she headlined her first solo concert on the Las Vegas Strip at The Space Las Vegas. For fans who weren't able to make it, the concert was also livestreamed. On November 13, 2021, Espinosa performed a one night only concert in Holmdel, NJ at the Holmdel Theatre Company (part of the Broadway at the Barn series).", "Espinosa brought her concert overseas to London at [Cadogan Hall](/wiki/Cadogan_Hall \"Cadogan Hall\") on April 8, 2022\\.", "### Solo albums", "In August 2012, Espinosa announced she was in the process of recording her debut solo album, featuring modern Broadway hits with a pop sensibility, entitled *Look Around*.[Eden Espinosa's Album Project](http://www.kickstarter.com/projects/1881649891/eden-espinosas-album-project) The album was released on December 18, 2012, debuting at \\#41 on the iTunes Pop Charts.{{Cite web\\|date\\=December 19, 2012\\|title\\=Eden Espinosa's New Album LOOK AROUND Hits No. 41 on iTunes Pop Chart\\|url\\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/article/Eden\\-Espinosas\\-New\\-Album\\-LOOK\\-AROUND\\-Hits\\-No\\-41\\-on\\-iTunes\\-Pop\\-Chart\\-20121219\\|website\\=BroadwayWorld}} The album also went on to win multiple awards for independent artists including the Independent Music Awards for Pop Album of the Year, Female Pop Vocalist of the Year, and Producer of the Year (which went to Espinosa's producer, Joseph Abate).{{Cite web\\|date\\=August 15, 2014\\|title\\=WICKED's Eden Espinosa Wins 2014 Independent Music Award for 'Stone Cold Sober'\\|url\\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/article/WICKEDs\\-Eden\\-Espinosa\\-Wins\\-2014\\-Independent\\-Music\\-Award\\-for\\-Stone\\-Cold\\-Sober\\-20140815\\|website\\=BroadwayWorld}}", "On July 25, 2015, Espinosa announced she was in the early development process of her sophomore studio album. Just like with *Look Around*, she started a Kickstarter fundraiser to raise money for the album.[Eden Espinosa \\- Sophomore Album](https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/1881649891/eden-espinosa-sophomore-album) The album recordings and release were delayed due to Espinosa's schedule with various theater projects, voiceover work, concerts, and personal situations that ended up inspiring the album of original songs.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2021}} The sophomore album, entitled \"Revelation\", was officially released on January 23, 2019\\.{{Cite web\\|date\\=March 30, 2019\\|title\\=VIDEO: Eden Espinosa Releases First Music Video from New Album REVELATION\\|url\\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/article/VIDEO\\-Eden\\-Espinosa\\-Releases\\-First\\-Music\\-Video\\-from\\-New\\-Album\\-REVELATION\\-20190330\\|website\\=BroadwayWorld}} It debuted at \\#15 on the Pop iTunes charts.", "### Television", "Espinosa has appeared on various television shows, including *[Law \\& Order](/wiki/Law_%26_Order \"Law & Order\")*, *[Robot Chicken](/wiki/Robot_Chicken \"Robot Chicken\")*, and *[Dog Whisperer](/wiki/Dog_Whisperer \"Dog Whisperer\")*. She had a recurring role in 2009 as the voice of Sasha Caylo on the [super robot](/wiki/Super_robot \"Super robot\") animated series *[Titan Maximum](/wiki/Titan_Maximum \"Titan Maximum\")*, an original show developed for [Adult Swim](/wiki/Adult_Swim \"Adult Swim\").{{Cite magazine\\|last\\=Thill\\|first\\=Scott\\|date\\=10 September 2009\\|title\\=Mecha\\-Goof ''Titan Maximum'' Gets Cleared for Takeoff\\|magazine\\=WIRED\\|url\\=https://www.wired.com/2009/09/mecha\\-goof\\-titan\\-maximum\\-gets\\-cleared\\-for\\-takeoff/\\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2020}}", "In 2007, the ABC series *[Ugly Betty](/wiki/Ugly_Betty \"Ugly Betty\")* included performances of \"I'm Not That Girl\" and \"Defying Gravity\" in the episode \"[Something Wicked This Way Comes](/wiki/Something_Wicked_This_Way_Comes_%28Ugly_Betty%29 \"Something Wicked This Way Comes (Ugly Betty)\")\", featuring Espinosa and other members of Los Angeles *Wicked* cast.{{Cite web\\|title\\='Ugly Betty' Air Date: Thursday, November 01, 2007\\. Episode Title: (\\#206\\) 'Something Wicked This Way Comes'\\|url\\=http://www.thefutoncritic.com/listings.aspx?id\\=20071015abc11\\|access\\-date\\=October 9, 2017\\|website\\=The Futon Critic}}", "She has also appeared on the *[Today Show](/wiki/Today_%28American_TV_program%29 \"Today (American TV program)\")* in 2004, the [Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade](/wiki/Macy%27s_Thanksgiving_Day_Parade \"Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade\") TV broadcast in 2004, *[The Tonight Show with Jay Leno](/wiki/The_Tonight_Show_with_Jay_Leno \"The Tonight Show with Jay Leno\")* in 2007, and as a performer on the [2008 Tony Awards](/wiki/62nd_Tony_Awards \"62nd Tony Awards\").{{IMDb name\\|1812653}}", "In 2011, she appeared on the animated sketch comedy series *[Mad](/wiki/Mad_%28TV_series%29 \"Mad (TV series)\")* episode \"Force Code / Flammable\" as Katy Putty, a [Katy Perry](/wiki/Katy_Perry \"Katy Perry\") parody made out of [Play\\-Doh](/wiki/Play-Doh \"Play-Doh\") who sings about flammability, and performed \"Flammable\", a spoof on Perry's song \"[Firework](/wiki/Firework_%28song%29 \"Firework (song)\")\".", "In 2016, she voiced Orizaba the moth fairy in the tenth episode of *[Elena of Avalor](/wiki/Elena_of_Avalor \"Elena of Avalor\")*, \"The Sceptre of Light\",{{Cite news\\|last\\=Fierberg\\|first\\=Ruthie\\|date\\=2 November 2016\\|title\\=Eden Espinosa to Sing in ''Elena of Avalor''\\|work\\=Playbill\\|url\\=https://www.playbill.com/article/eden\\-espinosa\\-to\\-sing\\-in\\-elena\\-of\\-avalor\\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2020}} and again in 2018 for season two episode 18, \"Finding Zuzo\".{{Cite news\\|last\\=Milligan\\|first\\=Mercedes\\|url\\=https://www.animationmagazine.net/tv/disney\\-tv\\-highlights\\-for\\-november\\-from\\-star\\-wars\\-to\\-fancy\\-nancy/\\|title\\=Disney TV Highlights for November, from 'Star Wars' to 'Fancy Nancy'\\|date\\=24 October 2018\\|work\\=Animation Magazine\\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2020}}", "She voiced Rapunzel’s handmaiden and confidant Cassandra in the 2017 film *[Tangled: Before Ever After](/wiki/Tangled:Before_Ever_After \"Before Ever After\")*{{cite web\\|last1\\=Bryant\\|first1\\=Jacob\\|date\\=March 8, 2016\\|title\\=TV News Roundup: Jeffrey Tambor Joins 'Tangled' Series; George Eads Cast in 'MacGyver' Reboot\\|url\\=https://variety.com/2016/tv/news/tangled\\-ever\\-after\\-jeffrey\\-tambor\\-jonathan\\-banks\\-george\\-eads\\-macgyver\\-1201724520/\\|access\\-date\\=25 March 2016\\|website\\=Variety.com}} and in *[Tangled: The Series/Rapunzel's Tangled Adventure](/wiki/Rapunzel%27s_Tangled_Adventure \"Rapunzel's Tangled Adventure\")*.{{cite web\\|last\\=Taylor\\|first\\=Drew\\|url\\=https://ohmy.disney.com/news/2016/03/08/tangled\\-before\\-ever\\-after/\\|title\\=New Details and Casting Revealed for Disney Channel's Tangled: Before Ever After\\|work\\=Oh My Disney\\|date\\=March 8, 2016\\|access\\-date\\=March 8, 2016}} For the show, she sang the lead vocals for the song \"Waiting in the Wings\", composed by [Alan Menken](/wiki/Alan_Menken \"Alan Menken\") and [Glenn Slater](/wiki/Glenn_Slater \"Glenn Slater\"), which won the 2020 [Daytime Emmy Award](/wiki/Daytime_Emmy_Awards \"Daytime Emmy Awards\") for Outstanding Original Song in a Children's, Young Adult or Animated Program.{{cite web\\|last\\=Kiefer\\|first\\=Hal\\|url\\=https://www.vulture.com/2020/07/alan\\-menken\\-achieves\\-egot\\-after\\-daytime\\-emmy\\-song\\-win.html\\|title\\=Alan Menken Takes the EGOT Following Daytime Emmy Win for Best Original Song\\|website\\=Vulture\\|date\\=July 26, 2020\\|access\\-date\\=July 27, 2020}}", "In 2022, she voiced The Queen Of Hearts in Disney Junior's *[Alice's Wonderland Bakery](/wiki/Alice%27s_Wonderland_Bakery \"Alice's Wonderland Bakery\")*.", "She sang vocals in the musical number titled \"TRUCKS\" in the episode of the same name of *[Cars on the Road](/wiki/Cars_on_the_Road \"Cars on the Road\")*.", "### Game Night", "During the COVID\\-19 pandemic, Espinosa along with real life best friend vocalist and *Rent* alumna Kamilah Marshall collaborated with California based Regional house *Musical Theatre West* creating a weekly web series on Instagram Live entitled *Game Night with Eden \\& Kamilah*. The series featured the duo in a friendly competition playing a series of Musical Theatre themed trivia games. The series would go Live every Thursday night on [Instagram](/wiki/Instagram \"Instagram\"). However, the plug got pulled from them doing the lives due to the change of restrictions of use of music on the lives on social media. They later moved it to being an interactive show on Zoom featuring fans playing along. Most recently, *Game Night* was then changed to a real live studio game show featuring both Espinosa and Marshall hosting with special Broadway guests. It was released on Broadstream on November 3, 2021\\.", "" ]
### Additional theatre Espinosa starred in a production of *[Flora the Red Menace](/wiki/Flora_the_Red_Menace "Flora the Red Menace")* which ran at [UCLA](/wiki/UCLA "UCLA")'s Freud Playhouse from May 6–18, 2008\.{{Cite web\|last\=Gans\|first\=Andrew\|date\=February 27, 2008\|title\=Espinosa and Felciano to Star in Reprise! ''Flora, the Red Menace''\|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/espinosa\-and\-felciano\-to\-star\-in\-reprise\-flora\-the\-red\-menace\-com\-147976\|access\-date\=October 30, 2021\|website\=Playbill}} After its closing, on September 21, 2008, Espinosa made her [West End](/wiki/West_End_theatre "West End theatre") debut in "Never Neverland", a benefit concert that raised money for British charities [Ovarian Cancer Action](/wiki/Ovarian_Cancer_Action "Ovarian Cancer Action") and [NCH](/wiki/Action_for_Children "Action for Children"). The concert took place at the [Duchess Theatre](/wiki/Duchess_Theatre "Duchess Theatre") in London. Espinosa performed as Miranda in the one\-night staging of [Howard Ashman](/wiki/Howard_Ashman "Howard Ashman")'s previously unproduced musical *Dreamstuff* on June 23, 2008, at the [Hayworth Theatre](/wiki/Hayworth_Theatre "Hayworth Theatre") in Los Angeles, directed by [Michael Urie](/wiki/Michael_Urie "Michael Urie").["*Dreamstuff* Program"](http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/cschutze/Dreamstuff%20Program.pdf), linguistics.ucla.edu; accessed December 15, 2017\. Espinosa played the Fairy Godmother in the 2011 [Nashville Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/Nashville_Symphony_Orchestra "Nashville Symphony Orchestra") concert version of *[Cinderella](/wiki/Cinderella_%28Rodgers_and_Hammerstein_musical%29 "Cinderella (Rodgers and Hammerstein musical)")* on April 15, 2011, alongside *Wicked* alum [Alli Mauzey](/wiki/Alli_Mauzey "Alli Mauzey"), who played the title character.{{Cite web\|last\=Ellis\|first\=Jeffrey\|date\=April 5, 2011\|title\=Eden Espinosa joins cast of Show Hope's second annual CINDERELLA\|url\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/nashville/article/Eden\-Espinosa\-joins\-cast\-of\-Show\-Hopes\-second\-annual\-CINDERELLA\-20010101\|access\-date\=December 15, 2017\|website\=BroadwayWorld}} She headlined the world premiere of the new musical *Rain* by [Michael John LaChiusa](/wiki/Michael_John_LaChiusa "Michael John LaChiusa") as Sadie, at the [Old Globe Theatre](/wiki/Old_Globe_Theatre "Old Globe Theatre") in [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego") from March 24 to May 1, 2016\.{{Cite web\|last\=Rosky\|first\=Nicole\|date\=January 27, 2016\|title\=Eden Espinosa Will Lead Premiere of Michael John LaChiusa's RAIN at Old Globe Theatre; Full Cast Announced!\|url\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/article/Eden\-Espinosa\-Will\-Lead\-Premiere\-of\-Michael\-John\-LaChiusas\-RAIN\-at\-Old\-Globe\-Theatre\-Full\-Cast\-Announced\-20160127\|access\-date\=January 28, 2016\|website\=BroadwayWorld}} In 2017, she played Mary in [*Merrily We Roll Along*](/wiki/Merrily_We_Roll_Along_%28musical%29 "Merrily We Roll Along (musical)") at Huntington Theatre Company. Espinosa played the lead role in Studio Tenn's production of *[Evita](/wiki/Evita_%28musical%29 "Evita (musical)")* in [Nashville, Tennessee](/wiki/Nashville%2C_Tennessee "Nashville, Tennessee"), from September 9 to 18, 2016\.{{Cite web\|date\=June 28, 2016\|title\=VIDEO: Eden Does Eva\- Watch Trailer of Espinosa in Studio Tenn's EVITA!\|url\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/article/STAGE\-TUBE\-Eden\-Does\-Eva\-\-Watch\-Trailer\-of\-Espinosa\-in\-Studio\-Tenns\-EVITA\-20160628\|access\-date\=June 29, 2016\|website\=BroadwayWorld}} In 2018, Espinosa played the role of Daniella in the concert version of [Lin\-Manuel Miranda](/wiki/Lin-Manuel_Miranda "Lin-Manuel Miranda")'s *[In the Heights](/wiki/In_the_Heights "In the Heights")*. For an entire year, Espinosa starred as Trina in the 2019 National tour of *[Falsettos](/wiki/Falsettos "Falsettos").* On February 17, 2020, Espinosa appeared as one of The Narrators in the 50th Anniversary concert of *[Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat](/wiki/Joseph_and_the_Amazing_Technicolor_Dreamcoat "Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat")* at [Lincoln Center](/wiki/Lincoln_Center "Lincoln Center"). Espinosa starred in *[The Gardens of Anuncia](/wiki/The_Gardens_of_Anuncia "The Gardens of Anuncia")*, a musical by [Michael John LaChiusa](/wiki/Michael_John_LaChiusa "Michael John LaChiusa") about the life of [Graciela Daniele](/wiki/Graciela_Daniele "Graciela Daniele"), portraying her mother.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.lct.org/shows/gardens\-anuncia/ \| title\=The Gardens of Anuncia }} Espinosa starred as the titular character in *[Lempicka](/wiki/Lempicka_%28musical%29 "Lempicka (musical)")* at the [Williamstown Theatre Festival](/wiki/Williamstown_Theatre_Festival "Williamstown Theatre Festival") in 2018 and later the [La Jolla Playhouse](/wiki/La_Jolla_Playhouse "La Jolla Playhouse") from 2019 to 2020\.{{cite web\|last\=McPhee\|first\=Ryan\|date\=October 16, 2019\|title\=''Lempicka'' Musical Will Play La Jolla Playhouse\|url\=https://www.playbill.com/article/lempicka\-musical\-will\-play\-la\-jolla\-playhouse\|website\=\[\[Playbill]]}} The musical transferred to [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_theatre "Broadway theatre")'s [Longacre Theatre](/wiki/Longacre_Theatre "Longacre Theatre") in 2024\.{{Cite news \|last\=Paulson \|first\=Michael \|date\=2023\-10\-30 \|title\='Lempicka,' New Musical About Art Deco Artist, to Open on Broadway \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/30/theater/lempicka\-broadway\-rachel\-chavkin.html \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-30}} For her performance, Espinosa received a nomination for the [Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical](/wiki/Tony_Award_for_Best_Actress_in_a_Musical "Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical").{{Cite web \|last\=Russo \|first\=Gillian \|date\=2024\-04\-23 \|title\=Tony Award Nominations: 'Hell's Kitchen', 'Sterophonic' Lead With 13 \|url\=https://deadline.com/2024/04/2024\-tonys\-nominations\-list\-1235899070/ \|access\-date\=2024\-04\-30 \|website\=Deadline Hollywood \|language\=en}}
[ "### Additional theatre", "Espinosa starred in a production of *[Flora the Red Menace](/wiki/Flora_the_Red_Menace \"Flora the Red Menace\")* which ran at [UCLA](/wiki/UCLA \"UCLA\")'s Freud Playhouse from May 6–18, 2008\\.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Gans\\|first\\=Andrew\\|date\\=February 27, 2008\\|title\\=Espinosa and Felciano to Star in Reprise! ''Flora, the Red Menace''\\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/espinosa\\-and\\-felciano\\-to\\-star\\-in\\-reprise\\-flora\\-the\\-red\\-menace\\-com\\-147976\\|access\\-date\\=October 30, 2021\\|website\\=Playbill}} After its closing, on September 21, 2008, Espinosa made her [West End](/wiki/West_End_theatre \"West End theatre\") debut in \"Never Neverland\", a benefit concert that raised money for British charities [Ovarian Cancer Action](/wiki/Ovarian_Cancer_Action \"Ovarian Cancer Action\") and [NCH](/wiki/Action_for_Children \"Action for Children\"). The concert took place at the [Duchess Theatre](/wiki/Duchess_Theatre \"Duchess Theatre\") in London.", "Espinosa performed as Miranda in the one\\-night staging of [Howard Ashman](/wiki/Howard_Ashman \"Howard Ashman\")'s previously unproduced musical *Dreamstuff* on June 23, 2008, at the [Hayworth Theatre](/wiki/Hayworth_Theatre \"Hayworth Theatre\") in Los Angeles, directed by [Michael Urie](/wiki/Michael_Urie \"Michael Urie\").[\"*Dreamstuff* Program\"](http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/cschutze/Dreamstuff%20Program.pdf), linguistics.ucla.edu; accessed December 15, 2017\\.", "Espinosa played the Fairy Godmother in the 2011 [Nashville Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/Nashville_Symphony_Orchestra \"Nashville Symphony Orchestra\") concert version of *[Cinderella](/wiki/Cinderella_%28Rodgers_and_Hammerstein_musical%29 \"Cinderella (Rodgers and Hammerstein musical)\")* on April 15, 2011, alongside *Wicked* alum [Alli Mauzey](/wiki/Alli_Mauzey \"Alli Mauzey\"), who played the title character.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Ellis\\|first\\=Jeffrey\\|date\\=April 5, 2011\\|title\\=Eden Espinosa joins cast of Show Hope's second annual CINDERELLA\\|url\\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/nashville/article/Eden\\-Espinosa\\-joins\\-cast\\-of\\-Show\\-Hopes\\-second\\-annual\\-CINDERELLA\\-20010101\\|access\\-date\\=December 15, 2017\\|website\\=BroadwayWorld}}", "She headlined the world premiere of the new musical *Rain* by [Michael John LaChiusa](/wiki/Michael_John_LaChiusa \"Michael John LaChiusa\") as Sadie, at the [Old Globe Theatre](/wiki/Old_Globe_Theatre \"Old Globe Theatre\") in [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\") from March 24 to May 1, 2016\\.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Rosky\\|first\\=Nicole\\|date\\=January 27, 2016\\|title\\=Eden Espinosa Will Lead Premiere of Michael John LaChiusa's RAIN at Old Globe Theatre; Full Cast Announced!\\|url\\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/article/Eden\\-Espinosa\\-Will\\-Lead\\-Premiere\\-of\\-Michael\\-John\\-LaChiusas\\-RAIN\\-at\\-Old\\-Globe\\-Theatre\\-Full\\-Cast\\-Announced\\-20160127\\|access\\-date\\=January 28, 2016\\|website\\=BroadwayWorld}} In 2017, she played Mary in [*Merrily We Roll Along*](/wiki/Merrily_We_Roll_Along_%28musical%29 \"Merrily We Roll Along (musical)\") at Huntington Theatre Company.", "Espinosa played the lead role in Studio Tenn's production of *[Evita](/wiki/Evita_%28musical%29 \"Evita (musical)\")* in [Nashville, Tennessee](/wiki/Nashville%2C_Tennessee \"Nashville, Tennessee\"), from September 9 to 18, 2016\\.{{Cite web\\|date\\=June 28, 2016\\|title\\=VIDEO: Eden Does Eva\\- Watch Trailer of Espinosa in Studio Tenn's EVITA!\\|url\\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/article/STAGE\\-TUBE\\-Eden\\-Does\\-Eva\\-\\-Watch\\-Trailer\\-of\\-Espinosa\\-in\\-Studio\\-Tenns\\-EVITA\\-20160628\\|access\\-date\\=June 29, 2016\\|website\\=BroadwayWorld}}", "In 2018, Espinosa played the role of Daniella in the concert version of [Lin\\-Manuel Miranda](/wiki/Lin-Manuel_Miranda \"Lin-Manuel Miranda\")'s *[In the Heights](/wiki/In_the_Heights \"In the Heights\")*.", "For an entire year, Espinosa starred as Trina in the 2019 National tour of *[Falsettos](/wiki/Falsettos \"Falsettos\").*", "On February 17, 2020, Espinosa appeared as one of The Narrators in the 50th Anniversary concert of *[Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat](/wiki/Joseph_and_the_Amazing_Technicolor_Dreamcoat \"Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat\")* at [Lincoln Center](/wiki/Lincoln_Center \"Lincoln Center\").", "Espinosa starred in *[The Gardens of Anuncia](/wiki/The_Gardens_of_Anuncia \"The Gardens of Anuncia\")*, a musical by [Michael John LaChiusa](/wiki/Michael_John_LaChiusa \"Michael John LaChiusa\") about the life of [Graciela Daniele](/wiki/Graciela_Daniele \"Graciela Daniele\"), portraying her mother.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.lct.org/shows/gardens\\-anuncia/ \\| title\\=The Gardens of Anuncia }}", "Espinosa starred as the titular character in *[Lempicka](/wiki/Lempicka_%28musical%29 \"Lempicka (musical)\")* at the [Williamstown Theatre Festival](/wiki/Williamstown_Theatre_Festival \"Williamstown Theatre Festival\") in 2018 and later the [La Jolla Playhouse](/wiki/La_Jolla_Playhouse \"La Jolla Playhouse\") from 2019 to 2020\\.{{cite web\\|last\\=McPhee\\|first\\=Ryan\\|date\\=October 16, 2019\\|title\\=''Lempicka'' Musical Will Play La Jolla Playhouse\\|url\\=https://www.playbill.com/article/lempicka\\-musical\\-will\\-play\\-la\\-jolla\\-playhouse\\|website\\=\\[\\[Playbill]]}} The musical transferred to [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_theatre \"Broadway theatre\")'s [Longacre Theatre](/wiki/Longacre_Theatre \"Longacre Theatre\") in 2024\\.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Paulson \\|first\\=Michael \\|date\\=2023\\-10\\-30 \\|title\\='Lempicka,' New Musical About Art Deco Artist, to Open on Broadway \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/30/theater/lempicka\\-broadway\\-rachel\\-chavkin.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-30}} For her performance, Espinosa received a nomination for the [Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical](/wiki/Tony_Award_for_Best_Actress_in_a_Musical \"Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Russo \\|first\\=Gillian \\|date\\=2024\\-04\\-23 \\|title\\=Tony Award Nominations: 'Hell's Kitchen', 'Sterophonic' Lead With 13 \\|url\\=https://deadline.com/2024/04/2024\\-tonys\\-nominations\\-list\\-1235899070/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-04\\-30 \\|website\\=Deadline Hollywood \\|language\\=en}}", "" ]
### Solo shows/performances On October 22, 2005, Espinosa made her solo concert debut with a co\-headlining show with Tony Award nominee [Euan Morton](/wiki/Euan_Morton "Euan Morton") at [Town Hall](/wiki/The_Town_Hall_%28New_York_City%29 "The Town Hall (New York City)") in New York City part of the venue's Cabaret Festival.{{Cite web\|date\=August 2, 2005\|title\=Eden Espinosa Performs with Euan Morton October 22 at Town Hall Cabaret Festival\|url\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/article/Eden\-Espinosa\-Performs\-with\-Euan\-Morton\-October\-22\-at\-Town\-Hall\-Cabaret\-Festival\-20050802\|website\=BroadwayWorld}} In March 2009, Espinosa performed her solo show entitled "Me" at [Joe's Pub](/wiki/Joe%27s_Pub "Joe's Pub") in New York City, directed by [Billy Porter](/wiki/Billy_Porter_%28actor%29 "Billy Porter (actor)").{{Cite web\|last\=Gans\|first\=Andrew\|date\=February 12, 2009\|title\=Eden Espinosa to Offer Three Shows at Joe's Pub; Billy Porter Directs\|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/eden\-espinosa\-to\-offer\-three\-shows\-at\-joes\-pub\-billy\-porter\-directs\-com\-157939\|website\=Playbill}} She returned to Southern California with her show on Friday, July 24, 2009, at the [John Anson Ford Amphitheatre](/wiki/John_Anson_Ford_Amphitheatre "John Anson Ford Amphitheatre"). In December 2009, she performed a 2nd solo show entitled "From Eden With Love" at the Razz Room at Hotel Nikko in San Francisco, CA. In September 2012, Espinosa became one of the first few major lineup acts opening [Feinstein's/54 Below](/wiki/Feinstein%27s/54_Below "Feinstein's/54 Below") with a themed show paying tribute to the acclaimed singer\-songwriter [Eva Cassidy](/wiki/Eva_Cassidy "Eva Cassidy").54 Below Podcast. [Ep.16 – Eden Espinosa"](https://54belowpodcast.wordpress.com/2012/09/02/ep-16-eden-espinosa/) 54belowpodcast.wordpress.com, August 27, 2012 She was featured as a soloist for [Disneyland](/wiki/Disneyland "Disneyland")'s new firework spectacular "Magical" premiering in the summer of 2009, where she sang Magical's theme song as well as Disney songs such as "[Baby Mine](/wiki/Baby_Mine_%28song%29 "Baby Mine (song)")".{{Cite web\|last\=Varley\|first\=Eddie\|date\=April 27, 2009\|title\=Eden Espinosa Set to Sing New Disneyland Fireworks Spectacular 'MAGICAL' Theme Song\|url\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/los\-angeles/article/Eden\-Espinosa\-Set\-to\-Sing\-New\-Disneyland\-Fireworks\-Spectacular\-MAGICAL\-Theme\-Song\-20090427\|website\=BroadwayWorld}} In February 2020, Espinosa launched a new acoustic solo show at The Green Room 42 entitled *Unplugged \& Unplanned*.{{cite web \|last\=Mosher \|first\=Stephen \|title\=BWW Review: Eden Espinosa Turns The Green Room 42 into Paradise with UNPLUGGED AND UNPLANNED \|url\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/cabaret/article/BWW\-Review\-Eden\-Espinosa\-Turns\-The\-Green\-Room\-42\-into\-Paradise\-with\-UNPLUGGED\-AND\-UNPLANNED\-20200211 \|website\=BroadwayWorld \|access\-date\=November 30, 2021 \|date\=February 11, 2020}} Every concert, the show's setlist would be all new. The February shows were sold out; it included an extension that led into March 2020\. However, the final two shows were cancelled due to the COVID\-19 pandemic. When live performances started to resume during the spring of 2021, Espinosa returned and completed the last two shows of the residency. Today, many of the Espinosa's concerts are done in the style inspired by her *Unplugged \& Unplanned* show rotating the setlist of tunes from her Broadway career, both her solo albums, pop/rock covers, and a Musical Theater fan request section. On August 8, 2021, she headlined her first solo concert on the Las Vegas Strip at The Space Las Vegas. For fans who weren't able to make it, the concert was also livestreamed. On November 13, 2021, Espinosa performed a one night only concert in Holmdel, NJ at the Holmdel Theatre Company (part of the Broadway at the Barn series). Espinosa brought her concert overseas to London at [Cadogan Hall](/wiki/Cadogan_Hall "Cadogan Hall") on April 8, 2022\.
[ "### Solo shows/performances", "On October 22, 2005, Espinosa made her solo concert debut with a co\\-headlining show with Tony Award nominee [Euan Morton](/wiki/Euan_Morton \"Euan Morton\") at [Town Hall](/wiki/The_Town_Hall_%28New_York_City%29 \"The Town Hall (New York City)\") in New York City part of the venue's Cabaret Festival.{{Cite web\\|date\\=August 2, 2005\\|title\\=Eden Espinosa Performs with Euan Morton October 22 at Town Hall Cabaret Festival\\|url\\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/article/Eden\\-Espinosa\\-Performs\\-with\\-Euan\\-Morton\\-October\\-22\\-at\\-Town\\-Hall\\-Cabaret\\-Festival\\-20050802\\|website\\=BroadwayWorld}}", "In March 2009, Espinosa performed her solo show entitled \"Me\" at [Joe's Pub](/wiki/Joe%27s_Pub \"Joe's Pub\") in New York City, directed by [Billy Porter](/wiki/Billy_Porter_%28actor%29 \"Billy Porter (actor)\").{{Cite web\\|last\\=Gans\\|first\\=Andrew\\|date\\=February 12, 2009\\|title\\=Eden Espinosa to Offer Three Shows at Joe's Pub; Billy Porter Directs\\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/eden\\-espinosa\\-to\\-offer\\-three\\-shows\\-at\\-joes\\-pub\\-billy\\-porter\\-directs\\-com\\-157939\\|website\\=Playbill}} She returned to Southern California with her show on Friday, July 24, 2009, at the [John Anson Ford Amphitheatre](/wiki/John_Anson_Ford_Amphitheatre \"John Anson Ford Amphitheatre\").", "In December 2009, she performed a 2nd solo show entitled \"From Eden With Love\" at the Razz Room at Hotel Nikko in San Francisco, CA.", "In September 2012, Espinosa became one of the first few major lineup acts opening [Feinstein's/54 Below](/wiki/Feinstein%27s/54_Below \"Feinstein's/54 Below\") with a themed show paying tribute to the acclaimed singer\\-songwriter [Eva Cassidy](/wiki/Eva_Cassidy \"Eva Cassidy\").54 Below Podcast. [Ep.16 – Eden Espinosa\"](https://54belowpodcast.wordpress.com/2012/09/02/ep-16-eden-espinosa/) 54belowpodcast.wordpress.com, August 27, 2012", "She was featured as a soloist for [Disneyland](/wiki/Disneyland \"Disneyland\")'s new firework spectacular \"Magical\" premiering in the summer of 2009, where she sang Magical's theme song as well as Disney songs such as \"[Baby Mine](/wiki/Baby_Mine_%28song%29 \"Baby Mine (song)\")\".{{Cite web\\|last\\=Varley\\|first\\=Eddie\\|date\\=April 27, 2009\\|title\\=Eden Espinosa Set to Sing New Disneyland Fireworks Spectacular 'MAGICAL' Theme Song\\|url\\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/los\\-angeles/article/Eden\\-Espinosa\\-Set\\-to\\-Sing\\-New\\-Disneyland\\-Fireworks\\-Spectacular\\-MAGICAL\\-Theme\\-Song\\-20090427\\|website\\=BroadwayWorld}}", "In February 2020, Espinosa launched a new acoustic solo show at The Green Room 42 entitled *Unplugged \\& Unplanned*.{{cite web \\|last\\=Mosher \\|first\\=Stephen \\|title\\=BWW Review: Eden Espinosa Turns The Green Room 42 into Paradise with UNPLUGGED AND UNPLANNED \\|url\\=https://www.broadwayworld.com/cabaret/article/BWW\\-Review\\-Eden\\-Espinosa\\-Turns\\-The\\-Green\\-Room\\-42\\-into\\-Paradise\\-with\\-UNPLUGGED\\-AND\\-UNPLANNED\\-20200211 \\|website\\=BroadwayWorld \\|access\\-date\\=November 30, 2021 \\|date\\=February 11, 2020}} Every concert, the show's setlist would be all new. The February shows were sold out; it included an extension that led into March 2020\\. However, the final two shows were cancelled due to the COVID\\-19 pandemic. When live performances started to resume during the spring of 2021, Espinosa returned and completed the last two shows of the residency.", "Today, many of the Espinosa's concerts are done in the style inspired by her *Unplugged \\& Unplanned* show rotating the setlist of tunes from her Broadway career, both her solo albums, pop/rock covers, and a Musical Theater fan request section. On August 8, 2021, she headlined her first solo concert on the Las Vegas Strip at The Space Las Vegas. For fans who weren't able to make it, the concert was also livestreamed. On November 13, 2021, Espinosa performed a one night only concert in Holmdel, NJ at the Holmdel Theatre Company (part of the Broadway at the Barn series).", "Espinosa brought her concert overseas to London at [Cadogan Hall](/wiki/Cadogan_Hall \"Cadogan Hall\") on April 8, 2022\\.", "" ]
Career ------ In 1984, Cioffi left Bell Labs to work at [IBM](/wiki/IBM "IBM") as a [hard disk drive](/wiki/Hard_disk_drive "Hard disk drive") [read channel](/wiki/Read_channel "Read channel") researcher. In 1986, Cioffi began his teaching career as an assistant professor of electrical engineering at Stanford University. Cioffi supervised the Ph.D. programs of more than 70 students over the course of more than two decades.{{cite web \|title\= John M. Cioffi, Hitachi Professor Emeritus of Engineering \|work\= Faculty group web pages \|publisher\= Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University \|url\= http://www.stanford.edu/group/cioffi/ \|access\-date\= September 22, 2011 }} His and his students' research into [discrete multitone modulation](/wiki/Discrete_multitone_modulation "Discrete multitone modulation") (DMT) became widely adopted in [digital subscriber line](/wiki/Digital_subscriber_line "Digital subscriber line") (DSL) technology, used commonly for [Internet access](/wiki/Internet_access "Internet access"). In 1991, at the age of 35, Cioffi took a leave of absence from Stanford to found Amati Communications Corporation. His vision was to build DSL modems based on his and his students' research. Many of Cioffi's then\-current and former students followed him to Amati, where they built the Prelude modem, a DSL modem that could transmit 6\+ megabits per second over {{convert\|9000\|ft\|m\|abbr\=on}} of [telephone line](/wiki/Telephone_line "Telephone line"). The Prelude modem would go on to win what has become known as the "Bellcore ADSL Olympics" in 1993 by performing significantly better than modems using single\-carrier modulation techniques, such as [quadrature amplitude modulation](/wiki/Quadrature_amplitude_modulation "Quadrature amplitude modulation") (QAM) and [carrierless amplitude phase modulation](/wiki/Carrierless_amplitude_phase_modulation "Carrierless amplitude phase modulation") (CAP), including modems from [AT\&T](/wiki/AT%26T "AT&T") and [Bellcore](/wiki/Bellcore "Bellcore").[http://www.eetimes.com/disruption/essays/cioffi.jhtml{{Dead link\|date\=February 2020 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}](http://www.eetimes.com/disruption/essays/cioffi.jhtml{{Dead link|date=February 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}) Hundreds of millions of people now use DSL based on Amati's innovations. In 1993, Cioffi returned to Stanford, although he remained involved with Amati as an officer and director until its 1998 acquisition by [Texas Instruments](/wiki/Texas_Instruments "Texas Instruments").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ti.com/corp/docs/presshistory/company/1997/c97087\.shtml \|title\=TI to Acquire Amati Communications for $395 Million \|publisher\=Texas Instruments \|date\=1997\-11\-19 \|access\-date\=2014\-02\-19}} Cioffi's research interests then turned to [dynamic spectrum management](/wiki/Dynamic_spectrum_management "Dynamic spectrum management") (DSM), an improvement on DSL that mitigates service interruptions and allows DSL lines to run with higher and more reliable data rates. In 2001, Cioffi was elected as a member into the [National Academy of Engineering](/wiki/National_Academy_of_Engineering "National Academy of Engineering") for contributions to the theory and practice of high\-speed digital communications. In 2003, Cioffi founded Adaptive Spectrum and Signal Alignment, Inc. (ASSIA) to help service providers realize improvements in the performance and profitability of their DSL networks. Today ASSIA's customers collectively provide DSL service to more than 70 million subscribers worldwide.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.assia\-inc.com/DSL\-solutions/ \|title\=DSL Solutions \- ASSIA \|access\-date\=2010\-06\-01 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620204704/http://www.assia\-inc.com/DSL\-solutions/ \|archive\-date\=2010\-06\-20 }} In 2009, Cioffi assumed [emeritus](/wiki/Emeritus "Emeritus") status at Stanford, as the Hitachi Professor Emeritus of Engineering. He is now CEO and Chairman of ASSIA.
[ "Career\n------", "In 1984, Cioffi left Bell Labs to work at [IBM](/wiki/IBM \"IBM\") as a [hard disk drive](/wiki/Hard_disk_drive \"Hard disk drive\") [read channel](/wiki/Read_channel \"Read channel\") researcher.", "In 1986, Cioffi began his teaching career as an assistant professor of electrical engineering at Stanford University. Cioffi supervised the Ph.D. programs of more than 70 students over the course of more than two decades.{{cite web \\|title\\= John M. Cioffi, Hitachi Professor Emeritus of Engineering \\|work\\= Faculty group web pages \\|publisher\\= Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University \\|url\\= http://www.stanford.edu/group/cioffi/ \\|access\\-date\\= September 22, 2011 }} His and his students' research into [discrete multitone modulation](/wiki/Discrete_multitone_modulation \"Discrete multitone modulation\") (DMT) became widely adopted in [digital subscriber line](/wiki/Digital_subscriber_line \"Digital subscriber line\") (DSL) technology, used commonly for [Internet access](/wiki/Internet_access \"Internet access\").", "In 1991, at the age of 35, Cioffi took a leave of absence from Stanford to found Amati Communications Corporation. His vision was to build DSL modems based on his and his students' research. Many of Cioffi's then\\-current and former students followed him to Amati, where they built the Prelude modem, a DSL modem that could transmit 6\\+ megabits per second over {{convert\\|9000\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=on}} of [telephone line](/wiki/Telephone_line \"Telephone line\"). The Prelude modem would go on to win what has become known as the \"Bellcore ADSL Olympics\" in 1993 by performing significantly better than modems using single\\-carrier modulation techniques, such as [quadrature amplitude modulation](/wiki/Quadrature_amplitude_modulation \"Quadrature amplitude modulation\") (QAM) and [carrierless amplitude phase modulation](/wiki/Carrierless_amplitude_phase_modulation \"Carrierless amplitude phase modulation\") (CAP), including modems from [AT\\&T](/wiki/AT%26T \"AT&T\") and [Bellcore](/wiki/Bellcore \"Bellcore\").[http://www.eetimes.com/disruption/essays/cioffi.jhtml{{Dead link\\|date\\=February 2020 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}](http://www.eetimes.com/disruption/essays/cioffi.jhtml{{Dead link|date=February 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}) Hundreds of millions of people now use DSL based on Amati's innovations.", "In 1993, Cioffi returned to Stanford, although he remained involved with Amati as an officer and director until its 1998 acquisition by [Texas Instruments](/wiki/Texas_Instruments \"Texas Instruments\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ti.com/corp/docs/presshistory/company/1997/c97087\\.shtml \\|title\\=TI to Acquire Amati Communications for $395 Million \\|publisher\\=Texas Instruments \\|date\\=1997\\-11\\-19 \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-02\\-19}} Cioffi's research interests then turned to [dynamic spectrum management](/wiki/Dynamic_spectrum_management \"Dynamic spectrum management\") (DSM), an improvement on DSL that mitigates service interruptions and allows DSL lines to run with higher and more reliable data rates.", "In 2001, Cioffi was elected as a member into the [National Academy of Engineering](/wiki/National_Academy_of_Engineering \"National Academy of Engineering\") for contributions to the theory and practice of high\\-speed digital communications.", "In 2003, Cioffi founded Adaptive Spectrum and Signal Alignment, Inc. (ASSIA) to help service providers realize improvements in the performance and profitability of their DSL networks. Today ASSIA's customers collectively provide DSL service to more than 70 million subscribers worldwide.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.assia\\-inc.com/DSL\\-solutions/ \\|title\\=DSL Solutions \\- ASSIA \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-06\\-01 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620204704/http://www.assia\\-inc.com/DSL\\-solutions/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-06\\-20 }}", "In 2009, Cioffi assumed [emeritus](/wiki/Emeritus \"Emeritus\") status at Stanford, as the Hitachi Professor Emeritus of Engineering. He is now CEO and Chairman of ASSIA.", "" ]
Career ------ Sweeney's first major role was as [Lindsey Corkhill](/wiki/Lindsey_Corkhill "Lindsey Corkhill") in the soap opera *[Brookside](/wiki/Brookside_%28TV_series%29 "Brookside (TV series)")*, initially as a recurring character from 1991 and then as a leading character from 1995 until the programme ended in 2003\. In 2001 Sweeney appeared in [the first series of *Celebrity Big Brother*](/wiki/Celebrity_Big_Brother_%28British_series_1%29 "Celebrity Big Brother (British series 1)") and *[Lily Savage's Blankety Blank](/wiki/Blankety_Blank "Blankety Blank")*,{{cite episode\|series\=Lily Savage's Blankety Blank\|network\=\[\[ITV (TV network)\|ITV]]\|airdate\=27 May 2001}} and presented ITV's *Challenge of a Lifetime*.{{cite web\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1303138\.stm\|work\=\[\[BBC News]]\|title\=Sweeney offered ITV challenge\|date\=29 April 2001\|access\-date\=29 January 2022}} She was also cast as [Roxie Hart](/wiki/Roxie_Hart "Roxie Hart") in [the London revival of the musical *Chicago*](/wiki/Chicago_%28musical%29%23London_revivals "Chicago (musical)#London revivals").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.standard.co.uk/go/london/theatre/our\-claire\-to\-face\-roxie\-music\-7435369\.html\|work\=\[\[Evening Standard]]\|title\=Our Claire to face Roxie music\|first\=Luke\|last\=Leitch\|date\=14 October 2001\|access\-date\=29 January 2022}} In the same year she became a brand promoter for [Marks \& Spencer](/wiki/Marks_%26_Spencer "Marks & Spencer"),{{cite web\|url\=https://www.campaignlive.co.uk/article/m\-s\-use\-big\-brother\-brookside\-star\-promote\-bras/13877\|work\=\[\[Campaign (magazine)\|Campaign]]\|title\=M\&S to use Big Brother and Brookside star to promote bras\|date\=4 June 2001\|access\-date\=29 January 2022}} and a brand ambassador for Fashion World{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=3G9ZCk6BRyg\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231006184752/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=3G9ZCk6BRyg\|url\-status\=bot: unknown\|publisher\=\[\[YouTube]]\|work\=Fashion World\|title\=Claire Sweeney at Fashion World HQ \- A Labour Of Love!\|date\=3 February 2012\|archive\-date\=6 October 2023\|access\-date\=29 January 2022}} and [SlimFast](/wiki/SlimFast "SlimFast").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.slimfast.co.uk/blog/we\-are\-loving/introducing\-the\-latest\-slimfast\-ambassador\-\-\-claire\-sweeney\|work\=SlimFast\|title\=Introducing The Latest SlimFast Ambassador \- Claire Sweeney\|access\-date\=29 January 2022}} In 2002 Sweeney became a [forces sweetheart](/wiki/Forces_sweetheart "Forces sweetheart") and entertained [British Army troops serving in Afghanistan](/wiki/Operation_Herrick "Operation Herrick").{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/rockandjazzmusic/3580282/A\-tonic\-for\-the\-troops.html\|work\=The Daily Telegraph\|title\=A tonic for the troops\|first\=Helena\|last\=De Bertodano\|date\=18 July 2002\|access\-date\=29 January 2022\|issn\=0307\-1235}}{{subscription required}} In the same year she released the album *[Claire](/wiki/Claire_%28album%29 "Claire (album)")*, featuring a mix of original material and [cover versions](/wiki/Cover_version "Cover version"): it peaked at number 15 in the [UK Albums Chart](/wiki/UK_Albums_Chart "UK Albums Chart") in July 2002\.{{cite book\|first\=David\|last\=Roberts\|year\=2006\|title\=British Hit Singles \& Albums\|edition\=19th\|publisher\=\[\[Guinness World Records]]\|location\=London\|isbn\=1\-904994\-10\-5\|page\=543}} She also co\-presented [BBC One](/wiki/BBC_One "BBC One")'s *[A Song for Europe](/wiki/A_Song_for_Europe "A Song for Europe")* with [Christopher Price](/wiki/Christopher_Price_%28broadcaster%29 "Christopher Price (broadcaster)"). In 2003, Sweeney starred in the world tour of the musical revue *[Fosse](/wiki/Fosse_%28musical%29 "Fosse (musical)")*, and featured on the album *Give Me a Smile* by [Carl Davis](/wiki/Carl_Davis "Carl Davis") and the [BBC Concert Orchestra](/wiki/BBC_Concert_Orchestra "BBC Concert Orchestra").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.allmusic.com/album/give\-me\-a\-smile\-songs\-and\-music\-of\-world\-war\-ii\-mw0001997545/credits\|work\=\[\[AllMusic]]\|title\=Give Me a Smile: Songs and Music of World War II\|access\-date\=29 January 2022}} She was a regular panellist on the ITV's *[Loose Women](/wiki/Loose_Women "Loose Women")* from 2003 to 2005, and has appeared as a guest panellist several times since then. In 2004, Sweeney appeared as a contestant on [series one of *Strictly Come Dancing*](/wiki/Strictly_Come_Dancing_%28series_1%29 "Strictly Come Dancing (series 1)"),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0411027/fullcredits\|work\=\[\[IMDb]]\|title\=Strictly Come Dancing (2004– ) {{!}}Full Cast \& Crew\|access\-date\=29 January 2022}} being eliminated in week five. From 2004 to 2006 Sweeney presented the ITV daytime show *[60 Minute Makeover](/wiki/60_Minute_Makeover "60 Minute Makeover")*.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt4816942\|work\=IMDb\|title\=Peter Andre's 60 Minute Makeover {{!}} Episode \#1\.1\|access\-date\=29 January 2022}} In 2005 Sweeney presented series four of the [Living TV](/wiki/Living_TV "Living TV") show *[I'm Famous and Frightened!](/wiki/I%27m_Famous_and_Frightened%21 "I'm Famous and Frightened!")*. She also hosted BBC One's *Here Comes the Sun*{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.bfi.org.uk/films\-tv\-people/4ce2b88b82587\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501102451/http://www.bfi.org.uk/films\-tv\-people/4ce2b88b82587\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=1 May 2019\|work\=\[\[BFI]]\|title\=Here Comes the Sun (2003\)\|access\-date\=29 January 2022}} In May 2005 she was among the performers who took part in *A Party to Remember* event commemorating the 60th anniversary of [VE Day](/wiki/Victory_in_Europe_Day "Victory in Europe Day").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2005/05\_may/05/beckham.shtml\|work\=BBC Press Office\|title\=David Beckham records a special message for VE Day concert\|date\=5 May 2005\|access\-date\=29 January 2022}} In 2005 and 2006, Sweeney appeared in [pantomime](/wiki/Pantomime "Pantomime") productions of *[Snow White](/wiki/Snow_White "Snow White")* and *[Aladdin](/wiki/Aladdin "Aladdin")* at the [Theatre Royal, Nottingham](/wiki/Theatre_Royal%2C_Nottingham "Theatre Royal, Nottingham"). In July 2006, She took on the role of Miss Adelaide in the British production of *[Guys and Dolls](/wiki/Guys_and_Dolls "Guys and Dolls")* at the [Piccadilly Theatre](/wiki/Piccadilly_Theatre "Piccadilly Theatre") in London's West End for an eight\-week run, before touring the UK alongside [Patrick Swayze](/wiki/Patrick_Swayze "Patrick Swayze") in the same production. In 2008 she appeared in the ITV documentary *Claire Sweeney's Big Fat Diet*,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.itv.com/PressCentre/ClaireSweeneysBigFatDiet/Ep1Wk0209/default.html\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100127104906/http://www.itv.com/PressCentre/ClaireSweeneysBigFatDiet/Ep1Wk0209/default.html\|work\=ITV Press Centre\|title\=Claire Sweeney's Big Fat Diet\|date\=12 December 2008\|archive\-date\=27 January 2010}} in which she gained {{convert\|2\|st\|kg}} in six weeks as part of a medical experiment. In December 2008 she starred in the pantomime *[Snow White](/wiki/Snow_White "Snow White")* at the [Regent Theatre, Stoke\-on\-Trent](/wiki/Regent_Theatre%2C_Stoke-on-Trent "Regent Theatre, Stoke-on-Trent"). In December 2009 she played Carrion the Wicked Fairy in *[Sleeping Beauty](/wiki/Sleeping_Beauty "Sleeping Beauty")* at the [Churchill Theatre](/wiki/Churchill_Theatre "Churchill Theatre"), [Bromley](/wiki/Bromley "Bromley"). In 2010 she sang with Carl Davis and the [Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra](/wiki/Liverpool_Philharmonic_Orchestra "Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra") in the Battle of Britain 70th Anniversary concert.{{Cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/stoke/hi/things\_to\_do/newsid\_8631000/8631524\.stm\|work\=BBC News\|title\=Lichfield Arts Festival makes Staffordshire the focus\|date\=20 April 2010\|access\-date\=29 January 2022}} In 2011 Sweeney played both "The Girl" in a national tour of [Andrew Lloyd Webber](/wiki/Andrew_Lloyd_Webber "Andrew Lloyd Webber")'s musical *[Tell Me on a Sunday](/wiki/Tell_Me_on_a_Sunday "Tell Me on a Sunday")* and Paulette in the first UK tour of *[Legally Blonde: The Musical](/wiki/Legally_Blonde_%28musical%29 "Legally Blonde (musical)")*.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.legallyblondethemusical.com/uk\-tour\|work\=Legally Blonde The Musical\|title\=UK Tour (2011\)\| date\=9 May 2017 \|access\-date\=29 January 2022}} She also starred as Amanda in the BBC sitcom *[Candy Cabs](/wiki/Candy_Cabs "Candy Cabs")*. In 2012, Sweeney appeared in the UK tour of *[Educating Rita](/wiki/Educating_Rita "Educating Rita")*.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bathchronicle.co.uk/Theatre\-unveils\-star\-line/story\-15365263\-detail/story.html\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141103234641/http://www.bathchronicle.co.uk/Theatre\-unveils\-star\-line/story\-15365263\-detail/story.html\|work\=\[\[Bath Chronicle]]\|title\=Theatre unveils a star line\-up\|date\=1 March 2012\|archive\-date\=3 November 2014}} From November 2012 to January 2013 she starred in the *[White Christmas](/wiki/White_Christmas_%28musical%29 "White Christmas (musical)")* musical at [the Lowry](/wiki/The_Lowry "The Lowry") in [Salford Quays](/wiki/Salford_Quays "Salford Quays"). In 2013 Sweeney appeared in *[Let's Dance for Comic Relief](/wiki/Let%27s_Dance_for_Comic_Relief "Let's Dance for Comic Relief")* alongside [Natalie Cassidy](/wiki/Natalie_Cassidy "Natalie Cassidy"), [Dean Gaffney](/wiki/Dean_Gaffney "Dean Gaffney") and [Ricky Groves](/wiki/Ricky_Groves "Ricky Groves"), performing to "[You Can't Stop the Beat](/wiki/You_Can%27t_Stop_the_Beat "You Can't Stop the Beat")" from *[Hairspray](/wiki/Hairspray_%28musical%29 "Hairspray (musical)")*. They came second to [Antony Cotton](/wiki/Antony_Cotton "Antony Cotton").{{cite web \|title\=Liverpool star Claire Sweeney says Lets Dance for Comic Relief \|url\=https://www.liverpoolecho.co.uk/news/liverpool\-news/liverpool\-star\-claire\-sweeney\-says\-3322748 \|website\=\[\[Liverpool Echo]] \|access\-date\=28 June 2023}} In May and June 2014 she appeared in the comedy musical *Sex and the Suburbs*, co\-written by Sweeney and Mandy Muden, at the [Royal Court Theatre, Liverpool](/wiki/Royal_Court_Theatre%2C_Liverpool "Royal Court Theatre, Liverpool").{{cite news\|url\= http://www.liverpoolecho.co.uk/whats\-on/comedy\-news/sex\-suburbs\-comedy\-liverpool\-6758745\|work\=\[\[Liverpool Echo]]\|title\=Sex and the Suburbs comedy night\|first\=Georgia\|last\=Morgan\|date\=27 February 2014\|access\-date\=29 January 2022}} Since 2015 Sweeney has presented her own series, *Magic of the Musicals* on [Magic Radio](/wiki/Magic_%28UK_radio_station%29 "Magic (UK radio station)").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=q65yHt02gLA\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629203535/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=q65yHt02gLA≷\=US\&hl\=en\|archive\-date\=29 June 2021\|url\-status\=bot: unknown\|publisher\=YouTube\|work\=Magic Radio\|title\=Welcome to Magic of Musicals with Claire Sweeney\|date\=6 March 2015\|access\-date\=29 January 2022}} In 2015 and 2016 Sweeney played Velma Von\-Tussle in the UK tour of *Hairspray*.{{cite web \|title\=Claire Sweeney's Hairspray Tussle \|url\=https://www.itv.com/thismorning/articles/claire\-sweeney\-hairspray\-tour \|website\=\[\[ITV (TV network)\|ITV]] \|access\-date\=28 June 2023}} In 2019 Sweeney took part in a special episode of [Radio 2](/wiki/BBC_Radio_2 "BBC Radio 2")'s *[Friday Night Is Music Night](/wiki/Friday_Night_Is_Music_Night "Friday Night Is Music Night")* to celebrate [Tony Hatch](/wiki/Tony_Hatch "Tony Hatch")'s 80th birthday.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/proginfo/2019/20/friday\-night\-is\-music\-night\|work\=BBC Media Centre\|title\=Friday Night Is Music Night\|access\-date\=29 January 2022}} She starred as Hayley in the BBC sitcom *[Scarborough](/wiki/Scarborough_%28TV_series%29 "Scarborough (TV series)")*, alongside [Jason Manford](/wiki/Jason_Manford "Jason Manford"), [Stephanie Cole](/wiki/Stephanie_Cole "Stephanie Cole"), and [Catherine Tyldesley](/wiki/Catherine_Tyldesley "Catherine Tyldesley").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2019/scarborough\|work\=BBC Media Centre\|title\=BBC \- BBC One's Scarborough marks first day of filming by revealing stars set to join the new series\|date\=15 April 2019\|access\-date\=29 January 2022}} On Christmas Day 2019 she presented a biography of Cilla Black on [Radio 2](/wiki/BBC_Radio_2 "BBC Radio 2").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m0001tn6\|work\=BBC Radio 2\|title\=BBC Radio 2 \- What's It All About \- The Cilla Black Story\|date\=25 December 2019}} In July 2021, Sweeney performed at [G\-A\-Y](/wiki/G-A-Y "G-A-Y") alongside drag queen [Veronica Green](/wiki/Veronica_Green "Veronica Green") as part of the regular cabaret night “Defying Musicals”.{{cite tweet\|author\=Jeremy Joseph G\-A\-Y\|user\=JeremyJoseph\|number\=1411248392647450626\|title\=Tonight G\-A\-Y at @HeavenLGBTclub @veronicaqween Defying Musicals \+ Special Guests @clairesweeney \& @SejalKeshwala \- "@JamieMusical" Get £3 Entry Wrist Bands At G\-A\-Y Bar\|date\=3 July 2021}} Sweeney provided 'alternative Scouse commentary' for the [Eurovision Song Contest 2023](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2023 "Eurovision Song Contest 2023") final in Liverpool, alongside a member of the public chosen via [BBC Radio Merseyside](/wiki/BBC_Radio_Merseyside "BBC Radio Merseyside")'s "Voice of Eurovision" talent search campaign, who was revealed on 1 May 2023 to be Paul Quinn.{{Cite web\|url\=https://twitter.com/BBCTheOneShow/status/1653100809666588677\|work\=Twitter\|title\=Which \#Eurovision fan will be the voice of Merseyside on the big night? @kevduala surprises Paul the winner! 🪩 🕺\|access\-date\=1 May 2023}} In April 2023, it was announced that Sweeney would be joining the cast of *[Coronation Street](/wiki/Coronation_Street "Coronation Street")* as [Cassandra Plummer](/wiki/Cassandra_Plummer "Cassandra Plummer"), the daughter of [Evelyn Plummer](/wiki/Evelyn_Plummer "Evelyn Plummer") and the biological mother of [Tyrone Dobbs](/wiki/Tyrone_Dobbs "Tyrone Dobbs").{{cite web \|title\=Brookside and West End star Claire Sweeney joins cast of Coronation Street \|url\=https://www.itv.com/news/granada/2023\-04\-21/coronation\-street\-casts\-claire\-sweeney\-as\-tyrones\-mum \|website\=\[\[ITV (TV network)\|ITV]] \|access\-date\=28 June 2023}} In 2024, Sweeney appeared as a contestant on the sixteenth series of Dancing on Ice.{{cite web \|title\=Claire Sweeney to join 2024 Dancing on Ice line up! \|url\=https://www.itv.com/thismorning/articles/claire\-sweeney\-to\-join\-2024\-dancing\-on\-ice\-line\-up \|website\=\[\[ITVX]] \|access\-date\=22 December 2023}} She was paired with [Colin Grafton](/wiki/Colin_Grafton "Colin Grafton") and was third to be eliminated.{{cite web \|title\=Claire Sweeney is third celebrity booted off ‘Dancing on Ice’ \|url\=https://uk.movies.yahoo.com/movies/claire\-sweeney\-third\-celebrity\-booted\-203500281\.html \|website\=uk.movies.yahoo.com \|access\-date\=5 January 2024}}
[ "Career\n------", "Sweeney's first major role was as [Lindsey Corkhill](/wiki/Lindsey_Corkhill \"Lindsey Corkhill\") in the soap opera *[Brookside](/wiki/Brookside_%28TV_series%29 \"Brookside (TV series)\")*, initially as a recurring character from 1991 and then as a leading character from 1995 until the programme ended in 2003\\.", "In 2001 Sweeney appeared in [the first series of *Celebrity Big Brother*](/wiki/Celebrity_Big_Brother_%28British_series_1%29 \"Celebrity Big Brother (British series 1)\") and *[Lily Savage's Blankety Blank](/wiki/Blankety_Blank \"Blankety Blank\")*,{{cite episode\\|series\\=Lily Savage's Blankety Blank\\|network\\=\\[\\[ITV (TV network)\\|ITV]]\\|airdate\\=27 May 2001}} and presented ITV's *Challenge of a Lifetime*.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1303138\\.stm\\|work\\=\\[\\[BBC News]]\\|title\\=Sweeney offered ITV challenge\\|date\\=29 April 2001\\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2022}} She was also cast as [Roxie Hart](/wiki/Roxie_Hart \"Roxie Hart\") in [the London revival of the musical *Chicago*](/wiki/Chicago_%28musical%29%23London_revivals \"Chicago (musical)#London revivals\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.standard.co.uk/go/london/theatre/our\\-claire\\-to\\-face\\-roxie\\-music\\-7435369\\.html\\|work\\=\\[\\[Evening Standard]]\\|title\\=Our Claire to face Roxie music\\|first\\=Luke\\|last\\=Leitch\\|date\\=14 October 2001\\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2022}} In the same year she became a brand promoter for [Marks \\& Spencer](/wiki/Marks_%26_Spencer \"Marks & Spencer\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.campaignlive.co.uk/article/m\\-s\\-use\\-big\\-brother\\-brookside\\-star\\-promote\\-bras/13877\\|work\\=\\[\\[Campaign (magazine)\\|Campaign]]\\|title\\=M\\&S to use Big Brother and Brookside star to promote bras\\|date\\=4 June 2001\\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2022}} and a brand ambassador for Fashion World{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=3G9ZCk6BRyg\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231006184752/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=3G9ZCk6BRyg\\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[YouTube]]\\|work\\=Fashion World\\|title\\=Claire Sweeney at Fashion World HQ \\- A Labour Of Love!\\|date\\=3 February 2012\\|archive\\-date\\=6 October 2023\\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2022}} and [SlimFast](/wiki/SlimFast \"SlimFast\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.slimfast.co.uk/blog/we\\-are\\-loving/introducing\\-the\\-latest\\-slimfast\\-ambassador\\-\\-\\-claire\\-sweeney\\|work\\=SlimFast\\|title\\=Introducing The Latest SlimFast Ambassador \\- Claire Sweeney\\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2022}}", "In 2002 Sweeney became a [forces sweetheart](/wiki/Forces_sweetheart \"Forces sweetheart\") and entertained [British Army troops serving in Afghanistan](/wiki/Operation_Herrick \"Operation Herrick\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/rockandjazzmusic/3580282/A\\-tonic\\-for\\-the\\-troops.html\\|work\\=The Daily Telegraph\\|title\\=A tonic for the troops\\|first\\=Helena\\|last\\=De Bertodano\\|date\\=18 July 2002\\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2022\\|issn\\=0307\\-1235}}{{subscription required}} In the same year she released the album *[Claire](/wiki/Claire_%28album%29 \"Claire (album)\")*, featuring a mix of original material and [cover versions](/wiki/Cover_version \"Cover version\"): it peaked at number 15 in the [UK Albums Chart](/wiki/UK_Albums_Chart \"UK Albums Chart\") in July 2002\\.{{cite book\\|first\\=David\\|last\\=Roberts\\|year\\=2006\\|title\\=British Hit Singles \\& Albums\\|edition\\=19th\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Guinness World Records]]\\|location\\=London\\|isbn\\=1\\-904994\\-10\\-5\\|page\\=543}} She also co\\-presented [BBC One](/wiki/BBC_One \"BBC One\")'s *[A Song for Europe](/wiki/A_Song_for_Europe \"A Song for Europe\")* with [Christopher Price](/wiki/Christopher_Price_%28broadcaster%29 \"Christopher Price (broadcaster)\").", "In 2003, Sweeney starred in the world tour of the musical revue *[Fosse](/wiki/Fosse_%28musical%29 \"Fosse (musical)\")*, and featured on the album *Give Me a Smile* by [Carl Davis](/wiki/Carl_Davis \"Carl Davis\") and the [BBC Concert Orchestra](/wiki/BBC_Concert_Orchestra \"BBC Concert Orchestra\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.allmusic.com/album/give\\-me\\-a\\-smile\\-songs\\-and\\-music\\-of\\-world\\-war\\-ii\\-mw0001997545/credits\\|work\\=\\[\\[AllMusic]]\\|title\\=Give Me a Smile: Songs and Music of World War II\\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2022}}", "She was a regular panellist on the ITV's *[Loose Women](/wiki/Loose_Women \"Loose Women\")* from 2003 to 2005, and has appeared as a guest panellist several times since then.", "In 2004, Sweeney appeared as a contestant on [series one of *Strictly Come Dancing*](/wiki/Strictly_Come_Dancing_%28series_1%29 \"Strictly Come Dancing (series 1)\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0411027/fullcredits\\|work\\=\\[\\[IMDb]]\\|title\\=Strictly Come Dancing (2004– ) {{!}}Full Cast \\& Crew\\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2022}} being eliminated in week five.", "From 2004 to 2006 Sweeney presented the ITV daytime show *[60 Minute Makeover](/wiki/60_Minute_Makeover \"60 Minute Makeover\")*.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt4816942\\|work\\=IMDb\\|title\\=Peter Andre's 60 Minute Makeover {{!}} Episode \\#1\\.1\\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2022}}", "In 2005 Sweeney presented series four of the [Living TV](/wiki/Living_TV \"Living TV\") show *[I'm Famous and Frightened!](/wiki/I%27m_Famous_and_Frightened%21 \"I'm Famous and Frightened!\")*. She also hosted BBC One's *Here Comes the Sun*{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bfi.org.uk/films\\-tv\\-people/4ce2b88b82587\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501102451/http://www.bfi.org.uk/films\\-tv\\-people/4ce2b88b82587\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=1 May 2019\\|work\\=\\[\\[BFI]]\\|title\\=Here Comes the Sun (2003\\)\\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2022}} In May 2005 she was among the performers who took part in *A Party to Remember* event commemorating the 60th anniversary of [VE Day](/wiki/Victory_in_Europe_Day \"Victory in Europe Day\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2005/05\\_may/05/beckham.shtml\\|work\\=BBC Press Office\\|title\\=David Beckham records a special message for VE Day concert\\|date\\=5 May 2005\\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2022}}", "In 2005 and 2006, Sweeney appeared in [pantomime](/wiki/Pantomime \"Pantomime\") productions of *[Snow White](/wiki/Snow_White \"Snow White\")* and *[Aladdin](/wiki/Aladdin \"Aladdin\")* at the [Theatre Royal, Nottingham](/wiki/Theatre_Royal%2C_Nottingham \"Theatre Royal, Nottingham\"). In July 2006, She took on the role of Miss Adelaide in the British production of *[Guys and Dolls](/wiki/Guys_and_Dolls \"Guys and Dolls\")* at the [Piccadilly Theatre](/wiki/Piccadilly_Theatre \"Piccadilly Theatre\") in London's West End for an eight\\-week run, before touring the UK alongside [Patrick Swayze](/wiki/Patrick_Swayze \"Patrick Swayze\") in the same production.", "In 2008 she appeared in the ITV documentary *Claire Sweeney's Big Fat Diet*,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.itv.com/PressCentre/ClaireSweeneysBigFatDiet/Ep1Wk0209/default.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100127104906/http://www.itv.com/PressCentre/ClaireSweeneysBigFatDiet/Ep1Wk0209/default.html\\|work\\=ITV Press Centre\\|title\\=Claire Sweeney's Big Fat Diet\\|date\\=12 December 2008\\|archive\\-date\\=27 January 2010}} in which she gained {{convert\\|2\\|st\\|kg}} in six weeks as part of a medical experiment.", "In December 2008 she starred in the pantomime *[Snow White](/wiki/Snow_White \"Snow White\")* at the [Regent Theatre, Stoke\\-on\\-Trent](/wiki/Regent_Theatre%2C_Stoke-on-Trent \"Regent Theatre, Stoke-on-Trent\"). In December 2009 she played Carrion the Wicked Fairy in *[Sleeping Beauty](/wiki/Sleeping_Beauty \"Sleeping Beauty\")* at the [Churchill Theatre](/wiki/Churchill_Theatre \"Churchill Theatre\"), [Bromley](/wiki/Bromley \"Bromley\").", "In 2010 she sang with Carl Davis and the [Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra](/wiki/Liverpool_Philharmonic_Orchestra \"Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra\") in the Battle of Britain 70th Anniversary concert.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/stoke/hi/things\\_to\\_do/newsid\\_8631000/8631524\\.stm\\|work\\=BBC News\\|title\\=Lichfield Arts Festival makes Staffordshire the focus\\|date\\=20 April 2010\\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2022}}", "In 2011 Sweeney played both \"The Girl\" in a national tour of [Andrew Lloyd Webber](/wiki/Andrew_Lloyd_Webber \"Andrew Lloyd Webber\")'s musical *[Tell Me on a Sunday](/wiki/Tell_Me_on_a_Sunday \"Tell Me on a Sunday\")* and Paulette in the first UK tour of *[Legally Blonde: The Musical](/wiki/Legally_Blonde_%28musical%29 \"Legally Blonde (musical)\")*.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.legallyblondethemusical.com/uk\\-tour\\|work\\=Legally Blonde The Musical\\|title\\=UK Tour (2011\\)\\| date\\=9 May 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2022}} She also starred as Amanda in the BBC sitcom *[Candy Cabs](/wiki/Candy_Cabs \"Candy Cabs\")*.", "In 2012, Sweeney appeared in the UK tour of *[Educating Rita](/wiki/Educating_Rita \"Educating Rita\")*.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bathchronicle.co.uk/Theatre\\-unveils\\-star\\-line/story\\-15365263\\-detail/story.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141103234641/http://www.bathchronicle.co.uk/Theatre\\-unveils\\-star\\-line/story\\-15365263\\-detail/story.html\\|work\\=\\[\\[Bath Chronicle]]\\|title\\=Theatre unveils a star line\\-up\\|date\\=1 March 2012\\|archive\\-date\\=3 November 2014}} From November 2012 to January 2013 she starred in the *[White Christmas](/wiki/White_Christmas_%28musical%29 \"White Christmas (musical)\")* musical at [the Lowry](/wiki/The_Lowry \"The Lowry\") in [Salford Quays](/wiki/Salford_Quays \"Salford Quays\").", "In 2013 Sweeney appeared in *[Let's Dance for Comic Relief](/wiki/Let%27s_Dance_for_Comic_Relief \"Let's Dance for Comic Relief\")* alongside [Natalie Cassidy](/wiki/Natalie_Cassidy \"Natalie Cassidy\"), [Dean Gaffney](/wiki/Dean_Gaffney \"Dean Gaffney\") and [Ricky Groves](/wiki/Ricky_Groves \"Ricky Groves\"), performing to \"[You Can't Stop the Beat](/wiki/You_Can%27t_Stop_the_Beat \"You Can't Stop the Beat\")\" from *[Hairspray](/wiki/Hairspray_%28musical%29 \"Hairspray (musical)\")*. They came second to [Antony Cotton](/wiki/Antony_Cotton \"Antony Cotton\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Liverpool star Claire Sweeney says Lets Dance for Comic Relief \\|url\\=https://www.liverpoolecho.co.uk/news/liverpool\\-news/liverpool\\-star\\-claire\\-sweeney\\-says\\-3322748 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Liverpool Echo]] \\|access\\-date\\=28 June 2023}}", "In May and June 2014 she appeared in the comedy musical *Sex and the Suburbs*, co\\-written by Sweeney and Mandy Muden, at the [Royal Court Theatre, Liverpool](/wiki/Royal_Court_Theatre%2C_Liverpool \"Royal Court Theatre, Liverpool\").{{cite news\\|url\\= http://www.liverpoolecho.co.uk/whats\\-on/comedy\\-news/sex\\-suburbs\\-comedy\\-liverpool\\-6758745\\|work\\=\\[\\[Liverpool Echo]]\\|title\\=Sex and the Suburbs comedy night\\|first\\=Georgia\\|last\\=Morgan\\|date\\=27 February 2014\\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2022}}", "Since 2015 Sweeney has presented her own series, *Magic of the Musicals* on [Magic Radio](/wiki/Magic_%28UK_radio_station%29 \"Magic (UK radio station)\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=q65yHt02gLA\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629203535/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=q65yHt02gLA≷\\=US\\&hl\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=29 June 2021\\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown\\|publisher\\=YouTube\\|work\\=Magic Radio\\|title\\=Welcome to Magic of Musicals with Claire Sweeney\\|date\\=6 March 2015\\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2022}}", "In 2015 and 2016 Sweeney played Velma Von\\-Tussle in the UK tour of *Hairspray*.{{cite web \\|title\\=Claire Sweeney's Hairspray Tussle \\|url\\=https://www.itv.com/thismorning/articles/claire\\-sweeney\\-hairspray\\-tour \\|website\\=\\[\\[ITV (TV network)\\|ITV]] \\|access\\-date\\=28 June 2023}}", "In 2019 Sweeney took part in a special episode of [Radio 2](/wiki/BBC_Radio_2 \"BBC Radio 2\")'s *[Friday Night Is Music Night](/wiki/Friday_Night_Is_Music_Night \"Friday Night Is Music Night\")* to celebrate [Tony Hatch](/wiki/Tony_Hatch \"Tony Hatch\")'s 80th birthday.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/proginfo/2019/20/friday\\-night\\-is\\-music\\-night\\|work\\=BBC Media Centre\\|title\\=Friday Night Is Music Night\\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2022}} She starred as Hayley in the BBC sitcom *[Scarborough](/wiki/Scarborough_%28TV_series%29 \"Scarborough (TV series)\")*, alongside [Jason Manford](/wiki/Jason_Manford \"Jason Manford\"), [Stephanie Cole](/wiki/Stephanie_Cole \"Stephanie Cole\"), and [Catherine Tyldesley](/wiki/Catherine_Tyldesley \"Catherine Tyldesley\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2019/scarborough\\|work\\=BBC Media Centre\\|title\\=BBC \\- BBC One's Scarborough marks first day of filming by revealing stars set to join the new series\\|date\\=15 April 2019\\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2022}} On Christmas Day 2019 she presented a biography of Cilla Black on [Radio 2](/wiki/BBC_Radio_2 \"BBC Radio 2\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m0001tn6\\|work\\=BBC Radio 2\\|title\\=BBC Radio 2 \\- What's It All About \\- The Cilla Black Story\\|date\\=25 December 2019}}", "In July 2021, Sweeney performed at [G\\-A\\-Y](/wiki/G-A-Y \"G-A-Y\") alongside drag queen [Veronica Green](/wiki/Veronica_Green \"Veronica Green\") as part of the regular cabaret night “Defying Musicals”.{{cite tweet\\|author\\=Jeremy Joseph G\\-A\\-Y\\|user\\=JeremyJoseph\\|number\\=1411248392647450626\\|title\\=Tonight G\\-A\\-Y at @HeavenLGBTclub @veronicaqween Defying Musicals \\+ Special Guests @clairesweeney \\& @SejalKeshwala \\- \"@JamieMusical\" Get £3 Entry Wrist Bands At G\\-A\\-Y Bar\\|date\\=3 July 2021}}", "Sweeney provided 'alternative Scouse commentary' for the [Eurovision Song Contest 2023](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2023 \"Eurovision Song Contest 2023\") final in Liverpool, alongside a member of the public chosen via [BBC Radio Merseyside](/wiki/BBC_Radio_Merseyside \"BBC Radio Merseyside\")'s \"Voice of Eurovision\" talent search campaign, who was revealed on 1 May 2023 to be Paul Quinn.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://twitter.com/BBCTheOneShow/status/1653100809666588677\\|work\\=Twitter\\|title\\=Which \\#Eurovision fan will be the voice of Merseyside on the big night? @kevduala surprises Paul the winner! 🪩 🕺\\|access\\-date\\=1 May 2023}}", "In April 2023, it was announced that Sweeney would be joining the cast of *[Coronation Street](/wiki/Coronation_Street \"Coronation Street\")* as [Cassandra Plummer](/wiki/Cassandra_Plummer \"Cassandra Plummer\"), the daughter of [Evelyn Plummer](/wiki/Evelyn_Plummer \"Evelyn Plummer\") and the biological mother of [Tyrone Dobbs](/wiki/Tyrone_Dobbs \"Tyrone Dobbs\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Brookside and West End star Claire Sweeney joins cast of Coronation Street \\|url\\=https://www.itv.com/news/granada/2023\\-04\\-21/coronation\\-street\\-casts\\-claire\\-sweeney\\-as\\-tyrones\\-mum \\|website\\=\\[\\[ITV (TV network)\\|ITV]] \\|access\\-date\\=28 June 2023}}", "In 2024, Sweeney appeared as a contestant on the sixteenth series of Dancing on Ice.{{cite web \\|title\\=Claire Sweeney to join 2024 Dancing on Ice line up! \\|url\\=https://www.itv.com/thismorning/articles/claire\\-sweeney\\-to\\-join\\-2024\\-dancing\\-on\\-ice\\-line\\-up \\|website\\=\\[\\[ITVX]] \\|access\\-date\\=22 December 2023}} She was paired with [Colin Grafton](/wiki/Colin_Grafton \"Colin Grafton\") and was third to be eliminated.{{cite web \\|title\\=Claire Sweeney is third celebrity booted off ‘Dancing on Ice’ \\|url\\=https://uk.movies.yahoo.com/movies/claire\\-sweeney\\-third\\-celebrity\\-booted\\-203500281\\.html \\|website\\=uk.movies.yahoo.com \\|access\\-date\\=5 January 2024}}", "" ]
History ------- The land was granted by Spain to Thomas Villanueva BarrosoAnne Butler (ed.), *The Pelican Guide to Plantation Homes of Louisiana*, Gretna, Louisiana: Pelican Publishing, 2009, p. 60 [https://books.google.com/books?id\=z6xF3flz6cgC\&dq\=schriever\+louisiana\+ducros\+plantation\&pg\=PA60](https://books.google.com/books?id=z6xF3flz6cgC&dq=schriever+louisiana+ducros+plantation&pg=PA60) who, 10 years later, sold it to Pierre Denis de La Ronde whose son\-in\-law, Adolphe Ducros, developed it into the Ducros Plantation.[Byrd, Brandon](http://www.aaihs.org/finding-toussaint-louverture-in-tennessee/) *African American Intellectual History Society*: "Finding Toussaint L’Ouverture in Tennessee"; 20 July 2017\.Louisiana Writers' Project, *Louisiana: A Guide to the State*, North American Book Distribution, 1 Jan 1941, p. 580 [https://books.google.com/books?id\=bT\-l1AHDRDUC\&dq\=schriever\+louisiana\+ducros\+plantation\&pg\=PA580](https://books.google.com/books?id=bT-l1AHDRDUC&dq=schriever+louisiana+ducros+plantation&pg=PA580) In 1845, Ducros sold it to Colonel [Van Perkins Winder](/wiki/Van_Perkins_Winder "Van Perkins Winder").Fred Daspit, *Louisiana Architecture, 1840\-1860*, Center for Louisiana Studies, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, 2006, p. 268 [https://books.google.com/books?id\=aRLqAAAAMAAJ\&q\=%22Van\+Perkins\+Winder%22](https://books.google.com/books?id=aRLqAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Van+Perkins+Winder%22) Winder expanded the acreage by purchasing adjacent land formerly owned by [Thomas Butler](/wiki/Thomas_Butler_%28Louisiana_politician%29 "Thomas Butler (Louisiana politician)") and smaller farms. The [mansion](/wiki/Plantation_house_in_the_Southern_United_States "Plantation house in the Southern United States") was built by Winder's widow, Martha Grundy, who was [Felix Grundy](/wiki/Felix_Grundy "Felix Grundy")'s daughter, shortly after her husband's death. Construction began in 1859 and was completed in 1860\. It was designed in the [Greek Revival](/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture "Greek Revival architecture") architectural style. Martha hired a Louisiana architect named Evens and told him to model the mansion on [The Hermitage](/wiki/The_Hermitage_%28Nashville%2C_Tennessee%29 "The Hermitage (Nashville, Tennessee)"), [Andrew Jackson](/wiki/Andrew_Jackson "Andrew Jackson")'s plantation home in [Nashville, Tennessee](/wiki/Nashville%2C_Tennessee "Nashville, Tennessee"). Indeed, she had grown up in Nashville. During the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") of 1861–1865, the mansion was saved from a fire by Union General [Godfrey Weitzel](/wiki/Godfrey_Weitzel "Godfrey Weitzel"). However, the outbuildings burned down. Meanwhile, the fields were used as a camping ground by the [Confederate States Army](/wiki/Confederate_States_Army "Confederate States Army") and the Unionists. The [Texas Rangers](/wiki/Texas_Ranger_Division "Texas Ranger Division") hoisted [Bonnie Blue Flag](/wiki/Bonnie_Blue_Flag "Bonnie Blue Flag"), a flag of the [Confederate States of America](/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America "Confederate States of America"), on top of the house. In 1872, the plantation was purchased by two brothers, R.S. Woods and R.C. Woods, who were married to two sisters, Maggie Pugh and Fannie Pugh. It became known as the Old Jackson Plantation.[Old Jackson Plantation home, owned by a sugarcane planter. Schriever, Louisiana](https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/fsa2000035775/PP/), [Library of Congress](/wiki/Library_of_Congress "Library of Congress") It is two\-story high, with a white facade. It was purchased by Samuel and Leon Polmer in 1909\.[Encyclopedia of Southern Jewish Communities \- Houma, Louisiana](http://www.isjl.org/louisiana-houma-encyclopedia.html), [Goldring / Woldenberg Institute of Southern Jewish Life](/wiki/Goldring_/_Woldenberg_Institute_of_Southern_Jewish_Life "Goldring / Woldenberg Institute of Southern Jewish Life") It was later inherited by Leon Polmer's sons, Irvin and Marvin. In 1974, it was inherited by J.L. Fischman of [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans "New Orleans").Thad Angelloz, [Local plantation lives on thanks to couple's restoration efforts](http://www.dailycomet.com/article/20080504/ARTICLES/805040305) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402145944/http://www.dailycomet.com/article/20080504/ARTICLES/805040305 \|date\=2015\-04\-02 }}, *[The Daily Comet](/wiki/The_Daily_Comet "The Daily Comet")*, May 4, 2008 The plantation is now owned by the Bourgeois family. It was featured on *If These Walls Could Talk*, a television program on [HGTV](/wiki/HGTV "HGTV"), in 2002\. Old wood with inscriptions about the [secession](/wiki/Ordinance_of_Secession "Ordinance of Secession") of [South Carolina](/wiki/South_Carolina "South Carolina") and the presidential run of [Stephen A. Douglas](/wiki/Stephen_A._Douglas "Stephen A. Douglas") in 1860 have been found on the property.
