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Cultural and religious practices -------------------------------- ### Christian holidays In the [Christian](/wiki/Christianity "Christianity") tradition, [Maundy Thursday](/wiki/Maundy_Thursday "Maundy Thursday") or Holy Thursday is the Thursday before [Easter](/wiki/Easter "Easter") — the day on which the [Last Supper](/wiki/Last_Supper "Last Supper") occurred. Also known as *Sheer Thursday* in the United Kingdom, it is traditionally a day of cleaning and giving out Maundy money there. Holy Thursday is part of [Holy Week](/wiki/Holy_Week "Holy Week"). In the [Eastern Orthodox Church](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church "Eastern Orthodox Church"), Thursdays are dedicated to the [Apostles](/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament "Apostles in the New Testament") and [Saint Nicholas](/wiki/Saint_Nicholas "Saint Nicholas"). The [Octoechos](/wiki/Octoechos_%28liturgy%29 "Octoechos (liturgy)") contains [hymns](/wiki/Hymn "Hymn") on these themes, arranged in an eight\-week cycle, that are chanted on Thursdays throughout the year. At the end of [Divine Services](/wiki/Divine_Services "Divine Services") on Thursday, the [dismissal](/wiki/Dismissal_%28liturgy%29 "Dismissal (liturgy)") begins with the words: "May Christ our True God, through the [intercessions](/wiki/Intercession "Intercession") of his most\-pure [Mother](/wiki/Theotokos "Theotokos"), of the holy, glorious and all\-laudable Apostles, of our [Father](/wiki/Holy_Fathers "Holy Fathers") among the [saints](/wiki/Saint "Saint") Nicholas, [Archbishop](/wiki/Archbishop "Archbishop") of [Myra](/wiki/Myra "Myra") in [Lycia](/wiki/Lycia "Lycia"), the [Wonder\-worker](/wiki/Wonder-worker "Wonder-worker")…" [Ascension Thursday](/wiki/Ascension_of_Jesus_Christ "Ascension of Jesus Christ") is 40 days after Easter, when Christ ascended into [Heaven](/wiki/Heaven "Heaven"). ### Hinduism In [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism"), Thursday is associated with the [Navagraha](/wiki/Navagraha "Navagraha") [Brihaspati](/wiki/Brihaspati "Brihaspati"), whom devotees of this graha will fast pray and fast on Thursdays. The day is dedicated to the deity [Vishnu](/wiki/Vishnu "Vishnu") or his [avatars](/wiki/Avatar "Avatar"), such as [Rama](/wiki/Rama "Rama"), [Parshurama](/wiki/Parshurama "Parshurama"), [Narasimha](/wiki/Narasimha "Narasimha"), and [Buddha](/wiki/Buddha_in_Hinduism "Buddha in Hinduism"). However, Wednesday is dedicated to his avatars of [Krishna](/wiki/Krishna "Krishna") and [Vithoba](/wiki/Vithoba "Vithoba"). Devotees usually fast on this day in honor of Vishnu and his avatars, especially [Vaishnava](/wiki/Vaishnavism "Vaishnavism") Hindus.{{cite web \| url\=https://pujayagna.com/blogs/hindu\-fasting\-days/fasting\-in\-hinduism \| title\=Hindu Fasting }}{{cite web \| url\=https://www.learnreligions.com/hindu\-deities\-rituals\-for\-week\-1770073 \| title\=Weekly Rituals in the Practice of Hinduism }} ### Islam In [Islam](/wiki/Islam "Islam"), Thursdays are one of the days in a week in which Muslims are encouraged to do [voluntary fasting](/wiki/Fasting_in_Islam%23Days_of_voluntary_fasting "Fasting in Islam#Days of voluntary fasting"), the other being Mondays.{{Cite web \|title\=Fasting on Mondays and Thursdays or on Three Days of each Month? \- Islam Question \& Answer \|url\=https://islamqa.info/en/answers/69781/fasting\-on\-mondays\-and\-thursdays\-or\-on\-three\-days\-of\-each\-month \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-27 \|website\=islamqa.info \|language\=en}} ### Judaism In [Judaism](/wiki/Judaism "Judaism"), Thursdays are considered auspicious days for fasting. The [Didache](/wiki/Didache "Didache") warned early [Christians](/wiki/Christians "Christians") not to fast on Thursdays to avoid [Judaizing](/wiki/Judaizers "Judaizers"), and suggested Fridays instead. In Judaism the [Torah](/wiki/Torah "Torah") is read in public on Thursday mornings, and special penitential prayers are said on Thursday, unless there is a special occasion for happiness which cancels them. ### Druze faith [thumb\|[Druze Prayer house](/wiki/Khalwat_al-Bayada "Khalwat al-Bayada") in Daliyat al\-Karmel](/wiki/File:DrusischerTempel.jpg "DrusischerTempel.jpg") Formal [Druze](/wiki/Druze "Druze") worship is confined to weekly meeting on Thursday evenings, during which all members of community gather together to discuss local issues before those not initiated into the secrets of the faith (the juhhāl, or the ignorant) are dismissed, and those who are "uqqāl" or "enlightened" (those few initiated in the Druze holy books) remain to read and study their [holy scriptures](/wiki/Epistles_of_Wisdom "Epistles of Wisdom").{{cite book\|author1\=Samy S. Swayd\|title\=The A to Z of the Druzes\|date\=2009\|publisher\=\[\[Rowman \& Littlefield]]\|isbn\=978\-0\-8108\-6836\-6\|page\=xxxix}} ### Practices in countries {{more citations needed\| section\|date\=January 2008}} In [Finland](/wiki/Finland "Finland") and [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden "Sweden"), [pea soup](/wiki/Pea_soup "Pea soup") is traditionally served on Thursdays.{{cite web\|url\=https://finland.fi/life\-society/pea\-soup\-tradition\-is\-weekly\-tbt\-passion\-in\-finland/\|title\=Pea soup tradition is weekly \#TBT passion in Finland\|access\-date\=9 February 2021\|work\=This Is Finland\|date\=4 January 2017}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.swedishfood.com/swedish\-food\-recipes\-starters/134\-pea\-soup\|title\=Yellow pea soup\|access\-date\=9 February 2021\|work\=SwedishFood.com}} In [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia"),{{cite web \|url\=https://fsb.ung.ac.id/home/berita/hmj\-mengajak\-mahasiswa\-untuk\-memakai\-batik\-setiap\-hari\-kamis \|title\=HMJ Mengajak Mahasiswa Untuk Memakai Batik Setiap Hari Kamis \|lang\=id \|trans\-title\=\[\[Student society\|Department Student Organization]] Invites Students to Wear Batik Every Thursday \|last\=Kadhapy \|first\=Moh. \|date\=20 September 2023 \|website\=Fakultas Sastra dan Budaya \[\[State University of Gorontalo\|Universitas Negeri Gorontalo]] \|publisher\=\[\[Student society\|Department Student Organization]] of Indonesian Language and Art Department of Art and Culture Faculty of \[\[State University of Gorontalo]] (HMJ BSI FSB UNG) \|access\-date\=23 March 2024}} and [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia "Malaysia"),{{cite web \|url\=https://www.liputan6\.com/lifestyle/read/4696719/parlemen\-malaysia\-jadikan\-setiap\-kamis\-sebagai\-hari\-batik \|title\=Parlemen Malaysia Jadikan Setiap Kamis Sebagai Hari Batik \|lang\=id \|trans\-title\=\[\[Malaysian Parliament]] Makes Every Thursday Batik Day \|last\=Mutiah \|first\=Dinny \|date\=29 October 2021 \|website\=Liputan 6 Lifestyle \|publisher\=\[\[Liputan 6]] \|access\-date\=23 March 2024}} in a week, [batik](/wiki/Batik "Batik") clothing is usually worn on Thursday, especially at education and civil servant institutions. For [Thai Buddhist](/wiki/Thai_Buddhist "Thai Buddhist"), Thursday is considered the "Teacher's Day", and it is believed that one should begin one's education on this auspicious day. Thai students still pay homages to their teachers in specific ceremony always held on a selected Thursday. And graduation day in Thai universities, which can vary depending on each university, almost always will be held on a Thursday. In the [Thai solar calendar](/wiki/Thai_solar_calendar "Thai solar calendar"), the colour associated with Thursday is orange.Segaller, Denis (2005\). *Thai Ways*. Bangkok: Silkworm Books. [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_%28identifier%29 "ISBN (identifier)") [9781628400083](/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781628400083 "BookSources/9781628400083"). In the United States, [Thanksgiving Day](/wiki/Thanksgiving_%28United_States%29 "Thanksgiving (United States)") is an annual festival celebrated on the fourth Thursday in November. ### Conventional weekly events In Australia, most cinema movies premieres are held on Thursdays. Also, most Australians are paid on a Thursday, either weekly or fortnightly. Shopping malls see this as an opportunity to open longer than usual, generally until 9 pm, as most pay cheques are cleared by Thursday morning. In Norway, Thursday has also traditionally been the day when most shops and malls are open later than on the other weekdays, although the majority of shopping malls now are open until 8 pm or 9 pm every weekday. In the USSR of the 1970s and 1980s Thursday was the "Fish Day" ({{lang\-ru\|\[\[:ru:Рыбный день\|Рыбный день]]}}, *Rybny den*), when the nation's [foodservice](/wiki/Foodservice "Foodservice") establishments were supposed to serve fish (rather than meat) dishes.{{citation \|first1\=Irina \|last1\=Petrosian\|first2\= David \|last2\=Underwood\|year\=2006 \|isbn\=1\-4116\-9865\-7\|title\=Armenian Food: Fact, Fiction \& Folklore\|series\=Armenian Research Center collection \|edition\=2\|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=0oXYX9Qzx9oC\&pg\=PA115 \|page\=115}} For college and university students, Thursday is sometimes referred to as the new Friday. There are often fewer or sometimes no classes on Fridays and more opportunities to hold parties on Thursday night and sleep in on Friday. As a consequence, some call Thursday "thirstday" or "thirsty Thursday".{{cite news\| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/06/education/edlife/hafner.html?\_r\=1 \| work\=The New York Times \| title\=How Thursday Became the New Friday \| first\=Katie \| last\=Hafner \| date\=6 November 2005 \| access\-date\=28 March 2010}} ### Elections in the United Kingdom In the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom"), all [general elections](/wiki/General_election "General election") since 1935 have been held on a Thursday, and this has become a tradition, although not a requirement of the law — which merely states that an election may be held on any day "except Saturdays, Sundays, Christmas Eve, Christmas Day, Good Friday, bank holidays in any part of the United Kingdom and any day appointed for public thanksgiving and mourning".{{cite act\|url\=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1983/2/schedule/1/part/I/1996\-11\-01\|title\=Representation of the People Act 1983\|date\=1 November 1996\|access\-date\=3 November 2016\|articletype\=Schedule\|article\=1}} Additionally, local elections are usually held on the first Thursday in May.{{citation needed\|date\=November 2016}}{{Cite web \|title\=General elections \- UK Parliament \|url\=https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/elections\-and\-voting/general/}} The [Electoral Administration Act 2006](/wiki/Electoral_Administration_Act_2006 "Electoral Administration Act 2006") removed [Maundy Thursday](/wiki/Maundy_Thursday "Maundy Thursday") as an excluded day on the electoral timetable, therefore an election can now be held on Maundy Thursday; prior to this elections were sometimes scheduled on the Tuesday before as an alternative.
[ "Cultural and religious practices\n--------------------------------", "### Christian holidays", "In the [Christian](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\") tradition, [Maundy Thursday](/wiki/Maundy_Thursday \"Maundy Thursday\") or Holy Thursday is the Thursday before [Easter](/wiki/Easter \"Easter\") — the day on which the [Last Supper](/wiki/Last_Supper \"Last Supper\") occurred. Also known as *Sheer Thursday* in the United Kingdom, it is traditionally a day of cleaning and giving out Maundy money there. Holy Thursday is part of [Holy Week](/wiki/Holy_Week \"Holy Week\").", "In the [Eastern Orthodox Church](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church \"Eastern Orthodox Church\"), Thursdays are dedicated to the [Apostles](/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament \"Apostles in the New Testament\") and [Saint Nicholas](/wiki/Saint_Nicholas \"Saint Nicholas\"). The [Octoechos](/wiki/Octoechos_%28liturgy%29 \"Octoechos (liturgy)\") contains [hymns](/wiki/Hymn \"Hymn\") on these themes, arranged in an eight\\-week cycle, that are chanted on Thursdays throughout the year. At the end of [Divine Services](/wiki/Divine_Services \"Divine Services\") on Thursday, the [dismissal](/wiki/Dismissal_%28liturgy%29 \"Dismissal (liturgy)\") begins with the words: \"May Christ our True God, through the [intercessions](/wiki/Intercession \"Intercession\") of his most\\-pure [Mother](/wiki/Theotokos \"Theotokos\"), of the holy, glorious and all\\-laudable Apostles, of our [Father](/wiki/Holy_Fathers \"Holy Fathers\") among the [saints](/wiki/Saint \"Saint\") Nicholas, [Archbishop](/wiki/Archbishop \"Archbishop\") of [Myra](/wiki/Myra \"Myra\") in [Lycia](/wiki/Lycia \"Lycia\"), the [Wonder\\-worker](/wiki/Wonder-worker \"Wonder-worker\")…\"", "[Ascension Thursday](/wiki/Ascension_of_Jesus_Christ \"Ascension of Jesus Christ\") is 40 days after Easter, when Christ ascended into [Heaven](/wiki/Heaven \"Heaven\").", "### Hinduism", "In [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism \"Hinduism\"), Thursday is associated with the [Navagraha](/wiki/Navagraha \"Navagraha\") [Brihaspati](/wiki/Brihaspati \"Brihaspati\"), whom devotees of this graha will fast pray and fast on Thursdays. The day is dedicated to the deity [Vishnu](/wiki/Vishnu \"Vishnu\") or his [avatars](/wiki/Avatar \"Avatar\"), such as [Rama](/wiki/Rama \"Rama\"), [Parshurama](/wiki/Parshurama \"Parshurama\"), [Narasimha](/wiki/Narasimha \"Narasimha\"), and [Buddha](/wiki/Buddha_in_Hinduism \"Buddha in Hinduism\"). However, Wednesday is dedicated to his avatars of [Krishna](/wiki/Krishna \"Krishna\") and [Vithoba](/wiki/Vithoba \"Vithoba\"). Devotees usually fast on this day in honor of Vishnu and his avatars, especially [Vaishnava](/wiki/Vaishnavism \"Vaishnavism\") Hindus.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://pujayagna.com/blogs/hindu\\-fasting\\-days/fasting\\-in\\-hinduism \\| title\\=Hindu Fasting }}{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.learnreligions.com/hindu\\-deities\\-rituals\\-for\\-week\\-1770073 \\| title\\=Weekly Rituals in the Practice of Hinduism }}", "### Islam", "In [Islam](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\"), Thursdays are one of the days in a week in which Muslims are encouraged to do [voluntary fasting](/wiki/Fasting_in_Islam%23Days_of_voluntary_fasting \"Fasting in Islam#Days of voluntary fasting\"), the other being Mondays.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Fasting on Mondays and Thursdays or on Three Days of each Month? \\- Islam Question \\& Answer \\|url\\=https://islamqa.info/en/answers/69781/fasting\\-on\\-mondays\\-and\\-thursdays\\-or\\-on\\-three\\-days\\-of\\-each\\-month \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-27 \\|website\\=islamqa.info \\|language\\=en}}", "### Judaism", "In [Judaism](/wiki/Judaism \"Judaism\"), Thursdays are considered auspicious days for fasting. The [Didache](/wiki/Didache \"Didache\") warned early [Christians](/wiki/Christians \"Christians\") not to fast on Thursdays to avoid [Judaizing](/wiki/Judaizers \"Judaizers\"), and suggested Fridays instead.", "In Judaism the [Torah](/wiki/Torah \"Torah\") is read in public on Thursday mornings, and special penitential prayers are said on Thursday, unless there is a special occasion for happiness which cancels them.", "### Druze faith", "[thumb\\|[Druze Prayer house](/wiki/Khalwat_al-Bayada \"Khalwat al-Bayada\") in Daliyat al\\-Karmel](/wiki/File:DrusischerTempel.jpg \"DrusischerTempel.jpg\")\nFormal [Druze](/wiki/Druze \"Druze\") worship is confined to weekly meeting on Thursday evenings, during which all members of community gather together to discuss local issues before those not initiated into the secrets of the faith (the juhhāl, or the ignorant) are dismissed, and those who are \"uqqāl\" or \"enlightened\" (those few initiated in the Druze holy books) remain to read and study their [holy scriptures](/wiki/Epistles_of_Wisdom \"Epistles of Wisdom\").{{cite book\\|author1\\=Samy S. Swayd\\|title\\=The A to Z of the Druzes\\|date\\=2009\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Rowman \\& Littlefield]]\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8108\\-6836\\-6\\|page\\=xxxix}}", "### Practices in countries", "{{more citations needed\\| section\\|date\\=January 2008}}\nIn [Finland](/wiki/Finland \"Finland\") and [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden \"Sweden\"), [pea soup](/wiki/Pea_soup \"Pea soup\") is traditionally served on Thursdays.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://finland.fi/life\\-society/pea\\-soup\\-tradition\\-is\\-weekly\\-tbt\\-passion\\-in\\-finland/\\|title\\=Pea soup tradition is weekly \\#TBT passion in Finland\\|access\\-date\\=9 February 2021\\|work\\=This Is Finland\\|date\\=4 January 2017}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.swedishfood.com/swedish\\-food\\-recipes\\-starters/134\\-pea\\-soup\\|title\\=Yellow pea soup\\|access\\-date\\=9 February 2021\\|work\\=SwedishFood.com}}", "In [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia \"Indonesia\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=https://fsb.ung.ac.id/home/berita/hmj\\-mengajak\\-mahasiswa\\-untuk\\-memakai\\-batik\\-setiap\\-hari\\-kamis \\|title\\=HMJ Mengajak Mahasiswa Untuk Memakai Batik Setiap Hari Kamis \\|lang\\=id \\|trans\\-title\\=\\[\\[Student society\\|Department Student Organization]] Invites Students to Wear Batik Every Thursday \\|last\\=Kadhapy \\|first\\=Moh. \\|date\\=20 September 2023 \\|website\\=Fakultas Sastra dan Budaya \\[\\[State University of Gorontalo\\|Universitas Negeri Gorontalo]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Student society\\|Department Student Organization]] of Indonesian Language and Art Department of Art and Culture Faculty of \\[\\[State University of Gorontalo]] (HMJ BSI FSB UNG) \\|access\\-date\\=23 March 2024}} and [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia \"Malaysia\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.liputan6\\.com/lifestyle/read/4696719/parlemen\\-malaysia\\-jadikan\\-setiap\\-kamis\\-sebagai\\-hari\\-batik \\|title\\=Parlemen Malaysia Jadikan Setiap Kamis Sebagai Hari Batik \\|lang\\=id \\|trans\\-title\\=\\[\\[Malaysian Parliament]] Makes Every Thursday Batik Day \\|last\\=Mutiah \\|first\\=Dinny \\|date\\=29 October 2021 \\|website\\=Liputan 6 Lifestyle \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Liputan 6]] \\|access\\-date\\=23 March 2024}} in a week, [batik](/wiki/Batik \"Batik\") clothing is usually worn on Thursday, especially at education and civil servant institutions.", "For [Thai Buddhist](/wiki/Thai_Buddhist \"Thai Buddhist\"), Thursday is considered the \"Teacher's Day\", and it is believed that one should begin one's education on this auspicious day. Thai students still pay homages to their teachers in specific ceremony always held on a selected Thursday. And graduation day in Thai universities, which can vary depending on each university, almost always will be held on a Thursday.", "In the [Thai solar calendar](/wiki/Thai_solar_calendar \"Thai solar calendar\"), the colour associated with Thursday is orange.Segaller, Denis (2005\\). *Thai Ways*. Bangkok: Silkworm Books. [ISBN](/wiki/ISBN_%28identifier%29 \"ISBN (identifier)\") [9781628400083](/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781628400083 \"BookSources/9781628400083\").", "In the United States, [Thanksgiving Day](/wiki/Thanksgiving_%28United_States%29 \"Thanksgiving (United States)\") is an annual festival celebrated on the fourth Thursday in November.", "### Conventional weekly events", "In Australia, most cinema movies premieres are held on Thursdays. Also, most Australians are paid on a Thursday, either weekly or fortnightly. Shopping malls see this as an opportunity to open longer than usual, generally until 9 pm, as most pay cheques are cleared by Thursday morning.", "In Norway, Thursday has also traditionally been the day when most shops and malls are open later than on the other weekdays, although the majority of shopping malls now are open until 8 pm or 9 pm every weekday.", "In the USSR of the 1970s and 1980s Thursday was the \"Fish Day\" ({{lang\\-ru\\|\\[\\[:ru:Рыбный день\\|Рыбный день]]}}, *Rybny den*), when the nation's [foodservice](/wiki/Foodservice \"Foodservice\") establishments were supposed to serve fish (rather than meat) dishes.{{citation\n\\|first1\\=Irina \\|last1\\=Petrosian\\|first2\\= David \\|last2\\=Underwood\\|year\\=2006\n\\|isbn\\=1\\-4116\\-9865\\-7\\|title\\=Armenian Food: Fact, Fiction \\& Folklore\\|series\\=Armenian Research Center collection\n\\|edition\\=2\\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=0oXYX9Qzx9oC\\&pg\\=PA115\n\\|page\\=115}}", "For college and university students, Thursday is sometimes referred to as the new Friday. There are often fewer or sometimes no classes on Fridays and more opportunities to hold parties on Thursday night and sleep in on Friday. As a consequence, some call Thursday \"thirstday\" or \"thirsty Thursday\".{{cite news\\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/06/education/edlife/hafner.html?\\_r\\=1 \\| work\\=The New York Times \\| title\\=How Thursday Became the New Friday \\| first\\=Katie \\| last\\=Hafner \\| date\\=6 November 2005 \\| access\\-date\\=28 March 2010}}", "### Elections in the United Kingdom", "In the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\"), all [general elections](/wiki/General_election \"General election\") since 1935 have been held on a Thursday, and this has become a tradition, although not a requirement of the law — which merely states that an election may be held on any day \"except Saturdays, Sundays, Christmas Eve, Christmas Day, Good Friday, bank holidays in any part of the United Kingdom and any day appointed for public thanksgiving and mourning\".{{cite act\\|url\\=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1983/2/schedule/1/part/I/1996\\-11\\-01\\|title\\=Representation of the People Act 1983\\|date\\=1 November 1996\\|access\\-date\\=3 November 2016\\|articletype\\=Schedule\\|article\\=1}}", "Additionally, local elections are usually held on the first Thursday in May.{{citation needed\\|date\\=November 2016}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=General elections \\- UK Parliament \\|url\\=https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/elections\\-and\\-voting/general/}}", "The [Electoral Administration Act 2006](/wiki/Electoral_Administration_Act_2006 \"Electoral Administration Act 2006\") removed [Maundy Thursday](/wiki/Maundy_Thursday \"Maundy Thursday\") as an excluded day on the electoral timetable, therefore an election can now be held on Maundy Thursday; prior to this elections were sometimes scheduled on the Tuesday before as an alternative.", "" ]
Life and career --------------- Born in [London](/wiki/London "London"), the son of solicitor [Dingwall Latham Bateson](/wiki/Dingwall_Latham_Bateson "Dingwall Latham Bateson") and the great\-nephew of rugby player [Harold Dingwall Bateson](/wiki/Harold_Dingwall_Bateson "Harold Dingwall Bateson"), he was educated at [Lockers Park School](/wiki/Lockers_Park_School "Lockers Park School") in Hertfordshire,[Obituary: Timothy Bateson](https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2009/nov/08/timothy-bateson-obituary), *[The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian "The Guardian")*, 8 November 2009 [Uppingham School](/wiki/Uppingham_School "Uppingham School") in [Rutland](/wiki/Rutland "Rutland") and [Wadham College, Oxford](/wiki/Wadham_College%2C_Oxford "Wadham College, Oxford"). At [Oxford](/wiki/University_of_Oxford "University of Oxford"), he read history, rowed [cox](/wiki/Coxswain "Coxswain") for the [Wadham College Boat Club](/wiki/Wadham_College_Boat_Club "Wadham College Boat Club") during [Eights Week](/wiki/Eights_Week "Eights Week") and performed in the [Oxford University Dramatic Society](/wiki/Oxford_University_Dramatic_Society "Oxford University Dramatic Society").Michael Coveney [Obituary](https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2009/nov/08/timothy-bateson-obituary), *The Guardian*, 8 November 2009 Bateson's stage credits included the first British production of [Samuel Beckett](/wiki/Samuel_Beckett "Samuel Beckett")'s *[Waiting for Godot](/wiki/Waiting_for_Godot "Waiting for Godot")* in 1955 at the [Arts Theatre](/wiki/Arts_Theatre "Arts Theatre") in London in a production directed by [Peter Hall](/wiki/Peter_Hall_%28director%29 "Peter Hall (director)"). In 1957 he starred in the BBC adventure serial *[The Adventures of Peter Simple](/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Peter_Simple "The Adventures of Peter Simple")*. He appeared in many film, television and radio productions including *[The Avengers](/wiki/The_Avengers_%28TV_series%29 "The Avengers (TV series)")*, *[The Cadfael Chronicles](/wiki/The_Cadfael_Chronicles "The Cadfael Chronicles")*, *[Doctor Who](/wiki/Doctor_Who "Doctor Who")* (in the serial entitled "[The Ribos Operation](/wiki/The_Ribos_Operation "The Ribos Operation")") and *[Labyrinth](/wiki/Labyrinth_%281986_film%29 "Labyrinth (1986 film)")*. He also provided the voices for several characters in the children's TV series *[TUGS](/wiki/Tugs_%28TV_series%29 "Tugs (TV series)")* (1989\). Most notably, he provided the voice of [O.J.](/wiki/List_of_Tugs_characters "List of Tugs characters"), the oldest member of the Star Fleet. Since 1994, he did the voice of Measley from the audiotape version of *[The Animals of Farthing Wood](/wiki/The_Animals_of_Farthing_Wood "The Animals of Farthing Wood")*. Bateson was featured in many productions of [Focus on the Family](/wiki/Focus_on_the_Family "Focus on the Family") Radio Theater. Among his appearances on the program were in *[A Christmas Carol](/wiki/A_Christmas_Carol "A Christmas Carol")* (1996\), where he doubled as narrator and as the [Ghost of Christmas Present](/wiki/Ghost_of_Christmas_Present "Ghost of Christmas Present"); *Dietrich Bonhoeffer: The Cost Of Freedom* (1997\), portraying Dr. [Karl Bonhoeffer](/wiki/Karl_Bonhoeffer "Karl Bonhoeffer"); *[Ben\-Hur](/wiki/Ben-Hur_%28play%29 "Ben-Hur (play)")* (2001\), portraying [Balthasar](/wiki/Balthazar_%28Magus%29 "Balthazar (Magus)"); *Father Gilbert Mysteries: The Silver Cord* (2004\), portraying Mr. Lehman; and *[Silas Marner](/wiki/Silas_Marner "Silas Marner")* (2007\), portraying Mr. Macey. He voiced the house\-elf [Kreacher](/wiki/Kreacher "Kreacher") in *[Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix](/wiki/Harry_Potter_and_the_Order_of_the_Phoenix_%28film%29 "Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix (film)")*, his last work.{{Cite web \| url\=https://www.aveleyman.com/ActorCredit.aspx?ActorID\=1114 \|title \= Timothy Bateson}}
[ "Life and career\n---------------", "Born in [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), the son of solicitor [Dingwall Latham Bateson](/wiki/Dingwall_Latham_Bateson \"Dingwall Latham Bateson\") and the great\\-nephew of rugby player [Harold Dingwall Bateson](/wiki/Harold_Dingwall_Bateson \"Harold Dingwall Bateson\"), he was educated at [Lockers Park School](/wiki/Lockers_Park_School \"Lockers Park School\") in Hertfordshire,[Obituary: Timothy Bateson](https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2009/nov/08/timothy-bateson-obituary), *[The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian \"The Guardian\")*, 8 November 2009 [Uppingham School](/wiki/Uppingham_School \"Uppingham School\") in [Rutland](/wiki/Rutland \"Rutland\") and [Wadham College, Oxford](/wiki/Wadham_College%2C_Oxford \"Wadham College, Oxford\"). At [Oxford](/wiki/University_of_Oxford \"University of Oxford\"), he read history, rowed [cox](/wiki/Coxswain \"Coxswain\") for the [Wadham College Boat Club](/wiki/Wadham_College_Boat_Club \"Wadham College Boat Club\") during [Eights Week](/wiki/Eights_Week \"Eights Week\") and performed in the [Oxford University Dramatic Society](/wiki/Oxford_University_Dramatic_Society \"Oxford University Dramatic Society\").Michael Coveney [Obituary](https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2009/nov/08/timothy-bateson-obituary), *The Guardian*, 8 November 2009", "Bateson's stage credits included the first British production of [Samuel Beckett](/wiki/Samuel_Beckett \"Samuel Beckett\")'s *[Waiting for Godot](/wiki/Waiting_for_Godot \"Waiting for Godot\")* in 1955 at the [Arts Theatre](/wiki/Arts_Theatre \"Arts Theatre\") in London in a production directed by [Peter Hall](/wiki/Peter_Hall_%28director%29 \"Peter Hall (director)\"). In 1957 he starred in the BBC adventure serial *[The Adventures of Peter Simple](/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Peter_Simple \"The Adventures of Peter Simple\")*.", "He appeared in many film, television and radio productions including *[The Avengers](/wiki/The_Avengers_%28TV_series%29 \"The Avengers (TV series)\")*, *[The Cadfael Chronicles](/wiki/The_Cadfael_Chronicles \"The Cadfael Chronicles\")*, *[Doctor Who](/wiki/Doctor_Who \"Doctor Who\")* (in the serial entitled \"[The Ribos Operation](/wiki/The_Ribos_Operation \"The Ribos Operation\")\") and *[Labyrinth](/wiki/Labyrinth_%281986_film%29 \"Labyrinth (1986 film)\")*.", "He also provided the voices for several characters in the children's TV series *[TUGS](/wiki/Tugs_%28TV_series%29 \"Tugs (TV series)\")* (1989\\). Most notably, he provided the voice of [O.J.](/wiki/List_of_Tugs_characters \"List of Tugs characters\"), the oldest member of the Star Fleet.", "Since 1994, he did the voice of Measley from the audiotape version of *[The Animals of Farthing Wood](/wiki/The_Animals_of_Farthing_Wood \"The Animals of Farthing Wood\")*.", "Bateson was featured in many productions of [Focus on the Family](/wiki/Focus_on_the_Family \"Focus on the Family\") Radio Theater. Among his appearances on the program were in *[A Christmas Carol](/wiki/A_Christmas_Carol \"A Christmas Carol\")* (1996\\), where he doubled as narrator and as the [Ghost of Christmas Present](/wiki/Ghost_of_Christmas_Present \"Ghost of Christmas Present\"); *Dietrich Bonhoeffer: The Cost Of Freedom* (1997\\), portraying Dr. [Karl Bonhoeffer](/wiki/Karl_Bonhoeffer \"Karl Bonhoeffer\"); *[Ben\\-Hur](/wiki/Ben-Hur_%28play%29 \"Ben-Hur (play)\")* (2001\\), portraying [Balthasar](/wiki/Balthazar_%28Magus%29 \"Balthazar (Magus)\"); *Father Gilbert Mysteries: The Silver Cord* (2004\\), portraying Mr. Lehman; and *[Silas Marner](/wiki/Silas_Marner \"Silas Marner\")* (2007\\), portraying Mr. Macey.", "He voiced the house\\-elf [Kreacher](/wiki/Kreacher \"Kreacher\") in *[Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix](/wiki/Harry_Potter_and_the_Order_of_the_Phoenix_%28film%29 \"Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix (film)\")*, his last work.{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://www.aveleyman.com/ActorCredit.aspx?ActorID\\=1114 \\|title \\= Timothy Bateson}}", "" ]
Economy ------- {{Wide image\|RioBranco(RBR).jpg\|600px\|1st District of Rio Branco, a historically neglected region, which, over time, became the part of the city where the commerce concentrates the most. On the left, the south part of Rio Branco, a region linked to the \[\[ring road]] of the city (Via Verde) which has the presence of large enterprises such as; shopping malls, \[\[wholesale]] stores, government agencies, universities, soccer stadiums, convention centers, parks, etc. On the right, one can see the neighborhoods of Bosque, Estação Experimental, Jardim Europa, Abraão Alab, Cerâmica, Downtown Rio Branco among others.}} Historically, the economy of Rio Branco has been based on the extraction of [rubber](/wiki/Natural_rubber "Natural rubber") and [brazil nuts](/wiki/Brazil_nut "Brazil nut"). Currently, [wood](/wiki/Wood "Wood") is the main product of export in the state. It is also a major producer of [açaí fruit](/wiki/A%C3%A7a%C3%AD_palm "Açaí palm"), [copaiba](/wiki/Copaiba "Copaiba") oil and meat. Rio Branco is currently undergoing a transformation in its economy; transformation that includes an expansion to [Agribusiness](/wiki/Agribusiness "Agribusiness"), [Aquaculture](/wiki/Aquaculture "Aquaculture") and [Ecotourism](/wiki/Ecotourism "Ecotourism"). Brazil's largest oil and gas company [Petrobras](/wiki/Petrobras "Petrobras"), says the region has potential for future [extraction of petroleum](/wiki/Extraction_of_petroleum "Extraction of petroleum").{{cite web \|url\=https://petrobras.com.br/fatos\-e\-dados/blocos\-na\-bacia\-do\-acre\-e\-exploracao\-de\-gas\-de\-xisto\-respostas\-a\-folha\-de\-s\-paulo.htm \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200623165842/https://petrobras.com.br/fatos\-e\-dados/blocos\-na\-bacia\-do\-acre\-e\-exploracao\-de\-gas\-de\-xisto\-respostas\-a\-folha\-de\-s\-paulo.htm \|archive\-date\=2020\-06\-23 \|title\=Petrobras \- Fatos e Dados \- Blocos na Bacia do Acre e exploração de gás de xisto: respostas à Folha de S. Paulo}}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.ceicdata.com/en/brazil/petroleum\-sales\-by\-state\-acre/petroleum\-product\-sales\-acre\-barrel\-diesel \|title \= Brazil Petroleum Product Sales: Acre: Barrel: Diesel {{!}} Economic Indicators {{!}} CEIC}} ### Media {{col\-begin}}{{col\-2}} VHF television 2 – TV Village (Culture / TV Brazil) 4 – TV Acre (Globo TV) 5 – TV 5 (Band) 8 – TV Rio Branco (SBT) 11 – TV Gazeta (Record) 13 – TV Union AC network (Union) UHF television 19 – Brazil Network 21 – Amazon Sat 27 – Life Network 40 – TV 40 (Record News) 50 – Good News 54 – 58 RIT – TV Nazareth Digital UHF 14 – Acre HD TV {{col\-2}} AM radio Progress AM: 740 kHz AM Leader: 800 kHz University AM: 1350 kHz, Broadcast Acre: 1400 kHz FM radio Ecoacre FM: 90\.9 MHz Gazeta FM: 93\.3 MHz Union FM: 94\.7 MHz Village FM: 96\.9 MHz Acre: MHz FM 98\.1MHz Good News FM: 107\.9 MHz Latin FM: 101\.1 MHz FM 104\.9 MHz Gameleira {{col\-end}} The city has six newspapers; two are published daily and four weekly. *O Tabloide*, *A Gazeta*, *Página 20*, *A Tribuna*, and *O Estado* are weekly newspapers. Cellular carriers who maintain coverage in the region are [Vivo S.A.](/wiki/Vivo_S.A. "Vivo S.A."), TIM, [Oi](/wiki/Oi_%28telecommunications%29 "Oi (telecommunications)"), and [Claro](/wiki/Claro_Americas "Claro Americas"). The main companies offering fixed telephone coverage in the city are [Embratel](/wiki/Embratel "Embratel"), Oi, and [GVT](/wiki/Global_Village_Telecom "Global Village Telecom"). ### Transportation [thumb\|The Terminal Urbano bus station is located in the city centre.](/wiki/File:Acre_rio_Branco_%28137%29.jpg "Acre rio Branco (137).jpg") [thumb\|The Via Verde Ring Road is the city's [ring road](/wiki/Ring_road "Ring road") and it connects the main highways that reach Rio Branco, which are; the [BR\-364](/wiki/BR-364 "BR-364") and the [Interoceanic Highway](/wiki/Interoceanic_Highway "Interoceanic Highway"). In it, one can also find the [Via Verde Mall](/wiki/Via_Verde_Shopping "Via Verde Shopping") \- one of the city's shopping malls \- important hospitals, schools, hotels and the [Rio Branco International Bus Station](/wiki/Rodovi%C3%A1ria_Internacional_de_Rio_Branco "Rodoviária Internacional de Rio Branco").](/wiki/File:Rio_Branco%28RBR%292.jpg "Rio Branco(RBR)2.jpg") The public transport system has improved in recent years, mainly due to the construction of the Terminal Urbano (Urban Bus Terminal) near the center of town. However, the buses are still delayed. Taxis, including motorcycle taxis, are widely used by the population. Rio Branco is the [Brazilian state capital city](/wiki/List_of_capitals_of_subdivisions_of_Brazil "List of capitals of subdivisions of Brazil") with the largest proportional [bike path](/wiki/Bike_path "Bike path") network per inhabitant in the country.{{cite web \|url\=https://g1\.globo.com/economia/noticia/2018/08/28/malha\-cicloviaria\-das\-capitais\-cresce\-133\-em\-4\-anos\-e\-ja\-passa\-de\-3\-mil\-quilometros.ghtml \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200623165842/https://g1\.globo.com/economia/noticia/2018/08/28/malha\-cicloviaria\-das\-capitais\-cresce\-133\-em\-4\-anos\-e\-ja\-passa\-de\-3\-mil\-quilometros.ghtml \|archive\-date\=2020\-06\-23 \|title\=Malha cicloviária das capitais cresce 133% em 4 anos e já passa de 3 mil quilômetros \- G1}} [Rio Branco\-Plácido de Castro International Airport](/wiki/Rio_Branco_International_Airport "Rio Branco International Airport") is {{convert\|18\|km}} away on the [BR\-364](/wiki/BR-364 "BR-364") highway in the rural area. This new airport was officially opened on November 22, 1999, when the older facility, [Presidente Médici International Airport](/wiki/Presidente_M%C3%A9dici_International_Airport "Presidente Médici International Airport"), was closed. The BR\-364 was twinned to facilitate access to the airport, which serves domestic and international aviation and military operations, with scheduled airlines and air taxis. The terminal is ready to receive 320,000 passengers per year and performs about 14 operations a day. By August 2010 it was the seventh\-busiest airport in [Northern Brazil](/wiki/Northern_Brazil "Northern Brazil"), and the 38th busiest airport in the country. The [BR\-364](/wiki/BR-364 "BR-364") and the [BR\-317](/wiki/BR-317 "BR-317") ([Interoceanic Highway](/wiki/Interoceanic_Highway "Interoceanic Highway")) are the main highways in Acre, and the Via Verde Ring Road is the one that connects them. To the east, the BR\-364 connects Rio Branco to [Southeastern Brazil](/wiki/Southeast_Region%2C_Brazil "Southeast Region, Brazil"). The highway cuts west across the state, linking Rio Branco to [Cruzeiro do Sul](/wiki/Cruzeiro_do_Sul%2C_Acre "Cruzeiro do Sul, Acre"), the second major city of the state, through the municipalities of [Sena Madureira](/wiki/Sena_Madureira "Sena Madureira"), [Manoel Urbano](/wiki/Manoel_Urbano "Manoel Urbano"), [Feijó](/wiki/Feij%C3%B3%2C_Acre "Feijó, Acre"), [Tarauacá](/wiki/Tarauac%C3%A1 "Tarauacá"), and [Rodrigues Alves](/wiki/Rodrigues_Alves%2C_Acre "Rodrigues Alves, Acre"). The BR\-317 has a length of {{convert\|330\|km}}, and links the capital to the south of the state, through the municipalities of Senador Guiomard, Capixaba, and [Epitaciolândia](/wiki/Epitaciol%C3%A2ndia "Epitaciolândia"), on the border with Republic of [Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia "Bolivia"). From [Brasiléia](/wiki/Brasil%C3%A9ia "Brasiléia") the road continues for another {{convert\|110\|km}} to reach the city of [Assis Brasil](/wiki/Assis_Brasil "Assis Brasil") on the border with [Peru](/wiki/Peru "Peru"). The highway continues on the Peruvian side as part of the [Interoceanic Highway](/wiki/Interoceanic_Highway "Interoceanic Highway"){{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/23/magazine/south\-america\-road\-trip.html \|title\=Traveling From Ocean to Ocean Across South America \|date\=19 February 2014 \|newspaper\=\[\[New York Times]] \|first\=Monte \|last\=Reel}} and as Highway 30C and Highway 26 to the city of [Cuzco](/wiki/Cuzco "Cuzco"). ### Attractions The Rio Branco Palace was built in 1930 for the seat of the state government. The building was restored beginning in 1999 to preserve its historical character. In 2008 it was transformed into a museum of history. Gameleira is a historical site located in the curve of the Acre River, where city was first founded. Today, more than a century later, the [strangler fig](/wiki/Strangler_fig "Strangler fig") located there is a vigorous tree, measuring {{convert\|2\.5\|m\|ft}} in diameter at the trunk and {{convert\|20\|m\|ft}} in height. Opened in 1958, the Cathedral of [Our Lady of Nazareth](/wiki/Legend_of_Nazar%C3%A9 "Legend of Nazaré") was constructed in the style of an ancient Roman basilica. Its interior has three naves separated by 36 stained\-glass windows, donated by families of Acre. The exterior is composed of gables, the cross, and the churchyard. In 2007 the church was considered public property of the state of Acre. [thumb\|[Rodeo](/wiki/Rodeo "Rodeo") at ExpoAcre [Field Day](/wiki/Field_day_%28agriculture%29 "Field day (agriculture)"), in Rio Branco, held in the months of July and August.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.abcz.org.br/noticias/noticia/27024/46\-\-\-expoacre\-reune\-mais\-de\-100\-zebuinos\-em\-pista\|title \= In Rio Branco, the 46th ExpoAcre brings together more than 100 zebus on the track}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.gob.pe/institucion/muniurubamba/noticias/638973\-productores\-urubambinos\-participan\-en\-la\-expo\-acre\-2022\|title \= Productores urubambinos participan en la ExpoAcre 2022, una de las ferias más importantes de Brasil (Urubamba producers participate at ExpoAcre 2022, one of the most important fairs in Brazil) \|website\= Government of Peru}}](/wiki/File:Rodeio_Expoacre1.jpg "Rodeio Expoacre1.jpg") Also known as the Square of the Revolution, Square Plácido de Castro is located in the heart of the city, opposite the headquarters of the Military Police of Acre. Recently, the square underwent renovation. The Autonomists Memorial has a museum, exhibitions of paintings by regional artists, a coffee shop, and a drama theatre. The museum possesses a large collection of historic photos of the state, as well as historical objects used during the Revolution. The [Museum of Rubber](/wiki/Museu_da_Borracha "Museu da Borracha") includes sections on archeology and paleontology, and a historical collection of manuscripts and documents relating to the history of Acre. The Catwalk Joaquim Macedo is a pedestrian bridge linking the two districts of the city. Passing over the Acre River, the catwalk is a cable suspension bridge completed in 2006\. The nearby Old Market, built in the 1920s, was recently refurbished. Maternity Park was opened on September 28, 2002\. It has sports facilities, kiosks, restaurants, biking trails, and skate parks. Rio Branco has two shopping malls: the Mira Shopping and the [Via Verde Shopping](/wiki/Via_Verde_Shopping "Via Verde Shopping"), which was completed in 2011\.{{cite web\|url\=http://viaverdeshopping.com.br/ \|title\=Shopping Viaverde Online \|publisher\=Viaverdeshopping.com.br \|date\= \|accessdate\=2022\-08\-26}} The sepulcher of [Raimundo Irineu Serra](/wiki/Mestre_Irineu "Mestre Irineu"), founder of the religion known internationally as [Santo Daime](/wiki/Santo_Daime "Santo Daime"), is located in the Alto Santo neighborhood and has become a place of international pilgrimage.
[ "Economy\n-------", "{{Wide image\\|RioBranco(RBR).jpg\\|600px\\|1st District of Rio Branco, a historically neglected region, which, over time, became the part of the city where the commerce concentrates the most. On the left, the south part of Rio Branco, a region linked to the \\[\\[ring road]] of the city (Via Verde) which has the presence of large enterprises such as; shopping malls, \\[\\[wholesale]] stores, government agencies, universities, soccer stadiums, convention centers, parks, etc. On the right, one can see the neighborhoods of Bosque, Estação Experimental, Jardim Europa, Abraão Alab, Cerâmica, Downtown Rio Branco among others.}}", "Historically, the economy of Rio Branco has been based on the extraction of [rubber](/wiki/Natural_rubber \"Natural rubber\") and [brazil nuts](/wiki/Brazil_nut \"Brazil nut\"). Currently, [wood](/wiki/Wood \"Wood\") is the main product of export in the state. It is also a major producer of [açaí fruit](/wiki/A%C3%A7a%C3%AD_palm \"Açaí palm\"), [copaiba](/wiki/Copaiba \"Copaiba\") oil and meat. Rio Branco is currently undergoing a transformation in its economy; transformation that includes an expansion to [Agribusiness](/wiki/Agribusiness \"Agribusiness\"), [Aquaculture](/wiki/Aquaculture \"Aquaculture\") and [Ecotourism](/wiki/Ecotourism \"Ecotourism\"). Brazil's largest oil and gas company [Petrobras](/wiki/Petrobras \"Petrobras\"), says the region has potential for future [extraction of petroleum](/wiki/Extraction_of_petroleum \"Extraction of petroleum\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://petrobras.com.br/fatos\\-e\\-dados/blocos\\-na\\-bacia\\-do\\-acre\\-e\\-exploracao\\-de\\-gas\\-de\\-xisto\\-respostas\\-a\\-folha\\-de\\-s\\-paulo.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200623165842/https://petrobras.com.br/fatos\\-e\\-dados/blocos\\-na\\-bacia\\-do\\-acre\\-e\\-exploracao\\-de\\-gas\\-de\\-xisto\\-respostas\\-a\\-folha\\-de\\-s\\-paulo.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-06\\-23 \\|title\\=Petrobras \\- Fatos e Dados \\- Blocos na Bacia do Acre e exploração de gás de xisto: respostas à Folha de S. Paulo}}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.ceicdata.com/en/brazil/petroleum\\-sales\\-by\\-state\\-acre/petroleum\\-product\\-sales\\-acre\\-barrel\\-diesel \\|title \\= Brazil Petroleum Product Sales: Acre: Barrel: Diesel {{!}} Economic Indicators {{!}} CEIC}}", "### Media", "{{col\\-begin}}{{col\\-2}}\n VHF television\n 2 – TV Village (Culture / TV Brazil)\n 4 – TV Acre (Globo TV)\n 5 – TV 5 (Band)\n 8 – TV Rio Branco (SBT)\n 11 – TV Gazeta (Record)\n 13 – TV Union AC network (Union)", "UHF television\n 19 – Brazil Network\n 21 – Amazon Sat\n 27 – Life Network\n 40 – TV 40 (Record News)\n 50 – Good News\n 54 – 58 RIT – TV Nazareth\n Digital UHF 14 – Acre HD TV\n{{col\\-2}}", "AM radio\n Progress AM: 740 kHz\n AM Leader: 800 kHz\n University AM: 1350 kHz,\n Broadcast Acre: 1400 kHz\n FM radio\n Ecoacre FM: 90\\.9 MHz\n Gazeta FM: 93\\.3 MHz\n Union FM: 94\\.7 MHz\n Village FM: 96\\.9 MHz\n Acre: MHz FM 98\\.1MHz\n Good News FM: 107\\.9 MHz\n Latin FM: 101\\.1 MHz\n FM 104\\.9 MHz Gameleira\n{{col\\-end}}", "The city has six newspapers; two are published daily and four weekly. *O Tabloide*, *A Gazeta*, *Página 20*, *A Tribuna*, and *O Estado* are weekly newspapers. Cellular carriers who maintain coverage in the region are [Vivo S.A.](/wiki/Vivo_S.A. \"Vivo S.A.\"), TIM, [Oi](/wiki/Oi_%28telecommunications%29 \"Oi (telecommunications)\"), and [Claro](/wiki/Claro_Americas \"Claro Americas\"). The main companies offering fixed telephone coverage in the city are [Embratel](/wiki/Embratel \"Embratel\"), Oi, and [GVT](/wiki/Global_Village_Telecom \"Global Village Telecom\").", "### Transportation", "[thumb\\|The Terminal Urbano bus station is located in the city centre.](/wiki/File:Acre_rio_Branco_%28137%29.jpg \"Acre rio Branco (137).jpg\")", "[thumb\\|The Via Verde Ring Road is the city's [ring road](/wiki/Ring_road \"Ring road\") and it connects the main highways that reach Rio Branco, which are; the [BR\\-364](/wiki/BR-364 \"BR-364\") and the [Interoceanic Highway](/wiki/Interoceanic_Highway \"Interoceanic Highway\"). In it, one can also find the [Via Verde Mall](/wiki/Via_Verde_Shopping \"Via Verde Shopping\") \\- one of the city's shopping malls \\- important hospitals, schools, hotels and the [Rio Branco International Bus Station](/wiki/Rodovi%C3%A1ria_Internacional_de_Rio_Branco \"Rodoviária Internacional de Rio Branco\").](/wiki/File:Rio_Branco%28RBR%292.jpg \"Rio Branco(RBR)2.jpg\")", "The public transport system has improved in recent years, mainly due to the construction of the Terminal Urbano (Urban Bus Terminal) near the center of town. However, the buses are still delayed. Taxis, including motorcycle taxis, are widely used by the population. Rio Branco is the [Brazilian state capital city](/wiki/List_of_capitals_of_subdivisions_of_Brazil \"List of capitals of subdivisions of Brazil\") with the largest proportional [bike path](/wiki/Bike_path \"Bike path\") network per inhabitant in the country.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://g1\\.globo.com/economia/noticia/2018/08/28/malha\\-cicloviaria\\-das\\-capitais\\-cresce\\-133\\-em\\-4\\-anos\\-e\\-ja\\-passa\\-de\\-3\\-mil\\-quilometros.ghtml \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200623165842/https://g1\\.globo.com/economia/noticia/2018/08/28/malha\\-cicloviaria\\-das\\-capitais\\-cresce\\-133\\-em\\-4\\-anos\\-e\\-ja\\-passa\\-de\\-3\\-mil\\-quilometros.ghtml \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-06\\-23 \\|title\\=Malha cicloviária das capitais cresce 133% em 4 anos e já passa de 3 mil quilômetros \\- G1}}", "[Rio Branco\\-Plácido de Castro International Airport](/wiki/Rio_Branco_International_Airport \"Rio Branco International Airport\") is {{convert\\|18\\|km}} away on the [BR\\-364](/wiki/BR-364 \"BR-364\") highway in the rural area. This new airport was officially opened on November 22, 1999, when the older facility, [Presidente Médici International Airport](/wiki/Presidente_M%C3%A9dici_International_Airport \"Presidente Médici International Airport\"), was closed. The BR\\-364 was twinned to facilitate access to the airport, which serves domestic and international aviation and military operations, with scheduled airlines and air taxis. The terminal is ready to receive 320,000 passengers per year and performs about 14 operations a day. By August 2010 it was the seventh\\-busiest airport in [Northern Brazil](/wiki/Northern_Brazil \"Northern Brazil\"), and the 38th busiest airport in the country.", "The [BR\\-364](/wiki/BR-364 \"BR-364\") and the [BR\\-317](/wiki/BR-317 \"BR-317\") ([Interoceanic Highway](/wiki/Interoceanic_Highway \"Interoceanic Highway\")) are the main highways in Acre, and the Via Verde Ring Road is the one that connects them. To the east, the BR\\-364 connects Rio Branco to [Southeastern Brazil](/wiki/Southeast_Region%2C_Brazil \"Southeast Region, Brazil\"). The highway cuts west across the state, linking Rio Branco to [Cruzeiro do Sul](/wiki/Cruzeiro_do_Sul%2C_Acre \"Cruzeiro do Sul, Acre\"), the second major city of the state, through the municipalities of [Sena Madureira](/wiki/Sena_Madureira \"Sena Madureira\"), [Manoel Urbano](/wiki/Manoel_Urbano \"Manoel Urbano\"), [Feijó](/wiki/Feij%C3%B3%2C_Acre \"Feijó, Acre\"), [Tarauacá](/wiki/Tarauac%C3%A1 \"Tarauacá\"), and [Rodrigues Alves](/wiki/Rodrigues_Alves%2C_Acre \"Rodrigues Alves, Acre\"). The BR\\-317 has a length of {{convert\\|330\\|km}}, and links the capital to the south of the state, through the municipalities of Senador Guiomard, Capixaba, and [Epitaciolândia](/wiki/Epitaciol%C3%A2ndia \"Epitaciolândia\"), on the border with Republic of [Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia \"Bolivia\"). From [Brasiléia](/wiki/Brasil%C3%A9ia \"Brasiléia\") the road continues for another {{convert\\|110\\|km}} to reach the city of [Assis Brasil](/wiki/Assis_Brasil \"Assis Brasil\") on the border with [Peru](/wiki/Peru \"Peru\"). The highway continues on the Peruvian side as part of the [Interoceanic Highway](/wiki/Interoceanic_Highway \"Interoceanic Highway\"){{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/23/magazine/south\\-america\\-road\\-trip.html \\|title\\=Traveling From Ocean to Ocean Across South America \\|date\\=19 February 2014 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[New York Times]] \\|first\\=Monte \\|last\\=Reel}} and as Highway 30C and Highway 26 to the city of [Cuzco](/wiki/Cuzco \"Cuzco\").", "### Attractions", "The Rio Branco Palace was built in 1930 for the seat of the state government. The building was restored beginning in 1999 to preserve its historical character. In 2008 it was transformed into a museum of history.", "Gameleira is a historical site located in the curve of the Acre River, where city was first founded. Today, more than a century later, the [strangler fig](/wiki/Strangler_fig \"Strangler fig\") located there is a vigorous tree, measuring {{convert\\|2\\.5\\|m\\|ft}} in diameter at the trunk and {{convert\\|20\\|m\\|ft}} in height.", "Opened in 1958, the Cathedral of [Our Lady of Nazareth](/wiki/Legend_of_Nazar%C3%A9 \"Legend of Nazaré\") was constructed in the style of an ancient Roman basilica. Its interior has three naves separated by 36 stained\\-glass windows, donated by families of Acre. The exterior is composed of gables, the cross, and the churchyard. In 2007 the church was considered public property of the state of Acre.\n[thumb\\|[Rodeo](/wiki/Rodeo \"Rodeo\") at ExpoAcre [Field Day](/wiki/Field_day_%28agriculture%29 \"Field day (agriculture)\"), in Rio Branco, held in the months of July and August.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.abcz.org.br/noticias/noticia/27024/46\\-\\-\\-expoacre\\-reune\\-mais\\-de\\-100\\-zebuinos\\-em\\-pista\\|title \\= In Rio Branco, the 46th ExpoAcre brings together more than 100 zebus on the track}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.gob.pe/institucion/muniurubamba/noticias/638973\\-productores\\-urubambinos\\-participan\\-en\\-la\\-expo\\-acre\\-2022\\|title \\= Productores urubambinos participan en la ExpoAcre 2022, una de las ferias más importantes de Brasil (Urubamba producers participate at ExpoAcre 2022, one of the most important fairs in Brazil) \\|website\\= Government of Peru}}](/wiki/File:Rodeio_Expoacre1.jpg \"Rodeio Expoacre1.jpg\")\nAlso known as the Square of the Revolution, Square Plácido de Castro is located in the heart of the city, opposite the headquarters of the Military Police of Acre. Recently, the square underwent renovation. The Autonomists Memorial has a museum, exhibitions of paintings by regional artists, a coffee shop, and a drama theatre. The museum possesses a large collection of historic photos of the state, as well as historical objects used during the Revolution. The [Museum of Rubber](/wiki/Museu_da_Borracha \"Museu da Borracha\") includes sections on archeology and paleontology, and a historical collection of manuscripts and documents relating to the history of Acre.", "The Catwalk Joaquim Macedo is a pedestrian bridge linking the two districts of the city. Passing over the Acre River, the catwalk is a cable suspension bridge completed in 2006\\. The nearby Old Market, built in the 1920s, was recently refurbished. Maternity Park was opened on September 28, 2002\\. It has sports facilities, kiosks, restaurants, biking trails, and skate parks.", "Rio Branco has two shopping malls: the Mira Shopping and the [Via Verde Shopping](/wiki/Via_Verde_Shopping \"Via Verde Shopping\"), which was completed in 2011\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://viaverdeshopping.com.br/ \\|title\\=Shopping Viaverde Online \\|publisher\\=Viaverdeshopping.com.br \\|date\\= \\|accessdate\\=2022\\-08\\-26}}", "The sepulcher of [Raimundo Irineu Serra](/wiki/Mestre_Irineu \"Mestre Irineu\"), founder of the religion known internationally as [Santo Daime](/wiki/Santo_Daime \"Santo Daime\"), is located in the Alto Santo neighborhood and has become a place of international pilgrimage.", "" ]
### Attractions The Rio Branco Palace was built in 1930 for the seat of the state government. The building was restored beginning in 1999 to preserve its historical character. In 2008 it was transformed into a museum of history. Gameleira is a historical site located in the curve of the Acre River, where city was first founded. Today, more than a century later, the [strangler fig](/wiki/Strangler_fig "Strangler fig") located there is a vigorous tree, measuring {{convert\|2\.5\|m\|ft}} in diameter at the trunk and {{convert\|20\|m\|ft}} in height. Opened in 1958, the Cathedral of [Our Lady of Nazareth](/wiki/Legend_of_Nazar%C3%A9 "Legend of Nazaré") was constructed in the style of an ancient Roman basilica. Its interior has three naves separated by 36 stained\-glass windows, donated by families of Acre. The exterior is composed of gables, the cross, and the churchyard. In 2007 the church was considered public property of the state of Acre. [thumb\|[Rodeo](/wiki/Rodeo "Rodeo") at ExpoAcre [Field Day](/wiki/Field_day_%28agriculture%29 "Field day (agriculture)"), in Rio Branco, held in the months of July and August.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.abcz.org.br/noticias/noticia/27024/46\-\-\-expoacre\-reune\-mais\-de\-100\-zebuinos\-em\-pista\|title \= In Rio Branco, the 46th ExpoAcre brings together more than 100 zebus on the track}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.gob.pe/institucion/muniurubamba/noticias/638973\-productores\-urubambinos\-participan\-en\-la\-expo\-acre\-2022\|title \= Productores urubambinos participan en la ExpoAcre 2022, una de las ferias más importantes de Brasil (Urubamba producers participate at ExpoAcre 2022, one of the most important fairs in Brazil) \|website\= Government of Peru}}](/wiki/File:Rodeio_Expoacre1.jpg "Rodeio Expoacre1.jpg") Also known as the Square of the Revolution, Square Plácido de Castro is located in the heart of the city, opposite the headquarters of the Military Police of Acre. Recently, the square underwent renovation. The Autonomists Memorial has a museum, exhibitions of paintings by regional artists, a coffee shop, and a drama theatre. The museum possesses a large collection of historic photos of the state, as well as historical objects used during the Revolution. The [Museum of Rubber](/wiki/Museu_da_Borracha "Museu da Borracha") includes sections on archeology and paleontology, and a historical collection of manuscripts and documents relating to the history of Acre. The Catwalk Joaquim Macedo is a pedestrian bridge linking the two districts of the city. Passing over the Acre River, the catwalk is a cable suspension bridge completed in 2006\. The nearby Old Market, built in the 1920s, was recently refurbished. Maternity Park was opened on September 28, 2002\. It has sports facilities, kiosks, restaurants, biking trails, and skate parks. Rio Branco has two shopping malls: the Mira Shopping and the [Via Verde Shopping](/wiki/Via_Verde_Shopping "Via Verde Shopping"), which was completed in 2011\.{{cite web\|url\=http://viaverdeshopping.com.br/ \|title\=Shopping Viaverde Online \|publisher\=Viaverdeshopping.com.br \|date\= \|accessdate\=2022\-08\-26}} The sepulcher of [Raimundo Irineu Serra](/wiki/Mestre_Irineu "Mestre Irineu"), founder of the religion known internationally as [Santo Daime](/wiki/Santo_Daime "Santo Daime"), is located in the Alto Santo neighborhood and has become a place of international pilgrimage.
[ "### Attractions", "The Rio Branco Palace was built in 1930 for the seat of the state government. The building was restored beginning in 1999 to preserve its historical character. In 2008 it was transformed into a museum of history.", "Gameleira is a historical site located in the curve of the Acre River, where city was first founded. Today, more than a century later, the [strangler fig](/wiki/Strangler_fig \"Strangler fig\") located there is a vigorous tree, measuring {{convert\\|2\\.5\\|m\\|ft}} in diameter at the trunk and {{convert\\|20\\|m\\|ft}} in height.", "Opened in 1958, the Cathedral of [Our Lady of Nazareth](/wiki/Legend_of_Nazar%C3%A9 \"Legend of Nazaré\") was constructed in the style of an ancient Roman basilica. Its interior has three naves separated by 36 stained\\-glass windows, donated by families of Acre. The exterior is composed of gables, the cross, and the churchyard. In 2007 the church was considered public property of the state of Acre.\n[thumb\\|[Rodeo](/wiki/Rodeo \"Rodeo\") at ExpoAcre [Field Day](/wiki/Field_day_%28agriculture%29 \"Field day (agriculture)\"), in Rio Branco, held in the months of July and August.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.abcz.org.br/noticias/noticia/27024/46\\-\\-\\-expoacre\\-reune\\-mais\\-de\\-100\\-zebuinos\\-em\\-pista\\|title \\= In Rio Branco, the 46th ExpoAcre brings together more than 100 zebus on the track}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.gob.pe/institucion/muniurubamba/noticias/638973\\-productores\\-urubambinos\\-participan\\-en\\-la\\-expo\\-acre\\-2022\\|title \\= Productores urubambinos participan en la ExpoAcre 2022, una de las ferias más importantes de Brasil (Urubamba producers participate at ExpoAcre 2022, one of the most important fairs in Brazil) \\|website\\= Government of Peru}}](/wiki/File:Rodeio_Expoacre1.jpg \"Rodeio Expoacre1.jpg\")\nAlso known as the Square of the Revolution, Square Plácido de Castro is located in the heart of the city, opposite the headquarters of the Military Police of Acre. Recently, the square underwent renovation. The Autonomists Memorial has a museum, exhibitions of paintings by regional artists, a coffee shop, and a drama theatre. The museum possesses a large collection of historic photos of the state, as well as historical objects used during the Revolution. The [Museum of Rubber](/wiki/Museu_da_Borracha \"Museu da Borracha\") includes sections on archeology and paleontology, and a historical collection of manuscripts and documents relating to the history of Acre.", "The Catwalk Joaquim Macedo is a pedestrian bridge linking the two districts of the city. Passing over the Acre River, the catwalk is a cable suspension bridge completed in 2006\\. The nearby Old Market, built in the 1920s, was recently refurbished. Maternity Park was opened on September 28, 2002\\. It has sports facilities, kiosks, restaurants, biking trails, and skate parks.", "Rio Branco has two shopping malls: the Mira Shopping and the [Via Verde Shopping](/wiki/Via_Verde_Shopping \"Via Verde Shopping\"), which was completed in 2011\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://viaverdeshopping.com.br/ \\|title\\=Shopping Viaverde Online \\|publisher\\=Viaverdeshopping.com.br \\|date\\= \\|accessdate\\=2022\\-08\\-26}}", "The sepulcher of [Raimundo Irineu Serra](/wiki/Mestre_Irineu \"Mestre Irineu\"), founder of the religion known internationally as [Santo Daime](/wiki/Santo_Daime \"Santo Daime\"), is located in the Alto Santo neighborhood and has become a place of international pilgrimage.", "" ]
History ------- The band was formed by Alex Novak (vocals, formerly of Religious Overdose, Attrition, and The Tempest) and John Novak (guitar, vocals, formerly Where's Lisse?), and Tony Booker on bass guitar prior to their debut twelve\-inch single "Morphine" in March 1988\.Strong, Martin C. (2003\) *The Great Indie Discography*, Canongate, {{ISBN\|1\-84195\-335\-0}}, p. 556 A further single followed later that year \- the three\-track *Desolation Railway* 12 inch EP \- before they signed to French label [Danceteria](/wiki/Danceteria_%28record_label%29 "Danceteria (record label)") and released their debut [mini album](/wiki/Mini_album "Mini album") *Mars* in 1988, collecting tracks from the earlier singles alongside several new numbers. The band's lineup changed frequently, with key members including guitarists Curtis Johnson and John Novak, Dave Freak (guitar, percussion, vocals), Chris Evans (bass) and Andy Denton (initially on drums, later guitar, programming, vocals). Their next album, *Totem*, was released in late 1989, preceded by a single featuring a [cover version](/wiki/Cover_version "Cover version") of [Suicide](/wiki/Suicide_%28band%29 "Suicide (band)")'s "Rocket USA" produced by [Kevin Haskins](/wiki/Kevin_Haskins "Kevin Haskins") ([Love \& Rockets](/wiki/Love_and_Rockets_%28band%29 "Love and Rockets (band)") / [Bauhaus](/wiki/Bauhaus "Bauhaus")) and featuring [The Jazz Butcher](/wiki/The_Jazz_Butcher "The Jazz Butcher"). During this period the band played across the UK and Europe, and supported a variety of acts including [Spacemen 3](/wiki/Spacemen_3 "Spacemen 3"), [Tom Verlaine](/wiki/Tom_Verlaine "Tom Verlaine"), [The Mission](/wiki/The_Mission_%28band%29 "The Mission (band)"), and [Red Lorry Yellow Lorry](/wiki/Red_Lorry_Yellow_Lorry "Red Lorry Yellow Lorry"). Thompson, Derek A. (2016\) *Have Guitars... Will Travel, Volume 3* In 1990 Nathan Bundy (keyboards) and Denton joined Novak, Curtis and Nigel Jones (bass) to form the band that would tour [Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Czechoslovakia "Czechoslovakia") in early 1991 culminating with the release of their only live album *Jewel \- Live In Prague*. *Pandora's Box* produced by [Pat Fish](/wiki/Pat_Fish "Pat Fish") ([The Jazz Butcher](/wiki/The_Jazz_Butcher "The Jazz Butcher")) followed in 1992, their last studio album for Danceteria, although the label issued a compilation *Shedding Another Skin* later that year. The line\-up changed again, with Novak and Denton reforming the band with Gary Lennon (guitar) and Neil Ridley (bass) releasing the album Luna Tide in early 1995\.Larkin, Colin (1998\) *The Virgin Encyclopedia of Indie \& New Wave*, Virgin Books, {{ISBN\|0\-7535\-0231\-3}}, p. 457 They toured extensively in Europe where they had a large fanbase, and released the electronic influenced album Dark Amour for German label Soundbuster in 1997, with tracks produced by [Martin Bowes](/wiki/Attrition_%28band%29 "Attrition (band)") (Attrition).{{Cite book \|last\=Thompson \|first\=Derek A \|title\=Have Guitars... Will Travel, Volume 4 \|publisher\=Whyte Tiger Publications \|year\=2018 \|isbn\=978\-1\-5272\-2525\-1}} As of the 2000s the permanent members are Novak and Denton, the duo co\-writing the albums *Zenith* (2004\) and *Nemesis* (2011\) for the Polish label Big Blue, and most recently *Icon* (2018\) for [Glass Modern](/wiki/Glass_Records "Glass Records"). Playing live constantly they have supported the likes of [Martin Degville](/wiki/Martin_Degville "Martin Degville") Sputnik2, [Theatre of Hate](/wiki/Theatre_of_Hate "Theatre of Hate"), [Spear of Destiny](/wiki/Spear_of_Destiny_%28band%29 "Spear of Destiny (band)"), [Pop Will Eat Itself](/wiki/Pop_Will_Eat_Itself "Pop Will Eat Itself"), [Killing Joke](/wiki/Killing_Joke "Killing Joke") and [Attrition](/wiki/Attrition_%28band%29 "Attrition (band)"). Novak also released more electronic\-oriented music under the names Nova Galaxie Robotnik and Novak State Conspiracy with [Simon Coleby](/wiki/Simon_Coleby "Simon Coleby") ([2000AD](/wiki/2000_AD_%28comics%29 "2000 AD (comics)") Comic Book Artist).
[ "History\n-------", "The band was formed by Alex Novak (vocals, formerly of Religious Overdose, Attrition, and The Tempest) and John Novak (guitar, vocals, formerly Where's Lisse?), and Tony Booker on bass guitar prior to their debut twelve\\-inch single \"Morphine\" in March 1988\\.Strong, Martin C. (2003\\) *The Great Indie Discography*, Canongate, {{ISBN\\|1\\-84195\\-335\\-0}}, p. 556", "A further single followed later that year \\- the three\\-track *Desolation Railway* 12 inch EP \\- before they signed to French label [Danceteria](/wiki/Danceteria_%28record_label%29 \"Danceteria (record label)\") and released their debut [mini album](/wiki/Mini_album \"Mini album\") *Mars* in 1988, collecting tracks from the earlier singles alongside several new numbers.", "The band's lineup changed frequently, with key members including guitarists Curtis Johnson and John Novak, Dave Freak (guitar, percussion, vocals), Chris Evans (bass) and Andy Denton (initially on drums, later guitar, programming, vocals). Their next album, *Totem*, was released in late 1989, preceded by a single featuring a [cover version](/wiki/Cover_version \"Cover version\") of [Suicide](/wiki/Suicide_%28band%29 \"Suicide (band)\")'s \"Rocket USA\" produced by [Kevin Haskins](/wiki/Kevin_Haskins \"Kevin Haskins\") ([Love \\& Rockets](/wiki/Love_and_Rockets_%28band%29 \"Love and Rockets (band)\") / [Bauhaus](/wiki/Bauhaus \"Bauhaus\")) and featuring [The Jazz Butcher](/wiki/The_Jazz_Butcher \"The Jazz Butcher\").", "During this period the band played across the UK and Europe, and supported a variety of acts including [Spacemen 3](/wiki/Spacemen_3 \"Spacemen 3\"), [Tom Verlaine](/wiki/Tom_Verlaine \"Tom Verlaine\"), [The Mission](/wiki/The_Mission_%28band%29 \"The Mission (band)\"), and [Red Lorry Yellow Lorry](/wiki/Red_Lorry_Yellow_Lorry \"Red Lorry Yellow Lorry\"). Thompson, Derek A. (2016\\) *Have Guitars... Will Travel, Volume 3*", "In 1990 Nathan Bundy (keyboards) and Denton joined Novak, Curtis and Nigel Jones (bass) to form the band that would tour [Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Czechoslovakia \"Czechoslovakia\") in early 1991 culminating with the release of their only live album *Jewel \\- Live In Prague*. *Pandora's Box* produced by [Pat Fish](/wiki/Pat_Fish \"Pat Fish\") ([The Jazz Butcher](/wiki/The_Jazz_Butcher \"The Jazz Butcher\")) followed in 1992, their last studio album for Danceteria, although the label issued a compilation *Shedding Another Skin* later that year.", "The line\\-up changed again, with Novak and Denton reforming the band with Gary Lennon (guitar) and Neil Ridley (bass) releasing the album Luna Tide in early 1995\\.Larkin, Colin (1998\\) *The Virgin Encyclopedia of Indie \\& New Wave*, Virgin Books, {{ISBN\\|0\\-7535\\-0231\\-3}}, p. 457 They toured extensively in Europe where they had a large fanbase, and released the electronic influenced album Dark Amour for German label Soundbuster in 1997, with tracks produced by [Martin Bowes](/wiki/Attrition_%28band%29 \"Attrition (band)\") (Attrition).{{Cite book \\|last\\=Thompson \\|first\\=Derek A \\|title\\=Have Guitars... Will Travel, Volume 4 \\|publisher\\=Whyte Tiger Publications \\|year\\=2018 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-5272\\-2525\\-1}}", "As of the 2000s the permanent members are Novak and Denton, the duo co\\-writing the albums *Zenith* (2004\\) and *Nemesis* (2011\\) for the Polish label Big Blue, and most recently *Icon* (2018\\) for [Glass Modern](/wiki/Glass_Records \"Glass Records\"). Playing live constantly they have supported the likes of [Martin Degville](/wiki/Martin_Degville \"Martin Degville\") Sputnik2, [Theatre of Hate](/wiki/Theatre_of_Hate \"Theatre of Hate\"), [Spear of Destiny](/wiki/Spear_of_Destiny_%28band%29 \"Spear of Destiny (band)\"), [Pop Will Eat Itself](/wiki/Pop_Will_Eat_Itself \"Pop Will Eat Itself\"), [Killing Joke](/wiki/Killing_Joke \"Killing Joke\") and [Attrition](/wiki/Attrition_%28band%29 \"Attrition (band)\").", "Novak also released more electronic\\-oriented music under the names Nova Galaxie Robotnik and Novak State Conspiracy with [Simon Coleby](/wiki/Simon_Coleby \"Simon Coleby\") ([2000AD](/wiki/2000_AD_%28comics%29 \"2000 AD (comics)\") Comic Book Artist).", "" ]
Plot ---- In 1933, six\-year\-old "Little" Henry Lord lives in the village of St. Thomas, [Nevada](/wiki/Nevada "Nevada"), with his mother, Ellen Lord, father, Thomas Lord, and paternal [grandfather](/wiki/Grandfather "Grandfather"), Henry Lord, an [auto mechanic](/wiki/Auto_mechanic "Auto mechanic"). St. Thomas is to be [flooded](/wiki/Flood "Flood") entirely by Lake Mead following construction of the Boulder (Hoover) Dam. The elder Henry believes that water will never reach his home, and refuses the government's attempts to buy his land. However, Thomas takes a job with [Six Companies](/wiki/Six_Companies "Six Companies"), the construction group building the Hoover Dam, to earn enough to buy his own home. Living and working in [Boulder City](/wiki/Boulder_City%2C_Nevada "Boulder City, Nevada"), Thomas only visits St. Thomas every few weeks. On one visit, Thomas takes Little Henry into the [crawl space](/wiki/Basement%23Underground_crawl_space "Basement#Underground crawl space") below the family home. Here, he shows his son a [safe](/wiki/Safe "Safe") where he keeps his valuables, and makes Little Henry promise to safeguard the contents should anything ever happen to him. On July 6, 1935, Thomas falls to his death at the dam. In the spring following Thomas's death, Henry buys a rowboat with an outboard motor. [Fishing](/wiki/Fishing "Fishing") on the [Muddy River](/wiki/Muddy_River_%28Nevada%29 "Muddy River (Nevada)") becomes a favorite pastime. Water finally reaches St. Thomas in mid\-1938\. Henry finally decides to purchase a new home in [Overton, Nevada](/wiki/Overton%2C_Nevada "Overton, Nevada"), and he and Little Henry go out on the Muddy for one last boat ride. While boating, a violent [thunderstorm](/wiki/Thunderstorm "Thunderstorm") begins, flooding their house. Little Henry realizes he cannot reach the safe; worse, his mother has vanished. Two days later, on June 11, 1938, Henry sets his house on fire and leaves St. Thomas with Little Henry in the rowboat. In Overton, Henry opens a new auto garage near his new home. His grandson continues to attend school and develops into a fine athlete, as well as an apt mechanic. Henry plans to give his business to his grandson, but Little Henry wishes to attend college in [Montana](/wiki/Montana "Montana"). In August 1944, they plan a trip to [Yellowstone National Park](/wiki/Yellowstone_National_Park "Yellowstone National Park"), and Henry promises to visit his grandson in Montana. However, the night before Little Henry's departure, his grandfather dies of a [heart attack](/wiki/Heart_attack "Heart attack"). It is now December 8, 2002\. Little Henry is now a 76\-year\-old widower residing in Las Vegas. An article in the *[Las Vegas Review\-Journal](/wiki/Las_Vegas_Review-Journal "Las Vegas Review-Journal")* explains that drought has exposed the ruins of St. Thomas, underwater for six decades. Accompanying the story is a photo of the elevated concrete foundation of the Lord homestead. Little Henry sets off to find his father's safe. Unfortunately, the safe is impossible to open. In frustration, Little Henry strikes the safe with a crowbar, inadvertently digging a small hole in the silt and knocking over his bottle of water, which spills into the hole. In the hole he finds a white object, which appears to be a large shell. He begins to dig it out and uncovers his mother's [gold](/wiki/Gold "Gold") necklace. He realizes that the white object is actually a part of her [skeleton](/wiki/Skeleton "Skeleton"). During the storm, Ellen attempted to remove the contents of the safe herself, but was trapped under the house and drowned. Little Henry decides that he will return to St. Thomas to once again attempt to open the safe but determines that his mother's remains will stay in St. Thomas, along with the remains of many other family members.
[ "Plot\n----", "In 1933, six\\-year\\-old \"Little\" Henry Lord lives in the village of St. Thomas, [Nevada](/wiki/Nevada \"Nevada\"), with his mother, Ellen Lord, father, Thomas Lord, and paternal [grandfather](/wiki/Grandfather \"Grandfather\"), Henry Lord, an [auto mechanic](/wiki/Auto_mechanic \"Auto mechanic\"). St. Thomas is to be [flooded](/wiki/Flood \"Flood\") entirely by Lake Mead following construction of the Boulder (Hoover) Dam.", "The elder Henry believes that water will never reach his home, and refuses the government's attempts to buy his land. However, Thomas takes a job with [Six Companies](/wiki/Six_Companies \"Six Companies\"), the construction group building the Hoover Dam, to earn enough to buy his own home.", "Living and working in [Boulder City](/wiki/Boulder_City%2C_Nevada \"Boulder City, Nevada\"), Thomas only visits St. Thomas every few weeks. On one visit, Thomas takes Little Henry into the [crawl space](/wiki/Basement%23Underground_crawl_space \"Basement#Underground crawl space\") below the family home. Here, he shows his son a [safe](/wiki/Safe \"Safe\") where he keeps his valuables, and makes Little Henry promise to safeguard the contents should anything ever happen to him. On July 6, 1935, Thomas falls to his death at the dam.", "In the spring following Thomas's death, Henry buys a rowboat with an outboard motor. [Fishing](/wiki/Fishing \"Fishing\") on the [Muddy River](/wiki/Muddy_River_%28Nevada%29 \"Muddy River (Nevada)\") becomes a favorite pastime.", "Water finally reaches St. Thomas in mid\\-1938\\. Henry finally decides to purchase a new home in [Overton, Nevada](/wiki/Overton%2C_Nevada \"Overton, Nevada\"), and he and Little Henry go out on the Muddy for one last boat ride. While boating, a violent [thunderstorm](/wiki/Thunderstorm \"Thunderstorm\") begins, flooding their house. Little Henry realizes he cannot reach the safe; worse, his mother has vanished.", "Two days later, on June 11, 1938, Henry sets his house on fire and leaves St. Thomas with Little Henry in the rowboat.", "In Overton, Henry opens a new auto garage near his new home. His grandson continues to attend school and develops into a fine athlete, as well as an apt mechanic. Henry plans to give his business to his grandson, but Little Henry wishes to attend college in [Montana](/wiki/Montana \"Montana\"). In August 1944, they plan a trip to [Yellowstone National Park](/wiki/Yellowstone_National_Park \"Yellowstone National Park\"), and Henry promises to visit his grandson in Montana. However, the night before Little Henry's departure, his grandfather dies of a [heart attack](/wiki/Heart_attack \"Heart attack\").", "It is now December 8, 2002\\. Little Henry is now a 76\\-year\\-old widower residing in Las Vegas. An article in the *[Las Vegas Review\\-Journal](/wiki/Las_Vegas_Review-Journal \"Las Vegas Review-Journal\")* explains that drought has exposed the ruins of St. Thomas, underwater for six decades. Accompanying the story is a photo of the elevated concrete foundation of the Lord homestead. Little Henry sets off to find his father's safe.", "Unfortunately, the safe is impossible to open. In frustration, Little Henry strikes the safe with a crowbar, inadvertently digging a small hole in the silt and knocking over his bottle of water, which spills into the hole.\nIn the hole he finds a white object, which appears to be a large shell. He begins to dig it out and uncovers his mother's [gold](/wiki/Gold \"Gold\") necklace. He realizes that the white object is actually a part of her [skeleton](/wiki/Skeleton \"Skeleton\"). During the storm, Ellen attempted to remove the contents of the safe herself, but was trapped under the house and drowned. Little Henry decides that he will return to St. Thomas to once again attempt to open the safe but determines that his mother's remains will stay in St. Thomas, along with the remains of many other family members.", "" ]
Plot ---- The film is set in India during the period of World War II. Anand is an unemployed but happy\-go\-lucky guy who is in love with a rich girl, Mita. Mita tells her father about Anand, and the next day Anand comes to meet him although he had to face an interview for a job. Mita's father insults Anand saying that on the one hand, he doesn't have enough money to feed Mita but he looks to be so irresponsible that instead of first facing an interview for getting an employment, he has come with a marriage proposal. Anand takes it personally and walks out. On the way back home he sees an Indian Army poster. Eager as he is to get a job, he quickly enrolls, much to the displeasure of his mother. Mita, not knowing what has happened between her father and Anand, visits his home and learns that Anand has left to serve in the Army. She tells his mother that, being her future daughter\-in\-law, she will stay with Anand's mother. Mita makes sure that Anand does not learn about her presence at his home and takes care of his mother. Meanwhile, Anand gets trained and is posted in a war zone. At his camp, Anand befriends Major Verma, a man who looks just like him (except that he has a moustache). With time, a bond develops between the two. The Major tells Anand about his personal life, his wife Ruma and his mother. As fate would have it, Major Verma goes missing in the war, and is presumed dead. A telegram is sent to his family saying that they are unable to trace him. On the other hand, Anand is promoted for his heroic acts. He returns home to find Mita there and learns of his mother's death. Anand envisions what Verma's family must be going through in his absence. He decides to break the news of the Major's death personally and visits their home. Upon seeing him, the Major's mother mistakes him for her son and hugs him. Ruma too is overjoyed. Anand tells the family doctor of his true identity, but the doctor advises Anand against telling Ruma the truth since Ruma suffers from heart disease and cannot bear emotional stress. To keep Ruma happy and stress\-free, Anand has no choice but to play the part of Major Verma, and starts spending more and more time at Verma's home. Mita grows unhappy about Anand's continuous absence from home. Once, when she sees him at a temple with Ruma, she concludes that he is having an affair and leaves him. At the same time, Anand is not comfortable with being close to Ruma. This pains Ruma and she asks him why he is so distant from her, and when they would have a child. Anand replies that the war has changed him, and he would never have a child with her. However, Ruma starts to think that Major Verma no longer loves her and is having an extra\-marital affair. It is now revealed that the Major is alive, though he has lost a leg. He reaches home and finds Anand in his place. He misjudges him and believes that he is taking sexual advantage of Ruma. Major Verma ambushes Anand on a secluded street and tries to kill him. A scuffle ensues, and the attempt to shoot Anand fails. Anand explains that he is merely playing his part to keep Verma's family happy and his wife healthy. To convince the Major, Anand tells him to come to the temple the next day. He also communicates the same to Mita. The next day, Anand comes to the temple with Ruma. As Major Verma and Mita secretly listen on, Ruma again complains to Anand about the lack of physical intimacy between them. Anand then asks her whether she would leave her husband if he were to become handicapped. Ruma's answer is an emphatic no. At this point, the real Major Verma reveals himself and Ruma hugs him. Mita too understands the situation and reconciles with Anand. The two couples leave the temple and the film ends on a happy note.
[ "Plot\n----", "The film is set in India during the period of World War II. Anand is an unemployed but happy\\-go\\-lucky guy who is in love with a rich girl, Mita. Mita tells her father about Anand, and the next day Anand comes to meet him although he had to face an interview for a job. Mita's father insults Anand saying that on the one hand, he doesn't have enough money to feed Mita but he looks to be so irresponsible that instead of first facing an interview for getting an employment, he has come with a marriage proposal. Anand takes it personally and walks out. On the way back home he sees an Indian Army poster. Eager as he is to get a job, he quickly enrolls, much to the displeasure of his mother. Mita, not knowing what has happened between her father and Anand, visits his home and learns that Anand has left to serve in the Army. She tells his mother that, being her future daughter\\-in\\-law, she will stay with Anand's mother. Mita makes sure that Anand does not learn about her presence at his home and takes care of his mother.", "Meanwhile, Anand gets trained and is posted in a war zone. At his camp, Anand befriends Major Verma, a man who looks just like him (except that he has a moustache). With time, a bond develops between the two. The Major tells Anand about his personal life, his wife Ruma and his mother. As fate would have it, Major Verma goes missing in the war, and is presumed dead. A telegram is sent to his family saying that they are unable to trace him.", "On the other hand, Anand is promoted for his heroic acts. He returns home to find Mita there and learns of his mother's death. Anand envisions what Verma's family must be going through in his absence. He decides to break the news of the Major's death personally and visits their home. Upon seeing him, the Major's mother mistakes him for her son and hugs him. Ruma too is overjoyed. Anand tells the family doctor of his true identity, but the doctor advises Anand against telling Ruma the truth since Ruma suffers from heart disease and cannot bear emotional stress. To keep Ruma happy and stress\\-free, Anand has no choice but to play the part of Major Verma, and starts spending more and more time at Verma's home. Mita grows unhappy about Anand's continuous absence from home. Once, when she sees him at a temple with Ruma, she concludes that he is having an affair and leaves him.", "At the same time, Anand is not comfortable with being close to Ruma. This pains Ruma and she asks him why he is so distant from her, and when they would have a child. Anand replies that the war has changed him, and he would never have a child with her. However, Ruma starts to think that Major Verma no longer loves her and is having an extra\\-marital affair.", "It is now revealed that the Major is alive, though he has lost a leg. He reaches home and finds Anand in his place. He misjudges him and believes that he is taking sexual advantage of Ruma. Major Verma ambushes Anand on a secluded street and tries to kill him. A scuffle ensues, and the attempt to shoot Anand fails. Anand explains that he is merely playing his part to keep Verma's family happy and his wife healthy. To convince the Major, Anand tells him to come to the temple the next day. He also communicates the same to Mita.", "The next day, Anand comes to the temple with Ruma. As Major Verma and Mita secretly listen on, Ruma again complains to Anand about the lack of physical intimacy between them. Anand then asks her whether she would leave her husband if he were to become handicapped. Ruma's answer is an emphatic no.", "At this point, the real Major Verma reveals himself and Ruma hugs him. Mita too understands the situation and reconciles with Anand. The two couples leave the temple and the film ends on a happy note.", "" ]
Political career ---------------- Ashton was first elected to the Manitoba legislature in the [1981 provincial election](/wiki/1981_Manitoba_general_election "1981 Manitoba general election"), defeating [Progressive Conservative](/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Party_of_Manitoba "Progressive Conservative Party of Manitoba") incumbent [Ken MacMaster](/wiki/Ken_MacMaster "Ken MacMaster") by 72 votes in the [constituency](/wiki/Constituency "Constituency") of [Thompson](/wiki/Thompson_%28electoral_district%29 "Thompson (electoral district)"). At the time of his first election, Ashton was involved in an [INCO](/wiki/CVRD_Inco "CVRD Inco") strike in the Thompson area as a member of the [United Steelworkers of America](/wiki/United_Steelworkers_of_America "United Steelworkers of America"); he was also the second youngest person ever elected to the Manitoba legislature at the time. He was re\-elected in the [1986 election](/wiki/1986_Manitoba_general_election "1986 Manitoba general election") by a greater margin. Ashton did not serve in the cabinet of [Howard Pawley](/wiki/Howard_Pawley "Howard Pawley").{{cite news \|url\=http://www.thompsoncitizen.net/article/20090909/THOMPSON0101/309099983/\-1/thompson/steve\-ashton\-manitoba\-146\-s\-longest\-serving\-mla\-since\-1981\-resigns \|title\=Steve Ashton: Manitoba's longest\-serving MLA since 1981 resigns from cabinet to seek premiership \|newspaper\=Thompson Citizen \|date\=September 9, 2009 \|access\-date\=2014\-03\-14}} The NDP were defeated in the [provincial election of 1988](/wiki/1988_Manitoba_general_election "1988 Manitoba general election"), although Ashton won his own riding by a comfortable margin. He would later serve as [House Leader](/wiki/House_Leader "House Leader") for the NDP in opposition, and was easily re\-elected in the provincial elections of [1990](/wiki/1990_Manitoba_general_election "1990 Manitoba general election"), [1995](/wiki/1995_Manitoba_general_election "1995 Manitoba general election") and [1999](/wiki/1999_Manitoba_general_election "1999 Manitoba general election"). In [1995](/wiki/1995_New_Democratic_Party_leadership_election "1995 New Democratic Party leadership election"), he supported [Lorne Nystrom](/wiki/Lorne_Nystrom "Lorne Nystrom")'s bid to lead the federal [New Democratic Party](/wiki/New_Democratic_Party "New Democratic Party"). ### Cabinet When NDP leader [Gary Doer](/wiki/Gary_Doer "Gary Doer") became Premier of Manitoba in October 1999, Ashton was appointed [Minister of Highways and Government Services](/wiki/Minister_of_Infrastructure_and_Transportation_%28Manitoba%29 "Minister of Infrastructure and Transportation (Manitoba)"). On July 4, 2000, he was charged with administration of the [Gaming Control Act](/wiki/Gaming_Control_Act_%28Manitoba_ministry%29 "Gaming Control Act (Manitoba ministry)"); his ministry was renamed as [Transportation and Government Services](/wiki/Minister_of_Infrastructure_and_Transportation_%28Manitoba%29 "Minister of Infrastructure and Transportation (Manitoba)") on January 17, 2001\. Following a cabinet shuffle on September 25, 2002, Ashton became [Minister of Conservation](/wiki/Minister_of_Conservation_%28Manitoba%29 "Minister of Conservation (Manitoba)") (in which capacity he argued for national approval of the [Kyoto Accord](/wiki/Kyoto_Accord "Kyoto Accord") on climate change). On June 25, 2003, he was also made [Minister of Labour and Immigration](/wiki/Minister_of_Labour_and_Immigration_%28Manitoba%29 "Minister of Labour and Immigration (Manitoba)") with responsibility for [Multiculturalism](/wiki/Minister_responsible_for_Multiculturalism_%28Manitoba%29 "Minister responsible for Multiculturalism (Manitoba)") and administration of the [Worker's Compensation Act](/wiki/Minister_charged_with_the_administration_of_The_Workers_Compensation_Act_%28Manitoba%29 "Minister charged with the administration of The Workers Compensation Act (Manitoba)"). In 2003, Ashton supported [Bill Blaikie](/wiki/Bill_Blaikie "Bill Blaikie")'s campaign to become [leader of the federal NDP](/wiki/2003_New_Democratic_Party_leadership_election "2003 New Democratic Party leadership election"). Ashton was re\-elected in the [2003 election](/wiki/2003_Manitoba_general_election "2003 Manitoba general election") with over 82% of the vote in his constituency. On November 4, 2003, he was named as the minister in charge of [Manitoba Water Stewardship](/wiki/Manitoba_Water_Stewardship "Manitoba Water Stewardship"), a department created after highly publicized water contamination tragedies in [Walkerton](/wiki/Walkerton%2C_Ontario "Walkerton, Ontario"), [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario "Ontario") and [North Battleford](/wiki/North_Battleford "North Battleford"), [Saskatchewan](/wiki/Saskatchewan "Saskatchewan"). Ashton was re\-elected in the [2007 provincial election](/wiki/2007_Manitoba_general_election "2007 Manitoba general election") and in September 2007 he was appointed Minister of Intergovernmental Affairs and Minister responsible for the Emergency Measures Organization. On September 4, 2009, Ashton announced his candidacy to succeed Gary Doer as leader of the Manitoba NDP in the [2009 leadership election](/wiki/2009_New_Democratic_Party_of_Manitoba_leadership_election "2009 New Democratic Party of Manitoba leadership election") and ran on a platform advocating the party's return to its social justice and labour roots.{{cite news\|title\=Minister Steve Ashton resigns, says he will seek leadership of Manitoba NDP\|url\=http://www.princegeorgecitizen.com/minister\-steve\-ashton\-resigns\-says\-he\-will\-seek\-leadership\-of\-manitoba\-ndp\-1\.1692611\|access\-date\=December 22, 2014\|work\=Prince George Citizen\|date\=December 22, 2014}} Ashton placed second behind [Greg Selinger](/wiki/Greg_Selinger "Greg Selinger") with 34\.2% of the vote.{{cite news \|title\=Selinger picked as Manitoba's next NDP premier \|url\=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/selinger\-picked\-as\-manitoba\-s\-next\-ndp\-premier\-1\.856286 \|publisher\=\[\[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] \|date\=October 17, 2009 \|access\-date\=March 9, 2015 }}{{cite news\|title\=Selinger wins NDP leadership race \|author\=Welch, Mary Agnes \|url\=http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/local/breakingnews/NDP\-convention\-Ashton\-challenges\-party\-\-64669072\.html \|newspaper\=\[\[Winnipeg Free Press]] \|date\=October 17, 2009 \|access\-date\=October 18, 2009 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306003502/http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/local/breakingnews/NDP\-convention\-Ashton\-challenges\-party\-\-64669072\.html \|archive\-date\=March 6, 2012 \|df\=mdy }} Upon Greg Selinger's election as premier, Ashton was made [Minister of Infrastructure and Transportation](/wiki/Minister_of_Infrastructure_and_Transportation_%28Manitoba%29 "Minister of Infrastructure and Transportation (Manitoba)"), with the added responsibilities of [Emergency Measures](/wiki/Minister_responsible_for_Emergency_Measures_%28Manitoba%29 "Minister responsible for Emergency Measures (Manitoba)") and [the administration of the Manitoba Lotteries Corporation Act](/wiki/Minister_charged_with_the_administration_of_The_Manitoba_Lotteries_Corporation_Act "Minister charged with the administration of The Manitoba Lotteries Corporation Act"). He also became the lead minister for Canada\-Manitoba Infrastructure programs. Ashton resigned from cabinet on December 22, 2014 to challenge Selinger in the [2015 Manitoba NDP leadership election](/wiki/2015_New_Democratic_Party_of_Manitoba_leadership_election "2015 New Democratic Party of Manitoba leadership election"), at which he was unsuccessful.{{cite news\|title\=BREAKING: Steve Ashton enters Manitoba NDP leadership rac\|url\=http://globalnews.ca/news/1739581/breaking\-steve\-ashton\-enters\-manitoba\-ndp\-leadership\-race/\|access\-date\=December 22, 2014\|work\=Global News\|date\=December 22, 2014}} He returned to cabinet in April 2015 as Minister of Infrastructure and Transportation and Minister responsible for emergency measures. After thirty\-four and a half years as an MLA, Ashton lost his seat to [Progressive Conservative](/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Party_of_Manitoba "Progressive Conservative Party of Manitoba") candidate [Kelly Bindle](/wiki/Kelly_Bindle "Kelly Bindle") in the [April 19, 2016, provincial election](/wiki/2016_Manitoba_general_election "2016 Manitoba general election").{{cite web \| url\=https://www.thompsoncitizen.net/provincial\-election\-2019\-archive/former\-mla\-steve\-ashton\-says\-he\-will\-support\-the\-ndp\-as\-he\-has\-in\-every\-election\-since\-joining\-party\-4293780 \| title\=Former MLA Steve Ashton says he will support the NDP as he has in every election since joining party \| date\=29 August 2019 }} In 2017, Ashton ran for Manitoba NDP leader, losing to Wab Kinew.