[ "History\n-------", "The land was granted by Spain to Thomas Villanueva BarrosoAnne Butler (ed.), *The Pelican Guide to Plantation Homes of Louisiana*, Gretna, Louisiana: Pelican Publishing, 2009, p. 60 [https://books.google.com/books?id\\=z6xF3flz6cgC\\&dq\\=schriever\\+louisiana\\+ducros\\+plantation\\&pg\\=PA60](https://books.google.com/books?id=z6xF3flz6cgC&dq=schriever+louisiana+ducros+plantation&pg=PA60) who, 10 years later, sold it to Pierre Denis de La Ronde whose son\\-in\\-law, Adolphe Ducros, developed it into the Ducros Plantation.[Byrd, Brandon](http://www.aaihs.org/finding-toussaint-louverture-in-tennessee/) *African American Intellectual History Society*: \"Finding Toussaint L’Ouverture in Tennessee\"; 20 July 2017\\.Louisiana Writers' Project, *Louisiana: A Guide to the State*, North American Book Distribution, 1 Jan 1941, p. 580 [https://books.google.com/books?id\\=bT\\-l1AHDRDUC\\&dq\\=schriever\\+louisiana\\+ducros\\+plantation\\&pg\\=PA580](https://books.google.com/books?id=bT-l1AHDRDUC&dq=schriever+louisiana+ducros+plantation&pg=PA580) In 1845, Ducros sold it to Colonel [Van Perkins Winder](/wiki/Van_Perkins_Winder \"Van Perkins Winder\").Fred Daspit, *Louisiana Architecture, 1840\\-1860*, Center for Louisiana Studies, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, 2006, p. 268 [https://books.google.com/books?id\\=aRLqAAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=%22Van\\+Perkins\\+Winder%22](https://books.google.com/books?id=aRLqAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Van+Perkins+Winder%22) Winder expanded the acreage by purchasing adjacent land formerly owned by [Thomas Butler](/wiki/Thomas_Butler_%28Louisiana_politician%29 \"Thomas Butler (Louisiana politician)\") and smaller farms.", "The [mansion](/wiki/Plantation_house_in_the_Southern_United_States \"Plantation house in the Southern United States\") was built by Winder's widow, Martha Grundy, who was [Felix Grundy](/wiki/Felix_Grundy \"Felix Grundy\")'s daughter, shortly after her husband's death. Construction began in 1859 and was completed in 1860\\. It was designed in the [Greek Revival](/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture \"Greek Revival architecture\") architectural style. Martha hired a Louisiana architect named Evens and told him to model the mansion on [The Hermitage](/wiki/The_Hermitage_%28Nashville%2C_Tennessee%29 \"The Hermitage (Nashville, Tennessee)\"), [Andrew Jackson](/wiki/Andrew_Jackson \"Andrew Jackson\")'s plantation home in [Nashville, Tennessee](/wiki/Nashville%2C_Tennessee \"Nashville, Tennessee\"). Indeed, she had grown up in Nashville.", "During the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") of 1861–1865, the mansion was saved from a fire by Union General [Godfrey Weitzel](/wiki/Godfrey_Weitzel \"Godfrey Weitzel\"). However, the outbuildings burned down. Meanwhile, the fields were used as a camping ground by the [Confederate States Army](/wiki/Confederate_States_Army \"Confederate States Army\") and the Unionists. The [Texas Rangers](/wiki/Texas_Ranger_Division \"Texas Ranger Division\") hoisted [Bonnie Blue Flag](/wiki/Bonnie_Blue_Flag \"Bonnie Blue Flag\"), a flag of the [Confederate States of America](/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America \"Confederate States of America\"), on top of the house.", "In 1872, the plantation was purchased by two brothers, R.S. Woods and R.C. Woods, who were married to two sisters, Maggie Pugh and Fannie Pugh. It became known as the Old Jackson Plantation.[Old Jackson Plantation home, owned by a sugarcane planter. Schriever, Louisiana](https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/fsa2000035775/PP/), [Library of Congress](/wiki/Library_of_Congress \"Library of Congress\") It is two\\-story high, with a white facade.", "It was purchased by Samuel and Leon Polmer in 1909\\.[Encyclopedia of Southern Jewish Communities \\- Houma, Louisiana](http://www.isjl.org/louisiana-houma-encyclopedia.html), [Goldring / Woldenberg Institute of Southern Jewish Life](/wiki/Goldring_/_Woldenberg_Institute_of_Southern_Jewish_Life \"Goldring / Woldenberg Institute of Southern Jewish Life\") It was later inherited by Leon Polmer's sons, Irvin and Marvin. In 1974, it was inherited by J.L. Fischman of [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans \"New Orleans\").Thad Angelloz, [Local plantation lives on thanks to couple's restoration efforts](http://www.dailycomet.com/article/20080504/ARTICLES/805040305) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402145944/http://www.dailycomet.com/article/20080504/ARTICLES/805040305 \\|date\\=2015\\-04\\-02 }}, *[The Daily Comet](/wiki/The_Daily_Comet \"The Daily Comet\")*, May 4, 2008", "The plantation is now owned by the Bourgeois family. It was featured on *If These Walls Could Talk*, a television program on [HGTV](/wiki/HGTV \"HGTV\"), in 2002\\. Old wood with inscriptions about the [secession](/wiki/Ordinance_of_Secession \"Ordinance of Secession\") of [South Carolina](/wiki/South_Carolina \"South Carolina\") and the presidential run of [Stephen A. Douglas](/wiki/Stephen_A._Douglas \"Stephen A. Douglas\") in 1860 have been found on the property.", "" ]
Professional career ------------------- Following her doctoral training, Georgene Seward taught at [Hunter College](/wiki/Hunter_College "Hunter College") in New York City for one year, before returning to [Barnard College](/wiki/Barnard_College "Barnard College") to teach from 1930 to 1937\.{{cite journal\|title\=Georgene Seward, PhD\|journal\=Women's Psych\-E Newsletter\|date\=2011\|doi\=10\.1037/e536672011\-003}} During this time, her husband taught at [Columbia University](/wiki/Columbia_University "Columbia University"). During her professional career at Barnard College Seward was consistently overlooked for promotion in favour of her less experienced, less competent, male counterparts. This anecdote would repeat itself during her seven\-year professional career running the psychology department at [Connecticut College](/wiki/Connecticut_College "Connecticut College") for Women with her husband. The fourteen years without acknowledgement for her abilities and accomplishments pushed Seward to research and tackle issues related to the feminine role. From 1937 to 1944 Drs. Georgene and John Seward together began running the psychology department at [Connecticut College](/wiki/Connecticut_College "Connecticut College") for Women. Here the couple worked in close collaboration with many other prominent researchers at the time, including [Harry](/wiki/Harry_Levi_Hollingworth "Harry Levi Hollingworth") and [Leta Hollingworth](/wiki/Leta_Stetter_Hollingworth "Leta Stetter Hollingworth"), [Otto Klineberg](/wiki/Otto_Klineberg "Otto Klineberg"), [Gardner](/wiki/Gardner_Murphy "Gardner Murphy") and Lois Murphy, and [Robert Woodworth](/wiki/Robert_S._Woodworth "Robert S. Woodworth"). Dr. Seward's time at Connecticut College was during the Second World War gave her the opportunity to cross paths with many famous German psychologist that were evacuating [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") including; [Wolfgang Köhler](/wiki/Wolfgang_K%C3%B6hler "Wolfgang Köhler"), [Max Wertheimer](/wiki/Max_Wertheimer "Max Wertheimer"), [Karl Bühler](/wiki/Karl_B%C3%BChler "Karl Bühler") and [Charlotte Bühler](/wiki/Charlotte_B%C3%BChler "Charlotte Bühler"). In 1944, Seward published one of her first seminal pieces. This piece, entitled "Psychological effects of the menstrual cycle on women workers", demonstrated that the menstrual cycle has no impact of the on the performance of working women, debunking the myth of menstrual invalidism.{{cite journal\|last1\=Seward\|first1\=G. H.\|title\=Psychological effects of the menstrual cycle on women workers\|journal\=Psychological Bulletin\|date\=1944\|volume\=41\|issue\=2\|pages\=90–102\|doi\=10\.1037/h0057779}} In 1944, the Sewards left [Connecticut College](/wiki/Connecticut_College "Connecticut College") for Women; Georgene Seward took at teaching position at [Simmons College](/wiki/Simmons_College "Simmons College") and John Seward took a position at [Boston University](/wiki/Boston_University "Boston University"). In 1946, the Sewards accepted positions on the west coast and moved to California; John joined the faculty at the [University of California at Los Angeles](/wiki/University_of_California_at_Los_Angeles "University of California at Los Angeles"), and Georgene joined the faculty at the [University of Southern California](/wiki/University_of_Southern_California "University of Southern California"), where she remained until her retirement in 1972\. At USC, Georgene taught social and personality psychology, clinical psychology, and ran the clinical training program. It was there that Seward then began also working in private practice, in addition to her teaching duties. She was also a clinical consultant for the Veterans Administration Hospital, Metropolitan State Hospital, and the Didi Hirsch Mental Health Clinic. She continued to work in private practice until 1987\. Both of the Sewards were dedicated antifascists and socialists, during the 1950s the [McCarthy Era](/wiki/McCarthy_Era "McCarthy Era") prosecutions brought both Georgene and her husband John under scrutiny with the [Loyalty oath](/wiki/Loyalty_oath "Loyalty oath") Controversy (Sargent, 1993\). While in California, Dr. Georgene Seward continued her work in gender and minority studies. It was here that she publish two seminal works on gender, some of the first texts of their kind. The first was "Cultural conflict and the feminine role: An experimental study" (1945\); in this study, Seward investigated individuals attitudes toward women in post\-war America.{{cite journal\|last1\=Seward\|first1\=G.\|title\=Cultural Conflict and the feminine role: An experimental study\|journal\=The Journal of Social Psychology\|date\=1945\|volume\=22\|issue\=2\|pages\=177–194\|doi\=10\.1080/00224545\.1945\.9921718\|pmid\=21007976}} She found that attitudes toward women and the roles they filled varied and were based largely on context (post\-war American families were transitioning from a patriarchal to a more democratic structure), leading her to believe that these attitudes were the result of the socialization of sex roles. Her second was *Sex and the social order* (1946\); in this book, Seward summarized much of the literature on what was known of sex differences, or the lack thereof.{{cite book\|last1\=Seward\|first1\=G. H.\|title\=Sex and the social order\|date\=1946\|publisher\=McGraw Hill\|location\=New York}} She returned to these interests again later in her career, coauthoring two additional books: *Sex Roles in Changing Society* (1970\){{cite book\|last1\=Seward\|first1\=G. H.\|last2\=Williamson\|first2\=R.\|title\=Sex roles in changing society\|date\=1970\|publisher\=Random House\|location\=New York}} and *Sex Differences: Mental and Temperamental* (1980\).{{cite book\|last1\=Seward\|first1\=G. H.\|last2\=Seward\|first2\=J. P.\|title\=Sex differences: Mental and temperamental\|url\=https://archive.org/details/sexdifferencesme0000sewa\|url\-access\=registration\|date\=1980\|publisher\=Lexington Books\|location\=Lexington\|isbn\=9780669036299 }} During her time in California, Seward also began to explore how culture and minority status impact clinical practice. It was then that she published two additional important books: *Psychotherapy and Culture Conflict* (1956\){{cite book\|last1\=Seward\|first1\=G. H.\|title\=Psychotherapy and culture conflict\|date\=1956\|publisher\=Ronald Press\|location\=New York}} and *Clinical Studies in Culture Conflict* (1958\).{{cite book\|last1\=Seward\|first1\=G. H.\|title\=Clinical studies in culture conflict\|date\=1958\|publisher\=Ronald Press\|location\=New York}} In these books, Seward investigated the unique neuroticisms and stress experienced by minorities. These two books, having influenced both social psychological research and clinical practice, are often considered her two greatest contributions to the field. Throughout the remainder of her career, she continued pursuing such important work and encouraging other women to do the same. In 1972 Seward retired as a professor emeritus at USC; at the same time John retired from UCLA. She continued to run her private clinical practice for another 15 years and returned to active collaboration with her husband. Seward's continuing impact is best known among [Feminist psychology](/wiki/Feminist_psychology "Feminist psychology") professionals and clinical workers, as her books, Psychotherapy and Culture Conflict (1956\) and Clinical Studies in Culture Conflict (1958\) were considered highly influential among professionals in the field at that time. Her observation and dedication to the effects of minority status encouraged greater understanding of how the social pressures that arise from cultural influences shape patient and therapist dynamics (Seward, 1956\). Including the idea that female patients should have the opportunity to be treated by a female therapists. Dr. Georgene Hoffman Seward was a dedicated researcher, clinician, and mentor, who remained involved in her work until 1987\. In 1987, only five years before her death, Dr. Seward was awarded the Distinguished Psychologist Award by the California State Psychological Association in recognition of her own leadership in teaching, research, and community service.
[ "Professional career\n-------------------", "Following her doctoral training, Georgene Seward taught at [Hunter College](/wiki/Hunter_College \"Hunter College\") in New York City for one year, before returning to [Barnard College](/wiki/Barnard_College \"Barnard College\") to teach from 1930 to 1937\\.{{cite journal\\|title\\=Georgene Seward, PhD\\|journal\\=Women's Psych\\-E Newsletter\\|date\\=2011\\|doi\\=10\\.1037/e536672011\\-003}} During this time, her husband taught at [Columbia University](/wiki/Columbia_University \"Columbia University\"). During her professional career at Barnard College Seward was consistently overlooked for promotion in favour of her less experienced, less competent, male counterparts. This anecdote would repeat itself during her seven\\-year professional career running the psychology department at [Connecticut College](/wiki/Connecticut_College \"Connecticut College\") for Women with her husband. The fourteen years without acknowledgement for her abilities and accomplishments pushed Seward to research and tackle issues related to the feminine role.", "From 1937 to 1944 Drs. Georgene and John Seward together began running the psychology department at [Connecticut College](/wiki/Connecticut_College \"Connecticut College\") for Women. Here the couple worked in close collaboration with many other prominent researchers at the time, including [Harry](/wiki/Harry_Levi_Hollingworth \"Harry Levi Hollingworth\") and [Leta Hollingworth](/wiki/Leta_Stetter_Hollingworth \"Leta Stetter Hollingworth\"), [Otto Klineberg](/wiki/Otto_Klineberg \"Otto Klineberg\"), [Gardner](/wiki/Gardner_Murphy \"Gardner Murphy\") and Lois Murphy, and [Robert Woodworth](/wiki/Robert_S._Woodworth \"Robert S. Woodworth\"). Dr. Seward's time at Connecticut College was during the Second World War gave her the opportunity to cross paths with many famous German psychologist that were evacuating [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") including; [Wolfgang Köhler](/wiki/Wolfgang_K%C3%B6hler \"Wolfgang Köhler\"), [Max Wertheimer](/wiki/Max_Wertheimer \"Max Wertheimer\"), [Karl Bühler](/wiki/Karl_B%C3%BChler \"Karl Bühler\") and [Charlotte Bühler](/wiki/Charlotte_B%C3%BChler \"Charlotte Bühler\").", "In 1944, Seward published one of her first seminal pieces. This piece, entitled \"Psychological effects of the menstrual cycle on women workers\", demonstrated that the menstrual cycle has no impact of the on the performance of working women, debunking the myth of menstrual invalidism.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Seward\\|first1\\=G. H.\\|title\\=Psychological effects of the menstrual cycle on women workers\\|journal\\=Psychological Bulletin\\|date\\=1944\\|volume\\=41\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=90–102\\|doi\\=10\\.1037/h0057779}}", "In 1944, the Sewards left [Connecticut College](/wiki/Connecticut_College \"Connecticut College\") for Women; Georgene Seward took at teaching position at [Simmons College](/wiki/Simmons_College \"Simmons College\") and John Seward took a position at [Boston University](/wiki/Boston_University \"Boston University\"). In 1946, the Sewards accepted positions on the west coast and moved to California; John joined the faculty at the [University of California at Los Angeles](/wiki/University_of_California_at_Los_Angeles \"University of California at Los Angeles\"), and Georgene joined the faculty at the [University of Southern California](/wiki/University_of_Southern_California \"University of Southern California\"), where she remained until her retirement in 1972\\. At USC, Georgene taught social and personality psychology, clinical psychology, and ran the clinical training program. It was there that Seward then began also working in private practice, in addition to her teaching duties. She was also a clinical consultant for the Veterans Administration Hospital, Metropolitan State Hospital, and the Didi Hirsch Mental Health Clinic. She continued to work in private practice until 1987\\.", "Both of the Sewards were dedicated antifascists and socialists, during the 1950s the [McCarthy Era](/wiki/McCarthy_Era \"McCarthy Era\") prosecutions brought both Georgene and her husband John under scrutiny with the [Loyalty oath](/wiki/Loyalty_oath \"Loyalty oath\") Controversy (Sargent, 1993\\).", "While in California, Dr. Georgene Seward continued her work in gender and minority studies. It was here that she publish two seminal works on gender, some of the first texts of their kind. The first was \"Cultural conflict and the feminine role: An experimental study\" (1945\\); in this study, Seward investigated individuals attitudes toward women in post\\-war America.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Seward\\|first1\\=G.\\|title\\=Cultural Conflict and the feminine role: An experimental study\\|journal\\=The Journal of Social Psychology\\|date\\=1945\\|volume\\=22\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=177–194\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/00224545\\.1945\\.9921718\\|pmid\\=21007976}} She found that attitudes toward women and the roles they filled varied and were based largely on context (post\\-war American families were transitioning from a patriarchal to a more democratic structure), leading her to believe that these attitudes were the result of the socialization of sex roles. Her second was *Sex and the social order* (1946\\); in this book, Seward summarized much of the literature on what was known of sex differences, or the lack thereof.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Seward\\|first1\\=G. H.\\|title\\=Sex and the social order\\|date\\=1946\\|publisher\\=McGraw Hill\\|location\\=New York}} She returned to these interests again later in her career, coauthoring two additional books: *Sex Roles in Changing Society* (1970\\){{cite book\\|last1\\=Seward\\|first1\\=G. H.\\|last2\\=Williamson\\|first2\\=R.\\|title\\=Sex roles in changing society\\|date\\=1970\\|publisher\\=Random House\\|location\\=New York}} and *Sex Differences: Mental and Temperamental* (1980\\).{{cite book\\|last1\\=Seward\\|first1\\=G. H.\\|last2\\=Seward\\|first2\\=J. P.\\|title\\=Sex differences: Mental and temperamental\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/sexdifferencesme0000sewa\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|date\\=1980\\|publisher\\=Lexington Books\\|location\\=Lexington\\|isbn\\=9780669036299 }}", "During her time in California, Seward also began to explore how culture and minority status impact clinical practice. It was then that she published two additional important books: *Psychotherapy and Culture Conflict* (1956\\){{cite book\\|last1\\=Seward\\|first1\\=G. H.\\|title\\=Psychotherapy and culture conflict\\|date\\=1956\\|publisher\\=Ronald Press\\|location\\=New York}} and *Clinical Studies in Culture Conflict* (1958\\).{{cite book\\|last1\\=Seward\\|first1\\=G. H.\\|title\\=Clinical studies in culture conflict\\|date\\=1958\\|publisher\\=Ronald Press\\|location\\=New York}} In these books, Seward investigated the unique neuroticisms and stress experienced by minorities. These two books, having influenced both social psychological research and clinical practice, are often considered her two greatest contributions to the field. Throughout the remainder of her career, she continued pursuing such important work and encouraging other women to do the same.", "In 1972 Seward retired as a professor emeritus at USC; at the same time John retired from UCLA. She continued to run her private clinical practice for another 15 years and returned to active collaboration with her husband. Seward's continuing impact is best known among [Feminist psychology](/wiki/Feminist_psychology \"Feminist psychology\") professionals and clinical workers, as her books, Psychotherapy and Culture Conflict (1956\\) and Clinical Studies in Culture Conflict (1958\\) were considered highly influential among professionals in the field at that time. Her observation and dedication to the effects of minority status encouraged greater understanding of how the social pressures that arise from cultural influences shape patient and therapist dynamics (Seward, 1956\\). Including the idea that female patients should have the opportunity to be treated by a female therapists.", "Dr. Georgene Hoffman Seward was a dedicated researcher, clinician, and mentor, who remained involved in her work until 1987\\. In 1987, only five years before her death, Dr. Seward was awarded the Distinguished Psychologist Award by the California State Psychological Association in recognition of her own leadership in teaching, research, and community service.", "" ]
Contributions to psychology --------------------------- Seward was one of the first female psychologists to explore, and debunk, various theories of sex differences. She was also one of the first clinical psychologists to consider the impact of culture and minority status on clinical settings and treatment techniques. She was a researcher devoted feminist issues, and was an early advocate seeking culturally appropriate and sensitive mental health treatment. As stated by Lisa Held, of *Feminist Voices in Psychology*, "she has become a role model for feminist psychologists". She was not only a brave pioneer in the field of gender studies, but was an avid supporter of female leadership in psychology. ### Early academic career During the Sewards’ early postdoctoral years they formed a professional relationship with the creator of the Pap test, G. N. Papanicolaou. This relationship would result in a number of studies on the reproductive behaviours of the guinea pig, including a comparison of male and female guinea pig sex drives {{cite journal\|title\= Studies on the Reproductive Activities of the Guinea Pig: IV. A Comparison of Sex Drive in Males and Females\|doi\=10\.1080/08856559\.1940\.10534544 \| volume\=57 \|issue\=2 \| journal\=The Pedagogical Seminary and Journal of Genetic Psychology\|pages\=429–440\|year\=1940 \|last1\=Seward \|first1\=John P. \|last2\=Seward \|first2\=Georgene H. }} and the specificity of the sex drive in male guinea pigs.{{cite journal\|last1\=Seward\|first1\=Georgene H.\|title\=Studies on the Reproductive Activities of the Guinea Pig: V. Specificity of Sexual Drive in the Male\|journal\=The Pedagogical Seminary and Journal of Genetic Psychology\|date\=December 1941\|volume\=59\|issue\=2\|pages\=389–396\|doi\=10\.1080/08856559\.1941\.10534614}} Seward's early feminist works included *The Psychological Effects of the Menstrual Cycle on Women Workers* (1944\) and an experimental study called *Culture Conflict and the Feminine Role* (1945\). These works would be the prelude to a more comprehensive collection of social sex differences called *Sex and the Social Order* (1946\). ### Psychological effects of the menstrual cycle on women workers (1944\) The close of World War Two called for rapid re\-evaluation of women's perceived ‘biological handicaps’; in particular the focus was upon the [menstrual cycle](/wiki/Menstrual_cycle "Menstrual cycle"), historically seen as a time of bed rest and delicacy. [Dysmenorrhea](/wiki/Dysmenorrhea "Dysmenorrhea") essentially was extreme pain and disability associated with the menstrual cycle (Seward, 1944\). Seward (1944\) gathered reports on women workers from two main areas; industrial and education settings. In the industrial setting menstrual invalidism seems to be the ‘go\-to’ explanation of the trend that women workers miss more work days than their male counterparts (Seward, 1944\). However, little collected data of the time supported the belief that menstruating women were unable to effectively contribute. This included studies that looked to compare performance abilities that found little difference in reaction times between menstruating and non\-menstruating women; further studies with male controls found little difference between males and menstruating females (Seward, 1944\). Seward (1944\) accumulated evidence from a number of sources that employed female workers; the overall findings do not support the need to shelter females from work due to dysmenorrhea. One of these sources included a division of General Motors that not only employed female workers, but also had a clinic set up to help women workers deal with the negative consequences of dysmenorrhea with pain medication and simple exercises; and reported no significant absenteeism from women (Seward, 1944\). Seward (1944\) also reviewed differences between female students and their performance effects. Nursing students were compared to other female university students due to the difference in physical demand and revealed a significant difference in the number of dysmenorrhea related problems. This suggested that despite popular belief that work and activity were more beneficial than harmful for women (Seward, 1944\). These findings did not support the code of menstrual invalidism that often took place in order to discriminate against women workers (Seward, 1944\). ### Culture Conflict and the Feminine Role (1945\) The feminine role with the close of World War Two was to become a huge social concern; with men returning from war, women would be expected to return to their original, dependent roles {{cite journal\|last1\=Seward\|first1\=G. H.\|title\=Cultural conflict and the feminine role: An experimental study\|journal\=Journal of Social Psychology\|date\=1945\|volume\=22\|issue\=2\|pages\=177–194\|doi\=10\.1080/00224545\.1945\.9921718\|pmid\=21007976\|id\={{ProQuest\|1290700152}}}} The cultural setting of the time cemented the male/female dichotomy as an absolute; this view idolized the male/female identity as something that was beyond human control and was most likely biologically driven (Seward, 1945\). Seward (1945\) rebutted this view through redefinition of the feminine role as a cultural aspect that was assigned to women to their role depending on the social pressures of the time. The core of the argument suggested that the feminine role was not an absolute across all cultural groups; even the traditional predominately patriarchal Western culture had variations in the expectations of the feminine role across time (Seward, 1945\). From clinical studies of psychologically sick women of the time Seward (1945\) observed that a portion of these women's illnesses emerged from a conflict between social expectations of who they should be and who they were. The psychoanalytical theories of the time felt that this ‘masculine complex’ was an illness – the fallacy was grouping women with the motivation and talent to achieve outside of their expected domestic duties as being psychologically ill (Seward, 1945\). Using [Kurt Lewin](/wiki/Kurt_Lewin "Kurt Lewin")’s Approach\-Avoidance paradigm Seward (1945\) argued that conflict arises from giving all children equal opportunity to learn and achieve; but with the expectation that women chose between family and their goals when they marry. Seward (1945\) surveyed 147 first\-year female psychology students on their attitudes towards the evolving female role to find the most extreme liberal and extreme conservative individuals. Seward (1945\) modified two inventories, Kitay's attitudes towards women and Kirkpatrick's feminism\-antifeminism attitude tests. After these inventories were administered the 15 most extreme attitudes at either ends of the scales were selected for further analysis (Seward, 1945\). A follow\-up interview was conducted to collect background information on home life, religious affiliations, and other potentially discrepancies between the groups. Seward (1945\) found that in the most extreme groups a pattern emerged, a dichotomy in female attitudes toward the single female and the married female. Women whom were single could be independent, hold down a job and support themselves. The single female was awarded greater equality with men given that they had to compete with them in the workforce (Seward, 1945\). The drawback to this freedom results from the greater uncertainty in security, resulting in conflict (Seward, 1945\). Conservative individuals ranked lower on the feminism scale and projected traditional attitudes toward the wife role. These attitudes included adherence to social parasitism, which involved becoming completely depended upon the husband – including social and financial matters (Seward, 1945\). Liberal women ranked higher in feminism traits than their conservative counterparts, and also came from non\-traditional/nuclear homes. These homes did not typically have the father/mother dynamic and in comparison to their conservative counterparts were not particularly religious. The conservative group came from the traditional/nuclear family set up and the majority (14 out of 15 subjects) were regular church attendees (Seward, 1945\). For the liberal females conflict occurs when shifting from single feminist to the role of traditional wife/subordinate and the social expectation that accompanies the role (Seward, 1945\). ### Sex Differences: Mental and Temperamental (1980\) Following the Sewards’ retirement in 1972, they began an active collaboration to bring their respective fields together to produce *Sex Differences: Mental and Temperamental* (1980\).{{cite journal\|last1\=Maltzman\|first1\=Irving\|title\=John P. Seward (1905–1985\).\|journal\=American Psychologist\|date\=1987\|volume\=42\|issue\=1\|pages\=96\|doi\=10\.1037/h0092012}} Prior to Dr. John Seward's death in 1985 a follow\-up work had begun, but was never completed. Dr. John Seward's knowledge and experience with learning was combined with Dr. Georgene Seward's knowledge of social, personality and clinical psychology. The general principle of the book was to determine if sex differences were either biologically defined or socially assigned (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). This was particularly important because sex differences were used to justify the oppression of women and the dominance of men and infiltrated scientific objectivity through cultural experience (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). *Sex Differences: Mental and Temperamental* (1980\) is a comprehensive literature review of studies that investigated differences between male and female. The goal of *Sex Differences: Mental and Temperamental* was to converge the literature of different cultures, non\-human animal research, historical cultures, normal and abnormal development, and learning theory into a comprehensive manifestation of sex roles.{{cite book\|last1\=Seward\|first1\=G. H.\|last2\=Seward\|first2\=J. P.\|title\=Sex differences: Mental and temperamental\|url\=https://archive.org/details/sexdifferencesme0000sewa\|url\-access\=registration\|date\=1980\|publisher\=Lexington Books\|location\=Lexington, MA\|isbn\=9780669036299 }} The working hypothesis of the book was based upon a couple key assumptions, the first being that sex differences were a by\-product of evolution. The other assumption was that with the increased development of the human brain and its by\-products (such as language, context and memory) increase humans’ ability to manipulate the environment have made some biological adaptations obsolete. The objective was an attempt to isolate sex\-specific traits that were resistant to cultural change and persist as biologically ingrained dispositions (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). Seward and Seward (1980\) predicted that the most stable sex differences would be those most closely related to behaviours related to reproduction. Mental/cognitive processes were predicted to be less stable and subject to social expectation (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). Careful examination of historical and current cultures was required for the elimination or confirmation of sex differences (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). Historically men are more likely to interact with their environment through exploration and reconstruction, while women are more prone to interact through communications which correspond to evolutionary expectations (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). Seward and Seward (1980\) wished to determine the extent to which biological processes corresponded to sex differences and the extent to which social expectation influence accepted sex differences. #### Mental abilities In chapter three of Sex Differences the focus was upon mental differences. The use of intellectual measures of behaviour was seen as more objective as it was often attributed to genetics or hormones. Overall intelligence differences were often related to three subsets of intelligent behaviour; verbal, numerical and spatial. The data on intelligence was in abundance, ranging in people from kindergarten to college. Seward and Seward (1980\) reviewed Diane McGuiness's (1975\) experimental study that had found a trend favouring females in hearing task and favouring males in sight\-related tasks. Seward and Seward (1980\) caution the quick conclusion of a biological aspect to the differences, instead suggesting that the differences observed were the result of biases in social roles. The development of these differences was likely the result of social biases that have risen through evolutionary history of men as providers and women as caretakers (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). Studies reviewed by Seward and Seward (1980\) found most consistently was females tend to perform better in all forms of communication (verbal, written or read) and infant females made more frequent vocalizations and from an earlier age. Women also typically had a more global cognitive style to their mental abilities, while men traditionally had a more analytical cognitive approach (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). However, evidence was arising for male dominance in spatial abilities and problem solving with a potential role of androgenic hormone. Evidence for biological innateness suggested a greater susceptibility for men because learning disorders such as dyslexia were more frequently reported (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). The Differentiation Hypothesis presented by Garrett (1946\) suggested that all skills start out with a general ability that is specialized over time (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). #### Masculinity and femininity Seward and Seward (1980\) explored the variations in terms of understandings of Masculine and Feminine in three distinct ways. The first was the Essential Core; religious/spiritual dichotomies such as heaven/male, earth/female, yin representing the female, negative and passive in opposite to the yang which was male, positive and active (Bakan, 1966 as cited in, Seward \& Seward, 1980\). Secondly there were social stereotypes of the ‘typical’ man and the ‘typical’ woman held by real men and women in cultural groups. The last was to review self\-reported attitudes of people in terms of how they measured up to the stereotype. Seward and Seward (1980\) found in their literature review that real men and women often mirrored the stereotype with a few variations. An example given by Seward and Seward (1980\) was that women were not found to be more neurotic or suspicious than men. Stable tendencies included male characteristic of ‘toughness’ and ‘self\-assertion’ and female characteristic of ‘sensitivity’ and ‘social need’ (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). #### Activity Seward and Seward (1980\) reviewed literature on the activity levels of male and female children. From a young age (second year to puberty) male children tend to be more active than their female counterparts, with more reports of hyperactivity in male children. This statistical data helped to support biological sex differentiation component (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). Social Factors in Gender Development The differences in parental expectation between male and female children could have an important role upon their behaviour; however determining the extent was difficult with observational methods (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). These behaviours of gender development were analyzed in chapter six through a number of research studies under a number of popular paradigms of the day. These included, but not limited to; psychoanalytical, cognitive\-developmental, and social learning. However the most detailed was modeling, covering research that included parental, peer and media (books and television) as sources of modelling (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). #### Temperamental Chapters nine to 12 deal with temperamental traits that were traditionally aligned with a particular gender. These temperamental aspects included; aggressiveness and dominance, fear and anxiety, compliance and nurturance, and need to achieve (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). It was acknowledged by most psychologists that men on average are more aggressive than females and females tended to be more anxious and nurturing than males (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). However, social learning theorists postulated that this difference was primarily the result of environmental learning/observation rather than innate biological drive; both sexes shared the same impulses, but in varying proportions (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). Additionally, the operant conditioning paradigm had gained momentum and psychologists’ knowledge of rewards and punishments assisted in their understanding of behaviour. However, despite this knowledge the effective rewards and punishments that strength or weaken certain behaviours in sex differences were not well understood (Seward \& Seward, 1980\).
[ "Contributions to psychology\n---------------------------", "Seward was one of the first female psychologists to explore, and debunk, various theories of sex differences. She was also one of the first clinical psychologists to consider the impact of culture and minority status on clinical settings and treatment techniques. She was a researcher devoted feminist issues, and was an early advocate seeking culturally appropriate and sensitive mental health treatment. As stated by Lisa Held, of *Feminist Voices in Psychology*, \"she has become a role model for feminist psychologists\". She was not only a brave pioneer in the field of gender studies, but was an avid supporter of female leadership in psychology.", "### Early academic career", "During the Sewards’ early postdoctoral years they formed a professional relationship with the creator of the Pap test, G. N. Papanicolaou. This relationship would result in a number of studies on the reproductive behaviours of the guinea pig, including a comparison of male and female guinea pig sex drives {{cite journal\\|title\\= Studies on the Reproductive Activities of the Guinea Pig: IV. A Comparison of Sex Drive in Males and Females\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/08856559\\.1940\\.10534544 \\| volume\\=57 \\|issue\\=2 \\| journal\\=The Pedagogical Seminary and Journal of Genetic Psychology\\|pages\\=429–440\\|year\\=1940 \\|last1\\=Seward \\|first1\\=John P. \\|last2\\=Seward \\|first2\\=Georgene H. }} and the specificity of the sex drive in male guinea pigs.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Seward\\|first1\\=Georgene H.\\|title\\=Studies on the Reproductive Activities of the Guinea Pig: V. Specificity of Sexual Drive in the Male\\|journal\\=The Pedagogical Seminary and Journal of Genetic Psychology\\|date\\=December 1941\\|volume\\=59\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=389–396\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/08856559\\.1941\\.10534614}} Seward's early feminist works included *The Psychological Effects of the Menstrual Cycle on Women Workers* (1944\\) and an experimental study called *Culture Conflict and the Feminine Role* (1945\\). These works would be the prelude to a more comprehensive collection of social sex differences called *Sex and the Social Order* (1946\\).", "### Psychological effects of the menstrual cycle on women workers (1944\\)", "The close of World War Two called for rapid re\\-evaluation of women's perceived ‘biological handicaps’; in particular the focus was upon the [menstrual cycle](/wiki/Menstrual_cycle \"Menstrual cycle\"), historically seen as a time of bed rest and delicacy. [Dysmenorrhea](/wiki/Dysmenorrhea \"Dysmenorrhea\") essentially was extreme pain and disability associated with the menstrual cycle (Seward, 1944\\). Seward (1944\\) gathered reports on women workers from two main areas; industrial and education settings. In the industrial setting menstrual invalidism seems to be the ‘go\\-to’ explanation of the trend that women workers miss more work days than their male counterparts (Seward, 1944\\). However, little collected data of the time supported the belief that menstruating women were unable to effectively contribute. This included studies that looked to compare performance abilities that found little difference in reaction times between menstruating and non\\-menstruating women; further studies with male controls found little difference between males and menstruating females (Seward, 1944\\).", "Seward (1944\\) accumulated evidence from a number of sources that employed female workers; the overall findings do not support the need to shelter females from work due to dysmenorrhea. One of these sources included a division of General Motors that not only employed female workers, but also had a clinic set up to help women workers deal with the negative consequences of dysmenorrhea with pain medication and simple exercises; and reported no significant absenteeism from women (Seward, 1944\\). Seward (1944\\) also reviewed differences between female students and their performance effects. Nursing students were compared to other female university students due to the difference in physical demand and revealed a significant difference in the number of dysmenorrhea related problems. This suggested that despite popular belief that work and activity were more beneficial than harmful for women (Seward, 1944\\). These findings did not support the code of menstrual invalidism that often took place in order to discriminate against women workers (Seward, 1944\\).", "### Culture Conflict and the Feminine Role (1945\\)", "The feminine role with the close of World War Two was to become a huge social concern; with men returning from war, women would be expected to return to their original, dependent roles {{cite journal\\|last1\\=Seward\\|first1\\=G. H.\\|title\\=Cultural conflict and the feminine role: An experimental study\\|journal\\=Journal of Social Psychology\\|date\\=1945\\|volume\\=22\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=177–194\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/00224545\\.1945\\.9921718\\|pmid\\=21007976\\|id\\={{ProQuest\\|1290700152}}}} The cultural setting of the time cemented the male/female dichotomy as an absolute; this view idolized the male/female identity as something that was beyond human control and was most likely biologically driven (Seward, 1945\\). Seward (1945\\) rebutted this view through redefinition of the feminine role as a cultural aspect that was assigned to women to their role depending on the social pressures of the time. The core of the argument suggested that the feminine role was not an absolute across all cultural groups; even the traditional predominately patriarchal Western culture had variations in the expectations of the feminine role across time (Seward, 1945\\).", "From clinical studies of psychologically sick women of the time Seward (1945\\) observed that a portion of these women's illnesses emerged from a conflict between social expectations of who they should be and who they were. The psychoanalytical theories of the time felt that this ‘masculine complex’ was an illness – the fallacy was grouping women with the motivation and talent to achieve outside of their expected domestic duties as being psychologically ill (Seward, 1945\\). Using [Kurt Lewin](/wiki/Kurt_Lewin \"Kurt Lewin\")’s Approach\\-Avoidance paradigm Seward (1945\\) argued that conflict arises from giving all children equal opportunity to learn and achieve; but with the expectation that women chose between family and their goals when they marry.", "Seward (1945\\) surveyed 147 first\\-year female psychology students on their attitudes towards the evolving female role to find the most extreme liberal and extreme conservative individuals. Seward (1945\\) modified two inventories, Kitay's attitudes towards women and Kirkpatrick's feminism\\-antifeminism attitude tests. After these inventories were administered the 15 most extreme attitudes at either ends of the scales were selected for further analysis (Seward, 1945\\). A follow\\-up interview was conducted to collect background information on home life, religious affiliations, and other potentially discrepancies between the groups. Seward (1945\\) found that in the most extreme groups a pattern emerged, a dichotomy in female attitudes toward the single female and the married female. Women whom were single could be independent, hold down a job and support themselves. The single female was awarded greater equality with men given that they had to compete with them in the workforce (Seward, 1945\\). The drawback to this freedom results from the greater uncertainty in security, resulting in conflict (Seward, 1945\\). Conservative individuals ranked lower on the feminism scale and projected traditional attitudes toward the wife role. These attitudes included adherence to social parasitism, which involved becoming completely depended upon the husband – including social and financial matters (Seward, 1945\\).", "Liberal women ranked higher in feminism traits than their conservative counterparts, and also came from non\\-traditional/nuclear homes. These homes did not typically have the father/mother dynamic and in comparison to their conservative counterparts were not particularly religious. The conservative group came from the traditional/nuclear family set up and the majority (14 out of 15 subjects) were regular church attendees (Seward, 1945\\). For the liberal females conflict occurs when shifting from single feminist to the role of traditional wife/subordinate and the social expectation that accompanies the role (Seward, 1945\\).", "### Sex Differences: Mental and Temperamental (1980\\)", "Following the Sewards’ retirement in 1972, they began an active collaboration to bring their respective fields together to produce *Sex Differences: Mental and Temperamental* (1980\\).{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Maltzman\\|first1\\=Irving\\|title\\=John P. Seward (1905–1985\\).\\|journal\\=American Psychologist\\|date\\=1987\\|volume\\=42\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=96\\|doi\\=10\\.1037/h0092012}} Prior to Dr. John Seward's death in 1985 a follow\\-up work had begun, but was never completed. Dr. John Seward's knowledge and experience with learning was combined with Dr. Georgene Seward's knowledge of social, personality and clinical psychology. The general principle of the book was to determine if sex differences were either biologically defined or socially assigned (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\). This was particularly important because sex differences were used to justify the oppression of women and the dominance of men and infiltrated scientific objectivity through cultural experience (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\).", "*Sex Differences: Mental and Temperamental* (1980\\) is a comprehensive literature review of studies that investigated differences between male and female. The goal of *Sex Differences: Mental and Temperamental* was to converge the literature of different cultures, non\\-human animal research, historical cultures, normal and abnormal development, and learning theory into a comprehensive manifestation of sex roles.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Seward\\|first1\\=G. H.\\|last2\\=Seward\\|first2\\=J. P.\\|title\\=Sex differences: Mental and temperamental\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/sexdifferencesme0000sewa\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|date\\=1980\\|publisher\\=Lexington Books\\|location\\=Lexington, MA\\|isbn\\=9780669036299 }} The working hypothesis of the book was based upon a couple key assumptions, the first being that sex differences were a by\\-product of evolution. The other assumption was that with the increased development of the human brain and its by\\-products (such as language, context and memory) increase humans’ ability to manipulate the environment have made some biological adaptations obsolete. The objective was an attempt to isolate sex\\-specific traits that were resistant to cultural change and persist as biologically ingrained dispositions (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\).", "Seward and Seward (1980\\) predicted that the most stable sex differences would be those most closely related to behaviours related to reproduction. Mental/cognitive processes were predicted to be less stable and subject to social expectation (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\). Careful examination of historical and current cultures was required for the elimination or confirmation of sex differences (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\). Historically men are more likely to interact with their environment through exploration and reconstruction, while women are more prone to interact through communications which correspond to evolutionary expectations (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\). Seward and Seward (1980\\) wished to determine the extent to which biological processes corresponded to sex differences and the extent to which social expectation influence accepted sex differences.", "#### Mental abilities", "In chapter three of Sex Differences the focus was upon mental differences. The use of intellectual measures of behaviour was seen as more objective as it was often attributed to genetics or hormones. Overall intelligence differences were often related to three subsets of intelligent behaviour; verbal, numerical and spatial. The data on intelligence was in abundance, ranging in people from kindergarten to college. Seward and Seward (1980\\) reviewed Diane McGuiness's (1975\\) experimental study that had found a trend favouring females in hearing task and favouring males in sight\\-related tasks. Seward and Seward (1980\\) caution the quick conclusion of a biological aspect to the differences, instead suggesting that the differences observed were the result of biases in social roles. The development of these differences was likely the result of social biases that have risen through evolutionary history of men as providers and women as caretakers (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\).", "Studies reviewed by Seward and Seward (1980\\) found most consistently was females tend to perform better in all forms of communication (verbal, written or read) and infant females made more frequent vocalizations and from an earlier age. Women also typically had a more global cognitive style to their mental abilities, while men traditionally had a more analytical cognitive approach (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\). However, evidence was arising for male dominance in spatial abilities and problem solving with a potential role of androgenic hormone. Evidence for biological innateness suggested a greater susceptibility for men because learning disorders such as dyslexia were more frequently reported (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\). The Differentiation Hypothesis presented by Garrett (1946\\) suggested that all skills start out with a general ability that is specialized over time (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\).", "#### Masculinity and femininity", "Seward and Seward (1980\\) explored the variations in terms of understandings of Masculine and Feminine in three distinct ways. The first was the Essential Core; religious/spiritual dichotomies such as heaven/male, earth/female, yin representing the female, negative and passive in opposite to the yang which was male, positive and active (Bakan, 1966 as cited in, Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\). Secondly there were social stereotypes of the ‘typical’ man and the ‘typical’ woman held by real men and women in cultural groups. The last was to review self\\-reported attitudes of people in terms of how they measured up to the stereotype. Seward and Seward (1980\\) found in their literature review that real men and women often mirrored the stereotype with a few variations. An example given by Seward and Seward (1980\\) was that women were not found to be more neurotic or suspicious than men. Stable tendencies included male characteristic of ‘toughness’ and ‘self\\-assertion’ and female characteristic of ‘sensitivity’ and ‘social need’ (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\).", "#### Activity", "Seward and Seward (1980\\) reviewed literature on the activity levels of male and female children. From a young age (second year to puberty) male children tend to be more active than their female counterparts, with more reports of hyperactivity in male children. This statistical data helped to support biological sex differentiation component (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\). \nSocial Factors in Gender Development\nThe differences in parental expectation between male and female children could have an important role upon their behaviour; however determining the extent was difficult with observational methods (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\). These behaviours of gender development were analyzed in chapter six through a number of research studies under a number of popular paradigms of the day. These included, but not limited to; psychoanalytical, cognitive\\-developmental, and social learning. However the most detailed was modeling, covering research that included parental, peer and media (books and television) as sources of modelling (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\).", "#### Temperamental", "Chapters nine to 12 deal with temperamental traits that were traditionally aligned with a particular gender. These temperamental aspects included; aggressiveness and dominance, fear and anxiety, compliance and nurturance, and need to achieve (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\). It was acknowledged by most psychologists that men on average are more aggressive than females and females tended to be more anxious and nurturing than males (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\). However, social learning theorists postulated that this difference was primarily the result of environmental learning/observation rather than innate biological drive; both sexes shared the same impulses, but in varying proportions (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\). Additionally, the operant conditioning paradigm had gained momentum and psychologists’ knowledge of rewards and punishments assisted in their understanding of behaviour. However, despite this knowledge the effective rewards and punishments that strength or weaken certain behaviours in sex differences were not well understood (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\).", "" ]
### Sex Differences: Mental and Temperamental (1980\) Following the Sewards’ retirement in 1972, they began an active collaboration to bring their respective fields together to produce *Sex Differences: Mental and Temperamental* (1980\).{{cite journal\|last1\=Maltzman\|first1\=Irving\|title\=John P. Seward (1905–1985\).\|journal\=American Psychologist\|date\=1987\|volume\=42\|issue\=1\|pages\=96\|doi\=10\.1037/h0092012}} Prior to Dr. John Seward's death in 1985 a follow\-up work had begun, but was never completed. Dr. John Seward's knowledge and experience with learning was combined with Dr. Georgene Seward's knowledge of social, personality and clinical psychology. The general principle of the book was to determine if sex differences were either biologically defined or socially assigned (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). This was particularly important because sex differences were used to justify the oppression of women and the dominance of men and infiltrated scientific objectivity through cultural experience (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). *Sex Differences: Mental and Temperamental* (1980\) is a comprehensive literature review of studies that investigated differences between male and female. The goal of *Sex Differences: Mental and Temperamental* was to converge the literature of different cultures, non\-human animal research, historical cultures, normal and abnormal development, and learning theory into a comprehensive manifestation of sex roles.{{cite book\|last1\=Seward\|first1\=G. H.\|last2\=Seward\|first2\=J. P.\|title\=Sex differences: Mental and temperamental\|url\=https://archive.org/details/sexdifferencesme0000sewa\|url\-access\=registration\|date\=1980\|publisher\=Lexington Books\|location\=Lexington, MA\|isbn\=9780669036299 }} The working hypothesis of the book was based upon a couple key assumptions, the first being that sex differences were a by\-product of evolution. The other assumption was that with the increased development of the human brain and its by\-products (such as language, context and memory) increase humans’ ability to manipulate the environment have made some biological adaptations obsolete. The objective was an attempt to isolate sex\-specific traits that were resistant to cultural change and persist as biologically ingrained dispositions (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). Seward and Seward (1980\) predicted that the most stable sex differences would be those most closely related to behaviours related to reproduction. Mental/cognitive processes were predicted to be less stable and subject to social expectation (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). Careful examination of historical and current cultures was required for the elimination or confirmation of sex differences (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). Historically men are more likely to interact with their environment through exploration and reconstruction, while women are more prone to interact through communications which correspond to evolutionary expectations (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). Seward and Seward (1980\) wished to determine the extent to which biological processes corresponded to sex differences and the extent to which social expectation influence accepted sex differences. #### Mental abilities In chapter three of Sex Differences the focus was upon mental differences. The use of intellectual measures of behaviour was seen as more objective as it was often attributed to genetics or hormones. Overall intelligence differences were often related to three subsets of intelligent behaviour; verbal, numerical and spatial. The data on intelligence was in abundance, ranging in people from kindergarten to college. Seward and Seward (1980\) reviewed Diane McGuiness's (1975\) experimental study that had found a trend favouring females in hearing task and favouring males in sight\-related tasks. Seward and Seward (1980\) caution the quick conclusion of a biological aspect to the differences, instead suggesting that the differences observed were the result of biases in social roles. The development of these differences was likely the result of social biases that have risen through evolutionary history of men as providers and women as caretakers (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). Studies reviewed by Seward and Seward (1980\) found most consistently was females tend to perform better in all forms of communication (verbal, written or read) and infant females made more frequent vocalizations and from an earlier age. Women also typically had a more global cognitive style to their mental abilities, while men traditionally had a more analytical cognitive approach (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). However, evidence was arising for male dominance in spatial abilities and problem solving with a potential role of androgenic hormone. Evidence for biological innateness suggested a greater susceptibility for men because learning disorders such as dyslexia were more frequently reported (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). The Differentiation Hypothesis presented by Garrett (1946\) suggested that all skills start out with a general ability that is specialized over time (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). #### Masculinity and femininity Seward and Seward (1980\) explored the variations in terms of understandings of Masculine and Feminine in three distinct ways. The first was the Essential Core; religious/spiritual dichotomies such as heaven/male, earth/female, yin representing the female, negative and passive in opposite to the yang which was male, positive and active (Bakan, 1966 as cited in, Seward \& Seward, 1980\). Secondly there were social stereotypes of the ‘typical’ man and the ‘typical’ woman held by real men and women in cultural groups. The last was to review self\-reported attitudes of people in terms of how they measured up to the stereotype. Seward and Seward (1980\) found in their literature review that real men and women often mirrored the stereotype with a few variations. An example given by Seward and Seward (1980\) was that women were not found to be more neurotic or suspicious than men. Stable tendencies included male characteristic of ‘toughness’ and ‘self\-assertion’ and female characteristic of ‘sensitivity’ and ‘social need’ (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). #### Activity Seward and Seward (1980\) reviewed literature on the activity levels of male and female children. From a young age (second year to puberty) male children tend to be more active than their female counterparts, with more reports of hyperactivity in male children. This statistical data helped to support biological sex differentiation component (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). Social Factors in Gender Development The differences in parental expectation between male and female children could have an important role upon their behaviour; however determining the extent was difficult with observational methods (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). These behaviours of gender development were analyzed in chapter six through a number of research studies under a number of popular paradigms of the day. These included, but not limited to; psychoanalytical, cognitive\-developmental, and social learning. However the most detailed was modeling, covering research that included parental, peer and media (books and television) as sources of modelling (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). #### Temperamental Chapters nine to 12 deal with temperamental traits that were traditionally aligned with a particular gender. These temperamental aspects included; aggressiveness and dominance, fear and anxiety, compliance and nurturance, and need to achieve (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). It was acknowledged by most psychologists that men on average are more aggressive than females and females tended to be more anxious and nurturing than males (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). However, social learning theorists postulated that this difference was primarily the result of environmental learning/observation rather than innate biological drive; both sexes shared the same impulses, but in varying proportions (Seward \& Seward, 1980\). Additionally, the operant conditioning paradigm had gained momentum and psychologists’ knowledge of rewards and punishments assisted in their understanding of behaviour. However, despite this knowledge the effective rewards and punishments that strength or weaken certain behaviours in sex differences were not well understood (Seward \& Seward, 1980\).
[ "### Sex Differences: Mental and Temperamental (1980\\)", "Following the Sewards’ retirement in 1972, they began an active collaboration to bring their respective fields together to produce *Sex Differences: Mental and Temperamental* (1980\\).{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Maltzman\\|first1\\=Irving\\|title\\=John P. Seward (1905–1985\\).\\|journal\\=American Psychologist\\|date\\=1987\\|volume\\=42\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=96\\|doi\\=10\\.1037/h0092012}} Prior to Dr. John Seward's death in 1985 a follow\\-up work had begun, but was never completed. Dr. John Seward's knowledge and experience with learning was combined with Dr. Georgene Seward's knowledge of social, personality and clinical psychology. The general principle of the book was to determine if sex differences were either biologically defined or socially assigned (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\). This was particularly important because sex differences were used to justify the oppression of women and the dominance of men and infiltrated scientific objectivity through cultural experience (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\).", "*Sex Differences: Mental and Temperamental* (1980\\) is a comprehensive literature review of studies that investigated differences between male and female. The goal of *Sex Differences: Mental and Temperamental* was to converge the literature of different cultures, non\\-human animal research, historical cultures, normal and abnormal development, and learning theory into a comprehensive manifestation of sex roles.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Seward\\|first1\\=G. H.\\|last2\\=Seward\\|first2\\=J. P.\\|title\\=Sex differences: Mental and temperamental\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/sexdifferencesme0000sewa\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|date\\=1980\\|publisher\\=Lexington Books\\|location\\=Lexington, MA\\|isbn\\=9780669036299 }} The working hypothesis of the book was based upon a couple key assumptions, the first being that sex differences were a by\\-product of evolution. The other assumption was that with the increased development of the human brain and its by\\-products (such as language, context and memory) increase humans’ ability to manipulate the environment have made some biological adaptations obsolete. The objective was an attempt to isolate sex\\-specific traits that were resistant to cultural change and persist as biologically ingrained dispositions (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\).", "Seward and Seward (1980\\) predicted that the most stable sex differences would be those most closely related to behaviours related to reproduction. Mental/cognitive processes were predicted to be less stable and subject to social expectation (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\). Careful examination of historical and current cultures was required for the elimination or confirmation of sex differences (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\). Historically men are more likely to interact with their environment through exploration and reconstruction, while women are more prone to interact through communications which correspond to evolutionary expectations (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\). Seward and Seward (1980\\) wished to determine the extent to which biological processes corresponded to sex differences and the extent to which social expectation influence accepted sex differences.", "#### Mental abilities", "In chapter three of Sex Differences the focus was upon mental differences. The use of intellectual measures of behaviour was seen as more objective as it was often attributed to genetics or hormones. Overall intelligence differences were often related to three subsets of intelligent behaviour; verbal, numerical and spatial. The data on intelligence was in abundance, ranging in people from kindergarten to college. Seward and Seward (1980\\) reviewed Diane McGuiness's (1975\\) experimental study that had found a trend favouring females in hearing task and favouring males in sight\\-related tasks. Seward and Seward (1980\\) caution the quick conclusion of a biological aspect to the differences, instead suggesting that the differences observed were the result of biases in social roles. The development of these differences was likely the result of social biases that have risen through evolutionary history of men as providers and women as caretakers (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\).", "Studies reviewed by Seward and Seward (1980\\) found most consistently was females tend to perform better in all forms of communication (verbal, written or read) and infant females made more frequent vocalizations and from an earlier age. Women also typically had a more global cognitive style to their mental abilities, while men traditionally had a more analytical cognitive approach (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\). However, evidence was arising for male dominance in spatial abilities and problem solving with a potential role of androgenic hormone. Evidence for biological innateness suggested a greater susceptibility for men because learning disorders such as dyslexia were more frequently reported (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\). The Differentiation Hypothesis presented by Garrett (1946\\) suggested that all skills start out with a general ability that is specialized over time (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\).", "#### Masculinity and femininity", "Seward and Seward (1980\\) explored the variations in terms of understandings of Masculine and Feminine in three distinct ways. The first was the Essential Core; religious/spiritual dichotomies such as heaven/male, earth/female, yin representing the female, negative and passive in opposite to the yang which was male, positive and active (Bakan, 1966 as cited in, Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\). Secondly there were social stereotypes of the ‘typical’ man and the ‘typical’ woman held by real men and women in cultural groups. The last was to review self\\-reported attitudes of people in terms of how they measured up to the stereotype. Seward and Seward (1980\\) found in their literature review that real men and women often mirrored the stereotype with a few variations. An example given by Seward and Seward (1980\\) was that women were not found to be more neurotic or suspicious than men. Stable tendencies included male characteristic of ‘toughness’ and ‘self\\-assertion’ and female characteristic of ‘sensitivity’ and ‘social need’ (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\).", "#### Activity", "Seward and Seward (1980\\) reviewed literature on the activity levels of male and female children. From a young age (second year to puberty) male children tend to be more active than their female counterparts, with more reports of hyperactivity in male children. This statistical data helped to support biological sex differentiation component (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\). \nSocial Factors in Gender Development\nThe differences in parental expectation between male and female children could have an important role upon their behaviour; however determining the extent was difficult with observational methods (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\). These behaviours of gender development were analyzed in chapter six through a number of research studies under a number of popular paradigms of the day. These included, but not limited to; psychoanalytical, cognitive\\-developmental, and social learning. However the most detailed was modeling, covering research that included parental, peer and media (books and television) as sources of modelling (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\).", "#### Temperamental", "Chapters nine to 12 deal with temperamental traits that were traditionally aligned with a particular gender. These temperamental aspects included; aggressiveness and dominance, fear and anxiety, compliance and nurturance, and need to achieve (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\). It was acknowledged by most psychologists that men on average are more aggressive than females and females tended to be more anxious and nurturing than males (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\). However, social learning theorists postulated that this difference was primarily the result of environmental learning/observation rather than innate biological drive; both sexes shared the same impulses, but in varying proportions (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\). Additionally, the operant conditioning paradigm had gained momentum and psychologists’ knowledge of rewards and punishments assisted in their understanding of behaviour. However, despite this knowledge the effective rewards and punishments that strength or weaken certain behaviours in sex differences were not well understood (Seward \\& Seward, 1980\\).", "" ]
Description ----------- [thumb\|200px\|Designs for Marble Hill House by Lord Herbert \& Roger Morris, 1724–29\. Collection of [Royal Institute of British Architects](/wiki/Royal_Institute_of_British_Architects "Royal Institute of British Architects")](/wiki/File:MarbleHillHousePlans.JPG "MarbleHillHousePlans.JPG") Marble Hill House was built in 1724–1729 by Henrietta Howard, the mistress of [King George II](/wiki/George_II_of_Great_Britain "George II of Great Britain"),Draper, Marie P G; Eden, W A. *Marble Hill House and its Owners* 1970\. to the designs of the architect [Roger Morris](/wiki/Roger_Morris_%281695%E2%80%931749%29 "Roger Morris (1695–1749)") (1695–1749\) in collaboration with [Henry Herbert, 9th Earl of Pembroke](/wiki/Henry_Herbert%2C_9th_Earl_of_Pembroke%2C_6th_Earl_of_Montgomery "Henry Herbert, 9th Earl of Pembroke, 6th Earl of Montgomery"), one of the "architect earls". Pembroke, then Lord Herbert, based the design of Marble Hill to a large degree on [Andrea Palladio](/wiki/Andrea_Palladio "Andrea Palladio")'s 1553 *[Villa Cornaro](/wiki/Villa_Cornaro "Villa Cornaro")* in Piombino Dese, Italy, and thus incorporated a cubic saloon on the first floor or *[piano nobile](/wiki/Piano_nobile "Piano nobile")*.[RIBA "Palladio and Britain"](http://www.architecture.com/librarydrawingsandphotographs/palladio/palladianbritain/villasinbritain/villafeatures/plan.aspx) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221231128/http://www.architecture.com/librarydrawingsandphotographs/palladio/palladianbritain/villasinbritain/villafeatures/plan.aspx \|date\=21 February 2014 }} *Villa Cornaro* also served as a model for [plantation houses](/wiki/Plantation_houses "Plantation houses") in the [American colonies](/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies "Thirteen Colonies"), examples being [Drayton Hall](/wiki/Drayton_Hall "Drayton Hall") (1738–1742\) in Charleston, South Carolina, and [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson "Thomas Jefferson")'s initial version of [Monticello](/wiki/Monticello "Monticello") (1768–1770\). It was in other respects an adaptation of a more expansive design by [Colen Campbell](/wiki/Colen_Campbell "Colen Campbell"). It is set in 66 acres (2\.67 km2) of parkland known as *Marble Hill Park*. The *Great Room* contains lavishly gilded decoration and five [capricci](/wiki/Capriccio_%28painting%29 "Capriccio (painting)") paintings by [Giovanni Paolo Pannini](/wiki/Giovanni_Paolo_Pannini "Giovanni Paolo Pannini"). Marble Hill House also contains a loaned collection of early [Georgian](/wiki/Georgian_era "Georgian era") furniture and paintings as well as the [Chinoiserie](/wiki/Chinoiserie "Chinoiserie") collection of the Lazenby Bequest.Jacob, John; Einberg, Elizabeth. *Marble Hill House, Catalogue* It was located a few miles away from [Kendal House](/wiki/Kendal_House "Kendal House"), another Palladian property built around the same time for a royal mistress, [Melusine von der Schulenburg, Duchess of Kendal](/wiki/Melusine_von_der_Schulenburg%2C_Duchess_of_Kendal "Melusine von der Schulenburg, Duchess of Kendal") who had been the long\-term lover of [George I](/wiki/George_I_of_Great_Britain "George I of Great Britain"). Both [Alexander Pope](/wiki/Alexander_Pope "Alexander Pope") and [Jonathan Swift](/wiki/Jonathan_Swift "Jonathan Swift") were regular guests at the house during the lifetime of Henrietta Howard. In the late 18th century the house was rented by the [Prince Regent](/wiki/George_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom "George IV of the United Kingdom") (the future king, George IV) for his mistress, [Maria Fitzherbert](/wiki/Maria_Fitzherbert "Maria Fitzherbert"), so the two could continue to meet in private. [thumb\|200px\|[King's Nympton](/wiki/Manor_of_King%27s_Nympton "Manor of King's Nympton") Park, Devon, built as "New Place" by [James Buller](/wiki/James_Buller_%28the_younger%29 "James Buller (the younger)") (1717–1765\) between 1746 and 1749 to the design of Francis Cartwright of [Blandford](/wiki/Blandford "Blandford") in Dorset, based on Marble Hill House[Nikolaus Pevsner](/wiki/Nikolaus_Pevsner "Nikolaus Pevsner") and [Bridget Cherry](/wiki/Bridget_Cherry "Bridget Cherry"), *[The Buildings of England](/wiki/Pevsner_Architectural_Guides%23Buildings_of_England "Pevsner Architectural Guides#Buildings of England"): Devon*, London, 2004, p.522](/wiki/File:KingsNymptonParkDevon.jpg "KingsNymptonParkDevon.jpg") Marble Hill House soon became known from published engravings, and it was widely admired for its plan and tightly controlled elevations. Its design was much copied elsewhere, after 1750,Speaking of [Chiswick](/wiki/Chiswick_House "Chiswick House"), Marble Hill and [Stourhead](/wiki/Stourhead "Stourhead"), "If we look round for imitations of these in the thirties and forties, there are not so very many", [Sir John Summerson](/wiki/John_Summerson "John Summerson") observed, (*Architecture in Britain, 1530 to 1830* 9th ed. "Palladian permutations: the villa", 1993:347\). and provided a standard model for the English [villas](/wiki/Villa "Villa") built throughout the [Thames Valley](/wiki/Thames_Valley "Thames Valley") and further afield, an early example being at New Place, [King's Nympton](/wiki/Manor_of_King%27s_Nympton "Manor of King's Nympton"), Devon, built between 1746 and 1749 to the design of Francis Cartwright of [Blandford](/wiki/Blandford "Blandford") in Dorset. [thumb\|right\|One of the *[capricci](/wiki/Capriccio_%28painting%29 "Capriccio (painting)")* by [Giovanni Paolo Pannini](/wiki/Giovanni_Paolo_Pannini "Giovanni Paolo Pannini") in Marble Hill House](/wiki/File:Capriccio_com_o_Coliseu_e_o_Arco_de_Constantino.jpg "Capriccio com o Coliseu e o Arco de Constantino.jpg") An archaeological investigation found evidence of what has been described as a bowling alley next to the house in 2017\.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.richmondandtwickenhamtimes.co.uk/news/15459847\.a\-250\-year\-old\-bowling\-alley\-has\-been\-discovered\-in\-twickenham/ \|title\=A 250\-year\-old bowling alley has been discovered in Twickenham \|work\= Sutton and Croydon Guardian \|date\=8 August 2017\|access\-date\= 11 September 2024}} However, it is likely that game resembled [boules](/wiki/Boules "Boules") as much as bowling and the "alley" (better described as a depression in the ground) does not resemble the modern concept of a bowling alley. The main evidence that the area was used for some sort of bowling rests on contemporary plans. The house is now owned by [English Heritage](/wiki/English_Heritage "English Heritage"), which acquired it in 1986 following the abolition of the [Greater London Council](/wiki/Greater_London_Council "Greater London Council"). Its extensive grounds are known as [Marble Hill Park](/wiki/Marble_Hill_Park "Marble Hill Park") and provide many leisure facilities including rugby and hockey pitches, a [cricket](/wiki/Cricket "Cricket") pitch and nets, [tennis](/wiki/Tennis "Tennis") courts, and a children's play area.{{Cite web\|title\=English Heritage Public Leisure Facilities\|url\=https://pitchbooking.com/partners/englishheritage}} In 2015, English Heritage won a [Heritage Lottery Fund](/wiki/National_Lottery_Heritage_Fund "National Lottery Heritage Fund") grant to develop Marble Hill House and its park in order to improve its presentation and the associated leisure facilities. As part of this project [Historic England](/wiki/Historic_England "Historic England") made a range of landscape investigations, including [geophysical surveys](/wiki/Geophysical_survey_%28archaeology%29 "Geophysical survey (archaeology)"), [aerial photography](/wiki/Aerial_photography "Aerial photography") and [lidar](/wiki/Lidar "Lidar") mapping, analytical earthwork survey, coring and vegetation analysis to create a clear picture of the development of the Marble Hill landscape from the 17th century onwards.{{Cite web\|last\=Alexander, M; Carpenter, E\|date\=2017\|title\=Marble Hill House, Twickenham, Greater London. Historic England Research Report 5/2017\|url\=https://research.historicengland.org.uk/Report.aspx?i\=15558\&ru\=/Results.aspx?p\=1\&n\=10\&rn\=5\&ry\=2017\&ns\=1\|access\-date\=2020\-06\-11\|website\=research.historicengland.org.uk}} Restoration work on the house included the reinstatement of [Georgian](/wiki/Georgian_era "Georgian era") colour schemes and renovation of the furnishings and pictures. The works took seven years to complete and cost £8M. The chief execuitve officer of English Heritage, [Kate Mavor](/wiki/Kate_Mavor "Kate Mavor"), described the restored house as “one of the forgotten gems of Georgian London”.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2022/may/19/henrietta\-howard\-historic\-georgian\-villa\-to\-open\-to\-public\-after\-restoration\-london \|first\=Nadia\|last\=Khomani\|title\=Henrietta Howard's historic Georgian villa to open to public after restoration\|work\=\[\[The Guardian]]\|date\=19 May 2022}}
[ "Description\n-----------", "[thumb\\|200px\\|Designs for Marble Hill House by Lord Herbert \\& Roger Morris, 1724–29\\. Collection of [Royal Institute of British Architects](/wiki/Royal_Institute_of_British_Architects \"Royal Institute of British Architects\")](/wiki/File:MarbleHillHousePlans.JPG \"MarbleHillHousePlans.JPG\")", "Marble Hill House was built in 1724–1729 by Henrietta Howard, the mistress of [King George II](/wiki/George_II_of_Great_Britain \"George II of Great Britain\"),Draper, Marie P G; Eden, W A. *Marble Hill House and its Owners* 1970\\. to the designs of the architect [Roger Morris](/wiki/Roger_Morris_%281695%E2%80%931749%29 \"Roger Morris (1695–1749)\") (1695–1749\\) in collaboration with [Henry Herbert, 9th Earl of Pembroke](/wiki/Henry_Herbert%2C_9th_Earl_of_Pembroke%2C_6th_Earl_of_Montgomery \"Henry Herbert, 9th Earl of Pembroke, 6th Earl of Montgomery\"), one of the \"architect earls\".", "Pembroke, then Lord Herbert, based the design of Marble Hill to a large degree on [Andrea Palladio](/wiki/Andrea_Palladio \"Andrea Palladio\")'s 1553 *[Villa Cornaro](/wiki/Villa_Cornaro \"Villa Cornaro\")* in Piombino Dese, Italy, and thus incorporated a cubic saloon on the first floor or *[piano nobile](/wiki/Piano_nobile \"Piano nobile\")*.[RIBA \"Palladio and Britain\"](http://www.architecture.com/librarydrawingsandphotographs/palladio/palladianbritain/villasinbritain/villafeatures/plan.aspx) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221231128/http://www.architecture.com/librarydrawingsandphotographs/palladio/palladianbritain/villasinbritain/villafeatures/plan.aspx \\|date\\=21 February 2014 }} *Villa Cornaro* also served as a model for [plantation houses](/wiki/Plantation_houses \"Plantation houses\") in the [American colonies](/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies \"Thirteen Colonies\"), examples being [Drayton Hall](/wiki/Drayton_Hall \"Drayton Hall\") (1738–1742\\) in Charleston, South Carolina, and [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson \"Thomas Jefferson\")'s initial version of [Monticello](/wiki/Monticello \"Monticello\") (1768–1770\\). It was in other respects an adaptation of a more expansive design by [Colen Campbell](/wiki/Colen_Campbell \"Colen Campbell\"). It is set in 66 acres (2\\.67 km2) of parkland known as *Marble Hill Park*. The *Great Room* contains lavishly gilded decoration and five [capricci](/wiki/Capriccio_%28painting%29 \"Capriccio (painting)\") paintings by [Giovanni Paolo Pannini](/wiki/Giovanni_Paolo_Pannini \"Giovanni Paolo Pannini\"). Marble Hill House also contains a loaned collection of early [Georgian](/wiki/Georgian_era \"Georgian era\") furniture and paintings as well as the [Chinoiserie](/wiki/Chinoiserie \"Chinoiserie\") collection of the Lazenby Bequest.Jacob, John; Einberg, Elizabeth. *Marble Hill House, Catalogue*", "It was located a few miles away from [Kendal House](/wiki/Kendal_House \"Kendal House\"), another Palladian property built around the same time for a royal mistress, [Melusine von der Schulenburg, Duchess of Kendal](/wiki/Melusine_von_der_Schulenburg%2C_Duchess_of_Kendal \"Melusine von der Schulenburg, Duchess of Kendal\") who had been the long\\-term lover of [George I](/wiki/George_I_of_Great_Britain \"George I of Great Britain\").", "Both [Alexander Pope](/wiki/Alexander_Pope \"Alexander Pope\") and [Jonathan Swift](/wiki/Jonathan_Swift \"Jonathan Swift\") were regular guests at the house during the lifetime of Henrietta Howard.", "In the late 18th century the house was rented by the [Prince Regent](/wiki/George_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom \"George IV of the United Kingdom\") (the future king, George IV) for his mistress, [Maria Fitzherbert](/wiki/Maria_Fitzherbert \"Maria Fitzherbert\"), so the two could continue to meet in private.", "[thumb\\|200px\\|[King's Nympton](/wiki/Manor_of_King%27s_Nympton \"Manor of King's Nympton\") Park, Devon, built as \"New Place\" by [James Buller](/wiki/James_Buller_%28the_younger%29 \"James Buller (the younger)\") (1717–1765\\) between 1746 and 1749 to the design of Francis Cartwright of [Blandford](/wiki/Blandford \"Blandford\") in Dorset, based on Marble Hill House[Nikolaus Pevsner](/wiki/Nikolaus_Pevsner \"Nikolaus Pevsner\") and [Bridget Cherry](/wiki/Bridget_Cherry \"Bridget Cherry\"), *[The Buildings of England](/wiki/Pevsner_Architectural_Guides%23Buildings_of_England \"Pevsner Architectural Guides#Buildings of England\"): Devon*, London, 2004, p.522](/wiki/File:KingsNymptonParkDevon.jpg \"KingsNymptonParkDevon.jpg\")\nMarble Hill House soon became known from published engravings, and it was widely admired for its plan and tightly controlled elevations. Its design was much copied elsewhere, after 1750,Speaking of [Chiswick](/wiki/Chiswick_House \"Chiswick House\"), Marble Hill and [Stourhead](/wiki/Stourhead \"Stourhead\"), \"If we look round for imitations of these in the thirties and forties, there are not so very many\", [Sir John Summerson](/wiki/John_Summerson \"John Summerson\") observed, (*Architecture in Britain, 1530 to 1830* 9th ed. \"Palladian permutations: the villa\", 1993:347\\). and provided a standard model for the English [villas](/wiki/Villa \"Villa\") built throughout the [Thames Valley](/wiki/Thames_Valley \"Thames Valley\") and further afield, an early example being at New Place, [King's Nympton](/wiki/Manor_of_King%27s_Nympton \"Manor of King's Nympton\"), Devon, built between 1746 and 1749 to the design of Francis Cartwright of [Blandford](/wiki/Blandford \"Blandford\") in Dorset.\n[thumb\\|right\\|One of the *[capricci](/wiki/Capriccio_%28painting%29 \"Capriccio (painting)\")* by [Giovanni Paolo Pannini](/wiki/Giovanni_Paolo_Pannini \"Giovanni Paolo Pannini\") in Marble Hill House](/wiki/File:Capriccio_com_o_Coliseu_e_o_Arco_de_Constantino.jpg \"Capriccio com o Coliseu e o Arco de Constantino.jpg\")", "An archaeological investigation found evidence of what has been described as a bowling alley next to the house in 2017\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.richmondandtwickenhamtimes.co.uk/news/15459847\\.a\\-250\\-year\\-old\\-bowling\\-alley\\-has\\-been\\-discovered\\-in\\-twickenham/ \\|title\\=A 250\\-year\\-old bowling alley has been discovered in Twickenham \\|work\\= Sutton and Croydon Guardian \\|date\\=8 August 2017\\|access\\-date\\= 11 September 2024}} However, it is likely that game resembled [boules](/wiki/Boules \"Boules\") as much as bowling and the \"alley\" (better described as a depression in the ground) does not resemble the modern concept of a bowling alley. The main evidence that the area was used for some sort of bowling rests on contemporary plans.", "The house is now owned by [English Heritage](/wiki/English_Heritage \"English Heritage\"), which acquired it in 1986 following the abolition of the [Greater London Council](/wiki/Greater_London_Council \"Greater London Council\"). Its extensive grounds are known as [Marble Hill Park](/wiki/Marble_Hill_Park \"Marble Hill Park\") and provide many leisure facilities including rugby and hockey pitches, a [cricket](/wiki/Cricket \"Cricket\") pitch and nets, [tennis](/wiki/Tennis \"Tennis\") courts, and a children's play area.{{Cite web\\|title\\=English Heritage Public Leisure Facilities\\|url\\=https://pitchbooking.com/partners/englishheritage}}", "In 2015, English Heritage won a [Heritage Lottery Fund](/wiki/National_Lottery_Heritage_Fund \"National Lottery Heritage Fund\") grant to develop Marble Hill House and its park in order to improve its presentation and the associated leisure facilities. As part of this project [Historic England](/wiki/Historic_England \"Historic England\") made a range of landscape investigations, including [geophysical surveys](/wiki/Geophysical_survey_%28archaeology%29 \"Geophysical survey (archaeology)\"), [aerial photography](/wiki/Aerial_photography \"Aerial photography\") and [lidar](/wiki/Lidar \"Lidar\") mapping, analytical earthwork survey, coring and vegetation analysis to create a clear picture of the development of the Marble Hill landscape from the 17th century onwards.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Alexander, M; Carpenter, E\\|date\\=2017\\|title\\=Marble Hill House, Twickenham, Greater London. Historic England Research Report 5/2017\\|url\\=https://research.historicengland.org.uk/Report.aspx?i\\=15558\\&ru\\=/Results.aspx?p\\=1\\&n\\=10\\&rn\\=5\\&ry\\=2017\\&ns\\=1\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-06\\-11\\|website\\=research.historicengland.org.uk}} Restoration work on the house included the reinstatement of [Georgian](/wiki/Georgian_era \"Georgian era\") colour schemes and renovation of the furnishings and pictures. The works took seven years to complete and cost £8M. The chief execuitve officer of English Heritage, [Kate Mavor](/wiki/Kate_Mavor \"Kate Mavor\"), described the restored house as “one of the forgotten gems of Georgian London”.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2022/may/19/henrietta\\-howard\\-historic\\-georgian\\-villa\\-to\\-open\\-to\\-public\\-after\\-restoration\\-london \\|first\\=Nadia\\|last\\=Khomani\\|title\\=Henrietta Howard's historic Georgian villa to open to public after restoration\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]]\\|date\\=19 May 2022}}", "" ]
Plot ---- Alan Wake (voiced by [Matthew Porretta](/wiki/Matthew_Porretta "Matthew Porretta")) is a bestselling [crime fiction](/wiki/Crime_fiction "Crime fiction") author from New York City who suffers from a two\-year stretch of [writer's block](/wiki/Writer%27s_block "Writer's block"). He and his wife Alice travel to the small mountain town of Bright Falls, [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 "Washington (state)"), for a short vacation at the advice of their friend and agent Barry Wheeler. Before arriving, Alan has a nightmare about shadowy figures who try to kill him, when an ethereal figure in a diving suit intervenes in the dream and teaches him how to utilize light to fend off the shadows. Upon arrival in Bright Falls, Alan goes to a diner to retrieve the keys to their cabin from Carl Stucky, the landlord, but instead encounters a mysterious old woman, who tells him that Stucky had fallen ill and she was entrusted to give Alan the keys. The woman directs the couple to a cabin on an island in the middle of Cauldron Lake, a [volcanic crater lake](/wiki/Volcanic_crater_lake "Volcanic crater lake"), where Alan experiences a vision of the old woman. As they unpack, Alice reveals that the real purpose of their trip is to help break his writer's block by arranging for him to see a famous Bright Falls psychologist named Dr. Emil Hartman. Alan is infuriated and storms out, only to rush back when he hears Alice crying for help. He returns just as Alice is dragged into the lake's waters by a mysterious force. Alan dives in after her, blacking out as he submerges. After yet another hallucination of the old woman, Alan regains consciousness, apparently having driven his car off the road with no memory of how he got there. He attempts to reach a nearby gas station but progress is hampered by murderous, shadowy figures resembling those in his dream. While fighting the shadows with light, Alan repeatedly encounters an ethereal figure in a diving suit similar to the one from his dream, who leaves behind pages of a manuscript entitled *Departure*. Ostensibly written by Alan, he has no memory of writing it. He soon discovers that the events of the manuscript are coming true and that the shadowy figures, named "Taken," are townsfolk possessed by a dark force. After killing a possessed Carl Stucky and reaching the gas station, Alan tries to alert Sheriff Sarah Breaker of his wife's disappearance but Sheriff Breaker states that there has been no island or cabin in Cauldron Lake for decades after it sank in a volcanic eruption. Breaker believes Alan is mentally unwell and takes him to the police station. Meanwhile, Barry arrives in Bright Falls in search of Alan. At the police station, Alan lies to hide the hallucinations he has been experiencing. He receives a call from a man purporting to be Alice's kidnapper, demanding the pages of *Departure* in exchange for her. Emil Hartman appears at the station to invite Alan to stay at his [psychiatric hospital](/wiki/Psychiatric_hospital "Psychiatric hospital"), Cauldron Lake Lodge—Alan punches Hartman as a response. Alan meets the kidnapper Mott at a nearby national park, who demands pages of *Departure* as ransom. The two fight before Mott runs off into the night. Alan and Barry attempt to retrieve more pages and attract the attention of FBI agent Robert Nightingale. Alan leaves Barry behind and flees Nightingale, who chases him through the forest unsuccessfully. He meets Mott again to deliver the pages. As he arrives at the location he witnesses Mott being tortured by the mysterious old woman, confessing that he never actually had Alice. Alan and Mott are then attacked by a dark tornado that hurls Alan into Cauldron Lake. He awakens in the lodge overlooking Cauldron Lake under the care of Hartman who claims Alan is experiencing a [psychotic break](/wiki/Psychotic_break "Psychotic break"), triggered by Alice drowning. He claims the supernatural phenomena Alan has been experiencing were all fabrications of his imagination. Alan attempts to escape the lodge as the shadowy force starts to attack it, learning in the process that the fake kidnapper was employed by Hartman to lure Alan to him. Hartman tries to stop Alan from escaping, and gives the impression that he is aware of the supernatural events surrounding the lake. Barry helps Alan escape the lodge before the shadow subsumes it and all those inside. Alan and Barry gradually begin to learn the truth about Cauldron Lake from other townsfolk. An entity known as the Dark Presence is trapped within the lake, attempting to escape by using the lake's power to turn literature into reality. It had previously tried this with a poet named Thomas Zane—the figure in the diving suit—by taking the form of his spouse who drowned in the lake, Barbara Jagger, the old woman Alan encountered. Zane was able to resist its will and used his writings to cause the volcanic eruption that sank the island, stranding himself within the lake. The Dark Presence has grown strong enough to start to influence the townspeople and create the forces that have pursued Alan. That night as Alan and Barry take shelter, they get drunk on [moonshine](/wiki/Moonshine "Moonshine") and Alan recalls memories of being forced to write *Departure* during the prior week. He realised that the Dark Presence is trying to use his writings to escape, holding Alice in the lake so as to coerce him. Alan and Barry are arrested by Robert Nightingale but the Taken assault the police station and drag Nightingale away. Sheriff Breaker, now convinced of the Dark Presence's existence, helps Alan and Barry to reach Cynthia Weaver, a hermit who knew Thomas Zane and prepared countermeasures for the Dark Presence's return. Weaver leads them to the "Well\-Lit Room" containing a light switch known as the Clicker, which, through the power of Alan's writings, possesses the narrative ability to destroy the Dark Presence. Alan returns to Cauldron Lake alone and dives in, finding himself in a surreal alternate dimension known as the Dark Place, where thoughts and ideas become reality. Alan encounters Jagger and destroys her with the Clicker; realising he must maintain balance in the story, Alan completes *Departure* by freeing Alice, but strands himself in the Dark Place in the process. Finishing *Departure,* Alan writes the final line, "It's not a lake, it's an ocean."{{cite video game \|title\=Alan Wake \|developer\=\[\[Remedy Entertainment]]\|publisher\=\[\[Microsoft Game Studios]]\|level\=Episode 6\|quote\='''Alan''': I understood what I had to do now. I knew how to write the ending to ''Departure''. There's light, and there's darkness. Cause and effect. There's guilt and there's atonement. But the scales always need to balance. Everything has a price. That's where Zane had gone wrong. ''\[...]'' It's not a lake – it's an ocean.}} ### Special One: The Signal Continuing from the end of the main game, Alan finds himself in a [surreal](/wiki/Surrealism "Surrealism") version of Bright Falls and realises he is still trapped in the Dark Place. Zane directs Alan to follow a signal through a cell phone in order to "focus" and guide himself through the Dark Place. While navigating the realm's shifting, dreamlike topography, Alan encounters television screens depicting a more maniacal version of himself, who uses the power of the Dark Place to narrate circumstances that plunge Alan into danger, sending hordes of Taken after him. Alan also encounters an ethereal version of Barry, a figment of his subconsciousness, who helps guide Alan safely across the abstract landscape. Zane eventually reveals that Alan himself is the cause of his current circumstance; the maniacal version of Alan on the television screens is an irrational aspect of Alan consumed by fear, his frenzied thoughts affecting the subjective world of the Dark Place. Alan encounters a monstrous conglomeration of televisions, through which the irrational Alan tries to kill him. Alan defeats the televisions, but wakes up back in the cabin again, and realises he is still trapped.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ign.com/faqs/2010/alan\-wake\-walkthrough\-1092902 \|title\=Alan Wake: Special One Walkthrough \|publisher\=\[\[IGN]] \|access\-date\=21 August 2013 \|archive\-date\=13 October 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013020325/http://www.ign.com/faqs/2010/alan\-wake\-walkthrough\-1092902 \|url\-status\=dead }} ### Special Two: The Writer Still trapped in the Dark Place, Alan regains consciousness and accepts that he is the cause of the insanity he is experiencing, regaining his memories in the process. Zane tells him that the "irrational Alan" is still inside the cabin, controlling the Dark Place; the "rational Alan" must regain control in order to have any chance of escaping the Dark Place. Zane directs Alan to a lighthouse across the increasingly surreal landscape of the Dark Place, while the irrational Alan attempts to stop him by creating delusions of Alice, manipulating the landscape, and sending armies of Taken after him. Alan eventually outwits his other self and reaches the lighthouse, passing through it to reach the cabin. As Alan nears the cabin, the imaginary Barry reappears and tells Alan that he will have to reject all the illusions before he can face off against the insane version of Alan, including the apparition of Barry. Alan is forced to confront Taken versions of Barry and the other townsfolk, defeating them all and reentering the cabin. The irrational Alan is in a paranoid state on the cabin floor; when Alan touches him, the two are made whole again. Alan realises that he cannot let himself fall into a delusional state again for fear of never being able to escape, and returns to the typewriter to start a new story.