[ "Political career\n----------------", "Ashton was first elected to the Manitoba legislature in the [1981 provincial election](/wiki/1981_Manitoba_general_election \"1981 Manitoba general election\"), defeating [Progressive Conservative](/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Party_of_Manitoba \"Progressive Conservative Party of Manitoba\") incumbent [Ken MacMaster](/wiki/Ken_MacMaster \"Ken MacMaster\") by 72 votes in the [constituency](/wiki/Constituency \"Constituency\") of [Thompson](/wiki/Thompson_%28electoral_district%29 \"Thompson (electoral district)\"). At the time of his first election, Ashton was involved in an [INCO](/wiki/CVRD_Inco \"CVRD Inco\") strike in the Thompson area as a member of the [United Steelworkers of America](/wiki/United_Steelworkers_of_America \"United Steelworkers of America\"); he was also the second youngest person ever elected to the Manitoba legislature at the time. He was re\\-elected in the [1986 election](/wiki/1986_Manitoba_general_election \"1986 Manitoba general election\") by a greater margin. Ashton did not serve in the cabinet of [Howard Pawley](/wiki/Howard_Pawley \"Howard Pawley\").{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.thompsoncitizen.net/article/20090909/THOMPSON0101/309099983/\\-1/thompson/steve\\-ashton\\-manitoba\\-146\\-s\\-longest\\-serving\\-mla\\-since\\-1981\\-resigns \\|title\\=Steve Ashton: Manitoba's longest\\-serving MLA since 1981 resigns from cabinet to seek premiership \\|newspaper\\=Thompson Citizen \\|date\\=September 9, 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-03\\-14}}", "The NDP were defeated in the [provincial election of 1988](/wiki/1988_Manitoba_general_election \"1988 Manitoba general election\"), although Ashton won his own riding by a comfortable margin. He would later serve as [House Leader](/wiki/House_Leader \"House Leader\") for the NDP in opposition, and was easily re\\-elected in the provincial elections of [1990](/wiki/1990_Manitoba_general_election \"1990 Manitoba general election\"), [1995](/wiki/1995_Manitoba_general_election \"1995 Manitoba general election\") and [1999](/wiki/1999_Manitoba_general_election \"1999 Manitoba general election\"). In [1995](/wiki/1995_New_Democratic_Party_leadership_election \"1995 New Democratic Party leadership election\"), he supported [Lorne Nystrom](/wiki/Lorne_Nystrom \"Lorne Nystrom\")'s bid to lead the federal [New Democratic Party](/wiki/New_Democratic_Party \"New Democratic Party\").", "### Cabinet", "When NDP leader [Gary Doer](/wiki/Gary_Doer \"Gary Doer\") became Premier of Manitoba in October 1999, Ashton was appointed [Minister of Highways and Government Services](/wiki/Minister_of_Infrastructure_and_Transportation_%28Manitoba%29 \"Minister of Infrastructure and Transportation (Manitoba)\"). On July 4, 2000, he was charged with administration of the [Gaming Control Act](/wiki/Gaming_Control_Act_%28Manitoba_ministry%29 \"Gaming Control Act (Manitoba ministry)\"); his ministry was renamed as [Transportation and Government Services](/wiki/Minister_of_Infrastructure_and_Transportation_%28Manitoba%29 \"Minister of Infrastructure and Transportation (Manitoba)\") on January 17, 2001\\. Following a cabinet shuffle on September 25, 2002, Ashton became [Minister of Conservation](/wiki/Minister_of_Conservation_%28Manitoba%29 \"Minister of Conservation (Manitoba)\") (in which capacity he argued for national approval of the [Kyoto Accord](/wiki/Kyoto_Accord \"Kyoto Accord\") on climate change). On June 25, 2003, he was also made [Minister of Labour and Immigration](/wiki/Minister_of_Labour_and_Immigration_%28Manitoba%29 \"Minister of Labour and Immigration (Manitoba)\") with responsibility for [Multiculturalism](/wiki/Minister_responsible_for_Multiculturalism_%28Manitoba%29 \"Minister responsible for Multiculturalism (Manitoba)\") and administration of the [Worker's Compensation Act](/wiki/Minister_charged_with_the_administration_of_The_Workers_Compensation_Act_%28Manitoba%29 \"Minister charged with the administration of The Workers Compensation Act (Manitoba)\").", "In 2003, Ashton supported [Bill Blaikie](/wiki/Bill_Blaikie \"Bill Blaikie\")'s campaign to become [leader of the federal NDP](/wiki/2003_New_Democratic_Party_leadership_election \"2003 New Democratic Party leadership election\").", "Ashton was re\\-elected in the [2003 election](/wiki/2003_Manitoba_general_election \"2003 Manitoba general election\") with over 82% of the vote in his constituency. On November 4, 2003, he was named as the minister in charge of [Manitoba Water Stewardship](/wiki/Manitoba_Water_Stewardship \"Manitoba Water Stewardship\"), a department created after highly publicized water contamination tragedies in [Walkerton](/wiki/Walkerton%2C_Ontario \"Walkerton, Ontario\"), [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario \"Ontario\") and [North Battleford](/wiki/North_Battleford \"North Battleford\"), [Saskatchewan](/wiki/Saskatchewan \"Saskatchewan\").", "Ashton was re\\-elected in the [2007 provincial election](/wiki/2007_Manitoba_general_election \"2007 Manitoba general election\") and in September 2007 he was appointed Minister of Intergovernmental Affairs and Minister responsible for the Emergency Measures Organization.", "On September 4, 2009, Ashton announced his candidacy to succeed Gary Doer as leader of the Manitoba NDP in the [2009 leadership election](/wiki/2009_New_Democratic_Party_of_Manitoba_leadership_election \"2009 New Democratic Party of Manitoba leadership election\") and ran on a platform advocating the party's return to its social justice and labour roots.{{cite news\\|title\\=Minister Steve Ashton resigns, says he will seek leadership of Manitoba NDP\\|url\\=http://www.princegeorgecitizen.com/minister\\-steve\\-ashton\\-resigns\\-says\\-he\\-will\\-seek\\-leadership\\-of\\-manitoba\\-ndp\\-1\\.1692611\\|access\\-date\\=December 22, 2014\\|work\\=Prince George Citizen\\|date\\=December 22, 2014}} Ashton placed second behind [Greg Selinger](/wiki/Greg_Selinger \"Greg Selinger\") with 34\\.2% of the vote.{{cite news \\|title\\=Selinger picked as Manitoba's next NDP premier \\|url\\=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/selinger\\-picked\\-as\\-manitoba\\-s\\-next\\-ndp\\-premier\\-1\\.856286 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] \\|date\\=October 17, 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=March 9, 2015 }}{{cite news\\|title\\=Selinger wins NDP leadership race \\|author\\=Welch, Mary Agnes \\|url\\=http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/local/breakingnews/NDP\\-convention\\-Ashton\\-challenges\\-party\\-\\-64669072\\.html \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Winnipeg Free Press]] \\|date\\=October 17, 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=October 18, 2009 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306003502/http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/local/breakingnews/NDP\\-convention\\-Ashton\\-challenges\\-party\\-\\-64669072\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=March 6, 2012 \\|df\\=mdy }}", "Upon Greg Selinger's election as premier, Ashton was made [Minister of Infrastructure and Transportation](/wiki/Minister_of_Infrastructure_and_Transportation_%28Manitoba%29 \"Minister of Infrastructure and Transportation (Manitoba)\"), with the added responsibilities of [Emergency Measures](/wiki/Minister_responsible_for_Emergency_Measures_%28Manitoba%29 \"Minister responsible for Emergency Measures (Manitoba)\") and [the administration of the Manitoba Lotteries Corporation Act](/wiki/Minister_charged_with_the_administration_of_The_Manitoba_Lotteries_Corporation_Act \"Minister charged with the administration of The Manitoba Lotteries Corporation Act\"). He also became the lead minister for Canada\\-Manitoba Infrastructure programs.", "Ashton resigned from cabinet on December 22, 2014 to challenge Selinger in the [2015 Manitoba NDP leadership election](/wiki/2015_New_Democratic_Party_of_Manitoba_leadership_election \"2015 New Democratic Party of Manitoba leadership election\"), at which he was unsuccessful.{{cite news\\|title\\=BREAKING: Steve Ashton enters Manitoba NDP leadership rac\\|url\\=http://globalnews.ca/news/1739581/breaking\\-steve\\-ashton\\-enters\\-manitoba\\-ndp\\-leadership\\-race/\\|access\\-date\\=December 22, 2014\\|work\\=Global News\\|date\\=December 22, 2014}}", "He returned to cabinet in April 2015 as Minister of Infrastructure and Transportation and Minister responsible for emergency measures.", "After thirty\\-four and a half years as an MLA, Ashton lost his seat to [Progressive Conservative](/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Party_of_Manitoba \"Progressive Conservative Party of Manitoba\") candidate [Kelly Bindle](/wiki/Kelly_Bindle \"Kelly Bindle\") in the [April 19, 2016, provincial election](/wiki/2016_Manitoba_general_election \"2016 Manitoba general election\").{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.thompsoncitizen.net/provincial\\-election\\-2019\\-archive/former\\-mla\\-steve\\-ashton\\-says\\-he\\-will\\-support\\-the\\-ndp\\-as\\-he\\-has\\-in\\-every\\-election\\-since\\-joining\\-party\\-4293780 \\| title\\=Former MLA Steve Ashton says he will support the NDP as he has in every election since joining party \\| date\\=29 August 2019 }}", "In 2017, Ashton ran for Manitoba NDP leader, losing to Wab Kinew.", "" ]
### Cabinet When NDP leader [Gary Doer](/wiki/Gary_Doer "Gary Doer") became Premier of Manitoba in October 1999, Ashton was appointed [Minister of Highways and Government Services](/wiki/Minister_of_Infrastructure_and_Transportation_%28Manitoba%29 "Minister of Infrastructure and Transportation (Manitoba)"). On July 4, 2000, he was charged with administration of the [Gaming Control Act](/wiki/Gaming_Control_Act_%28Manitoba_ministry%29 "Gaming Control Act (Manitoba ministry)"); his ministry was renamed as [Transportation and Government Services](/wiki/Minister_of_Infrastructure_and_Transportation_%28Manitoba%29 "Minister of Infrastructure and Transportation (Manitoba)") on January 17, 2001\. Following a cabinet shuffle on September 25, 2002, Ashton became [Minister of Conservation](/wiki/Minister_of_Conservation_%28Manitoba%29 "Minister of Conservation (Manitoba)") (in which capacity he argued for national approval of the [Kyoto Accord](/wiki/Kyoto_Accord "Kyoto Accord") on climate change). On June 25, 2003, he was also made [Minister of Labour and Immigration](/wiki/Minister_of_Labour_and_Immigration_%28Manitoba%29 "Minister of Labour and Immigration (Manitoba)") with responsibility for [Multiculturalism](/wiki/Minister_responsible_for_Multiculturalism_%28Manitoba%29 "Minister responsible for Multiculturalism (Manitoba)") and administration of the [Worker's Compensation Act](/wiki/Minister_charged_with_the_administration_of_The_Workers_Compensation_Act_%28Manitoba%29 "Minister charged with the administration of The Workers Compensation Act (Manitoba)"). In 2003, Ashton supported [Bill Blaikie](/wiki/Bill_Blaikie "Bill Blaikie")'s campaign to become [leader of the federal NDP](/wiki/2003_New_Democratic_Party_leadership_election "2003 New Democratic Party leadership election"). Ashton was re\-elected in the [2003 election](/wiki/2003_Manitoba_general_election "2003 Manitoba general election") with over 82% of the vote in his constituency. On November 4, 2003, he was named as the minister in charge of [Manitoba Water Stewardship](/wiki/Manitoba_Water_Stewardship "Manitoba Water Stewardship"), a department created after highly publicized water contamination tragedies in [Walkerton](/wiki/Walkerton%2C_Ontario "Walkerton, Ontario"), [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario "Ontario") and [North Battleford](/wiki/North_Battleford "North Battleford"), [Saskatchewan](/wiki/Saskatchewan "Saskatchewan"). Ashton was re\-elected in the [2007 provincial election](/wiki/2007_Manitoba_general_election "2007 Manitoba general election") and in September 2007 he was appointed Minister of Intergovernmental Affairs and Minister responsible for the Emergency Measures Organization. On September 4, 2009, Ashton announced his candidacy to succeed Gary Doer as leader of the Manitoba NDP in the [2009 leadership election](/wiki/2009_New_Democratic_Party_of_Manitoba_leadership_election "2009 New Democratic Party of Manitoba leadership election") and ran on a platform advocating the party's return to its social justice and labour roots.{{cite news\|title\=Minister Steve Ashton resigns, says he will seek leadership of Manitoba NDP\|url\=http://www.princegeorgecitizen.com/minister\-steve\-ashton\-resigns\-says\-he\-will\-seek\-leadership\-of\-manitoba\-ndp\-1\.1692611\|access\-date\=December 22, 2014\|work\=Prince George Citizen\|date\=December 22, 2014}} Ashton placed second behind [Greg Selinger](/wiki/Greg_Selinger "Greg Selinger") with 34\.2% of the vote.{{cite news \|title\=Selinger picked as Manitoba's next NDP premier \|url\=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/selinger\-picked\-as\-manitoba\-s\-next\-ndp\-premier\-1\.856286 \|publisher\=\[\[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] \|date\=October 17, 2009 \|access\-date\=March 9, 2015 }}{{cite news\|title\=Selinger wins NDP leadership race \|author\=Welch, Mary Agnes \|url\=http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/local/breakingnews/NDP\-convention\-Ashton\-challenges\-party\-\-64669072\.html \|newspaper\=\[\[Winnipeg Free Press]] \|date\=October 17, 2009 \|access\-date\=October 18, 2009 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306003502/http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/local/breakingnews/NDP\-convention\-Ashton\-challenges\-party\-\-64669072\.html \|archive\-date\=March 6, 2012 \|df\=mdy }} Upon Greg Selinger's election as premier, Ashton was made [Minister of Infrastructure and Transportation](/wiki/Minister_of_Infrastructure_and_Transportation_%28Manitoba%29 "Minister of Infrastructure and Transportation (Manitoba)"), with the added responsibilities of [Emergency Measures](/wiki/Minister_responsible_for_Emergency_Measures_%28Manitoba%29 "Minister responsible for Emergency Measures (Manitoba)") and [the administration of the Manitoba Lotteries Corporation Act](/wiki/Minister_charged_with_the_administration_of_The_Manitoba_Lotteries_Corporation_Act "Minister charged with the administration of The Manitoba Lotteries Corporation Act"). He also became the lead minister for Canada\-Manitoba Infrastructure programs. Ashton resigned from cabinet on December 22, 2014 to challenge Selinger in the [2015 Manitoba NDP leadership election](/wiki/2015_New_Democratic_Party_of_Manitoba_leadership_election "2015 New Democratic Party of Manitoba leadership election"), at which he was unsuccessful.{{cite news\|title\=BREAKING: Steve Ashton enters Manitoba NDP leadership rac\|url\=http://globalnews.ca/news/1739581/breaking\-steve\-ashton\-enters\-manitoba\-ndp\-leadership\-race/\|access\-date\=December 22, 2014\|work\=Global News\|date\=December 22, 2014}} He returned to cabinet in April 2015 as Minister of Infrastructure and Transportation and Minister responsible for emergency measures. After thirty\-four and a half years as an MLA, Ashton lost his seat to [Progressive Conservative](/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Party_of_Manitoba "Progressive Conservative Party of Manitoba") candidate [Kelly Bindle](/wiki/Kelly_Bindle "Kelly Bindle") in the [April 19, 2016, provincial election](/wiki/2016_Manitoba_general_election "2016 Manitoba general election").{{cite web \| url\=https://www.thompsoncitizen.net/provincial\-election\-2019\-archive/former\-mla\-steve\-ashton\-says\-he\-will\-support\-the\-ndp\-as\-he\-has\-in\-every\-election\-since\-joining\-party\-4293780 \| title\=Former MLA Steve Ashton says he will support the NDP as he has in every election since joining party \| date\=29 August 2019 }} In 2017, Ashton ran for Manitoba NDP leader, losing to Wab Kinew.
[ "### Cabinet", "When NDP leader [Gary Doer](/wiki/Gary_Doer \"Gary Doer\") became Premier of Manitoba in October 1999, Ashton was appointed [Minister of Highways and Government Services](/wiki/Minister_of_Infrastructure_and_Transportation_%28Manitoba%29 \"Minister of Infrastructure and Transportation (Manitoba)\"). On July 4, 2000, he was charged with administration of the [Gaming Control Act](/wiki/Gaming_Control_Act_%28Manitoba_ministry%29 \"Gaming Control Act (Manitoba ministry)\"); his ministry was renamed as [Transportation and Government Services](/wiki/Minister_of_Infrastructure_and_Transportation_%28Manitoba%29 \"Minister of Infrastructure and Transportation (Manitoba)\") on January 17, 2001\\. Following a cabinet shuffle on September 25, 2002, Ashton became [Minister of Conservation](/wiki/Minister_of_Conservation_%28Manitoba%29 \"Minister of Conservation (Manitoba)\") (in which capacity he argued for national approval of the [Kyoto Accord](/wiki/Kyoto_Accord \"Kyoto Accord\") on climate change). On June 25, 2003, he was also made [Minister of Labour and Immigration](/wiki/Minister_of_Labour_and_Immigration_%28Manitoba%29 \"Minister of Labour and Immigration (Manitoba)\") with responsibility for [Multiculturalism](/wiki/Minister_responsible_for_Multiculturalism_%28Manitoba%29 \"Minister responsible for Multiculturalism (Manitoba)\") and administration of the [Worker's Compensation Act](/wiki/Minister_charged_with_the_administration_of_The_Workers_Compensation_Act_%28Manitoba%29 \"Minister charged with the administration of The Workers Compensation Act (Manitoba)\").", "In 2003, Ashton supported [Bill Blaikie](/wiki/Bill_Blaikie \"Bill Blaikie\")'s campaign to become [leader of the federal NDP](/wiki/2003_New_Democratic_Party_leadership_election \"2003 New Democratic Party leadership election\").", "Ashton was re\\-elected in the [2003 election](/wiki/2003_Manitoba_general_election \"2003 Manitoba general election\") with over 82% of the vote in his constituency. On November 4, 2003, he was named as the minister in charge of [Manitoba Water Stewardship](/wiki/Manitoba_Water_Stewardship \"Manitoba Water Stewardship\"), a department created after highly publicized water contamination tragedies in [Walkerton](/wiki/Walkerton%2C_Ontario \"Walkerton, Ontario\"), [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario \"Ontario\") and [North Battleford](/wiki/North_Battleford \"North Battleford\"), [Saskatchewan](/wiki/Saskatchewan \"Saskatchewan\").", "Ashton was re\\-elected in the [2007 provincial election](/wiki/2007_Manitoba_general_election \"2007 Manitoba general election\") and in September 2007 he was appointed Minister of Intergovernmental Affairs and Minister responsible for the Emergency Measures Organization.", "On September 4, 2009, Ashton announced his candidacy to succeed Gary Doer as leader of the Manitoba NDP in the [2009 leadership election](/wiki/2009_New_Democratic_Party_of_Manitoba_leadership_election \"2009 New Democratic Party of Manitoba leadership election\") and ran on a platform advocating the party's return to its social justice and labour roots.{{cite news\\|title\\=Minister Steve Ashton resigns, says he will seek leadership of Manitoba NDP\\|url\\=http://www.princegeorgecitizen.com/minister\\-steve\\-ashton\\-resigns\\-says\\-he\\-will\\-seek\\-leadership\\-of\\-manitoba\\-ndp\\-1\\.1692611\\|access\\-date\\=December 22, 2014\\|work\\=Prince George Citizen\\|date\\=December 22, 2014}} Ashton placed second behind [Greg Selinger](/wiki/Greg_Selinger \"Greg Selinger\") with 34\\.2% of the vote.{{cite news \\|title\\=Selinger picked as Manitoba's next NDP premier \\|url\\=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/selinger\\-picked\\-as\\-manitoba\\-s\\-next\\-ndp\\-premier\\-1\\.856286 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] \\|date\\=October 17, 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=March 9, 2015 }}{{cite news\\|title\\=Selinger wins NDP leadership race \\|author\\=Welch, Mary Agnes \\|url\\=http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/local/breakingnews/NDP\\-convention\\-Ashton\\-challenges\\-party\\-\\-64669072\\.html \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Winnipeg Free Press]] \\|date\\=October 17, 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=October 18, 2009 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306003502/http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/local/breakingnews/NDP\\-convention\\-Ashton\\-challenges\\-party\\-\\-64669072\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=March 6, 2012 \\|df\\=mdy }}", "Upon Greg Selinger's election as premier, Ashton was made [Minister of Infrastructure and Transportation](/wiki/Minister_of_Infrastructure_and_Transportation_%28Manitoba%29 \"Minister of Infrastructure and Transportation (Manitoba)\"), with the added responsibilities of [Emergency Measures](/wiki/Minister_responsible_for_Emergency_Measures_%28Manitoba%29 \"Minister responsible for Emergency Measures (Manitoba)\") and [the administration of the Manitoba Lotteries Corporation Act](/wiki/Minister_charged_with_the_administration_of_The_Manitoba_Lotteries_Corporation_Act \"Minister charged with the administration of The Manitoba Lotteries Corporation Act\"). He also became the lead minister for Canada\\-Manitoba Infrastructure programs.", "Ashton resigned from cabinet on December 22, 2014 to challenge Selinger in the [2015 Manitoba NDP leadership election](/wiki/2015_New_Democratic_Party_of_Manitoba_leadership_election \"2015 New Democratic Party of Manitoba leadership election\"), at which he was unsuccessful.{{cite news\\|title\\=BREAKING: Steve Ashton enters Manitoba NDP leadership rac\\|url\\=http://globalnews.ca/news/1739581/breaking\\-steve\\-ashton\\-enters\\-manitoba\\-ndp\\-leadership\\-race/\\|access\\-date\\=December 22, 2014\\|work\\=Global News\\|date\\=December 22, 2014}}", "He returned to cabinet in April 2015 as Minister of Infrastructure and Transportation and Minister responsible for emergency measures.", "After thirty\\-four and a half years as an MLA, Ashton lost his seat to [Progressive Conservative](/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Party_of_Manitoba \"Progressive Conservative Party of Manitoba\") candidate [Kelly Bindle](/wiki/Kelly_Bindle \"Kelly Bindle\") in the [April 19, 2016, provincial election](/wiki/2016_Manitoba_general_election \"2016 Manitoba general election\").{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.thompsoncitizen.net/provincial\\-election\\-2019\\-archive/former\\-mla\\-steve\\-ashton\\-says\\-he\\-will\\-support\\-the\\-ndp\\-as\\-he\\-has\\-in\\-every\\-election\\-since\\-joining\\-party\\-4293780 \\| title\\=Former MLA Steve Ashton says he will support the NDP as he has in every election since joining party \\| date\\=29 August 2019 }}", "In 2017, Ashton ran for Manitoba NDP leader, losing to Wab Kinew.", "" ]
Plot ---- Nino's 33rd birthday is approaching when he surprises his family by announcing his impending marriage in three weeks. This revelation shocks not only his mother but also his three sisters: Sonja, a writer married to Hugo; Michelle, heavily involved in charity work and married to Jan; and Wanda, a single artist who has been having an affair with Hugo. All three sisters are troubled by Nino's decision, knowing he is gay and has lived with Felix for years. They suspect the marriage is solely for the sake of inheriting their late father's hotel, Paraíso, a promise made to Nino if he ever married, despite his lack of romantic interest in women. The sisters confront Nino during his visit to the registrar, where they meet his girlfriend, Bo, who surprises them with her warmth. Despite their initial plan to break up Nino and Bo, they are unsuccessful. Meanwhile, Sonja discovers Hugo and Wanda's affair and retaliates by including a scene in her new article about women's fantasies involving her and Jan. As the wedding in Portugal approaches, Bo involves the sisters in the preparations, unaware of their initial intentions. The sisters eventually disclose Nino's sexuality to Bo, who responds positively, revealing her awareness and acceptance of Nino and Felix's relationship. However, Bo's subsequent announcement of her pregnancy with Nino's child complicates matters, leading Nino to confront his own doubts and realization of being transgender. On the wedding day, Nino's mother intervenes by inviting Felix, prompting Nino to halt the ceremony and confess his true feelings to Bo. Bo supports Nino's decision to be true to himself and facilitates his reunion with Felix. The registrar proceeds to marry Nino and Felix on the same day. In the aftermath, Nino undergoes [gender confirmation surgery](/wiki/Gender-affirming_surgery "Gender-affirming surgery"), while Bo gives birth to their child. The family reunites in the hospital, where Felix places their newborn in Nino's arms.
[ "Plot\n----", "Nino's 33rd birthday is approaching when he surprises his family by announcing his impending marriage in three weeks. This revelation shocks not only his mother but also his three sisters: Sonja, a writer married to Hugo; Michelle, heavily involved in charity work and married to Jan; and Wanda, a single artist who has been having an affair with Hugo. All three sisters are troubled by Nino's decision, knowing he is gay and has lived with Felix for years. They suspect the marriage is solely for the sake of inheriting their late father's hotel, Paraíso, a promise made to Nino if he ever married, despite his lack of romantic interest in women.", "The sisters confront Nino during his visit to the registrar, where they meet his girlfriend, Bo, who surprises them with her warmth. Despite their initial plan to break up Nino and Bo, they are unsuccessful. Meanwhile, Sonja discovers Hugo and Wanda's affair and retaliates by including a scene in her new article about women's fantasies involving her and Jan.", "As the wedding in Portugal approaches, Bo involves the sisters in the preparations, unaware of their initial intentions. The sisters eventually disclose Nino's sexuality to Bo, who responds positively, revealing her awareness and acceptance of Nino and Felix's relationship. However, Bo's subsequent announcement of her pregnancy with Nino's child complicates matters, leading Nino to confront his own doubts and realization of being transgender.", "On the wedding day, Nino's mother intervenes by inviting Felix, prompting Nino to halt the ceremony and confess his true feelings to Bo. Bo supports Nino's decision to be true to himself and facilitates his reunion with Felix. The registrar proceeds to marry Nino and Felix on the same day.", "In the aftermath, Nino undergoes [gender confirmation surgery](/wiki/Gender-affirming_surgery \"Gender-affirming surgery\"), while Bo gives birth to their child. The family reunites in the hospital, where Felix places their newborn in Nino's arms.", "" ]
The chase --------- ### Big Shanty to Kingston [thumb\|upright\|Conductor [William A. Fuller](/wiki/William_Allen_Fuller "William Allen Fuller")](/wiki/File:William_Fuller.jpg "William Fuller.jpg") The raid began on April 12, 1862, when the regular morning passenger train from Atlanta, with the locomotive *[General](/wiki/The_General_%28locomotive%29 "The General (locomotive)")*, stopped for breakfast at the Lacy Hotel. They took the *General* and the train's three [boxcars](/wiki/Boxcar "Boxcar"), which were behind the tender in front of the passenger cars. The passenger cars were left behind. Andrews had previously obtained from the work crew a crowbar for tearing up track. The train's [conductor](/wiki/Conductor_%28transportation%29 "Conductor (transportation)"), [William Allen Fuller](/wiki/William_Allen_Fuller "William Allen Fuller"), and two other men, chased the stolen train, first on foot, then by a [handcar](/wiki/Handcar "Handcar") belonging to a work crew shortly north of Big Shanty. Locomotives of the time normally averaged {{convert\|15\|mph\|km/h}}, with short bursts of speed of about {{convert\|20\|mph\|km/h}}. In addition, the terrain north of Atlanta is very hilly, and the [ruling grades](/wiki/Ruling_gradient "Ruling gradient") are steep. Even today, average speeds are rarely greater than {{convert\|40\|mph\|km/h}} between Chattanooga and Atlanta. Since Andrews intended to stop periodically to perform acts of sabotage, a determined pursuer, even on foot, could conceivably have caught up with the train before it reached Chattanooga. At Etowah, the raiders passed the older and smaller locomotive *[Yonah](/wiki/The_Yonah_%28locomotive%29 "The Yonah (locomotive)")* which was on a siding that led to the nearby Cooper Iron Works. Andrews considered stopping to attack and destroy that locomotive so it could not be used by pursuers, but given the size of its work party (even though unarmed) relative to the size of the raiding party, he judged that any firefight would be too long and too involved, and would alert nearby troops and civilians. As the raiders had stolen a regularly scheduled train on a railroad with only one track, they needed to keep to that train's timetable. If they reached a [siding](/wiki/Siding_%28rail%29 "Siding (rail)") ahead of schedule, they had to wait there until scheduled southbound trains passed them before they could continue north. Andrews claimed to the station masters he encountered that his train was a special northbound ammunition movement ordered by General Beauregard in support of his operations against the Union forces threatening Chattanooga. This story was sufficient for the isolated station masters Andrews encountered (as he had cut the telegraph wires to the south), but it had no impact upon the train dispatchers and station masters north of him, whose telegraph lines to Chattanooga were working. These dispatchers were following their orders to dispatch and control the special train movements southward at the highest priority. [thumb\|left\|Map of the chase route, with locations of various events marked](/wiki/File:Routelrg_r1_c1.gif "Routelrg r1 c1.gif") Thus delayed at the junction town of Kingston, as the first of the southbound freight evacuation trains approached, Andrews inquired of that train's conductor why his train was carrying a red marker flag on its rear car. Andrews was told that Confederate Railway officials in Chattanooga had been notified by Confederate Army officials that Mitchel was approaching Chattanooga from Stevenson, Alabama, intending to either capture or lay [siege](/wiki/Siege "Siege") to the city, and as a result of this warning, the Confederate Military Railways had ordered the Special Freight movements. The red train marker flag on the southbound train meant that there was at least one additional train behind the one which Andrews had just encountered, and that Andrews had no "authority for movement" until the last train of that sectional movement had passed him. The raiders being delayed at Kingston for over an hour, this gave Fuller all the time he needed to close the distance. ### Kingston to Adairsville [thumb\|The *Amenia* locomotive of the [New York and Harlem Railroad](/wiki/New_York_and_Harlem_Railroad "New York and Harlem Railroad"), built by Rogers, Ketchum \& Grosvenor a year after the company built the *Yonah*, which is believed to have been of similar design.](/wiki/File:Western_%26_Atlantic_Railroad_Yonah.jpg "Western & Atlantic Railroad Yonah.jpg") The raiders finally pulled out of Kingston only moments before Fuller's arrival. They still managed north of Kingston again to cut the telegraph wire and break a rail. Meanwhile, moving north on the handcar,['Rails Across America', Association of American Railroads, School and College Service, Washington D.C., 1960](https://comicbookplus.com/?dlid=2948) 8 Fuller had spotted the locomotive *[Yonah](/wiki/The_Yonah_%28locomotive%29 "The Yonah (locomotive)")* at Etowah and commandeered it, chasing the raiders north all the way to [Kingston](/wiki/Kingston%2C_Georgia "Kingston, Georgia"). There, Fuller switched to the locomotive *William R. Smith,* which was on a sidetrack leading west to the town of [Rome, Georgia](/wiki/Rome%2C_Georgia "Rome, Georgia"), and continued north towards [Adairsville](/wiki/Adairsville%2C_Georgia "Adairsville, Georgia"). [thumb\|*[The Texas](/wiki/The_Texas_%28locomotive%29 "The Texas (locomotive)")* after cosmetic restoration at Spencer Shops, [North Carolina Transportation Museum](/wiki/North_Carolina_Transportation_Museum "North Carolina Transportation Museum"). The engine is now on display at the [Atlanta History Center](/wiki/Atlanta_History_Center "Atlanta History Center").](/wiki/File:Texas_after_cosmetic_restoration_at_Spencer_Shops%2C_NC_Transportation_Museum.jpg "Texas after cosmetic restoration at Spencer Shops, NC Transportation Museum.jpg") Two miles south of Adairsville, however, the pursuers were stopped by the broken track, forcing Fuller and his party to continue the pursuit on foot. Beyond the damaged section, he took command of the southbound locomotive *[Texas](/wiki/The_Texas_%28locomotive%29 "The Texas (locomotive)")* south of Calhoun, where Andrews had passed it, running it backwards. The *Texas* train crew had been bluffed by Andrews at Calhoun into taking the station siding, thereby allowing the *General* to continue northward along the single\-track main line. Fuller, when he met the *Texas*, took command of her, picked up eleven Confederate troops at Calhoun, and continued his pursuit, [tender](/wiki/Tender_%28rail%29 "Tender (rail)")\-first, northward.{{cite web\| url\=http://thisweekinthecivilwar.com/wp\-admin/post.php?post\=1159/\| title\=On this Date in Civil War History: The Great Locomotive Chase – April 12, 1862\| website\=This Week in the Civil War}}{{dead link\|date\=September 2020}} ### Adairsville to Ringgold The raiders now never got far ahead of Fuller and never had enough time to stop and take up a rail to halt the *Texas*. Destroying the railway behind the hijacked train was a slow process. The raiders were too few in number and were too poorly equipped with the proper railway track tools and demolition equipment, and the rain that day made it difficult to burn the bridges. As well, railway officials in Chattanooga had sufficient time to evacuate engines and rolling stock to the south, hauling critical railroad supplies away from the Union threat, so as to prevent their either being captured by General Mitchel or trapped uselessly inside Chattanooga during a Union siege of the city. [thumb\|Andrews's men abandon the *General*](/wiki/File:The_General_abandonded.jpg "The General abandonded.jpg") With the *Texas* still chasing the *General* tender\-first, the two trains steamed through [Dalton](/wiki/Dalton%2C_Georgia "Dalton, Georgia") and [Tunnel Hill](/wiki/Tunnel_Hill%2C_Georgia "Tunnel Hill, Georgia"). The raiders continued to sever the telegraph wires, but they were unable to burn bridges or damage Tunnel Hill. The wood they had hoped to burn was soaked by rain. Just before the raiders cut the telegraph wire north of Dalton, Fuller managed to send off a message from there alerting the authorities in Chattanooga of the approaching stolen engine. Finally, at [milepost](/wiki/Milepost "Milepost") 116\.3, north of [Ringgold, Georgia](/wiki/Ringgold%2C_Georgia "Ringgold, Georgia"), just 18 miles from Chattanooga, with the locomotive out of fuel, Andrews's men abandoned the *General* and scattered. Andrews and all of his men were caught within two weeks, including the two who had missed the hijacking. Mitchell's attack on Chattanooga ultimately failed.
[ "The chase\n---------", "### Big Shanty to Kingston", "[thumb\\|upright\\|Conductor [William A. Fuller](/wiki/William_Allen_Fuller \"William Allen Fuller\")](/wiki/File:William_Fuller.jpg \"William Fuller.jpg\")\nThe raid began on April 12, 1862, when the regular morning passenger train from Atlanta, with the locomotive *[General](/wiki/The_General_%28locomotive%29 \"The General (locomotive)\")*, stopped for breakfast at the Lacy Hotel. They took the *General* and the train's three [boxcars](/wiki/Boxcar \"Boxcar\"), which were behind the tender in front of the passenger cars. The passenger cars were left behind. Andrews had previously obtained from the work crew a crowbar for tearing up track.", "The train's [conductor](/wiki/Conductor_%28transportation%29 \"Conductor (transportation)\"), [William Allen Fuller](/wiki/William_Allen_Fuller \"William Allen Fuller\"), and two other men, chased the stolen train, first on foot, then by a [handcar](/wiki/Handcar \"Handcar\") belonging to a work crew shortly north of Big Shanty. Locomotives of the time normally averaged {{convert\\|15\\|mph\\|km/h}}, with short bursts of speed of about {{convert\\|20\\|mph\\|km/h}}. In addition, the terrain north of Atlanta is very hilly, and the [ruling grades](/wiki/Ruling_gradient \"Ruling gradient\") are steep. Even today, average speeds are rarely greater than {{convert\\|40\\|mph\\|km/h}} between Chattanooga and Atlanta. Since Andrews intended to stop periodically to perform acts of sabotage, a determined pursuer, even on foot, could conceivably have caught up with the train before it reached Chattanooga.", "At Etowah, the raiders passed the older and smaller locomotive *[Yonah](/wiki/The_Yonah_%28locomotive%29 \"The Yonah (locomotive)\")* which was on a siding that led to the nearby Cooper Iron Works. Andrews considered stopping to attack and destroy that locomotive so it could not be used by pursuers, but given the size of its work party (even though unarmed) relative to the size of the raiding party, he judged that any firefight would be too long and too involved, and would alert nearby troops and civilians.", "As the raiders had stolen a regularly scheduled train on a railroad with only one track, they needed to keep to that train's timetable. If they reached a [siding](/wiki/Siding_%28rail%29 \"Siding (rail)\") ahead of schedule, they had to wait there until scheduled southbound trains passed them before they could continue north. Andrews claimed to the station masters he encountered that his train was a special northbound ammunition movement ordered by General Beauregard in support of his operations against the Union forces threatening Chattanooga. This story was sufficient for the isolated station masters Andrews encountered (as he had cut the telegraph wires to the south), but it had no impact upon the train dispatchers and station masters north of him, whose telegraph lines to Chattanooga were working. These dispatchers were following their orders to dispatch and control the special train movements southward at the highest priority.", "[thumb\\|left\\|Map of the chase route, with locations of various events marked](/wiki/File:Routelrg_r1_c1.gif \"Routelrg r1 c1.gif\")\nThus delayed at the junction town of Kingston, as the first of the southbound freight evacuation trains approached, Andrews inquired of that train's conductor why his train was carrying a red marker flag on its rear car. Andrews was told that Confederate Railway officials in Chattanooga had been notified by Confederate Army officials that Mitchel was approaching Chattanooga from Stevenson, Alabama, intending to either capture or lay [siege](/wiki/Siege \"Siege\") to the city, and as a result of this warning, the Confederate Military Railways had ordered the Special Freight movements. The red train marker flag on the southbound train meant that there was at least one additional train behind the one which Andrews had just encountered, and that Andrews had no \"authority for movement\" until the last train of that sectional movement had passed him. The raiders being delayed at Kingston for over an hour, this gave Fuller all the time he needed to close the distance.", "### Kingston to Adairsville", "[thumb\\|The *Amenia* locomotive of the [New York and Harlem Railroad](/wiki/New_York_and_Harlem_Railroad \"New York and Harlem Railroad\"), built by Rogers, Ketchum \\& Grosvenor a year after the company built the *Yonah*, which is believed to have been of similar design.](/wiki/File:Western_%26_Atlantic_Railroad_Yonah.jpg \"Western & Atlantic Railroad Yonah.jpg\")\nThe raiders finally pulled out of Kingston only moments before Fuller's arrival. They still managed north of Kingston again to cut the telegraph wire and break a rail. Meanwhile, moving north on the handcar,['Rails Across America', Association of American Railroads, School and College Service, Washington D.C., 1960](https://comicbookplus.com/?dlid=2948) 8 Fuller had spotted the locomotive *[Yonah](/wiki/The_Yonah_%28locomotive%29 \"The Yonah (locomotive)\")* at Etowah and commandeered it, chasing the raiders north all the way to [Kingston](/wiki/Kingston%2C_Georgia \"Kingston, Georgia\"). There, Fuller switched to the locomotive *William R. Smith,* which was on a sidetrack leading west to the town of [Rome, Georgia](/wiki/Rome%2C_Georgia \"Rome, Georgia\"), and continued north towards [Adairsville](/wiki/Adairsville%2C_Georgia \"Adairsville, Georgia\").", "[thumb\\|*[The Texas](/wiki/The_Texas_%28locomotive%29 \"The Texas (locomotive)\")* after cosmetic restoration at Spencer Shops, [North Carolina Transportation Museum](/wiki/North_Carolina_Transportation_Museum \"North Carolina Transportation Museum\"). The engine is now on display at the [Atlanta History Center](/wiki/Atlanta_History_Center \"Atlanta History Center\").](/wiki/File:Texas_after_cosmetic_restoration_at_Spencer_Shops%2C_NC_Transportation_Museum.jpg \"Texas after cosmetic restoration at Spencer Shops, NC Transportation Museum.jpg\") Two miles south of Adairsville, however, the pursuers were stopped by the broken track, forcing Fuller and his party to continue the pursuit on foot. Beyond the damaged section, he took command of the southbound locomotive *[Texas](/wiki/The_Texas_%28locomotive%29 \"The Texas (locomotive)\")* south of Calhoun, where Andrews had passed it, running it backwards. The *Texas* train crew had been bluffed by Andrews at Calhoun into taking the station siding, thereby allowing the *General* to continue northward along the single\\-track main line. Fuller, when he met the *Texas*, took command of her, picked up eleven Confederate troops at Calhoun, and continued his pursuit, [tender](/wiki/Tender_%28rail%29 \"Tender (rail)\")\\-first, northward.{{cite web\\| url\\=http://thisweekinthecivilwar.com/wp\\-admin/post.php?post\\=1159/\\| title\\=On this Date in Civil War History: The Great Locomotive Chase – April 12, 1862\\| website\\=This Week in the Civil War}}{{dead link\\|date\\=September 2020}}", "### Adairsville to Ringgold", "The raiders now never got far ahead of Fuller and never had enough time to stop and take up a rail to halt the *Texas*. Destroying the railway behind the hijacked train was a slow process. The raiders were too few in number and were too poorly equipped with the proper railway track tools and demolition equipment, and the rain that day made it difficult to burn the bridges. As well, railway officials in Chattanooga had sufficient time to evacuate engines and rolling stock to the south, hauling critical railroad supplies away from the Union threat, so as to prevent their either being captured by General Mitchel or trapped uselessly inside Chattanooga during a Union siege of the city.", "[thumb\\|Andrews's men abandon the *General*](/wiki/File:The_General_abandonded.jpg \"The General abandonded.jpg\")", "With the *Texas* still chasing the *General* tender\\-first, the two trains steamed through [Dalton](/wiki/Dalton%2C_Georgia \"Dalton, Georgia\") and [Tunnel Hill](/wiki/Tunnel_Hill%2C_Georgia \"Tunnel Hill, Georgia\"). The raiders continued to sever the telegraph wires, but they were unable to burn bridges or damage Tunnel Hill. The wood they had hoped to burn was soaked by rain. Just before the raiders cut the telegraph wire north of Dalton, Fuller managed to send off a message from there alerting the authorities in Chattanooga of the approaching stolen engine.", "Finally, at [milepost](/wiki/Milepost \"Milepost\") 116\\.3, north of [Ringgold, Georgia](/wiki/Ringgold%2C_Georgia \"Ringgold, Georgia\"), just 18 miles from Chattanooga, with the locomotive out of fuel, Andrews's men abandoned the *General* and scattered. Andrews and all of his men were caught within two weeks, including the two who had missed the hijacking. Mitchell's attack on Chattanooga ultimately failed.", "" ]
Episodes -------- {{main\|List of Big Love episodes}} {{:List of Big Love episodes}} ### Season 1 In [Sandy, Utah](/wiki/Sandy%2C_Utah "Sandy, Utah"), [fundamentalist Mormon](/wiki/Mormon_fundamentalism "Mormon fundamentalism") [Bill Henrickson](/wiki/Bill_Henrickson "Bill Henrickson") practices a [polygamous](/wiki/Polygamy "Polygamy") marriage with his three wives: [Barbara](/wiki/Barbara_Henrickson "Barbara Henrickson") "Barb", [Nicolette](/wiki/Nicolette_Grant "Nicolette Grant") "Nicki", and [Margene](/wiki/Margene_Heffman "Margene Heffman") "Margie". Bill owns and operates Home Plus, a local hardware store chain which earns the family considerable income, and allows him to support his wives and their seven children. Tensions rise within the family amidst the wives with the newly\-introduced Margie, a former babysitter of Bill's and employee at his store—as well as between Bill and [Roman Grant](/wiki/Roman_Grant "Roman Grant"), Nicolette's father, who is an influential patriarch and [prophet](/wiki/Prophet "Prophet") of Juniper Creek, the fundamentalist compound where Nicolette and Bill were raised. Meanwhile, Bill and Barb's eldest children, [Ben](/wiki/Ben_Henrickson "Ben Henrickson") and [Sarah](/wiki/Sarah_Henrickson "Sarah Henrickson"), individually deal with maintaining a façade to conceal their parents' polygamous marriage from their peers and community. Barb seeks independence by taking a job as a schoolteacher, while Nicki, a [compulsive shopper](/wiki/Compulsive_buying_disorder "Compulsive buying disorder"), incurs nearly $60,000 in [credit card](/wiki/Credit_card "Credit card") debt, and Margie struggles to find footing in the family. Bill and his associate Don Embry, also a polygamist, continue to dispute with Roman over business holdings in Home Plus. Roman is aided by his [sociopathic](/wiki/Psychopathy "Psychopathy") teenage bride [Rhonda Volmer](/wiki/Rhonda_Volmer "Rhonda Volmer"), as well as his son (and Nicolette's elder brother) [Alby](/wiki/Alby_Grant "Alby Grant"), a [closeted](/wiki/Closeted "Closeted") homosexual and ardent follower of the United Effort Brotherhood (UEB), the priesthood of Juniper Creek. Bill, who was shunned from Juniper Creek as a teenager, is devastated when he discovers that his shunning was not caused by his parents, Frank and Lois, but by Roman, who feared Bill would usurp the prophecy. After deciding to follow through with her baptism, Margie discovers she is pregnant. Shortly after, Barb is awarded the title of "Mother of the Year" by the local government after daughter Teeny nominates her. Flattered, Barb goes to attend the award ceremony at the governor's mansion, but is disqualified before the crowd when the judges are informed that she is a polygamist. ### Season 2 After the family's exposure, Barb goes into seclusion, and Margie suspects their neighbors, Pam and Carl, were responsible. Home Plus billboards are vandalized, and the tumult within the house results in Bill and Barb forgetting Nicki's anniversary, exacerbating tensions. Barb decides to begin taking classes at the [University of Utah](/wiki/University_of_Utah "University of Utah") to earn a [Master's degree](/wiki/Master%27s_degree "Master's degree"). At Juniper Creek, Bill's sister\-in\-law, Wanda, is tried by the community for attempting to poison Alby to death; Bill's brother Joey, a former [NFL](/wiki/National_Football_League "National Football League") player, turns himself into police to prevent Wanda from facing prison. Sarah joins an ex\-Mormon support group to voice her frustrations over her family life, and meets Scott, a twenty\-something\-year\-old whom she begins dating. Rhonda escapes Juniper Creek and manipulates her way into staying with Sarah's friend and co\-worker, Heather; she then begins manipulating and blackmailing Heather and her family in order to help forge a career as a singer. Wanda is released from a psychiatric institute after Alby's poisoning, and Lois attempts to persuade Joey to take a second wife, Kathy. Meanwhile, Nicki enrolls son Wayne in a [Catholic](/wiki/Catholic_church "Catholic church") school, and grows paranoid that he will be indoctrinated, while Bill develops an attraction to Ana, a Serbian immigrant who works at a local diner; Margie uncovers this and forges a friendship with Ana unbeknownst to Bill. At home, teenaged Ben confesses to Bill and Barb that he is having sex with his irreligious girlfriend, Bryn, and expresses interest in practicing polygamy himself. Meanwhile, Bill begins a business venture with Weber Gaming, a casino that operates on virtual currency, and is caught in the crossfires of a dispute between the Grant family and the Greenes, an underground polygamist family. Roman is ambushed by the Greenes and critically injured, leaving him hospitalized at the compound; Alby assumes the role of the compound leader and, with the help of wife Lura, extends Roman's convalescence by keeping him sedated. Joey begins to court Kathy, and Nicki holds a party for him, Kathy, and Wanda at their home. Meanwhile, Barb reunites with her estranged mother Nancy, and sister Cindy, on the occasion of Nancy's remarriage. Adaleen realizes Alby has been sedating Roman, and brings Roman to Bill's home seeking safety. Barb and Margie confess to neighbor Pam that they are polygamists. ### Season 3 After Margie gives birth to Nell, Bill begins dating Ana formally. Roman is indicted on charges of [rape](/wiki/Rape "Rape") and child sex abuse based on claims made by Alby, who is seeking to take his place. Posing as Margie, Nicki takes a job at the district attorney's office to help pay off her credit card debts, meanwhile seeking the state's evidence against her father. While [cruising for sex](/wiki/Cruising_for_sex "Cruising for sex") at a rest stop, Alby is attacked by a stranger, and suspects Bill has put a [hit](/wiki/Contract_killing "Contract killing") on him, but it is revealed to be Adaleen, attempting to dissuade him of his same\-sex attractions. Barb becomes concerned that her [cervical cancer](/wiki/Cervical_cancer "Cervical cancer"), treated with a [hysterectomy](/wiki/Hysterectomy "Hysterectomy") years prior, may have recurred, but test results determine she is still in remission. Bill takes in his younger half\-brother, Frankie, who has been kicked out of Juniper Creek, and it is revealed that Nicki has been on [birth control](/wiki/Birth_control "Birth control") for several years; meanwhile, Sarah discovers she is pregnant with Scott's child. Margie's alcoholic mother, Ginger, dies in an accident. Meanwhile, Bill pursues a business venture with Jerry Flute, a member of the [Blackfoot tribe](/wiki/Blackfoot_Confederacy "Blackfoot Confederacy"), on a casino. Adaleen bribes Rhonda with $30,000 if she refuses to testify against Roman, and Rhonda takes the money and flees to [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles"). Roman is acquitted of the charges. Bill marries Ana, but it is short\-lived, as she divorces the family within a matter of days. The family make a cross\-country pilgrimage to [Cumorah, New York](/wiki/Cumorah "Cumorah"), visiting historical sites associated with Mormon pioneers en route. During the trip, Ginger's ashes are lost, and Barb finds Nicki's birth control pills, which she assumes are Sarah's. Nicki confesses they are hers. That night, Sarah suffers a [miscarriage](/wiki/Miscarriage "Miscarriage"). Nicki is persuaded to keep her job at the D.A.'s office by Ray, her boss who has a crush on her, but quits when Margie discovers she's using her identity. Sarah and Heather make plans to enroll at [Arizona State University](/wiki/Arizona_State_University "Arizona State University"), but Sarah eventually backs out. Roman attempts to marry Kathy to Hollis Greene as punishment for her testifying against him. Roman chases her when she flees, and she dies in a car accident while trying to escape. After her death, Bill attempts to get the D.A. to charge Roman with murder. Bill seeks a document legitimizing polygamy in the LDS church from Cindy and Ted. In an investigation into the letter, Barb becomes formally excommunicated from the LDS church. Lois and Frank attempt to rekindle their tumultuous marriage after Lois's extensive attempts to murder him. Nicki develops romantic feelings for Ray, but he inadvertently discovers she is Roman's daughter, and is married to Bill. Enraged over her dishonesty, Ray threatens to charge Nicki with [obstruction of justice](/wiki/Obstruction_of_justice "Obstruction of justice"), and she goes to stay at the compound. She returns home to mend her marriage with Bill. ### Season 4 Roman disappears, and the D.A. attempts to dismantle Juniper Creek. Fearing a [witch\-hunt](/wiki/Witch-hunt "Witch-hunt"), Bill decides to run for office against a stark anti\-polygamy candidate as an open polygamist. Nicki takes in Cara Lynn, her daughter from a previous arranged marriage on the compound who has been raised by her father, J.J. (brother of Wanda) in Kansas. Alby begins a romantic relationship with Dale, a married attorney negotiating with Juniper Creek on behalf of the state. Sarah is married to Scott by Bill, and reunites with Heather. Adaleen invites Nicki to the compound where she reveals Roman's corpse, which she's been keeping in a meat freezer; Nicki urges her to inform the authorities. Joey and Nicki believe Bill is to be the next prophet of the compound. Margie begins a jewelry business sold via [televised shopping](/wiki/Shopping_channel "Shopping channel"). On the compound, Lois, Ben, and Kathy's sister JoDean begin an illicit business selling exotic birds smuggled from Mexico. Bill, Nicki, and Cara Lynn travel to [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C.") where Bill attempts to get a land endorsement; there, he is met with the ire of Marilyn Densham, a venal [lobbyist](/wiki/Lobbying "Lobbying"). Meanwhile, Barb takes over duties at the casino. Marilyn comes to Salt Lake City during the primaries and tries to forge a working relationship with Bill based on his business ventures, and both Margie and Ben are ostracized when it is revealed they have romantic feelings toward on another; Ben flees to the compound and joins Lois, Frank, and JoDean. Frank crashes a political party at Bill's casino, and Bill receives news he has won the nomination. Bill and the wives find Ana working at an upscale restaurant and discover she is pregnant with Bill's child. Alby's feelings for Dale deepen and he rents an apartment for them to meet in; Lura discovers their affair and informs Dale's wife, leading Dale to commit suicide in the apartment. The Greenes kidnap Lois, Frank, and Ben in Mexico. Meanwhile, Sarah moves with Scott to [Portland, Oregon](/wiki/Portland%2C_Oregon "Portland, Oregon"), against Nicki and Barb's wishes. Bill arrives in Mexico to save Lois, Frank, and Ben from execution; Lois attacks Hollis with a machete, cutting off his arm. They drive him to a hospital to save him under the condition that Ben, Frank, and Lois are freed. Bill returns home safely with Ben. Barb discovers that Marilyn is in cahoots with the casino's opposition, leading Bill to confront and fire her. Nicki discovers she is infertile, and Margie marries Goran, Ana's new boyfriend, to prevent him from being deported. On election day, Bill and Barb dispute over Bill's handling of a drug deal within the casino, and Marilyn discovers Bill is a polygamist. J.J. has a doctor lure Nicki to the compound, claiming she is pregnant. Wanda informs Bill that J.J. has impregnated Adaleen with her and J.J.'s child, and that Nicki is being tricked into having Cara Lynn's egg implanted into her. Adaleen breaks free and interrupts the procedure, and Nicki stabs J.J. with surgical scissors. That evening, Adaleen burns down the compound clinic with J.J. and his wife inside, killing them. Bill wins the election, and announces during a press interview that he is a polygamist, inviting each of the wives onstage. ### Season 5 After his election, Bill establishes his own church in Sandy, and seeks to reform the Juniper Creek compound and dismantle the UEB against Alby's wishes. Meanwhile, he faces the ire of local government and the public. An open house invitation hosted by Bill and the wives is coldly received, though a group of fellow polygamists arrive at the end of the night. Barb and mother Nancy join a group focusing on Mormon mother\-daughter relationships, and Barb comes to believe she possesses the priesthood, which Bill and Nicki vehemently challenge; Barb begins drinking alcohol, which also stuns the family. On [Christmas Eve](/wiki/Christmas_Eve "Christmas Eve"), Margie reveals that she was in fact sixteen when she married Bill, and had concealed her true age. Heather, who attended the holiday dinner with Ben, inadvertently tells her bishop when she returns to college. The bishop being a mandated reporter reports the situation to the police and ultimately Heather's father. Heather's father, in turn, launches an investigation against Bill for [statutory rape](/wiki/Statutory_rape "Statutory rape"). Lois is diagnosed with dementia due to an untreated STI and Bill moves her into their home. Nicki struggles to tell Cara Lynn that her father is dead, and Adaleen reveals she has been impregnated with Cara Lynn and J.J.'s incestuous child. Alby begins a mission to "purify" the compound, leading his wife, Lura, to leave him. Meanwhile, Cara Lynn begins an illicit relationship with her math teacher, Greg, which Margie and Nicki uncover. Rhonda returns to Sandy with her new husband, Verlan, and their infant child. The two attempt to extort money from Alby for the past abuses Rhonda suffered at the hands of Roman, and Verlan begins offering sexual favors to Alby in exchange for money. In an effort to legally adopt Cara Lynn, Nicki requests that Barb formally divorce Bill in order for her and Bill to legally adopt her. Barb reluctantly agrees. Pam confides in Margie that she and Carl may be divorcing. While ice fishing with his sons, Don is attacked by a masked stranger and nearly dies; it is later revealed to be Verlan, working on behalf of Alby. Nicki decides to devote her time rescuing women from the compound. During a confrontation, Alby kidnaps Nicki and brings her to a secluded location to murder her. Nicki begs for her life, and he instead shoots Verlan to death, sparing Nicki. The wives prepare for the possibility that Bill may be indicted, and Bill is infuriated when he discovers Barb has been attending a reform\-LDS church. Alby attempts to assassinate Bill at the state capitol, but his attempt is thwarted and Alby is imprisoned. As Bill's potential trial looms, Barb decides to join the reform\-LDS church, and Margie considers making a [mission](/wiki/Christian_mission "Christian mission") to South America, leaving Nicki fearful she will be left alone. Meanwhile, Lois's dementia worsens significantly, and she is placed in an assisted living home. Bill proposes the legalization of polygamy in an effort to prevent the covert abuses that have occurred in compounds like Juniper Creek. Bill and Don lose ownership of Home Plus amidst the scandal. Barb is ultimately unable to follow through with her baptism, and instead joins the family at the church where Bill gives an emotional Easter sermon. While the Henricksons prepare for Easter dinner, Frank helps Lois commit [assisted suicide](/wiki/Assisted_suicide "Assisted suicide"), recounting their life together while she dies in his arms. In his driveway, Bill is confronted by a mentally\-ill Carl, who is infuriated over Bill's kind gesture of re\-sodding his and Pam's front lawn. Carl shoots Bill in the chest. Barb, Nicki, and Margie rush to his aid, and at Bill's request Barb performs a blessing over him as he bleeds to death on the ground. Eleven months later, Sarah returns home with Scott and her newborn son, who they've named after Bill for a blessing by Barb. As Sarah and Scott prepare to fly back to Oregon, Margie also prepares to leave on her mission to South America. The wives emotionally embrace as Bill watches from the dining table.
[ "Episodes\n--------", "{{main\\|List of Big Love episodes}}\n{{:List of Big Love episodes}}", "### Season 1", "In [Sandy, Utah](/wiki/Sandy%2C_Utah \"Sandy, Utah\"), [fundamentalist Mormon](/wiki/Mormon_fundamentalism \"Mormon fundamentalism\") [Bill Henrickson](/wiki/Bill_Henrickson \"Bill Henrickson\") practices a [polygamous](/wiki/Polygamy \"Polygamy\") marriage with his three wives: [Barbara](/wiki/Barbara_Henrickson \"Barbara Henrickson\") \"Barb\", [Nicolette](/wiki/Nicolette_Grant \"Nicolette Grant\") \"Nicki\", and [Margene](/wiki/Margene_Heffman \"Margene Heffman\") \"Margie\". Bill owns and operates Home Plus, a local hardware store chain which earns the family considerable income, and allows him to support his wives and their seven children. Tensions rise within the family amidst the wives with the newly\\-introduced Margie, a former babysitter of Bill's and employee at his store—as well as between Bill and [Roman Grant](/wiki/Roman_Grant \"Roman Grant\"), Nicolette's father, who is an influential patriarch and [prophet](/wiki/Prophet \"Prophet\") of Juniper Creek, the fundamentalist compound where Nicolette and Bill were raised. Meanwhile, Bill and Barb's eldest children, [Ben](/wiki/Ben_Henrickson \"Ben Henrickson\") and [Sarah](/wiki/Sarah_Henrickson \"Sarah Henrickson\"), individually deal with maintaining a façade to conceal their parents' polygamous marriage from their peers and community.", "Barb seeks independence by taking a job as a schoolteacher, while Nicki, a [compulsive shopper](/wiki/Compulsive_buying_disorder \"Compulsive buying disorder\"), incurs nearly $60,000 in [credit card](/wiki/Credit_card \"Credit card\") debt, and Margie struggles to find footing in the family. Bill and his associate Don Embry, also a polygamist, continue to dispute with Roman over business holdings in Home Plus. Roman is aided by his [sociopathic](/wiki/Psychopathy \"Psychopathy\") teenage bride [Rhonda Volmer](/wiki/Rhonda_Volmer \"Rhonda Volmer\"), as well as his son (and Nicolette's elder brother) [Alby](/wiki/Alby_Grant \"Alby Grant\"), a [closeted](/wiki/Closeted \"Closeted\") homosexual and ardent follower of the United Effort Brotherhood (UEB), the priesthood of Juniper Creek. Bill, who was shunned from Juniper Creek as a teenager, is devastated when he discovers that his shunning was not caused by his parents, Frank and Lois, but by Roman, who feared Bill would usurp the prophecy.", "After deciding to follow through with her baptism, Margie discovers she is pregnant. Shortly after, Barb is awarded the title of \"Mother of the Year\" by the local government after daughter Teeny nominates her. Flattered, Barb goes to attend the award ceremony at the governor's mansion, but is disqualified before the crowd when the judges are informed that she is a polygamist.", "### Season 2", "After the family's exposure, Barb goes into seclusion, and Margie suspects their neighbors, Pam and Carl, were responsible. Home Plus billboards are vandalized, and the tumult within the house results in Bill and Barb forgetting Nicki's anniversary, exacerbating tensions. Barb decides to begin taking classes at the [University of Utah](/wiki/University_of_Utah \"University of Utah\") to earn a [Master's degree](/wiki/Master%27s_degree \"Master's degree\"). At Juniper Creek, Bill's sister\\-in\\-law, Wanda, is tried by the community for attempting to poison Alby to death; Bill's brother Joey, a former [NFL](/wiki/National_Football_League \"National Football League\") player, turns himself into police to prevent Wanda from facing prison.", "Sarah joins an ex\\-Mormon support group to voice her frustrations over her family life, and meets Scott, a twenty\\-something\\-year\\-old whom she begins dating. Rhonda escapes Juniper Creek and manipulates her way into staying with Sarah's friend and co\\-worker, Heather; she then begins manipulating and blackmailing Heather and her family in order to help forge a career as a singer. Wanda is released from a psychiatric institute after Alby's poisoning, and Lois attempts to persuade Joey to take a second wife, Kathy. Meanwhile, Nicki enrolls son Wayne in a [Catholic](/wiki/Catholic_church \"Catholic church\") school, and grows paranoid that he will be indoctrinated, while Bill develops an attraction to Ana, a Serbian immigrant who works at a local diner; Margie uncovers this and forges a friendship with Ana unbeknownst to Bill. At home, teenaged Ben confesses to Bill and Barb that he is having sex with his irreligious girlfriend, Bryn, and expresses interest in practicing polygamy himself.", "Meanwhile, Bill begins a business venture with Weber Gaming, a casino that operates on virtual currency, and is caught in the crossfires of a dispute between the Grant family and the Greenes, an underground polygamist family. Roman is ambushed by the Greenes and critically injured, leaving him hospitalized at the compound; Alby assumes the role of the compound leader and, with the help of wife Lura, extends Roman's convalescence by keeping him sedated. Joey begins to court Kathy, and Nicki holds a party for him, Kathy, and Wanda at their home. Meanwhile, Barb reunites with her estranged mother Nancy, and sister Cindy, on the occasion of Nancy's remarriage. Adaleen realizes Alby has been sedating Roman, and brings Roman to Bill's home seeking safety. Barb and Margie confess to neighbor Pam that they are polygamists.", "### Season 3", "After Margie gives birth to Nell, Bill begins dating Ana formally. Roman is indicted on charges of [rape](/wiki/Rape \"Rape\") and child sex abuse based on claims made by Alby, who is seeking to take his place. Posing as Margie, Nicki takes a job at the district attorney's office to help pay off her credit card debts, meanwhile seeking the state's evidence against her father. While [cruising for sex](/wiki/Cruising_for_sex \"Cruising for sex\") at a rest stop, Alby is attacked by a stranger, and suspects Bill has put a [hit](/wiki/Contract_killing \"Contract killing\") on him, but it is revealed to be Adaleen, attempting to dissuade him of his same\\-sex attractions. Barb becomes concerned that her [cervical cancer](/wiki/Cervical_cancer \"Cervical cancer\"), treated with a [hysterectomy](/wiki/Hysterectomy \"Hysterectomy\") years prior, may have recurred, but test results determine she is still in remission. Bill takes in his younger half\\-brother, Frankie, who has been kicked out of Juniper Creek, and it is revealed that Nicki has been on [birth control](/wiki/Birth_control \"Birth control\") for several years; meanwhile, Sarah discovers she is pregnant with Scott's child. Margie's alcoholic mother, Ginger, dies in an accident. Meanwhile, Bill pursues a business venture with Jerry Flute, a member of the [Blackfoot tribe](/wiki/Blackfoot_Confederacy \"Blackfoot Confederacy\"), on a casino.", "Adaleen bribes Rhonda with $30,000 if she refuses to testify against Roman, and Rhonda takes the money and flees to [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\"). Roman is acquitted of the charges. Bill marries Ana, but it is short\\-lived, as she divorces the family within a matter of days. The family make a cross\\-country pilgrimage to [Cumorah, New York](/wiki/Cumorah \"Cumorah\"), visiting historical sites associated with Mormon pioneers en route. During the trip, Ginger's ashes are lost, and Barb finds Nicki's birth control pills, which she assumes are Sarah's. Nicki confesses they are hers. That night, Sarah suffers a [miscarriage](/wiki/Miscarriage \"Miscarriage\").", "Nicki is persuaded to keep her job at the D.A.'s office by Ray, her boss who has a crush on her, but quits when Margie discovers she's using her identity. Sarah and Heather make plans to enroll at [Arizona State University](/wiki/Arizona_State_University \"Arizona State University\"), but Sarah eventually backs out. Roman attempts to marry Kathy to Hollis Greene as punishment for her testifying against him. Roman chases her when she flees, and she dies in a car accident while trying to escape. After her death, Bill attempts to get the D.A. to charge Roman with murder. Bill seeks a document legitimizing polygamy in the LDS church from Cindy and Ted. In an investigation into the letter, Barb becomes formally excommunicated from the LDS church.", "Lois and Frank attempt to rekindle their tumultuous marriage after Lois's extensive attempts to murder him. Nicki develops romantic feelings for Ray, but he inadvertently discovers she is Roman's daughter, and is married to Bill. Enraged over her dishonesty, Ray threatens to charge Nicki with [obstruction of justice](/wiki/Obstruction_of_justice \"Obstruction of justice\"), and she goes to stay at the compound. She returns home to mend her marriage with Bill.", "### Season 4", "Roman disappears, and the D.A. attempts to dismantle Juniper Creek. Fearing a [witch\\-hunt](/wiki/Witch-hunt \"Witch-hunt\"), Bill decides to run for office against a stark anti\\-polygamy candidate as an open polygamist. Nicki takes in Cara Lynn, her daughter from a previous arranged marriage on the compound who has been raised by her father, J.J. (brother of Wanda) in Kansas. Alby begins a romantic relationship with Dale, a married attorney negotiating with Juniper Creek on behalf of the state. Sarah is married to Scott by Bill, and reunites with Heather. Adaleen invites Nicki to the compound where she reveals Roman's corpse, which she's been keeping in a meat freezer; Nicki urges her to inform the authorities. Joey and Nicki believe Bill is to be the next prophet of the compound.", "Margie begins a jewelry business sold via [televised shopping](/wiki/Shopping_channel \"Shopping channel\"). On the compound, Lois, Ben, and Kathy's sister JoDean begin an illicit business selling exotic birds smuggled from Mexico. Bill, Nicki, and Cara Lynn travel to [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\") where Bill attempts to get a land endorsement; there, he is met with the ire of Marilyn Densham, a venal [lobbyist](/wiki/Lobbying \"Lobbying\"). Meanwhile, Barb takes over duties at the casino. Marilyn comes to Salt Lake City during the primaries and tries to forge a working relationship with Bill based on his business ventures, and both Margie and Ben are ostracized when it is revealed they have romantic feelings toward on another; Ben flees to the compound and joins Lois, Frank, and JoDean. Frank crashes a political party at Bill's casino, and Bill receives news he has won the nomination.", "Bill and the wives find Ana working at an upscale restaurant and discover she is pregnant with Bill's child. Alby's feelings for Dale deepen and he rents an apartment for them to meet in; Lura discovers their affair and informs Dale's wife, leading Dale to commit suicide in the apartment. The Greenes kidnap Lois, Frank, and Ben in Mexico. Meanwhile, Sarah moves with Scott to [Portland, Oregon](/wiki/Portland%2C_Oregon \"Portland, Oregon\"), against Nicki and Barb's wishes. Bill arrives in Mexico to save Lois, Frank, and Ben from execution; Lois attacks Hollis with a machete, cutting off his arm. They drive him to a hospital to save him under the condition that Ben, Frank, and Lois are freed. Bill returns home safely with Ben. Barb discovers that Marilyn is in cahoots with the casino's opposition, leading Bill to confront and fire her. Nicki discovers she is infertile, and Margie marries Goran, Ana's new boyfriend, to prevent him from being deported.", "On election day, Bill and Barb dispute over Bill's handling of a drug deal within the casino, and Marilyn discovers Bill is a polygamist. J.J. has a doctor lure Nicki to the compound, claiming she is pregnant. Wanda informs Bill that J.J. has impregnated Adaleen with her and J.J.'s child, and that Nicki is being tricked into having Cara Lynn's egg implanted into her. Adaleen breaks free and interrupts the procedure, and Nicki stabs J.J. with surgical scissors. That evening, Adaleen burns down the compound clinic with J.J. and his wife inside, killing them. Bill wins the election, and announces during a press interview that he is a polygamist, inviting each of the wives onstage.", "### Season 5", "After his election, Bill establishes his own church in Sandy, and seeks to reform the Juniper Creek compound and dismantle the UEB against Alby's wishes. Meanwhile, he faces the ire of local government and the public. An open house invitation hosted by Bill and the wives is coldly received, though a group of fellow polygamists arrive at the end of the night. Barb and mother Nancy join a group focusing on Mormon mother\\-daughter relationships, and Barb comes to believe she possesses the priesthood, which Bill and Nicki vehemently challenge; Barb begins drinking alcohol, which also stuns the family. On [Christmas Eve](/wiki/Christmas_Eve \"Christmas Eve\"), Margie reveals that she was in fact sixteen when she married Bill, and had concealed her true age. Heather, who attended the holiday dinner with Ben, inadvertently tells her bishop when she returns to college. The bishop being a mandated reporter reports the situation to the police and ultimately Heather's father. Heather's father, in turn, launches an investigation against Bill for [statutory rape](/wiki/Statutory_rape \"Statutory rape\"). Lois is diagnosed with dementia due to an untreated STI and Bill moves her into their home.", "Nicki struggles to tell Cara Lynn that her father is dead, and Adaleen reveals she has been impregnated with Cara Lynn and J.J.'s incestuous child. Alby begins a mission to \"purify\" the compound, leading his wife, Lura, to leave him. Meanwhile, Cara Lynn begins an illicit relationship with her math teacher, Greg, which Margie and Nicki uncover. Rhonda returns to Sandy with her new husband, Verlan, and their infant child. The two attempt to extort money from Alby for the past abuses Rhonda suffered at the hands of Roman, and Verlan begins offering sexual favors to Alby in exchange for money. In an effort to legally adopt Cara Lynn, Nicki requests that Barb formally divorce Bill in order for her and Bill to legally adopt her. Barb reluctantly agrees. Pam confides in Margie that she and Carl may be divorcing.", "While ice fishing with his sons, Don is attacked by a masked stranger and nearly dies; it is later revealed to be Verlan, working on behalf of Alby. Nicki decides to devote her time rescuing women from the compound. During a confrontation, Alby kidnaps Nicki and brings her to a secluded location to murder her. Nicki begs for her life, and he instead shoots Verlan to death, sparing Nicki. The wives prepare for the possibility that Bill may be indicted, and Bill is infuriated when he discovers Barb has been attending a reform\\-LDS church.", "Alby attempts to assassinate Bill at the state capitol, but his attempt is thwarted and Alby is imprisoned. As Bill's potential trial looms, Barb decides to join the reform\\-LDS church, and Margie considers making a [mission](/wiki/Christian_mission \"Christian mission\") to South America, leaving Nicki fearful she will be left alone. Meanwhile, Lois's dementia worsens significantly, and she is placed in an assisted living home. Bill proposes the legalization of polygamy in an effort to prevent the covert abuses that have occurred in compounds like Juniper Creek. Bill and Don lose ownership of Home Plus amidst the scandal. Barb is ultimately unable to follow through with her baptism, and instead joins the family at the church where Bill gives an emotional Easter sermon.", "While the Henricksons prepare for Easter dinner, Frank helps Lois commit [assisted suicide](/wiki/Assisted_suicide \"Assisted suicide\"), recounting their life together while she dies in his arms. In his driveway, Bill is confronted by a mentally\\-ill Carl, who is infuriated over Bill's kind gesture of re\\-sodding his and Pam's front lawn. Carl shoots Bill in the chest. Barb, Nicki, and Margie rush to his aid, and at Bill's request Barb performs a blessing over him as he bleeds to death on the ground.", "Eleven months later, Sarah returns home with Scott and her newborn son, who they've named after Bill for a blessing by Barb. As Sarah and Scott prepare to fly back to Oregon, Margie also prepares to leave on her mission to South America. The wives emotionally embrace as Bill watches from the dining table.", "" ]
### Season 5 After his election, Bill establishes his own church in Sandy, and seeks to reform the Juniper Creek compound and dismantle the UEB against Alby's wishes. Meanwhile, he faces the ire of local government and the public. An open house invitation hosted by Bill and the wives is coldly received, though a group of fellow polygamists arrive at the end of the night. Barb and mother Nancy join a group focusing on Mormon mother\-daughter relationships, and Barb comes to believe she possesses the priesthood, which Bill and Nicki vehemently challenge; Barb begins drinking alcohol, which also stuns the family. On [Christmas Eve](/wiki/Christmas_Eve "Christmas Eve"), Margie reveals that she was in fact sixteen when she married Bill, and had concealed her true age. Heather, who attended the holiday dinner with Ben, inadvertently tells her bishop when she returns to college. The bishop being a mandated reporter reports the situation to the police and ultimately Heather's father. Heather's father, in turn, launches an investigation against Bill for [statutory rape](/wiki/Statutory_rape "Statutory rape"). Lois is diagnosed with dementia due to an untreated STI and Bill moves her into their home. Nicki struggles to tell Cara Lynn that her father is dead, and Adaleen reveals she has been impregnated with Cara Lynn and J.J.'s incestuous child. Alby begins a mission to "purify" the compound, leading his wife, Lura, to leave him. Meanwhile, Cara Lynn begins an illicit relationship with her math teacher, Greg, which Margie and Nicki uncover. Rhonda returns to Sandy with her new husband, Verlan, and their infant child. The two attempt to extort money from Alby for the past abuses Rhonda suffered at the hands of Roman, and Verlan begins offering sexual favors to Alby in exchange for money. In an effort to legally adopt Cara Lynn, Nicki requests that Barb formally divorce Bill in order for her and Bill to legally adopt her. Barb reluctantly agrees. Pam confides in Margie that she and Carl may be divorcing. While ice fishing with his sons, Don is attacked by a masked stranger and nearly dies; it is later revealed to be Verlan, working on behalf of Alby. Nicki decides to devote her time rescuing women from the compound. During a confrontation, Alby kidnaps Nicki and brings her to a secluded location to murder her. Nicki begs for her life, and he instead shoots Verlan to death, sparing Nicki. The wives prepare for the possibility that Bill may be indicted, and Bill is infuriated when he discovers Barb has been attending a reform\-LDS church. Alby attempts to assassinate Bill at the state capitol, but his attempt is thwarted and Alby is imprisoned. As Bill's potential trial looms, Barb decides to join the reform\-LDS church, and Margie considers making a [mission](/wiki/Christian_mission "Christian mission") to South America, leaving Nicki fearful she will be left alone. Meanwhile, Lois's dementia worsens significantly, and she is placed in an assisted living home. Bill proposes the legalization of polygamy in an effort to prevent the covert abuses that have occurred in compounds like Juniper Creek. Bill and Don lose ownership of Home Plus amidst the scandal. Barb is ultimately unable to follow through with her baptism, and instead joins the family at the church where Bill gives an emotional Easter sermon. While the Henricksons prepare for Easter dinner, Frank helps Lois commit [assisted suicide](/wiki/Assisted_suicide "Assisted suicide"), recounting their life together while she dies in his arms. In his driveway, Bill is confronted by a mentally\-ill Carl, who is infuriated over Bill's kind gesture of re\-sodding his and Pam's front lawn. Carl shoots Bill in the chest. Barb, Nicki, and Margie rush to his aid, and at Bill's request Barb performs a blessing over him as he bleeds to death on the ground. Eleven months later, Sarah returns home with Scott and her newborn son, who they've named after Bill for a blessing by Barb. As Sarah and Scott prepare to fly back to Oregon, Margie also prepares to leave on her mission to South America. The wives emotionally embrace as Bill watches from the dining table.