[ "Plot\n----", "Alan Wake (voiced by [Matthew Porretta](/wiki/Matthew_Porretta \"Matthew Porretta\")) is a bestselling [crime fiction](/wiki/Crime_fiction \"Crime fiction\") author from New York City who suffers from a two\\-year stretch of [writer's block](/wiki/Writer%27s_block \"Writer's block\"). He and his wife Alice travel to the small mountain town of Bright Falls, [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 \"Washington (state)\"), for a short vacation at the advice of their friend and agent Barry Wheeler. Before arriving, Alan has a nightmare about shadowy figures who try to kill him, when an ethereal figure in a diving suit intervenes in the dream and teaches him how to utilize light to fend off the shadows.", "Upon arrival in Bright Falls, Alan goes to a diner to retrieve the keys to their cabin from Carl Stucky, the landlord, but instead encounters a mysterious old woman, who tells him that Stucky had fallen ill and she was entrusted to give Alan the keys. The woman directs the couple to a cabin on an island in the middle of Cauldron Lake, a [volcanic crater lake](/wiki/Volcanic_crater_lake \"Volcanic crater lake\"), where Alan experiences a vision of the old woman. As they unpack, Alice reveals that the real purpose of their trip is to help break his writer's block by arranging for him to see a famous Bright Falls psychologist named Dr. Emil Hartman. Alan is infuriated and storms out, only to rush back when he hears Alice crying for help. He returns just as Alice is dragged into the lake's waters by a mysterious force. Alan dives in after her, blacking out as he submerges.", "After yet another hallucination of the old woman, Alan regains consciousness, apparently having driven his car off the road with no memory of how he got there. He attempts to reach a nearby gas station but progress is hampered by murderous, shadowy figures resembling those in his dream. While fighting the shadows with light, Alan repeatedly encounters an ethereal figure in a diving suit similar to the one from his dream, who leaves behind pages of a manuscript entitled *Departure*. Ostensibly written by Alan, he has no memory of writing it. He soon discovers that the events of the manuscript are coming true and that the shadowy figures, named \"Taken,\" are townsfolk possessed by a dark force. After killing a possessed Carl Stucky and reaching the gas station, Alan tries to alert Sheriff Sarah Breaker of his wife's disappearance but Sheriff Breaker states that there has been no island or cabin in Cauldron Lake for decades after it sank in a volcanic eruption. Breaker believes Alan is mentally unwell and takes him to the police station. Meanwhile, Barry arrives in Bright Falls in search of Alan.", "At the police station, Alan lies to hide the hallucinations he has been experiencing. He receives a call from a man purporting to be Alice's kidnapper, demanding the pages of *Departure* in exchange for her. Emil Hartman appears at the station to invite Alan to stay at his [psychiatric hospital](/wiki/Psychiatric_hospital \"Psychiatric hospital\"), Cauldron Lake Lodge—Alan punches Hartman as a response. Alan meets the kidnapper Mott at a nearby national park, who demands pages of *Departure* as ransom. The two fight before Mott runs off into the night.", "Alan and Barry attempt to retrieve more pages and attract the attention of FBI agent Robert Nightingale. Alan leaves Barry behind and flees Nightingale, who chases him through the forest unsuccessfully. He meets Mott again to deliver the pages. As he arrives at the location he witnesses Mott being tortured by the mysterious old woman, confessing that he never actually had Alice. Alan and Mott are then attacked by a dark tornado that hurls Alan into Cauldron Lake.", "He awakens in the lodge overlooking Cauldron Lake under the care of Hartman who claims Alan is experiencing a [psychotic break](/wiki/Psychotic_break \"Psychotic break\"), triggered by Alice drowning. He claims the supernatural phenomena Alan has been experiencing were all fabrications of his imagination. Alan attempts to escape the lodge as the shadowy force starts to attack it, learning in the process that the fake kidnapper was employed by Hartman to lure Alan to him. Hartman tries to stop Alan from escaping, and gives the impression that he is aware of the supernatural events surrounding the lake. Barry helps Alan escape the lodge before the shadow subsumes it and all those inside.", "Alan and Barry gradually begin to learn the truth about Cauldron Lake from other townsfolk. An entity known as the Dark Presence is trapped within the lake, attempting to escape by using the lake's power to turn literature into reality. It had previously tried this with a poet named Thomas Zane—the figure in the diving suit—by taking the form of his spouse who drowned in the lake, Barbara Jagger, the old woman Alan encountered. Zane was able to resist its will and used his writings to cause the volcanic eruption that sank the island, stranding himself within the lake. The Dark Presence has grown strong enough to start to influence the townspeople and create the forces that have pursued Alan. That night as Alan and Barry take shelter, they get drunk on [moonshine](/wiki/Moonshine \"Moonshine\") and Alan recalls memories of being forced to write *Departure* during the prior week. He realised that the Dark Presence is trying to use his writings to escape, holding Alice in the lake so as to coerce him.", "Alan and Barry are arrested by Robert Nightingale but the Taken assault the police station and drag Nightingale away. Sheriff Breaker, now convinced of the Dark Presence's existence, helps Alan and Barry to reach Cynthia Weaver, a hermit who knew Thomas Zane and prepared countermeasures for the Dark Presence's return. Weaver leads them to the \"Well\\-Lit Room\" containing a light switch known as the Clicker, which, through the power of Alan's writings, possesses the narrative ability to destroy the Dark Presence. Alan returns to Cauldron Lake alone and dives in, finding himself in a surreal alternate dimension known as the Dark Place, where thoughts and ideas become reality. Alan encounters Jagger and destroys her with the Clicker; realising he must maintain balance in the story, Alan completes *Departure* by freeing Alice, but strands himself in the Dark Place in the process. Finishing *Departure,* Alan writes the final line, \"It's not a lake, it's an ocean.\"{{cite video game \\|title\\=Alan Wake \\|developer\\=\\[\\[Remedy Entertainment]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Microsoft Game Studios]]\\|level\\=Episode 6\\|quote\\='''Alan''': I understood what I had to do now. I knew how to write the ending to ''Departure''. There's light, and there's darkness. Cause and effect. There's guilt and there's atonement. But the scales always need to balance. Everything has a price. That's where Zane had gone wrong. ''\\[...]'' It's not a lake – it's an ocean.}}", "### Special One: The Signal", "Continuing from the end of the main game, Alan finds himself in a [surreal](/wiki/Surrealism \"Surrealism\") version of Bright Falls and realises he is still trapped in the Dark Place. Zane directs Alan to follow a signal through a cell phone in order to \"focus\" and guide himself through the Dark Place. While navigating the realm's shifting, dreamlike topography, Alan encounters television screens depicting a more maniacal version of himself, who uses the power of the Dark Place to narrate circumstances that plunge Alan into danger, sending hordes of Taken after him. Alan also encounters an ethereal version of Barry, a figment of his subconsciousness, who helps guide Alan safely across the abstract landscape.", "Zane eventually reveals that Alan himself is the cause of his current circumstance; the maniacal version of Alan on the television screens is an irrational aspect of Alan consumed by fear, his frenzied thoughts affecting the subjective world of the Dark Place. Alan encounters a monstrous conglomeration of televisions, through which the irrational Alan tries to kill him. Alan defeats the televisions, but wakes up back in the cabin again, and realises he is still trapped.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ign.com/faqs/2010/alan\\-wake\\-walkthrough\\-1092902 \\|title\\=Alan Wake: Special One Walkthrough \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[IGN]] \\|access\\-date\\=21 August 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 October 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013020325/http://www.ign.com/faqs/2010/alan\\-wake\\-walkthrough\\-1092902 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "### Special Two: The Writer", "Still trapped in the Dark Place, Alan regains consciousness and accepts that he is the cause of the insanity he is experiencing, regaining his memories in the process. Zane tells him that the \"irrational Alan\" is still inside the cabin, controlling the Dark Place; the \"rational Alan\" must regain control in order to have any chance of escaping the Dark Place. Zane directs Alan to a lighthouse across the increasingly surreal landscape of the Dark Place, while the irrational Alan attempts to stop him by creating delusions of Alice, manipulating the landscape, and sending armies of Taken after him. Alan eventually outwits his other self and reaches the lighthouse, passing through it to reach the cabin.", "As Alan nears the cabin, the imaginary Barry reappears and tells Alan that he will have to reject all the illusions before he can face off against the insane version of Alan, including the apparition of Barry. Alan is forced to confront Taken versions of Barry and the other townsfolk, defeating them all and reentering the cabin. The irrational Alan is in a paranoid state on the cabin floor; when Alan touches him, the two are made whole again. Alan realises that he cannot let himself fall into a delusional state again for fear of never being able to escape, and returns to the typewriter to start a new story.", "" ]
Development ----------- By 2003, the Finnish studio [Remedy Entertainment](/wiki/Remedy_Entertainment "Remedy Entertainment") had created the critically acclaimed *[Max Payne](/wiki/Max_Payne_%28video_game%29 "Max Payne (video game)")* (2001\), and its sequel, *[Max Payne 2: The Fall of Max Payne](/wiki/Max_Payne_2:The_Fall_of_Max_Payne "The Fall of Max Payne")* (2003\). After shipping *Max Payne 2*, Remedy Entertainment spent some time "recovering from the [crunch](/wiki/Crunch_%28video_games%29 "Crunch (video games)"),"{{cite web\|url\=http://community.remedygames.com/showthread.php?t\=1216\|title\=Alan Wake FAQ\|author\=sidetwo\|format\=Forum post\|publisher\=Alan Wake Community Forums\|date\=16 April 2010\|access\-date\=26 December 2006\|archive\-date\=8 May 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508194032/http://community.remedygames.com/showthread.php?t\=1216\|url\-status\=dead}} and started coming up with different concepts for a new project. Among these was the concept for *Alan Wake*. Early on, this was based on trying to tell a deeper narrative story than what *Max Payne* had been, influenced by works of [Stephen King](/wiki/Stephen_King "Stephen King") and [David Lynch](/wiki/David_Lynch "David Lynch"), in particular *[Twin Peaks](/wiki/Twin_Peaks "Twin Peaks")*, and approached as a television episodic format to tell the story of the action\-[thriller](/wiki/Thriller_%28genre%29 "Thriller (genre)"). The basic elements of the narrative were set early on: Alan Wake as a successful writer finds himself in the small town of Bright Falls where due to supernatural events his writings have come to life to attack him. To further distance this next game from the linear style of *Max Payne*, Remedy planned Bright Falls as a free\-roaming, sandbox\-style [open world](/wiki/Open_world "Open world") city, similar to those seen in the *[Grand Theft Auto](/wiki/Grand_Theft_Auto "Grand Theft Auto")* series. They developed a semi\-automatic system to help generate this open world using biomes and other features based on their research on the [Pacific Northwest](/wiki/Pacific_Northwest "Pacific Northwest") where Bright Falls was set. For example, this tool allowed them to path a road across the game world, upon which the tool would make sure no vegetation would appear near the road though added sprout of grass near its edges, and would add approach ditches and other features along the sides of the roads to simplify the world creation.{{cite magazine \| url\= https://www.gamesradar.com/the\-making\-of\-alan\-wake/ \| title\= Alan Wake turns 10: Remedy's game took five years to emerge from the darkness of development, the studio explains how it finally saw the light \| author\= Edge staff \| date\= 14 May 2020 \| access\-date\= 14 May 2020 \| magazine\= \[\[Edge (magazine)\|Edge]] \| via\= \[\[GamesRadar]] }} Remedy also wanted cinematic action, so light and darkness was to play a significant factor in the game, which was first built into a dynamic day\-and\-night cycle. The game would have been more like a [survival game](/wiki/Survival_game "Survival game"); during daylight hours the player would collect resources, such as gasoline to run portable generators to run lights, as to protect and defend the player\-character at night.{{cite web \| url\= https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2020/05/war\-stories\-alan\-wakes\-transformation\-emerged\-from\-a\-two\-month\-sauna/ \| title\= War Stories: Alan Wake's transformation emerged from a two\-month "sauna" \| first\= Sam \| last\= Machkovech \| date\= 14 May 2020 \| access\-date\= 14 May 2020 \| work\= \[\[Ars Technica]] \| archive\-date\= 1 June 2022 \| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20220601235145/https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2020/05/war\-stories\-alan\-wakes\-transformation\-emerged\-from\-a\-two\-month\-sauna/ \| url\-status\= live }} According to Remedy's creative director [Sam Lake](/wiki/Sam_Lake "Sam Lake"), this approach created numerous difficulties in establishing a story and narrative for the thriller to explain how the gameplay elements tied together with the supernatural events. For example, Lake said one idea was based on the supernatural events tied to the no\-longer\-dormant volcano under Cauldron Lake, which would have led to the evacuation of Bright Falls and left Alan dealing only with the supernatural forces. The game, still designed around this open\-world approach, was announced at [E3 2005](/wiki/E3_2005 "E3 2005") in June for "the [next generation of consoles](/wiki/History_of_video_game_consoles_%28seventh_generation%29 "History of video game consoles (seventh generation)") and [PCs](/wiki/Personal_computer "Personal computer")", and was shown to the press behind closed doors in the form of a [tech demo](/wiki/Tech_demo "Tech demo"). Remedy also used this demo to gain publisher interest.{{cite news\|last\=Surette \|first\=Tim \|access\-date\=26 December 2010 \|date\=21 April 2005 \|url\=http://www.gamespot.com/news/remedy\-fixin\-up\-new\-game\-for\-e3\-6122709 \|title\=Remedy fixin' up new game for E3 \|publisher\=GameSpot \|archive\-date\=8 November 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108094742/http://www.gamespot.com/news/remedy\-fixin\-up\-new\-game\-for\-e3\-6122709 \|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|last\=Kasavin \|first\=Greg \|url\=http://www.gamespot.com/alan\-wake/previews/alan\-wake\-e3\-2005\-impressions\-6125494/ \|title\=Alan Wake E3 2005 Impressions \|publisher\=GameSpot \|date\=18 May 2005 \|access\-date\=26 December 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120124214608/http://www.gamespot.com/alan\-wake/previews/alan\-wake\-e3\-2005\-impressions\-6125494/ \|archive\-date\=24 January 2012 \|url\-status\=live}} By 2006, Remedy announced they had partnered with [Microsoft Game Studios](/wiki/Microsoft_Game_Studios "Microsoft Game Studios") to publish the game exclusively for Microsoft's [Xbox 360](/wiki/Xbox_360 "Xbox 360") [video game console](/wiki/Video_game_console "Video game console") and then\-current [Windows Vista](/wiki/Windows_Vista "Windows Vista") PC [operating system](/wiki/Operating_system "Operating system").{{cite press release\|author1\=\[\[Microsoft Game Studios]] \|author2\=\[\[Remedy Entertainment]] \|date\=9 May 2006 \|url\=http://www.gamespot.com/news/microsoft\-game\-studios\-and\-remedy\-partner\-in\-delivering\-alan\-wake\-6149852 \|title\=Microsoft Game Studios and Remedy Partner in Delivering Alan Wake \|publisher\=GameSpot \|access\-date\=26 December 2010 \|archive\-date\=8 November 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108094804/http://www.gamespot.com/news/microsoft\-game\-studios\-and\-remedy\-partner\-in\-delivering\-alan\-wake\-6149852 \|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite press release\|url\=http://www.microsoft.com/en\-us/news/press/2006/may06/05\-09G4WE3LineupPR.mspx \|title\=Microsoft Announces Spectacular Windows Vista Title Lineup \|publisher\=Microsoft Corporation \|date\=9 May 2006 \|access\-date\=21 April 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114170721/http://www.microsoft.com/en\-us/news/press/2006/may06/05\-09G4WE3LineupPR.aspx \|archive\-date\=14 November 2012 \|url\-status\=live}} Remedy still continued to struggle with merging the open\-world survival gameplay and story, now further complicated with Microsoft's involvement and suggestions for improvement, which Lake compared to a "[too many cooks](/wiki/Design_by_committee "Design by committee")" situation. They were now missing various publisher milestones as they tried various changes to the open\-world format with no clear resolution. Roughly three years into development, the team recognised they needed to stop and refocus on what the core elements of the gameplay was to be.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.joystiq.com/2010/04/12/interview\-remedys\-oskari\-ozz\-hakkinen\-on\-alan\-wake/\|title\=Interview: Remedy's Oskari 'Ozz' Hakkinen on Alan Wake\|last\=de Matos\|first\=Xav\|date\=12 April 2010\|publisher\=Joystiq\|access\-date\=21 April 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111117125957/http://www.joystiq.com/2010/04/12/interview\-remedys\-oskari\-ozz\-hakkinen\-on\-alan\-wake/\|archive\-date\=17 November 2011\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.computerandvideogames.com/article.php?id\=235109\|title\=Alan Wake was nearly a sandbox title\|date\=17 February 2010\|last\=Ingham\|first\=Tim\|publisher\=Computer and Video Games\|access\-date\=26 December 2010\|archive\-date\=20 February 2010\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100220093033/http://www.computerandvideogames.com/article.php?id\=235109\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.joystiq.com/2010/04/14/interview\-matias\-myllyrinne\-on\-breathing\-life\-into\-alan\-wake/\|title\=Interview: Matias Myllyrinne on breathing life into Alan Wake\|date\=14 April 2010\|last\=Kietzmann\|first\=Ludwig\|publisher\=Joystiq\|access\-date\=26 December 2010\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100819233549/http://www.joystiq.com/2010/04/14/interview\-matias\-myllyrinne\-on\-breathing\-life\-into\-alan\-wake\|archive\-date\=19 August 2010\|url\-status\=dead}} According to Lake, Remedy took the leads from each department to form a "sauna" group, making them work in a room together to lock down the gameplay that *Alan Wake* should have without losing much of work they had already done, "with all the heat and pressure on us". This took about two months but from it came the revised gameplay loop, which they were able to reapply to the existing open\-world setting they had, breaking it apart into linear chapter\-sized levels for the final game and adding some additional assets as needed. This allowed some levels to be used for daytime that would be used to advance the story, letting the player talk to NPCs and explore the area, and others for the night levels that were predominately action\-based, and even with some levels having both daytime and nighttime versions. This change better supported the thriller narrative as well. Other key gameplay ideas that came out from this period were the ideas for the Taken and how the player would fight them, how these enemies would appear and the in\-game signals the player would see and hear to prepare, and the use of lit safe havens between combat. Lake stated that because they kept as much of the previous open\-world elements they already built in this rework, this helped to give "a sense of realness" to the game world. Oskari Häkkinen, the head of franchise development at Remedy during *Alan Wake*{{'}}s development, said that retaining the open world map, with features planned and rendered in the distance, gave them a means to provide landmarks to give a sense of direction to the player, gave the ability to create foreshadowing in the narrative, and generally helped with overall cohesion of the game world. The first screenshots depicted the character of Alan Wake in much different attire, as well as a different layout for the town of Bright Falls, compared to the released game.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.eurogamer.net/game.php?game\_id\=4591 \|title\=Alan Wake Screenshots \& Images \|publisher\=Eurogamer \|date\=10 May 2006 \|access\-date\=26 December 2010 \|archive\-date\=23 October 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023164520/http://www.eurogamer.net/games/alan\-wake\-xbox360 \|url\-status\=dead}} According to Lake, the character of Alan Wake was also intended to be the opposite of Max Payne. While Max was a cop and thus suited to an action game, Remedy wanted Alan to be atypical of an action hero, making him a writer, partially influenced by King, that became involved in the events and forced into action. Near the end of the game's development, Alan's story started to become a [metaphor](/wiki/Metaphor "Metaphor") for Remedy's work on the game itself, according to Lake: Alan's past work as a novelist was based on a fictional police detective (mirroring Remedy's *Max Payne*), but now struggled with writing something different (representing their troubles in finding the vision for *Alan Wake*). The game's enemies were designed by drawing concept art and then pouring water over them to make them feel "Just a bit off".{{cite news\|date\=18 February 2010 \|title\=Remedy on making Alan Wake \|work\=GameSpot \|url\=http://www.gamespot.com/news/remedy\-on\-making\-alan\-wake\-6251528 \|access\-date\=17 December 2011 \|archive\-date\=7 January 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107004352/http://www.gamespot.com/news/remedy\-on\-making\-alan\-wake\-6251528 \|url\-status\=live}} For the character of Alan Wake himself, Remedy used "concept photos" as opposed to more traditional concept artwork. All the characters featured in *Alan Wake* were based on real\-life models. [Ilkka Villi](/wiki/Ilkka_Villi "Ilkka Villi") and Jonna Järvenpää, the models for Alan and Alice Wake, respectively, are the only Finnish models in the game; all other models were American.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.tietoviikko.fi/kaikki\_uutiset/article135777\.ece \|title\=Alan Wake on oikeasti Ilkka Villi \|language\=fi \|publisher\=Tieto Viikko \|date\=20 June 2008 \|access\-date\=17 November 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004234808/http://www.tietoviikko.fi/kaikki\_uutiset/article135777\.ece \|archive\-date\=4 October 2013 \|url\-status\=dead }} Voice\-overs were provided by native actors from Japan and America for their respective regions.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.andriasang.com/e/blog/2010/03/25/alan\_wake\_voice\_cast\_set/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100327091058/http://www.andriasang.com/e/blog/2010/03/25/alan\_wake\_voice\_cast\_set\|title\=Alan Wake Voice Cast Set \|publisher\=Andriasang.com \|date\=25 March 2010\| access\-date\=15 August 2011\|archive\-date\=27 March 2010}}Limited Edition Bonus Disk After four years of having repeatedly demonstrated the [Microsoft Windows](/wiki/Microsoft_Windows "Microsoft Windows") version, in 2009, Remedy confirmed that at that point the game was being developed [exclusively](/wiki/Console_exclusivity "Console exclusivity") for the Xbox 360 and the decision to make a PC version was in Microsoft's hands.{{cite news\|last\=Thorsen \|first\=Tor \|publisher\=GameSpot \|date\=15 July 2009 \|url\=http://www.gamespot.com/news/pc\-alan\-wakes\-fate\-tbd\-remedy\-6213426 \|title\=PC Alan Wake's fate TBD – Remedy \|access\-date\=26 December 2010 \|archive\-date\=18 January 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118051350/http://www.gamespot.com/news/pc\-alan\-wakes\-fate\-tbd\-remedy\-6213426 \|url\-status\=live}} The game was announced as "done" and undergoing final polishing in August 2009\.{{cite web \|last\=Sliwinski \|first\=Alexander \|url\=http://www.joystiq.com/2009/08/17/reassuring\-alan\-wake\-is\-done\-being\-polished/ \|title\=Reassuring: Alan Wake is 'done,' being polished \|publisher\=Joystiq \|date\=17 August 2009 \|access\-date\=19 October 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100521175143/http://www.joystiq.com/2009/08/17/reassuring\-alan\-wake\-is\-done\-being\-polished/ \|archive\-date\=21 May 2010 \|url\-status\=dead}} The game eventually [went gold](/wiki/Goes_gold "Goes gold") on 7 April 2010, and was released in May. After the game's release in 2010, Remedy said that bringing the game to the PC was "not on the cards at the moment." However, nearly two years after its release, Remedy was able to secure the rights to publish a PC version. ### Influences and allusions [thumb\|right\|alt\=Top: A screenshot from the game, with Alan looking at an ax that is being smashed through a door from the other side. Bottom: A similar\-looking picture from the movie The Shining, where a woman is witnessing the same situation.\|*Alan Wake* includes many references to works of popular culture. This cutscene directly alludes to a famous scene from *[The Shining](/wiki/The_Shining_%28film%29 "The Shining (film)")*.](/wiki/File:Alan_Wake_allusion_to_The_Shining.png "Alan Wake allusion to The Shining.png") *Alan Wake* was influenced by and often alludes to certain films, TV shows and books, as well as paying [homage](/wiki/Homage_%28arts%29 "Homage (arts)") to a number of artists and works. Remedy has explained the shared themes and ideas between the game and other existing works of popular culture as "taking something familiar to people as an element, and building something of your own, and hopefully something \[that is] unique in games, but still familiar from other forms of entertainment."{{Cite video\|people\=Parker, Laura (interviewer); Myllyrinne, Matias (interviewee) \|date\=9 May 2010 \|title\=Alan Wake Post\-Mortem Interview with Matias Myllyrinne \|access\-date\=7 January 2011 \|url\=http://www.gamespot.com/alan\-wake/videos/alan\-wake\-post\-mortem\-interview\-with\-matias\-myllyrinne\-6261822/ \|publisher\=GameSpot \|archive\-date\=8 November 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108105905/http://www.gamespot.com/alan\-wake/videos/alan\-wake\-post\-mortem\-interview\-with\-matias\-myllyrinne\-6261822/ \|url\-status\=live}} Bestselling author Stephen King was a major inspiration for *Alan Wake*. The main character as a writer whose work is coming true is a theme that has been explored by King in a number of his works.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/i\_alanwake\_nextgen\_may2005\|title\=Alan Wake Interview\|last\=Reed\|first\=Kristan\|website\=\[\[Eurogamer]]\|date\=31 May 2005\|access\-date\=7 January 2011\|archive\-date\=14 September 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130914215650/http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/i\_alanwake\_nextgen\_may2005\|url\-status\=live}} Wake's narration directly alludes to King on several occasions, including the game's opening line, in which he quotes a Stephen King essay.The game's opening line is: "Stephen King once wrote, 'Nightmares exist outside of logic, and there's little fun to be had in explanations; they're antithetical to the poetry of fear'." The quote's source is the following: {{cite web\|url\=https://ew.com/article/2008/07/07/stephen\-king\-why\-hollywood\-cant\-do\-horror/\|title\=Horror Movies: Why Big Studio Releases Are Rare to Scare\|last\=King\|first\=Stephen\|author\-link\=Stephen King\|date\=7 July 2008\|publisher\=EW\|access\-date\=7 January 2011\|archive\-date\=9 October 2010\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101009193126/http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,20210538,00\.html\|url\-status\=live}} The game also pays homage to the film *[The Shining](/wiki/The_Shining_%28film%29 "The Shining (film)")* (based on King's [novel of the same name](/wiki/The_Shining_%28novel%29 "The Shining (novel)")) with a [hedge maze](/wiki/Hedge_maze "Hedge maze") area similar to the iconic maze in the film, among other references,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.xboxer360\.com/features/alan\-wake\-interview\-oskari\-hakkinen/\|title\=Alan Wake Interview: Oskari Hakkinen\|date\=25 February 2010\|last\=Barker\|first\=Jeff\|publisher\=Xboxer360\.com\|access\-date\=7 January 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718125347/http://www.xboxer360\.com/features/alan\-wake\-interview\-oskari\-hakkinen/\|archive\-date\=18 July 2011\|url\-status\=dead}} as well as King's novel *[Christine](/wiki/Christine_%28King_novel%29 "Christine (King novel)")*, with one of the in\-game cars resembling her. King himself was asked for permission to use his quote. He also received copies of the game as a "thank you", but was unable to try them out because he does not own an Xbox.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.stephenking.com/forums/showthread.php/18544\-Stephen\-King\-on\-Alan\-Wake?p\=385690\#post385690 \|title\=Stephen King on Alan Wake \|publisher\=Stephenking.com \|date\=23 July 2010 \|access\-date\=16 February 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120828045935/http://www.stephenking.com/forums/showthread.php/18544\-Stephen\-King\-on\-Alan\-Wake?p\=385690 \|archive\-date\=28 August 2012 \|url\-status\=dead}} In addition to King's work, Lake has cited the stories of [Bret Easton Ellis](/wiki/Bret_Easton_Ellis "Bret Easton Ellis") and [Neil Gaiman](/wiki/Neil_Gaiman "Neil Gaiman") as influences, as well as [Mark Z. Danielewski](/wiki/Mark_Z._Danielewski "Mark Z. Danielewski")'s *[House of Leaves](/wiki/House_of_Leaves "House of Leaves")*.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/1ewxtb/im\_sam\_lake\_the\_creatorwriter\_of\_max\_payne\_and/\|title\=I'm Sam Lake, the creator/writer of Max Payne and Alan Wake, AMAA!\|author\=SamLakeRMD\|author\-link\=Sam Lake\|work\=reddit.com\|date\=23 May 2013\|access\-date\=24 May 2013\|archive\-date\=3 June 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603170006/http://www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/1ewxtb/im\_sam\_lake\_the\_creatorwriter\_of\_max\_payne\_and/\|url\-status\=live}} In the game there are a number of television sets that can be found around the town in different places. They can be switched on and a short episode of the fictional series *Night Springs* will be played, which is influenced by the television series *[The Twilight Zone](/wiki/The_Twilight_Zone "The Twilight Zone")*, created by [Rod Serling](/wiki/Rod_Serling "Rod Serling") in the late 1950s.{{cite web\|url\=http://forum.alanwake.com/showpost.php?p\=78813\&postcount\=20\|title\=Post No. 20 in 'Night Springs (Possible spoilers)\|format\=Forum post\|publisher\=Alan Wake Community Forums\|date\=7 May 2010\|author\=MarkusRMD\|access\-date\=19 January 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707103422/http://forum.alanwake.com/showpost.php?p\=78813\&postcount\=20\|archive\-date\=7 July 2011\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|url\=http://forum.alanwake.com/showpost.php?p\=79026\&postcount\=22\|title\=Post No. 22 in 'Night Springs (Possible spoilers)\|format\=Forum post\|publisher\=Alan Wake Community Forums\|date\=8 May 2010\|author\=MikkiRMD\|access\-date\=19 January 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707103438/http://forum.alanwake.com/showpost.php?p\=79026\&postcount\=22\|archive\-date\=7 July 2011\|url\-status\=dead}} [Alfred Hitchcock](/wiki/Alfred_Hitchcock "Alfred Hitchcock") is also cited as an inspiration, with the flocks of birds that often attack the protagonist being influenced by his classic horror film *[The Birds](/wiki/The_Birds_%28film%29 "The Birds (film)")*.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ausgamers.com/features/read/2889669\|title\=Alan Wake Preview and Interview\|author\=ChadDrake\|publisher\=AusGamers.com\|date\=23 April 2010\|access\-date\=7 January 2011\|archive\-date\=23 March 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323091514/http://www.ausgamers.com/features/read/2889669\|url\-status\=live}} The game's setting, Bright Falls, draws much inspiration from the early 1990s TV show *[Twin Peaks](/wiki/Twin_Peaks "Twin Peaks")*, which was set in the titular town; both fictional small towns in the state of [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 "Washington (state)"). To research the [Pacific Northwest](/wiki/Pacific_Northwest "Pacific Northwest") setting for the game, a Remedy team travelled to the area and drove about 2,000 miles between [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon "Oregon"); Washington; and [British Columbia](/wiki/British_Columbia "British Columbia"), Canada, over two weeks, bringing back over 6,000 photographs and videos of various natural settings and [Americana](/wiki/Americana_%28culture%29 "Americana (culture)") of the small towns in the area.{{cite news\|last\=Dark\|first\=Mr.\|date\=7 June 2010\|title\=Exclusive: The Real World of Alan Wake\|publisher\=Dread Central\|url\=http://www.dreadcentral.com/news/37894/exclusive\-the\-real\-world\-alan\-wake\|url\-status\=dead\|access\-date\=5 February 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329075902/http://www.dreadcentral.com/news/37894/exclusive\-the\-real\-world\-alan\-wake\|archive\-date\=29 March 2012}} These included [Astoria, Oregon](/wiki/Astoria%2C_Oregon "Astoria, Oregon") and [North Bend, Washington](/wiki/North_Bend%2C_Washington "North Bend, Washington"), the latter where *Twin Peaks* was filmed, as well as locations used around Seattle for the film *[The Ring](/wiki/The_Ring_%282002_film%29 "The Ring (2002 film)")*.{{cite web \| url\= https://www.pcgamer.com/alan\-wakes\-bright\-falls/ \| title\= Ten years on, Alan Wake's Bright Falls is still one of PC gaming's greatest settings \| first\= Andy \| last\= Kelly \| date\= 14 May 2020 \| access\-date\= 14 May 2020 \| work\= \[\[PC Gamer]] \| archive\-date\= 17 May 2020 \| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20200517191427/https://www.pcgamer.com/alan\-wakes\-bright\-falls/ \| url\-status\= live }} Even after returning to Finland, the Remedy team contacted Microsoft, based in Washington, for help with additional photographs. ### Episodic format | *Alan Wake* episodes | | --- | | **Main game:** | Episode 1: Nightmare Episode 2: Taken Episode 3: Ransom Episode 4: The Truth Episode 5: The Clicker Episode 6: Departure **Downloadable content**: Special 1: The Signal Special 2: The Writer * + - * + - * + In its structure, the story of *Alan Wake* plays out similarly to a mystery television program, where each episode brings another piece of the puzzle to the main ongoing story, yet have a distinct plot of their own. As such, *Alan Wake* is organised into episodes, which include narrative and [plot devices](/wiki/Plot_device "Plot device") normally used in TV, such as [cliffhangers](/wiki/Cliffhanger "Cliffhanger") at the end of the episodes. A prominent borrowing from television is the "Previously on *Alan Wake*..." [recap sequence](/wiki/Recap_sequence "Recap sequence") that opens each episode, and serve to "refresh the player's memory and point to things that will become relevant shortly." A different song plays at the end of every episode, imitating certain TV shows that feature different music during each episode's [closing credits](/wiki/Closing_credits "Closing credits"). The main game itself is divided up into six episodes. Additionally, two "special features", titled "The Signal" and "The Writer", have been released as [downloadable content](/wiki/Downloadable_content "Downloadable content") (DLC). Together, *Alan Wake* and its DLCs constitute the "first season" of a bigger story. The main game is designed to have a satisfactory ending with the main character reaching his goal, while the DLCs form a two\-part special that further expands on the game's story by "\[continuing] the fiction and \[serving] as a bridge between seasons."{{cite web\|url\=http://www.computerandvideogames.com/article.php?id\=262732\|title\=Remedy chats Alan Wake 2\|publisher\=\[\[Computer and Video Games\|CVG]]\|date\=2 September 2010\|last\=Pakinkis\|first\=Tom\|access\-date\=26 December 2010\|archive\-date\=17 May 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517140837/http://www.computerandvideogames.com/262732/remedy\-chats\-alan\-wake\-2/\|url\-status\=live}} The game's developers expressed interest in following *Alan Wake* up with a second season or a sequel.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2010\-08\-09\-alan\-wake\-remedy\-looks\-back\-interview\|title\=Alan Wake: Remedy Looks Back\|publisher\=\[\[Eurogamer]]\|date\=9 August 2010\|last\=Yin\-Poole\|first\=Wesley\|access\-date\=26 December 2010\|archive\-date\=23 January 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110123191144/http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2010\-08\-09\-alan\-wake\-remedy\-looks\-back\-interview\|url\-status\=live}} Remedy Entertainment chose the TV series storytelling format to establish a certain stylisation and pacing. The developers felt that watching episodes of certain TV shows—such as the heavily serialised series *[Lost](/wiki/Lost_%282004_TV_series%29 "Lost (2004 TV series)")*—in the form of released [box sets](/wiki/Box_set "Box set"), at the viewers' pace, was a "natural way of 'consuming media'", and that this episodic format was a better fit for a long game. Remedy lauded *Lost* for its pacing as a thriller TV show. While Remedy had wanted to use the [episodic release format](/wiki/Episodic_video_game "Episodic video game"), with each of the above episodes released digitally over time, Microsoft instead pushed Remedy to release the main game as a full product on retail disc. [Phil Spencer](/wiki/Phil_Spencer_%28business_executive%29 "Phil Spencer (business executive)"), head of [Xbox Game Studios](/wiki/Xbox_Game_Studios "Xbox Game Studios"), said in 2020 that at the time, Microsoft was concerned about if the episode format would work and its revenue potentials, projecting there would be declining sales with each successive episode, and instead believed a single release was likely more profitable. Spencer said that since then, they recognised this was likely a bad decision as it forced them into a certain way of thinking with respect to monetisation.{{cite web \| url\= https://www.videogameschronicle.com/news/xbox\-boss\-says\-new\-monetisation\-models\-will\-boost\-creativity\-and\-player\-numbers/ \| title\= Xbox boss says new monetisation models will boost creativity and player numbers \| first\= Tom \| last\= Ivan \| date\= 25 February 2020 \| access\-date\= 25 February 2020 \| work\= \[\[Video Games Chronicle]] \| archive\-date\= 25 February 2020 \| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20200225154335/https://www.videogameschronicle.com/news/xbox\-boss\-says\-new\-monetisation\-models\-will\-boost\-creativity\-and\-player\-numbers/ \| url\-status\= live }} ### Product placement A number of real\-life brands and products appear in *Alan Wake*. The developers said that they tried to "be very conservative and attentive towards gamers" with their use of [product placement](/wiki/Product_placement "Product placement"), and that they aimed "to make the world feel more real rather than put ads in\-your\-face."{{cite web\|url\=http://community.remedygames.com/showpost.php?p\=84164\&postcount\=11\|title\=Re: product placement — well done and not over\-the\-top\|author\=MarkusRMD\|publisher\=Alan Wake Community Forums\|date\=19 May 2010\|format\=Forum post\|access\-date\=2 January 2010\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150604002831/http://community.remedygames.com/showpost.php?p\=84164\&postcount\=11\|archive\-date\=4 June 2015\|url\-status\=dead}} Examples of such marketing include collectable [Energizer](/wiki/Energizer "Energizer") batteries and [lithium batteries](/wiki/Lithium_batteries "Lithium batteries") to insert into the player's hand\-held lights. The phone service provider [Verizon Wireless](/wiki/Verizon_Wireless "Verizon Wireless") is another prominent brand in *Alan Wake*: besides Verizon branded mobile phones appearing on screen, there is a 30\-second Verizon commercial viewable on one of the game's interactive TVs, as well as an allusion to the company's famous advertising line "Can you hear me now?" during a phone conversation in "The Signal" [DLC](/wiki/Downloadable_content "Downloadable content"). Additionally, [billboards](/wiki/Billboard_%28advertising%29 "Billboard (advertising)") around Bright Falls advertise both Energizer and Verizon. [Ford](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company "Ford Motor Company") and [Lincoln](/wiki/Lincoln_%28automobile%29 "Lincoln (automobile)") automobiles are also featured in the game.{{cite web \| url\= https://kotaku.com/alan\-wake\-remastered\-is\-ditching\-the\-energizer\-batterie\-1847658945 \| title\= Alan Wake Remastered Is Ditching The Energizer Batteries And Verizon Billboards \| first\= Zack \| last\= Zwiezen \| date\= 11 September 2021 \| access\-date\= 11 September 2021 \| work\= \[\[Kotaku]] \| archive\-date\= 18 June 2022 \| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20220618200439/https://kotaku.com/alan\-wake\-remastered\-is\-ditching\-the\-energizer\-batterie\-1847658945 \| url\-status\= live }} Several [Microsoft](/wiki/Microsoft "Microsoft") related brands also appear in the game. Alan and Alice Wake's car shows that it has the Microsoft\-powered [Ford Sync](/wiki/Ford_Sync "Ford Sync") [in\-vehicle entertainment](/wiki/In_car_entertainment "In car entertainment") system. An [Xbox 360](/wiki/Xbox_360 "Xbox 360") console can be seen in one section of the game, with the box of the fictional *Night Springs* video game next to it, which are collectibles in "The Writer" DLC episode. In multiple sections of the game, [Microsoft Tag](/wiki/Microsoft_Tag "Microsoft Tag") bar codes can be seen; these can be scanned in real life by the user with the appropriate software on their mobile device. When scanned, these tags redirect players to a phone number with the voicemail from one of the game's characters, or to a Verizon\-sponsored web site where users gain access to exclusive *Alan Wake* extras for their console.{{cite web\|date\=9 June 2010 \|access\-date\=2 January 2011 \|publisher\=Microsoft \|author\=Microsoft Tag team \|url\=http://tag.microsoft.com/tag\-in\-action/success\-story/t/xbox\_game\_uses\_tag\_for\_coded\_messages.aspx \|title\=Microsoft Tag Blog: Alan Wake \& Tag \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120724023907/http://tag.microsoft.com/tag\-in\-action/success\-story/t/xbox\_game\_uses\_tag\_for\_coded\_messages.aspx \|archive\-date\=24 July 2012 \|url\-status\=dead}} This functionality is only available in the United States. The product placement has been removed in the remastered version.{{Cite web\|title\=Alan Wake Remastered Is Ditching The Energizer Batteries And Verizon Billboards\|url\=https://kotaku.com/alan\-wake\-remastered\-is\-ditching\-the\-energizer\-batterie\-1847658945\|access\-date\=11 September 2021\|website\=Kotaku\|date\=11 September 2021\|language\=en\-us\|archive\-date\=18 June 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618200439/https://kotaku.com/alan\-wake\-remastered\-is\-ditching\-the\-energizer\-batterie\-1847658945\|url\-status\=live}} ### Soundtrack The game's score is composed by Petri Alanko. The soundtrack features the song "War" by [Poets of the Fall](/wiki/Poets_of_the_Fall "Poets of the Fall"), from the band's fourth studio album, *[Twilight Theater](/wiki/Twilight_Theater "Twilight Theater")*. Sam Lake said that the song "...is a prominent part of the *Alan Wake* soundtrack and the theme also links strongly to the game's storyline."{{cite web\|url\=http://www.poetsofthefall.com/news/14060\_poets\_of\_the\_fall\_in\_alan\_wake/ \|title\=Official Website – Poets of the Fall in Alan Wake \|publisher\=Poets of the Fall \|access\-date\=29 April 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100217101917/http://www.poetsofthefall.com/news/14060\_poets\_of\_the\_fall\_in\_alan\_wake/ \|archive\-date\=17 February 2010}} Poets of the Fall also perform two original songs, "Children of the Elder God" and "The Poet and the Muse", under the name Old Gods of Asgard. The band wrote the ending theme to Remedy's previous game, *[Max Payne 2: The Fall of Max Payne](/wiki/Max_Payne_2:The_Fall_of_Max_Payne "The Fall of Max Payne")*, called "Late Goodbye", which is based on a poem written by Lake. "War", however, was not written specifically for *Alan Wake*. On 20 July 2010, an official soundtrack consisting of 18 tracks was released.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.amazon.com/dp/B003UDIZJC\|title\=Amazon.com: Alan Wake \[Original Soundtrack]\|website\=Amazon\|access\-date\=1 August 2010\|archive\-date\=14 June 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614105347/http://www.amazon.com/Alan\-Wake\-Original\-Video\-Soundtrack/dp/B003UDIZJC\|url\-status\=live}} In addition to the original soundtrack and these songs, *Alan Wake* includes several licensed songs used typically at the closing of each episode or elsewhere. "[Haunted](/wiki/Haunted_%28Poe_album%29 "Haunted (Poe album)")" by [Poe](/wiki/Poe_%28singer%29 "Poe (singer)") plays at the end of the second episode. "[Space Oddity](/wiki/Space_Oddity "Space Oddity")" by [David Bowie](/wiki/David_Bowie "David Bowie") plays over the end credits. [Anomie Belle](/wiki/Anomie_Belle "Anomie Belle")'s "How Can I Be Sure" is featured in the third episode. "[Coconut](/wiki/Coconut_%28song%29 "Coconut (song)")" by [Harry Nilsson](/wiki/Harry_Nilsson "Harry Nilsson") is played several times during the game. Due to expiration of these music licenses, all digital and retail versions of *Alan Wake* were pulled from purchase from the various storefronts in May 2017; Remedy offered a large discount for the title in the days prior to removal. The removal did not affect those who already own the game, nor did it impact the availability of *Alan Wake's American Nightmare*, though that title will likely be affected similarly when its own licensing deals expire.{{cite web \| url\= https://www.vg247\.com/2017/05/12/alan\-wake\-is\-being\-pulled\-from\-steam\-and\-the\-xbox\-store\-after\-this\-weekend/ \| title\= Alan Wake is being pulled from Steam and the Xbox Store after this weekend \| first\= Stephany \| last\= Nunneley \| date\= 12 May 2017 \| access\-date\= 12 May 2017 \| work\= \[\[VG247]] \| archive\-date\= 20 June 2017 \| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170620185515/http://www.vg247\.com/2017/05/12/alan\-wake\-is\-being\-pulled\-from\-steam\-and\-the\-xbox\-store\-after\-this\-weekend/ \| url\-status\= live }} With the help of Microsoft, Remedy was able to resecure these licensing rights by October 2018 and the game was relisted on digital storefronts.{{cite web \| url\= https://www.gog.com/news/alan\_wake\_back\_on\_sale\_just\_in\_time\_for\_spooky\_season \| title\= Alan Wake Back on Sale Just in Time For Spooky Season \| date\= 25 October 2018 \| access\-date\= 25 October 2018 \| work\= \[\[GOG.com]] \| archive\-date\= 26 October 2018 \| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20181026025044/https://www.gog.com/news/alan\_wake\_back\_on\_sale\_just\_in\_time\_for\_spooky\_season \| url\-status\= live }}{{cite web \| url\= https://www.usgamer.net/articles/alan\-wake\-makes\-a\-surprise\-return\-to\-steam\-after\-long\-absence \| title\= Alan Wake Makes a Surprise Return to Steam After Long Absence \| first\= Matt \| last\= Kim \| date\= 25 October 2018 \| access\-date\= 25 October 2018 \| work\= \[\[USGamer]] \| archive\-date\= 25 October 2018 \| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20181025225510/https://www.usgamer.net/articles/alan\-wake\-makes\-a\-surprise\-return\-to\-steam\-after\-long\-absence \| url\-status\= dead }}{{cite web \| url\= https://www.polygon.com/2018/10/25/18023688/alan\-wake\-digital\-download\-purchase\-steam\-humble \| title\= Alan Wake returns to digital storefronts, thanks to Microsoft \| first\= Allegra \| last\= Frank \| date\= 25 October 2018 \| access\-date\= 25 October 2018 \| work\= \[\[Polygon (website)\|Polygon]] \| archive\-date\= 25 October 2018 \| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20181025223314/https://www.polygon.com/2018/10/25/18023688/alan\-wake\-digital\-download\-purchase\-steam\-humble \| url\-status\= live }}
[ "Development\n-----------", "By 2003, the Finnish studio [Remedy Entertainment](/wiki/Remedy_Entertainment \"Remedy Entertainment\") had created the critically acclaimed *[Max Payne](/wiki/Max_Payne_%28video_game%29 \"Max Payne (video game)\")* (2001\\), and its sequel, *[Max Payne 2: The Fall of Max Payne](/wiki/Max_Payne_2:The_Fall_of_Max_Payne \"The Fall of Max Payne\")* (2003\\). After shipping *Max Payne 2*, Remedy Entertainment spent some time \"recovering from the [crunch](/wiki/Crunch_%28video_games%29 \"Crunch (video games)\"),\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://community.remedygames.com/showthread.php?t\\=1216\\|title\\=Alan Wake FAQ\\|author\\=sidetwo\\|format\\=Forum post\\|publisher\\=Alan Wake Community Forums\\|date\\=16 April 2010\\|access\\-date\\=26 December 2006\\|archive\\-date\\=8 May 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508194032/http://community.remedygames.com/showthread.php?t\\=1216\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and started coming up with different concepts for a new project. Among these was the concept for *Alan Wake*. Early on, this was based on trying to tell a deeper narrative story than what *Max Payne* had been, influenced by works of [Stephen King](/wiki/Stephen_King \"Stephen King\") and [David Lynch](/wiki/David_Lynch \"David Lynch\"), in particular *[Twin Peaks](/wiki/Twin_Peaks \"Twin Peaks\")*, and approached as a television episodic format to tell the story of the action\\-[thriller](/wiki/Thriller_%28genre%29 \"Thriller (genre)\"). The basic elements of the narrative were set early on: Alan Wake as a successful writer finds himself in the small town of Bright Falls where due to supernatural events his writings have come to life to attack him.", "To further distance this next game from the linear style of *Max Payne*, Remedy planned Bright Falls as a free\\-roaming, sandbox\\-style [open world](/wiki/Open_world \"Open world\") city, similar to those seen in the *[Grand Theft Auto](/wiki/Grand_Theft_Auto \"Grand Theft Auto\")* series. They developed a semi\\-automatic system to help generate this open world using biomes and other features based on their research on the [Pacific Northwest](/wiki/Pacific_Northwest \"Pacific Northwest\") where Bright Falls was set. For example, this tool allowed them to path a road across the game world, upon which the tool would make sure no vegetation would appear near the road though added sprout of grass near its edges, and would add approach ditches and other features along the sides of the roads to simplify the world creation.{{cite magazine \\| url\\= https://www.gamesradar.com/the\\-making\\-of\\-alan\\-wake/ \\| title\\= Alan Wake turns 10: Remedy's game took five years to emerge from the darkness of development, the studio explains how it finally saw the light \\| author\\= Edge staff \\| date\\= 14 May 2020 \\| access\\-date\\= 14 May 2020 \\| magazine\\= \\[\\[Edge (magazine)\\|Edge]] \\| via\\= \\[\\[GamesRadar]] }} Remedy also wanted cinematic action, so light and darkness was to play a significant factor in the game, which was first built into a dynamic day\\-and\\-night cycle. The game would have been more like a [survival game](/wiki/Survival_game \"Survival game\"); during daylight hours the player would collect resources, such as gasoline to run portable generators to run lights, as to protect and defend the player\\-character at night.{{cite web \\| url\\= https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2020/05/war\\-stories\\-alan\\-wakes\\-transformation\\-emerged\\-from\\-a\\-two\\-month\\-sauna/ \\| title\\= War Stories: Alan Wake's transformation emerged from a two\\-month \"sauna\" \\| first\\= Sam \\| last\\= Machkovech \\| date\\= 14 May 2020 \\| access\\-date\\= 14 May 2020 \\| work\\= \\[\\[Ars Technica]] \\| archive\\-date\\= 1 June 2022 \\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20220601235145/https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2020/05/war\\-stories\\-alan\\-wakes\\-transformation\\-emerged\\-from\\-a\\-two\\-month\\-sauna/ \\| url\\-status\\= live }} According to Remedy's creative director [Sam Lake](/wiki/Sam_Lake \"Sam Lake\"), this approach created numerous difficulties in establishing a story and narrative for the thriller to explain how the gameplay elements tied together with the supernatural events. For example, Lake said one idea was based on the supernatural events tied to the no\\-longer\\-dormant volcano under Cauldron Lake, which would have led to the evacuation of Bright Falls and left Alan dealing only with the supernatural forces.", "The game, still designed around this open\\-world approach, was announced at [E3 2005](/wiki/E3_2005 \"E3 2005\") in June for \"the [next generation of consoles](/wiki/History_of_video_game_consoles_%28seventh_generation%29 \"History of video game consoles (seventh generation)\") and [PCs](/wiki/Personal_computer \"Personal computer\")\", and was shown to the press behind closed doors in the form of a [tech demo](/wiki/Tech_demo \"Tech demo\"). Remedy also used this demo to gain publisher interest.{{cite news\\|last\\=Surette \\|first\\=Tim \\|access\\-date\\=26 December 2010 \\|date\\=21 April 2005 \\|url\\=http://www.gamespot.com/news/remedy\\-fixin\\-up\\-new\\-game\\-for\\-e3\\-6122709 \\|title\\=Remedy fixin' up new game for E3 \\|publisher\\=GameSpot \\|archive\\-date\\=8 November 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108094742/http://www.gamespot.com/news/remedy\\-fixin\\-up\\-new\\-game\\-for\\-e3\\-6122709 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|last\\=Kasavin \\|first\\=Greg \\|url\\=http://www.gamespot.com/alan\\-wake/previews/alan\\-wake\\-e3\\-2005\\-impressions\\-6125494/ \\|title\\=Alan Wake E3 2005 Impressions \\|publisher\\=GameSpot \\|date\\=18 May 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=26 December 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120124214608/http://www.gamespot.com/alan\\-wake/previews/alan\\-wake\\-e3\\-2005\\-impressions\\-6125494/ \\|archive\\-date\\=24 January 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} By 2006, Remedy announced they had partnered with [Microsoft Game Studios](/wiki/Microsoft_Game_Studios \"Microsoft Game Studios\") to publish the game exclusively for Microsoft's [Xbox 360](/wiki/Xbox_360 \"Xbox 360\") [video game console](/wiki/Video_game_console \"Video game console\") and then\\-current [Windows Vista](/wiki/Windows_Vista \"Windows Vista\") PC [operating system](/wiki/Operating_system \"Operating system\").{{cite press release\\|author1\\=\\[\\[Microsoft Game Studios]] \\|author2\\=\\[\\[Remedy Entertainment]] \\|date\\=9 May 2006 \\|url\\=http://www.gamespot.com/news/microsoft\\-game\\-studios\\-and\\-remedy\\-partner\\-in\\-delivering\\-alan\\-wake\\-6149852 \\|title\\=Microsoft Game Studios and Remedy Partner in Delivering Alan Wake \\|publisher\\=GameSpot \\|access\\-date\\=26 December 2010 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 November 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108094804/http://www.gamespot.com/news/microsoft\\-game\\-studios\\-and\\-remedy\\-partner\\-in\\-delivering\\-alan\\-wake\\-6149852 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite press release\\|url\\=http://www.microsoft.com/en\\-us/news/press/2006/may06/05\\-09G4WE3LineupPR.mspx \\|title\\=Microsoft Announces Spectacular Windows Vista Title Lineup \\|publisher\\=Microsoft Corporation \\|date\\=9 May 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=21 April 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114170721/http://www.microsoft.com/en\\-us/news/press/2006/may06/05\\-09G4WE3LineupPR.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=14 November 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "Remedy still continued to struggle with merging the open\\-world survival gameplay and story, now further complicated with Microsoft's involvement and suggestions for improvement, which Lake compared to a \"[too many cooks](/wiki/Design_by_committee \"Design by committee\")\" situation. They were now missing various publisher milestones as they tried various changes to the open\\-world format with no clear resolution. Roughly three years into development, the team recognised they needed to stop and refocus on what the core elements of the gameplay was to be.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.joystiq.com/2010/04/12/interview\\-remedys\\-oskari\\-ozz\\-hakkinen\\-on\\-alan\\-wake/\\|title\\=Interview: Remedy's Oskari 'Ozz' Hakkinen on Alan Wake\\|last\\=de Matos\\|first\\=Xav\\|date\\=12 April 2010\\|publisher\\=Joystiq\\|access\\-date\\=21 April 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111117125957/http://www.joystiq.com/2010/04/12/interview\\-remedys\\-oskari\\-ozz\\-hakkinen\\-on\\-alan\\-wake/\\|archive\\-date\\=17 November 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.computerandvideogames.com/article.php?id\\=235109\\|title\\=Alan Wake was nearly a sandbox title\\|date\\=17 February 2010\\|last\\=Ingham\\|first\\=Tim\\|publisher\\=Computer and Video Games\\|access\\-date\\=26 December 2010\\|archive\\-date\\=20 February 2010\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100220093033/http://www.computerandvideogames.com/article.php?id\\=235109\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.joystiq.com/2010/04/14/interview\\-matias\\-myllyrinne\\-on\\-breathing\\-life\\-into\\-alan\\-wake/\\|title\\=Interview: Matias Myllyrinne on breathing life into Alan Wake\\|date\\=14 April 2010\\|last\\=Kietzmann\\|first\\=Ludwig\\|publisher\\=Joystiq\\|access\\-date\\=26 December 2010\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100819233549/http://www.joystiq.com/2010/04/14/interview\\-matias\\-myllyrinne\\-on\\-breathing\\-life\\-into\\-alan\\-wake\\|archive\\-date\\=19 August 2010\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} According to Lake, Remedy took the leads from each department to form a \"sauna\" group, making them work in a room together to lock down the gameplay that *Alan Wake* should have without losing much of work they had already done, \"with all the heat and pressure on us\". This took about two months but from it came the revised gameplay loop, which they were able to reapply to the existing open\\-world setting they had, breaking it apart into linear chapter\\-sized levels for the final game and adding some additional assets as needed. This allowed some levels to be used for daytime that would be used to advance the story, letting the player talk to NPCs and explore the area, and others for the night levels that were predominately action\\-based, and even with some levels having both daytime and nighttime versions. This change better supported the thriller narrative as well. Other key gameplay ideas that came out from this period were the ideas for the Taken and how the player would fight them, how these enemies would appear and the in\\-game signals the player would see and hear to prepare, and the use of lit safe havens between combat. Lake stated that because they kept as much of the previous open\\-world elements they already built in this rework, this helped to give \"a sense of realness\" to the game world. Oskari Häkkinen, the head of franchise development at Remedy during *Alan Wake*{{'}}s development, said that retaining the open world map, with features planned and rendered in the distance, gave them a means to provide landmarks to give a sense of direction to the player, gave the ability to create foreshadowing in the narrative, and generally helped with overall cohesion of the game world.", "The first screenshots depicted the character of Alan Wake in much different attire, as well as a different layout for the town of Bright Falls, compared to the released game.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.eurogamer.net/game.php?game\\_id\\=4591 \\|title\\=Alan Wake Screenshots \\& Images \\|publisher\\=Eurogamer \\|date\\=10 May 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=26 December 2010 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 October 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023164520/http://www.eurogamer.net/games/alan\\-wake\\-xbox360 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "According to Lake, the character of Alan Wake was also intended to be the opposite of Max Payne. While Max was a cop and thus suited to an action game, Remedy wanted Alan to be atypical of an action hero, making him a writer, partially influenced by King, that became involved in the events and forced into action. Near the end of the game's development, Alan's story started to become a [metaphor](/wiki/Metaphor \"Metaphor\") for Remedy's work on the game itself, according to Lake: Alan's past work as a novelist was based on a fictional police detective (mirroring Remedy's *Max Payne*), but now struggled with writing something different (representing their troubles in finding the vision for *Alan Wake*).", "The game's enemies were designed by drawing concept art and then pouring water over them to make them feel \"Just a bit off\".{{cite news\\|date\\=18 February 2010 \\|title\\=Remedy on making Alan Wake \\|work\\=GameSpot \\|url\\=http://www.gamespot.com/news/remedy\\-on\\-making\\-alan\\-wake\\-6251528 \\|access\\-date\\=17 December 2011 \\|archive\\-date\\=7 January 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107004352/http://www.gamespot.com/news/remedy\\-on\\-making\\-alan\\-wake\\-6251528 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} For the character of Alan Wake himself, Remedy used \"concept photos\" as opposed to more traditional concept artwork. All the characters featured in *Alan Wake* were based on real\\-life models. [Ilkka Villi](/wiki/Ilkka_Villi \"Ilkka Villi\") and Jonna Järvenpää, the models for Alan and Alice Wake, respectively, are the only Finnish models in the game; all other models were American.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.tietoviikko.fi/kaikki\\_uutiset/article135777\\.ece \\|title\\=Alan Wake on oikeasti Ilkka Villi \\|language\\=fi \\|publisher\\=Tieto Viikko \\|date\\=20 June 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=17 November 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004234808/http://www.tietoviikko.fi/kaikki\\_uutiset/article135777\\.ece \\|archive\\-date\\=4 October 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Voice\\-overs were provided by native actors from Japan and America for their respective regions.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.andriasang.com/e/blog/2010/03/25/alan\\_wake\\_voice\\_cast\\_set/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100327091058/http://www.andriasang.com/e/blog/2010/03/25/alan\\_wake\\_voice\\_cast\\_set\\|title\\=Alan Wake Voice Cast Set \\|publisher\\=Andriasang.com \\|date\\=25 March 2010\\| access\\-date\\=15 August 2011\\|archive\\-date\\=27 March 2010}}Limited Edition Bonus Disk", "After four years of having repeatedly demonstrated the [Microsoft Windows](/wiki/Microsoft_Windows \"Microsoft Windows\") version, in 2009, Remedy confirmed that at that point the game was being developed [exclusively](/wiki/Console_exclusivity \"Console exclusivity\") for the Xbox 360 and the decision to make a PC version was in Microsoft's hands.{{cite news\\|last\\=Thorsen \\|first\\=Tor \\|publisher\\=GameSpot \\|date\\=15 July 2009 \\|url\\=http://www.gamespot.com/news/pc\\-alan\\-wakes\\-fate\\-tbd\\-remedy\\-6213426 \\|title\\=PC Alan Wake's fate TBD – Remedy \\|access\\-date\\=26 December 2010 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 January 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118051350/http://www.gamespot.com/news/pc\\-alan\\-wakes\\-fate\\-tbd\\-remedy\\-6213426 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} The game was announced as \"done\" and undergoing final polishing in August 2009\\.{{cite web \\|last\\=Sliwinski \\|first\\=Alexander \\|url\\=http://www.joystiq.com/2009/08/17/reassuring\\-alan\\-wake\\-is\\-done\\-being\\-polished/ \\|title\\=Reassuring: Alan Wake is 'done,' being polished \\|publisher\\=Joystiq \\|date\\=17 August 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=19 October 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100521175143/http://www.joystiq.com/2009/08/17/reassuring\\-alan\\-wake\\-is\\-done\\-being\\-polished/ \\|archive\\-date\\=21 May 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The game eventually [went gold](/wiki/Goes_gold \"Goes gold\") on 7 April 2010, and was released in May.", "After the game's release in 2010, Remedy said that bringing the game to the PC was \"not on the cards at the moment.\" However, nearly two years after its release, Remedy was able to secure the rights to publish a PC version.", "### Influences and allusions", "[thumb\\|right\\|alt\\=Top: A screenshot from the game, with Alan looking at an ax that is being smashed through a door from the other side. Bottom: A similar\\-looking picture from the movie The Shining, where a woman is witnessing the same situation.\\|*Alan Wake* includes many references to works of popular culture. This cutscene directly alludes to a famous scene from *[The Shining](/wiki/The_Shining_%28film%29 \"The Shining (film)\")*.](/wiki/File:Alan_Wake_allusion_to_The_Shining.png \"Alan Wake allusion to The Shining.png\")\n*Alan Wake* was influenced by and often alludes to certain films, TV shows and books, as well as paying [homage](/wiki/Homage_%28arts%29 \"Homage (arts)\") to a number of artists and works. Remedy has explained the shared themes and ideas between the game and other existing works of popular culture as \"taking something familiar to people as an element, and building something of your own, and hopefully something \\[that is] unique in games, but still familiar from other forms of entertainment.\"{{Cite video\\|people\\=Parker, Laura (interviewer); Myllyrinne, Matias (interviewee) \\|date\\=9 May 2010 \\|title\\=Alan Wake Post\\-Mortem Interview with Matias Myllyrinne \\|access\\-date\\=7 January 2011 \\|url\\=http://www.gamespot.com/alan\\-wake/videos/alan\\-wake\\-post\\-mortem\\-interview\\-with\\-matias\\-myllyrinne\\-6261822/ \\|publisher\\=GameSpot \\|archive\\-date\\=8 November 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108105905/http://www.gamespot.com/alan\\-wake/videos/alan\\-wake\\-post\\-mortem\\-interview\\-with\\-matias\\-myllyrinne\\-6261822/ \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "Bestselling author Stephen King was a major inspiration for *Alan Wake*. The main character as a writer whose work is coming true is a theme that has been explored by King in a number of his works.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/i\\_alanwake\\_nextgen\\_may2005\\|title\\=Alan Wake Interview\\|last\\=Reed\\|first\\=Kristan\\|website\\=\\[\\[Eurogamer]]\\|date\\=31 May 2005\\|access\\-date\\=7 January 2011\\|archive\\-date\\=14 September 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130914215650/http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/i\\_alanwake\\_nextgen\\_may2005\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Wake's narration directly alludes to King on several occasions, including the game's opening line, in which he quotes a Stephen King essay.The game's opening line is: \"Stephen King once wrote, 'Nightmares exist outside of logic, and there's little fun to be had in explanations; they're antithetical to the poetry of fear'.\" The quote's source is the following: {{cite web\\|url\\=https://ew.com/article/2008/07/07/stephen\\-king\\-why\\-hollywood\\-cant\\-do\\-horror/\\|title\\=Horror Movies: Why Big Studio Releases Are Rare to Scare\\|last\\=King\\|first\\=Stephen\\|author\\-link\\=Stephen King\\|date\\=7 July 2008\\|publisher\\=EW\\|access\\-date\\=7 January 2011\\|archive\\-date\\=9 October 2010\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101009193126/http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,20210538,00\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The game also pays homage to the film *[The Shining](/wiki/The_Shining_%28film%29 \"The Shining (film)\")* (based on King's [novel of the same name](/wiki/The_Shining_%28novel%29 \"The Shining (novel)\")) with a [hedge maze](/wiki/Hedge_maze \"Hedge maze\") area similar to the iconic maze in the film, among other references,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.xboxer360\\.com/features/alan\\-wake\\-interview\\-oskari\\-hakkinen/\\|title\\=Alan Wake Interview: Oskari Hakkinen\\|date\\=25 February 2010\\|last\\=Barker\\|first\\=Jeff\\|publisher\\=Xboxer360\\.com\\|access\\-date\\=7 January 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718125347/http://www.xboxer360\\.com/features/alan\\-wake\\-interview\\-oskari\\-hakkinen/\\|archive\\-date\\=18 July 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} as well as King's novel *[Christine](/wiki/Christine_%28King_novel%29 \"Christine (King novel)\")*, with one of the in\\-game cars resembling her. King himself was asked for permission to use his quote. He also received copies of the game as a \"thank you\", but was unable to try them out because he does not own an Xbox.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.stephenking.com/forums/showthread.php/18544\\-Stephen\\-King\\-on\\-Alan\\-Wake?p\\=385690\\#post385690 \\|title\\=Stephen King on Alan Wake \\|publisher\\=Stephenking.com \\|date\\=23 July 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=16 February 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120828045935/http://www.stephenking.com/forums/showthread.php/18544\\-Stephen\\-King\\-on\\-Alan\\-Wake?p\\=385690 \\|archive\\-date\\=28 August 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} In addition to King's work, Lake has cited the stories of [Bret Easton Ellis](/wiki/Bret_Easton_Ellis \"Bret Easton Ellis\") and [Neil Gaiman](/wiki/Neil_Gaiman \"Neil Gaiman\") as influences, as well as [Mark Z. Danielewski](/wiki/Mark_Z._Danielewski \"Mark Z. Danielewski\")'s *[House of Leaves](/wiki/House_of_Leaves \"House of Leaves\")*.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/1ewxtb/im\\_sam\\_lake\\_the\\_creatorwriter\\_of\\_max\\_payne\\_and/\\|title\\=I'm Sam Lake, the creator/writer of Max Payne and Alan Wake, AMAA!\\|author\\=SamLakeRMD\\|author\\-link\\=Sam Lake\\|work\\=reddit.com\\|date\\=23 May 2013\\|access\\-date\\=24 May 2013\\|archive\\-date\\=3 June 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603170006/http://www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/1ewxtb/im\\_sam\\_lake\\_the\\_creatorwriter\\_of\\_max\\_payne\\_and/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "In the game there are a number of television sets that can be found around the town in different places. They can be switched on and a short episode of the fictional series *Night Springs* will be played, which is influenced by the television series *[The Twilight Zone](/wiki/The_Twilight_Zone \"The Twilight Zone\")*, created by [Rod Serling](/wiki/Rod_Serling \"Rod Serling\") in the late 1950s.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://forum.alanwake.com/showpost.php?p\\=78813\\&postcount\\=20\\|title\\=Post No. 20 in 'Night Springs (Possible spoilers)\\|format\\=Forum post\\|publisher\\=Alan Wake Community Forums\\|date\\=7 May 2010\\|author\\=MarkusRMD\\|access\\-date\\=19 January 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707103422/http://forum.alanwake.com/showpost.php?p\\=78813\\&postcount\\=20\\|archive\\-date\\=7 July 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://forum.alanwake.com/showpost.php?p\\=79026\\&postcount\\=22\\|title\\=Post No. 22 in 'Night Springs (Possible spoilers)\\|format\\=Forum post\\|publisher\\=Alan Wake Community Forums\\|date\\=8 May 2010\\|author\\=MikkiRMD\\|access\\-date\\=19 January 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707103438/http://forum.alanwake.com/showpost.php?p\\=79026\\&postcount\\=22\\|archive\\-date\\=7 July 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} [Alfred Hitchcock](/wiki/Alfred_Hitchcock \"Alfred Hitchcock\") is also cited as an inspiration, with the flocks of birds that often attack the protagonist being influenced by his classic horror film *[The Birds](/wiki/The_Birds_%28film%29 \"The Birds (film)\")*.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ausgamers.com/features/read/2889669\\|title\\=Alan Wake Preview and Interview\\|author\\=ChadDrake\\|publisher\\=AusGamers.com\\|date\\=23 April 2010\\|access\\-date\\=7 January 2011\\|archive\\-date\\=23 March 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323091514/http://www.ausgamers.com/features/read/2889669\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "The game's setting, Bright Falls, draws much inspiration from the early 1990s TV show *[Twin Peaks](/wiki/Twin_Peaks \"Twin Peaks\")*, which was set in the titular town; both fictional small towns in the state of [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 \"Washington (state)\"). To research the [Pacific Northwest](/wiki/Pacific_Northwest \"Pacific Northwest\") setting for the game, a Remedy team travelled to the area and drove about 2,000 miles between [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon \"Oregon\"); Washington; and [British Columbia](/wiki/British_Columbia \"British Columbia\"), Canada, over two weeks, bringing back over 6,000 photographs and videos of various natural settings and [Americana](/wiki/Americana_%28culture%29 \"Americana (culture)\") of the small towns in the area.{{cite news\\|last\\=Dark\\|first\\=Mr.\\|date\\=7 June 2010\\|title\\=Exclusive: The Real World of Alan Wake\\|publisher\\=Dread Central\\|url\\=http://www.dreadcentral.com/news/37894/exclusive\\-the\\-real\\-world\\-alan\\-wake\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|access\\-date\\=5 February 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329075902/http://www.dreadcentral.com/news/37894/exclusive\\-the\\-real\\-world\\-alan\\-wake\\|archive\\-date\\=29 March 2012}} These included [Astoria, Oregon](/wiki/Astoria%2C_Oregon \"Astoria, Oregon\") and [North Bend, Washington](/wiki/North_Bend%2C_Washington \"North Bend, Washington\"), the latter where *Twin Peaks* was filmed, as well as locations used around Seattle for the film *[The Ring](/wiki/The_Ring_%282002_film%29 \"The Ring (2002 film)\")*.{{cite web \\| url\\= https://www.pcgamer.com/alan\\-wakes\\-bright\\-falls/ \\| title\\= Ten years on, Alan Wake's Bright Falls is still one of PC gaming's greatest settings \\| first\\= Andy \\| last\\= Kelly \\| date\\= 14 May 2020 \\| access\\-date\\= 14 May 2020 \\| work\\= \\[\\[PC Gamer]] \\| archive\\-date\\= 17 May 2020 \\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20200517191427/https://www.pcgamer.com/alan\\-wakes\\-bright\\-falls/ \\| url\\-status\\= live }} Even after returning to Finland, the Remedy team contacted Microsoft, based in Washington, for help with additional photographs.", "### Episodic format", "", "| *Alan Wake* episodes |\n| --- |\n| **Main game:** |", "Episode 1: Nightmare\nEpisode 2: Taken\nEpisode 3: Ransom\nEpisode 4: The Truth\nEpisode 5: The Clicker\nEpisode 6: Departure\n**Downloadable content**:\nSpecial 1: The Signal\nSpecial 2: The Writer", "* + - * + - * + In its structure, the story of *Alan Wake* plays out similarly to a mystery television program, where each episode brings another piece of the puzzle to the main ongoing story, yet have a distinct plot of their own. As such, *Alan Wake* is organised into episodes, which include narrative and [plot devices](/wiki/Plot_device \"Plot device\") normally used in TV, such as [cliffhangers](/wiki/Cliffhanger \"Cliffhanger\") at the end of the episodes. A prominent borrowing from television is the \"Previously on *Alan Wake*...\" [recap sequence](/wiki/Recap_sequence \"Recap sequence\") that opens each episode, and serve to \"refresh the player's memory and point to things that will become relevant shortly.\" A different song plays at the end of every episode, imitating certain TV shows that feature different music during each episode's [closing credits](/wiki/Closing_credits \"Closing credits\").", "The main game itself is divided up into six episodes. Additionally, two \"special features\", titled \"The Signal\" and \"The Writer\", have been released as [downloadable content](/wiki/Downloadable_content \"Downloadable content\") (DLC). Together, *Alan Wake* and its DLCs constitute the \"first season\" of a bigger story. The main game is designed to have a satisfactory ending with the main character reaching his goal, while the DLCs form a two\\-part special that further expands on the game's story by \"\\[continuing] the fiction and \\[serving] as a bridge between seasons.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.computerandvideogames.com/article.php?id\\=262732\\|title\\=Remedy chats Alan Wake 2\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Computer and Video Games\\|CVG]]\\|date\\=2 September 2010\\|last\\=Pakinkis\\|first\\=Tom\\|access\\-date\\=26 December 2010\\|archive\\-date\\=17 May 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517140837/http://www.computerandvideogames.com/262732/remedy\\-chats\\-alan\\-wake\\-2/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The game's developers expressed interest in following *Alan Wake* up with a second season or a sequel.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2010\\-08\\-09\\-alan\\-wake\\-remedy\\-looks\\-back\\-interview\\|title\\=Alan Wake: Remedy Looks Back\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Eurogamer]]\\|date\\=9 August 2010\\|last\\=Yin\\-Poole\\|first\\=Wesley\\|access\\-date\\=26 December 2010\\|archive\\-date\\=23 January 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110123191144/http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2010\\-08\\-09\\-alan\\-wake\\-remedy\\-looks\\-back\\-interview\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "Remedy Entertainment chose the TV series storytelling format to establish a certain stylisation and pacing. The developers felt that watching episodes of certain TV shows—such as the heavily serialised series *[Lost](/wiki/Lost_%282004_TV_series%29 \"Lost (2004 TV series)\")*—in the form of released [box sets](/wiki/Box_set \"Box set\"), at the viewers' pace, was a \"natural way of 'consuming media'\", and that this episodic format was a better fit for a long game. Remedy lauded *Lost* for its pacing as a thriller TV show.", "While Remedy had wanted to use the [episodic release format](/wiki/Episodic_video_game \"Episodic video game\"), with each of the above episodes released digitally over time, Microsoft instead pushed Remedy to release the main game as a full product on retail disc. [Phil Spencer](/wiki/Phil_Spencer_%28business_executive%29 \"Phil Spencer (business executive)\"), head of [Xbox Game Studios](/wiki/Xbox_Game_Studios \"Xbox Game Studios\"), said in 2020 that at the time, Microsoft was concerned about if the episode format would work and its revenue potentials, projecting there would be declining sales with each successive episode, and instead believed a single release was likely more profitable. Spencer said that since then, they recognised this was likely a bad decision as it forced them into a certain way of thinking with respect to monetisation.{{cite web \\| url\\= https://www.videogameschronicle.com/news/xbox\\-boss\\-says\\-new\\-monetisation\\-models\\-will\\-boost\\-creativity\\-and\\-player\\-numbers/ \\| title\\= Xbox boss says new monetisation models will boost creativity and player numbers \\| first\\= Tom \\| last\\= Ivan \\| date\\= 25 February 2020 \\| access\\-date\\= 25 February 2020 \\| work\\= \\[\\[Video Games Chronicle]] \\| archive\\-date\\= 25 February 2020 \\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20200225154335/https://www.videogameschronicle.com/news/xbox\\-boss\\-says\\-new\\-monetisation\\-models\\-will\\-boost\\-creativity\\-and\\-player\\-numbers/ \\| url\\-status\\= live }}", "### Product placement", "A number of real\\-life brands and products appear in *Alan Wake*. The developers said that they tried to \"be very conservative and attentive towards gamers\" with their use of [product placement](/wiki/Product_placement \"Product placement\"), and that they aimed \"to make the world feel more real rather than put ads in\\-your\\-face.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://community.remedygames.com/showpost.php?p\\=84164\\&postcount\\=11\\|title\\=Re: product placement — well done and not over\\-the\\-top\\|author\\=MarkusRMD\\|publisher\\=Alan Wake Community Forums\\|date\\=19 May 2010\\|format\\=Forum post\\|access\\-date\\=2 January 2010\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150604002831/http://community.remedygames.com/showpost.php?p\\=84164\\&postcount\\=11\\|archive\\-date\\=4 June 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "Examples of such marketing include collectable [Energizer](/wiki/Energizer \"Energizer\") batteries and [lithium batteries](/wiki/Lithium_batteries \"Lithium batteries\") to insert into the player's hand\\-held lights. The phone service provider [Verizon Wireless](/wiki/Verizon_Wireless \"Verizon Wireless\") is another prominent brand in *Alan Wake*: besides Verizon branded mobile phones appearing on screen, there is a 30\\-second Verizon commercial viewable on one of the game's interactive TVs, as well as an allusion to the company's famous advertising line \"Can you hear me now?\" during a phone conversation in \"The Signal\" [DLC](/wiki/Downloadable_content \"Downloadable content\"). Additionally, [billboards](/wiki/Billboard_%28advertising%29 \"Billboard (advertising)\") around Bright Falls advertise both Energizer and Verizon. [Ford](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company \"Ford Motor Company\") and [Lincoln](/wiki/Lincoln_%28automobile%29 \"Lincoln (automobile)\") automobiles are also featured in the game.{{cite web \\| url\\= https://kotaku.com/alan\\-wake\\-remastered\\-is\\-ditching\\-the\\-energizer\\-batterie\\-1847658945 \\| title\\= Alan Wake Remastered Is Ditching The Energizer Batteries And Verizon Billboards \\| first\\= Zack \\| last\\= Zwiezen \\| date\\= 11 September 2021 \\| access\\-date\\= 11 September 2021 \\| work\\= \\[\\[Kotaku]] \\| archive\\-date\\= 18 June 2022 \\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20220618200439/https://kotaku.com/alan\\-wake\\-remastered\\-is\\-ditching\\-the\\-energizer\\-batterie\\-1847658945 \\| url\\-status\\= live }}", "Several [Microsoft](/wiki/Microsoft \"Microsoft\") related brands also appear in the game. Alan and Alice Wake's car shows that it has the Microsoft\\-powered [Ford Sync](/wiki/Ford_Sync \"Ford Sync\") [in\\-vehicle entertainment](/wiki/In_car_entertainment \"In car entertainment\") system. An [Xbox 360](/wiki/Xbox_360 \"Xbox 360\") console can be seen in one section of the game, with the box of the fictional *Night Springs* video game next to it, which are collectibles in \"The Writer\" DLC episode. In multiple sections of the game, [Microsoft Tag](/wiki/Microsoft_Tag \"Microsoft Tag\") bar codes can be seen; these can be scanned in real life by the user with the appropriate software on their mobile device. When scanned, these tags redirect players to a phone number with the voicemail from one of the game's characters, or to a Verizon\\-sponsored web site where users gain access to exclusive *Alan Wake* extras for their console.{{cite web\\|date\\=9 June 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=2 January 2011 \\|publisher\\=Microsoft \\|author\\=Microsoft Tag team \\|url\\=http://tag.microsoft.com/tag\\-in\\-action/success\\-story/t/xbox\\_game\\_uses\\_tag\\_for\\_coded\\_messages.aspx \\|title\\=Microsoft Tag Blog: Alan Wake \\& Tag \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120724023907/http://tag.microsoft.com/tag\\-in\\-action/success\\-story/t/xbox\\_game\\_uses\\_tag\\_for\\_coded\\_messages.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=24 July 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} This functionality is only available in the United States.", "The product placement has been removed in the remastered version.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Alan Wake Remastered Is Ditching The Energizer Batteries And Verizon Billboards\\|url\\=https://kotaku.com/alan\\-wake\\-remastered\\-is\\-ditching\\-the\\-energizer\\-batterie\\-1847658945\\|access\\-date\\=11 September 2021\\|website\\=Kotaku\\|date\\=11 September 2021\\|language\\=en\\-us\\|archive\\-date\\=18 June 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618200439/https://kotaku.com/alan\\-wake\\-remastered\\-is\\-ditching\\-the\\-energizer\\-batterie\\-1847658945\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "### Soundtrack", "The game's score is composed by Petri Alanko. The soundtrack features the song \"War\" by [Poets of the Fall](/wiki/Poets_of_the_Fall \"Poets of the Fall\"), from the band's fourth studio album, *[Twilight Theater](/wiki/Twilight_Theater \"Twilight Theater\")*. Sam Lake said that the song \"...is a prominent part of the *Alan Wake* soundtrack and the theme also links strongly to the game's storyline.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.poetsofthefall.com/news/14060\\_poets\\_of\\_the\\_fall\\_in\\_alan\\_wake/ \\|title\\=Official Website – Poets of the Fall in Alan Wake \\|publisher\\=Poets of the Fall \\|access\\-date\\=29 April 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100217101917/http://www.poetsofthefall.com/news/14060\\_poets\\_of\\_the\\_fall\\_in\\_alan\\_wake/ \\|archive\\-date\\=17 February 2010}} Poets of the Fall also perform two original songs, \"Children of the Elder God\" and \"The Poet and the Muse\", under the name Old Gods of Asgard. The band wrote the ending theme to Remedy's previous game, *[Max Payne 2: The Fall of Max Payne](/wiki/Max_Payne_2:The_Fall_of_Max_Payne \"The Fall of Max Payne\")*, called \"Late Goodbye\", which is based on a poem written by Lake. \"War\", however, was not written specifically for *Alan Wake*. On 20 July 2010, an official soundtrack consisting of 18 tracks was released.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.amazon.com/dp/B003UDIZJC\\|title\\=Amazon.com: Alan Wake \\[Original Soundtrack]\\|website\\=Amazon\\|access\\-date\\=1 August 2010\\|archive\\-date\\=14 June 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614105347/http://www.amazon.com/Alan\\-Wake\\-Original\\-Video\\-Soundtrack/dp/B003UDIZJC\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "In addition to the original soundtrack and these songs, *Alan Wake* includes several licensed songs used typically at the closing of each episode or elsewhere. \"[Haunted](/wiki/Haunted_%28Poe_album%29 \"Haunted (Poe album)\")\" by [Poe](/wiki/Poe_%28singer%29 \"Poe (singer)\") plays at the end of the second episode. \"[Space Oddity](/wiki/Space_Oddity \"Space Oddity\")\" by [David Bowie](/wiki/David_Bowie \"David Bowie\") plays over the end credits. [Anomie Belle](/wiki/Anomie_Belle \"Anomie Belle\")'s \"How Can I Be Sure\" is featured in the third episode. \"[Coconut](/wiki/Coconut_%28song%29 \"Coconut (song)\")\" by [Harry Nilsson](/wiki/Harry_Nilsson \"Harry Nilsson\") is played several times during the game.", "Due to expiration of these music licenses, all digital and retail versions of *Alan Wake* were pulled from purchase from the various storefronts in May 2017; Remedy offered a large discount for the title in the days prior to removal. The removal did not affect those who already own the game, nor did it impact the availability of *Alan Wake's American Nightmare*, though that title will likely be affected similarly when its own licensing deals expire.{{cite web \\| url\\= https://www.vg247\\.com/2017/05/12/alan\\-wake\\-is\\-being\\-pulled\\-from\\-steam\\-and\\-the\\-xbox\\-store\\-after\\-this\\-weekend/ \\| title\\= Alan Wake is being pulled from Steam and the Xbox Store after this weekend \\| first\\= Stephany \\| last\\= Nunneley \\| date\\= 12 May 2017 \\| access\\-date\\= 12 May 2017 \\| work\\= \\[\\[VG247]] \\| archive\\-date\\= 20 June 2017 \\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170620185515/http://www.vg247\\.com/2017/05/12/alan\\-wake\\-is\\-being\\-pulled\\-from\\-steam\\-and\\-the\\-xbox\\-store\\-after\\-this\\-weekend/ \\| url\\-status\\= live }} With the help of Microsoft, Remedy was able to resecure these licensing rights by October 2018 and the game was relisted on digital storefronts.{{cite web \\| url\\= https://www.gog.com/news/alan\\_wake\\_back\\_on\\_sale\\_just\\_in\\_time\\_for\\_spooky\\_season \\| title\\= Alan Wake Back on Sale Just in Time For Spooky Season \\| date\\= 25 October 2018 \\| access\\-date\\= 25 October 2018 \\| work\\= \\[\\[GOG.com]] \\| archive\\-date\\= 26 October 2018 \\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20181026025044/https://www.gog.com/news/alan\\_wake\\_back\\_on\\_sale\\_just\\_in\\_time\\_for\\_spooky\\_season \\| url\\-status\\= live }}{{cite web \\| url\\= https://www.usgamer.net/articles/alan\\-wake\\-makes\\-a\\-surprise\\-return\\-to\\-steam\\-after\\-long\\-absence \\| title\\= Alan Wake Makes a Surprise Return to Steam After Long Absence \\| first\\= Matt \\| last\\= Kim \\| date\\= 25 October 2018 \\| access\\-date\\= 25 October 2018 \\| work\\= \\[\\[USGamer]] \\| archive\\-date\\= 25 October 2018 \\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20181025225510/https://www.usgamer.net/articles/alan\\-wake\\-makes\\-a\\-surprise\\-return\\-to\\-steam\\-after\\-long\\-absence \\| url\\-status\\= dead }}{{cite web \\| url\\= https://www.polygon.com/2018/10/25/18023688/alan\\-wake\\-digital\\-download\\-purchase\\-steam\\-humble \\| title\\= Alan Wake returns to digital storefronts, thanks to Microsoft \\| first\\= Allegra \\| last\\= Frank \\| date\\= 25 October 2018 \\| access\\-date\\= 25 October 2018 \\| work\\= \\[\\[Polygon (website)\\|Polygon]] \\| archive\\-date\\= 25 October 2018 \\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20181025223314/https://www.polygon.com/2018/10/25/18023688/alan\\-wake\\-digital\\-download\\-purchase\\-steam\\-humble \\| url\\-status\\= live }}", "" ]
Specifications -------------- ### Hardware It has loudspeakers, one located on the bottom edge and the other doubling as the earpiece. A USB\-C port is used for charging and connecting other accessories. The Samsung Galaxy Xcover 5 uses the Exynos 850 system on a chip, Octa\-core (4x2\.0 GHz Cortex\-A55 \& 4x2\.0 GHz Cortex\-A55\) CPU, Mali\-G52 GPU with 4 GB of RAM and 64 GB of non\-expandable eMMC 5\.1 internal storage. The Samsung Galaxy Xcover 5 has a 3000 mAh battery, and is capable of fast charging at up to 15 W. It has an IP68 water protection rating. The Samsung Galaxy Xcover 5 features a 5\.3\-inch 720p PLS LCD display. The display has a 18\.5:9 aspect ratio. The Samsung Galaxy Xcover 5 includes a single rear\-facing camera. The wide f/1\.8 lens 16\-megapixel sensor, the front\-facing camera uses a 5\-megapixel sensor. It is capable of recording 1080p video at 30 fps. ### Software This device ships with Android 11 (One UI 3\).