[ "### Season 5", "After his election, Bill establishes his own church in Sandy, and seeks to reform the Juniper Creek compound and dismantle the UEB against Alby's wishes. Meanwhile, he faces the ire of local government and the public. An open house invitation hosted by Bill and the wives is coldly received, though a group of fellow polygamists arrive at the end of the night. Barb and mother Nancy join a group focusing on Mormon mother\\-daughter relationships, and Barb comes to believe she possesses the priesthood, which Bill and Nicki vehemently challenge; Barb begins drinking alcohol, which also stuns the family. On [Christmas Eve](/wiki/Christmas_Eve \"Christmas Eve\"), Margie reveals that she was in fact sixteen when she married Bill, and had concealed her true age. Heather, who attended the holiday dinner with Ben, inadvertently tells her bishop when she returns to college. The bishop being a mandated reporter reports the situation to the police and ultimately Heather's father. Heather's father, in turn, launches an investigation against Bill for [statutory rape](/wiki/Statutory_rape \"Statutory rape\"). Lois is diagnosed with dementia due to an untreated STI and Bill moves her into their home.", "Nicki struggles to tell Cara Lynn that her father is dead, and Adaleen reveals she has been impregnated with Cara Lynn and J.J.'s incestuous child. Alby begins a mission to \"purify\" the compound, leading his wife, Lura, to leave him. Meanwhile, Cara Lynn begins an illicit relationship with her math teacher, Greg, which Margie and Nicki uncover. Rhonda returns to Sandy with her new husband, Verlan, and their infant child. The two attempt to extort money from Alby for the past abuses Rhonda suffered at the hands of Roman, and Verlan begins offering sexual favors to Alby in exchange for money. In an effort to legally adopt Cara Lynn, Nicki requests that Barb formally divorce Bill in order for her and Bill to legally adopt her. Barb reluctantly agrees. Pam confides in Margie that she and Carl may be divorcing.", "While ice fishing with his sons, Don is attacked by a masked stranger and nearly dies; it is later revealed to be Verlan, working on behalf of Alby. Nicki decides to devote her time rescuing women from the compound. During a confrontation, Alby kidnaps Nicki and brings her to a secluded location to murder her. Nicki begs for her life, and he instead shoots Verlan to death, sparing Nicki. The wives prepare for the possibility that Bill may be indicted, and Bill is infuriated when he discovers Barb has been attending a reform\\-LDS church.", "Alby attempts to assassinate Bill at the state capitol, but his attempt is thwarted and Alby is imprisoned. As Bill's potential trial looms, Barb decides to join the reform\\-LDS church, and Margie considers making a [mission](/wiki/Christian_mission \"Christian mission\") to South America, leaving Nicki fearful she will be left alone. Meanwhile, Lois's dementia worsens significantly, and she is placed in an assisted living home. Bill proposes the legalization of polygamy in an effort to prevent the covert abuses that have occurred in compounds like Juniper Creek. Bill and Don lose ownership of Home Plus amidst the scandal. Barb is ultimately unable to follow through with her baptism, and instead joins the family at the church where Bill gives an emotional Easter sermon.", "While the Henricksons prepare for Easter dinner, Frank helps Lois commit [assisted suicide](/wiki/Assisted_suicide \"Assisted suicide\"), recounting their life together while she dies in his arms. In his driveway, Bill is confronted by a mentally\\-ill Carl, who is infuriated over Bill's kind gesture of re\\-sodding his and Pam's front lawn. Carl shoots Bill in the chest. Barb, Nicki, and Margie rush to his aid, and at Bill's request Barb performs a blessing over him as he bleeds to death on the ground.", "Eleven months later, Sarah returns home with Scott and her newborn son, who they've named after Bill for a blessing by Barb. As Sarah and Scott prepare to fly back to Oregon, Margie also prepares to leave on her mission to South America. The wives emotionally embrace as Bill watches from the dining table.", "" ]
Reception --------- ### Critical opinion Review aggregate [Metacritic](/wiki/Metacritic "Metacritic") indicated positive critical response for all five seasons. The average scores for the first through fourth seasons were 72/100, 71/100, 79/100, and 70/100, indicating "generally favorable reviews". The fifth and final season received an average score of 85/100, or "universal acclaim".[Big Love (HBO) \- Reviews from Metacritic](http://www.metacritic.com/tv/shows/biglove) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012639/https://www.metacritic.com/tv/big\-love/season\-1 \|date\=2020\-11\-15 }}. Based on its overall Metacritic score of 75, *[Business Insider](/wiki/Business_Insider "Business Insider")* ranked the series at number 29 in its 2017 list of every HBO series ranked "from best to worst".{{cite web\|url\=http://www.businessinsider.com/hbo\-shows\-ranked\-critics\-2017\-2/\#29\-big\-love\-2006\-11\-five\-seasons\-43\|work\=\[\[Business Insider]]\|title\=Every HBO show ranked from worst to best, according to critics\|access\-date\=December 23, 2017\|date\=March 9, 2017\|author\=Wittmer, Carrie\|archive\-date\=November 15, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012641/https://www.businessinsider.com/hbo\-shows\-ranked\-critics\-2017\-2\#29\-big\-love\-2006\-11\-five\-seasons\-43\|url\-status\=live}} Upon its debut, reaction to the series was mixed\-to\-positive. Initial raves came from publications such as *[Time](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 "Time (magazine)")* magazine, *[The Wall Street Journal](/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal "The Wall Street Journal")*, and *[New York Daily News](/wiki/New_York_Daily_News "New York Daily News")*. [James Poniewozik](/wiki/James_Poniewozik "James Poniewozik") described it as a "first\-rate drama"{{cite magazine\| url\=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1169923,00\.html \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060528222517/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1169923,00\.html \| url\-status\=dead \| archive\-date\=May 28, 2006 \| magazine\=\[\[Time (magazine)\|Time]] \| first\=James \| last\=Poniewozik \| title\=Television: Take My Wives, Please \| date\=March 5, 2006}} and [Dorothy Rabinowitz](/wiki/Dorothy_Rabinowitz "Dorothy Rabinowitz") said it was "seriously compelling".{{cite news \| url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB114194619457994142?mod\=2\_1168\_1 \| work\=The Wall Street Journal \| first\=Dorothy \| last\=Rabinowitz \| title\=High Note \| date\=March 10, 2006 \| access\-date\=August 3, 2017 \| archive\-date\=November 15, 2020 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012629/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB114194619457994142?mod\=2\_1168\_1 \| url\-status\=live }} Publications such as *[Entertainment Weekly](/wiki/Entertainment_Weekly "Entertainment Weekly")*, *[The New Yorker](/wiki/The_New_Yorker "The New Yorker")*, *[Variety](/wiki/Variety_%28magazine%29 "Variety (magazine)")*, the *[Boston Globe](/wiki/Boston_Globe "Boston Globe")*, and *[The Hollywood Reporter](/wiki/The_Hollywood_Reporter "The Hollywood Reporter")* were all positive as well.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.metacritic.com/tv/big\-love/critic\-reviews \|title\=Critic Reviews for Big Love Season 1 \|website\=\[\[Metacritic]] \|access\-date\=January 29, 2015 \|archive\-date\=November 15, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012643/https://www.metacritic.com/tv/big\-love/critic\-reviews \|url\-status\=live }} Notable detractors included Robert Lloyd of the *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times")*, who said it ultimately "didn't convince";{{cite web\|url\=http://www.calendarlive.com/tv/reviews/cl\-et\-biglove10mar10,0,3660789\.story?coll\=cl\-tvent\-util\|title\=Page Not Found \- Los Angeles Times\|access\-date\=2014\-03\-17\|archive\-date\=2020\-11\-15\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012622/https://www.latimes.com/entertainment\-arts?coll\=cl\-tvent\-util\|url\-status\=live}} Doug Elfman of the *[Chicago Sun\-Times](/wiki/Chicago_Sun-Times "Chicago Sun-Times")*, who felt its quality didn't match its concept;{{cite news\| url\=http://www.suntimes.com/output/elfman/cst\-ftr\-elf09\.html \| work\=Chicago Sun\-Times \| title\=Chicago \- Chicago : News : Politics : Things To Do : Sports}} and John Leonard of *[New York](/wiki/New_York_%28magazine%29 "New York (magazine)")* magazine, describing it as "more soapy than salacious".{{cite journal \|url\=https://nymag.com/arts/tv/reviews/16328/ \|title\=Polygamy for Dummies \|first\=John \|last\=Leonard \|journal\=\[\[New York (magazine)\|New York]] \|access\-date\=January 29, 2015 \|date\=March 13, 2006 \|archive\-date\=November 15, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012650/https://nymag.com/arts/tv/reviews/16328/ \|url\-status\=live }} By the second season, critical reception warmed. Maureen Ryan of *[The Huffington Post](/wiki/The_Huffington_Post "The Huffington Post")* and noted critic [Alan Sepinwall](/wiki/Alan_Sepinwall "Alan Sepinwall") remained ambivalent towards the show; otherwise critics were uniformly positive. In particular, several critics noted improvements from season one. Gillian Flynn of *[Entertainment Weekly](/wiki/Entertainment_Weekly "Entertainment Weekly")* wrote, "*Big Love* has dropped the last vestiges of its ostentatious quirkiness and fashioned itself into a rich and grounded family drama", and Diane Werts of *[Newsday](/wiki/Newsday "Newsday")* said that "'Big Love' does more this year than you might expect, and more richly, more provocatively, more dramatically and amusingly, too."{{cite web \|url\=http://www.metacritic.com/tv/big\-love/season\-2/critic\-reviews \|title\=Critic Reviews for Big Love Season 2 \|website\=Metacritic \|access\-date\=January 29, 2015 \|archive\-date\=November 15, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012633/https://www.metacritic.com/tv/big\-love/season\-2/critic\-reviews \|url\-status\=live }} The second season was cited among the best shows of 2007 by numerous publications, including *[PopMatters](/wiki/PopMatters "PopMatters")*,{{cite web \|url\=https://www.popmatters.com/feature/high\-redefinition\-the\-30\-best\-tv\-shows\-of\-2007/P1/ \|title\=High Redefinition: The 30 Best TV Shows of 2007 \|date\=January 17, 2008 \|website\=\[\[PopMatters]] \|access\-date\=January 29, 2015 \|archive\-date\=November 15, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012645/https://www.popmatters.com/high\-redefinition\-the\-30\-best\-tv\-shows\-of\-2007\-2496186529\.html \|url\-status\=live }} the *[San Francisco Chronicle](/wiki/San_Francisco_Chronicle "San Francisco Chronicle")*,{{cite news \|url\=http://www.sfgate.com/entertainment/article/TV\-s\-best\-and\-worst\-of\-2007\-3233740\.php\#page\-2 \|title\=TV's best and worst of 2007 \|newspaper\=\[\[San Francisco Chronicle]] \|first\=Tim \|last\=Goodman \|date\=December 31, 2007 \|access\-date\=January 29, 2015 \|archive\-date\=November 15, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012700/https://www.sfgate.com/entertainment/article/TV\-s\-best\-and\-worst\-of\-2007\-3233740\.php\#page\-2 \|url\-status\=live }} *Time*,Poniewozik, James ["Top 10 Returning TV Series"](https://web.archive.org/web/20071212161121/http://www.time.com/time/specials/2007/top10/article/0,30583,1686204_1686244_1691404,00.html). *Time*. *[Entertainment Weekly](/wiki/Entertainment_Weekly "Entertainment Weekly")*{{cite magazine \|url\=https://www.ew.com/ew/gallery/0,,20166802\_20384066,00\.html\#20384057 \|title\=The 10 Best TV Shows of 2007 \|date\=December 21, 2007 \|first\=Gillian \|last\=Flynn \|access\-date\=January 29, 2015 \|magazine\=\[\[Entertainment Weekly]] \|archive\-date\=December 5, 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205000619/http://www.ew.com/ew/gallery/0,,20166802\_20384066,00\.html\#20384057 \|url\-status\=dead }} and [NPR](/wiki/NPR "NPR").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId\=17576952 \|title\=The Best Television Programs of 2007 \|date\=December 24, 2007 \|website\=\[\[NPR]] \|access\-date\=January 29, 2015 \|first\=David \|last\=Bianculli \|archive\-date\=November 15, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012646/https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId\=17576952 \|url\-status\=live }} Season three vaulted *Big Love* to universal critical acclaim. Notably, Tim Stack of *[Entertainment Weekly](/wiki/Entertainment_Weekly "Entertainment Weekly")* gave the season's early episodes an 'A' grade, and Mary McNamara of the *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times")* said, "If there's a better written, better acted, more originally conceived show on television, I defy you to name it."{{cite web \|url\=http://www.metacritic.com/tv/big\-love/season\-3/critic\-reviews \|title\=Critic Reviews for Big Love Season 3 \|access\-date\=January 29, 2015 \|website\=Metacritic \|archive\-date\=November 15, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012627/https://www.metacritic.com/tv/big\-love/season\-3/critic\-reviews \|url\-status\=live }} After two years of popping up spottily on critics' 'Best Of' lists, season three was recognized as one of the top seasons of television from 2009\. In aggregating Top 10 lists from every major television critic, [Metacritic](/wiki/Metacritic "Metacritic") reported that 10 critics had cited the series, tying for the eighth\-most mentions (and, in particular, *Big Love* ranked third on that list among series in their third season or later).{{cite web \|url\=http://www.metacritic.com/feature/best\-tv\-of\-2009\-and\-the\-decade?page\=1 \|title\=The Best TV Shows of 2009 ... and the Decade \|first\=Jason \|last\=Dietz \|date\=January 2, 2010 \|access\-date\=January 29, 2015 \|website\=Metacritic \|archive\-date\=November 15, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012649/https://www.metacritic.com/feature/best\-tv\-of\-2009\-and\-the\-decade?page\=1 \|url\-status\=live }} Though only its first three seasons aired in the 2000s (decade), multiple critics cited *Big Love* as one of the best series of the decade. They include the *[Huffington Post](/wiki/Huffington_Post "Huffington Post")*,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.aoltv.com/2009/12/07/best\-tv\-shows\-of\-the\-2000s/ \|title\=Best TV Shows of the 2000s \|date\=December 7, 2009 \|first\=Kim \|last\=Potts \|website\=\[\[AOL TV]] \|access\-date\=January 29, 2015 \|archive\-date\=November 15, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012648/http://www.aoltv.com/2009/12/07/best\-tv\-shows\-of\-the\-2000s/ \|url\-status\=live }} *[Ain't It Cool News](/wiki/Ain%27t_It_Cool_News "Ain't It Cool News")*{{cite web \|url\=https://www.aintitcool.com/node/43513 \|title\=Herc Picks The Best TV Of 2009 and The Decade!! \|date\=January 4, 2010 \|website\=\[\[Ain't It Cool News]] \|access\-date\=January 29, 2015 \|archive\-date\=November 15, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012657/http://legacy.aintitcool.com/node/43513 \|url\-status\=live }} and *[The A.V. Club](/wiki/The_A.V._Club "The A.V. Club")*, who wrote "*Big Love* has proved to be one of the most ... earnest studies of religion and morality ever to air on television."{{cite web \|url\=https://www.avclub.com/article/the\-best\-tv\-series\-of\-the\-00s\-35256 \|title\=The best TV series of the '00s \|website\=\[\[The A.V. Club]] \|date\=November 12, 2009 \|first1\=Donna \|last1\=Bowman \|first2\=Zack \|last2\=Handlen \|first3\=Josh \|last3\=Modell \|first4\=Noel \|last4\=Murray \|first5\=Leonard \|last5\=Pierce \|first6\=Nathan \|last6\=Rabin \|first7\=Scott \|last7\=Tobias \|first8\=Todd \|last8\=VanDerWerff \|first9\=Claire \|last9\=Zulkey \|access\-date\=January 29, 2015 \|archive\-date\=November 15, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012650/https://tv.avclub.com/the\-best\-tv\-series\-of\-the\-00s\-1798220616 \|url\-status\=live }} Returning in 2010, *Big Love* was met with mixed critical response for a shorter fourth season. General consensus dictated that the series was focused too much on plot, with character development suffering as a result. *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post "The Washington Post")* identified a lack of energy in the actors, looking "alternately confused and pooped, empty shells of the characters they used to play".{{cite news \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\-dyn/content/article/2010/01/07/AR2010010704553\.html \|title\=Hank Stuever previews 'Big Love': season 4 is a tangle of story lines \|date\=January 10, 2010 \|first\=Hank \|last\=Stuever \|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]] \|access\-date\=January 29, 2015 \|archive\-date\=November 15, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012725/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\-dyn/content/article/2010/01/07/AR2010010704553\.html \|url\-status\=live }} Putting it into perspective, Rob Owen of the *[Pittsburgh Post\-Gazette](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Post-Gazette "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette")* wrote, "In this new season the show is spinning off into too many directions. None, taken individually, is terrible, but altogether these myriad plots create a lack of focus."{{cite web \|url\=http://community.post\-gazette.com/blogs/tunedin/archive/2010/01/07/big\-love\-big\-disappointment.aspx \|title\=Have I lost that loving feeling for 'Big Love'? \- Tuned in Journal \- post\-gazette.com \|access\-date\=2014\-03\-17 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100111005638/http://community.post\-gazette.com/blogs/tunedin/archive/2010/01/07/big\-love\-big\-disappointment.aspx \|archive\-date\=2010\-01\-11 }} *[The A.V. Club](/wiki/The_A.V._Club "The A.V. Club")*, which a year earlier had cited the drama as one of the previous decade's top 20 shows, described the fourth season after its finale as "The season that virtually obliterated *Big Love*{{'s}} dramatic credibility."{{cite web \|url\=https://www.avclub.com/tvclub/big\-love\-end\-of\-days\-38916 \|title\=''Big Love'': "End Of Days" \|first\=Amelie \|last\=Gillette \|website\=\[\[The A.V. Club]] \|date\=March 7, 2010 \|access\-date\=January 29, 2015 \|archive\-date\=November 15, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012647/https://tv.avclub.com/big\-love\-end\-of\-days\-1798164467 \|url\-status\=live }} When the series returned for its fifth and final season the next year, critical reaction was extremely enthusiastic. *Big Love* received the best early reviews of its entire run. Mary McNamara wrote, "*Big Love* quickly reclaims its astonishing ability to balance the insightful and the absurd, hilarity and heartbreak and the personal with the political."{{cite news \|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-2011\-jan\-15\-la\-et\-big\-love\-review\-20110115\-story.html \|title\=Television review: 'Big Love' Season 5 \|date\=January 15, 2011 \|first\=Mary \|last\=McNamara \|newspaper\=\[\[Los Angeles Times]] \|access\-date\=January 29, 2015 \|archive\-date\=November 15, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012635/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-2011\-jan\-15\-la\-et\-big\-love\-review\-20110115\-story.html \|url\-status\=live }} Similar raves came from Nancy DeWolf Smith of *[The Wall Street Journal](/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal "The Wall Street Journal")*, who said the final season was "mesmerizing", and the *[New York Post](/wiki/New_York_Post "New York Post")*, which awarded the final season a perfect four out of four stars.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.metacritic.com/tv/big\-love/season\-5/critic\-reviews \|title\=Critic Reviews for Big Love Season 5 \|website\=Metacritic \|access\-date\=January 29, 2015 \|archive\-date\=November 15, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012643/https://www.metacritic.com/tv/big\-love/season\-5/critic\-reviews \|url\-status\=live }} Overall, the final season of *Big Love* tied as the fourth\-best reviewed returning show of 2011, trailing only *[Breaking Bad](/wiki/Breaking_Bad "Breaking Bad")*, *[Louie](/wiki/Louie_%28U.S._TV_series%29 "Louie (U.S. TV series)")* and the animated comedy *[Archer](/wiki/Archer_%282009_TV_series%29 "Archer (2009 TV series)")*. It was the tenth\-best reviewed scripted series of the year overall.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.metacritic.com/browse/tv/score/metascore/year?sort\=desc\&view\=condensed\&year\_selected\=2011 \|title\=Best TV Shows for 2011 \|website\=Metacritic \|access\-date\=January 29, 2015 \|archive\-date\=November 15, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012722/https://www.metacritic.com/browse/tv/score/metascore/year?sort\=desc\&view\=condensed\&year\_selected\=2011 \|url\-status\=live }} Response to the series finale, "When Men and Mountains Meet", was passionate among top publications. Jace Lacob of the *[Daily Beast](/wiki/Daily_Beast "Daily Beast")* called it the "perfect way to close out this series" and described his reaction to it as "emotional".{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.televisionaryblog.com/2011/03/eternity\-thoughts\-on\-series\-finale\-of.html\|title\=Eternity: Thoughts on the Series Finale of HBO's Big Love\|date\=20 March 2011 \|accessdate\=19 December 2022}} [James Poniewozik](/wiki/James_Poniewozik "James Poniewozik") wrote for *Time* magazine that "In the end ... *Big Love* came back full circle to the core relationships ... We closed on a moving if messy note for a moving if messy series."{{cite magazine \|url\=http://entertainment.time.com/2011/03/21/big\-love\-watch\-god\-only\-knows\-what\-wed\-be\-without\-you/ \|title\=Big Love Watch: God Only Knows What We'd Be Without You \|magazine\=\[\[Time (magazine)\|Time]] \|date\=March 21, 2011 \|first\=James \|last\=Poniewozik \|access\-date\=January 29, 2015 \|archive\-date\=November 15, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012659/https://entertainment.time.com/2011/03/21/big\-love\-watch\-god\-only\-knows\-what\-wed\-be\-without\-you/ \|url\-status\=live }} Mary McNamara, of the *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times")* dubbed it "a perfect finish to an astonishingly ambitious show that often careened through genre, narrative structure and believability like they were false walls on a stage". In her rumination on the finale, Ginia Bellafante of *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* noted that *Big Love* "was always at its most compelling as an indictment of the mindless spiritual avidity and the bizarre displays of self\-exoneration that can go on in the name of faith", and celebrated the finale for committing to that theme. She also wrote that the series had "achieved the resonance of \[HBO's] other heralded series."{{cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/21/arts/television/in\-big\-love\-finale\-on\-hbo\-a\-comeuppance\-for\-the\-man.html \| work\=The New York Times \| first\=Ginia \| last\=Bellafante \| title\=In 'Big Love' Finale on HBO, a Comeuppance for the Man \| date\=March 21, 2011 \| access\-date\=February 21, 2017 \| archive\-date\=November 15, 2020 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012645/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/21/arts/television/in\-big\-love\-finale\-on\-hbo\-a\-comeuppance\-for\-the\-man.html \| url\-status\=live }} Writing for [TV Squad](/wiki/TV_Squad "TV Squad"), Dr. Ryan Vaughn was less enthusiastic about the finale but said, "I'm not going to let a great series be sullied with a mediocre finale."{{cite web\|url\=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/section/tv\|title\=TV\|website\=\[\[HuffPost]]\|access\-date\=2020\-02\-21\|archive\-date\=2020\-11\-15\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012649/https://www.huffpost.com/entertainment/tv\|url\-status\=live}} Finally, Emily VanDerWerff of *[The A.V. Club](/wiki/The_A.V._Club "The A.V. Club")* awarded the series finale, and the series as a whole, a B\+, writing that its first three seasons in particular qualified as "remarkable television".{{cite web \|url\=https://www.avclub.com/tvclub/big\-love\-when\-men\-and\-mountains\-meet\-53378 \|title\=''Big Love'': "When Men And Mountains Meet" \|first\=Emily \|last\=VanDerWerff \|website\=The A.V. Club \|date\=March 21, 2011 \|access\-date\=October 6, 2019 \|archive\-date\=November 15, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012659/https://tv.avclub.com/big\-love\-when\-men\-and\-mountains\-meet\-1798167666 \|url\-status\=live }} ### LDS Church and others In March 2006, [The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter\-day Saints](/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints") (LDS Church), which ended practice of polygamy in 1890 and often distances itself from modern polygamist breakoffs, issued a public statement citing concerns over the program's depiction of abuse, polygamy, use of stereotypes, and television's depiction of moral and civic values in general.["Church Responds to Questions on HBO's Big Love"](https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/ldsnewsroom/eng/commentary/church-responds-to-questions-on-hbo-s-big-love) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012641/https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/ldsnewsroom/eng/commentary/church\-responds\-to\-questions\-on\-hbo\-s\-big\-love \|date\=2020\-11\-15 }}, press release, churchofjesuschrist.org, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter\-day Saints, 2006\-03\-06\. Among other things, the church stated, "Despite its popularity with some, much of today's television entertainment shows an unhealthy preoccupation with sex, coarse humor and foul language. *Big Love*, like so much other television programming, is essentially lazy and indulgent entertainment that does nothing for our society and will never nourish great minds." In March 2009, the LDS Church stated that HBO's writers, producers, and executives were displaying insensitivity to church members by choosing to display simulated segments of the LDS Church's [Endowment](/wiki/Endowment_%28Latter_Day_Saints%29 "Endowment (Latter Day Saints)") ceremony in an episode of *Big Love*.Jennifer Dobner, ["HBO Vs. The Mormons In Battle Over Temple Ceremony"](https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/03/10/hbo-vs-the-mormons-in-bat_n_173707.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012647/https://www.huffpost.com/?err\_code\=404\&err\_url\=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffingtonpost.com%2F2009%2F03%2F10%2Fhbo\-vs\-the\-mormons\-in\-bat\_n\_173707\.html \|date\=2020\-11\-15 }}, *[Huffington Post](/wiki/Huffington_Post "Huffington Post")*, 2009\-03\-11\.Vince Horiuchi, ["LDS Temple secrets? 'Big Love' TV episode angers Mormons: TV show to air Sunday reportedly depicts faith's endowment ceremony"](http://www.sltrib.com/ci_11874222) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090313043943/http://www.sltrib.com/ci\_11874222 \|date\=2009\-03\-13 }}, *[Salt Lake Tribune](/wiki/Salt_Lake_Tribune "Salt Lake Tribune")*, 2009\-03\-12\.["LDS Church comments on 'Big Love'"](http://deseretnews.com/article/1,5143,705289746,00.html), *[Deseret News](/wiki/Deseret_News "Deseret News")*, March 9, 2009\. Independent of the church's statement, some members of the LDS Church called for a boycott for ceremony depiction.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-mormons/big\-love\-network\-apologizes\-to\-mormons\-idUSTRE5297AK20090311\|work\=Reuters\|author\=Serjeant, Jill\|access\-date\=December 19, 2017\|date\=March 11, 2009\|title\="Big Love" network apologizes to Mormons\|archive\-date\=November 15, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012723/https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-mormons/big\-love\-network\-apologizes\-to\-mormons\-idUSTRE5297AK20090311\|url\-status\=live}} HBO made a public apology to those offended by the depiction but defended a decision to broadcast it anyway. The network stated the depiction was accurate and done with reverence. The LDS Church also stated that the show had continued to blur the distinction between the LDS Church and "the show's fictional non\-Mormon characters". In contrast to the statement made by the LDS church, several real fundamentalist Mormon polygamists spoke in favor of the series: In a 2006 interview in *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* with various polygamist wives, one noted: "It's a more realistic view of a polygamous family that lives out in society than people have known. It can be seen as a viable alternative lifestyle between consenting adults."{{cite web\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/28/arts/television/28poly.html?mtrref\=www.google.com\&gwh\=BF2D19B9D70E93E4B89F88268D0D6008\&gwt\=pay\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|title\='Big Love': Real Polygamists Look at HBO Polygamists and Find Sex\|date\=March 28, 2006\|access\-date\=January 22, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111219000645/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/28/arts/television/28poly.html\|archive\-date\=December 19, 2011\|author\=Lee, Felicia R.}} ### Academic assessment Since its premiere, *Big Love* has been the subject of several studies in the humanities and social sciences. Dr. Cheryl Hanna explored "the problem of categorical exclusions to the consent doctrine in private intimate relationships" through the lens of *Big Love*, specifically citing its "beautifully explored" tensions between individual autonomy and state interests. In her conclusion, she wrote "the future of feminist legal theory depends on its ability to remain ambivalent about the tensions presented in the consent doctrine as applied to contexts such as polygamy, prostitution, sadomasochistic sex, obscenity, and domestic violence. *Big Love* seeks to persuade us to accept ambivalence and to be open to changing our minds because of the complicated nature of women's (and men's) lives; feminist legal theory ought to persuade us to do the same."Hanna, Cheryl (2010\). "Rethinking Consent in a Big Love Way". *Michigan Journal of Gender \& Law*. **17** (1\): 111\-156\. For the *[Columbia Law Review](/wiki/Columbia_Law_Review "Columbia Law Review")*, Dr. Adrienne D. Davis assessed legal debates surrounding polygamy after the premiere of *Big Love* and how it was being likened to same\-sex marriage. She wrote, "The highly acclaimed hit series self\-consciously invites viewers to consider analogies between same\-sex and polygamous families. In the show's much\-anticipated second season, the invitation became more pointed and persistent, with intermittent references to 'coming out,' 'closeted families,' and 'the state' as repressively surveilling nonconforming 'big love.'" However, she claimed that Hollywood and television critics' desire to interpret the polygamy in *Big Love* and beyond as representative of American "quirky families" was a miscue. Ultimately, she argues that the dichotomy presented by *Big Love* works when viewed in terms of "intimacy liberty, privacy, autonomy, and agency, or even an incipient constitutional respect for 'sexual minorities.'"; the very essence, as Davis notes and commends, of the series' themes.Adrienne D. Davis (2010\). "Regulating Polygamy: Intimacy, Default Rules, and Bargaining for Equality". *Columbia Law Review*. **110** (8\): 1955\-2046\. Dr. Brenda Cossman examined *Big Love* closely in her study of "migrating marriages" for *[Law and Contemporary Problems](/wiki/Law_and_Contemporary_Problems "Law and Contemporary Problems")*. In addition to asserting that "Just as in *Big Love*, same\-sex marriage is never more than one degree away of separation from polygamy", she found that the series adds crucial insight to the understanding of marriages that exist between legal and cultural recognition. As she explains, "These cases can be seen through the lens of ... *Big Love*, in which marriages are produced as the culturally real in the here and the now, even when legal recognition remains elusive." By exploring the movement seeking to culturally legitimize same\-sex marriage, she concluded *Big Love* served as a most powerful, unique allegory: "*Big Love* plays on an even more decisive gap: polygamous marriages are not legal in Utah or anywhere else in the country. Yet the point and the poignancy of the show is to depict a 'real\-life' family. Bill Hendrickson and his three wives struggle with all of the daily trials of contemporary family life: parenting, finances, intimacy, and sex. The sympathetic portrayal of their family is as culturally real, although it suffers by virtue of its nonlegal recognition."Cossman, Brenda (2008\). "Betwixt and Between Recognition: Migrating Same\-Sex Marriages and the Turn Toward the Private". *Law and Contemporary Problems*. **71** (3\): 153\-168\. *Big Love* was also studied as a part of Andrew Atkinson's study of HBO programs and the post\-secular humanistic themes they elicit. In writing of *Big Love*, Atkinson too draws on the parallel between gay rights and polygamist rights illuminated by the series, but focuses more on the series' influential humanistic elements. In fact, he somewhat rebuffs earlier assertions made: "The attention that is paid to the minute details of Mormon ritual, theology, and historical disputes demonstrates that HBO's writers are uncomfortable with the supposed dichotomy that constructs homosexuality as by default areligious." Atkinson focuses on the ending, interpreting Barb's blessing of Bill as a "ritual innovation \[that] indicates that FLDS Mormonism must shed the trappings of patriarchy if it wants to legitimate polygamy in a post\-feminist society", and the fall of Alby, the closet homosexual, as a powerful interpretation of "the future theo\-political and sexual tensions that Mormonism, and by extension, the broader American polity, will face as the post\-secular matures". In concluding, Atkinson makes the case that *Big Love* and other HBO shows like *[The Sopranos](/wiki/The_Sopranos "The Sopranos")*, *[The Wire](/wiki/The_Wire "The Wire")* and *[Six Feet Under](/wiki/Six_Feet_Under_%28TV_series%29 "Six Feet Under (TV series)")* "contribute to a fuller conception of humanity" than other forms of art and entertainment.Atkinson, Andrew "When You Walk Through the Garden: HBO and the Cross Pressures of Post\-Secular Humanism". *Journal of Religion and Popular Culture*.
[ "Reception\n---------", "### Critical opinion", "Review aggregate [Metacritic](/wiki/Metacritic \"Metacritic\") indicated positive critical response for all five seasons. The average scores for the first through fourth seasons were 72/100, 71/100, 79/100, and 70/100, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\". The fifth and final season received an average score of 85/100, or \"universal acclaim\".[Big Love (HBO) \\- Reviews from Metacritic](http://www.metacritic.com/tv/shows/biglove) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012639/https://www.metacritic.com/tv/big\\-love/season\\-1 \\|date\\=2020\\-11\\-15 }}. Based on its overall Metacritic score of 75, *[Business Insider](/wiki/Business_Insider \"Business Insider\")* ranked the series at number 29 in its 2017 list of every HBO series ranked \"from best to worst\".{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.businessinsider.com/hbo\\-shows\\-ranked\\-critics\\-2017\\-2/\\#29\\-big\\-love\\-2006\\-11\\-five\\-seasons\\-43\\|work\\=\\[\\[Business Insider]]\\|title\\=Every HBO show ranked from worst to best, according to critics\\|access\\-date\\=December 23, 2017\\|date\\=March 9, 2017\\|author\\=Wittmer, Carrie\\|archive\\-date\\=November 15, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012641/https://www.businessinsider.com/hbo\\-shows\\-ranked\\-critics\\-2017\\-2\\#29\\-big\\-love\\-2006\\-11\\-five\\-seasons\\-43\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "Upon its debut, reaction to the series was mixed\\-to\\-positive. Initial raves came from publications such as *[Time](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 \"Time (magazine)\")* magazine, *[The Wall Street Journal](/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal \"The Wall Street Journal\")*, and *[New York Daily News](/wiki/New_York_Daily_News \"New York Daily News\")*. [James Poniewozik](/wiki/James_Poniewozik \"James Poniewozik\") described it as a \"first\\-rate drama\"{{cite magazine\\| url\\=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1169923,00\\.html \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060528222517/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1169923,00\\.html \\| url\\-status\\=dead \\| archive\\-date\\=May 28, 2006 \\| magazine\\=\\[\\[Time (magazine)\\|Time]] \\| first\\=James \\| last\\=Poniewozik \\| title\\=Television: Take My Wives, Please \\| date\\=March 5, 2006}} and [Dorothy Rabinowitz](/wiki/Dorothy_Rabinowitz \"Dorothy Rabinowitz\") said it was \"seriously compelling\".{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB114194619457994142?mod\\=2\\_1168\\_1 \\| work\\=The Wall Street Journal \\| first\\=Dorothy \\| last\\=Rabinowitz \\| title\\=High Note \\| date\\=March 10, 2006 \\| access\\-date\\=August 3, 2017 \\| archive\\-date\\=November 15, 2020 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012629/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB114194619457994142?mod\\=2\\_1168\\_1 \\| url\\-status\\=live }} Publications such as *[Entertainment Weekly](/wiki/Entertainment_Weekly \"Entertainment Weekly\")*, *[The New Yorker](/wiki/The_New_Yorker \"The New Yorker\")*, *[Variety](/wiki/Variety_%28magazine%29 \"Variety (magazine)\")*, the *[Boston Globe](/wiki/Boston_Globe \"Boston Globe\")*, and *[The Hollywood Reporter](/wiki/The_Hollywood_Reporter \"The Hollywood Reporter\")* were all positive as well.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.metacritic.com/tv/big\\-love/critic\\-reviews \\|title\\=Critic Reviews for Big Love Season 1 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Metacritic]] \\|access\\-date\\=January 29, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 15, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012643/https://www.metacritic.com/tv/big\\-love/critic\\-reviews \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Notable detractors included Robert Lloyd of the *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\")*, who said it ultimately \"didn't convince\";{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.calendarlive.com/tv/reviews/cl\\-et\\-biglove10mar10,0,3660789\\.story?coll\\=cl\\-tvent\\-util\\|title\\=Page Not Found \\- Los Angeles Times\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-03\\-17\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-15\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012622/https://www.latimes.com/entertainment\\-arts?coll\\=cl\\-tvent\\-util\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Doug Elfman of the *[Chicago Sun\\-Times](/wiki/Chicago_Sun-Times \"Chicago Sun-Times\")*, who felt its quality didn't match its concept;{{cite news\\| url\\=http://www.suntimes.com/output/elfman/cst\\-ftr\\-elf09\\.html \\| work\\=Chicago Sun\\-Times \\| title\\=Chicago \\- Chicago : News : Politics : Things To Do : Sports}} and John Leonard of *[New York](/wiki/New_York_%28magazine%29 \"New York (magazine)\")* magazine, describing it as \"more soapy than salacious\".{{cite journal \\|url\\=https://nymag.com/arts/tv/reviews/16328/ \\|title\\=Polygamy for Dummies \\|first\\=John \\|last\\=Leonard \\|journal\\=\\[\\[New York (magazine)\\|New York]] \\|access\\-date\\=January 29, 2015 \\|date\\=March 13, 2006 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 15, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012650/https://nymag.com/arts/tv/reviews/16328/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "By the second season, critical reception warmed. Maureen Ryan of *[The Huffington Post](/wiki/The_Huffington_Post \"The Huffington Post\")* and noted critic [Alan Sepinwall](/wiki/Alan_Sepinwall \"Alan Sepinwall\") remained ambivalent towards the show; otherwise critics were uniformly positive. In particular, several critics noted improvements from season one. Gillian Flynn of *[Entertainment Weekly](/wiki/Entertainment_Weekly \"Entertainment Weekly\")* wrote, \"*Big Love* has dropped the last vestiges of its ostentatious quirkiness and fashioned itself into a rich and grounded family drama\", and Diane Werts of *[Newsday](/wiki/Newsday \"Newsday\")* said that \"'Big Love' does more this year than you might expect, and more richly, more provocatively, more dramatically and amusingly, too.\"{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.metacritic.com/tv/big\\-love/season\\-2/critic\\-reviews \\|title\\=Critic Reviews for Big Love Season 2 \\|website\\=Metacritic \\|access\\-date\\=January 29, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 15, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012633/https://www.metacritic.com/tv/big\\-love/season\\-2/critic\\-reviews \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The second season was cited among the best shows of 2007 by numerous publications, including *[PopMatters](/wiki/PopMatters \"PopMatters\")*,{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.popmatters.com/feature/high\\-redefinition\\-the\\-30\\-best\\-tv\\-shows\\-of\\-2007/P1/ \\|title\\=High Redefinition: The 30 Best TV Shows of 2007 \\|date\\=January 17, 2008 \\|website\\=\\[\\[PopMatters]] \\|access\\-date\\=January 29, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 15, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012645/https://www.popmatters.com/high\\-redefinition\\-the\\-30\\-best\\-tv\\-shows\\-of\\-2007\\-2496186529\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} the *[San Francisco Chronicle](/wiki/San_Francisco_Chronicle \"San Francisco Chronicle\")*,{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.sfgate.com/entertainment/article/TV\\-s\\-best\\-and\\-worst\\-of\\-2007\\-3233740\\.php\\#page\\-2 \\|title\\=TV's best and worst of 2007 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[San Francisco Chronicle]] \\|first\\=Tim \\|last\\=Goodman \\|date\\=December 31, 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=January 29, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 15, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012700/https://www.sfgate.com/entertainment/article/TV\\-s\\-best\\-and\\-worst\\-of\\-2007\\-3233740\\.php\\#page\\-2 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} *Time*,Poniewozik, James [\"Top 10 Returning TV Series\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20071212161121/http://www.time.com/time/specials/2007/top10/article/0,30583,1686204_1686244_1691404,00.html). *Time*. *[Entertainment Weekly](/wiki/Entertainment_Weekly \"Entertainment Weekly\")*{{cite magazine \\|url\\=https://www.ew.com/ew/gallery/0,,20166802\\_20384066,00\\.html\\#20384057 \\|title\\=The 10 Best TV Shows of 2007 \\|date\\=December 21, 2007 \\|first\\=Gillian \\|last\\=Flynn \\|access\\-date\\=January 29, 2015 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Entertainment Weekly]] \\|archive\\-date\\=December 5, 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205000619/http://www.ew.com/ew/gallery/0,,20166802\\_20384066,00\\.html\\#20384057 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} and [NPR](/wiki/NPR \"NPR\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId\\=17576952 \\|title\\=The Best Television Programs of 2007 \\|date\\=December 24, 2007 \\|website\\=\\[\\[NPR]] \\|access\\-date\\=January 29, 2015 \\|first\\=David \\|last\\=Bianculli \\|archive\\-date\\=November 15, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012646/https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId\\=17576952 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "Season three vaulted *Big Love* to universal critical acclaim. Notably, Tim Stack of *[Entertainment Weekly](/wiki/Entertainment_Weekly \"Entertainment Weekly\")* gave the season's early episodes an 'A' grade, and Mary McNamara of the *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\")* said, \"If there's a better written, better acted, more originally conceived show on television, I defy you to name it.\"{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.metacritic.com/tv/big\\-love/season\\-3/critic\\-reviews \\|title\\=Critic Reviews for Big Love Season 3 \\|access\\-date\\=January 29, 2015 \\|website\\=Metacritic \\|archive\\-date\\=November 15, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012627/https://www.metacritic.com/tv/big\\-love/season\\-3/critic\\-reviews \\|url\\-status\\=live }} After two years of popping up spottily on critics' 'Best Of' lists, season three was recognized as one of the top seasons of television from 2009\\. In aggregating Top 10 lists from every major television critic, [Metacritic](/wiki/Metacritic \"Metacritic\") reported that 10 critics had cited the series, tying for the eighth\\-most mentions (and, in particular, *Big Love* ranked third on that list among series in their third season or later).{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.metacritic.com/feature/best\\-tv\\-of\\-2009\\-and\\-the\\-decade?page\\=1 \\|title\\=The Best TV Shows of 2009 ... and the Decade \\|first\\=Jason \\|last\\=Dietz \\|date\\=January 2, 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=January 29, 2015 \\|website\\=Metacritic \\|archive\\-date\\=November 15, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012649/https://www.metacritic.com/feature/best\\-tv\\-of\\-2009\\-and\\-the\\-decade?page\\=1 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "Though only its first three seasons aired in the 2000s (decade), multiple critics cited *Big Love* as one of the best series of the decade. They include the *[Huffington Post](/wiki/Huffington_Post \"Huffington Post\")*,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.aoltv.com/2009/12/07/best\\-tv\\-shows\\-of\\-the\\-2000s/ \\|title\\=Best TV Shows of the 2000s \\|date\\=December 7, 2009 \\|first\\=Kim \\|last\\=Potts \\|website\\=\\[\\[AOL TV]] \\|access\\-date\\=January 29, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 15, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012648/http://www.aoltv.com/2009/12/07/best\\-tv\\-shows\\-of\\-the\\-2000s/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} *[Ain't It Cool News](/wiki/Ain%27t_It_Cool_News \"Ain't It Cool News\")*{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.aintitcool.com/node/43513 \\|title\\=Herc Picks The Best TV Of 2009 and The Decade!! \\|date\\=January 4, 2010 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Ain't It Cool News]] \\|access\\-date\\=January 29, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 15, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012657/http://legacy.aintitcool.com/node/43513 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} and *[The A.V. Club](/wiki/The_A.V._Club \"The A.V. Club\")*, who wrote \"*Big Love* has proved to be one of the most ... earnest studies of religion and morality ever to air on television.\"{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.avclub.com/article/the\\-best\\-tv\\-series\\-of\\-the\\-00s\\-35256 \\|title\\=The best TV series of the '00s \\|website\\=\\[\\[The A.V. Club]] \\|date\\=November 12, 2009 \\|first1\\=Donna \\|last1\\=Bowman \\|first2\\=Zack \\|last2\\=Handlen \\|first3\\=Josh \\|last3\\=Modell \\|first4\\=Noel \\|last4\\=Murray \\|first5\\=Leonard \\|last5\\=Pierce \\|first6\\=Nathan \\|last6\\=Rabin \\|first7\\=Scott \\|last7\\=Tobias \\|first8\\=Todd \\|last8\\=VanDerWerff \\|first9\\=Claire \\|last9\\=Zulkey \\|access\\-date\\=January 29, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 15, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012650/https://tv.avclub.com/the\\-best\\-tv\\-series\\-of\\-the\\-00s\\-1798220616 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "Returning in 2010, *Big Love* was met with mixed critical response for a shorter fourth season. General consensus dictated that the series was focused too much on plot, with character development suffering as a result. *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post \"The Washington Post\")* identified a lack of energy in the actors, looking \"alternately confused and pooped, empty shells of the characters they used to play\".{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\\-dyn/content/article/2010/01/07/AR2010010704553\\.html \\|title\\=Hank Stuever previews 'Big Love': season 4 is a tangle of story lines \\|date\\=January 10, 2010 \\|first\\=Hank \\|last\\=Stuever \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]] \\|access\\-date\\=January 29, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 15, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012725/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\\-dyn/content/article/2010/01/07/AR2010010704553\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Putting it into perspective, Rob Owen of the *[Pittsburgh Post\\-Gazette](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Post-Gazette \"Pittsburgh Post-Gazette\")* wrote, \"In this new season the show is spinning off into too many directions. None, taken individually, is terrible, but altogether these myriad plots create a lack of focus.\"{{cite web \\|url\\=http://community.post\\-gazette.com/blogs/tunedin/archive/2010/01/07/big\\-love\\-big\\-disappointment.aspx \\|title\\=Have I lost that loving feeling for 'Big Love'? \\- Tuned in Journal \\- post\\-gazette.com \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-03\\-17 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100111005638/http://community.post\\-gazette.com/blogs/tunedin/archive/2010/01/07/big\\-love\\-big\\-disappointment.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-01\\-11 }} *[The A.V. Club](/wiki/The_A.V._Club \"The A.V. Club\")*, which a year earlier had cited the drama as one of the previous decade's top 20 shows, described the fourth season after its finale as \"The season that virtually obliterated *Big Love*{{'s}} dramatic credibility.\"{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.avclub.com/tvclub/big\\-love\\-end\\-of\\-days\\-38916 \\|title\\=''Big Love'': \"End Of Days\" \\|first\\=Amelie \\|last\\=Gillette \\|website\\=\\[\\[The A.V. Club]] \\|date\\=March 7, 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=January 29, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 15, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012647/https://tv.avclub.com/big\\-love\\-end\\-of\\-days\\-1798164467 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "When the series returned for its fifth and final season the next year, critical reaction was extremely enthusiastic. *Big Love* received the best early reviews of its entire run. Mary McNamara wrote, \"*Big Love* quickly reclaims its astonishing ability to balance the insightful and the absurd, hilarity and heartbreak and the personal with the political.\"{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-2011\\-jan\\-15\\-la\\-et\\-big\\-love\\-review\\-20110115\\-story.html \\|title\\=Television review: 'Big Love' Season 5 \\|date\\=January 15, 2011 \\|first\\=Mary \\|last\\=McNamara \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles Times]] \\|access\\-date\\=January 29, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 15, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012635/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-2011\\-jan\\-15\\-la\\-et\\-big\\-love\\-review\\-20110115\\-story.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Similar raves came from Nancy DeWolf Smith of *[The Wall Street Journal](/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal \"The Wall Street Journal\")*, who said the final season was \"mesmerizing\", and the *[New York Post](/wiki/New_York_Post \"New York Post\")*, which awarded the final season a perfect four out of four stars.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.metacritic.com/tv/big\\-love/season\\-5/critic\\-reviews \\|title\\=Critic Reviews for Big Love Season 5 \\|website\\=Metacritic \\|access\\-date\\=January 29, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 15, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012643/https://www.metacritic.com/tv/big\\-love/season\\-5/critic\\-reviews \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Overall, the final season of *Big Love* tied as the fourth\\-best reviewed returning show of 2011, trailing only *[Breaking Bad](/wiki/Breaking_Bad \"Breaking Bad\")*, *[Louie](/wiki/Louie_%28U.S._TV_series%29 \"Louie (U.S. TV series)\")* and the animated comedy *[Archer](/wiki/Archer_%282009_TV_series%29 \"Archer (2009 TV series)\")*. It was the tenth\\-best reviewed scripted series of the year overall.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.metacritic.com/browse/tv/score/metascore/year?sort\\=desc\\&view\\=condensed\\&year\\_selected\\=2011 \\|title\\=Best TV Shows for 2011 \\|website\\=Metacritic \\|access\\-date\\=January 29, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 15, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012722/https://www.metacritic.com/browse/tv/score/metascore/year?sort\\=desc\\&view\\=condensed\\&year\\_selected\\=2011 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "Response to the series finale, \"When Men and Mountains Meet\", was passionate among top publications. Jace Lacob of the *[Daily Beast](/wiki/Daily_Beast \"Daily Beast\")* called it the \"perfect way to close out this series\" and described his reaction to it as \"emotional\".{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.televisionaryblog.com/2011/03/eternity\\-thoughts\\-on\\-series\\-finale\\-of.html\\|title\\=Eternity: Thoughts on the Series Finale of HBO's Big Love\\|date\\=20 March 2011 \\|accessdate\\=19 December 2022}} [James Poniewozik](/wiki/James_Poniewozik \"James Poniewozik\") wrote for *Time* magazine that \"In the end ... *Big Love* came back full circle to the core relationships ... We closed on a moving if messy note for a moving if messy series.\"{{cite magazine \\|url\\=http://entertainment.time.com/2011/03/21/big\\-love\\-watch\\-god\\-only\\-knows\\-what\\-wed\\-be\\-without\\-you/ \\|title\\=Big Love Watch: God Only Knows What We'd Be Without You \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Time (magazine)\\|Time]] \\|date\\=March 21, 2011 \\|first\\=James \\|last\\=Poniewozik \\|access\\-date\\=January 29, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 15, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012659/https://entertainment.time.com/2011/03/21/big\\-love\\-watch\\-god\\-only\\-knows\\-what\\-wed\\-be\\-without\\-you/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Mary McNamara, of the *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\")* dubbed it \"a perfect finish to an astonishingly ambitious show that often careened through genre, narrative structure and believability like they were false walls on a stage\". In her rumination on the finale, Ginia Bellafante of *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* noted that *Big Love* \"was always at its most compelling as an indictment of the mindless spiritual avidity and the bizarre displays of self\\-exoneration that can go on in the name of faith\", and celebrated the finale for committing to that theme. She also wrote that the series had \"achieved the resonance of \\[HBO's] other heralded series.\"{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/21/arts/television/in\\-big\\-love\\-finale\\-on\\-hbo\\-a\\-comeuppance\\-for\\-the\\-man.html \\| work\\=The New York Times \\| first\\=Ginia \\| last\\=Bellafante \\| title\\=In 'Big Love' Finale on HBO, a Comeuppance for the Man \\| date\\=March 21, 2011 \\| access\\-date\\=February 21, 2017 \\| archive\\-date\\=November 15, 2020 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012645/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/21/arts/television/in\\-big\\-love\\-finale\\-on\\-hbo\\-a\\-comeuppance\\-for\\-the\\-man.html \\| url\\-status\\=live }} Writing for [TV Squad](/wiki/TV_Squad \"TV Squad\"), Dr. Ryan Vaughn was less enthusiastic about the finale but said, \"I'm not going to let a great series be sullied with a mediocre finale.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/section/tv\\|title\\=TV\\|website\\=\\[\\[HuffPost]]\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-02\\-21\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-15\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012649/https://www.huffpost.com/entertainment/tv\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Finally, Emily VanDerWerff of *[The A.V. Club](/wiki/The_A.V._Club \"The A.V. Club\")* awarded the series finale, and the series as a whole, a B\\+, writing that its first three seasons in particular qualified as \"remarkable television\".{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.avclub.com/tvclub/big\\-love\\-when\\-men\\-and\\-mountains\\-meet\\-53378 \\|title\\=''Big Love'': \"When Men And Mountains Meet\" \\|first\\=Emily \\|last\\=VanDerWerff \\|website\\=The A.V. Club \\|date\\=March 21, 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=October 6, 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 15, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012659/https://tv.avclub.com/big\\-love\\-when\\-men\\-and\\-mountains\\-meet\\-1798167666 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "### LDS Church and others", "In March 2006, [The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter\\-day Saints](/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints \"The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints\") (LDS Church), which ended practice of polygamy in 1890 and often distances itself from modern polygamist breakoffs, issued a public statement citing concerns over the program's depiction of abuse, polygamy, use of stereotypes, and television's depiction of moral and civic values in general.[\"Church Responds to Questions on HBO's Big Love\"](https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/ldsnewsroom/eng/commentary/church-responds-to-questions-on-hbo-s-big-love) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012641/https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/ldsnewsroom/eng/commentary/church\\-responds\\-to\\-questions\\-on\\-hbo\\-s\\-big\\-love \\|date\\=2020\\-11\\-15 }}, press release, churchofjesuschrist.org, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter\\-day Saints, 2006\\-03\\-06\\. Among other things, the church stated, \"Despite its popularity with some, much of today's television entertainment shows an unhealthy preoccupation with sex, coarse humor and foul language. *Big Love*, like so much other television programming, is essentially lazy and indulgent entertainment that does nothing for our society and will never nourish great minds.\" In March 2009, the LDS Church stated that HBO's writers, producers, and executives were displaying insensitivity to church members by choosing to display simulated segments of the LDS Church's [Endowment](/wiki/Endowment_%28Latter_Day_Saints%29 \"Endowment (Latter Day Saints)\") ceremony in an episode of *Big Love*.Jennifer Dobner, [\"HBO Vs. The Mormons In Battle Over Temple Ceremony\"](https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/03/10/hbo-vs-the-mormons-in-bat_n_173707.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012647/https://www.huffpost.com/?err\\_code\\=404\\&err\\_url\\=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffingtonpost.com%2F2009%2F03%2F10%2Fhbo\\-vs\\-the\\-mormons\\-in\\-bat\\_n\\_173707\\.html \\|date\\=2020\\-11\\-15 }}, *[Huffington Post](/wiki/Huffington_Post \"Huffington Post\")*, 2009\\-03\\-11\\.Vince Horiuchi, [\"LDS Temple secrets? 'Big Love' TV episode angers Mormons: TV show to air Sunday reportedly depicts faith's endowment ceremony\"](http://www.sltrib.com/ci_11874222) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090313043943/http://www.sltrib.com/ci\\_11874222 \\|date\\=2009\\-03\\-13 }}, *[Salt Lake Tribune](/wiki/Salt_Lake_Tribune \"Salt Lake Tribune\")*, 2009\\-03\\-12\\.[\"LDS Church comments on 'Big Love'\"](http://deseretnews.com/article/1,5143,705289746,00.html), *[Deseret News](/wiki/Deseret_News \"Deseret News\")*, March 9, 2009\\. Independent of the church's statement, some members of the LDS Church called for a boycott for ceremony depiction.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-mormons/big\\-love\\-network\\-apologizes\\-to\\-mormons\\-idUSTRE5297AK20090311\\|work\\=Reuters\\|author\\=Serjeant, Jill\\|access\\-date\\=December 19, 2017\\|date\\=March 11, 2009\\|title\\=\"Big Love\" network apologizes to Mormons\\|archive\\-date\\=November 15, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115012723/https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-mormons/big\\-love\\-network\\-apologizes\\-to\\-mormons\\-idUSTRE5297AK20090311\\|url\\-status\\=live}} HBO made a public apology to those offended by the depiction but defended a decision to broadcast it anyway. The network stated the depiction was accurate and done with reverence. The LDS Church also stated that the show had continued to blur the distinction between the LDS Church and \"the show's fictional non\\-Mormon characters\".", "In contrast to the statement made by the LDS church, several real fundamentalist Mormon polygamists spoke in favor of the series: In a 2006 interview in *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* with various polygamist wives, one noted: \"It's a more realistic view of a polygamous family that lives out in society than people have known. It can be seen as a viable alternative lifestyle between consenting adults.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/28/arts/television/28poly.html?mtrref\\=www.google.com\\&gwh\\=BF2D19B9D70E93E4B89F88268D0D6008\\&gwt\\=pay\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|title\\='Big Love': Real Polygamists Look at HBO Polygamists and Find Sex\\|date\\=March 28, 2006\\|access\\-date\\=January 22, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111219000645/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/28/arts/television/28poly.html\\|archive\\-date\\=December 19, 2011\\|author\\=Lee, Felicia R.}}", "### Academic assessment", "Since its premiere, *Big Love* has been the subject of several studies in the humanities and social sciences.", "Dr. Cheryl Hanna explored \"the problem of categorical exclusions to the consent doctrine in private intimate relationships\" through the lens of *Big Love*, specifically citing its \"beautifully explored\" tensions between individual autonomy and state interests. In her conclusion, she wrote \"the future of feminist legal theory depends on its ability to remain ambivalent about the tensions presented in the consent doctrine as applied to contexts such as polygamy, prostitution, sadomasochistic sex, obscenity, and domestic violence. *Big Love* seeks to persuade us to accept ambivalence and to be open to changing our minds because of the complicated nature of women's (and men's) lives; feminist legal theory ought to persuade us to do the same.\"Hanna, Cheryl (2010\\). \"Rethinking Consent in a Big Love Way\". *Michigan Journal of Gender \\& Law*. **17** (1\\): 111\\-156\\.", "For the *[Columbia Law Review](/wiki/Columbia_Law_Review \"Columbia Law Review\")*, Dr. Adrienne D. Davis assessed legal debates surrounding polygamy after the premiere of *Big Love* and how it was being likened to same\\-sex marriage. She wrote, \"The highly acclaimed hit series self\\-consciously invites viewers to consider analogies between same\\-sex and polygamous families. In the show's much\\-anticipated second season, the invitation became more pointed and persistent, with intermittent references to 'coming out,' 'closeted families,' and 'the state' as repressively surveilling nonconforming 'big love.'\" However, she claimed that Hollywood and television critics' desire to interpret the polygamy in *Big Love* and beyond as representative of American \"quirky families\" was a miscue. Ultimately, she argues that the dichotomy presented by *Big Love* works when viewed in terms of \"intimacy liberty, privacy, autonomy, and agency, or even an incipient constitutional respect for 'sexual minorities.'\"; the very essence, as Davis notes and commends, of the series' themes.Adrienne D. Davis (2010\\). \"Regulating Polygamy: Intimacy, Default Rules, and Bargaining for Equality\". *Columbia Law Review*. **110** (8\\): 1955\\-2046\\.", "Dr. Brenda Cossman examined *Big Love* closely in her study of \"migrating marriages\" for *[Law and Contemporary Problems](/wiki/Law_and_Contemporary_Problems \"Law and Contemporary Problems\")*. In addition to asserting that \"Just as in *Big Love*, same\\-sex marriage is never more than one degree away of separation from polygamy\", she found that the series adds crucial insight to the understanding of marriages that exist between legal and cultural recognition. As she explains, \"These cases can be seen through the lens of ... *Big Love*, in which marriages are produced as the culturally real in the here and the now, even when legal recognition remains elusive.\" By exploring the movement seeking to culturally legitimize same\\-sex marriage, she concluded *Big Love* served as a most powerful, unique allegory: \"*Big Love* plays on an even more decisive gap: polygamous marriages are not legal in Utah or anywhere else in the country. Yet the point and the poignancy of the show is to depict a 'real\\-life' family. Bill Hendrickson and his three wives struggle with all of the daily trials of contemporary family life: parenting, finances, intimacy, and sex. The sympathetic portrayal of their family is as culturally real, although it suffers by virtue of its nonlegal recognition.\"Cossman, Brenda (2008\\). \"Betwixt and Between Recognition: Migrating Same\\-Sex Marriages and the Turn Toward the Private\". *Law and Contemporary Problems*. **71** (3\\): 153\\-168\\.", "*Big Love* was also studied as a part of Andrew Atkinson's study of HBO programs and the post\\-secular humanistic themes they elicit. In writing of *Big Love*, Atkinson too draws on the parallel between gay rights and polygamist rights illuminated by the series, but focuses more on the series' influential humanistic elements. In fact, he somewhat rebuffs earlier assertions made: \"The attention that is paid to the minute details of Mormon ritual, theology, and historical disputes demonstrates that HBO's writers are uncomfortable with the supposed dichotomy that constructs homosexuality as by default areligious.\" Atkinson focuses on the ending, interpreting Barb's blessing of Bill as a \"ritual innovation \\[that] indicates that FLDS Mormonism must shed the trappings of patriarchy if it wants to legitimate polygamy in a post\\-feminist society\", and the fall of Alby, the closet homosexual, as a powerful interpretation of \"the future theo\\-political and sexual tensions that Mormonism, and by extension, the broader American polity, will face as the post\\-secular matures\". In concluding, Atkinson makes the case that *Big Love* and other HBO shows like *[The Sopranos](/wiki/The_Sopranos \"The Sopranos\")*, *[The Wire](/wiki/The_Wire \"The Wire\")* and *[Six Feet Under](/wiki/Six_Feet_Under_%28TV_series%29 \"Six Feet Under (TV series)\")* \"contribute to a fuller conception of humanity\" than other forms of art and entertainment.Atkinson, Andrew \"When You Walk Through the Garden: HBO and the Cross Pressures of Post\\-Secular Humanism\". *Journal of Religion and Popular Culture*.", "" ]
Professional career ------------------- In 1981, he turned professional. Frost scored his first professional win in his home country in 1983 and has continued to play in South Africa in the northern winter, but like other leading South African golfers he has spent far more time playing internationally. In line with many other [Commonwealth](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations "Commonwealth of Nations") golfers his first move abroad was to the [European Tour](/wiki/European_Tour "European Tour") and he played that tour from 1982 to 1984\. From 1985 he was primarily on the U.S.\-based [PGA Tour](/wiki/PGA_Tour "PGA Tour"). He moved to [Miami](/wiki/Miami "Miami"), Florida.{{Cite web \|title\=The Daily Telegraph 14 Dec 1987, page 23 \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/751109246/ \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-28 \|website\=Newspapers.com \|language\=en}} In 1989, he won the [NEC World Series of Golf](/wiki/NEC_World_Series_of_Golf "NEC World Series of Golf"), defeating [Ben Crenshaw](/wiki/Ben_Crenshaw "Ben Crenshaw") at the second playoff hole. He made the top ten on the PGA Tour money list twice, placing 9th in 1988 and 5th in 1993 and was ranked in the top 10 of the [Official World Golf Rankings](/wiki/Official_World_Golf_Rankings "Official World Golf Rankings") for 86 weeks between 1988 and 1994\.{{Cite web \|url\=http://dps.endavadigital.net/owgr/doc/content/2007%20Stats/86TO0810\.pdf \|title\=69 Players Who Have Reached The Top\-10 in World Ranking \|access\-date\=15 July 2011 \|archive\-date\=17 October 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017160152/http://dps.endavadigital.net/owgr/doc/content/2007 \|url\-status\=dead }} By his forties, he was no longer a regular contender on the tour, but in 2005 he set the all time PGA Tour 72\-hole putting record with 92 putts at the [MCI Heritage](/wiki/MCI_Heritage "MCI Heritage"). In 2007, Frost re\-established his career on the European Tour aiming on the senior tour when turning 50\. In June 2013, Frost won his maiden [senior major championship](/wiki/Senior_major_golf_championships "Senior major golf championships") at the [2013 Regions Tradition](/wiki/Regions_Tradition "Regions Tradition"). He won by a single stroke over [Fred Couples](/wiki/Fred_Couples "Fred Couples") to claim his first major title in his 17th attempt. It was also his fifth career victory on the Champions Tour. In March 2015, Frost won his sixth Champions Tour title at the [Mississippi Gulf Resort Classic](/wiki/Mississippi_Gulf_Resort_Classic "Mississippi Gulf Resort Classic") by a single stroke over [Tom Lehman](/wiki/Tom_Lehman "Tom Lehman") and [Kevin Sutherland](/wiki/Kevin_Sutherland "Kevin Sutherland"). Frost won the [Sunshine Tour](/wiki/Sunshine_Tour "Sunshine Tour") Order of Merit in 1998/99\. He was a member of the International Team in the first staging of the [Presidents Cup](/wiki/Presidents_Cup "Presidents Cup") in [1994](/wiki/1994_Presidents_Cup "1994 Presidents Cup"), and took part again in [1996](/wiki/1996_Presidents_Cup "1996 Presidents Cup"). In both [1997](/wiki/1997_Dunhill_Cup "1997 Dunhill Cup") and [1998](/wiki/1998_Alfred_Dunhill_Cup "1998 Alfred Dunhill Cup") he captained South Africa to victory in the [Alfred Dunhill Cup](/wiki/Alfred_Dunhill_Cup "Alfred Dunhill Cup") at [the Old Course in St Andrews](/wiki/Old_Course_at_St_Andrews "Old Course at St Andrews"), Scotland. His teammates were [Ernie Els](/wiki/Ernie_Els "Ernie Els") and [Retief Goosen](/wiki/Retief_Goosen "Retief Goosen") on both occasions.
[ "Professional career\n-------------------", "In 1981, he turned professional. Frost scored his first professional win in his home country in 1983 and has continued to play in South Africa in the northern winter, but like other leading South African golfers he has spent far more time playing internationally. In line with many other [Commonwealth](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations \"Commonwealth of Nations\") golfers his first move abroad was to the [European Tour](/wiki/European_Tour \"European Tour\") and he played that tour from 1982 to 1984\\.", "From 1985 he was primarily on the U.S.\\-based [PGA Tour](/wiki/PGA_Tour \"PGA Tour\"). He moved to [Miami](/wiki/Miami \"Miami\"), Florida.{{Cite web \\|title\\=The Daily Telegraph 14 Dec 1987, page 23 \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/751109246/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-28 \\|website\\=Newspapers.com \\|language\\=en}} In 1989, he won the [NEC World Series of Golf](/wiki/NEC_World_Series_of_Golf \"NEC World Series of Golf\"), defeating [Ben Crenshaw](/wiki/Ben_Crenshaw \"Ben Crenshaw\") at the second playoff hole. He made the top ten on the PGA Tour money list twice, placing 9th in 1988 and 5th in 1993 and was ranked in the top 10 of the [Official World Golf Rankings](/wiki/Official_World_Golf_Rankings \"Official World Golf Rankings\") for 86 weeks between 1988 and 1994\\.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://dps.endavadigital.net/owgr/doc/content/2007%20Stats/86TO0810\\.pdf \\|title\\=69 Players Who Have Reached The Top\\-10 in World Ranking \\|access\\-date\\=15 July 2011 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 October 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017160152/http://dps.endavadigital.net/owgr/doc/content/2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} By his forties, he was no longer a regular contender on the tour, but in 2005 he set the all time PGA Tour 72\\-hole putting record with 92 putts at the [MCI Heritage](/wiki/MCI_Heritage \"MCI Heritage\").", "In 2007, Frost re\\-established his career on the European Tour aiming on the senior tour when turning 50\\.", "In June 2013, Frost won his maiden [senior major championship](/wiki/Senior_major_golf_championships \"Senior major golf championships\") at the [2013 Regions Tradition](/wiki/Regions_Tradition \"Regions Tradition\"). He won by a single stroke over [Fred Couples](/wiki/Fred_Couples \"Fred Couples\") to claim his first major title in his 17th attempt. It was also his fifth career victory on the Champions Tour. In March 2015, Frost won his sixth Champions Tour title at the [Mississippi Gulf Resort Classic](/wiki/Mississippi_Gulf_Resort_Classic \"Mississippi Gulf Resort Classic\") by a single stroke over [Tom Lehman](/wiki/Tom_Lehman \"Tom Lehman\") and [Kevin Sutherland](/wiki/Kevin_Sutherland \"Kevin Sutherland\").", "Frost won the [Sunshine Tour](/wiki/Sunshine_Tour \"Sunshine Tour\") Order of Merit in 1998/99\\. He was a member of the International Team in the first staging of the [Presidents Cup](/wiki/Presidents_Cup \"Presidents Cup\") in [1994](/wiki/1994_Presidents_Cup \"1994 Presidents Cup\"), and took part again in [1996](/wiki/1996_Presidents_Cup \"1996 Presidents Cup\"). In both [1997](/wiki/1997_Dunhill_Cup \"1997 Dunhill Cup\") and [1998](/wiki/1998_Alfred_Dunhill_Cup \"1998 Alfred Dunhill Cup\") he captained South Africa to victory in the [Alfred Dunhill Cup](/wiki/Alfred_Dunhill_Cup \"Alfred Dunhill Cup\") at [the Old Course in St Andrews](/wiki/Old_Course_at_St_Andrews \"Old Course at St Andrews\"), Scotland. His teammates were [Ernie Els](/wiki/Ernie_Els \"Ernie Els\") and [Retief Goosen](/wiki/Retief_Goosen \"Retief Goosen\") on both occasions.", "" ]
2017 humans versus AI match --------------------------- From January 11 to 31, 2017, Libratus was in a tournament ("Brains vs. Artificial Intelligence: Upping the Ante challenge") against four top\-class human poker players,{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.cmu.edu/news/stories/archives/2017/january/poker\-pros\-vs\-AI.html\|title\=Upping the Ante: Top Poker Pros Face Off vs. Artificial Intelligence\|publisher\=Carnegie Mellon University \|date\=January 4, 2017 \|first1\=Byron \|last1\=Spice \|first2\=Garrett \|last2\=Allen \|access\-date\=2017\-01\-12}} namely Jason Les, Dong Kim, Daniel McAulay and Jimmy Chou. In order to gain results of more statistical significance, 120,000 hands were to be played, a 50% increase compared to the previous tournament that Claudico played in 2015\. To manage the extra volume, the duration of the tournament was increased from 13 to 20 days. The four players were grouped into two subteams of two players each. One of the subteams was playing in the open, while the other subteam was located in a separate room nicknamed 'The Dungeon' where no mobile phones or other external communications were allowed. The Dungeon subteam got the same sequence of cards as was being dealt in the open, except that the sides were switched: The Dungeon humans got the cards that the AI got in the open and vice versa. This setup was intended to nullify the effect of card luck. The prize money of $200,000 was shared exclusively between the human players. Each player received a minimum of $20,000, with the rest distributed in relation to their success playing against the AI. As written in the tournament rules in advance, the AI itself did not receive prize money even though it won the tournament against the human team. During the tournament, Libratus was competing against the players during the days. Overnight it was perfecting its strategy on its own by analysing the prior gameplay and results of the day, particularly its losses. Therefore, it was able to continuously straighten out the imperfections that the human team had discovered in their extensive analysis, resulting in a permanent arms race between the humans and Libratus. It used another 4 million core hours on the Bridges supercomputer for the competition's purposes. During the tournament, there was an active betting market among poker players about who would win the tournament. It started with 4:1 against the bot, but on the 8th day it became a betting market on which human would lose the least.{{Cite AV media \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=eaAonE58sLU \|title\=Parables on the Power of Planning in AI: From Poker to Diplomacy: Noam Brown (OpenAI) \|date\=2024\-09\-17 \|last\=Noam \|first\=Brown \|type\=Video \|language\=en \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-24 \|via\=YouTube}} Lecture at [Paul G. Allen School](/wiki/Paul_G._Allen_School_of_Computer_Science_%26_Engineering "Paul G. Allen School of Computer Science & Engineering") on Thursday, May 23, 2024, 3:30 pm{{Pg\|location\=07:30\|quote\=When we announced the competition, there emerged, not surprisingly, among the poker community a very active betting market on who would win. The odds against us were about four to one. Even after the first three days of the competition, when we had won for three straight days, it was still 50/50 in the betting markets on who would win. But by around the eighth day, it became very clear that we were going to win, and the only betting market that remained was which human would lose the least by the end of the competition.}}. ### Strength of the AI Libratus had been leading against the human players from day one of the tournament. The player Dong Kim was quoted on the AI's strength as follows: "I didn’t realize how good it was until today. I felt like I was playing against someone who was cheating, like it could see my cards. I’m not accusing it of cheating. It was just that good."{{Cite magazine\|url\=https://www.wired.com/2017/01/ai\-conquer\-poker\-not\-without\-human\-help/\|title\=Artificial Intelligence Is About to Conquer Poker—But Not Without Human Help\|date\=24 January 2017 \|first\=Cade \|last\=Metz \|magazine\=Wired\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2017\-01\-24}} At the 16th day of the competition, Libratus broke through the $1,000,000 barrier for the first time. At the end of that day, it was ahead $1,194,402 in chips against the human team. At the end of the competition, Libratus was ahead $1,766,250 in chips and thus won resoundingly. As the big blind in the matches was set to $100, Libratus' winrate is equivalent to 14\.7 big blinds per 100 hands. This is considered an exceptionally high winrate in poker and is highly statistically significant.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.pokerlistings.com/libratus\-poker\-ai\-smokes\-humans\-for\-1\-76m\-is\-this\-the\-end\-42839\|title\=Libratus Poker AI Beats Humans for $1\.76m; Is End Near?\|date\=30 January 2017\|work\=PokerListings\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2018\-03\-16}} Of the human players, Dong Kim came first, MacAulay second, Jimmy Chou third, and Jason Les fourth. | Name | Rank | Results (in chips) | | --- | --- | --- | | Dong Kim | 1 | \-$85,649 | | Daniel MacAulay | 2 | \-$277,657 | | Jimmy Chou | 3 | \-$522,857 | | Jason Les | 4 | \-$880,087 | | Total: | | \-$1,766,250 | The bot has an unconventional betting style where under specific situations it would bet $20,000 even when there's $100 in the pot. After its win, this strategy was analyzed and adopted by the poker community.{{Pg\|location\=55:25\|quote\=One of the things the bot loved to do, in very carefully chosen situations, was bet huge amounts of money. For example, there would be situations where there's $100 in the pot, and typically humans would bet between $50 and $100\. The bot would sometimes bet $20,000\. That was considered very unusual by humans at the time. They actually thought, "This bot is a joke, it can't be good." This is part of the reason why the betting markets were so against us, because they saw the bot doing these kinds of things. But it turned out it ended up being very effective in certain spots. That's actually one of the things that the humans took away from the bot and started doing in their own games.}}
[ "2017 humans versus AI match\n---------------------------", "From January 11 to 31, 2017, Libratus was in a tournament (\"Brains vs. Artificial Intelligence: Upping the Ante challenge\") against four top\\-class human poker players,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cmu.edu/news/stories/archives/2017/january/poker\\-pros\\-vs\\-AI.html\\|title\\=Upping the Ante: Top Poker Pros Face Off vs. Artificial Intelligence\\|publisher\\=Carnegie Mellon University \\|date\\=January 4, 2017 \\|first1\\=Byron \\|last1\\=Spice \\|first2\\=Garrett \\|last2\\=Allen \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-01\\-12}} namely Jason Les, Dong Kim, Daniel McAulay and Jimmy Chou. In order to gain results of more statistical significance, 120,000 hands were to be played, a 50% increase compared to the previous tournament that Claudico played in 2015\\. To manage the extra volume, the duration of the tournament was increased from 13 to 20 days.", "The four players were grouped into two subteams of two players each. One of the subteams was playing in the open, while the other subteam was located in a separate room nicknamed 'The Dungeon' where no mobile phones or other external communications were allowed. The Dungeon subteam got the same sequence of cards as was being dealt in the open, except that the sides were switched: The Dungeon humans got the cards that the AI got in the open and vice versa. This setup was intended to nullify the effect of card luck.", "The prize money of $200,000 was shared exclusively between the human players. Each player received a minimum of $20,000, with the rest distributed in relation to their success playing against the AI. As written in the tournament rules in advance, the AI itself did not receive prize money even though it won the tournament against the human team.", "During the tournament, Libratus was competing against the players during the days. Overnight it was perfecting its strategy on its own by analysing the prior gameplay and results of the day, particularly its losses. Therefore, it was able to continuously straighten out the imperfections that the human team had discovered in their extensive analysis, resulting in a permanent arms race between the humans and Libratus. It used another 4 million core hours on the Bridges supercomputer for the competition's purposes.", "During the tournament, there was an active betting market among poker players about who would win the tournament. It started with 4:1 against the bot, but on the 8th day it became a betting market on which human would lose the least.{{Cite AV media \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=eaAonE58sLU \\|title\\=Parables on the Power of Planning in AI: From Poker to Diplomacy: Noam Brown (OpenAI) \\|date\\=2024\\-09\\-17 \\|last\\=Noam \\|first\\=Brown \\|type\\=Video \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-24 \\|via\\=YouTube}} Lecture at [Paul G. Allen School](/wiki/Paul_G._Allen_School_of_Computer_Science_%26_Engineering \"Paul G. Allen School of Computer Science & Engineering\") on Thursday, May 23, 2024, 3:30 pm{{Pg\\|location\\=07:30\\|quote\\=When we announced the competition, there emerged, not surprisingly, among the poker community a very active betting market on who would win. The odds against us were about four to one. Even after the first three days of the competition, when we had won for three straight days, it was still 50/50 in the betting markets on who would win. But by around the eighth day, it became very clear that we were going to win, and the only betting market that remained was which human would lose the least by the end of the competition.}}.", "### Strength of the AI", "Libratus had been leading against the human players from day one of the tournament. The player Dong Kim was quoted on the AI's strength as follows: \"I didn’t realize how good it was until today. I felt like I was playing against someone who was cheating, like it could see my cards. I’m not accusing it of cheating. It was just that good.\"{{Cite magazine\\|url\\=https://www.wired.com/2017/01/ai\\-conquer\\-poker\\-not\\-without\\-human\\-help/\\|title\\=Artificial Intelligence Is About to Conquer Poker—But Not Without Human Help\\|date\\=24 January 2017 \\|first\\=Cade \\|last\\=Metz \\|magazine\\=Wired\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-01\\-24}}", "At the 16th day of the competition, Libratus broke through the $1,000,000 barrier for the first time. At the end of that day, it was ahead $1,194,402 in chips against the human team. At the end of the competition, Libratus was ahead $1,766,250 in chips and thus won resoundingly. As the big blind in the matches was set to $100, Libratus' winrate is equivalent to 14\\.7 big blinds per 100 hands. This is considered an exceptionally high winrate in poker and is highly statistically significant.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.pokerlistings.com/libratus\\-poker\\-ai\\-smokes\\-humans\\-for\\-1\\-76m\\-is\\-this\\-the\\-end\\-42839\\|title\\=Libratus Poker AI Beats Humans for $1\\.76m; Is End Near?\\|date\\=30 January 2017\\|work\\=PokerListings\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-03\\-16}}", "Of the human players, Dong Kim came first, MacAulay second, Jimmy Chou third, and Jason Les fourth.", "| Name | Rank | Results (in chips) |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Dong Kim | 1 | \\-$85,649 |\n| Daniel MacAulay | 2 | \\-$277,657 |\n| Jimmy Chou | 3 | \\-$522,857 |\n| Jason Les | 4 | \\-$880,087 |\n| Total: | | \\-$1,766,250 |", "The bot has an unconventional betting style where under specific situations it would bet $20,000 even when there's $100 in the pot. After its win, this strategy was analyzed and adopted by the poker community.{{Pg\\|location\\=55:25\\|quote\\=One of the things the bot loved to do, in very carefully chosen situations, was bet huge amounts of money. For example, there would be situations where there's $100 in the pot, and typically humans would bet between $50 and $100\\. The bot would sometimes bet $20,000\\. That was considered very unusual by humans at the time. They actually thought, \"This bot is a joke, it can't be good.\" This is part of the reason why the betting markets were so against us, because they saw the bot doing these kinds of things. But it turned out it ended up being very effective in certain spots. That's actually one of the things that the humans took away from the bot and started doing in their own games.}}", "" ]
Geography --------- [left\|thumb\|The source of the Murr near Vorderwestermurr](/wiki/File:Murrursprung_01.jpg "Murrursprung 01.jpg") ### Sources The source area of the Murr is located 3 km south of the city [Murrhardt](/wiki/Murrhardt "Murrhardt") on the heights of the Murrhardter forest. At the southern outskirts of the hamlet Vorderwestermurr, a sign shows a [spring box](/wiki/Spring_box "Spring box") as "Murrursprung". Because of its strong and reliable discharge of two liters per second even in dry periods, it is regarded as main\-source of the Murr, even if several small brooks near Vorderwestermurr and Fautspach lie higher and further from the confluence.{{Webarchive \| url\=http://www.lgrb.uni\-freiburg.de/lgrb/Service/geotourismus\_uebersicht/geotourismus/gto\_text?K\_gto\_text\=9354 \| archive\-is\=20120803173812 \| text\=Geological description of the Murrquelle}}} url\=[http://www.zvw.de/aktuell/2001/10/18/2130821000\_28001\.htm](http://www.zvw.de/aktuell/2001/10/18/2130821000_28001.htm) \| wayback\=20040617130039 \| text\=Murrquelle is further upgraded \- Report of the Rems\-Murr\-Nachrichten of October 18, 2001 ### Course #### From the source to the western bend of the Fornsbach tributary In the uppermost run, the *Murr* moves to the northeast. From its source, which still lies in the [Lion's Arch formation](/wiki/Lion%27s_Arch_formation "Lion's Arch formation"), it digs its way through the underlying layers of the [Keupers](/wiki/Keuper "Keuper") a deep forest [klinge](/wiki/Klinge_%28landform%29 "Klinge (landform)"), in which the Vorderwestermurrer Mühle is the only settlement in which, after several small waterfalls, they quickly descended the geological strata to the [Untere Bunte Mergeln](/wiki/Steigerwald_Formation "Steigerwald Formation").url\=[https://web.archive.org/web/\*/http://www](https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www). \|date\=\* \|title\=Klinge bei der Westermurrer Sägmühle Further down in its steep valley, it enters the field in a valley spider at the Klettenhöfle. It passes the almost equally small settlements of Klingen and Hammerschmiede, where it reaches the [Gipskeuper Formation](/wiki/Gipskeuper_Formation "Gipskeuper Formation") and shortly after the [Lower Keuper](/wiki/Erfurt_Formation "Erfurt Formation"). Here its valley widens strongly, and it goes in the wide valley level of the "Fornsbacher Talspinne" into a narrow bend of almost 150° to the left, in whose course it \- the *Westermurr*, thus *western* Murr \- successively only the right [Otterbach](/wiki/Otterbach_%28Murr%2C_Murrhardt%29 "Otterbach (Murr, Murrhardt)") \- also called *Mettelbach*, the *middle* brook \- from the south, then at the iron forge mill the right [Fornsbach](/wiki/Fornsbach_%28Murr%29 "Fornsbach (Murr)") \- *front brook* \- from the east, to which two shortly before larger brooks from still other directions flowed. #### From Fornsbach to "Spiegelberger" Lauter Afterwards it is on west course, the direction of the inflowing *Fornsbach*, whose length here exceeds hers. Its broad valley floor below the slopes, which are still wooded at medium altitude, now offers space for more important traffic routes. Accompanied by the [L 1066](/wiki/Landesstra%C3%9Fe_1066 "Landesstraße 1066") and the [railroad line Waiblingen\-Schwäbisch Hall\-Hessental](/wiki/Railroad_line_Waiblingen-Schw%C3%A4bisch_Hall-Hessental "Railroad line Waiblingen-Schwäbisch Hall-Hessental"), it passes the Wahlenmühle, [Hausen](/wiki/Hausen_%28Murrhardt%29 "Hausen (Murrhardt)") and the Lutzensägmühle, and after passing the alpine pasture settlement on its right, where once the [Upper Germanic\-Raetian Limes](/wiki/Upper_Germanic-Raetian_Limes "Upper Germanic-Raetian Limes") crossed its valley, it finally flows into the core town of Murrhardt; the city is the largest settlement on its upper reaches. On the western edge of its old town the [Dentelbach](/wiki/Dentelbach_%28Murr%29 "Dentelbach (Murr)") from the north, further down the valley the [Hörschbach](/wiki/H%C3%B6rschbach_%28Murr%29 "Hörschbach (Murr)") from the south, at the edge of its settlement and shortly before the western city limits the [Harbach](/wiki/Harbach_%28Murr%29 "Harbach (Murr)") flows through the hamlet [Harbach](/wiki/Harbach_%28Murrhardt%29 "Harbach (Murrhardt)") again from the north. In the area of the adjacent community [Sulzbach](/wiki/Sulzbach_an_der_Murr "Sulzbach an der Murr"), its course turns slightly north\-northwest, it flows past Schleißweiler on the right, where the [Eschelbach](/wiki/Eschelbach_%28Murr%29 "Eschelbach (Murr)") flows in from the left, and left at Bartenbach, through which the [Haselbach](/wiki/Haselbach_%28Murr%29 "Haselbach (Murr)") reaches it again from the north. Then the valley curves slowly southwards again, the Murr reaches its northernmost point in Sulzbach itself, near which the [Fischbach](/wiki/Fischbach_%28Murr%29 "Fischbach (Murr)") flows, which is also a southern tributary. Here also from direction [Mainhardt](/wiki/Mainhardt "Mainhardt") the [B 14](/wiki/Bundesstra%C3%9Fe_14 "Bundesstraße 14") rises into the valley and continues the [L 1066](/wiki/Landesstra%C3%9Fe_1066 "Landesstraße 1066") as a large valley road. Just outside the village the ("Spiegelberger") [Lauter](/wiki/Lauter_%28Murr%29 "Lauter (Murr)"), in whose valley the L 1066 turns off from the B 14, then the Murr flows into the area of [Oppenweiler](/wiki/Oppenweiler "Oppenweiler"). #### From the Lauter to the entrance of the Backnang bay [thumb\|left\|Burg Reichenberg right above the Murr valley](/wiki/File:Burg-Reichenberg-2005.jpg "Burg-Reichenberg-2005.jpg") In Oppenweiler, the Murr passes the hamlet [Ellenweiler](/wiki/Ellenweiler_%28Oppenweiler%29 "Ellenweiler (Oppenweiler)") on the left side and, approximately on a southwest course, the district Reichenberg, above which the [Burg Reichenberg](/wiki/Reichenberg_Castle_%28W%C3%BCrttemberg%29 "Reichenberg Castle (Württemberg)") stands. Beyond the river lies the hamlet [Reichenbach an der Murr](/wiki/Reichenbach_an_der_Murr "Reichenbach an der Murr") at the foot of the left slope. After the village the [Tierbach](/wiki/Tierbach_%28Murr%29 "Tierbach (Murr)") flows from the right. Between Reichenberg and the main town of Oppenweiler, an industrial area stretches along the right bank of the river until the [Rohrbach](/wiki/Rohrbach_%28Murr%29 "Rohrbach (Murr)") meets the Murr from the right at the edge of its residential area; a short right branch of it feeds the castle pond around the [Wasserschloss Oppenweiler](/wiki/Wasserschloss_Oppenweiler "Wasserschloss Oppenweiler") close to the right bank of the river; a little downhill opposite is the hamlet [Aichelbach](/wiki/Aichelbach "Aichelbach") of the community. In Oppenweiler, the [B 14](/wiki/Bundesstra%C3%9Fe_14 "Bundesstraße 14") now rises out of the Murr valley and turns away from it; the Kreisstraße K 1897 and the railroad line Schwäbisch Hall\-Hessental\-Waiblingen continue to run in it. The following hamlet of Zell lies on both banks, then the Murr passes over into the [Backnang](/wiki/Backnang "Backnang") city area. Here the valley narrows again, with heavily meandering meanders it ends its southern course between forest tongues which briefly reach close to the shore again and turns to the west\-southwest, out of the mountainous region of the [Swabian\-Franconian Forest](/wiki/Swabian-Franconian_Forest "Swabian-Franconian Forest"), which was previously divided by it, into the Neckar Basin. Their bed now lies in the harder rock of the [Muschelkalk](/wiki/Muschelkalk "Muschelkalk"). #### From the Buchenbach to the estuary [thumb\|Confluence of the Murr into the [Neckar](/wiki/Neckar "Neckar") (from right to left).](/wiki/File:Neckar_mit_Einm%C3%BCndung_der_Murr_09.jpg "Neckar mit Einmündung der Murr 09.jpg") After a short stretch, on which Affalterbach is the left\-hand neighbor, the river turns northwest to the area of [Kirchberg an der Murr](/wiki/Kirchberg_an_der_Murr "Kirchberg an der Murr"), which is on the right\-hand side of the valley except for a mill estate and some newer commercial buildings. After this, the [Eichbach](/wiki/Eichbach_%28Murr%29 "Eichbach (Murr)"), which is unsteady in its lower course, flows from the right through a long blade as well as the short *Weidenbach*. At the Kirchberg hamlet [Rundsmühlhof](/wiki/Rundsm%C3%BChlhof "Rundsmühlhof") on the valley floor the river leaves the Rems\-Murr\-Kreis, and briefly joins the area of [Rielingshausen](/wiki/Rielingshausen "Rielingshausen"). (district and exclave of Marbach) on the right and [Erdmannhausen](/wiki/Erdmannhausen "Erdmannhausen") on the left to the bank, over the so\-called Schweißbrücke, the first of two state roads crosses the river here with the L 1124 Großaspach\-Marbach at the deeply cut lower course, whose valley then enters a wide northern loop and the area of [Steinheim an der Murr](/wiki/Steinheim_an_der_Murr "Steinheim an der Murr"). Here it is reached immediately from the right by the [Sulzbach](/wiki/Sulzbach_%28Murr%29 "Sulzbach (Murr)"), and again by a longer blade of the [Otterbach](/wiki/Otterbach_%28Murr%2C_Steinheim_an_der_Murr%29 "Otterbach (Murr, Steinheim an der Murr)"), whereupon Steinheim reaches down from the slope to the right bank. Through this small town at the northernmost point of the lower course, the [Bottwar](/wiki/Bottwar "Bottwar") flows towards something below 195\.1 m from the right, which rises far in the north in the [Löwenstein Hills](/wiki/L%C3%B6wenstein_Hills "Löwenstein Hills"). In the part of the loop running back to the south the Murr crosses the boundary of the municipality [Murr](/wiki/Murr%2C_Baden-W%C3%BCrttemberg "Murr, Baden-Württemberg"). The village is situated on the right slope and is embraced by the L 1100 running south, which crosses the river at the eastern and southern edge of the municipal territory over bridges and then follows it a short distance to the left. The Murr runs its last kilometer southwards on the ground of the city [Marbach am Neckar](/wiki/Marbach_am_Neckar "Marbach am Neckar") and flows there, after a last crossing by the L 1011, at 190\.2 m and after a run of over 51 km from the right into the [Neckar](/wiki/Neckar "Neckar"). ### Tributaries The longest tributary of the Murr is with 25 km the [Buchenbach](/wiki/Buchenbach_%28Murr%29 "Buchenbach (Murr)"), which flows between Burgstetten and Kirchberg and the Murr supplies the outflow of the Berglen. Measured at the catchment area the [Bottwar](/wiki/Bottwar "Bottwar") near Steinheim is with 76 km² the largest and with a run of 18 km the second longest inflow. Other tributaries with a length of ten or more kilometers are the "Spiegelberger" [Lauter](/wiki/Lauter_%28Murr%29 "Lauter (Murr)"). (15,2 km), the [Wüstenbach](/wiki/Desert_stream_%28Murr%29 "Desert stream (Murr)") (12,9 km) and the [Klöpferbach](/wiki/Kl%C3%B6pferbach "Klöpferbach") (10,2 km), which all come from the Löwensteiner mountains to the Murr, as well as the [Weißach](/wiki/Wei%C3%9Fach_%28Murr%29 "Weißach (Murr)") (12 km), which is fed by numerous watercourses in the east of Backnang Bay. From the strongly dissected Murrhardter forest numerous smaller brooks flow to the Murr, of which the [Hörschbach (Murr)](/wiki/H%C3%B6rschbach_%28Murr%29 "Hörschbach (Murr)") might be the most well\-known because of its natural beauties. | \+ Caption text | | --- | | Name | side of confluence | Length in km | Remaining Length of the Murr at confluence in km | | Fautsbach | right | 2\.392 | 49\.075 | | Taubenbach | left | 2\.289 | 48\.334 | | Gießbach | right | 2\.767 | 48\.239 | | Köchersbächle | left | 1\.719 | 47\.175 | | Klettenbach | right | 2\.101 | 46\.923 | | unnamed | left | 1\.101 | 46\.357 | | [Otterbach](/wiki/Otterbach "Otterbach") | right | 5\.669 | 44\.464 | | [Fornsbach](/wiki/Fornsbach "Fornsbach") | right | 8\.296 | 43\.623 | | Neu Fornsbach | right | 0\.367 | 43\.440 | | Raitklinge | left | 1\.012 | 43\.204 | | Kölschklingenbach | left | 0\.876 | 42\.993 | | Grundbach | left | 0\.743 | 42\.323 | | Fehlbach | right | 1\.919 | 41\.584 | | Großkehlbach | left | 3\.287 | 39\.620 | | [Trauzenbach](/wiki/Trauzenbach "Trauzenbach") | right | 7\.953 | 39\.354 | | unnamed | left | 0\.842 | 38\.607 | | Hörschbach | left | 5\.452 | 37\.933 | | Harbach | right | 6\.354 | 37\.112 | | Eschelbach | right | 3\.967 | 35\.928 | | [Haselbach](/wiki/Haselbach_%28Murr%29 "Haselbach (Murr)") | left | 6\.742 | 34\.918 | | Gronbach | right | 1\.319 | 33\.884 | | Fischbach | right | 8\.33 | 32\.828 | | Seebach | left | 1\.04 | 32\.558 | | Reizenbach | left | 1\.06 | 32\.218 | | [Lauter](/wiki/Lauter_%28Murr%29 "Lauter (Murr)") | right | 15\.546 | 31\.851 | | Rosstalbach | right | 1\.328 | 30\.784 | | Reichenbach | left | 2\.039 | 29\.948 | | Tierbach | right | 3\.045 | 29\.554 | | Rohrbach | right | 4\.198 | 29\.067 | | Froschbach | right | 1\.556 | 28\.535 | | Eichelbach | left | 3\.893 | 28\.137 | | Dinkelbach | right | 0\.903 | 27\.204 | | Büffenbach | left | 1\.359 | 27\.031 | | Fraunklingenbach | left | 2\.647 | 26\.964 | | Kreuzhaubach | right | 1\.308 | 26\.579 | | Schreppenbach | left | 2\.608 | 25\.656 | | Bodenbach | left | 1\.837 | 25\.427 | | [Weißach (Murr)](/wiki/Wei%C3%9Fach_%28Murr%29 "Weißach (Murr)") | left | 12\.262 | 23\.316 | | Eckertsbach | right | 6\.215 | 21\.998 | | Krähenbach | right | 4\.997 | 19\.775 | | Maubach | left | 5\.59 | 18\.348 | | [Klöpferbach](/wiki/Kl%C3%B6pferbach "Klöpferbach") | right | 10\.293 | 17\.432 | | [Wüstenbach](/wiki/W%C3%BCstenbach "Wüstenbach") | right | 13\.031 | 15\.818 | | Söllbach | left | 3\.091 | 15\.207 | | [Buchenbach](/wiki/Buchenbach_%28Murr%29 "Buchenbach (Murr)") | left | 24\.013 | 12\.686 | | Eichbach | right | 4\.135 | 8\.865 | | Weidenach | right | 2\.182 | 8\.134 | | Sulzbach | right | 2\.695 | 5\.278 | | Otterbach | right | 6\.557 | 4\.838 | | [Bottwar](/wiki/Bottwar "Bottwar") | right | 18\.331 | 2\.971 |
[ "Geography\n---------", "[left\\|thumb\\|The source of the Murr near Vorderwestermurr](/wiki/File:Murrursprung_01.jpg \"Murrursprung 01.jpg\")", "### Sources", "The source area of the Murr is located 3 km south of the city [Murrhardt](/wiki/Murrhardt \"Murrhardt\") on the heights of the Murrhardter forest. At the southern outskirts of the hamlet Vorderwestermurr, a sign shows a [spring box](/wiki/Spring_box \"Spring box\") as \"Murrursprung\". Because of its strong and reliable discharge of two liters per second even in dry periods, it is regarded as main\\-source of the Murr, even if several small brooks near Vorderwestermurr and Fautspach lie higher and further from the confluence.{{Webarchive \\| url\\=http://www.lgrb.uni\\-freiburg.de/lgrb/Service/geotourismus\\_uebersicht/geotourismus/gto\\_text?K\\_gto\\_text\\=9354 \\| archive\\-is\\=20120803173812 \\| text\\=Geological description of the Murrquelle}}} url\\=[http://www.zvw.de/aktuell/2001/10/18/2130821000\\_28001\\.htm](http://www.zvw.de/aktuell/2001/10/18/2130821000_28001.htm) \\| wayback\\=20040617130039 \\| text\\=Murrquelle is further upgraded \\- Report of the Rems\\-Murr\\-Nachrichten of October 18, 2001", "### Course", "#### From the source to the western bend of the Fornsbach tributary", "In the uppermost run, the *Murr* moves to the northeast. From its source, which still lies in the [Lion's Arch formation](/wiki/Lion%27s_Arch_formation \"Lion's Arch formation\"), it digs its way through the underlying layers of the [Keupers](/wiki/Keuper \"Keuper\") a deep forest [klinge](/wiki/Klinge_%28landform%29 \"Klinge (landform)\"), in which the Vorderwestermurrer Mühle is the only settlement in which, after several small waterfalls, they quickly descended the geological strata to the [Untere Bunte Mergeln](/wiki/Steigerwald_Formation \"Steigerwald Formation\").url\\=[https://web.archive.org/web/\\*/http://www](https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www). \\|date\\=\\* \\|title\\=Klinge bei der Westermurrer Sägmühle Further down in its steep valley, it enters the field in a valley spider at the Klettenhöfle. It passes the almost equally small settlements of Klingen and Hammerschmiede, where it reaches the [Gipskeuper Formation](/wiki/Gipskeuper_Formation \"Gipskeuper Formation\") and shortly after the [Lower Keuper](/wiki/Erfurt_Formation \"Erfurt Formation\").", "Here its valley widens strongly, and it goes in the wide valley level of the \"Fornsbacher Talspinne\" into a narrow bend of almost 150° to the left, in whose course it \\- the *Westermurr*, thus *western* Murr \\- successively only the right [Otterbach](/wiki/Otterbach_%28Murr%2C_Murrhardt%29 \"Otterbach (Murr, Murrhardt)\") \\- also called *Mettelbach*, the *middle* brook \\- from the south, then at the iron forge mill the right [Fornsbach](/wiki/Fornsbach_%28Murr%29 \"Fornsbach (Murr)\") \\- *front brook* \\- from the east, to which two shortly before larger brooks from still other directions flowed.", "#### From Fornsbach to \"Spiegelberger\" Lauter", "Afterwards it is on west course, the direction of the inflowing *Fornsbach*, whose length here exceeds hers. Its broad valley floor below the slopes, which are still wooded at medium altitude, now offers space for more important traffic routes. Accompanied by the [L 1066](/wiki/Landesstra%C3%9Fe_1066 \"Landesstraße 1066\") and the [railroad line Waiblingen\\-Schwäbisch Hall\\-Hessental](/wiki/Railroad_line_Waiblingen-Schw%C3%A4bisch_Hall-Hessental \"Railroad line Waiblingen-Schwäbisch Hall-Hessental\"), it passes the Wahlenmühle, [Hausen](/wiki/Hausen_%28Murrhardt%29 \"Hausen (Murrhardt)\") and the Lutzensägmühle, and after passing the alpine pasture settlement on its right, where once the [Upper Germanic\\-Raetian Limes](/wiki/Upper_Germanic-Raetian_Limes \"Upper Germanic-Raetian Limes\") crossed its valley, it finally flows into the core town of Murrhardt; the city is the largest settlement on its upper reaches. On the western edge of its old town the [Dentelbach](/wiki/Dentelbach_%28Murr%29 \"Dentelbach (Murr)\") from the north, further down the valley the [Hörschbach](/wiki/H%C3%B6rschbach_%28Murr%29 \"Hörschbach (Murr)\") from the south, at the edge of its settlement and shortly before the western city limits the [Harbach](/wiki/Harbach_%28Murr%29 \"Harbach (Murr)\") flows through the hamlet [Harbach](/wiki/Harbach_%28Murrhardt%29 \"Harbach (Murrhardt)\") again from the north.", "In the area of the adjacent community [Sulzbach](/wiki/Sulzbach_an_der_Murr \"Sulzbach an der Murr\"), its course turns slightly north\\-northwest, it flows past Schleißweiler on the right, where the [Eschelbach](/wiki/Eschelbach_%28Murr%29 \"Eschelbach (Murr)\") flows in from the left, and left at Bartenbach, through which the [Haselbach](/wiki/Haselbach_%28Murr%29 \"Haselbach (Murr)\") reaches it again from the north.\nThen the valley curves slowly southwards again, the Murr reaches its northernmost point in Sulzbach itself, near which the [Fischbach](/wiki/Fischbach_%28Murr%29 \"Fischbach (Murr)\") flows, which is also a southern tributary. Here also from direction [Mainhardt](/wiki/Mainhardt \"Mainhardt\") the [B 14](/wiki/Bundesstra%C3%9Fe_14 \"Bundesstraße 14\") rises into the valley and continues the [L 1066](/wiki/Landesstra%C3%9Fe_1066 \"Landesstraße 1066\") as a large valley road. Just outside the village the (\"Spiegelberger\") [Lauter](/wiki/Lauter_%28Murr%29 \"Lauter (Murr)\"), in whose valley the L 1066 turns off from the B 14, then the Murr flows into the area of [Oppenweiler](/wiki/Oppenweiler \"Oppenweiler\").", "#### From the Lauter to the entrance of the Backnang bay", "[thumb\\|left\\|Burg Reichenberg right above the Murr valley](/wiki/File:Burg-Reichenberg-2005.jpg \"Burg-Reichenberg-2005.jpg\")\nIn Oppenweiler, the Murr passes the hamlet [Ellenweiler](/wiki/Ellenweiler_%28Oppenweiler%29 \"Ellenweiler (Oppenweiler)\") on the left side and, approximately on a southwest course, the district Reichenberg, above which the [Burg Reichenberg](/wiki/Reichenberg_Castle_%28W%C3%BCrttemberg%29 \"Reichenberg Castle (Württemberg)\") stands. Beyond the river lies the hamlet [Reichenbach an der Murr](/wiki/Reichenbach_an_der_Murr \"Reichenbach an der Murr\") at the foot of the left slope. After the village the [Tierbach](/wiki/Tierbach_%28Murr%29 \"Tierbach (Murr)\") flows from the right. Between Reichenberg and the main town of Oppenweiler, an industrial area stretches along the right bank of the river until the [Rohrbach](/wiki/Rohrbach_%28Murr%29 \"Rohrbach (Murr)\") meets the Murr from the right at the edge of its residential area; a short right branch of it feeds the castle pond around the [Wasserschloss Oppenweiler](/wiki/Wasserschloss_Oppenweiler \"Wasserschloss Oppenweiler\") close to the right bank of the river; a little downhill opposite is the hamlet [Aichelbach](/wiki/Aichelbach \"Aichelbach\") of the community. In Oppenweiler, the [B 14](/wiki/Bundesstra%C3%9Fe_14 \"Bundesstraße 14\") now rises out of the Murr valley and turns away from it; the Kreisstraße K 1897 and the railroad line Schwäbisch Hall\\-Hessental\\-Waiblingen continue to run in it. The following hamlet of Zell lies on both banks, then the Murr passes over into the [Backnang](/wiki/Backnang \"Backnang\") city area.", "Here the valley narrows again, with heavily meandering meanders it ends its southern course between forest tongues which briefly reach close to the shore again and turns to the west\\-southwest, out of the mountainous region of the [Swabian\\-Franconian Forest](/wiki/Swabian-Franconian_Forest \"Swabian-Franconian Forest\"), which was previously divided by it, into the Neckar Basin. Their bed now lies in the harder rock of the [Muschelkalk](/wiki/Muschelkalk \"Muschelkalk\").", "#### From the Buchenbach to the estuary", "[thumb\\|Confluence of the Murr into the [Neckar](/wiki/Neckar \"Neckar\") (from right to left).](/wiki/File:Neckar_mit_Einm%C3%BCndung_der_Murr_09.jpg \"Neckar mit Einmündung der Murr 09.jpg\")\nAfter a short stretch, on which Affalterbach is the left\\-hand neighbor, the river turns northwest to the area of [Kirchberg an der Murr](/wiki/Kirchberg_an_der_Murr \"Kirchberg an der Murr\"), which is on the right\\-hand side of the valley except for a mill estate and some newer commercial buildings. After this, the [Eichbach](/wiki/Eichbach_%28Murr%29 \"Eichbach (Murr)\"), which is unsteady in its lower course, flows from the right through a long blade as well as the short *Weidenbach*. At the Kirchberg hamlet [Rundsmühlhof](/wiki/Rundsm%C3%BChlhof \"Rundsmühlhof\") on the valley floor the river leaves the Rems\\-Murr\\-Kreis, and briefly joins the area of [Rielingshausen](/wiki/Rielingshausen \"Rielingshausen\"). (district and exclave of Marbach) on the right and [Erdmannhausen](/wiki/Erdmannhausen \"Erdmannhausen\") on the left to the bank, over the so\\-called Schweißbrücke, the first of two state roads crosses the river here with the L 1124 Großaspach\\-Marbach at the deeply cut lower course, whose valley then enters a wide northern loop and the area of [Steinheim an der Murr](/wiki/Steinheim_an_der_Murr \"Steinheim an der Murr\"). Here it is reached immediately from the right by the [Sulzbach](/wiki/Sulzbach_%28Murr%29 \"Sulzbach (Murr)\"), and again by a longer blade of the [Otterbach](/wiki/Otterbach_%28Murr%2C_Steinheim_an_der_Murr%29 \"Otterbach (Murr, Steinheim an der Murr)\"), whereupon Steinheim reaches down from the slope to the right bank. Through this small town at the northernmost point of the lower course, the [Bottwar](/wiki/Bottwar \"Bottwar\") flows towards something below 195\\.1 m from the right, which rises far in the north in the [Löwenstein Hills](/wiki/L%C3%B6wenstein_Hills \"Löwenstein Hills\"). In the part of the loop running back to the south the Murr crosses the boundary of the municipality [Murr](/wiki/Murr%2C_Baden-W%C3%BCrttemberg \"Murr, Baden-Württemberg\"). The village is situated on the right slope and is embraced by the L 1100 running south, which crosses the river at the eastern and southern edge of the municipal territory over bridges and then follows it a short distance to the left. The Murr runs its last kilometer southwards on the ground of the city [Marbach am Neckar](/wiki/Marbach_am_Neckar \"Marbach am Neckar\") and flows there, after a last crossing by the L 1011, at 190\\.2 m and after a run of over 51 km from the right into the [Neckar](/wiki/Neckar \"Neckar\").", "### Tributaries", "The longest tributary of the Murr is with 25 km the [Buchenbach](/wiki/Buchenbach_%28Murr%29 \"Buchenbach (Murr)\"), which flows between Burgstetten and Kirchberg and the Murr supplies the outflow of the Berglen. Measured at the catchment area the [Bottwar](/wiki/Bottwar \"Bottwar\") near Steinheim is with 76 km² the largest and with a run of 18 km the second longest inflow. Other tributaries with a length of ten or more kilometers are the \"Spiegelberger\" [Lauter](/wiki/Lauter_%28Murr%29 \"Lauter (Murr)\"). (15,2 km), the [Wüstenbach](/wiki/Desert_stream_%28Murr%29 \"Desert stream (Murr)\") (12,9 km) and the [Klöpferbach](/wiki/Kl%C3%B6pferbach \"Klöpferbach\") (10,2 km), which all come from the Löwensteiner mountains to the Murr, as well as the [Weißach](/wiki/Wei%C3%9Fach_%28Murr%29 \"Weißach (Murr)\") (12 km), which is fed by numerous watercourses in the east of Backnang Bay. From the strongly dissected Murrhardter forest numerous smaller brooks flow to the Murr, of which the [Hörschbach (Murr)](/wiki/H%C3%B6rschbach_%28Murr%29 \"Hörschbach (Murr)\") might be the most well\\-known because of its natural beauties.", "", "| \\+ Caption text |\n| --- |\n| Name | side of confluence | Length in km | Remaining Length of the Murr at confluence in km |\n| Fautsbach | right | 2\\.392 | 49\\.075 |\n| Taubenbach | left | 2\\.289 | 48\\.334 |\n| Gießbach | right | 2\\.767 | 48\\.239 |\n| Köchersbächle | left | 1\\.719 | 47\\.175 |\n| Klettenbach | right | 2\\.101 | 46\\.923 |\n| unnamed | left | 1\\.101 | 46\\.357 |\n| [Otterbach](/wiki/Otterbach \"Otterbach\") | right | 5\\.669 | 44\\.464 |\n| [Fornsbach](/wiki/Fornsbach \"Fornsbach\") | right | 8\\.296 | 43\\.623 |\n| Neu Fornsbach | right | 0\\.367 | 43\\.440 |\n| Raitklinge | left | 1\\.012 | 43\\.204 |\n| Kölschklingenbach | left | 0\\.876 | 42\\.993 |\n| Grundbach | left | 0\\.743 | 42\\.323 |\n| Fehlbach | right | 1\\.919 | 41\\.584 |\n| Großkehlbach | left | 3\\.287 | 39\\.620 |\n| [Trauzenbach](/wiki/Trauzenbach \"Trauzenbach\") | right | 7\\.953 | 39\\.354 |\n| unnamed | left | 0\\.842 | 38\\.607 |\n| Hörschbach | left | 5\\.452 | 37\\.933 |\n| Harbach | right | 6\\.354 | 37\\.112 |\n| Eschelbach | right | 3\\.967 | 35\\.928 |\n| [Haselbach](/wiki/Haselbach_%28Murr%29 \"Haselbach (Murr)\") | left | 6\\.742 | 34\\.918 |\n| Gronbach | right | 1\\.319 | 33\\.884 |\n| Fischbach | right | 8\\.33 | 32\\.828 |\n| Seebach | left | 1\\.04 | 32\\.558 |\n| Reizenbach | left | 1\\.06 | 32\\.218 |\n| [Lauter](/wiki/Lauter_%28Murr%29 \"Lauter (Murr)\") | right | 15\\.546 | 31\\.851 |\n| Rosstalbach | right | 1\\.328 | 30\\.784 |\n| Reichenbach | left | 2\\.039 | 29\\.948 |\n| Tierbach | right | 3\\.045 | 29\\.554 |\n| Rohrbach | right | 4\\.198 | 29\\.067 |\n| Froschbach | right | 1\\.556 | 28\\.535 |\n| Eichelbach | left | 3\\.893 | 28\\.137 |\n| Dinkelbach | right | 0\\.903 | 27\\.204 |\n| Büffenbach | left | 1\\.359 | 27\\.031 |\n| Fraunklingenbach | left | 2\\.647 | 26\\.964 |\n| Kreuzhaubach | right | 1\\.308 | 26\\.579 |\n| Schreppenbach | left | 2\\.608 | 25\\.656 |\n| Bodenbach | left | 1\\.837 | 25\\.427 |\n| [Weißach (Murr)](/wiki/Wei%C3%9Fach_%28Murr%29 \"Weißach (Murr)\") | left | 12\\.262 | 23\\.316 |\n| Eckertsbach | right | 6\\.215 | 21\\.998 |\n| Krähenbach | right | 4\\.997 | 19\\.775 |\n| Maubach | left | 5\\.59 | 18\\.348 |\n| [Klöpferbach](/wiki/Kl%C3%B6pferbach \"Klöpferbach\") | right | 10\\.293 | 17\\.432 |\n| [Wüstenbach](/wiki/W%C3%BCstenbach \"Wüstenbach\") | right | 13\\.031 | 15\\.818 |\n| Söllbach | left | 3\\.091 | 15\\.207 |\n| [Buchenbach](/wiki/Buchenbach_%28Murr%29 \"Buchenbach (Murr)\") | left | 24\\.013 | 12\\.686 |\n| Eichbach | right | 4\\.135 | 8\\.865 |\n| Weidenach | right | 2\\.182 | 8\\.134 |\n| Sulzbach | right | 2\\.695 | 5\\.278 |\n| Otterbach | right | 6\\.557 | 4\\.838 |\n| [Bottwar](/wiki/Bottwar \"Bottwar\") | right | 18\\.331 | 2\\.971 |", "" ]
### Course #### From the source to the western bend of the Fornsbach tributary In the uppermost run, the *Murr* moves to the northeast. From its source, which still lies in the [Lion's Arch formation](/wiki/Lion%27s_Arch_formation "Lion's Arch formation"), it digs its way through the underlying layers of the [Keupers](/wiki/Keuper "Keuper") a deep forest [klinge](/wiki/Klinge_%28landform%29 "Klinge (landform)"), in which the Vorderwestermurrer Mühle is the only settlement in which, after several small waterfalls, they quickly descended the geological strata to the [Untere Bunte Mergeln](/wiki/Steigerwald_Formation "Steigerwald Formation").url\=[https://web.archive.org/web/\*/http://www](https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www). \|date\=\* \|title\=Klinge bei der Westermurrer Sägmühle Further down in its steep valley, it enters the field in a valley spider at the Klettenhöfle. It passes the almost equally small settlements of Klingen and Hammerschmiede, where it reaches the [Gipskeuper Formation](/wiki/Gipskeuper_Formation "Gipskeuper Formation") and shortly after the [Lower Keuper](/wiki/Erfurt_Formation "Erfurt Formation"). Here its valley widens strongly, and it goes in the wide valley level of the "Fornsbacher Talspinne" into a narrow bend of almost 150° to the left, in whose course it \- the *Westermurr*, thus *western* Murr \- successively only the right [Otterbach](/wiki/Otterbach_%28Murr%2C_Murrhardt%29 "Otterbach (Murr, Murrhardt)") \- also called *Mettelbach*, the *middle* brook \- from the south, then at the iron forge mill the right [Fornsbach](/wiki/Fornsbach_%28Murr%29 "Fornsbach (Murr)") \- *front brook* \- from the east, to which two shortly before larger brooks from still other directions flowed. #### From Fornsbach to "Spiegelberger" Lauter Afterwards it is on west course, the direction of the inflowing *Fornsbach*, whose length here exceeds hers. Its broad valley floor below the slopes, which are still wooded at medium altitude, now offers space for more important traffic routes. Accompanied by the [L 1066](/wiki/Landesstra%C3%9Fe_1066 "Landesstraße 1066") and the [railroad line Waiblingen\-Schwäbisch Hall\-Hessental](/wiki/Railroad_line_Waiblingen-Schw%C3%A4bisch_Hall-Hessental "Railroad line Waiblingen-Schwäbisch Hall-Hessental"), it passes the Wahlenmühle, [Hausen](/wiki/Hausen_%28Murrhardt%29 "Hausen (Murrhardt)") and the Lutzensägmühle, and after passing the alpine pasture settlement on its right, where once the [Upper Germanic\-Raetian Limes](/wiki/Upper_Germanic-Raetian_Limes "Upper Germanic-Raetian Limes") crossed its valley, it finally flows into the core town of Murrhardt; the city is the largest settlement on its upper reaches. On the western edge of its old town the [Dentelbach](/wiki/Dentelbach_%28Murr%29 "Dentelbach (Murr)") from the north, further down the valley the [Hörschbach](/wiki/H%C3%B6rschbach_%28Murr%29 "Hörschbach (Murr)") from the south, at the edge of its settlement and shortly before the western city limits the [Harbach](/wiki/Harbach_%28Murr%29 "Harbach (Murr)") flows through the hamlet [Harbach](/wiki/Harbach_%28Murrhardt%29 "Harbach (Murrhardt)") again from the north. In the area of the adjacent community [Sulzbach](/wiki/Sulzbach_an_der_Murr "Sulzbach an der Murr"), its course turns slightly north\-northwest, it flows past Schleißweiler on the right, where the [Eschelbach](/wiki/Eschelbach_%28Murr%29 "Eschelbach (Murr)") flows in from the left, and left at Bartenbach, through which the [Haselbach](/wiki/Haselbach_%28Murr%29 "Haselbach (Murr)") reaches it again from the north. Then the valley curves slowly southwards again, the Murr reaches its northernmost point in Sulzbach itself, near which the [Fischbach](/wiki/Fischbach_%28Murr%29 "Fischbach (Murr)") flows, which is also a southern tributary. Here also from direction [Mainhardt](/wiki/Mainhardt "Mainhardt") the [B 14](/wiki/Bundesstra%C3%9Fe_14 "Bundesstraße 14") rises into the valley and continues the [L 1066](/wiki/Landesstra%C3%9Fe_1066 "Landesstraße 1066") as a large valley road. Just outside the village the ("Spiegelberger") [Lauter](/wiki/Lauter_%28Murr%29 "Lauter (Murr)"), in whose valley the L 1066 turns off from the B 14, then the Murr flows into the area of [Oppenweiler](/wiki/Oppenweiler "Oppenweiler"). #### From the Lauter to the entrance of the Backnang bay [thumb\|left\|Burg Reichenberg right above the Murr valley](/wiki/File:Burg-Reichenberg-2005.jpg "Burg-Reichenberg-2005.jpg") In Oppenweiler, the Murr passes the hamlet [Ellenweiler](/wiki/Ellenweiler_%28Oppenweiler%29 "Ellenweiler (Oppenweiler)") on the left side and, approximately on a southwest course, the district Reichenberg, above which the [Burg Reichenberg](/wiki/Reichenberg_Castle_%28W%C3%BCrttemberg%29 "Reichenberg Castle (Württemberg)") stands. Beyond the river lies the hamlet [Reichenbach an der Murr](/wiki/Reichenbach_an_der_Murr "Reichenbach an der Murr") at the foot of the left slope. After the village the [Tierbach](/wiki/Tierbach_%28Murr%29 "Tierbach (Murr)") flows from the right. Between Reichenberg and the main town of Oppenweiler, an industrial area stretches along the right bank of the river until the [Rohrbach](/wiki/Rohrbach_%28Murr%29 "Rohrbach (Murr)") meets the Murr from the right at the edge of its residential area; a short right branch of it feeds the castle pond around the [Wasserschloss Oppenweiler](/wiki/Wasserschloss_Oppenweiler "Wasserschloss Oppenweiler") close to the right bank of the river; a little downhill opposite is the hamlet [Aichelbach](/wiki/Aichelbach "Aichelbach") of the community. In Oppenweiler, the [B 14](/wiki/Bundesstra%C3%9Fe_14 "Bundesstraße 14") now rises out of the Murr valley and turns away from it; the Kreisstraße K 1897 and the railroad line Schwäbisch Hall\-Hessental\-Waiblingen continue to run in it. The following hamlet of Zell lies on both banks, then the Murr passes over into the [Backnang](/wiki/Backnang "Backnang") city area. Here the valley narrows again, with heavily meandering meanders it ends its southern course between forest tongues which briefly reach close to the shore again and turns to the west\-southwest, out of the mountainous region of the [Swabian\-Franconian Forest](/wiki/Swabian-Franconian_Forest "Swabian-Franconian Forest"), which was previously divided by it, into the Neckar Basin. Their bed now lies in the harder rock of the [Muschelkalk](/wiki/Muschelkalk "Muschelkalk"). #### From the Buchenbach to the estuary [thumb\|Confluence of the Murr into the [Neckar](/wiki/Neckar "Neckar") (from right to left).](/wiki/File:Neckar_mit_Einm%C3%BCndung_der_Murr_09.jpg "Neckar mit Einmündung der Murr 09.jpg") After a short stretch, on which Affalterbach is the left\-hand neighbor, the river turns northwest to the area of [Kirchberg an der Murr](/wiki/Kirchberg_an_der_Murr "Kirchberg an der Murr"), which is on the right\-hand side of the valley except for a mill estate and some newer commercial buildings. After this, the [Eichbach](/wiki/Eichbach_%28Murr%29 "Eichbach (Murr)"), which is unsteady in its lower course, flows from the right through a long blade as well as the short *Weidenbach*. At the Kirchberg hamlet [Rundsmühlhof](/wiki/Rundsm%C3%BChlhof "Rundsmühlhof") on the valley floor the river leaves the Rems\-Murr\-Kreis, and briefly joins the area of [Rielingshausen](/wiki/Rielingshausen "Rielingshausen"). (district and exclave of Marbach) on the right and [Erdmannhausen](/wiki/Erdmannhausen "Erdmannhausen") on the left to the bank, over the so\-called Schweißbrücke, the first of two state roads crosses the river here with the L 1124 Großaspach\-Marbach at the deeply cut lower course, whose valley then enters a wide northern loop and the area of [Steinheim an der Murr](/wiki/Steinheim_an_der_Murr "Steinheim an der Murr"). Here it is reached immediately from the right by the [Sulzbach](/wiki/Sulzbach_%28Murr%29 "Sulzbach (Murr)"), and again by a longer blade of the [Otterbach](/wiki/Otterbach_%28Murr%2C_Steinheim_an_der_Murr%29 "Otterbach (Murr, Steinheim an der Murr)"), whereupon Steinheim reaches down from the slope to the right bank. Through this small town at the northernmost point of the lower course, the [Bottwar](/wiki/Bottwar "Bottwar") flows towards something below 195\.1 m from the right, which rises far in the north in the [Löwenstein Hills](/wiki/L%C3%B6wenstein_Hills "Löwenstein Hills"). In the part of the loop running back to the south the Murr crosses the boundary of the municipality [Murr](/wiki/Murr%2C_Baden-W%C3%BCrttemberg "Murr, Baden-Württemberg"). The village is situated on the right slope and is embraced by the L 1100 running south, which crosses the river at the eastern and southern edge of the municipal territory over bridges and then follows it a short distance to the left. The Murr runs its last kilometer southwards on the ground of the city [Marbach am Neckar](/wiki/Marbach_am_Neckar "Marbach am Neckar") and flows there, after a last crossing by the L 1011, at 190\.2 m and after a run of over 51 km from the right into the [Neckar](/wiki/Neckar "Neckar").
[ "### Course", "#### From the source to the western bend of the Fornsbach tributary", "In the uppermost run, the *Murr* moves to the northeast. From its source, which still lies in the [Lion's Arch formation](/wiki/Lion%27s_Arch_formation \"Lion's Arch formation\"), it digs its way through the underlying layers of the [Keupers](/wiki/Keuper \"Keuper\") a deep forest [klinge](/wiki/Klinge_%28landform%29 \"Klinge (landform)\"), in which the Vorderwestermurrer Mühle is the only settlement in which, after several small waterfalls, they quickly descended the geological strata to the [Untere Bunte Mergeln](/wiki/Steigerwald_Formation \"Steigerwald Formation\").url\\=[https://web.archive.org/web/\\*/http://www](https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www). \\|date\\=\\* \\|title\\=Klinge bei der Westermurrer Sägmühle Further down in its steep valley, it enters the field in a valley spider at the Klettenhöfle. It passes the almost equally small settlements of Klingen and Hammerschmiede, where it reaches the [Gipskeuper Formation](/wiki/Gipskeuper_Formation \"Gipskeuper Formation\") and shortly after the [Lower Keuper](/wiki/Erfurt_Formation \"Erfurt Formation\").", "Here its valley widens strongly, and it goes in the wide valley level of the \"Fornsbacher Talspinne\" into a narrow bend of almost 150° to the left, in whose course it \\- the *Westermurr*, thus *western* Murr \\- successively only the right [Otterbach](/wiki/Otterbach_%28Murr%2C_Murrhardt%29 \"Otterbach (Murr, Murrhardt)\") \\- also called *Mettelbach*, the *middle* brook \\- from the south, then at the iron forge mill the right [Fornsbach](/wiki/Fornsbach_%28Murr%29 \"Fornsbach (Murr)\") \\- *front brook* \\- from the east, to which two shortly before larger brooks from still other directions flowed.", "#### From Fornsbach to \"Spiegelberger\" Lauter", "Afterwards it is on west course, the direction of the inflowing *Fornsbach*, whose length here exceeds hers. Its broad valley floor below the slopes, which are still wooded at medium altitude, now offers space for more important traffic routes. Accompanied by the [L 1066](/wiki/Landesstra%C3%9Fe_1066 \"Landesstraße 1066\") and the [railroad line Waiblingen\\-Schwäbisch Hall\\-Hessental](/wiki/Railroad_line_Waiblingen-Schw%C3%A4bisch_Hall-Hessental \"Railroad line Waiblingen-Schwäbisch Hall-Hessental\"), it passes the Wahlenmühle, [Hausen](/wiki/Hausen_%28Murrhardt%29 \"Hausen (Murrhardt)\") and the Lutzensägmühle, and after passing the alpine pasture settlement on its right, where once the [Upper Germanic\\-Raetian Limes](/wiki/Upper_Germanic-Raetian_Limes \"Upper Germanic-Raetian Limes\") crossed its valley, it finally flows into the core town of Murrhardt; the city is the largest settlement on its upper reaches. On the western edge of its old town the [Dentelbach](/wiki/Dentelbach_%28Murr%29 \"Dentelbach (Murr)\") from the north, further down the valley the [Hörschbach](/wiki/H%C3%B6rschbach_%28Murr%29 \"Hörschbach (Murr)\") from the south, at the edge of its settlement and shortly before the western city limits the [Harbach](/wiki/Harbach_%28Murr%29 \"Harbach (Murr)\") flows through the hamlet [Harbach](/wiki/Harbach_%28Murrhardt%29 \"Harbach (Murrhardt)\") again from the north.", "In the area of the adjacent community [Sulzbach](/wiki/Sulzbach_an_der_Murr \"Sulzbach an der Murr\"), its course turns slightly north\\-northwest, it flows past Schleißweiler on the right, where the [Eschelbach](/wiki/Eschelbach_%28Murr%29 \"Eschelbach (Murr)\") flows in from the left, and left at Bartenbach, through which the [Haselbach](/wiki/Haselbach_%28Murr%29 \"Haselbach (Murr)\") reaches it again from the north.\nThen the valley curves slowly southwards again, the Murr reaches its northernmost point in Sulzbach itself, near which the [Fischbach](/wiki/Fischbach_%28Murr%29 \"Fischbach (Murr)\") flows, which is also a southern tributary. Here also from direction [Mainhardt](/wiki/Mainhardt \"Mainhardt\") the [B 14](/wiki/Bundesstra%C3%9Fe_14 \"Bundesstraße 14\") rises into the valley and continues the [L 1066](/wiki/Landesstra%C3%9Fe_1066 \"Landesstraße 1066\") as a large valley road. Just outside the village the (\"Spiegelberger\") [Lauter](/wiki/Lauter_%28Murr%29 \"Lauter (Murr)\"), in whose valley the L 1066 turns off from the B 14, then the Murr flows into the area of [Oppenweiler](/wiki/Oppenweiler \"Oppenweiler\").", "#### From the Lauter to the entrance of the Backnang bay", "[thumb\\|left\\|Burg Reichenberg right above the Murr valley](/wiki/File:Burg-Reichenberg-2005.jpg \"Burg-Reichenberg-2005.jpg\")\nIn Oppenweiler, the Murr passes the hamlet [Ellenweiler](/wiki/Ellenweiler_%28Oppenweiler%29 \"Ellenweiler (Oppenweiler)\") on the left side and, approximately on a southwest course, the district Reichenberg, above which the [Burg Reichenberg](/wiki/Reichenberg_Castle_%28W%C3%BCrttemberg%29 \"Reichenberg Castle (Württemberg)\") stands. Beyond the river lies the hamlet [Reichenbach an der Murr](/wiki/Reichenbach_an_der_Murr \"Reichenbach an der Murr\") at the foot of the left slope. After the village the [Tierbach](/wiki/Tierbach_%28Murr%29 \"Tierbach (Murr)\") flows from the right. Between Reichenberg and the main town of Oppenweiler, an industrial area stretches along the right bank of the river until the [Rohrbach](/wiki/Rohrbach_%28Murr%29 \"Rohrbach (Murr)\") meets the Murr from the right at the edge of its residential area; a short right branch of it feeds the castle pond around the [Wasserschloss Oppenweiler](/wiki/Wasserschloss_Oppenweiler \"Wasserschloss Oppenweiler\") close to the right bank of the river; a little downhill opposite is the hamlet [Aichelbach](/wiki/Aichelbach \"Aichelbach\") of the community. In Oppenweiler, the [B 14](/wiki/Bundesstra%C3%9Fe_14 \"Bundesstraße 14\") now rises out of the Murr valley and turns away from it; the Kreisstraße K 1897 and the railroad line Schwäbisch Hall\\-Hessental\\-Waiblingen continue to run in it. The following hamlet of Zell lies on both banks, then the Murr passes over into the [Backnang](/wiki/Backnang \"Backnang\") city area.", "Here the valley narrows again, with heavily meandering meanders it ends its southern course between forest tongues which briefly reach close to the shore again and turns to the west\\-southwest, out of the mountainous region of the [Swabian\\-Franconian Forest](/wiki/Swabian-Franconian_Forest \"Swabian-Franconian Forest\"), which was previously divided by it, into the Neckar Basin. Their bed now lies in the harder rock of the [Muschelkalk](/wiki/Muschelkalk \"Muschelkalk\").", "#### From the Buchenbach to the estuary", "[thumb\\|Confluence of the Murr into the [Neckar](/wiki/Neckar \"Neckar\") (from right to left).](/wiki/File:Neckar_mit_Einm%C3%BCndung_der_Murr_09.jpg \"Neckar mit Einmündung der Murr 09.jpg\")\nAfter a short stretch, on which Affalterbach is the left\\-hand neighbor, the river turns northwest to the area of [Kirchberg an der Murr](/wiki/Kirchberg_an_der_Murr \"Kirchberg an der Murr\"), which is on the right\\-hand side of the valley except for a mill estate and some newer commercial buildings. After this, the [Eichbach](/wiki/Eichbach_%28Murr%29 \"Eichbach (Murr)\"), which is unsteady in its lower course, flows from the right through a long blade as well as the short *Weidenbach*. At the Kirchberg hamlet [Rundsmühlhof](/wiki/Rundsm%C3%BChlhof \"Rundsmühlhof\") on the valley floor the river leaves the Rems\\-Murr\\-Kreis, and briefly joins the area of [Rielingshausen](/wiki/Rielingshausen \"Rielingshausen\"). (district and exclave of Marbach) on the right and [Erdmannhausen](/wiki/Erdmannhausen \"Erdmannhausen\") on the left to the bank, over the so\\-called Schweißbrücke, the first of two state roads crosses the river here with the L 1124 Großaspach\\-Marbach at the deeply cut lower course, whose valley then enters a wide northern loop and the area of [Steinheim an der Murr](/wiki/Steinheim_an_der_Murr \"Steinheim an der Murr\"). Here it is reached immediately from the right by the [Sulzbach](/wiki/Sulzbach_%28Murr%29 \"Sulzbach (Murr)\"), and again by a longer blade of the [Otterbach](/wiki/Otterbach_%28Murr%2C_Steinheim_an_der_Murr%29 \"Otterbach (Murr, Steinheim an der Murr)\"), whereupon Steinheim reaches down from the slope to the right bank. Through this small town at the northernmost point of the lower course, the [Bottwar](/wiki/Bottwar \"Bottwar\") flows towards something below 195\\.1 m from the right, which rises far in the north in the [Löwenstein Hills](/wiki/L%C3%B6wenstein_Hills \"Löwenstein Hills\"). In the part of the loop running back to the south the Murr crosses the boundary of the municipality [Murr](/wiki/Murr%2C_Baden-W%C3%BCrttemberg \"Murr, Baden-Württemberg\"). The village is situated on the right slope and is embraced by the L 1100 running south, which crosses the river at the eastern and southern edge of the municipal territory over bridges and then follows it a short distance to the left. The Murr runs its last kilometer southwards on the ground of the city [Marbach am Neckar](/wiki/Marbach_am_Neckar \"Marbach am Neckar\") and flows there, after a last crossing by the L 1011, at 190\\.2 m and after a run of over 51 km from the right into the [Neckar](/wiki/Neckar \"Neckar\").", "" ]
Epidemiology ------------ [thumb\|400px\|Test determined growth curves on a logarithmic scale, for development of the Alpha variant (lineage B.1\.1\.7\) share among all coronavirus positive samples in Denmark, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Portugal, Switzerland, and Ireland.{{refn\|Data sources: \* Denmark:{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.covid19genomics.dk/statistics\|title\=Genomic overview of SARS\-CoV\-2 in Denmark\|date\=30 January 2021 \|access\-date\=1 February 2021}} \* The Netherlands: \* Portugal:{{Cite web\|url\=https://virological.org/t/tracking\-sars\-cov\-2\-voc\-202012\-01\-lineage\-b\-1\-1\-7\-dissemination\-in\-portugal\-insights\-from\-nationwide\-rt\-pcr\-spike\-gene\-drop\-out\-data/600\|title\=Tracking SARS\-CoV\-2 VOC 202012/01 (lineage B.1\.1\.7\) dissemination in Portugal: insights from nationwide RT\-PCR Spike gene drop out data\|work\=Update information including data from weeks 3\-10, 2021: Posted after the article on 16 March 2021\. Footnote of the previous updates explain that 91\.8% of total SGTF\+SGTL (\~90% of SGTF and 100% of SGTL) was confirmed by genome sequence to be the B.1\.1\.7 variant. The B.1\.1\.7 shares were calculated as 91\.8% of the total SGTF\+SGTL share for each week.\|last\=Borges\|first\=Vítor\|display\-authors\=etal\|date\=19 January 2021\|access\-date\=16 March 2021}} \* Switzerland:{{Cite web\|title\=Genomic Characterisation\|url\=https://sciencetaskforce.ch/en/nextstrain\-phylogenetic\-analysis/\|author\=Swiss National COVID\-19 Science Task Force\|access\-date\=15 March 2021\|language\=en\-US}} \* The United Kingdom: \* Ireland: }} The slopes noted in brackets, are the relative exponential growth rate per day (e.g. 7\.6% per day for Denmark).](/wiki/File:Covid-19_VOC-202012-01_odds_ratio_curves_by_country.png "Covid-19 VOC-202012-01 odds ratio curves by country.png") * + - * + - [thumb\|400px\|Test determined growth curves on a logarithmic scale, for development of the Alpha variant (lineage B.1\.1\.7\) share among all coronavirus positive samples in the United Kingdom, countries in the UK, and regions of England.{{refn\|Data sources: \* UK national (2021\-01\-21\): \* South\-East England (2020\-12\-31\): \* UK countries (2021\-01\-29\):{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/healthandsocialcare/conditionsanddiseases/bulletins/coronaviruscovid19infectionsurveypilot/29january2021\#positive\-tests\-that\-are\-compatible\-with\-the\-new\-uk\-variant\|title\=Coronavirus (COVID\-19\) Infection Survey, UK: 29 January 2021: 10\. Positive tests that are compatible with the new UK variant\|website\=www.ons.gov.uk\|display\-authors\=etal\|date\=2021\-01\-29\|access\-date\=1 February 2021 }} {{OGL\-attribution\|version\=3\.0}} \* England regions (2021\-01\-15\):{{Cite medRxiv \|last1\=Walker \|first1\=A. Sarah \|last2\=Vihta \|first2\=Karina\-Doris \|last3\=Gethings \|first3\=Owen \|last4\=Pritchard \|first4\=Emma \|last5\=Jones \|first5\=Joel \|last6\=House \|first6\=Thomas \|last7\=Bell \|first7\=Iain \|last8\=Bell \|first8\=John I \|last9\=Newton \|first9\=John N \|last10\=Farrar \|first10\=Jeremy \|last11\=Diamond \|first11\=Ian \|last12\=Studley \|first12\=Ruth \|last13\=Rourke \|first13\=Emma \|last14\=Hay \|first14\=Jodie \|last15\=Hopkins \|first15\=Susan \|last16\=Crook \|first16\=Derrick \|last17\=Peto \|first17\=Tim \|last18\=Matthews \|first18\=Philippa C. \|last19\=Eyre \|first19\=David W. \|last20\=Stoesser \|first20\=Nicole \|last21\=Pouwels \|first21\=Koen B. \|title\=Increased infections, but not viral burden, with a new SARS\-CoV\-2 variant \|date\=15 January 2021 \|medrxiv\=10\.1101/2021\.01\.13\.21249721}} }} The slopes noted in brackets, are the relative exponential growth rate per day (e.g. 8\.6% per day for the UK).](/wiki/File:Covid-19_VOC-202012-01_odds_ratio_curves_by_UK_region.png "Covid-19 VOC-202012-01 odds ratio curves by UK region.png") * + - * Cases of the Alpha variant (lineage B.1\.1\.7\) were estimated to be [under\-reported](/wiki/Under-reporting "Under-reporting") by most countries as the most commonly used tests do not distinguish between this variant and other SARS\-CoV\-2 variants, and as many SARS\-CoV\-2 infections are not detected at all. RNA sequencing is required for detection of this variant,{{Cite web\|title\=Risk related to spread of new SARSCoV\-2 variants of concern in the EU/EEA\|url\=https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/COVID\-19\-risk\-related\-to\-spread\-of\-new\-SARS\-CoV\-2\-variants\-EU\-EEA.pdf\|date\=29 December 2020\|website\=www.ecdc.europa.eu\|access\-date\=1 February 2021}} although [RT\-PCR test](/wiki/Reverse_transcription_polymerase_chain_reaction "Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction") for specific variants{{efn\|An example of this is the \[\[Deletion (genetics)\|delta]] (Δ)–PCR test, which in connection to SARS\-CoV\-2, has been used to detect the HV 69–70 deletion in variants with this mutation{{Cite news\|author\=Statens Serum Institut\|date\=4 February 2021\|title\=Delta\-PCR\-testen\|trans\-title\=The delta\-PCR test\|language\=da\|url\=https://covid19\.ssi.dk/diagnostik/delta\-pcr\-testen\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-11}} through what has been named "spike\-gene target failure" (SGTF) or "spike\-gene drop out" for the spike (S) gene{{efn\|name\="S gene"}} in a subset of \[\[Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction\|RT\-PCR]] assays (e.g., TaqPath COVID\-19 RT\-PCR assay, ThermoFisher).{{Cite journal \|author\=Antonin Bal \|author2\=Gregory Destras \|author3\=Alexandre Gaymard \|author4\=Karl Stefic \|author5\=Julien Marlet \|collaboration\=COVID\-Diagnosis HCL Study Group \|display\-authors\=etal \|date\=21 January 2021\|title\=Two\-step strategy for the identification of SARS\-CoV\-2 variant of concern 202012/01 and other variants with spike deletion H69–V70; France; August to December 2020\|journal\=Eurosurveillance\|volume\=26 \|issue\=3 \|language\=en\|doi\=10\.2807/1560\-7917\.ES.2021\.26\.3\.2100008\|pmid\=33478625 \|pmc\=7848679 \|doi\-access\=free}} Though existing in a few other variants of SARS\-CoV\-2, the HV 69–70 deletion in the spike protein is present in the vast majority of B.1\.1\.7 genomes, which enables the delta\-PCR test to be used as a proxy test for the lineage—or as a supplementing first\-screening test before conducting the \[\[Whole genome sequencing\|whole\-genome sequencing]]. Another example of a RT\-PCR test intended to detect specific variants is the one detecting all genomes with the N501Y mutation (e.g., Alpha, \[\[SARS\-CoV\-2 Gamma variant\|Gamma variant]], and \[\[SARS\-CoV\-2 Beta variant\|Beta variant]]), which is now also being used as a first\-step screening tool ahead of genome sequencing by several laboratories/countries (e.g. by some parts of France). A third and fourth RT\-PCR test intended for detecting specific variants pre\-screen the samples for variants respectively with the N501Y\+A570D mutations (Alpha) and N501Y without the A570D mutation (Beta, Gamma, and other N501Y variants).\|name\=\|group\=}} can be used as a proxy test for Alpha — or as a supplementing first\-screening test before conducting the [whole\-genome sequencing](/wiki/Whole_genome_sequencing "Whole genome sequencing"). As of 23 March, the Alpha variant had been detected in 125 out of 241 [sovereign states and dependencies](/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population%23Sovereign_states_and_dependencies_by_population "List of countries and dependencies by population#Sovereign states and dependencies by population") (or 104 out of 194 [WHO member countries](/wiki/World_Health_Organization%23Membership "World Health Organization#Membership")),{{efn\|name\=WHOstatus\|'''104 WHO members had reported a detection of the Alpha variant (lineage B.1\.1\.7\), as of 23 March 2021:''' ''Albania, Angola, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belarus, Belgium, Belize, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Brunei Darussalam, Bulgaria, Cabo Verde, Cambodia, Canada, Chile, China, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Estonia, Finland, France, Gambia, Georgia, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Jordan, Kenya, Kuwait, Latvia, Lebanon, Libya, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Malta, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mexico, Monaco, Montenegro, Morocco, Nepal, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, North Macedonia, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Republic of Korea (South Korea), Republic of Moldova, Romania, Russia, Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Serbia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Turkey, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United States, Uruguay, Uzbekistan, Vietnam.'' '''90 WHO members had not reported any detection of the Alpha variant (lineage B.1\.1\.7\), as of 23 March 2021:''' ''Afghanistan, Algeria, Andorra, Antigua and Barbuda, Armenia, Bahamas, Benin, Bhutan, Bolivia, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Colombia, Comoros, Congo, Cook Islands, Côte d'Ivoire, Cuba, Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea), Djibouti, Dominica, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Fiji, Gabon, Grenada, Guatemala, Guinea\-Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Guinea, Kazakhstan, Kiribati, Kyrgyzstan, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Maldives, Mali, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Mongolia, Mozambique, Myanmar, Namibia, Nauru, Nicaragua, Niger, Niue, Palau, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Qatar, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, San Marino, Sao Tome and Principe, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Suriname, Swaziland, Syrian Arab Republic, Tajikistan, Timor\-Leste, Togo, Tonga, Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Yemen, Zambia, Zimbabwe.''}} of which some had reported existence of community transmission while others so far only found travel related cases.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.who.int/docs/default\-source/coronaviruse/situation\-reports/20210323\_weekly\_epi\_update\_32\.pdf?sfvrsn\=cd8deb5a\_4\&download\=true\|title\=COVID\-19 weekly epidemiological update, 23 March 2021\|publisher\=WHO\|date\=23 March 2021\|access\-date\=23 March 2021}} As of 16 March, it had become the [dominant COVID\-19 variant](/wiki/%23Development "#Development") for 21 countries: United Kingdom (week 52\), Ireland (week 2\), Bulgaria (week 4\), Slovakia (week 5\), Israel (week 5\), Luxembourg (week 5\), Portugal (week 6\), Denmark (week 7\), Netherlands (week 7\), Norway (week 7\), Italy (week 7\), Belgium (week 7\), France (week 8\), Austria (week 8\), Switzerland (week 8\), Liechtenstein (week 9\), Germany (week 9\), Sweden (week 9\), Spain (week 9\), Malta (week 10\) and Poland (week 11\). The emergence and the fast spreading of the new variant has been detected in Lebanon and a relationship noted between SARS\-CoV\-2 transmission intensity and the frequency of the new variant during the first twelve days of January.{{Cite medRxiv \|vauthors\=Younes M, Hamze K, et al. \|title\=Emergence and fast spread of B.1\.1\.7 lineage in Lebanon \|date\=26 January 2021 \|medrxiv\=10\.1101/2021\.01\.25\.21249974}} By February, Alpha became the dominant variant in Lebanon.{{Cite medRxiv \|vauthors\=Younes M, Hamze K, et al. \|title\=B.1\.1\.7 became the dominant variant in Lebanon \|date\=17 March 2021 \|medrxiv\=10\.1101/2021\.03\.17\.21253782}} ### Spread in UK The first case was likely in mid\-September 2020 in London or [Kent](/wiki/Kent "Kent"), United Kingdom.{{cite news\|last\=Higgins\-Dunn\|first\=N.\|date\=19 December 2020\|title\=The U.K. has identified a new Covid\-19 strain that spreads more quickly. Here's what they know\|url\=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/12/19/the\-uk\-has\-identified\-a\-new\-covid\-19\-strain\-that\-spreads\-more\-quickly\-heres\-what\-they\-know.html\|publisher\=MSNBC}} The variant was sequenced in September.{{Cite news \|last\=Team \|first\=The Lockdown Files \|date\=2023\-03\-09 \|title\=Covid variant that ruined Christmas hidden by scientists from ministers for months \|language\=en\-GB \|work\=The Telegraph \|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2023/03/09/covid\-variant\-ruined\-christmas\-hidden\-scientists\-ministers\-months/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-13 \|issn\=0307\-1235}} As of 13 December 2020, 1,108 cases with this variant had been identified in the UK in nearly 60 different local authorities. These cases were predominantly in the [south east of England](/wiki/South_East_England "South East England"). The variant has also been identified in Wales and Scotland.{{Cite web\|title\=COVID\-19 Genomics UK (COG\-UK) Consortium \- Wellcome Sanger Institute\|url\=https://www.sanger.ac.uk/collaboration/covid\-19\-genomics\-uk\-cog\-uk\-consortium/\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-23\|website\=www.sanger.ac.uk}} By November, around a quarter of cases in the [COVID\-19 pandemic in London](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_London "COVID-19 pandemic in London") were being caused by the new variant, and by December, that was a third.{{cite news \|last1\=Gallagher \|first1\=James \|title\=New coronavirus variant: What do we know? \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health\-55388846 \|access\-date\=21 December 2020 \|work\=BBC News \|date\=20 December 2020}} In mid\-December, it was estimated that almost 60 percent of cases in London involved Alpha.{{Cite news \|title\=London Begins Emergency Lockdown as U.K. Fights New Virus Strain \| publisher\=Bloomberg News \| last1 \= Ross \|first1 \= T. \| last2 \= Spence \| first2 \= E. \|date\=19 December 2020 \|url\= https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020\-12\-19/london\-put\-in\-emergency\-lockdown\-as\-u\-k\-fights\-new\-virus\-strain }} By 25 January 2021, the number of confirmed and probable UK cases had grown to 28,122\.{{cite web \|title\=Variants – distribution of cases data: data up to 25 January 2021 \|url\=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/covid\-19\-variants\-genomically\-confirmed\-case\-numbers/variants\-distribution\-of\-cases\-data\-data\-up\-to\-25\-january\-2021 \|website\=Gov.uk \|publisher\=Public Health England \|access\-date\=27 January 2021 \|date\=26 January 2021}} {{OGL\-attribution\|version\=3\.0}} ### Spread in Europe The variant became dominant for: * [South East England](/wiki/South_East_England "South East England") in week 48, the last week of November 2020\. * [England](/wiki/England "England") in week 51 of 2020\. * [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") in week 52 of 2020\. * [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland "Scotland") and [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland") in week 1 of 2021\. * [Wales](/wiki/Wales "Wales") in week 2 of 2021\. * [Ireland](/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland "Republic of Ireland") in week 2 of 2021\. In Bulgaria, genome sequencing found the variant to be dominant with 52\.1% in week 4, followed by 73\.4% in week 9\. [thumb\|400px\|Distribution of the SARS\-CoV\-2 virus variants after entering Germany](/wiki/file:Verbreitung_der_SARS-CoV-2-Virusvarianten_in_Deutschland.svg "Verbreitung der SARS-CoV-2-Virusvarianten in Deutschland.svg") Also in Slovakia, a RT\-PCR Multiplex DX test capable of detecting the 2 deletions specific for lineage B.1\.1\.7 (ΔH69/ΔV70 and ΔY144\),{{Cite web\|author\=Kovacova, V. \|display\-authors\=etal\|date\=5 February 2021\|title\=A novel, room temperature\-stable, multiplexed RT\-qPCR assay to distinguish lineage B.1\.1\.7 from the remaining SARS\-CoV\-2 lineages.\|website\=virological.org\|url\=https://virological.org/t/a\-novel\-room\-temperature\-stable\-multiplexed\-rt\-qpcr\-assay\-to\-distinguish\-lineage\-b\-1\-1\-7\-from\-the\-remaining\-sars\-cov\-2\-lineages/611\|access\-date\=21 February 2021}} first found the variant nationwide in 74% of cases on 3 February (week 5\), followed by 72% of cases on 15 February (week 7\), and it then grew to 90% of cases on 3 March (week 9\).{{Cite news\|author\=Ján Mikas, hlavný hygienik Slovenskej Republiky\|date\=9 March 2021\|title\=Britský variant potvrdený na Slovensku v 90% vyšetrených vzoriek\|trans\-title\=British variant confirmed in Slovakia in 90% of examined samples\|language\=sk\|publisher\=Public Health Office of the Slovak Republic\|url\=https://www.uvzsr.sk/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=4651\|access\-date\=17 March 2021\|archive\-date\=13 May 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513135235/https://www.uvzsr.sk/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=4651}} The same test found earlier on 8 January prevalence of the variant at a rate of 36% in the [Michalovce District](/wiki/Michalovce_District "Michalovce District") and 29% in [Nitra](/wiki/Nitra "Nitra").{{Cite news\|date\=9 January 2021\|title\=Aktuálna epidemiologická situácia na Slovensku (prezentácia, 8\. január 2021\)\|trans\-title\=Current epidemiological situation in Slovakia (presentation, January 8, 2021\)\|language\=sk\|publisher\=Public Health Office of the Slovak Republic\|url\=https://www.uvzsr.sk/docs/info/covid19/Epidemiologicka\_situacia\_210108\_v1\.pdf\|access\-date\=21 February 2021\|archive\-date\=14 July 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714020630/https://www.uvzsr.sk/docs/info/covid19/Epidemiologicka\_situacia\_210108\_v1\.pdf}} In Israel, the variant was first time detected by genome sequencing 23 December 2020\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.gov.il/en/departments/news/23122020\-07\|title\=Press Releases: Four Cases of COVID\-19 Variant found in the United Kingdom Have Been Discovered in Israel\|publisher\=Ministry of Health\|date\=23 December 2020\|access\-date\=26 February 2021}} [Leumit Health Care Services](/wiki/Leumit_Health_Care_Services "Leumit Health Care Services") however analysed with the proxy test RT\-PCR (SGTF) and found the variant at a rate of 3‑4% on 15 December. The national Ministry of Health estimated based on genome sequencing, that the prevalence of the variant became dominant (70%) on 6 February followed by 90% on 16 February. In Luxembourg, a weekly genome sequencing revealed that the variant grew from 0\.3% (week 51\) to be dominant with a share of 53\.0% in week 5, although results might not be fully representative due to the fact that no correction occurred from potential targeting bias from contact tracing, airport travellers and local outbreaks. Genome sequencing of a population representative randomized test pool \- with no target bias \- was conducted since week 6, and it confirmed the dominant status of the variant at a rate of 54\.1% (week 6\) growing to 62\.8% (week 9\), while the competing [Beta variant](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Beta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Beta variant") (lineage B.1\.351\) was found to be at 18\.5% in week 9\.{{Cite web\|title\=Respiratory Viruses Surveillance – REVILUX: Respiratory Viruses Sentinelle Newsletter, REVILUX bulletin hebdomadaire\|trans\-title\=Respiratory Viruses Surveillance – REVILUX: Respiratory Viruses Sentinelle Newsletter, REVILUX weekly update\|author\=Laboratoire National de Santé (LNS)\|url\=https://lns.lu/en/departement/department\-of\-microbiology/revilux/\|date\=18 March 2021\|access\-date\=18 March 2021\|archive\-date\=17 December 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217115439/https://lns.lu/en/departement/department\-of\-microbiology/revilux/}} In Denmark the variant grew from 0\.3% (week 46 of 2020\) to become dominant with 65\.9% (week 7 of 2021\), and it grew further to 92\.7% (week 10\); with the regional prevalence ranging from 87\.3% in the [North Jutland Region](/wiki/North_Jutland_Region "North Jutland Region") to 96\.1% in the [Central Denmark Region](/wiki/Central_Denmark_Region "Central Denmark Region").{{cite web\|url\=https://files.ssi.dk/covid19/virusvarianter/status/status\-virusvarianter\-20032021\-i33i\|title\=Status for udvikling af SARS\-CoV\-2 Variants of Concern (VOC) i Danmark\|trans\-title\=Status of development of SARS\-CoV\-2 Variants of Concern (VOC) in Denmark\|language\=da\|publisher\=Statens Serum Institut\|date\=20 March 2021\|access\-date\=20 March 2021}} The observed growth of the relative variant share, was in full accordance with the earlier modelled forecast, that had predicted dominance (over 50%) around mid\-February and a prevalence of around 80% of the total circulating variants by early March.{{cite report\|url\=https://covid19\.ssi.dk/\-/media/cdn/files/notat\-om\-prognoser\-for\-smittetal\-og\-indlggelser\_01022021\.pdf?la\=da\|title\=Notat om prognoser for smittetal og indlæggelser ved scenarier for genåbning af 0\.\-4\. klasse i grundskolen\|language\=Danish\|trans\-title\=\[\[Memorandum]] on forecasts for infection rates and hospital admissions in scenarios for reopening of 0th–4th class in primary school\|publisher\=\[\[Statens Serum Institut]]\|access\-date\=2 February 2021 \|date\=31 January 2021}} In comparison, the genome sequencing only found the competing Beta variant in 0\.4% of the positive cases (9 times out of 2315 tests) in week 10\.{{cite web\|url\=https://files.ssi.dk/covid19/virusvarianter/status/status\-virusvarianter\-12032021\-uh7y\|title\=Status for udvikling af SARS\-CoV\-2 Variants of Concern (VOC) i Danmark\|trans\-title\=Status of development of SARS\-CoV\-2 Variants of Concern (VOC) in Denmark\|language\=da\|publisher\=Statens Serum Institut\|date\=12 March 2021\|access\-date\=20 March 2021}}{{cite web\|url\=https://files.ssi.dk/covid19/virusvarianter/status/status\-virusvarianter\-19032021\-j3k4\|title\=Status for udvikling af SARS\-CoV\-2 Variants of Concern (VOC) i Danmark\|trans\-title\=Status of development of SARS\-CoV\-2 Variants of Concern (VOC) in Denmark\|language\=da\|publisher\=Statens Serum Institut\|date\=19 March 2021\|access\-date\=20 March 2021}} In the Netherlands, a randomly conducted genome sequencing found that the variant grew from 1\.3% of cases in week 49 to a dominant share of 61\.3% in week 7, followed by 82\.0% in week 9; while the competing Beta variant in comparison was found to be at 3\.0% in week 9\.{{Cite web\|author\=National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM) \- Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport\|date\=23 March 2021\|title\=Variants of the coronavirus SARS\-CoV\-2\|url\=https://www.rivm.nl/en/novel\-coronavirus\-covid\-19/virus\-sars\-cov\-2/variants\-of\-coronavirus\-sars\-cov\-2\|access\-date\=23 March 2021\|website\=www.rivm.nl}} In Amsterdam, the Alpha variant (lineage B.1\.1\.7\) grew from 5\.2% (week 52\) to 54\.5% (week 6\).{{Cite web\|author\=Ministerie van Volksgezondheid, Welzijn en Sport\|date\=23 February 2021\|title\=Advies VWS na OMT 101\|trans\-title\=Advice from VWS after 101th OMT on COVID\-19\|url\=https://open.overheid.nl/repository/ronl\-09bf1c47\-e36e\-44c8\-b33e\-c9877a71f455/1/pdf/advies\-vws\-na\-omt\-101\.pdf\|access\-date\=13 April 2022\|website\=overheid.nl\|language\=nl}} In Norway, the variant was found by genome sequencing to grow from 5\.7% (week 1\) into dominance by a 58\.4% (week 7\), followed by 65\.0% (week 8\).{{cite web\|url\=https://www.fhi.no/contentassets/8a971e7b0a3c4a06bdbf381ab52e6157/vedlegg/2021/ukerapport\-for\-uke\-8\-22\.02\-\-\-28\.02\.21\.pdf\|title\=COVID\-19 Ukerapport – uke 8, onsdag 3\. mars 2021\|trans\-title\=COVID\-19 weekly report for week 8 (wednesday 3 March 2021\)\|language\=no\|author\=Folkehelseinstituttet\|date\=3 March 2021\|access\-date\=4 March 2021\|archive\-date\=19 November 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119205120/https://www.fhi.no/contentassets/8a971e7b0a3c4a06bdbf381ab52e6157/vedlegg/2021/ukerapport\-for\-uke\-8\-22\.02\-\-\-28\.02\.21\.pdf}} Another large survey comprising results of both genome sequencing and PCR proxy tests, with a sample seize of more than 1000 tests per week (since week 4\), at the same time found that the variant grew from 2\.0% (week 48\) into dominance by 60\.0% (week 7\), followed by 72\.7% in week 10 \- while only 2\.2% of cases in comparison were found to be of the Beta variant.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.fhi.no/contentassets/8a971e7b0a3c4a06bdbf381ab52e6157/vedlegg/2021/ukerapport\-for\-uke\-10\-08\.03\-\-\-14\.03\.21\.pdf\|title\=COVID\-19 Ukerapport – uke 10, onsdag 17\. mars 2021\|trans\-title\=COVID\-19 weekly report for week 10 (wednesday 17 March 2021\)\|language\=no\|author\=Folkehelseinstituttet\|date\=17 March 2021\|access\-date\=17 March 2021\|archive\-date\=17 March 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210317154422/https://www.fhi.no/contentassets/8a971e7b0a3c4a06bdbf381ab52e6157/vedlegg/2021/ukerapport\-for\-uke\-10\-08\.03\-\-\-14\.03\.21\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}} The variant regionally had its highest share in the county of [Oslo](/wiki/Oslo "Oslo") and [Viken](/wiki/Viken_%28county%29 "Viken (county)"),{{cite web\|url\=https://www.fhi.no/sv/smittsomme\-sykdommer/corona/statistikk\-over\-tilfeller\-av\-koronavirusvarianter/\#forekomst\-av\-engelsk\-koronavirusvariant\|title\=Statistikk over meldte tilfeller av den engelske og den sør\-afrikanske varianten av koronavirus\|trans\-title\=Statistics on reported cases of the English and South African variants of coronavirus\|language\=no\|author\=Folkehelseinstituttet\|date\=26 February 2021\|access\-date\=28 February 2021}} growing from 18% to 90% of analysed samples in Oslo from 20 January to 23 February (although with the data\-corrected estimate a bit lower at 50\-70% on 23 February); while growing from 21% to 80% of analysed samples in Viken from 25 January to 23 February (although with the data\-corrected estimate a bit lower at 50% on 23 February).{{cite web\|url\=https://www.fhi.no/nyheter/2021/engelsk\-virusvariant\-dominerer\-i\-oslo\-og\-viken/\|title\=Engelsk virusvariant dominerer i Oslo og Viken\|trans\-title\=English virus variant dominates in Oslo and Viken\|language\=no\|author\=Folkehelseinstituttet\|date\=27 February 2021\|access\-date\=28 February 2021\|archive\-date\=17 April 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417235139/https://www.fhi.no/nyheter/2021/engelsk\-virusvariant\-dominerer\-i\-oslo\-og\-viken/\|url\-status\=dead}} For the period 15 February to 14 March, the combined survey of genome sequencing and PCR proxy tests, also found the Alpha variant was at a dominant rate over 50% for 8 out of 11 regions, with its highest rate (82%) found for Oslo; while the region [Nordland](/wiki/Nordland "Nordland") was different from all other regions by having only 6% cases of Alpha along with a dominant 88% of cases represented by the Beta variant. In Portugal, the variant represented according to a national genome sequencing survey: 16\.0% of the Covid\-19 infections during 10–19 January (week 2\),{{Cite web\|title\=Diversidade genética do novo coronavírus SARS\-CoV\-2 (COVID\-19\) em Portugal\|trans\-title\=Genetic diversity of the new SARS\-CoV\-2 coronavirus (COVID\-19\) in Portugal\|author\=Instituto Nacional de Saúde (INSA), Doutor Ricardo Jorge\|url\=https://insaflu.insa.pt/covid19/relatorios/INSA\_SARS\_CoV\_2\_DIVERSIDADE\_GENETICA\_relatorio\_situacao\_2021\-02\-05\.pdf\|date\=2021\-02\-05\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-07\|language\=pt}} followed by a dominant 58\.2% in week 6\.{{Cite web\|title\=Diversidade genética do novo coronavírus SARS\-CoV\-2 (COVID\-19\) em Portugal (3 de Março de 2021\)\|trans\-title\=Genetic diversity of the new SARS\-CoV\-2 coronavirus (COVID\-19\) in Portugal (3 March 2021\)\|author\=Instituto Nacional de Saúde (INSA), Doutor Ricardo Jorge\|url\=https://insaflu.insa.pt/covid19/relatorios/INSA\_SARS\_CoV\_2\_DIVERSIDADE\_GENETICA\_relatorio\_situacao\_2021\-03\-03\.pdf\|date\=3 March 2021\|access\-date\=4 March 2021\|language\=pt}} A national RT\-PCR proxy test based on SGTF and SGTL observations, found the variant at a rate of 33\.5% in week 4, but observed afterwards a decelerating pace for the weekly rise of the variant share (reason unknown), and according to this study it only became dominant by 50\.5% {{small\|(91\.8% of 55\.0% SGTFL)}} in week 8, followed by 64\.3% {{small\|(91\.8% of 70% SGTFL)}} in week 10\. In Italy, the Alpha variant accounted for 17\.8% of cases nationwide on 4–5 February (week 5\),{{cite web\|url\=https://www.iss.it/primo\-piano/\-/asset\_publisher/3f4alMwzN1Z7/content/id/5624099?\_com\_liferay\_asset\_publisher\_web\_portlet\_AssetPublisherPortlet\_INSTANCE\_3f4alMwzN1Z7\|title\=Prevalenza della variante VOC 202012/01, lineage B.1\.1\.7 in Italia (Studio di prevalenza 4\-5 febbraio 2021\)\|trans\-title\=Prevalence of the VOC variant 202012/01, lineage B.1\.1\.7 in Italy (Prevalence study February 4–5, 2021\)\|language\=it\|author\=Istituto Superiore di Sanità\|date\=February 15, 2021\|access\-date\=February 17, 2021}} followed by 54\.0% on 18 February (week 7\). The regional prevalence for week 7 ranged from 0% in [Aosta Valley](/wiki/Aosta_Valley "Aosta Valley") (although only one sample was tested) to 93\.3% in [Molise](/wiki/Molise "Molise"). In week 7, the competing [Gamma variant](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Gamma_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Gamma variant") had a prevalence of 4\.3% (ranging between 0%\-36\.2% regionally) and the South African variant a prevalence of 0\.4% (ranging between 0%\-2\.9% regionally).{{cite web\|url\=https://www.iss.it/primo\-piano/\-/asset\_publisher/3f4alMwzN1Z7/content/id/5647546\|title\=CS N° 14/2021 \- In Italia il 54% delle infezioni dovute a 'variante inglese', il 4,3% a quella 'brasiliana' e lo 0,4% a quella 'sudafricana'\|trans\-title\=CS N° 14/2021 \- In Italy 54% of infections due to the 'English variant', 4\.3% to the 'Brazilian' one and 0\.4% to the 'South African' one\|language\=it\|author\=Istituto Superiore di Sanità\|date\=2 March 2021\|access\-date\=5 March 2021}} In Switzerland, a nationwide weekly genome sequencing survey found that the Alpha variant grew from 0\.05% (week 51\) to a dominant 58\.2% of cases in week 8, followed by 71\.1% in week 9\. This was in full accordance with a model from 9 February that had forecast dominance around mid\-February.{{cite web\|url\=https://sciencetaskforce.ch/wissenschaftliches\-update\-09\-februar\-2021/\|title\=Wissenschaftliches update 09 februar 2021\|trans\-title\=Scientific update of 9 February 2021\|language\=de\|publisher\=Swiss National COVID\-19 Task Force\|date\=9 February 2021\|access\-date\=17 February 2021}} In comparison, the competing Beta variant was only found nationwide in 1\.0% of the positive cases in week 9\. In Belgium, genome sequencing of samples selected randomly after excluding all samples from active targeted testing related to local outbreaks or travels (creating a statistical representative national sample with a seize equal to 4\.4% of all COVID\-19 positive tests), found that the Alpha variant share grew from 7\.1% in week 1 to a dominant 51\.5% in week 7, followed by 79\.3% in week 10\.{{Cite web\|title\=Covid\-19 Wekelijks Epidemiologisch Bulletin (19 Maart 2021\)\|trans\-title\=Covid\-19 Weekly Epidemiological Bulletin (19 March 2021\)\|url\=https://covid\-19\.sciensano.be/sites/default/files/Covid19/COVID\-19\_Weekly\_report\_NL.pdf\|author\=Sciensano\|date\=19 March 2021\|access\-date\=19 March 2021\|work\=Moleculaire surveillance van SARS\-CoV\-2 (p.20\-22\)\|language\=nl}} The variant was first time detected by targeted genome sequencing in week 49, but due to a small sample seize (not being random, and less than 100 tests per week) then no reliable variant share data could be determined before week 1\.{{Cite web\|title\=Covid\-19 Wekelijks Epidemiologisch Bulletin (19 Februari 2021\)\|trans\-title\=Covid\-19 Weekly Epidemiological Bulletin (February 19, 2021\)\|url\=http://covid\-19\.sciensano.be/sites/default/files/Covid19/COVID\-19\_Weekly%20report\_20210219%20\-%20NL.pdf\|author\=Sciensano\|date\=19 February 2021\|access\-date\=25 February 2021\|work\=Moleculaire surveillance van SARS\-CoV\-2 (p.21\-24\)\|language\=nl}} The proxy test for the variant (RT\-PCR SGTF) was also conducted for a sample seize equal to 25\.8% of all COVID\-19 positive tests, and found a dominant 54\.8% SGTF rate for week 10\. In comparison, the competing [Beta variant](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Beta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Beta variant") was found to be at 3\.6% and the [Gamma variant](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Gamma_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Gamma variant") had a prevalence of 1\.8% in week 10\. In France, scientists accurately forecast the Alpha variant (VOC\-202012/01\) would likely become dominant nationwide around week 8–11 of 2021\.{{Cite web\|title\=Estimated date of dominance of VOC\-202012/01 strain in France and projected scenarios\|url\=https://www.epicx\-lab.com/uploads/9/6/9/4/9694133/inserm\_covid\-19\-voc\_dominance\-20210116\.pdf\|date\=16 January 2021}} A nationwide survey of randomly selected positive COVID\-19 samples first analysed by a RT\-PCR screening test and subsequently confirmed by genome sequencing, revealed that the variant grew from a share of 3\.3% (388/11916\) on 7–8 January (week 1\){{cite web\|url\=https://www.santepubliquefrance.fr/content/download/315275/2903017\|title\=COVID\-19: Point épidémiologi que hebdomadaire du 28 janvier 2021\|trans\-title\=COVID\-19: Weekly epidemiological update of 28 January 2021\|language\=fr\|author\=Santé Publique France\|date\=January 28, 2021\|access\-date\=February 1, 2021}} to 13\.3% (475/3561\) on 27 January (week 4\),{{cite web\|url\=https://www.santepubliquefrance.fr/content/download/326672/2952356\|title\=COVID\-19: Point épidémiologi que hebdomadaire du 11 mars 2021\|trans\-title\=COVID\-19: Weekly epidemiological update of 11 March 2021\|language\=fr\|author\=Santé Publique France\|date\=11 March 2021\|access\-date\=12 March 2021}} followed by 44\.3% (273/615\) on 16 February (week 7\). In week 8, the variant was found to have a dominant share of 56\.4% (758/1345\) according to the interpretable results of a weekly genome sequencing survey comprising 0\.9% of all COVID\-19 positive tests, or 59\.5% according to a variant\-specific RT\-PCR survey testing 54% of all the COVID\-19 positive tests. In week 10, the variant was found to have a share of 71\.9% according to a variant\-specific RT\-PCR survey testing 56\.9% of all the COVID\-19 positive tests. The spread of the variant differed regionally for the 96 [departments](/wiki/Departments_of_France "Departments of France") located in [Metropolitan France](/wiki/Metropolitan_France "Metropolitan France") for week 10, with 91 departments over 50% and 5 departments with 30%\-50% (of which the [Moselle department](/wiki/Moselle_%28department%29 "Moselle (department)") in particular was notable due to finding a high 38\.3% rate of the competing Beta variant, that \- despite having declined from a dominant 54\.4% value in week 8 \- still was significantly above the 5\.0% national average for this specific variant). In Austria, [Agentur für Gesundheit und Ernährungssicherheit (AGES)](/wiki/w:De:Agentur_f%C3%BCr_Gesundheit_und_Ern%C3%A4hrungssicherheit "De:Agentur für Gesundheit und Ernährungssicherheit") collected data from N501Y RT\-PCR specific tests combined with subsequent genome sequencing analysis, and found that the variant grew from 7\.2% (week 1\) to a dominant 61\.3% (week 8\), followed by 61\.2% in week 9 and 48\.3% in week 10\. If all N501Y positive tests had been analysed further by genome sequencing, then these listed shares could have been even higher, for example they could have been as mcuh as: 2\.4% higher for week 1, 23\.0% higher for week 7, 4\.0% higher for week 8, 6\.8% higher for week 9 and 25\.4% higher for week 10\. The competing Beta variant was only found nationwide in 0\.3% of the positive cases in week 10, and for the region [Tyrol](/wiki/Tyrol_%28state%29 "Tyrol (state)") \- where it had been most prevalent \- its share declined from 24\.5% in week 4 to just 1\.9% in week 10\. Regionally Alpha was found to be dominant with over 50% for 7 out of [9 regions](/wiki/States_of_Austria "States of Austria"), with the only two exceptions being Tyrol and [Vorarlberg](/wiki/Vorarlberg "Vorarlberg"). In Germany, the largest and probably most representative national survey published by the [Robert Koch Institute](/wiki/Robert_Koch_Institute "Robert Koch Institute") (entitled *RKI\-Testzahlerfassung*), determined the share of circulating COVID\-19 variants for the latest week by analysing 53,272 COVID\-19 positive samples either by genome sequencing or RT\-PCR proxy tests, with data collected on a voluntary basis from 84 laboratories from the university / research / clinical / outpatient sector \- spread evenly across the nation. The survey did not utilize data weights or data selection criteria to ensure existence of geographical representativity, but might still be regarded as somewhat representative for the national average due to its big sample seize. According to the *RKI\-Testzahlerfassung* survey, the variant grew from a share of 2\.0% (week 2\) to a dominant share of 54\.5% (week 9\), followed by 63\.5% in week 10\. In comparison, the competing Beta variant was only found nationwide in 0\.9% of the positive cases in week 10\. In Malta, the variant was first time detected by genome sequencing on 30 December 2020, and represented 8% of the positive cases in week 7\.{{cite web\|title\=COVID\-19: Bars and band clubs to remain shut in March, Chris Fearne says\|url\=https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/national/107931/covid19\_bars\_and\_band\_clubs\_to\_remain\_shut\_in\_march\_chris\_fearne\_says\#.YEyAfGhKjb0\|publisher\=Malta Today\|author\=Laura Calleja\|date\=24 February 2021\|access\-date\=13 March 2021}} A new RT\-PCR variant specific test was introduced for the surveillance,{{cite web\|title\=Malta to get new swab tests which can identify Covid\-19 variants\|url\=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2021\-03\-04/local\-news/Malta\-to\-get\-new\-swab\-tests\-which\-can\-identify\-Covid\-19\-variants\-6736231533\|publisher\=Malta Independent\|date\=4 March 2021\|access\-date\=13 March 2021}} where the first results reported on 10 March revealed the variant now represented 61% of cases nationwide.{{Cite web\|title\=UK virus variant detected in 60 per cent of new COVID cases\|url\=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/uk\-virus\-variant\-detected\-in\-60\-per\-cent\-of\-new\-covid\-cases.857197\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-10\|author\=Claire Farrugia\|publisher\=Times of Malta\|date\=10 March 2021\|language\=en\-gb}} In Sweden, the national authorities initially expected the variant would become dominant around week 12–14 under the assumption of 50% increased transmissibility compared to the original virus.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.folkhalsomyndigheten.se/publicerat\-material/publikationsarkiv/s/scenario\-for\-fortsatt\-spridning\-\-delrapport\-2/\|title\=Scenarier för fortsatt spridning – interimsrapport\|trans\-title\=Scenarios for continued dissemination \- interim report\|language\=sv\|author\=Folkhälsomyndigheten\|date\=February 4, 2021\|access\-date\=February 8, 2021}} In average, the variant share was found growing from 10\.8% (week 4\) to 36\.9% (week 7\) across five of its southern regions ([Skåne](/wiki/Sk%C3%A5ne_County "Skåne County"), [Västra Götaland](/wiki/V%C3%A4stra_G%C3%B6taland_County "Västra Götaland County"), [Västmanland](/wiki/V%C3%A4stmanland_County "Västmanland County"), [Gävleborg](/wiki/G%C3%A4vleborg_County "Gävleborg County") and [Örebro](/wiki/%C3%96rebro_County "Örebro County")).{{cite web\|url\=https://www.folkhalsomyndigheten.se/smittskydd\-beredskap/utbrott/aktuella\-utbrott/covid\-19/statistik\-och\-analyser/sars\-cov\-2\-virusvarianter\-av\-sarskild\-betydelse/tidigare\-statistik/vecka\-8\-2021/\|title\=Publicerad statistik för SARS\-CoV\-2 virusvarianter av särskild betydelse under vecka 8 2021\|trans\-title\=Statistics on SARS\-CoV\-2 Variants Of Concern for week 8 2021\|language\=sv\|publisher\=Folkhälsomyndigheten\|date\=15 March 2021\|access\-date\=15 March 2021\|archive\-date\=11 October 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011072628/https://www.folkhalsomyndigheten.se/smittskydd\-beredskap/utbrott/aktuella\-utbrott/covid\-19/statistik\-och\-analyser/sars\-cov\-2\-virusvarianter\-av\-sarskild\-betydelse/tidigare\-statistik/vecka\-8\-2021/}} For week 7, the share of the variant was for the first time also calculated to 30\.4% as the overall average for 19 out of 21 [Swedish regions](/wiki/Counties_of_Sweden "Counties of Sweden") (ranging from 3\.3% in [Blekinge](/wiki/Blekinge_County "Blekinge County") to 45% in Gävleborg). For week 9, the share of the variant was calculated to a dominant 56\.4% as the overall average for the 19 regions (ranging from 16% in [Kronoberg](/wiki/Kronoberg_County "Kronoberg County") to 72% in Gävleborg). For week 10, the share of the variant was calculated to have increased further to 71\.3% as the overall average for the 19 regions (ranging from 40% in [Kronoberg](/wiki/Kronoberg_County "Kronoberg County") to 84% in [Jönköping](/wiki/J%C3%B6nk%C3%B6ping_County "Jönköping County")). Although no geographical weights were applied to ensure geographical representativity for the calculated average for the 19 regions, the overall sample seize of 12,417 variant tests represented 43\.1% of all COVID\-19 positive PCR\-tests for week 10, inferring that the result of the survey might be close to represent the actual true average for the nation as a whole. In the [microstate](/wiki/Microstate "Microstate") [Liechtenstein](/wiki/Liechtenstein "Liechtenstein"), the first case of Alpha was detected on 19 December 2020\. During the entire pandemic, 67 VOC\-N501Y PCR\-positive cases were detected comprising 58 cases of Alpha, 1 of Beta (detected 1 February) and 8 un\-identified N501Y cases (from 10 Dec. to 22 Feb.), as of 18 March 2021\. The weekly average of each days calculated 7\-day rolling average for the share of all detected VOC\-N501Y cases (which is a good proxy for Alpha in Liechtenstein), was found to be 10\.9% in week 5, followed by a dominant 52\.2% in week 9 (where 8 out of 15 tests were found to be Alpha); and grew further to 73\.4% in week 10 (where 6 out of 9 tests were found to be Alpha).{{cite web\|url\=https://www.covid19\.admin.ch/en/epidemiologic/virus\-variants?detTime\=phase2b\&detGeo\=FL\|title\=COVID\-⁠19 Switzerland Information on the current situation, as of 18 March 2021: Key figures, Liechtenstein\|publisher\=\[\[Federal Office of Public Health]]\|work\=Download data: Data as .csv file.\|date\=18 March 2021\|access\-date\=18 March 2021}} In Spain, the variant share was estimated nationwide to be 5%\-10% of cases on 29 January,{{Cite web\|title\=Spanish Health Ministry estimates British variant accounts for up to 10% of positives in Spain\|url\=https://murciatoday.com/spanish\_health\_ministry\_estimates\_british\_variant\_accounts\_for\_up\_to\_10\_of\_positives\_in\_spain\_1555209\-a.html\|date\=30 January 2021\|access\-date\=3 February 2021\|website\=murciatoday.com}} followed by 20%\-25% of cases on 18 February{{Cite web\|title\=La variante británica representa ya el 20% de los casos en España\|trans\-title\=The British variant already represents 20% of cases in Spain\|author\=Alvaro Soto\|url\=https://www.msn.com/es\-es/noticias/espana/la\-variante\-brit%C3%A1nica\-representa\-ya\-el\-20percent\-de\-los\-casos\-en\-espa%C3%B1a/ar\-BB1dNIzt\|language\=es\|date\=18 February 2021\|access\-date\=22 February 2021\|website\=msn.com}}{{Cite web\|title\=Autoridades sanitarias afirmaron que la cepa británica circula "ampliamente" en España\|trans\-title\=Health authorities affirmed that the British strain circulates "widely" in Spain\|url\=https://www.telam.com.ar/notas/202102/544987\-espana\-coronavirus\-cepa\-britanica.html\|publisher\=Télam\|language\=es\|date\=18 February 2021\|access\-date\=17 March 2021}} and 25%\-30% of cases on 22 February,{{Cite web\|title\=Detectadas en España las nuevas variantes nigeriana y de Río de Janeiro del coronavirus\|trans\-title\=The new Nigerian and Rio de Janeiro variants of the coronavirus detected in Spain\|author\=Manuel Vilaseró\|url\=https://www.elperiodico.com/es/sociedad/20210222/sanidad\-alerta\-cuatro\-nuevas\-variantes\-coronavirus\-covid\-11537278\|language\=es\|date\=22 February 2021\|access\-date\=1 March 2021}} and estimated to be dominant with over 50% as of 3 March (week 9\).{{Cite web\|title\=Darias: "La variante británica ya es la dominante en España"\|trans\-title\=Darias: "The British variant is already the dominant one in Spain"\|author\=Miguel Hidalgo Pérez\|url\=https://www.niusdiario.es/sociedad/sanidad/darias\-variante\-britanica\-ya\-es\-dominante\-espana\_18\_3100395333\.html\|language\=es\|date\=3 March 2021\|access\-date\=17 March 2021}} As of week 10, the prevalence of the variant ranged from 18\.3% to 97\.0% for the [17 regions](/wiki/Autonomous_communities_of_Spain "Autonomous communities of Spain"), with all but two regions having a dominant rate above 50%:{{cite web\|url\=https://www.mscbs.gob.es/profesionales/saludPublica/ccayes/alertasActual/nCov/documentos/COVID19\_Actualizacion\_variantes\_20210318\.pdf\|title\=Actualización de la situación epidemiológica de las variantes de importancia en salud pública en España (18 de marzo de 2021\)\|trans\-title\=Update of the epidemiological situation of Variants of Importance in Public Health in Spain (18 March 2021\)\|language\=es\|publisher\=Ministerio de Sanidad, Consumo y Bienestar Social\|date\=18 March 2021\|access\-date\=18 March 2021}} * No data reported by [Extremadura](/wiki/Extremadura "Extremadura"). * 18\.3% for week 10 in [Aragon](/wiki/Aragon "Aragon"). * 27\.0% for week 7 in [Canary Islands](/wiki/Canary_Islands "Canary Islands"). * 51\.3% for week 8 in [Castile and León](/wiki/Castile_and_Le%C3%B3n "Castile and León"). * 52\.2% for week 10 in [Valencia](/wiki/Valencian_Community "Valencian Community"). * 52\.8% for week 10 in [Castilla–La Mancha](/wiki/Castilla%E2%80%93La_Mancha "Castilla–La Mancha"). * 53\.3% for week 4 in [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Spain%29 "Galicia (Spain)"). * 59\.5% for week 9 in [La Rioja](/wiki/La_Rioja "La Rioja"). * 59\.7% for week 10 in [Madrid](/wiki/Community_of_Madrid "Community of Madrid"). * 61\.6% for week 11 in [Andalusia](/wiki/Andalusia "Andalusia"). * 76\.1% for week 10 in [Balearic Islands](/wiki/Balearic_Islands "Balearic Islands"). * 76\.7% for week 10 in [Murcia](/wiki/Region_of_Murcia "Region of Murcia"). * 77\.4% for week 10 in [Basque Country](/wiki/Basque_Country_%28autonomous_community%29 "Basque Country (autonomous community)"). * 77\.8% for week 10 in [Navarre](/wiki/Navarre "Navarre"). * 83\.1% for week 10 in [Cantabria](/wiki/Cantabria "Cantabria"). * 84\.6% for week 9 in [Catalonia](/wiki/Catalonia "Catalonia"). * 97\.0% for week 10 in [Asturias](/wiki/Asturias "Asturias"). In Poland, a national survey among infected teachers led to experts estimating that the variant share was between 5% and 10% nationwide as of 11 February,{{cite web\|url\=https://www.medonet.pl/koronawirus/koronawirus\-w\-polsce,brytyjski\-wariant\-koronawirusa\-w\-polsce\-\-ile\-jest\-zakazen\-\-jaka\-jest\-skala\-,artykul,67482636\.html\|title\=Brytyjski wariant koronawirusa \- jaka jest skala jego obecności w Polsce?\|trans\-title\=British variant of the coronavirus \- what is the scale of its presence in Poland?\|language\=pl\|publisher\=Medonet\|author\=Adrian Dabek\|date\=February 11, 2021\|access\-date\=February 17, 2021}} while [ECDC](/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control "European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control") reported it to be 9% as of 15 February.{{Cite web\|author\=European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control\|date\=15 February 2021\|title\=Rapid Risk Assessment: SARS\-CoV\-2 increased circulation of variants of concern and vaccine rollout in the EU/EEA, 14th update, 15 February 2021\|url\=https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/RRA\-covid\-19\-14th\-update\-15\-feb\-2021\.pdf\|access\-date\=18 February 2021\|website\=www.ecdc.europa.eu}} According to Health minister [Adam Niedzielski](/wiki/Adam_Niedzielski "Adam Niedzielski"), the variant was found at a rate of 5% in the first studies from the second half of January, and then it increased by ten percentage points every ten days, until it became dominant nationwide by a 52% rate on 16 March (week 11\).{{Cite web\|title\=Od 20 marca w całej Polsce obowiązują rozszerzone zasady bezpieczeństwa\|trans\-title\=From March 20, extended safety rules apply throughout Poland\|url\=https://www.gov.pl/web/koronawirus/od\-20\-marca\-w\-calej\-polsce\-obowiazuja\-rozszerzone\-zasady\-bezpieczenstwa\|date\=17 March 2021\|access\-date\=17 March 2021\|website\=gov.pl\|publisher\=Government of Poland\|language\=pl}}{{Cite web\|title\=Nowe obostrzenia w calym kraju od 20 marca do 9 kwietnia\|trans\-title\=New restrictions nationwide from March 20 to April 9\|url\=https://www.pap.pl/aktualnosci/news%2C835182%2Cnowe\-obostrzenia\-w\-calym\-kraju\-od\-20\-marca\-do\-9\-kwietnia.html\|date\=17 March 2021\|access\-date\=17 March 2021\|website\=pap.pl\|publisher\=Polska Agencja Prasowa \|author\=Sylwia Dabkowska\-Pozyczka \|author2\=Edyta Ros \|author3\=Wiktoria Nicalek \|author4\=Karol Kostrzewa \|author5\=Aleksandra Rebelinska \|language\=pl}} Regionally, the variant had already exceeded 70% for [Warmian\-Masurian](/wiki/Warmian-Masurian_Voivodeship "Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship") and [Pomeranian](/wiki/Pomeranian_Voivodeship "Pomeranian Voivodeship") on 22–23 February (week 8\),{{Cite web\|title\=Brytyjski wariant koronawirusa może dominować na Pomorzu\|trans\-title\=The British variant of the coronavirus may be dominant in Pomerania\|url\=https://www.trojmiasto.pl/wiadomosci/Brytyjski\-wariant\-koronawirusa\-moze\-dominowac\-na\-Pomorzu\-n153727\.html\|date\=2 March 2021\|access\-date\=17 March 2021\|author\=Piotr Kallalas\|website\=trojmiasto.pl\|language\=pl}} and even reached 90% for the [Greater Poland Voivodeship](/wiki/Greater_Poland_Voivodeship "Greater Poland Voivodeship") on 17 March (week 11\).{{Cite web\|title\=Koronawirus. Brytyjski wariant w Wielkopolsce. Najnowsze dane\|trans\-title\=Coronavirus. British variant in Greater Poland. Latest data\|url\=https://wiadomosci.onet.pl/poznan/koronawirus\-brytyjski\-wariant\-w\-wielkopolsce\-najnowsze\-dane/e8p00pr\|date\=17 March 2021\|access\-date\=17 March 2021\|website\=Onet.pl\|language\=pl}} In Finland, no statistical representative national survey had been conducted as of February 2021, as the national genome sequencing mainly targeted further analysis of COVID\-19 positive samples from travellers and local outbreak clusters.{{cite web\|url\=https://thl.fi/documents/533976/5918974/Separat\+%C3%B6versikt.\+Uppf%C3%B6ljning\+av\+muterade\+coronavirus\+17\.2\.2021\.pdf/2c117f25\-1234\-946e\-e296\-8faf1d223036?t\=1614079899907\|title\=Uppföljning av hybridstrategin för covid\-19\-epidemin: Separat översikt, varierande tema (Uppföljning av muterade coronavirus 17\.2\.2021\)\|trans\-title\=Follow\-up of the hybrid strategy for the COVID\-19 epidemic: Separate overview, varying theme (Follow\-up of mutated coronavirus 17\.2\.2021\)\|language\=sv\|author\=Finish Institute for Health and Welfare, TLH\|date\=17 February 2021\|access\-date\=2 March 2021\|archive\-date\=14 July 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714020823/https://thl.fi/documents/533976/5918974/Separat\+%C3%B6versikt.\+Uppf%C3%B6ljning\+av\+muterade\+coronavirus\+17\.2\.2021\.pdf/2c117f25\-1234\-946e\-e296\-8faf1d223036?t\=1614079899907\|url\-status\=dead}} Helsinky University Hospital (HUS), operating in the [Helsinki and Uusimaa Hospital District](/wiki/List_of_hospitals_in_Finland%23Helsinki_and_Uusimaa_Hospital_District "List of hospitals in Finland#Helsinki and Uusimaa Hospital District"), found the variant in 10% of all samples collected randomly during a few days ahead of 14 February in the capitol region (also known as the [Helsinky constituency and Uusimaa constituency](/wiki/Constituencies_of_Finland "Constituencies of Finland")). For the capitol region, the variant was modelled to become dominant (over 50%) in the second half of March (week 11\-13\).{{cite web\|url\=https://yle.fi/uutiset/osasto/news/uk\_covid\_variant\_spreading\_in\_finland/11789703\|title\=UK Covid variant spreading in Finland\|publisher\=Yle\|date\=14 February 2021\|access\-date\=2 March 2021}} In [Iceland](/wiki/Iceland "Iceland"), the national authorities implemented a strict 3 test and quarantine regime for all persons entering the country from abroad, that so far successfully managed to prevent new infectious VOCs from gaining a foothold in the country. As of 4 March, a total of 90 travellers had tested positive for the Alpha variant at Iceland's borders and the 20 additional domestic cases were all closely connected to the border cases, with no cases related to community transmission.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.icelandreview.com/society/covid\-19\-in\-iceland\-south\-african\-variant\-detected\-at\-border/\|title\=COVID\-19 in Iceland: South African Variant Detected at Border\|author\=Jelena Ćirić\|publisher\=Iceland Review\|date\=4 March 2021\|access\-date\=13 March 2021}} ### Spread in North America In the United States, the variant first appeared late November 2020,{{Cite medRxiv \|vauthors\=Washington NL, Gangvarapu K, et al. \|title\=Genomic epidemiology identifies emergence and rapid transmission of SARS\-CoV\-2 B.1\.1\.7 in the United States \|date\=7 February 2021 \|medrxiv\=10\.1101/2021\.02\.06\.21251159v1}} grew from 1\.2% in late January and became predominant around the end of March.{{Cite web\|last\=CDC\|date\=2020\-03\-28\|title\=COVID Data Tracker\|url\=https://covid.cdc.gov/covid\-data\-tracker\|access\-date\=2021\-04\-30\|website\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\|language\=en}}{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Galloway SE, Paul P, et al. \|title\=Emergence of SARS\-CoV\-2 B.1\.1\.7 Lineage — United States, December 29, 2020–January 12, 2021 \|journal\=Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report \|date\=22 January 2021 \|volume\=70 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=95–99 \|doi\=10\.15585/mmwr.mm7003e2 \|pmid\=33476315 \|pmc\=7821772 }}The spread of the variant was primarily concentrated in the upper [Midwest](/wiki/Midwestern_United_States "Midwestern United States") of the country, especially the states of [Michigan](/wiki/Michigan "Michigan") and [Minnesota](/wiki/Minnesota "Minnesota"), but it failed to spread in high concentrations to other parts of the country.{{cite news\|title\=More Covid Mysteries\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/30/briefing/coronavirus\-delta\-mysteries.html\|website\=New York Times\|date\=30 July 2021\|language\=en}} In Canada, the variant first appeared in [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario "Ontario") late December 2020\.{{cite news \|url\=https://globalnews.ca/news/7543498/uk\-coronavirus\-variant\-first\-cases\-canada\-ontario/ \|title\=Canada reports first cases of U.K. coronavirus variant. Here's what you need to know \|last\=Aziz \|first\=Saba \|work\=\[\[Global News]] \|date\=2020\-12\-27 \|access\-date\=2021\-02\-14}} By 13 February, it had spread to all ten provinces.{{cite news \|url\=https://thestarphoenix.com/news/national/contagious\-variant\-of\-covid\-19\-now\-identified\-in\-all\-10\-provinces/wcm/f09cf0c8\-4095\-491f\-8d16\-1f58ee824406 \|title\=Contagious variant of COVID\-19 now identified in all 10 provinces \|last\=Thompson \|first\=Nicole \|work\=\[\[The StarPhoenix]] \|agency\=\[\[The Canadian Press]] \|date\=2021\-02\-13 \|access\-date\=2021\-02\-14}} Testing and confirmation of the Alpha variant (lineage B.1\.1\.7\) in COVID\-19\-positive samples has been inconsistent across the country.{{Cite news\|title\=Why Alberta has identified more variant cases but they're believed to be more prevalent in Ontario {{!}} CBC News\|language\=en\-US\|work\=CBC\|url\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/alberta\-ontario\-covid\-19\-variants\-interprovincial\-1\.5960517\|access\-date\=2021\-04\-01}} On 3 February, the province of [Alberta](/wiki/Alberta "Alberta") was the first to screen all COVID\-19 positive samples for variants of concern.{{Cite web\|title\=SARS\-CoV\-2 Variants of Concern\|url\=https://www.albertahealthservices.ca/assets/wf/lab/if\-lab\-hp\-bulletin\-sars\-cov\-2\-variants\-of\-concern.pdf\|website\=Alberta Health Services}} As of 23 March, the Alpha variant had been detected in 5812 cases, and was most prevalent in the province of [Alberta](/wiki/Alberta "Alberta").{{cite web\|title\=Variants of Concern (VOC) in Canada\|date\=19 April 2020\|url\=https://health\-infobase.canada.ca/covid\-19/epidemiological\-summary\-covid\-19\-cases.html\#VOC\|access\-date\=24 March 2021\|publisher\=Government of Canada}} In Ontario, a combined RT\-PCR (N501Y) and genome sequencing study found that all VOCs represented 4\.4% of all COVID\-19 positives on 20 January (week 3\), and that Alpha comprised 99% of all those VOCs.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.publichealthontario.ca/\-/media/documents/ncov/voc/2021/02/sars\-cov\-2\-variants\-point\-prevalence.pdf?la\=en\|title\=SARS\-CoV\-2 Variants of Concern: Results of Point Prevalence Study\|publisher\=Public Health Ontario\|date\=12 February 2021\|access\-date\=13 March 2021}} [Public Health Ontario](/wiki/Public_Health_Ontario "Public Health Ontario") laboratories found the variant in close to 7% of all COVID\-19 positives in week 5, representing 97% (309/319\) of all detected VOCs.{{cite web\|url\=https://globalnews.ca/video/7644127/coronavirus\-ontario\-health\-official\-says\-approximately\-7\-of\-screened\-cases\-are\-due\-to\-variants\-in\-province\|title\=Coronavirus: Ontario health official says approximately 7% of screened cases are due to variants in province\|publisher\=Global News\|author\=Barbara Yaffe\|date\=16 February 2021\|access\-date\=13 March 2021}} Alpha became the dominant variant on or around 16 March; 53% of all positive cases were VOCs, and it was presumed 97% of VOCs were Alpha.{{cite web\|url\=https://covid19\-sciencetable.ca/ontario\-dashboard/\|title\=Ontario Dashboard: Unmasking the New Variants of Concern\|publisher\=Ontario COVID\-19 Science Advisory Table\|date\=16 March 2021\|access\-date\=16 March 2021\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210317110549/https://covid19\-sciencetable.ca/ontario\-dashboard/\|archive\-date\=17 March 2021}} In [Quebec](/wiki/Quebec "Quebec"), where the variant was also widespread, it was expected to become dominant by late March or in April.{{cite web\|url\=https://globalnews.ca/news/7645512/covid\-19\-quebec\-coronavirus\-variants\-inspq/\|title\=More contagious COVID\-19 variant could become dominant strain in Montreal by March: INSPQ\|publisher\=Global News\|author\=Kalina Laframboise\|date\=17 February 2021\|access\-date\=13 March 2021}} ### Development | Development of the Alpha variant (lineage B.1\.1\.7\){{small\|(share of analysed SARS\-CoV\-2–positive tests in a given week)}} | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Country | Test | {{small\|2020 Week 42}} | {{small\|Week 43}} | {{small\|Week 44}} | {{small\|Week 45}} | {{small\|Week 46}} | {{small\|Week 47}} | {{small\|Week 48}} | {{small\|Week 49}} | {{small\|Week 50}} | {{small\|Week 51}} | {{small\|Week 52}} | {{small\|Week 53}} | {{small\|2021 Week 1}} | {{small\|Week 2}} | {{small\|Week 3}} | {{small\|Week 4}} | {{small\|Week 5}} | {{small\|Week 6}} | {{small\|Week 7}} | {{small\|Week 8}} | {{small\|Week 9}} | {{small\|Week 10}} | | [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") | {{small\|\[\[Whole genome sequencing\|Seq.]]{{Cite web \|website\=IBZ Shiny \|date\=January 2021\|title\=SARS\-CoV\-2 Variants of Concern in Switzerland \|url\=https://ibz\-shiny.ethz.ch/covidDashboard/variant\-plot/index.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210217105616/https://ibz\-shiny.ethz.ch/covidDashboard/variant\-plot/index.html \|archive\-date\=2021\-02\-17 \|url\-status\=deviated \|access\-date\=18 February 2021}}}} | 0\.05% | 0\.35% | 1\.0% | 2\.7% | 6\.3% | 10\.2% | 10\.2% | 13\.9% | 32\.9% | 45\.7% | **51\.3%** | **70\.6%** | **74\.1%** | **78\.6%** | **86\.0%** | **89\.1%** | **–** | **–** | **–** | **–** | **–** | **–** | | *[England](/wiki/England "England")* | {{small\|SGTF{{Cite web\|author\=Public Health England\|date\=11 March 2021\|title\=Investigation of SARS\-CoV\-2 variants of concern in England: Technical briefing 7\|work\=Weekly number and proportion of England Pillar 2 COVID\-19 cases with SGTF (Figure 10\)\|url\=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\_data/file/968581/Variants\_of\_Concern\_VOC\_Technical\_Briefing\_7\_England.pdf\|access\-date\=12 March 2021}}\*Seq.%{{Cite web\|author\=Public Health England\|date\=13 February 2021\|title\=Investigation of SARS\-CoV\-2 variants of concern in England: Technical briefing 6\|work\=Percentage of Pillar 2 Δ69\-70 sequences that are VOC 202012/01 (Table 7\), with a value of 100% since week 4 in 2021\. \|url\=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\_data/file/961299/Variants\_of\_Concern\_VOC\_Technical\_Briefing\_6\_England\-1\.pdf\|access\-date\=14 February 2021}}}} {{small\|Seq.{{Cite web\|author\=Public Health England\|date\=2021\-02\-01\|title\=Investigation of novel SARS\-CoV\-2 variant: 202012/01\. Technical briefing 5 data\|work\=Data report \-"Figure 1", shows the weekly percentage of all genome sequenced VOC202012/01 by adding the SGTF\+Kent share with the Not SGTF\+Kent share. The report use the word "Kent" as the abbreviated nickname for VOC202012/01\.\|url\=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/investigation\-of\-novel\-sars\-cov\-2\-variant\-variant\-of\-concern\-20201201\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-05}} {{OGL\-attribution\|version\=3\.0}}}}{{small\|SGTF{{nbsp}}rawdata{{efn\|name\=InfectionSurvey}}}}{{small\|SGTF{{nbsp}}model{{efn\|name\=InfectionSurvey}}}} | 0\.07% {{small\|(0\.02%)(N/A)(N/A)}} | 0\.4% {{small\|(0\.5%)(N/A)(N/A)}} | 0\.9% {{small\|(1\.2%)(N/A)(N/A)}} | 2\.9% {{small\|(1\.5%)(N/A)(N/A)}} | 5\.5% {{small\|(5\.3%)(N/A)(N/A)}} | 9\.1% {{small\|(7\.8%)(15\.2%)(m:13\.3%)}} | 18\.0% {{small\|(11\.4%)(24\.3%)(m:15\.9%)}} | 32\.2% {{small\|(22\.1%)(36\.8%)(m:22\.0%)}} | **51\.8%** {{small\|(38\.1%)(49\.3%)(m:32\.1%)}} | **63\.7%** {{small\|'''(61\.8%)(60\.7%)(m:57\.2%)'''}} | **72\.4%** {{small\|'''(62\.1%)(72\.1%)(m:68\.9%)'''}} | **77\.9%** {{small\|'''(78\.4%)(75\.0%)(m:74\.0%)'''}} | **82\.1%** {{small\|'''(76\.7%)(80\.7%)(m:78\.3%)'''}} | **87\.5%** {{small\|'''(79\.7%)(83\.3%)(m:82\.1%)'''}} | **90\.6%** {{small\|'''(–)(88\.2%)(m:86\.0%)'''}} | **93\.8%** {{small\|'''(–)(87\.7%)(m:89\.3%)'''}} | **95\.7%** {{small\|'''(–)(93\.4%)(m:92\.5%)'''}} | **97\.4%** {{small\|'''(–)(95\.3%)(m:94\.5%)'''}} | **98\.1%** {{small\|'''(–)(97\.0%)(m:95\.4%)'''}} | **98\.6%** {{small\|'''(–)(95\.6%)(m:95\.5%)'''}} | **98\.7%** {{small\|'''(–)(94\.2%)(m:95\.2%)'''}} | **–** {{small\|'''(–)(96\.1%)(m:94\.1%)'''}} | | *[Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland")* | {{small\|SGTF{{nbsp}}rawdata{{efn\|name\=InfectionSurvey}}}}{{small\|SGTF{{nbsp}}model{{efn\|name\=InfectionSurvey}}}} | {{small\|N/A}} | {{small\|N/A}} | {{small\|N/A}} | {{small\|N/A}} | {{small\|N/A}} | 17\.9%{{small\|(m:14\.0%)}} | 7\.4%{{small\|(m:14\.9%)}} | 37\.5%{{small\|(m:16\.3%)}} | 23\.0%{{small\|(m:18\.5%)}} | 50\.0%{{small\|(m:36\.1%)}} | 25\.0%{{small\|(m:42\.1%)}} | **58\.8%**{{small\|(m:44\.7%)}} | 45\.2%{{small\|'''(m:52\.7%)'''}} | **71\.4%{{small\|(m:67\.0%)}}** | **78\.2%{{small\|(m:74\.0%)}}** | **72\.4%{{small\|(m:81\.4%)}}** | **95\.7%{{small\|(m:86\.5%)}}** | **88\.9%{{small\|(m:90\.5%)}}** | **92\.2%{{small\|(m:92\.4%)}}** | **100\.0%{{small\|(m:93\.0%)}}** | **86\.2%{{small\|(m:92\.6%)}}** | **100\.0%{{small\|(m:91\.1%)}}** | | *[Scotland](/wiki/Scotland "Scotland")* | {{small\|SGTF{{nbsp}}rawdata{{efn\|name\=InfectionSurvey\|The weekly UK infection survey lists for each country in Great Britain a set of raw data and average\-smoothed modelled data from SGTF analysed PCR tests collected from private households (excl. tests from hospitals, care centres and public institutions). Raw data as well as model data for Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland must be treated with caution due to a small number of collected samples, resulting in great data uncertainty.{{Cite web\|author\=Public Health England\|date\=19 March 2021\|title\=Dataset: Coronavirus (COVID\-19\) Infection Survey\|work\=Table 6A: Percentage and Cycle threshold (Ct) values of COVID\-19 cases, UK. Table 6C: New UK variant compatible, not compatible with new UK variant and virus too low for variant to be identifiable positives modelled daily estimates, UK.\|url\=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/healthandsocialcare/conditionsanddiseases/datasets/coronaviruscovid19infectionsurveydata\|access\-date\=19 March 2021}} {{OGL\-attribution\|version\=3\.0}}{{Cite web\|author\=Public Health England\|date\=19 March 2021\|title\=Coronavirus (COVID\-19\) Infection Survey, UK: 19 March 2021\|url\=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/healthandsocialcare/conditionsanddiseases/bulletins/coronaviruscovid19infectionsurveypilot/19march2021\#percentage\-of\-those\-testing\-positive\-compatible\-with\-the\-uk\-variant\|access\-date\=19 March 2021}} {{OGL\-attribution\|version\=3\.0}} \* All PCR tests were analysed for 3 genes present in the coronavirus: N protein, S protein and ORF1ab (see Table 6A in the Infection Survey). Each PCR test can have any one, any two or all three genes detected. Coronavirus positives are those where one or more of these genes is detected in the swab (other than tests that are only positive on the S\-gene which is not considered a reliable indicator of the virus if found on its own). The new B.1\.1\.7 variant of COVID\-19 has genetic changes in the S gene, that results in the S\-gene no longer being detected in the current test, meaning that it will only be positive on the ORF1ab and the N gene. The survey uses the terms ''"New UK variant compatible"'' for ORF1ab \+ N protein gene positives, ''"not compatible with new UK variant"'' for ORF1ab \+ N protein \+ S protein gene positive, and ''"virus too low to be identifiable"'' for all other gene patterns (a reasonable definition given that all samples taken from the first phase of the COVID\-19 disease where virus exist by identifiable quantity, either will be positive by "ORF1ab\+N" or "ORF1ab\+N\+S"). However, further uncertainty exists given that not all "New UK variant compatible" SGTF cases (positive on ORF1ab and N\-genes, but not the S\-gene) will be the new UK variant \- due to some other competing variants also delivering this same test pattern; and prior to mid\-November 2020 the data should not be read as being an indicator of the variant at all. \* The weekly B.1\.1\.7 variant share raw data is calculated from Table 6A, by dividing the "ORF1ab\+N" percentage with the percentage sum of "ORF1ab\+N" and "ORF1ab\+N\+S". Table 6C utilized the raw data from table 6A as input for calculation of some modelled (average\-smoothed and weighted) daily estimated figures for the respective percentage of the population being coronavirus positive by either the ''"New UK variant compatible virus"'', or a ''"Not compatible with new UK variant virus"'' or a ''"virus too low to be identifiable"'', with data from earlier dates in 2020 also being available when downloading the published earlier editions of the Infection Survey. The modelled weekly average value for the Alpha variant, noted in this table as the value (m: %), is calculated as the average for the listed seven days in each week of ''"New UK variant compatible percentage"'' divided by the sum of ''"New UK variant compatible percentage"'' and ''"Not compatible with new UK variant percentage"''.}}}}{{small\|SGTF{{nbsp}}model{{efn\|name\=InfectionSurvey}}}} | {{small\|N/A}} | {{small\|N/A}} | {{small\|N/A}} | {{small\|N/A}} | {{small\|N/A}} | 9\.5%{{small\|(m:5\.8%)}} | 9\.7%{{small\|(m:6\.7%)}} | 10\.4%{{small\|(m:7\.7%)}} | 11\.7%{{small\|(m:10\.2%)}} | 51\.4%{{small\|(m:26\.2%)}} | 40\.0%{{small\|(m:39\.5%)}} | 35\.8%{{small\|(m:43\.9%)}} | **64\.1%**{{small\|(m:49\.8%)}} | **67\.2%{{small\|(m:64\.2%)}}** | **63\.3%{{small\|(m:65\.0%)}}** | **69\.2%{{small\|(m:70\.0%)}}** | **70\.6%{{small\|(m:77\.3%)}}** | **93\.9%{{small\|(m:84\.7%)}}** | **82\.0%{{small\|(m:90\.0%)}}** | **100\.0%{{small\|(m:93\.7%)}}** | **93\.0%{{small\|(m:95\.8%)}}** | **100\.0%{{small\|(m:96\.9%)}}** | | *[Wales](/wiki/Wales "Wales")* | {{small\|SGTF{{nbsp}}rawdata{{efn\|name\=InfectionSurvey}}}}{{small\|SGTF{{nbsp}}model{{efn\|name\=InfectionSurvey}}}} | {{small\|N/A}} | {{small\|N/A}} | {{small\|N/A}} | {{small\|N/A}} | {{small\|N/A}} | 27\.9%{{small\|(m:18\.1%)}} | 8\.3%{{small\|(m:16\.0%)}} | 10\.7%{{small\|(m:13\.3%)}} | 26\.3%{{small\|(m:12\.1%)}} | 13\.4%{{small\|(m:15\.0%)}} | 15\.9%{{small\|(m:14\.7%)}} | 19\.8%{{small\|(m:20\.4%)}} | **54\.4%**{{small\|(m:34\.8%)}} | **61\.5%{{small\|(m:59\.6%)}}** | **69\.0%{{small\|(m:65\.0%)}}** | **68\.1%{{small\|(m:68\.7%)}}** | **77\.0%{{small\|(m:73\.4%)}}** | **71\.8%{{small\|(m:76\.6%)}}** | **75\.8%{{small\|(m:78\.5%)}}** | **87\.9%{{small\|(m:78\.9%)}}** | **80\.0%{{small\|(m:77\.2%)}}** | **69\.9%{{small\|(m:73\.3%)}}** | | [Ireland](/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland "Republic of Ireland") | {{small\|SGTF{{nbsp}}rawdata{{Cite web\|url\=https://assets.gov.ie/125107/a6254f8f\-4957\-41bf\-ba5f\-26a6af3a954c.pdf\|title\=NPHET COVID\-19 Update – 25 February 2021\|author\=\[\[National Public Health Emergency Team (2020\)\|National Public Health Emergency Team]], \[\[Department of Health (Ireland)\|Department of Health]]\|work\=New (B.1\.1\.7\) variant \- S gene target failure (p{{nbsp}}31\)\|date\=25 February 2021\|access\-date\=4 March 2021}}}} | – | – | – | 1\.9%{{small\|(few{{nbsp}}data)}} | 0\.0%{{small\|(few{{nbsp}}data)}} | 0\.0%{{small\|(few{{nbsp}}data)}} | 6\.1%{{small\|(few{{nbsp}}data)}} | 2\.2%{{small\|(few{{nbsp}}data)}} | 1\.6%{{small\|(few{{nbsp}}data)}} | 7\.5% | 16\.3% | 26\.2% | 46\.3% | **57\.7%** | **69\.5%** | **75\.0%** | **90\.1%** | **88\.6%** | **90\.8%** | **–** | **–** | **–** | | [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria "Bulgaria") | {{small\|Seq.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.ncipd.org/index.php?option\=com\_k2\&view\=item\&id\=546:ncov\-012020⟨\=bg\|title\=(09\.03\.2021 Г.) ЕПИДЕМИЯ ОТ ОСТЪР РЕСПИРАТОРЕН СИНДРОМ, СВЪРЗАНА С НОВ КОРОНАВИРУС SARS\-COV\-2, УХАН, КИТАЙ: АКТУАЛНА ИНФОРМАЦИЯ\|trans\-title\=(09\.03\.2021\) Acute Respiratory Syndrome Epidemic Associated With New Coronavirus SARS\-COV\-2, Wuhan, China: Actual Information\|language\=bg\|date\=3 March 2021\|access\-date\=10 March 2021}}}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **52\.1%** | **–** | **70\.8%** | **–** | **–** | **73\.4%** | **–** | | [Israel](/wiki/Israel "Israel") | {{small\|SGTF w.51\+1Seq. after w.1}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 3{{ndash}}4%{{small\|(Dec.15\){{cite web\|url\=https://www.calcalist.co.il/local/articles/0,7340,L\-3885915,00\.html\|title\=המוטציה הבריטית נמצאת ב\-10% עד 20% ממאומתי הקורונה\|trans\-title\=The British mutation is 10% to 20% of the corona nationwide\|author\=Adrian Pilot\|publisher\=Calcalist\|language\=he\|date\=January 5, 2021\|access\-date\=February 26, 2021}}}} | – | – | 10{{ndash}}20%{{small\|(Jan.5\)}} | 10{{ndash}}20%{{small\|(Jan.11\){{cite web\|url\=https://www.haaretz.com/israel\-news/coronavirus\-live\-israelis\-begin\-receiving\-second\-vaccine\-dose\-1\.9438120\|title\=Coronavirus Live: Israel Sees Drop in Infections 14 Days After First Vaccine Dose (4:50 P.M. Mutation constitutes up to 20% of Israel's recent COVID\-19 infections)\|author\=Ido Efreti\|publisher\=Haaretz\|date\=January 12, 2021\|access\-date\=February 26, 2021}}}} | 30{{ndash}}40%{{small\|(Jan.19\){{Cite web\|title\=Senior health official: UK virus variant putting pregnant women at greater risk\|url\=https://www.timesofisrael.com/senior\-health\-official\-uk\-virus\-variant\-putting\-pregnant\-women\-at\-greater\-risk/\|date\=2021\-01\-21\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-23\|website\=www.timesofisrael.com\|language\=en\-US}}}} | 40{{ndash}}50%{{small\|(Jan.25\){{cite web\|url\=https://www.timesofisrael.com/mutated\-covid\-19\-strains\-are\-stymieing\-efforts\-to\-curb\-spread\-virus\-czar\-says/\|title\=Health officials: UK variant running wild, hitting children at a worrying rate\|author\=Stuart Winer\|publisher\=Times of Israel\|date\=January 25, 2021\|access\-date\=February 25, 2021}}}} | **\~70%**{{small\|(Feb.2\){{cite web\|url\=https://www.timesofisrael.com/we\-will\-have\-to\-live\-with\-covid\-19\-for\-a\-long\-time\-says\-israeli\-expert/\|title\=We will have to live with COVID\-19 for a long time, says Israeli expert\|author\=Toi Staff\|publisher\=Times of Israel\|date\=February 2, 2021\|access\-date\=February 26, 2021}}}} | **\~80%**{{small\|(Feb.9\){{cite web\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-health\-coronavirus\-israel\-results\-ins/vaccine\-vs\-variant\-promising\-data\-in\-israels\-race\-to\-defeat\-pandemic\-idUSKBN2AA0MS\|title\=Vaccine vs variant: Promising data in Israel's race to defeat pandemic\|author\=Maayan Lubell \|author2\=Ari Rabinovitch \|publisher\=Reuters\|date\=February 9, 2021\|access\-date\=February 26, 2021}}}} | **\~90%**{{small\|(Feb.16\){{Cite web\|author\=\[\[Ynet]]\|date\=16 February 2021\|title\=Senior health official: 90% of COVID\-19 cases caused by UK variant\|url\=https://www.ynetnews.com/article/SyodSltbd\|access\-date\=25 February 2021}}}} | **–** | **–** | **–** | | [Slovakia](/wiki/Slovakia "Slovakia") | {{small\|PCR (SGTF\+ΔY144\) }} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **\~74%**{{small\|(Feb.3\)}} | **–** | **\~72%**{{small\|(Feb.15\)}} | **–** | **\~90%**{{small\|(Mar.3\)}} | **–** | | [Luxembourg](/wiki/Luxembourg "Luxembourg") | {{small\|Seq.}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0\.3% | 0\.9% | 4\.2% | 8\.7% | 15\.5% | 16\.9% | 36\.2% | **53\.0%** | **54\.1%** | **53\.8%** | **63\.7%** | **62\.8%** | **–** | | [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark") | {{small\|Seq.}} | – | – | – | – | 0\.3% | 0\.2% | 0\.4% | 0\.4% | 0\.4% | 0\.8% | 1\.8% | 1\.9% | 3\.5% | 7\.0% | 13\.1% | 19\.6% | 29\.6% | 47\.0% | **65\.9%** | **75\.3%** | **85\.1%** | **92\.7%** | | [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands") | {{small\|Seq.}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 1\.3% | 0\.8% | 0\.5% | 2\.1% | 4\.4% | 9\.6% | 15\.9% | 22\.7% | 24\.7% | 31\.0\.% | 40\.3% | **61\.3%** | **75\.2%** | **82\.0%** | **–** | | [Norway](/wiki/Norway "Norway") | {{small\|PCR{{nbsp}}proxy{{nbsp}}and{{nbsp}}Seq.Seq.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.fhi.no/contentassets/8a971e7b0a3c4a06bdbf381ab52e6157/vedlegg/2021/ukerapport\-for\-uke\-7\-15\.02\-\-\-21\.02\.21\-\-\-korr.pdf\|title\=COVID\-19 Ukerapport – uke 7, onsdag 24\. februar 2021\|trans\-title\=COVID\-19 weekly report for week 7 (wednesday 24 February 2021\)\|language\=no\|author\=Folkehelseinstituttet\|date\=24 February 2021\|access\-date\=28 February 2021\|archive\-date\=6 May 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506155030/https://www.fhi.no/contentassets/8a971e7b0a3c4a06bdbf381ab52e6157/vedlegg/2021/ukerapport\-for\-uke\-7\-15\.02\-\-\-21\.02\.21\-\-\-korr.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}}}} | –{{small\|(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)}} | 0\.0%{{small\|(–)}} | 2\.0%{{small\|(–)}} | 0\.0%{{small\|(0\.0%)}} | 4\.9%{{small\|(0\.0%)}} | 8\.9%{{small\|(7\.2%)}} | 6\.0%{{small\|(2\.9%)}} | 14\.9%{{small\|(1\.3%)}} | 18\.9%{{small\|(5\.7%)}} | 19\.5%{{small\|(11\.6%)}} | 15\.2%{{small\|(9\.3%)}} | 19\.8%{{small\|(20\.1%)}} | 34\.1%{{small\|(30\.3%)}} | 43\.6%{{small\|(40\.8%)}} | **60\.0%{{small\|(58\.4%)}}** | **71\.8%{{small\|(65\.0%)}}** | **76\.7%{{small\|(–)}}** | **72\.7%{{small\|(–)}}** | | [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy") | {{small\|Seq.%}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 17\.8% | – | **54\.0%** | **–** | **–** | **–** | | [France](/wiki/France "France") | {{small\|PCR{{nbsp}}proxySeq.SGTF\*Seq.%}} | –{{small\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)(3\.3%)}} | –{{small\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)(13\.3%)}} | –{{small\|(–)(–)}} | 36\.1%{{cite web\|url\=https://www.santepubliquefrance.fr/content/download/321032/2928954\|title\=COVID\-19: Point épidémiologi que hebdomadaire du 18 février 2021\|trans\-title\=COVID\-19: Weekly epidemiological update of February 18, 2021\|language\=fr\|author\=Santé Publique France\|date\=18 February 2021\|access\-date\=20 February 2021}}{{small\|(–)(–)}} | 49\.3%{{cite web\|url\=https://www.santepubliquefrance.fr/content/download/323006/2936518\|title\=COVID\-19: Point épidémiologi que hebdomadaire du 25 février 2021\|trans\-title\=COVID\-19: Weekly epidemiological update of February 25, 2021\|language\=fr\|author\=Santé Publique France\|date\=25 February 2021\|access\-date\=26 February 2021}}{{small\|(45\.8%)(44\.3%)}} | **59\.5%{{cite web\|url\=https://www.santepubliquefrance.fr/content/download/324805/2944195\|title\=COVID\-19: Point épidémiologi que hebdomadaire du 4 mars 2021\|trans\-title\=COVID\-19: Weekly epidemiological update of 4 March 2021\|language\=fr\|author\=Santé Publique France\|date\=4 March 2021\|access\-date\=5 March 2021}}{{small\|(56\.4%)(–)}}** | **65\.8%{{small\|(69\.0%)(–)}}** | **71\.9%{{cite web\|url\=https://www.santepubliquefrance.fr/content/download/328478/2960046\|title\=COVID\-19: Point épidémiologi que hebdomadaire du 18 mars 2021\|trans\-title\=COVID\-19: Weekly epidemiological update of 18 March 2021\|language\=fr\|author\=Santé Publique France\|date\=18 March 2021\|access\-date\=21 March 2021}}{{small\|(–)(–)}}** | | [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland") | {{small\|Seq.}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0\.05% | 0\.4% | 0\.8% | 2\.6% | 4\.9% | 9\.2% | 16\.5% | 26\.0% | 32\.4% | 47\.0% | **58\.2%** | **71\.1%** | **–** | | [Austria](/wiki/Austria "Austria") | {{small\|PCR(N501Y)\*Seq.%{{cite web\|url\=https://www.ages.at/themen/krankheitserreger/coronavirus/sars\-cov\-2\-varianten\-in\-oesterreich/\|title\=SARS\-CoV\-2\-Varianten in Österreich\|language\=de\|publisher\=Österreichische Agentur für Gesundheit und Ernährungssicherheit GmbH (AGES)\|date\=19 March 2021\|access\-date\=19 March 2021}}}}{{small\|Seq.B117\+unseq.N501Y}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 7\.2%{{efn\|name\=Austria}}{{small\|(9\.6%)}} | 17\.4%{{efn\|name\=Austria}}{{small\|(23\.8%)}} | 14\.7%{{efn\|name\=Austria}}{{small\|(19\.6%)}} | 22\.5%{{efn\|name\=Austria}}{{small\|(28\.6%)}} | 28\.7%{{efn\|name\=Austria}}{{small\|(37\.2%)}} | 24\.0%{{efn\|name\=Austria}}{{small\|(45\.4%)}} | 35\.1%{{efn\|name\=Austria}}{{small\|'''(58\.1%)'''}} | **61\.3%{{efn\|name\=Austria}}{{small\|(65\.3%)}}** | **61\.2%{{efn\|name\=Austria}}{{small\|(68\.0%)}}** | 48\.3%{{efn\|name\=Austria\|In \[\[Austria]], the listed B.1\.1\.7 variant shares represent the percentage of all positive COVID\-19 tests being confirmed to be B.1\.1\.7 by genome sequencing. However, many N501Y positive RT\-PCR tests were not variant determined further by genome sequencing, and likely would have returned a B.1\.1\.7 positive result for the vast majority of such tests if the genome sequencing analysis had been done. If all N501Y positive tests had been analysed further by genome sequencing, then the listed weekly B.1\.1\.7 shares could have been uptil: 9\.6% for week 1 {{small\|(2\.4% higher)}}, 23\.8% for week 2 {{small\|(6\.4% higher)}}, 19\.6% for week 3 {{small\|(4\.9% higher)}}, 28\.6% for week 4 {{small\|(6\.1% higher)}}, 37\.2% for week 5 {{small\|(8\.5% higher)}}, 45\.4% for week 6 {{small\|(21\.4% higher)}}, 58\.1% for week 7 {{small\|(23\.0% higher)}}, 65\.3% for week 8 {{small\|(4\.0% higher)}}, 68\.0% for week 9 {{small\|(6\.8% higher)}} and 73\.7% for week 10 {{small\|(25\.4% higher)}}.}}**{{small\|(73\.7%)}}** | | [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium "Belgium") | {{small\|Seq.}}{{small\|SGTF}} | –{{small\|(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)}} | 0\.0%{{small\|(\<5%)}} | 0\.0%{{small\|(\<5%)}} | 0\.0%{{small\|(\<5%)}} | 13\.6%{{small\|(\<5%)}} | 0\.0%{{small\|(\<5%)}} | 7\.1%{{small\|(7\.2%)}} | 7\.7%{{small\|(6\.9%)}} | 13\.4%{{small\|(16\.6%)}} | 23\.3%{{small\|(19\.5%)}} | 39\.4%{{small\|(22\.4%)}} | 43\.2%{{small\|(27\.9%)}} | **51\.5%**{{small\|(34\.4%)}} | **57\.6%**{{small\|(45\.8%)}} | **66\.5%**{{small\|(46\.3%)}} | **79\.3%{{small\|(54\.8%)}}** | | [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal "Portugal") | {{small\|SGTFL\*Seq.