[ "Specifications\n--------------", "### Hardware", "It has loudspeakers, one located on the bottom edge and the other doubling as the earpiece. A USB\\-C port is used for charging and connecting other accessories.", "The Samsung Galaxy Xcover 5 uses the Exynos 850 system on a chip, Octa\\-core (4x2\\.0 GHz Cortex\\-A55 \\& 4x2\\.0 GHz Cortex\\-A55\\) CPU, Mali\\-G52 GPU with 4 GB of RAM and 64 GB of non\\-expandable eMMC 5\\.1 internal storage.", "The Samsung Galaxy Xcover 5 has a 3000 mAh battery, and is capable of fast charging at up to 15 W. It has an IP68 water protection rating.", "The Samsung Galaxy Xcover 5 features a 5\\.3\\-inch 720p PLS LCD display. The display has a 18\\.5:9 aspect ratio.", "The Samsung Galaxy Xcover 5 includes a single rear\\-facing camera. The wide f/1\\.8 lens 16\\-megapixel sensor, the front\\-facing camera uses a 5\\-megapixel sensor. It is capable of recording 1080p video at 30 fps.", "### Software", "This device ships with Android 11 (One UI 3\\).", "" ]
### Hardware It has loudspeakers, one located on the bottom edge and the other doubling as the earpiece. A USB\-C port is used for charging and connecting other accessories. The Samsung Galaxy Xcover 5 uses the Exynos 850 system on a chip, Octa\-core (4x2\.0 GHz Cortex\-A55 \& 4x2\.0 GHz Cortex\-A55\) CPU, Mali\-G52 GPU with 4 GB of RAM and 64 GB of non\-expandable eMMC 5\.1 internal storage. The Samsung Galaxy Xcover 5 has a 3000 mAh battery, and is capable of fast charging at up to 15 W. It has an IP68 water protection rating. The Samsung Galaxy Xcover 5 features a 5\.3\-inch 720p PLS LCD display. The display has a 18\.5:9 aspect ratio. The Samsung Galaxy Xcover 5 includes a single rear\-facing camera. The wide f/1\.8 lens 16\-megapixel sensor, the front\-facing camera uses a 5\-megapixel sensor. It is capable of recording 1080p video at 30 fps.
[ "### Hardware", "It has loudspeakers, one located on the bottom edge and the other doubling as the earpiece. A USB\\-C port is used for charging and connecting other accessories.", "The Samsung Galaxy Xcover 5 uses the Exynos 850 system on a chip, Octa\\-core (4x2\\.0 GHz Cortex\\-A55 \\& 4x2\\.0 GHz Cortex\\-A55\\) CPU, Mali\\-G52 GPU with 4 GB of RAM and 64 GB of non\\-expandable eMMC 5\\.1 internal storage.", "The Samsung Galaxy Xcover 5 has a 3000 mAh battery, and is capable of fast charging at up to 15 W. It has an IP68 water protection rating.", "The Samsung Galaxy Xcover 5 features a 5\\.3\\-inch 720p PLS LCD display. The display has a 18\\.5:9 aspect ratio.", "The Samsung Galaxy Xcover 5 includes a single rear\\-facing camera. The wide f/1\\.8 lens 16\\-megapixel sensor, the front\\-facing camera uses a 5\\-megapixel sensor. It is capable of recording 1080p video at 30 fps.", "" ]
History ------- Most of the players come from Club San Andres, team which won a spot to play in the Tercera División after winning an amateur championship supported by the [Federacíón Méxicana de Futbol](/wiki/Federaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9xican_de_F%C3%BAtbol_Asociaci%C3%B3n "Federación Méxican de Fútbol Asociación") (Méxican Football Federation Association) and organized by Ángel Morales, owner of several Tercera División franchises. The Deportivo Iztacalco acquired the nickname *"Los Valedores"* starting from Round 3 in the 2007 Apertura tournament, when [TV Azteca](/wiki/TV_Azteca "TV Azteca") dedicated a space for the first time in its evening program *Los Protagonistas*, presenting it as the worst professional [football](/wiki/Association_football "Association football") team in Federación Méxicano de Fútbol Asociación and whose direction was under TV Azteca's reporter [Barak Fever](/wiki/Barak_Fever "Barak Fever"). Although their training camps are located in [Iztacalco, Mexico City](/wiki/Iztacalco "Iztacalco"), *Los Valedores* de [Iztacalco](/wiki/Iztacalco "Iztacalco") dispute their local matches at [Estadio San Bernardino](/wiki/Estadio_San_Bernardino "Estadio San Bernardino"), known as *"El Muro de los Sueños"* (*"The Wall of Dreams"*), located in the town of San Bernardino, in the municipality of [Texcoco, Mexico State](/wiki/Texcoco%2C_Mexico_State "Texcoco, Mexico State"). Thanks to their constant appearances on [TV Azteca](/wiki/TV_Azteca "TV Azteca"), the team has generated a large national television following with the distinction of being the most known team from Tercera División. ### First Season For the Apertura 2007 and Clausura 2008 tournaments, the [Mexican Football Federation](/wiki/Federaci%C3%B3n_Mexicana_de_F%C3%BAtbol_Asociaci%C3%B3n "Federación Mexicana de Fútbol Asociación") placed Deportivo Iztacalco in Group VII of the Tercera División. *Los Valedores* lost their first seven games. On September 26, 2007 gained their first point in the Round 8 after 1\-1 tie against [Mineros del Real Hidalgo](/wiki/Mineros_del_Real_Hidalgo "Mineros del Real Hidalgo"), despite having lost later in the [penalty kicks](/wiki/Penalty_kick_%28association_football%29 "Penalty kick (association football)"). October 12, 2007 is the date of what many consider their greatest achievement, their first victory. In the 12th week of the tournament, the referee gave them a default win when the opposing team failed to make an appearance on the pitch. The Deportivo Iztacalco ended the 2007 Apertura tournament with 4 points, the result of "winning" their first competitive match, a draw and 12 losses. *Los Valedores* ended in the last position of Group VII and in the general position 202 among 204 clubs that make the Tercera División. On December 11, 2007 *Los Valedores* had a match against a representative team from *Los Protagonistas*, which was the program on "TV Azteca" that broadcast the Valedores games on Television, this team was formed by former professional players like [Luis Garcia](/wiki/Luis_Garc%C3%ADa_Postigo "Luis García Postigo"), [Jorge Campos](/wiki/Jorge_Campos "Jorge Campos"), [Francisco Gabriel de Anda](/wiki/Gabriel_de_Anda "Gabriel de Anda"), Roberto Medina and [Careca](/wiki/Carlos_Alberto_Bianchezi "Carlos Alberto Bianchezi"). The match was held at the Deportivo Xochimilco Stadium with controversial refereeing from [Gilberto Alcala](/wiki/Gilberto_Alcala "Gilberto Alcala"). The match ended 1\-0 in favour of the *Los Protagonistas* team.
[ "History\n-------", "Most of the players come from Club San Andres, team which won a spot to play in the Tercera División after winning an amateur championship supported by the [Federacíón Méxicana de Futbol](/wiki/Federaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9xican_de_F%C3%BAtbol_Asociaci%C3%B3n \"Federación Méxican de Fútbol Asociación\") (Méxican Football Federation Association) and organized by Ángel Morales, owner of several Tercera División franchises.", "The Deportivo Iztacalco acquired the nickname *\"Los Valedores\"* starting from Round 3 in the 2007 Apertura tournament, when [TV Azteca](/wiki/TV_Azteca \"TV Azteca\") dedicated a space for the first time in its evening program *Los Protagonistas*, presenting it as the worst professional [football](/wiki/Association_football \"Association football\") team in Federación Méxicano de Fútbol Asociación and whose direction was under TV Azteca's reporter [Barak Fever](/wiki/Barak_Fever \"Barak Fever\").", "Although their training camps are located in [Iztacalco, Mexico City](/wiki/Iztacalco \"Iztacalco\"), *Los Valedores* de [Iztacalco](/wiki/Iztacalco \"Iztacalco\") dispute their local matches at [Estadio San Bernardino](/wiki/Estadio_San_Bernardino \"Estadio San Bernardino\"), known as *\"El Muro de los Sueños\"* (*\"The Wall of Dreams\"*), located in the town of San Bernardino, in the municipality of [Texcoco, Mexico State](/wiki/Texcoco%2C_Mexico_State \"Texcoco, Mexico State\").", "Thanks to their constant appearances on [TV Azteca](/wiki/TV_Azteca \"TV Azteca\"), the team has generated a large national television following with the distinction of being the most known team from Tercera División.", "### First Season", "For the Apertura 2007 and Clausura 2008 tournaments, the [Mexican Football Federation](/wiki/Federaci%C3%B3n_Mexicana_de_F%C3%BAtbol_Asociaci%C3%B3n \"Federación Mexicana de Fútbol Asociación\") placed Deportivo Iztacalco in Group VII of the Tercera División. *Los Valedores* lost their first seven games. On September 26, 2007 gained their first point in the Round 8 after 1\\-1 tie against [Mineros del Real Hidalgo](/wiki/Mineros_del_Real_Hidalgo \"Mineros del Real Hidalgo\"), despite having lost later in the [penalty kicks](/wiki/Penalty_kick_%28association_football%29 \"Penalty kick (association football)\").", "October 12, 2007 is the date of what many consider their greatest achievement, their first victory. In the 12th week of the tournament, the referee gave them a default win when the opposing team failed to make an appearance on the pitch.", "The Deportivo Iztacalco ended the 2007 Apertura tournament with 4 points, the result of \"winning\" their first competitive match, a draw and 12 losses. *Los Valedores* ended in the last position of Group VII and in the general position 202 among 204 clubs that make the Tercera División.", "On December 11, 2007 *Los Valedores* had a match against a representative team from *Los Protagonistas*, which was the program on \"TV Azteca\" that broadcast the Valedores games on Television, this team was formed by former professional players like [Luis Garcia](/wiki/Luis_Garc%C3%ADa_Postigo \"Luis García Postigo\"), [Jorge Campos](/wiki/Jorge_Campos \"Jorge Campos\"), [Francisco Gabriel de Anda](/wiki/Gabriel_de_Anda \"Gabriel de Anda\"), Roberto Medina and [Careca](/wiki/Carlos_Alberto_Bianchezi \"Carlos Alberto Bianchezi\"). The match was held at the Deportivo Xochimilco Stadium with controversial refereeing from [Gilberto Alcala](/wiki/Gilberto_Alcala \"Gilberto Alcala\"). The match ended 1\\-0 in favour of the *Los Protagonistas* team.", "" ]
Background ---------- In the mid\-1990s, the [Government of China](/wiki/Government_of_China "Government of China") began promoting industrial investment funds which were the predecessor of guidance funds.{{Cite web \|title\=Four Things to Know About China's $670 Billion Government Guidance Funds \|url\=https://www.caixinglobal.com/2020\-02\-25/four\-things\-to\-know\-about\-chinas\-670\-billion\-government\-guidance\-funds\-101520348\.html \|access\-date\=29 July 2023 \|website\=\[\[Caixin]] \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=29 July 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230729144702/https://www.caixinglobal.com/2020\-02\-25/four\-things\-to\-know\-about\-chinas\-670\-billion\-government\-guidance\-funds\-101520348\.html \|url\-status\=live }} The Government of China set up guidance funds to provide support entrepreneurship and technological innovation of but not limited to [Startup Companies](/wiki/Startup_Companies "Startup Companies") as well as [small and medium\-sized enterprises](/wiki/Small_and_medium-sized_enterprises "Small and medium-sized enterprises"). These funds raise money from both public and private sources and make investments consistent with government priorities such as [artificial intelligence](/wiki/Artificial_intelligence "Artificial intelligence") and [emerging technologies](/wiki/Emerging_technologies "Emerging technologies"). Government agencies at central, provincial, and local levels all establish guidance funds. This typically involves creating the fund, setting a fundraising target, financing 20%\-30% of the target from the budget provided and raising the rest from other investors whose contributions are called "social capital" . While these social capital investors are equated with [private capital](/wiki/Private_capital "Private capital"), they are often [state\-owned enterprises](/wiki/State-owned_enterprise "State-owned enterprise") and [public banks](/wiki/Public_bank "Public bank"). To entice social capital investors, the government sponsor may assume investor losses, forgo interest payments or provide other incentives. Guidance funds use a [limited partnership](/wiki/Limited_partnership "Limited partnership") structure where a general partner makes investment decisions and handles day\-to\-day operations while the limited partners contribute capital and take returns or losses. The general partner may be either a government\-related or a third party [investment manager](/wiki/Investment_manager "Investment manager"). The [Ministry of Finance](/wiki/Ministry_of_Finance_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China "Ministry of Finance of the People's Republic of China") has encouraged government officials to grant more autonomy to third party managers. The limited partners include the social capital investors. Each guidance fund has its own investment objectives and restrictions. Some shall invest only in certain sectors or regions. In 2002, one of the first guidance funds was launched in Beijing to support startup companies in [Zhongguancun](/wiki/Zhongguancun "Zhongguancun"). In 2005, the [National Development and Reform Commission](/wiki/National_Development_and_Reform_Commission "National Development and Reform Commission") formally defined guidance funds and encouraged the establishment of guidance funds to support the development of startup companies through venture capital firms. During the tenure of Xi Jinping, the use of government guidance funds has increased.{{Rp\|page\=122}} There are three phrases to the development of guidance funds. In the first phrase, from the early to mid 2010s, the government set up a number of initial funds as well as the supporting legal framework. In the second phrase, there was a boom in guidance funds set up between 2015 and 2018, fueled by factors such as government policies, loose regulation, restrictions on other spending and trend\-chasing among government officials. In January 2015, Premier [Li Keqiang](/wiki/Li_Keqiang "Li Keqiang") chaired a meeting to set up national\-level government guidance funds. In the third phrase, starting around 2018, the pace of forming and fundraising for guidance funds slowed down due mostly to tighter regulations. Guidance funds did not draw much attention until 2014 when the [China Integrated Circuit Industry Investment Fund](/wiki/China_Integrated_Circuit_Industry_Investment_Fund "China Integrated Circuit Industry Investment Fund") was formed and [Made in China 2025](/wiki/Made_in_China_2025 "Made in China 2025") was launched. Government guidance funds have been a significant form of policy support for the goals of Made in China 2025\.{{Cite book \|last1\=Tsang \|first1\=Steve \|author\-link\=Steve Chang \|title\=The Political Thought of Xi Jinping \|last2\=Cheung \|first2\=Olivia \|publisher\=\[\[Oxford University Press]] \|year\=2024 \|isbn\=9780197689363}}{{Rp\|page\=122}} As of the 2020 Q1, there were 1,741 guidance funds set up with a cumulative target size of 11 trillion RMB. However the funds had raised only 4\.76 trillion RMB which was less than half of the target set.
[ "Background\n----------", "In the mid\\-1990s, the [Government of China](/wiki/Government_of_China \"Government of China\") began promoting industrial investment funds which were the predecessor of guidance funds.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Four Things to Know About China's $670 Billion Government Guidance Funds \\|url\\=https://www.caixinglobal.com/2020\\-02\\-25/four\\-things\\-to\\-know\\-about\\-chinas\\-670\\-billion\\-government\\-guidance\\-funds\\-101520348\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=29 July 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Caixin]] \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=29 July 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230729144702/https://www.caixinglobal.com/2020\\-02\\-25/four\\-things\\-to\\-know\\-about\\-chinas\\-670\\-billion\\-government\\-guidance\\-funds\\-101520348\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "The Government of China set up guidance funds to provide support entrepreneurship and technological innovation of but not limited to [Startup Companies](/wiki/Startup_Companies \"Startup Companies\") as well as [small and medium\\-sized enterprises](/wiki/Small_and_medium-sized_enterprises \"Small and medium-sized enterprises\"). These funds raise money from both public and private sources and make investments consistent with government priorities such as [artificial intelligence](/wiki/Artificial_intelligence \"Artificial intelligence\") and [emerging technologies](/wiki/Emerging_technologies \"Emerging technologies\").", "Government agencies at central, provincial, and local levels all establish guidance funds. This typically involves creating the fund, setting a fundraising target, financing 20%\\-30% of the target from the budget provided and raising the rest from other investors whose contributions are called \"social capital\" . While these social capital investors are equated with [private capital](/wiki/Private_capital \"Private capital\"), they are often [state\\-owned enterprises](/wiki/State-owned_enterprise \"State-owned enterprise\") and [public banks](/wiki/Public_bank \"Public bank\"). To entice social capital investors, the government sponsor may assume investor losses, forgo interest payments or provide other incentives.", "Guidance funds use a [limited partnership](/wiki/Limited_partnership \"Limited partnership\") structure where a general partner makes investment decisions and handles day\\-to\\-day operations while the limited partners contribute capital and take returns or losses. The general partner may be either a government\\-related or a third party [investment manager](/wiki/Investment_manager \"Investment manager\"). The [Ministry of Finance](/wiki/Ministry_of_Finance_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China \"Ministry of Finance of the People's Republic of China\") has encouraged government officials to grant more autonomy to third party managers. The limited partners include the social capital investors.", "Each guidance fund has its own investment objectives and restrictions. Some shall invest only in certain sectors or regions.", "In 2002, one of the first guidance funds was launched in Beijing to support startup companies in [Zhongguancun](/wiki/Zhongguancun \"Zhongguancun\").", "In 2005, the [National Development and Reform Commission](/wiki/National_Development_and_Reform_Commission \"National Development and Reform Commission\") formally defined guidance funds and encouraged the establishment of guidance funds to support the development of startup companies through venture capital firms.", "During the tenure of Xi Jinping, the use of government guidance funds has increased.{{Rp\\|page\\=122}}", "There are three phrases to the development of guidance funds. In the first phrase, from the early to mid 2010s, the government set up a number of initial funds as well as the supporting legal framework. In the second phrase, there was a boom in guidance funds set up between 2015 and 2018, fueled by factors such as government policies, loose regulation, restrictions on other spending and trend\\-chasing among government officials. In January 2015, Premier [Li Keqiang](/wiki/Li_Keqiang \"Li Keqiang\") chaired a meeting to set up national\\-level government guidance funds. In the third phrase, starting around 2018, the pace of forming and fundraising for guidance funds slowed down due mostly to tighter regulations.", "Guidance funds did not draw much attention until 2014 when the [China Integrated Circuit Industry Investment Fund](/wiki/China_Integrated_Circuit_Industry_Investment_Fund \"China Integrated Circuit Industry Investment Fund\") was formed and [Made in China 2025](/wiki/Made_in_China_2025 \"Made in China 2025\") was launched. Government guidance funds have been a significant form of policy support for the goals of Made in China 2025\\.{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Tsang \\|first1\\=Steve \\|author\\-link\\=Steve Chang \\|title\\=The Political Thought of Xi Jinping \\|last2\\=Cheung \\|first2\\=Olivia \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Oxford University Press]] \\|year\\=2024 \\|isbn\\=9780197689363}}{{Rp\\|page\\=122}}", "As of the 2020 Q1, there were 1,741 guidance funds set up with a cumulative target size of 11 trillion RMB. However the funds had raised only 4\\.76 trillion RMB which was less than half of the target set.", "" ]
Implications ------------ This principle has far\-reaching consequences, since it is possible to formally uproot things, making the new reality binding upon all parties, in so far as the [Mosaic Law](/wiki/Mosaic_Law "Mosaic Law") is concerned, by changing the monetary status of the thing in question. Not only does the court have the power to cancel ownership of property and chattels, but the court is also authorized to convey ownership of same property to a different party, such as an heirloom or the inheritance rights of one family being given by the court to another family, or money that was thought to belong to one man being given, at the decree of a Jewish court of law, as property to another man.{{cite book\|last\=Elon\|first\=Menachem \|author\-link\=Menachem Elon \|title\=Jewish Law: History, Sources, Principles (Ha\-mišpaṭ ha\-ʻivri \- toldotav, meḳorotav, ʻiḳronotav)\|volume\=1 (parts I\-II)\|edition\=2 \|publisher\=Hebrew University: Magnes Press\|place\=Jerusalem \|year\=1978\|page\=416\|language\=he \|oclc\=14813103 }} For example, according to this approach, the expropriation of money given by a man for his wife's [betrothals](/wiki/Ketubah "Ketubah"), if a Jewish court should decide to take this route, it can make the money with which the husband consecrated his wife null and void, in which case the betrothals were, in retrospect, of no force whatsoever, seeing as the woman was betrothed by money and did not belong to the man who assayed to betroth her. Thus, by the power vested unto the [Sages of Israel](/wiki/Chazal "Chazal") by this law, they are able to change the standard laws of inheritance prescribed in the [Law of Moses](/wiki/Law_of_Moses "Law of Moses") (henceforth: Torah). There is a deliberate debate as to whether a court can transfer an object from one person to another, or whether it can only remove an object into a state of being ownerless.Cf. the dispute between *[Ketzos HaChoshen](/wiki/Ketzos_HaChoshen "Ketzos HaChoshen")* § 235:4 and *Netivot Ha\-Mishpat* § 235:13 Another discussion is about whether an act of taking possession as enacted by the Sages of Israel and whose validity is derived only from a rabbinic ordinance is considered a valid act of acquisition in matters directly affecting a biblical law or injunction, in what concerns a court ruling property as ownerless, so that the same property may now be used to betroth a woman.Cf. *[Ketzos HaChoshen](/wiki/Ketzos_HaChoshen "Ketzos HaChoshen")* § 194:3 Most rabbinic scholars hold the view that, although the principle is taken from the Book of Ezra, the ruling is tantamount to a ruling taken from the Torah. The *[Shittah Mekubetzet](/wiki/Shittah_Mekubetzet "Shittah Mekubetzet")* explains that the court's power to dispense with a particular thing does not yet confer it upon another, the court merely relinquishing the object from its first owners, and giving permission to another to acquire that object.*Shittah Mekubetzet* in the Babylonian Talmud (*Baba Bathra* 100a), s.v. **קניין הילוך** Based on this rule, [Nissim of Gerona](/wiki/Nissim_of_Gerona "Nissim of Gerona") explained the possibility of judges who have not been [ordained by rabbis](/wiki/Semikhah "Semikhah") that can trace a line of authority back to Moses as being able to engage partly in monetary matters. Rabbi [Joseph Karo](/wiki/Joseph_Karo "Joseph Karo"), citing the *[Tur](/wiki/Arba%27ah_Turim "Arba'ah Turim")*, also permits a court to apply this principle whenever it deems it necessary to bring offenders into submission, even though the arbiters have not been ordained by the [laying on of hands](/wiki/Laying_on_of_hands "Laying on of hands").[Joseph Karo](/wiki/Joseph_Karo "Joseph Karo"), *[Shulchan Arukh](/wiki/Shulchan_Arukh "Shulchan Arukh")* (*Choshen Mishpat*, *Hil. Dayanim* 2:1\) While a court, under ordinary circumstances, has no power to uproot a prohibitive command from the [Torah](/wiki/Torah "Torah"), except in cases where the intent is to bring instruction for a limited time only, in this case they are permitted to expropriate another's property without limitation, in order to instill correction where needed. According to [Maimonides](/wiki/Maimonides "Maimonides"), a court has the authority under *Hefker beth\-din hefker* to fine a wicked husband, such that he pays to his wife the monies that he has pledged in her [Ketubba](/wiki/Ketubba "Ketubba"), even before he divorces her, and even though he is still alive.{{cite book \|last\=Maimonides\|author\-link\=Maimonides \|title\=R. Moses b. Maimon Responsa\|editor\=Jehoshua Blau \|volume\=2 \|edition\= \|date\=1989 \|publisher\=Meḳitse nirdamim / Rubin Mass Ltd.\|place\=Jerusalem \|page\=658 (''responsum'' \#376\)\|language\=he \|oclc\=78411726 }} Likewise, the court has the power to confiscate the property of a fellow Jew who abandoned his religion, and to give his property unto his law\-abiding children. Such powers of the court do not require the judges to have been given *[semikhah](/wiki/Semikhah%23Classical_semikhah "Semikhah#Classical semikhah")* in the classical sense. This principle has also allowed others to justify the introduction of public regulations in Jewish communities, in terms of [halacha](/wiki/Halacha "Halacha"). This justification was done by way of inference. First, the court has the ability to decide things that are not governed by a permanent law \- the abandonment of property is just one example. Secondly, a court is an example of an institution that is agreed upon by the community and, hence, it can be said that the elected officials also meet this criterion and can therefore make an amendment to the Torah. That is, as long as they do not violate explicit prohibitions written in the Torah (excepting the provisions on monetary laws, which are permitted). ### Examples of the law's implementation The [Tosefta](/wiki/Tosefta "Tosefta") (*Sheḳalim* 1:1\) makes note of an early practice in Israel where the Beth Din would once annually, on the 15th day of the lunar month [Adar](/wiki/Adar "Adar"), send forth emissaries throughout the country to check for [klayim](/wiki/Kil%27ayim_%28prohibition%29 "Kil'ayim (prohibition)") "mixed kinds" growing in people's vineyards and fields, and where, if klayim were found growing together in a field or vineyard, the field or vineyard would be accounted as ownerless property, permitting others to enter that field and vineyard and to remove its crop.{{cite book\|last\=Elon\|first\=Menachem \|author\-link\=Menachem Elon \|title\=Jewish Law: History, Sources, Principles (Ha\-mišpaṭ ha\-ʻivri \- toldotav, meḳorotav, ʻiḳronotav)\|volume\=1 (parts I\-II)\|edition\=2 \|publisher\=Hebrew University: Magnes Press\|place\=Jerusalem \|year\=1978\|page\=415\|language\=he \|oclc\=14813103 }}
[ "Implications\n------------", "This principle has far\\-reaching consequences, since it is possible to formally uproot things, making the new reality binding upon all parties, in so far as the [Mosaic Law](/wiki/Mosaic_Law \"Mosaic Law\") is concerned, by changing the monetary status of the thing in question. Not only does the court have the power to cancel ownership of property and chattels, but the court is also authorized to convey ownership of same property to a different party, such as an heirloom or the inheritance rights of one family being given by the court to another family, or money that was thought to belong to one man being given, at the decree of a Jewish court of law, as property to another man.{{cite book\\|last\\=Elon\\|first\\=Menachem \\|author\\-link\\=Menachem Elon \\|title\\=Jewish Law: History, Sources, Principles (Ha\\-mišpaṭ ha\\-ʻivri \\- toldotav, meḳorotav, ʻiḳronotav)\\|volume\\=1 (parts I\\-II)\\|edition\\=2 \\|publisher\\=Hebrew University: Magnes Press\\|place\\=Jerusalem \\|year\\=1978\\|page\\=416\\|language\\=he \\|oclc\\=14813103 }} For example, according to this approach, the expropriation of money given by a man for his wife's [betrothals](/wiki/Ketubah \"Ketubah\"), if a Jewish court should decide to take this route, it can make the money with which the husband consecrated his wife null and void, in which case the betrothals were, in retrospect, of no force whatsoever, seeing as the woman was betrothed by money and did not belong to the man who assayed to betroth her. Thus, by the power vested unto the [Sages of Israel](/wiki/Chazal \"Chazal\") by this law, they are able to change the standard laws of inheritance prescribed in the [Law of Moses](/wiki/Law_of_Moses \"Law of Moses\") (henceforth: Torah).", "There is a deliberate debate as to whether a court can transfer an object from one person to another, or whether it can only remove an object into a state of being ownerless.Cf. the dispute between *[Ketzos HaChoshen](/wiki/Ketzos_HaChoshen \"Ketzos HaChoshen\")* § 235:4 and *Netivot Ha\\-Mishpat* § 235:13 Another discussion is about whether an act of taking possession as enacted by the Sages of Israel and whose validity is derived only from a rabbinic ordinance is considered a valid act of acquisition in matters directly affecting a biblical law or injunction, in what concerns a court ruling property as ownerless, so that the same property may now be used to betroth a woman.Cf. *[Ketzos HaChoshen](/wiki/Ketzos_HaChoshen \"Ketzos HaChoshen\")* § 194:3 Most rabbinic scholars hold the view that, although the principle is taken from the Book of Ezra, the ruling is tantamount to a ruling taken from the Torah.", "The *[Shittah Mekubetzet](/wiki/Shittah_Mekubetzet \"Shittah Mekubetzet\")* explains that the court's power to dispense with a particular thing does not yet confer it upon another, the court merely relinquishing the object from its first owners, and giving permission to another to acquire that object.*Shittah Mekubetzet* in the Babylonian Talmud (*Baba Bathra* 100a), s.v. **קניין הילוך**", "Based on this rule, [Nissim of Gerona](/wiki/Nissim_of_Gerona \"Nissim of Gerona\") explained the possibility of judges who have not been [ordained by rabbis](/wiki/Semikhah \"Semikhah\") that can trace a line of authority back to Moses as being able to engage partly in monetary matters. Rabbi [Joseph Karo](/wiki/Joseph_Karo \"Joseph Karo\"), citing the *[Tur](/wiki/Arba%27ah_Turim \"Arba'ah Turim\")*, also permits a court to apply this principle whenever it deems it necessary to bring offenders into submission, even though the arbiters have not been ordained by the [laying on of hands](/wiki/Laying_on_of_hands \"Laying on of hands\").[Joseph Karo](/wiki/Joseph_Karo \"Joseph Karo\"), *[Shulchan Arukh](/wiki/Shulchan_Arukh \"Shulchan Arukh\")* (*Choshen Mishpat*, *Hil. Dayanim* 2:1\\) While a court, under ordinary circumstances, has no power to uproot a prohibitive command from the [Torah](/wiki/Torah \"Torah\"), except in cases where the intent is to bring instruction for a limited time only, in this case they are permitted to expropriate another's property without limitation, in order to instill correction where needed.", "According to [Maimonides](/wiki/Maimonides \"Maimonides\"), a court has the authority under *Hefker beth\\-din hefker* to fine a wicked husband, such that he pays to his wife the monies that he has pledged in her [Ketubba](/wiki/Ketubba \"Ketubba\"), even before he divorces her, and even though he is still alive.{{cite book \\|last\\=Maimonides\\|author\\-link\\=Maimonides \\|title\\=R. Moses b. Maimon Responsa\\|editor\\=Jehoshua Blau \\|volume\\=2 \\|edition\\= \\|date\\=1989 \\|publisher\\=Meḳitse nirdamim / Rubin Mass Ltd.\\|place\\=Jerusalem \\|page\\=658 (''responsum'' \\#376\\)\\|language\\=he \\|oclc\\=78411726 }} Likewise, the court has the power to confiscate the property of a fellow Jew who abandoned his religion, and to give his property unto his law\\-abiding children. Such powers of the court do not require the judges to have been given *[semikhah](/wiki/Semikhah%23Classical_semikhah \"Semikhah#Classical semikhah\")* in the classical sense.", "This principle has also allowed others to justify the introduction of public regulations in Jewish communities, in terms of [halacha](/wiki/Halacha \"Halacha\"). This justification was done by way of inference. First, the court has the ability to decide things that are not governed by a permanent law \\- the abandonment of property is just one example. Secondly, a court is an example of an institution that is agreed upon by the community and, hence, it can be said that the elected officials also meet this criterion and can therefore make an amendment to the Torah. That is, as long as they do not violate explicit prohibitions written in the Torah (excepting the provisions on monetary laws, which are permitted).", "### Examples of the law's implementation", "The [Tosefta](/wiki/Tosefta \"Tosefta\") (*Sheḳalim* 1:1\\) makes note of an early practice in Israel where the Beth Din would once annually, on the 15th day of the lunar month [Adar](/wiki/Adar \"Adar\"), send forth emissaries throughout the country to check for [klayim](/wiki/Kil%27ayim_%28prohibition%29 \"Kil'ayim (prohibition)\") \"mixed kinds\" growing in people's vineyards and fields, and where, if klayim were found growing together in a field or vineyard, the field or vineyard would be accounted as ownerless property, permitting others to enter that field and vineyard and to remove its crop.{{cite book\\|last\\=Elon\\|first\\=Menachem \\|author\\-link\\=Menachem Elon \\|title\\=Jewish Law: History, Sources, Principles (Ha\\-mišpaṭ ha\\-ʻivri \\- toldotav, meḳorotav, ʻiḳronotav)\\|volume\\=1 (parts I\\-II)\\|edition\\=2 \\|publisher\\=Hebrew University: Magnes Press\\|place\\=Jerusalem \\|year\\=1978\\|page\\=415\\|language\\=he \\|oclc\\=14813103 }}", "" ]
Biography --------- Clee was born in 1888 in [Thompsonville, Connecticut](/wiki/Thompsonville_%28Enfield%29 "Thompsonville (Enfield)"), to Frederick and Margaret (Kelley) Clee.Schwarz, J.S. [*Religious Leaders of America*](https://books.google.com/books?id=FTIZAAAAMAAJ) (1941\). At a young age he was forced by his father's illness to go to [Worcester, Massachusetts](/wiki/Worcester%2C_Massachusetts "Worcester, Massachusetts"), to work in a steel mill. He started a boys' club among his fellow mill workers and in 1908 began working for the [Young Men's Christian Association](/wiki/YMCA "YMCA") in [Quincy, Massachusetts](/wiki/Quincy%2C_Massachusetts "Quincy, Massachusetts").{{cite news \|title\=Dr. Lester H. Clee, Clergyman, Dies. Jersey Pastor Was G.O.P.'s Gubernatorial Choice in '37 Retired in 1950 Started a Boys' Club \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1962/03/16/archives/drlester\-h\-clee\-clergyman\-dies\-jersey\-pastor\-was\-gops\-gubernatorial.html \|quote\=The Rev. Dr. Lester H. Clee, retired pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church, Newark, and former Republican State Senator from Essex County, died of cancer today in Princeton Hospital. He was 73 years old and resided at 61 Little Brook Road. \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=March 16, 1962 \|accessdate\=2010\-03\-30 }} Clee married Katherine Steele on August 9, 1911\. [thumb\|West End Presbyterian Church](/wiki/File:West_End_Presbyterian_jeh.JPG "West End Presbyterian jeh.JPG") Clee educated himself for the ministry while serving as assistant to the pastor of West End Presbyterian Church in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") from 1918 to 1921\. His first pastorate was at the Rutherford Baptist Church in [Bergen County, New Jersey](/wiki/Bergen_County%2C_New_Jersey "Bergen County, New Jersey"), from 1921 to 1926, after which time he became pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church in [Newark, New Jersey](/wiki/Newark%2C_New_Jersey "Newark, New Jersey"). He served as pastor at the Newark church for nearly 25 years before retiring in 1950\. Clee was elected to the [New Jersey General Assembly](/wiki/New_Jersey_General_Assembly "New Jersey General Assembly") in 1934 on the [Essex County](/wiki/Essex_County%2C_New_Jersey "Essex County, New Jersey") Clean Government ticket. The following year he briefly served as Speaker of the Assembly before being elected to the [New Jersey Senate](/wiki/New_Jersey_Senate "New Jersey Senate"). In 1937 he became the Republican nominee for [Governor of New Jersey](/wiki/Governor_of_New_Jersey "Governor of New Jersey") against the [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "Democratic Party (United States)") candidate [A. Harry Moore](/wiki/A._Harry_Moore "A. Harry Moore"). Clee carried 15 of the state's 21 counties, but Moore won the election thanks to an overwhelming plurality of more than 45,000 votes in his home county of [Hudson](/wiki/Hudson_County%2C_New_Jersey "Hudson County, New Jersey"). The Hudson returns were widely suspected to be fraudulent, the result of political boss [Frank Hague](/wiki/Frank_Hague "Frank Hague")'s tight control on the county's electoral process.[*Boss*](https://web.archive.org/web/20101014094959/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,849228,00.html), *[Time](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 "Time (magazine)")*, May 20, 1940\. Accessed June 14, 2008\. Clee later served as chairman of the State Mediation Board under Governor [Alfred E. Driscoll](/wiki/Alfred_E._Driscoll "Alfred E. Driscoll"), and was also president of the State Civil Service Commission and a member of the State Parole Board. He moved to [Chester Borough](/wiki/Chester_Borough%2C_New_Jersey "Chester Borough, New Jersey") in 1950 and served as Borough Councilman and later as [Mayor of Chester Borough, New Jersey](/wiki/Mayor_of_Chester_Borough%2C_New_Jersey "Mayor of Chester Borough, New Jersey"). He moved to [Princeton](/wiki/Princeton%2C_New_Jersey "Princeton, New Jersey") in 1954\. His wife died in January 1954, and the following year he married Madeleine Dreier. Clee successfully petitioned for continuance of Bloomfield College and Seminary (now [Bloomfield College](/wiki/Bloomfield_College "Bloomfield College")) before the General Assembly of the [Presbyterian Church](/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_%28U.S.A.%29 "Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)"), with which it is affiliated. He served as a trustee and acting president of [Bloomfield College](/wiki/Bloomfield_College "Bloomfield College") from 1959 to 1960\. A dormitory, Clee Hall, was erected in his honor in 1961\. Clee died in 1962 in [Princeton, New Jersey](/wiki/Princeton%2C_New_Jersey "Princeton, New Jersey"), at the age of 73\.
[ "Biography\n---------", "Clee was born in 1888 in [Thompsonville, Connecticut](/wiki/Thompsonville_%28Enfield%29 \"Thompsonville (Enfield)\"), to Frederick and Margaret (Kelley) Clee.Schwarz, J.S. [*Religious Leaders of America*](https://books.google.com/books?id=FTIZAAAAMAAJ) (1941\\). At a young age he was forced by his father's illness to go to [Worcester, Massachusetts](/wiki/Worcester%2C_Massachusetts \"Worcester, Massachusetts\"), to work in a steel mill. He started a boys' club among his fellow mill workers and in 1908 began working for the [Young Men's Christian Association](/wiki/YMCA \"YMCA\") in [Quincy, Massachusetts](/wiki/Quincy%2C_Massachusetts \"Quincy, Massachusetts\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Dr. Lester H. Clee, Clergyman, Dies. Jersey Pastor Was G.O.P.'s Gubernatorial Choice in '37 Retired in 1950 Started a Boys' Club \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1962/03/16/archives/drlester\\-h\\-clee\\-clergyman\\-dies\\-jersey\\-pastor\\-was\\-gops\\-gubernatorial.html \\|quote\\=The Rev. Dr. Lester H. Clee, retired pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church, Newark, and former Republican State Senator from Essex County, died of cancer today in Princeton Hospital. He was 73 years old and resided at 61 Little Brook Road. \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=March 16, 1962 \\|accessdate\\=2010\\-03\\-30 }} Clee married Katherine Steele on August 9, 1911\\.", "[thumb\\|West End Presbyterian Church](/wiki/File:West_End_Presbyterian_jeh.JPG \"West End Presbyterian jeh.JPG\")\nClee educated himself for the ministry while serving as assistant to the pastor of West End Presbyterian Church in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") from 1918 to 1921\\. His first pastorate was at the Rutherford Baptist Church in [Bergen County, New Jersey](/wiki/Bergen_County%2C_New_Jersey \"Bergen County, New Jersey\"), from 1921 to 1926, after which time he became pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church in [Newark, New Jersey](/wiki/Newark%2C_New_Jersey \"Newark, New Jersey\"). He served as pastor at the Newark church for nearly 25 years before retiring in 1950\\.", "Clee was elected to the [New Jersey General Assembly](/wiki/New_Jersey_General_Assembly \"New Jersey General Assembly\") in 1934 on the [Essex County](/wiki/Essex_County%2C_New_Jersey \"Essex County, New Jersey\") Clean Government ticket. The following year he briefly served as Speaker of the Assembly before being elected to the [New Jersey Senate](/wiki/New_Jersey_Senate \"New Jersey Senate\").", "In 1937 he became the Republican nominee for [Governor of New Jersey](/wiki/Governor_of_New_Jersey \"Governor of New Jersey\") against the [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\") candidate [A. Harry Moore](/wiki/A._Harry_Moore \"A. Harry Moore\"). Clee carried 15 of the state's 21 counties, but Moore won the election thanks to an overwhelming plurality of more than 45,000 votes in his home county of [Hudson](/wiki/Hudson_County%2C_New_Jersey \"Hudson County, New Jersey\"). The Hudson returns were widely suspected to be fraudulent, the result of political boss [Frank Hague](/wiki/Frank_Hague \"Frank Hague\")'s tight control on the county's electoral process.[*Boss*](https://web.archive.org/web/20101014094959/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,849228,00.html), *[Time](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 \"Time (magazine)\")*, May 20, 1940\\. Accessed June 14, 2008\\.", "Clee later served as chairman of the State Mediation Board under Governor [Alfred E. Driscoll](/wiki/Alfred_E._Driscoll \"Alfred E. Driscoll\"), and was also president of the State Civil Service Commission and a member of the State Parole Board. He moved to [Chester Borough](/wiki/Chester_Borough%2C_New_Jersey \"Chester Borough, New Jersey\") in 1950 and served as Borough Councilman and later as [Mayor of Chester Borough, New Jersey](/wiki/Mayor_of_Chester_Borough%2C_New_Jersey \"Mayor of Chester Borough, New Jersey\"). He moved to [Princeton](/wiki/Princeton%2C_New_Jersey \"Princeton, New Jersey\") in 1954\\. His wife died in January 1954, and the following year he married Madeleine Dreier.", "Clee successfully petitioned for continuance of Bloomfield College and Seminary (now [Bloomfield College](/wiki/Bloomfield_College \"Bloomfield College\")) before the General Assembly of the [Presbyterian Church](/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_%28U.S.A.%29 \"Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)\"), with which it is affiliated. He served as a trustee and acting president of [Bloomfield College](/wiki/Bloomfield_College \"Bloomfield College\") from 1959 to 1960\\. A dormitory, Clee Hall, was erected in his honor in 1961\\.", "Clee died in 1962 in [Princeton, New Jersey](/wiki/Princeton%2C_New_Jersey \"Princeton, New Jersey\"), at the age of 73\\.", "" ]
Biography --------- The father of Miloje Milojević, Dimitrije, an apparel merchant, was born in the village [Dedina](/wiki/Dedina "Dedina") near the town of [Kruševac](/wiki/Kru%C5%A1evac "Kruševac"). His last name was in fact Đorđević, but according to the custom at the time, he adopted a surname based on his father's first name. Dimitrije Milojević was rather musically gifted, being self\-taught in playing the flute. The mother of Miloje Milojević, Angelina, was born in Belgrade, in the Matić clerk's family. She was also musically gifted and took private [piano](/wiki/Piano "Piano") lessons. Miloje Milojević had a sister Vladislava, and brothers Vojislav, Vladislav, Branko, Milorad, and [Borivoje](/wiki/Borivoje_D._Milojevi%C4%87 "Borivoje D. Milojević"), a renowned biologist. Miloje Milojević began private [violin](/wiki/Violin "Violin") lessons at the age of five, with Karlo Mertl, an orchestra member of the [National Theatre in Belgrade](/wiki/National_Theatre_in_Belgrade "National Theatre in Belgrade"). His first piano teacher was his mother, Angelina. His father's sudden death turned the family life upside\-down. The changed financial situation made his mother, now a widow, move to [Novi Sad](/wiki/Novi_Sad "Novi Sad") where life was more affordable. The Milojević family lived in Novi Sad for six years. Miloje began his schooling in Novi Sad in his junior year at the Serbian Orthodox [High Gymnasium](/wiki/Gymnasium_Jovan_Jovanovi%C4%87_Zmaj "Gymnasium Jovan Jovanović Zmaj") (graduated 1904\). This school was well known for its music activities (Svetosavke besede). During his music education, Miloje Milojević received encouragement from composer [Isidor Bajić](/wiki/Isidor_Baji%C4%87 "Isidor Bajić") (1878–1915\), his secondary school music teacher. Milojević matriculated at the Faculty of Philosophy, [University of Belgrade](/wiki/University_of_Belgrade "University of Belgrade"), where he studied for three semesters (fall 1904 until spring 1906\): Germanics ([Miloš Trivunac](/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Trivunac "Miloš Trivunac")), comparative literature ([Bogdan Popović](/wiki/Bogdan_Popovi%C4%87 "Bogdan Popović")), Serbian language and literature ([Aleksandar Belić](/wiki/Aleksandar_Beli%C4%87 "Aleksandar Belić"), [Pavle Popović](/wiki/Pavle_Popovi%C4%87 "Pavle Popović"), and [Jovan Skerlić](/wiki/Jovan_Skerli%C4%87 "Jovan Skerlić")), and philosophy ([Branislav Petronijević](/wiki/Branislav_Petronijevi%C4%87 "Branislav Petronijević")). He concurrently attended Serbian music school (until 1907, and also later), where he studied music theory subjects and composition with [Stevan St. Mokranjac](/wiki/Stevan_Stojanovi%C4%87_Mokranjac "Stevan Stojanović Mokranjac") and piano with [Cvetko Manojlović](/wiki/Cvetko_Manojlovi%C4%87 "Cvetko Manojlović"). For the next five semesters (summer 1907–08 until summer 1909–10 academic year), Milojević continued his studies at the [Munich University](/wiki/Munich_University "Munich University") Philosophy Department, where he studied musicology (with [Adolf Sandberger](/wiki/Adolf_Sandberger "Adolf Sandberger") and [Theodor Kroyer](/wiki/Theodor_Kroyer "Theodor Kroyer")), literature, and philosophy disciplines. At the same time, Milojević attended Munich Music Academy, studying composition (with [Friedrich Klose](/wiki/Friedrich_Klose "Friedrich Klose")), piano ([Richard Meier\-Gschray](/wiki/Richard_Meier-Gschray "Richard Meier-Gschray")), and conducting with score reading ([Felix Mottl](/wiki/Felix_Mottl "Felix Mottl")). He graduated from [Munich Music Academy](/wiki/Munich_Music_Academy "Munich Music Academy") in June 1910\. Between 1 September 1910 and 1 March 1911, Milojević served his military duty for the [Kingdom of Serbia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia "Kingdom of Serbia"), in the student squadron. While in military service, he was appointed a music teacher in the Fourth Belgrade Gymnasium, and the same year also started teaching in the Serbian Music School. In 1912, he founded the Serbian Music School Teachers’ Chamber Society. This event initiated the nurturing of [chamber music](/wiki/Chamber_music "Chamber music") in Belgrade on a more regular basis. In the fall of 1912, at the onset of the [First Balkan War](/wiki/First_Balkan_War "First Balkan War"), Milojević was drafted as a sergeant for the Dunav Division cavalry squadron. Following the outbreak of World War I he was appointed to the Supreme Command headquarters (until 1917\). He crossed Albania with the Serbian Army ([Serbian army's retreat through Albania](/wiki/Serbian_army%27s_retreat_through_Albania_%28World_War_I%29 "Serbian army's retreat through Albania (World War I)")). In 1917, Milojević was in service for the Kingdom of Serbia Ministry of Education, during which he was sent to [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") to the Committee for Cultural Affairs. He remained in France from 1917 until mid 1919\. During the entire war, he remained involved with composing; he also performed at concerts of Serbians music in Nice, Monte Carlo, Lyon, and Paris as a piano accompanist, and held a public lecture about modern Serbian music in Paris. In 1919, Milojević returned to Belgrade and developed an extraordinary rich music career as a composer, musicologist, music critic, [folklorist](/wiki/Folklorist "Folklorist"), music pedagogue, conductor, and organizer of music affairs. At first, he returned to his previous teaching positions at the gymnasium and music school. Concurrently, from 1920 until the beginning of 1922 he also held the conductor position with the Academic Singing Society “Obilić”. In fall 1922 he was appointed an assistant professor of Music History at the [Belgrade University Faculty of Philosophy](/wiki/University_of_Belgrade_Faculty_of_Philosophy "University of Belgrade Faculty of Philosophy"). Soon afterward he turned to completing his musicology studies and earned his doctorate degree at the [Charles University in Prague](/wiki/Charles_University_in_Prague "Charles University in Prague") (1925\). Upon returning to Belgrade, he was a Docent and an associate professor of Music History until 1939\. At the same time, up until 1946 he also taught at the Music School in Belgrade—previously Serbian Music School (principal 1943–46\). In 1939 he became a professor of composition and theory disciplines at the Music Academy in Belgrade. During World War II Milojević was arrested (1941\) by fascist authorities. During the heavy bombing of Belgrade by the American forces on Easter Day in 1944, his house on 16 Nemanjina Street in Belgrade was demolished, leaving him wounded. Of a diminished health condition, starting in February 1946, he was no longer able to continue teaching at the Music Academy. After the liberation, as a formality, he was appointed to the Music Academy Institute of Musicology managed at the time by musicologist and pianist [Stana Đurić\-Klajn](/wiki/Stana_%C4%90uri%C4%87-Klajn "Stana Đurić-Klajn") (now [Institute of Musicology of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts](/wiki/Institute_of_Musicology_of_the_Serbian_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Arts "Institute of Musicology of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts"), SASA). Milojevic died 16 June 1946 in Belgrade. Milojević was married (from 1907\) to a vocalist and music pedagogue Ivanka Milutinović (1881–1975\). They had one daughter, Gordana (1911–2003\), a pianist and music pedagogue. Nephew Đorđe (1921–1986\), the son of Borivoje, was a violoncellist and a composer. The grandson of Miloje Milojević is a composer and member of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, [Vlastimir Trajković](/wiki/Vlastimir_Trajkovi%C4%87 "Vlastimir Trajković") (1947\), Professor of Composition and Orchestration at the Faculty of Music, University of Arts, in Belgrade.
[ "Biography\n---------", "The father of Miloje Milojević, Dimitrije, an apparel merchant, was born in the village [Dedina](/wiki/Dedina \"Dedina\") near the town of [Kruševac](/wiki/Kru%C5%A1evac \"Kruševac\"). His last name was in fact Đorđević, but according to the custom at the time, he adopted a surname based on his father's first name. Dimitrije Milojević was rather musically gifted, being self\\-taught in playing the flute. The mother of Miloje Milojević, Angelina, was born in Belgrade, in the Matić clerk's family. She was also musically gifted and took private [piano](/wiki/Piano \"Piano\") lessons. Miloje Milojević had a sister Vladislava, and brothers Vojislav, Vladislav, Branko, Milorad, and [Borivoje](/wiki/Borivoje_D._Milojevi%C4%87 \"Borivoje D. Milojević\"), a renowned biologist.", "Miloje Milojević began private [violin](/wiki/Violin \"Violin\") lessons at the age of five, with Karlo Mertl, an orchestra member of the [National Theatre in Belgrade](/wiki/National_Theatre_in_Belgrade \"National Theatre in Belgrade\"). His first piano teacher was his mother, Angelina. His father's sudden death turned the family life upside\\-down. The changed financial situation made his mother, now a widow, move to [Novi Sad](/wiki/Novi_Sad \"Novi Sad\") where life was more affordable. The Milojević family lived in Novi Sad for six years. Miloje began his schooling in Novi Sad in his junior year at the Serbian Orthodox [High Gymnasium](/wiki/Gymnasium_Jovan_Jovanovi%C4%87_Zmaj \"Gymnasium Jovan Jovanović Zmaj\") (graduated 1904\\). This school was well known for its music activities (Svetosavke besede). During his music education, Miloje Milojević received encouragement from composer [Isidor Bajić](/wiki/Isidor_Baji%C4%87 \"Isidor Bajić\") (1878–1915\\), his secondary school music teacher.", "Milojević matriculated at the Faculty of Philosophy, [University of Belgrade](/wiki/University_of_Belgrade \"University of Belgrade\"), where he studied for three semesters (fall 1904 until spring 1906\\): Germanics ([Miloš Trivunac](/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Trivunac \"Miloš Trivunac\")), comparative literature ([Bogdan Popović](/wiki/Bogdan_Popovi%C4%87 \"Bogdan Popović\")), Serbian language and literature ([Aleksandar Belić](/wiki/Aleksandar_Beli%C4%87 \"Aleksandar Belić\"), [Pavle Popović](/wiki/Pavle_Popovi%C4%87 \"Pavle Popović\"), and [Jovan Skerlić](/wiki/Jovan_Skerli%C4%87 \"Jovan Skerlić\")), and philosophy ([Branislav Petronijević](/wiki/Branislav_Petronijevi%C4%87 \"Branislav Petronijević\")). He concurrently attended Serbian music school (until 1907, and also later), where he studied music theory subjects and composition with [Stevan St. Mokranjac](/wiki/Stevan_Stojanovi%C4%87_Mokranjac \"Stevan Stojanović Mokranjac\") and piano with [Cvetko Manojlović](/wiki/Cvetko_Manojlovi%C4%87 \"Cvetko Manojlović\").", "For the next five semesters (summer 1907–08 until summer 1909–10 academic year), Milojević continued his studies at the [Munich University](/wiki/Munich_University \"Munich University\") Philosophy Department, where he studied musicology (with [Adolf Sandberger](/wiki/Adolf_Sandberger \"Adolf Sandberger\") and [Theodor Kroyer](/wiki/Theodor_Kroyer \"Theodor Kroyer\")), literature, and philosophy disciplines. At the same time, Milojević attended Munich Music Academy, studying composition (with [Friedrich Klose](/wiki/Friedrich_Klose \"Friedrich Klose\")), piano ([Richard Meier\\-Gschray](/wiki/Richard_Meier-Gschray \"Richard Meier-Gschray\")), and conducting with score reading ([Felix Mottl](/wiki/Felix_Mottl \"Felix Mottl\")). He graduated from [Munich Music Academy](/wiki/Munich_Music_Academy \"Munich Music Academy\") in June 1910\\.", "Between 1 September 1910 and 1 March 1911, Milojević served his military duty for the [Kingdom of Serbia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia \"Kingdom of Serbia\"), in the student squadron. While in military service, he was appointed a music teacher in the Fourth Belgrade Gymnasium, and the same year also started teaching in the Serbian Music School. In 1912, he founded the Serbian Music School Teachers’ Chamber Society. This event initiated the nurturing of [chamber music](/wiki/Chamber_music \"Chamber music\") in Belgrade on a more regular basis.", "In the fall of 1912, at the onset of the [First Balkan War](/wiki/First_Balkan_War \"First Balkan War\"), Milojević was drafted as a sergeant for the Dunav Division cavalry squadron. Following the outbreak of World War I he was appointed to the Supreme Command headquarters (until 1917\\). He crossed Albania with the Serbian Army ([Serbian army's retreat through Albania](/wiki/Serbian_army%27s_retreat_through_Albania_%28World_War_I%29 \"Serbian army's retreat through Albania (World War I)\")). In 1917, Milojević was in service for the Kingdom of Serbia Ministry of Education, during which he was sent to [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") to the Committee for Cultural Affairs. He remained in France from 1917 until mid 1919\\. During the entire war, he remained involved with composing; he also performed at concerts of Serbians music in Nice, Monte Carlo, Lyon, and Paris as a piano accompanist, and held a public lecture about modern Serbian music in Paris.", "In 1919, Milojević returned to Belgrade and developed an extraordinary rich music career as a composer, musicologist, music critic, [folklorist](/wiki/Folklorist \"Folklorist\"), music pedagogue, conductor, and organizer of music affairs. At first, he returned to his previous teaching positions at the gymnasium and music school. Concurrently, from 1920 until the beginning of 1922 he also held the conductor position with the Academic Singing Society “Obilić”. In fall 1922 he was appointed an assistant professor of Music History at the [Belgrade University Faculty of Philosophy](/wiki/University_of_Belgrade_Faculty_of_Philosophy \"University of Belgrade Faculty of Philosophy\"). Soon afterward he turned to completing his musicology studies and earned his doctorate degree at the [Charles University in Prague](/wiki/Charles_University_in_Prague \"Charles University in Prague\") (1925\\). Upon returning to Belgrade, he was a Docent and an associate professor of Music History until 1939\\. At the same time, up until 1946 he also taught at the Music School in Belgrade—previously Serbian Music School (principal 1943–46\\). In 1939 he became a professor of composition and theory disciplines at the Music Academy in Belgrade. During World War II Milojević was arrested (1941\\) by fascist authorities. During the heavy bombing of Belgrade by the American forces on Easter Day in 1944, his house on 16 Nemanjina Street in Belgrade was demolished, leaving him wounded. Of a diminished health condition, starting in February 1946, he was no longer able to continue teaching at the Music Academy. After the liberation, as a formality, he was appointed to the Music Academy Institute of Musicology managed at the time by musicologist and pianist [Stana Đurić\\-Klajn](/wiki/Stana_%C4%90uri%C4%87-Klajn \"Stana Đurić-Klajn\") (now [Institute of Musicology of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts](/wiki/Institute_of_Musicology_of_the_Serbian_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Arts \"Institute of Musicology of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts\"), SASA). Milojevic died 16 June 1946 in Belgrade.", "Milojević was married (from 1907\\) to a vocalist and music pedagogue Ivanka Milutinović (1881–1975\\). They had one daughter, Gordana (1911–2003\\), a pianist and music pedagogue. Nephew Đorđe (1921–1986\\), the son of Borivoje, was a violoncellist and a composer. The grandson of Miloje Milojević is a composer and member of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, [Vlastimir Trajković](/wiki/Vlastimir_Trajkovi%C4%87 \"Vlastimir Trajković\") (1947\\), Professor of Composition and Orchestration at the Faculty of Music, University of Arts, in Belgrade.", "" ]
Composer -------- Together with [Petar Konjović](/wiki/Petar_Konjovi%C4%87 "Petar Konjović") and [Stevan Hristić](/wiki/Stevan_Hristi%C4%87 "Stevan Hristić"), Miloje Milojević represented a generation of composers who introduced modern styles and a high compositional technical level to Serbian music. In the beginning phase of his creative development, Milojevic set out from the Serbian Romanticist national school ([Stevan Mokranjac](/wiki/Stevan_Mokranjac "Stevan Mokranjac") and [Josif Marinković](/wiki/Josif_Marinkovi%C4%87 "Josif Marinković")). During his studies in Munich, he discovered German New Romanticism and became closely involved with the music of [Richard Strauss](/wiki/Richard_Strauss "Richard Strauss"). His stay in [France](/wiki/France "France") resulted with even stronger impressions. The influence of French [Impressionism](/wiki/Impressionism "Impressionism") was decisive in Milojević's stylistic development. While in Prague, working on his dissertation, he made contacts with Czech avant\-garde composers. In certain works, Milojević turned to expressionism. Throughout his life, though, he preserved his affinity toward the national style—toward folklore as a foundation of art music. Thus, the last stage of his creative work is characterized by utilizing folk melodies amidst the stylistic blend of Neo\-romanticist and Impressionist elements. The most prominent areas of his output are [lieds](/wiki/Lied "Lied") and [character pieces](/wiki/Character_piece "Character piece") for the piano, but he also wrote choral and chamber works. In his Lied, Milojević used Serbian, Croat, French, German, and Japanese poetry. His interpretation of the lyrics was realized by supple melodies and rich harmonic palette of the piano part. Among his pieces for voice and piano, it is important to note the following: *Before the Magnificence of Nature* (*Pred veličanstvom prirode*), a collection of ten songs, was conceived between 1908 and 1920\. This song cycle features all the elements representative of Milojević as a composer of this genre (Serbian romanticist Lied, influences of R. Strauss, and Impressionism). Among the most successful Lieder in this cycle are *The Autumn Elegy (Jesenja elegija), The Eagle song (Pesma orla), Japan, The Nymph, and The Bells (Zvona)*. About fifteen Lieder composed in France in 1917 after the lyrics by French poets were influenced by Impressionism, the best known among them being *Berceuse triste* (*Tužna uspavanka*). From his later period, important ones include *The Three songs for high voice* (*Tri pesme za visoki glas*), the most remarkable being “A very hot day” from 1924 (“Vrlo topli dan”), composed upon German lyrics, and *Haikai* (*Hai\-kai*), after the poetry of Japanese poet [Matsuo Bashō](/wiki/Matsuo_Bash%C5%8D "Matsuo Bashō"), from 1942\. These works merge impressionistic and expressionistic elements. *A Field feast* (*Gozba na livadi*), “a lyrical symphony for voice and orchestra” (1939\) represents the first example of symphonic Lied in Serbian music. Milojević also wrote choral music. His activities in this genre encompass simple, unassuming music for children's and youth choirs to complex works. The most significant include: *How green is the long field* (*Dugo se polje zeleni*) (1909\), a miniature for mixed choir, after the lyrics of [Vojislav Ilić](/wiki/Vojislav_Ili%C4%87 "Vojislav Ilić"); dramatic ballad *Presentiment* (*Slutnja*) (1912\), marked by Neo\-romanticist chromaticism and polyphony, and considered among masterpieces of Serbian choral literature; and cycle *The Feast of illusions* (*Pir iluzija*) (1924\), after poetry of [Miroslav Krleža](/wiki/Miroslav_Krle%C5%BEa "Miroslav Krleža") (*Evening decorations* (*Večernje dekoracije*), *Triptych* (*Triptih*), and *Dark gloomy afternoon* (*Crno sumorno popodne*)), a work of modern expression and high technical demands regarding choral texture. Milojević's most popular choral composition, *The Fly and a Mosquito* (*Muha i komarac*) (1930\), is a humorous scherzando piece written upon folk text and utilizing tone painting. This effective work is often compared to *The Goat\-herd* (*Kozar*) by S. Mokranjac. Milojević also wrote sacred music (two liturgies, three *opelos* (Orthodox Requiem), a particularly successful piece being *A Short Opelo in b\-flat minor* (*Kratko Opelo u b\-mollu*), for men's choir (1920\). Miloje Milojević is one of the most significant Serbian composers of piano music. By their high artistic qualities, his *Four piano pieces* (*Četiri komada za klavir*) (1917\), marked a shift in the history of Serbian piano music. His highly successful collections *Cameos* (*Kameje*) (1937–42\) and *My mother* (*Moja majka*) (1943\) are characterized by the synergy of Neo\-romanticism and Impressionism. His cycles entitled *Melodies and rhythms from the Balkans* (*Melodije i ritmovi sa Balkana*), *The Kosovo suite* (*Kosovska svita*), and *The [Povardarie](/wiki/Povardarie "Povardarie") suite* (*Povardarska svita*) (all from 1942\), are all based on folklore and Milojević's own folk transcriptions. These works feature impressionistic solutions, but also a somewhat robust use of folklore similar to [Béla Bartók](/wiki/B%C3%A9la_Bart%C3%B3k "Béla Bartók"). His work *Rhythmical grimaces* (*Ritmičke grimase*) (1935\), a stride toward Expressionism, occupies a special place in his oeuvre, whereas the piano is treated in a somewhat percussionist way, certain places are void of meter markings, and the harmonic aspect is characterized by the departure from tonality and use of tone clusters. Milojević was less prolific in the genre of orchestral music. Among his orchestral compositions is *The Death of the Jugović mother* (*Smrt majke Jugovića*) (1921\), with glimpses of R. Strauss's influences. This work somewhat exhibits insufficiencies in the aspects of thematic development and orchestral sound. His suite for string orchestra, *Intimacy* (*Intima*) (1939\), built on the re\-la\-do\-mi\-la motive, deems far more successful. While featuring six movements and several moods (depicted by the subtitles), this composition demonstrates coherency and rich sound colour. Miloje Milojević wrote a number of [chamber](/wiki/Chamber_music "Chamber music") works. He composed two string quartets (in G\-major, 1905 and in c\-minor, 1906\), the G\-major quartet being the first work of this genre in Serbian music. He also composed two sonatas for violin and piano (in b\-minor, 1924 and in d\-minor 1943\), *Sonata for flute and piano in f\-sharp minor* (1944\) and *Sonata in g* for viola solo (1944\). The most substantial among these works is Sonata for violin and piano in b\-minor, a piece of sturdy structure and great expressivity ranging from discrete lyricism to passionate drama. One of Milojević's most distinct works belongs to stage music — *Le balai du valet* (*Sobareva metla*) (1923\), a ballett grotesque upon a surrealist text by [Marko Ristić](/wiki/Marko_Risti%C4%87_%28surrealist%29 "Marko Ristić (surrealist)"). Miloje Milojević is represented in the *Anthology of Serbian piano music* (vol. 1, no. 1, selection by Dejan Despić, Vlastimir Peričić, Dušan Trbojević, and Marija Kovač; editing: Vlastimir Trajković; Belgrade: Composers’ Association of Serbia, CAS, 2005, pp. 30–96\), with *Four piano pieces*, op. 23, *Cameos*, impressions for piano, op. 51, and *Visions*, op. 65\. He is also represented in the *Anthology of Serbian Lied* (no. 1, selection and foreword by Ana Stefanović, Belgrade: CAS, 2008, p. 49–101\) with “The Nymph” (“Nimfa”), op. 9, no. 1 form the cycle *Before the Magnificence of Nature*; “The Autumn elegy” (“Jesenja elegija”), op. 5, no. 1; “The Prayer of the Jugović mother to the Evening star” (“Molitva majke Jugovića zvezdi Danici”), op. 31, no. 1; *L’heure exquise* (*Zanosni čas*), op. 21, no. 1; *Vigil* (*Bdenje*), op. 22, no.1; *Do you remember, too?* (*Dal’ se sećas i ti?*), op. 46, no. 1; *Two Quatrains of Al\-Ghazali* (*Dva Al\-Gazalijeva katrena*), op. 46, no. 2; *Two blue legends of [Jovan Dučić](/wiki/Jovan_Du%C4%8Di%C4%87 "Jovan Dučić")* (*Dve Dučićeve Plave legende*), op. 34 (“A Little princess” (“Mala princeza”) and “Love” (“Ljubav”)); “A Very hot day,” op. 67, no. 1, from the cycle *Three songs for high voice and piano*, op. 67; *La flûte de jade*, op. 39, for tenor, soprano, flute, violin, and piano (“Since she left” (“Od kada je otišla”) and “In the shade of an orange leaf” (“U senci narandžina lista”); and “Spring rain,” (“Prolećna kiša”), op. 45, no. 2\.