%}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 1\.7% | 0\.8% | 1\.2% | 1\.7% | 2\.9% | 6\.8% | 12\.3% | 22\.7% | 33\.5% | 39\.2% | 40\.9% | 45\.7% | **50\.5%** | **56\.0%** | **64\.3%** | | [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden "Sweden") | {{small\|Seq. all N501Y\+A570D pos. tests{{cite web\|url\=https://www.folkhalsomyndigheten.se/smittskydd\-beredskap/utbrott/aktuella\-utbrott/covid\-19/statistik\-och\-analyser/sars\-cov\-2\-virusvarianter\-av\-sarskild\-betydelse/\|title\=Statistik om SARS\-CoV\-2 virusvarianter av särskild betydelse\|trans\-title\=Statistics on SARS\-CoV\-2 Variants Of Concern\|language\=sv\|publisher\=Folkhälsomyndigheten\|date\=18 March 2021\|access\-date\=18 March 2021}}}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 10\.8%{{small\|(av. for 5 out of 21 regions)}}{{efn\|name\=Sweden1\|In Sweden, a study comprising 11% of all SARS\-CoV\-2–positive PCR samples nationwide for week 4 found the B.1\.1\.7 share to be 10\.8% (243/2244\). Samples were, however, only collected from five southern regions (\[\[Skåne County\|Skåne]], \[\[Västra Götaland County\|Västra Götaland]], \[\[Västmanland County\|Västmanland]], \[\[Gävleborg County\|Gävleborg]] and \[\[Örebro County\|Örebro]]), which were not considered to be statistically representative for the demography and geography of Sweden as a whole. The national authorities plan to expand the weekly study to cover more regions for the following weeks in February 2021\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.folkhalsomyndigheten.se/nyheter\-och\-press/nyhetsarkiv/2021/februari/stickprov\-tyder\-pa\-okad\-spridning\-av\-den\-brittiska\-virusvarianten\-i\-sverige/\|title\=Stickprov tyder på ökad spridning av den brittiska virusvarianten i Sverige\|trans\-title\=Random samples indicate an increased spread of the British virus variant in Sweden\|language\=sv\|publisher\=\[\[Folkhälsomyndigheten]]\|date\=February 2, 2021\|access\-date\=February 2, 2021\|archive\-date\=12 May 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512055059/https://www.folkhalsomyndigheten.se/nyheter\-och\-press/nyhetsarkiv/2021/februari/stickprov\-tyder\-pa\-okad\-spridning\-av\-den\-brittiska\-virusvarianten\-i\-sverige/}}}} | 15\.1%{{small\|(av. for 5 out of 21 regions)}}{{efn\|name\=Sweden2\|In Sweden, a study comprising 16% of all SARS\-CoV\-2–positive PCR samples nationwide for week 5 found the B.1\.1\.7 share to be 15\.1% (488/3224\). Samples were, however, only collected from five southern regions (\[\[Skåne County\|Skåne]], \[\[Västra Götaland County\|Västra Götaland]], \[\[Västmanland County\|Västmanland]], \[\[Gävleborg County\|Gävleborg]] and \[\[Örebro County\|Örebro]]), which were not considered to be statistically representative for the demography and geography of Sweden as a whole. The national authorities also calculated a two\-week average (week 5\+6\) for 19 out of 21 regions, and plan to expand the weekly study to cover more regions for the following weeks in February 2021\.}} | 27\.3%{{small\|(av. for 5 out of 21 regions)}}{{efn\|name\=Sweden3\|In Sweden, a study comprising 18% of all SARS\-CoV\-2–positive PCR samples nationwide for week 6 found the B.1\.1\.7 share to be 27\.3% (1021/3742\). Samples were, however, only collected from five southern regions (\[\[Skåne County\|Skåne]], \[\[Västra Götaland County\|Västra Götaland]], \[\[Västmanland County\|Västmanland]], \[\[Gävleborg County\|Gävleborg]] and \[\[Örebro County\|Örebro]]), which were not considered to be statistically representative for the demography and geography of Sweden as a whole. The national authorities also calculated a two\-week average (week 5\+6\) for 19 out of 21 regions, and plan to expand the weekly study to cover more regions for the following weeks in February 2021\.}} | 30\.4%{{small\|(av. for 19 out of 21 regions)}}{{efn\|name\=Sweden4\|In Sweden, a study comprising 47\.8% of all SARS\-CoV\-2–positive PCR samples nationwide for week 7, collected samples from 19 out of 21 regions (all except \[\[Gotland County\|Gotland]] and \[\[Västerbotten County\|Västerbotten]]), and found the B.1\.1\.7 share to be 30\.4% (3316/10910\) as a simple overall average (with a potential geographically skewed misrepresentation in the calculation as no data weights were used to normalize/correct each regions share of the overall sample).}} | 41\.5%{{small\|(av. for 19 out of 21 regions)}}{{efn\|name\=Sweden5\|In Sweden, a study comprising 42\.2% of all SARS\-CoV\-2–positive PCR samples nationwide for week 8, collected samples from 19 out of 21 regions (all except \[\[Gotland County\|Gotland]] and \[\[Västerbotten County\|Västerbotten]]), and found the B.1\.1\.7 share to be 41\.5% (4643/11191\) as a simple overall average (with a potential geographically skewed misrepresentation in the calculation as no data weights were used to normalize/correct each regions share of the overall sample).}} | **56\.4%**{{small\|(av. for 17 out of 21 regions)}}{{efn\|name\=Sweden6\|In Sweden, a study comprising 37\.8% of all SARS\-CoV\-2–positive PCR samples nationwide for week 9, collected samples from 17 out of 21 regions (all except \[\[Gotland County\|Gotland]], \[\[Västerbotten County\|Västerbotten]], \[\[Norrbotten County\|Norrbotten]] and \[\[Östergötland County\|Östergötland]]), and found the B.1\.1\.7 share to be 56\.4% (5939/10528\) as a simple overall average (with a potential geographically skewed misrepresentation in the calculation as no data weights were used to normalize/correct each regions share of the overall sample).}} | **71\.3%**{{small\|(av. for 18 out of 21 regions)}}{{efn\|name\=Sweden7\|In Sweden, a study comprising 43\.1% of all SARS\-CoV\-2–positive PCR samples nationwide for week 10, collected samples from 18 out of 21 regions (all except \[\[Gotland County\|Gotland]], \[\[Västerbotten County\|Västerbotten]] and \[\[Östergötland County\|Östergötland]]), and found the B.1\.1\.7 share to be 71\.3% (8850/12417\) as a simple overall average (with a potential geographically skewed misrepresentation in the calculation as no data weights were used to normalize/correct each regions share of the overall sample).}} | | [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany") | {{small\|PCR{{nbsp}}proxy{{nbsp}}and{{nbsp}}Seq.}}{{small\|Seq.{{Cite web\|title\=Aktualisierter Bericht zu Virusvarianten von SARS\-CoV\-2 in Deutschland, insbesondere zur Variant of Concern (VOC) B.1\.1\.7: Stand: 17\. März 2021\|trans\-title\=Updated report on virus variants of SARS\-CoV\-2 in Germany, in particular on Variant of Concern (VOC) B.1\.1\.7: As of 17 March 2021\|url\=https://www.rki.de/DE/Content/InfAZ/N/Neuartiges\_Coronavirus/DESH/Bericht\_VOC\_2021\-03\-17\.pdf?\_\_blob\=publicationFile\|language\=de\|publisher\=Robert Koch\-Institut (Bundesinstitut im Geschäftsbereich des Bundesministeriums für Gesundheit)\|website\=www.rki.de/DE/Content/InfAZ/N/Neuartiges\_Coronavirus/DESH/Berichte\-VOC\-tab.html\|date\=17 March 2021\|access\-date\=20 March 2021}}}} | –{{small\|(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)}} | –{{small\|(–)}} | –{{small\|(2\.6%)}} | 2\.0%{{small\|(8\.8%)}} | 3\.6%{{small\|(4\.9%)}} | 4\.7%{{small\|(10\.7%)}} | 7\.2%{{small\|(17\.7%)}} | 17\.6%{{small\|(20\.8%)}} | 25\.9%{{small\|(33\.2%)}} | 40\.0%{{small\|(42\.9%)}} | **54\.5%**{{small\|(48\.3%)}} | **63\.5%{{small\|(–)}}** | | [Liechtenstein](/wiki/Liechtenstein "Liechtenstein") | {{small\|PCR{{nbsp}}proxy:{{nbsp}}N501Y}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 10\.9% | 28\.5% | 32\.8% | 47\.0% | **52\.2%** | **73\.4%** | | [Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain") | {{small\|Estimated based on PCR{{nbsp}}proxy}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 5\-10%{{small\|(Jan.29\)}} | – | – | 20\-25%{{small\|(Feb.18\)}} | 25\-30%{{small\|(Feb.22\)}} | **\>50%{{small\|(Mar.3\)}}** | **–** | | [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") | {{small\|SGTF\*Seq.%{{cite web\|url\=https://www.helix.com/pages/helix\-covid\-19\-surveillance\-dashboard\|title\=The Helix® COVID\-19 Surveillance Dashboard\|work\=Trends in S Gene Target Failure (SGTF), interactive data map: B.1\.1\.7 weekly share calculated as the average of the daily B.1\.1\.7 shares of the week. Daily B.1\.1\.7 shares are found by multiplying "Daily Percent SGTF of Positive Samples" and "B.1\.1\.7 as % of sequenced SGTF positives".\|author\=Helix\|access\-date\=17 March 2021}}}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0\.05% | 0\.2% | 0\.4% | 0\.5% | 1\.0% | 1\.9% | 3\.0% | 4\.7% | 7\.6% | 12\.4% | 19\.3% | 28\.8% | 37\.4% | | *[California](/wiki/California "California")* | {{small\|SGTF\*Seq.%}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0\.3% | 0\.3% | 0\.7% | 1\.1% | 1\.3% | 2\.0% | 1\.9% | 4\.2% | 5\.9% | 13\.1% | 16\.6% | 18\.8% | 28\.0% | | *[Florida](/wiki/Florida "Florida")* | {{small\|SGTF\*Seq.%}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0\.2% | 0\.5% | 0\.9% | 1\.0% | 2\.3% | 4\.6% | 8\.1% | 10\.7% | 14\.5% | 21\.0% | 28\.3% | 39\.8% | 47\.0% | | {{small\|Other countries without weekly/periodic data, but with a variant share above 5%: {{0}}{{0}} Malta (61%), and Poland (52%).}} | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | * + The following additional countries did not report variant shares, but are likely to have a significant share present due to their finding of more than 50 cases confirmed by [whole genome sequencing](/wiki/Whole_genome_sequencing "Whole genome sequencing") per 13 March 2021:{{cite web\|title\=Tracking of variants: VUI202012/01 GR/501Y.V1 (B.1\.1\.7\)\|url\=https://www.gisaid.org/hcov19\-variants/\|access\-date\=19 February 2021\|publisher\=GISAID}} * [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey") (486 cases) * [Finland](/wiki/Finland "Finland") (268 cases) * [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia") (140 cases) * [Chile](/wiki/Chile "Chile") (124 cases) * [Croatia](/wiki/Croatia "Croatia") (121 cases) * [Nigeria](/wiki/Nigeria "Nigeria") (113 cases) * [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea "South Korea") (90 cases) * [Slovenia](/wiki/Slovenia "Slovenia") (87 cases) * [Latvia](/wiki/Latvia "Latvia") (83 cases) * [India](/wiki/India "India") (81 cases) * [Romania](/wiki/Romania "Romania") (76 cases) * [Ghana](/wiki/Ghana "Ghana") (67 cases) * [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore "Singapore") (66 cases) * [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand "New Zealand") (63 cases) * [North Macedonia](/wiki/North_Macedonia "North Macedonia") (53 cases) * [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil "Brazil") (53 cases) * [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan") (32 cases) The [GISAID](/wiki/GISAID "GISAID") database of all sequenced COVID\-19 genomes, calculates for each country for the past four weeks an average "Relative Variant Genome Frequency" for submitted samples. Those observed frequencies are however subject to sampling and reporting biases, and do not represent exact variant share prevalence due to absence of statistical representativity. ### Countries reporting a first case #### December 2020 Cases of the variant began to be reported globally during December, being reported in [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark"), [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium "Belgium"),{{Cite news\|first\=Alan\|last\=Hope\|date\=20 December 2020\|title\=Netherlands bans flights from UK over new Covid mutation\|newspaper\=The Brussels Times\|url\=https://www.brusselstimes.com/news/belgium\-all\-news/146288/netherlands\-bans\-flights\-from\-uk\-over\-new\-covid\-mutation\-found\-coronavirus\-van\-ranst\-who/}} the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia"){{Cite news \|title\=Covid: WHO in 'close contact' with UK over new virus variant \|website\=BBC News \|date\=20 December 2020 \|url\= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\-55382212 }}{{Cite news \|title\=EU to hold crisis talks as countries block travel from UK over new Covid strain \|last1\=Henley \|first1\=Jon \|last2\=Jones \|first2\=Sam \|last3\=Giuffrida \|first3\=Angela \|last4\=Holmes \|first4\=Oliver \|newspaper\=The Guardian \|date\=20 December 2020 \|url\= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/dec/20/belgium\-italy\-and\-netherlands\-ban\-flights\-from\-uk\-over\-new\-covid\-strain}} and [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy").{{Cite news \|title\=Coronavirus, in Italia un soggetto positivo alla variante inglese \|trans\-title\=Coronavirus, one person tests positive in Italy for the English variant \|author\= \|work\=la Repubblica \|date\=20 December 2020 \|url\= https://www.repubblica.it/cronaca/2020/12/20/news/coronavirus\_variante\_positivo\_in\_italia\-279229115/ \|language\=it}} Shortly after, several other countries confirmed their first cases, the first of whom were found in [Iceland](/wiki/Iceland "Iceland") and [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar "Gibraltar"),{{cite news\|first\=Kate \| last\=Kelland \| date\=21 December 2020 \| title\=Explainer \- The new coronavirus variant in Britain: How worrying is it? \| url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk\-health\-coronavirus\-variant\-idUSKBN28V1MM \| work\=Reuters }}{{cite news\|first1\=Nick \| last1\=Squires \| first2\=Richard \| last2\=Orange \| date\=21 December 2020 \| title\=New coronavirus strain detected around the globe, from Gibraltar to Australia \| url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/12/21/new\-coronavirus\-strain\-detected\-around\-globe\-gibraltar\-australia/ \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/12/21/new\-coronavirus\-strain\-detected\-around\-globe\-gibraltar\-australia/ \|archive\-date\=11 January 2022 \|url\-access\=subscription \|url\-status\=live \| work\=The Telegraph }}{{cbignore}} then [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore "Singapore"), [Israel](/wiki/Israel "Israel") and [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland") on 23 December,{{Cite web\|date\=2020\-12\-23\|title\=Singapore confirms first case of new Covid\-19 strain from UK, a 17\-year\-old student who recently returned from Britain\|url\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/singapore\-confirms\-1\-imported\-patient\-with\-potentially\-more\-contagious\-covid\-19\-strain\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-24\|website\=The Straits Times\|language\=en}}{{Cite web\|date\=2020\-12\-23\|title\=Israel confirms four cases of new Covid variant\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2020/dec/23/coronavirus\-live\-news\-us\-cases\-increase\-14\-in\-one\-week\-france\-to\-reopen\-uk\-border?page\=with:block\-5fe372908f08da4121f4c7c4\#block\-5fe372908f08da4121f4c7c4\|work\=The Guardian}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish\-news/first\-case\-of\-uk\-variant\-strain\-of\-covid\-19\-confirmed\-in\-northern\-ireland\-1\.4444730\|title\=First case of UK variant strain of Covid\-19 confirmed in Northern Ireland\|publisher\=\[\[The Irish Times]]\|first\=Gerry\|last\=Moriarty\|date\=23 December 2020\|access\-date\=24 December 2020}} [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany") and [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland") on 24 December,{{cite news\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-health\-coronavirus\-germany\-variant/germany\-reports\-case\-of\-british\-coronavirus\-variant\-idUSKBN28Y1LO\|title\=Germany reports first case of coronavirus variant spreading in Britain\|work\=Reuters\|first\=Ludwig\|last\=Burger\|date\=24 December 2020}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.bag.admin.ch/bag/fr/home/das\-bag/aktuell/medienmitteilungen.msg\-id\-81829\.html\|title\=COVID\-19: Nouvelle variante du coronavirus découverte dans deux échantillons en Suisse \|trans\-title\=COVID\-19: New variant of the coronavirus discovered in two samples in Switzerland \|publisher\=Federal Office of Public Health (Switzerland)\|date\=24 December 2020\|language\=fr}} and the [Republic of Ireland](/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland "Republic of Ireland") and [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan") confirmed on 25 December.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.independent.ie/world\-news/coronavirus/new\-uk\-variant\-of\-covid\-19\-confirmed\-in\-ireland\-while\-1025\-new\-cases\-and\-two\-further\-deaths\-confirmed\-39900087\.html\|title\=New UK variant of Covid\-19 confirmed in Ireland while 1,025 new cases and two further deaths confirmed\|publisher\=\[\[Irish Independent]]\|first\=Eoghan\|last\=Moloney\|date\=25 December 2020\|access\-date\=25 December 2020}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/dec/25/japan\-reports\-cases\-coronavirus\-variant\-spreading\-across\-uk\|title\=Japan reports five cases of coronavirus variant found in UK\|work\=The Guardian\|first\=Emma\|last\=Graham\-Harrison\|date\=25 December 2020}} The first cases in [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada"), [France](/wiki/France "France"), [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon "Lebanon"), [Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain") and [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden "Sweden") were reported on 26 December.{{cite news\|title\=Ontario identifies first cases of COVID\-19 U.K. variant in the province\|url\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/ontario\-confirms\-first\-cases\-covid19\-uk\-variant\-1\.5855361\|work\=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (\[\[CBC News]])\|date\=26 December 2020}}{{Cite news \|title\=Coronavirus: More cases of new Covid variant found in Europe \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-europe\-55452262 \| publisher\=BBC \|date\=26 December 2020 \|access\-date\=26 December 2020}}{{Cite news \|title\=France, Lebanon confirm first cases of new coronavirus variant \|url\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/12/26/france\-confirms\-first\-case\-of\-new\-coronavirus\-variant \| publisher\=Aljazeera \|date\=26 December 2020 \|access\-date\=26 December 2020}}{{Cite news \|title\=Fall av den brittiska virusvarianten upptäckt i Sverige \|trans\-title\=Cases of the British virus variant discovered in Sweden\|url\=https://www.svt.se/nyheter/lokalt/sormland/fall\-av\-den\-brittiska\-virusvarianten\-upptack\-i\-sormland \| publisher\=SVT \|date\=26 December 2020 \|language\=sv}} [Jordan](/wiki/Jordan "Jordan"), [Norway](/wiki/Norway "Norway"), and [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal "Portugal") reported their first case on 27 December,{{Cite news\|title\=Norway, Portugal confirm first cases of coronavirus variant in travellers from the UK\|url\=https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/world/2020/12/covid\-19\-norway\-confirms\-first\-cases\-of\-coronavirus\-variant\-in\-travellers\-from\-the\-uk.html\|publisher\=Newshub\|date\=27 December 2020\|access\-date\=28 December 2020\|archive\-date\=30 December 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230225324/https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/world/2020/12/covid\-19\-norway\-confirms\-first\-cases\-of\-coronavirus\-variant\-in\-travellers\-from\-the\-uk.html}}{{Cite news \|title\=Jordan detects two coronavirus variant cases: minister\|url\=https://gulfnews.com/world/mena/jordan\-detects\-two\-coronavirus\-variant\-cases\-minister\-1\.1609090581408\| work\=Gulf News \|date\=27 December 2020 \|access\-date\=28 December 2020}} [Finland](/wiki/Finland "Finland") and [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea "South Korea") reported their first cases on 28 December,{{cite news\| date\=28 December 2020 \| title\=New UK variant Covid strain detected in Finland \| url\=https://yle.fi/uutiset/osasto/news/new\_uk\_variant\_covid\_strain\_detected\_in\_finland/11716211 \| publisher\=Yle News }}{{cite news\| date\=28 December 2020 \| title\=South Korea reports cases of COVID variant \- and says they came from UK \| url\=https://news.sky.com/story/covid\-variant\-first\-identified\-in\-uk\-found\-in\-south\-korea\-12173983 \| publisher\=Sky News }} and [Chile](/wiki/Chile "Chile"), [India](/wiki/India "India"), [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan") and the [United Arab Emirates](/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates "United Arab Emirates") reported their first cases on 29 December.{{cite news\|date\=29 December 2020\|title\=Chile records first case of British variant of coronavirus \- health ministry\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk\-health\-coronavirus\-britain\-variants\-f/chile\-records\-first\-case\-of\-british\-variant\-of\-coronavirus\-health\-ministry\-idUSKBN2931CS\| work\=Reuters}}{{cite news\|date\=29 December 2020\|title\=Coronavirus: India confirms six cases of new Covid variant\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/amp/world\-asia\-india\-55472333\| publisher\=BBC News}}{{cite news\|date\=29 December 2020\|title\=First confirmed case of new Covid\-19 strain detected in Pakistan\|url\=https://www.hindustantimes.com/world\-news/first\-confirmed\-case\-of\-new\-covid\-19\-strain\-detected\-in\-pakistan/story\-TFLSMYU6WRJ8yToNQfIeyJ.html\| publisher\=Hindustan Times}}{{cite news\|date\=30 December 2020\|title\=New Covid strain in UAE: All we know so far\|url\=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/coronavirus\-pandemic/new\-covid\-strain\-in\-uae\-all\-we\-know\-so\-far\|publisher\=Khaleej Times}} The first case of new variant in [Malta](/wiki/Malta "Malta") and [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan") are reported on 30 December.{{cite news\|date\=30 December 2020\|title\=Three cases of new COVID variant detected in Malta\|url\=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/uk\-covid\-19\-variant\-detected\-in\-malta.841925\| work\=Times of Malta}}{{cite news\|date\=30 December 2020\|title\=Taiwan reports its first case of mutant Covid\-19 strain found in Britain\|url\=https://amp.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3115884/taiwan\-reports\-its\-first\-case\-mutant\-covid\-19\-strain\-found\| publisher\=South China Morning Post}} [China](/wiki/China "China") and [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil "Brazil") reported their first cases of the new variant on 31 December.{{cite news\|date\=31 December 2020\|title\=China confirms first case of UK coronavirus variant\|url\=https://www.france24\.com/en/live\-news/20201231\-china\-confirms\-first\-case\-of\-uk\-coronavirus\-variant\| publisher\=France24}}{{cite news\|date\=31 December 2020\|title\=Brazil detects two cases of new coronavirus variant found in UK\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-health\-coronavirus\-brazil\-variant\-idUSKBN2951LL\| work\=Reuters}} The [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") and [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark") are sequencing their SARS\-CoV\-2 cases at considerably higher rates than most others,{{Cite news \|title\=Dansk Oxford\-professor: Danmark skal gøre alt for, at ny virusvariant ikke spreder sig \|trans\-title\=Danish Oxford professor: Denmark must do everything to ensure that new virus variant does not spread \|last1\=Knudsen \|first1\=T.H. \| publisher\=\[\[DR (broadcaster)\|DR]] \|date\=20 December 2020 \|url\= https://www.dr.dk/nyheder/udland/dansk\-oxford\-professor\-danmark\-skal\-goere\-alt\-ny\-virusvariant\-ikke\-spreder\-sig\|language\=da}} See also: {{cite web\|title\=Global sequencing coverage\|url\=https://covidcg.org/?tab\=global\_sequencing\|publisher\=covidcg.org\|access\-date\=23 December 2020}} and it was considered likely that additional countries would detect the variant later.{{Cite news \|title\=Scientists urge calm about coronavirus mutations, which are not unexpected \|newspaper\=New York Times \| last1 \= Mandavilli \|first1 \= Apoorva \| last2 \= Landler \| first2 \= Mark \| last3 \= Castle \| first3 \= Stephen\|date\=20 December 2020 \|url\= https://www.nytimes.com/live/2020/12/20/world/covid\-19\-coronavirus\#scientists\-urge\-calm\-about\-coronavirus\-mutations\-which\-are\-not\-unexpected}} The [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") reported a case in [Colorado](/wiki/Colorado "Colorado") with no travel history on 29 December, the sample was taken on 24 December.{{Cite web\|last\=Casiano\|first\=Louis\|date\=2020\-12\-29\|title\=Colorado health officials confirm new COVID\-19 variant in the state\|url\=https://www.foxnews.com/us/colorado\-confirms\-new\-covid\-19\-variant\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-29\|website\=Fox News\|language\=en\-US}} On 6 January 2021, the US [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention") announced that it had found at least 52 confirmed cases in [California](/wiki/California "California"), [Florida](/wiki/Florida "Florida"), Colorado, [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 "Georgia (U.S. state)"), and [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 "New York (state)").{{cite news\|url\=https://www.cnn.com/2021/01/06/health/coronavirus\-variant\-us\-cdc\-cases/index.html\|title\=CDC has found more than 50 US cases of coronavirus variant first identified in UK\|publisher\=CNN\|last\=Nedelman\|first\=Michael\|date\=6 January 2021\|access\-date\=7 January 2021}} In the following days, more cases of the variant were reported in other states, leading former CDC director [Tom Frieden](/wiki/Tom_Frieden "Tom Frieden") to express his concerns that the U.S. will soon face "close to a worst\-case scenario".{{cite news\|url\=https://www.forbes.com/sites/nicholasreimann/2021/01/08/close\-to\-a\-worst\-case\-scenario\-former\-cdc\-director\-issues\-horrifying\-outlook\-for\-new\-covid\-strain/?sh\=7091f39f3738\|title\='Close To A Worst\-Case Scenario'—Former CDC Director Issues 'Horrifying' Outlook For New Covid Strain\|work\=Forbes\|last\=Reimann\|first\=Nicholas\|date\=January 8, 2021\|access\-date\=January 15, 2021}} #### January 2021 [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey") detected its first cases in 15 people from England on 1 January 2021\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.cnnturk.com/video/turkiye/son\-dakika\-haberi\-bakan\-koca\-acikladi\-15\-kiside\-mutasyonlu\-virus\-ingiltereden\-girisler\-tamamen\-durduruldu\-video\|title\=Son dakika haberi... Bakan Koca açıkladı, 15 kişide mutasyonlu virüs! İngiltere'den girişler tamamen durduruldu \|format\=Video \|trans\-title\=Breaking news... Minister Koca announced, mutated virus in 15 people! Entries from the UK are completely suspended\|website\=CNN Türk\|access\-date\=4 January 2021}} It was reported on 1 January that Denmark had found a total of 86 cases of the variant, equalling an overall frequency of less than 1% of the sequenced cases in the period from its first detection in the country in mid\-November to the end of December;{{Cite web\|date\=2021\-01\-02\|title\=SSI: Meget smitsom coronamutation fra England spreder sig i Danmark\|url\=https://www.dr.dk/nyheder/indland/ssi\-meget\-smitsom\-coronamutation\-fra\-england\-spreder\-sig\-i\-danmark\|trans\-title\=SSI: Very infectious corona mutation {{sic}} from England spreads in Denmark\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-03\|website\=DR\|language\=da}}{{Cite web\|date\=2021\-01\-01\|title\=Udvikling i smitte med engelsk virusvariant af SARS\-COV\-2 (cluster B.1\.1\.7\) \|trans\-title\=Development in infection with English virus variant of SARS\-COV\-2 (cluster B.1\.1\.7\) \|url\=https://www.ssi.dk/\-/media/cdn/files/opdaterede\-data\-paa\-ny\-engelsk\-virusvariant\-sarscov2\-cluster\-b117\-\-01012021\.pdf?la\=da\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-02\|publisher\=Statens Serum Institut\|language\=da}} this had increased to 1\.6% of sequenced tests in the period from mid\-November to week two of 2021, with 7% of sequenced tests in this week alone being of Alpha variant (lineage B.1\.1\.7\).{{cite web \|url\=https://files.ssi.dk/covid19/status\-b117/status\-b117\-17012021\-po64 \|title\=Status for udvikling af B.1\.1\.7 i Danmark d. 17\. januar 2021 \|trans\-title\=Status for progression of B.1\.1\.7 in Denmark on 17 January 2021 \|access\-date\=19 January 2021 \|publisher\=Statens Serum Institut \|archive\-date\=18 January 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118145802/https://files.ssi.dk/covid19/status\-b117/status\-b117\-17012021\-po64 }} [Luxembourg](/wiki/Luxembourg "Luxembourg") and [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam "Vietnam") reported their first case of this variant on 2 January 2021\.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2021/01/02/vietnam\-reports\-first\-case\-new\-coronavirus\-variant\-woman\-returning/ \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2021/01/02/vietnam\-reports\-first\-case\-new\-coronavirus\-variant\-woman\-returning/ \|archive\-date\=11 January 2022 \|url\-access\=subscription \|url\-status\=live\|title\=Vietnam reports first case of new coronavirus variant in woman returning from Britain\|work\=The Telegraph\|date\=2 January 2021\|access\-date\=2 January 2021}}{{cbignore}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://luxtimes.lu/luxembourg/42668\-new\-covid\-19\-strain\-found\-in\-luxembourg\|title\=New Covid\-19 strain found in Luxembourg\|website\=luxtimes.lu\|access\-date\=4 January 2021\|archive\-date\=22 February 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210222135404/https://luxtimes.lu/luxembourg/42668\-new\-covid\-19\-strain\-found\-in\-luxembourg}} On 3 January 2021, [Greece](/wiki/Greece "Greece") and [Jamaica](/wiki/Jamaica "Jamaica") detected their first four cases of this variant{{cite news\|date\=3 January 2021\|title\=Greece detects four cases of new coronavirus variant\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/health\-coronavirus\-greece/greece\-detects\-four\-cases\-of\-new\-coronavirus\-variant\-idUSL8N2J141N\| work\=Reuters}}{{cite news\|date\=3 January 2021\|title\=Four cases of COVID\-19 variant confirmed in Jamaica\|url\=https://www.loopcayman.com/content/four\-cases\-covid\-19\-variant\-confirmed\-jamaica\|access\-date\=22 January 2021\|archive\-date\=3 January 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210103130317/http://www.loopcayman.com/content/four\-cases\-covid\-19\-variant\-confirmed\-jamaica}} and [Cyprus](/wiki/Cyprus "Cyprus") announced that it had detected Alpha (VOC 202012/01\) in 12 samples.{{Cite web\|url\=https://cyprus\-mail.com/2021/01/03/coronavirus\-new\-fast\-spreading\-british\-strain\-found\-in\-cyprus/\|title\=Coronavirus: New, fast\-spreading British variant found in Cyprus \| Cyprus Mail\|first\=Katy\|last\=Turner\|access\-date\=4 January 2021}} At the same time, [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand "New Zealand") and [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand "Thailand") reported their first cases of this variant, where the former reported six cases made up of five from the United Kingdom and one from South Africa,{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.tvnz.co.nz/one\-news/new\-zealand/six\-cases\-nz\-border\-have\-had\-new\-covid\-19\-variant\-in\-total\-past\-three\-days\|title\=Six cases at NZ border have had new Covid\-19 variant, 19 cases in total in the past three days\|access\-date\=4 January 2021\|newspaper\=TVNZ}} and the latter reported the cases from a family of four who had arrived from Kent.{{Cite web\|url\=https://thethaiger.com/news/national/britons\-arriving\-in\-thailand\-test\-positive\-for\-covid\-uk\-variant\|title\=Britons arriving in Thailand test positive for Covid UK variant\|last\=The Thaiger\|date\=3 January 2021\|website\=The Thaiger\|access\-date\=4 January 2021}} [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28country%29 "Georgia (country)") reported its first case{{cite news\|date\=4 January 2021\|title\=Georgia confirms first case of UK\-linked coronavirus strain\|url\=http://www.businessworld.in/article/Georgia\-confirms\-first\-case\-of\-UK\-linked\-coronavirus\-strain/04\-01\-2021\-361501/}} and [Austria](/wiki/Austria "Austria") reported their first four cases of this variant, along with one case of [Beta variant](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Beta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Beta variant"), on 4 January.{{cite news \|author\= \|title\=British, South African {{sic\|nolink\=y\|reason\=error in source\|corornavirus}} mutations detected in Austria \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-health\-coronavirus\-austria\-idUSKBN2991LT \|work\=\[\[Reuters]] \|location\=Berlin \|date\=4 January 2021 \|access\-date\=2021\-01\-06}} On 5 January, [Iran](/wiki/Iran "Iran"),{{cite news \|author\= \|title\=Iran confirms first case of new Covid\-19 variant \|url\=https://www.france24\.com/en/live\-news/20210105\-iran\-confirms\-first\-case\-of\-new\-covid\-19\-variant \|work\=\[\[France 24]] \|location\=\[\[Tehran]] \|date\=5 January 2021 \|access\-date\=2021\-01\-06}} [Oman](/wiki/Oman "Oman"),{{cite news \|author\= \|title\=Oman registers first case of new virus variant in traveller from UK \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-health\-coronavirus\-oman\-idUSKBN29A1G9 \|work\=Reuters \|location\=Dubai \|date\=5 January 2021 \|access\-date\=2021\-01\-06}} and [Slovakia](/wiki/Slovakia "Slovakia") reported their first cases of VOC\-202012/01\.{{cite news\|date\=5 January 2021\|title\=Cases of the new UK coronavirus variant have been confirmed in Slovakia\|url\=https://www.expats.cz/czech\-news/article/english\-coronavirus\-strand\-confirmed\-in\-slovakia\|agency\=Expats.cz}} On 8 January, [Romania](/wiki/Romania "Romania") reported its first case of the variant, an adult woman from [Giurgiu County](/wiki/Giurgiu_County "Giurgiu County") who declared not having left the country recently.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-health\-coronavirus\-romania\-idUSKBN29D1SO\|title\=Romania detects first case of British coronavirus variant\|work\=Reuters\|date\=8 January 2021}} On 9 January, [Peru](/wiki/Peru "Peru") confirmed its first case of the variant.{{cite news\|date\=9 January 2021\|title\=Peru Confirms First Case of COVID\-19 Variant Strain\|url\=https://riotimesonline.com/brazil\-news/miscellaneous/covid\-19/peru\-confirms\-first\-case\-of\-covid\-19\-variant/}} [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico") and [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia") reported their first case of this variant on 10 January,[Mexico detects first case of new coronavirus strain first seen in UK](https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/mexico-detects-first-case-of-new-coronavirus-strain-first-seen-in-uk-121011100144_1.html), 11 January 2021 *www.business\-standard.com*, accessed 15 January 2021 then [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia "Malaysia") and [Latvia](/wiki/Latvia "Latvia") on 11 January.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2021/01/11/uk\-variant\-of\-covid\-19\-has\-reached\-malaysia\-dr\-noor\-hisham\-confirms/1939483\|title\=UK\-variant of Covid\-19 has reached Malaysia, Dr Noor Hisham confirms\|newspaper\=Malay Mail\|date\=11 January 2021}}{{cite news\|date\=4 January 2021\|title\=New Covid\-19 variant found in Latvia\|url\=https://bnn\-news.com/new\-covid\-19\-variant\-found\-in\-latvia\-220703\| agency\=Baltic News Network}} On 12 January, [Ecuador](/wiki/Ecuador "Ecuador") confirmed its first case of this variant.{{cite news\|date\=12 January 2021\|title\=Ecuador records first case of new coronavirus variant\|url\=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/americas/ecuador\-records\-first\-case\-of\-new\-coronavirus\-variant/2106621}} The [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") and [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary "Hungary") both detected the presence of the variant on 13 January.{{cite news \|url\=https://cnnphilippines.com/news/2021/1/13/live\-updates\-covid\-pandemic.html \|title\=LIVE UPDATES: COVID\-19 pandemic \|date\=13 January 2021 \|work\=CNN Philippines \|access\-date\=15 January 2021 \|archive\-date\=21 November 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121203251/https://cnnphilippines.com/news/2021/1/13/live\-updates\-covid\-pandemic.html \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite news\|date\=13 January 2021\|title\=Hungary detects UK variant of coronavirus, surgeon general says\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-health\-coronavirus\-hungary/hungary\-detects\-uk\-variant\-of\-coronavirus\-surgeon\-general\-says\-idUSKBN29I1BR\| work\=Reuters}} The [Gambia](/wiki/Gambia "Gambia") recorded first cases of the variant on 14 January with it being the first confirmation of the variant's presence in Africa.{{cite news\|date\=14 January 2021\|title\=Gambia records first two cases of British COVID\-19 variant\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/health\-coronavirus\-gambia/gambia\-records\-first\-two\-cases\-of\-british\-covid\-19\-variant\-idUSL8N2JP547\| work\=Reuters}} On 15 January, the [Dominican Republic](/wiki/Dominican_Republic "Dominican Republic") confirmed its first case of the new variant{{cite news\|date\=15 January 2021\|title\=New COVID\-19 strain confirmed to arrive in Dominican Republic from London\|url\=https://dominicantoday.com/dr/local/2021/01/15/new\-covid\-19\-strain\-confirmed\-to\-arrive\-in\-dominican\-republic\-from\-london/}} and [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina "Argentina") confirmed its first case of the variant on 16 January.{{cite news\|date\=16 January 2021\|title\=Argentina detects first case of British virus variant\|url\=https://medicalxpress.com/news/2021\-01\-argentina\-case\-british\-virus\-variant.html\| agency\=MedicalXpress}} [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic "Czech Republic") and [Morocco](/wiki/Morocco "Morocco") reported their first cases on 18 January{{cite news\|date\=18 January 2021\|title\=UPDATE 1\-Czech Republic detects UK coronavirus variant, to maintain lockdown measures\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/health\-coronavirus\-czech/update\-1\-czech\-republic\-detects\-uk\-coronavirus\-variant\-to\-maintain\-lockdown\-measures\-idUSL1N2JT1GH\| work\=Reuters}}{{cite news\|date\=19 January 2021\|title\=Kuwait, Morocco report first cases of UK coronavirus variant\|url\=https://thearabweekly.com/kuwait\-morocco\-report\-first\-cases\-uk\-coronavirus\-variant\| agency\=The Arab Weekly}} while [Ghana](/wiki/Ghana "Ghana") and [Kuwait](/wiki/Kuwait "Kuwait") confirmed their first cases on 19 January.{{Cite web\|date\=2021\-01\-19\|title\=COVID\-19: UK, South Africa variants found in Ghana – Senior Researcher\|url\=https://starrfm.com.gh/2021/01/covid\-19\-uk\-south\-africa\-variants\-found\-in\-ghana\-senior\-researcher/\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-12\|website\=StarrFM}}{{cite news\|date\=19 January 2021\|title\=Kuwait registers first cases of new virus variant\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/health\-coronavirus\-kuwait/kuwait\-registers\-first\-cases\-of\-new\-virus\-variant\-idUSL1N2JU1CP\| work\=Reuters}} [Nigeria](/wiki/Nigeria "Nigeria") confirmed its first case on 25 January.{{cite web\|last1\=Adebowale\|first1\=Nike\|title\=Updated: COVID\-19 variant, causing anxiety in UK, found in Nigeria – Official\|url\=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top\-news/438652\-covid\-19\-variant\-causing\-anxiety\-in\-uk\-found\-in\-nigeria\-official.html\|website\=The Premium Times\|access\-date\=29 January 2021\|date\=25 January 2021}} On 28 January, [Senegal](/wiki/Senegal "Senegal") detected its first case of the variant.{{cite news\|date\=28 January 2021\|title\=UPDATE 1\-Senegal confirms presence of UK variant of coronavirus\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL1N2K30W7\| work\=Reuters}} In early January, an outbreak linked to a primary school led to the detection of at least 30 cases of the new variant in the [Bergschenhoek](/wiki/Bergschenhoek "Bergschenhoek") area of the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands"), signifying local transmission.{{cite news \|author\= \|title\=Municipality to test 60,000 residents for British strain of coronavirus \|url\=https://www.dutchnews.nl/news/2021/01/municipality\-to\-test\-60000\-residents\-for\-british\-strain\-of\-coronavirus/ \|work\=DutchNews \|date\=11 January 2021 \|access\-date\=2021\-01\-12}} On 24 January, a person travelling from Africa to [Faroe Islands](/wiki/Faroe_Islands "Faroe Islands") tested positive upon arrival to the islands, and went directly into quarantine.{{cite web\|url\=https://kvf.fo/greinar/2021/01/24/uk\-covid\-strain\-confirmed\-faroes\-0\|title\=UK Covid strain confirmed in the Faroes\|author\=Tróndur Olsen\|publisher\=Kringvarp Føroya\|date\=24 January 2021\|access\-date\=25 March 2021}} On 28 January, [North Macedonia](/wiki/North_Macedonia "North Macedonia") confirmed the variant was detected in a 46\-year\-old man, who had already recovered.{{cite news\|date\=28 January 2021\|title\=North Macedonia reports first case of British coronavirus variant \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/health\-coronavirus\-northmacedonia\-idUSL8N2K345K\| work\=Reuters}} #### February 2021 On 1 February, [Lithuania](/wiki/Lithuania "Lithuania") confirmed the first cases of the new lineage.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2021}} On 4 February, health authorities in [Uruguay](/wiki/Uruguay "Uruguay") announced the first case of the variant in the country. The case was detected in a person who entered the country on 20 December 2020 and has been in quarantine ever since.{{cite news\|date\=4 February 2021\|title\=Detectaron la variante británica del virus SARS\-CoV\-2 en Uruguay\|url\=https://www.republica.com.uy/hallaron\-la\-variante\-britanica\-del\-virus\-sars\-cov\-2\-en\-uruguay\-id810761/\|language\=es}} On 10 February, the Health Ministry of [Croatia](/wiki/Croatia "Croatia") confirmed that out of 61 sequenced samples since 20 January, the variant was detected in 3 samples: a male 50 year old and 3\.5 year old from [Zagreb](/wiki/Zagreb "Zagreb"), and a male 34\-year\-old from Brod\-Posavina County.{{Cite web\|last\=Telegram.hr\|title\=Potvrđena prva tri slučaja britanskog soja koronavirusa u Hrvatskoj\|url\=https://www.telegram.hr/politika\-kriminal/potvrdena\-prva\-tri\-slucaja\-britanskog\-soja\-koronavirusa\-u\-hrvatskoj/\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-10\|website\=Telegram.hr\|language\=hr}} On 12 February, the variant was detected from four areas in Sri Lanka,{{Cite web\|date\=2021\-02\-12\|title\=UK COVID strain found in Sri Lanka \- Dr. Chandima Jeewandara\|url\=https://www.newsfirst.lk/2021/02/12/uk\-covid\-strain\-found\-in\-sri\-lanka\-dr\-chandima\-jeewandara/\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-12\|website\=Sri Lanka News \- Newsfirst\|language\=en}} and the Canadian province of [Newfoundland and Labrador](/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador "Newfoundland and Labrador") confirmed an outbreak of the variant.{{Cite web\|title\=Coronavirus variant puts N.L. back in lockdown; in\-person voting suspended\|url\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland\-labrador/covid\-late\-briefing\-feb\-12\-1\.5913042\|access\-date\=13 February 2021\|work\=\[\[CBC News]]}} #### March 2021 On 2 March, [Indonesia](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Indonesia "COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia") reports its first cases of the variant in two migrant workers returning from Saudi Arabia.{{cite news\|title\=Menkes Sebut 2 Kasus Mutasi Corona Inggris Masuk dari Saudi\|url\=https://www.cnnindonesia.com/nasional/20210302200658\-20\-612898/menkes\-sebut\-2\-kasus\-mutasi\-corona\-inggris\-masuk\-dari\-saudi\|access\-date\=8 March 2021\|work\=CNN Indonesia\|date\=2 March 2021\|language\=id}} On the same day, [Tunisia](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tunisia "COVID-19 pandemic in Tunisia")[Tunisia records first cases of UK variant – as it happened](https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2021/mar/02/coronavirus-live-news-who-says-covid-wont-be-over-this-year-france-and-germany-fight-astrazeneca-concerns?page=with:block-603e646a8f08be9d080d8def#block-603e646a8f08be9d080d8def) 2 March 2021 *www.theguardian.com*, accessed 3 March 2021 reported their first cases of the variant. The presence of the variant in [Ivory Coast](/wiki/Ivory_Coast "Ivory Coast") was confirmed on 25 March.{{Cite web\|url\=https://news.educarriere.ci/news\-33998\-covid\-19\-le\-variant\-anglais\-detecte\-en\-cote\-d\-ivoire\-ministere\-de\-la\-sante.html\|title\=Covid\-19: le variant anglais détecté en Côte d'Ivoire (ministère de la Santé)\|website\=Educarriere.ci \|date\=25 March 2021 \|access\-date\= 9 April 2021}} ### N501Y mutation elsewhere The N501Y mutation arose independently multiple times in different locations: * In April 2020, it was seen for the first time in a few isolated sequences in [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil "Brazil").{{Cite web\|title\=Expert reaction new restrictions and the new SARS\-CoV\-2 variant\|url\=https://www.sciencemediacentre.org/expert\-reaction\-to\-pms\-and\-cmos\-statements\-about\-new\-restrictions\-and\-the\-new\-sars\-cov\-2\-variant/\|quote\=Dr Julian Tang, Honorary Associate Professor/Clinical Virologist, University of Leicester, said: "An examination of the global GISAID SARS\-COV\-2 sequence database shows that this N501Y mutation was actually circulating, sporadically, much earlier in the year outside the UK: in Australia in June–July, USA in July and in Brazil in April, 2020\."\|date\=21 December 2020\|access\-date\=21 December 2020\|website\=Science Media Centre\|language\=en\-GB}} * In June 2020, the mutation appeared in an [Australian](/wiki/Australia "Australia") lineage. * In July 2020, (according to Dr Julian Tang, [University of Leicester](/wiki/University_of_Leicester "University of Leicester")) N501Y appeared in a lineage circulating in [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States").{{citation needed\|reason\=better: claim that only a single case found USA/July\|date\=March 2021}} * In September 2020, it was found in a lineage in [Wales](/wiki/Wales "Wales"), that evolved independently and was different from lineage B.1\.1\.7\. * In September 2020, the much more transmissible and widespread lineage B.1\.1\.7 (501Y.V1\) was detected for the first time in [Kent](/wiki/Kent "Kent") (England). * In October 2020, another highly transmissible variant of concern termed lineage B.1\.351 (501Y.V2, [Beta variant](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Beta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Beta variant")) was first time detected by genome sequencing in [Nelson Mendela Bay](/wiki/Nelson_Mandela_Bay_Metropolitan_Municipality "Nelson Mandela Bay Metropolitan Municipality") (South Africa).{{cite report\|date\=10 March 2021 \|title\=Global Report B.1\.351 \|url\=https://cov\-lineages.org/global\_report\_B.1\.351\.html \|publisher\=cov\-lineages.org \|access\-date\=10 March 2021}} [Phylogeographic analysis](/wiki/Phylogeography "Phylogeography") suggests this lineage emerged already in July or August 2020\.{{Cite medRxiv \|vauthors\=Tegally H, Wilkinson E, et al. \|title\=Emergence and rapid spread of a new severe acute respiratory syndrome\-related coronavirus 2 (SARS\-CoV\-2\) lineage with multiple spike mutations in South Africa \|date\=22 December 2020 \|medrxiv\=10\.1101/2020\.12\.21\.20248640}} * In December 2020,{{cite report\|date\=11 March 2021 \|title\=Global Report P.1\|url\=https://cov\-lineages.org/global\_report\_P.1\.html\|publisher\=cov\-lineages.org \|access\-date\=11 March 2021}} another highly transmissible variant termed lineage P.1 (501Y.V3, [Gamma variant](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Gamma_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Gamma variant")) was detected in [Manaus](/wiki/Manaus "Manaus") (Brazil).{{cite news\|author\=Nuno R. Faria\|display\-authors\=et.al\|title\=Genomic characterisation of an emergent SARS\-CoV\-2 lineage in Manaus: preliminary findings\|url\=https://virological.org/t/genomic\-characterisation\-of\-an\-emergent\-sars\-cov\-2\-lineage\-in\-manaus\-preliminary\-findings/586\|date\=12 January 2021\|website\=Virological.org\|access\-date\=11 March 2021}}
[ "Epidemiology\n------------", "[thumb\\|400px\\|Test determined growth curves on a logarithmic scale, for development of the Alpha variant (lineage B.1\\.1\\.7\\) share among all coronavirus positive samples in Denmark, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Portugal, Switzerland, and Ireland.{{refn\\|Data sources:\n\\* Denmark:{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.covid19genomics.dk/statistics\\|title\\=Genomic overview of SARS\\-CoV\\-2 in Denmark\\|date\\=30 January 2021\n\\|access\\-date\\=1 February 2021}}\n\\* The Netherlands:\n\\* Portugal:{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://virological.org/t/tracking\\-sars\\-cov\\-2\\-voc\\-202012\\-01\\-lineage\\-b\\-1\\-1\\-7\\-dissemination\\-in\\-portugal\\-insights\\-from\\-nationwide\\-rt\\-pcr\\-spike\\-gene\\-drop\\-out\\-data/600\\|title\\=Tracking SARS\\-CoV\\-2 VOC 202012/01 (lineage B.1\\.1\\.7\\) dissemination in Portugal: insights from nationwide RT\\-PCR Spike gene drop out data\\|work\\=Update information including data from weeks 3\\-10, 2021: Posted after the article on 16 March 2021\\. Footnote of the previous updates explain that 91\\.8% of total SGTF\\+SGTL (\\~90% of SGTF and 100% of SGTL) was confirmed by genome sequence to be the B.1\\.1\\.7 variant. The B.1\\.1\\.7 shares were calculated as 91\\.8% of the total SGTF\\+SGTL share for each week.\\|last\\=Borges\\|first\\=Vítor\\|display\\-authors\\=etal\\|date\\=19 January 2021\\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2021}}\n\\* Switzerland:{{Cite web\\|title\\=Genomic Characterisation\\|url\\=https://sciencetaskforce.ch/en/nextstrain\\-phylogenetic\\-analysis/\\|author\\=Swiss National COVID\\-19 Science Task Force\\|access\\-date\\=15 March 2021\\|language\\=en\\-US}}\n\\* The United Kingdom:\n\\* Ireland:\n}} The slopes noted in brackets, are the relative exponential growth rate per day (e.g. 7\\.6% per day for Denmark).](/wiki/File:Covid-19_VOC-202012-01_odds_ratio_curves_by_country.png \"Covid-19 VOC-202012-01 odds ratio curves by country.png\")", "* + - * + - [thumb\\|400px\\|Test determined growth curves on a logarithmic scale, for development of the Alpha variant (lineage B.1\\.1\\.7\\) share among all coronavirus positive samples in the United Kingdom, countries in the UK, and regions of England.{{refn\\|Data sources:\n\t\t\t\t\t\\* UK national (2021\\-01\\-21\\):\n\t\t\t\t\t\\* South\\-East England (2020\\-12\\-31\\):\n\t\t\t\t\t\\* UK countries (2021\\-01\\-29\\):{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/healthandsocialcare/conditionsanddiseases/bulletins/coronaviruscovid19infectionsurveypilot/29january2021\\#positive\\-tests\\-that\\-are\\-compatible\\-with\\-the\\-new\\-uk\\-variant\\|title\\=Coronavirus (COVID\\-19\\) Infection Survey, UK: 29 January 2021: 10\\. Positive tests that are compatible with the new UK variant\\|website\\=www.ons.gov.uk\\|display\\-authors\\=etal\\|date\\=2021\\-01\\-29\\|access\\-date\\=1 February 2021\n\t\t\t\t\t}} {{OGL\\-attribution\\|version\\=3\\.0}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\\* England regions (2021\\-01\\-15\\):{{Cite medRxiv \\|last1\\=Walker \\|first1\\=A. Sarah \\|last2\\=Vihta \\|first2\\=Karina\\-Doris \\|last3\\=Gethings \\|first3\\=Owen \\|last4\\=Pritchard \\|first4\\=Emma \\|last5\\=Jones \\|first5\\=Joel \\|last6\\=House \\|first6\\=Thomas \\|last7\\=Bell \\|first7\\=Iain \\|last8\\=Bell \\|first8\\=John I \\|last9\\=Newton \\|first9\\=John N \\|last10\\=Farrar \\|first10\\=Jeremy \\|last11\\=Diamond \\|first11\\=Ian \\|last12\\=Studley \\|first12\\=Ruth \\|last13\\=Rourke \\|first13\\=Emma \\|last14\\=Hay \\|first14\\=Jodie \\|last15\\=Hopkins \\|first15\\=Susan \\|last16\\=Crook \\|first16\\=Derrick \\|last17\\=Peto \\|first17\\=Tim \\|last18\\=Matthews \\|first18\\=Philippa C. \\|last19\\=Eyre \\|first19\\=David W. \\|last20\\=Stoesser \\|first20\\=Nicole \\|last21\\=Pouwels \\|first21\\=Koen B. \\|title\\=Increased infections, but not viral burden, with a new SARS\\-CoV\\-2 variant \\|date\\=15 January 2021 \\|medrxiv\\=10\\.1101/2021\\.01\\.13\\.21249721}}\n\t\t\t\t\t}} The slopes noted in brackets, are the relative exponential growth rate per day (e.g. 8\\.6% per day for the UK).](/wiki/File:Covid-19_VOC-202012-01_odds_ratio_curves_by_UK_region.png \"Covid-19 VOC-202012-01 odds ratio curves by UK region.png\")", "* + - * Cases of the Alpha variant (lineage B.1\\.1\\.7\\) were estimated to be [under\\-reported](/wiki/Under-reporting \"Under-reporting\") by most countries as the most commonly used tests do not distinguish between this variant and other SARS\\-CoV\\-2 variants, and as many SARS\\-CoV\\-2 infections are not detected at all. RNA sequencing is required for detection of this variant,{{Cite web\\|title\\=Risk related to spread of new SARSCoV\\-2 variants of concern in the EU/EEA\\|url\\=https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/COVID\\-19\\-risk\\-related\\-to\\-spread\\-of\\-new\\-SARS\\-CoV\\-2\\-variants\\-EU\\-EEA.pdf\\|date\\=29 December 2020\\|website\\=www.ecdc.europa.eu\\|access\\-date\\=1 February 2021}} although [RT\\-PCR test](/wiki/Reverse_transcription_polymerase_chain_reaction \"Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction\") for specific variants{{efn\\|An example of this is the \\[\\[Deletion (genetics)\\|delta]] (Δ)–PCR test, which in connection to SARS\\-CoV\\-2, has been used to detect the HV 69–70 deletion in variants with this mutation{{Cite news\\|author\\=Statens Serum Institut\\|date\\=4 February 2021\\|title\\=Delta\\-PCR\\-testen\\|trans\\-title\\=The delta\\-PCR test\\|language\\=da\\|url\\=https://covid19\\.ssi.dk/diagnostik/delta\\-pcr\\-testen\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-11}} through what has been named \"spike\\-gene target failure\" (SGTF) or \"spike\\-gene drop out\" for the spike (S) gene{{efn\\|name\\=\"S gene\"}} in a subset of \\[\\[Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction\\|RT\\-PCR]] assays (e.g., TaqPath COVID\\-19 RT\\-PCR assay, ThermoFisher).{{Cite journal \\|author\\=Antonin Bal \\|author2\\=Gregory Destras \\|author3\\=Alexandre Gaymard \\|author4\\=Karl Stefic \\|author5\\=Julien Marlet \\|collaboration\\=COVID\\-Diagnosis HCL Study Group \\|display\\-authors\\=etal \\|date\\=21 January 2021\\|title\\=Two\\-step strategy for the identification of SARS\\-CoV\\-2 variant of concern 202012/01 and other variants with spike deletion H69–V70; France; August to December 2020\\|journal\\=Eurosurveillance\\|volume\\=26 \\|issue\\=3 \\|language\\=en\\|doi\\=10\\.2807/1560\\-7917\\.ES.2021\\.26\\.3\\.2100008\\|pmid\\=33478625 \\|pmc\\=7848679 \\|doi\\-access\\=free}} Though existing in a few other variants of SARS\\-CoV\\-2, the HV 69–70 deletion in the spike protein is present in the vast majority of B.1\\.1\\.7 genomes, which enables the delta\\-PCR test to be used as a proxy test for the lineage—or as a supplementing first\\-screening test before conducting the \\[\\[Whole genome sequencing\\|whole\\-genome sequencing]].\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tAnother example of a RT\\-PCR test intended to detect specific variants is the one detecting all genomes with the N501Y mutation (e.g., Alpha, \\[\\[SARS\\-CoV\\-2 Gamma variant\\|Gamma variant]], and \\[\\[SARS\\-CoV\\-2 Beta variant\\|Beta variant]]), which is now also being used as a first\\-step screening tool ahead of genome sequencing by several laboratories/countries (e.g. by some parts of France).\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tA third and fourth RT\\-PCR test intended for detecting specific variants pre\\-screen the samples for variants respectively with the N501Y\\+A570D mutations (Alpha) and N501Y without the A570D mutation (Beta, Gamma, and other N501Y variants).\\|name\\=\\|group\\=}} can be used as a proxy test for Alpha — or as a supplementing first\\-screening test before conducting the [whole\\-genome sequencing](/wiki/Whole_genome_sequencing \"Whole genome sequencing\").", "As of 23 March, the Alpha variant had been detected in 125 out of 241 [sovereign states and dependencies](/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population%23Sovereign_states_and_dependencies_by_population \"List of countries and dependencies by population#Sovereign states and dependencies by population\") (or 104 out of 194 [WHO member countries](/wiki/World_Health_Organization%23Membership \"World Health Organization#Membership\")),{{efn\\|name\\=WHOstatus\\|'''104 WHO members had reported a detection of the Alpha variant (lineage B.1\\.1\\.7\\), as of 23 March 2021:''' ''Albania, Angola, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belarus, Belgium, Belize, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Brunei Darussalam, Bulgaria, Cabo Verde, Cambodia, Canada, Chile, China, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Estonia, Finland, France, Gambia, Georgia, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Jordan, Kenya, Kuwait, Latvia, Lebanon, Libya, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Malta, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mexico, Monaco, Montenegro, Morocco, Nepal, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, North Macedonia, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Republic of Korea (South Korea), Republic of Moldova, Romania, Russia, Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Serbia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Turkey, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United States, Uruguay, Uzbekistan, Vietnam.''", "'''90 WHO members had not reported any detection of the Alpha variant (lineage B.1\\.1\\.7\\), as of 23 March 2021:''' ''Afghanistan, Algeria, Andorra, Antigua and Barbuda, Armenia, Bahamas, Benin, Bhutan, Bolivia, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Colombia, Comoros, Congo, Cook Islands, Côte d'Ivoire, Cuba, Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea), Djibouti, Dominica, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Fiji, Gabon, Grenada, Guatemala, Guinea\\-Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Guinea, Kazakhstan, Kiribati, Kyrgyzstan, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Maldives, Mali, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Mongolia, Mozambique, Myanmar, Namibia, Nauru, Nicaragua, Niger, Niue, Palau, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Qatar, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, San Marino, Sao Tome and Principe, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Suriname, Swaziland, Syrian Arab Republic, Tajikistan, Timor\\-Leste, Togo, Tonga, Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Yemen, Zambia, Zimbabwe.''}} of which some had reported existence of community transmission while others so far only found travel related cases.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.who.int/docs/default\\-source/coronaviruse/situation\\-reports/20210323\\_weekly\\_epi\\_update\\_32\\.pdf?sfvrsn\\=cd8deb5a\\_4\\&download\\=true\\|title\\=COVID\\-19 weekly epidemiological update, 23 March 2021\\|publisher\\=WHO\\|date\\=23 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=23 March 2021}} As of 16 March, it had become the [dominant COVID\\-19 variant](/wiki/%23Development \"#Development\") for 21 countries: United Kingdom (week 52\\), Ireland (week 2\\), Bulgaria (week 4\\), Slovakia (week 5\\), Israel (week 5\\), Luxembourg (week 5\\), Portugal (week 6\\), Denmark (week 7\\), Netherlands (week 7\\), Norway (week 7\\), Italy (week 7\\), Belgium (week 7\\), France (week 8\\), Austria (week 8\\), Switzerland (week 8\\), Liechtenstein (week 9\\), Germany (week 9\\), Sweden (week 9\\), Spain (week 9\\), Malta (week 10\\) and Poland (week 11\\). The emergence and the fast spreading of the new variant has been detected in Lebanon and a relationship noted between SARS\\-CoV\\-2 transmission intensity and the frequency of the new variant during the first twelve days of January.{{Cite medRxiv \\|vauthors\\=Younes M, Hamze K, et al. \\|title\\=Emergence and fast spread of B.1\\.1\\.7 lineage in Lebanon \\|date\\=26 January 2021 \\|medrxiv\\=10\\.1101/2021\\.01\\.25\\.21249974}} By February, Alpha became the dominant variant in Lebanon.{{Cite medRxiv \\|vauthors\\=Younes M, Hamze K, et al. \\|title\\=B.1\\.1\\.7 became the dominant variant in Lebanon \\|date\\=17 March 2021 \\|medrxiv\\=10\\.1101/2021\\.03\\.17\\.21253782}}", "### Spread in UK", "The first case was likely in mid\\-September 2020 in London or [Kent](/wiki/Kent \"Kent\"), United Kingdom.{{cite news\\|last\\=Higgins\\-Dunn\\|first\\=N.\\|date\\=19 December 2020\\|title\\=The U.K. has identified a new Covid\\-19 strain that spreads more quickly. Here's what they know\\|url\\=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/12/19/the\\-uk\\-has\\-identified\\-a\\-new\\-covid\\-19\\-strain\\-that\\-spreads\\-more\\-quickly\\-heres\\-what\\-they\\-know.html\\|publisher\\=MSNBC}} The variant was sequenced in September.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Team \\|first\\=The Lockdown Files \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-09 \\|title\\=Covid variant that ruined Christmas hidden by scientists from ministers for months \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|work\\=The Telegraph \\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2023/03/09/covid\\-variant\\-ruined\\-christmas\\-hidden\\-scientists\\-ministers\\-months/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-13 \\|issn\\=0307\\-1235}} As of 13 December 2020, 1,108 cases with this variant had been identified in the UK in nearly 60 different local authorities. These cases were predominantly in the [south east of England](/wiki/South_East_England \"South East England\"). The variant has also been identified in Wales and Scotland.{{Cite web\\|title\\=COVID\\-19 Genomics UK (COG\\-UK) Consortium \\- Wellcome Sanger Institute\\|url\\=https://www.sanger.ac.uk/collaboration/covid\\-19\\-genomics\\-uk\\-cog\\-uk\\-consortium/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-23\\|website\\=www.sanger.ac.uk}} By November, around a quarter of cases in the [COVID\\-19 pandemic in London](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_London \"COVID-19 pandemic in London\") were being caused by the new variant, and by December, that was a third.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Gallagher \\|first1\\=James \\|title\\=New coronavirus variant: What do we know? \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health\\-55388846 \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2020 \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=20 December 2020}} In mid\\-December, it was estimated that almost 60 percent of cases in London involved Alpha.{{Cite news \\|title\\=London Begins Emergency Lockdown as U.K. Fights New Virus Strain \\| publisher\\=Bloomberg News \\| last1 \\= Ross \\|first1 \\= T. \\| last2 \\= Spence \\| first2 \\= E. \\|date\\=19 December 2020 \\|url\\= https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020\\-12\\-19/london\\-put\\-in\\-emergency\\-lockdown\\-as\\-u\\-k\\-fights\\-new\\-virus\\-strain }} By 25 January 2021, the number of confirmed and probable UK cases had grown to 28,122\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Variants – distribution of cases data: data up to 25 January 2021 \\|url\\=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/covid\\-19\\-variants\\-genomically\\-confirmed\\-case\\-numbers/variants\\-distribution\\-of\\-cases\\-data\\-data\\-up\\-to\\-25\\-january\\-2021 \\|website\\=Gov.uk \\|publisher\\=Public Health England \\|access\\-date\\=27 January 2021 \\|date\\=26 January 2021}} {{OGL\\-attribution\\|version\\=3\\.0}}", "### Spread in Europe", "The variant became dominant for:\n* [South East England](/wiki/South_East_England \"South East England\") in week 48, the last week of November 2020\\.\n* [England](/wiki/England \"England\") in week 51 of 2020\\.\n* [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") in week 52 of 2020\\.\n* [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\") and [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland \"Northern Ireland\") in week 1 of 2021\\.\n* [Wales](/wiki/Wales \"Wales\") in week 2 of 2021\\.\n* [Ireland](/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland \"Republic of Ireland\") in week 2 of 2021\\.\nIn Bulgaria, genome sequencing found the variant to be dominant with 52\\.1% in week 4, followed by 73\\.4% in week 9\\.\n[thumb\\|400px\\|Distribution of the SARS\\-CoV\\-2 virus variants after entering Germany](/wiki/file:Verbreitung_der_SARS-CoV-2-Virusvarianten_in_Deutschland.svg \"Verbreitung der SARS-CoV-2-Virusvarianten in Deutschland.svg\")\nAlso in Slovakia, a RT\\-PCR Multiplex DX test capable of detecting the 2 deletions specific for lineage B.1\\.1\\.7 (ΔH69/ΔV70 and ΔY144\\),{{Cite web\\|author\\=Kovacova, V. \\|display\\-authors\\=etal\\|date\\=5 February 2021\\|title\\=A novel, room temperature\\-stable, multiplexed RT\\-qPCR assay to distinguish lineage B.1\\.1\\.7 from the remaining SARS\\-CoV\\-2 lineages.\\|website\\=virological.org\\|url\\=https://virological.org/t/a\\-novel\\-room\\-temperature\\-stable\\-multiplexed\\-rt\\-qpcr\\-assay\\-to\\-distinguish\\-lineage\\-b\\-1\\-1\\-7\\-from\\-the\\-remaining\\-sars\\-cov\\-2\\-lineages/611\\|access\\-date\\=21 February 2021}} first found the variant nationwide in 74% of cases on 3 February (week 5\\), followed by 72% of cases on 15 February (week 7\\), and it then grew to 90% of cases on 3 March (week 9\\).{{Cite news\\|author\\=Ján Mikas, hlavný hygienik Slovenskej Republiky\\|date\\=9 March 2021\\|title\\=Britský variant potvrdený na Slovensku v 90% vyšetrených vzoriek\\|trans\\-title\\=British variant confirmed in Slovakia in 90% of examined samples\\|language\\=sk\\|publisher\\=Public Health Office of the Slovak Republic\\|url\\=https://www.uvzsr.sk/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=4651\\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=13 May 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513135235/https://www.uvzsr.sk/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=4651}} The same test found earlier on 8 January prevalence of the variant at a rate of 36% in the [Michalovce District](/wiki/Michalovce_District \"Michalovce District\") and 29% in [Nitra](/wiki/Nitra \"Nitra\").{{Cite news\\|date\\=9 January 2021\\|title\\=Aktuálna epidemiologická situácia na Slovensku (prezentácia, 8\\. január 2021\\)\\|trans\\-title\\=Current epidemiological situation in Slovakia (presentation, January 8, 2021\\)\\|language\\=sk\\|publisher\\=Public Health Office of the Slovak Republic\\|url\\=https://www.uvzsr.sk/docs/info/covid19/Epidemiologicka\\_situacia\\_210108\\_v1\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=21 February 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=14 July 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714020630/https://www.uvzsr.sk/docs/info/covid19/Epidemiologicka\\_situacia\\_210108\\_v1\\.pdf}}", "In Israel, the variant was first time detected by genome sequencing 23 December 2020\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.gov.il/en/departments/news/23122020\\-07\\|title\\=Press Releases: Four Cases of COVID\\-19 Variant found in the United Kingdom Have Been Discovered in Israel\\|publisher\\=Ministry of Health\\|date\\=23 December 2020\\|access\\-date\\=26 February 2021}} [Leumit Health Care Services](/wiki/Leumit_Health_Care_Services \"Leumit Health Care Services\") however analysed with the proxy test RT\\-PCR (SGTF) and found the variant at a rate of 3‑4% on 15 December. The national Ministry of Health estimated based on genome sequencing, that the prevalence of the variant became dominant (70%) on 6 February followed by 90% on 16 February.", "In Luxembourg, a weekly genome sequencing revealed that the variant grew from 0\\.3% (week 51\\) to be dominant with a share of 53\\.0% in week 5, although results might not be fully representative due to the fact that no correction occurred from potential targeting bias from contact tracing, airport travellers and local outbreaks. Genome sequencing of a population representative randomized test pool \\- with no target bias \\- was conducted since week 6, and it confirmed the dominant status of the variant at a rate of 54\\.1% (week 6\\) growing to 62\\.8% (week 9\\), while the competing [Beta variant](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Beta_variant \"SARS-CoV-2 Beta variant\") (lineage B.1\\.351\\) was found to be at 18\\.5% in week 9\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Respiratory Viruses Surveillance – REVILUX: Respiratory Viruses Sentinelle Newsletter, REVILUX bulletin hebdomadaire\\|trans\\-title\\=Respiratory Viruses Surveillance – REVILUX: Respiratory Viruses Sentinelle Newsletter, REVILUX weekly update\\|author\\=Laboratoire National de Santé (LNS)\\|url\\=https://lns.lu/en/departement/department\\-of\\-microbiology/revilux/\\|date\\=18 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=17 December 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217115439/https://lns.lu/en/departement/department\\-of\\-microbiology/revilux/}}", "In Denmark the variant grew from 0\\.3% (week 46 of 2020\\) to become dominant with 65\\.9% (week 7 of 2021\\), and it grew further to 92\\.7% (week 10\\); with the regional prevalence ranging from 87\\.3% in the [North Jutland Region](/wiki/North_Jutland_Region \"North Jutland Region\") to 96\\.1% in the [Central Denmark Region](/wiki/Central_Denmark_Region \"Central Denmark Region\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://files.ssi.dk/covid19/virusvarianter/status/status\\-virusvarianter\\-20032021\\-i33i\\|title\\=Status for udvikling af SARS\\-CoV\\-2 Variants of Concern (VOC) i Danmark\\|trans\\-title\\=Status of development of SARS\\-CoV\\-2 Variants of Concern (VOC) in Denmark\\|language\\=da\\|publisher\\=Statens Serum Institut\\|date\\=20 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=20 March 2021}} The observed growth of the relative variant share, was in full accordance with the earlier modelled forecast, that had predicted dominance (over 50%) around mid\\-February and a prevalence of around 80% of the total circulating variants by early March.{{cite report\\|url\\=https://covid19\\.ssi.dk/\\-/media/cdn/files/notat\\-om\\-prognoser\\-for\\-smittetal\\-og\\-indlggelser\\_01022021\\.pdf?la\\=da\\|title\\=Notat om prognoser for smittetal og indlæggelser ved scenarier for genåbning af 0\\.\\-4\\. klasse i grundskolen\\|language\\=Danish\\|trans\\-title\\=\\[\\[Memorandum]] on forecasts for infection rates and hospital admissions in scenarios for reopening of 0th–4th class in primary school\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Statens Serum Institut]]\\|access\\-date\\=2 February 2021 \\|date\\=31 January 2021}} In comparison, the genome sequencing only found the competing Beta variant in 0\\.4% of the positive cases (9 times out of 2315 tests) in week 10\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://files.ssi.dk/covid19/virusvarianter/status/status\\-virusvarianter\\-12032021\\-uh7y\\|title\\=Status for udvikling af SARS\\-CoV\\-2 Variants of Concern (VOC) i Danmark\\|trans\\-title\\=Status of development of SARS\\-CoV\\-2 Variants of Concern (VOC) in Denmark\\|language\\=da\\|publisher\\=Statens Serum Institut\\|date\\=12 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=20 March 2021}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://files.ssi.dk/covid19/virusvarianter/status/status\\-virusvarianter\\-19032021\\-j3k4\\|title\\=Status for udvikling af SARS\\-CoV\\-2 Variants of Concern (VOC) i Danmark\\|trans\\-title\\=Status of development of SARS\\-CoV\\-2 Variants of Concern (VOC) in Denmark\\|language\\=da\\|publisher\\=Statens Serum Institut\\|date\\=19 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=20 March 2021}}", "In the Netherlands, a randomly conducted genome sequencing found that the variant grew from 1\\.3% of cases in week 49 to a dominant share of 61\\.3% in week 7, followed by 82\\.0% in week 9; while the competing Beta variant in comparison was found to be at 3\\.0% in week 9\\.{{Cite web\\|author\\=National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM) \\- Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport\\|date\\=23 March 2021\\|title\\=Variants of the coronavirus SARS\\-CoV\\-2\\|url\\=https://www.rivm.nl/en/novel\\-coronavirus\\-covid\\-19/virus\\-sars\\-cov\\-2/variants\\-of\\-coronavirus\\-sars\\-cov\\-2\\|access\\-date\\=23 March 2021\\|website\\=www.rivm.nl}} In Amsterdam, the Alpha variant (lineage B.1\\.1\\.7\\) grew from 5\\.2% (week 52\\) to 54\\.5% (week 6\\).{{Cite web\\|author\\=Ministerie van Volksgezondheid, Welzijn en Sport\\|date\\=23 February 2021\\|title\\=Advies VWS na OMT 101\\|trans\\-title\\=Advice from VWS after 101th OMT on COVID\\-19\\|url\\=https://open.overheid.nl/repository/ronl\\-09bf1c47\\-e36e\\-44c8\\-b33e\\-c9877a71f455/1/pdf/advies\\-vws\\-na\\-omt\\-101\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2022\\|website\\=overheid.nl\\|language\\=nl}}", "In Norway, the variant was found by genome sequencing to grow from 5\\.7% (week 1\\) into dominance by a 58\\.4% (week 7\\), followed by 65\\.0% (week 8\\).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.fhi.no/contentassets/8a971e7b0a3c4a06bdbf381ab52e6157/vedlegg/2021/ukerapport\\-for\\-uke\\-8\\-22\\.02\\-\\-\\-28\\.02\\.21\\.pdf\\|title\\=COVID\\-19 Ukerapport – uke 8, onsdag 3\\. mars 2021\\|trans\\-title\\=COVID\\-19 weekly report for week 8 (wednesday 3 March 2021\\)\\|language\\=no\\|author\\=Folkehelseinstituttet\\|date\\=3 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=4 March 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=19 November 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119205120/https://www.fhi.no/contentassets/8a971e7b0a3c4a06bdbf381ab52e6157/vedlegg/2021/ukerapport\\-for\\-uke\\-8\\-22\\.02\\-\\-\\-28\\.02\\.21\\.pdf}} Another large survey comprising results of both genome sequencing and PCR proxy tests, with a sample seize of more than 1000 tests per week (since week 4\\), at the same time found that the variant grew from 2\\.0% (week 48\\) into dominance by 60\\.0% (week 7\\), followed by 72\\.7% in week 10 \\- while only 2\\.2% of cases in comparison were found to be of the Beta variant.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.fhi.no/contentassets/8a971e7b0a3c4a06bdbf381ab52e6157/vedlegg/2021/ukerapport\\-for\\-uke\\-10\\-08\\.03\\-\\-\\-14\\.03\\.21\\.pdf\\|title\\=COVID\\-19 Ukerapport – uke 10, onsdag 17\\. mars 2021\\|trans\\-title\\=COVID\\-19 weekly report for week 10 (wednesday 17 March 2021\\)\\|language\\=no\\|author\\=Folkehelseinstituttet\\|date\\=17 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=17 March 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210317154422/https://www.fhi.no/contentassets/8a971e7b0a3c4a06bdbf381ab52e6157/vedlegg/2021/ukerapport\\-for\\-uke\\-10\\-08\\.03\\-\\-\\-14\\.03\\.21\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The variant regionally had its highest share in the county of [Oslo](/wiki/Oslo \"Oslo\") and [Viken](/wiki/Viken_%28county%29 \"Viken (county)\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.fhi.no/sv/smittsomme\\-sykdommer/corona/statistikk\\-over\\-tilfeller\\-av\\-koronavirusvarianter/\\#forekomst\\-av\\-engelsk\\-koronavirusvariant\\|title\\=Statistikk over meldte tilfeller av den engelske og den sør\\-afrikanske varianten av koronavirus\\|trans\\-title\\=Statistics on reported cases of the English and South African variants of coronavirus\\|language\\=no\\|author\\=Folkehelseinstituttet\\|date\\=26 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=28 February 2021}} growing from 18% to 90% of analysed samples in Oslo from 20 January to 23 February (although with the data\\-corrected estimate a bit lower at 50\\-70% on 23 February); while growing from 21% to 80% of analysed samples in Viken from 25 January to 23 February (although with the data\\-corrected estimate a bit lower at 50% on 23 February).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.fhi.no/nyheter/2021/engelsk\\-virusvariant\\-dominerer\\-i\\-oslo\\-og\\-viken/\\|title\\=Engelsk virusvariant dominerer i Oslo og Viken\\|trans\\-title\\=English virus variant dominates in Oslo and Viken\\|language\\=no\\|author\\=Folkehelseinstituttet\\|date\\=27 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=28 February 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=17 April 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417235139/https://www.fhi.no/nyheter/2021/engelsk\\-virusvariant\\-dominerer\\-i\\-oslo\\-og\\-viken/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} For the period 15 February to 14 March, the combined survey of genome sequencing and PCR proxy tests, also found the Alpha variant was at a dominant rate over 50% for 8 out of 11 regions, with its highest rate (82%) found for Oslo; while the region [Nordland](/wiki/Nordland \"Nordland\") was different from all other regions by having only 6% cases of Alpha along with a dominant 88% of cases represented by the Beta variant.", "In Portugal, the variant represented according to a national genome sequencing survey: 16\\.0% of the Covid\\-19 infections during 10–19 January (week 2\\),{{Cite web\\|title\\=Diversidade genética do novo coronavírus SARS\\-CoV\\-2 (COVID\\-19\\) em Portugal\\|trans\\-title\\=Genetic diversity of the new SARS\\-CoV\\-2 coronavirus (COVID\\-19\\) in Portugal\\|author\\=Instituto Nacional de Saúde (INSA), Doutor Ricardo Jorge\\|url\\=https://insaflu.insa.pt/covid19/relatorios/INSA\\_SARS\\_CoV\\_2\\_DIVERSIDADE\\_GENETICA\\_relatorio\\_situacao\\_2021\\-02\\-05\\.pdf\\|date\\=2021\\-02\\-05\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-07\\|language\\=pt}} followed by a dominant 58\\.2% in week 6\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Diversidade genética do novo coronavírus SARS\\-CoV\\-2 (COVID\\-19\\) em Portugal (3 de Março de 2021\\)\\|trans\\-title\\=Genetic diversity of the new SARS\\-CoV\\-2 coronavirus (COVID\\-19\\) in Portugal (3 March 2021\\)\\|author\\=Instituto Nacional de Saúde (INSA), Doutor Ricardo Jorge\\|url\\=https://insaflu.insa.pt/covid19/relatorios/INSA\\_SARS\\_CoV\\_2\\_DIVERSIDADE\\_GENETICA\\_relatorio\\_situacao\\_2021\\-03\\-03\\.pdf\\|date\\=3 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=4 March 2021\\|language\\=pt}} A national RT\\-PCR proxy test based on SGTF and SGTL observations, found the variant at a rate of 33\\.5% in week 4, but observed afterwards a decelerating pace for the weekly rise of the variant share (reason unknown), and according to this study it only became dominant by 50\\.5% {{small\\|(91\\.8% of 55\\.0% SGTFL)}} in week 8, followed by 64\\.3% {{small\\|(91\\.8% of 70% SGTFL)}} in week 10\\.", "In Italy, the Alpha variant accounted for 17\\.8% of cases nationwide on 4–5 February (week 5\\),{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.iss.it/primo\\-piano/\\-/asset\\_publisher/3f4alMwzN1Z7/content/id/5624099?\\_com\\_liferay\\_asset\\_publisher\\_web\\_portlet\\_AssetPublisherPortlet\\_INSTANCE\\_3f4alMwzN1Z7\\|title\\=Prevalenza della variante VOC 202012/01, lineage B.1\\.1\\.7 in Italia (Studio di prevalenza 4\\-5 febbraio 2021\\)\\|trans\\-title\\=Prevalence of the VOC variant 202012/01, lineage B.1\\.1\\.7 in Italy (Prevalence study February 4–5, 2021\\)\\|language\\=it\\|author\\=Istituto Superiore di Sanità\\|date\\=February 15, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=February 17, 2021}} followed by 54\\.0% on 18 February (week 7\\). The regional prevalence for week 7 ranged from 0% in [Aosta Valley](/wiki/Aosta_Valley \"Aosta Valley\") (although only one sample was tested) to 93\\.3% in [Molise](/wiki/Molise \"Molise\"). In week 7, the competing [Gamma variant](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Gamma_variant \"SARS-CoV-2 Gamma variant\") had a prevalence of 4\\.3% (ranging between 0%\\-36\\.2% regionally) and the South African variant a prevalence of 0\\.4% (ranging between 0%\\-2\\.9% regionally).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.iss.it/primo\\-piano/\\-/asset\\_publisher/3f4alMwzN1Z7/content/id/5647546\\|title\\=CS N° 14/2021 \\- In Italia il 54% delle infezioni dovute a 'variante inglese', il 4,3% a quella 'brasiliana' e lo 0,4% a quella 'sudafricana'\\|trans\\-title\\=CS N° 14/2021 \\- In Italy 54% of infections due to the 'English variant', 4\\.3% to the 'Brazilian' one and 0\\.4% to the 'South African' one\\|language\\=it\\|author\\=Istituto Superiore di Sanità\\|date\\=2 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=5 March 2021}}", "In Switzerland, a nationwide weekly genome sequencing survey found that the Alpha variant grew from 0\\.05% (week 51\\) to a dominant 58\\.2% of cases in week 8, followed by 71\\.1% in week 9\\. This was in full accordance with a model from 9 February that had forecast dominance around mid\\-February.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://sciencetaskforce.ch/wissenschaftliches\\-update\\-09\\-februar\\-2021/\\|title\\=Wissenschaftliches update 09 februar 2021\\|trans\\-title\\=Scientific update of 9 February 2021\\|language\\=de\\|publisher\\=Swiss National COVID\\-19 Task Force\\|date\\=9 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=17 February 2021}} In comparison, the competing Beta variant was only found nationwide in 1\\.0% of the positive cases in week 9\\.\nIn Belgium, genome sequencing of samples selected randomly after excluding all samples from active targeted testing related to local outbreaks or travels (creating a statistical representative national sample with a seize equal to 4\\.4% of all COVID\\-19 positive tests), found that the Alpha variant share grew from 7\\.1% in week 1 to a dominant 51\\.5% in week 7, followed by 79\\.3% in week 10\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Covid\\-19 Wekelijks Epidemiologisch Bulletin (19 Maart 2021\\)\\|trans\\-title\\=Covid\\-19 Weekly Epidemiological Bulletin (19 March 2021\\)\\|url\\=https://covid\\-19\\.sciensano.be/sites/default/files/Covid19/COVID\\-19\\_Weekly\\_report\\_NL.pdf\\|author\\=Sciensano\\|date\\=19 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2021\\|work\\=Moleculaire surveillance van SARS\\-CoV\\-2 (p.20\\-22\\)\\|language\\=nl}} The variant was first time detected by targeted genome sequencing in week 49, but due to a small sample seize (not being random, and less than 100 tests per week) then no reliable variant share data could be determined before week 1\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Covid\\-19 Wekelijks Epidemiologisch Bulletin (19 Februari 2021\\)\\|trans\\-title\\=Covid\\-19 Weekly Epidemiological Bulletin (February 19, 2021\\)\\|url\\=http://covid\\-19\\.sciensano.be/sites/default/files/Covid19/COVID\\-19\\_Weekly%20report\\_20210219%20\\-%20NL.pdf\\|author\\=Sciensano\\|date\\=19 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=25 February 2021\\|work\\=Moleculaire surveillance van SARS\\-CoV\\-2 (p.21\\-24\\)\\|language\\=nl}} The proxy test for the variant (RT\\-PCR SGTF) was also conducted for a sample seize equal to 25\\.8% of all COVID\\-19 positive tests, and found a dominant 54\\.8% SGTF rate for week 10\\. In comparison, the competing [Beta variant](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Beta_variant \"SARS-CoV-2 Beta variant\") was found to be at 3\\.6% and the [Gamma variant](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Gamma_variant \"SARS-CoV-2 Gamma variant\") had a prevalence of 1\\.8% in week 10\\.", "In France, scientists accurately forecast the Alpha variant (VOC\\-202012/01\\) would likely become dominant nationwide around week 8–11 of 2021\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Estimated date of dominance of VOC\\-202012/01 strain in France and projected scenarios\\|url\\=https://www.epicx\\-lab.com/uploads/9/6/9/4/9694133/inserm\\_covid\\-19\\-voc\\_dominance\\-20210116\\.pdf\\|date\\=16 January 2021}} A nationwide survey of randomly selected positive COVID\\-19 samples first analysed by a RT\\-PCR screening test and subsequently confirmed by genome sequencing, revealed that the variant grew from a share of 3\\.3% (388/11916\\) on 7–8 January (week 1\\){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.santepubliquefrance.fr/content/download/315275/2903017\\|title\\=COVID\\-19: Point épidémiologi que hebdomadaire du 28 janvier 2021\\|trans\\-title\\=COVID\\-19: Weekly epidemiological update of 28 January 2021\\|language\\=fr\\|author\\=Santé Publique France\\|date\\=January 28, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=February 1, 2021}} to 13\\.3% (475/3561\\) on 27 January (week 4\\),{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.santepubliquefrance.fr/content/download/326672/2952356\\|title\\=COVID\\-19: Point épidémiologi que hebdomadaire du 11 mars 2021\\|trans\\-title\\=COVID\\-19: Weekly epidemiological update of 11 March 2021\\|language\\=fr\\|author\\=Santé Publique France\\|date\\=11 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=12 March 2021}} followed by 44\\.3% (273/615\\) on 16 February (week 7\\). In week 8, the variant was found to have a dominant share of 56\\.4% (758/1345\\) according to the interpretable results of a weekly genome sequencing survey comprising 0\\.9% of all COVID\\-19 positive tests, or 59\\.5% according to a variant\\-specific RT\\-PCR survey testing 54% of all the COVID\\-19 positive tests. In week 10, the variant was found to have a share of 71\\.9% according to a variant\\-specific RT\\-PCR survey testing 56\\.9% of all the COVID\\-19 positive tests. The spread of the variant differed regionally for the 96 [departments](/wiki/Departments_of_France \"Departments of France\") located in [Metropolitan France](/wiki/Metropolitan_France \"Metropolitan France\") for week 10, with 91 departments over 50% and 5 departments with 30%\\-50% (of which the [Moselle department](/wiki/Moselle_%28department%29 \"Moselle (department)\") in particular was notable due to finding a high 38\\.3% rate of the competing Beta variant, that \\- despite having declined from a dominant 54\\.4% value in week 8 \\- still was significantly above the 5\\.0% national average for this specific variant).", "In Austria, [Agentur für Gesundheit und Ernährungssicherheit (AGES)](/wiki/w:De:Agentur_f%C3%BCr_Gesundheit_und_Ern%C3%A4hrungssicherheit \"De:Agentur für Gesundheit und Ernährungssicherheit\") collected data from N501Y RT\\-PCR specific tests combined with subsequent genome sequencing analysis, and found that the variant grew from 7\\.2% (week 1\\) to a dominant 61\\.3% (week 8\\), followed by 61\\.2% in week 9 and 48\\.3% in week 10\\. If all N501Y positive tests had been analysed further by genome sequencing, then these listed shares could have been even higher, for example they could have been as mcuh as: 2\\.4% higher for week 1, 23\\.0% higher for week 7, 4\\.0% higher for week 8, 6\\.8% higher for week 9 and 25\\.4% higher for week 10\\. The competing Beta variant was only found nationwide in 0\\.3% of the positive cases in week 10, and for the region [Tyrol](/wiki/Tyrol_%28state%29 \"Tyrol (state)\") \\- where it had been most prevalent \\- its share declined from 24\\.5% in week 4 to just 1\\.9% in week 10\\. Regionally Alpha was found to be dominant with over 50% for 7 out of [9 regions](/wiki/States_of_Austria \"States of Austria\"), with the only two exceptions being Tyrol and [Vorarlberg](/wiki/Vorarlberg \"Vorarlberg\").", "In Germany, the largest and probably most representative national survey published by the [Robert Koch Institute](/wiki/Robert_Koch_Institute \"Robert Koch Institute\") (entitled *RKI\\-Testzahlerfassung*), determined the share of circulating COVID\\-19 variants for the latest week by analysing 53,272 COVID\\-19 positive samples either by genome sequencing or RT\\-PCR proxy tests, with data collected on a voluntary basis from 84 laboratories from the university / research / clinical / outpatient sector \\- spread evenly across the nation. The survey did not utilize data weights or data selection criteria to ensure existence of geographical representativity, but might still be regarded as somewhat representative for the national average due to its big sample seize. According to the *RKI\\-Testzahlerfassung* survey, the variant grew from a share of 2\\.0% (week 2\\) to a dominant share of 54\\.5% (week 9\\), followed by 63\\.5% in week 10\\. In comparison, the competing Beta variant was only found nationwide in 0\\.9% of the positive cases in week 10\\.", "In Malta, the variant was first time detected by genome sequencing on 30 December 2020, and represented 8% of the positive cases in week 7\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=COVID\\-19: Bars and band clubs to remain shut in March, Chris Fearne says\\|url\\=https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/national/107931/covid19\\_bars\\_and\\_band\\_clubs\\_to\\_remain\\_shut\\_in\\_march\\_chris\\_fearne\\_says\\#.YEyAfGhKjb0\\|publisher\\=Malta Today\\|author\\=Laura Calleja\\|date\\=24 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2021}} A new RT\\-PCR variant specific test was introduced for the surveillance,{{cite web\\|title\\=Malta to get new swab tests which can identify Covid\\-19 variants\\|url\\=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2021\\-03\\-04/local\\-news/Malta\\-to\\-get\\-new\\-swab\\-tests\\-which\\-can\\-identify\\-Covid\\-19\\-variants\\-6736231533\\|publisher\\=Malta Independent\\|date\\=4 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2021}} where the first results reported on 10 March revealed the variant now represented 61% of cases nationwide.{{Cite web\\|title\\=UK virus variant detected in 60 per cent of new COVID cases\\|url\\=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/uk\\-virus\\-variant\\-detected\\-in\\-60\\-per\\-cent\\-of\\-new\\-covid\\-cases.857197\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-10\\|author\\=Claire Farrugia\\|publisher\\=Times of Malta\\|date\\=10 March 2021\\|language\\=en\\-gb}}", "In Sweden, the national authorities initially expected the variant would become dominant around week 12–14 under the assumption of 50% increased transmissibility compared to the original virus.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.folkhalsomyndigheten.se/publicerat\\-material/publikationsarkiv/s/scenario\\-for\\-fortsatt\\-spridning\\-\\-delrapport\\-2/\\|title\\=Scenarier för fortsatt spridning – interimsrapport\\|trans\\-title\\=Scenarios for continued dissemination \\- interim report\\|language\\=sv\\|author\\=Folkhälsomyndigheten\\|date\\=February 4, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=February 8, 2021}} In average, the variant share was found growing from 10\\.8% (week 4\\) to 36\\.9% (week 7\\) across five of its southern regions ([Skåne](/wiki/Sk%C3%A5ne_County \"Skåne County\"), [Västra Götaland](/wiki/V%C3%A4stra_G%C3%B6taland_County \"Västra Götaland County\"), [Västmanland](/wiki/V%C3%A4stmanland_County \"Västmanland County\"), [Gävleborg](/wiki/G%C3%A4vleborg_County \"Gävleborg County\") and [Örebro](/wiki/%C3%96rebro_County \"Örebro County\")).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.folkhalsomyndigheten.se/smittskydd\\-beredskap/utbrott/aktuella\\-utbrott/covid\\-19/statistik\\-och\\-analyser/sars\\-cov\\-2\\-virusvarianter\\-av\\-sarskild\\-betydelse/tidigare\\-statistik/vecka\\-8\\-2021/\\|title\\=Publicerad statistik för SARS\\-CoV\\-2 virusvarianter av särskild betydelse under vecka 8 2021\\|trans\\-title\\=Statistics on SARS\\-CoV\\-2 Variants Of Concern for week 8 2021\\|language\\=sv\\|publisher\\=Folkhälsomyndigheten\\|date\\=15 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=15 March 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=11 October 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011072628/https://www.folkhalsomyndigheten.se/smittskydd\\-beredskap/utbrott/aktuella\\-utbrott/covid\\-19/statistik\\-och\\-analyser/sars\\-cov\\-2\\-virusvarianter\\-av\\-sarskild\\-betydelse/tidigare\\-statistik/vecka\\-8\\-2021/}} For week 7, the share of the variant was for the first time also calculated to 30\\.4% as the overall average for 19 out of 21 [Swedish regions](/wiki/Counties_of_Sweden \"Counties of Sweden\") (ranging from 3\\.3% in [Blekinge](/wiki/Blekinge_County \"Blekinge County\") to 45% in Gävleborg). For week 9, the share of the variant was calculated to a dominant 56\\.4% as the overall average for the 19 regions (ranging from 16% in [Kronoberg](/wiki/Kronoberg_County \"Kronoberg County\") to 72% in Gävleborg). For week 10, the share of the variant was calculated to have increased further to 71\\.3% as the overall average for the 19 regions (ranging from 40% in [Kronoberg](/wiki/Kronoberg_County \"Kronoberg County\") to 84% in [Jönköping](/wiki/J%C3%B6nk%C3%B6ping_County \"Jönköping County\")). Although no geographical weights were applied to ensure geographical representativity for the calculated average for the 19 regions, the overall sample seize of 12,417 variant tests represented 43\\.1% of all COVID\\-19 positive PCR\\-tests for week 10, inferring that the result of the survey might be close to represent the actual true average for the nation as a whole.", "In the [microstate](/wiki/Microstate \"Microstate\") [Liechtenstein](/wiki/Liechtenstein \"Liechtenstein\"), the first case of Alpha was detected on 19 December 2020\\. During the entire pandemic, 67 VOC\\-N501Y PCR\\-positive cases were detected comprising 58 cases of Alpha, 1 of Beta (detected 1 February) and 8 un\\-identified N501Y cases (from 10 Dec. to 22 Feb.), as of 18 March 2021\\. The weekly average of each days calculated 7\\-day rolling average for the share of all detected VOC\\-N501Y cases (which is a good proxy for Alpha in Liechtenstein), was found to be 10\\.9% in week 5, followed by a dominant 52\\.2% in week 9 (where 8 out of 15 tests were found to be Alpha); and grew further to 73\\.4% in week 10 (where 6 out of 9 tests were found to be Alpha).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.covid19\\.admin.ch/en/epidemiologic/virus\\-variants?detTime\\=phase2b\\&detGeo\\=FL\\|title\\=COVID\\-⁠19 Switzerland Information on the current situation, as of 18 March 2021: Key figures, Liechtenstein\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Federal Office of Public Health]]\\|work\\=Download data: Data as .csv file.\\|date\\=18 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2021}}", "In Spain, the variant share was estimated nationwide to be 5%\\-10% of cases on 29 January,{{Cite web\\|title\\=Spanish Health Ministry estimates British variant accounts for up to 10% of positives in Spain\\|url\\=https://murciatoday.com/spanish\\_health\\_ministry\\_estimates\\_british\\_variant\\_accounts\\_for\\_up\\_to\\_10\\_of\\_positives\\_in\\_spain\\_1555209\\-a.html\\|date\\=30 January 2021\\|access\\-date\\=3 February 2021\\|website\\=murciatoday.com}} followed by 20%\\-25% of cases on 18 February{{Cite web\\|title\\=La variante británica representa ya el 20% de los casos en España\\|trans\\-title\\=The British variant already represents 20% of cases in Spain\\|author\\=Alvaro Soto\\|url\\=https://www.msn.com/es\\-es/noticias/espana/la\\-variante\\-brit%C3%A1nica\\-representa\\-ya\\-el\\-20percent\\-de\\-los\\-casos\\-en\\-espa%C3%B1a/ar\\-BB1dNIzt\\|language\\=es\\|date\\=18 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=22 February 2021\\|website\\=msn.com}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Autoridades sanitarias afirmaron que la cepa británica circula \"ampliamente\" en España\\|trans\\-title\\=Health authorities affirmed that the British strain circulates \"widely\" in Spain\\|url\\=https://www.telam.com.ar/notas/202102/544987\\-espana\\-coronavirus\\-cepa\\-britanica.html\\|publisher\\=Télam\\|language\\=es\\|date\\=18 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2021}} and 25%\\-30% of cases on 22 February,{{Cite web\\|title\\=Detectadas en España las nuevas variantes nigeriana y de Río de Janeiro del coronavirus\\|trans\\-title\\=The new Nigerian and Rio de Janeiro variants of the coronavirus detected in Spain\\|author\\=Manuel Vilaseró\\|url\\=https://www.elperiodico.com/es/sociedad/20210222/sanidad\\-alerta\\-cuatro\\-nuevas\\-variantes\\-coronavirus\\-covid\\-11537278\\|language\\=es\\|date\\=22 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=1 March 2021}} and estimated to be dominant with over 50% as of 3 March (week 9\\).{{Cite web\\|title\\=Darias: \"La variante británica ya es la dominante en España\"\\|trans\\-title\\=Darias: \"The British variant is already the dominant one in Spain\"\\|author\\=Miguel Hidalgo Pérez\\|url\\=https://www.niusdiario.es/sociedad/sanidad/darias\\-variante\\-britanica\\-ya\\-es\\-dominante\\-espana\\_18\\_3100395333\\.html\\|language\\=es\\|date\\=3 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2021}} As of week 10, the prevalence of the variant ranged from 18\\.3% to 97\\.0% for the [17 regions](/wiki/Autonomous_communities_of_Spain \"Autonomous communities of Spain\"), with all but two regions having a dominant rate above 50%:{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.mscbs.gob.es/profesionales/saludPublica/ccayes/alertasActual/nCov/documentos/COVID19\\_Actualizacion\\_variantes\\_20210318\\.pdf\\|title\\=Actualización de la situación epidemiológica de las variantes de importancia en salud pública en España (18 de marzo de 2021\\)\\|trans\\-title\\=Update of the epidemiological situation of Variants of Importance in Public Health in Spain (18 March 2021\\)\\|language\\=es\\|publisher\\=Ministerio de Sanidad, Consumo y Bienestar Social\\|date\\=18 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2021}}\n* No data reported by [Extremadura](/wiki/Extremadura \"Extremadura\").\n* 18\\.3% for week 10 in [Aragon](/wiki/Aragon \"Aragon\").\n* 27\\.0% for week 7 in [Canary Islands](/wiki/Canary_Islands \"Canary Islands\").\n* 51\\.3% for week 8 in [Castile and León](/wiki/Castile_and_Le%C3%B3n \"Castile and León\").\n* 52\\.2% for week 10 in [Valencia](/wiki/Valencian_Community \"Valencian Community\").\n* 52\\.8% for week 10 in [Castilla–La Mancha](/wiki/Castilla%E2%80%93La_Mancha \"Castilla–La Mancha\").\n* 53\\.3% for week 4 in [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Spain%29 \"Galicia (Spain)\").\n* 59\\.5% for week 9 in [La Rioja](/wiki/La_Rioja \"La Rioja\").\n* 59\\.7% for week 10 in [Madrid](/wiki/Community_of_Madrid \"Community of Madrid\").\n* 61\\.6% for week 11 in [Andalusia](/wiki/Andalusia \"Andalusia\").\n* 76\\.1% for week 10 in [Balearic Islands](/wiki/Balearic_Islands \"Balearic Islands\").\n* 76\\.7% for week 10 in [Murcia](/wiki/Region_of_Murcia \"Region of Murcia\").\n* 77\\.4% for week 10 in [Basque Country](/wiki/Basque_Country_%28autonomous_community%29 \"Basque Country (autonomous community)\").\n* 77\\.8% for week 10 in [Navarre](/wiki/Navarre \"Navarre\").\n* 83\\.1% for week 10 in [Cantabria](/wiki/Cantabria \"Cantabria\").\n* 84\\.6% for week 9 in [Catalonia](/wiki/Catalonia \"Catalonia\").\n* 97\\.0% for week 10 in [Asturias](/wiki/Asturias \"Asturias\").", "In Poland, a national survey among infected teachers led to experts estimating that the variant share was between 5% and 10% nationwide as of 11 February,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.medonet.pl/koronawirus/koronawirus\\-w\\-polsce,brytyjski\\-wariant\\-koronawirusa\\-w\\-polsce\\-\\-ile\\-jest\\-zakazen\\-\\-jaka\\-jest\\-skala\\-,artykul,67482636\\.html\\|title\\=Brytyjski wariant koronawirusa \\- jaka jest skala jego obecności w Polsce?\\|trans\\-title\\=British variant of the coronavirus \\- what is the scale of its presence in Poland?\\|language\\=pl\\|publisher\\=Medonet\\|author\\=Adrian Dabek\\|date\\=February 11, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=February 17, 2021}} while [ECDC](/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control \"European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control\") reported it to be 9% as of 15 February.{{Cite web\\|author\\=European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control\\|date\\=15 February 2021\\|title\\=Rapid Risk Assessment: SARS\\-CoV\\-2 increased circulation of variants of concern and vaccine rollout in the EU/EEA, 14th update, 15 February 2021\\|url\\=https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/RRA\\-covid\\-19\\-14th\\-update\\-15\\-feb\\-2021\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=18 February 2021\\|website\\=www.ecdc.europa.eu}} According to Health minister [Adam Niedzielski](/wiki/Adam_Niedzielski \"Adam Niedzielski\"), the variant was found at a rate of 5% in the first studies from the second half of January, and then it increased by ten percentage points every ten days, until it became dominant nationwide by a 52% rate on 16 March (week 11\\).{{Cite web\\|title\\=Od 20 marca w całej Polsce obowiązują rozszerzone zasady bezpieczeństwa\\|trans\\-title\\=From March 20, extended safety rules apply throughout Poland\\|url\\=https://www.gov.pl/web/koronawirus/od\\-20\\-marca\\-w\\-calej\\-polsce\\-obowiazuja\\-rozszerzone\\-zasady\\-bezpieczenstwa\\|date\\=17 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2021\\|website\\=gov.pl\\|publisher\\=Government of Poland\\|language\\=pl}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Nowe obostrzenia w calym kraju od 20 marca do 9 kwietnia\\|trans\\-title\\=New restrictions nationwide from March 20 to April 9\\|url\\=https://www.pap.pl/aktualnosci/news%2C835182%2Cnowe\\-obostrzenia\\-w\\-calym\\-kraju\\-od\\-20\\-marca\\-do\\-9\\-kwietnia.html\\|date\\=17 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2021\\|website\\=pap.pl\\|publisher\\=Polska Agencja Prasowa \\|author\\=Sylwia Dabkowska\\-Pozyczka \\|author2\\=Edyta Ros \\|author3\\=Wiktoria Nicalek \\|author4\\=Karol Kostrzewa \\|author5\\=Aleksandra Rebelinska \\|language\\=pl}} Regionally, the variant had already exceeded 70% for [Warmian\\-Masurian](/wiki/Warmian-Masurian_Voivodeship \"Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship\") and [Pomeranian](/wiki/Pomeranian_Voivodeship \"Pomeranian Voivodeship\") on 22–23 February (week 8\\),{{Cite web\\|title\\=Brytyjski wariant koronawirusa może dominować na Pomorzu\\|trans\\-title\\=The British variant of the coronavirus may be dominant in Pomerania\\|url\\=https://www.trojmiasto.pl/wiadomosci/Brytyjski\\-wariant\\-koronawirusa\\-moze\\-dominowac\\-na\\-Pomorzu\\-n153727\\.html\\|date\\=2 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2021\\|author\\=Piotr Kallalas\\|website\\=trojmiasto.pl\\|language\\=pl}} and even reached 90% for the [Greater Poland Voivodeship](/wiki/Greater_Poland_Voivodeship \"Greater Poland Voivodeship\") on 17 March (week 11\\).{{Cite web\\|title\\=Koronawirus. Brytyjski wariant w Wielkopolsce. Najnowsze dane\\|trans\\-title\\=Coronavirus. British variant in Greater Poland. Latest data\\|url\\=https://wiadomosci.onet.pl/poznan/koronawirus\\-brytyjski\\-wariant\\-w\\-wielkopolsce\\-najnowsze\\-dane/e8p00pr\\|date\\=17 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2021\\|website\\=Onet.pl\\|language\\=pl}}", "In Finland, no statistical representative national survey had been conducted as of February 2021, as the national genome sequencing mainly targeted further analysis of COVID\\-19 positive samples from travellers and local outbreak clusters.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://thl.fi/documents/533976/5918974/Separat\\+%C3%B6versikt.\\+Uppf%C3%B6ljning\\+av\\+muterade\\+coronavirus\\+17\\.2\\.2021\\.pdf/2c117f25\\-1234\\-946e\\-e296\\-8faf1d223036?t\\=1614079899907\\|title\\=Uppföljning av hybridstrategin för covid\\-19\\-epidemin: Separat översikt, varierande tema (Uppföljning av muterade coronavirus 17\\.2\\.2021\\)\\|trans\\-title\\=Follow\\-up of the hybrid strategy for the COVID\\-19 epidemic: Separate overview, varying theme (Follow\\-up of mutated coronavirus 17\\.2\\.2021\\)\\|language\\=sv\\|author\\=Finish Institute for Health and Welfare, TLH\\|date\\=17 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=14 July 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714020823/https://thl.fi/documents/533976/5918974/Separat\\+%C3%B6versikt.\\+Uppf%C3%B6ljning\\+av\\+muterade\\+coronavirus\\+17\\.2\\.2021\\.pdf/2c117f25\\-1234\\-946e\\-e296\\-8faf1d223036?t\\=1614079899907\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Helsinky University Hospital (HUS), operating in the [Helsinki and Uusimaa Hospital District](/wiki/List_of_hospitals_in_Finland%23Helsinki_and_Uusimaa_Hospital_District \"List of hospitals in Finland#Helsinki and Uusimaa Hospital District\"), found the variant in 10% of all samples collected randomly during a few days ahead of 14 February in the capitol region (also known as the [Helsinky constituency and Uusimaa constituency](/wiki/Constituencies_of_Finland \"Constituencies of Finland\")). For the capitol region, the variant was modelled to become dominant (over 50%) in the second half of March (week 11\\-13\\).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://yle.fi/uutiset/osasto/news/uk\\_covid\\_variant\\_spreading\\_in\\_finland/11789703\\|title\\=UK Covid variant spreading in Finland\\|publisher\\=Yle\\|date\\=14 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2021}}", "In [Iceland](/wiki/Iceland \"Iceland\"), the national authorities implemented a strict 3 test and quarantine regime for all persons entering the country from abroad, that so far successfully managed to prevent new infectious VOCs from gaining a foothold in the country. As of 4 March, a total of 90 travellers had tested positive for the Alpha variant at Iceland's borders and the 20 additional domestic cases were all closely connected to the border cases, with no cases related to community transmission.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.icelandreview.com/society/covid\\-19\\-in\\-iceland\\-south\\-african\\-variant\\-detected\\-at\\-border/\\|title\\=COVID\\-19 in Iceland: South African Variant Detected at Border\\|author\\=Jelena Ćirić\\|publisher\\=Iceland Review\\|date\\=4 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2021}}", "### Spread in North America", "In the United States, the variant first appeared late November 2020,{{Cite medRxiv \\|vauthors\\=Washington NL, Gangvarapu K, et al. \\|title\\=Genomic epidemiology identifies emergence and rapid transmission of SARS\\-CoV\\-2 B.1\\.1\\.7 in the United States \\|date\\=7 February 2021 \\|medrxiv\\=10\\.1101/2021\\.02\\.06\\.21251159v1}} grew from 1\\.2% in late January and became predominant around the end of March.{{Cite web\\|last\\=CDC\\|date\\=2020\\-03\\-28\\|title\\=COVID Data Tracker\\|url\\=https://covid.cdc.gov/covid\\-data\\-tracker\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-30\\|website\\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\\|language\\=en}}{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Galloway SE, Paul P, et al. \\|title\\=Emergence of SARS\\-CoV\\-2 B.1\\.1\\.7 Lineage — United States, December 29, 2020–January 12, 2021 \\|journal\\=Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report \\|date\\=22 January 2021 \\|volume\\=70 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=95–99 \\|doi\\=10\\.15585/mmwr.mm7003e2 \\|pmid\\=33476315 \\|pmc\\=7821772 }}The spread of the variant was primarily concentrated in the upper [Midwest](/wiki/Midwestern_United_States \"Midwestern United States\") of the country, especially the states of [Michigan](/wiki/Michigan \"Michigan\") and [Minnesota](/wiki/Minnesota \"Minnesota\"), but it failed to spread in high concentrations to other parts of the country.{{cite news\\|title\\=More Covid Mysteries\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/30/briefing/coronavirus\\-delta\\-mysteries.html\\|website\\=New York Times\\|date\\=30 July 2021\\|language\\=en}}", "In Canada, the variant first appeared in [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario \"Ontario\") late December 2020\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://globalnews.ca/news/7543498/uk\\-coronavirus\\-variant\\-first\\-cases\\-canada\\-ontario/ \\|title\\=Canada reports first cases of U.K. coronavirus variant. Here's what you need to know \\|last\\=Aziz \\|first\\=Saba \\|work\\=\\[\\[Global News]] \\|date\\=2020\\-12\\-27 \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-14}} By 13 February, it had spread to all ten provinces.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://thestarphoenix.com/news/national/contagious\\-variant\\-of\\-covid\\-19\\-now\\-identified\\-in\\-all\\-10\\-provinces/wcm/f09cf0c8\\-4095\\-491f\\-8d16\\-1f58ee824406 \\|title\\=Contagious variant of COVID\\-19 now identified in all 10 provinces \\|last\\=Thompson \\|first\\=Nicole \\|work\\=\\[\\[The StarPhoenix]] \\|agency\\=\\[\\[The Canadian Press]] \\|date\\=2021\\-02\\-13 \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-14}} Testing and confirmation of the Alpha variant (lineage B.1\\.1\\.7\\) in COVID\\-19\\-positive samples has been inconsistent across the country.{{Cite news\\|title\\=Why Alberta has identified more variant cases but they're believed to be more prevalent in Ontario {{!}} CBC News\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|work\\=CBC\\|url\\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/alberta\\-ontario\\-covid\\-19\\-variants\\-interprovincial\\-1\\.5960517\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-01}} On 3 February, the province of [Alberta](/wiki/Alberta \"Alberta\") was the first to screen all COVID\\-19 positive samples for variants of concern.{{Cite web\\|title\\=SARS\\-CoV\\-2 Variants of Concern\\|url\\=https://www.albertahealthservices.ca/assets/wf/lab/if\\-lab\\-hp\\-bulletin\\-sars\\-cov\\-2\\-variants\\-of\\-concern.pdf\\|website\\=Alberta Health Services}} As of 23 March, the Alpha variant had been detected in 5812 cases, and was most prevalent in the province of [Alberta](/wiki/Alberta \"Alberta\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Variants of Concern (VOC) in Canada\\|date\\=19 April 2020\\|url\\=https://health\\-infobase.canada.ca/covid\\-19/epidemiological\\-summary\\-covid\\-19\\-cases.html\\#VOC\\|access\\-date\\=24 March 2021\\|publisher\\=Government of Canada}} In Ontario, a combined RT\\-PCR (N501Y) and genome sequencing study found that all VOCs represented 4\\.4% of all COVID\\-19 positives on 20 January (week 3\\), and that Alpha comprised 99% of all those VOCs.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.publichealthontario.ca/\\-/media/documents/ncov/voc/2021/02/sars\\-cov\\-2\\-variants\\-point\\-prevalence.pdf?la\\=en\\|title\\=SARS\\-CoV\\-2 Variants of Concern: Results of Point Prevalence Study\\|publisher\\=Public Health Ontario\\|date\\=12 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2021}} [Public Health Ontario](/wiki/Public_Health_Ontario \"Public Health Ontario\") laboratories found the variant in close to 7% of all COVID\\-19 positives in week 5, representing 97% (309/319\\) of all detected VOCs.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://globalnews.ca/video/7644127/coronavirus\\-ontario\\-health\\-official\\-says\\-approximately\\-7\\-of\\-screened\\-cases\\-are\\-due\\-to\\-variants\\-in\\-province\\|title\\=Coronavirus: Ontario health official says approximately 7% of screened cases are due to variants in province\\|publisher\\=Global News\\|author\\=Barbara Yaffe\\|date\\=16 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2021}} Alpha became the dominant variant on or around 16 March; 53% of all positive cases were VOCs, and it was presumed 97% of VOCs were Alpha.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://covid19\\-sciencetable.ca/ontario\\-dashboard/\\|title\\=Ontario Dashboard: Unmasking the New Variants of Concern\\|publisher\\=Ontario COVID\\-19 Science Advisory Table\\|date\\=16 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2021\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210317110549/https://covid19\\-sciencetable.ca/ontario\\-dashboard/\\|archive\\-date\\=17 March 2021}} In [Quebec](/wiki/Quebec \"Quebec\"), where the variant was also widespread, it was expected to become dominant by late March or in April.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://globalnews.ca/news/7645512/covid\\-19\\-quebec\\-coronavirus\\-variants\\-inspq/\\|title\\=More contagious COVID\\-19 variant could become dominant strain in Montreal by March: INSPQ\\|publisher\\=Global News\\|author\\=Kalina Laframboise\\|date\\=17 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2021}}", "### Development", "", "| Development of the Alpha variant (lineage B.1\\.1\\.7\\){{small\\|(share of analysed SARS\\-CoV\\-2–positive tests in a given week)}} | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Country | Test | {{small\\|2020 Week 42}} | {{small\\|Week 43}} | {{small\\|Week 44}} | {{small\\|Week 45}} | {{small\\|Week 46}} | {{small\\|Week 47}} | {{small\\|Week 48}} | {{small\\|Week 49}} | {{small\\|Week 50}} | {{small\\|Week 51}} | {{small\\|Week 52}} | {{small\\|Week 53}} | {{small\\|2021 Week 1}} | {{small\\|Week 2}} | {{small\\|Week 3}} | {{small\\|Week 4}} | {{small\\|Week 5}} | {{small\\|Week 6}} | {{small\\|Week 7}} | {{small\\|Week 8}} | {{small\\|Week 9}} | {{small\\|Week 10}} |\n| [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") | {{small\\|\\[\\[Whole genome sequencing\\|Seq.]]{{Cite web \\|website\\=IBZ Shiny \\|date\\=January 2021\\|title\\=SARS\\-CoV\\-2 Variants of Concern in Switzerland \\|url\\=https://ibz\\-shiny.ethz.ch/covidDashboard/variant\\-plot/index.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210217105616/https://ibz\\-shiny.ethz.ch/covidDashboard/variant\\-plot/index.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-17 \\|url\\-status\\=deviated \\|access\\-date\\=18 February 2021}}}} | 0\\.05% | 0\\.35% | 1\\.0% | 2\\.7% | 6\\.3% | 10\\.2% | 10\\.2% | 13\\.9% | 32\\.9% | 45\\.7% | **51\\.3%** | **70\\.6%** | **74\\.1%** | **78\\.6%** | **86\\.0%** | **89\\.1%** | **–** | **–** | **–** | **–** | **–** | **–** |\n| *[England](/wiki/England \"England\")* | {{small\\|SGTF{{Cite web\\|author\\=Public Health England\\|date\\=11 March 2021\\|title\\=Investigation of SARS\\-CoV\\-2 variants of concern in England: Technical briefing 7\\|work\\=Weekly number and proportion of England Pillar 2 COVID\\-19 cases with SGTF (Figure 10\\)\\|url\\=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\\_data/file/968581/Variants\\_of\\_Concern\\_VOC\\_Technical\\_Briefing\\_7\\_England.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=12 March 2021}}\\*Seq.%{{Cite web\\|author\\=Public Health England\\|date\\=13 February 2021\\|title\\=Investigation of SARS\\-CoV\\-2 variants of concern in England: Technical briefing 6\\|work\\=Percentage of Pillar 2 Δ69\\-70 sequences that are VOC 202012/01 (Table 7\\), with a value of 100% since week 4 in 2021\\. \\|url\\=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\\_data/file/961299/Variants\\_of\\_Concern\\_VOC\\_Technical\\_Briefing\\_6\\_England\\-1\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2021}}}} {{small\\|Seq.{{Cite web\\|author\\=Public Health England\\|date\\=2021\\-02\\-01\\|title\\=Investigation of novel SARS\\-CoV\\-2 variant: 202012/01\\. Technical briefing 5 data\\|work\\=Data report \\-\"Figure 1\", shows the weekly percentage of all genome sequenced VOC202012/01 by adding the SGTF\\+Kent share with the Not SGTF\\+Kent share. The report use the word \"Kent\" as the abbreviated nickname for VOC202012/01\\.\\|url\\=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/investigation\\-of\\-novel\\-sars\\-cov\\-2\\-variant\\-variant\\-of\\-concern\\-20201201\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-05}} {{OGL\\-attribution\\|version\\=3\\.0}}}}{{small\\|SGTF{{nbsp}}rawdata{{efn\\|name\\=InfectionSurvey}}}}{{small\\|SGTF{{nbsp}}model{{efn\\|name\\=InfectionSurvey}}}} | 0\\.07% {{small\\|(0\\.02%)(N/A)(N/A)}} | 0\\.4% {{small\\|(0\\.5%)(N/A)(N/A)}} | 0\\.9% {{small\\|(1\\.2%)(N/A)(N/A)}} | 2\\.9% {{small\\|(1\\.5%)(N/A)(N/A)}} | 5\\.5% {{small\\|(5\\.3%)(N/A)(N/A)}} | 9\\.1% {{small\\|(7\\.8%)(15\\.2%)(m:13\\.3%)}} | 18\\.0% {{small\\|(11\\.4%)(24\\.3%)(m:15\\.9%)}} | 32\\.2% {{small\\|(22\\.1%)(36\\.8%)(m:22\\.0%)}} | **51\\.8%** {{small\\|(38\\.1%)(49\\.3%)(m:32\\.1%)}} | **63\\.7%** {{small\\|'''(61\\.8%)(60\\.7%)(m:57\\.2%)'''}} | **72\\.4%** {{small\\|'''(62\\.1%)(72\\.1%)(m:68\\.9%)'''}} | **77\\.9%** {{small\\|'''(78\\.4%)(75\\.0%)(m:74\\.0%)'''}} | **82\\.1%** {{small\\|'''(76\\.7%)(80\\.7%)(m:78\\.3%)'''}} | **87\\.5%** {{small\\|'''(79\\.7%)(83\\.3%)(m:82\\.1%)'''}} | **90\\.6%** {{small\\|'''(–)(88\\.2%)(m:86\\.0%)'''}} | **93\\.8%** {{small\\|'''(–)(87\\.7%)(m:89\\.3%)'''}} | **95\\.7%** {{small\\|'''(–)(93\\.4%)(m:92\\.5%)'''}} | **97\\.4%** {{small\\|'''(–)(95\\.3%)(m:94\\.5%)'''}} | **98\\.1%** {{small\\|'''(–)(97\\.0%)(m:95\\.4%)'''}} | **98\\.6%** {{small\\|'''(–)(95\\.6%)(m:95\\.5%)'''}} | **98\\.7%** {{small\\|'''(–)(94\\.2%)(m:95\\.2%)'''}} | **–** {{small\\|'''(–)(96\\.1%)(m:94\\.1%)'''}} |\n| *[Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland \"Northern Ireland\")* | {{small\\|SGTF{{nbsp}}rawdata{{efn\\|name\\=InfectionSurvey}}}}{{small\\|SGTF{{nbsp}}model{{efn\\|name\\=InfectionSurvey}}}} | {{small\\|N/A}} | {{small\\|N/A}} | {{small\\|N/A}} | {{small\\|N/A}} | {{small\\|N/A}} | 17\\.9%{{small\\|(m:14\\.0%)}} | 7\\.4%{{small\\|(m:14\\.9%)}} | 37\\.5%{{small\\|(m:16\\.3%)}} | 23\\.0%{{small\\|(m:18\\.5%)}} | 50\\.0%{{small\\|(m:36\\.1%)}} | 25\\.0%{{small\\|(m:42\\.1%)}} | **58\\.8%**{{small\\|(m:44\\.7%)}} | 45\\.2%{{small\\|'''(m:52\\.7%)'''}} | **71\\.4%{{small\\|(m:67\\.0%)}}** | **78\\.2%{{small\\|(m:74\\.0%)}}** | **72\\.4%{{small\\|(m:81\\.4%)}}** | **95\\.7%{{small\\|(m:86\\.5%)}}** | **88\\.9%{{small\\|(m:90\\.5%)}}** | **92\\.2%{{small\\|(m:92\\.4%)}}** | **100\\.0%{{small\\|(m:93\\.0%)}}** | **86\\.2%{{small\\|(m:92\\.6%)}}** | **100\\.0%{{small\\|(m:91\\.1%)}}** |\n| *[Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\")* | {{small\\|SGTF{{nbsp}}rawdata{{efn\\|name\\=InfectionSurvey\\|The weekly UK infection survey lists for each country in Great Britain a set of raw data and average\\-smoothed modelled data from SGTF analysed PCR tests collected from private households (excl. tests from hospitals, care centres and public institutions). Raw data as well as model data for Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland must be treated with caution due to a small number of collected samples, resulting in great data uncertainty.{{Cite web\\|author\\=Public Health England\\|date\\=19 March 2021\\|title\\=Dataset: Coronavirus (COVID\\-19\\) Infection Survey\\|work\\=Table 6A: Percentage and Cycle threshold (Ct) values of COVID\\-19 cases, UK. Table 6C: New UK variant compatible, not compatible with new UK variant and virus too low for variant to be identifiable positives modelled daily estimates, UK.\\|url\\=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/healthandsocialcare/conditionsanddiseases/datasets/coronaviruscovid19infectionsurveydata\\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2021}} {{OGL\\-attribution\\|version\\=3\\.0}}{{Cite web\\|author\\=Public Health England\\|date\\=19 March 2021\\|title\\=Coronavirus (COVID\\-19\\) Infection Survey, UK: 19 March 2021\\|url\\=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/healthandsocialcare/conditionsanddiseases/bulletins/coronaviruscovid19infectionsurveypilot/19march2021\\#percentage\\-of\\-those\\-testing\\-positive\\-compatible\\-with\\-the\\-uk\\-variant\\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2021}} {{OGL\\-attribution\\|version\\=3\\.0}} \\* All PCR tests were analysed for 3 genes present in the coronavirus: N protein, S protein and ORF1ab (see Table 6A in the Infection Survey). Each PCR test can have any one, any two or all three genes detected. Coronavirus positives are those where one or more of these genes is detected in the swab (other than tests that are only positive on the S\\-gene which is not considered a reliable indicator of the virus if found on its own). The new B.1\\.1\\.7 variant of COVID\\-19 has genetic changes in the S gene, that results in the S\\-gene no longer being detected in the current test, meaning that it will only be positive on the ORF1ab and the N gene. The survey uses the terms ''\"New UK variant compatible\"'' for ORF1ab \\+ N protein gene positives, ''\"not compatible with new UK variant\"'' for ORF1ab \\+ N protein \\+ S protein gene positive, and ''\"virus too low to be identifiable\"'' for all other gene patterns (a reasonable definition given that all samples taken from the first phase of the COVID\\-19 disease where virus exist by identifiable quantity, either will be positive by \"ORF1ab\\+N\" or \"ORF1ab\\+N\\+S\"). However, further uncertainty exists given that not all \"New UK variant compatible\" SGTF cases (positive on ORF1ab and N\\-genes, but not the S\\-gene) will be the new UK variant \\- due to some other competing variants also delivering this same test pattern; and prior to mid\\-November 2020 the data should not be read as being an indicator of the variant at all. \\* The weekly B.1\\.1\\.7 variant share raw data is calculated from Table 6A, by dividing the \"ORF1ab\\+N\" percentage with the percentage sum of \"ORF1ab\\+N\" and \"ORF1ab\\+N\\+S\". Table 6C utilized the raw data from table 6A as input for calculation of some modelled (average\\-smoothed and weighted) daily estimated figures for the respective percentage of the population being coronavirus positive by either the ''\"New UK variant compatible virus\"'', or a ''\"Not compatible with new UK variant virus\"'' or a ''\"virus too low to be identifiable\"'', with data from earlier dates in 2020 also being available when downloading the published earlier editions of the Infection Survey. The modelled weekly average value for the Alpha variant, noted in this table as the value (m: %), is calculated as the average for the listed seven days in each week of ''\"New UK variant compatible percentage\"'' divided by the sum of ''\"New UK variant compatible percentage\"'' and ''\"Not compatible with new UK variant percentage\"''.}}}}{{small\\|SGTF{{nbsp}}model{{efn\\|name\\=InfectionSurvey}}}} | {{small\\|N/A}} | {{small\\|N/A}} | {{small\\|N/A}} | {{small\\|N/A}} | {{small\\|N/A}} | 9\\.5%{{small\\|(m:5\\.8%)}} | 9\\.7%{{small\\|(m:6\\.7%)}} | 10\\.4%{{small\\|(m:7\\.7%)}} | 11\\.7%{{small\\|(m:10\\.2%)}} | 51\\.4%{{small\\|(m:26\\.2%)}} | 40\\.0%{{small\\|(m:39\\.5%)}} | 35\\.8%{{small\\|(m:43\\.9%)}} | **64\\.1%**{{small\\|(m:49\\.8%)}} | **67\\.2%{{small\\|(m:64\\.2%)}}** | **63\\.3%{{small\\|(m:65\\.0%)}}** | **69\\.2%{{small\\|(m:70\\.0%)}}** | **70\\.6%{{small\\|(m:77\\.3%)}}** | **93\\.9%{{small\\|(m:84\\.7%)}}** | **82\\.0%{{small\\|(m:90\\.0%)}}** | **100\\.0%{{small\\|(m:93\\.7%)}}** | **93\\.0%{{small\\|(m:95\\.8%)}}** | **100\\.0%{{small\\|(m:96\\.9%)}}** |\n| *[Wales](/wiki/Wales \"Wales\")* | {{small\\|SGTF{{nbsp}}rawdata{{efn\\|name\\=InfectionSurvey}}}}{{small\\|SGTF{{nbsp}}model{{efn\\|name\\=InfectionSurvey}}}} | {{small\\|N/A}} | {{small\\|N/A}} | {{small\\|N/A}} | {{small\\|N/A}} | {{small\\|N/A}} | 27\\.9%{{small\\|(m:18\\.1%)}} | 8\\.3%{{small\\|(m:16\\.0%)}} | 10\\.7%{{small\\|(m:13\\.3%)}} | 26\\.3%{{small\\|(m:12\\.1%)}} | 13\\.4%{{small\\|(m:15\\.0%)}} | 15\\.9%{{small\\|(m:14\\.7%)}} | 19\\.8%{{small\\|(m:20\\.4%)}} | **54\\.4%**{{small\\|(m:34\\.8%)}} | **61\\.5%{{small\\|(m:59\\.6%)}}** | **69\\.0%{{small\\|(m:65\\.0%)}}** | **68\\.1%{{small\\|(m:68\\.7%)}}** | **77\\.0%{{small\\|(m:73\\.4%)}}** | **71\\.8%{{small\\|(m:76\\.6%)}}** | **75\\.8%{{small\\|(m:78\\.5%)}}** | **87\\.9%{{small\\|(m:78\\.9%)}}** | **80\\.0%{{small\\|(m:77\\.2%)}}** | **69\\.9%{{small\\|(m:73\\.3%)}}** |\n| [Ireland](/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland \"Republic of Ireland\") | {{small\\|SGTF{{nbsp}}rawdata{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://assets.gov.ie/125107/a6254f8f\\-4957\\-41bf\\-ba5f\\-26a6af3a954c.pdf\\|title\\=NPHET COVID\\-19 Update – 25 February 2021\\|author\\=\\[\\[National Public Health Emergency Team (2020\\)\\|National Public Health Emergency Team]], \\[\\[Department of Health (Ireland)\\|Department of Health]]\\|work\\=New (B.1\\.1\\.7\\) variant \\- S gene target failure (p{{nbsp}}31\\)\\|date\\=25 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=4 March 2021}}}} | – | – | – | 1\\.9%{{small\\|(few{{nbsp}}data)}} | 0\\.0%{{small\\|(few{{nbsp}}data)}} | 0\\.0%{{small\\|(few{{nbsp}}data)}} | 6\\.1%{{small\\|(few{{nbsp}}data)}} | 2\\.2%{{small\\|(few{{nbsp}}data)}} | 1\\.6%{{small\\|(few{{nbsp}}data)}} | 7\\.5% | 16\\.3% | 26\\.2% | 46\\.3% | **57\\.7%** | **69\\.5%** | **75\\.0%** | **90\\.1%** | **88\\.6%** | **90\\.8%** | **–** | **–** | **–** |\n| [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria \"Bulgaria\") | {{small\\|Seq.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ncipd.org/index.php?option\\=com\\_k2\\&view\\=item\\&id\\=546:ncov\\-012020⟨\\=bg\\|title\\=(09\\.03\\.2021 Г.) ЕПИДЕМИЯ ОТ ОСТЪР РЕСПИРАТОРЕН СИНДРОМ, СВЪРЗАНА С НОВ КОРОНАВИРУС SARS\\-COV\\-2, УХАН, КИТАЙ: АКТУАЛНА ИНФОРМАЦИЯ\\|trans\\-title\\=(09\\.03\\.2021\\) Acute Respiratory Syndrome Epidemic Associated With New Coronavirus SARS\\-COV\\-2, Wuhan, China: Actual Information\\|language\\=bg\\|date\\=3 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=10 March 2021}}}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **52\\.1%** | **–** | **70\\.8%** | **–** | **–** | **73\\.4%** | **–** |\n| [Israel](/wiki/Israel \"Israel\") | {{small\\|SGTF w.51\\+1Seq. after w.1}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 3{{ndash}}4%{{small\\|(Dec.15\\){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.calcalist.co.il/local/articles/0,7340,L\\-3885915,00\\.html\\|title\\=המוטציה הבריטית נמצאת ב\\-10% עד 20% ממאומתי הקורונה\\|trans\\-title\\=The British mutation is 10% to 20% of the corona nationwide\\|author\\=Adrian Pilot\\|publisher\\=Calcalist\\|language\\=he\\|date\\=January 5, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=February 26, 2021}}}} | – | – | 10{{ndash}}20%{{small\\|(Jan.5\\)}} | 10{{ndash}}20%{{small\\|(Jan.11\\){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.haaretz.com/israel\\-news/coronavirus\\-live\\-israelis\\-begin\\-receiving\\-second\\-vaccine\\-dose\\-1\\.9438120\\|title\\=Coronavirus Live: Israel Sees Drop in Infections 14 Days After First Vaccine Dose (4:50 P.M. Mutation constitutes up to 20% of Israel's recent COVID\\-19 infections)\\|author\\=Ido Efreti\\|publisher\\=Haaretz\\|date\\=January 12, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=February 26, 2021}}}} | 30{{ndash}}40%{{small\\|(Jan.19\\){{Cite web\\|title\\=Senior health official: UK virus variant putting pregnant women at greater risk\\|url\\=https://www.timesofisrael.com/senior\\-health\\-official\\-uk\\-virus\\-variant\\-putting\\-pregnant\\-women\\-at\\-greater\\-risk/\\|date\\=2021\\-01\\-21\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-23\\|website\\=www.timesofisrael.com\\|language\\=en\\-US}}}} | 40{{ndash}}50%{{small\\|(Jan.25\\){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.timesofisrael.com/mutated\\-covid\\-19\\-strains\\-are\\-stymieing\\-efforts\\-to\\-curb\\-spread\\-virus\\-czar\\-says/\\|title\\=Health officials: UK variant running wild, hitting children at a worrying rate\\|author\\=Stuart Winer\\|publisher\\=Times of Israel\\|date\\=January 25, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=February 25, 2021}}}} | **\\~70%**{{small\\|(Feb.2\\){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.timesofisrael.com/we\\-will\\-have\\-to\\-live\\-with\\-covid\\-19\\-for\\-a\\-long\\-time\\-says\\-israeli\\-expert/\\|title\\=We will have to live with COVID\\-19 for a long time, says Israeli expert\\|author\\=Toi Staff\\|publisher\\=Times of Israel\\|date\\=February 2, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=February 26, 2021}}}} | **\\~80%**{{small\\|(Feb.9\\){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-health\\-coronavirus\\-israel\\-results\\-ins/vaccine\\-vs\\-variant\\-promising\\-data\\-in\\-israels\\-race\\-to\\-defeat\\-pandemic\\-idUSKBN2AA0MS\\|title\\=Vaccine vs variant: Promising data in Israel's race to defeat pandemic\\|author\\=Maayan Lubell \\|author2\\=Ari Rabinovitch \\|publisher\\=Reuters\\|date\\=February 9, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=February 26, 2021}}}} | **\\~90%**{{small\\|(Feb.16\\){{Cite web\\|author\\=\\[\\[Ynet]]\\|date\\=16 February 2021\\|title\\=Senior health official: 90% of COVID\\-19 cases caused by UK variant\\|url\\=https://www.ynetnews.com/article/SyodSltbd\\|access\\-date\\=25 February 2021}}}} | **–** | **–** | **–** |\n| [Slovakia](/wiki/Slovakia \"Slovakia\") | {{small\\|PCR (SGTF\\+ΔY144\\) }} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **\\~74%**{{small\\|(Feb.3\\)}} | **–** | **\\~72%**{{small\\|(Feb.15\\)}} | **–** | **\\~90%**{{small\\|(Mar.3\\)}} | **–** |\n| [Luxembourg](/wiki/Luxembourg \"Luxembourg\") | {{small\\|Seq.}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0\\.3% | 0\\.9% | 4\\.2% | 8\\.7% | 15\\.5% | 16\\.9% | 36\\.2% | **53\\.0%** | **54\\.1%** | **53\\.8%** | **63\\.7%** | **62\\.8%** | **–** |\n| [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\") | {{small\\|Seq.}} | – | – | – | – | 0\\.3% | 0\\.2% | 0\\.4% | 0\\.4% | 0\\.4% | 0\\.8% | 1\\.8% | 1\\.9% | 3\\.5% | 7\\.0% | 13\\.1% | 19\\.6% | 29\\.6% | 47\\.0% | **65\\.9%** | **75\\.3%** | **85\\.1%** | **92\\.7%** |\n| [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\") | {{small\\|Seq.}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 1\\.3% | 0\\.8% | 0\\.5% | 2\\.1% | 4\\.4% | 9\\.6% | 15\\.9% | 22\\.7% | 24\\.7% | 31\\.0\\.% | 40\\.3% | **61\\.3%** | **75\\.2%** | **82\\.0%** | **–** |\n| [Norway](/wiki/Norway \"Norway\") | {{small\\|PCR{{nbsp}}proxy{{nbsp}}and{{nbsp}}Seq.Seq.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.fhi.no/contentassets/8a971e7b0a3c4a06bdbf381ab52e6157/vedlegg/2021/ukerapport\\-for\\-uke\\-7\\-15\\.02\\-\\-\\-21\\.02\\.21\\-\\-\\-korr.pdf\\|title\\=COVID\\-19 Ukerapport – uke 7, onsdag 24\\. februar 2021\\|trans\\-title\\=COVID\\-19 weekly report for week 7 (wednesday 24 February 2021\\)\\|language\\=no\\|author\\=Folkehelseinstituttet\\|date\\=24 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=28 February 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=6 May 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506155030/https://www.fhi.no/contentassets/8a971e7b0a3c4a06bdbf381ab52e6157/vedlegg/2021/ukerapport\\-for\\-uke\\-7\\-15\\.02\\-\\-\\-21\\.02\\.21\\-\\-\\-korr.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}}} | –{{small\\|(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)}} | 0\\.0%{{small\\|(–)}} | 2\\.0%{{small\\|(–)}} | 0\\.0%{{small\\|(0\\.0%)}} | 4\\.9%{{small\\|(0\\.0%)}} | 8\\.9%{{small\\|(7\\.2%)}} | 6\\.0%{{small\\|(2\\.9%)}} | 14\\.9%{{small\\|(1\\.3%)}} | 18\\.9%{{small\\|(5\\.7%)}} | 19\\.5%{{small\\|(11\\.6%)}} | 15\\.2%{{small\\|(9\\.3%)}} | 19\\.8%{{small\\|(20\\.1%)}} | 34\\.1%{{small\\|(30\\.3%)}} | 43\\.6%{{small\\|(40\\.8%)}} | **60\\.0%{{small\\|(58\\.4%)}}** | **71\\.8%{{small\\|(65\\.0%)}}** | **76\\.7%{{small\\|(–)}}** | **72\\.7%{{small\\|(–)}}** |\n| [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\") | {{small\\|Seq.%}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 17\\.8% | – | **54\\.0%** | **–** | **–** | **–** |\n| [France](/wiki/France \"France\") | {{small\\|PCR{{nbsp}}proxySeq.SGTF\\*Seq.%}} | –{{small\\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)(3\\.3%)}} | –{{small\\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)(13\\.3%)}} | –{{small\\|(–)(–)}} | 36\\.1%{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.santepubliquefrance.fr/content/download/321032/2928954\\|title\\=COVID\\-19: Point épidémiologi que hebdomadaire du 18 février 2021\\|trans\\-title\\=COVID\\-19: Weekly epidemiological update of February 18, 2021\\|language\\=fr\\|author\\=Santé Publique France\\|date\\=18 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=20 February 2021}}{{small\\|(–)(–)}} | 49\\.3%{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.santepubliquefrance.fr/content/download/323006/2936518\\|title\\=COVID\\-19: Point épidémiologi que hebdomadaire du 25 février 2021\\|trans\\-title\\=COVID\\-19: Weekly epidemiological update of February 25, 2021\\|language\\=fr\\|author\\=Santé Publique France\\|date\\=25 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=26 February 2021}}{{small\\|(45\\.8%)(44\\.3%)}} | **59\\.5%{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.santepubliquefrance.fr/content/download/324805/2944195\\|title\\=COVID\\-19: Point épidémiologi que hebdomadaire du 4 mars 2021\\|trans\\-title\\=COVID\\-19: Weekly epidemiological update of 4 March 2021\\|language\\=fr\\|author\\=Santé Publique France\\|date\\=4 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=5 March 2021}}{{small\\|(56\\.4%)(–)}}** | **65\\.8%{{small\\|(69\\.0%)(–)}}** | **71\\.9%{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.santepubliquefrance.fr/content/download/328478/2960046\\|title\\=COVID\\-19: Point épidémiologi que hebdomadaire du 18 mars 2021\\|trans\\-title\\=COVID\\-19: Weekly epidemiological update of 18 March 2021\\|language\\=fr\\|author\\=Santé Publique France\\|date\\=18 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=21 March 2021}}{{small\\|(–)(–)}}** |\n| [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\") | {{small\\|Seq.}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0\\.05% | 0\\.4% | 0\\.8% | 2\\.6% | 4\\.9% | 9\\.2% | 16\\.5% | 26\\.0% | 32\\.4% | 47\\.0% | **58\\.2%** | **71\\.1%** | **–** |\n| [Austria](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\") | {{small\\|PCR(N501Y)\\*Seq.%{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ages.at/themen/krankheitserreger/coronavirus/sars\\-cov\\-2\\-varianten\\-in\\-oesterreich/\\|title\\=SARS\\-CoV\\-2\\-Varianten in Österreich\\|language\\=de\\|publisher\\=Österreichische Agentur für Gesundheit und Ernährungssicherheit GmbH (AGES)\\|date\\=19 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2021}}}}{{small\\|Seq.B117\\+unseq.N501Y}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 7\\.2%{{efn\\|name\\=Austria}}{{small\\|(9\\.6%)}} | 17\\.4%{{efn\\|name\\=Austria}}{{small\\|(23\\.8%)}} | 14\\.7%{{efn\\|name\\=Austria}}{{small\\|(19\\.6%)}} | 22\\.5%{{efn\\|name\\=Austria}}{{small\\|(28\\.6%)}} | 28\\.7%{{efn\\|name\\=Austria}}{{small\\|(37\\.2%)}} | 24\\.0%{{efn\\|name\\=Austria}}{{small\\|(45\\.4%)}} | 35\\.1%{{efn\\|name\\=Austria}}{{small\\|'''(58\\.1%)'''}} | **61\\.3%{{efn\\|name\\=Austria}}{{small\\|(65\\.3%)}}** | **61\\.2%{{efn\\|name\\=Austria}}{{small\\|(68\\.0%)}}** | 48\\.3%{{efn\\|name\\=Austria\\|In \\[\\[Austria]], the listed B.1\\.1\\.7 variant shares represent the percentage of all positive COVID\\-19 tests being confirmed to be B.1\\.1\\.7 by genome sequencing. However, many N501Y positive RT\\-PCR tests were not variant determined further by genome sequencing, and likely would have returned a B.1\\.1\\.7 positive result for the vast majority of such tests if the genome sequencing analysis had been done. If all N501Y positive tests had been analysed further by genome sequencing, then the listed weekly B.1\\.1\\.7 shares could have been uptil: 9\\.6% for week 1 {{small\\|(2\\.4% higher)}}, 23\\.8% for week 2 {{small\\|(6\\.4% higher)}}, 19\\.6% for week 3 {{small\\|(4\\.9% higher)}}, 28\\.6% for week 4 {{small\\|(6\\.1% higher)}}, 37\\.2% for week 5 {{small\\|(8\\.5% higher)}}, 45\\.4% for week 6 {{small\\|(21\\.4% higher)}}, 58\\.1% for week 7 {{small\\|(23\\.0% higher)}}, 65\\.3% for week 8 {{small\\|(4\\.0% higher)}}, 68\\.0% for week 9 {{small\\|(6\\.8% higher)}} and 73\\.7% for week 10 {{small\\|(25\\.4% higher)}}.}}**{{small\\|(73\\.7%)}}** |\n| [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium \"Belgium\") | {{small\\|Seq.}}{{small\\|SGTF}} | –{{small\\|(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)}} | 0\\.0%{{small\\|(\\<5%)}} | 0\\.0%{{small\\|(\\<5%)}} | 0\\.0%{{small\\|(\\<5%)}} | 13\\.6%{{small\\|(\\<5%)}} | 0\\.0%{{small\\|(\\<5%)}} | 7\\.1%{{small\\|(7\\.2%)}} | 7\\.7%{{small\\|(6\\.9%)}} | 13\\.4%{{small\\|(16\\.6%)}} | 23\\.3%{{small\\|(19\\.5%)}} | 39\\.4%{{small\\|(22\\.4%)}} | 43\\.2%{{small\\|(27\\.9%)}} | **51\\.5%**{{small\\|(34\\.4%)}} | **57\\.6%**{{small\\|(45\\.8%)}} | **66\\.5%**{{small\\|(46\\.3%)}} | **79\\.3%{{small\\|(54\\.8%)}}** |\n| [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal \"Portugal\") | {{small\\|SGTFL\\*Seq.%}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 1\\.7% | 0\\.8% | 1\\.2% | 1\\.7% | 2\\.9% | 6\\.8% | 12\\.3% | 22\\.7% | 33\\.5% | 39\\.2% | 40\\.9% | 45\\.7% | **50\\.5%** | **56\\.0%** | **64\\.3%** |\n| [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden \"Sweden\") | {{small\\|Seq. all N501Y\\+A570D pos. tests{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.folkhalsomyndigheten.se/smittskydd\\-beredskap/utbrott/aktuella\\-utbrott/covid\\-19/statistik\\-och\\-analyser/sars\\-cov\\-2\\-virusvarianter\\-av\\-sarskild\\-betydelse/\\|title\\=Statistik om SARS\\-CoV\\-2 virusvarianter av särskild betydelse\\|trans\\-title\\=Statistics on SARS\\-CoV\\-2 Variants Of Concern\\|language\\=sv\\|publisher\\=Folkhälsomyndigheten\\|date\\=18 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2021}}}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 10\\.8%{{small\\|(av. for 5 out of 21 regions)}}{{efn\\|name\\=Sweden1\\|In Sweden, a study comprising 11% of all SARS\\-CoV\\-2–positive PCR samples nationwide for week 4 found the B.1\\.1\\.7 share to be 10\\.8% (243/2244\\). Samples were, however, only collected from five southern regions (\\[\\[Skåne County\\|Skåne]], \\[\\[Västra Götaland County\\|Västra Götaland]], \\[\\[Västmanland County\\|Västmanland]], \\[\\[Gävleborg County\\|Gävleborg]] and \\[\\[Örebro County\\|Örebro]]), which were not considered to be statistically representative for the demography and geography of Sweden as a whole. The national authorities plan to expand the weekly study to cover more regions for the following weeks in February 2021\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.folkhalsomyndigheten.se/nyheter\\-och\\-press/nyhetsarkiv/2021/februari/stickprov\\-tyder\\-pa\\-okad\\-spridning\\-av\\-den\\-brittiska\\-virusvarianten\\-i\\-sverige/\\|title\\=Stickprov tyder på ökad spridning av den brittiska virusvarianten i Sverige\\|trans\\-title\\=Random samples indicate an increased spread of the British virus variant in Sweden\\|language\\=sv\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Folkhälsomyndigheten]]\\|date\\=February 2, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=February 2, 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=12 May 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512055059/https://www.folkhalsomyndigheten.se/nyheter\\-och\\-press/nyhetsarkiv/2021/februari/stickprov\\-tyder\\-pa\\-okad\\-spridning\\-av\\-den\\-brittiska\\-virusvarianten\\-i\\-sverige/}}}} | 15\\.1%{{small\\|(av. for 5 out of 21 regions)}}{{efn\\|name\\=Sweden2\\|In Sweden, a study comprising 16% of all SARS\\-CoV\\-2–positive PCR samples nationwide for week 5 found the B.1\\.1\\.7 share to be 15\\.1% (488/3224\\). Samples were, however, only collected from five southern regions (\\[\\[Skåne County\\|Skåne]], \\[\\[Västra Götaland County\\|Västra Götaland]], \\[\\[Västmanland County\\|Västmanland]], \\[\\[Gävleborg County\\|Gävleborg]] and \\[\\[Örebro County\\|Örebro]]), which were not considered to be statistically representative for the demography and geography of Sweden as a whole. The national authorities also calculated a two\\-week average (week 5\\+6\\) for 19 out of 21 regions, and plan to expand the weekly study to cover more regions for the following weeks in February 2021\\.}} | 27\\.3%{{small\\|(av. for 5 out of 21 regions)}}{{efn\\|name\\=Sweden3\\|In Sweden, a study comprising 18% of all SARS\\-CoV\\-2–positive PCR samples nationwide for week 6 found the B.1\\.1\\.7 share to be 27\\.3% (1021/3742\\). Samples were, however, only collected from five southern regions (\\[\\[Skåne County\\|Skåne]], \\[\\[Västra Götaland County\\|Västra Götaland]], \\[\\[Västmanland County\\|Västmanland]], \\[\\[Gävleborg County\\|Gävleborg]] and \\[\\[Örebro County\\|Örebro]]), which were not considered to be statistically representative for the demography and geography of Sweden as a whole. The national authorities also calculated a two\\-week average (week 5\\+6\\) for 19 out of 21 regions, and plan to expand the weekly study to cover more regions for the following weeks in February 2021\\.}} | 30\\.4%{{small\\|(av. for 19 out of 21 regions)}}{{efn\\|name\\=Sweden4\\|In Sweden, a study comprising 47\\.8% of all SARS\\-CoV\\-2–positive PCR samples nationwide for week 7, collected samples from 19 out of 21 regions (all except \\[\\[Gotland County\\|Gotland]] and \\[\\[Västerbotten County\\|Västerbotten]]), and found the B.1\\.1\\.7 share to be 30\\.4% (3316/10910\\) as a simple overall average (with a potential geographically skewed misrepresentation in the calculation as no data weights were used to normalize/correct each regions share of the overall sample).}} | 41\\.5%{{small\\|(av. for 19 out of 21 regions)}}{{efn\\|name\\=Sweden5\\|In Sweden, a study comprising 42\\.2% of all SARS\\-CoV\\-2–positive PCR samples nationwide for week 8, collected samples from 19 out of 21 regions (all except \\[\\[Gotland County\\|Gotland]] and \\[\\[Västerbotten County\\|Västerbotten]]), and found the B.1\\.1\\.7 share to be 41\\.5% (4643/11191\\) as a simple overall average (with a potential geographically skewed misrepresentation in the calculation as no data weights were used to normalize/correct each regions share of the overall sample).}} | **56\\.4%**{{small\\|(av. for 17 out of 21 regions)}}{{efn\\|name\\=Sweden6\\|In Sweden, a study comprising 37\\.8% of all SARS\\-CoV\\-2–positive PCR samples nationwide for week 9, collected samples from 17 out of 21 regions (all except \\[\\[Gotland County\\|Gotland]], \\[\\[Västerbotten County\\|Västerbotten]], \\[\\[Norrbotten County\\|Norrbotten]] and \\[\\[Östergötland County\\|Östergötland]]), and found the B.1\\.1\\.7 share to be 56\\.4% (5939/10528\\) as a simple overall average (with a potential geographically skewed misrepresentation in the calculation as no data weights were used to normalize/correct each regions share of the overall sample).}} | **71\\.3%**{{small\\|(av. for 18 out of 21 regions)}}{{efn\\|name\\=Sweden7\\|In Sweden, a study comprising 43\\.1% of all SARS\\-CoV\\-2–positive PCR samples nationwide for week 10, collected samples from 18 out of 21 regions (all except \\[\\[Gotland County\\|Gotland]], \\[\\[Västerbotten County\\|Västerbotten]] and \\[\\[Östergötland County\\|Östergötland]]), and found the B.1\\.1\\.7 share to be 71\\.3% (8850/12417\\) as a simple overall average (with a potential geographically skewed misrepresentation in the calculation as no data weights were used to normalize/correct each regions share of the overall sample).}} |\n| [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") | {{small\\|PCR{{nbsp}}proxy{{nbsp}}and{{nbsp}}Seq.}}{{small\\|Seq.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Aktualisierter Bericht zu Virusvarianten von SARS\\-CoV\\-2 in Deutschland, insbesondere zur Variant of Concern (VOC) B.1\\.1\\.7: Stand: 17\\. März 2021\\|trans\\-title\\=Updated report on virus variants of SARS\\-CoV\\-2 in Germany, in particular on Variant of Concern (VOC) B.1\\.1\\.7: As of 17 March 2021\\|url\\=https://www.rki.de/DE/Content/InfAZ/N/Neuartiges\\_Coronavirus/DESH/Bericht\\_VOC\\_2021\\-03\\-17\\.pdf?\\_\\_blob\\=publicationFile\\|language\\=de\\|publisher\\=Robert Koch\\-Institut (Bundesinstitut im Geschäftsbereich des Bundesministeriums für Gesundheit)\\|website\\=www.rki.de/DE/Content/InfAZ/N/Neuartiges\\_Coronavirus/DESH/Berichte\\-VOC\\-tab.html\\|date\\=17 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=20 March 2021}}}} | –{{small\\|(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)}} | –{{small\\|(–)}} | –{{small\\|(2\\.6%)}} | 2\\.0%{{small\\|(8\\.8%)}} | 3\\.6%{{small\\|(4\\.9%)}} | 4\\.7%{{small\\|(10\\.7%)}} | 7\\.2%{{small\\|(17\\.7%)}} | 17\\.6%{{small\\|(20\\.8%)}} | 25\\.9%{{small\\|(33\\.2%)}} | 40\\.0%{{small\\|(42\\.9%)}} | **54\\.5%**{{small\\|(48\\.3%)}} | **63\\.5%{{small\\|(–)}}** |\n| [Liechtenstein](/wiki/Liechtenstein \"Liechtenstein\") | {{small\\|PCR{{nbsp}}proxy:{{nbsp}}N501Y}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 10\\.9% | 28\\.5% | 32\\.8% | 47\\.0% | **52\\.2%** | **73\\.4%** |\n| [Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\") | {{small\\|Estimated based on PCR{{nbsp}}proxy}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 5\\-10%{{small\\|(Jan.29\\)}} | – | – | 20\\-25%{{small\\|(Feb.18\\)}} | 25\\-30%{{small\\|(Feb.22\\)}} | **\\>50%{{small\\|(Mar.3\\)}}** | **–** |\n| [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") | {{small\\|SGTF\\*Seq.%{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.helix.com/pages/helix\\-covid\\-19\\-surveillance\\-dashboard\\|title\\=The Helix® COVID\\-19 Surveillance Dashboard\\|work\\=Trends in S Gene Target Failure (SGTF), interactive data map: B.1\\.1\\.7 weekly share calculated as the average of the daily B.1\\.1\\.7 shares of the week. Daily B.1\\.1\\.7 shares are found by multiplying \"Daily Percent SGTF of Positive Samples\" and \"B.1\\.1\\.7 as % of sequenced SGTF positives\".\\|author\\=Helix\\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2021}}}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0\\.05% | 0\\.2% | 0\\.4% | 0\\.5% | 1\\.0% | 1\\.9% | 3\\.0% | 4\\.7% | 7\\.6% | 12\\.4% | 19\\.3% | 28\\.8% | 37\\.4% |\n| *[California](/wiki/California \"California\")* | {{small\\|SGTF\\*Seq.%}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0\\.3% | 0\\.3% | 0\\.7% | 1\\.1% | 1\\.3% | 2\\.0% | 1\\.9% | 4\\.2% | 5\\.9% | 13\\.1% | 16\\.6% | 18\\.8% | 28\\.0% |\n| *[Florida](/wiki/Florida \"Florida\")* | {{small\\|SGTF\\*Seq.%}} | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0\\.2% | 0\\.5% | 0\\.9% | 1\\.0% | 2\\.3% | 4\\.6% | 8\\.1% | 10\\.7% | 14\\.5% | 21\\.0% | 28\\.3% | 39\\.8% | 47\\.0% |\n| {{small\\|Other countries without weekly/periodic data, but with a variant share above 5%: {{0}}{{0}} Malta (61%), and Poland (52%).}} | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |", "* + The following additional countries did not report variant shares, but are likely to have a significant share present due to their finding of more than 50 cases confirmed by [whole genome sequencing](/wiki/Whole_genome_sequencing \"Whole genome sequencing\") per 13 March 2021:{{cite web\\|title\\=Tracking of variants: VUI202012/01 GR/501Y.V1 (B.1\\.1\\.7\\)\\|url\\=https://www.gisaid.org/hcov19\\-variants/\\|access\\-date\\=19 February 2021\\|publisher\\=GISAID}}\n* [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\") (486 cases)\n* [Finland](/wiki/Finland \"Finland\") (268 cases)\n* [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") (140 cases)\n* [Chile](/wiki/Chile \"Chile\") (124 cases)\n* [Croatia](/wiki/Croatia \"Croatia\") (121 cases)\n* [Nigeria](/wiki/Nigeria \"Nigeria\") (113 cases)\n* [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea \"South Korea\") (90 cases)\n* [Slovenia](/wiki/Slovenia \"Slovenia\") (87 cases)\n* [Latvia](/wiki/Latvia \"Latvia\") (83 cases)\n* [India](/wiki/India \"India\") (81 cases)\n* [Romania](/wiki/Romania \"Romania\") (76 cases)\n* [Ghana](/wiki/Ghana \"Ghana\") (67 cases)\n* [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\") (66 cases)\n* [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand \"New Zealand\") (63 cases)\n* [North Macedonia](/wiki/North_Macedonia \"North Macedonia\") (53 cases)\n* [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil \"Brazil\") (53 cases)\n* [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan \"Taiwan\") (32 cases)", "The [GISAID](/wiki/GISAID \"GISAID\") database of all sequenced COVID\\-19 genomes, calculates for each country for the past four weeks an average \"Relative Variant Genome Frequency\" for submitted samples. Those observed frequencies are however subject to sampling and reporting biases, and do not represent exact variant share prevalence due to absence of statistical representativity.", "### Countries reporting a first case", "#### December 2020", "Cases of the variant began to be reported globally during December, being reported in [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\"), [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium \"Belgium\"),{{Cite news\\|first\\=Alan\\|last\\=Hope\\|date\\=20 December 2020\\|title\\=Netherlands bans flights from UK over new Covid mutation\\|newspaper\\=The Brussels Times\\|url\\=https://www.brusselstimes.com/news/belgium\\-all\\-news/146288/netherlands\\-bans\\-flights\\-from\\-uk\\-over\\-new\\-covid\\-mutation\\-found\\-coronavirus\\-van\\-ranst\\-who/}} the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\"){{Cite news \\|title\\=Covid: WHO in 'close contact' with UK over new virus variant \\|website\\=BBC News \\|date\\=20 December 2020 \\|url\\= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\\-55382212 }}{{Cite news \\|title\\=EU to hold crisis talks as countries block travel from UK over new Covid strain \\|last1\\=Henley \\|first1\\=Jon \\|last2\\=Jones \\|first2\\=Sam \\|last3\\=Giuffrida \\|first3\\=Angela \\|last4\\=Holmes \\|first4\\=Oliver \\|newspaper\\=The Guardian \\|date\\=20 December 2020 \\|url\\= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/dec/20/belgium\\-italy\\-and\\-netherlands\\-ban\\-flights\\-from\\-uk\\-over\\-new\\-covid\\-strain}} and [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\").{{Cite news \\|title\\=Coronavirus, in Italia un soggetto positivo alla variante inglese \\|trans\\-title\\=Coronavirus, one person tests positive in Italy for the English variant \\|author\\= \\|work\\=la Repubblica \\|date\\=20 December 2020 \\|url\\= https://www.repubblica.it/cronaca/2020/12/20/news/coronavirus\\_variante\\_positivo\\_in\\_italia\\-279229115/ \\|language\\=it}} Shortly after, several other countries confirmed their first cases, the first of whom were found in [Iceland](/wiki/Iceland \"Iceland\") and [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar \"Gibraltar\"),{{cite news\\|first\\=Kate \\| last\\=Kelland \\| date\\=21 December 2020 \\| title\\=Explainer \\- The new coronavirus variant in Britain: How worrying is it? \\| url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk\\-health\\-coronavirus\\-variant\\-idUSKBN28V1MM \\| work\\=Reuters }}{{cite news\\|first1\\=Nick \\| last1\\=Squires \\| first2\\=Richard \\| last2\\=Orange \\| date\\=21 December 2020 \\| title\\=New coronavirus strain detected around the globe, from Gibraltar to Australia \\| url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/12/21/new\\-coronavirus\\-strain\\-detected\\-around\\-globe\\-gibraltar\\-australia/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/12/21/new\\-coronavirus\\-strain\\-detected\\-around\\-globe\\-gibraltar\\-australia/ \\|archive\\-date\\=11 January 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|url\\-status\\=live \\| work\\=The Telegraph }}{{cbignore}} then [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\"), [Israel](/wiki/Israel \"Israel\") and [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland \"Northern Ireland\") on 23 December,{{Cite web\\|date\\=2020\\-12\\-23\\|title\\=Singapore confirms first case of new Covid\\-19 strain from UK, a 17\\-year\\-old student who recently returned from Britain\\|url\\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/singapore\\-confirms\\-1\\-imported\\-patient\\-with\\-potentially\\-more\\-contagious\\-covid\\-19\\-strain\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-24\\|website\\=The Straits Times\\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web\\|date\\=2020\\-12\\-23\\|title\\=Israel confirms four cases of new Covid variant\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2020/dec/23/coronavirus\\-live\\-news\\-us\\-cases\\-increase\\-14\\-in\\-one\\-week\\-france\\-to\\-reopen\\-uk\\-border?page\\=with:block\\-5fe372908f08da4121f4c7c4\\#block\\-5fe372908f08da4121f4c7c4\\|work\\=The Guardian}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish\\-news/first\\-case\\-of\\-uk\\-variant\\-strain\\-of\\-covid\\-19\\-confirmed\\-in\\-northern\\-ireland\\-1\\.4444730\\|title\\=First case of UK variant strain of Covid\\-19 confirmed in Northern Ireland\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Irish Times]]\\|first\\=Gerry\\|last\\=Moriarty\\|date\\=23 December 2020\\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2020}} [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") and [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\") on 24 December,{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-health\\-coronavirus\\-germany\\-variant/germany\\-reports\\-case\\-of\\-british\\-coronavirus\\-variant\\-idUSKBN28Y1LO\\|title\\=Germany reports first case of coronavirus variant spreading in Britain\\|work\\=Reuters\\|first\\=Ludwig\\|last\\=Burger\\|date\\=24 December 2020}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bag.admin.ch/bag/fr/home/das\\-bag/aktuell/medienmitteilungen.msg\\-id\\-81829\\.html\\|title\\=COVID\\-19: Nouvelle variante du coronavirus découverte dans deux échantillons en Suisse \\|trans\\-title\\=COVID\\-19: New variant of the coronavirus discovered in two samples in Switzerland \\|publisher\\=Federal Office of Public Health (Switzerland)\\|date\\=24 December 2020\\|language\\=fr}} and the [Republic of Ireland](/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland \"Republic of Ireland\") and [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\") confirmed on 25 December.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.independent.ie/world\\-news/coronavirus/new\\-uk\\-variant\\-of\\-covid\\-19\\-confirmed\\-in\\-ireland\\-while\\-1025\\-new\\-cases\\-and\\-two\\-further\\-deaths\\-confirmed\\-39900087\\.html\\|title\\=New UK variant of Covid\\-19 confirmed in Ireland while 1,025 new cases and two further deaths confirmed\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Irish Independent]]\\|first\\=Eoghan\\|last\\=Moloney\\|date\\=25 December 2020\\|access\\-date\\=25 December 2020}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/dec/25/japan\\-reports\\-cases\\-coronavirus\\-variant\\-spreading\\-across\\-uk\\|title\\=Japan reports five cases of coronavirus variant found in UK\\|work\\=The Guardian\\|first\\=Emma\\|last\\=Graham\\-Harrison\\|date\\=25 December 2020}}", "The first cases in [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\"), [France](/wiki/France \"France\"), [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon \"Lebanon\"), [Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\") and [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden \"Sweden\") were reported on 26 December.{{cite news\\|title\\=Ontario identifies first cases of COVID\\-19 U.K. variant in the province\\|url\\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/ontario\\-confirms\\-first\\-cases\\-covid19\\-uk\\-variant\\-1\\.5855361\\|work\\=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (\\[\\[CBC News]])\\|date\\=26 December 2020}}{{Cite news \\|title\\=Coronavirus: More cases of new Covid variant found in Europe \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-europe\\-55452262 \\| publisher\\=BBC \\|date\\=26 December 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=26 December 2020}}{{Cite news \\|title\\=France, Lebanon confirm first cases of new coronavirus variant \\|url\\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/12/26/france\\-confirms\\-first\\-case\\-of\\-new\\-coronavirus\\-variant \\| publisher\\=Aljazeera \\|date\\=26 December 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=26 December 2020}}{{Cite news \\|title\\=Fall av den brittiska virusvarianten upptäckt i Sverige \\|trans\\-title\\=Cases of the British virus variant discovered in Sweden\\|url\\=https://www.svt.se/nyheter/lokalt/sormland/fall\\-av\\-den\\-brittiska\\-virusvarianten\\-upptack\\-i\\-sormland \\| publisher\\=SVT \\|date\\=26 December 2020 \\|language\\=sv}} [Jordan](/wiki/Jordan \"Jordan\"), [Norway](/wiki/Norway \"Norway\"), and [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal \"Portugal\") reported their first case on 27 December,{{Cite news\\|title\\=Norway, Portugal confirm first cases of coronavirus variant in travellers from the UK\\|url\\=https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/world/2020/12/covid\\-19\\-norway\\-confirms\\-first\\-cases\\-of\\-coronavirus\\-variant\\-in\\-travellers\\-from\\-the\\-uk.html\\|publisher\\=Newshub\\|date\\=27 December 2020\\|access\\-date\\=28 December 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=30 December 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230225324/https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/world/2020/12/covid\\-19\\-norway\\-confirms\\-first\\-cases\\-of\\-coronavirus\\-variant\\-in\\-travellers\\-from\\-the\\-uk.html}}{{Cite news \\|title\\=Jordan detects two coronavirus variant cases: minister\\|url\\=https://gulfnews.com/world/mena/jordan\\-detects\\-two\\-coronavirus\\-variant\\-cases\\-minister\\-1\\.1609090581408\\| work\\=Gulf News \\|date\\=27 December 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=28 December 2020}} [Finland](/wiki/Finland \"Finland\") and [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea \"South Korea\") reported their first cases on 28 December,{{cite news\\| date\\=28 December 2020 \\| title\\=New UK variant Covid strain detected in Finland \\| url\\=https://yle.fi/uutiset/osasto/news/new\\_uk\\_variant\\_covid\\_strain\\_detected\\_in\\_finland/11716211 \\| publisher\\=Yle News }}{{cite news\\| date\\=28 December 2020 \\| title\\=South Korea reports cases of COVID variant \\- and says they came from UK \\| url\\=https://news.sky.com/story/covid\\-variant\\-first\\-identified\\-in\\-uk\\-found\\-in\\-south\\-korea\\-12173983 \\| publisher\\=Sky News }} and [Chile](/wiki/Chile \"Chile\"), [India](/wiki/India \"India\"), [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\") and the [United Arab Emirates](/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates \"United Arab Emirates\") reported their first cases on 29 December.{{cite news\\|date\\=29 December 2020\\|title\\=Chile records first case of British variant of coronavirus \\- health ministry\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk\\-health\\-coronavirus\\-britain\\-variants\\-f/chile\\-records\\-first\\-case\\-of\\-british\\-variant\\-of\\-coronavirus\\-health\\-ministry\\-idUSKBN2931CS\\| work\\=Reuters}}{{cite news\\|date\\=29 December 2020\\|title\\=Coronavirus: India confirms six cases of new Covid variant\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/amp/world\\-asia\\-india\\-55472333\\| publisher\\=BBC News}}{{cite news\\|date\\=29 December 2020\\|title\\=First confirmed case of new Covid\\-19 strain detected in Pakistan\\|url\\=https://www.hindustantimes.com/world\\-news/first\\-confirmed\\-case\\-of\\-new\\-covid\\-19\\-strain\\-detected\\-in\\-pakistan/story\\-TFLSMYU6WRJ8yToNQfIeyJ.html\\| publisher\\=Hindustan Times}}{{cite news\\|date\\=30 December 2020\\|title\\=New Covid strain in UAE: All we know so far\\|url\\=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/coronavirus\\-pandemic/new\\-covid\\-strain\\-in\\-uae\\-all\\-we\\-know\\-so\\-far\\|publisher\\=Khaleej Times}} The first case of new variant in [Malta](/wiki/Malta \"Malta\") and [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan \"Taiwan\") are reported on 30 December.{{cite news\\|date\\=30 December 2020\\|title\\=Three cases of new COVID variant detected in Malta\\|url\\=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/uk\\-covid\\-19\\-variant\\-detected\\-in\\-malta.841925\\| work\\=Times of Malta}}{{cite news\\|date\\=30 December 2020\\|title\\=Taiwan reports its first case of mutant Covid\\-19 strain found in Britain\\|url\\=https://amp.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3115884/taiwan\\-reports\\-its\\-first\\-case\\-mutant\\-covid\\-19\\-strain\\-found\\| publisher\\=South China Morning Post}} [China](/wiki/China \"China\") and [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil \"Brazil\") reported their first cases of the new variant on 31 December.{{cite news\\|date\\=31 December 2020\\|title\\=China confirms first case of UK coronavirus variant\\|url\\=https://www.france24\\.com/en/live\\-news/20201231\\-china\\-confirms\\-first\\-case\\-of\\-uk\\-coronavirus\\-variant\\| publisher\\=France24}}{{cite news\\|date\\=31 December 2020\\|title\\=Brazil detects two cases of new coronavirus variant found in UK\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-health\\-coronavirus\\-brazil\\-variant\\-idUSKBN2951LL\\| work\\=Reuters}} The [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") and [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\") are sequencing their SARS\\-CoV\\-2 cases at considerably higher rates than most others,{{Cite news \\|title\\=Dansk Oxford\\-professor: Danmark skal gøre alt for, at ny virusvariant ikke spreder sig \\|trans\\-title\\=Danish Oxford professor: Denmark must do everything to ensure that new virus variant does not spread \\|last1\\=Knudsen \\|first1\\=T.H. \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[DR (broadcaster)\\|DR]] \\|date\\=20 December 2020 \\|url\\= https://www.dr.dk/nyheder/udland/dansk\\-oxford\\-professor\\-danmark\\-skal\\-goere\\-alt\\-ny\\-virusvariant\\-ikke\\-spreder\\-sig\\|language\\=da}} \nSee also: {{cite web\\|title\\=Global sequencing coverage\\|url\\=https://covidcg.org/?tab\\=global\\_sequencing\\|publisher\\=covidcg.org\\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2020}} and it was considered likely that additional countries would detect the variant later.{{Cite news \\|title\\=Scientists urge calm about coronavirus mutations, which are not unexpected \\|newspaper\\=New York Times \\| last1 \\= Mandavilli \\|first1 \\= Apoorva \\| last2 \\= Landler \\| first2 \\= Mark \\| last3 \\= Castle \\| first3 \\= Stephen\\|date\\=20 December 2020 \\|url\\= https://www.nytimes.com/live/2020/12/20/world/covid\\-19\\-coronavirus\\#scientists\\-urge\\-calm\\-about\\-coronavirus\\-mutations\\-which\\-are\\-not\\-unexpected}}", "The [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") reported a case in [Colorado](/wiki/Colorado \"Colorado\") with no travel history on 29 December, the sample was taken on 24 December.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Casiano\\|first\\=Louis\\|date\\=2020\\-12\\-29\\|title\\=Colorado health officials confirm new COVID\\-19 variant in the state\\|url\\=https://www.foxnews.com/us/colorado\\-confirms\\-new\\-covid\\-19\\-variant\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-29\\|website\\=Fox News\\|language\\=en\\-US}} On 6 January 2021, the US [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention \"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\") announced that it had found at least 52 confirmed cases in [California](/wiki/California \"California\"), [Florida](/wiki/Florida \"Florida\"), Colorado, [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 \"Georgia (U.S. state)\"), and [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 \"New York (state)\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.cnn.com/2021/01/06/health/coronavirus\\-variant\\-us\\-cdc\\-cases/index.html\\|title\\=CDC has found more than 50 US cases of coronavirus variant first identified in UK\\|publisher\\=CNN\\|last\\=Nedelman\\|first\\=Michael\\|date\\=6 January 2021\\|access\\-date\\=7 January 2021}} In the following days, more cases of the variant were reported in other states, leading former CDC director [Tom Frieden](/wiki/Tom_Frieden \"Tom Frieden\") to express his concerns that the U.S. will soon face \"close to a worst\\-case scenario\".{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.forbes.com/sites/nicholasreimann/2021/01/08/close\\-to\\-a\\-worst\\-case\\-scenario\\-former\\-cdc\\-director\\-issues\\-horrifying\\-outlook\\-for\\-new\\-covid\\-strain/?sh\\=7091f39f3738\\|title\\='Close To A Worst\\-Case Scenario'—Former CDC Director Issues 'Horrifying' Outlook For New Covid Strain\\|work\\=Forbes\\|last\\=Reimann\\|first\\=Nicholas\\|date\\=January 8, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=January 15, 2021}}", "#### January 2021", "[Turkey](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\") detected its first cases in 15 people from England on 1 January 2021\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cnnturk.com/video/turkiye/son\\-dakika\\-haberi\\-bakan\\-koca\\-acikladi\\-15\\-kiside\\-mutasyonlu\\-virus\\-ingiltereden\\-girisler\\-tamamen\\-durduruldu\\-video\\|title\\=Son dakika haberi... Bakan Koca açıkladı, 15 kişide mutasyonlu virüs! İngiltere'den girişler tamamen durduruldu \\|format\\=Video \\|trans\\-title\\=Breaking news... Minister Koca announced, mutated virus in 15 people! Entries from the UK are completely suspended\\|website\\=CNN Türk\\|access\\-date\\=4 January 2021}} It was reported on 1 January that Denmark had found a total of 86 cases of the variant, equalling an overall frequency of less than 1% of the sequenced cases in the period from its first detection in the country in mid\\-November to the end of December;{{Cite web\\|date\\=2021\\-01\\-02\\|title\\=SSI: Meget smitsom coronamutation fra England spreder sig i Danmark\\|url\\=https://www.dr.dk/nyheder/indland/ssi\\-meget\\-smitsom\\-coronamutation\\-fra\\-england\\-spreder\\-sig\\-i\\-danmark\\|trans\\-title\\=SSI: Very infectious corona mutation {{sic}} from England spreads in Denmark\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-03\\|website\\=DR\\|language\\=da}}{{Cite web\\|date\\=2021\\-01\\-01\\|title\\=Udvikling i smitte med engelsk virusvariant af SARS\\-COV\\-2 (cluster B.1\\.1\\.7\\) \\|trans\\-title\\=Development in infection with English virus variant of SARS\\-COV\\-2 (cluster B.1\\.1\\.7\\) \\|url\\=https://www.ssi.dk/\\-/media/cdn/files/opdaterede\\-data\\-paa\\-ny\\-engelsk\\-virusvariant\\-sarscov2\\-cluster\\-b117\\-\\-01012021\\.pdf?la\\=da\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-02\\|publisher\\=Statens Serum Institut\\|language\\=da}} this had increased to 1\\.6% of sequenced tests in the period from mid\\-November to week two of 2021, with 7% of sequenced tests in this week alone being of Alpha variant (lineage B.1\\.1\\.7\\).{{cite web \\|url\\=https://files.ssi.dk/covid19/status\\-b117/status\\-b117\\-17012021\\-po64 \\|title\\=Status for udvikling af B.1\\.1\\.7 i Danmark d. 17\\. januar 2021 \\|trans\\-title\\=Status for progression of B.1\\.1\\.7 in Denmark on 17 January 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=19 January 2021 \\|publisher\\=Statens Serum Institut \\|archive\\-date\\=18 January 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118145802/https://files.ssi.dk/covid19/status\\-b117/status\\-b117\\-17012021\\-po64 }} [Luxembourg](/wiki/Luxembourg \"Luxembourg\") and [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam \"Vietnam\") reported their first case of this variant on 2 January 2021\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2021/01/02/vietnam\\-reports\\-first\\-case\\-new\\-coronavirus\\-variant\\-woman\\-returning/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2021/01/02/vietnam\\-reports\\-first\\-case\\-new\\-coronavirus\\-variant\\-woman\\-returning/ \\|archive\\-date\\=11 January 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|title\\=Vietnam reports first case of new coronavirus variant in woman returning from Britain\\|work\\=The Telegraph\\|date\\=2 January 2021\\|access\\-date\\=2 January 2021}}{{cbignore}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://luxtimes.lu/luxembourg/42668\\-new\\-covid\\-19\\-strain\\-found\\-in\\-luxembourg\\|title\\=New Covid\\-19 strain found in Luxembourg\\|website\\=luxtimes.lu\\|access\\-date\\=4 January 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=22 February 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210222135404/https://luxtimes.lu/luxembourg/42668\\-new\\-covid\\-19\\-strain\\-found\\-in\\-luxembourg}}", "On 3 January 2021, [Greece](/wiki/Greece \"Greece\") and [Jamaica](/wiki/Jamaica \"Jamaica\") detected their first four cases of this variant{{cite news\\|date\\=3 January 2021\\|title\\=Greece detects four cases of new coronavirus variant\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/health\\-coronavirus\\-greece/greece\\-detects\\-four\\-cases\\-of\\-new\\-coronavirus\\-variant\\-idUSL8N2J141N\\| work\\=Reuters}}{{cite news\\|date\\=3 January 2021\\|title\\=Four cases of COVID\\-19 variant confirmed in Jamaica\\|url\\=https://www.loopcayman.com/content/four\\-cases\\-covid\\-19\\-variant\\-confirmed\\-jamaica\\|access\\-date\\=22 January 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=3 January 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210103130317/http://www.loopcayman.com/content/four\\-cases\\-covid\\-19\\-variant\\-confirmed\\-jamaica}} and [Cyprus](/wiki/Cyprus \"Cyprus\") announced that it had detected Alpha (VOC 202012/01\\) in 12 samples.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://cyprus\\-mail.com/2021/01/03/coronavirus\\-new\\-fast\\-spreading\\-british\\-strain\\-found\\-in\\-cyprus/\\|title\\=Coronavirus: New, fast\\-spreading British variant found in Cyprus \\| Cyprus Mail\\|first\\=Katy\\|last\\=Turner\\|access\\-date\\=4 January 2021}} At the same time, [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand \"New Zealand\") and [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand \"Thailand\") reported their first cases of this variant, where the former reported six cases made up of five from the United Kingdom and one from South Africa,{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.tvnz.co.nz/one\\-news/new\\-zealand/six\\-cases\\-nz\\-border\\-have\\-had\\-new\\-covid\\-19\\-variant\\-in\\-total\\-past\\-three\\-days\\|title\\=Six cases at NZ border have had new Covid\\-19 variant, 19 cases in total in the past three days\\|access\\-date\\=4 January 2021\\|newspaper\\=TVNZ}} and the latter reported the cases from a family of four who had arrived from Kent.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://thethaiger.com/news/national/britons\\-arriving\\-in\\-thailand\\-test\\-positive\\-for\\-covid\\-uk\\-variant\\|title\\=Britons arriving in Thailand test positive for Covid UK variant\\|last\\=The Thaiger\\|date\\=3 January 2021\\|website\\=The Thaiger\\|access\\-date\\=4 January 2021}} [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28country%29 \"Georgia (country)\") reported its first case{{cite news\\|date\\=4 January 2021\\|title\\=Georgia confirms first case of UK\\-linked coronavirus strain\\|url\\=http://www.businessworld.in/article/Georgia\\-confirms\\-first\\-case\\-of\\-UK\\-linked\\-coronavirus\\-strain/04\\-01\\-2021\\-361501/}} and [Austria](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\") reported their first four cases of this variant, along with one case of [Beta variant](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Beta_variant \"SARS-CoV-2 Beta variant\"), on 4 January.{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|title\\=British, South African {{sic\\|nolink\\=y\\|reason\\=error in source\\|corornavirus}} mutations detected in Austria \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-health\\-coronavirus\\-austria\\-idUSKBN2991LT \\|work\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\|location\\=Berlin \\|date\\=4 January 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-06}}", "On 5 January, [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\"),{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|title\\=Iran confirms first case of new Covid\\-19 variant \\|url\\=https://www.france24\\.com/en/live\\-news/20210105\\-iran\\-confirms\\-first\\-case\\-of\\-new\\-covid\\-19\\-variant \\|work\\=\\[\\[France 24]] \\|location\\=\\[\\[Tehran]] \\|date\\=5 January 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-06}} [Oman](/wiki/Oman \"Oman\"),{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|title\\=Oman registers first case of new virus variant in traveller from UK \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-health\\-coronavirus\\-oman\\-idUSKBN29A1G9 \\|work\\=Reuters \\|location\\=Dubai \\|date\\=5 January 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-06}} and [Slovakia](/wiki/Slovakia \"Slovakia\") reported their first cases of VOC\\-202012/01\\.{{cite news\\|date\\=5 January 2021\\|title\\=Cases of the new UK coronavirus variant have been confirmed in Slovakia\\|url\\=https://www.expats.cz/czech\\-news/article/english\\-coronavirus\\-strand\\-confirmed\\-in\\-slovakia\\|agency\\=Expats.cz}} On 8 January, [Romania](/wiki/Romania \"Romania\") reported its first case of the variant, an adult woman from [Giurgiu County](/wiki/Giurgiu_County \"Giurgiu County\") who declared not having left the country recently.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-health\\-coronavirus\\-romania\\-idUSKBN29D1SO\\|title\\=Romania detects first case of British coronavirus variant\\|work\\=Reuters\\|date\\=8 January 2021}} On 9 January, [Peru](/wiki/Peru \"Peru\") confirmed its first case of the variant.{{cite news\\|date\\=9 January 2021\\|title\\=Peru Confirms First Case of COVID\\-19 Variant Strain\\|url\\=https://riotimesonline.com/brazil\\-news/miscellaneous/covid\\-19/peru\\-confirms\\-first\\-case\\-of\\-covid\\-19\\-variant/}} [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\") and [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\") reported their first case of this variant on 10 January,[Mexico detects first case of new coronavirus strain first seen in UK](https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/mexico-detects-first-case-of-new-coronavirus-strain-first-seen-in-uk-121011100144_1.html), 11 January 2021 *www.business\\-standard.com*, accessed 15 January 2021 then [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia \"Malaysia\") and [Latvia](/wiki/Latvia \"Latvia\") on 11 January.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2021/01/11/uk\\-variant\\-of\\-covid\\-19\\-has\\-reached\\-malaysia\\-dr\\-noor\\-hisham\\-confirms/1939483\\|title\\=UK\\-variant of Covid\\-19 has reached Malaysia, Dr Noor Hisham confirms\\|newspaper\\=Malay Mail\\|date\\=11 January 2021}}{{cite news\\|date\\=4 January 2021\\|title\\=New Covid\\-19 variant found in Latvia\\|url\\=https://bnn\\-news.com/new\\-covid\\-19\\-variant\\-found\\-in\\-latvia\\-220703\\| agency\\=Baltic News Network}}", "On 12 January, [Ecuador](/wiki/Ecuador \"Ecuador\") confirmed its first case of this variant.{{cite news\\|date\\=12 January 2021\\|title\\=Ecuador records first case of new coronavirus variant\\|url\\=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/americas/ecuador\\-records\\-first\\-case\\-of\\-new\\-coronavirus\\-variant/2106621}} The [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\") and [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary \"Hungary\") both detected the presence of the variant on 13 January.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://cnnphilippines.com/news/2021/1/13/live\\-updates\\-covid\\-pandemic.html \\|title\\=LIVE UPDATES: COVID\\-19 pandemic \\|date\\=13 January 2021 \\|work\\=CNN Philippines \\|access\\-date\\=15 January 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 November 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121203251/https://cnnphilippines.com/news/2021/1/13/live\\-updates\\-covid\\-pandemic.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite news\\|date\\=13 January 2021\\|title\\=Hungary detects UK variant of coronavirus, surgeon general says\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-health\\-coronavirus\\-hungary/hungary\\-detects\\-uk\\-variant\\-of\\-coronavirus\\-surgeon\\-general\\-says\\-idUSKBN29I1BR\\| work\\=Reuters}} The [Gambia](/wiki/Gambia \"Gambia\") recorded first cases of the variant on 14 January with it being the first confirmation of the variant's presence in Africa.{{cite news\\|date\\=14 January 2021\\|title\\=Gambia records first two cases of British COVID\\-19 variant\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/health\\-coronavirus\\-gambia/gambia\\-records\\-first\\-two\\-cases\\-of\\-british\\-covid\\-19\\-variant\\-idUSL8N2JP547\\| work\\=Reuters}} On 15 January, the [Dominican Republic](/wiki/Dominican_Republic \"Dominican Republic\") confirmed its first case of the new variant{{cite news\\|date\\=15 January 2021\\|title\\=New COVID\\-19 strain confirmed to arrive in Dominican Republic from London\\|url\\=https://dominicantoday.com/dr/local/2021/01/15/new\\-covid\\-19\\-strain\\-confirmed\\-to\\-arrive\\-in\\-dominican\\-republic\\-from\\-london/}} and [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\") confirmed its first case of the variant on 16 January.{{cite news\\|date\\=16 January 2021\\|title\\=Argentina detects first case of British virus variant\\|url\\=https://medicalxpress.com/news/2021\\-01\\-argentina\\-case\\-british\\-virus\\-variant.html\\| agency\\=MedicalXpress}} [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic \"Czech Republic\") and [Morocco](/wiki/Morocco \"Morocco\") reported their first cases on 18 January{{cite news\\|date\\=18 January 2021\\|title\\=UPDATE 1\\-Czech Republic detects UK coronavirus variant, to maintain lockdown measures\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/health\\-coronavirus\\-czech/update\\-1\\-czech\\-republic\\-detects\\-uk\\-coronavirus\\-variant\\-to\\-maintain\\-lockdown\\-measures\\-idUSL1N2JT1GH\\| work\\=Reuters}}{{cite news\\|date\\=19 January 2021\\|title\\=Kuwait, Morocco report first cases of UK coronavirus variant\\|url\\=https://thearabweekly.com/kuwait\\-morocco\\-report\\-first\\-cases\\-uk\\-coronavirus\\-variant\\| agency\\=The Arab Weekly}} while [Ghana](/wiki/Ghana \"Ghana\") and [Kuwait](/wiki/Kuwait \"Kuwait\") confirmed their first cases on 19 January.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2021\\-01\\-19\\|title\\=COVID\\-19: UK, South Africa variants found in Ghana – Senior Researcher\\|url\\=https://starrfm.com.gh/2021/01/covid\\-19\\-uk\\-south\\-africa\\-variants\\-found\\-in\\-ghana\\-senior\\-researcher/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-12\\|website\\=StarrFM}}{{cite news\\|date\\=19 January 2021\\|title\\=Kuwait registers first cases of new virus variant\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/health\\-coronavirus\\-kuwait/kuwait\\-registers\\-first\\-cases\\-of\\-new\\-virus\\-variant\\-idUSL1N2JU1CP\\| work\\=Reuters}} [Nigeria](/wiki/Nigeria \"Nigeria\") confirmed its first case on 25 January.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Adebowale\\|first1\\=Nike\\|title\\=Updated: COVID\\-19 variant, causing anxiety in UK, found in Nigeria – Official\\|url\\=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top\\-news/438652\\-covid\\-19\\-variant\\-causing\\-anxiety\\-in\\-uk\\-found\\-in\\-nigeria\\-official.html\\|website\\=The Premium Times\\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2021\\|date\\=25 January 2021}} On 28 January, [Senegal](/wiki/Senegal \"Senegal\") detected its first case of the variant.{{cite news\\|date\\=28 January 2021\\|title\\=UPDATE 1\\-Senegal confirms presence of UK variant of coronavirus\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL1N2K30W7\\| work\\=Reuters}}", "In early January, an outbreak linked to a primary school led to the detection of at least 30 cases of the new variant in the [Bergschenhoek](/wiki/Bergschenhoek \"Bergschenhoek\") area of the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\"), signifying local transmission.{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|title\\=Municipality to test 60,000 residents for British strain of coronavirus \\|url\\=https://www.dutchnews.nl/news/2021/01/municipality\\-to\\-test\\-60000\\-residents\\-for\\-british\\-strain\\-of\\-coronavirus/ \\|work\\=DutchNews \\|date\\=11 January 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-12}}", "On 24 January, a person travelling from Africa to [Faroe Islands](/wiki/Faroe_Islands \"Faroe Islands\") tested positive upon arrival to the islands, and went directly into quarantine.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://kvf.fo/greinar/2021/01/24/uk\\-covid\\-strain\\-confirmed\\-faroes\\-0\\|title\\=UK Covid strain confirmed in the Faroes\\|author\\=Tróndur Olsen\\|publisher\\=Kringvarp Føroya\\|date\\=24 January 2021\\|access\\-date\\=25 March 2021}}", "On 28 January, [North Macedonia](/wiki/North_Macedonia \"North Macedonia\") confirmed the variant was detected in a 46\\-year\\-old man, who had already recovered.{{cite news\\|date\\=28 January 2021\\|title\\=North Macedonia reports first case of British coronavirus variant \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/health\\-coronavirus\\-northmacedonia\\-idUSL8N2K345K\\| work\\=Reuters}}", "#### February 2021", "On 1 February, [Lithuania](/wiki/Lithuania \"Lithuania\") confirmed the first cases of the new lineage.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2021}} On 4 February, health authorities in [Uruguay](/wiki/Uruguay \"Uruguay\") announced the first case of the variant in the country. The case was detected in a person who entered the country on 20 December 2020 and has been in quarantine ever since.{{cite news\\|date\\=4 February 2021\\|title\\=Detectaron la variante británica del virus SARS\\-CoV\\-2 en Uruguay\\|url\\=https://www.republica.com.uy/hallaron\\-la\\-variante\\-britanica\\-del\\-virus\\-sars\\-cov\\-2\\-en\\-uruguay\\-id810761/\\|language\\=es}} On 10 February, the Health Ministry of [Croatia](/wiki/Croatia \"Croatia\") confirmed that out of 61 sequenced samples since 20 January, the variant was detected in 3 samples: a male 50 year old and 3\\.5 year old from [Zagreb](/wiki/Zagreb \"Zagreb\"), and a male 34\\-year\\-old from Brod\\-Posavina County.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Telegram.hr\\|title\\=Potvrđena prva tri slučaja britanskog soja koronavirusa u Hrvatskoj\\|url\\=https://www.telegram.hr/politika\\-kriminal/potvrdena\\-prva\\-tri\\-slucaja\\-britanskog\\-soja\\-koronavirusa\\-u\\-hrvatskoj/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-10\\|website\\=Telegram.hr\\|language\\=hr}} On 12 February, the variant was detected from four areas in Sri Lanka,{{Cite web\\|date\\=2021\\-02\\-12\\|title\\=UK COVID strain found in Sri Lanka \\- Dr. Chandima Jeewandara\\|url\\=https://www.newsfirst.lk/2021/02/12/uk\\-covid\\-strain\\-found\\-in\\-sri\\-lanka\\-dr\\-chandima\\-jeewandara/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-12\\|website\\=Sri Lanka News \\- Newsfirst\\|language\\=en}} and the Canadian province of [Newfoundland and Labrador](/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador \"Newfoundland and Labrador\") confirmed an outbreak of the variant.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Coronavirus variant puts N.L. back in lockdown; in\\-person voting suspended\\|url\\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland\\-labrador/covid\\-late\\-briefing\\-feb\\-12\\-1\\.5913042\\|access\\-date\\=13 February 2021\\|work\\=\\[\\[CBC News]]}}", "#### March 2021", "On 2 March, [Indonesia](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Indonesia \"COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia\") reports its first cases of the variant in two migrant workers returning from Saudi Arabia.{{cite news\\|title\\=Menkes Sebut 2 Kasus Mutasi Corona Inggris Masuk dari Saudi\\|url\\=https://www.cnnindonesia.com/nasional/20210302200658\\-20\\-612898/menkes\\-sebut\\-2\\-kasus\\-mutasi\\-corona\\-inggris\\-masuk\\-dari\\-saudi\\|access\\-date\\=8 March 2021\\|work\\=CNN Indonesia\\|date\\=2 March 2021\\|language\\=id}} On the same day, [Tunisia](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tunisia \"COVID-19 pandemic in Tunisia\")[Tunisia records first cases of UK variant – as it happened](https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2021/mar/02/coronavirus-live-news-who-says-covid-wont-be-over-this-year-france-and-germany-fight-astrazeneca-concerns?page=with:block-603e646a8f08be9d080d8def#block-603e646a8f08be9d080d8def) 2 March 2021 *www.theguardian.com*, accessed 3 March 2021 reported their first cases of the variant. The presence of the variant in [Ivory Coast](/wiki/Ivory_Coast \"Ivory Coast\") was confirmed on 25 March.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://news.educarriere.ci/news\\-33998\\-covid\\-19\\-le\\-variant\\-anglais\\-detecte\\-en\\-cote\\-d\\-ivoire\\-ministere\\-de\\-la\\-sante.html\\|title\\=Covid\\-19: le variant anglais détecté en Côte d'Ivoire (ministère de la Santé)\\|website\\=Educarriere.ci \\|date\\=25 March 2021 \\|access\\-date\\= 9 April 2021}}", "### N501Y mutation elsewhere", "The N501Y mutation arose independently multiple times in different locations:\n* In April 2020, it was seen for the first time in a few isolated sequences in [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil \"Brazil\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Expert reaction new restrictions and the new SARS\\-CoV\\-2 variant\\|url\\=https://www.sciencemediacentre.org/expert\\-reaction\\-to\\-pms\\-and\\-cmos\\-statements\\-about\\-new\\-restrictions\\-and\\-the\\-new\\-sars\\-cov\\-2\\-variant/\\|quote\\=Dr Julian Tang, Honorary Associate Professor/Clinical Virologist, University of Leicester, said: \"An examination of the global GISAID SARS\\-COV\\-2 sequence database shows that this N501Y mutation was actually circulating, sporadically, much earlier in the year outside the UK: in Australia in June–July, USA in July and in Brazil in April, 2020\\.\"\\|date\\=21 December 2020\\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2020\\|website\\=Science Media Centre\\|language\\=en\\-GB}}\n* In June 2020, the mutation appeared in an [Australian](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") lineage.\n* In July 2020, (according to Dr Julian Tang, [University of Leicester](/wiki/University_of_Leicester \"University of Leicester\")) N501Y appeared in a lineage circulating in [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\").{{citation needed\\|reason\\=better: claim that only a single case found USA/July\\|date\\=March 2021}}\n* In September 2020, it was found in a lineage in [Wales](/wiki/Wales \"Wales\"), that evolved independently and was different from lineage B.1\\.1\\.7\\.\n* In September 2020, the much more transmissible and widespread lineage B.1\\.1\\.7 (501Y.V1\\) was detected for the first time in [Kent](/wiki/Kent \"Kent\") (England).\n* In October 2020, another highly transmissible variant of concern termed lineage B.1\\.351 (501Y.V2, [Beta variant](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Beta_variant \"SARS-CoV-2 Beta variant\")) was first time detected by genome sequencing in [Nelson Mendela Bay](/wiki/Nelson_Mandela_Bay_Metropolitan_Municipality \"Nelson Mandela Bay Metropolitan Municipality\") (South Africa).{{cite report\\|date\\=10 March 2021 \\|title\\=Global Report B.1\\.351 \\|url\\=https://cov\\-lineages.org/global\\_report\\_B.1\\.351\\.html \\|publisher\\=cov\\-lineages.org \\|access\\-date\\=10 March 2021}} [Phylogeographic analysis](/wiki/Phylogeography \"Phylogeography\") suggests this lineage emerged already in July or August 2020\\.{{Cite medRxiv \\|vauthors\\=Tegally H, Wilkinson E, et al. \\|title\\=Emergence and rapid spread of a new severe acute respiratory syndrome\\-related coronavirus 2 (SARS\\-CoV\\-2\\) lineage with multiple spike mutations in South Africa \\|date\\=22 December 2020 \\|medrxiv\\=10\\.1101/2020\\.12\\.21\\.20248640}}\n* In December 2020,{{cite report\\|date\\=11 March 2021 \\|title\\=Global Report P.1\\|url\\=https://cov\\-lineages.org/global\\_report\\_P.1\\.html\\|publisher\\=cov\\-lineages.org \\|access\\-date\\=11 March 2021}} another highly transmissible variant termed lineage P.1 (501Y.V3, [Gamma variant](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Gamma_variant \"SARS-CoV-2 Gamma variant\")) was detected in [Manaus](/wiki/Manaus \"Manaus\") (Brazil).{{cite news\\|author\\=Nuno R. Faria\\|display\\-authors\\=et.al\\|title\\=Genomic characterisation of an emergent SARS\\-CoV\\-2 lineage in Manaus: preliminary findings\\|url\\=https://virological.org/t/genomic\\-characterisation\\-of\\-an\\-emergent\\-sars\\-cov\\-2\\-lineage\\-in\\-manaus\\-preliminary\\-findings/586\\|date\\=12 January 2021\\|website\\=Virological.org\\|access\\-date\\=11 March 2021}}", "" ]