[ "Composer\n--------", "Together with [Petar Konjović](/wiki/Petar_Konjovi%C4%87 \"Petar Konjović\") and [Stevan Hristić](/wiki/Stevan_Hristi%C4%87 \"Stevan Hristić\"), Miloje Milojević represented a generation of composers who introduced modern styles and a high compositional technical level to Serbian music. In the beginning phase of his creative development, Milojevic set out from the Serbian Romanticist national school ([Stevan Mokranjac](/wiki/Stevan_Mokranjac \"Stevan Mokranjac\") and [Josif Marinković](/wiki/Josif_Marinkovi%C4%87 \"Josif Marinković\")). During his studies in Munich, he discovered German New Romanticism and became closely involved with the music of [Richard Strauss](/wiki/Richard_Strauss \"Richard Strauss\"). His stay in [France](/wiki/France \"France\") resulted with even stronger impressions. The influence of French [Impressionism](/wiki/Impressionism \"Impressionism\") was decisive in Milojević's stylistic development. While in Prague, working on his dissertation, he made contacts with Czech avant\\-garde composers. In certain works, Milojević turned to expressionism. Throughout his life, though, he preserved his affinity toward the national style—toward folklore as a foundation of art music. Thus, the last stage of his creative work is characterized by utilizing folk melodies amidst the stylistic blend of Neo\\-romanticist and Impressionist elements.", "The most prominent areas of his output are [lieds](/wiki/Lied \"Lied\") and [character pieces](/wiki/Character_piece \"Character piece\") for the piano, but he also wrote choral and chamber works.", "In his Lied, Milojević used Serbian, Croat, French, German, and Japanese poetry. His interpretation of the lyrics was realized by supple melodies and rich harmonic palette of the piano part. Among his pieces for voice and piano, it is important to note the following:", "*Before the Magnificence of Nature* (*Pred veličanstvom prirode*), a collection of ten songs, was conceived between 1908 and 1920\\. This song cycle features all the elements representative of Milojević as a composer of this genre (Serbian romanticist Lied, influences of R. Strauss, and Impressionism). Among the most successful Lieder in this cycle are *The Autumn Elegy (Jesenja elegija), The Eagle song (Pesma orla), Japan, The Nymph, and The Bells (Zvona)*.", "About fifteen Lieder composed in France in 1917 after the lyrics by French poets were influenced by Impressionism, the best known among them being *Berceuse triste* (*Tužna uspavanka*). From his later period, important ones include *The Three songs for high voice* (*Tri pesme za visoki glas*), the most remarkable being “A very hot day” from 1924 (“Vrlo topli dan”), composed upon German lyrics, and *Haikai* (*Hai\\-kai*), after the poetry of Japanese poet [Matsuo Bashō](/wiki/Matsuo_Bash%C5%8D \"Matsuo Bashō\"), from 1942\\. These works merge impressionistic and expressionistic elements.", "*A Field feast* (*Gozba na livadi*), “a lyrical symphony for voice and orchestra” (1939\\) represents the first example of symphonic Lied in Serbian music.", "Milojević also wrote choral music. His activities in this genre encompass simple, unassuming music for children's and youth choirs to complex works. The most significant include: *How green is the long field* (*Dugo se polje zeleni*) (1909\\), a miniature for mixed choir, after the lyrics of [Vojislav Ilić](/wiki/Vojislav_Ili%C4%87 \"Vojislav Ilić\"); dramatic ballad *Presentiment* (*Slutnja*) (1912\\), marked by Neo\\-romanticist chromaticism and polyphony, and considered among masterpieces of Serbian choral literature; and cycle *The Feast of illusions* (*Pir iluzija*) (1924\\), after poetry of [Miroslav Krleža](/wiki/Miroslav_Krle%C5%BEa \"Miroslav Krleža\") (*Evening decorations* (*Večernje dekoracije*), *Triptych* (*Triptih*), and *Dark gloomy afternoon* (*Crno sumorno popodne*)), a work of modern expression and high technical demands regarding choral texture. Milojević's most popular choral composition, *The Fly and a Mosquito* (*Muha i komarac*) (1930\\), is a humorous scherzando piece written upon folk text and utilizing tone painting. This effective work is often compared to *The Goat\\-herd* (*Kozar*) by S. Mokranjac. Milojević also wrote sacred music (two liturgies, three *opelos* (Orthodox Requiem), a particularly successful piece being *A Short Opelo in b\\-flat minor* (*Kratko Opelo u b\\-mollu*), for men's choir (1920\\).", "Miloje Milojević is one of the most significant Serbian composers of piano music. By their high artistic qualities, his *Four piano pieces* (*Četiri komada za klavir*) (1917\\), marked a shift in the history of Serbian piano music. His highly successful collections *Cameos* (*Kameje*) (1937–42\\) and *My mother* (*Moja majka*) (1943\\) are characterized by the synergy of Neo\\-romanticism and Impressionism. His cycles entitled *Melodies and rhythms from the Balkans* (*Melodije i ritmovi sa Balkana*), *The Kosovo suite* (*Kosovska svita*), and *The [Povardarie](/wiki/Povardarie \"Povardarie\") suite* (*Povardarska svita*) (all from 1942\\), are all based on folklore and Milojević's own folk transcriptions. These works feature impressionistic solutions, but also a somewhat robust use of folklore similar to [Béla Bartók](/wiki/B%C3%A9la_Bart%C3%B3k \"Béla Bartók\"). His work *Rhythmical grimaces* (*Ritmičke grimase*) (1935\\), a stride toward Expressionism, occupies a special place in his oeuvre, whereas the piano is treated in a somewhat percussionist way, certain places are void of meter markings, and the harmonic aspect is characterized by the departure from tonality and use of tone clusters.", "Milojević was less prolific in the genre of orchestral music. Among his orchestral compositions is *The Death of the Jugović mother* (*Smrt majke Jugovića*) (1921\\), with glimpses of R. Strauss's influences. This work somewhat exhibits insufficiencies in the aspects of thematic development and orchestral sound. His suite for string orchestra, *Intimacy* (*Intima*) (1939\\), built on the re\\-la\\-do\\-mi\\-la motive, deems far more successful. While featuring six movements and several moods (depicted by the subtitles), this composition demonstrates coherency and rich sound colour.", "Miloje Milojević wrote a number of [chamber](/wiki/Chamber_music \"Chamber music\") works. He composed two string quartets (in G\\-major, 1905 and in c\\-minor, 1906\\), the G\\-major quartet being the first work of this genre in Serbian music. He also composed two sonatas for violin and piano (in b\\-minor, 1924 and in d\\-minor 1943\\), *Sonata for flute and piano in f\\-sharp minor* (1944\\) and *Sonata in g* for viola solo (1944\\). The most substantial among these works is Sonata for violin and piano in b\\-minor, a piece of sturdy structure and great expressivity ranging from discrete lyricism to passionate drama.", "One of Milojević's most distinct works belongs to stage music — *Le balai du valet* (*Sobareva metla*) (1923\\), a ballett grotesque upon a surrealist text by [Marko Ristić](/wiki/Marko_Risti%C4%87_%28surrealist%29 \"Marko Ristić (surrealist)\").", "Miloje Milojević is represented in the *Anthology of Serbian piano music* (vol. 1, no. 1, selection by Dejan Despić, Vlastimir Peričić, Dušan Trbojević, and Marija Kovač; editing: Vlastimir Trajković; Belgrade: Composers’ Association of Serbia, CAS, 2005, pp. 30–96\\), with *Four piano pieces*, op. 23, *Cameos*, impressions for piano, op. 51, and *Visions*, op. 65\\. He is also represented in the *Anthology of Serbian Lied* (no. 1, selection and foreword by Ana Stefanović, Belgrade: CAS, 2008, p. 49–101\\) with “The Nymph” (“Nimfa”), op. 9, no. 1 form the cycle *Before the Magnificence of Nature*; “The Autumn elegy” (“Jesenja elegija”), op. 5, no. 1; “The Prayer of the Jugović mother to the Evening star” (“Molitva majke Jugovića zvezdi Danici”), op. 31, no. 1; *L’heure exquise* (*Zanosni čas*), op. 21, no. 1; *Vigil* (*Bdenje*), op. 22, no.1; *Do you remember, too?* (*Dal’ se sećas i ti?*), op. 46, no. 1; *Two Quatrains of Al\\-Ghazali* (*Dva Al\\-Gazalijeva katrena*), op. 46, no. 2; *Two blue legends of [Jovan Dučić](/wiki/Jovan_Du%C4%8Di%C4%87 \"Jovan Dučić\")* (*Dve Dučićeve Plave legende*), op. 34 (“A Little princess” (“Mala princeza”) and “Love” (“Ljubav”)); “A Very hot day,” op. 67, no. 1, from the cycle *Three songs for high voice and piano*, op. 67; *La flûte de jade*, op. 39, for tenor, soprano, flute, violin, and piano (“Since she left” (“Od kada je otišla”) and “In the shade of an orange leaf” (“U senci narandžina lista”); and “Spring rain,” (“Prolećna kiša”), op. 45, no. 2\\.", "" ]
Musicologist, music critic, folklorist, and music promoter ---------------------------------------------------------- Milojević was the first Serbian to hold a doctorate in [musicology](/wiki/Musicology "Musicology"). His dissertation, defended at the Charles University in Prague and entitled [Smetana](/wiki/Bed%C5%99ich_Smetana "Bedřich Smetana")’s harmonic style addressed issues of systematic musicology (Belgrade: Grafički Institut “Narodna misao,” A. D, 1926\). His monograph Smetana—life and works, a pioneer work in thematic and genre terms in Serbian musicology, occupies a notable place among his musicological studies (Belgrade: S. B. Cvijanović, 1924\). In his study entitled Music and Orthodox Church (Muzika i Pravoslavna crkva), he opened up the research of Serbian church music toward comparative disciplines such as music Byzantology and Oriental studies ([Sremski Karlovci](/wiki/Sremski_Karlovci "Sremski Karlovci"): “An annual and calendar of Serbian Orthodox Patriarchy for simple 1933,” 1932, pp. 115–135\). His pedagogical work in musicology was also very important. He taught history and theory of music at the Belgrade University School of Philosophy from 1922 to 1939 (Assistant Professor since 1922, Docent since 1927, and associate professor since 1934\). These were the pioneering and until present day the only lectures in those disciplines at that institution. Milojević did not hold an independent office; his courses belonged to the Department for Classical Archeology and Art History, and then Department for Comparative Literature and Literature Theory, and finally the Department for Serbian Literature. Music history was at the time studied as a minor course at the departments for general history, and comparative literature and literature theory. Attempts to open a musicology department were not materialized. By the act of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia Education Minister, on 4 April 1930 a Seminar for Musicology was founded at the School of Philosophy and Milojević became its first director. However, the degree granting possibility in musicology has never existed at the School where Miloje Milojević worked. Milojević's university courses were thematically and chronologically rather diverse and attracted a large number of attendants. He was an extraordinary speaker and lecturer. The Belgrade Faculty of Music Library stores his unfinished textbook on music history. This was the first comprehensive work on music history by a Serbian author since the textbook entitled *A History of Music* (1921\) by [Ljubomir Bošnjaković](/wiki/Ljubomir_Bo%C5%A1njakovi%C4%87 "Ljubomir Bošnjaković"). Another voluminous material in manuscript form, *A History of Music* by Božidar Joksimović, completed in 1926 (400 pages), still unpublished is kept at the Archives of the SASA Institute of Musicology in Belgrade. Miloje Milojević was also a Serbian music critic and essayist of the first half of the 20th century, and one among the most significant music critics and writers in the history of Serbian music. He published over a thousand critiques, studies, essays, treatises, reviews, obituaries and notes in a large number of various daily papers, and literary and other periodicals. He was a music critic of the most relevant Serbian literary periodical during the first half of the 20th century, the “[Serbian Literary Herald](/wiki/Serbian_Literary_Herald "Serbian Literary Herald"),” from 1908 to 1941\. He was also a music critic for “[Politika](/wiki/Politika "Politika"),” the most influential daily paper in Serbia, from 1921 to 1941\. The significance of his writings on music is multifold. In his essays and critiques, he provided for Serbian and Yugoslav audiences critical information about a number or events, personalities, phenomena, and issues on older and newer European music. A luminary and communicator of art music and its history, Milojević exceeded his duties of a disseminator of knowledge and information, and in his writings always presented a certain critical position. In his numerous evaluations of national composers’ contemporary output, he offered objective assessments, later largely adopted in Serbian musicology. A passionate proponent of the Slavophil and Yugoslav ideology, he nonetheless did not allow ideology to rule over aesthetics. Thus, the autonomy of art and primacy of aesthetic values were never questioned in his writings. His breadth of education, exceptional awareness of developments in European music, including the avant\-garde, and knowledge of German, French, Czech, and English musicology literature, enabled Milojević to exercise an ardent, invigorating writing style, without neglecting factual and expertise layers in his writings. The Serbian postwar musicology did not approvingly view the stylistic aspect of his writings. Consequently, after his death, he was to a degree, and certainly unjustifiably underrated, and his writings were by all means insufficiently read. That was in any way, also the case in the relationship of Serbian postwar musicology toward the history of writing about music, as a branch of research and exploration in musicology. This discipline was deeply overshadowed by composition analysis, the priority of our musicology at the time. Only recently, primarily in the works by [Roksanda Pejović](/wiki/Roksanda_Pejovi%C4%87 "Roksanda Pejović"), [Slobodan Turlakov](/wiki/Slobodan_Turlakov "Slobodan Turlakov"), and Aleksandar Vasić, are the writings of Miloje Milojević being thoroughly examined and undertaking work on his bibliography and minute analysis of his texts being suggested. In Milojević's writings, noticeable is a friction between tradition and innovation, most apparent in his writings on contemporary music. His views on contemporary music were not straightforward, but rather vacillating, particularly in accepting radical avant\-garde practices. At the same time, he did not withhold from his audience information on events he personally did not endorse. A worthy example was his as early as 1912 text on [Arnold Schoenberg](/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg "Arnold Schoenberg") in the “Serbian Literary Herald.” He, however remained faithful to the ideas of national style in music and modernized music Romanticism. Milojević was also one of the editors of periodical the “Music” (Belgrade, January 1928 – March 1929\). Among the most superior music periodicals in Serbia and Yugoslavia prior to World War I, the “Music” had a decisive role in critical presentation of European music to the internal readers’ audience. This was especially corroborated by thematic volumes dedicated to Czech music, [Franz Schubert](/wiki/Franz_Schubert "Franz Schubert"), achievements of Polish and English music, and [Ludwig van Beethoven](/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven "Ludwig van Beethoven"). “Music” offered discussions on national style, and critically recorded events in Yugoslav, Slavic, and Western European art music cultures. During the interwar period, Milojević's textbook on the basics of music theory (*Basics of musical art* I–II, 1922–27; later under a new title The Basic theory of music, thirteen editions, until 1940\) was in use for a long time, as well as his handout course package in harmony, assembled from the well known textbook entitled *The Study of Harmony* (*Harmonielehre*) by [Rudolf Luis](/wiki/Rudolf_Luis "Rudolf Luis") and [Ludwig Thuille](/wiki/Ludwig_Thuille "Ludwig Thuille"). Milojević translated opera librettos for *[Eugene Onegin](/wiki/Eugene_Onegin "Eugene Onegin")* by A. S. Pushkin/[P. I. Tchaikovsky](/wiki/P._I._Tchaikovsky "P. I. Tchaikovsky") (1920\), *The Tales of Hoffman* by Jules Barbie – Мichel Carré/[Jacques Offenbach](/wiki/Jacques_Offenbach "Jacques Offenbach") (1921\), and *Manon* by Henry Meilhak – Philippe Jules/[Jules Massenet](/wiki/Jules_Massenet "Jules Massenet") (1924\). The selected writings of Miloje Milojević were published in three volumes entitled *Music studies and essays* (Belgrade: Géza Kohn (Geca Kon) publishing, I, 1926; II, 1933; Belgrade: edited by Gordana Trajković\-Milojević, author's publication, III, 1953\). Milojević's treatise *The Artistic ideology of Stevan St. Mokranjac*, published in 1938 in the “Serbian Literary Herald” is included in the anthology of Serbian music essayism entitled *Essays on Art*, edited by [Jovan Ćirilov](/wiki/Jovan_%C4%86irilov "Jovan Ćirilov") (drama), [Stana Đurić\-Klajn](/wiki/Stana_%C4%90uri%C4%87-Klajn "Stana Đurić-Klajn") (music), and [Lazar Trifunović](/wiki/Lazar_Trifunovi%C4%87 "Lazar Trifunović") (visual arts), published in 1966 (pp. 251–262\). In 1925–26 together with the group of university faculty, Milojević founded a university chamber music association “Collegium musicum” that played a major role in Belgrade interwar life. Between 21 April 1926 and 15 March 1940, “Collegium musicum” held sixty\-seven concerts and performed 417 compositions ranging from Baroque and Rococo pieces to the works of [Paul Hindemith](/wiki/Paul_Hindemith "Paul Hindemith") and [Igor Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky "Igor Stravinsky"). Milojević took part in these concerts as an organizer, lecturer, conductor, and piano accompanist. Within the auspices of the association, he started and edited sheet music publishing, an activity of extraordinary importance. Beside Milojević's compositions, “Collegium musicum” published a number of works by Serbian, Slovenian, and Croatian composers (chronologically): [Predrag Milošević](/wiki/Predrag_Milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87 "Predrag Milošević"), [Slavko Osterc](/wiki/Slavko_Osterc "Slavko Osterc"), [Lucijan Marija Škerjanc](/wiki/Lucijan_Marija_%C5%A0kerjanc "Lucijan Marija Škerjanc"), [Anton Neffat](/wiki/Anton_Neffat "Anton Neffat"), [Jakov Gotovac](/wiki/Jakov_Gotovac "Jakov Gotovac"), [Petar Konjović](/wiki/Petar_Konjovi%C4%87 "Petar Konjović"), [Božidar Sirola](/wiki/Bo%C5%BEidar_Sirola "Božidar Sirola"), [Milenko Živković](/wiki/Milenko_%C5%BDivkovi%C4%87 "Milenko Živković"), [Bogomir\-Bogo Leskovac](/wiki/Bogomir-Bogo_Leskovac "Bogomir-Bogo Leskovac"), and [Vojislav Vučković](/wiki/Vojislav_Vu%C4%8Dkovi%C4%87 "Vojislav Vučković"). In regard to such endeavor, Konjović remarked: “Through the activities of Miloje Milojević, ‘Collegium musicum’ by its selections, editorship, print and technical appearance, represented a big step toward Europization of Serbian and Yugoslav music culture” (compare with P. Konjović, *Miloje Milojević, composer and music writer*, Belgrade: SASA, 1954, 177\). Milojević was a regular piano accompanist at concerts of his wife, the first Serbian concert singer, Ivanka Milojević. As a folklorist, he explored, transcribed, and interpreted musical folklore of Kosovo and Metohija, [Macedonia](/wiki/Macedonia_%28region%29 "Macedonia (region)"), and Monte Negro. He produced a number of works in this field and transcribed nearly 900 melodies and dances. He was attracted to folklore, both as a researcher and a composer, thus was also fond of the idea of composing art music upon folk tunes. His folk transcriptions entitled Folk songs and dances from Kosovo and Metohija were published recently, edited by Dragoslav Dević (Belgrade: Zavod za udžbenike—Karić fondacija, 2004\). The music school in [Kragujevac](/wiki/Kragujevac "Kragujevac") bears the name of Miloje Milojević. His legacy, classified and catalogued is kept in the family archives of Milojević's grandson, academician [Vlastimir Trajković](/wiki/Vlastimir_Trajkovi%C4%87 "Vlastimir Trajković"), composer and Professor of Composition and Orchestration at the Faculty of Music in Belgrade.
[ "Musicologist, music critic, folklorist, and music promoter\n----------------------------------------------------------", "Milojević was the first Serbian to hold a doctorate in [musicology](/wiki/Musicology \"Musicology\"). His dissertation, defended at the Charles University in Prague and entitled [Smetana](/wiki/Bed%C5%99ich_Smetana \"Bedřich Smetana\")’s harmonic style addressed issues of systematic musicology (Belgrade: Grafički Institut “Narodna misao,” A. D, 1926\\). His monograph Smetana—life and works, a pioneer work in thematic and genre terms in Serbian musicology, occupies a notable place among his musicological studies (Belgrade: S. B. Cvijanović, 1924\\). In his study entitled Music and Orthodox Church (Muzika i Pravoslavna crkva), he opened up the research of Serbian church music toward comparative disciplines such as music Byzantology and Oriental studies ([Sremski Karlovci](/wiki/Sremski_Karlovci \"Sremski Karlovci\"): “An annual and calendar of Serbian Orthodox Patriarchy for simple 1933,” 1932, pp. 115–135\\).", "His pedagogical work in musicology was also very important. He taught history and theory of music at the Belgrade University School of Philosophy from 1922 to 1939 (Assistant Professor since 1922, Docent since 1927, and associate professor since 1934\\). These were the pioneering and until present day the only lectures in those disciplines at that institution. Milojević did not hold an independent office; his courses belonged to the Department for Classical Archeology and Art History, and then Department for Comparative Literature and Literature Theory, and finally the Department for Serbian Literature. Music history was at the time studied as a minor course at the departments for general history, and comparative literature and literature theory. Attempts to open a musicology department were not materialized. By the act of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia Education Minister, on 4 April 1930 a Seminar for Musicology was founded at the School of Philosophy and Milojević became its first director. However, the degree granting possibility in musicology has never existed at the School where Miloje Milojević worked.", "Milojević's university courses were thematically and chronologically rather diverse and attracted a large number of attendants. He was an extraordinary speaker and lecturer.", "The Belgrade Faculty of Music Library stores his unfinished textbook on music history. This was the first comprehensive work on music history by a Serbian author since the textbook entitled *A History of Music* (1921\\) by [Ljubomir Bošnjaković](/wiki/Ljubomir_Bo%C5%A1njakovi%C4%87 \"Ljubomir Bošnjaković\"). Another voluminous material in manuscript form, *A History of Music* by Božidar Joksimović, completed in 1926 (400 pages), still unpublished is kept at the Archives of the SASA Institute of Musicology in Belgrade.", "Miloje Milojević was also a Serbian music critic and essayist of the first half of the 20th century, and one among the most significant music critics and writers in the history of Serbian music. He published over a thousand critiques, studies, essays, treatises, reviews, obituaries and notes in a large number of various daily papers, and literary and other periodicals. He was a music critic of the most relevant Serbian literary periodical during the first half of the 20th century, the “[Serbian Literary Herald](/wiki/Serbian_Literary_Herald \"Serbian Literary Herald\"),” from 1908 to 1941\\. He was also a music critic for “[Politika](/wiki/Politika \"Politika\"),” the most influential daily paper in Serbia, from 1921 to 1941\\. The significance of his writings on music is multifold. In his essays and critiques, he provided for Serbian and Yugoslav audiences critical information about a number or events, personalities, phenomena, and issues on older and newer European music. A luminary and communicator of art music and its history, Milojević exceeded his duties of a disseminator of knowledge and information, and in his writings always presented a certain critical position.", "In his numerous evaluations of national composers’ contemporary output, he offered objective assessments, later largely adopted in Serbian musicology. A passionate proponent of the Slavophil and Yugoslav ideology, he nonetheless did not allow ideology to rule over aesthetics. Thus, the autonomy of art and primacy of aesthetic values were never questioned in his writings.", "His breadth of education, exceptional awareness of developments in European music, including the avant\\-garde, and knowledge of German, French, Czech, and English musicology literature, enabled Milojević to exercise an ardent, invigorating writing style, without neglecting factual and expertise layers in his writings. The Serbian postwar musicology did not approvingly view the stylistic aspect of his writings. Consequently, after his death, he was to a degree, and certainly unjustifiably underrated, and his writings were by all means insufficiently read. That was in any way, also the case in the relationship of Serbian postwar musicology toward the history of writing about music, as a branch of research and exploration in musicology. This discipline was deeply overshadowed by composition analysis, the priority of our musicology at the time. Only recently, primarily in the works by [Roksanda Pejović](/wiki/Roksanda_Pejovi%C4%87 \"Roksanda Pejović\"), [Slobodan Turlakov](/wiki/Slobodan_Turlakov \"Slobodan Turlakov\"), and Aleksandar Vasić, are the writings of Miloje Milojević being thoroughly examined and undertaking work on his bibliography and minute analysis of his texts being suggested.", "In Milojević's writings, noticeable is a friction between tradition and innovation, most apparent in his writings on contemporary music. His views on contemporary music were not straightforward, but rather vacillating, particularly in accepting radical avant\\-garde practices. At the same time, he did not withhold from his audience information on events he personally did not endorse. A worthy example was his as early as 1912 text on [Arnold Schoenberg](/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg \"Arnold Schoenberg\") in the “Serbian Literary Herald.” He, however remained faithful to the ideas of national style in music and modernized music Romanticism.", "Milojević was also one of the editors of periodical the “Music” (Belgrade, January 1928 – March 1929\\). Among the most superior music periodicals in Serbia and Yugoslavia prior to World War I, the “Music” had a decisive role in critical presentation of European music to the internal readers’ audience. This was especially corroborated by thematic volumes dedicated to Czech music, [Franz Schubert](/wiki/Franz_Schubert \"Franz Schubert\"), achievements of Polish and English music, and [Ludwig van Beethoven](/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven \"Ludwig van Beethoven\"). “Music” offered discussions on national style, and critically recorded events in Yugoslav, Slavic, and Western European art music cultures. During the interwar period, Milojević's textbook on the basics of music theory (*Basics of musical art* I–II, 1922–27; later under a new title The Basic theory of music, thirteen editions, until 1940\\) was in use for a long time, as well as his handout course package in harmony, assembled from the well known textbook entitled *The Study of Harmony* (*Harmonielehre*) by [Rudolf Luis](/wiki/Rudolf_Luis \"Rudolf Luis\") and [Ludwig Thuille](/wiki/Ludwig_Thuille \"Ludwig Thuille\").", "Milojević translated opera librettos for *[Eugene Onegin](/wiki/Eugene_Onegin \"Eugene Onegin\")* by A. S. Pushkin/[P. I. Tchaikovsky](/wiki/P._I._Tchaikovsky \"P. I. Tchaikovsky\") (1920\\), *The Tales of Hoffman* by Jules Barbie – Мichel Carré/[Jacques Offenbach](/wiki/Jacques_Offenbach \"Jacques Offenbach\") (1921\\), and *Manon* by Henry Meilhak – Philippe Jules/[Jules Massenet](/wiki/Jules_Massenet \"Jules Massenet\") (1924\\).", "The selected writings of Miloje Milojević were published in three volumes entitled *Music studies and essays* (Belgrade: Géza Kohn (Geca Kon) publishing, I, 1926; II, 1933; Belgrade: edited by Gordana Trajković\\-Milojević, author's publication, III, 1953\\).", "Milojević's treatise *The Artistic ideology of Stevan St. Mokranjac*, published in 1938 in the “Serbian Literary Herald” is included in the anthology of Serbian music essayism entitled *Essays on Art*, edited by [Jovan Ćirilov](/wiki/Jovan_%C4%86irilov \"Jovan Ćirilov\") (drama), [Stana Đurić\\-Klajn](/wiki/Stana_%C4%90uri%C4%87-Klajn \"Stana Đurić-Klajn\") (music), and [Lazar Trifunović](/wiki/Lazar_Trifunovi%C4%87 \"Lazar Trifunović\") (visual arts), published in 1966 (pp. 251–262\\).", "In 1925–26 together with the group of university faculty, Milojević founded a university chamber music association “Collegium musicum” that played a major role in Belgrade interwar life. Between 21 April 1926 and 15 March 1940, “Collegium musicum” held sixty\\-seven concerts and performed 417 compositions ranging from Baroque and Rococo pieces to the works of [Paul Hindemith](/wiki/Paul_Hindemith \"Paul Hindemith\") and [Igor Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky \"Igor Stravinsky\"). Milojević took part in these concerts as an organizer, lecturer, conductor, and piano accompanist. Within the auspices of the association, he started and edited sheet music publishing, an activity of extraordinary importance. Beside Milojević's compositions, “Collegium musicum” published a number of works by Serbian, Slovenian, and Croatian composers (chronologically): [Predrag Milošević](/wiki/Predrag_Milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87 \"Predrag Milošević\"), [Slavko Osterc](/wiki/Slavko_Osterc \"Slavko Osterc\"), [Lucijan Marija Škerjanc](/wiki/Lucijan_Marija_%C5%A0kerjanc \"Lucijan Marija Škerjanc\"), [Anton Neffat](/wiki/Anton_Neffat \"Anton Neffat\"), [Jakov Gotovac](/wiki/Jakov_Gotovac \"Jakov Gotovac\"), [Petar Konjović](/wiki/Petar_Konjovi%C4%87 \"Petar Konjović\"), [Božidar Sirola](/wiki/Bo%C5%BEidar_Sirola \"Božidar Sirola\"), [Milenko Živković](/wiki/Milenko_%C5%BDivkovi%C4%87 \"Milenko Živković\"), [Bogomir\\-Bogo Leskovac](/wiki/Bogomir-Bogo_Leskovac \"Bogomir-Bogo Leskovac\"), and [Vojislav Vučković](/wiki/Vojislav_Vu%C4%8Dkovi%C4%87 \"Vojislav Vučković\"). In regard to such endeavor, Konjović remarked: “Through the activities of Miloje Milojević, ‘Collegium musicum’ by its selections, editorship, print and technical appearance, represented a big step toward Europization of Serbian and Yugoslav music culture” (compare with P. Konjović, *Miloje Milojević, composer and music writer*, Belgrade: SASA, 1954, 177\\).", "Milojević was a regular piano accompanist at concerts of his wife, the first Serbian concert singer, Ivanka Milojević.", "As a folklorist, he explored, transcribed, and interpreted musical folklore of Kosovo and Metohija, [Macedonia](/wiki/Macedonia_%28region%29 \"Macedonia (region)\"), and Monte Negro. He produced a number of works in this field and transcribed nearly 900 melodies and dances. He was attracted to folklore, both as a researcher and a composer, thus was also fond of the idea of composing art music upon folk tunes. His folk transcriptions entitled Folk songs and dances from Kosovo and Metohija were published recently, edited by Dragoslav Dević (Belgrade: Zavod za udžbenike—Karić fondacija, 2004\\).", "The music school in [Kragujevac](/wiki/Kragujevac \"Kragujevac\") bears the name of Miloje Milojević.", "His legacy, classified and catalogued is kept in the family archives of Milojević's grandson, academician [Vlastimir Trajković](/wiki/Vlastimir_Trajkovi%C4%87 \"Vlastimir Trajković\"), composer and Professor of Composition and Orchestration at the Faculty of Music in Belgrade.", "" ]
Combat operations ----------------- ### 1941 The 31st Army engaged the Germans on October 2, 1941, during [Operation Typhoon](/wiki/Operation_Typhoon "Operation Typhoon"). On October 6, it formed a task force under the command of Major General Polenov, and along with a task force from [19th Army](/wiki/19th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 "19th Army (Soviet Union)") under the command of Lieutenant General [I. Boldin](/wiki/Ivan_Boldin "Ivan Boldin"), was given the mission to break the enemy advance near [Volokolamsk](/wiki/Volokolamsk "Volokolamsk") and [Rzhev](/wiki/Rzhev "Rzhev"). On October 7 the first snow fell, turning the roads into mud and forcing the [3rd Panzer Group](/wiki/3rd_Panzer_Group "3rd Panzer Group")'s advance to a halt. The snow allowed the army to set up defensive positions along the Zhuralyovo − Large Yakovtsevo − Ivashkova and create a corridor for retreating Soviet troops. This began the [Kalinin Defensive Operation](/wiki/Kalinin_Defensive_Operation "Kalinin Defensive Operation") phase of the [Moscow Strategic Defensive](/wiki/Moscow_Strategic_Defensive "Moscow Strategic Defensive") operations. On October 10, the 110th Tank Division was detached and ordered to Rzhev. On October 19, the army was reduced to: [119th Rifle Division](/wiki/119th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "119th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") [183rd Rifle Division](/wiki/183rd_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "183rd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") [46th Cavalry Division](/wiki/46th_Cavalry_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "46th Cavalry Division (Soviet Union)") [54th Cavalry Division](/wiki/54th_Cavalry_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "54th Cavalry Division (Soviet Union)") 8th Tank Brigade and Motorized Rifle Brigade of the Kalinin Front From October 19 to 22, the army fought against German forces, which had broken into the district of [Mednoye](/wiki/Mednoye%2C_Tver_Oblast "Mednoye, Tver Oblast"). The army received reinforcements from the [113th](/wiki/113th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "113th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") and [252nd Rifle Divisions](/wiki/252nd_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "252nd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)"). On October 22, the army was ordered to take the offensive in conjunction with the [29th](/wiki/29th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 "29th Army (Soviet Union)") and [30th Armies](/wiki/30th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 "30th Army (Soviet Union)") to liberate the city of [Kalinin](/wiki/Tver "Tver"). While unable to retake the city, the attack was able to draw off a number of German forces from the attack on Moscow. On December 5 as part of the [Moscow Strategic Offensive](/wiki/Moscow_Strategic_Offensive "Moscow Strategic Offensive"), the Kalinin Front began the [Kalinin Offensive](/wiki/Kalinin_Offensive "Kalinin Offensive"). Encountering stubborn resistance and repeated counterattacks, the 29th and 31st Army had broken the flanks of the forces defending Kalinin by December 15, and on December 16, the 31st Army liberated the city. On January 7, 1942, troops of the 39th, 29th, 31st and 30th armies were stopped on prepared defensive lines north of Rhzev near [Lotoshino](/wiki/Lotoshino "Lotoshino"). ### 1942 From January 8 to April 20, the army participated in the [Rzhev\-Vyazma Strategic Offensive](/wiki/Rzhev-Vyazma_Strategic_Offensive "Rzhev-Vyazma Strategic Offensive"). On April 20, the army moved into defensive positions east of [Zubtsov](/wiki/Zubtsov "Zubtsov"), Russia. On July 23, the army was assigned to the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28Soviet_Union%29 "Western Front (Soviet Union)"), and took part in the Rzhev\-Sychevka offensive from July 30 to August 23, liberating the city of Zubstov on the 23 August. From November 25 to December 20, 1942, the army participated in [Operation Mars](/wiki/Operation_Mars "Operation Mars"). ### 1943 On March 20, 1943, the army crossed the [Dnieper River](/wiki/Dnieper_River "Dnieper River"), despite the complications of the spring thaw breaking up the river's ice. The army attempted to go on the offensive, but was unable to break through the German defenses, and by the end of the month the commander decided to discontinue the general offensive and join the defense. Composition as of August 1, 1943:Marchand, Vol 12, pg 90 [36th Rifle Corps](/wiki/36th_Rifle_Corps "36th Rifle Corps") [215th Rifle Division](/wiki/215th_Rifle_Division "215th Rifle Division") [274th Rifle Division](/wiki/274th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "274th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") [359th Rifle Division](/wiki/359th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "359th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") [45th Rifle Corps](/wiki/45th_Rifle_Corps "45th Rifle Corps") [88th Rifle Division](/wiki/88th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "88th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") [220th Rifle Division](/wiki/220th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "220th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") [331st Rifle Division](/wiki/331st_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "331st Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") [71st Rifle Corps](/wiki/71st_Rifle_Corps "71st Rifle Corps") (Headquarters only) [82nd Rifle Division](/wiki/82nd_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "82nd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") [133rd Rifle Division](/wiki/133rd_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "133rd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") [251st Rifle Division](/wiki/251st_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "251st Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") 392nd Gun Artillery Regiment 542nd Gun Artillery Regiment 644th Gun Artillery Regiment 646th Gun Artillery Regiment 529th Tank Destroyer Regiment 873rd Tank Destroyer Regiment 549th Mortar Regiment 341st Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment 1269th Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment 1478th Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment 2nd Guard Motorcycle Regiment 72nd Engineer Battalion 291st Engineer Battalion On August 7, the army went on the offensive as part of [Operation Suvorov](/wiki/Operation_Suvorov "Operation Suvorov"), part of the [Smolensk Strategic Offensive](/wiki/Smolensk_Strategic_Offensive "Smolensk Strategic Offensive"). The army made only limited penetrations of the German lines. After a beating of heavy German counterattacks, the attack was suspended on August 11\. After a regrouping of the forces, the attack resumed on August 16\. However, the forces were unable to advance even a mile and the attack was again suspended on August 20\. The attack resumed on August 30 with little progress made. That evening the Germans began to withdraw their forces. The Soviet pursuit began on August 31 with the crossing of the [Vopets River](/wiki/Vopets_River "Vopets River"). After a week of retreating, the Germans managed to establish a defensive line near [Yartsevo](/wiki/Yartsevo%2C_Smolensk_Oblast "Yartsevo, Smolensk Oblast") and on September 7 took up defensive positions. On September 15 they resumed the attack, crossing the [Vop River](/wiki/Vop_River "Vop River"). In conjunction with the [5th](/wiki/5th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 "5th Army (Soviet Union)") and [68th Armies](/wiki/68th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 "68th Army (Soviet Union)"), they liberated [Smolensk](/wiki/Smolensk "Smolensk") on September 25\. ### 1944 From February to March, the army participated in operations to liberate [Brest](/wiki/Brest_Offensive "Brest Offensive"). At the opening of Operation Bagration, the army consisted of:Marchand Vol 18, pg. 17 [36th Rifle Corps](/wiki/36th_Rifle_Corps "36th Rifle Corps") [220th Rifle Division](/wiki/220th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "220th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") [352nd Rifle Division](/wiki/352nd_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "352nd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") [71st Rifle Corps](/wiki/71st_Rifle_Corps "71st Rifle Corps") [88th Rifle Division](/wiki/88th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "88th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") [192nd Rifle Division](/wiki/192nd_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "192nd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") [331st Rifle Division](/wiki/331st_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "331st Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") [113th Rifle Corps](/wiki/113th_Rifle_Corps "113th Rifle Corps") [62nd Rifle Division](/wiki/62nd_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "62nd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") [174th Rifle Division](/wiki/174th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "174th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") [173rd Rifle Division](/wiki/173rd_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "173rd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") 140th Gun Artillery Brigade 392nd Corps Gun Artillery Regiment 570th Corps Gun Artillery Regiment 83rd Guards Howitzer Artillery Regiment 43rd Antitank Artillery Brigade 529th Tank Destroyer Regiment 549th Mortar Regiment 74th Guards Mortar Regiment 2nd Separate Artillery Observation Balloon Battalion 66th Antiaircraft Artillery Division 1981st Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment 1985th Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment 1989th Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment 1993rd Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment 1275th Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment 1478th Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment 1481st Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment 525th Antiaircraft Artillery Battalion 213th Tank Brigade 926th SU Regiment 927th SU Regiment 959th SU Regiment 1445th SU Regiment 52nd Armored Train Battalion 90th Pontoon\-Bridge Battalion (8th Pontoon\-Bridge Brigade) 14th Flamethrower Battalion 15th Flamethrower Battalion Assigned to the [3rd Belorussian Front](/wiki/3rd_Belorussian_Front "3rd Belorussian Front"), the army [Operation Bagration](/wiki/Operation_Bagration "Operation Bagration") participated in the assault of German forces in the [Minsk Offensive](/wiki/Minsk_Offensive "Minsk Offensive") encirclement. In addition to the 31st Army, the [2nd Belorussian Front](/wiki/2nd_Belorussian_Front "2nd Belorussian Front")'s [33rd](/wiki/33rd_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 "33rd Army (Soviet Union)"), [49th](/wiki/49th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 "49th Army (Soviet Union)") and [50th Armies](/wiki/50th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 "50th Army (Soviet Union)") were given the task of containing the Germans within the encirclement, and defeating German forces in the surrounding area. The elimination of the German forces escaping from the city took place in three phases: * July 5–7 – Destruction and suppression of organized attempts to break out. After the surrender of the city, the German forces broke up into several disorganized groups and attempted to escape the encirclement. * July 8–9 – Destruction of groups which had taken refuge in the forests south\-east of Minsk. * July 10–13 – Soviet troops combed the woods, capturing any remaining small enemy groups. By the end of the summer of 1944, the forces of the 3rd Belorussian Front and 31st Army had reached the border of [East Prussia](/wiki/East_Prussia "East Prussia"). ### 1945 The army took part in the [East Prussian Strategic Offensive](/wiki/East_Prussian_Offensive "East Prussian Offensive") under the command of the [3rd Belorussian Front](/wiki/3rd_Belorussian_Front "3rd Belorussian Front"). The army was transferred to the [1st Ukrainian Front](/wiki/1st_Ukrainian_Front "1st Ukrainian Front") in order to participate in the [Prague Offensive](/wiki/Prague_Offensive "Prague Offensive"). Composition at the end of World War II:Marchand, Vol 23 pg 31 [36th Rifle Corps](/wiki/36th_Rifle_Corps "36th Rifle Corps") [173rd Rifle Division](/wiki/173rd_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "173rd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") [176th Rifle Division](/wiki/176th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "176th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") [352nd Rifle Division](/wiki/352nd_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "352nd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") [44th Rifle Corps](/wiki/44th_Rifle_Corps "44th Rifle Corps") [62nd Rifle Division](/wiki/62nd_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "62nd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") [174th Rifle Division](/wiki/174th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "174th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") [220th Rifle Division](/wiki/220th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "220th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") [71st Rifle Corps](/wiki/71st_Rifle_Corps "71st Rifle Corps") [54th Rifle Division](/wiki/54th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "54th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") [88th Rifle Division](/wiki/88th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "88th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") [331st Rifle Division](/wiki/331st_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "331st Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") 140th Gun Artillery Brigade 51st Guards Tank Destroyer Regiment 357th Guards Tank Destroyer Regiment 529th Tank Destroyer Regiment 549th Mortar Regiment 1478th Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment 926th SU Regiment 959th SU Regiment 31st Engineer\-Sapper Brigade The army was disbanded in September 1945\.
[ "Combat operations\n-----------------", "### 1941", "The 31st Army engaged the Germans on October 2, 1941, during [Operation Typhoon](/wiki/Operation_Typhoon \"Operation Typhoon\"). On October 6, it formed a task force under the command of Major General Polenov, and along with a task force from [19th Army](/wiki/19th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"19th Army (Soviet Union)\") under the command of Lieutenant General [I. Boldin](/wiki/Ivan_Boldin \"Ivan Boldin\"), was given the mission to break the enemy advance near [Volokolamsk](/wiki/Volokolamsk \"Volokolamsk\") and [Rzhev](/wiki/Rzhev \"Rzhev\"). On October 7 the first snow fell, turning the roads into mud and forcing the [3rd Panzer Group](/wiki/3rd_Panzer_Group \"3rd Panzer Group\")'s advance to a halt. The snow allowed the army to set up defensive positions along the Zhuralyovo − Large Yakovtsevo − Ivashkova and create a corridor for retreating Soviet troops. This began the [Kalinin Defensive Operation](/wiki/Kalinin_Defensive_Operation \"Kalinin Defensive Operation\") phase of the [Moscow Strategic Defensive](/wiki/Moscow_Strategic_Defensive \"Moscow Strategic Defensive\") operations.", "On October 10, the 110th Tank Division was detached and ordered to Rzhev.", "On October 19, the army was reduced to:\n[119th Rifle Division](/wiki/119th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"119th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n[183rd Rifle Division](/wiki/183rd_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"183rd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n[46th Cavalry Division](/wiki/46th_Cavalry_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"46th Cavalry Division (Soviet Union)\")\n[54th Cavalry Division](/wiki/54th_Cavalry_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"54th Cavalry Division (Soviet Union)\")\n8th Tank Brigade and\nMotorized Rifle Brigade of the Kalinin Front", "From October 19 to 22, the army fought against German forces, which had broken into the district of [Mednoye](/wiki/Mednoye%2C_Tver_Oblast \"Mednoye, Tver Oblast\"). The army received reinforcements from the [113th](/wiki/113th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"113th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\") and [252nd Rifle Divisions](/wiki/252nd_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"252nd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\"). On October 22, the army was ordered to take the offensive in conjunction with the [29th](/wiki/29th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"29th Army (Soviet Union)\") and [30th Armies](/wiki/30th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"30th Army (Soviet Union)\") to liberate the city of [Kalinin](/wiki/Tver \"Tver\"). While unable to retake the city, the attack was able to draw off a number of German forces from the attack on Moscow.", "On December 5 as part of the [Moscow Strategic Offensive](/wiki/Moscow_Strategic_Offensive \"Moscow Strategic Offensive\"), the Kalinin Front began the [Kalinin Offensive](/wiki/Kalinin_Offensive \"Kalinin Offensive\"). Encountering stubborn resistance and repeated counterattacks, the 29th and 31st Army had broken the flanks of the forces defending Kalinin by December 15, and on December 16, the 31st Army liberated the city.", "On January 7, 1942, troops of the 39th, 29th, 31st and 30th armies were stopped on prepared defensive lines north of Rhzev near [Lotoshino](/wiki/Lotoshino \"Lotoshino\").", "### 1942", "From January 8 to April 20, the army participated in the [Rzhev\\-Vyazma Strategic Offensive](/wiki/Rzhev-Vyazma_Strategic_Offensive \"Rzhev-Vyazma Strategic Offensive\"). On April 20, the army moved into defensive positions east of [Zubtsov](/wiki/Zubtsov \"Zubtsov\"), Russia.", "On July 23, the army was assigned to the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"Western Front (Soviet Union)\"), and took part in the Rzhev\\-Sychevka offensive from July 30 to August 23, liberating the city of Zubstov on the 23 August.", "From November 25 to December 20, 1942, the army participated in [Operation Mars](/wiki/Operation_Mars \"Operation Mars\").", "### 1943", "On March 20, 1943, the army crossed the [Dnieper River](/wiki/Dnieper_River \"Dnieper River\"), despite the complications of the spring thaw breaking up the river's ice. The army attempted to go on the offensive, but was unable to break through the German defenses, and by the end of the month the commander decided to discontinue the general offensive and join the defense.", "Composition as of August 1, 1943:Marchand, Vol 12, pg 90\n[36th Rifle Corps](/wiki/36th_Rifle_Corps \"36th Rifle Corps\")\n[215th Rifle Division](/wiki/215th_Rifle_Division \"215th Rifle Division\")\n[274th Rifle Division](/wiki/274th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"274th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n[359th Rifle Division](/wiki/359th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"359th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n[45th Rifle Corps](/wiki/45th_Rifle_Corps \"45th Rifle Corps\")\n[88th Rifle Division](/wiki/88th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"88th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n[220th Rifle Division](/wiki/220th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"220th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n[331st Rifle Division](/wiki/331st_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"331st Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n[71st Rifle Corps](/wiki/71st_Rifle_Corps \"71st Rifle Corps\") (Headquarters only)\n[82nd Rifle Division](/wiki/82nd_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"82nd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n[133rd Rifle Division](/wiki/133rd_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"133rd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n[251st Rifle Division](/wiki/251st_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"251st Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n392nd Gun Artillery Regiment\n542nd Gun Artillery Regiment\n644th Gun Artillery Regiment\n646th Gun Artillery Regiment\n529th Tank Destroyer Regiment\n873rd Tank Destroyer Regiment\n549th Mortar Regiment\n341st Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment\n1269th Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment\n1478th Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment\n2nd Guard Motorcycle Regiment\n72nd Engineer Battalion\n291st Engineer Battalion", "On August 7, the army went on the offensive as part of [Operation Suvorov](/wiki/Operation_Suvorov \"Operation Suvorov\"), part of the [Smolensk Strategic Offensive](/wiki/Smolensk_Strategic_Offensive \"Smolensk Strategic Offensive\"). The army made only limited penetrations of the German lines. After a beating of heavy German counterattacks, the attack was suspended on August 11\\. After a regrouping of the forces, the attack resumed on August 16\\. However, the forces were unable to advance even a mile and the attack was again suspended on August 20\\.", "The attack resumed on August 30 with little progress made. That evening the Germans began to withdraw their forces. The Soviet pursuit began on August 31 with the crossing of the [Vopets River](/wiki/Vopets_River \"Vopets River\"). After a week of retreating, the Germans managed to establish a defensive line near [Yartsevo](/wiki/Yartsevo%2C_Smolensk_Oblast \"Yartsevo, Smolensk Oblast\") and on September 7 took up defensive positions.", "On September 15 they resumed the attack, crossing the [Vop River](/wiki/Vop_River \"Vop River\"). In conjunction with the [5th](/wiki/5th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"5th Army (Soviet Union)\") and [68th Armies](/wiki/68th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"68th Army (Soviet Union)\"), they liberated [Smolensk](/wiki/Smolensk \"Smolensk\") on September 25\\.", "### 1944", "From February to March, the army participated in operations to liberate [Brest](/wiki/Brest_Offensive \"Brest Offensive\").", "At the opening of Operation Bagration, the army consisted of:Marchand Vol 18, pg. 17\n[36th Rifle Corps](/wiki/36th_Rifle_Corps \"36th Rifle Corps\")\n[220th Rifle Division](/wiki/220th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"220th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n[352nd Rifle Division](/wiki/352nd_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"352nd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n[71st Rifle Corps](/wiki/71st_Rifle_Corps \"71st Rifle Corps\")\n[88th Rifle Division](/wiki/88th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"88th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n[192nd Rifle Division](/wiki/192nd_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"192nd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n[331st Rifle Division](/wiki/331st_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"331st Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n[113th Rifle Corps](/wiki/113th_Rifle_Corps \"113th Rifle Corps\")\n[62nd Rifle Division](/wiki/62nd_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"62nd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n[174th Rifle Division](/wiki/174th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"174th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n[173rd Rifle Division](/wiki/173rd_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"173rd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n140th Gun Artillery Brigade\n392nd Corps Gun Artillery Regiment\n570th Corps Gun Artillery Regiment\n83rd Guards Howitzer Artillery Regiment\n43rd Antitank Artillery Brigade\n529th Tank Destroyer Regiment\n549th Mortar Regiment\n74th Guards Mortar Regiment\n2nd Separate Artillery Observation Balloon Battalion\n66th Antiaircraft Artillery Division\n1981st Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment \n1985th Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment\n1989th Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment\n1993rd Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment\n1275th Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment\n1478th Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment\n1481st Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment\n525th Antiaircraft Artillery Battalion\n213th Tank Brigade\n926th SU Regiment\n927th SU Regiment\n959th SU Regiment\n1445th SU Regiment\n52nd Armored Train Battalion\n90th Pontoon\\-Bridge Battalion (8th Pontoon\\-Bridge Brigade)\n14th Flamethrower Battalion\n15th Flamethrower Battalion", "Assigned to the [3rd Belorussian Front](/wiki/3rd_Belorussian_Front \"3rd Belorussian Front\"), the army [Operation Bagration](/wiki/Operation_Bagration \"Operation Bagration\") participated in the assault of German forces in the [Minsk Offensive](/wiki/Minsk_Offensive \"Minsk Offensive\") encirclement. In addition to the 31st Army, the [2nd Belorussian Front](/wiki/2nd_Belorussian_Front \"2nd Belorussian Front\")'s [33rd](/wiki/33rd_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"33rd Army (Soviet Union)\"), [49th](/wiki/49th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"49th Army (Soviet Union)\") and [50th Armies](/wiki/50th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"50th Army (Soviet Union)\") were given the task of containing the Germans within the encirclement, and defeating German forces in the surrounding area.", "The elimination of the German forces escaping from the city took place in three phases:\n* July 5–7 – Destruction and suppression of organized attempts to break out. After the surrender of the city, the German forces broke up into several disorganized groups and attempted to escape the encirclement.\n* July 8–9 – Destruction of groups which had taken refuge in the forests south\\-east of Minsk.\n* July 10–13 – Soviet troops combed the woods, capturing any remaining small enemy groups.", "By the end of the summer of 1944, the forces of the 3rd Belorussian Front and 31st Army had reached the border of [East Prussia](/wiki/East_Prussia \"East Prussia\").", "### 1945", "The army took part in the [East Prussian Strategic Offensive](/wiki/East_Prussian_Offensive \"East Prussian Offensive\") under the command of the [3rd Belorussian Front](/wiki/3rd_Belorussian_Front \"3rd Belorussian Front\"). The army was transferred to the [1st Ukrainian Front](/wiki/1st_Ukrainian_Front \"1st Ukrainian Front\") in order to participate in the [Prague Offensive](/wiki/Prague_Offensive \"Prague Offensive\").", "Composition at the end of World War II:Marchand, Vol 23 pg 31\n[36th Rifle Corps](/wiki/36th_Rifle_Corps \"36th Rifle Corps\")\n[173rd Rifle Division](/wiki/173rd_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"173rd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n[176th Rifle Division](/wiki/176th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"176th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n[352nd Rifle Division](/wiki/352nd_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"352nd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n[44th Rifle Corps](/wiki/44th_Rifle_Corps \"44th Rifle Corps\")\n[62nd Rifle Division](/wiki/62nd_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"62nd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n[174th Rifle Division](/wiki/174th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"174th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n[220th Rifle Division](/wiki/220th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"220th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n[71st Rifle Corps](/wiki/71st_Rifle_Corps \"71st Rifle Corps\")\n[54th Rifle Division](/wiki/54th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"54th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n[88th Rifle Division](/wiki/88th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"88th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n[331st Rifle Division](/wiki/331st_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"331st Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\")\n140th Gun Artillery Brigade\n51st Guards Tank Destroyer Regiment\n357th Guards Tank Destroyer Regiment\n529th Tank Destroyer Regiment\n549th Mortar Regiment\n1478th Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment\n926th SU Regiment\n959th SU Regiment\n31st Engineer\\-Sapper Brigade", "The army was disbanded in September 1945\\.", "" ]
Progressive revelation ---------------------- {{main\|Progressive revelation (Baháʼí)\|l1\=Progressive revelation}} Baháʼís believe God to be generally regular and periodic in revealing His will to mankind through messengers/prophets, which are named [Manifestations of God](/wiki/Manifestations_of_God_%28Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith%29 "Manifestations of God (Baháʼí Faith)"). Each messenger in turn establishes a [covenant](/wiki/Covenant_%28religion%29 "Covenant (religion)") and founds a [religion](/wiki/Religion "Religion"). This process of revelation, according to the Baháʼí writings, is also never ceasing,{{harvnb\|Smith\|2000\|pp\=276–277}} which is contrary to many other belief systems that believe in a finality of their prophet/messenger. The general theme of the successive and continuous religions founded by Manifestations of God is that there is an evolutionary tendency, and that each Manifestation of God brings a larger measure of revelation (or religion) to humankind than the previous one.{{harvnb\|Lundberg\|1996}} The differences in the revelation brought by the Manifestations of God is stated to be not inherent in the characteristics of the Manifestation of God, but instead attributed to the various worldly, societal and human factors; these differences are in accordance with the "conditions" and "varying requirements of the age" and the "spiritual capacity" of humanity. These differences are seen to be needed since human society has slowly and gradually evolved through higher stages of unification from the family to tribes and then nations. Thus religious truth is seen to be relative to its recipients and not absolute; while the messengers proclaimed eternal moral and spiritual truths that are renewed by each messenger, they also changed their message to reflect the particular spiritual and material evolution of humanity at the time of the appearance of the messenger. In the Baháʼí view, since humanity's spiritual capacity and receptivity has increased over time, the extent to which these spiritual truths are expounded changes. [Baháʼu'lláh](/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BCu%27ll%C3%A1h "Baháʼu'lláh") explained that the appearance of successive messengers was like the annual coming of Spring, which brings new life to the world which has come to neglect the teachings of the previous messenger. He also used an analogy of the world as the human body, and revelation as a robe of "justice and wisdom". Baháʼu'lláh mentioned in the *[Kitáb\-i\-Íqán](/wiki/Kit%C3%A1b-i-%C3%8Dq%C3%A1n "Kitáb-i-Íqán")* that God will renew the "City of God" about every thousand years, and specifically mentioned that a new Manifestation of God would not appear within 1000 years of Baháʼu'lláh's message.{{harvnb\|McMullen\|2000\|p\=7}} ### Religion as a school The earliest forms of religion are seen, in many of the [Baháʼí Writings](/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_literature "Baháʼí literature"), to be like early school.{{harvnb\|Fisher\|1996\|pp\=417–418}} In this view humanity, like a child, has been maturing with a greater ability to grasp complex ideas as it grows in years and passes school. Each time a divine messenger appears, the message was given at levels appropriate to humanity's degree of maturation. In this view each different religion may have had truth explained differently according to the needs of the recipients of the teaching. ### Covenant {{main\|Covenant of Baháʼu'lláh}} Covenant in the Baháʼí Faith refers to two separate binding agreements between God and man.{{harvnb\|Smith\|2000\|pp\=267–268}} There is a distinction between a *Greater Covenant* which is made between every [messenger from God](/wiki/Manifestation_of_God_%28Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith%29 "Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)") and his followers concerning the next [dispensation](/wiki/Dispensationalism "Dispensationalism"), and a *Lesser Covenant* that concerns successorship of authority within the religion after the messenger dies. The greater covenant refers to the covenant made between each messenger from God, which the literature of the Baháʼí Faith name [Manifestations of God](/wiki/Manifestation_of_God_%28Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith%29 "Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)"), and his followers regarding the coming of the next Manifestation from God. According to [Baháʼu'lláh](/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BCu%27ll%C3%A1h "Baháʼu'lláh") God has promised that he will send a succession of messengers that will instruct humankind.{{harvnb\|Hatcher\|Martin\|1998\|pp\=127–130}} In Baháʼí belief, this covenant is seen to be expressed in [prophecy](/wiki/Prophecy "Prophecy") in the [religious scripture](/wiki/Religious_scripture "Religious scripture") of each religion, and each Manifestation of God, such as [Abraham](/wiki/Abraham "Abraham"), [Moses](/wiki/Moses "Moses"), [Jesus](/wiki/Jesus "Jesus"), [Muhammad](/wiki/Muhammad "Muhammad"), the [Báb](/wiki/B%C3%A1b "Báb"), and Baháʼu'lláh, prophesied the next Manifestation. In return, the followers of each religion are seen to have a duty to investigate the claims of the following Manifestations. The lesser covenant is a covenant that concerns the recognition of the messenger, acceptance and application of his teachings and laws made regarding the successorship of authority within the religion. In Baháʼí belief the manner in which the Covenant of Baháʼu'lláh was clearly put forth is seen as being a fundamental defining feature of the religion and a powerful protector of the unity of the Baháʼí Faith and its adherents.
[ "Progressive revelation\n----------------------", "{{main\\|Progressive revelation (Baháʼí)\\|l1\\=Progressive revelation}}\nBaháʼís believe God to be generally regular and periodic in revealing His will to mankind through messengers/prophets, which are named [Manifestations of God](/wiki/Manifestations_of_God_%28Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith%29 \"Manifestations of God (Baháʼí Faith)\"). Each messenger in turn establishes a [covenant](/wiki/Covenant_%28religion%29 \"Covenant (religion)\") and founds a [religion](/wiki/Religion \"Religion\"). This process of revelation, according to the Baháʼí writings, is also never ceasing,{{harvnb\\|Smith\\|2000\\|pp\\=276–277}} which is contrary to many other belief systems that believe in a finality of their prophet/messenger. The general theme of the successive and continuous religions founded by Manifestations of God is that there is an evolutionary tendency, and that each Manifestation of God brings a larger measure of revelation (or religion) to humankind than the previous one.{{harvnb\\|Lundberg\\|1996}} The differences in the revelation brought by the Manifestations of God is stated to be not inherent in the characteristics of the Manifestation of God, but instead attributed to the various worldly, societal and human factors; these differences are in accordance with the \"conditions\" and \"varying requirements of the age\" and the \"spiritual capacity\" of humanity. These differences are seen to be needed since human society has slowly and gradually evolved through higher stages of unification from the family to tribes and then nations.", "Thus religious truth is seen to be relative to its recipients and not absolute; while the messengers proclaimed eternal moral and spiritual truths that are renewed by each messenger, they also changed their message to reflect the particular spiritual and material evolution of humanity at the time of the appearance of the messenger. In the Baháʼí view, since humanity's spiritual capacity and receptivity has increased over time, the extent to which these spiritual truths are expounded changes.", "[Baháʼu'lláh](/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BCu%27ll%C3%A1h \"Baháʼu'lláh\") explained that the appearance of successive messengers was like the annual coming of Spring, which brings new life to the world which has come to neglect the teachings of the previous messenger. He also used an analogy of the world as the human body, and revelation as a robe of \"justice and wisdom\".", "Baháʼu'lláh mentioned in the *[Kitáb\\-i\\-Íqán](/wiki/Kit%C3%A1b-i-%C3%8Dq%C3%A1n \"Kitáb-i-Íqán\")* that God will renew the \"City of God\" about every thousand years, and specifically mentioned that a new Manifestation of God would not appear within 1000 years of Baháʼu'lláh's message.{{harvnb\\|McMullen\\|2000\\|p\\=7}}", "### Religion as a school", "The earliest forms of religion are seen, in many of the [Baháʼí Writings](/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_literature \"Baháʼí literature\"), to be like early school.{{harvnb\\|Fisher\\|1996\\|pp\\=417–418}} In this view humanity, like a child, has been maturing with a greater ability to grasp complex ideas as it grows in years and passes school. Each time a divine messenger appears, the message was given at levels appropriate to humanity's degree of maturation. In this view each different religion may have had truth explained differently according to the needs of the recipients of the teaching.", "### Covenant", "{{main\\|Covenant of Baháʼu'lláh}}", "Covenant in the Baháʼí Faith refers to two separate binding agreements between God and man.{{harvnb\\|Smith\\|2000\\|pp\\=267–268}} There is a distinction between a *Greater Covenant* which is made between every [messenger from God](/wiki/Manifestation_of_God_%28Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith%29 \"Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)\") and his followers concerning the next [dispensation](/wiki/Dispensationalism \"Dispensationalism\"), and a *Lesser Covenant* that concerns successorship of authority within the religion after the messenger dies.", "The greater covenant refers to the covenant made between each messenger from God, which the literature of the Baháʼí Faith name [Manifestations of God](/wiki/Manifestation_of_God_%28Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith%29 \"Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)\"), and his followers regarding the coming of the next Manifestation from God. According to [Baháʼu'lláh](/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BCu%27ll%C3%A1h \"Baháʼu'lláh\") God has promised that he will send a succession of messengers that will instruct humankind.{{harvnb\\|Hatcher\\|Martin\\|1998\\|pp\\=127–130}} In Baháʼí belief, this covenant is seen to be expressed in [prophecy](/wiki/Prophecy \"Prophecy\") in the [religious scripture](/wiki/Religious_scripture \"Religious scripture\") of each religion, and each Manifestation of God, such as [Abraham](/wiki/Abraham \"Abraham\"), [Moses](/wiki/Moses \"Moses\"), [Jesus](/wiki/Jesus \"Jesus\"), [Muhammad](/wiki/Muhammad \"Muhammad\"), the [Báb](/wiki/B%C3%A1b \"Báb\"), and Baháʼu'lláh, prophesied the next Manifestation. In return, the followers of each religion are seen to have a duty to investigate the claims of the following Manifestations.", "The lesser covenant is a covenant that concerns the recognition of the messenger, acceptance and application of his teachings and laws made regarding the successorship of authority within the religion. In Baháʼí belief the manner in which the Covenant of Baháʼu'lláh was clearly put forth is seen as being a fundamental defining feature of the religion and a powerful protector of the unity of the Baháʼí Faith and its adherents.", "" ]
Notable projects ---------------- ### Slorach Residence Construction date: **2009** The encompassing living environment of the Hamilton Courtyard House is achieved through the union of built form, spatial sequences, landscape and scale. ### Winter Park [thumb\|Winter Park, Doncaster, Victoria](/wiki/File:Winter_Park%2C_Doncaster%2C_Victoria.jpg "Winter Park, Doncaster, Victoria.jpg") Construction date: **1971** [Winter Park](/wiki/Winter_Park_cluster_housing "Winter Park cluster housing") was Graeme's first cluster housing project. It was designed and implemented in association with Merchant Builders Pty Ltd in 1971 and has subsequently remained a seminal departure from the traditional method of suburban subdivision. [Winter Park](/wiki/Winter_Park_cluster_housing "Winter Park cluster housing") is now on the Heritage Victoria list and in 2007 was adjudged by an expert panel, consisting mostly of architects, as one of the 29 most worthy buildings produced since the inauguration of the first AIA awards. The basic tenet of the cluster housing concept is that of a comprehensively planned development in which a group of houses are sited to optimise available land in a much more efficient and environmentally sensitive manner than that provided by the normal rectangular grid lot suburban subdivision. Excess land is aggregated to provide communal open space. Houses are sited to relate sympathetically with each other, to optimise privacy, solar orientation, views and physical conditions. ### The Plumbers \& Gasfitters Union Building [thumb\|Plumbers and Gasfitters building front facade](/wiki/File:Front_facade_of_Plumbers_and_Gasfitters_in_Gunn%2C_Graeme.jpeg "Front facade of Plumbers and Gasfitters in Gunn, Graeme.jpeg") Construction date: **1970** Located at 52 Victoria Street Melbourne, the Plumbers \& Gasfitters Union building is known as the most persisting and noticeable landmark of Brutalism. The building was completed in 1970 by Graeme Gunn and his creative collaboration with Merchant Builders and landscape architect [Ellis Stones](/wiki/Ellis_Stones "Ellis Stones").*Architect Victoria* RAIA VIC awards 2007, 54 The design itself was architecturally intended to be up to date.*Goad, Philip, Melbourne Architecture, Boorowa, NSW: The Watermark Press, 2009, p199* The facade is formed of concrete in bold expressionistic forms with dark smoked glazing that intensify the sculptural quality of the construction.*Goad, Philip, Melbourne Architecture, Boorowa, NSW: The Watermark Press, 2009, p203* Structurally designed to receive an extra floor when needed, the building consists of a car parking and mechanical services area, one main office floor housing the clients, conference room and lobby, and one office of lettable space.*[Architect](/wiki/Architect "Architect")* , volume 3 number 14, August 1971 For the internal finishes, walls, concrete block work, and stud frame sheeted with plywood are painted. The addition of signage on the building is slightly unsympathetic to the building's initial character. ### Baronda Residence [thumb\|Baronda residence under construction](/wiki/File:118_GF_PHO_64.jpg "118 GF PHO 64.jpg") Construction date: **1968** The design is based on a 2700 orthogonal matrix using natural tree trunks, some 10 metres long farmed from a local plantation owned by Sir Roy Grounds and Ken Myer. The vertical and horizontal grid of the matrix defines the spaces, the floors of which radiate from the central staircase, each floor raise a half level above the previous and in a location 90\-degree different from the one below. Services are minimal, there being no public utilities (gas, water, electricity or sewerage). The timber theme generated by the structure is continued with infill timber studs within the pole grid and clad internally and externally with timber boarding. The floors are EX 50x100 mm tongue and grooved planks spanning 1350 mm. These, in turn form the ceilings for those rooms having a full height below. Ceilings directly below the roof consist of sisal lining over 150mm square wire mesh. Some years ago the owner of this property and some of adjacent properties along the coast deeded the contiguous properties as part of a state park to the NSW government to ensure retention of the pristine coastal environment, reserved for public use only. **Townhouses \- 76 Molesworth Street, Kew** [thumb\|Molesworth Street](/wiki/File:Townhouses_-_76_Molesworth_Street%2C_Kew_-_Gunn%2CGraeme.jpg "Townhouses - 76 Molesworth Street, Kew - Gunn,Graeme.jpg") Construction date: **1968** Designed for family living these six concrete block, Brutalist style townhouses, consist of three bedrooms, two living areas and a double carport (now converted to a garage) with an open private courtyard.Goad, Philip, Melbourne Architecture, Boorowa, NSW: The Watermark Press, 2009, p201 The building expresses simple construction materials of concrete for the main structure, timber for the roof structure and metal deck as the roof cladding. Off\-form concrete balconies project from the concrete block building, with timber handrails.*Architecture in Australia* Townhouses, 76 Molesworth Street, Kew, Victoria, Volume 59, Number 5, October 1970\. The Townhouses are significant as an important design progression in the re\-thinking of suburban, cluster style living. The houses are included on the Schedule to the Heritage Overlay and Graded as "A" class.{{Cite web \|url\=http://boroondara.vic.gov.au/freestyler/files/Review%20of%20B\-graded%20buildings%20Vol%202A\_4b7df86cccfd3\.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=16 April 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110305023226/http://boroondara.vic.gov.au/freestyler/files/Review%20of%20B\-graded%20buildings%20Vol%202A\_4b7df86cccfd3\.pdf \|archive\-date\=5 March 2011 \|url\-status\=dead }} Today: This project retains many of its original features and remains structurally intact, and has only received minor upgrading of timber handrails and window frames. Award: 1970 Bronze Medal Award, Victorian Chapter of the RAIA. In the Boroondara Municipality only three other residential projects have won this award.
[ "Notable projects\n----------------", "### Slorach Residence", "Construction date: **2009**", "The encompassing living environment of the Hamilton Courtyard House is achieved through the union of built form, spatial sequences, landscape and scale.", "### Winter Park", "[thumb\\|Winter Park, Doncaster, Victoria](/wiki/File:Winter_Park%2C_Doncaster%2C_Victoria.jpg \"Winter Park, Doncaster, Victoria.jpg\")", "Construction date: **1971**", "[Winter Park](/wiki/Winter_Park_cluster_housing \"Winter Park cluster housing\") was Graeme's first cluster housing project. It was designed and implemented in association with Merchant Builders Pty Ltd in 1971 and has subsequently remained a seminal departure from the traditional method of suburban subdivision. [Winter Park](/wiki/Winter_Park_cluster_housing \"Winter Park cluster housing\") is now on the Heritage Victoria list and in 2007 was adjudged by an expert panel, consisting mostly of architects, as one of the 29 most worthy buildings produced since the inauguration of the first AIA awards.\nThe basic tenet of the cluster housing concept is that of a comprehensively planned development in which a group of houses are sited to optimise available land in a much more efficient and environmentally sensitive manner than that provided by the normal rectangular grid lot suburban subdivision. Excess land is aggregated to provide communal open space. Houses are sited to relate sympathetically with each other, to optimise privacy, solar orientation, views and physical conditions.", "### The Plumbers \\& Gasfitters Union Building", "[thumb\\|Plumbers and Gasfitters building front facade](/wiki/File:Front_facade_of_Plumbers_and_Gasfitters_in_Gunn%2C_Graeme.jpeg \"Front facade of Plumbers and Gasfitters in Gunn, Graeme.jpeg\")", "Construction date: **1970**", "Located at 52 Victoria Street Melbourne, the Plumbers \\& Gasfitters Union building is known as the most persisting and noticeable landmark of Brutalism. The building was completed in 1970 by Graeme Gunn and his creative collaboration with Merchant Builders and landscape architect [Ellis Stones](/wiki/Ellis_Stones \"Ellis Stones\").*Architect Victoria* RAIA VIC awards 2007, 54 The design itself was architecturally intended to be up to date.*Goad, Philip, Melbourne Architecture, Boorowa, NSW: The Watermark Press, 2009, p199* The facade is formed of concrete in bold expressionistic forms with dark smoked glazing that intensify the sculptural quality of the construction.*Goad, Philip, Melbourne Architecture, Boorowa, NSW: The Watermark Press, 2009, p203* Structurally designed to receive an extra floor when needed, the building consists of a car parking and mechanical services area, one main office floor housing the clients, conference room and lobby, and one office of lettable space.*[Architect](/wiki/Architect \"Architect\")* , volume 3 number 14, August 1971 For the internal finishes, walls, concrete block work, and stud frame sheeted with plywood are painted. The addition of signage on the building is slightly unsympathetic to the building's initial character.", "### Baronda Residence", "[thumb\\|Baronda residence under construction](/wiki/File:118_GF_PHO_64.jpg \"118 GF PHO 64.jpg\")", "Construction date: **1968**", "The design is based on a 2700 orthogonal matrix using natural tree trunks, some 10 metres long farmed from a local plantation owned by Sir Roy Grounds and Ken Myer.", "The vertical and horizontal grid of the matrix defines the spaces, the floors of which radiate from the central staircase, each floor raise a half level above the previous and in a location 90\\-degree different from the one below. Services are minimal, there being no public utilities (gas, water, electricity or sewerage). The timber theme generated by the structure is continued with infill timber studs within the pole grid and clad internally and externally with timber boarding. The floors are EX 50x100 mm tongue and grooved planks spanning 1350 mm. These, in turn form the ceilings for those rooms having a full height below. Ceilings directly below the roof consist of sisal lining over 150mm square wire mesh.\nSome years ago the owner of this property and some of adjacent properties along the coast deeded the contiguous properties as part of a state park to the NSW government to ensure retention of the pristine coastal environment, reserved for public use only.", "**Townhouses \\- 76 Molesworth Street, Kew**\n[thumb\\|Molesworth Street](/wiki/File:Townhouses_-_76_Molesworth_Street%2C_Kew_-_Gunn%2CGraeme.jpg \"Townhouses - 76 Molesworth Street, Kew - Gunn,Graeme.jpg\")", "Construction date: **1968**", "Designed for family living these six concrete block, Brutalist style townhouses, consist of three bedrooms, two living areas and a double carport (now converted to a garage) with an open private courtyard.Goad, Philip, Melbourne Architecture, Boorowa, NSW: The Watermark Press, 2009, p201 The building expresses simple construction materials of concrete for the main structure, timber for the roof structure and metal deck as the roof cladding. Off\\-form concrete balconies project from the concrete block building, with timber handrails.*Architecture in Australia* Townhouses, 76 Molesworth Street, Kew, Victoria, Volume 59, Number 5, October 1970\\.", "The Townhouses are significant as an important design progression in the re\\-thinking of suburban, cluster style living. The houses are included on the Schedule to the Heritage Overlay and Graded as \"A\" class.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://boroondara.vic.gov.au/freestyler/files/Review%20of%20B\\-graded%20buildings%20Vol%202A\\_4b7df86cccfd3\\.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=16 April 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110305023226/http://boroondara.vic.gov.au/freestyler/files/Review%20of%20B\\-graded%20buildings%20Vol%202A\\_4b7df86cccfd3\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=5 March 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "Today: This project retains many of its original features and remains structurally intact, and has only received minor upgrading of timber handrails and window frames.", "Award: 1970 Bronze Medal Award, Victorian Chapter of the RAIA. In the Boroondara Municipality only three other residential projects have won this award.", "" ]
### Baronda Residence [thumb\|Baronda residence under construction](/wiki/File:118_GF_PHO_64.jpg "118 GF PHO 64.jpg") Construction date: **1968** The design is based on a 2700 orthogonal matrix using natural tree trunks, some 10 metres long farmed from a local plantation owned by Sir Roy Grounds and Ken Myer. The vertical and horizontal grid of the matrix defines the spaces, the floors of which radiate from the central staircase, each floor raise a half level above the previous and in a location 90\-degree different from the one below. Services are minimal, there being no public utilities (gas, water, electricity or sewerage). The timber theme generated by the structure is continued with infill timber studs within the pole grid and clad internally and externally with timber boarding. The floors are EX 50x100 mm tongue and grooved planks spanning 1350 mm. These, in turn form the ceilings for those rooms having a full height below. Ceilings directly below the roof consist of sisal lining over 150mm square wire mesh. Some years ago the owner of this property and some of adjacent properties along the coast deeded the contiguous properties as part of a state park to the NSW government to ensure retention of the pristine coastal environment, reserved for public use only. **Townhouses \- 76 Molesworth Street, Kew** [thumb\|Molesworth Street](/wiki/File:Townhouses_-_76_Molesworth_Street%2C_Kew_-_Gunn%2CGraeme.jpg "Townhouses - 76 Molesworth Street, Kew - Gunn,Graeme.jpg") Construction date: **1968** Designed for family living these six concrete block, Brutalist style townhouses, consist of three bedrooms, two living areas and a double carport (now converted to a garage) with an open private courtyard.Goad, Philip, Melbourne Architecture, Boorowa, NSW: The Watermark Press, 2009, p201 The building expresses simple construction materials of concrete for the main structure, timber for the roof structure and metal deck as the roof cladding. Off\-form concrete balconies project from the concrete block building, with timber handrails.*Architecture in Australia* Townhouses, 76 Molesworth Street, Kew, Victoria, Volume 59, Number 5, October 1970\. The Townhouses are significant as an important design progression in the re\-thinking of suburban, cluster style living. The houses are included on the Schedule to the Heritage Overlay and Graded as "A" class.{{Cite web \|url\=http://boroondara.vic.gov.au/freestyler/files/Review%20of%20B\-graded%20buildings%20Vol%202A\_4b7df86cccfd3\.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=16 April 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110305023226/http://boroondara.vic.gov.au/freestyler/files/Review%20of%20B\-graded%20buildings%20Vol%202A\_4b7df86cccfd3\.pdf \|archive\-date\=5 March 2011 \|url\-status\=dead }} Today: This project retains many of its original features and remains structurally intact, and has only received minor upgrading of timber handrails and window frames. Award: 1970 Bronze Medal Award, Victorian Chapter of the RAIA. In the Boroondara Municipality only three other residential projects have won this award.