### Spread in Europe The variant became dominant for: * [South East England](/wiki/South_East_England "South East England") in week 48, the last week of November 2020\. * [England](/wiki/England "England") in week 51 of 2020\. * [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") in week 52 of 2020\. * [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland "Scotland") and [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland") in week 1 of 2021\. * [Wales](/wiki/Wales "Wales") in week 2 of 2021\. * [Ireland](/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland "Republic of Ireland") in week 2 of 2021\. In Bulgaria, genome sequencing found the variant to be dominant with 52\.1% in week 4, followed by 73\.4% in week 9\. [thumb\|400px\|Distribution of the SARS\-CoV\-2 virus variants after entering Germany](/wiki/file:Verbreitung_der_SARS-CoV-2-Virusvarianten_in_Deutschland.svg "Verbreitung der SARS-CoV-2-Virusvarianten in Deutschland.svg") Also in Slovakia, a RT\-PCR Multiplex DX test capable of detecting the 2 deletions specific for lineage B.1\.1\.7 (ΔH69/ΔV70 and ΔY144\),{{Cite web\|author\=Kovacova, V. \|display\-authors\=etal\|date\=5 February 2021\|title\=A novel, room temperature\-stable, multiplexed RT\-qPCR assay to distinguish lineage B.1\.1\.7 from the remaining SARS\-CoV\-2 lineages.\|website\=virological.org\|url\=https://virological.org/t/a\-novel\-room\-temperature\-stable\-multiplexed\-rt\-qpcr\-assay\-to\-distinguish\-lineage\-b\-1\-1\-7\-from\-the\-remaining\-sars\-cov\-2\-lineages/611\|access\-date\=21 February 2021}} first found the variant nationwide in 74% of cases on 3 February (week 5\), followed by 72% of cases on 15 February (week 7\), and it then grew to 90% of cases on 3 March (week 9\).{{Cite news\|author\=Ján Mikas, hlavný hygienik Slovenskej Republiky\|date\=9 March 2021\|title\=Britský variant potvrdený na Slovensku v 90% vyšetrených vzoriek\|trans\-title\=British variant confirmed in Slovakia in 90% of examined samples\|language\=sk\|publisher\=Public Health Office of the Slovak Republic\|url\=https://www.uvzsr.sk/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=4651\|access\-date\=17 March 2021\|archive\-date\=13 May 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513135235/https://www.uvzsr.sk/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=4651}} The same test found earlier on 8 January prevalence of the variant at a rate of 36% in the [Michalovce District](/wiki/Michalovce_District "Michalovce District") and 29% in [Nitra](/wiki/Nitra "Nitra").{{Cite news\|date\=9 January 2021\|title\=Aktuálna epidemiologická situácia na Slovensku (prezentácia, 8\. január 2021\)\|trans\-title\=Current epidemiological situation in Slovakia (presentation, January 8, 2021\)\|language\=sk\|publisher\=Public Health Office of the Slovak Republic\|url\=https://www.uvzsr.sk/docs/info/covid19/Epidemiologicka\_situacia\_210108\_v1\.pdf\|access\-date\=21 February 2021\|archive\-date\=14 July 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714020630/https://www.uvzsr.sk/docs/info/covid19/Epidemiologicka\_situacia\_210108\_v1\.pdf}} In Israel, the variant was first time detected by genome sequencing 23 December 2020\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.gov.il/en/departments/news/23122020\-07\|title\=Press Releases: Four Cases of COVID\-19 Variant found in the United Kingdom Have Been Discovered in Israel\|publisher\=Ministry of Health\|date\=23 December 2020\|access\-date\=26 February 2021}} [Leumit Health Care Services](/wiki/Leumit_Health_Care_Services "Leumit Health Care Services") however analysed with the proxy test RT\-PCR (SGTF) and found the variant at a rate of 3‑4% on 15 December. The national Ministry of Health estimated based on genome sequencing, that the prevalence of the variant became dominant (70%) on 6 February followed by 90% on 16 February. In Luxembourg, a weekly genome sequencing revealed that the variant grew from 0\.3% (week 51\) to be dominant with a share of 53\.0% in week 5, although results might not be fully representative due to the fact that no correction occurred from potential targeting bias from contact tracing, airport travellers and local outbreaks. Genome sequencing of a population representative randomized test pool \- with no target bias \- was conducted since week 6, and it confirmed the dominant status of the variant at a rate of 54\.1% (week 6\) growing to 62\.8% (week 9\), while the competing [Beta variant](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Beta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Beta variant") (lineage B.1\.351\) was found to be at 18\.5% in week 9\.{{Cite web\|title\=Respiratory Viruses Surveillance – REVILUX: Respiratory Viruses Sentinelle Newsletter, REVILUX bulletin hebdomadaire\|trans\-title\=Respiratory Viruses Surveillance – REVILUX: Respiratory Viruses Sentinelle Newsletter, REVILUX weekly update\|author\=Laboratoire National de Santé (LNS)\|url\=https://lns.lu/en/departement/department\-of\-microbiology/revilux/\|date\=18 March 2021\|access\-date\=18 March 2021\|archive\-date\=17 December 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217115439/https://lns.lu/en/departement/department\-of\-microbiology/revilux/}} In Denmark the variant grew from 0\.3% (week 46 of 2020\) to become dominant with 65\.9% (week 7 of 2021\), and it grew further to 92\.7% (week 10\); with the regional prevalence ranging from 87\.3% in the [North Jutland Region](/wiki/North_Jutland_Region "North Jutland Region") to 96\.1% in the [Central Denmark Region](/wiki/Central_Denmark_Region "Central Denmark Region").{{cite web\|url\=https://files.ssi.dk/covid19/virusvarianter/status/status\-virusvarianter\-20032021\-i33i\|title\=Status for udvikling af SARS\-CoV\-2 Variants of Concern (VOC) i Danmark\|trans\-title\=Status of development of SARS\-CoV\-2 Variants of Concern (VOC) in Denmark\|language\=da\|publisher\=Statens Serum Institut\|date\=20 March 2021\|access\-date\=20 March 2021}} The observed growth of the relative variant share, was in full accordance with the earlier modelled forecast, that had predicted dominance (over 50%) around mid\-February and a prevalence of around 80% of the total circulating variants by early March.{{cite report\|url\=https://covid19\.ssi.dk/\-/media/cdn/files/notat\-om\-prognoser\-for\-smittetal\-og\-indlggelser\_01022021\.pdf?la\=da\|title\=Notat om prognoser for smittetal og indlæggelser ved scenarier for genåbning af 0\.\-4\. klasse i grundskolen\|language\=Danish\|trans\-title\=\[\[Memorandum]] on forecasts for infection rates and hospital admissions in scenarios for reopening of 0th–4th class in primary school\|publisher\=\[\[Statens Serum Institut]]\|access\-date\=2 February 2021 \|date\=31 January 2021}} In comparison, the genome sequencing only found the competing Beta variant in 0\.4% of the positive cases (9 times out of 2315 tests) in week 10\.{{cite web\|url\=https://files.ssi.dk/covid19/virusvarianter/status/status\-virusvarianter\-12032021\-uh7y\|title\=Status for udvikling af SARS\-CoV\-2 Variants of Concern (VOC) i Danmark\|trans\-title\=Status of development of SARS\-CoV\-2 Variants of Concern (VOC) in Denmark\|language\=da\|publisher\=Statens Serum Institut\|date\=12 March 2021\|access\-date\=20 March 2021}}{{cite web\|url\=https://files.ssi.dk/covid19/virusvarianter/status/status\-virusvarianter\-19032021\-j3k4\|title\=Status for udvikling af SARS\-CoV\-2 Variants of Concern (VOC) i Danmark\|trans\-title\=Status of development of SARS\-CoV\-2 Variants of Concern (VOC) in Denmark\|language\=da\|publisher\=Statens Serum Institut\|date\=19 March 2021\|access\-date\=20 March 2021}} In the Netherlands, a randomly conducted genome sequencing found that the variant grew from 1\.3% of cases in week 49 to a dominant share of 61\.3% in week 7, followed by 82\.0% in week 9; while the competing Beta variant in comparison was found to be at 3\.0% in week 9\.{{Cite web\|author\=National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM) \- Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport\|date\=23 March 2021\|title\=Variants of the coronavirus SARS\-CoV\-2\|url\=https://www.rivm.nl/en/novel\-coronavirus\-covid\-19/virus\-sars\-cov\-2/variants\-of\-coronavirus\-sars\-cov\-2\|access\-date\=23 March 2021\|website\=www.rivm.nl}} In Amsterdam, the Alpha variant (lineage B.1\.1\.7\) grew from 5\.2% (week 52\) to 54\.5% (week 6\).{{Cite web\|author\=Ministerie van Volksgezondheid, Welzijn en Sport\|date\=23 February 2021\|title\=Advies VWS na OMT 101\|trans\-title\=Advice from VWS after 101th OMT on COVID\-19\|url\=https://open.overheid.nl/repository/ronl\-09bf1c47\-e36e\-44c8\-b33e\-c9877a71f455/1/pdf/advies\-vws\-na\-omt\-101\.pdf\|access\-date\=13 April 2022\|website\=overheid.nl\|language\=nl}} In Norway, the variant was found by genome sequencing to grow from 5\.7% (week 1\) into dominance by a 58\.4% (week 7\), followed by 65\.0% (week 8\).{{cite web\|url\=https://www.fhi.no/contentassets/8a971e7b0a3c4a06bdbf381ab52e6157/vedlegg/2021/ukerapport\-for\-uke\-8\-22\.02\-\-\-28\.02\.21\.pdf\|title\=COVID\-19 Ukerapport – uke 8, onsdag 3\. mars 2021\|trans\-title\=COVID\-19 weekly report for week 8 (wednesday 3 March 2021\)\|language\=no\|author\=Folkehelseinstituttet\|date\=3 March 2021\|access\-date\=4 March 2021\|archive\-date\=19 November 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119205120/https://www.fhi.no/contentassets/8a971e7b0a3c4a06bdbf381ab52e6157/vedlegg/2021/ukerapport\-for\-uke\-8\-22\.02\-\-\-28\.02\.21\.pdf}} Another large survey comprising results of both genome sequencing and PCR proxy tests, with a sample seize of more than 1000 tests per week (since week 4\), at the same time found that the variant grew from 2\.0% (week 48\) into dominance by 60\.0% (week 7\), followed by 72\.7% in week 10 \- while only 2\.2% of cases in comparison were found to be of the Beta variant.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.fhi.no/contentassets/8a971e7b0a3c4a06bdbf381ab52e6157/vedlegg/2021/ukerapport\-for\-uke\-10\-08\.03\-\-\-14\.03\.21\.pdf\|title\=COVID\-19 Ukerapport – uke 10, onsdag 17\. mars 2021\|trans\-title\=COVID\-19 weekly report for week 10 (wednesday 17 March 2021\)\|language\=no\|author\=Folkehelseinstituttet\|date\=17 March 2021\|access\-date\=17 March 2021\|archive\-date\=17 March 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210317154422/https://www.fhi.no/contentassets/8a971e7b0a3c4a06bdbf381ab52e6157/vedlegg/2021/ukerapport\-for\-uke\-10\-08\.03\-\-\-14\.03\.21\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}} The variant regionally had its highest share in the county of [Oslo](/wiki/Oslo "Oslo") and [Viken](/wiki/Viken_%28county%29 "Viken (county)"),{{cite web\|url\=https://www.fhi.no/sv/smittsomme\-sykdommer/corona/statistikk\-over\-tilfeller\-av\-koronavirusvarianter/\#forekomst\-av\-engelsk\-koronavirusvariant\|title\=Statistikk over meldte tilfeller av den engelske og den sør\-afrikanske varianten av koronavirus\|trans\-title\=Statistics on reported cases of the English and South African variants of coronavirus\|language\=no\|author\=Folkehelseinstituttet\|date\=26 February 2021\|access\-date\=28 February 2021}} growing from 18% to 90% of analysed samples in Oslo from 20 January to 23 February (although with the data\-corrected estimate a bit lower at 50\-70% on 23 February); while growing from 21% to 80% of analysed samples in Viken from 25 January to 23 February (although with the data\-corrected estimate a bit lower at 50% on 23 February).{{cite web\|url\=https://www.fhi.no/nyheter/2021/engelsk\-virusvariant\-dominerer\-i\-oslo\-og\-viken/\|title\=Engelsk virusvariant dominerer i Oslo og Viken\|trans\-title\=English virus variant dominates in Oslo and Viken\|language\=no\|author\=Folkehelseinstituttet\|date\=27 February 2021\|access\-date\=28 February 2021\|archive\-date\=17 April 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417235139/https://www.fhi.no/nyheter/2021/engelsk\-virusvariant\-dominerer\-i\-oslo\-og\-viken/\|url\-status\=dead}} For the period 15 February to 14 March, the combined survey of genome sequencing and PCR proxy tests, also found the Alpha variant was at a dominant rate over 50% for 8 out of 11 regions, with its highest rate (82%) found for Oslo; while the region [Nordland](/wiki/Nordland "Nordland") was different from all other regions by having only 6% cases of Alpha along with a dominant 88% of cases represented by the Beta variant. In Portugal, the variant represented according to a national genome sequencing survey: 16\.0% of the Covid\-19 infections during 10–19 January (week 2\),{{Cite web\|title\=Diversidade genética do novo coronavírus SARS\-CoV\-2 (COVID\-19\) em Portugal\|trans\-title\=Genetic diversity of the new SARS\-CoV\-2 coronavirus (COVID\-19\) in Portugal\|author\=Instituto Nacional de Saúde (INSA), Doutor Ricardo Jorge\|url\=https://insaflu.insa.pt/covid19/relatorios/INSA\_SARS\_CoV\_2\_DIVERSIDADE\_GENETICA\_relatorio\_situacao\_2021\-02\-05\.pdf\|date\=2021\-02\-05\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-07\|language\=pt}} followed by a dominant 58\.2% in week 6\.{{Cite web\|title\=Diversidade genética do novo coronavírus SARS\-CoV\-2 (COVID\-19\) em Portugal (3 de Março de 2021\)\|trans\-title\=Genetic diversity of the new SARS\-CoV\-2 coronavirus (COVID\-19\) in Portugal (3 March 2021\)\|author\=Instituto Nacional de Saúde (INSA), Doutor Ricardo Jorge\|url\=https://insaflu.insa.pt/covid19/relatorios/INSA\_SARS\_CoV\_2\_DIVERSIDADE\_GENETICA\_relatorio\_situacao\_2021\-03\-03\.pdf\|date\=3 March 2021\|access\-date\=4 March 2021\|language\=pt}} A national RT\-PCR proxy test based on SGTF and SGTL observations, found the variant at a rate of 33\.5% in week 4, but observed afterwards a decelerating pace for the weekly rise of the variant share (reason unknown), and according to this study it only became dominant by 50\.5% {{small\|(91\.8% of 55\.0% SGTFL)}} in week 8, followed by 64\.3% {{small\|(91\.8% of 70% SGTFL)}} in week 10\. In Italy, the Alpha variant accounted for 17\.8% of cases nationwide on 4–5 February (week 5\),{{cite web\|url\=https://www.iss.it/primo\-piano/\-/asset\_publisher/3f4alMwzN1Z7/content/id/5624099?\_com\_liferay\_asset\_publisher\_web\_portlet\_AssetPublisherPortlet\_INSTANCE\_3f4alMwzN1Z7\|title\=Prevalenza della variante VOC 202012/01, lineage B.1\.1\.7 in Italia (Studio di prevalenza 4\-5 febbraio 2021\)\|trans\-title\=Prevalence of the VOC variant 202012/01, lineage B.1\.1\.7 in Italy (Prevalence study February 4–5, 2021\)\|language\=it\|author\=Istituto Superiore di Sanità\|date\=February 15, 2021\|access\-date\=February 17, 2021}} followed by 54\.0% on 18 February (week 7\). The regional prevalence for week 7 ranged from 0% in [Aosta Valley](/wiki/Aosta_Valley "Aosta Valley") (although only one sample was tested) to 93\.3% in [Molise](/wiki/Molise "Molise"). In week 7, the competing [Gamma variant](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Gamma_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Gamma variant") had a prevalence of 4\.3% (ranging between 0%\-36\.2% regionally) and the South African variant a prevalence of 0\.4% (ranging between 0%\-2\.9% regionally).{{cite web\|url\=https://www.iss.it/primo\-piano/\-/asset\_publisher/3f4alMwzN1Z7/content/id/5647546\|title\=CS N° 14/2021 \- In Italia il 54% delle infezioni dovute a 'variante inglese', il 4,3% a quella 'brasiliana' e lo 0,4% a quella 'sudafricana'\|trans\-title\=CS N° 14/2021 \- In Italy 54% of infections due to the 'English variant', 4\.3% to the 'Brazilian' one and 0\.4% to the 'South African' one\|language\=it\|author\=Istituto Superiore di Sanità\|date\=2 March 2021\|access\-date\=5 March 2021}} In Switzerland, a nationwide weekly genome sequencing survey found that the Alpha variant grew from 0\.05% (week 51\) to a dominant 58\.2% of cases in week 8, followed by 71\.1% in week 9\. This was in full accordance with a model from 9 February that had forecast dominance around mid\-February.{{cite web\|url\=https://sciencetaskforce.ch/wissenschaftliches\-update\-09\-februar\-2021/\|title\=Wissenschaftliches update 09 februar 2021\|trans\-title\=Scientific update of 9 February 2021\|language\=de\|publisher\=Swiss National COVID\-19 Task Force\|date\=9 February 2021\|access\-date\=17 February 2021}} In comparison, the competing Beta variant was only found nationwide in 1\.0% of the positive cases in week 9\. In Belgium, genome sequencing of samples selected randomly after excluding all samples from active targeted testing related to local outbreaks or travels (creating a statistical representative national sample with a seize equal to 4\.4% of all COVID\-19 positive tests), found that the Alpha variant share grew from 7\.1% in week 1 to a dominant 51\.5% in week 7, followed by 79\.3% in week 10\.{{Cite web\|title\=Covid\-19 Wekelijks Epidemiologisch Bulletin (19 Maart 2021\)\|trans\-title\=Covid\-19 Weekly Epidemiological Bulletin (19 March 2021\)\|url\=https://covid\-19\.sciensano.be/sites/default/files/Covid19/COVID\-19\_Weekly\_report\_NL.pdf\|author\=Sciensano\|date\=19 March 2021\|access\-date\=19 March 2021\|work\=Moleculaire surveillance van SARS\-CoV\-2 (p.20\-22\)\|language\=nl}} The variant was first time detected by targeted genome sequencing in week 49, but due to a small sample seize (not being random, and less than 100 tests per week) then no reliable variant share data could be determined before week 1\.{{Cite web\|title\=Covid\-19 Wekelijks Epidemiologisch Bulletin (19 Februari 2021\)\|trans\-title\=Covid\-19 Weekly Epidemiological Bulletin (February 19, 2021\)\|url\=http://covid\-19\.sciensano.be/sites/default/files/Covid19/COVID\-19\_Weekly%20report\_20210219%20\-%20NL.pdf\|author\=Sciensano\|date\=19 February 2021\|access\-date\=25 February 2021\|work\=Moleculaire surveillance van SARS\-CoV\-2 (p.21\-24\)\|language\=nl}} The proxy test for the variant (RT\-PCR SGTF) was also conducted for a sample seize equal to 25\.8% of all COVID\-19 positive tests, and found a dominant 54\.8% SGTF rate for week 10\. In comparison, the competing [Beta variant](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Beta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Beta variant") was found to be at 3\.6% and the [Gamma variant](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Gamma_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Gamma variant") had a prevalence of 1\.8% in week 10\. In France, scientists accurately forecast the Alpha variant (VOC\-202012/01\) would likely become dominant nationwide around week 8–11 of 2021\.{{Cite web\|title\=Estimated date of dominance of VOC\-202012/01 strain in France and projected scenarios\|url\=https://www.epicx\-lab.com/uploads/9/6/9/4/9694133/inserm\_covid\-19\-voc\_dominance\-20210116\.pdf\|date\=16 January 2021}} A nationwide survey of randomly selected positive COVID\-19 samples first analysed by a RT\-PCR screening test and subsequently confirmed by genome sequencing, revealed that the variant grew from a share of 3\.3% (388/11916\) on 7–8 January (week 1\){{cite web\|url\=https://www.santepubliquefrance.fr/content/download/315275/2903017\|title\=COVID\-19: Point épidémiologi que hebdomadaire du 28 janvier 2021\|trans\-title\=COVID\-19: Weekly epidemiological update of 28 January 2021\|language\=fr\|author\=Santé Publique France\|date\=January 28, 2021\|access\-date\=February 1, 2021}} to 13\.3% (475/3561\) on 27 January (week 4\),{{cite web\|url\=https://www.santepubliquefrance.fr/content/download/326672/2952356\|title\=COVID\-19: Point épidémiologi que hebdomadaire du 11 mars 2021\|trans\-title\=COVID\-19: Weekly epidemiological update of 11 March 2021\|language\=fr\|author\=Santé Publique France\|date\=11 March 2021\|access\-date\=12 March 2021}} followed by 44\.3% (273/615\) on 16 February (week 7\). In week 8, the variant was found to have a dominant share of 56\.4% (758/1345\) according to the interpretable results of a weekly genome sequencing survey comprising 0\.9% of all COVID\-19 positive tests, or 59\.5% according to a variant\-specific RT\-PCR survey testing 54% of all the COVID\-19 positive tests. In week 10, the variant was found to have a share of 71\.9% according to a variant\-specific RT\-PCR survey testing 56\.9% of all the COVID\-19 positive tests. The spread of the variant differed regionally for the 96 [departments](/wiki/Departments_of_France "Departments of France") located in [Metropolitan France](/wiki/Metropolitan_France "Metropolitan France") for week 10, with 91 departments over 50% and 5 departments with 30%\-50% (of which the [Moselle department](/wiki/Moselle_%28department%29 "Moselle (department)") in particular was notable due to finding a high 38\.3% rate of the competing Beta variant, that \- despite having declined from a dominant 54\.4% value in week 8 \- still was significantly above the 5\.0% national average for this specific variant). In Austria, [Agentur für Gesundheit und Ernährungssicherheit (AGES)](/wiki/w:De:Agentur_f%C3%BCr_Gesundheit_und_Ern%C3%A4hrungssicherheit "De:Agentur für Gesundheit und Ernährungssicherheit") collected data from N501Y RT\-PCR specific tests combined with subsequent genome sequencing analysis, and found that the variant grew from 7\.2% (week 1\) to a dominant 61\.3% (week 8\), followed by 61\.2% in week 9 and 48\.3% in week 10\. If all N501Y positive tests had been analysed further by genome sequencing, then these listed shares could have been even higher, for example they could have been as mcuh as: 2\.4% higher for week 1, 23\.0% higher for week 7, 4\.0% higher for week 8, 6\.8% higher for week 9 and 25\.4% higher for week 10\. The competing Beta variant was only found nationwide in 0\.3% of the positive cases in week 10, and for the region [Tyrol](/wiki/Tyrol_%28state%29 "Tyrol (state)") \- where it had been most prevalent \- its share declined from 24\.5% in week 4 to just 1\.9% in week 10\. Regionally Alpha was found to be dominant with over 50% for 7 out of [9 regions](/wiki/States_of_Austria "States of Austria"), with the only two exceptions being Tyrol and [Vorarlberg](/wiki/Vorarlberg "Vorarlberg"). In Germany, the largest and probably most representative national survey published by the [Robert Koch Institute](/wiki/Robert_Koch_Institute "Robert Koch Institute") (entitled *RKI\-Testzahlerfassung*), determined the share of circulating COVID\-19 variants for the latest week by analysing 53,272 COVID\-19 positive samples either by genome sequencing or RT\-PCR proxy tests, with data collected on a voluntary basis from 84 laboratories from the university / research / clinical / outpatient sector \- spread evenly across the nation. The survey did not utilize data weights or data selection criteria to ensure existence of geographical representativity, but might still be regarded as somewhat representative for the national average due to its big sample seize. According to the *RKI\-Testzahlerfassung* survey, the variant grew from a share of 2\.0% (week 2\) to a dominant share of 54\.5% (week 9\), followed by 63\.5% in week 10\. In comparison, the competing Beta variant was only found nationwide in 0\.9% of the positive cases in week 10\. In Malta, the variant was first time detected by genome sequencing on 30 December 2020, and represented 8% of the positive cases in week 7\.{{cite web\|title\=COVID\-19: Bars and band clubs to remain shut in March, Chris Fearne says\|url\=https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/national/107931/covid19\_bars\_and\_band\_clubs\_to\_remain\_shut\_in\_march\_chris\_fearne\_says\#.YEyAfGhKjb0\|publisher\=Malta Today\|author\=Laura Calleja\|date\=24 February 2021\|access\-date\=13 March 2021}} A new RT\-PCR variant specific test was introduced for the surveillance,{{cite web\|title\=Malta to get new swab tests which can identify Covid\-19 variants\|url\=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2021\-03\-04/local\-news/Malta\-to\-get\-new\-swab\-tests\-which\-can\-identify\-Covid\-19\-variants\-6736231533\|publisher\=Malta Independent\|date\=4 March 2021\|access\-date\=13 March 2021}} where the first results reported on 10 March revealed the variant now represented 61% of cases nationwide.{{Cite web\|title\=UK virus variant detected in 60 per cent of new COVID cases\|url\=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/uk\-virus\-variant\-detected\-in\-60\-per\-cent\-of\-new\-covid\-cases.857197\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-10\|author\=Claire Farrugia\|publisher\=Times of Malta\|date\=10 March 2021\|language\=en\-gb}} In Sweden, the national authorities initially expected the variant would become dominant around week 12–14 under the assumption of 50% increased transmissibility compared to the original virus.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.folkhalsomyndigheten.se/publicerat\-material/publikationsarkiv/s/scenario\-for\-fortsatt\-spridning\-\-delrapport\-2/\|title\=Scenarier för fortsatt spridning – interimsrapport\|trans\-title\=Scenarios for continued dissemination \- interim report\|language\=sv\|author\=Folkhälsomyndigheten\|date\=February 4, 2021\|access\-date\=February 8, 2021}} In average, the variant share was found growing from 10\.8% (week 4\) to 36\.9% (week 7\) across five of its southern regions ([Skåne](/wiki/Sk%C3%A5ne_County "Skåne County"), [Västra Götaland](/wiki/V%C3%A4stra_G%C3%B6taland_County "Västra Götaland County"), [Västmanland](/wiki/V%C3%A4stmanland_County "Västmanland County"), [Gävleborg](/wiki/G%C3%A4vleborg_County "Gävleborg County") and [Örebro](/wiki/%C3%96rebro_County "Örebro County")).{{cite web\|url\=https://www.folkhalsomyndigheten.se/smittskydd\-beredskap/utbrott/aktuella\-utbrott/covid\-19/statistik\-och\-analyser/sars\-cov\-2\-virusvarianter\-av\-sarskild\-betydelse/tidigare\-statistik/vecka\-8\-2021/\|title\=Publicerad statistik för SARS\-CoV\-2 virusvarianter av särskild betydelse under vecka 8 2021\|trans\-title\=Statistics on SARS\-CoV\-2 Variants Of Concern for week 8 2021\|language\=sv\|publisher\=Folkhälsomyndigheten\|date\=15 March 2021\|access\-date\=15 March 2021\|archive\-date\=11 October 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011072628/https://www.folkhalsomyndigheten.se/smittskydd\-beredskap/utbrott/aktuella\-utbrott/covid\-19/statistik\-och\-analyser/sars\-cov\-2\-virusvarianter\-av\-sarskild\-betydelse/tidigare\-statistik/vecka\-8\-2021/}} For week 7, the share of the variant was for the first time also calculated to 30\.4% as the overall average for 19 out of 21 [Swedish regions](/wiki/Counties_of_Sweden "Counties of Sweden") (ranging from 3\.3% in [Blekinge](/wiki/Blekinge_County "Blekinge County") to 45% in Gävleborg). For week 9, the share of the variant was calculated to a dominant 56\.4% as the overall average for the 19 regions (ranging from 16% in [Kronoberg](/wiki/Kronoberg_County "Kronoberg County") to 72% in Gävleborg). For week 10, the share of the variant was calculated to have increased further to 71\.3% as the overall average for the 19 regions (ranging from 40% in [Kronoberg](/wiki/Kronoberg_County "Kronoberg County") to 84% in [Jönköping](/wiki/J%C3%B6nk%C3%B6ping_County "Jönköping County")). Although no geographical weights were applied to ensure geographical representativity for the calculated average for the 19 regions, the overall sample seize of 12,417 variant tests represented 43\.1% of all COVID\-19 positive PCR\-tests for week 10, inferring that the result of the survey might be close to represent the actual true average for the nation as a whole. In the [microstate](/wiki/Microstate "Microstate") [Liechtenstein](/wiki/Liechtenstein "Liechtenstein"), the first case of Alpha was detected on 19 December 2020\. During the entire pandemic, 67 VOC\-N501Y PCR\-positive cases were detected comprising 58 cases of Alpha, 1 of Beta (detected 1 February) and 8 un\-identified N501Y cases (from 10 Dec. to 22 Feb.), as of 18 March 2021\. The weekly average of each days calculated 7\-day rolling average for the share of all detected VOC\-N501Y cases (which is a good proxy for Alpha in Liechtenstein), was found to be 10\.9% in week 5, followed by a dominant 52\.2% in week 9 (where 8 out of 15 tests were found to be Alpha); and grew further to 73\.4% in week 10 (where 6 out of 9 tests were found to be Alpha).{{cite web\|url\=https://www.covid19\.admin.ch/en/epidemiologic/virus\-variants?detTime\=phase2b\&detGeo\=FL\|title\=COVID\-⁠19 Switzerland Information on the current situation, as of 18 March 2021: Key figures, Liechtenstein\|publisher\=\[\[Federal Office of Public Health]]\|work\=Download data: Data as .csv file.\|date\=18 March 2021\|access\-date\=18 March 2021}} In Spain, the variant share was estimated nationwide to be 5%\-10% of cases on 29 January,{{Cite web\|title\=Spanish Health Ministry estimates British variant accounts for up to 10% of positives in Spain\|url\=https://murciatoday.com/spanish\_health\_ministry\_estimates\_british\_variant\_accounts\_for\_up\_to\_10\_of\_positives\_in\_spain\_1555209\-a.html\|date\=30 January 2021\|access\-date\=3 February 2021\|website\=murciatoday.com}} followed by 20%\-25% of cases on 18 February{{Cite web\|title\=La variante británica representa ya el 20% de los casos en España\|trans\-title\=The British variant already represents 20% of cases in Spain\|author\=Alvaro Soto\|url\=https://www.msn.com/es\-es/noticias/espana/la\-variante\-brit%C3%A1nica\-representa\-ya\-el\-20percent\-de\-los\-casos\-en\-espa%C3%B1a/ar\-BB1dNIzt\|language\=es\|date\=18 February 2021\|access\-date\=22 February 2021\|website\=msn.com}}{{Cite web\|title\=Autoridades sanitarias afirmaron que la cepa británica circula "ampliamente" en España\|trans\-title\=Health authorities affirmed that the British strain circulates "widely" in Spain\|url\=https://www.telam.com.ar/notas/202102/544987\-espana\-coronavirus\-cepa\-britanica.html\|publisher\=Télam\|language\=es\|date\=18 February 2021\|access\-date\=17 March 2021}} and 25%\-30% of cases on 22 February,{{Cite web\|title\=Detectadas en España las nuevas variantes nigeriana y de Río de Janeiro del coronavirus\|trans\-title\=The new Nigerian and Rio de Janeiro variants of the coronavirus detected in Spain\|author\=Manuel Vilaseró\|url\=https://www.elperiodico.com/es/sociedad/20210222/sanidad\-alerta\-cuatro\-nuevas\-variantes\-coronavirus\-covid\-11537278\|language\=es\|date\=22 February 2021\|access\-date\=1 March 2021}} and estimated to be dominant with over 50% as of 3 March (week 9\).{{Cite web\|title\=Darias: "La variante británica ya es la dominante en España"\|trans\-title\=Darias: "The British variant is already the dominant one in Spain"\|author\=Miguel Hidalgo Pérez\|url\=https://www.niusdiario.es/sociedad/sanidad/darias\-variante\-britanica\-ya\-es\-dominante\-espana\_18\_3100395333\.html\|language\=es\|date\=3 March 2021\|access\-date\=17 March 2021}} As of week 10, the prevalence of the variant ranged from 18\.3% to 97\.0% for the [17 regions](/wiki/Autonomous_communities_of_Spain "Autonomous communities of Spain"), with all but two regions having a dominant rate above 50%:{{cite web\|url\=https://www.mscbs.gob.es/profesionales/saludPublica/ccayes/alertasActual/nCov/documentos/COVID19\_Actualizacion\_variantes\_20210318\.pdf\|title\=Actualización de la situación epidemiológica de las variantes de importancia en salud pública en España (18 de marzo de 2021\)\|trans\-title\=Update of the epidemiological situation of Variants of Importance in Public Health in Spain (18 March 2021\)\|language\=es\|publisher\=Ministerio de Sanidad, Consumo y Bienestar Social\|date\=18 March 2021\|access\-date\=18 March 2021}} * No data reported by [Extremadura](/wiki/Extremadura "Extremadura"). * 18\.3% for week 10 in [Aragon](/wiki/Aragon "Aragon"). * 27\.0% for week 7 in [Canary Islands](/wiki/Canary_Islands "Canary Islands"). * 51\.3% for week 8 in [Castile and León](/wiki/Castile_and_Le%C3%B3n "Castile and León"). * 52\.2% for week 10 in [Valencia](/wiki/Valencian_Community "Valencian Community"). * 52\.8% for week 10 in [Castilla–La Mancha](/wiki/Castilla%E2%80%93La_Mancha "Castilla–La Mancha"). * 53\.3% for week 4 in [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Spain%29 "Galicia (Spain)"). * 59\.5% for week 9 in [La Rioja](/wiki/La_Rioja "La Rioja"). * 59\.7% for week 10 in [Madrid](/wiki/Community_of_Madrid "Community of Madrid"). * 61\.6% for week 11 in [Andalusia](/wiki/Andalusia "Andalusia"). * 76\.1% for week 10 in [Balearic Islands](/wiki/Balearic_Islands "Balearic Islands"). * 76\.7% for week 10 in [Murcia](/wiki/Region_of_Murcia "Region of Murcia"). * 77\.4% for week 10 in [Basque Country](/wiki/Basque_Country_%28autonomous_community%29 "Basque Country (autonomous community)"). * 77\.8% for week 10 in [Navarre](/wiki/Navarre "Navarre"). * 83\.1% for week 10 in [Cantabria](/wiki/Cantabria "Cantabria"). * 84\.6% for week 9 in [Catalonia](/wiki/Catalonia "Catalonia"). * 97\.0% for week 10 in [Asturias](/wiki/Asturias "Asturias"). In Poland, a national survey among infected teachers led to experts estimating that the variant share was between 5% and 10% nationwide as of 11 February,{{cite web\|url\=https://www.medonet.pl/koronawirus/koronawirus\-w\-polsce,brytyjski\-wariant\-koronawirusa\-w\-polsce\-\-ile\-jest\-zakazen\-\-jaka\-jest\-skala\-,artykul,67482636\.html\|title\=Brytyjski wariant koronawirusa \- jaka jest skala jego obecności w Polsce?\|trans\-title\=British variant of the coronavirus \- what is the scale of its presence in Poland?\|language\=pl\|publisher\=Medonet\|author\=Adrian Dabek\|date\=February 11, 2021\|access\-date\=February 17, 2021}} while [ECDC](/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control "European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control") reported it to be 9% as of 15 February.{{Cite web\|author\=European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control\|date\=15 February 2021\|title\=Rapid Risk Assessment: SARS\-CoV\-2 increased circulation of variants of concern and vaccine rollout in the EU/EEA, 14th update, 15 February 2021\|url\=https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/RRA\-covid\-19\-14th\-update\-15\-feb\-2021\.pdf\|access\-date\=18 February 2021\|website\=www.ecdc.europa.eu}} According to Health minister [Adam Niedzielski](/wiki/Adam_Niedzielski "Adam Niedzielski"), the variant was found at a rate of 5% in the first studies from the second half of January, and then it increased by ten percentage points every ten days, until it became dominant nationwide by a 52% rate on 16 March (week 11\).{{Cite web\|title\=Od 20 marca w całej Polsce obowiązują rozszerzone zasady bezpieczeństwa\|trans\-title\=From March 20, extended safety rules apply throughout Poland\|url\=https://www.gov.pl/web/koronawirus/od\-20\-marca\-w\-calej\-polsce\-obowiazuja\-rozszerzone\-zasady\-bezpieczenstwa\|date\=17 March 2021\|access\-date\=17 March 2021\|website\=gov.pl\|publisher\=Government of Poland\|language\=pl}}{{Cite web\|title\=Nowe obostrzenia w calym kraju od 20 marca do 9 kwietnia\|trans\-title\=New restrictions nationwide from March 20 to April 9\|url\=https://www.pap.pl/aktualnosci/news%2C835182%2Cnowe\-obostrzenia\-w\-calym\-kraju\-od\-20\-marca\-do\-9\-kwietnia.html\|date\=17 March 2021\|access\-date\=17 March 2021\|website\=pap.pl\|publisher\=Polska Agencja Prasowa \|author\=Sylwia Dabkowska\-Pozyczka \|author2\=Edyta Ros \|author3\=Wiktoria Nicalek \|author4\=Karol Kostrzewa \|author5\=Aleksandra Rebelinska \|language\=pl}} Regionally, the variant had already exceeded 70% for [Warmian\-Masurian](/wiki/Warmian-Masurian_Voivodeship "Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship") and [Pomeranian](/wiki/Pomeranian_Voivodeship "Pomeranian Voivodeship") on 22–23 February (week 8\),{{Cite web\|title\=Brytyjski wariant koronawirusa może dominować na Pomorzu\|trans\-title\=The British variant of the coronavirus may be dominant in Pomerania\|url\=https://www.trojmiasto.pl/wiadomosci/Brytyjski\-wariant\-koronawirusa\-moze\-dominowac\-na\-Pomorzu\-n153727\.html\|date\=2 March 2021\|access\-date\=17 March 2021\|author\=Piotr Kallalas\|website\=trojmiasto.pl\|language\=pl}} and even reached 90% for the [Greater Poland Voivodeship](/wiki/Greater_Poland_Voivodeship "Greater Poland Voivodeship") on 17 March (week 11\).{{Cite web\|title\=Koronawirus. Brytyjski wariant w Wielkopolsce. Najnowsze dane\|trans\-title\=Coronavirus. British variant in Greater Poland. Latest data\|url\=https://wiadomosci.onet.pl/poznan/koronawirus\-brytyjski\-wariant\-w\-wielkopolsce\-najnowsze\-dane/e8p00pr\|date\=17 March 2021\|access\-date\=17 March 2021\|website\=Onet.pl\|language\=pl}} In Finland, no statistical representative national survey had been conducted as of February 2021, as the national genome sequencing mainly targeted further analysis of COVID\-19 positive samples from travellers and local outbreak clusters.{{cite web\|url\=https://thl.fi/documents/533976/5918974/Separat\+%C3%B6versikt.\+Uppf%C3%B6ljning\+av\+muterade\+coronavirus\+17\.2\.2021\.pdf/2c117f25\-1234\-946e\-e296\-8faf1d223036?t\=1614079899907\|title\=Uppföljning av hybridstrategin för covid\-19\-epidemin: Separat översikt, varierande tema (Uppföljning av muterade coronavirus 17\.2\.2021\)\|trans\-title\=Follow\-up of the hybrid strategy for the COVID\-19 epidemic: Separate overview, varying theme (Follow\-up of mutated coronavirus 17\.2\.2021\)\|language\=sv\|author\=Finish Institute for Health and Welfare, TLH\|date\=17 February 2021\|access\-date\=2 March 2021\|archive\-date\=14 July 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714020823/https://thl.fi/documents/533976/5918974/Separat\+%C3%B6versikt.\+Uppf%C3%B6ljning\+av\+muterade\+coronavirus\+17\.2\.2021\.pdf/2c117f25\-1234\-946e\-e296\-8faf1d223036?t\=1614079899907\|url\-status\=dead}} Helsinky University Hospital (HUS), operating in the [Helsinki and Uusimaa Hospital District](/wiki/List_of_hospitals_in_Finland%23Helsinki_and_Uusimaa_Hospital_District "List of hospitals in Finland#Helsinki and Uusimaa Hospital District"), found the variant in 10% of all samples collected randomly during a few days ahead of 14 February in the capitol region (also known as the [Helsinky constituency and Uusimaa constituency](/wiki/Constituencies_of_Finland "Constituencies of Finland")). For the capitol region, the variant was modelled to become dominant (over 50%) in the second half of March (week 11\-13\).{{cite web\|url\=https://yle.fi/uutiset/osasto/news/uk\_covid\_variant\_spreading\_in\_finland/11789703\|title\=UK Covid variant spreading in Finland\|publisher\=Yle\|date\=14 February 2021\|access\-date\=2 March 2021}} In [Iceland](/wiki/Iceland "Iceland"), the national authorities implemented a strict 3 test and quarantine regime for all persons entering the country from abroad, that so far successfully managed to prevent new infectious VOCs from gaining a foothold in the country. As of 4 March, a total of 90 travellers had tested positive for the Alpha variant at Iceland's borders and the 20 additional domestic cases were all closely connected to the border cases, with no cases related to community transmission.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.icelandreview.com/society/covid\-19\-in\-iceland\-south\-african\-variant\-detected\-at\-border/\|title\=COVID\-19 in Iceland: South African Variant Detected at Border\|author\=Jelena Ćirić\|publisher\=Iceland Review\|date\=4 March 2021\|access\-date\=13 March 2021}}
[ "### Spread in Europe", "The variant became dominant for:\n* [South East England](/wiki/South_East_England \"South East England\") in week 48, the last week of November 2020\\.\n* [England](/wiki/England \"England\") in week 51 of 2020\\.\n* [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") in week 52 of 2020\\.\n* [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\") and [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland \"Northern Ireland\") in week 1 of 2021\\.\n* [Wales](/wiki/Wales \"Wales\") in week 2 of 2021\\.\n* [Ireland](/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland \"Republic of Ireland\") in week 2 of 2021\\.\nIn Bulgaria, genome sequencing found the variant to be dominant with 52\\.1% in week 4, followed by 73\\.4% in week 9\\.\n[thumb\\|400px\\|Distribution of the SARS\\-CoV\\-2 virus variants after entering Germany](/wiki/file:Verbreitung_der_SARS-CoV-2-Virusvarianten_in_Deutschland.svg \"Verbreitung der SARS-CoV-2-Virusvarianten in Deutschland.svg\")\nAlso in Slovakia, a RT\\-PCR Multiplex DX test capable of detecting the 2 deletions specific for lineage B.1\\.1\\.7 (ΔH69/ΔV70 and ΔY144\\),{{Cite web\\|author\\=Kovacova, V. \\|display\\-authors\\=etal\\|date\\=5 February 2021\\|title\\=A novel, room temperature\\-stable, multiplexed RT\\-qPCR assay to distinguish lineage B.1\\.1\\.7 from the remaining SARS\\-CoV\\-2 lineages.\\|website\\=virological.org\\|url\\=https://virological.org/t/a\\-novel\\-room\\-temperature\\-stable\\-multiplexed\\-rt\\-qpcr\\-assay\\-to\\-distinguish\\-lineage\\-b\\-1\\-1\\-7\\-from\\-the\\-remaining\\-sars\\-cov\\-2\\-lineages/611\\|access\\-date\\=21 February 2021}} first found the variant nationwide in 74% of cases on 3 February (week 5\\), followed by 72% of cases on 15 February (week 7\\), and it then grew to 90% of cases on 3 March (week 9\\).{{Cite news\\|author\\=Ján Mikas, hlavný hygienik Slovenskej Republiky\\|date\\=9 March 2021\\|title\\=Britský variant potvrdený na Slovensku v 90% vyšetrených vzoriek\\|trans\\-title\\=British variant confirmed in Slovakia in 90% of examined samples\\|language\\=sk\\|publisher\\=Public Health Office of the Slovak Republic\\|url\\=https://www.uvzsr.sk/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=4651\\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=13 May 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513135235/https://www.uvzsr.sk/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=4651}} The same test found earlier on 8 January prevalence of the variant at a rate of 36% in the [Michalovce District](/wiki/Michalovce_District \"Michalovce District\") and 29% in [Nitra](/wiki/Nitra \"Nitra\").{{Cite news\\|date\\=9 January 2021\\|title\\=Aktuálna epidemiologická situácia na Slovensku (prezentácia, 8\\. január 2021\\)\\|trans\\-title\\=Current epidemiological situation in Slovakia (presentation, January 8, 2021\\)\\|language\\=sk\\|publisher\\=Public Health Office of the Slovak Republic\\|url\\=https://www.uvzsr.sk/docs/info/covid19/Epidemiologicka\\_situacia\\_210108\\_v1\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=21 February 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=14 July 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714020630/https://www.uvzsr.sk/docs/info/covid19/Epidemiologicka\\_situacia\\_210108\\_v1\\.pdf}}", "In Israel, the variant was first time detected by genome sequencing 23 December 2020\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.gov.il/en/departments/news/23122020\\-07\\|title\\=Press Releases: Four Cases of COVID\\-19 Variant found in the United Kingdom Have Been Discovered in Israel\\|publisher\\=Ministry of Health\\|date\\=23 December 2020\\|access\\-date\\=26 February 2021}} [Leumit Health Care Services](/wiki/Leumit_Health_Care_Services \"Leumit Health Care Services\") however analysed with the proxy test RT\\-PCR (SGTF) and found the variant at a rate of 3‑4% on 15 December. The national Ministry of Health estimated based on genome sequencing, that the prevalence of the variant became dominant (70%) on 6 February followed by 90% on 16 February.", "In Luxembourg, a weekly genome sequencing revealed that the variant grew from 0\\.3% (week 51\\) to be dominant with a share of 53\\.0% in week 5, although results might not be fully representative due to the fact that no correction occurred from potential targeting bias from contact tracing, airport travellers and local outbreaks. Genome sequencing of a population representative randomized test pool \\- with no target bias \\- was conducted since week 6, and it confirmed the dominant status of the variant at a rate of 54\\.1% (week 6\\) growing to 62\\.8% (week 9\\), while the competing [Beta variant](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Beta_variant \"SARS-CoV-2 Beta variant\") (lineage B.1\\.351\\) was found to be at 18\\.5% in week 9\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Respiratory Viruses Surveillance – REVILUX: Respiratory Viruses Sentinelle Newsletter, REVILUX bulletin hebdomadaire\\|trans\\-title\\=Respiratory Viruses Surveillance – REVILUX: Respiratory Viruses Sentinelle Newsletter, REVILUX weekly update\\|author\\=Laboratoire National de Santé (LNS)\\|url\\=https://lns.lu/en/departement/department\\-of\\-microbiology/revilux/\\|date\\=18 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=17 December 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217115439/https://lns.lu/en/departement/department\\-of\\-microbiology/revilux/}}", "In Denmark the variant grew from 0\\.3% (week 46 of 2020\\) to become dominant with 65\\.9% (week 7 of 2021\\), and it grew further to 92\\.7% (week 10\\); with the regional prevalence ranging from 87\\.3% in the [North Jutland Region](/wiki/North_Jutland_Region \"North Jutland Region\") to 96\\.1% in the [Central Denmark Region](/wiki/Central_Denmark_Region \"Central Denmark Region\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://files.ssi.dk/covid19/virusvarianter/status/status\\-virusvarianter\\-20032021\\-i33i\\|title\\=Status for udvikling af SARS\\-CoV\\-2 Variants of Concern (VOC) i Danmark\\|trans\\-title\\=Status of development of SARS\\-CoV\\-2 Variants of Concern (VOC) in Denmark\\|language\\=da\\|publisher\\=Statens Serum Institut\\|date\\=20 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=20 March 2021}} The observed growth of the relative variant share, was in full accordance with the earlier modelled forecast, that had predicted dominance (over 50%) around mid\\-February and a prevalence of around 80% of the total circulating variants by early March.{{cite report\\|url\\=https://covid19\\.ssi.dk/\\-/media/cdn/files/notat\\-om\\-prognoser\\-for\\-smittetal\\-og\\-indlggelser\\_01022021\\.pdf?la\\=da\\|title\\=Notat om prognoser for smittetal og indlæggelser ved scenarier for genåbning af 0\\.\\-4\\. klasse i grundskolen\\|language\\=Danish\\|trans\\-title\\=\\[\\[Memorandum]] on forecasts for infection rates and hospital admissions in scenarios for reopening of 0th–4th class in primary school\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Statens Serum Institut]]\\|access\\-date\\=2 February 2021 \\|date\\=31 January 2021}} In comparison, the genome sequencing only found the competing Beta variant in 0\\.4% of the positive cases (9 times out of 2315 tests) in week 10\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://files.ssi.dk/covid19/virusvarianter/status/status\\-virusvarianter\\-12032021\\-uh7y\\|title\\=Status for udvikling af SARS\\-CoV\\-2 Variants of Concern (VOC) i Danmark\\|trans\\-title\\=Status of development of SARS\\-CoV\\-2 Variants of Concern (VOC) in Denmark\\|language\\=da\\|publisher\\=Statens Serum Institut\\|date\\=12 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=20 March 2021}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://files.ssi.dk/covid19/virusvarianter/status/status\\-virusvarianter\\-19032021\\-j3k4\\|title\\=Status for udvikling af SARS\\-CoV\\-2 Variants of Concern (VOC) i Danmark\\|trans\\-title\\=Status of development of SARS\\-CoV\\-2 Variants of Concern (VOC) in Denmark\\|language\\=da\\|publisher\\=Statens Serum Institut\\|date\\=19 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=20 March 2021}}", "In the Netherlands, a randomly conducted genome sequencing found that the variant grew from 1\\.3% of cases in week 49 to a dominant share of 61\\.3% in week 7, followed by 82\\.0% in week 9; while the competing Beta variant in comparison was found to be at 3\\.0% in week 9\\.{{Cite web\\|author\\=National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM) \\- Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport\\|date\\=23 March 2021\\|title\\=Variants of the coronavirus SARS\\-CoV\\-2\\|url\\=https://www.rivm.nl/en/novel\\-coronavirus\\-covid\\-19/virus\\-sars\\-cov\\-2/variants\\-of\\-coronavirus\\-sars\\-cov\\-2\\|access\\-date\\=23 March 2021\\|website\\=www.rivm.nl}} In Amsterdam, the Alpha variant (lineage B.1\\.1\\.7\\) grew from 5\\.2% (week 52\\) to 54\\.5% (week 6\\).{{Cite web\\|author\\=Ministerie van Volksgezondheid, Welzijn en Sport\\|date\\=23 February 2021\\|title\\=Advies VWS na OMT 101\\|trans\\-title\\=Advice from VWS after 101th OMT on COVID\\-19\\|url\\=https://open.overheid.nl/repository/ronl\\-09bf1c47\\-e36e\\-44c8\\-b33e\\-c9877a71f455/1/pdf/advies\\-vws\\-na\\-omt\\-101\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2022\\|website\\=overheid.nl\\|language\\=nl}}", "In Norway, the variant was found by genome sequencing to grow from 5\\.7% (week 1\\) into dominance by a 58\\.4% (week 7\\), followed by 65\\.0% (week 8\\).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.fhi.no/contentassets/8a971e7b0a3c4a06bdbf381ab52e6157/vedlegg/2021/ukerapport\\-for\\-uke\\-8\\-22\\.02\\-\\-\\-28\\.02\\.21\\.pdf\\|title\\=COVID\\-19 Ukerapport – uke 8, onsdag 3\\. mars 2021\\|trans\\-title\\=COVID\\-19 weekly report for week 8 (wednesday 3 March 2021\\)\\|language\\=no\\|author\\=Folkehelseinstituttet\\|date\\=3 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=4 March 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=19 November 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119205120/https://www.fhi.no/contentassets/8a971e7b0a3c4a06bdbf381ab52e6157/vedlegg/2021/ukerapport\\-for\\-uke\\-8\\-22\\.02\\-\\-\\-28\\.02\\.21\\.pdf}} Another large survey comprising results of both genome sequencing and PCR proxy tests, with a sample seize of more than 1000 tests per week (since week 4\\), at the same time found that the variant grew from 2\\.0% (week 48\\) into dominance by 60\\.0% (week 7\\), followed by 72\\.7% in week 10 \\- while only 2\\.2% of cases in comparison were found to be of the Beta variant.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.fhi.no/contentassets/8a971e7b0a3c4a06bdbf381ab52e6157/vedlegg/2021/ukerapport\\-for\\-uke\\-10\\-08\\.03\\-\\-\\-14\\.03\\.21\\.pdf\\|title\\=COVID\\-19 Ukerapport – uke 10, onsdag 17\\. mars 2021\\|trans\\-title\\=COVID\\-19 weekly report for week 10 (wednesday 17 March 2021\\)\\|language\\=no\\|author\\=Folkehelseinstituttet\\|date\\=17 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=17 March 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210317154422/https://www.fhi.no/contentassets/8a971e7b0a3c4a06bdbf381ab52e6157/vedlegg/2021/ukerapport\\-for\\-uke\\-10\\-08\\.03\\-\\-\\-14\\.03\\.21\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The variant regionally had its highest share in the county of [Oslo](/wiki/Oslo \"Oslo\") and [Viken](/wiki/Viken_%28county%29 \"Viken (county)\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.fhi.no/sv/smittsomme\\-sykdommer/corona/statistikk\\-over\\-tilfeller\\-av\\-koronavirusvarianter/\\#forekomst\\-av\\-engelsk\\-koronavirusvariant\\|title\\=Statistikk over meldte tilfeller av den engelske og den sør\\-afrikanske varianten av koronavirus\\|trans\\-title\\=Statistics on reported cases of the English and South African variants of coronavirus\\|language\\=no\\|author\\=Folkehelseinstituttet\\|date\\=26 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=28 February 2021}} growing from 18% to 90% of analysed samples in Oslo from 20 January to 23 February (although with the data\\-corrected estimate a bit lower at 50\\-70% on 23 February); while growing from 21% to 80% of analysed samples in Viken from 25 January to 23 February (although with the data\\-corrected estimate a bit lower at 50% on 23 February).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.fhi.no/nyheter/2021/engelsk\\-virusvariant\\-dominerer\\-i\\-oslo\\-og\\-viken/\\|title\\=Engelsk virusvariant dominerer i Oslo og Viken\\|trans\\-title\\=English virus variant dominates in Oslo and Viken\\|language\\=no\\|author\\=Folkehelseinstituttet\\|date\\=27 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=28 February 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=17 April 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417235139/https://www.fhi.no/nyheter/2021/engelsk\\-virusvariant\\-dominerer\\-i\\-oslo\\-og\\-viken/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} For the period 15 February to 14 March, the combined survey of genome sequencing and PCR proxy tests, also found the Alpha variant was at a dominant rate over 50% for 8 out of 11 regions, with its highest rate (82%) found for Oslo; while the region [Nordland](/wiki/Nordland \"Nordland\") was different from all other regions by having only 6% cases of Alpha along with a dominant 88% of cases represented by the Beta variant.", "In Portugal, the variant represented according to a national genome sequencing survey: 16\\.0% of the Covid\\-19 infections during 10–19 January (week 2\\),{{Cite web\\|title\\=Diversidade genética do novo coronavírus SARS\\-CoV\\-2 (COVID\\-19\\) em Portugal\\|trans\\-title\\=Genetic diversity of the new SARS\\-CoV\\-2 coronavirus (COVID\\-19\\) in Portugal\\|author\\=Instituto Nacional de Saúde (INSA), Doutor Ricardo Jorge\\|url\\=https://insaflu.insa.pt/covid19/relatorios/INSA\\_SARS\\_CoV\\_2\\_DIVERSIDADE\\_GENETICA\\_relatorio\\_situacao\\_2021\\-02\\-05\\.pdf\\|date\\=2021\\-02\\-05\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-07\\|language\\=pt}} followed by a dominant 58\\.2% in week 6\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Diversidade genética do novo coronavírus SARS\\-CoV\\-2 (COVID\\-19\\) em Portugal (3 de Março de 2021\\)\\|trans\\-title\\=Genetic diversity of the new SARS\\-CoV\\-2 coronavirus (COVID\\-19\\) in Portugal (3 March 2021\\)\\|author\\=Instituto Nacional de Saúde (INSA), Doutor Ricardo Jorge\\|url\\=https://insaflu.insa.pt/covid19/relatorios/INSA\\_SARS\\_CoV\\_2\\_DIVERSIDADE\\_GENETICA\\_relatorio\\_situacao\\_2021\\-03\\-03\\.pdf\\|date\\=3 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=4 March 2021\\|language\\=pt}} A national RT\\-PCR proxy test based on SGTF and SGTL observations, found the variant at a rate of 33\\.5% in week 4, but observed afterwards a decelerating pace for the weekly rise of the variant share (reason unknown), and according to this study it only became dominant by 50\\.5% {{small\\|(91\\.8% of 55\\.0% SGTFL)}} in week 8, followed by 64\\.3% {{small\\|(91\\.8% of 70% SGTFL)}} in week 10\\.", "In Italy, the Alpha variant accounted for 17\\.8% of cases nationwide on 4–5 February (week 5\\),{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.iss.it/primo\\-piano/\\-/asset\\_publisher/3f4alMwzN1Z7/content/id/5624099?\\_com\\_liferay\\_asset\\_publisher\\_web\\_portlet\\_AssetPublisherPortlet\\_INSTANCE\\_3f4alMwzN1Z7\\|title\\=Prevalenza della variante VOC 202012/01, lineage B.1\\.1\\.7 in Italia (Studio di prevalenza 4\\-5 febbraio 2021\\)\\|trans\\-title\\=Prevalence of the VOC variant 202012/01, lineage B.1\\.1\\.7 in Italy (Prevalence study February 4–5, 2021\\)\\|language\\=it\\|author\\=Istituto Superiore di Sanità\\|date\\=February 15, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=February 17, 2021}} followed by 54\\.0% on 18 February (week 7\\). The regional prevalence for week 7 ranged from 0% in [Aosta Valley](/wiki/Aosta_Valley \"Aosta Valley\") (although only one sample was tested) to 93\\.3% in [Molise](/wiki/Molise \"Molise\"). In week 7, the competing [Gamma variant](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Gamma_variant \"SARS-CoV-2 Gamma variant\") had a prevalence of 4\\.3% (ranging between 0%\\-36\\.2% regionally) and the South African variant a prevalence of 0\\.4% (ranging between 0%\\-2\\.9% regionally).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.iss.it/primo\\-piano/\\-/asset\\_publisher/3f4alMwzN1Z7/content/id/5647546\\|title\\=CS N° 14/2021 \\- In Italia il 54% delle infezioni dovute a 'variante inglese', il 4,3% a quella 'brasiliana' e lo 0,4% a quella 'sudafricana'\\|trans\\-title\\=CS N° 14/2021 \\- In Italy 54% of infections due to the 'English variant', 4\\.3% to the 'Brazilian' one and 0\\.4% to the 'South African' one\\|language\\=it\\|author\\=Istituto Superiore di Sanità\\|date\\=2 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=5 March 2021}}", "In Switzerland, a nationwide weekly genome sequencing survey found that the Alpha variant grew from 0\\.05% (week 51\\) to a dominant 58\\.2% of cases in week 8, followed by 71\\.1% in week 9\\. This was in full accordance with a model from 9 February that had forecast dominance around mid\\-February.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://sciencetaskforce.ch/wissenschaftliches\\-update\\-09\\-februar\\-2021/\\|title\\=Wissenschaftliches update 09 februar 2021\\|trans\\-title\\=Scientific update of 9 February 2021\\|language\\=de\\|publisher\\=Swiss National COVID\\-19 Task Force\\|date\\=9 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=17 February 2021}} In comparison, the competing Beta variant was only found nationwide in 1\\.0% of the positive cases in week 9\\.\nIn Belgium, genome sequencing of samples selected randomly after excluding all samples from active targeted testing related to local outbreaks or travels (creating a statistical representative national sample with a seize equal to 4\\.4% of all COVID\\-19 positive tests), found that the Alpha variant share grew from 7\\.1% in week 1 to a dominant 51\\.5% in week 7, followed by 79\\.3% in week 10\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Covid\\-19 Wekelijks Epidemiologisch Bulletin (19 Maart 2021\\)\\|trans\\-title\\=Covid\\-19 Weekly Epidemiological Bulletin (19 March 2021\\)\\|url\\=https://covid\\-19\\.sciensano.be/sites/default/files/Covid19/COVID\\-19\\_Weekly\\_report\\_NL.pdf\\|author\\=Sciensano\\|date\\=19 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2021\\|work\\=Moleculaire surveillance van SARS\\-CoV\\-2 (p.20\\-22\\)\\|language\\=nl}} The variant was first time detected by targeted genome sequencing in week 49, but due to a small sample seize (not being random, and less than 100 tests per week) then no reliable variant share data could be determined before week 1\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Covid\\-19 Wekelijks Epidemiologisch Bulletin (19 Februari 2021\\)\\|trans\\-title\\=Covid\\-19 Weekly Epidemiological Bulletin (February 19, 2021\\)\\|url\\=http://covid\\-19\\.sciensano.be/sites/default/files/Covid19/COVID\\-19\\_Weekly%20report\\_20210219%20\\-%20NL.pdf\\|author\\=Sciensano\\|date\\=19 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=25 February 2021\\|work\\=Moleculaire surveillance van SARS\\-CoV\\-2 (p.21\\-24\\)\\|language\\=nl}} The proxy test for the variant (RT\\-PCR SGTF) was also conducted for a sample seize equal to 25\\.8% of all COVID\\-19 positive tests, and found a dominant 54\\.8% SGTF rate for week 10\\. In comparison, the competing [Beta variant](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Beta_variant \"SARS-CoV-2 Beta variant\") was found to be at 3\\.6% and the [Gamma variant](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Gamma_variant \"SARS-CoV-2 Gamma variant\") had a prevalence of 1\\.8% in week 10\\.", "In France, scientists accurately forecast the Alpha variant (VOC\\-202012/01\\) would likely become dominant nationwide around week 8–11 of 2021\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Estimated date of dominance of VOC\\-202012/01 strain in France and projected scenarios\\|url\\=https://www.epicx\\-lab.com/uploads/9/6/9/4/9694133/inserm\\_covid\\-19\\-voc\\_dominance\\-20210116\\.pdf\\|date\\=16 January 2021}} A nationwide survey of randomly selected positive COVID\\-19 samples first analysed by a RT\\-PCR screening test and subsequently confirmed by genome sequencing, revealed that the variant grew from a share of 3\\.3% (388/11916\\) on 7–8 January (week 1\\){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.santepubliquefrance.fr/content/download/315275/2903017\\|title\\=COVID\\-19: Point épidémiologi que hebdomadaire du 28 janvier 2021\\|trans\\-title\\=COVID\\-19: Weekly epidemiological update of 28 January 2021\\|language\\=fr\\|author\\=Santé Publique France\\|date\\=January 28, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=February 1, 2021}} to 13\\.3% (475/3561\\) on 27 January (week 4\\),{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.santepubliquefrance.fr/content/download/326672/2952356\\|title\\=COVID\\-19: Point épidémiologi que hebdomadaire du 11 mars 2021\\|trans\\-title\\=COVID\\-19: Weekly epidemiological update of 11 March 2021\\|language\\=fr\\|author\\=Santé Publique France\\|date\\=11 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=12 March 2021}} followed by 44\\.3% (273/615\\) on 16 February (week 7\\). In week 8, the variant was found to have a dominant share of 56\\.4% (758/1345\\) according to the interpretable results of a weekly genome sequencing survey comprising 0\\.9% of all COVID\\-19 positive tests, or 59\\.5% according to a variant\\-specific RT\\-PCR survey testing 54% of all the COVID\\-19 positive tests. In week 10, the variant was found to have a share of 71\\.9% according to a variant\\-specific RT\\-PCR survey testing 56\\.9% of all the COVID\\-19 positive tests. The spread of the variant differed regionally for the 96 [departments](/wiki/Departments_of_France \"Departments of France\") located in [Metropolitan France](/wiki/Metropolitan_France \"Metropolitan France\") for week 10, with 91 departments over 50% and 5 departments with 30%\\-50% (of which the [Moselle department](/wiki/Moselle_%28department%29 \"Moselle (department)\") in particular was notable due to finding a high 38\\.3% rate of the competing Beta variant, that \\- despite having declined from a dominant 54\\.4% value in week 8 \\- still was significantly above the 5\\.0% national average for this specific variant).", "In Austria, [Agentur für Gesundheit und Ernährungssicherheit (AGES)](/wiki/w:De:Agentur_f%C3%BCr_Gesundheit_und_Ern%C3%A4hrungssicherheit \"De:Agentur für Gesundheit und Ernährungssicherheit\") collected data from N501Y RT\\-PCR specific tests combined with subsequent genome sequencing analysis, and found that the variant grew from 7\\.2% (week 1\\) to a dominant 61\\.3% (week 8\\), followed by 61\\.2% in week 9 and 48\\.3% in week 10\\. If all N501Y positive tests had been analysed further by genome sequencing, then these listed shares could have been even higher, for example they could have been as mcuh as: 2\\.4% higher for week 1, 23\\.0% higher for week 7, 4\\.0% higher for week 8, 6\\.8% higher for week 9 and 25\\.4% higher for week 10\\. The competing Beta variant was only found nationwide in 0\\.3% of the positive cases in week 10, and for the region [Tyrol](/wiki/Tyrol_%28state%29 \"Tyrol (state)\") \\- where it had been most prevalent \\- its share declined from 24\\.5% in week 4 to just 1\\.9% in week 10\\. Regionally Alpha was found to be dominant with over 50% for 7 out of [9 regions](/wiki/States_of_Austria \"States of Austria\"), with the only two exceptions being Tyrol and [Vorarlberg](/wiki/Vorarlberg \"Vorarlberg\").", "In Germany, the largest and probably most representative national survey published by the [Robert Koch Institute](/wiki/Robert_Koch_Institute \"Robert Koch Institute\") (entitled *RKI\\-Testzahlerfassung*), determined the share of circulating COVID\\-19 variants for the latest week by analysing 53,272 COVID\\-19 positive samples either by genome sequencing or RT\\-PCR proxy tests, with data collected on a voluntary basis from 84 laboratories from the university / research / clinical / outpatient sector \\- spread evenly across the nation. The survey did not utilize data weights or data selection criteria to ensure existence of geographical representativity, but might still be regarded as somewhat representative for the national average due to its big sample seize. According to the *RKI\\-Testzahlerfassung* survey, the variant grew from a share of 2\\.0% (week 2\\) to a dominant share of 54\\.5% (week 9\\), followed by 63\\.5% in week 10\\. In comparison, the competing Beta variant was only found nationwide in 0\\.9% of the positive cases in week 10\\.", "In Malta, the variant was first time detected by genome sequencing on 30 December 2020, and represented 8% of the positive cases in week 7\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=COVID\\-19: Bars and band clubs to remain shut in March, Chris Fearne says\\|url\\=https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/national/107931/covid19\\_bars\\_and\\_band\\_clubs\\_to\\_remain\\_shut\\_in\\_march\\_chris\\_fearne\\_says\\#.YEyAfGhKjb0\\|publisher\\=Malta Today\\|author\\=Laura Calleja\\|date\\=24 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2021}} A new RT\\-PCR variant specific test was introduced for the surveillance,{{cite web\\|title\\=Malta to get new swab tests which can identify Covid\\-19 variants\\|url\\=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2021\\-03\\-04/local\\-news/Malta\\-to\\-get\\-new\\-swab\\-tests\\-which\\-can\\-identify\\-Covid\\-19\\-variants\\-6736231533\\|publisher\\=Malta Independent\\|date\\=4 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2021}} where the first results reported on 10 March revealed the variant now represented 61% of cases nationwide.{{Cite web\\|title\\=UK virus variant detected in 60 per cent of new COVID cases\\|url\\=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/uk\\-virus\\-variant\\-detected\\-in\\-60\\-per\\-cent\\-of\\-new\\-covid\\-cases.857197\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-10\\|author\\=Claire Farrugia\\|publisher\\=Times of Malta\\|date\\=10 March 2021\\|language\\=en\\-gb}}", "In Sweden, the national authorities initially expected the variant would become dominant around week 12–14 under the assumption of 50% increased transmissibility compared to the original virus.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.folkhalsomyndigheten.se/publicerat\\-material/publikationsarkiv/s/scenario\\-for\\-fortsatt\\-spridning\\-\\-delrapport\\-2/\\|title\\=Scenarier för fortsatt spridning – interimsrapport\\|trans\\-title\\=Scenarios for continued dissemination \\- interim report\\|language\\=sv\\|author\\=Folkhälsomyndigheten\\|date\\=February 4, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=February 8, 2021}} In average, the variant share was found growing from 10\\.8% (week 4\\) to 36\\.9% (week 7\\) across five of its southern regions ([Skåne](/wiki/Sk%C3%A5ne_County \"Skåne County\"), [Västra Götaland](/wiki/V%C3%A4stra_G%C3%B6taland_County \"Västra Götaland County\"), [Västmanland](/wiki/V%C3%A4stmanland_County \"Västmanland County\"), [Gävleborg](/wiki/G%C3%A4vleborg_County \"Gävleborg County\") and [Örebro](/wiki/%C3%96rebro_County \"Örebro County\")).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.folkhalsomyndigheten.se/smittskydd\\-beredskap/utbrott/aktuella\\-utbrott/covid\\-19/statistik\\-och\\-analyser/sars\\-cov\\-2\\-virusvarianter\\-av\\-sarskild\\-betydelse/tidigare\\-statistik/vecka\\-8\\-2021/\\|title\\=Publicerad statistik för SARS\\-CoV\\-2 virusvarianter av särskild betydelse under vecka 8 2021\\|trans\\-title\\=Statistics on SARS\\-CoV\\-2 Variants Of Concern for week 8 2021\\|language\\=sv\\|publisher\\=Folkhälsomyndigheten\\|date\\=15 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=15 March 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=11 October 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011072628/https://www.folkhalsomyndigheten.se/smittskydd\\-beredskap/utbrott/aktuella\\-utbrott/covid\\-19/statistik\\-och\\-analyser/sars\\-cov\\-2\\-virusvarianter\\-av\\-sarskild\\-betydelse/tidigare\\-statistik/vecka\\-8\\-2021/}} For week 7, the share of the variant was for the first time also calculated to 30\\.4% as the overall average for 19 out of 21 [Swedish regions](/wiki/Counties_of_Sweden \"Counties of Sweden\") (ranging from 3\\.3% in [Blekinge](/wiki/Blekinge_County \"Blekinge County\") to 45% in Gävleborg). For week 9, the share of the variant was calculated to a dominant 56\\.4% as the overall average for the 19 regions (ranging from 16% in [Kronoberg](/wiki/Kronoberg_County \"Kronoberg County\") to 72% in Gävleborg). For week 10, the share of the variant was calculated to have increased further to 71\\.3% as the overall average for the 19 regions (ranging from 40% in [Kronoberg](/wiki/Kronoberg_County \"Kronoberg County\") to 84% in [Jönköping](/wiki/J%C3%B6nk%C3%B6ping_County \"Jönköping County\")). Although no geographical weights were applied to ensure geographical representativity for the calculated average for the 19 regions, the overall sample seize of 12,417 variant tests represented 43\\.1% of all COVID\\-19 positive PCR\\-tests for week 10, inferring that the result of the survey might be close to represent the actual true average for the nation as a whole.", "In the [microstate](/wiki/Microstate \"Microstate\") [Liechtenstein](/wiki/Liechtenstein \"Liechtenstein\"), the first case of Alpha was detected on 19 December 2020\\. During the entire pandemic, 67 VOC\\-N501Y PCR\\-positive cases were detected comprising 58 cases of Alpha, 1 of Beta (detected 1 February) and 8 un\\-identified N501Y cases (from 10 Dec. to 22 Feb.), as of 18 March 2021\\. The weekly average of each days calculated 7\\-day rolling average for the share of all detected VOC\\-N501Y cases (which is a good proxy for Alpha in Liechtenstein), was found to be 10\\.9% in week 5, followed by a dominant 52\\.2% in week 9 (where 8 out of 15 tests were found to be Alpha); and grew further to 73\\.4% in week 10 (where 6 out of 9 tests were found to be Alpha).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.covid19\\.admin.ch/en/epidemiologic/virus\\-variants?detTime\\=phase2b\\&detGeo\\=FL\\|title\\=COVID\\-⁠19 Switzerland Information on the current situation, as of 18 March 2021: Key figures, Liechtenstein\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Federal Office of Public Health]]\\|work\\=Download data: Data as .csv file.\\|date\\=18 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2021}}", "In Spain, the variant share was estimated nationwide to be 5%\\-10% of cases on 29 January,{{Cite web\\|title\\=Spanish Health Ministry estimates British variant accounts for up to 10% of positives in Spain\\|url\\=https://murciatoday.com/spanish\\_health\\_ministry\\_estimates\\_british\\_variant\\_accounts\\_for\\_up\\_to\\_10\\_of\\_positives\\_in\\_spain\\_1555209\\-a.html\\|date\\=30 January 2021\\|access\\-date\\=3 February 2021\\|website\\=murciatoday.com}} followed by 20%\\-25% of cases on 18 February{{Cite web\\|title\\=La variante británica representa ya el 20% de los casos en España\\|trans\\-title\\=The British variant already represents 20% of cases in Spain\\|author\\=Alvaro Soto\\|url\\=https://www.msn.com/es\\-es/noticias/espana/la\\-variante\\-brit%C3%A1nica\\-representa\\-ya\\-el\\-20percent\\-de\\-los\\-casos\\-en\\-espa%C3%B1a/ar\\-BB1dNIzt\\|language\\=es\\|date\\=18 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=22 February 2021\\|website\\=msn.com}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Autoridades sanitarias afirmaron que la cepa británica circula \"ampliamente\" en España\\|trans\\-title\\=Health authorities affirmed that the British strain circulates \"widely\" in Spain\\|url\\=https://www.telam.com.ar/notas/202102/544987\\-espana\\-coronavirus\\-cepa\\-britanica.html\\|publisher\\=Télam\\|language\\=es\\|date\\=18 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2021}} and 25%\\-30% of cases on 22 February,{{Cite web\\|title\\=Detectadas en España las nuevas variantes nigeriana y de Río de Janeiro del coronavirus\\|trans\\-title\\=The new Nigerian and Rio de Janeiro variants of the coronavirus detected in Spain\\|author\\=Manuel Vilaseró\\|url\\=https://www.elperiodico.com/es/sociedad/20210222/sanidad\\-alerta\\-cuatro\\-nuevas\\-variantes\\-coronavirus\\-covid\\-11537278\\|language\\=es\\|date\\=22 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=1 March 2021}} and estimated to be dominant with over 50% as of 3 March (week 9\\).{{Cite web\\|title\\=Darias: \"La variante británica ya es la dominante en España\"\\|trans\\-title\\=Darias: \"The British variant is already the dominant one in Spain\"\\|author\\=Miguel Hidalgo Pérez\\|url\\=https://www.niusdiario.es/sociedad/sanidad/darias\\-variante\\-britanica\\-ya\\-es\\-dominante\\-espana\\_18\\_3100395333\\.html\\|language\\=es\\|date\\=3 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2021}} As of week 10, the prevalence of the variant ranged from 18\\.3% to 97\\.0% for the [17 regions](/wiki/Autonomous_communities_of_Spain \"Autonomous communities of Spain\"), with all but two regions having a dominant rate above 50%:{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.mscbs.gob.es/profesionales/saludPublica/ccayes/alertasActual/nCov/documentos/COVID19\\_Actualizacion\\_variantes\\_20210318\\.pdf\\|title\\=Actualización de la situación epidemiológica de las variantes de importancia en salud pública en España (18 de marzo de 2021\\)\\|trans\\-title\\=Update of the epidemiological situation of Variants of Importance in Public Health in Spain (18 March 2021\\)\\|language\\=es\\|publisher\\=Ministerio de Sanidad, Consumo y Bienestar Social\\|date\\=18 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2021}}\n* No data reported by [Extremadura](/wiki/Extremadura \"Extremadura\").\n* 18\\.3% for week 10 in [Aragon](/wiki/Aragon \"Aragon\").\n* 27\\.0% for week 7 in [Canary Islands](/wiki/Canary_Islands \"Canary Islands\").\n* 51\\.3% for week 8 in [Castile and León](/wiki/Castile_and_Le%C3%B3n \"Castile and León\").\n* 52\\.2% for week 10 in [Valencia](/wiki/Valencian_Community \"Valencian Community\").\n* 52\\.8% for week 10 in [Castilla–La Mancha](/wiki/Castilla%E2%80%93La_Mancha \"Castilla–La Mancha\").\n* 53\\.3% for week 4 in [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Spain%29 \"Galicia (Spain)\").\n* 59\\.5% for week 9 in [La Rioja](/wiki/La_Rioja \"La Rioja\").\n* 59\\.7% for week 10 in [Madrid](/wiki/Community_of_Madrid \"Community of Madrid\").\n* 61\\.6% for week 11 in [Andalusia](/wiki/Andalusia \"Andalusia\").\n* 76\\.1% for week 10 in [Balearic Islands](/wiki/Balearic_Islands \"Balearic Islands\").\n* 76\\.7% for week 10 in [Murcia](/wiki/Region_of_Murcia \"Region of Murcia\").\n* 77\\.4% for week 10 in [Basque Country](/wiki/Basque_Country_%28autonomous_community%29 \"Basque Country (autonomous community)\").\n* 77\\.8% for week 10 in [Navarre](/wiki/Navarre \"Navarre\").\n* 83\\.1% for week 10 in [Cantabria](/wiki/Cantabria \"Cantabria\").\n* 84\\.6% for week 9 in [Catalonia](/wiki/Catalonia \"Catalonia\").\n* 97\\.0% for week 10 in [Asturias](/wiki/Asturias \"Asturias\").", "In Poland, a national survey among infected teachers led to experts estimating that the variant share was between 5% and 10% nationwide as of 11 February,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.medonet.pl/koronawirus/koronawirus\\-w\\-polsce,brytyjski\\-wariant\\-koronawirusa\\-w\\-polsce\\-\\-ile\\-jest\\-zakazen\\-\\-jaka\\-jest\\-skala\\-,artykul,67482636\\.html\\|title\\=Brytyjski wariant koronawirusa \\- jaka jest skala jego obecności w Polsce?\\|trans\\-title\\=British variant of the coronavirus \\- what is the scale of its presence in Poland?\\|language\\=pl\\|publisher\\=Medonet\\|author\\=Adrian Dabek\\|date\\=February 11, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=February 17, 2021}} while [ECDC](/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control \"European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control\") reported it to be 9% as of 15 February.{{Cite web\\|author\\=European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control\\|date\\=15 February 2021\\|title\\=Rapid Risk Assessment: SARS\\-CoV\\-2 increased circulation of variants of concern and vaccine rollout in the EU/EEA, 14th update, 15 February 2021\\|url\\=https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/RRA\\-covid\\-19\\-14th\\-update\\-15\\-feb\\-2021\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=18 February 2021\\|website\\=www.ecdc.europa.eu}} According to Health minister [Adam Niedzielski](/wiki/Adam_Niedzielski \"Adam Niedzielski\"), the variant was found at a rate of 5% in the first studies from the second half of January, and then it increased by ten percentage points every ten days, until it became dominant nationwide by a 52% rate on 16 March (week 11\\).{{Cite web\\|title\\=Od 20 marca w całej Polsce obowiązują rozszerzone zasady bezpieczeństwa\\|trans\\-title\\=From March 20, extended safety rules apply throughout Poland\\|url\\=https://www.gov.pl/web/koronawirus/od\\-20\\-marca\\-w\\-calej\\-polsce\\-obowiazuja\\-rozszerzone\\-zasady\\-bezpieczenstwa\\|date\\=17 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2021\\|website\\=gov.pl\\|publisher\\=Government of Poland\\|language\\=pl}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Nowe obostrzenia w calym kraju od 20 marca do 9 kwietnia\\|trans\\-title\\=New restrictions nationwide from March 20 to April 9\\|url\\=https://www.pap.pl/aktualnosci/news%2C835182%2Cnowe\\-obostrzenia\\-w\\-calym\\-kraju\\-od\\-20\\-marca\\-do\\-9\\-kwietnia.html\\|date\\=17 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2021\\|website\\=pap.pl\\|publisher\\=Polska Agencja Prasowa \\|author\\=Sylwia Dabkowska\\-Pozyczka \\|author2\\=Edyta Ros \\|author3\\=Wiktoria Nicalek \\|author4\\=Karol Kostrzewa \\|author5\\=Aleksandra Rebelinska \\|language\\=pl}} Regionally, the variant had already exceeded 70% for [Warmian\\-Masurian](/wiki/Warmian-Masurian_Voivodeship \"Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship\") and [Pomeranian](/wiki/Pomeranian_Voivodeship \"Pomeranian Voivodeship\") on 22–23 February (week 8\\),{{Cite web\\|title\\=Brytyjski wariant koronawirusa może dominować na Pomorzu\\|trans\\-title\\=The British variant of the coronavirus may be dominant in Pomerania\\|url\\=https://www.trojmiasto.pl/wiadomosci/Brytyjski\\-wariant\\-koronawirusa\\-moze\\-dominowac\\-na\\-Pomorzu\\-n153727\\.html\\|date\\=2 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2021\\|author\\=Piotr Kallalas\\|website\\=trojmiasto.pl\\|language\\=pl}} and even reached 90% for the [Greater Poland Voivodeship](/wiki/Greater_Poland_Voivodeship \"Greater Poland Voivodeship\") on 17 March (week 11\\).{{Cite web\\|title\\=Koronawirus. Brytyjski wariant w Wielkopolsce. Najnowsze dane\\|trans\\-title\\=Coronavirus. British variant in Greater Poland. Latest data\\|url\\=https://wiadomosci.onet.pl/poznan/koronawirus\\-brytyjski\\-wariant\\-w\\-wielkopolsce\\-najnowsze\\-dane/e8p00pr\\|date\\=17 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2021\\|website\\=Onet.pl\\|language\\=pl}}", "In Finland, no statistical representative national survey had been conducted as of February 2021, as the national genome sequencing mainly targeted further analysis of COVID\\-19 positive samples from travellers and local outbreak clusters.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://thl.fi/documents/533976/5918974/Separat\\+%C3%B6versikt.\\+Uppf%C3%B6ljning\\+av\\+muterade\\+coronavirus\\+17\\.2\\.2021\\.pdf/2c117f25\\-1234\\-946e\\-e296\\-8faf1d223036?t\\=1614079899907\\|title\\=Uppföljning av hybridstrategin för covid\\-19\\-epidemin: Separat översikt, varierande tema (Uppföljning av muterade coronavirus 17\\.2\\.2021\\)\\|trans\\-title\\=Follow\\-up of the hybrid strategy for the COVID\\-19 epidemic: Separate overview, varying theme (Follow\\-up of mutated coronavirus 17\\.2\\.2021\\)\\|language\\=sv\\|author\\=Finish Institute for Health and Welfare, TLH\\|date\\=17 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=14 July 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714020823/https://thl.fi/documents/533976/5918974/Separat\\+%C3%B6versikt.\\+Uppf%C3%B6ljning\\+av\\+muterade\\+coronavirus\\+17\\.2\\.2021\\.pdf/2c117f25\\-1234\\-946e\\-e296\\-8faf1d223036?t\\=1614079899907\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Helsinky University Hospital (HUS), operating in the [Helsinki and Uusimaa Hospital District](/wiki/List_of_hospitals_in_Finland%23Helsinki_and_Uusimaa_Hospital_District \"List of hospitals in Finland#Helsinki and Uusimaa Hospital District\"), found the variant in 10% of all samples collected randomly during a few days ahead of 14 February in the capitol region (also known as the [Helsinky constituency and Uusimaa constituency](/wiki/Constituencies_of_Finland \"Constituencies of Finland\")). For the capitol region, the variant was modelled to become dominant (over 50%) in the second half of March (week 11\\-13\\).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://yle.fi/uutiset/osasto/news/uk\\_covid\\_variant\\_spreading\\_in\\_finland/11789703\\|title\\=UK Covid variant spreading in Finland\\|publisher\\=Yle\\|date\\=14 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2021}}", "In [Iceland](/wiki/Iceland \"Iceland\"), the national authorities implemented a strict 3 test and quarantine regime for all persons entering the country from abroad, that so far successfully managed to prevent new infectious VOCs from gaining a foothold in the country. As of 4 March, a total of 90 travellers had tested positive for the Alpha variant at Iceland's borders and the 20 additional domestic cases were all closely connected to the border cases, with no cases related to community transmission.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.icelandreview.com/society/covid\\-19\\-in\\-iceland\\-south\\-african\\-variant\\-detected\\-at\\-border/\\|title\\=COVID\\-19 in Iceland: South African Variant Detected at Border\\|author\\=Jelena Ćirić\\|publisher\\=Iceland Review\\|date\\=4 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2021}}", "" ]
During Emperor Xuanzong's reign ------------------------------- In 716, during the reign of [Emperor Xuanzong](/wiki/Emperor_Xuanzong_of_Tang "Emperor Xuanzong of Tang"), Du Xian was made *Jiancha Yushi* ({{lang\|zh\|監察御史}}), an imperial censor. On one occasion, there was a dispute between the deputy [Protectorate General to Pacify the West](/wiki/Protectorate_General_to_Pacify_the_West "Protectorate General to Pacify the West") Guo Qian'guan ({{lang\|zh\|郭虔瓘}}), the general Liu Xiaqing ({{lang\|zh\-Hant\|劉遐慶}}), and the Tang vassal [Western Tujue](/wiki/Western_Tujue "Western Tujue")'s khan [Ashina Xian](/wiki/Ashina_Xian "Ashina Xian"). Emperor Xuanzong sent Du to the region to investigate the dispute. As part of his investigation, he visited the Tuqishi ({{lang\|zh\|突騎施}}) tribe. A Tuqishi chieftain gave him gold as a gift. Du initially declined, but his subordinates pointed out that rejecting the gift might be viewed as an insult, so Du accepted it—and then buried it below the tent. After he left Tuqishi, he then sent messengers to the chieftain to inform him where the gold was buried. This impressed the Tuqishi chieftain. Du later served as imperial attendant (給事中, *Jishizhong*), but later left civil service to observe a mourning period when his stepmother died. In 724, then\-Protectorate General to Pacify the West, Zhang Xiaosong ({{lang\|zh\-Hant\|張孝嵩}}), was made the mayor of [Taiyuan](/wiki/Taiyuan "Taiyuan") Municipality, and he recommended Du to replace him. Emperor Xuanzong recalled Du, while he was still in the mourning period, to serve as the deputy protectorate general, acting as the protectorate general. In 725, when the vassal king of [Yutian](/wiki/Yutian_County%2C_Xinjiang "Yutian County, Xinjiang"), Yuchi Tiao ({{lang\|zh\|尉遲晀}}), was plotting with the local tribes to rebel against Tang. When Du found out, he attacked Yuchi Tiao, killed him, and placed a new king of Yutian on the throne. He was given the honorific title of *Guanglu Daifu* ({{lang\|zh\|光祿大夫}}). It was said that during Du's service as protectorate general, he cared greatly for the soldiers under him and worked hard, earning the love of both the [Han Chinese](/wiki/Han_Chinese "Han Chinese") and the non\-Han. In fall 726, for his accomplishments, Du was recalled to the capital [Chang'an](/wiki/Chang%27an "Chang'an"), and, while he continued to be titularly protectorate general, remained at Chang'an to serve as [chancellor](/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Tang_dynasty "Chancellor of the Tang dynasty") with the designation *Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi* ({{lang\|zh\-Hant\|同中書門下平章事}}). However, he was also responsible for an incident that damaged the relationship with Tuqishi—as the khan of Tuqishi, Sulu ({{lang\|zh\|蘇祿}}), had married the daughter of a prior Western Tujue khan, [Ashina Huaidao](/wiki/Ashina_Huaidao "Ashina Huaidao"), and Emperor Xuanzong created her the Princess Jiaohe. When Princess Jiaohe sent messengers and 1,000 horses to Du's headquarters to sell horses, the messengers read of an order from her, as princess—and Du responded by angrily stating, "How dare an Ashina woman issue me an order?" He caned the messengers and detained the horses, which largely died in a few subsequent snowstorms. In late 726, after Du left his office, Sulu attacked, causing much damage, and Sulu withdrew only after he heard that Du had been made chancellor. By 729, Du was having repeated disagreements with fellow chancellor [Li Yuanhong](/wiki/Li_Yuanhong_%28Tang_chancellor%29 "Li Yuanhong (Tang chancellor)"), and the senior chancellor [Yuan Qianyao](/wiki/Yuan_Qianyao "Yuan Qianyao") was unable to moderate them. This drew Emperor Xuanzong's displeasure with them, and he removed all three of them, replacing them with [Yuwen Rong](/wiki/Yuwen_Rong "Yuwen Rong") and [Pei Guangting](/wiki/Pei_Guangting "Pei Guangting"), while retaining fellow chancellor [Xiao Song](/wiki/Xiao_Song "Xiao Song"). Du was demoted to be the secretary general at Jing Prefecture (荊州, roughly modern [Jingzhou](/wiki/Jingzhou "Jingzhou"), [Hubei](/wiki/Hubei "Hubei")). He later successively served as prefect of Wei Prefecture (魏州, in modern [Handan](/wiki/Handan "Handan"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei "Hebei")) and mayor of Taiyuan Municipality. In 732, when Emperor Xuanzong visited Taiyuan, he made Du the minister of census (戶部尚書, *Hubu Shangshu*), and had Du accompany him back to Chang'an. Subsequently, when Emperor Xuanzong visited Luoyang, Du was left in charge of Chang'an. In Emperor Xuanzong's absence, Du conscripted soldiers to repair the three main palaces and the city walls, personally attending to the projects without rest. Emperor Xuanzong issued an edict thanking him for his diligence. Later, Du was made the minister of rites (禮部尚書, *Libu Shangshu*) and created the Marquess of Wei County. It was said that Du was honest but without sufficient knowledge, and often spoke in vulgar terms. Ever since his youth, he made a vow not to accept gifts, and when Du died in 740, he was given posthumous honors, but while his son Du Xiaoyou ({{lang\|zh\|杜孝友}}) accepted the imperial bestowments, he declined all gifts from Du's colleagues and subordinates. There was a dispute over his [posthumous name](/wiki/Posthumous_name "Posthumous name"), as the ministry of worship initially suggested Zhensu (貞肅, meaning "faithful and stern"), while the officials Liu Tongsheng ({{lang\|zh\-Hant\|劉同升}}) and Wei Lian ({{lang\|zh\|韋廉}}) believed that Du was both faithful to the state and filially pious and should be given a greater posthumous name signifying both virtues. The imperial scholar Pei Zong ({{lang\|zh\|裴總}}) believed that that was inappropriate, pointing out that Du came out of the period of mourning to take an office and thus, in Pei's opinion, could not be considered sufficiently filially pious. After Du Xiaoyou submitted a petition to Emperor Xuanzong, Emperor Xuanzong had the matter reexamined, and eventually, Du Xian was given the posthumous name of Zhenxiao (貞孝, meaning "faithful and filial").