[ "### Baronda Residence", "[thumb\\|Baronda residence under construction](/wiki/File:118_GF_PHO_64.jpg \"118 GF PHO 64.jpg\")", "Construction date: **1968**", "The design is based on a 2700 orthogonal matrix using natural tree trunks, some 10 metres long farmed from a local plantation owned by Sir Roy Grounds and Ken Myer.", "The vertical and horizontal grid of the matrix defines the spaces, the floors of which radiate from the central staircase, each floor raise a half level above the previous and in a location 90\\-degree different from the one below. Services are minimal, there being no public utilities (gas, water, electricity or sewerage). The timber theme generated by the structure is continued with infill timber studs within the pole grid and clad internally and externally with timber boarding. The floors are EX 50x100 mm tongue and grooved planks spanning 1350 mm. These, in turn form the ceilings for those rooms having a full height below. Ceilings directly below the roof consist of sisal lining over 150mm square wire mesh.\nSome years ago the owner of this property and some of adjacent properties along the coast deeded the contiguous properties as part of a state park to the NSW government to ensure retention of the pristine coastal environment, reserved for public use only.", "**Townhouses \\- 76 Molesworth Street, Kew**\n[thumb\\|Molesworth Street](/wiki/File:Townhouses_-_76_Molesworth_Street%2C_Kew_-_Gunn%2CGraeme.jpg \"Townhouses - 76 Molesworth Street, Kew - Gunn,Graeme.jpg\")", "Construction date: **1968**", "Designed for family living these six concrete block, Brutalist style townhouses, consist of three bedrooms, two living areas and a double carport (now converted to a garage) with an open private courtyard.Goad, Philip, Melbourne Architecture, Boorowa, NSW: The Watermark Press, 2009, p201 The building expresses simple construction materials of concrete for the main structure, timber for the roof structure and metal deck as the roof cladding. Off\\-form concrete balconies project from the concrete block building, with timber handrails.*Architecture in Australia* Townhouses, 76 Molesworth Street, Kew, Victoria, Volume 59, Number 5, October 1970\\.", "The Townhouses are significant as an important design progression in the re\\-thinking of suburban, cluster style living. The houses are included on the Schedule to the Heritage Overlay and Graded as \"A\" class.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://boroondara.vic.gov.au/freestyler/files/Review%20of%20B\\-graded%20buildings%20Vol%202A\\_4b7df86cccfd3\\.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=16 April 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110305023226/http://boroondara.vic.gov.au/freestyler/files/Review%20of%20B\\-graded%20buildings%20Vol%202A\\_4b7df86cccfd3\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=5 March 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "Today: This project retains many of its original features and remains structurally intact, and has only received minor upgrading of timber handrails and window frames.", "Award: 1970 Bronze Medal Award, Victorian Chapter of the RAIA. In the Boroondara Municipality only three other residential projects have won this award.", "" ]
History ------- ### Antecedents In March 1949, Emperor [Bảo Đại](/wiki/B%E1%BA%A3o_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i "Bảo Đại") officially requested that the French help set up a Vietnamese military air arm. Pressure was maintained with the assistance of [Vietnamese National Army](/wiki/Vietnamese_National_Army "Vietnamese National Army") Lt. Col. [Nguyễn Văn Hinh](/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_V%C4%83n_Hinh "Nguyễn Văn Hinh"), who had flown the [B\-26 Marauder](/wiki/B-26_Marauder "B-26 Marauder") with the [French Air Force](/wiki/French_Air_Force "French Air Force") during the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War"). In late 1951, the French Air Force established the South Vietnamese 312th Special Mission Squadron at [Tan Son Nhat Airfield](/wiki/Tan_Son_Nhut_Air_Base "Tan Son Nhut Air Base") equipped with [Morane 500 Criquet](/wiki/Fieseler_Fi_156%23French_production "Fieseler Fi 156#French production") liaison aircraft.{{cite book\|last\=Futrell\|first\=Robert\|title\=The United States Air Force in Southeast Asia: The Advisory Years to 1965\|publisher\=Office of Air Force History\|year\=1981\|url\=https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a100569\.pdf\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200723054135/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a100569\.pdf\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-date\=July 23, 2020\|lccn\=80024547}}{{PD\-notice}}{{rp\|10}} In March 1952, a training school was set up at [Nha Trang Air Base](/wiki/Nha_Trang_Air_Base "Nha Trang Air Base"), and the following year two army co\-operation squadrons began missions flying the Morane 500 Criquet. In 1954, the French allocated a number of [Dassault MD.315 Flamant](/wiki/Dassault_MD.315_Flamant "Dassault MD.315 Flamant") armed light transports to the inventory of this Vietnamese air arm. Vietnamese pilot trainees began to be sent to France for more advanced training. ### 1955\-1960 In January 1955, planning for the RVNAF began, building on the Vietnamese air force that the French had established in 1950\. As of January 1955, the RVNAF consisted of 3,434 men, with plans to organize them into two liaison squadrons and one air transport squadron. France retained a contract to train the RVNAF until 1957\.{{cite book\|last\=Williams\|first\=Kenneth\|title\=The US Air Force in Southeast Asia and the Vietnam War A Narrative Chronology Volume I: The Early Years through 1959\|publisher\=Air Force History and Museums Program\|year\=2019\|url\=https://media.defense.gov/2019/Feb/22/2002092352/\-1/\-1/1/USAF%20Vietnam%20Chronology%20v1\.pdf}}{{PD\-notice}}{{rp\|191–2}} On 1 June 1955, [Bien Hoa Air Base](/wiki/Bien_Hoa_Air_Base "Bien Hoa Air Base") became the RVNAF's logistics support base when the French evacuated their main depot at [Hanoi](/wiki/Hanoi "Hanoi").{{rp\|81}} On 1 July 1955, the RVNAF 1st Transport Squadron equipped with [C\-47 Skytrains](/wiki/Douglas_C-47_Skytrain "Douglas C-47 Skytrain") was established at Tan Son Nhut. The RVNAF also had a special missions squadron at the base equipped with 3 C\-47s, 3 [C\-45s](/wiki/Beechcraft_Model_18%23USAAC/USAAF_Designations "Beechcraft Model 18#USAAC/USAAF Designations") and one [L\-26](/wiki/Aero_Commander_500_family "Aero Commander 500 family").{{rp\|50}} On 7 July 1955, the RVNAF took over the Nha Trang Training Center and formed the 1st and 2nd Liaison Squadrons equipped with [L\-19s](/wiki/Cessna_O-1_Bird_Dog%23Military_service "Cessna O-1 Bird Dog#Military service").{{rp\|50}} In August 1955, under the [Mutual Defense Assistance Program](/wiki/Mutual_Defense_Assistance_Program "Mutual Defense Assistance Program") (MDAP), the United States equipped the fledgling RVNAF with aircraft turned over by the French: 28 [F8F Bearcats](/wiki/Grumman_F8F_Bearcat "Grumman F8F Bearcat"), 35 C\-47s and 60 L\-19s.{{rp\|208}} In June 1956 the US provided a further 32 C\-47s and 25 F\-8Fs to the RVNAF under the MDAP.{{rp\|216}} On 19 September 1955, the French turned over [Tourane Airfield](/wiki/Da_Nang_Air_Base "Da Nang Air Base") (renamed Da Nang Air Base) to the RVNAF.{{rp\|208–9}} In November 1955, the RVNAF 1st Liaison Squadron moved to Da Nang AB from [Huế](/wiki/Hu%E1%BA%BF "Huế").{{rp\|272}} French instructors for pilots and mechanics remained in South Vietnam until late 1956, and transferred 69 F8Fs to the RVNAF, which throughout the late 1950s were the main strike aircraft.{{cite magazine \|author\=Grandolini, Albert \|title\=Indo\-Chinese Fighting 'Cats: Grumman's Superb Bearcat in Vietnam \|magazine\=Air Enthusiast \|issue\=70 \|date\=July–August 1997 \|pages\=12–21 \|issn\=0143\-5450}} In May 1956, by agreement with the South Vietnamese government, the USAF assumed some training and administrative roles of the RVNAF. Teams from [Clark Air Force Base](/wiki/Clark_Air_Force_Base "Clark Air Force Base") began in 1957 to organize the RVNAF into a model of the USAF when the French training contracts expired. On 1 June 1956, the RVNAF's 1st Fighter Squadron (redesignated the 514th Fighter Squadron in January 1963\) was formed at Bien Hoa Air Base with 25 F8F Bearcats.{{rp\|50}} In June 1956, the 2nd Transport Squadron equipped with C\-47s was established at Tan Son Nhut AB and the RVNAF established its headquarters there.{{rp\|275}} On 1 June 1957, the US assumed full responsibility for training and equipping the RVNAF as the French withdrew their training missions. At this time, the RVNAF had 85 aircraft and four squadrons: one of F\-8Fs, one of C\-47s and two of L\-19s. No squadron was combat\-ready. Total RVNAF personnel numbered just over 4,000\.{{rp\|231}} At this time the role of the RVNAF "was basically to support the ground forces." The RVNAF was part of the [Army of the Republic of Vietnam](/wiki/Army_of_the_Republic_of_Vietnam "Army of the Republic of Vietnam") (ARVN), not a separate service.{{rp\|232}} In meetings in Washington D.C. in May 1957, South Vietnamese premier [Ngo Dinh Diem](/wiki/Ngo_Dinh_Diem "Ngo Dinh Diem") gave his reasons for deemphasizing the RVNAF, advising President [Dwight D. Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower "Dwight D. Eisenhower") and [Secretary of State](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State "United States Secretary of State") [John Foster Dulles](/wiki/John_Foster_Dulles "John Foster Dulles"), "his main military requirement is ground forces. Diem is convinced that because of the poor visibility of low cloud cover prevailing through most of the year, it would be difficult if not impossible to give adequate air support to the ground forces." During a briefing at [The Pentagon](/wiki/The_Pentagon "The Pentagon") for a group of leaders that included [Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force](/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_United_States_Air_Force "Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force") General [Nathan Farragut Twining](/wiki/Nathan_Farragut_Twining "Nathan Farragut Twining"), Diem explained that the South Vietnamese believed that the Indochina war had shown that "it was difficult to use air \[power] effectively in this country."{{rp\|233}} On 1 June 1957, the RVNAF 1st Helicopter Squadron was established at Tan Son Nhut AB without equipment. It operated with the French Air Force unit serving the [International Control Commission](/wiki/International_Control_Commission "International Control Commission") and in April 1958 with the departure of the French it inherited its 10 [H\-19](/wiki/H-19_Chickasaw "H-19 Chickasaw") helicopters.{{rp\|50}} In October 1958, it was announced that the RVNAF's retired F8Fs would be replaced by [T\-28A/B Trojans](/wiki/North_American_T-28_Trojan%23Vietnam_War_combat "North American T-28 Trojan#Vietnam War combat").{{rp\|50–2}} In October 1959, the 2nd Liaison Squadron equipped with L\-19 Bird Dogs moved to Tan Son Nhut AB from Nha Trang AB.{{rp\|275}} Following an unexplained crash in August 1960, Diem grounded all the obsolete F8Fs of the 1st Fighter Squadron and in September asked for jets to replace them. However the [Geneva Accords](/wiki/1954_Geneva_Conference "1954 Geneva Conference") that ended the [First Indochina War](/wiki/First_Indochina_War "First Indochina War") prohibited the introduction of jets into the country, so instead the F8Fs were replaced by ex [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy") [AD\-6 Skyraiders](/wiki/Douglas_A-1_Skyraider%23Vietnam_War "Douglas A-1 Skyraider#Vietnam War") with the first six arriving in September and a further 25 delivered by May 1961\.{{rp\|54–5}} In late 1960, in order to support the operations of the [ARVN Rangers](/wiki/Vietnamese_Rangers "Vietnamese Rangers"), the [Military Assistance Advisory Group](/wiki/Military_Assistance_Advisory_Group "Military Assistance Advisory Group") secured approval for the shipment of 11 [H\-34C Choctaws](/wiki/Sikorsky_H-34 "Sikorsky H-34") from the [United States Army](/wiki/United_States_Army "United States Army") to replace the worn out H\-19s of the 1st Helicopter Squadron. They were airlifted to Saigon without renovation, four in December and the others soon after.{{rp\|55}} The AD\-6s and H\-34s had no immediate impact on operations. The high aircraft out\-of\-commission rates stemmed from poor maintenance and supply at Bien Hoa AB. Also to blame was the long pipeline time for processing spare parts requisitions through USAF logistic channels to Army and Navy sources. Yet between August and October 1960, the 1st Fighter Squadron flew 20 combat sorties, the L\-19 liaison planes logged 917 combat hours, the helicopters accumulated 166 hours on operational missions and C\-47s of the 1st Air Transport Group flew 32 sorties. Only five airfields were usable for AD\-6 operations: no communications network served dispersed airfields: and Diem believed that air units could not operate effectively from dispersed locations distant from depot supplies. The RVNAF was oriented to the support of ARVN operations, but the ground troops gave little attention to spotting targets suitable for air strikes. About 90 percent of the ground targets were located by RVNAF observers who flew in L\-19s based at the same fields as the fighters. Approval for aircraft to strike ground targets was required from Province chief, regional commander, the [Joint General Staff](/wiki/Joint_General_Staff "Joint General Staff") and sometimes Diem himself. As a final guarantee against bombing mistakes that might hurt the government's image, politically cleared and technically competent observers had to mark approved targets before air strikes could be launched against them \- a rule of engagement reportedly directed by Diem. A USAF team visiting South Vietnam noted "The high level approval required for on\-call fighter strikes, along with poor communications and procedures for requesting strikes, builds in excessive delays for efficient use of tactical air effort. This is particularly true in view of the hit\-and\-run guerrilla tactics of the [Viet Cong](/wiki/Viet_Cong "Viet Cong") (VC)."{{rp\|55}} ### 1961\-1962 {{see\|Farm Gate (military operation)}} [thumb\|right\|T\-28 Trojans](/wiki/File:T-28Ds_VNAF_over_Vietnam_coast.jpg "T-28Ds VNAF over Vietnam coast.jpg") In mid\-December 1961, the USAF began delivery of 30 T\-28A/B Trojans to the RVNAF.{{rp\|75}} The 2nd Fighter Squadron equipped with T\-28A/B Trojans was formed at Nha Trang AB. In late 1961 four USAF T\-28 pilots from [Operation Farm Gate](/wiki/Farm_Gate_%28military_operation%29 "Farm Gate (military operation)") were sent to Nha Trang AB to train RVNAF crews.{{rp\|127}} The 2nd Fighter Squadron became fully operational in mid\-1962\.{{rp\|132}} It was renamed the 516th Fighter Squadron in January 1963\.{{rp\|275}} In October 1961, the 2nd Helicopter Squadron was activated at Da Nang AB.{{rp\|273}} In December 1961, the 3rd Liaison Squadron was activated at Da Nang AB.{{rp\|273}} The RVNAF 1st Fighter Squadron staged AD\-6 Skyraiders at [Pleiku Air Base](/wiki/Pleiku_Air_Base "Pleiku Air Base") from late 1961 and this force was later increased to 4 A\-1s and a C\-47 flareship.{{rp\|127}} On 27 February 1962, two RVNAF pilots Second Lieutenant [Nguyễn Văn Cử](/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_V%C4%83n_C%E1%BB%AD_%28pilot%29 "Nguyễn Văn Cử (pilot)") and First Lieutenant [Phạm Phú Quốc](/wiki/Pham_Phu_Quoc "Pham Phu Quoc") flying from Bien Hoa AB [bombed the Independence Palace](/wiki/1962_South_Vietnamese_Independence_Palace_bombing "1962 South Vietnamese Independence Palace bombing") in their A\-1 Skyraiders in an attempt to kill Diệm. Three palace staff died and 30 were injured in the attack.{{rp\|129}} In mid\-1962, the 2nd Fighter Squadron at Nha Trang AB began detaching six aircraft to Da Nang AB.{{rp\|132}} In September 1962, the 12th Air Base Squadron was formed at Nha Trang AB.{{rp\|275}} In December 1962, the 293rd Helicopter Squadron was activated at Tan Son Nhut AB, it was inactivated in August 1964\.{{rp\|277–8}} Also that month Pleiku AB was activated by the RVNAF as Air Base 62\.{{rp\|275}} In late 1962, the RVNAF formed the 716th Composite Reconnaissance Squadron initially equipped with two C\-45 photo\-reconnaissance aircraft.{{rp\|147}} ### 1963\-1964 [thumb\|right\|A\-1 Skyraiders of the 520th Fighter Squadron](/wiki/File:A-1H-VNAF-520FS-BinhThuy.jpg "A-1H-VNAF-520FS-BinhThuy.jpg") In January 1963, the 1st Transport Squadron was redesignated the 413rd Air Transport Squadron and the 2nd Transport Squadron was redesignated the 415th Air Transport Squadron.{{rp\|277}} The 1st Fighter Squadron was redesignated the 514th Fighter Squadron.{{rp\|50}} The 2nd Helicopter Squadron was redesignated the 213th Helicopter Squadron, the 1st Liaison Squadron was redesignated the 110th Liaison Squadron and the 3rd Liaison Squadron was redesignated the 114th Liaison Squadron.{{rp\|273}} Also that month the USAF opened an H\-19 pilot training facility at Tan Son Nhut and by June the first RVNAF helicopter pilots had graduated.{{rp\|168}} Also in January the 211th Helicopter Squadron equipped with UH\-34s replaced the 1st Helicopter Squadron.{{rp\|277}} On 19 June 1963, the USAF [19th Tactical Air Support Squadron](/wiki/19th_Tactical_Air_Support_Squadron "19th Tactical Air Support Squadron") equipped with 23 O\-1 Bird Dogs and 44 pilots was activated at Bien Hoa AB, with the aim of training RVNAF pilots and observers as [Forward air controllers](/wiki/Forward_air_controllers "Forward air controllers") (FACs). USAF planners thought originally that the training could be done in one year. However, unforeseen problems, such as the RVNAF practice of siphoning off pilots into fighter squadrons and their penchant for standing back and letting the Americans fly many of the combat missions, slowed the RVNAF's progress toward self\-sufficiency. When the squadron was turned over to the RVNAF after one year, they were unable to assume the controller role; and by January 1965, the squadron was back in USAF hands.{{cite book\|last\=Schlight\|first\=John\|title\=The United States Air Force in Southeast Asia: The War in South Vietnam The Years of the Offensive 1965–1968\|publisher\=Office of Air Force History\|year\=1999\|url\=http://www.afhso.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD\-101013\-038\.pdf\|isbn\=9780912799513\|access\-date\=2019\-05\-15\|archive\-date\=2011\-11\-27\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111127165157/http://www.afhso.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD\-101013\-038\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}}{{PD\-notice}}{{rp\|5–6}} In September 1963, the USAF opened a training center at Nha Trang AB equipped with L\-19s. RVNAF flight crews would undergo one month of preflight training followed by three months of primary flight training with a total of 80 flying hours.{{rp\|168}} In October 1963, the 518th Fighter Squadron was activated at Bien Hoa AB.{{rp\|272}} In December 1963, the 716th Composite Reconnaissance Squadron was activated at Tan Son Nhut AB, equipped with C\-47s and T\-28s. The squadron would be inactivated in June 1964 and its mission assumed by the 2nd Air Division, while its pilots formed the 520th Fighter Squadron at Bien Hoa AB.{{rp\|278}} In January 1964, 33rd Tactical Wing was established at Tan Son Nhut AB and it assumed control of all RVNAF units at the base.{{rp\|278}} Also that month the 41st Tactical Wing was established at Da Nang AB and assumed control of all RVNAF units at the base.{{rp\|274}} In February 1964, the 516th Fighter Squadron equipped with 15 A\-1 Skyraiders moved to Da Nang AB from Nha Trang AB.{{rp\|274}} In March 1964, the US decided to reequip all RVNAF fighter squadrons with A\-1 Skyraiders.{{rp\|213}} On 15 March 1964, the RVNAF established a Tactical Wing Headquarters at Da Nang AB.{{rp\|211}} On 18 March 1964, the newly formed 518th Fighter Squadron began operations from Bien Hoa AB with an original strength of 10 A\-1Hs, it would grow to 25 aircraft authorized.{{rp\|213}} The RVNAF pilots were trained by crews from the US Navy's [VA\-152](/wiki/VA-152_%28U.S._Navy%29 "VA-152 (U.S. Navy)").{{rp\|219}} On 24 March, a *Farm Gate* T\-28 lost a wing during a bombing run near [Sóc Trăng Airfield](/wiki/S%C3%B3c_Tr%C4%83ng_Airfield "Sóc Trăng Airfield") killing both crewmen and on 9 April another T\-28 lost a wing during a strafing run and crashed. Two officials from [North American Aviation](/wiki/North_American_Aviation "North American Aviation"), the manufacturers of the T\-28, visited Bien Hoa AB and reviewed these losses and advised that the T\-28 wasn't designed for the stresses it was being subjected to as a close air support aircraft. As a result, five older T\-28s were retired and nine newer aircraft were borrowed by the RVNAF and operational restrictions imposed.{{rp\|214}} Despite this augmentation, accidents and aircraft transfers meant that by late May the [1st Air Commando Squadron](/wiki/1st_Special_Operations_Wing "1st Special Operations Wing") had only eight T\-28s left but these were retired on 30 May and replaced by more capable A\-1E Skyraiders.{{rp\|220–1}} In March 1964, Air Base 62 at Pleiku AB became the RVNAF 62nd Tactical Wing.{{rp\|275}} In May, the 217th Helicopter Squadron was established at Da Nang AB.{{rp\|274}} In June 1964, the 116th Liaison Squadron equipped with O\-1s was activated at Nha Trang AB.{{rp\|275}} Also that month the RVNAF formed the 23rd Tactical Wing at Bien Hoa AB incorporating the 514th, 518th and the 112th Liaison Squadron. The 520th Fighter Squadron would be activated at Bien Hoa AB in October and join the 23rd Wing.{{rp\|272}} In October 1964, the RVNAF 520th Fighter Squadron equipped with A\-1Hs was formed at Bien Hoa AB, however due to delays in construction of [Binh Thuy Air Base](/wiki/Binh_Thuy_Air_Base "Binh Thuy Air Base") it was only in December that they were able to start deploying a five aircraft detachment daily from Bien Hoa AB to Binh Thuy AB.{{rp\|237–9}} By mid\-1964, the RVNAF had grown to thirteen squadrons; four fighter, four observation, three helicopter and two C\-47 transport. The RVNAF followed the USAF practice of organizing the squadrons into wings, with one wing located in each of the four Corps' tactical zones at Binh Thuy AB, Tan Son Nhut AB, Pleiku AB and Da Nang AB. By the end of 1964, however, the combat sortie rate suffered as some key units were diverted from tactical operations and placed on "coup alert" during the seemingly endless political changes in Saigon. Still missing from the RVNAF were some of the basic elements of an effective combat force. Communication facilities were inadequate. The RVNAF had a rudimentary reporting system and, consequently, no way to measure the results of their missions. Absence of centralized control meant that it was impossible for the RVNAF to be fully integrated into the tactical air control system the USAF advisors had installed. Both the central air operations center at Tan Son Nhut AB and its field sites, the local air support operation centers, while technically performing their primary functions of scheduling and coordinating RVNAF sorties, were actually "after the fact" agencies that did little more than schedule missions demanded by the wings. About 75 percent of all attack sorties were being flown against "free strike" targets, which meant they were outside the control of a FAC and used little or no intelligence support. The RVNAF was still being run largely at the local level and, as a result, was seldom able to respond quickly to calls for assistance from the ARVN.{{rp\|12–3}} ### 1965 [thumb\|right\|B\-57B loaned to the RVNAF at Da Nang AB, 1965](/wiki/File:Martin_B-57B-MA_52-1532_loaned_to_SVNAF_1965.jpg "Martin B-57B-MA 52-1532 loaned to SVNAF 1965.jpg") In January 1965, the 62nd Tactical Wing and 516th Fighter Squadron, equipped with A\-1H Skyraiders deployed to Nha Trang AB from Pleiku AB while a new runway was built at Pleiku.{{rp\|263}} Also that month the 1141st Observation Squadron moved to Pleiku AB from Da Nang AB. Pleiku AB was then managed by the 92nd Base Support Group and the base was used as a staging and emergency airfield. {{rp\|275}} On 8 February 1965, RVNAF commander [Nguyễn Cao Kỳ](/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Cao_K%E1%BB%B3 "Nguyễn Cao Kỳ") led RVNAF A\-1s from Da Nang AB on a [retaliatory raid against North Vietnamese targets](/wiki/Operation_Flaming_Dart "Operation Flaming Dart"), all of the aircraft were hit by anti\-aircraft fire, but only one was shot down.{{rp\|60}} On 2 March 1965, 20 RVNAF A\-1s from Da Nang AB participated in the first attacks of [Operation Rolling Thunder](/wiki/Operation_Rolling_Thunder "Operation Rolling Thunder"), striking the [Vietnam People's Navy](/wiki/Vietnam_People%27s_Navy "Vietnam People's Navy") base at [Quảng Khê](/wiki/Qu%E1%BA%A3ng_Kh%C3%AA%2C_B%E1%BA%AFc_K%E1%BA%A1n "Quảng Khê, Bắc Kạn").{{cite book\|last\=Van Staaveren\|first\=Jacob\|title\=Gradual Failure: The Air War over North Vietnam 1965–1966\|publisher\=Air Force History and Museums Program\|year\=2002\|url\=https://media.defense.gov/2010/May/26/2001330292/\-1/\-1/0/AFD\-100526\-034\.pdf\|isbn\=9781508779094}}{{PD\-notice}}{{rp\|84}} On 14 March the RVNAF led by Kỳ participated in attacks on barracks on Hòn Gió island.{{rp\|85}} The RVNAF contributed 19 sorties in March and 97 in April to attacks on North Vietnam.{{rp\|25}} By the end of June seven RVNAF aircraft had been lost to North Vietnamese anti\-aircraft fire, while a further eight had been damaged.{{rp\|141}} With the increasingly sophisticated air defenses over North Vietnam, the RVNAF was soon reduced to operating over only a small part of southern North Vietnam, with USAF, Navy and [United States Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps "United States Marine Corps") aircraft conducting most operations.{{rp\|314}} In May 1965, the 522nd Fighter Squadron equipped with A\-1s was activated at Tan Son Nhut AB.{{rp\|95}} In August 1965, the 524th Fighter Squadron equipped with A\-1s was activated at Nha Trang AB.{{rp\|95}} In August 1965, four USAF [B\-57B Canberras](/wiki/Martin_B-57_Canberra "Martin B-57 Canberra") operating from Da Nang AB were nominally transferred to the RVNAF becoming their first jet aircraft.{{rp\|88}} Six Vietnamese pilots had already been checked out in the B\-57B, and there were fifteen more with jet training, along with about forty mechanics. These pilots could join in strikes against the Viet Cong; and later they, along with the mechanics, could form the nucleus of a Vietnamese [F\-5](/wiki/Northrop_F-5 "Northrop F-5") squadron that was then being considered.{{rp\|68}} The RVNAF never officially took control of the aircraft, and, after accidents and other problems, including apparent claims by RVNAF pilots that the B\-57 was beyond their physical capabilities, the program was terminated in April 1966, and the aircraft were returned to their original USAF units.{{cite book\|last\=Mesko\|first\=Jim\|title\=VNAF: South Vietnamese Air Force 1945\-1975\|publisher\=Squadron/Signal Publications\|year\=1987\|isbn\=9780897471930}}{{rp\|43}} In December, the 217th Helicopter Squadron moved from Tan Son Nhut AB to Binh Thuy AB.{{rp\|274}} By the end of 1965, there were 13,000 men and 359 planes in the RVNAF, numbers that would not change substantially until the 1970s. Of the five tactical wings, two were in [III Corps](/wiki/III_Corps_%28South_Vietnam%29 "III Corps (South Vietnam)") (Bien Hoa AB and Tan Son Nhut AB) and a single wing was in each of the other Corps (at Da Nang, Pleiku and Binh Thuy). There were 6 fighter squadrons with a total of 146 A\-1 Skyraiders. The four H\-34 helicopter squadrons and four O\-1 liaison squadrons were up to strength and two of the three planned transport squadrons of C\-47s were operational. This was as large a force as the country could afford, and it was deemed sufficient to defend postwar South Vietnam. Until that day arrived, the US could handle any additional requirements. Besides these tactical wings, the RVNAF had a logistics wing at Bien Hoa AB, a base support group at Pleiku AB and its Air Training Center at Nha Trang AB.{{rp\|95}} The RVNAF was flying 2900 combat sorties per month in support of the ARVN.{{rp\|65}} USAF advisors were turning from expanding to modernizing the RVNAF. Plans were taking shape in December for modernization over the next three years. Two of the six fighter squadrons would gradually convert to F\-5s, the H\-34s would give way to newer [UH\-1s](/wiki/Bell_UH-1_Iroquois "Bell UH-1 Iroquois") and at least one of the C\-47 squadrons would receive [C\-119](/wiki/Fairchild_C-119_Flying_Boxcar "Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar") transports. Major improvements were envisioned for the FAC program, the air defense net, and in the realm of communications, which was particularly weak.{{rp\|96}} The expansion and effectiveness of the RVNAF was hampered by numerous factors. Its commander, Ky, pulled his best people with him into the government, leaving to the American advisors the task of training replacements. The difficulties of that were noted by [Seventh Air Force](/wiki/Seventh_Air_Force "Seventh Air Force") commander General [Joseph Harold Moore](/wiki/Joseph_Harold_Moore "Joseph Harold Moore") who observed that, although several young field grade officers were showing promise as good leaders, "daily siestas and weekend slackening of effort is still a way of life." Pilots, lacking training and confidence, refused to fly at night and would not use their helicopters for medical evacuation missions in the face of enemy action. Liaison pilots were assigned for only two weeks and then moved away to another province, undercutting [Military Assistance Command, Vietnam](/wiki/Military_Assistance_Command%2C_Vietnam "Military Assistance Command, Vietnam") (MACV)’s ambitious visual reconnaissance program. In the midst of combat, RVNAF commanders were reluctant to release men for training. With the war all around them, pilot trainees were thrown into action as soon as they became minimally qualified, leaving little time to learn instrument and night flying. As a group, the commanders operated from day to day rather than programming and training their way out of their skill shortages. Often the men resisted being sent for training since this meant leaving their home stations. The program was weakened by the low pay that forced the men to moonlight, by the family separation, and by the relatively poor facilities at training bases. The concept of preventive maintenance was alien; and the tradition of postponing maintenance until equipment broke down or failed to function continued.{{rp\|97–8}} ### 1966 [thumb\|right\|C\-47s at Tan Son Nhut AB in 1966](/wiki/File:Vnaf-c47-1966.jpg "Vnaf-c47-1966.jpg") Attempts by the USAF to wean the ARVN off reliance on USAF FACs were making slow progress. ARVN commanders seldom trusted the RVNAF and wanted USAF FACs who could command jet fighters rather than their own controllers who could not. In many ways they were justified, as the RVNAF controllers were slow in mastering the techniques of strike control and visual reconnaissance.{{rp\|132–3}} ### 1967 On 1 June 1967, the [US Ambassador](/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_South_Vietnam "United States Ambassador to South Vietnam") [Ellsworth Bunker](/wiki/Ellsworth_Bunker "Ellsworth Bunker") presented the 20 F\-5As of the [10th Fighter Squadron (Commando)](/wiki/10th_Airborne_Command_and_Control_Squadron%23Skoshi_Tiger "10th Airborne Command and Control Squadron#Skoshi Tiger") to Kỳ at Bien Hoa AB. These aircraft would be used by the RVNAF to form the 522nd Fighter Squadron, their first jet squadron with training support provided by the USAF [Air Training Command](/wiki/Air_Training_Command%23Vietnam_War_era "Air Training Command#Vietnam War era"). This was the first step in the unfolding of the program that would see four of the six RVNAF fighter squadrons gradually convert from A\-1s to jets. Besides the F\-5s for the 522nd, three of the other squadrons were to receive [A\-37 Dragonflys](/wiki/Cessna_A-37_Dragonfly "Cessna A-37 Dragonfly") as soon as the planes were tested in South Vietnam. The two remaining squadrons would continue to fly the A\-1s. [United States Secretary of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense "United States Secretary of Defense") [Robert McNamara](/wiki/Robert_McNamara "Robert McNamara") had been convinced to allow the RVNAF to have the F\-5s on the grounds that the jets had proved themselves to be good close air support vehicles, that they posed no threat to North Vietnam and therefore did not signal escalation, and that they would permit the RVNAF to defend the country against air attacks when the USAF finally withdrew. The impact of the move was as much psychological as it was military. The South Vietnamese were sensitive to taunts from North Vietnam that the US would not trust them with jets, and the activation of the jet squadron was an important status symbol for the southerners.{{rp\|234–5}} The 33 pilots chosen for the 522nd Fighter Squadron, were hand picked by Ky and had trained in the US and the Philippines. They were assisted at Bien Hoa AB by a mobile team sent by the Air Training Command to teach the squadron to maintain the planes. 522nd Fighter Squadron logged 388 combat sorties in June and 436 in July. In December, they flew 527 sorties, striking enemy supply routes and supporting ground troops in South Vietnam. Their safety record during the first 6 months was excellent, with only one plane lost.{{rp\|235}} There was some basis for the claim that the US did not trust the Vietnamese with jets, but not for the reasons implied above. The RVNAF's safety record with conventional aircraft had been poor. Since 1962 they had lost 287 planes, more than half of them (153\) to accidents. In 1967, the force suffered 32 major aircraft accidents for every 100,000 hours it compared to the USAF's accident rate of 7\.4\. In July alone, the RVNAF had 18 mishaps with its conventional planes, 12 the result of pilot mistakes hitting trees on [Napalm](/wiki/Napalm "Napalm") passes, ground looping on landing, colliding in midair, taxiing into a fence, landing with the gear up, losing control on takeoff, nosing over after stopping an aircraft too quickly and running off the runway. In August, there were 10 major flight accidents, a single major ground accident, a minor flight accident and six flight incidents, but only a single reported combat loss. While many of these accidents stemmed from the inexperience of RVNAF pilots, the widespread absence of safety awareness and the absence of a program to instill it was making the problem difficult to correct. The USAF's advisory group, which oversaw the RVNAF's development, had been eclipsed since the large\-scale USAF arrival began in 1965; and a flying safety program for the RVNAF, which had been in the plans, had fallen victim to higher priorities. Some advisory group officials complained that they were not getting top caliber people for so sensitive a mission. Few officers possessed the linguistic and cultural skills needed for the job and advisor duty was frequently viewed as inferior and undesirable compared to a more glamorous and career\-enhancing tour with the Seventh Air Force.{{rp\|235}} On 7 May 1967, a VC attack on Binh Thuy AB destroyed four A\-1Hs and two UH\-34s.{{cite book\|last\=Ballard\|first\=Jack\|title\=The United States Air Force in Southeast Asia: Development and Employment of Fixed\-Wing Gunships 1962–1972\|publisher\=Office of Air Force History\|year\=1982\|url\=https://media.defense.gov/2010/May/26/2001330293/\-1/\-1/0/AFD\-100526\-036\.pdf\|isbn\=9781428993648}}{{PD\-notice}}{{rp\|54}} The RVNAF 2311th Air Group, later to become an Air Wing, and the 311th Air Division were also stationed at Bien Hoa AB and the base supported the greatest number of air combat units than any other in South Vietnam. Following the final withdrawal of US forces from South Vietnam in February 1973, Bien Hoa remained a major RVNAF base hosting the headquarters of the RVNAF 3rd Air Division and the Air Logistics Command.{{rp\|216}} ### 1968 [thumb\|right\|CH\-34C lifts a battle\-damaged O\-1 in 1968](/wiki/File:CH-34C_VNAF_lifting_O-1_1968.JPEG "CH-34C VNAF lifting O-1 1968.JPEG") When the [Tet Offensive](/wiki/Tet_Offensive "Tet Offensive") began on 31 January, 55 percent of the RVNAF's personnel were on leave, many in rural areas that had been isolated by VC infiltration. Within 72 hours, 90 percent of the force was back on the job. Helicopters, operating with fewer aircraft, flew more than half their normal monthly number of missions.{{rp\|305}} By the end of February, RVNAF A\-1s and F\-5s had flown over 2500 sorties, helicopters had flown over 3200 hours and transport aircraft had flown over 1000 sorties.{{cite book\|last\=Nalty\|first\=Bernard\|title\=The United States Air Force in Southeast Asia: The War in South Vietnam Air War over South Vietnam 1968–1975\|publisher\=Air Force History and Museums Program\|year\=2000\|url\=http://www.afhso.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD\-100924\-004\.pdf\|isbn\=9781478118640}}{{PD\-notice}}{{rp\|33}} The overall damage was moderate and casualties were light, with less than one percent of the RVNAF personnel lost, including deserters. 18 aircraft were destroyed, 11 in ground attacks.{{rp\|305}} The RVNAF played an active role in the repelling the [Tet Offensive attack on Tan Son Nhut Air Base](/wiki/Tet_Offensive_attack_on_Tan_Son_Nhut_Air_Base "Tet Offensive attack on Tan Son Nhut Air Base") and the [attack on Bien Hoa Air Base](/wiki/Tet_Offensive_attacks_on_Bien_Hoa_and_Long_Binh "Tet Offensive attacks on Bien Hoa and Long Binh"). Training remained the number one priority and the hardest to accomplish. Trying to fight while modernizing, RVNAF commanders were reluctant to assign their personnel to training, which meant losing them from combat. The RVNAF still relied principally on US units in both Vietnam and the United States for advanced flying and technical training. Mobile training teams taught F\-5 and C\-119 maintenance, logistic management, and the English language inside Vietnam. The US Army was training the H\-34 pilots to fly the new UH\-1s; and USAF units in the country taught Vietnamese airmen control tower operations, meteorology, armament maintenance and missile handling. Between 1965 and 1968, almost 1,000 Vietnamese airmen were trained in the United States.{{rp\|305}} The RVNAF was a rapidly maturing force, flying one\-fourth of all the strike sorties in South Vietnam and was on its way to becoming a modern, effective jet age fighting force. However the ARVN was not making full use of the RVNAF's resources. Preoccupied as it was with immediate, day\-to\-day combat, the RVNAF by early 1968 was still unable to develop the concept of long\-range force development. For such planning, it was still heavily reliant on the US. Major aircraft accidents, which claimed an average of 22 aircraft each month throughout 1966 and 1967, remained the biggest problem. Over 60% of these accidents were caused by pilot error on takeoffs and landings. Only eight accidents occurred during the Tet Offensive, suggesting a dramatic increase in motivation during the crisis.{{rp\|305}} However apart from the peak during Tet, combat sorties averaged only 1800 per month, nine percent of total Allied sorties.{{rp\|55–6}} The RVNAF's maintenance record was improving. Between 1965 and 1968, it integrated six new types of aircraft and showed that it could maintain them. Its maintenance depot, however, was unable to handle all crash and battle damage repairs, much of which was done by US contractors. Maintenance discipline and proficiency were still showing the strains caused by traditional work habits and a shortage of personnel. The RVNAF's supply system early in 1968 was slowly digging its way out of the inundation that started two years earlier. As US aid increased from $15 million in 1965 to $264 million in 1967, the RVNAF did not have enough personnel to cope with the deluge of supplies. The result was a mountainous backlog in receiving, processing, storing and recording the new equipment.{{rp\|305}} In late 1968, MACV proposed its Phase I plan to prepare the RVNAF to assume a greater share of responsibility for fighting the war. The plan called for the addition of four UH–1H helicopter squadrons (124 helicopters) to the 20 squadron RVNAF. There would also be modernization: [T–41](/wiki/Cessna_T-41_Mescalero "Cessna T-41 Mescalero") trainers replacing some of the older U–17s, four H–34 squadrons converting to UH–1Hs, a C–47 transport squadron reequipping with the [AC\-47 *Spooky*](/wiki/Douglas_AC-47_Spooky "Douglas AC-47 Spooky") gunship and three A–1 squadrons receiving jet\-powered A–37s. These changes increased by some 41 percent the authorized number of aircraft. However, as it became apparent that US forces would start withdrawing from South Vietnam MACV revised the plan to expand the RVNAF by a further 16 squadrons, all of which would be in service by July 1974\. Besides an additional five helicopter squadrons, for a total augmentation of nine, phase II called for three new squadrons of A–37s, four of transports (all but one flying [C\-123 Providers](/wiki/Fairchild_C-123_Provider "Fairchild C-123 Provider")), an [AC\-119G *Shadow*](/wiki/Fairchild_AC-119 "Fairchild AC-119") gunship unit, and three liaison squadrons equipped with planes suitable for use by FACs. The new plan would double the current number of RVNAF squadrons, more than double the total number of aircraft, and increase personnel to 32,600\. MACV believed that these additions, plus the F–5 and A–37 strike aircraft and [CH–47 Chinook](/wiki/Boeing_CH-47_Chinook "Boeing CH-47 Chinook") helicopters already scheduled for delivery, would enable the RVNAF to conduct operations in South Vietnam similar to those conducted by the air forces of both the United States and South Vietnam in 1964/5\. The AC–47 and AC–119 gunship force were believed sufficient for base defense and the support of ground operations and by July 1974 the fighter arm would have achieved satisfactory strength and skill, even though the F–5 would have to double as strike fighter and interceptor. The planned number of helicopters seemed adequate to permit airmobile operations against insurgency activity. The planned liaison units, which included FACs, and the transport squadrons did not have enough aircraft, however, and MACV acknowledged that the proposed reconnaissance force, six RF–5s, could not cover an area the size of South Vietnam. The USAF would have to compensate somehow for these obvious weaknesses.{{rp\|163–4}} ### 1969 {{see\|Vietnamization}} [thumb\|right\|A\-37B Dragonfly of the 548th Fighter Squadron at Phan Rang AB](/wiki/File:A-37B-5548FS_VNAF_PhanRang.jpg "A-37B-5548FS VNAF PhanRang.jpg") On 4 January 1969, the Joint Chiefs of Staff presented the outgoing [Johnson](/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson "Lyndon B. Johnson") administration a plan for changing the target date for completion of the RVNAF Phase II expansion from July 1974 to July 1972\.{{rp\|162–3}} In April 1969, the Department of Defense issued instructions to accelerate the Phase II improvement and modernization plan as recommended by the Joint Chiefs.{{rp\|164}} By May 1969, the full complement of 54 A\-37B jets was on hand and assigned to the 524th, 520th, and 516th Fighter Squadrons. The first A\-37 squadron was declared operationally ready in March 1969, the last one in July.{{cite book\|last\=Berger\|first\=Carl\|title\=The United States Air Force in Southeast Asia 1961\-1973, An Illustrated Account\|publisher\=Office of Air Force History\|year\=1984\|url\=https://media.defense.gov/2017/Mar/28/2001722972/\-1/\-1/0/07\-ILL\_HIST\_CH20\-BACK\_(PAGES309\-383\).PDF\|isbn\=9789999582827}}{{PD\-notice}}{{rp\|315}} On 8 June 1969, Presidents [Richard Nixon](/wiki/Richard_Nixon "Richard Nixon") and [Nguyễn Văn Thiệu](/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_V%C4%83n_Thi%E1%BB%87u "Nguyễn Văn Thiệu") met on [Midway Island](/wiki/Midway_Island "Midway Island") and discussed both the withdrawal of US forces and the arming and training of South Vietnamese to take over a greater share of the fighting. Although amenable to the idea of [Vietnamization](/wiki/Vietnamization "Vietnamization"), Thiệu had ideas of his own about the kind of weapons his armed forces required, he offered a plan of his own for modernizing the military services, asking for what the Joint Chiefs of Staff termed appreciable quantities of sophisticated and costly equipment, including [F–4 Phantom](/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-4_Phantom_II "McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II") fighters and [C–130 Hercules](/wiki/Lockheed_C-130_Hercules "Lockheed C-130 Hercules") transports. If South Vietnam received these aircraft and the other weapons he sought, the nation would have the means to play a more nearly decisive role in the struggle against the combined forces of North Vietnam and the Viet Cong. However the Joint Chiefs did not believe it could be attained as rapidly or as easily as Thiệu seemed to think, and certainly not by merely handing the South Vietnamese deadlier but far more complex aircraft and other weapons. Compared to their American counterparts, the RVNAF lacked the technical skills necessary to make effective use of the weaponry Thiệu desired. Nor did the phase II plan, now to be accelerated, envision the South Vietnamese promptly taking on the aggregate strength of North Vietnam and the Viet Cong. However desirable this might be as an ultimate goal, the Joint Chiefs of Staff did not believe that mere weapons could, in view of such problems as leadership and desertion, enable South Vietnam to take over major fighting responsibility against the current threat. A review of the Thiệu proposal by MACV resulted in a recommendation that the United States turn down almost every request. The RVNAF would have to do without F–4s and C–130s, additional VC–47 transports for high\-ranking officials, coastal surveillance aircraft, and a search and rescue organization like that operated by the USAF. Thiệu's ambitious plan did, however, generate an additional $160 million in US military aid to improve logistics support and also produced a decision to speedup previously authorized recruiting, adding some 4,000 men to the RVNAF by June 1970\.{{rp\|164–5}} On 30 June 1969, all AC\-47 *Spooky* gunships of D Flight, [3rd Special Operations Squadron](/wiki/3d_Special_Operations_Squadron%23Vietnam "3d Special Operations Squadron#Vietnam") were transferred to the RVNAF at Tan Son Nhut AB.{{rp\|70}} On 2 July 1969, 5 AC\-47 *Spooky* gunships were used to form the 817th Combat Squadron which became operational at Tan Son Nhut AB on 31 August.{{rp\|252}} During the latter half of 1969, the USAF began transferring its O–1E FACs to the RVNAF as newer aircraft replaced them as part of the gradual transfer of control of the entire tactical air control system to the RVNAF. The direct air request network, as the Vietnamized control system came to be called, had three principal elements: the tactical air control party, the direct air support center, and the Tactical Air Control Center. Grouped together in the tactical air control party were the forward air controllers, various radio operators and maintenance men, and the air liaison officer, who acted as air adviser to the ground commander. Like his American counterpart, the South Vietnamese air liaison officer served as focal point for all matters relating to air activities, from close support to weather reports. The direct air support center bore responsibility for fulfilling requests from the tactical air control parties for air strikes, tactical reconnaissance, or emergency airlift. Like the tactical air control parties, the centers would continue for a time to be joint operations, with the American role diminishing as South Vietnamese skills improved. Plans called for a direct air support center in conjunction with each ARVN Corps' headquarters: [I](/wiki/I_Corps_%28South_Vietnam%29 "I Corps (South Vietnam)") Direct Air Support Center at Da Nang AB, [II](/wiki/II_Corps_%28South_Vietnam%29 "II Corps (South Vietnam)") at Pleiku AB, III at Bien Hoa AB and [IV](/wiki/IV_Corps_%28South_Vietnam%29 "IV Corps (South Vietnam)") at Binh Thuy AB. Each of these centers would keep in contact by radio, telephone, or teletype with the subordinate tactical air control parties and with the Tactical Air Control Center at Tan Son Nhut AB. The Tactical Air Control Center served as nerve center of the Vietnamized system. In the tightly centralized US model, this agency functioned as command post for strikes throughout South Vietnam, establishing priorities among competing needs and issuing daily and weekly operations orders in support of the war on the ground. RVNAF officers began serving in each component of the center, creating a parallel structure that could sustain the air war after the Americans left. Whether a tactical air control center of this type could be transplanted and flourish remained open to question, for South Vietnam's armed forces had not yet accepted the concept of centralized control over tactical aviation. The Corps' commander, though theoretically influenced by an air liaison officer, remained supreme in his fiefdom and could use the direct air support center for his own purposes, regardless of orders issued elsewhere.{{rp\|172–3}} ### 1970 [thumb\|right\|421st Transport Squadron C\-123 at Tan Son Nhut AB](/wiki/File:South_Vietnamese_Air_Force_Fairchild_C-123B-15-FA_Provider_55-4565.jpg "South Vietnamese Air Force Fairchild C-123B-15-FA Provider 55-4565.jpg") [thumb\|right\|U\-17A at Nha Trang AB](/wiki/File:U-17A_VNAF_NhaTrang.jpg "U-17A VNAF NhaTrang.jpg") [thumb\|right\|UH\-1D on an air assault mission in the Mekong Delta](/wiki/File:Vietnam_Air_Force_UH-1_Mekong_Delta_19700718.jpg "Vietnam Air Force UH-1 Mekong Delta 19700718.jpg") In 1970, the RVNAF units at Da Nang AB were reorganized as the First Air Division with responsibility for I Corps.{{rp\|213}} In March 1970, the USAF began handing the Pleiku AB over to the RVNAF and this transfer was completed by the end of 1970\.{{rp\|216}} Pleiku AB was one of the two operating bases of the RVNAF 6th Air Division, the other being [Phù Cát Air Base](/wiki/Ph%C3%B9_C%C3%A1t_Air_Base "Phù Cát Air Base").{{cite book\|last\=Lavalle\|first\=A\|title\=USAF Southeast Asia Monograph Series Volume III, The Vietnamese Air Force 1951–75\|publisher\=Office of Air Force History\|year\=1985\|url\=https://media.defense.gov/2010/Oct/13/2001330009/\-1/\-1/0/AFD\-101013\-043\.pdf\|isbn\=0912799285\|page\=68}}{{PD\-notice}} The RVNAF established the 72nd Tactical Wing at Pleiku AB with the 530th Fighter Squadron equipped with A\-1 Skyraiders, along with two UH\-1H helicopter assault squadrons (229th, 235th) and the 118th Liaison Squadron, with O\-1 and [U\-17](/wiki/Cessna_185 "Cessna 185") forward air controller/light reconnaissance aircraft. On 31 March, a USAF mobile training team arrived in South Vietnam to begin teaching, in collaboration with Army aviators, the tactical use of the UH–1 fitted out as a gunship. On 29 May 29, before the second class of 32 students had graduated, the RVNAF mounted its first helicopter assault. Eight troop\-carrying UH–1s, another serving as a command post, and three others equipped as gunships successfully landed a small force near [Prey Veng](/wiki/Prey_Veng_%28city%29 "Prey Veng (city)"), Cambodia.{{rp\|223}} From the beginning of the [Cambodian Campaign](/wiki/Cambodian_Campaign "Cambodian Campaign") in April until the end of 1970, the RVNAF flew some 9,600 attack sorties in Cambodia, compared to 14,600 by US airmen. Besides flying interdiction missions, the RVNAF delivered close air support for both ARVN and [Cambodian troops](/wiki/Khmer_National_Armed_Forces "Khmer National Armed Forces") and provided other assistance.{{rp\|208}} The Cambodian Campaign gave unexpected impetus to the modernization and improvement of South Vietnam's armed forces. US Defense Secretary [Melvin Laird](/wiki/Melvin_Laird "Melvin Laird") launched the Consolidated Improvement and Modernization Program which called for a South Vietnamese military establishment totaling 1\.1 million in June 1973, with the RVNAF expanding to 46,998 officers and men. During December 1970, however, the USAF advisory group became concerned that additional airmen, technicians, and medical professionals would be needed as South Vietnamese replaced US troops at air bases, logistics centers, command posts and hospital facilities. South Vietnam's Joint General Staff agreed, increasing the projected strength of the air service to 52,171, but even this number could not ensure the self\-sufficiency of the RVNAF. At best, the greater number of airmen could help the ARVN to deal with the kind of threat that existed in the spring of 1970, after the invasion of Cambodia. Under the program, the RVNAF expanded from 22 squadrons with 486 authorized aircraft in mid\-1970 to 30 squadrons with 706 planes at year's end. Two additional A–37 squadrons and one of A–1s (all originally scheduled for activation in the summer of 1971\) were activated, as were four new squadrons of UH–1s and, some six months ahead of schedule, the first of two planned CH–47 Chinook units. Moreover, the consolidated plan looked beyond these 1970 increases to a force of 37 squadrons by the end of June 1971, 45 squadrons a year later and 49 by 30 June 1973\. The final squadron, 18 F–5E interceptors, would arrive at the end of June 1974, raising to 1,299 the authorized total of aircraft. In terms of squadrons, the RVNAF expanded by almost 30 percent during 1970, while the number of aircraft increased by not quite 50 percent.{{rp\|212–3}} The RVNAF faced high costs and long delays in obtaining from schools overseas navigators for the reconnaissance, gunship or transport versions of the C–119G and C–47\. To avoid reliance on courses taught in English in the United States, the USAF advisory group helped establish at Tan Son Nhut AB a school in which American\-trained South Vietnamese instructors taught the basic elements of navigation. The first of seven scheduled classes began in June 1970\. In August 55 RVNAF airmen started transition training at Tan Son Nhut AB from the CH–34 helicopter to the CH–47\. Maintenance men as well as flight crews received instruction from members of US Army helicopter units at [Phu Loi Base Camp](/wiki/Phu_Loi_Base_Camp "Phu Loi Base Camp") north of Saigon. This training program produced the RVNAF's first CH–47 squadron, which was formally activated on 30 September 1970\. Preparations had already begun to create a second CH\-47 squadron. Tan Son Nhut AB was also the focal point for training on the AC\-119G *Shadow* gunship, as 50 RVNAF pilots, half of them experienced in the C–119G transport and the others fresh from flight training in the US, joined recent graduates of navigator school in forming the nucleus of the AC–119G crews. Flight mechanics and searchlight operators would learn their specialties in the US before teaming up with the pilots, copilots, and navigators already training at Tan Son Nhut AB. Once brought together, each crew received a final indoctrination, then reported to the USAF's [14th Special Operations Wing](/wiki/14th_Special_Operations_Wing "14th Special Operations Wing") for the last phase of gunship training, five routine combat missions.{{rp\|218–9}} The need to acquire some fluency in English before starting certain training courses remained an obstacle to many potential RVNAF aviators or technicians. Indeed, the USAF advisors came to conclude that it had been a mistake to make proficiency in English the key to advanced training. In retrospect it would appear wiser to have trained US instructors to speak Vietnamese at the outset. During early 1970, 55 percent of the RVNAF airmen selected to learn English for further training in the US were failing the language course, almost three times the anticipated failure rate.{{rp\|217}} Certain kinds of training simply could not be given in South Vietnam. Facilities did not yet exist for the 1,900 aviators (1,500 of them helicopter pilots) who completed undergraduate pilot training in the US during the 18 months ending in December 1970\. Since travel outside South Vietnam was in this case unavoidable, the USAF agreed to compress the period of training in fixed\-wing aircraft. The duration of the course was reduced from 42 weeks for all cadets to 40 for future fighter pilots and 38 for those destined for transport squadrons. Besides future aviators, some doctors and nurses could receive their specialized training only in the United States. Except for these fledgling pilots, the doctors and nurses, and the communications specialists trained for a time at Clark Air Base in the Philippines, policy called for transplanting courses of instruction to South Vietnam.{{rp\|219}} Although pilots of helicopters, fighters, or transports and their variants, including gunships, learned to fly in the US, training for liaison or observation craft went forward in South Vietnam. This curriculum also underwent time\-saving revision. Formerly, after 299 hours of training on the ground and 146 hours mastering the U–17 or the recently introduced Cessna T–41, the new liaison pilot had reported to an O–1 unit for 50 hours of additional instruction. Unfortunately, the demands of combat usually forced the veteran fliers in the unit, whose combat missions took precedence over training flights, to spread the required instruction over three to five months. Beginning in September the RVNAF demanded 110 hours in the T–41 and 35 to 70 hours in the O–1, all of it acquired before the aspiring FAC left Nha Trang AB. As a result, he arrived at his unit thoroughly familiar with the O–1 and needing only an informal and comparatively brief combat indoctrination. South Vietnamese assumption of responsibility for tactical air control, a process in which FACs, trained in South Vietnam and flying newly acquired O–1s, played a key part—moved ahead during 1970\. At midyear, the RVNAF had ninety O–1 and forty U–17 observation planes organized into five active squadrons and manned by 149 pilots and 135 observers, all of them deemed fully qualified for combat. Of these 284 FACs, 44 pilots and 42 observers had demonstrated sufficient ability to control strikes by USAF as well as RVNAF aircraft. Successful control, however, remained limited in most instances to planned strikes conducted in daylight. According to US Army reports RVNAF FACs did not fly at night or in bad weather, ignored emergency requests to adjust artillery fire or carry out visual reconnaissance, and responded slowly to requests for immediate air strikes, though their work was adequate once they arrived on the scene.{{rp\|219–20}} With American units leaving the country, the RVNAF transport fleet was greatly increased at Tan Son Nhut AB. The RVNAF 33rd and 53rd Tactical Wings were established flying C\-123s, C\-47s and [C\-7 Caribous](/wiki/De_Havilland_Canada_DHC-4_Caribou "De Havilland Canada DHC-4 Caribou").{{rp\|218–9}} As C–119 pilots began training to fly the AC\-119 gunships, and men qualified in the C–47 were about to begin their transition to the newer C–123K, the two existing airlift squadrons had to carry out their usual duties while furnishing trainees for the new gunships and transports. Because of the need for more transports, the USAF advisory group and the air arm's headquarters drew up plans to hasten the activation of two C–123K squadrons, equipped with planes transferred from USAF units. The K models would commence operation by mid\-1971, six months ahead of schedule. Two squadrons of C–7s, also from USAF resources in South Vietnam, would round out the projected airlift force by July 1972\. This planned airlift fleet did not satisfy Ky, who argued for the addition of a squadron of C–130s. Secretary of the Air Force [Robert C. Seamans, Jr.](/wiki/Robert_C._Seamans%2C_Jr. "Robert C. Seamans, Jr."), visited South Vietnam in February 1970 and was impressed with Ky's reasoning. The C\-130 could carry more cargo than any of the types his nation would receive with five times the cargo capacity of a C–7 or roughly three times that of the C–123K or C–119G. A study by the USAF advisory group concluded that a combination of C–7s and C–130s could better meet the needs of the RVNAF than the planned combination of C–123s and C–7s. The C–123s, however, would soon become surplus to American needs and already were based in South Vietnam. Ease of transfer provided, for the present, a decisive argument in favor of the C\-123s, and many months would pass before the RVNAF finally received C–130s.{{rp\|224}} In July, the RVNAF had received the first two of six RF–5 reconnaissance planes. In mid\-August, RVNAF technicians processed and interpreted film from these aircraft, thus foreshadowing Vietnamization of aerial reconnaissance. The remaining four RF–5s arrived in time for the reconnaissance unit to begin functioning on 15 October. At year's end the RVNAF possessed the nucleus of a tactical air intelligence operation.{{rp\|225}} The 412st Transport Squadron formed at Phù Cát AB in 1970 operating C\-7As inherited from the 537th Troop Carrier Squadron.{{cite book\|last\=Kelley\|first\=Michael\|title\=Where we were in Vietnam\|publisher\=Hellgate Press\|year\=2002\|isbn\=978\-1555716257\|page\=397}} In November 1970, Sóc Trăng Airfield was handed over to the RVNAF by the US Army.{{rp\|214}} By the end of December 1970, RVNAF security police had assumed full responsibility for protecting Nha Trang and Binh Thuy Air Bases.{{rp\|214}} Increased cockpit time resulted in safer flying. The accident rate for 1970 throughout all of South Vietnam declined by some 20 percent from the previous year, but the lower ratio of 11\.4 accidents per 100,000 flying hours remained roughly 2\.5 times the USAF figure. The improvement during 1970 represented a sharp decline in accidents involving observation and utility aircraft; fighter and helicopter pilots flew no more safely than they had the year before. Although RVNAF flight proficiency appeared to be improving, if unevenly, some senior US Army officers had reservations about the combat effectiveness of the RVNAF, citing the inadequacies of its FACs, as well as its limited inventory of aircraft and its inability to fight at night. USAF advisers rendered more optimistic judgments, however, pointing out that the fighter and attack squadrons had performed well during the Cambodian fighting. Indeed, by year's end, the RVNAF were flying almost half the combined total of attack sorties in South Vietnam and Cambodia. Progress was being made toward early activation of more A–1 and A–37 squadrons, although the A–37 was handicapped by a combat radius of no more than {{convert\|200\|mi}}. A few F–5 pilots were undergoing training in ground controlled aerial interception, and the RVNAF was increasing the emphasis on nighttime operations. Although inability to fight at night or in bad weather remained the gravest weakness of RVNAF fliers, by late 1970, some 56 percent of the RVNAF's fighter\-bomber pilots had demonstrated the ability to deliver a night attack on a target illuminated by a flareship. Also, the A–37s and A–1s were starting to receive flare dispensers of their own so that nighttime operations were no longer dependent on the few C–47s available to drop flares. Despite the growing insistence on night flying, FACs logged fewer nighttime hours than the fighter pilots. This imbalance stemmed at least in part from the fact that the U–17s and older O–1s lacked adequate instrumentation and suitable cockpit lighting for operating in darkness. To prepare the RVNAF FACs for the better equipped O–1Es and Gs that were becoming available, USAF pilots were giving nighttime familiarization flights in the right\-hand seat of the [O–2A Skymaster](/wiki/Cessna_O-2_Skymaster "Cessna O-2 Skymaster").{{rp\|222–3}} ### 1971 {{see\|Operation Lam Son 719}} [thumb\|right\|UH\-1H gunship](/wiki/File:UH-1H_VNAF_in_flight_1971.jpg "UH-1H VNAF in flight 1971.jpg") On 1 January, the 5th Air Division was activated at Tan Son Nhut AB. This newest air division did not support the ARVN within a particular region. Instead, it was an outgrowth of the 33nd Wing, which flew transports, gunships and special mission aircraft everywhere in South Vietnam. Since so many of the aircraft flown by this division, the AC\-47, VC–47 executive transport and RC–47, were variants of the basic C–47, the RVNAF centralized these disparate operations in one division.{{rp\|213–4}} Vietnamization did not include aerial interdiction of the Ho Chi Minh Trail, so the program for modernization of the RVNAF did not provide them with the weapons necessary to interdict the PAVN supply lines.{{cite book\|last\=Nalty\|first\=Bernard\|title\=The War against Trucks Aerial Interdiction in Southern Laos 1968\-1972\|publisher\=Air Force History and Museums Program\|year\=2005\|url\=https://media.defense.gov/2010/Oct/06/2001329752/\-1/\-1/0/AFD\-101006\-027\.pdf\|isbn\=9781477550076}}{{PD\-notice}}{{rp\|237}} The armed forces of South Vietnam would have to conduct interdiction on the ground.{{rp\|238}} During [Operation Lam Son 719](/wiki/Operation_Lam_Son_719 "Operation Lam Son 719"), an ARVN operation to cut the Ho Chi Minh Trail in Laos, the RVNAF flew 5,500 sorties mostly by helicopters, a tiny fraction of the 160,000 sorties flown by US Army helicopters, showing that the operation would have been impossible without US support.{{rp\|273}} The crash of the helicopter carrying ARVN General [Đỗ Cao Trí](/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%97_Cao_Tr%C3%AD "Đỗ Cao Trí") and photojournalist [François Sully](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Sully "François Sully") on 23 February 1971 was attributed by US sources to mechanical failure and this led journalist [Edward Behr](/wiki/Edward_Behr_%28journalist%29 "Edward Behr (journalist)") to investigate the maintenance standards within the RVNAF. US maintenance personnel advised Behr that RVNAF mechanics never flushed helicopter engines with water and solvent every 25 flying hours as recommended and did not undertake other routine preventive maintenance. By late 1971 more than half the RVNAF helicopter fleet was grounded due to maintenance issues.{{cite book\|last1\=Fulghum\|first1\=David\|last2\=Maitland\|first2\=Terrence\|title\=The Vietnam Experience South Vietnam on Trial: Mid\-1970–1972\|publisher\=Boston Publishing Company\|year\=1984\|isbn\=0939526107\|pages\=61–2}} The first squadron of C–123s, organized in April, received its aircraft in May. The delay reflected the extensive maintenance the transports required after heavy usage flying men and cargo to staging areas for Operation Lam Son 719\. A second squadron commenced operation in July, and the third, scheduled for December, took shape in January 1972\. The last of 24 AC–119Gs joined the RVNAF in September 1971, and in December the USAF Chief of Staff, authorized the transfer of modified AC–119Ks to replace a squadron of AC–47s. At year's end, the RVNAF had 1,041 aircraft on hand, 762 of them (roughly 70 percent) ready for combat. Organized into 41 squadrons, it included three squadrons of A–1s, five of A–37s, one of F–5s, one of AC–47s (which the AC–119Ks would eventually replace), one of AC–119Gs, 16 of helicopters (mostly UH–1s) and seven squadrons of liaison craft for FACs. It also had one reconnaissance squadron with a mix of U–6s, RF–5s and variants of the C–47\. The transports units totalled one squadron of C–47s, one of C–119s, and two (soon to be three) of C–123s. A special air mission squadron that carried high\-ranking passengers and a school squadron to conduct training rounded out the force.{{rp\|299}} The tactical air control system underwent Vietnamization in 1971\. In June, the RVNAF assumed complete responsibility for assigning targets to their aircraft, selecting ordnance and scheduling strikes. The US presence at the Vietnamized command and control center now consisted of a two\-man liaison party and a few instructors who trained the persons assigned there. The RVNAF command and control function did not issue orders to components of the Seventh Air Force, which continued to maintain a separate tactical air control center for its own aircraft. By August, the RVNAF had also taken over the four direct air support centers, one in each Corps, but the parallel structure prevailed there also, for the Seventh Air Force supplied detachments to handle strikes by its aircraft. As retention by the Seventh Air Force of control over its aircraft indicated, the RVNAF had trouble mastering the tactical air control system, but the difficulties went beyond the mechanics of operating the various centers. ARVN commanders, for example, frequently ignored the lower ranking air liaison officers assigned to help them make effective use of the aerial weapon. FACs, who directed the actual strikes, seldom remained with a particular ground unit long enough to learn its special requirements, the characteristics of the operating area, or the patterns of enemy behavior. Moreover, FACs received, at most, a smattering of night training, and some of them avoided daylight missions over heavily defended areas, on occasion falsifying reports or logs to conceal their dereliction of duty.{{rp\|299–301}} From 1–7 December, RVNAF A–37s flew 49 sorties against PAVN transportation targets on the exit routes from the Ho Chi Minh Trail just inside the western border with Laos as part of [Operation Commando Hunt VII](/wiki/Operation_Commando_Hunt "Operation Commando Hunt"), in preparation for taking over the interdiction campaign as early as the 1972–73 dry season.{{rp\|263–4}} However it soon became apparent that the powerful defenses of the Ho Chi Minh Trail prevented a simple and inexpensive interdiction campaign combining operations on the ground and in the air. South Vietnam had no alternative to the strategy of defending the cities and the food\-producing coastal region. This task would absorb the overwhelming share of the nation's military resources, leaving nothing for long\-range interdiction. No longer would North Vietnam have to divert troops to protect the roads and trails through southern Laos from air attack or ground probes.{{rp\|265–6}} By the end of 1971, Vietnamization of the air war formed a mosaic of progress and disappointment. ### 1972 {{see\|Easter Offensive\|Operations Enhance and Enhance Plus}} [thumb\|right\|53rd Tactical Wing C\-130A at Tan Son Nhut AB in 1972](/wiki/File:C-130A_57-0460_VNAF_TanSonNhut_1972.jpg "C-130A 57-0460 VNAF TanSonNhut 1972.jpg") [thumb\|right\|415th Transport Squadron C\-47A at Tan Son Nhut AB in 1972](/wiki/File:South_Vietnamese_Air_Force_Douglas_C-47A-90-DL_43-15718.jpg "South Vietnamese Air Force Douglas C-47A-90-DL 43-15718.jpg") Phan Rang AB was progressively handed over to the RVNAF in March–May 1972\.{{cite book\|last\=Trass\|first\=Adrian\|title\=The United States Army in Vietnam Engineers at War\|publisher\=Center of Military History United States Army\|year\=2000\|url\=https://history.army.mil/html/books/091/91\-14\-1/index.html\|isbn\=9781517301965}}{{PD\-notice}}{{rp\|573}} At the start of the [Easter Offensive](/wiki/Easter_Offensive "Easter Offensive"), the RVNAF strength was 1,285 aircraft organized into 44 squadrons. Nine squadrons flew A–1s, A–37s, or F–5s, a total of 119 aircraft classified as combat\-ready fighter\-bombers; two squadrons operated AC–47 or AC–119G gunships, 28 of the aircraft ready for action; 17 helicopter squadrons had 367 helicopters combat\-ready out of a total of 620; seven FAC squadrons flew O–1 or U–17 light aircraft, 247 operationally ready out of 303, and the remaining units carried out training, transport and reconnaissance duties.{{rp\|333}} The Easter Offensive showed that the ARVN could not defeat the PAVN without continuous and massive air support. The basic assumption surrounding the expansion of the RVNAF was its ability to provide close air support to the ARVN under permissive conditions. For this reason the RVNAF was not given the type of aircraft to be able to operate in a [Surface\-to\-air missile](/wiki/Surface-to-air_missile "Surface-to-air missile") (SAM) environment augmented by heavy concentrations of radar\-directed AAA fire. From experience in North Vietnam and in the Easter Offensive it was obvious that high performance aircraft, backed up by [Electronic countermeasures](/wiki/Electronic_countermeasure "Electronic countermeasure") (ECM) and supporting forces, were necessary to penetrate and operate in such defenses. These types of defenses had to be neutralized with a high degree of survivability. This was the reason why it was necessary to pull the RVNAF out of the high threat areas and use USAF aircraft to handle these targets.{{rp\|54}} Under [Operation Enhance](/wiki/Operations_Enhance_and_Enhance_Plus "Operations Enhance and Enhance Plus") beginning on 23 May the US began the supply of additional equipment to South Vietnam to make up losses suffered in the Easter Offensive. For the RVNAF this initially comprised five F–5As, 48 A–37s and 32 UH–1s to be delivered by 1 August. For the remainder of the year the US Army would deliver CH–47s to equip two squadrons by September. The USAF would accelerate the delivery of 14 RC\-47s, 23 AC\-119K gunships, 23 EC\-47s, 28 C\-7 transports and 14 C\-119Gs modified for coastal fire support and maritime patrol.{{rp\|350}} By the end of October, the RVNAF had activated 51 squadrons and actual strength stood at 52,400\.{{rp\|351}} In October, as Operation Enhance neared completion, the Nixon administration approved another infusion of equipment, Operation Enhance Plus. This served two purposes: to rush war material to South Vietnam before a ceasefire imposed restrictions on military assistance and to reconcile Thiệu to the fact that the US, without having consulted him, now stood ready to accept a settlement that would permit North Vietnamese troops to remain on South Vietnamese soil, thus legitimizing the results of the Easter Offensive. For the RVNAF Enhance Plus included 19 A–1s, 90 A–37Bs, 32 C–130s, 126 F–5s, 177 UH–1s, together with the AC–119Ks and some other types not yet delivered in Project Enhance. The plan originally called for completing Enhance Plus by 20 November, but later changes moved the deadline to 10 November and added 35 O–2 observation craft, already in South Vietnam, as replacements for the older O–1s and U–17s. The collapse of truce negotiations, which did not resume until after the [Christmas Bombing](/wiki/Operation_Linebacker_II "Operation Linebacker II"), caused the possible signing of a peace agreement to recede beyond 1 January 1973, and eased the pressure for prompt completion. Reflecting the changing circumstances, the last items in Enhance Plus did not arrive until 10 December.{{rp\|351}} Enhance Plus increased the inventory of the RVNAF by some 595 aircraft, excluding about 30 of the helicopters intended for a postwar truce surveillance agency. To absorb this influx, the RVNAF by mid\-1973 organized eight additional fighter or attack squadrons, two transport squadrons, 14 squadrons or flights of helicopters and one training squadron. Besides accomplishing all of this, the project reequipped some tactical air support squadrons with O–2s, increased each UH–1 squadron from 33 helicopters to 38, and began organizing the squadron of armed C–119Gs for coastal and maritime patrol. When the RVNAF absorbed all the Enhance Plus aircraft and eliminated the recently organized C–123 squadrons in 1973, as scheduled, it would total 67 squadrons with more than 61,000 officers and men. This rapid augmentation, however, imposed strains on the supporting establishment and failed to generate the kind of air power that the US had exercised over the years.{{rp\|351–2}} The training of pilots and crews to fly the aircraft provided by Enhance Plus proceeded on the principle that instruction in the US soon would merely supplement that given in South Vietnam. To cope with the additional aircraft, the RVNAF no longer waited for trainees to emerge from the pipeline, but tried instead, with US collaboration, to teach personnel already familiar with one kind of aircraft to make the transition to a more advanced type. Assignments vacated by those who retrained would go to officers that had recently learned to fly. Pilots of A–37s retrained for F–5s; O–1 pilots for the O–2 and the A–37; crews of AC–119Gs for AC–119Ks; crews of C–119s and C–123s for the C–130s; and those of C–123s for the armed C–119s. Since the C–123 squadrons would disband during 1973, they were a valuable source of pilots and crew members for transition training. The USAF Advisory Group, using teams of instructors dispatched from the United States, planned to teach a number of the South Vietnamese to take over the postwar training programs for the various types of aircraft, assisted as necessary by American civilians working under contract. In contrast to the fixed\-wing aircraft, the vast increase in helicopters during Enhance and Enhance Plus required, at least for the near future, pilots trained exclusively for this type of aircraft by Army instructors in the US. Despite the emphasis on training, in February 1973, two weeks after the ceasefire took effect, the RVNAF projected a shortage of some 800 pilots or copilots, 300 for fixed\-wing aircraft and the rest for helicopters.{{rp\|352–3}} The aircraft that arrived in late 1972 failed to correct glaring weaknesses in the RVNAF's ability to wage aerial warfare. The RVNAF had no aircraft capable of attacking the Ho Chi Minh Trail or comparably defended PAVN lines of supply and communication. The most modern gunship, the lumbering AC–119K, could not survive conventional antiaircraft fire, let alone radar\-directed guns or heat\-seeking SAMs. The A–1, though sturdy and able to carry up to four tons of bombs, lacked speed, but the fast jets like the A–37 or F–5, which might survive antiaircraft defenses, had neither the endurance nor the bomb capacity for armed reconnaissance and, because of the failure to equip and train the RVNAF for aerial refueling, could not attack targets deep within southern Laos or North Vietnam. Moreover, only the F–5E provided an effective weapon for air defense, should North Vietnam break with tradition and launch an air campaign against the South. As it coped with these weaknesses in tactical aviation and air defense, the RVNAF faced the formidable task of finding an aerial weapon with the versatility and firepower of the [B–52](/wiki/Boeing_B-52_Stratofortress "Boeing B-52 Stratofortress"). The Nixon administration sought to substitute a powerful bomb for the B\-52, providing [fuel\-air munitions](/wiki/Thermobaric_weapon "Thermobaric weapon"), which the A–1 or A–37 could deliver by parachute, and the pallet\-load of high explosive, and sometimes oil or gasoline, parachuted from a transport like the C–130\. The RVNAF received some of the [CBU\-55](/wiki/CBU-55 "CBU-55") fuel\-air devices in time to try them against the [PAVN\-held citadel at Quang Tri City](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Qu%E1%BA%A3ng_Tr%E1%BB%8B "Second Battle of Quảng Trị"), where the sturdy masonry walls proved impervious to 500\-pound bombs dropped by A–37s. In this instance, the cloud of gas exploded ineffectually in the opening along the base of the wall instead of first seeping into a confined space, like a cellar or bunker, for maximum destructive effect. After the CBU–55 failed, USAF F–4s breached the barrier with [laser\-guided bombs](/wiki/Paveway "Paveway"). The RVNAF, lacking laser\-guided bombs, had to achieve the necessary accuracy with ordinary munitions, which required attacks at low altitude. However, the PAVN introduction of the [SA–7](/wiki/9K32_Strela-2 "9K32 Strela-2"), a shoulder\-launched, heat\-seeking SAM, in early 1972 forced a change in tactics. Although flares might fool the infrared homing device or shields screen the heat source, the surest protection against the SA–7, until flare dispensers and heat shielding became commonplace, consisted of staying out of range and bombing from {{convert\|9,000\-10,000\|ft}}. At that altitude, even a skilled pilot found it difficult to hit a compact target with a conventional bomb.{{rp\|355–6}} Despite its use of EC–47s to intercept radio signals and locate transmitters in the field, the RVNAF depended heavily on photo reconnaissance for discovering and pinpointing targets. A Vietnamized photo interpretation center functioned at Tan Son Nhut AB, but neither of the available camera\-equipped aircraft, the RF–5A and the RC–47D, could supply it with satisfactory pictures of the battlefield. The RF–5A, though fast enough to penetrate defended areas, carried a camera that photographed too narrow a swath to be of much value in finding targets. The RC–47D, flying low and slow, provided more panoramic coverage but presented an easy target for PAVN antiaircraft gunners.{{rp\|356}} ### 1973 [thumb\|right\|F\-5A of the 538th Fighter Squadron and an A\-1 at Da Nang AB in 1973](/wiki/File:VNAF_F-5E_Tiger_II_and_A-1_Skyraider_-_Da_Nang_1973.jpg "VNAF F-5E Tiger II and A-1 Skyraider - Da Nang 1973.jpg") By the time of the [ceasefire](/wiki/Paris_Peace_Accords "Paris Peace Accords") on 27 January 1973, the RVNAF had 2075 aircraft of 25 different types. It had reached a strength of 65 squadrons and 61,417 personnel. The rate of expansion was more than the RVNAF could absorb and it was obvious that it could not operate this size air force with so many different types of aircraft. The rationale for such a large force was based on the assumption that, given time, the RVNAF would eventually develop the ability to handle such a large force and because of the provisions of the ceasefire agreement that no additional equipment could be introduced after the ceasefire, only replacements on a one\-for\-one basis.{{rp\|60}} By the time the cease\-fire went into effect, the RVNAF had received the benefits of Project Enhance Plus, a final American push to strengthen the armed forces before the peace settlement restricted the flow of equipment to replacing, on a one\-for\-one basis, items already in the inventory. RVNAF airmen were in the process of absorbing C–130 transports, RC–119 G maritime patrol craft, F–5 fighters, A–37 attack planes, as well as UH–1 and CH–47 helicopters. The ceasefire afforded a badly needed respite from major operations for the RVNAF to train the pilots, aircrews, mechanics, staff officers, clerks, and administrators necessary for effective operation. This period of comparative stability, plus continued training and logistics support from US firms under contract to the RVNAF, seemed likely to ensure progress toward self\-sufficiency. Unfortunately, the aircraft recently incorporated into the RVNAF brought with them problems that impeded progress towards self\-sufficiency. The war\-weary C–130s, for example, required 199 civilian technicians, supplied under contract by [Lear Siegler](/wiki/Lear_Siegler "Lear Siegler"), plus two technical representatives from [Lockheed Corporation](/wiki/Lockheed_Corporation "Lockheed Corporation"), the manufacturer of the transport. The RC–119G, moreover, seemed unlikely to succeed as a coastal patrol craft. Although crews who flew the C–119 or C–47 could readily transition to the patrol plane, navigators remained in short supply, and the modification of just thirteen AC–119Gs proved expensive, costing more than US$4 million. Once the aircraft were fitted out and manned, tactical problems would arise. The enemy trawlers and junks, for which the modified gunships would search, could carry the same antiaircraft guns and SA\-7 missiles that earlier had driven the planes from vigorously defended portions of the Ho Chi Minh Trail. An even more serious obstacle to self\-sufficiency resulted from the short range of the F–5 and A–37, which could not carry the war much beyond South Vietnam's borders. The A–1, which it was hoped to employ with fuel\-air munitions as a substitute for the B–52, suffered from decades of hard usage. The A\-1s could no longer dive more steeply than 30 degrees or exceed four [Gs](/wiki/G-force "G-force") in pulling out. These limitations increased the vulnerability of the airplane to ground fire, but against weak antiaircraft defenses the A–1 could accurately deliver a heavy load of bombs. The C–47 also remained a useful weapon. Indeed, when faced with the prospect of losing the C–47 flareships slated for conversion to intercept the PAVN's radio traffic, General [Cao Văn Viên](/wiki/Cao_V%C4%83n_Vi%C3%AAn "Cao Văn Viên"), Chief of the Joint General Staff, protested to MACV commander General [Frederick C. Weyand](/wiki/Frederick_C._Weyand "Frederick C. Weyand"). Weyand decided, however, that the electronic reconnaissance mission took precedence over flare\-dropping, which could be done by AC–119s. Despite the emphasis on using the converted C–47s for intercepting radio traffic, the [Defense Attaché Office, Saigon](/wiki/Defense_Attach%C3%A9_Office%2C_Saigon_%281973%E2%80%931975%29 "Defense Attaché Office, Saigon (1973–1975)") (DAO), the successor to MACV, looked at the status of military intelligence and reported a "decided drop in total usable information since the demise of MACV." The most notable decline occurred in electronic intelligence. The ancient EC–47s that located the PAVN's radio transmitters carried equipment that had become difficult to maintain after years of hard use, first by US airmen and more recently by the South Vietnamese. Ground\-based intercept stations supplemented the EC–47s, but the operators lacked the experience to make timely evaluations, so that interpretations lagged an average of five days behind the message traffic with which they dealt. Photo interpretation also proved tardy at a time when the South Vietnamese were exposing more film than ever before. Indeed, the DAO brought in US photo interpreters to keep the Defense Attaché General [John E. Murray](/wiki/John_E._Murray "John E. Murray") informed of the military situation in the South.{{rp\|406–7}} Amid the remarkable increase in PAVN antiaircraft strength in South Vietnam the gravest threat to RVNAF planes, particularly in the southern pan of the country was the SA\-7 missile. From the ceasefire until the end of June, there were 22 reported SA\-7 attacks on RVNAF aircraft, resulting in eight aircraft shot down (one A\-37, three A\-1s, one F\-5A and three UH\-1s). The rather low ratio of successful firings\-slightly better than one out of three was attributable in large degree to effective countermeasures adopted by the RVNAF. As the SA\-7 was fired, it had a distinctive flash which could often be seen from the air, followed by a characteristic smoke and vapor trail. With attack aircraft flying in pairs, one or the other of the pilots might see the missile coming and take or direct evasive action. High\-energy flares were sometimes tossed out or mechanically ejected, frequently causing the missile's heat\-seeker to lock on and track the flare and burst a harmless distance from the plane. Helicopter crews were also alert to watch for missiles, and in order to reduce infrared emissions, UH\-1 helicopters were modified, The hot\-spot on the fuselage below the main rotor was shielded and the exhaust diverted upwards by means of an elbow attached to the tailpipe. But regardless of these moderately effective measures, the new environment forced reconnaissance and attack aircraft above optimum operating altitudes and virtually eliminated the employment of large helicopter formations.{{Cite book\|last\=Le Gro\|first\=William\|title\=Vietnam from Cease Fire to Capitulation\|publisher\=United States Army Center of Military History\|year\=1985\|url\=https://history.army.mil/html/books/090/90\-29/CMH\_Pub\_90\-29\.pdf\|isbn\=9781410225429}}{{PD\-notice}}{{rp\|49}} Serious problems soon surfaced within the RVNAF, mostly because of the frenzied expansion. The RVNAF now totaled 65,000 officers and enlisted men, but half of them were undergoing some form of training to qualify them for new assignments. Nevertheless, the RVNAF flew over 81,000 sorties during September 1973; helicopters accounted for 62,000 of these and training craft for 1,100\. Fighter\-bombers or attack planes flew most of the others, but all too often they attacked from {{convert\|10,000\|ft}} or higher out of respect for PAVN antiaircraft weapons. Strikes from this altitude, in the opinion of General Murray, not only "failed to contribute to productive destruction" but caused inaccuracy that actually harmed "interservice relationships." The RVNAF could not yet maintain the mixed fleet of aircraft, many of them cast\-offs, they had inherited. For example, maintenance on the force of UH–1s fell behind schedule throughout 1973, even though [Air Vietnam](/wiki/Air_Vietnam "Air Vietnam"), the national airline, lent its civilian mechanics to help with inspections. Similar delays affected maintenance of the EC–47, largely because crews failed to report equipment failures, and of the C–7, handicapped by a shortage of spare parts and trained mechanics. Almost every aircraft suffered from corrosion, the inevitable result of service in a tropical climate. During 1973, Lear Siegler launched an ambitious program of maintenance training. The instructors concentrated on the lagging UH–1 program, but teams of specialists also taught the South Vietnamese to repair corrosion and battle damage to the F–5 and A–37\. Unfortunately, a shortage of spare parts hampered the training effort.{{rp\|408–9}} ### 1974 In 1974, as a result of budget cuts, RVNAF squadrons were reduced from 66 to 56; no replacements were ordered for 162 destroyed aircraft; flying hours, contractor support, and supply levels were further reduced; and 224 aircraft were placed in storage, among them all 61 remaining A\-1 Skyraiders, all 52 C\-7 Caribous, 34 AC\-47 *Spookys* and AC\-119 gunships, all 31 O\-2 observation planes and 31 UH\-1 Hueys.{{rp\|87}} In mid\-1974, USAF headquarters, [Pacific Air Forces](/wiki/Pacific_Air_Forces "Pacific Air Forces") and the [Air Force Logistics](/wiki/Air_Force_Logistics "Air Force Logistics") Command examined the structure of the RVNAF and offered specific recommendations to help it repulse an invasion like the Easter Offensive of 1972\. Even though public and Congressional support for South Vietnam was diminishing, the study reflected a tacit assumption that US air power would intervene on behalf of the Saigon government. Some of the findings dealt with the problem of gathering intelligence on PAVN activity. The panel concluded that the authorized reconnaissance force of 12 RC–47s, 32 EC–47s and seven RF–5s was adequate, but proposed that the RF–5s be divided between Da Nang and Bien Hoa, instead of concentrating at Bien Hoa, thus expanding the area covered by these short\-range aircraft. Also, the RVNAF should devise tactics and countermeasures, fighter escort, for example, and flares to decoy heat\-seeking antiaircraft missiles—to enable the RC–47 and EC–47 to operate in more areas strongly defended. Similarly, the review expressed confidence that the 200 authorized aircraft would meet the needs of RVNAF FACs. The U–17, judged at best a light transport and liaison plane, seemed too vulnerable for the FACs to use. The threat posed by the SA–7 missile inspired two recommendations: the training of FAC parties to direct strikes from the ground; and the use of the F–5 as a vehicle for FACs facing powerful antiaircraft defenses. The F–5E model, impressed the panel as a match for the [Vietnam People's Air Force](/wiki/Vietnam_People%27s_Air_Force "Vietnam People's Air Force") (VPAF) [MiG–21](/wiki/Mikoyan-Gurevich_MiG-21 "Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21"). They believed that a squadron at Da Nang AB should meet the threat of MiG incursions over South Vietnam, if necessary launching as many as 20 air defense sorties within two hours. The study declared that the fleet of transports, though adequate for routine operations, could not sustain a maximum effort for an extended time. Better management, however, could to some extent make up the deficiency in the number of aircraft, estimated at 10 percent. The helicopter armada seemed "more than adequate to meet the projected requirement." The number of UH–1s, used by the Americans for assault operations, could safely be reduced from 842 to 640, since the ARVN would not be employing airmobile tactics. The fleet of larger CH–47s could supplement cargo\-carrying, fixed\-wing transports in an emergency and therefore should remain at the authorized total of 64\. Fighters and attack aircraft, according to the study, fell "127 aircraft short of the computed requirement," although AC–47 and AC–119K gunships might help make up the difference. Moreover, careful scheduling of maintenance and the massing of available aircraft could ensure an adequate number of F–5s, A–1s, and A–37s to deal with the threatened invasion.{{rp\|414–5}} Although the mid\-1974 assessment of the force structure generally approved of the composition of the RVNAF, the former Defense Attaché General Murray warned in October of serious failings that could erode the ability of the RVNAF to control the air. At times, Murray said, pilots crossed "the narrow line between the brave and the foolhardy." They flew with an almost suicidal disregard of basic safety procedures, even though they respected the SA–7 missile and remained reluctant to venture below {{convert\|10,000\|ft}} to attack targets defended by that missile or radar\-directed antiaircraft guns. Joyriding or careless taxiing, sometimes by drunken pilots, and failure to make preflight inspections cost the RVNAF, by Murray's reckoning, "the equivalent of an entire squadron of jet aircraft." Murray characterized the RVNAF as "costly, careless, and conceding air space."{{rp\|415–6}} In addition to RVNAF negligence, PAVN air defenses took a steady toll. By June 1974, the PAVN had launched 136 SA–7s, costing an estimated US$680,000, and downed 23 aircraft worth perhaps US$12 million. Antiaircraft weapons proved so deadly that they, in effect, gained control of the air over a large expanse of South Vietnamese territory, especially in the west, on the border with Laos and Cambodia. In I Corps the RVNAF could operate freely over only a narrow strip of land along the seacoast. Accidents and hostile fire claimed 237 RVNAF aircraft in the 23 months following the ceasefire. The losses, especially the toll from preventable accidents, raised the price of equipping and training the RVNAF. Support for the RVNAF cost US$382 million in [Fiscal year](/wiki/Fiscal_year "Fiscal year") 1974, excluding the cost of munitions, more than the combined cost for the ARVN and the [Republic of Vietnam Navy](/wiki/Republic_of_Vietnam_Navy "Republic of Vietnam Navy"). The RVNAF also required the services of 1,540 employees of contractors, compared with 723 for the ARVN and 61 for the Navy. Of 466 civilian employees of the US government assigned to aid the South Vietnamese armed forces, 202 worked with the RVNAF.{{rp\|415–6}} Murray suggested some basic remedies to correct the failings he described. Besides an emphasis on flight safety, he proposed reducing costs by consolidating the RVNAF inventory, perhaps eliminating the [T\-37](/wiki/Cessna_T-37_Tweet "Cessna T-37 Tweet") and T\-41 trainers and using just one type for FACs. He also would encourage commanders to choose the cheaper\-to\-operate A–37 over the F–5 whenever such a choice was possible. To reduce combat losses, he suggested fitting some A–37s and F–5s with radar homing and warning gear to alert pilots that they were being tracked by radar\-controlled antiaircraft weapons.{{rp\|416}} In August 1974, the DAO recommended a substantial reduction in RVNAF training in the United States in order to save costs. 318 crew in training would return to Vietnam between August and December 1974, while 347 crew would stay to complete their training.{{cite web\|url\=https://nautilus.org/wp\-content/uploads/2012/01/c\_seventyfour.pdf\|title\=CINCPAC Command History 1974\|publisher\=Commander in Chief Pacific\|date\=25 September 1975\|access\-date\=14 May 2019}}{{PD\-notice}}{{rp\|445–6}} By November 1974, RVNAF flying hours had been reduced from 672,000 to 345,500\.{{rp\|433}} ### 1975 {{See also\|1975 Spring Offensive\|Operation Frequent Wind}} [thumb\|right\|RVNAF C\-130A burns at Tan Son Nhut after rocket attack on 29 April](/wiki/File:RVNAF_C-130_burns_on_the_runway_at_Tan_Son_Nhut%2C_1975.jpg "RVNAF C-130 burns on the runway at Tan Son Nhut, 1975.jpg") [thumb\|right\|RVNAF Hueys and a CH\-47 Chinook arrive at {{USS\|Midway\|CV\-41\|6}}](/wiki/Image:VNAF_arrives_at_USS_Midway.jpg "VNAF arrives at USS Midway.jpg") [thumb\|right\|RVNAF Huey is pushed overboard from USS *Midway*](/wiki/Image:Vietnamese_UH-1_pushed_over_board%2C_Operation_Frequent_Wind.jpg "Vietnamese UH-1 pushed over board, Operation Frequent Wind.jpg") [thumb\|right\|O\-1 lands on USS *Midway*](/wiki/File:Major_Buang_lands_his_Cessna_O-1_on_USS_Midway.jpg "Major Buang lands his Cessna O-1 on USS Midway.jpg") As the PAVN moved more air defense forces into South Vietnam, the RVNAF had a decreasing capability to strike PAVN forces and their supply lines. By March 1975 the PAVN had [SA\-2](/wiki/S-75_Dvina "S-75 Dvina") coverage of I Corps as far south as [Quang Tri](/wiki/Qu%E1%BA%A3ng_Tr%E1%BB%8B_%28town%29 "Quảng Trị (town)"). [Khe Sanh](/wiki/Khe_Sanh_Combat_Base "Khe Sanh Combat Base") was by now a major supply and staging area protected by SA\-2s. All of the border area around [Kontum](/wiki/Kontum "Kontum"), Pleiku and the [Parrot's Beak](/wiki/Parrot%27s_Beak%2C_Cambodia "Parrot's Beak, Cambodia") in III Corps was protected by radar\-directed AAA and SA\-7 missiles. The RVNAF lost 28 aircraft to SAMs between 28 January 1973 and 31 December 1974\. As a result of these defenses, a policy was in effect limiting RVNAF flights above Huế and west of [Route 1](/wiki/National_Route_1_%28Vietnam%29 "National Route 1 (Vietnam)"), the area most heavily defended by the PAVN. The RVNAF was not equipped with ECM equipment and therefore could not function in those areas. The PAVN had a secure sanctuary to stage, prepare and launch forces in all four Corps. Even if the RVNAF had ECM it is questionable whether it could have sustained operations in these high threat areas with such low\-performing aircraft. The aircraft operated by the RVNAF were predicated on the assumption that a relatively permissive air environment would prevail and that these low\-performing aircraft would be able to function in such an environment. It was assumed that the USAF would be reintroduced if the North Vietnamese escalated the fighting. In effect the RVNAF did not have air superiority and as a result was unable to bring the PAVN concentrations under sustained attack prior to their final offensive.{{rp\|62–3}} On 9/10 March a PAVN bombardment of Pleiku AB destroyed an O\-1, a CH\-47 and ten UH\-1s. During the four\-day [Battle of Ban Me Thuot](/wiki/Battle_of_Ban_Me_Thuot "Battle of Ban Me Thuot") the RVNAF flew over 200 sorties, destroying five PAVN tanks, no aircraft were lost in the air, but three A\-37s at Pleiku were destroyed by 122 mm rockets on 11 March when the PAVN rocketed the base. The commander of the 6th Air Division at Pleiku, was given 48 hours to evacuate the base, 64 aircraft were abandoned with little effort to destroy them.{{rp\|75}} On 27 March with the PAVN [having surrounded Da Nang](/wiki/Hue%E2%80%93Da_Nang_Campaign%23Fall_of_Da_Nang "Hue–Da Nang Campaign#Fall of Da Nang") the RVNAF 1st Air Division commander was ordered to evacuate all flyable aircraft from Da Nang AB, 130 aircraft would be evacuated while some 180, including 33 A\-37s, were abandoned.{{rp\|76}} On the morning of 30 March the [Regional Forces](/wiki/South_Vietnamese_Regional_Force "South Vietnamese Regional Force") defending Phù Cát Air Base abandoned their positions and by afternoon the base was under attack by VC who were held back by the base security forces. With more VC gathering for renewed attacks, the base commander contacted the 92nd Air Wing at Phan Rang AB for help. The Wing commander, Colonel Le Van Thao organised a flight of 40 A\-37s and they carried out a night attack on the base perimeter successfully breaking up the attack. On the morning of 31 March, the 2nd Air Division evacuated the base taking 32 aircraft, but abandoning a further 50; the PAVN/VC occupied the base that afternoon.{{cite book\|last\=Veith\|first\=George\|title\=Black April: The fall of South Vietnam 1973–75\|publisher\=Encounter Books\|year\=2012\|isbn\=9781594035722\|pages\=225–7}}{{rp\|343–4}} Following the defeat of ARVN forces in the [Central Highlands](/wiki/Central_Highlands%2C_Vietnam "Central Highlands, Vietnam") in March 1975, PAVN forces pursued the ARVN to the coast, capturing [Nha Trang](/wiki/Nha_Trang "Nha Trang") and Nha Trang AB on 2 April, however most of the flyable aircraft of the RVNAF 2nd Air Division had already moved south to Phan Rang AB.{{rp\|386}} On the morning of 3 April 1975 the RVNAF at Phan Rang launched a heliborne operation comprising more than 40 UH\-1s and six CH\-47s escorted by A\-37s to rescue the remnants of the ARVN 2nd, 5th and 6th Airborne Battalions that had been cut off at the [M'Đrăk Pass](/wiki/M%27%C4%90r%C4%83k_District "M'Đrăk District") successfully evacuating over 800 soldiers.{{rp\|390–2}} On 10 April the PAVN [10th Division](/wiki/10th_Division_%28Vietnam%29 "10th Division (Vietnam)") left [Cam Ranh Bay](/wiki/Cam_Ranh_Bay "Cam Ranh Bay") and moved along Route 450 to join up with Route 11 to take [Dalat](/wiki/Da_Lat "Da Lat"), passing within {{convert\|12\|mi}} of Phan Rang AB. When RVNAF reconnaissance aircraft observed the movement of the 10th Division, Phan Rang based A\-37s began attacking the column, destroying six river\-crossing vehicles on 10 April, five trucks on 11 April, seven trucks on 12 April and nine trucks on 13 April.{{rp\|371–2}} On 16 April Phan Rang AB came under attack by the PAVN, the RVNAF at the base mounted numerous airstrikes on the PAVN armored column destroying vehicles, taking losses from the antiaircraft fire, but by 09:30 the PAVN had captured the base. As the base was falling an A\-37 braved the PAVN fire and landed rescuing RVNAF 92nd Wing commander Colonel Le Van Thao. Of the Wing's 72 A\-37s, only 24 escaped on 16 April with the rest having been shot down or abandoned.{{rp\|419–25}} During the [Battle of Xuân Lộc](/wiki/Battle_of_Xu%C3%A2n_L%E1%BB%99c "Battle of Xuân Lộc") from 9–21 April RVNAF support enabled the ARVN troops there to hold on. RVNAF helicopters brought in supplies and reinforcements and evacuated wounded. RVNAF fighter\-bombers from Bien Hoa AB flew between 80 and 120 combat sorties per day to support the defenders. At 14:00 on 12 April an RVNAF C\-130 dropped two CBU\-55 bombs on PAVN positions in the town of Xuan Vinh, close to Xuân Lộc, killing about 200 PAVN soldiers. On 15 April PAVN artillery changed from shelling Xuân Lộc to Bien Hoa AB instead. In just one day, the RVNAF 3rd Air Division at Bien Hoa AB was forced to cease all operations due to continuous PAVN artillery bombardment. To continue their support of Xuân Lộc, the RVNAF mobilised the 4th Air Division at Binh Thuy AB to conduct further missions. On 28 April at 18:06 three A\-37s piloted by former RVNAF pilots who had defected to the VPAF at the fall of Danang, dropped six [Mk81](/wiki/Mk81 "Mk81") 250 lb bombs on the [RVNAF flightline at Tan Son Nhut Air Base](/wiki/Bombing_of_Tan_Son_Nhut_Air_Base "Bombing of Tan Son Nhut Air Base") destroying several aircraft. RVNAF F\-5s took off in pursuit, but were unable to intercept the A\-37s.{{cite book\|title\=USAF Southeast Asia Monograph Series Volume IV Monograph 6: Last Flight from Saigon\|last\=Tobin\|first\=Thomas\|publisher\=US Government PrintingOffice\|year\=1978\|isbn\=9781410205711}}{{PD\-notice}}{{rp\|70}} At dawn on 29 April the RVNAF began to haphazardly depart Tan Son Nhut Air Base as A\-37s, F\-5s, C\-7s, C\-119s and C\-130s departed for Thailand while UH\-1s took off in search of the ships of the US Navy [Task Force 76](/wiki/Task_Force_76 "Task Force 76") offshore.{{rp\|81}} At 08:00 Lieutenant General [Trần Văn Minh](/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_V%C4%83n_Minh_%28aviator%29 "Trần Văn Minh (aviator)"), commander of the RVNAF, and 30 of his staff arrived at the DAO Compound, demanding evacuation. This signified the complete loss of command and control of the RVNAF.{{rp\|85–7}} Some RVNAF aircraft did stay to continue to fight the advancing PAVN however. One AC\-119K gunship from the 821st Attack Squadron had spent the night of 28/29 April dropping flares and firing on the approaching PAVN. At dawn on 29 April two A\-1 Skyraiders began patrolling the perimeter of Tan Son Nhut at {{convert\|2500\|ft}} until Maj. Trương Phùng, one of the two Skyraider pilots was shot down, presumably by an SA\-7\. At 07:00 the AC\-119K "Tinh Long" flew by Lt. Trang van Thanh was firing on PAVN to the east of Tan Son Nhut when it was hit by a SA\-7 missile, and fell in flames to the ground.{{rp\|82}} Despite sporadic artillery and rocket fire, Binh Thuy AB remained operational throughout 29 April and on the morning of 30 April 1975 Binh Thuy\-based A\-37s carried out the last known air strike of the war destroying two [T\-54 tanks](/wiki/T-54/T-55%23Vietnam_War "T-54/T-55#Vietnam War") of the PAVN 10th Division as they attempted to attack Tan Son Nhut AB.{{rp\|489}} After the announcement of the surrender of South Vietnam by [President Minh](/wiki/Duong_Van_Minh "Duong Van Minh") the pilots flew their stripped down aircraft to [U\-Tapao Air Base](/wiki/U-Tapao_Royal_Thai_Navy_Airfield "U-Tapao Royal Thai Navy Airfield") in Thailand, often carrying three or even four people.{{rp\|115–7}}
[ "History\n-------", "### Antecedents", "In March 1949, Emperor [Bảo Đại](/wiki/B%E1%BA%A3o_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i \"Bảo Đại\") officially requested that the French help set up a Vietnamese military air arm. Pressure was maintained with the assistance of [Vietnamese National Army](/wiki/Vietnamese_National_Army \"Vietnamese National Army\") Lt. Col. [Nguyễn Văn Hinh](/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_V%C4%83n_Hinh \"Nguyễn Văn Hinh\"), who had flown the [B\\-26 Marauder](/wiki/B-26_Marauder \"B-26 Marauder\") with the [French Air Force](/wiki/French_Air_Force \"French Air Force\") during the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\"). In late 1951, the French Air Force established the South Vietnamese 312th Special Mission Squadron at [Tan Son Nhat Airfield](/wiki/Tan_Son_Nhut_Air_Base \"Tan Son Nhut Air Base\") equipped with [Morane 500 Criquet](/wiki/Fieseler_Fi_156%23French_production \"Fieseler Fi 156#French production\") liaison aircraft.{{cite book\\|last\\=Futrell\\|first\\=Robert\\|title\\=The United States Air Force in Southeast Asia: The Advisory Years to 1965\\|publisher\\=Office of Air Force History\\|year\\=1981\\|url\\=https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a100569\\.pdf\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200723054135/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a100569\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-date\\=July 23, 2020\\|lccn\\=80024547}}{{PD\\-notice}}{{rp\\|10}} In March 1952, a training school was set up at [Nha Trang Air Base](/wiki/Nha_Trang_Air_Base \"Nha Trang Air Base\"), and the following year two army co\\-operation squadrons began missions flying the Morane 500 Criquet. In 1954, the French allocated a number of [Dassault MD.315 Flamant](/wiki/Dassault_MD.315_Flamant \"Dassault MD.315 Flamant\") armed light transports to the inventory of this Vietnamese air arm. Vietnamese pilot trainees began to be sent to France for more advanced training.", "### 1955\\-1960", "In January 1955, planning for the RVNAF began, building on the Vietnamese air force that the French had established in 1950\\. As of January 1955, the RVNAF consisted of 3,434 men, with plans to organize them into two liaison squadrons and one air transport squadron. France retained a contract to train the RVNAF until 1957\\.{{cite book\\|last\\=Williams\\|first\\=Kenneth\\|title\\=The US Air Force in Southeast Asia and the Vietnam War A Narrative Chronology Volume I: The Early Years through 1959\\|publisher\\=Air Force History and Museums Program\\|year\\=2019\\|url\\=https://media.defense.gov/2019/Feb/22/2002092352/\\-1/\\-1/1/USAF%20Vietnam%20Chronology%20v1\\.pdf}}{{PD\\-notice}}{{rp\\|191–2}}", "On 1 June 1955, [Bien Hoa Air Base](/wiki/Bien_Hoa_Air_Base \"Bien Hoa Air Base\") became the RVNAF's logistics support base when the French evacuated their main depot at [Hanoi](/wiki/Hanoi \"Hanoi\").{{rp\\|81}}", "On 1 July 1955, the RVNAF 1st Transport Squadron equipped with [C\\-47 Skytrains](/wiki/Douglas_C-47_Skytrain \"Douglas C-47 Skytrain\") was established at Tan Son Nhut. The RVNAF also had a special missions squadron at the base equipped with 3 C\\-47s, 3 [C\\-45s](/wiki/Beechcraft_Model_18%23USAAC/USAAF_Designations \"Beechcraft Model 18#USAAC/USAAF Designations\") and one [L\\-26](/wiki/Aero_Commander_500_family \"Aero Commander 500 family\").{{rp\\|50}}", "On 7 July 1955, the RVNAF took over the Nha Trang Training Center and formed the 1st and 2nd Liaison Squadrons equipped with [L\\-19s](/wiki/Cessna_O-1_Bird_Dog%23Military_service \"Cessna O-1 Bird Dog#Military service\").{{rp\\|50}}", "In August 1955, under the [Mutual Defense Assistance Program](/wiki/Mutual_Defense_Assistance_Program \"Mutual Defense Assistance Program\") (MDAP), the United States equipped the fledgling RVNAF with aircraft turned over by the French: 28 [F8F Bearcats](/wiki/Grumman_F8F_Bearcat \"Grumman F8F Bearcat\"), 35 C\\-47s and 60 L\\-19s.{{rp\\|208}} In June 1956 the US provided a further 32 C\\-47s and 25 F\\-8Fs to the RVNAF under the MDAP.{{rp\\|216}}", "On 19 September 1955, the French turned over [Tourane Airfield](/wiki/Da_Nang_Air_Base \"Da Nang Air Base\") (renamed Da Nang Air Base) to the RVNAF.{{rp\\|208–9}} In November 1955, the RVNAF 1st Liaison Squadron moved to Da Nang AB from [Huế](/wiki/Hu%E1%BA%BF \"Huế\").{{rp\\|272}}", "French instructors for pilots and mechanics remained in South Vietnam until late 1956, and transferred 69 F8Fs to the RVNAF, which throughout the late 1950s were the main strike aircraft.{{cite magazine \\|author\\=Grandolini, Albert \\|title\\=Indo\\-Chinese Fighting 'Cats: Grumman's Superb Bearcat in Vietnam \\|magazine\\=Air Enthusiast \\|issue\\=70 \\|date\\=July–August 1997 \\|pages\\=12–21 \\|issn\\=0143\\-5450}} In May 1956, by agreement with the South Vietnamese government, the USAF assumed some training and administrative roles of the RVNAF. Teams from [Clark Air Force Base](/wiki/Clark_Air_Force_Base \"Clark Air Force Base\") began in 1957 to organize the RVNAF into a model of the USAF when the French training contracts expired.", "On 1 June 1956, the RVNAF's 1st Fighter Squadron (redesignated the 514th Fighter Squadron in January 1963\\) was formed at Bien Hoa Air Base with 25 F8F Bearcats.{{rp\\|50}}", "In June 1956, the 2nd Transport Squadron equipped with C\\-47s was established at Tan Son Nhut AB and the RVNAF established its headquarters there.{{rp\\|275}}", "On 1 June 1957, the US assumed full responsibility for training and equipping the RVNAF as the French withdrew their training missions. At this time, the RVNAF had 85 aircraft and four squadrons: one of F\\-8Fs, one of C\\-47s and two of L\\-19s. No squadron was combat\\-ready. Total RVNAF personnel numbered just over 4,000\\.{{rp\\|231}} At this time the role of the RVNAF \"was basically to support the ground forces.\" The RVNAF was part of the [Army of the Republic of Vietnam](/wiki/Army_of_the_Republic_of_Vietnam \"Army of the Republic of Vietnam\") (ARVN), not a separate service.{{rp\\|232}} In meetings in Washington D.C. in May 1957, South Vietnamese premier [Ngo Dinh Diem](/wiki/Ngo_Dinh_Diem \"Ngo Dinh Diem\") gave his reasons for deemphasizing the RVNAF, advising President [Dwight D. Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\") and [Secretary of State](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State \"United States Secretary of State\") [John Foster Dulles](/wiki/John_Foster_Dulles \"John Foster Dulles\"), \"his main military requirement is ground forces. Diem is convinced that because of the poor visibility of low cloud cover prevailing through most of the year, it would be difficult if not impossible to give adequate air support to the ground forces.\" During a briefing at [The Pentagon](/wiki/The_Pentagon \"The Pentagon\") for a group of leaders that included [Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force](/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_United_States_Air_Force \"Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force\") General [Nathan Farragut Twining](/wiki/Nathan_Farragut_Twining \"Nathan Farragut Twining\"), Diem explained that the South Vietnamese believed that the Indochina war had shown that \"it was difficult to use air \\[power] effectively in this country.\"{{rp\\|233}}", "On 1 June 1957, the RVNAF 1st Helicopter Squadron was established at Tan Son Nhut AB without equipment. It operated with the French Air Force unit serving the [International Control Commission](/wiki/International_Control_Commission \"International Control Commission\") and in April 1958 with the departure of the French it inherited its 10 [H\\-19](/wiki/H-19_Chickasaw \"H-19 Chickasaw\") helicopters.{{rp\\|50}}", "In October 1958, it was announced that the RVNAF's retired F8Fs would be replaced by [T\\-28A/B Trojans](/wiki/North_American_T-28_Trojan%23Vietnam_War_combat \"North American T-28 Trojan#Vietnam War combat\").{{rp\\|50–2}}", "In October 1959, the 2nd Liaison Squadron equipped with L\\-19 Bird Dogs moved to Tan Son Nhut AB from Nha Trang AB.{{rp\\|275}}", "Following an unexplained crash in August 1960, Diem grounded all the obsolete F8Fs of the 1st Fighter Squadron and in September asked for jets to replace them. However the [Geneva Accords](/wiki/1954_Geneva_Conference \"1954 Geneva Conference\") that ended the [First Indochina War](/wiki/First_Indochina_War \"First Indochina War\") prohibited the introduction of jets into the country, so instead the F8Fs were replaced by ex [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\") [AD\\-6 Skyraiders](/wiki/Douglas_A-1_Skyraider%23Vietnam_War \"Douglas A-1 Skyraider#Vietnam War\") with the first six arriving in September and a further 25 delivered by May 1961\\.{{rp\\|54–5}}", "In late 1960, in order to support the operations of the [ARVN Rangers](/wiki/Vietnamese_Rangers \"Vietnamese Rangers\"), the [Military Assistance Advisory Group](/wiki/Military_Assistance_Advisory_Group \"Military Assistance Advisory Group\") secured approval for the shipment of 11 [H\\-34C Choctaws](/wiki/Sikorsky_H-34 \"Sikorsky H-34\") from the [United States Army](/wiki/United_States_Army \"United States Army\") to replace the worn out H\\-19s of the 1st Helicopter Squadron. They were airlifted to Saigon without renovation, four in December and the others soon after.{{rp\\|55}}", "The AD\\-6s and H\\-34s had no immediate impact on operations. The high aircraft out\\-of\\-commission rates stemmed from poor maintenance and supply at Bien Hoa AB. Also to blame was the long pipeline time for processing spare parts requisitions through USAF logistic channels to Army and Navy sources. Yet between August and October 1960, the 1st Fighter Squadron flew 20 combat sorties, the L\\-19 liaison planes logged 917 combat hours, the helicopters accumulated 166 hours on operational missions and C\\-47s of the 1st Air Transport Group flew 32 sorties. Only five airfields were usable for AD\\-6 operations: no communications network served dispersed airfields: and Diem believed that air units could not operate effectively from dispersed locations distant from depot supplies. The RVNAF was oriented to the support of ARVN operations, but the ground troops gave little attention to spotting targets suitable for air strikes. About 90 percent of the ground targets were located by RVNAF observers who flew in L\\-19s based at the same fields as the fighters. Approval for aircraft to strike ground targets was required from Province chief, regional commander, the [Joint General Staff](/wiki/Joint_General_Staff \"Joint General Staff\") and sometimes Diem himself. As a final guarantee against bombing mistakes that might hurt the government's image, politically cleared and technically competent observers had to mark approved targets before air strikes could be launched against them \\- a rule of engagement reportedly directed by Diem. A USAF team visiting South Vietnam noted \"The high level approval required for on\\-call fighter strikes, along with poor communications and procedures for requesting strikes, builds in excessive delays for efficient use of tactical air effort. This is particularly true in view of the hit\\-and\\-run guerrilla tactics of the [Viet Cong](/wiki/Viet_Cong \"Viet Cong\") (VC).\"{{rp\\|55}}", "### 1961\\-1962", "{{see\\|Farm Gate (military operation)}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|T\\-28 Trojans](/wiki/File:T-28Ds_VNAF_over_Vietnam_coast.jpg \"T-28Ds VNAF over Vietnam coast.jpg\")", "In mid\\-December 1961, the USAF began delivery of 30 T\\-28A/B Trojans to the RVNAF.{{rp\\|75}} The 2nd Fighter Squadron equipped with T\\-28A/B Trojans was formed at Nha Trang AB. In late 1961 four USAF T\\-28 pilots from [Operation Farm Gate](/wiki/Farm_Gate_%28military_operation%29 \"Farm Gate (military operation)\") were sent to Nha Trang AB to train RVNAF crews.{{rp\\|127}} The 2nd Fighter Squadron became fully operational in mid\\-1962\\.{{rp\\|132}} It was renamed the 516th Fighter Squadron in January 1963\\.{{rp\\|275}}", "In October 1961, the 2nd Helicopter Squadron was activated at Da Nang AB.{{rp\\|273}}", "In December 1961, the 3rd Liaison Squadron was activated at Da Nang AB.{{rp\\|273}}", "The RVNAF 1st Fighter Squadron staged AD\\-6 Skyraiders at [Pleiku Air Base](/wiki/Pleiku_Air_Base \"Pleiku Air Base\") from late 1961 and this force was later increased to 4 A\\-1s and a C\\-47 flareship.{{rp\\|127}}", "On 27 February 1962, two RVNAF pilots Second Lieutenant [Nguyễn Văn Cử](/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_V%C4%83n_C%E1%BB%AD_%28pilot%29 \"Nguyễn Văn Cử (pilot)\") and First Lieutenant [Phạm Phú Quốc](/wiki/Pham_Phu_Quoc \"Pham Phu Quoc\") flying from Bien Hoa AB [bombed the Independence Palace](/wiki/1962_South_Vietnamese_Independence_Palace_bombing \"1962 South Vietnamese Independence Palace bombing\") in their A\\-1 Skyraiders in an attempt to kill Diệm. Three palace staff died and 30 were injured in the attack.{{rp\\|129}}", "In mid\\-1962, the 2nd Fighter Squadron at Nha Trang AB began detaching six aircraft to Da Nang AB.{{rp\\|132}}", "In September 1962, the 12th Air Base Squadron was formed at Nha Trang AB.{{rp\\|275}}", "In December 1962, the 293rd Helicopter Squadron was activated at Tan Son Nhut AB, it was inactivated in August 1964\\.{{rp\\|277–8}} Also that month Pleiku AB was activated by the RVNAF as Air Base 62\\.{{rp\\|275}}", "In late 1962, the RVNAF formed the 716th Composite Reconnaissance Squadron initially equipped with two C\\-45 photo\\-reconnaissance aircraft.{{rp\\|147}}", "### 1963\\-1964", "[thumb\\|right\\|A\\-1 Skyraiders of the 520th Fighter Squadron](/wiki/File:A-1H-VNAF-520FS-BinhThuy.jpg \"A-1H-VNAF-520FS-BinhThuy.jpg\")", "In January 1963, the 1st Transport Squadron was redesignated the 413rd Air Transport Squadron and the 2nd Transport Squadron was redesignated the 415th Air Transport Squadron.{{rp\\|277}} The 1st Fighter Squadron was redesignated the 514th Fighter Squadron.{{rp\\|50}} The 2nd Helicopter Squadron was redesignated the 213th Helicopter Squadron, the 1st Liaison Squadron was redesignated the 110th Liaison Squadron and the 3rd Liaison Squadron was redesignated the 114th Liaison Squadron.{{rp\\|273}} Also that month the USAF opened an H\\-19 pilot training facility at Tan Son Nhut and by June the first RVNAF helicopter pilots had graduated.{{rp\\|168}} Also in January the 211th Helicopter Squadron equipped with UH\\-34s replaced the 1st Helicopter Squadron.{{rp\\|277}}", "On 19 June 1963, the USAF [19th Tactical Air Support Squadron](/wiki/19th_Tactical_Air_Support_Squadron \"19th Tactical Air Support Squadron\") equipped with 23 O\\-1 Bird Dogs and 44 pilots was activated at Bien Hoa AB, with the aim of training RVNAF pilots and observers as [Forward air controllers](/wiki/Forward_air_controllers \"Forward air controllers\") (FACs). USAF planners thought originally that the training could be done in one year. However, unforeseen problems, such as the RVNAF practice of siphoning off pilots into fighter squadrons and their penchant for standing back and letting the Americans fly many of the combat missions, slowed the RVNAF's progress toward self\\-sufficiency. When the squadron was turned over to the RVNAF after one year, they were unable to assume the controller role; and by January 1965, the squadron was back in USAF hands.{{cite book\\|last\\=Schlight\\|first\\=John\\|title\\=The United States Air Force in Southeast Asia: The War in South Vietnam The Years of the Offensive 1965–1968\\|publisher\\=Office of Air Force History\\|year\\=1999\\|url\\=http://www.afhso.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD\\-101013\\-038\\.pdf\\|isbn\\=9780912799513\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-15\\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-11\\-27\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111127165157/http://www.afhso.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD\\-101013\\-038\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{PD\\-notice}}{{rp\\|5–6}}", "In September 1963, the USAF opened a training center at Nha Trang AB equipped with L\\-19s. RVNAF flight crews would undergo one month of preflight training followed by three months of primary flight training with a total of 80 flying hours.{{rp\\|168}}", "In October 1963, the 518th Fighter Squadron was activated at Bien Hoa AB.{{rp\\|272}}", "In December 1963, the 716th Composite Reconnaissance Squadron was activated at Tan Son Nhut AB, equipped with C\\-47s and T\\-28s. The squadron would be inactivated in June 1964 and its mission assumed by the 2nd Air Division, while its pilots formed the 520th Fighter Squadron at Bien Hoa AB.{{rp\\|278}}", "In January 1964, 33rd Tactical Wing was established at Tan Son Nhut AB and it assumed control of all RVNAF units at the base.{{rp\\|278}} Also that month the 41st Tactical Wing was established at Da Nang AB and assumed control of all RVNAF units at the base.{{rp\\|274}}", "In February 1964, the 516th Fighter Squadron equipped with 15 A\\-1 Skyraiders moved to Da Nang AB from Nha Trang AB.{{rp\\|274}}", "In March 1964, the US decided to reequip all RVNAF fighter squadrons with A\\-1 Skyraiders.{{rp\\|213}}", "On 15 March 1964, the RVNAF established a Tactical Wing Headquarters at Da Nang AB.{{rp\\|211}}", "On 18 March 1964, the newly formed 518th Fighter Squadron began operations from Bien Hoa AB with an original strength of 10 A\\-1Hs, it would grow to 25 aircraft authorized.{{rp\\|213}} The RVNAF pilots were trained by crews from the US Navy's [VA\\-152](/wiki/VA-152_%28U.S._Navy%29 \"VA-152 (U.S. Navy)\").{{rp\\|219}}", "On 24 March, a *Farm Gate* T\\-28 lost a wing during a bombing run near [Sóc Trăng Airfield](/wiki/S%C3%B3c_Tr%C4%83ng_Airfield \"Sóc Trăng Airfield\") killing both crewmen and on 9 April another T\\-28 lost a wing during a strafing run and crashed. Two officials from [North American Aviation](/wiki/North_American_Aviation \"North American Aviation\"), the manufacturers of the T\\-28, visited Bien Hoa AB and reviewed these losses and advised that the T\\-28 wasn't designed for the stresses it was being subjected to as a close air support aircraft. As a result, five older T\\-28s were retired and nine newer aircraft were borrowed by the RVNAF and operational restrictions imposed.{{rp\\|214}} Despite this augmentation, accidents and aircraft transfers meant that by late May the [1st Air Commando Squadron](/wiki/1st_Special_Operations_Wing \"1st Special Operations Wing\") had only eight T\\-28s left but these were retired on 30 May and replaced by more capable A\\-1E Skyraiders.{{rp\\|220–1}}", "In March 1964, Air Base 62 at Pleiku AB became the RVNAF 62nd Tactical Wing.{{rp\\|275}}", "In May, the 217th Helicopter Squadron was established at Da Nang AB.{{rp\\|274}}", "In June 1964, the 116th Liaison Squadron equipped with O\\-1s was activated at Nha Trang AB.{{rp\\|275}} Also that month the RVNAF formed the 23rd Tactical Wing at Bien Hoa AB incorporating the 514th, 518th and the 112th Liaison Squadron. The 520th Fighter Squadron would be activated at Bien Hoa AB in October and join the 23rd Wing.{{rp\\|272}}", "In October 1964, the RVNAF 520th Fighter Squadron equipped with A\\-1Hs was formed at Bien Hoa AB, however due to delays in construction of [Binh Thuy Air Base](/wiki/Binh_Thuy_Air_Base \"Binh Thuy Air Base\") it was only in December that they were able to start deploying a five aircraft detachment daily from Bien Hoa AB to Binh Thuy AB.{{rp\\|237–9}}", "By mid\\-1964, the RVNAF had grown to thirteen squadrons; four fighter, four observation, three helicopter and two C\\-47 transport. The RVNAF followed the USAF practice of organizing the squadrons into wings, with one wing located in each of the four Corps' tactical zones at Binh Thuy AB, Tan Son Nhut AB, Pleiku AB and Da Nang AB.", "By the end of 1964, however, the combat sortie rate suffered as some key units were diverted from tactical operations and placed on \"coup alert\" during the seemingly endless political changes in Saigon. Still missing from the RVNAF were some of the basic elements of an effective combat force. Communication facilities were inadequate. The RVNAF had a rudimentary reporting system and, consequently, no way to measure the results of their missions. Absence of centralized control meant that it was impossible for the RVNAF to be fully integrated into the tactical air control system the USAF advisors had installed. Both the central air operations center at Tan Son Nhut AB and its field sites, the local air support operation centers, while technically performing their primary functions of scheduling and coordinating RVNAF sorties, were actually \"after the fact\" agencies that did little more than schedule missions demanded by the wings. About 75 percent of all attack sorties were being flown against \"free strike\" targets, which meant they were outside the control of a FAC and used little or no intelligence support. The RVNAF was still being run largely at the local level and, as a result, was seldom able to respond quickly to calls for assistance from the ARVN.{{rp\\|12–3}}", "### 1965", "[thumb\\|right\\|B\\-57B loaned to the RVNAF at Da Nang AB, 1965](/wiki/File:Martin_B-57B-MA_52-1532_loaned_to_SVNAF_1965.jpg \"Martin B-57B-MA 52-1532 loaned to SVNAF 1965.jpg\")", "In January 1965, the 62nd Tactical Wing and 516th Fighter Squadron, equipped with A\\-1H Skyraiders deployed to Nha Trang AB from Pleiku AB while a new runway was built at Pleiku.{{rp\\|263}} Also that month the 1141st Observation Squadron moved to Pleiku AB from Da Nang AB. Pleiku AB was then managed by the 92nd Base Support Group and the base was used as a staging and emergency airfield.\n{{rp\\|275}}", "On 8 February 1965, RVNAF commander [Nguyễn Cao Kỳ](/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Cao_K%E1%BB%B3 \"Nguyễn Cao Kỳ\") led RVNAF A\\-1s from Da Nang AB on a [retaliatory raid against North Vietnamese targets](/wiki/Operation_Flaming_Dart \"Operation Flaming Dart\"), all of the aircraft were hit by anti\\-aircraft fire, but only one was shot down.{{rp\\|60}}", "On 2 March 1965, 20 RVNAF A\\-1s from Da Nang AB participated in the first attacks of [Operation Rolling Thunder](/wiki/Operation_Rolling_Thunder \"Operation Rolling Thunder\"), striking the [Vietnam People's Navy](/wiki/Vietnam_People%27s_Navy \"Vietnam People's Navy\") base at [Quảng Khê](/wiki/Qu%E1%BA%A3ng_Kh%C3%AA%2C_B%E1%BA%AFc_K%E1%BA%A1n \"Quảng Khê, Bắc Kạn\").{{cite book\\|last\\=Van Staaveren\\|first\\=Jacob\\|title\\=Gradual Failure: The Air War over North Vietnam 1965–1966\\|publisher\\=Air Force History and Museums Program\\|year\\=2002\\|url\\=https://media.defense.gov/2010/May/26/2001330292/\\-1/\\-1/0/AFD\\-100526\\-034\\.pdf\\|isbn\\=9781508779094}}{{PD\\-notice}}{{rp\\|84}} On 14 March the RVNAF led by Kỳ participated in attacks on barracks on Hòn Gió island.{{rp\\|85}} The RVNAF contributed 19 sorties in March and 97 in April to attacks on North Vietnam.{{rp\\|25}} By the end of June seven RVNAF aircraft had been lost to North Vietnamese anti\\-aircraft fire, while a further eight had been damaged.{{rp\\|141}} With the increasingly sophisticated air defenses over North Vietnam, the RVNAF was soon reduced to operating over only a small part of southern North Vietnam, with USAF, Navy and [United States Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps \"United States Marine Corps\") aircraft conducting most operations.{{rp\\|314}}", "In May 1965, the 522nd Fighter Squadron equipped with A\\-1s was activated at Tan Son Nhut AB.{{rp\\|95}}", "In August 1965, the 524th Fighter Squadron equipped with A\\-1s was activated at Nha Trang AB.{{rp\\|95}}", "In August 1965, four USAF [B\\-57B Canberras](/wiki/Martin_B-57_Canberra \"Martin B-57 Canberra\") operating from Da Nang AB were nominally transferred to the RVNAF becoming their first jet aircraft.{{rp\\|88}} Six Vietnamese pilots had already been checked out in the B\\-57B, and there were fifteen more with jet training, along with about forty mechanics. These pilots could join in strikes against the Viet Cong; and later they, along with the mechanics, could form the nucleus of a Vietnamese [F\\-5](/wiki/Northrop_F-5 \"Northrop F-5\") squadron that was then being considered.{{rp\\|68}} The RVNAF never officially took control of the aircraft, and, after accidents and other problems, including apparent claims by RVNAF pilots that the B\\-57 was beyond their physical capabilities, the program was terminated in April 1966, and the aircraft were returned to their original USAF units.{{cite book\\|last\\=Mesko\\|first\\=Jim\\|title\\=VNAF: South Vietnamese Air Force 1945\\-1975\\|publisher\\=Squadron/Signal Publications\\|year\\=1987\\|isbn\\=9780897471930}}{{rp\\|43}}", "In December, the 217th Helicopter Squadron moved from Tan Son Nhut AB to Binh Thuy AB.{{rp\\|274}}", "By the end of 1965, there were 13,000 men and 359 planes in the RVNAF, numbers that would not change substantially until the 1970s. Of the five tactical wings, two were in [III Corps](/wiki/III_Corps_%28South_Vietnam%29 \"III Corps (South Vietnam)\") (Bien Hoa AB and Tan Son Nhut AB) and a single wing was in each of the other Corps (at Da Nang, Pleiku and Binh Thuy). There were 6 fighter squadrons with a total of 146 A\\-1 Skyraiders. The four H\\-34 helicopter squadrons and four O\\-1 liaison squadrons were up to strength and two of the three planned transport squadrons of C\\-47s were operational. This was as large a force as the country could afford, and it was deemed sufficient to defend postwar South Vietnam. Until that day arrived, the US could handle any additional requirements. Besides these tactical wings, the RVNAF had a logistics wing at Bien Hoa AB, a base support group at Pleiku AB and its Air Training Center at Nha Trang AB.{{rp\\|95}} The RVNAF was flying 2900 combat sorties per month in support of the ARVN.{{rp\\|65}}", "USAF advisors were turning from expanding to modernizing the RVNAF. Plans were taking shape in December for modernization over the next three years. Two of the six fighter squadrons would gradually convert to F\\-5s, the H\\-34s would give way to newer [UH\\-1s](/wiki/Bell_UH-1_Iroquois \"Bell UH-1 Iroquois\") and at least one of the C\\-47 squadrons would receive [C\\-119](/wiki/Fairchild_C-119_Flying_Boxcar \"Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar\") transports. Major improvements were envisioned for the FAC program, the air defense net, and in the realm of communications, which was particularly weak.{{rp\\|96}}", "The expansion and effectiveness of the RVNAF was hampered by numerous factors. Its commander, Ky, pulled his best people with him into the government, leaving to the American advisors the task of training replacements. The difficulties of that were noted by [Seventh Air Force](/wiki/Seventh_Air_Force \"Seventh Air Force\") commander General [Joseph Harold Moore](/wiki/Joseph_Harold_Moore \"Joseph Harold Moore\") who observed that, although several young field grade officers were showing promise as good leaders, \"daily siestas and weekend slackening of effort is still a way of life.\" Pilots, lacking training and confidence, refused to fly at night and would not use their helicopters for medical evacuation missions in the face of enemy action. Liaison pilots were assigned for only two weeks and then moved away to another province, undercutting [Military Assistance Command, Vietnam](/wiki/Military_Assistance_Command%2C_Vietnam \"Military Assistance Command, Vietnam\") (MACV)’s ambitious visual reconnaissance program. In the midst of combat, RVNAF commanders were reluctant to release men for training. With the war all around them, pilot trainees were thrown into action as soon as they became minimally qualified, leaving little time to learn instrument and night flying. As a group, the commanders operated from day to day rather than programming and training their way out of their skill shortages. Often the men resisted being sent for training since this meant leaving their home stations. The program was weakened by the low pay that forced the men to moonlight, by the family separation, and by the relatively poor facilities at training bases. The concept of preventive maintenance was alien; and the tradition of postponing maintenance until equipment broke down or failed to function continued.{{rp\\|97–8}}", "### 1966", "[thumb\\|right\\|C\\-47s at Tan Son Nhut AB in 1966](/wiki/File:Vnaf-c47-1966.jpg \"Vnaf-c47-1966.jpg\")", "Attempts by the USAF to wean the ARVN off reliance on USAF FACs were making slow progress. ARVN commanders seldom trusted the RVNAF and wanted USAF FACs who could command jet fighters rather than their own controllers who could not. In many ways they were justified, as the RVNAF controllers were slow in mastering the techniques of strike control and visual reconnaissance.{{rp\\|132–3}}", "### 1967", "On 1 June 1967, the [US Ambassador](/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_South_Vietnam \"United States Ambassador to South Vietnam\") [Ellsworth Bunker](/wiki/Ellsworth_Bunker \"Ellsworth Bunker\") presented the 20 F\\-5As of the [10th Fighter Squadron (Commando)](/wiki/10th_Airborne_Command_and_Control_Squadron%23Skoshi_Tiger \"10th Airborne Command and Control Squadron#Skoshi Tiger\") to Kỳ at Bien Hoa AB. These aircraft would be used by the RVNAF to form the 522nd Fighter Squadron, their first jet squadron with training support provided by the USAF [Air Training Command](/wiki/Air_Training_Command%23Vietnam_War_era \"Air Training Command#Vietnam War era\"). This was the first step in the unfolding of the program that would see four of the six RVNAF fighter squadrons gradually convert from A\\-1s to jets. Besides the F\\-5s for the 522nd, three of the other squadrons were to receive [A\\-37 Dragonflys](/wiki/Cessna_A-37_Dragonfly \"Cessna A-37 Dragonfly\") as soon as the planes were tested in South Vietnam. The two remaining squadrons would continue to fly the A\\-1s. [United States Secretary of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense \"United States Secretary of Defense\") [Robert McNamara](/wiki/Robert_McNamara \"Robert McNamara\") had been convinced to allow the RVNAF to have the F\\-5s on the grounds that the jets had proved themselves to be good close air support vehicles, that they posed no threat to North Vietnam and therefore did not signal escalation, and that they would permit the RVNAF to defend the country against air attacks when the USAF finally withdrew. The impact of the move was as much psychological as it was military. The South Vietnamese were sensitive to taunts from North Vietnam that the US would not trust them with jets, and the activation of the jet squadron was an important status symbol for the southerners.{{rp\\|234–5}} The 33 pilots chosen for the 522nd Fighter Squadron, were hand picked by Ky and had trained in the US and the Philippines. They were assisted at Bien Hoa AB by a mobile team sent by the Air Training Command to teach the squadron to maintain the planes. 522nd Fighter Squadron logged 388 combat sorties in June and 436 in July. In December, they flew 527 sorties, striking enemy supply routes and supporting ground troops in South Vietnam. Their safety record during the first 6 months was excellent, with only one plane lost.{{rp\\|235}}", "There was some basis for the claim that the US did not trust the Vietnamese with jets, but not for the reasons implied above. The RVNAF's safety record with conventional aircraft had been poor. Since 1962 they had lost 287 planes, more than half of them (153\\) to accidents. In 1967, the force suffered 32 major aircraft accidents for every 100,000 hours it compared to the USAF's accident rate of 7\\.4\\. In July alone, the RVNAF had 18 mishaps with its conventional planes, 12 the result of pilot mistakes hitting trees on [Napalm](/wiki/Napalm \"Napalm\") passes, ground looping on landing, colliding in midair, taxiing into a fence, landing with the gear up, losing control on takeoff, nosing over after stopping an aircraft too quickly and running off the runway. In August, there were 10 major flight accidents, a single major ground accident, a minor flight accident and six flight incidents, but only a single reported combat loss. While many of these accidents stemmed from the inexperience of RVNAF pilots, the widespread absence of safety awareness and the absence of a program to instill it was making the problem difficult to correct. The USAF's advisory group, which oversaw the RVNAF's development, had been eclipsed since the large\\-scale USAF arrival began in 1965; and a flying safety program for the RVNAF, which had been in the plans, had fallen victim to higher priorities. Some advisory group officials complained that they were not getting top caliber people for so sensitive a mission. Few officers possessed the linguistic and cultural skills needed for the job and advisor duty was frequently viewed as inferior and undesirable compared to a more glamorous and career\\-enhancing tour with the Seventh Air Force.{{rp\\|235}}", "On 7 May 1967, a VC attack on Binh Thuy AB destroyed four A\\-1Hs and two UH\\-34s.{{cite book\\|last\\=Ballard\\|first\\=Jack\\|title\\=The United States Air Force in Southeast Asia: Development and Employment of Fixed\\-Wing Gunships 1962–1972\\|publisher\\=Office of Air Force History\\|year\\=1982\\|url\\=https://media.defense.gov/2010/May/26/2001330293/\\-1/\\-1/0/AFD\\-100526\\-036\\.pdf\\|isbn\\=9781428993648}}{{PD\\-notice}}{{rp\\|54}}", "The RVNAF 2311th Air Group, later to become an Air Wing, and the 311th Air Division were also stationed at Bien Hoa AB and the base supported the greatest number of air combat units than any other in South Vietnam. Following the final withdrawal of US forces from South Vietnam in February 1973, Bien Hoa remained a major RVNAF base hosting the headquarters of the RVNAF 3rd Air Division and the Air Logistics Command.{{rp\\|216}}", "### 1968", "[thumb\\|right\\|CH\\-34C lifts a battle\\-damaged O\\-1 in 1968](/wiki/File:CH-34C_VNAF_lifting_O-1_1968.JPEG \"CH-34C VNAF lifting O-1 1968.JPEG\")", "When the [Tet Offensive](/wiki/Tet_Offensive \"Tet Offensive\") began on 31 January, 55 percent of the RVNAF's personnel were on leave, many in rural areas that had been isolated by VC infiltration. Within 72 hours, 90 percent of the force was back on the job. Helicopters, operating with fewer aircraft, flew more than half their normal monthly number of missions.{{rp\\|305}} By the end of February, RVNAF A\\-1s and F\\-5s had flown over 2500 sorties, helicopters had flown over 3200 hours and transport aircraft had flown over 1000 sorties.{{cite book\\|last\\=Nalty\\|first\\=Bernard\\|title\\=The United States Air Force in Southeast Asia: The War in South Vietnam Air War over South Vietnam 1968–1975\\|publisher\\=Air Force History and Museums Program\\|year\\=2000\\|url\\=http://www.afhso.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD\\-100924\\-004\\.pdf\\|isbn\\=9781478118640}}{{PD\\-notice}}{{rp\\|33}} The overall damage was moderate and casualties were light, with less than one percent of the RVNAF personnel lost, including deserters. 18 aircraft were destroyed, 11 in ground attacks.{{rp\\|305}} The RVNAF played an active role in the repelling the [Tet Offensive attack on Tan Son Nhut Air Base](/wiki/Tet_Offensive_attack_on_Tan_Son_Nhut_Air_Base \"Tet Offensive attack on Tan Son Nhut Air Base\") and the [attack on Bien Hoa Air Base](/wiki/Tet_Offensive_attacks_on_Bien_Hoa_and_Long_Binh \"Tet Offensive attacks on Bien Hoa and Long Binh\").", "Training remained the number one priority and the hardest to accomplish. Trying to fight while modernizing, RVNAF commanders were reluctant to assign their personnel to training, which meant losing them from combat. The RVNAF still relied principally on US units in both Vietnam and the United States for advanced flying and technical training. Mobile training teams taught F\\-5 and C\\-119 maintenance, logistic management, and the English language inside Vietnam. The US Army was training the H\\-34 pilots to fly the new UH\\-1s; and USAF units in the country taught Vietnamese airmen control tower operations, meteorology, armament maintenance and missile handling. Between 1965 and 1968, almost 1,000 Vietnamese airmen were trained in the United States.{{rp\\|305}}", "The RVNAF was a rapidly maturing force, flying one\\-fourth of all the strike sorties in South Vietnam and was on its way to becoming a modern, effective jet age fighting force. However the ARVN was not making full use of the RVNAF's resources. Preoccupied as it was with immediate, day\\-to\\-day combat, the RVNAF by early 1968 was still unable to develop the concept of long\\-range force development. For such planning, it was still heavily reliant on the US. Major aircraft accidents, which claimed an average of 22 aircraft each month throughout 1966 and 1967, remained the biggest problem. Over 60% of these accidents were caused by pilot error on takeoffs and landings. Only eight accidents occurred during the Tet Offensive, suggesting a dramatic increase in motivation during the crisis.{{rp\\|305}} However apart from the peak during Tet, combat sorties averaged only 1800 per month, nine percent of total Allied sorties.{{rp\\|55–6}}", "The RVNAF's maintenance record was improving. Between 1965 and 1968, it integrated six new types of aircraft and showed that it could maintain them. Its maintenance depot, however, was unable to handle all crash and battle damage repairs, much of which was done by US contractors. Maintenance discipline and proficiency were still showing the strains caused by traditional work habits and a shortage of personnel. The RVNAF's supply system early in 1968 was slowly digging its way out of the inundation that started two years earlier. As US aid increased from $15 million in 1965 to $264 million in 1967, the RVNAF did not have enough personnel to cope with the deluge of supplies. The result was a mountainous backlog in receiving, processing, storing and recording the new equipment.{{rp\\|305}}", "In late 1968, MACV proposed its Phase I plan to prepare the RVNAF to assume a greater share of responsibility for fighting the war. The plan called for the addition of four UH–1H helicopter squadrons (124 helicopters) to the 20 squadron RVNAF. There would also be modernization: [T–41](/wiki/Cessna_T-41_Mescalero \"Cessna T-41 Mescalero\") trainers replacing some of the older U–17s, four H–34 squadrons converting to UH–1Hs, a C–47 transport squadron reequipping with the [AC\\-47 *Spooky*](/wiki/Douglas_AC-47_Spooky \"Douglas AC-47 Spooky\") gunship and three A–1 squadrons receiving jet\\-powered A–37s. These changes increased by some 41 percent the authorized number of aircraft. However, as it became apparent that US forces would start withdrawing from South Vietnam MACV revised the plan to expand the RVNAF by a further 16 squadrons, all of which would be in service by July 1974\\. Besides an additional five helicopter squadrons, for a total augmentation of nine, phase II called for three new squadrons of A–37s, four of transports (all but one flying [C\\-123 Providers](/wiki/Fairchild_C-123_Provider \"Fairchild C-123 Provider\")), an [AC\\-119G *Shadow*](/wiki/Fairchild_AC-119 \"Fairchild AC-119\") gunship unit, and three liaison squadrons equipped with planes suitable for use by FACs. The new plan would double the current number of RVNAF squadrons, more than double the total number of aircraft, and increase personnel to 32,600\\. MACV believed that these additions, plus the F–5 and A–37 strike aircraft and [CH–47 Chinook](/wiki/Boeing_CH-47_Chinook \"Boeing CH-47 Chinook\") helicopters already scheduled for delivery, would enable the RVNAF to conduct operations in South Vietnam similar to those conducted by the air forces of both the United States and South Vietnam in 1964/5\\. The AC–47 and AC–119 gunship force were believed sufficient for base defense and the support of ground operations and by July 1974 the fighter arm would have achieved satisfactory strength and skill, even though the F–5 would have to double as strike fighter and interceptor. The planned number of helicopters seemed adequate to permit airmobile operations against insurgency activity. The planned liaison units, which included FACs, and the transport squadrons did not have enough aircraft, however, and MACV acknowledged that the proposed reconnaissance force, six RF–5s, could not cover an area the size of South Vietnam. The USAF would have to compensate somehow for these obvious weaknesses.{{rp\\|163–4}}", "### 1969", "{{see\\|Vietnamization}}", "[thumb\\|right\\|A\\-37B Dragonfly of the 548th Fighter Squadron at Phan Rang AB](/wiki/File:A-37B-5548FS_VNAF_PhanRang.jpg \"A-37B-5548FS VNAF PhanRang.jpg\")", "On 4 January 1969, the Joint Chiefs of Staff presented the outgoing [Johnson](/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson \"Lyndon B. Johnson\") administration a plan for changing the target date for completion of the RVNAF Phase II expansion from July 1974 to July 1972\\.{{rp\\|162–3}} In April 1969, the Department of Defense issued instructions to accelerate the Phase II improvement and modernization plan as recommended by the Joint Chiefs.{{rp\\|164}}", "By May 1969, the full complement of 54 A\\-37B jets was on hand and assigned to the 524th, 520th, and 516th Fighter Squadrons. The first A\\-37 squadron was declared operationally ready in March 1969, the last one in July.{{cite book\\|last\\=Berger\\|first\\=Carl\\|title\\=The United States Air Force in Southeast Asia 1961\\-1973, An Illustrated Account\\|publisher\\=Office of Air Force History\\|year\\=1984\\|url\\=https://media.defense.gov/2017/Mar/28/2001722972/\\-1/\\-1/0/07\\-ILL\\_HIST\\_CH20\\-BACK\\_(PAGES309\\-383\\).PDF\\|isbn\\=9789999582827}}{{PD\\-notice}}{{rp\\|315}}", "On 8 June 1969, Presidents [Richard Nixon](/wiki/Richard_Nixon \"Richard Nixon\") and [Nguyễn Văn Thiệu](/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_V%C4%83n_Thi%E1%BB%87u \"Nguyễn Văn Thiệu\") met on [Midway Island](/wiki/Midway_Island \"Midway Island\") and discussed both the withdrawal of US forces and the arming and training of South Vietnamese to take over a greater share of the fighting. Although amenable to the idea of [Vietnamization](/wiki/Vietnamization \"Vietnamization\"), Thiệu had ideas of his own about the kind of weapons his armed forces required, he offered a plan of his own for modernizing the military services, asking for what the Joint Chiefs of Staff termed appreciable quantities of sophisticated and costly equipment, including [F–4 Phantom](/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-4_Phantom_II \"McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II\") fighters and [C–130 Hercules](/wiki/Lockheed_C-130_Hercules \"Lockheed C-130 Hercules\") transports. If South Vietnam received these aircraft and the other weapons he sought, the nation would have the means to play a more nearly decisive role in the struggle against the combined forces of North Vietnam and the Viet Cong. However the Joint Chiefs did not believe it could be attained as rapidly or as easily as Thiệu seemed to think, and certainly not by merely handing the South Vietnamese deadlier but far more complex aircraft and other weapons. Compared to their American counterparts, the RVNAF lacked the technical skills necessary to make effective use of the weaponry Thiệu desired. Nor did the phase II plan, now to be accelerated, envision the South Vietnamese promptly taking on the aggregate strength of North Vietnam and the Viet Cong. However desirable this might be as an ultimate goal, the Joint Chiefs of Staff did not believe that mere weapons could, in view of such problems as leadership and desertion, enable South Vietnam to take over major fighting responsibility against the current threat. A review of the Thiệu proposal by MACV resulted in a recommendation that the United States turn down almost every request. The RVNAF would have to do without F–4s and C–130s, additional VC–47 transports for high\\-ranking officials, coastal surveillance aircraft, and a search and rescue organization like that operated by the USAF. Thiệu's ambitious plan did, however, generate an additional $160 million in US military aid to improve logistics support and also produced a decision to speedup previously authorized recruiting, adding some 4,000 men to the RVNAF by June 1970\\.{{rp\\|164–5}}", "On 30 June 1969, all AC\\-47 *Spooky* gunships of D Flight, [3rd Special Operations Squadron](/wiki/3d_Special_Operations_Squadron%23Vietnam \"3d Special Operations Squadron#Vietnam\") were transferred to the RVNAF at Tan Son Nhut AB.{{rp\\|70}} On 2 July 1969, 5 AC\\-47 *Spooky* gunships were used to form the 817th Combat Squadron which became operational at Tan Son Nhut AB on 31 August.{{rp\\|252}}", "During the latter half of 1969, the USAF began transferring its O–1E FACs to the RVNAF as newer aircraft replaced them as part of the gradual transfer of control of the entire tactical air control system to the RVNAF. The direct air request network, as the Vietnamized control system came to be called, had three principal elements: the tactical air control party, the direct air support center, and the Tactical Air Control Center. Grouped together in the tactical air control party were the forward air controllers, various radio operators and maintenance men, and the air liaison officer, who acted as air adviser to the ground commander. Like his American counterpart, the South Vietnamese air liaison officer served as focal point for all matters relating to air activities, from close support to weather reports. The direct air support center bore responsibility for fulfilling requests from the tactical air control parties for air strikes, tactical reconnaissance, or emergency airlift. Like the tactical air control parties, the centers would continue for a time to be joint operations, with the American role diminishing as South Vietnamese skills improved. Plans called for a direct air support center in conjunction with each ARVN Corps' headquarters: [I](/wiki/I_Corps_%28South_Vietnam%29 \"I Corps (South Vietnam)\") Direct Air Support Center at Da Nang AB, [II](/wiki/II_Corps_%28South_Vietnam%29 \"II Corps (South Vietnam)\") at Pleiku AB, III at Bien Hoa AB and [IV](/wiki/IV_Corps_%28South_Vietnam%29 \"IV Corps (South Vietnam)\") at Binh Thuy AB. Each of these centers would keep in contact by radio, telephone, or teletype with the subordinate tactical air control parties and with the Tactical Air Control Center at Tan Son Nhut AB. The Tactical Air Control Center served as nerve center of the Vietnamized system. In the tightly centralized US model, this agency functioned as command post for strikes throughout South Vietnam, establishing priorities among competing needs and issuing daily and weekly operations orders in support of the war on the ground. RVNAF officers began serving in each component of the center, creating a parallel structure that could sustain the air war after the Americans left. Whether a tactical air control center of this type could be transplanted and flourish remained open to question, for South Vietnam's armed forces had not yet accepted the concept of centralized control over tactical aviation. The Corps' commander, though theoretically influenced by an air liaison officer, remained supreme in his fiefdom and could use the direct air support center for his own purposes, regardless of orders issued elsewhere.{{rp\\|172–3}}", "### 1970", "[thumb\\|right\\|421st Transport Squadron C\\-123 at Tan Son Nhut AB](/wiki/File:South_Vietnamese_Air_Force_Fairchild_C-123B-15-FA_Provider_55-4565.jpg \"South Vietnamese Air Force Fairchild C-123B-15-FA Provider 55-4565.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|U\\-17A at Nha Trang AB](/wiki/File:U-17A_VNAF_NhaTrang.jpg \"U-17A VNAF NhaTrang.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|UH\\-1D on an air assault mission in the Mekong Delta](/wiki/File:Vietnam_Air_Force_UH-1_Mekong_Delta_19700718.jpg \"Vietnam Air Force UH-1 Mekong Delta 19700718.jpg\")", "In 1970, the RVNAF units at Da Nang AB were reorganized as the First Air Division with responsibility for I Corps.{{rp\\|213}}", "In March 1970, the USAF began handing the Pleiku AB over to the RVNAF and this transfer was completed by the end of 1970\\.{{rp\\|216}} Pleiku AB was one of the two operating bases of the RVNAF 6th Air Division, the other being [Phù Cát Air Base](/wiki/Ph%C3%B9_C%C3%A1t_Air_Base \"Phù Cát Air Base\").{{cite book\\|last\\=Lavalle\\|first\\=A\\|title\\=USAF Southeast Asia Monograph Series Volume III, The Vietnamese Air Force 1951–75\\|publisher\\=Office of Air Force History\\|year\\=1985\\|url\\=https://media.defense.gov/2010/Oct/13/2001330009/\\-1/\\-1/0/AFD\\-101013\\-043\\.pdf\\|isbn\\=0912799285\\|page\\=68}}{{PD\\-notice}} The RVNAF established the 72nd Tactical Wing at Pleiku AB with the 530th Fighter Squadron equipped with A\\-1 Skyraiders, along with two UH\\-1H helicopter assault squadrons (229th, 235th) and the 118th Liaison Squadron, with O\\-1 and [U\\-17](/wiki/Cessna_185 \"Cessna 185\") forward air controller/light reconnaissance aircraft.", "On 31 March, a USAF mobile training team arrived in South Vietnam to begin teaching, in collaboration with Army aviators, the tactical use of the UH–1 fitted out as a gunship. On 29 May 29, before the second class of 32 students had graduated, the RVNAF mounted its first helicopter assault. Eight troop\\-carrying UH–1s, another serving as a command post, and three others equipped as gunships successfully landed a small force near [Prey Veng](/wiki/Prey_Veng_%28city%29 \"Prey Veng (city)\"), Cambodia.{{rp\\|223}}", "From the beginning of the [Cambodian Campaign](/wiki/Cambodian_Campaign \"Cambodian Campaign\") in April until the end of 1970, the RVNAF flew some 9,600 attack sorties in Cambodia, compared to 14,600 by US airmen. Besides flying interdiction missions, the RVNAF delivered close air support for both ARVN and [Cambodian troops](/wiki/Khmer_National_Armed_Forces \"Khmer National Armed Forces\") and provided other assistance.{{rp\\|208}}", "The Cambodian Campaign gave unexpected impetus to the modernization and improvement of South Vietnam's armed forces. US Defense Secretary [Melvin Laird](/wiki/Melvin_Laird \"Melvin Laird\") launched the Consolidated Improvement and Modernization Program which called for a South Vietnamese military establishment totaling 1\\.1 million in June 1973, with the RVNAF expanding to 46,998 officers and men. During December 1970, however, the USAF advisory group became concerned that additional airmen, technicians, and medical professionals would be needed as South Vietnamese replaced US troops at air bases, logistics centers, command posts and hospital facilities. South Vietnam's Joint General Staff agreed, increasing the projected strength of the air service to 52,171, but even this number could not ensure the self\\-sufficiency of the RVNAF. At best, the greater number of airmen could help the ARVN to deal with the kind of threat that existed in the spring of 1970, after the invasion of Cambodia. Under the program, the RVNAF expanded from 22 squadrons with 486 authorized aircraft in mid\\-1970 to 30 squadrons with 706 planes at year's end. Two additional A–37 squadrons and one of A–1s (all originally scheduled for activation in the summer of 1971\\) were activated, as were four new squadrons of UH–1s and, some six months ahead of schedule, the first of two planned CH–47 Chinook units. Moreover, the consolidated plan looked beyond these 1970 increases to a force of 37 squadrons by the end of June 1971, 45 squadrons a year later and 49 by 30 June 1973\\. The final squadron, 18 F–5E interceptors, would arrive at the end of June 1974, raising to 1,299 the authorized total of aircraft. In terms of squadrons, the RVNAF expanded by almost 30 percent during 1970, while the number of aircraft increased by not quite 50 percent.{{rp\\|212–3}}", "The RVNAF faced high costs and long delays in obtaining from schools overseas navigators for the reconnaissance, gunship or transport versions of the C–119G and C–47\\. To avoid reliance on courses taught in English in the United States, the USAF advisory group helped establish at Tan Son Nhut AB a school in which American\\-trained South Vietnamese instructors taught the basic elements of navigation. The first of seven scheduled classes began in June 1970\\. In August 55 RVNAF airmen started transition training at Tan Son Nhut AB from the CH–34 helicopter to the CH–47\\. Maintenance men as well as flight crews received instruction from members of US Army helicopter units at [Phu Loi Base Camp](/wiki/Phu_Loi_Base_Camp \"Phu Loi Base Camp\") north of Saigon. This training program produced the RVNAF's first CH–47 squadron, which was formally activated on 30 September 1970\\. Preparations had already begun to create a second CH\\-47 squadron. Tan Son Nhut AB was also the focal point for training on the AC\\-119G *Shadow* gunship, as 50 RVNAF pilots, half of them experienced in the C–119G transport and the others fresh from flight training in the US, joined recent graduates of navigator school in forming the nucleus of the AC–119G crews. Flight mechanics and searchlight operators would learn their specialties in the US before teaming up with the pilots, copilots, and navigators already training at Tan Son Nhut AB. Once brought together, each crew received a final indoctrination, then reported to the USAF's [14th Special Operations Wing](/wiki/14th_Special_Operations_Wing \"14th Special Operations Wing\") for the last phase of gunship training, five routine combat missions.{{rp\\|218–9}}", "The need to acquire some fluency in English before starting certain training courses remained an obstacle to many potential RVNAF aviators or technicians. Indeed, the USAF advisors came to conclude that it had been a mistake to make proficiency in English the key to advanced training. In retrospect it would appear wiser to have trained US instructors to speak Vietnamese at the outset. During early 1970, 55 percent of the RVNAF airmen selected to learn English for further training in the US were failing the language course, almost three times the anticipated failure rate.{{rp\\|217}}", "Certain kinds of training simply could not be given in South Vietnam. Facilities did not yet exist for the 1,900 aviators (1,500 of them helicopter pilots) who completed undergraduate pilot training in the US during the 18 months ending in December 1970\\. Since travel outside South Vietnam was in this case unavoidable, the USAF agreed to compress the period of training in fixed\\-wing aircraft. The duration of the course was reduced from 42 weeks for all cadets to 40 for future fighter pilots and 38 for those destined for transport squadrons. Besides future aviators, some doctors and nurses could receive their specialized training only in the United States. Except for these fledgling pilots, the doctors and nurses, and the communications specialists trained for a time at Clark Air Base in the Philippines, policy called for transplanting courses of instruction to South Vietnam.{{rp\\|219}}", "Although pilots of helicopters, fighters, or transports and their variants, including gunships, learned to fly in the US, training for liaison or observation craft went forward in South Vietnam. This curriculum also underwent time\\-saving revision. Formerly, after 299 hours of training on the ground and 146 hours mastering the U–17 or the recently introduced Cessna T–41, the new liaison pilot had reported to an O–1 unit for 50 hours of additional instruction. Unfortunately, the demands of combat usually forced the veteran fliers in the unit, whose combat missions took precedence over training flights, to spread the required instruction over three to five months. Beginning in September the RVNAF demanded 110 hours in the T–41 and 35 to 70 hours in the O–1, all of it acquired before the aspiring FAC left Nha Trang AB. As a result, he arrived at his unit thoroughly familiar with the O–1 and needing only an informal and comparatively brief combat indoctrination. South Vietnamese assumption of responsibility for tactical air control, a process in which FACs, trained in South Vietnam and flying newly acquired O–1s, played a key part—moved ahead during 1970\\. At midyear, the RVNAF had ninety O–1 and forty U–17 observation planes organized into five active squadrons and manned by 149 pilots and 135 observers, all of them deemed fully qualified for combat. Of these 284 FACs, 44 pilots and 42 observers had demonstrated sufficient ability to control strikes by USAF as well as RVNAF aircraft. Successful control, however, remained limited in most instances to planned strikes conducted in daylight. According to US Army reports RVNAF FACs did not fly at night or in bad weather, ignored emergency requests to adjust artillery fire or carry out visual reconnaissance, and responded slowly to requests for immediate air strikes, though their work was adequate once they arrived on the scene.{{rp\\|219–20}}", "With American units leaving the country, the RVNAF transport fleet was greatly increased at Tan Son Nhut AB. The RVNAF 33rd and 53rd Tactical Wings were established flying C\\-123s, C\\-47s and [C\\-7 Caribous](/wiki/De_Havilland_Canada_DHC-4_Caribou \"De Havilland Canada DHC-4 Caribou\").{{rp\\|218–9}} As C–119 pilots began training to fly the AC\\-119 gunships, and men qualified in the C–47 were about to begin their transition to the newer C–123K, the two existing airlift squadrons had to carry out their usual duties while furnishing trainees for the new gunships and transports. Because of the need for more transports, the USAF advisory group and the air arm's headquarters drew up plans to hasten the activation of two C–123K squadrons, equipped with planes transferred from USAF units. The K models would commence operation by mid\\-1971, six months ahead of schedule. Two squadrons of C–7s, also from USAF resources in South Vietnam, would round out the projected airlift force by July 1972\\. This planned airlift fleet did not satisfy Ky, who argued for the addition of a squadron of C–130s. Secretary of the Air Force [Robert C. Seamans, Jr.](/wiki/Robert_C._Seamans%2C_Jr. \"Robert C. Seamans, Jr.\"), visited South Vietnam in February 1970 and was impressed with Ky's reasoning. The C\\-130 could carry more cargo than any of the types his nation would receive with five times the cargo capacity of a C–7 or roughly three times that of the C–123K or C–119G. A study by the USAF advisory group concluded that a combination of C–7s and C–130s could better meet the needs of the RVNAF than the planned combination of C–123s and C–7s. The C–123s, however, would soon become surplus to American needs and already were based in South Vietnam. Ease of transfer provided, for the present, a decisive argument in favor of the C\\-123s, and many months would pass before the RVNAF finally received C–130s.{{rp\\|224}}", "In July, the RVNAF had received the first two of six RF–5 reconnaissance planes. In mid\\-August, RVNAF technicians processed and interpreted film from these aircraft, thus foreshadowing Vietnamization of aerial reconnaissance. The remaining four RF–5s arrived in time for the reconnaissance unit to begin functioning on 15 October. At year's end the RVNAF possessed the nucleus of a tactical air intelligence operation.{{rp\\|225}}", "The 412st Transport Squadron formed at Phù Cát AB in 1970 operating C\\-7As inherited from the 537th Troop Carrier Squadron.{{cite book\\|last\\=Kelley\\|first\\=Michael\\|title\\=Where we were in Vietnam\\|publisher\\=Hellgate Press\\|year\\=2002\\|isbn\\=978\\-1555716257\\|page\\=397}}", "In November 1970, Sóc Trăng Airfield was handed over to the RVNAF by the US Army.{{rp\\|214}}", "By the end of December 1970, RVNAF security police had assumed full responsibility for protecting Nha Trang and Binh Thuy Air Bases.{{rp\\|214}}", "Increased cockpit time resulted in safer flying. The accident rate for 1970 throughout all of South Vietnam declined by some 20 percent from the previous year, but the lower ratio of 11\\.4 accidents per 100,000 flying hours remained roughly 2\\.5 times the USAF figure. The improvement during 1970 represented a sharp decline in accidents involving observation and utility aircraft; fighter and helicopter pilots flew no more safely than they had the year before. Although RVNAF flight proficiency appeared to be improving, if unevenly, some senior US Army officers had reservations about the combat effectiveness of the RVNAF, citing the inadequacies of its FACs, as well as its limited inventory of aircraft and its inability to fight at night. USAF advisers rendered more optimistic judgments, however, pointing out that the fighter and attack squadrons had performed well during the Cambodian fighting. Indeed, by year's end, the RVNAF were flying almost half the combined total of attack sorties in South Vietnam and Cambodia. Progress was being made toward early activation of more A–1 and A–37 squadrons, although the A–37 was handicapped by a combat radius of no more than {{convert\\|200\\|mi}}. A few F–5 pilots were undergoing training in ground controlled aerial interception, and the RVNAF was increasing the emphasis on nighttime operations. Although inability to fight at night or in bad weather remained the gravest weakness of RVNAF fliers, by late 1970, some 56 percent of the RVNAF's fighter\\-bomber pilots had demonstrated the ability to deliver a night attack on a target illuminated by a flareship. Also, the A–37s and A–1s were starting to receive flare dispensers of their own so that nighttime operations were no longer dependent on the few C–47s available to drop flares. Despite the growing insistence on night flying, FACs logged fewer nighttime hours than the fighter pilots. This imbalance stemmed at least in part from the fact that the U–17s and older O–1s lacked adequate instrumentation and suitable cockpit lighting for operating in darkness. To prepare the RVNAF FACs for the better equipped O–1Es and Gs that were becoming available, USAF pilots were giving nighttime familiarization flights in the right\\-hand seat of the [O–2A Skymaster](/wiki/Cessna_O-2_Skymaster \"Cessna O-2 Skymaster\").{{rp\\|222–3}}", "### 1971", "{{see\\|Operation Lam Son 719}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|UH\\-1H gunship](/wiki/File:UH-1H_VNAF_in_flight_1971.jpg \"UH-1H VNAF in flight 1971.jpg\")", "On 1 January, the 5th Air Division was activated at Tan Son Nhut AB. This newest air division did not support the ARVN within a particular region. Instead, it was an outgrowth of the 33nd Wing, which flew transports, gunships and special mission aircraft everywhere in South Vietnam. Since so many of the aircraft flown by this division, the AC\\-47, VC–47 executive transport and RC–47, were variants of the basic C–47, the RVNAF centralized these disparate operations in one division.{{rp\\|213–4}}", "Vietnamization did not include aerial interdiction of the Ho Chi Minh Trail, so the program for modernization of the RVNAF did not provide them with the weapons necessary to interdict the PAVN supply lines.{{cite book\\|last\\=Nalty\\|first\\=Bernard\\|title\\=The War against Trucks Aerial Interdiction in Southern Laos 1968\\-1972\\|publisher\\=Air Force History and Museums Program\\|year\\=2005\\|url\\=https://media.defense.gov/2010/Oct/06/2001329752/\\-1/\\-1/0/AFD\\-101006\\-027\\.pdf\\|isbn\\=9781477550076}}{{PD\\-notice}}{{rp\\|237}} The armed forces of South Vietnam would have to conduct interdiction on the ground.{{rp\\|238}} During [Operation Lam Son 719](/wiki/Operation_Lam_Son_719 \"Operation Lam Son 719\"), an ARVN operation to cut the Ho Chi Minh Trail in Laos, the RVNAF flew 5,500 sorties mostly by helicopters, a tiny fraction of the 160,000 sorties flown by US Army helicopters, showing that the operation would have been impossible without US support.{{rp\\|273}}", "The crash of the helicopter carrying ARVN General [Đỗ Cao Trí](/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%97_Cao_Tr%C3%AD \"Đỗ Cao Trí\") and photojournalist [François Sully](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Sully \"François Sully\") on 23 February 1971 was attributed by US sources to mechanical failure and this led journalist [Edward Behr](/wiki/Edward_Behr_%28journalist%29 \"Edward Behr (journalist)\") to investigate the maintenance standards within the RVNAF. US maintenance personnel advised Behr that RVNAF mechanics never flushed helicopter engines with water and solvent every 25 flying hours as recommended and did not undertake other routine preventive maintenance. By late 1971 more than half the RVNAF helicopter fleet was grounded due to maintenance issues.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Fulghum\\|first1\\=David\\|last2\\=Maitland\\|first2\\=Terrence\\|title\\=The Vietnam Experience South Vietnam on Trial: Mid\\-1970–1972\\|publisher\\=Boston Publishing Company\\|year\\=1984\\|isbn\\=0939526107\\|pages\\=61–2}}", "The first squadron of C–123s, organized in April, received its aircraft in May. The delay reflected the extensive maintenance the transports required after heavy usage flying men and cargo to staging areas for Operation Lam Son 719\\. A second squadron commenced operation in July, and the third, scheduled for December, took shape in January 1972\\. The last of 24 AC–119Gs joined the RVNAF in September 1971, and in December the USAF Chief of Staff, authorized the transfer of modified AC–119Ks to replace a squadron of AC–47s. At year's end, the RVNAF had 1,041 aircraft on hand, 762 of them (roughly 70 percent) ready for combat. Organized into 41 squadrons, it included three squadrons of A–1s, five of A–37s, one of F–5s, one of AC–47s (which the AC–119Ks would eventually replace), one of AC–119Gs, 16 of helicopters (mostly UH–1s) and seven squadrons of liaison craft for FACs. It also had one reconnaissance squadron with a mix of U–6s, RF–5s and variants of the C–47\\. The transports units totalled one squadron of C–47s, one of C–119s, and two (soon to be three) of C–123s. A special air mission squadron that carried high\\-ranking passengers and a school squadron to conduct training rounded out the force.{{rp\\|299}}", "The tactical air control system underwent Vietnamization in 1971\\. In June, the RVNAF assumed complete responsibility for assigning targets to their aircraft, selecting ordnance and scheduling strikes. The US presence at the Vietnamized command and control center now consisted of a two\\-man liaison party and a few instructors who trained the persons assigned there. The RVNAF command and control function did not issue orders to components of the Seventh Air Force, which continued to maintain a separate tactical air control center for its own aircraft. By August, the RVNAF had also taken over the four direct air support centers, one in each Corps, but the parallel structure prevailed there also, for the Seventh Air Force supplied detachments to handle strikes by its aircraft. As retention by the Seventh Air Force of control over its aircraft indicated, the RVNAF had trouble mastering the tactical air control system, but the difficulties went beyond the mechanics of operating the various centers. ARVN commanders, for example, frequently ignored the lower ranking air liaison officers assigned to help them make effective use of the aerial weapon. FACs, who directed the actual strikes, seldom remained with a particular ground unit long enough to learn its special requirements, the characteristics of the operating area, or the patterns of enemy behavior. Moreover, FACs received, at most, a smattering of night training, and some of them avoided daylight missions over heavily defended areas, on occasion falsifying reports or logs to conceal their dereliction of duty.{{rp\\|299–301}}", "From 1–7 December, RVNAF A–37s flew 49 sorties against PAVN transportation targets on the exit routes from the Ho Chi Minh Trail just inside the western border with Laos as part of [Operation Commando Hunt VII](/wiki/Operation_Commando_Hunt \"Operation Commando Hunt\"), in preparation for taking over the interdiction campaign as early as the 1972–73 dry season.{{rp\\|263–4}} However it soon became apparent that the powerful\ndefenses of the Ho Chi Minh Trail prevented a simple and inexpensive interdiction campaign combining operations on the ground and in the air. South Vietnam had no alternative to the strategy of defending the cities and the food\\-producing coastal region. This task would absorb the overwhelming share of the nation's military resources, leaving nothing for long\\-range interdiction. No longer would North Vietnam have to divert troops to protect the roads and trails through southern Laos from air attack or ground probes.{{rp\\|265–6}}", "By the end of 1971, Vietnamization of the air war formed a mosaic of progress and disappointment.", "### 1972", "{{see\\|Easter Offensive\\|Operations Enhance and Enhance Plus}}", "[thumb\\|right\\|53rd Tactical Wing C\\-130A at Tan Son Nhut AB in 1972](/wiki/File:C-130A_57-0460_VNAF_TanSonNhut_1972.jpg \"C-130A 57-0460 VNAF TanSonNhut 1972.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|415th Transport Squadron C\\-47A at Tan Son Nhut AB in 1972](/wiki/File:South_Vietnamese_Air_Force_Douglas_C-47A-90-DL_43-15718.jpg \"South Vietnamese Air Force Douglas C-47A-90-DL 43-15718.jpg\")", "Phan Rang AB was progressively handed over to the RVNAF in March–May 1972\\.{{cite book\\|last\\=Trass\\|first\\=Adrian\\|title\\=The United States Army in Vietnam Engineers at War\\|publisher\\=Center of Military History United States Army\\|year\\=2000\\|url\\=https://history.army.mil/html/books/091/91\\-14\\-1/index.html\\|isbn\\=9781517301965}}{{PD\\-notice}}{{rp\\|573}}", "At the start of the [Easter Offensive](/wiki/Easter_Offensive \"Easter Offensive\"), the RVNAF strength was 1,285 aircraft organized into 44 squadrons. Nine squadrons flew A–1s, A–37s, or F–5s, a total of 119 aircraft classified as combat\\-ready fighter\\-bombers; two squadrons operated AC–47 or AC–119G gunships, 28 of the aircraft ready for action; 17 helicopter squadrons had 367 helicopters combat\\-ready out of a total of 620; seven FAC squadrons flew O–1 or U–17 light aircraft, 247 operationally ready out of 303, and the remaining units carried out training, transport and reconnaissance duties.{{rp\\|333}}", "The Easter Offensive showed that the ARVN could not defeat the PAVN without continuous and massive air support. The basic assumption surrounding the expansion of the RVNAF was its ability to provide close air support to the ARVN under permissive conditions. For this reason the RVNAF was not given the type of aircraft to be able to operate in a [Surface\\-to\\-air missile](/wiki/Surface-to-air_missile \"Surface-to-air missile\") (SAM) environment augmented by heavy concentrations of radar\\-directed AAA fire. From experience in North Vietnam and in the Easter Offensive it was obvious that high performance aircraft, backed up by [Electronic countermeasures](/wiki/Electronic_countermeasure \"Electronic countermeasure\") (ECM) and supporting forces, were necessary to penetrate and operate in such defenses. These types of defenses had to be neutralized with a high degree of survivability. This was the reason why it was necessary to pull the RVNAF out of the high threat areas and use USAF aircraft to handle these targets.{{rp\\|54}}", "Under [Operation Enhance](/wiki/Operations_Enhance_and_Enhance_Plus \"Operations Enhance and Enhance Plus\") beginning on 23 May the US began the supply of additional equipment to South Vietnam to make up losses suffered in the Easter Offensive. For the RVNAF this initially comprised five F–5As, 48 A–37s and 32 UH–1s to be delivered by 1 August. For the remainder of the year the US Army would deliver CH–47s to equip two squadrons by September. The USAF would accelerate the delivery of 14 RC\\-47s, 23 AC\\-119K gunships, 23 EC\\-47s, 28 C\\-7 transports and 14 C\\-119Gs modified for coastal fire support and maritime patrol.{{rp\\|350}}", "By the end of October, the RVNAF had activated 51 squadrons and actual strength stood at 52,400\\.{{rp\\|351}}", "In October, as Operation Enhance neared completion, the Nixon administration approved another infusion of equipment, Operation Enhance Plus. This served two purposes: to rush war material to South Vietnam before a ceasefire imposed restrictions on military assistance and to reconcile Thiệu to the fact that the US, without having consulted him, now stood ready to accept a settlement that would permit North Vietnamese troops to remain on South Vietnamese soil, thus legitimizing the results of the Easter Offensive. For the RVNAF Enhance Plus included 19 A–1s, 90 A–37Bs, 32 C–130s, 126 F–5s, 177 UH–1s, together with the AC–119Ks and some other types not yet delivered in Project Enhance. The plan originally called for completing Enhance Plus by 20 November, but later changes moved the deadline to 10 November and added 35 O–2 observation craft, already in South Vietnam, as replacements for the older O–1s and U–17s. The collapse of truce negotiations, which did not resume until after the [Christmas Bombing](/wiki/Operation_Linebacker_II \"Operation Linebacker II\"), caused the possible signing of a peace agreement to recede beyond 1 January 1973, and eased the pressure for prompt completion. Reflecting the changing circumstances, the last items in Enhance Plus did not arrive until 10 December.{{rp\\|351}}", "Enhance Plus increased the inventory of the RVNAF by some 595 aircraft, excluding about 30 of the helicopters intended for a postwar truce surveillance agency. To absorb this influx, the RVNAF by mid\\-1973 organized eight additional fighter or attack squadrons, two transport squadrons, 14 squadrons or flights of helicopters and one training squadron. Besides accomplishing all of this, the project reequipped some tactical air support squadrons with O–2s, increased each UH–1 squadron from 33 helicopters to 38, and began organizing the squadron of armed C–119Gs for coastal and maritime patrol. When the RVNAF absorbed all the Enhance Plus aircraft and eliminated the recently organized C–123 squadrons in 1973, as scheduled, it would total 67 squadrons with more than 61,000 officers and men. This rapid augmentation, however, imposed strains on the supporting establishment and failed to generate the kind of air power that the US had exercised over the years.{{rp\\|351–2}}", "The training of pilots and crews to fly the aircraft provided by Enhance Plus proceeded on the principle that instruction in the US soon would merely supplement that given in South Vietnam. To cope with the additional aircraft, the RVNAF no longer waited for trainees to emerge from the pipeline, but tried instead, with US collaboration, to teach personnel already familiar with one kind of aircraft to make the transition to a more advanced type. Assignments vacated by those who retrained would go to officers that had recently learned to fly. Pilots of A–37s retrained for F–5s; O–1 pilots for the O–2 and the A–37; crews of AC–119Gs for AC–119Ks; crews of C–119s and C–123s for the C–130s; and those of C–123s for the armed C–119s. Since the C–123 squadrons would disband during 1973, they were a valuable source of pilots and crew members for transition training. The USAF Advisory Group, using teams of instructors dispatched from the United States, planned to teach a number of the South Vietnamese to take over the postwar training programs for the various types of aircraft, assisted as necessary by American civilians working under contract. In contrast to the fixed\\-wing aircraft, the vast increase in helicopters during Enhance and Enhance Plus required, at least for the near future, pilots trained exclusively for this type of aircraft by Army instructors in the US. Despite the emphasis on training, in February 1973, two weeks after the ceasefire took effect, the RVNAF projected a shortage of some 800 pilots or copilots, 300 for fixed\\-wing aircraft and the rest for helicopters.{{rp\\|352–3}}", "The aircraft that arrived in late 1972 failed to correct glaring weaknesses in the RVNAF's ability to wage aerial warfare. The RVNAF had no aircraft capable of attacking the Ho Chi Minh Trail or comparably defended PAVN lines of supply and communication. The most modern gunship, the lumbering AC–119K, could not survive conventional antiaircraft fire, let alone radar\\-directed guns or heat\\-seeking SAMs. The A–1, though sturdy and able to carry up to four tons of bombs, lacked speed, but the fast jets like the A–37 or F–5, which might survive antiaircraft defenses, had neither the endurance nor the bomb capacity for armed reconnaissance and, because of the failure to equip and train the RVNAF for aerial refueling, could not attack targets deep within southern Laos or North Vietnam. Moreover, only the F–5E provided an effective weapon for air defense, should North Vietnam break with tradition and launch an air campaign against the South. As it coped with these weaknesses in tactical aviation and air defense, the RVNAF faced the formidable task of finding an aerial weapon with the versatility and firepower of the [B–52](/wiki/Boeing_B-52_Stratofortress \"Boeing B-52 Stratofortress\"). The Nixon administration sought to substitute a powerful bomb for the B\\-52, providing [fuel\\-air munitions](/wiki/Thermobaric_weapon \"Thermobaric weapon\"), which the A–1 or A–37 could deliver by parachute, and the pallet\\-load of high explosive, and sometimes oil or gasoline, parachuted from a transport like the C–130\\. The RVNAF received some of the [CBU\\-55](/wiki/CBU-55 \"CBU-55\") fuel\\-air devices in time to try them against the [PAVN\\-held citadel at Quang Tri City](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Qu%E1%BA%A3ng_Tr%E1%BB%8B \"Second Battle of Quảng Trị\"), where the sturdy masonry walls proved impervious to 500\\-pound bombs dropped by A–37s. In this instance, the cloud of gas exploded ineffectually in the opening along the base of the wall instead of first seeping into a confined space, like a cellar or bunker, for maximum destructive effect. After the CBU–55 failed, USAF F–4s breached the barrier with [laser\\-guided bombs](/wiki/Paveway \"Paveway\"). The RVNAF, lacking laser\\-guided bombs, had to achieve the necessary accuracy with ordinary munitions, which required attacks at low altitude. However, the PAVN introduction of the [SA–7](/wiki/9K32_Strela-2 \"9K32 Strela-2\"), a shoulder\\-launched, heat\\-seeking SAM, in early 1972 forced a change in tactics. Although flares might fool the infrared homing device or shields screen the heat source, the surest protection against the SA–7, until flare dispensers and heat shielding became commonplace, consisted of staying out of range and bombing from {{convert\\|9,000\\-10,000\\|ft}}. At that altitude, even a skilled pilot found it difficult to hit a compact target with a conventional bomb.{{rp\\|355–6}}", "Despite its use of EC–47s to intercept radio signals and locate transmitters in the field, the RVNAF depended heavily on photo reconnaissance for discovering and pinpointing targets. A Vietnamized photo interpretation center functioned at Tan Son Nhut AB, but neither of the available camera\\-equipped aircraft, the RF–5A and the RC–47D, could supply it with satisfactory pictures of the battlefield. The RF–5A, though fast enough to penetrate defended areas, carried a camera that photographed too narrow a swath to be of much value in finding targets. The RC–47D, flying low and slow, provided more panoramic coverage but presented an easy target for PAVN antiaircraft gunners.{{rp\\|356}}", "### 1973", "[thumb\\|right\\|F\\-5A of the 538th Fighter Squadron and an A\\-1 at Da Nang AB in 1973](/wiki/File:VNAF_F-5E_Tiger_II_and_A-1_Skyraider_-_Da_Nang_1973.jpg \"VNAF F-5E Tiger II and A-1 Skyraider - Da Nang 1973.jpg\")", "By the time of the [ceasefire](/wiki/Paris_Peace_Accords \"Paris Peace Accords\") on 27 January 1973, the RVNAF had 2075 aircraft of 25 different types. It had reached a strength of 65 squadrons and 61,417 personnel. The rate of expansion was more than the RVNAF could absorb and it was obvious that it could not operate this size air force with so many different types of aircraft. The rationale for such a large force was based on the assumption that, given time, the RVNAF would eventually develop the ability to handle such a large force and because of the provisions of the ceasefire agreement that no additional equipment could be introduced after the ceasefire, only replacements on a one\\-for\\-one basis.{{rp\\|60}}", "By the time the cease\\-fire went into effect, the RVNAF had received the benefits of Project Enhance Plus, a final American push to strengthen the armed forces before the peace settlement restricted the flow of equipment to replacing, on a one\\-for\\-one basis, items already in the inventory. RVNAF airmen were in the process of absorbing C–130 transports, RC–119 G maritime patrol craft, F–5 fighters, A–37 attack planes, as well as UH–1 and CH–47 helicopters. The ceasefire afforded a badly needed respite from major operations for the RVNAF to train the pilots, aircrews, mechanics, staff officers, clerks, and administrators necessary for effective operation. This period of comparative stability, plus continued training and logistics support from US firms under contract to the RVNAF, seemed likely to ensure progress toward self\\-sufficiency. Unfortunately, the aircraft recently incorporated into the RVNAF brought with them problems that impeded progress towards self\\-sufficiency. The war\\-weary C–130s, for example, required 199 civilian technicians, supplied under contract by [Lear Siegler](/wiki/Lear_Siegler \"Lear Siegler\"), plus two technical representatives from [Lockheed Corporation](/wiki/Lockheed_Corporation \"Lockheed Corporation\"), the manufacturer of the transport. The RC–119G, moreover, seemed unlikely to succeed as a coastal patrol craft. Although crews who flew the C–119 or C–47 could readily transition to the patrol plane, navigators remained in short supply, and the modification of just thirteen AC–119Gs proved expensive, costing more than US$4 million. Once the aircraft were fitted out and manned, tactical problems would arise. The enemy trawlers and junks, for which the modified gunships would search, could carry the same antiaircraft guns and SA\\-7 missiles that earlier had driven the planes from vigorously defended portions of the Ho Chi Minh Trail. An even more serious obstacle to self\\-sufficiency resulted from the short range of the F–5 and A–37, which could not carry the war much beyond South Vietnam's borders. The A–1, which it was hoped to employ with fuel\\-air munitions as a substitute for the B–52, suffered from decades of hard usage. The A\\-1s could no longer dive more steeply than 30 degrees or exceed four [Gs](/wiki/G-force \"G-force\") in pulling out. These limitations increased the vulnerability of the airplane to ground fire, but against weak antiaircraft defenses the A–1 could accurately deliver a heavy load of bombs. The C–47 also remained a useful weapon. Indeed, when faced with the prospect of losing the C–47 flareships slated for conversion to intercept the PAVN's radio traffic, General [Cao Văn Viên](/wiki/Cao_V%C4%83n_Vi%C3%AAn \"Cao Văn Viên\"), Chief of the Joint General Staff, protested to MACV commander General [Frederick C. Weyand](/wiki/Frederick_C._Weyand \"Frederick C. Weyand\"). Weyand decided, however, that the electronic reconnaissance mission took precedence over flare\\-dropping, which could be done by AC–119s. Despite the emphasis on using the converted C–47s for intercepting radio traffic, the [Defense Attaché Office, Saigon](/wiki/Defense_Attach%C3%A9_Office%2C_Saigon_%281973%E2%80%931975%29 \"Defense Attaché Office, Saigon (1973–1975)\") (DAO), the successor to MACV, looked at the status of military intelligence and reported a \"decided drop in total usable information since the demise of MACV.\" The most notable decline occurred in electronic intelligence. The ancient EC–47s that located the PAVN's radio transmitters carried equipment that had become difficult to maintain after years of hard use, first by US airmen and more recently by the South Vietnamese. Ground\\-based intercept stations supplemented the EC–47s, but the operators lacked the experience to make timely evaluations, so that interpretations lagged an average of five days behind the message traffic with which they dealt. Photo interpretation also proved tardy at a time when the South Vietnamese were exposing more film than ever before. Indeed, the DAO brought in US photo interpreters to keep the Defense Attaché General [John E. Murray](/wiki/John_E._Murray \"John E. Murray\") informed of the military situation in the South.{{rp\\|406–7}}", "Amid the remarkable increase in PAVN antiaircraft strength in South Vietnam the gravest threat to RVNAF planes, particularly in the southern pan of the country was the SA\\-7 missile. From the ceasefire until the end of June, there were 22 reported SA\\-7 attacks on RVNAF aircraft, resulting in eight aircraft shot down (one A\\-37, three A\\-1s, one F\\-5A and three UH\\-1s). The rather low ratio of successful firings\\-slightly better than one out of three was attributable in large degree to effective countermeasures adopted by the RVNAF. As the SA\\-7 was fired, it had a distinctive flash which could often be seen from the air, followed by a characteristic smoke and vapor trail. With attack aircraft flying in pairs, one or the other of the pilots might see the missile coming and take or direct evasive action. High\\-energy flares were sometimes tossed out or mechanically ejected, frequently causing the missile's heat\\-seeker to lock on and track the flare and burst a harmless distance from the plane. Helicopter crews were also alert to watch for missiles, and in order to reduce infrared emissions, UH\\-1 helicopters were modified, The hot\\-spot on the fuselage below the main rotor was shielded and the exhaust diverted upwards by means of an elbow attached to the tailpipe. But regardless of these moderately effective measures, the new environment forced reconnaissance and attack aircraft above optimum operating altitudes and virtually eliminated the employment of large helicopter formations.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Le Gro\\|first\\=William\\|title\\=Vietnam from Cease Fire to Capitulation\\|publisher\\=United States Army Center of Military History\\|year\\=1985\\|url\\=https://history.army.mil/html/books/090/90\\-29/CMH\\_Pub\\_90\\-29\\.pdf\\|isbn\\=9781410225429}}{{PD\\-notice}}{{rp\\|49}}", "Serious problems soon surfaced within the RVNAF, mostly because of the frenzied expansion. The RVNAF now totaled 65,000 officers and enlisted men, but half of them were undergoing some form of training to qualify them for new assignments. Nevertheless, the RVNAF flew over 81,000 sorties during September 1973; helicopters accounted for 62,000 of these and training craft for 1,100\\. Fighter\\-bombers or attack planes flew most of the others, but all too often they attacked from {{convert\\|10,000\\|ft}} or higher out of respect for PAVN antiaircraft weapons. Strikes from this altitude, in the opinion of General Murray, not only \"failed to contribute to productive destruction\" but caused inaccuracy that actually harmed \"interservice relationships.\" The RVNAF could not yet maintain the mixed fleet of aircraft, many of them cast\\-offs, they had inherited. For example, maintenance on the force of UH–1s fell behind schedule throughout 1973, even though [Air Vietnam](/wiki/Air_Vietnam \"Air Vietnam\"), the national airline, lent its civilian mechanics to help with inspections. Similar delays affected maintenance of the EC–47, largely because crews failed to report equipment failures, and of the C–7, handicapped by a shortage of spare parts and trained mechanics. Almost every aircraft suffered from corrosion, the inevitable result of service in a tropical climate. During 1973, Lear Siegler launched an ambitious program of maintenance training. The instructors concentrated on the lagging UH–1 program, but teams of specialists also taught the South Vietnamese to repair corrosion and battle damage to the F–5 and A–37\\. Unfortunately, a shortage of spare parts hampered the training effort.{{rp\\|408–9}}", "### 1974", "In 1974, as a result of budget cuts, RVNAF squadrons were reduced from 66 to 56; no replacements were ordered for 162 destroyed aircraft; flying hours, contractor support, and supply levels were further reduced; and 224 aircraft were placed in storage, among them all 61 remaining A\\-1 Skyraiders, all 52 C\\-7 Caribous, 34 AC\\-47 *Spookys* and AC\\-119 gunships, all 31 O\\-2 observation planes and 31 UH\\-1 Hueys.{{rp\\|87}}", "In mid\\-1974, USAF headquarters, [Pacific Air Forces](/wiki/Pacific_Air_Forces \"Pacific Air Forces\") and the [Air Force Logistics](/wiki/Air_Force_Logistics \"Air Force Logistics\") Command examined the structure of the RVNAF and offered specific recommendations to help it repulse an invasion like the Easter Offensive of 1972\\. Even though public and Congressional support for South Vietnam was diminishing, the study reflected a tacit assumption that US air power would intervene on behalf of the Saigon government. Some of the findings dealt with the problem of gathering intelligence on PAVN activity. The panel concluded that the authorized reconnaissance force of 12 RC–47s, 32 EC–47s and seven RF–5s was adequate, but proposed that the RF–5s be divided between Da Nang and Bien Hoa, instead of concentrating at Bien Hoa, thus expanding the area covered by these short\\-range aircraft. Also, the RVNAF should devise tactics and countermeasures, fighter escort, for example, and flares to decoy heat\\-seeking antiaircraft missiles—to enable the RC–47 and EC–47 to operate in more areas strongly defended. Similarly, the review expressed confidence that the 200 authorized aircraft would meet the needs of RVNAF FACs. The U–17, judged at best a light transport and liaison plane, seemed too vulnerable for the FACs to use. The threat posed by the SA–7 missile inspired two recommendations: the training of FAC parties to direct strikes from the ground; and the use of the F–5 as a vehicle for FACs facing powerful antiaircraft defenses. The F–5E model, impressed the panel as a match for the [Vietnam People's Air Force](/wiki/Vietnam_People%27s_Air_Force \"Vietnam People's Air Force\") (VPAF) [MiG–21](/wiki/Mikoyan-Gurevich_MiG-21 \"Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21\"). They believed that a squadron at Da Nang AB should meet the threat of MiG incursions over South Vietnam, if necessary launching as many as 20 air defense sorties within two hours. The study declared that the fleet of transports, though adequate for routine operations, could not sustain a maximum effort for an extended time. Better management, however, could to some extent make up the deficiency in the number of aircraft, estimated at 10 percent. The helicopter armada seemed \"more than adequate to meet the projected requirement.\" The number of UH–1s, used by the Americans for assault operations, could safely be reduced from 842 to 640, since the ARVN would not be employing airmobile tactics. The fleet of larger CH–47s could supplement cargo\\-carrying, fixed\\-wing transports in an emergency and therefore should remain at the authorized total of 64\\. Fighters and attack aircraft, according to the study, fell \"127 aircraft short of the computed requirement,\" although AC–47 and AC–119K gunships might help make up the difference. Moreover, careful scheduling of maintenance and the massing of available aircraft could ensure an adequate number of F–5s, A–1s, and A–37s to deal with the threatened invasion.{{rp\\|414–5}}", "Although the mid\\-1974 assessment of the force structure generally approved of the composition of the RVNAF, the former Defense Attaché General Murray warned in October of serious failings that could erode the ability of the RVNAF to control the air. At times, Murray said, pilots crossed \"the narrow line between the brave and the foolhardy.\" They flew with an almost suicidal disregard of basic safety procedures, even though they respected the SA–7 missile and remained reluctant to venture below {{convert\\|10,000\\|ft}} to attack targets defended by that missile or radar\\-directed antiaircraft guns. Joyriding or careless taxiing, sometimes by drunken pilots, and failure to make preflight inspections cost the RVNAF, by Murray's reckoning, \"the equivalent of an entire squadron of jet aircraft.\" Murray characterized the RVNAF as \"costly, careless, and conceding air space.\"{{rp\\|415–6}}", "In addition to RVNAF negligence, PAVN air defenses took a steady toll. By June 1974, the PAVN had launched 136 SA–7s, costing an estimated US$680,000, and downed 23 aircraft worth perhaps US$12 million. Antiaircraft weapons proved so deadly that they, in effect, gained control of the air over a large expanse of South Vietnamese territory, especially in the west, on the border with Laos and Cambodia. In I Corps the RVNAF could operate freely over only a narrow strip of land along the seacoast. Accidents and hostile fire claimed 237 RVNAF aircraft in the 23 months following the ceasefire. The losses, especially the toll from preventable accidents, raised the price of equipping and training the RVNAF. Support for the RVNAF cost US$382 million in [Fiscal year](/wiki/Fiscal_year \"Fiscal year\") 1974, excluding the cost of munitions, more than the combined cost for the ARVN and the [Republic of Vietnam Navy](/wiki/Republic_of_Vietnam_Navy \"Republic of Vietnam Navy\"). The RVNAF also required the services of 1,540 employees of contractors, compared with 723 for the ARVN and 61 for the Navy. Of 466 civilian employees of the US government assigned to aid the South Vietnamese armed forces, 202 worked with the RVNAF.{{rp\\|415–6}}", "Murray suggested some basic remedies to correct the failings he described. Besides an emphasis on flight safety, he proposed reducing costs by consolidating the RVNAF inventory, perhaps eliminating the [T\\-37](/wiki/Cessna_T-37_Tweet \"Cessna T-37 Tweet\") and T\\-41 trainers and using just one type for FACs. He also would encourage commanders to choose the cheaper\\-to\\-operate A–37 over the F–5 whenever such a choice was possible. To reduce combat losses, he suggested fitting some A–37s and F–5s with radar homing and warning gear to alert pilots that they were being tracked by radar\\-controlled antiaircraft weapons.{{rp\\|416}}", "In August 1974, the DAO recommended a substantial reduction in RVNAF training in the United States in order to save costs. 318 crew in training would return to Vietnam between August and December 1974, while 347 crew would stay to complete their training.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://nautilus.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2012/01/c\\_seventyfour.pdf\\|title\\=CINCPAC Command History 1974\\|publisher\\=Commander in Chief Pacific\\|date\\=25 September 1975\\|access\\-date\\=14 May 2019}}{{PD\\-notice}}{{rp\\|445–6}} By November 1974, RVNAF flying hours had been reduced from 672,000 to 345,500\\.{{rp\\|433}}", "### 1975", "{{See also\\|1975 Spring Offensive\\|Operation Frequent Wind}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|RVNAF C\\-130A burns at Tan Son Nhut after rocket attack on 29 April](/wiki/File:RVNAF_C-130_burns_on_the_runway_at_Tan_Son_Nhut%2C_1975.jpg \"RVNAF C-130 burns on the runway at Tan Son Nhut, 1975.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|RVNAF Hueys and a CH\\-47 Chinook arrive at {{USS\\|Midway\\|CV\\-41\\|6}}](/wiki/Image:VNAF_arrives_at_USS_Midway.jpg \"VNAF arrives at USS Midway.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|RVNAF Huey is pushed overboard from USS *Midway*](/wiki/Image:Vietnamese_UH-1_pushed_over_board%2C_Operation_Frequent_Wind.jpg \"Vietnamese UH-1 pushed over board, Operation Frequent Wind.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|O\\-1 lands on USS *Midway*](/wiki/File:Major_Buang_lands_his_Cessna_O-1_on_USS_Midway.jpg \"Major Buang lands his Cessna O-1 on USS Midway.jpg\")\nAs the PAVN moved more air defense forces into South Vietnam, the RVNAF had a decreasing capability to strike PAVN forces and their supply lines. By March 1975 the PAVN had [SA\\-2](/wiki/S-75_Dvina \"S-75 Dvina\") coverage of I Corps as far south as [Quang Tri](/wiki/Qu%E1%BA%A3ng_Tr%E1%BB%8B_%28town%29 \"Quảng Trị (town)\"). [Khe Sanh](/wiki/Khe_Sanh_Combat_Base \"Khe Sanh Combat Base\") was by now a major supply and staging area protected by SA\\-2s. All of the border area around [Kontum](/wiki/Kontum \"Kontum\"), Pleiku and the [Parrot's Beak](/wiki/Parrot%27s_Beak%2C_Cambodia \"Parrot's Beak, Cambodia\") in III Corps was protected by radar\\-directed AAA and SA\\-7 missiles. The RVNAF lost 28 aircraft to SAMs between 28 January 1973 and 31 December 1974\\. As a result of these defenses, a policy was in effect limiting RVNAF flights above Huế and west of [Route 1](/wiki/National_Route_1_%28Vietnam%29 \"National Route 1 (Vietnam)\"), the area most heavily defended by the PAVN. The RVNAF was not equipped with ECM equipment and therefore could not function in those areas. The PAVN had a secure sanctuary to stage, prepare and launch forces in all four Corps. Even if the RVNAF had ECM it is questionable whether it could have sustained operations in these high threat areas with such low\\-performing aircraft. The aircraft operated by the RVNAF were predicated on the assumption that a relatively permissive air environment would prevail and that these low\\-performing aircraft would be able to function in such an environment. It was assumed that the USAF would be reintroduced if the North Vietnamese escalated the fighting. In effect the RVNAF did not have air superiority and as a result was unable to bring the PAVN concentrations under sustained attack prior to their final offensive.{{rp\\|62–3}}", "On 9/10 March a PAVN bombardment of Pleiku AB destroyed an O\\-1, a CH\\-47 and ten UH\\-1s. During the four\\-day [Battle of Ban Me Thuot](/wiki/Battle_of_Ban_Me_Thuot \"Battle of Ban Me Thuot\") the RVNAF flew over 200 sorties, destroying five PAVN tanks, no aircraft were lost in the air, but three A\\-37s at Pleiku were destroyed by 122 mm rockets on 11 March when the PAVN rocketed the base. The commander of the 6th Air Division at Pleiku, was given 48 hours to evacuate the base, 64 aircraft were abandoned with little effort to destroy them.{{rp\\|75}}", "On 27 March with the PAVN [having surrounded Da Nang](/wiki/Hue%E2%80%93Da_Nang_Campaign%23Fall_of_Da_Nang \"Hue–Da Nang Campaign#Fall of Da Nang\") the RVNAF 1st Air Division commander was ordered to evacuate all flyable aircraft from Da Nang AB, 130 aircraft would be evacuated while some 180, including 33 A\\-37s, were abandoned.{{rp\\|76}}", "On the morning of 30 March the [Regional Forces](/wiki/South_Vietnamese_Regional_Force \"South Vietnamese Regional Force\") defending Phù Cát Air Base abandoned their positions and by afternoon the base was under attack by VC who were held back by the base security forces. With more VC gathering for renewed attacks, the base commander contacted the 92nd Air Wing at Phan Rang AB for help. The Wing commander, Colonel Le Van Thao organised a flight of 40 A\\-37s and they carried out a night attack on the base perimeter successfully breaking up the attack. On the morning of 31 March, the 2nd Air Division evacuated the base taking 32 aircraft, but abandoning a further 50; the PAVN/VC occupied the base that afternoon.{{cite book\\|last\\=Veith\\|first\\=George\\|title\\=Black April: The fall of South Vietnam 1973–75\\|publisher\\=Encounter Books\\|year\\=2012\\|isbn\\=9781594035722\\|pages\\=225–7}}{{rp\\|343–4}}", "Following the defeat of ARVN forces in the [Central Highlands](/wiki/Central_Highlands%2C_Vietnam \"Central Highlands, Vietnam\") in March 1975, PAVN forces pursued the ARVN to the coast, capturing [Nha Trang](/wiki/Nha_Trang \"Nha Trang\") and Nha Trang AB on 2 April, however most of the flyable aircraft of the RVNAF 2nd Air Division had already moved south to Phan Rang AB.{{rp\\|386}} On the morning of 3 April 1975 the RVNAF at Phan Rang launched a heliborne operation comprising more than 40 UH\\-1s and six CH\\-47s escorted by A\\-37s to rescue the remnants of the ARVN 2nd, 5th and 6th Airborne Battalions that had been cut off at the [M'Đrăk Pass](/wiki/M%27%C4%90r%C4%83k_District \"M'Đrăk District\") successfully evacuating over 800 soldiers.{{rp\\|390–2}}", "On 10 April the PAVN [10th Division](/wiki/10th_Division_%28Vietnam%29 \"10th Division (Vietnam)\") left [Cam Ranh Bay](/wiki/Cam_Ranh_Bay \"Cam Ranh Bay\") and moved along Route 450 to join up with Route 11 to take [Dalat](/wiki/Da_Lat \"Da Lat\"), passing within {{convert\\|12\\|mi}} of Phan Rang AB. When RVNAF reconnaissance aircraft observed the movement of the 10th Division, Phan Rang based A\\-37s began attacking the column, destroying six river\\-crossing vehicles on 10 April, five trucks on 11 April, seven trucks on 12 April and nine trucks on 13 April.{{rp\\|371–2}} On 16 April Phan Rang AB came under attack by the PAVN, the RVNAF at the base mounted numerous airstrikes on the PAVN armored column destroying vehicles, taking losses from the antiaircraft fire, but by 09:30 the PAVN had captured the base. As the base was falling an A\\-37 braved the PAVN fire and landed rescuing RVNAF 92nd Wing commander Colonel Le Van Thao. Of the Wing's 72 A\\-37s, only 24 escaped on 16 April with the rest having been shot down or abandoned.{{rp\\|419–25}}", "During the [Battle of Xuân Lộc](/wiki/Battle_of_Xu%C3%A2n_L%E1%BB%99c \"Battle of Xuân Lộc\") from 9–21 April RVNAF support enabled the ARVN troops there to hold on. RVNAF helicopters brought in supplies and reinforcements and evacuated wounded. RVNAF fighter\\-bombers from Bien Hoa AB flew between 80 and 120 combat sorties per day to support the defenders. At 14:00 on 12 April an RVNAF C\\-130 dropped two CBU\\-55 bombs on PAVN positions in the town of Xuan Vinh, close to Xuân Lộc, killing about 200 PAVN soldiers. On 15 April PAVN artillery changed from shelling Xuân Lộc to Bien Hoa AB instead. In just one day, the RVNAF 3rd Air Division at Bien Hoa AB was forced to cease all operations due to continuous PAVN artillery bombardment. To continue their support of Xuân Lộc, the RVNAF mobilised the 4th Air Division at Binh Thuy AB to conduct further missions.", "On 28 April at 18:06 three A\\-37s piloted by former RVNAF pilots who had defected to the VPAF at the fall of Danang, dropped six [Mk81](/wiki/Mk81 \"Mk81\") 250 lb bombs on the [RVNAF flightline at Tan Son Nhut Air Base](/wiki/Bombing_of_Tan_Son_Nhut_Air_Base \"Bombing of Tan Son Nhut Air Base\") destroying several aircraft. RVNAF F\\-5s took off in pursuit, but were unable to intercept the A\\-37s.{{cite book\\|title\\=USAF Southeast Asia Monograph Series Volume IV Monograph 6: Last Flight from Saigon\\|last\\=Tobin\\|first\\=Thomas\\|publisher\\=US Government PrintingOffice\\|year\\=1978\\|isbn\\=9781410205711}}{{PD\\-notice}}{{rp\\|70}}", "At dawn on 29 April the RVNAF began to haphazardly depart Tan Son Nhut Air Base as A\\-37s, F\\-5s, C\\-7s, C\\-119s and C\\-130s departed for Thailand while UH\\-1s took off in search of the ships of the US Navy [Task Force 76](/wiki/Task_Force_76 \"Task Force 76\") offshore.{{rp\\|81}} At 08:00 Lieutenant General [Trần Văn Minh](/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_V%C4%83n_Minh_%28aviator%29 \"Trần Văn Minh (aviator)\"), commander of the RVNAF, and 30 of his staff arrived at the DAO Compound, demanding evacuation. This signified the complete loss of command and control of the RVNAF.{{rp\\|85–7}}", "Some RVNAF aircraft did stay to continue to fight the advancing PAVN however. One AC\\-119K gunship from the 821st Attack Squadron had spent the night of 28/29 April dropping flares and firing on the approaching PAVN. At dawn on 29 April two A\\-1 Skyraiders began patrolling the perimeter of Tan Son Nhut at {{convert\\|2500\\|ft}} until Maj. Trương Phùng, one of the two Skyraider pilots was shot down, presumably by an SA\\-7\\. At 07:00 the AC\\-119K \"Tinh Long\" flew by Lt. Trang van Thanh was firing on PAVN to the east of Tan Son Nhut when it was hit by a SA\\-7 missile, and fell in flames to the ground.{{rp\\|82}}", "Despite sporadic artillery and rocket fire, Binh Thuy AB remained operational throughout 29 April and on the morning of 30 April 1975 Binh Thuy\\-based A\\-37s carried out the last known air strike of the war destroying two [T\\-54 tanks](/wiki/T-54/T-55%23Vietnam_War \"T-54/T-55#Vietnam War\") of the PAVN 10th Division as they attempted to attack Tan Son Nhut AB.{{rp\\|489}} After the announcement of the surrender of South Vietnam by [President Minh](/wiki/Duong_Van_Minh \"Duong Van Minh\") the pilots flew their stripped down aircraft to [U\\-Tapao Air Base](/wiki/U-Tapao_Royal_Thai_Navy_Airfield \"U-Tapao Royal Thai Navy Airfield\") in Thailand, often carrying three or even four people.{{rp\\|115–7}}", "" ]
Early life and naval career --------------------------- Marryat was born at Great George Street in [Westminster](/wiki/Westminster "Westminster"), London.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.wimbledonguardian.co.uk/news/9864373\.Captain\_Marryat\_\_\_the\_Wimbledonian\_who\_never\_was/ \|title\=Captain Marryat \- the Wimbledonian who never was \|website\=Wimbledon Guardian \|date\=10 August 2012 \|access\-date\=15 December 2017}} His father was [Joseph Marryat](/wiki/Joseph_Marryat_%281757%E2%80%931824%29 "Joseph Marryat (1757–1824)"), a "merchant prince" and member of Parliament, as well as slave owner and anti\-abolitionist, and his mother was Charlotte, *née* von Geyer.J. K. Laughton, "Marryat, Frederick (1792–1848\)", rev. Andrew Lambert, *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography* (Oxford, UK: OUP, 2004\) [Retrieved 2 January 2016\.](http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/18097) A daughter of Frederick Geyer of Boston and his wife, Charlotte Marryatt was one of the first women admitted to membership of the [Royal Horticultural Society](/wiki/Royal_Horticultural_Society "Royal Horticultural Society"). She died in 1854\. As a youth, Marryat tried to run away to sea several times before he was permitted to enter the Royal Navy in 1806 as a midshipman aboard {{HMS\|Imperieuse\|1805\|6}}, a frigate commanded by [Lord Cochrane](/wiki/Thomas_Cochrane%2C_10th_Earl_of_Dundonald "Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald"), who later served as inspiration for Marryat and other authors. Marryat's time aboard the *Imperieuse* included action off the [Gironde](/wiki/Gironde "Gironde"), the rescue of a fellow midshipman who had fallen overboard, captures of many ships off the Mediterranean coast of Spain, and capture of the castle of [Montgat](/wiki/Montgat "Montgat"). The *Imperieuse* shifted to operations in the [Scheldt](/wiki/Scheldt "Scheldt") in 1809, where Marryat contracted malaria; he returned to England on the 74\-gun [HMS *Victorious*](/wiki/HMS_Victorious_%281808%29 "HMS Victorious (1808)"). After recuperating, he returned to the Mediterranean in the 74\-gun [HMS *Centaur*](/wiki/HMS_Centaur_%281797%29 "HMS Centaur (1797)") and again saved a shipmate by leaping into the sea after him. He sailed as a passenger to Bermuda in the 64\-gun [HMS *Atlas*](/wiki/HMS_Atlas_%281782%29 "HMS Atlas (1782)"), and from there to Halifax, Nova Scotia on the schooner [HMS *Chubb*](/wiki/HMS_Chub_%281807%29 "HMS Chub (1807)"), where he joined the 32\-gun frigate [HMS *Aeolus*](/wiki/HMS_Aeolus_%281801%29 "HMS Aeolus (1801)") on 27 April 1811\. A few months later, Marryat earned distinction again by leading the effort to cut away the *Aeolus*{{'s}} mainyard to save the ship during a storm. He saved one of the crew from the sea. Shortly after, he moved to the frigate [HMS *Spartan*](/wiki/HMS_Spartan_%281806%29 "HMS Spartan (1806)"), participating in the capture of a number of American ships during the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 "War of 1812"). On 26 December 1812, he was promoted to lieutenant, and as such served in the sloop HMS *Espiegle* and in {{HMS\|Newcastle\|1813\|6}}. Marryat led four barges from the *Newcastle* on a raid against [Orleans, Massachusetts](/wiki/Orleans%2C_Massachusetts "Orleans, Massachusetts") on 19 December 1814, the last combat in New England during the war. The affair had mixed results. Initially, Marryat cut out an American schooner and three sloops, but he managed to escape with just one sloop. The local militia avoided casualties while killing one Royal marine.James H. Ellis, *A Ruinous and Unhappy War: New England and the War of 1812*, New York: Algora Publishing, 2009, pp. 236–237\. Marryat was promoted to commander on 13 June 1815, just as the war ended. ### After the war Marryat turned to scientific studies after the war. He invented a lifeboat, which earned him a gold medal from the [Royal Humane Society](/wiki/Royal_Humane_Society "Royal Humane Society") and the nickname "Lifeboat". He developed a practical, widely used system of [maritime flag signalling](/wiki/Maritime_flag_signalling "Maritime flag signalling"), known as Marryat's Code, based on his experience in the [Napoleonic Wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars "Napoleonic Wars") escorting merchant ships in convoys. He also described a new gastropod genus *[Cyclostrema](/wiki/Cyclostrema "Cyclostrema")* with the type species *[Cyclostrema cancellatum](/wiki/Cyclostrema_cancellatum "Cyclostrema cancellatum")*. In 1819, Marryat married Catherine Shairp. They had four sons and seven daughters together, including [Florence](/wiki/Florence_Marryat "Florence Marryat"), a prolific novelist; [Emilia](/wiki/Emilia_Marryat "Emilia Marryat"), who became a writer of moralist adventure novels in her father's vein and wrote a biography of him; and [Augusta](/wiki/Augusta_Marryat "Augusta Marryat"), who also wrote adventure fiction. [thumb\|upright\|Frederick Marryat's sketch of Napoleon's body on his deathbed](/wiki/File:Napoleon_Skizze_von_Marryat.jpg "Napoleon Skizze von Marryat.jpg") In 1820, Marryat commanded the sloop HMS *Beaver* and temporarily commanded [HMS *Rosario*](/wiki/HMS_Rosario_%281808%29 "HMS Rosario (1808)") in order to carry despatches to England announcing the death of [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon "Napoleon") on [Saint Helena](/wiki/Saint_Helena "Saint Helena"). He also took the opportunity to make a sketch of Napoleon's body on his deathbed; this was later published as a lithograph. His artistic skills were modest, but he made numerous sketches of shipboard life above and below deck.National Maritime Museum (UK), [Capt. Marryat's framed and original sketch of Napoleon Bonaparte after his death at St Helena.](http://www.rmg.co.uk/researchers/collections/by-type/archive-and-library/item-of-the-month/previous/capt-marryats-sketch-of-napoleon-bonaparte-after-his-death) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203003850/http://www.rmg.co.uk/researchers/collections/by\-type/archive\-and\-library/item\-of\-the\-month/previous/capt\-marryats\-sketch\-of\-napoleon\-bonaparte\-after\-his\-death \|date\=3 December 2013}} In 1823, Marryat was appointed to HMS *Larne* and took part in an [expedition against Burma](/wiki/First_Anglo-Burmese_War "First Anglo-Burmese War") in 1824, which resulted in large losses from disease. He was promoted to command the 28\-gun HMS *Tees*, which gave him the rank of [post\-captain](/wiki/Post-captain "Post-captain"). By 1826 he was back in England and that year donated two Burmese artifacts to the [British Museum](/wiki/British_Museum "British Museum"), in an unsuccessful effort to be selected as a trustee.[British Museum Collection](https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/A_1826-0211-1)[British Museum Collection](https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/A_1826-0211-2) In 1829, he was commanding the frigate [HMS *Ariadne*](/wiki/HMS_Ariadne_%281816%29 "HMS Ariadne (1816)") on a search for shoals around the [Madeira](/wiki/Madeira_islands "Madeira islands") and [Canary Islands](/wiki/Canary_Islands "Canary Islands"). This was an uninspiring exercise. As his first novel *The Naval Officer* had just been published, he decided to resign his commission in November 1830 and take up writing full\-time.
[ "Early life and naval career\n---------------------------", "Marryat was born at Great George Street in [Westminster](/wiki/Westminster \"Westminster\"), London.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.wimbledonguardian.co.uk/news/9864373\\.Captain\\_Marryat\\_\\_\\_the\\_Wimbledonian\\_who\\_never\\_was/ \\|title\\=Captain Marryat \\- the Wimbledonian who never was \\|website\\=Wimbledon Guardian \\|date\\=10 August 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=15 December 2017}} His father was [Joseph Marryat](/wiki/Joseph_Marryat_%281757%E2%80%931824%29 \"Joseph Marryat (1757–1824)\"), a \"merchant prince\" and member of Parliament, as well as slave owner and anti\\-abolitionist, and his mother was Charlotte, *née* von Geyer.J. K. Laughton, \"Marryat, Frederick (1792–1848\\)\", rev. Andrew Lambert, *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography* (Oxford, UK: OUP, 2004\\) [Retrieved 2 January 2016\\.](http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/18097) A daughter of Frederick Geyer of Boston and his wife, Charlotte Marryatt was one of the first women admitted to membership of the [Royal Horticultural Society](/wiki/Royal_Horticultural_Society \"Royal Horticultural Society\"). She died in 1854\\. As a youth, Marryat tried to run away to sea several times before he was permitted to enter the Royal Navy in 1806 as a midshipman aboard {{HMS\\|Imperieuse\\|1805\\|6}}, a frigate commanded by [Lord Cochrane](/wiki/Thomas_Cochrane%2C_10th_Earl_of_Dundonald \"Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald\"), who later served as inspiration for Marryat and other authors.", "Marryat's time aboard the *Imperieuse* included action off the [Gironde](/wiki/Gironde \"Gironde\"), the rescue of a fellow midshipman who had fallen overboard, captures of many ships off the Mediterranean coast of Spain, and capture of the castle of [Montgat](/wiki/Montgat \"Montgat\"). The *Imperieuse* shifted to operations in the [Scheldt](/wiki/Scheldt \"Scheldt\") in 1809, where Marryat contracted malaria; he returned to England on the 74\\-gun [HMS *Victorious*](/wiki/HMS_Victorious_%281808%29 \"HMS Victorious (1808)\"). After recuperating, he returned to the Mediterranean in the 74\\-gun [HMS *Centaur*](/wiki/HMS_Centaur_%281797%29 \"HMS Centaur (1797)\") and again saved a shipmate by leaping into the sea after him. He sailed as a passenger to Bermuda in the 64\\-gun [HMS *Atlas*](/wiki/HMS_Atlas_%281782%29 \"HMS Atlas (1782)\"), and from there to Halifax, Nova Scotia on the schooner [HMS *Chubb*](/wiki/HMS_Chub_%281807%29 \"HMS Chub (1807)\"), where he joined the 32\\-gun frigate [HMS *Aeolus*](/wiki/HMS_Aeolus_%281801%29 \"HMS Aeolus (1801)\") on 27 April 1811\\.", "A few months later, Marryat earned distinction again by leading the effort to cut away the *Aeolus*{{'s}} mainyard to save the ship during a storm. He saved one of the crew from the sea. Shortly after, he moved to the frigate [HMS *Spartan*](/wiki/HMS_Spartan_%281806%29 \"HMS Spartan (1806)\"), participating in the capture of a number of American ships during the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 \"War of 1812\"). On 26 December 1812, he was promoted to lieutenant, and as such served in the sloop HMS *Espiegle* and in {{HMS\\|Newcastle\\|1813\\|6}}. Marryat led four barges from the *Newcastle* on a raid against [Orleans, Massachusetts](/wiki/Orleans%2C_Massachusetts \"Orleans, Massachusetts\") on 19 December 1814, the last combat in New England during the war. The affair had mixed results. Initially, Marryat cut out an American schooner and three sloops, but he managed to escape with just one sloop. The local militia avoided casualties while killing one Royal marine.James H. Ellis, *A Ruinous and Unhappy War: New England and the War of 1812*, New York: Algora Publishing, 2009, pp. 236–237\\. Marryat was promoted to commander on 13 June 1815, just as the war ended.", "### After the war", "Marryat turned to scientific studies after the war. He invented a lifeboat, which earned him a gold medal from the [Royal Humane Society](/wiki/Royal_Humane_Society \"Royal Humane Society\") and the nickname \"Lifeboat\". He developed a practical, widely used system of [maritime flag signalling](/wiki/Maritime_flag_signalling \"Maritime flag signalling\"), known as Marryat's Code, based on his experience in the [Napoleonic Wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars \"Napoleonic Wars\") escorting merchant ships in convoys. He also described a new gastropod genus *[Cyclostrema](/wiki/Cyclostrema \"Cyclostrema\")* with the type species *[Cyclostrema cancellatum](/wiki/Cyclostrema_cancellatum \"Cyclostrema cancellatum\")*.", "In 1819, Marryat married Catherine Shairp. They had four sons and seven daughters together, including [Florence](/wiki/Florence_Marryat \"Florence Marryat\"), a prolific novelist; [Emilia](/wiki/Emilia_Marryat \"Emilia Marryat\"), who became a writer of moralist adventure novels in her father's vein and wrote a biography of him; and [Augusta](/wiki/Augusta_Marryat \"Augusta Marryat\"), who also wrote adventure fiction.", "[thumb\\|upright\\|Frederick Marryat's sketch of Napoleon's body on his deathbed](/wiki/File:Napoleon_Skizze_von_Marryat.jpg \"Napoleon Skizze von Marryat.jpg\")\nIn 1820, Marryat commanded the sloop HMS *Beaver* and temporarily commanded [HMS *Rosario*](/wiki/HMS_Rosario_%281808%29 \"HMS Rosario (1808)\") in order to carry despatches to England announcing the death of [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon \"Napoleon\") on [Saint Helena](/wiki/Saint_Helena \"Saint Helena\"). He also took the opportunity to make a sketch of Napoleon's body on his deathbed; this was later published as a lithograph. His artistic skills were modest, but he made numerous sketches of shipboard life above and below deck.National Maritime Museum (UK), [Capt. Marryat's framed and original sketch of Napoleon Bonaparte after his death at St Helena.](http://www.rmg.co.uk/researchers/collections/by-type/archive-and-library/item-of-the-month/previous/capt-marryats-sketch-of-napoleon-bonaparte-after-his-death) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203003850/http://www.rmg.co.uk/researchers/collections/by\\-type/archive\\-and\\-library/item\\-of\\-the\\-month/previous/capt\\-marryats\\-sketch\\-of\\-napoleon\\-bonaparte\\-after\\-his\\-death \\|date\\=3 December 2013}}", "In 1823, Marryat was appointed to HMS *Larne* and took part in an [expedition against Burma](/wiki/First_Anglo-Burmese_War \"First Anglo-Burmese War\") in 1824, which resulted in large losses from disease. He was promoted to command the 28\\-gun HMS *Tees*, which gave him the rank of [post\\-captain](/wiki/Post-captain \"Post-captain\"). By 1826 he was back in England and that year donated two Burmese artifacts to the [British Museum](/wiki/British_Museum \"British Museum\"), in an unsuccessful effort to be selected as a trustee.[British Museum Collection](https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/A_1826-0211-1)[British Museum Collection](https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/A_1826-0211-2) In 1829, he was commanding the frigate [HMS *Ariadne*](/wiki/HMS_Ariadne_%281816%29 \"HMS Ariadne (1816)\") on a search for shoals around the [Madeira](/wiki/Madeira_islands \"Madeira islands\") and [Canary Islands](/wiki/Canary_Islands \"Canary Islands\"). This was an uninspiring exercise. As his first novel *The Naval Officer* had just been published, he decided to resign his commission in November 1830 and take up writing full\\-time.", "" ]
Wicca ----- [thumb\|Early nineteenth\-century drawing depicting a [statuette](/wiki/Statuette "Statuette") of a triple\-bodied [Hecate](/wiki/Hecate "Hecate")](/wiki/File:AN00969955_001_l.jpg "AN00969955 001 l.jpg") [Wicca](/wiki/Wicca "Wicca") regards "the Goddess", along with her consort the [Horned God](/wiki/Horned_God "Horned God"), as a deity of prime importance. The earliest Wiccan publications described the Goddess as a tribal goddess of the witch community, neither omnipotent nor universal.{{cite book \|first\=Gerald \|last\=Gardner \|author\-link\=Gerald Gardner \|title\=The Meaning of Witchcraft \|pages\=26–27 \|year\=2004 \|orig\-year\=1959 \|edition\=illustrated, reprint \|publisher\=Weiser Books \|location\=Boston \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=76Q9i\-DzIY0C\&pg\=PA26 \|isbn\=978\-1\-5786\-3309\-8 \|access\-date\=2015\-10\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160109063144/https://books.google.com/books?id\=76Q9i\-DzIY0C\&pg\=PA26 \|archive\-date\=2016\-01\-09 \|url\-status\=live }} Many forms of Wicca have come to regard the Goddess as a universal deity, more in line with her description in the *[Charge of the Goddess](/wiki/Charge_of_the_Goddess "Charge of the Goddess")*, a key Wiccan text. In this guise she is the "Queen of Heaven", similar to Egyptian goddess [Isis](/wiki/Isis "Isis"); she also encompasses and conceives all life, much like the Greek goddess [Gaia](/wiki/Gaia_%28mythology%29 "Gaia (mythology)"). Much like Isis,{{cite book \|editor\-last\=Betz \|editor\-first\=Hans Dieter \|editor\-link\=Hans Dieter Betz \|title\=The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation: Including the Demotic Spells \|edition\=second \|volume\=1: Texts \|publisher\=University of Chicago Press \|year\=1989 \|isbn\=978\-0\-2260\-4447\-7}} she is held to be the summation of all other goddesses, who represent her different names and aspects across the different cultures. The Goddess is often portrayed with strong lunar symbolism, drawing on various deities such as [Diana](/wiki/Diana_%28mythology%29 "Diana (mythology)"), [Hecate](/wiki/Hecate "Hecate"), and [Isis](/wiki/Isis "Isis"), and is often depicted as the Maiden, Mother, and Crone triad popularized by [Robert Graves](/wiki/Robert_Graves "Robert Graves") (see [Triple Goddess](/wiki/%23Triple_Goddess "#Triple Goddess") below). Many depictions of her also draw strongly on [Celtic](/wiki/Celtic_mythology "Celtic mythology") goddesses. Some Wiccans believe there are many goddesses, and in some forms of Wicca, notably [Dianic Wicca](/wiki/Dianic_Wicca "Dianic Wicca"), the Goddess alone is worshipped. [thumb\|right\|212px\|The lunar [Triple Goddess](/wiki/Triple_Goddess_%28Neopaganism%29 "Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)") symbol](/wiki/Image:Triple_Goddess_Symbol.svg "Triple Goddess Symbol.svg") Some, but not all, participants in the Goddess movement self\-identify as [Wiccans](/wiki/Wicca "Wicca") or 'witches'. Other participants of the Goddess movement call themselves goddessians[Goddessians](https://web.archive.org/web/20051218212914/http://goddessmystic.com/Miscellaneous/about.shtml) while others identify as the more generic "pagans". Some Wiccans, especially [Dianics](/wiki/Dianic "Dianic"), attempt to trace the historical origins of their beliefs to Neolithic pre\-Christian cultures, seeing [Wiccanism](/wiki/Wicca "Wicca") as a distillation of a religion found at the beginning of most, if not all, cultures.{{cite book \|first\=Zsuzsanna \|last\=Budapest \|title\=The Holy Book of Women's Mysteries \|publisher\=Red Wheel Weiser \|date\=2007 \|orig\-year\=1989 \|isbn\=978\-1\-5786\-3413\-2}} They regard wise women and midwives as the first Wiccan witches. Dianic Wicca first became visible in the 1970s, alongside the writings of [Zsuzsanna Budapest](/wiki/Zsuzsanna_Budapest "Zsuzsanna Budapest"). Her feminist interpretation of witchcraft followed a few decades after the founding of Wicca by [Gerald Gardner](/wiki/Gerald_Gardner "Gerald Gardner") in the 1940s. Today, there are at least 800,000 individuals who consider themselves Wiccan followers or witches in North America.{{Cite book\|title\=Pieties and Gender\|url\=https://archive.org/details/pietiesgenderint00sjor\|url\-access\=limited\|last1\=Sjrup\|first1\=L.E.\|last2\=Christensen\|first2\=Hilda\|publisher\=BRILL\|year\=2009\|isbn\=9789004178267\|location\=Leiden\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/pietiesgenderint00sjor/page/n215 207]}} Gardner and Valiente advocated a proto\-feminist ideal of priestess authority in service to the Wiccan God and Goddess. Covens in "traditional" Wicca (i.e., those run along the lines described by Gardner and Valiente) had and have pretty much equal [leadership](/wiki/Leadership "Leadership") both of a priest and of a priestess; but often consider the priestess "[prima inter pares](/wiki/Prima_inter_pares "Prima inter pares")" (first among equals) \- according to the book *A Witches' Bible*,{{cite book \|last1 \= Farrar \|first1 \= Stewart \|author\-link \= Stewart Farrar \|last2 \= Farrar \|first2 \= Janet \|author2\-link \= Janet Farrar \|title \= A Witches' Bible: The Complete Witches' Handbook \|orig\-year \= 1981 \|publisher \= David \& Charles \|date \= 2012 \|location \= London \|url \= https://books.google.com/books?id\=YhF1tE1ZE\_UC \|isbn \= 978\-1\-4463\-5790\-3 \|access\-date \= 2015\-10\-30 \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160211154622/https://books.google.com/books?id\=YhF1tE1ZE\_UC \|archive\-date \= 2016\-02\-11 \|url\-status \= live }}{{cite book \|last1\=Farrar \|first1\=Stewart \|title\=The Witches' Way: Principles, Rituals and Beliefs of Modern Witchcraft \|publisher\=Phoenix \|date\=1984 \|isbn\=978\-0\-9193\-4571\-3}}{{cite book \|last1\=Farrar \|first1\=Stewart \|title\=Eight Sabbats for Witches, and Rites for Birth, Marriage, and Death \|publisher\=Phoenix \|date\=1981 \|isbn\=978\-0\-9193\-4526\-3}} by [Stewart](/wiki/Stewart_Farrar "Stewart Farrar") and [Janet Farrar](/wiki/Janet_Farrar "Janet Farrar"). [Doreen Valiente](/wiki/Doreen_Valiente "Doreen Valiente") became known in Britain as the 'Mother of the Craft' and contributed extensively to Wicca's written tradition.{{cite book \|last\=Heselton \|first\=Philip \|author\-link\=Philip Heselton \|date\=2003 \|title\=Gerald Gardner and the Cauldron of Inspiration: An Investigation Into the Sources of Gardnerian Witchcraft \|publisher\=Capall Bann Publishing \|isbn\=978\-1\-8616\-3164\-0}}{{cite book \|author\-link\=Leo Ruickbie \|last\=Ruickbie \|first\=Leo \|title\=Witchcraft Out of the Shadows:A Complete History \|publisher\=Robert Hale \|date\=2004 \|isbn\=978\-0\-7090\-7567\-7}} She is the author of The Witches' Creed, which lays out the basics of Wiccan religious belief and philosophy; including the polarity of the God and the Goddess as the two great "powers of Nature" and the two "mystical pillars" of the religion. One way to characterize the central male\-female divine dyad in Wicca is to say that it's a duotheistic religion with a theology based on the divine gender polarity of male and female. The [idea of witchcraft](/wiki/Witch-cult_hypothesis "Witch-cult hypothesis") as the remnants of an old pagan religion was first suggested to a wide readership by [Margaret Murray](/wiki/Margaret_Murray "Margaret Murray")'s books, *[The Witch\-Cult in Western Europe](/wiki/The_Witch-Cult_in_Western_Europe "The Witch-Cult in Western Europe")*, *The God of the Witches* (1933\) and *The Divine King in England*. Her works have since been discredited by other scholars but have left a feminist legacy upon Wiccan culture. [thumb\|Roman copy of a Greek statue by [Leochares](/wiki/Leochares "Leochares") of the goddess [Artemis](/wiki/Artemis "Artemis"), who was known to the Romans as [Diana](/wiki/Diana_%28mythology%29 "Diana (mythology)")](/wiki/File:Diana_of_Versailles.jpg "Diana of Versailles.jpg") Wicca and [Neopaganism](/wiki/Neopaganism "Neopaganism"), and to some extent the Goddess movement, were influenced by 19th\-century [occultism](/wiki/Occult "Occult"), such as the [Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn](/wiki/Hermetic_Order_of_the_Golden_Dawn "Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn"),{{cite book \|last\=Greer \|first\=Mary K. \|title\=Women of the Golden Dawn \|publisher\=Park Street Press \|date\=1995 \|isbn\=978\-0\-8928\-1516\-6}} as well as the [Romantic movement](/wiki/Romantic_movement "Romantic movement") in which both male and female were valued and honored as sacred, in contrast to and perhaps in reaction to mainstream Christian spirituality,{{dubious\|date\=July 2022}} especially if [veneration of Mary](/wiki/Veneration_of_Mary "Veneration of Mary") by most Christians is not considered. Such views are described, for example, in the work of [Robert Graves](/wiki/Robert_Graves "Robert Graves"), especially *[The White Goddess](/wiki/The_White_Goddess "The White Goddess")* (the origin of the neopagan 'Triple Goddess' concept) and *Mammon and the Black Goddess*. Wicca was also heavily influenced by the ideas of alchemic symbolism,{{citation needed\|date\=July 2022}} which emphasized the essential complementary polarity of male and female, and that characterized that basic duality or gender polarity as a partnership of the solar (male) and the lunar (female). In Wicca the Moon is the symbol of the Goddess and the Sun is the symbol of the God; and the central liturgical mystery and ritual act is "The Great Rite" or Hieros Gamos, which is a symbolic union of the God and the Goddess, as the primal male and female powers of the cosmos. In alchemy this was known as "the [Chymical Wedding](/wiki/Chymical_Wedding "Chymical Wedding")" of the Sun and the Moon. In a parallel vein, traditional Wicca also draws heavily upon the Western [Hermetic Tradition](/wiki/Hermeticism "Hermeticism") and its roots in the [Kabbalistic Tree of Life](/wiki/Tree_of_life_%28Kabbalah%29 "Tree of life (Kabbalah)"); where the twin pillars of masculine and feminine divine forces are joined by a Middle Pillar that encompasses and transcends both male and female. These "twin pillars" as they are shown in tarot decks are analogous to Valiente's depiction of the God and the Goddess as the two "mystical pillars." In this emphasis on the feminine as the equal and complementary polar opposite of the masculine, Wicca echoes not only Kabbalistic sources but also the polarity of yin and yang—feminine and masculine—in Taoism. {{blockquote\|The Dianic view is that separatism, in a world where gender roles were once strictly defined, is sometimes considered dangerous because it challenges what they see as patriarchal assumptions of Western culture.}} There are, however, Wiccan groups that do not subscribe to the male\-female dualism of the divine. For instance, there is the case of the Budapest Dianics. Although these retained many Wiccan rituals and symbols, they only used female imagery and created a creation myth that eliminated the need for the male.{{Cite book\|title\=Religion and American Cultures: An Encyclopedia of Traditions\|url\=https://archive.org/details/religionamerican00lade\|url\-access\=limited\|last1\=Laderman\|first1\=Gary\|last2\=Leon\|first2\=Luis\|publisher\=ABC\_CLIO\|year\=2003\|isbn\=157607238X\|location\=Santa Barbara, CA\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/religionamerican00lade/page/n261 243]}} While Wiccans also accept male members,{{Cite book\|title\=The SAGE Handbook of the Sociology of Religion\|last1\=Beckford\|first1\=James\|last2\=Demarath\|publisher\=Jay\|year\=2007\|isbn\=9781412911955\|location\=London\|pages\=576}} the Dianics called themselves a "wimmin's religion" and, thus, rejected males from their ranks.
[ "Wicca\n-----", "[thumb\\|Early nineteenth\\-century drawing depicting a [statuette](/wiki/Statuette \"Statuette\") of a triple\\-bodied [Hecate](/wiki/Hecate \"Hecate\")](/wiki/File:AN00969955_001_l.jpg \"AN00969955 001 l.jpg\")", "[Wicca](/wiki/Wicca \"Wicca\") regards \"the Goddess\", along with her consort the [Horned God](/wiki/Horned_God \"Horned God\"), as a deity of prime importance. The earliest Wiccan publications described the Goddess as a tribal goddess of the witch community, neither omnipotent nor universal.{{cite book \\|first\\=Gerald \\|last\\=Gardner \\|author\\-link\\=Gerald Gardner \\|title\\=The Meaning of Witchcraft \\|pages\\=26–27 \\|year\\=2004 \\|orig\\-year\\=1959 \\|edition\\=illustrated, reprint \\|publisher\\=Weiser Books \\|location\\=Boston \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=76Q9i\\-DzIY0C\\&pg\\=PA26 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-5786\\-3309\\-8 \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-10\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160109063144/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=76Q9i\\-DzIY0C\\&pg\\=PA26 \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-01\\-09 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "Many forms of Wicca have come to regard the Goddess as a universal deity, more in line with her description in the *[Charge of the Goddess](/wiki/Charge_of_the_Goddess \"Charge of the Goddess\")*, a key Wiccan text. In this guise she is the \"Queen of Heaven\", similar to Egyptian goddess [Isis](/wiki/Isis \"Isis\"); she also encompasses and conceives all life, much like the Greek goddess [Gaia](/wiki/Gaia_%28mythology%29 \"Gaia (mythology)\"). Much like Isis,{{cite book \\|editor\\-last\\=Betz \\|editor\\-first\\=Hans Dieter \\|editor\\-link\\=Hans Dieter Betz \\|title\\=The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation: Including the Demotic Spells \\|edition\\=second \\|volume\\=1: Texts \\|publisher\\=University of Chicago Press \\|year\\=1989 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-2260\\-4447\\-7}} she is held to be the summation of all other goddesses, who represent her different names and aspects across the different cultures. The Goddess is often portrayed with strong lunar symbolism, drawing on various deities such as [Diana](/wiki/Diana_%28mythology%29 \"Diana (mythology)\"), [Hecate](/wiki/Hecate \"Hecate\"), and [Isis](/wiki/Isis \"Isis\"), and is often depicted as the Maiden, Mother, and Crone triad popularized by [Robert Graves](/wiki/Robert_Graves \"Robert Graves\") (see [Triple Goddess](/wiki/%23Triple_Goddess \"#Triple Goddess\") below). Many depictions of her also draw strongly on [Celtic](/wiki/Celtic_mythology \"Celtic mythology\") goddesses. Some Wiccans believe there are many goddesses, and in some forms of Wicca, notably [Dianic Wicca](/wiki/Dianic_Wicca \"Dianic Wicca\"), the Goddess alone is worshipped.", "[thumb\\|right\\|212px\\|The lunar [Triple Goddess](/wiki/Triple_Goddess_%28Neopaganism%29 \"Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)\") symbol](/wiki/Image:Triple_Goddess_Symbol.svg \"Triple Goddess Symbol.svg\")", "Some, but not all, participants in the Goddess movement self\\-identify as [Wiccans](/wiki/Wicca \"Wicca\") or 'witches'. Other participants of the Goddess movement call themselves goddessians[Goddessians](https://web.archive.org/web/20051218212914/http://goddessmystic.com/Miscellaneous/about.shtml) while others identify as the more generic \"pagans\".", "Some Wiccans, especially [Dianics](/wiki/Dianic \"Dianic\"), attempt to trace the historical origins of their beliefs to Neolithic pre\\-Christian cultures, seeing [Wiccanism](/wiki/Wicca \"Wicca\") as a distillation of a religion found at the beginning of most, if not all, cultures.{{cite book \\|first\\=Zsuzsanna \\|last\\=Budapest \\|title\\=The Holy Book of Women's Mysteries \\|publisher\\=Red Wheel Weiser \\|date\\=2007 \\|orig\\-year\\=1989 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-5786\\-3413\\-2}} They regard wise women and midwives as the first Wiccan witches. Dianic Wicca first became visible in the 1970s, alongside the writings of [Zsuzsanna Budapest](/wiki/Zsuzsanna_Budapest \"Zsuzsanna Budapest\"). Her feminist interpretation of witchcraft followed a few decades after the founding of Wicca by [Gerald Gardner](/wiki/Gerald_Gardner \"Gerald Gardner\") in the 1940s. Today, there are at least 800,000 individuals who consider themselves Wiccan followers or witches in North America.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Pieties and Gender\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/pietiesgenderint00sjor\\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|last1\\=Sjrup\\|first1\\=L.E.\\|last2\\=Christensen\\|first2\\=Hilda\\|publisher\\=BRILL\\|year\\=2009\\|isbn\\=9789004178267\\|location\\=Leiden\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/pietiesgenderint00sjor/page/n215 207]}}", "Gardner and Valiente advocated a proto\\-feminist ideal of priestess authority in service to the Wiccan God and Goddess. Covens in \"traditional\" Wicca (i.e., those run along the lines described by Gardner and Valiente) had and have pretty much equal [leadership](/wiki/Leadership \"Leadership\") both of a priest and of a priestess; but often consider the priestess \"[prima inter pares](/wiki/Prima_inter_pares \"Prima inter pares\")\" (first among equals) \\- according to the book *A Witches' Bible*,{{cite book\n \\|last1 \\= Farrar\n \\|first1 \\= Stewart\n \\|author\\-link \\= Stewart Farrar\n \\|last2 \\= Farrar\n \\|first2 \\= Janet\n \\|author2\\-link \\= Janet Farrar\n \\|title \\= A Witches' Bible: The Complete Witches' Handbook\n \\|orig\\-year \\= 1981\n \\|publisher \\= David \\& Charles\n \\|date \\= 2012\n \\|location \\= London\n \\|url \\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=YhF1tE1ZE\\_UC\n \\|isbn \\= 978\\-1\\-4463\\-5790\\-3\n \\|access\\-date \\= 2015\\-10\\-30\n \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160211154622/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=YhF1tE1ZE\\_UC\n \\|archive\\-date \\= 2016\\-02\\-11\n \\|url\\-status \\= live\n}}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Farrar \\|first1\\=Stewart \\|title\\=The Witches' Way: Principles, Rituals and Beliefs of Modern Witchcraft \\|publisher\\=Phoenix \\|date\\=1984 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-9193\\-4571\\-3}}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Farrar \\|first1\\=Stewart \\|title\\=Eight Sabbats for Witches, and Rites for Birth, Marriage, and Death \\|publisher\\=Phoenix \\|date\\=1981 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-9193\\-4526\\-3}} by [Stewart](/wiki/Stewart_Farrar \"Stewart Farrar\") and [Janet Farrar](/wiki/Janet_Farrar \"Janet Farrar\").", "[Doreen Valiente](/wiki/Doreen_Valiente \"Doreen Valiente\") became known in Britain as the 'Mother of the Craft' and contributed extensively to Wicca's written tradition.{{cite book \\|last\\=Heselton \\|first\\=Philip \\|author\\-link\\=Philip Heselton \\|date\\=2003 \\|title\\=Gerald Gardner and the Cauldron of Inspiration: An Investigation Into the Sources of Gardnerian Witchcraft \\|publisher\\=Capall Bann Publishing \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-8616\\-3164\\-0}}{{cite book \\|author\\-link\\=Leo Ruickbie \\|last\\=Ruickbie \\|first\\=Leo \\|title\\=Witchcraft Out of the Shadows:A Complete History \\|publisher\\=Robert Hale \\|date\\=2004 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7090\\-7567\\-7}} She is the author of The Witches' Creed, which lays out the basics of Wiccan religious belief and philosophy; including the polarity of the God and the Goddess as the two great \"powers of Nature\" and the two \"mystical pillars\" of the religion. One way to characterize the central male\\-female divine dyad in Wicca is to say that it's a duotheistic religion with a theology based on the divine gender polarity of male and female.", "The [idea of witchcraft](/wiki/Witch-cult_hypothesis \"Witch-cult hypothesis\") as the remnants of an old pagan religion was first suggested to a wide readership by [Margaret Murray](/wiki/Margaret_Murray \"Margaret Murray\")'s books, *[The Witch\\-Cult in Western Europe](/wiki/The_Witch-Cult_in_Western_Europe \"The Witch-Cult in Western Europe\")*, *The God of the Witches* (1933\\) and *The Divine King in England*. Her works have since been discredited by other scholars but have left a feminist legacy upon Wiccan culture.", "[thumb\\|Roman copy of a Greek statue by [Leochares](/wiki/Leochares \"Leochares\") of the goddess [Artemis](/wiki/Artemis \"Artemis\"), who was known to the Romans as [Diana](/wiki/Diana_%28mythology%29 \"Diana (mythology)\")](/wiki/File:Diana_of_Versailles.jpg \"Diana of Versailles.jpg\")", "Wicca and [Neopaganism](/wiki/Neopaganism \"Neopaganism\"), and to some extent the Goddess movement, were influenced by 19th\\-century [occultism](/wiki/Occult \"Occult\"), such as the [Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn](/wiki/Hermetic_Order_of_the_Golden_Dawn \"Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn\"),{{cite book \\|last\\=Greer \\|first\\=Mary K. \\|title\\=Women of the Golden Dawn \\|publisher\\=Park Street Press \\|date\\=1995 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8928\\-1516\\-6}} as well as the [Romantic movement](/wiki/Romantic_movement \"Romantic movement\") in which both male and female were valued and honored as sacred, in contrast to and perhaps in reaction to mainstream Christian spirituality,{{dubious\\|date\\=July 2022}} especially if [veneration of Mary](/wiki/Veneration_of_Mary \"Veneration of Mary\") by most Christians is not considered. Such views are described, for example, in the work of [Robert Graves](/wiki/Robert_Graves \"Robert Graves\"), especially *[The White Goddess](/wiki/The_White_Goddess \"The White Goddess\")* (the origin of the neopagan 'Triple Goddess' concept) and *Mammon and the Black Goddess*.", "Wicca was also heavily influenced by the ideas of alchemic symbolism,{{citation needed\\|date\\=July 2022}} which emphasized the essential complementary polarity of male and female, and that characterized that basic duality or gender polarity as a partnership of the solar (male) and the lunar (female). In Wicca the Moon is the symbol of the Goddess and the Sun is the symbol of the God; and the central liturgical mystery and ritual act is \"The Great Rite\" or Hieros Gamos, which is a symbolic union of the God and the Goddess, as the primal male and female powers of the cosmos. In alchemy this was known as \"the [Chymical Wedding](/wiki/Chymical_Wedding \"Chymical Wedding\")\" of the Sun and the Moon. In a parallel vein, traditional Wicca also draws heavily upon the Western [Hermetic Tradition](/wiki/Hermeticism \"Hermeticism\") and its roots in the [Kabbalistic Tree of Life](/wiki/Tree_of_life_%28Kabbalah%29 \"Tree of life (Kabbalah)\"); where the twin pillars of masculine and feminine divine forces are joined by a Middle Pillar that encompasses and transcends both male and female. These \"twin pillars\" as they are shown in tarot decks are analogous to Valiente's depiction of the God and the Goddess as the two \"mystical pillars.\" In this emphasis on the feminine as the equal and complementary polar opposite of the masculine, Wicca echoes not only Kabbalistic sources but also the polarity of yin and yang—feminine and masculine—in Taoism.", "{{blockquote\\|The Dianic view is that separatism, in a world where gender roles were once strictly defined, is sometimes considered dangerous because it challenges what they see as patriarchal assumptions of Western culture.}}", "There are, however, Wiccan groups that do not subscribe to the male\\-female dualism of the divine. For instance, there is the case of the Budapest Dianics. Although these retained many Wiccan rituals and symbols, they only used female imagery and created a creation myth that eliminated the need for the male.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Religion and American Cultures: An Encyclopedia of Traditions\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/religionamerican00lade\\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|last1\\=Laderman\\|first1\\=Gary\\|last2\\=Leon\\|first2\\=Luis\\|publisher\\=ABC\\_CLIO\\|year\\=2003\\|isbn\\=157607238X\\|location\\=Santa Barbara, CA\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/religionamerican00lade/page/n261 243]}} While Wiccans also accept male members,{{Cite book\\|title\\=The SAGE Handbook of the Sociology of Religion\\|last1\\=Beckford\\|first1\\=James\\|last2\\=Demarath\\|publisher\\=Jay\\|year\\=2007\\|isbn\\=9781412911955\\|location\\=London\\|pages\\=576}} the Dianics called themselves a \"wimmin's religion\" and, thus, rejected males from their ranks.", "" ]
Flora and fauna --------------- The flora is represented by the varieties of [date palms](/wiki/Phoenix_dactylifera "Phoenix dactylifera") Feggous and Aghrass, well preserved here while they have practically disappeared elsewhere. These varieties have the ability to be naturally preserved, exposed to the open air for a year. We also note the presence of the following species: [Hammada Scoparia](/wiki/Hammada_Scoparia "Hammada Scoparia"), [Retama raetum](/wiki/Retama_raetum "Retama raetum"), [Ephedra alata](/wiki/Ephedra_alata "Ephedra alata"), [Samolus valerandi](/wiki/Samolus_valerandi "Samolus valerandi") and, at the edge of [seguias](/wiki/Seguia "Seguia") or irrigation ditches, [Adiantum capillus veneris](/wiki/Adiantum_capillus_veneris "Adiantum capillus veneris"). As for the fauna, it is a refuge zone for [gazelles](/wiki/Gazelles "Gazelles") and [outardes](/wiki/Otididae "Otididae") houbaras. Among the ornithological species that characterize theregion, we find: the Red crossbill [Loxia curvirostra](/wiki/Loxia_curvirostra "Loxia curvirostra"), the Common wood pigeon [Columba palumbus](/wiki/Columba_palumbus "Columba palumbus"), the Blue rock thrush [Monticola solitarius](/wiki/Monticola_solitarius "Monticola solitarius"), the Bee\-eater [Merops apiaster](/wiki/Merops_apiaster "Merops apiaster"), the Hoopoe [Upupa epops](/wiki/Upupa_epops "Upupa epops"), the Short\-toed snake eagle [Circaetus gallicus](/wiki/Circaetus_gallicus "Circaetus gallicus"), the Bonelli's Eagle [Hieraêtus fasciatus](/wiki/Hiera%C3%AAtus_fasciatus "Hieraêtus fasciatus"), the Bearded vulture [Cypaetus barbatus](/wiki/Cypaetus_barbatus "Cypaetus barbatus"), and the Partridge [Alectoris spatzi](/wiki/Alectoris_spatzi "Alectoris spatzi"). The migratory species are [Woodchat shrike](/wiki/Woodchat_shrike "Woodchat shrike") (Lanius senator), [Orphean warbler](/wiki/Orphean_warbler "Orphean warbler") (Sylvia hortensis), [Bonelli's warbler](/wiki/Western_Bonelli%27s_warbler "Western Bonelli's warbler") (Phylloscopus bonelli), [Gray flycatcher](/wiki/Gray_flycatcher "Gray flycatcher") (Empidonax wrightii), the [cuckoo](/wiki/Cuckoo "Cuckoo"), the [turtledove](/wiki/European_turtle_dove "European turtle dove"). According to the rock carvings of the region, the wildlife included [Harte antelope](/wiki/Harte_antelope "Harte antelope"), the [gazelle](/wiki/Gazelle "Gazelle"), the [antelope addax](/wiki/Antelope_addax "Antelope addax"), the [bee](/wiki/Bee "Bee") and the [ostrich](/wiki/Ostrich "Ostrich").
[ "Flora and fauna\n---------------", "The flora is represented by the varieties of [date palms](/wiki/Phoenix_dactylifera \"Phoenix dactylifera\") Feggous and Aghrass, well preserved here while they have practically disappeared elsewhere. These varieties have the ability to be naturally preserved, exposed to the open air for a year.", "We also note the presence of the following species: [Hammada Scoparia](/wiki/Hammada_Scoparia \"Hammada Scoparia\"), [Retama raetum](/wiki/Retama_raetum \"Retama raetum\"), [Ephedra alata](/wiki/Ephedra_alata \"Ephedra alata\"), [Samolus valerandi](/wiki/Samolus_valerandi \"Samolus valerandi\") and, at the edge of [seguias](/wiki/Seguia \"Seguia\") or irrigation ditches, [Adiantum capillus veneris](/wiki/Adiantum_capillus_veneris \"Adiantum capillus veneris\").", "As for the fauna, it is a refuge zone for [gazelles](/wiki/Gazelles \"Gazelles\") and [outardes](/wiki/Otididae \"Otididae\") houbaras.", "Among the ornithological species that characterize theregion, we find: the Red crossbill [Loxia curvirostra](/wiki/Loxia_curvirostra \"Loxia curvirostra\"), the Common wood pigeon [Columba palumbus](/wiki/Columba_palumbus \"Columba palumbus\"), the Blue rock thrush [Monticola solitarius](/wiki/Monticola_solitarius \"Monticola solitarius\"), the Bee\\-eater [Merops apiaster](/wiki/Merops_apiaster \"Merops apiaster\"), the Hoopoe [Upupa epops](/wiki/Upupa_epops \"Upupa epops\"), the Short\\-toed snake eagle [Circaetus gallicus](/wiki/Circaetus_gallicus \"Circaetus gallicus\"), the Bonelli's Eagle [Hieraêtus fasciatus](/wiki/Hiera%C3%AAtus_fasciatus \"Hieraêtus fasciatus\"), the Bearded vulture [Cypaetus barbatus](/wiki/Cypaetus_barbatus \"Cypaetus barbatus\"), and the Partridge [Alectoris spatzi](/wiki/Alectoris_spatzi \"Alectoris spatzi\").", "The migratory species are [Woodchat shrike](/wiki/Woodchat_shrike \"Woodchat shrike\") (Lanius senator), [Orphean warbler](/wiki/Orphean_warbler \"Orphean warbler\") (Sylvia hortensis), [Bonelli's warbler](/wiki/Western_Bonelli%27s_warbler \"Western Bonelli's warbler\") (Phylloscopus bonelli),\n[Gray flycatcher](/wiki/Gray_flycatcher \"Gray flycatcher\") (Empidonax wrightii), the [cuckoo](/wiki/Cuckoo \"Cuckoo\"), the [turtledove](/wiki/European_turtle_dove \"European turtle dove\").", "According to the rock carvings of the region, the wildlife included [Harte antelope](/wiki/Harte_antelope \"Harte antelope\"), the [gazelle](/wiki/Gazelle \"Gazelle\"), the [antelope addax](/wiki/Antelope_addax \"Antelope addax\"), the [bee](/wiki/Bee \"Bee\") and the [ostrich](/wiki/Ostrich \"Ostrich\").", "" ]
Plot ---- In a small New York town called Willow Falls, a new manager is needed for the Panthers, a local [Little League](/wiki/Little_League "Little League") baseball team. Bruce Hallerton, a lawyer by trade, volunteers for the job, deciding it would be a way to spend more time with his son, Dennis. When it turns out Dennis is instead assigned to play for another team, the Tigers, wife Betty assumes that Bruce will quit the coaching job, but he feels a commitment has been made and needs to be kept. Bruce sets about advising his Panther players that trying is more important than winning, but many parents disagree, and Tigers coach Ed Ryder in particular will do anything necessary to win a game. One parent, widow Doris Patterson, appears to flirt with Bruce in coaxing him to let her son Herbie be his team's pitcher. Another, the wealthy banker George Carruthers, invites the Hallertons over for dinner, only to pitch his own son Foster to the coach. Particularly inept at first, the Panthers are mocked by everyone, even Bruce's own son. Betty, too, criticizes her husband's inability to make the team improve on the field. She also becomes so jealous at Doris's perceived romantic interest in Bruce that she studies baseball from a manual so she can become the team's official scorekeeper and keep an eye on him at the same time. Bruce tells the widow he is happily married and discourages her personal interest in him, offending Doris, who had no such interest at all. After a brawl breaks out between the Panthers and Tigers and continued criticism of his methods, Bruce goes to a bar with a buddy, O'Keefe, and gets tipsy. He comes home to find the door bolted by his wife. At the next game, Bruce decides to use O'Keefe's surprisingly fast son, nicknamed "Man Mountain", and he becomes a hero in a Panther victory. No one congratulates Bruce, so he goes home vowing never to volunteer again, but when all the parents and kids show up later to thank him, Bruce volunteers to become a [scoutmaster](/wiki/Scoutmaster "Scoutmaster") for the boys.
[ "Plot\n----", "In a small New York town called Willow Falls, a new manager is needed for the Panthers, a local [Little League](/wiki/Little_League \"Little League\") baseball team. Bruce Hallerton, a lawyer by trade, volunteers for the job, deciding it would be a way to spend more time with his son, Dennis.", "When it turns out Dennis is instead assigned to play for another team, the Tigers, wife Betty assumes that Bruce will quit the coaching job, but he feels a commitment has been made and needs to be kept. Bruce sets about advising his Panther players that trying is more important than winning, but many parents disagree, and Tigers coach Ed Ryder in particular will do anything necessary to win a game.", "One parent, widow Doris Patterson, appears to flirt with Bruce in coaxing him to let her son Herbie be his team's pitcher. Another, the wealthy banker George Carruthers, invites the Hallertons over for dinner, only to pitch his own son Foster to the coach.", "Particularly inept at first, the Panthers are mocked by everyone, even Bruce's own son. Betty, too, criticizes her husband's inability to make the team improve on the field. She also becomes so jealous at Doris's perceived romantic interest in Bruce that she studies baseball from a manual so she can become the team's official scorekeeper and keep an eye on him at the same time.", "Bruce tells the widow he is happily married and discourages her personal interest in him, offending Doris, who had no such interest at all. After a brawl breaks out between the Panthers and Tigers and continued criticism of his methods, Bruce goes to a bar with a buddy, O'Keefe, and gets tipsy. He comes home to find the door bolted by his wife. At the next game, Bruce decides to use O'Keefe's surprisingly fast son, nicknamed \"Man Mountain\", and he becomes a hero in a Panther victory.", "No one congratulates Bruce, so he goes home vowing never to volunteer again, but when all the parents and kids show up later to thank him, Bruce volunteers to become a [scoutmaster](/wiki/Scoutmaster \"Scoutmaster\") for the boys.", "" ]