[ "During Emperor Xuanzong's reign\n-------------------------------", "In 716, during the reign of [Emperor Xuanzong](/wiki/Emperor_Xuanzong_of_Tang \"Emperor Xuanzong of Tang\"), Du Xian was made *Jiancha Yushi* ({{lang\\|zh\\|監察御史}}), an imperial censor. On one occasion, there was a dispute between the deputy [Protectorate General to Pacify the West](/wiki/Protectorate_General_to_Pacify_the_West \"Protectorate General to Pacify the West\") Guo Qian'guan ({{lang\\|zh\\|郭虔瓘}}), the general Liu Xiaqing ({{lang\\|zh\\-Hant\\|劉遐慶}}), and the Tang vassal [Western Tujue](/wiki/Western_Tujue \"Western Tujue\")'s khan [Ashina Xian](/wiki/Ashina_Xian \"Ashina Xian\"). Emperor Xuanzong sent Du to the region to investigate the dispute. As part of his investigation, he visited the Tuqishi ({{lang\\|zh\\|突騎施}}) tribe. A Tuqishi chieftain gave him gold as a gift. Du initially declined, but his subordinates pointed out that rejecting the gift might be viewed as an insult, so Du accepted it—and then buried it below the tent. After he left Tuqishi, he then sent messengers to the chieftain to inform him where the gold was buried. This impressed the Tuqishi chieftain.", "Du later served as imperial attendant (給事中, *Jishizhong*), but later left civil service to observe a mourning period when his stepmother died. In 724, then\\-Protectorate General to Pacify the West, Zhang Xiaosong ({{lang\\|zh\\-Hant\\|張孝嵩}}), was made the mayor of [Taiyuan](/wiki/Taiyuan \"Taiyuan\") Municipality, and he recommended Du to replace him. Emperor Xuanzong recalled Du, while he was still in the mourning period, to serve as the deputy protectorate general, acting as the protectorate general. In 725, when the vassal king of [Yutian](/wiki/Yutian_County%2C_Xinjiang \"Yutian County, Xinjiang\"), Yuchi Tiao ({{lang\\|zh\\|尉遲晀}}), was plotting with the local tribes to rebel against Tang. When Du found out, he attacked Yuchi Tiao, killed him, and placed a new king of Yutian on the throne. He was given the honorific title of *Guanglu Daifu* ({{lang\\|zh\\|光祿大夫}}). It was said that during Du's service as protectorate general, he cared greatly for the soldiers under him and worked hard, earning the love of both the [Han Chinese](/wiki/Han_Chinese \"Han Chinese\") and the non\\-Han.", "In fall 726, for his accomplishments, Du was recalled to the capital [Chang'an](/wiki/Chang%27an \"Chang'an\"), and, while he continued to be titularly protectorate general, remained at Chang'an to serve as [chancellor](/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Tang_dynasty \"Chancellor of the Tang dynasty\") with the designation *Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi* ({{lang\\|zh\\-Hant\\|同中書門下平章事}}). However, he was also responsible for an incident that damaged the relationship with Tuqishi—as the khan of Tuqishi, Sulu ({{lang\\|zh\\|蘇祿}}), had married the daughter of a prior Western Tujue khan, [Ashina Huaidao](/wiki/Ashina_Huaidao \"Ashina Huaidao\"), and Emperor Xuanzong created her the Princess Jiaohe. When Princess Jiaohe sent messengers and 1,000 horses to Du's headquarters to sell horses, the messengers read of an order from her, as princess—and Du responded by angrily stating, \"How dare an Ashina woman issue me an order?\" He caned the messengers and detained the horses, which largely died in a few subsequent snowstorms. In late 726, after Du left his office, Sulu attacked, causing much damage, and Sulu withdrew only after he heard that Du had been made chancellor.", "By 729, Du was having repeated disagreements with fellow chancellor [Li Yuanhong](/wiki/Li_Yuanhong_%28Tang_chancellor%29 \"Li Yuanhong (Tang chancellor)\"), and the senior chancellor [Yuan Qianyao](/wiki/Yuan_Qianyao \"Yuan Qianyao\") was unable to moderate them. This drew Emperor Xuanzong's displeasure with them, and he removed all three of them, replacing them with [Yuwen Rong](/wiki/Yuwen_Rong \"Yuwen Rong\") and [Pei Guangting](/wiki/Pei_Guangting \"Pei Guangting\"), while retaining fellow chancellor [Xiao Song](/wiki/Xiao_Song \"Xiao Song\"). Du was demoted to be the secretary general at Jing Prefecture (荊州, roughly modern [Jingzhou](/wiki/Jingzhou \"Jingzhou\"), [Hubei](/wiki/Hubei \"Hubei\")). He later successively served as prefect of Wei Prefecture (魏州, in modern [Handan](/wiki/Handan \"Handan\"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\")) and mayor of Taiyuan Municipality.", "In 732, when Emperor Xuanzong visited Taiyuan, he made Du the minister of census (戶部尚書, *Hubu Shangshu*), and had Du accompany him back to Chang'an. Subsequently, when Emperor Xuanzong visited Luoyang, Du was left in charge of Chang'an. In Emperor Xuanzong's absence, Du conscripted soldiers to repair the three main palaces and the city walls, personally attending to the projects without rest. Emperor Xuanzong issued an edict thanking him for his diligence. Later, Du was made the minister of rites (禮部尚書, *Libu Shangshu*) and created the Marquess of Wei County.", "It was said that Du was honest but without sufficient knowledge, and often spoke in vulgar terms. Ever since his youth, he made a vow not to accept gifts, and when Du died in 740, he was given posthumous honors, but while his son Du Xiaoyou ({{lang\\|zh\\|杜孝友}}) accepted the imperial bestowments, he declined all gifts from Du's colleagues and subordinates. There was a dispute over his [posthumous name](/wiki/Posthumous_name \"Posthumous name\"), as the ministry of worship initially suggested Zhensu (貞肅, meaning \"faithful and stern\"), while the officials Liu Tongsheng ({{lang\\|zh\\-Hant\\|劉同升}}) and Wei Lian ({{lang\\|zh\\|韋廉}}) believed that Du was both faithful to the state and filially pious and should be given a greater posthumous name signifying both virtues. The imperial scholar Pei Zong ({{lang\\|zh\\|裴總}}) believed that that was inappropriate, pointing out that Du came out of the period of mourning to take an office and thus, in Pei's opinion, could not be considered sufficiently filially pious. After Du Xiaoyou submitted a petition to Emperor Xuanzong, Emperor Xuanzong had the matter reexamined, and eventually, Du Xian was given the posthumous name of Zhenxiao (貞孝, meaning \"faithful and filial\").", "" ]
Army career ----------- As Theodore de Pencier was assigned to Prince Frederick's regiment as part the Hessian cavalry of General Baron [Friedrich Adolf Riedesel](/wiki/Friedrich_Adolf_Riedesel "Friedrich Adolf Riedesel"), the young officer was destined to see action in North America during the American Revolution. In June 1776, he and 4,000 Hessian 'mercenaries,' many of whom had not left Hesse\-Cassel willingly, arrived in Quebec. In the early summer of 1776, [Sir Guy Carleton](/wiki/Guy_Carleton%2C_1st_Baron_Dorchester "Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester"), the British governor and commander\-in\-chief in Quebec, tasked General [John Burgoyne](/wiki/John_Burgoyne "John Burgoyne") with driving the invading Americans out of the province and south into New York. Faced with Burgoyne's 6,000 British troops and Riedesel's 4,000 German mercenaries, the weakened Americans retreated to Sorel at the confluence of the St. Lawrence and Richelieu rivers. The Americans under General Horatio Gates retreated, this time to the safety of formidable [Fort Ticonderoga](/wiki/Fort_Ticonderoga "Fort Ticonderoga"). The Hessians, much to the frustration of Baron Riedesel, were largely unprepared for pursuit. Historian Thomas Randall compared "the south\-moving procession of British infantry and German infantry and cavalry, batteries of artillery, ammunition wagons, supply wagons" to a travelling circus. The Hessians seemed alien to their British counterparts. They often sang psalms on the march and caught and tamed wild animals. Baroness Riedesel and her entourage travelled by elegant caleche, while the Brunswick Dragoons, short on horses, had to march with their enormous cocked hats, thick coats, leather breeches, and jack boots rising above their knees. Captain de Pencier, as an officer, was fortunate to retain his mount. He also avoided the fate of many Hessians: death under American fire by sharpshooters using the deadly accurate Pennsylvania flintlock. With significant losses and failed manoeuvres on both ends of the Mohawk Valley, Lake Ontario, and the Hudson, Burgoyne surrendered after the [Battle of Saratoga](/wiki/Battle_of_Saratoga "Battle of Saratoga") in the face of heavy Yankee artillery and more than 14,000 men mustered by Gates. The Hessians had recently suffered a major defeat at Bennington with 200 dead and many more imprisoned. De Pencier likely encountered frontier spies Roger Stevens and Stephen Burritt for the first time here at Bennington. Stevens, imprisoned with Burritt after the battle, became the first to settle the Rideau 15 years later, providing his homestead as a meeting place for de Pencier and his Rideau survey teams. The Americans reneged on the terms of surrender; rather than sending the captive Europeans home, they sent the British troops to prison camps surrounding Boston, while the other Hessian captives were sent to camps in Pennsylvania and Virginia. Officers were put in cramped quarters, with as many as six to a room; Baron Riedesel, his wife and children, initially suffered too, living in small, cold surroundings. All found their conditions improve as the British began paying outrageous American fees for the food and lodging of prisoners. Theodor did not participate in the Battle of Saratoga and remained stationed at the fort in Sorel Quebec for the remainder of the Revolutionary War (1776\-1783\). De Pencier, by then a widower, returned to Europe in 1783 with most of the Hessian prisoners. He stayed only long enough to receive his honourable discharge from Prince Frederick's regiment and obtain British naturalisation. He returned to Canada the next year, but could not find employment despite letters of recommendation from Baron Riedesel. Signs of his stress began to emerge at this time. He was described as 'haunting' government offices with a 'drooping spirit,' though he was buoyed temporarily by a grant of 20 pounds. He remarried and his second wife gave birth to a second son, Luke. A Loyalist grant of 300 acres from General Haldimand proved to be unmanageable. De Pencier was neither a lumberman nor a farmer and lacked the necessary financial and physical resources to clear the land. He wrote that his hands were "accustomed only to the use of the sword and the training of horses, too weak to cut down trees and to sell them at a profit quickly and advantageously." Finally, tired of feeding his family on meager rations, he took up land surveying at the age of 35\. His sound education in mathematics enabled him to apprentice using a borrowed theodolite, a calibrated optical instrument used to determine relative position in surveying, navigation, and meteorology. In 1789, he received his full commission as a surveyor. His quarrels with the British authorities continued to consume him. He later complained to Governor General Sherbrooke that he had become a surveyor because he had very little money, despite the sacrifices he and his father had made in battle on behalf of the British. De Pencier received instructions in 1791 to survey the first townships on the Rideau River in what was to become modern\-day Ottawa.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/The\+Rideau\+warriors\+Theodore\+De\+Pencier%3A\+in\+1791\+German\+Aristocrat...\-a0166275108\|title \= The Rideau warriors Theodore de Pencier: In 1791 German Aristocrat Theodore de Pencier braved the Upper Canadian wilderness to conduct the first land survey along the Rideau. The Hessian mercenary died impoverished, hopeless and indigent in a Canadian military asylum. \- Free Online Library}} In Canada, after his first marriage with Marie Demerais, he remarried Charlotte Rivard Bellefeuille on November 4, 1785, at the Protestant Church in [Trois\-Rivières](/wiki/Trois-Rivi%C3%A8res "Trois-Rivières"). She was born in Sorel, May 7, 1766, the daughter of Jean\-Baptiste Rivard and Marie\-Josephe Lesieur.
[ "Army career\n-----------", "As Theodore de Pencier was assigned to Prince Frederick's regiment as part the Hessian cavalry of General Baron [Friedrich Adolf Riedesel](/wiki/Friedrich_Adolf_Riedesel \"Friedrich Adolf Riedesel\"), the young officer was destined to see action in North America during the American Revolution.", "In June 1776, he and 4,000 Hessian 'mercenaries,' many of whom had not left Hesse\\-Cassel willingly, arrived in Quebec.\nIn the early summer of 1776, [Sir Guy Carleton](/wiki/Guy_Carleton%2C_1st_Baron_Dorchester \"Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester\"), the British governor and commander\\-in\\-chief in Quebec, tasked General [John Burgoyne](/wiki/John_Burgoyne \"John Burgoyne\") with driving the invading Americans out of the province and south into New York. Faced with Burgoyne's 6,000 British troops and Riedesel's 4,000 German mercenaries, the weakened Americans retreated to Sorel at the confluence of the St. Lawrence and Richelieu rivers.", "The Americans under General Horatio Gates retreated, this time to the safety of formidable [Fort Ticonderoga](/wiki/Fort_Ticonderoga \"Fort Ticonderoga\"). The Hessians, much to the frustration of Baron Riedesel, were largely unprepared for pursuit. Historian Thomas Randall compared \"the south\\-moving procession of British infantry and German infantry and cavalry, batteries of artillery, ammunition wagons, supply wagons\" to a travelling circus.", "The Hessians seemed alien to their British counterparts. They often sang psalms on the march and caught and tamed wild animals. Baroness Riedesel and her entourage travelled by elegant caleche, while the Brunswick Dragoons, short on horses, had to march with their enormous cocked hats, thick coats, leather breeches, and jack boots rising above their knees. Captain de Pencier, as an officer, was fortunate to retain his mount. He also avoided the fate of many Hessians: death under American fire by sharpshooters using the deadly accurate Pennsylvania flintlock.", "With significant losses and failed manoeuvres on both ends of the Mohawk Valley, Lake Ontario, and the Hudson, Burgoyne surrendered after the [Battle of Saratoga](/wiki/Battle_of_Saratoga \"Battle of Saratoga\") in the face of heavy Yankee artillery and more than 14,000 men mustered by Gates. The Hessians had recently suffered a major defeat at Bennington with 200 dead and many more imprisoned. De Pencier likely encountered frontier spies Roger Stevens and Stephen Burritt for the first time here at Bennington. Stevens, imprisoned with Burritt after the battle, became the first to settle the Rideau 15 years later, providing his homestead as a meeting place for de Pencier and his Rideau survey teams.", "The Americans reneged on the terms of surrender; rather than sending the captive Europeans home, they sent the British troops to prison camps surrounding Boston, while the other Hessian captives were sent to camps in Pennsylvania and Virginia. Officers were put in cramped quarters, with as many as six to a room; Baron Riedesel, his wife and children, initially suffered too, living in small, cold surroundings. All found their conditions improve as the British began paying outrageous American fees for the food and lodging of prisoners. Theodor did not participate in the Battle of Saratoga and remained stationed at the fort in Sorel Quebec for the remainder of the Revolutionary War (1776\\-1783\\).", "De Pencier, by then a widower, returned to Europe in 1783 with most of the Hessian prisoners. He stayed only long enough to receive his honourable discharge from Prince Frederick's regiment and obtain British naturalisation. He returned to Canada the next year, but could not find employment despite letters of recommendation from Baron Riedesel. Signs of his stress began to emerge at this time. He was described as 'haunting' government offices with a 'drooping spirit,' though he was buoyed temporarily by a grant of 20 pounds. He remarried and his second wife gave birth to a second son, Luke.", "A Loyalist grant of 300 acres from General Haldimand proved to be unmanageable. De Pencier was neither a lumberman nor a farmer and lacked the necessary financial and physical resources to clear the land. He wrote that his hands were \"accustomed only to the use of the sword and the training of horses, too weak to cut down trees and to sell them at a profit quickly and advantageously.\" Finally, tired of feeding his family on meager rations, he took up land surveying at the age of 35\\. His sound education in mathematics enabled him to apprentice using a borrowed theodolite, a calibrated optical instrument used to determine relative position in surveying, navigation, and meteorology. In 1789, he received his full commission as a surveyor.", "His quarrels with the British authorities continued to consume him. He later complained to Governor General Sherbrooke that he had become a surveyor because he had very little money, despite the sacrifices he and his father had made in battle on behalf of the British.", "De Pencier received instructions in 1791 to survey the first townships on the Rideau River in what was to become modern\\-day Ottawa.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/The\\+Rideau\\+warriors\\+Theodore\\+De\\+Pencier%3A\\+in\\+1791\\+German\\+Aristocrat...\\-a0166275108\\|title \\= The Rideau warriors Theodore de Pencier: In 1791 German Aristocrat Theodore de Pencier braved the Upper Canadian wilderness to conduct the first land survey along the Rideau. The Hessian mercenary died impoverished, hopeless and indigent in a Canadian military asylum. \\- Free Online Library}}", "In Canada, after his first marriage with Marie Demerais, he remarried Charlotte Rivard Bellefeuille on November 4, 1785, at the Protestant Church in [Trois\\-Rivières](/wiki/Trois-Rivi%C3%A8res \"Trois-Rivières\"). She was born in Sorel, May 7, 1766, the daughter of Jean\\-Baptiste Rivard and Marie\\-Josephe Lesieur.", "" ]
Career ------ Diogo began working in the Mozambique Finance Ministry in 1980 while she was still a college student. She became head of department in 1986 and national budget director in 1989\. She then went to work for the [World Bank](/wiki/World_Bank "World Bank"), as the programme officer in Mozambique.[Members of the Council: Luísa Diogo](http://www.africaunionfoundation.org/en/council-members/dr-lu%C3%ADsa-diogo) African Union Foundation. In 1994 she joined the [FRELIMO](/wiki/FRELIMO "FRELIMO") government as Deputy Minister of Finance under Mozambican President [Joaquim Chissano](/wiki/Joaquim_Chissano "Joaquim Chissano"). In 2003, [United Nations Secretary\-General](/wiki/United_Nations_Secretary-General "United Nations Secretary-General") [Kofi Annan](/wiki/Kofi_Annan "Kofi Annan") appointed Diogo to the United Nations Commission on the Private Sector and Development, which was co\-chaired by [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister "Prime Minister") [Paul Martin](/wiki/Paul_Martin "Paul Martin") of [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada") and [President](/wiki/President_%28government_title%29 "President (government title)") [Ernesto Zedillo](/wiki/Ernesto_Zedillo "Ernesto Zedillo") of [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico").Felicity Barringer (27 July 2003\), ["U.N. Will Back Entrepreneurs In Bid to Lift Poor Nations"](https://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/27/world/un-will-back-entrepreneurs-in-bid-to-lift-poor-nations.html), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*. ### Prime Minister, 2004–2010 Diogo was appointed prime minister in February 2004, succeeding [Pascoal Mocumbi](/wiki/Pascoal_Mocumbi "Pascoal Mocumbi"). She continued to hold her post as finance minister until 2005\.["Germany's Angela Merkel Joins Select Group of Female Leaders"](https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB113268199510004291), *[Wall Street Journal](/wiki/Wall_Street_Journal "Wall Street Journal")*, 23 November 2005\. In September 2005, Diogo was the international guest speaker at the British [Labour Party Conference](/wiki/Labour_Party_Conference "Labour Party Conference"). In 2006, Annan appointed Diogo to co\-chair – alongside [Shaukat Aziz](/wiki/Shaukat_Aziz "Shaukat Aziz") and [Jens Stoltenberg](/wiki/Jens_Stoltenberg "Jens Stoltenberg") – a [High\-level Panel on United Nations Systemwide Coherence](/wiki/High-level_Panel_on_United_Nations_Systemwide_Coherence "High-level Panel on United Nations Systemwide Coherence"), which was set up to explore how the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") system could work more coherently and effectively across the world in the areas of development, humanitarian assistance and the environment.[High\-level panel on UN System\-wide Coherence – panel composition](https://www.un.org/events/panel/html/page1.html) [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations"). She was also a member of the Commission on Effective Development Cooperation with Africa which was set up by the [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Denmark "Prime Minister of Denmark") [Anders Fogh Rasmussen](/wiki/Anders_Fogh_Rasmussen "Anders Fogh Rasmussen") of [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark") and held meetings between April and October 2008\.[Commission on Effective Development Cooperation with Africa](http://www.ft.dk/samling/20072/lovforslag/l188/pgf/6/spm/1/svar/570287/594322.pdf) [Folketing](/wiki/Folketing "Folketing"). After reports that some farmers were refusing to leave their livestock in areas threatened by the [2007 Mozambican flood](/wiki/2007_Mozambican_flood "2007 Mozambican flood"), Diogo ordered forcible evacuations of citizens in low\-lying areas of the [Zambezi](/wiki/Zambezi "Zambezi") valley.Michael Wines (13 February 2007\), ["More than 68,000 Displaced by Mozambique Floods"](https://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/13/world/africa/13cnd-mozambique.html), *The New York Times*. During her time in office, Diogo urged the African health ministers to offer reproductive and sexual health services free of charge throughout the continent. These services could reduce infant mortality by two thirds, reduce [maternal mortality](/wiki/Maternal_mortality "Maternal mortality") by three quarters, reverse the spread of [AIDS](/wiki/AIDS "AIDS"), and promote [gender equality](/wiki/Gender_equality "Gender equality") and the empowerment of women. The target set by the UN was to achieve these goals by 2015\.["Mozambique; Diogo Calls for Free Reproductive Health Services"](http://allafrica.com/stories/200609210787.html), *AllAfrica*, 21 September 2006\. Diogo also focused on [gender equality](/wiki/Gender_equality "Gender equality") and [women's empowerment](/wiki/Women%27s_empowerment "Women's empowerment") through a recently launched "Network of Women Ministers and Parliamentarians" (MUNIPA). The MUNIPA network aims to strengthen advocacy and lobbying activities so that policies and legislation are adopted favourable to gender equity and women's empowerment. Promoting equality between men and women is a central concern of the Mozambican government, which has been adopting instruments to promote women's empowerment at all levels \[of government]."Mozambique; Network of Women Ministers And Parliamentarians." Africa News 6 May 2007 29 April 2008 \<[http://www.lexisnexis.com/us/lnacademic/results/docview/docview.do?docLinkInd\=true\&risb\=21\_T3639212382\&format\=GNBFI\&sort\=RELEVANCE\&startDocNo\=1\&resultsUrlKey\=29\_T3639212388\&cisb\=22\_T3639212387\&treeMax\=true\&treeWidth\=0\&csi\=8320\&docNo\=14](http://www.lexisnexis.com/us/lnacademic/results/docview/docview.do?docLinkInd=true&risb=21_T3639212382&format=GNBFI&sort=RELEVANCE&startDocNo=1&resultsUrlKey=29_T3639212388&cisb=22_T3639212387&treeMax=true&treeWidth=0&csi=8320&docNo=14)\>.
[ "Career\n------", "Diogo began working in the Mozambique Finance Ministry in 1980 while she was still a college student. She became head of department in 1986 and national budget director in 1989\\. She then went to work for the [World Bank](/wiki/World_Bank \"World Bank\"), as the programme officer in Mozambique.[Members of the Council: Luísa Diogo](http://www.africaunionfoundation.org/en/council-members/dr-lu%C3%ADsa-diogo) African Union Foundation. In 1994 she joined the [FRELIMO](/wiki/FRELIMO \"FRELIMO\") government as Deputy Minister of Finance under Mozambican President [Joaquim Chissano](/wiki/Joaquim_Chissano \"Joaquim Chissano\").", "In 2003, [United Nations Secretary\\-General](/wiki/United_Nations_Secretary-General \"United Nations Secretary-General\") [Kofi Annan](/wiki/Kofi_Annan \"Kofi Annan\") appointed Diogo to the United Nations Commission on the Private Sector and Development, which was co\\-chaired by [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister \"Prime Minister\") [Paul Martin](/wiki/Paul_Martin \"Paul Martin\") of [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") and [President](/wiki/President_%28government_title%29 \"President (government title)\") [Ernesto Zedillo](/wiki/Ernesto_Zedillo \"Ernesto Zedillo\") of [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\").Felicity Barringer (27 July 2003\\), [\"U.N. Will Back Entrepreneurs In Bid to Lift Poor Nations\"](https://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/27/world/un-will-back-entrepreneurs-in-bid-to-lift-poor-nations.html), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*.", "### Prime Minister, 2004–2010", "Diogo was appointed prime minister in February 2004, succeeding [Pascoal Mocumbi](/wiki/Pascoal_Mocumbi \"Pascoal Mocumbi\"). She continued to hold her post as finance minister until 2005\\.[\"Germany's Angela Merkel Joins Select Group of Female Leaders\"](https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB113268199510004291), *[Wall Street Journal](/wiki/Wall_Street_Journal \"Wall Street Journal\")*, 23 November 2005\\.", "In September 2005, Diogo was the international guest speaker at the British [Labour Party Conference](/wiki/Labour_Party_Conference \"Labour Party Conference\").", "In 2006, Annan appointed Diogo to co\\-chair – alongside [Shaukat Aziz](/wiki/Shaukat_Aziz \"Shaukat Aziz\") and [Jens Stoltenberg](/wiki/Jens_Stoltenberg \"Jens Stoltenberg\") – a [High\\-level Panel on United Nations Systemwide Coherence](/wiki/High-level_Panel_on_United_Nations_Systemwide_Coherence \"High-level Panel on United Nations Systemwide Coherence\"), which was set up to explore how the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") system could work more coherently and effectively across the world in the areas of development, humanitarian assistance and the environment.[High\\-level panel on UN System\\-wide Coherence – panel composition](https://www.un.org/events/panel/html/page1.html) [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\"). She was also a member of the Commission on Effective Development Cooperation with Africa which was set up by the [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Denmark \"Prime Minister of Denmark\") [Anders Fogh Rasmussen](/wiki/Anders_Fogh_Rasmussen \"Anders Fogh Rasmussen\") of [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\") and held meetings between April and October 2008\\.[Commission on Effective Development Cooperation with Africa](http://www.ft.dk/samling/20072/lovforslag/l188/pgf/6/spm/1/svar/570287/594322.pdf) [Folketing](/wiki/Folketing \"Folketing\").", "After reports that some farmers were refusing to leave their livestock in areas threatened by the [2007 Mozambican flood](/wiki/2007_Mozambican_flood \"2007 Mozambican flood\"), Diogo ordered forcible evacuations of citizens in low\\-lying areas of the [Zambezi](/wiki/Zambezi \"Zambezi\") valley.Michael Wines (13 February 2007\\), [\"More than 68,000 Displaced by Mozambique Floods\"](https://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/13/world/africa/13cnd-mozambique.html), *The New York Times*.", "During her time in office, Diogo urged the African health ministers to offer reproductive and sexual health services free of charge throughout the continent. These services could reduce infant mortality by two thirds, reduce [maternal mortality](/wiki/Maternal_mortality \"Maternal mortality\") by three quarters, reverse the spread of [AIDS](/wiki/AIDS \"AIDS\"), and promote [gender equality](/wiki/Gender_equality \"Gender equality\") and the empowerment of women. The target set by the UN was to achieve these goals by 2015\\.[\"Mozambique; Diogo Calls for Free Reproductive Health Services\"](http://allafrica.com/stories/200609210787.html), *AllAfrica*, 21 September 2006\\.", "Diogo also focused on [gender equality](/wiki/Gender_equality \"Gender equality\") and [women's empowerment](/wiki/Women%27s_empowerment \"Women's empowerment\") through a recently launched \"Network of Women Ministers and Parliamentarians\" (MUNIPA). The MUNIPA network aims to strengthen advocacy and lobbying activities so that policies and legislation are adopted favourable to gender equity and women's empowerment. Promoting equality between men and women is a central concern of the Mozambican government, which has been adopting instruments to promote women's empowerment at all levels \\[of government].\"Mozambique; Network of Women Ministers And Parliamentarians.\" Africa News 6 May 2007 29 April 2008 \\<[http://www.lexisnexis.com/us/lnacademic/results/docview/docview.do?docLinkInd\\=true\\&risb\\=21\\_T3639212382\\&format\\=GNBFI\\&sort\\=RELEVANCE\\&startDocNo\\=1\\&resultsUrlKey\\=29\\_T3639212388\\&cisb\\=22\\_T3639212387\\&treeMax\\=true\\&treeWidth\\=0\\&csi\\=8320\\&docNo\\=14](http://www.lexisnexis.com/us/lnacademic/results/docview/docview.do?docLinkInd=true&risb=21_T3639212382&format=GNBFI&sort=RELEVANCE&startDocNo=1&resultsUrlKey=29_T3639212388&cisb=22_T3639212387&treeMax=true&treeWidth=0&csi=8320&docNo=14)\\>.", "" ]
### Prime Minister, 2004–2010 Diogo was appointed prime minister in February 2004, succeeding [Pascoal Mocumbi](/wiki/Pascoal_Mocumbi "Pascoal Mocumbi"). She continued to hold her post as finance minister until 2005\.["Germany's Angela Merkel Joins Select Group of Female Leaders"](https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB113268199510004291), *[Wall Street Journal](/wiki/Wall_Street_Journal "Wall Street Journal")*, 23 November 2005\. In September 2005, Diogo was the international guest speaker at the British [Labour Party Conference](/wiki/Labour_Party_Conference "Labour Party Conference"). In 2006, Annan appointed Diogo to co\-chair – alongside [Shaukat Aziz](/wiki/Shaukat_Aziz "Shaukat Aziz") and [Jens Stoltenberg](/wiki/Jens_Stoltenberg "Jens Stoltenberg") – a [High\-level Panel on United Nations Systemwide Coherence](/wiki/High-level_Panel_on_United_Nations_Systemwide_Coherence "High-level Panel on United Nations Systemwide Coherence"), which was set up to explore how the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") system could work more coherently and effectively across the world in the areas of development, humanitarian assistance and the environment.[High\-level panel on UN System\-wide Coherence – panel composition](https://www.un.org/events/panel/html/page1.html) [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations"). She was also a member of the Commission on Effective Development Cooperation with Africa which was set up by the [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Denmark "Prime Minister of Denmark") [Anders Fogh Rasmussen](/wiki/Anders_Fogh_Rasmussen "Anders Fogh Rasmussen") of [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark") and held meetings between April and October 2008\.[Commission on Effective Development Cooperation with Africa](http://www.ft.dk/samling/20072/lovforslag/l188/pgf/6/spm/1/svar/570287/594322.pdf) [Folketing](/wiki/Folketing "Folketing"). After reports that some farmers were refusing to leave their livestock in areas threatened by the [2007 Mozambican flood](/wiki/2007_Mozambican_flood "2007 Mozambican flood"), Diogo ordered forcible evacuations of citizens in low\-lying areas of the [Zambezi](/wiki/Zambezi "Zambezi") valley.Michael Wines (13 February 2007\), ["More than 68,000 Displaced by Mozambique Floods"](https://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/13/world/africa/13cnd-mozambique.html), *The New York Times*. During her time in office, Diogo urged the African health ministers to offer reproductive and sexual health services free of charge throughout the continent. These services could reduce infant mortality by two thirds, reduce [maternal mortality](/wiki/Maternal_mortality "Maternal mortality") by three quarters, reverse the spread of [AIDS](/wiki/AIDS "AIDS"), and promote [gender equality](/wiki/Gender_equality "Gender equality") and the empowerment of women. The target set by the UN was to achieve these goals by 2015\.["Mozambique; Diogo Calls for Free Reproductive Health Services"](http://allafrica.com/stories/200609210787.html), *AllAfrica*, 21 September 2006\. Diogo also focused on [gender equality](/wiki/Gender_equality "Gender equality") and [women's empowerment](/wiki/Women%27s_empowerment "Women's empowerment") through a recently launched "Network of Women Ministers and Parliamentarians" (MUNIPA). The MUNIPA network aims to strengthen advocacy and lobbying activities so that policies and legislation are adopted favourable to gender equity and women's empowerment. Promoting equality between men and women is a central concern of the Mozambican government, which has been adopting instruments to promote women's empowerment at all levels \[of government]."Mozambique; Network of Women Ministers And Parliamentarians." Africa News 6 May 2007 29 April 2008 \<[http://www.lexisnexis.com/us/lnacademic/results/docview/docview.do?docLinkInd\=true\&risb\=21\_T3639212382\&format\=GNBFI\&sort\=RELEVANCE\&startDocNo\=1\&resultsUrlKey\=29\_T3639212388\&cisb\=22\_T3639212387\&treeMax\=true\&treeWidth\=0\&csi\=8320\&docNo\=14](http://www.lexisnexis.com/us/lnacademic/results/docview/docview.do?docLinkInd=true&risb=21_T3639212382&format=GNBFI&sort=RELEVANCE&startDocNo=1&resultsUrlKey=29_T3639212388&cisb=22_T3639212387&treeMax=true&treeWidth=0&csi=8320&docNo=14)\>.
[ "### Prime Minister, 2004–2010", "Diogo was appointed prime minister in February 2004, succeeding [Pascoal Mocumbi](/wiki/Pascoal_Mocumbi \"Pascoal Mocumbi\"). She continued to hold her post as finance minister until 2005\\.[\"Germany's Angela Merkel Joins Select Group of Female Leaders\"](https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB113268199510004291), *[Wall Street Journal](/wiki/Wall_Street_Journal \"Wall Street Journal\")*, 23 November 2005\\.", "In September 2005, Diogo was the international guest speaker at the British [Labour Party Conference](/wiki/Labour_Party_Conference \"Labour Party Conference\").", "In 2006, Annan appointed Diogo to co\\-chair – alongside [Shaukat Aziz](/wiki/Shaukat_Aziz \"Shaukat Aziz\") and [Jens Stoltenberg](/wiki/Jens_Stoltenberg \"Jens Stoltenberg\") – a [High\\-level Panel on United Nations Systemwide Coherence](/wiki/High-level_Panel_on_United_Nations_Systemwide_Coherence \"High-level Panel on United Nations Systemwide Coherence\"), which was set up to explore how the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") system could work more coherently and effectively across the world in the areas of development, humanitarian assistance and the environment.[High\\-level panel on UN System\\-wide Coherence – panel composition](https://www.un.org/events/panel/html/page1.html) [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\"). She was also a member of the Commission on Effective Development Cooperation with Africa which was set up by the [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Denmark \"Prime Minister of Denmark\") [Anders Fogh Rasmussen](/wiki/Anders_Fogh_Rasmussen \"Anders Fogh Rasmussen\") of [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\") and held meetings between April and October 2008\\.[Commission on Effective Development Cooperation with Africa](http://www.ft.dk/samling/20072/lovforslag/l188/pgf/6/spm/1/svar/570287/594322.pdf) [Folketing](/wiki/Folketing \"Folketing\").", "After reports that some farmers were refusing to leave their livestock in areas threatened by the [2007 Mozambican flood](/wiki/2007_Mozambican_flood \"2007 Mozambican flood\"), Diogo ordered forcible evacuations of citizens in low\\-lying areas of the [Zambezi](/wiki/Zambezi \"Zambezi\") valley.Michael Wines (13 February 2007\\), [\"More than 68,000 Displaced by Mozambique Floods\"](https://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/13/world/africa/13cnd-mozambique.html), *The New York Times*.", "During her time in office, Diogo urged the African health ministers to offer reproductive and sexual health services free of charge throughout the continent. These services could reduce infant mortality by two thirds, reduce [maternal mortality](/wiki/Maternal_mortality \"Maternal mortality\") by three quarters, reverse the spread of [AIDS](/wiki/AIDS \"AIDS\"), and promote [gender equality](/wiki/Gender_equality \"Gender equality\") and the empowerment of women. The target set by the UN was to achieve these goals by 2015\\.[\"Mozambique; Diogo Calls for Free Reproductive Health Services\"](http://allafrica.com/stories/200609210787.html), *AllAfrica*, 21 September 2006\\.", "Diogo also focused on [gender equality](/wiki/Gender_equality \"Gender equality\") and [women's empowerment](/wiki/Women%27s_empowerment \"Women's empowerment\") through a recently launched \"Network of Women Ministers and Parliamentarians\" (MUNIPA). The MUNIPA network aims to strengthen advocacy and lobbying activities so that policies and legislation are adopted favourable to gender equity and women's empowerment. Promoting equality between men and women is a central concern of the Mozambican government, which has been adopting instruments to promote women's empowerment at all levels \\[of government].\"Mozambique; Network of Women Ministers And Parliamentarians.\" Africa News 6 May 2007 29 April 2008 \\<[http://www.lexisnexis.com/us/lnacademic/results/docview/docview.do?docLinkInd\\=true\\&risb\\=21\\_T3639212382\\&format\\=GNBFI\\&sort\\=RELEVANCE\\&startDocNo\\=1\\&resultsUrlKey\\=29\\_T3639212388\\&cisb\\=22\\_T3639212387\\&treeMax\\=true\\&treeWidth\\=0\\&csi\\=8320\\&docNo\\=14](http://www.lexisnexis.com/us/lnacademic/results/docview/docview.do?docLinkInd=true&risb=21_T3639212382&format=GNBFI&sort=RELEVANCE&startDocNo=1&resultsUrlKey=29_T3639212388&cisb=22_T3639212387&treeMax=true&treeWidth=0&csi=8320&docNo=14)\\>.", "" ]
Summary ------- The book focuses on how in early 2003, during the [invasion of Iraq](/wiki/Invasion_of_Iraq "Invasion of Iraq"), South African conservationist Lawrence Anthony, realized that there would be no one looking after the biggest zoo in the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East "Middle East"), and left his [Thula Thula](/wiki/Thula_Thula "Thula Thula") game reserve home in [Zululand](/wiki/KwaZulu-Natal "KwaZulu-Natal"), South Africa, for war\-blockaded [Kuwait](/wiki/Kuwait "Kuwait"). Anthony wrangled his way into becoming the first [civilian](/wiki/Civilian "Civilian"), apart from media, to gain access to Iraq and then, drove a hired car from Kuwait, unarmed and unescorted, into the heart of [Baghdad](/wiki/Baghdad "Baghdad"). On arrival, Anthony found that a battle had been fought in the surrounding park, and that the zoo had been damaged and badly looted. Hundreds of animals had died, escaped, or been stolen for food. Zoo veterinarian Dr Husham Hussan and two zoo staff met him, beginning the rescue. Anthony tells of his many adventures, for example, how he found himself sleeping with fighting troops, including tank crews of the US [3rd Infantry Division](/wiki/3rd_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 "3rd Infantry Division (United States)") in the derelict [Al\-Rashid Hotel](/wiki/Al-Rashid_Hotel "Al-Rashid Hotel"), made friends with government officials, soldiers and rallied [foreign mercenaries](/wiki/Mercenary "Mercenary") to his cause. He recounts raiding bombed palaces and ruined hotels for food and supplies to feed animals and zoo staff, and rescuing lions, cheetahs and ostriches from [Uday Hussein](/wiki/Uday_Hussein "Uday Hussein")'s palace. Bobby Rob, Lawrence's Thula Thula [game reserve](/wiki/Game_reserve "Game reserve") manager, arrives to assist, and together with US Captain William Sumner, the courageous zoo directors Dr Adel Mousa and Dr Husham Hussan, Iraqi veterinarian Farah Murrani, and a few loyal zoo staff, they formed an intrepid team which secured the zoo and somehow kept the remaining animals alive and the zoo safe in some extreme circumstances. Confronted by an appalling situation, cut off from the world and completely surrounded by fighting and looting, the team overcame every "can't be done," to hold together the remains of what was once the biggest zoo in the Middle East literally out of nothing. At various times they are assisted by other conservation organizations including AZA, Wildaid, Care for the Wild, and IFAW. As the fighting eases, the team is able to get around the city with help from the military and rescue starving and abused animals from other facilities in Baghdad and bring them back to the zoo for safekeeping. News of the whereabouts of [Saddam Hussein](/wiki/Saddam_Hussein "Saddam Hussein")’s magnificent personal herd of thoroughbred Arabian horses, stolen during the invasion, arrives at the zoo and in an adventurous raid, led by Captains William Sumner and Gavino Rivas with Whittington\-Jones and Murrani assisting, seventeen horses are recovered and returned to the Iraqi people. Later the French Army sent in army engineers who overhauled and upgraded the infrastructure of the zoo and surrounding park. The zoo and park were reopened to the public on July 19, 2003\. On September 17, 2003, the day after Anthony returned home to South Africa, an American soldier, who had reportedly been drinking, attempted to feed the zoo's prize [Bengal tiger](/wiki/Bengal_tiger "Bengal tiger") "Malooh" through the enclosure bars and was bitten on the hand after. His companion then shot the still\-caged tiger with a pistol, and it bled to death overnight. ### Conclusion At its conclusion, the book gives a sobering view of the dwindling spiral of life on Earth as a result of the deterioration of the plant and animal kingdoms and the planet's environment. Lawrence speaks of how the rescue inspired the formation of [The Earth Organization](/wiki/The_Earth_Organization "The Earth Organization"), a grass roots international non\-profit, [conservation](/wiki/Conservation_movement "Conservation movement") and [environment](/wiki/Environmentalism "Environmentalism") organization, with new solutions, committed to the creative responsible rehabilitation of planet Earth and the plant and animal kingdoms.
[ "Summary\n-------", "The book focuses on how in early 2003, during the [invasion of Iraq](/wiki/Invasion_of_Iraq \"Invasion of Iraq\"), South African conservationist Lawrence Anthony, realized that there would be no one looking after the biggest zoo in the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East \"Middle East\"), and left his [Thula Thula](/wiki/Thula_Thula \"Thula Thula\") game reserve home in [Zululand](/wiki/KwaZulu-Natal \"KwaZulu-Natal\"), South Africa, for war\\-blockaded [Kuwait](/wiki/Kuwait \"Kuwait\").", "Anthony wrangled his way into becoming the first [civilian](/wiki/Civilian \"Civilian\"), apart from media, to gain access to Iraq and then, drove a hired car from Kuwait, unarmed and unescorted, into the heart of [Baghdad](/wiki/Baghdad \"Baghdad\").", "On arrival, Anthony found that a battle had been fought in the surrounding park, and that the zoo had been damaged and badly looted. Hundreds of animals had died, escaped, or been stolen for food. Zoo veterinarian Dr Husham Hussan and two zoo staff met him, beginning the rescue.", "Anthony tells of his many adventures, for example, how he found himself sleeping with fighting troops, including tank crews of the US [3rd Infantry Division](/wiki/3rd_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 \"3rd Infantry Division (United States)\") in the derelict [Al\\-Rashid Hotel](/wiki/Al-Rashid_Hotel \"Al-Rashid Hotel\"), made friends with government officials, soldiers and rallied [foreign mercenaries](/wiki/Mercenary \"Mercenary\") to his cause. He recounts raiding bombed palaces and ruined hotels for food and supplies to feed animals and zoo staff, and rescuing lions, cheetahs and ostriches from [Uday Hussein](/wiki/Uday_Hussein \"Uday Hussein\")'s palace.", "Bobby Rob, Lawrence's Thula Thula [game reserve](/wiki/Game_reserve \"Game reserve\") manager, arrives to assist, and together with US Captain William Sumner, the courageous zoo directors Dr Adel Mousa and Dr Husham Hussan, Iraqi veterinarian Farah Murrani, and a few loyal zoo staff, they formed an intrepid team which secured the zoo and somehow kept the remaining animals alive and the zoo safe in some extreme circumstances. Confronted by an appalling situation, cut off from the world and completely surrounded by fighting and looting, the team overcame every \"can't be done,\" to hold together the remains of what was once the biggest zoo in the Middle East literally out of nothing. At various times they are assisted by other conservation organizations including AZA, Wildaid, Care for the Wild, and IFAW.", "As the fighting eases, the team is able to get around the city with help from the military and rescue starving and abused animals from other facilities in Baghdad and bring them back to the zoo for safekeeping.", "News of the whereabouts of [Saddam Hussein](/wiki/Saddam_Hussein \"Saddam Hussein\")’s magnificent personal herd of thoroughbred Arabian horses, stolen during the invasion, arrives at the zoo and in an adventurous raid, led by Captains William Sumner and Gavino Rivas with Whittington\\-Jones and Murrani assisting, seventeen horses are recovered and returned to the Iraqi people.", "Later the French Army sent in army engineers who overhauled and upgraded the infrastructure of the zoo and surrounding park. The zoo and park were reopened to the public on July 19, 2003\\.", "On September 17, 2003, the day after Anthony returned home to South Africa, an American soldier, who had reportedly been drinking, attempted to feed the zoo's prize [Bengal tiger](/wiki/Bengal_tiger \"Bengal tiger\") \"Malooh\" through the enclosure bars and was bitten on the hand after. His companion then shot the still\\-caged tiger with a pistol, and it bled to death overnight.", "### Conclusion", "At its conclusion, the book gives a sobering view of the dwindling spiral of life on Earth as a result of the deterioration of the plant and animal kingdoms and the planet's environment. Lawrence speaks of how the rescue inspired the formation of [The Earth Organization](/wiki/The_Earth_Organization \"The Earth Organization\"), a grass roots international non\\-profit, [conservation](/wiki/Conservation_movement \"Conservation movement\") and [environment](/wiki/Environmentalism \"Environmentalism\") organization, with new solutions, committed to the creative responsible rehabilitation of planet Earth and the plant and animal kingdoms.", "" ]
History ------- [thumb\|[Gordon Johncock](/wiki/Gordon_Johncock "Gordon Johncock")'s [1973 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1973_Indianapolis_500 "1973 Indianapolis 500") winning car.](/wiki/File:Indy500winningcar1973.JPG "Indy500winningcar1973.JPG") [thumb\|[Gordon Johncock](/wiki/Gordon_Johncock "Gordon Johncock")'s [1982 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1982_Indianapolis_500 "1982 Indianapolis 500") winning car.](/wiki/File:Indy500winningcar1982.JPG "Indy500winningcar1982.JPG") [thumb\|[Emerson Fittipaldi](/wiki/Emerson_Fittipaldi "Emerson Fittipaldi")'s [1989 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1989_Indianapolis_500 "1989 Indianapolis 500") winning car.](/wiki/File:Indy500winningcar1989.JPG "Indy500winningcar1989.JPG") [thumb\|[Danny Sullivan](/wiki/Danny_Sullivan "Danny Sullivan")'s car for the [1991 CART season](/wiki/1991_CART_PPG_Indy_Car_World_Series "1991 CART PPG Indy Car World Series")](/wiki/File:1991_Lola_T91-00_Alfa_Romeo%2C_Patrick_Racing%2C_Bologna_2016.jpg "1991 Lola T91-00 Alfa Romeo, Patrick Racing, Bologna 2016.jpg") [thumb\|Alfa Romeo Indycar engine](/wiki/File:AlfaRomeoIndyCarEngine.JPG "AlfaRomeoIndyCarEngine.JPG") ### First stint Pat Patrick started his Indy Car racing career as a sponsor of the team fielded by fellow Jackson oilman [Walt Michner](/wiki/Walt_Michner "Walt Michner") in 1967\. He became a co\-owner of the team in 1970 and established Patrick Racing. The team won the [1973](/wiki/1973_Indianapolis_500 "1973 Indianapolis 500") and [1982 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1982_Indianapolis_500 "1982 Indianapolis 500") with driver [Gordon Johncock](/wiki/Gordon_Johncock "Gordon Johncock"). Johncock also won the [1976 USAC National Championship](/wiki/1976_USAC_Championship_Car_season "1976 USAC Championship Car season"). The team was closely associated with [STP](/wiki/STP_%28motor_oil_company%29 "STP (motor oil company)") sponsorship, and was associated with [Andy Granatelli](/wiki/Andy_Granatelli "Andy Granatelli") during the time of the 1973 win. In the mid\-1980s, the team expanded to two cars, featuring drivers [Emerson Fittipaldi](/wiki/Emerson_Fittipaldi "Emerson Fittipaldi") and [Kevin Cogan](/wiki/Kevin_Cogan "Kevin Cogan"). The team parted ways with STP, and [7\-Eleven](/wiki/7-Eleven "7-Eleven") became their primary sponsor for 1985\. In 1986, [Marlboro](/wiki/Marlboro_%28cigarette%29 "Marlboro (cigarette)") joined the team, their first Indy car sponsorship program since 1971\. Cogan achieved his first and only win of his career in 1986 at Phoenix. Fittipaldi won his first CART race, the [Michigan 500](/wiki/Firestone_Indy_400 "Firestone Indy 400"), in 1985\. Cogan finished a heartbreaking second place in the [1986 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1986_Indianapolis_500 "1986 Indianapolis 500"), after being passed with just over two laps to go. For 1987, the team secured the use of the new [Ilmor Chevy Indy V\-8](/wiki/Ilmor "Ilmor") engine. Fittipaldi won two races, and finished 10th in points. Kevin Cogan, on the other hand, had a disappointing season full of retirements, and parted ways with the team at season's end. After dropping back down to a one\-car effort, Fittipaldi won two more races in 1988, finished 2nd at Indy, and improved to 7th in points. #### 1989\-1990 "trade" deal In 1989, [Chip Ganassi](/wiki/Chip_Ganassi "Chip Ganassi") joined Patrick as co\-owner for Fittipaldi's \#20 Marlboro entry. Patrick was preparing to retire from the sport, and began putting the pieces in place to sell the team at season's end. Patrick struck a lucrative deal with Ganassi, [Penske Racing](/wiki/Penske_Racing "Penske Racing"), and [Phillip Morris](/wiki/Philip_Morris_USA "Philip Morris USA"). Penske would supply Patrick with two [PC\-18](/wiki/Penske_PC-18 "Penske PC-18") chassis for the 1989 season for Fittipaldi to drive. In return, Penske would take driver Fittipaldi and sponsor [Marlboro](/wiki/Marlboro_%28cigarette%29 "Marlboro (cigarette)") starting with the 1990 season. Furthermore, Penske would receive interim Marlboro sponsorship to field a third car ([Al Unser Sr.](/wiki/Al_Unser "Al Unser")) at the three 500\-mile races in 1989 (Indy 500, Michigan 500, Pocono 500\). For 1990, Chip Ganassi would take over the assets of Patrick Racing (including the two coveted [PC\-18](/wiki/Penske_PC-18 "Penske PC-18") chassis, as well as the important Ilmor Chevrolet engine lease), which he would use to start [his own team](/wiki/Chip_Ganassi_Racing "Chip Ganassi Racing"). The Patrick team experienced dominating success in the [1989 CART season](/wiki/1989_CART_PPG_Indy_Car_World_Series "1989 CART PPG Indy Car World Series"). After winning the [1989 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1989_Indianapolis_500 "1989 Indianapolis 500") and the 1989 CART championship, at some point Pat Patrick changed his mind about retiring. With the wheels already in motion to dissolve his existing team, he decided to explore options, and was coaxed out of retirement for 1990\. ### Second stint As planned, Ganassi split off to form his own team in 1990 ([Chip Ganassi Racing](/wiki/Chip_Ganassi_Racing "Chip Ganassi Racing")). Pat Patrick took over the upstart [Alfa Romeo](/wiki/Alfa_Romeo_in_motorsport%23Indycars "Alfa Romeo in motorsport#Indycars") Indy car project previously run by Alex Morales Motorsports. [Roberto Guerrero](/wiki/Roberto_Guerrero "Roberto Guerrero") signed on as primary driver with [Al Unser Sr.](/wiki/Al_Unser "Al Unser") driving a second car at the [Indy 500](/wiki/1990_Indianapolis_500 "1990 Indianapolis 500") and the [Michigan 500](/wiki/Firestone_Indy_400 "Firestone Indy 400"). The new Patrick Racing team landed sponsorship from [Miller](/wiki/Miller_Brewing_Company "Miller Brewing Company"). It was effectively another "trade" between Penske and Patrick, as Miller (previously with Penske) and Marlboro (now over at Penske) were owned by the same parent company, [Phillip Morris](/wiki/Philip_Morris_USA "Philip Morris USA"). The services of Al Unser Sr. were also effectively a trade between the two outfits. Guerrero, meanwhile, had been with Alex Morales Motorsports running the Alfa Romeo on a part\-time schedule in 1989\. The team saw little on\-track success, and even less success in the engine development. This despite a significant investment by Alfa Romeo, and the retention of key crew members including Jim McGee and [Mo Nunn](/wiki/Mo_Nunn "Mo Nunn"). Al Unser had to sit out the Michigan 500 after he wrecked in practice, suffering a fractured leg. Unser then quit the team. For 1991, [Danny Sullivan](/wiki/Danny_Sullivan "Danny Sullivan") took over as primary driver (also another former Penske driver), and the team continued to fail miserably. Guerrero stayed on as a second driver for the [Indy 500](/wiki/1991_Indianapolis_500 "1991 Indianapolis 500") and other selected races. That year, Guerrero would be involved in a controversial crash at [Indianapolis](/wiki/1991_Indianapolis_500 "1991 Indianapolis 500") with [Kevin Cogan](/wiki/Kevin_Cogan "Kevin Cogan"). By the end of the 1991 CART season, Patrick was in financial and legal trouble. Rumors surfaced that the Patrick team had shipped one of the [Ilmor Chevrolet V\-8](/wiki/Ilmor-Chevrolet_265-A_engine "Ilmor-Chevrolet 265-A engine") engines over to the Alfa\-Romeo engine developers in Italy,[IndyCar Engine Woes have Deep Roots](http://morefrontwing.com/2012/05/17/indycar-engine-woes-have-deep-roots/), *More Front Wing*, May 17, 2012, Retrieved 2013\-01\-18 who in turn, tore the engine down to examine it and allegedly stole design ideas. It was returned in pieces and infuriated Ilmor officials. At the conclusion of the 1991 season, [Danny Sullivan](/wiki/Danny_Sullivan "Danny Sullivan") left the team, and was replaced by [Bobby Rahal](/wiki/Bobby_Rahal "Bobby Rahal").{{cite news\|title\=Rahal to sign with Patrick Racing\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13886929/\|newspaper\=The Indianapolis Star\|page\=54\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|date\=September 4, 1991\|access\-date\=September 20, 2017}}{{Open access}} Sullivan went to Rahal's old seat at [Galles\-Kraco Racing](/wiki/Galles_Racing "Galles Racing").{{cite news\|title\=Sullivan talking to Galles\-Kraco\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13886971/\|newspaper\=The Indianapolis Star\|page\=13\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|date\=September 5, 1991\|access\-date\=September 20, 2017}}{{Open access}} Patrick's contractual obligations with Alfa\-Romeo had ended, so the team attempted to re\-sign with Ilmor, or possibly acquire older Ilmor engines from [Newman/Haas](/wiki/Newman/Haas_Racing "Newman/Haas Racing").{{cite news\|title\=Rahal in, Patrick out as Indy\-car team owner (part 1\)\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13886695/rahal\_hogan\_racing\_december\_1991/\|first\=Robin\|last\=Miller\|newspaper\=The Indianapolis Star\|page\=49\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|date\=December 20, 1991\|access\-date\=September 20, 2017}}{{Open access}}{{cite news\|title\=Rahal in, Patrick out as Indy\-car team owner (part 2\)\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13886715/\|first\=Robin\|last\=Miller\|newspaper\=The Indianapolis Star\|page\=50\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|date\=December 20, 1991\|access\-date\=September 20, 2017}}{{Open access}} Due to the possible fraudulent actions by Patrick against Ilmor, the team was refused an Ilmor Chevrolet engine lease, despite inking the popular Rahal.{{cite news\|title\=Rahal buys into chance at Chevys (part 1\)\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13886546/bobby\_rahal\_patrick\_racing\_1991/\|first\=Robin\|last\=Miller\|newspaper\=The Indianapolis Star\|page\=57\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|date\=December 19, 1991\|access\-date\=September 20, 2017}}{{Open access}}{{cite news\|title\=Rahal buys into chance at Chevys (part 2\)\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13886585/\|first\=Robin\|last\=Miller\|newspaper\=The Indianapolis Star\|page\=63\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|date\=December 19, 1991\|access\-date\=September 20, 2017}}{{Open access}} Facing a decidedly uncompetitive powerplant situation for 1992, and escalating legal problems, in December 1991, Patrick sold the team outright to [Bobby Rahal](/wiki/Bobby_Rahal "Bobby Rahal") and his partner Carl Hogan. They formed **Rahal\-Hogan Racing**, which is now known as [Rahal Letterman Lanigan Racing](/wiki/Rahal_Letterman_Lanigan_Racing "Rahal Letterman Lanigan Racing"). ### Third stint [thumb\|[Oriol Servià](/wiki/Oriol_Servi%C3%A0 "Oriol Servià") competing for Patrick Racing at [Brands Hatch](/wiki/Brands_Hatch "Brands Hatch") in 2003\.](/wiki/File:Orio_Servia_-_Patrick_Racing_at_Druids_at_the_2003_Champcar_London_Trophy_race_%2850813940382%29.jpg "Orio Servia - Patrick Racing at Druids at the 2003 Champcar London Trophy race (50813940382).jpg") In the mid\-1990s, Patrick began to rebuild his team from scratch. In 1994, Patrick formed a testing team for [Firestone](/wiki/Firestone_Tire_and_Rubber_Company "Firestone Tire and Rubber Company") tires, spearheading Firestone's return to Indy car racing. They did not enter any races in 1994, instead operated all year as a non\-competing factory test outfit. [Scott Pruett](/wiki/Scott_Pruett "Scott Pruett") signed on as the driver. In [1995](/wiki/1995_PPG_Indy_Car_World_Series "1995 PPG Indy Car World Series"), they returned full time to [CART](/wiki/Championship_Auto_Racing_Teams "Championship Auto Racing Teams") competition, as the Firestone [works team](/wiki/Works_team "Works team"). A few other smaller teams ran Firestones as well. Pruett won the [1995 Marlboro 500](/wiki/1995_Marlboro_500 "1995 Marlboro 500"), had three other podium finishes, and placed 7th in points. In the next few years, Patrick experienced moderate success in CART. Pruett also won the 1997 [Surfers Paradise](/wiki/1997_Sunbelt_IndyCarnival "1997 Sunbelt IndyCarnival") event. After the 1999 season, [Goodyear](/wiki/Goodyear_Tire_and_Rubber_Company "Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company") tires dropped out of Indy car racing. Firestone effectively became the exclusive tire supplier for both CART and IRL. As of 2023, Firestone continues to maintain that distinction in [IndyCar](/wiki/IndyCar_Series "IndyCar Series"). Due to money issues and the constant uncertainty of racing in [Champ Car](/wiki/Champ_Car "Champ Car"), Patrick Racing jumped over the IRL in 2004\. They ran [Al Unser Jr.](/wiki/Al_Unser_Jr. "Al Unser Jr.") until his mid\-season retirement and then [Jeff Simmons](/wiki/Jeff_Simmons_%28driver%29 "Jeff Simmons (driver)"), [Jaques Lazier](/wiki/Jaques_Lazier "Jaques Lazier"), and [Tomáš Enge](/wiki/Tom%C3%A1%C5%A1_Enge "Tomáš Enge"). With no sponsorship for 2005, the team ceased operations and the assets were put up for sale.
[ "History\n-------", "[thumb\\|[Gordon Johncock](/wiki/Gordon_Johncock \"Gordon Johncock\")'s [1973 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1973_Indianapolis_500 \"1973 Indianapolis 500\") winning car.](/wiki/File:Indy500winningcar1973.JPG \"Indy500winningcar1973.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|[Gordon Johncock](/wiki/Gordon_Johncock \"Gordon Johncock\")'s [1982 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1982_Indianapolis_500 \"1982 Indianapolis 500\") winning car.](/wiki/File:Indy500winningcar1982.JPG \"Indy500winningcar1982.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|[Emerson Fittipaldi](/wiki/Emerson_Fittipaldi \"Emerson Fittipaldi\")'s [1989 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1989_Indianapolis_500 \"1989 Indianapolis 500\") winning car.](/wiki/File:Indy500winningcar1989.JPG \"Indy500winningcar1989.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|[Danny Sullivan](/wiki/Danny_Sullivan \"Danny Sullivan\")'s car for the [1991 CART season](/wiki/1991_CART_PPG_Indy_Car_World_Series \"1991 CART PPG Indy Car World Series\")](/wiki/File:1991_Lola_T91-00_Alfa_Romeo%2C_Patrick_Racing%2C_Bologna_2016.jpg \"1991 Lola T91-00 Alfa Romeo, Patrick Racing, Bologna 2016.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Alfa Romeo Indycar engine](/wiki/File:AlfaRomeoIndyCarEngine.JPG \"AlfaRomeoIndyCarEngine.JPG\")", "### First stint", "Pat Patrick started his Indy Car racing career as a sponsor of the team fielded by fellow Jackson oilman [Walt Michner](/wiki/Walt_Michner \"Walt Michner\") in 1967\\. He became a co\\-owner of the team in 1970 and established Patrick Racing.", "The team won the [1973](/wiki/1973_Indianapolis_500 \"1973 Indianapolis 500\") and [1982 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1982_Indianapolis_500 \"1982 Indianapolis 500\") with driver [Gordon Johncock](/wiki/Gordon_Johncock \"Gordon Johncock\"). Johncock also won the [1976 USAC National Championship](/wiki/1976_USAC_Championship_Car_season \"1976 USAC Championship Car season\"). The team was closely associated with [STP](/wiki/STP_%28motor_oil_company%29 \"STP (motor oil company)\") sponsorship, and was associated with [Andy Granatelli](/wiki/Andy_Granatelli \"Andy Granatelli\") during the time of the 1973 win.", "In the mid\\-1980s, the team expanded to two cars, featuring drivers [Emerson Fittipaldi](/wiki/Emerson_Fittipaldi \"Emerson Fittipaldi\") and [Kevin Cogan](/wiki/Kevin_Cogan \"Kevin Cogan\"). The team parted ways with STP, and [7\\-Eleven](/wiki/7-Eleven \"7-Eleven\") became their primary sponsor for 1985\\. In 1986, [Marlboro](/wiki/Marlboro_%28cigarette%29 \"Marlboro (cigarette)\") joined the team, their first Indy car sponsorship program since 1971\\. Cogan achieved his first and only win of his career in 1986 at Phoenix. Fittipaldi won his first CART race, the [Michigan 500](/wiki/Firestone_Indy_400 \"Firestone Indy 400\"), in 1985\\. Cogan finished a heartbreaking second place in the [1986 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1986_Indianapolis_500 \"1986 Indianapolis 500\"), after being passed with just over two laps to go.", "For 1987, the team secured the use of the new [Ilmor Chevy Indy V\\-8](/wiki/Ilmor \"Ilmor\") engine. Fittipaldi won two races, and finished 10th in points. Kevin Cogan, on the other hand, had a disappointing season full of retirements, and parted ways with the team at season's end. After dropping back down to a one\\-car effort, Fittipaldi won two more races in 1988, finished 2nd at Indy, and improved to 7th in points.", "#### 1989\\-1990 \"trade\" deal", "In 1989, [Chip Ganassi](/wiki/Chip_Ganassi \"Chip Ganassi\") joined Patrick as co\\-owner for Fittipaldi's \\#20 Marlboro entry. Patrick was preparing to retire from the sport, and began putting the pieces in place to sell the team at season's end. Patrick struck a lucrative deal with Ganassi, [Penske Racing](/wiki/Penske_Racing \"Penske Racing\"), and [Phillip Morris](/wiki/Philip_Morris_USA \"Philip Morris USA\"). Penske would supply Patrick with two [PC\\-18](/wiki/Penske_PC-18 \"Penske PC-18\") chassis for the 1989 season for Fittipaldi to drive. In return, Penske would take driver Fittipaldi and sponsor [Marlboro](/wiki/Marlboro_%28cigarette%29 \"Marlboro (cigarette)\") starting with the 1990 season. Furthermore, Penske would receive interim Marlboro sponsorship to field a third car ([Al Unser Sr.](/wiki/Al_Unser \"Al Unser\")) at the three 500\\-mile races in 1989 (Indy 500, Michigan 500, Pocono 500\\).", "For 1990, Chip Ganassi would take over the assets of Patrick Racing (including the two coveted [PC\\-18](/wiki/Penske_PC-18 \"Penske PC-18\") chassis, as well as the important Ilmor Chevrolet engine lease), which he would use to start [his own team](/wiki/Chip_Ganassi_Racing \"Chip Ganassi Racing\").", "The Patrick team experienced dominating success in the [1989 CART season](/wiki/1989_CART_PPG_Indy_Car_World_Series \"1989 CART PPG Indy Car World Series\"). After winning the [1989 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1989_Indianapolis_500 \"1989 Indianapolis 500\") and the 1989 CART championship, at some point Pat Patrick changed his mind about retiring. With the wheels already in motion to dissolve his existing team, he decided to explore options, and was coaxed out of retirement for 1990\\.", "### Second stint", "As planned, Ganassi split off to form his own team in 1990 ([Chip Ganassi Racing](/wiki/Chip_Ganassi_Racing \"Chip Ganassi Racing\")). Pat Patrick took over the upstart [Alfa Romeo](/wiki/Alfa_Romeo_in_motorsport%23Indycars \"Alfa Romeo in motorsport#Indycars\") Indy car project previously run by Alex Morales Motorsports. [Roberto Guerrero](/wiki/Roberto_Guerrero \"Roberto Guerrero\") signed on as primary driver with [Al Unser Sr.](/wiki/Al_Unser \"Al Unser\") driving a second car at the [Indy 500](/wiki/1990_Indianapolis_500 \"1990 Indianapolis 500\") and the [Michigan 500](/wiki/Firestone_Indy_400 \"Firestone Indy 400\").", "The new Patrick Racing team landed sponsorship from [Miller](/wiki/Miller_Brewing_Company \"Miller Brewing Company\"). It was effectively another \"trade\" between Penske and Patrick, as Miller (previously with Penske) and Marlboro (now over at Penske) were owned by the same parent company, [Phillip Morris](/wiki/Philip_Morris_USA \"Philip Morris USA\"). The services of Al Unser Sr. were also effectively a trade between the two outfits. Guerrero, meanwhile, had been with Alex Morales Motorsports running the Alfa Romeo on a part\\-time schedule in 1989\\.", "The team saw little on\\-track success, and even less success in the engine development. This despite a significant investment by Alfa Romeo, and the retention of key crew members including Jim McGee and [Mo Nunn](/wiki/Mo_Nunn \"Mo Nunn\"). Al Unser had to sit out the Michigan 500 after he wrecked in practice, suffering a fractured leg. Unser then quit the team.", "For 1991, [Danny Sullivan](/wiki/Danny_Sullivan \"Danny Sullivan\") took over as primary driver (also another former Penske driver), and the team continued to fail miserably. Guerrero stayed on as a second driver for the [Indy 500](/wiki/1991_Indianapolis_500 \"1991 Indianapolis 500\") and other selected races. That year, Guerrero would be involved in a controversial crash at [Indianapolis](/wiki/1991_Indianapolis_500 \"1991 Indianapolis 500\") with [Kevin Cogan](/wiki/Kevin_Cogan \"Kevin Cogan\"). By the end of the 1991 CART season, Patrick was in financial and legal trouble. Rumors surfaced that the Patrick team had shipped one of the [Ilmor Chevrolet V\\-8](/wiki/Ilmor-Chevrolet_265-A_engine \"Ilmor-Chevrolet 265-A engine\") engines over to the Alfa\\-Romeo engine developers in Italy,[IndyCar Engine Woes have Deep Roots](http://morefrontwing.com/2012/05/17/indycar-engine-woes-have-deep-roots/), *More Front Wing*, May 17, 2012, Retrieved 2013\\-01\\-18 who in turn, tore the engine down to examine it and allegedly stole design ideas. It was returned in pieces and infuriated Ilmor officials.", "At the conclusion of the 1991 season, [Danny Sullivan](/wiki/Danny_Sullivan \"Danny Sullivan\") left the team, and was replaced by [Bobby Rahal](/wiki/Bobby_Rahal \"Bobby Rahal\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Rahal to sign with Patrick Racing\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13886929/\\|newspaper\\=The Indianapolis Star\\|page\\=54\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|date\\=September 4, 1991\\|access\\-date\\=September 20, 2017}}{{Open access}} Sullivan went to Rahal's old seat at [Galles\\-Kraco Racing](/wiki/Galles_Racing \"Galles Racing\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Sullivan talking to Galles\\-Kraco\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13886971/\\|newspaper\\=The Indianapolis Star\\|page\\=13\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|date\\=September 5, 1991\\|access\\-date\\=September 20, 2017}}{{Open access}} Patrick's contractual obligations with Alfa\\-Romeo had ended, so the team attempted to re\\-sign with Ilmor, or possibly acquire older Ilmor engines from [Newman/Haas](/wiki/Newman/Haas_Racing \"Newman/Haas Racing\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Rahal in, Patrick out as Indy\\-car team owner (part 1\\)\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13886695/rahal\\_hogan\\_racing\\_december\\_1991/\\|first\\=Robin\\|last\\=Miller\\|newspaper\\=The Indianapolis Star\\|page\\=49\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|date\\=December 20, 1991\\|access\\-date\\=September 20, 2017}}{{Open access}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Rahal in, Patrick out as Indy\\-car team owner (part 2\\)\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13886715/\\|first\\=Robin\\|last\\=Miller\\|newspaper\\=The Indianapolis Star\\|page\\=50\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|date\\=December 20, 1991\\|access\\-date\\=September 20, 2017}}{{Open access}} Due to the possible fraudulent actions by Patrick against Ilmor, the team was refused an Ilmor Chevrolet engine lease, despite inking the popular Rahal.{{cite news\\|title\\=Rahal buys into chance at Chevys (part 1\\)\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13886546/bobby\\_rahal\\_patrick\\_racing\\_1991/\\|first\\=Robin\\|last\\=Miller\\|newspaper\\=The Indianapolis Star\\|page\\=57\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|date\\=December 19, 1991\\|access\\-date\\=September 20, 2017}}{{Open access}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Rahal buys into chance at Chevys (part 2\\)\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13886585/\\|first\\=Robin\\|last\\=Miller\\|newspaper\\=The Indianapolis Star\\|page\\=63\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|date\\=December 19, 1991\\|access\\-date\\=September 20, 2017}}{{Open access}} Facing a decidedly uncompetitive powerplant situation for 1992, and escalating legal problems, in December 1991, Patrick sold the team outright to [Bobby Rahal](/wiki/Bobby_Rahal \"Bobby Rahal\") and his partner Carl Hogan. They formed **Rahal\\-Hogan Racing**, which is now known as [Rahal Letterman Lanigan Racing](/wiki/Rahal_Letterman_Lanigan_Racing \"Rahal Letterman Lanigan Racing\").", "### Third stint", "[thumb\\|[Oriol Servià](/wiki/Oriol_Servi%C3%A0 \"Oriol Servià\") competing for Patrick Racing at [Brands Hatch](/wiki/Brands_Hatch \"Brands Hatch\") in 2003\\.](/wiki/File:Orio_Servia_-_Patrick_Racing_at_Druids_at_the_2003_Champcar_London_Trophy_race_%2850813940382%29.jpg \"Orio Servia - Patrick Racing at Druids at the 2003 Champcar London Trophy race (50813940382).jpg\")\nIn the mid\\-1990s, Patrick began to rebuild his team from scratch. In 1994, Patrick formed a testing team for [Firestone](/wiki/Firestone_Tire_and_Rubber_Company \"Firestone Tire and Rubber Company\") tires, spearheading Firestone's return to Indy car racing. They did not enter any races in 1994, instead operated all year as a non\\-competing factory test outfit. [Scott Pruett](/wiki/Scott_Pruett \"Scott Pruett\") signed on as the driver. In [1995](/wiki/1995_PPG_Indy_Car_World_Series \"1995 PPG Indy Car World Series\"), they returned full time to [CART](/wiki/Championship_Auto_Racing_Teams \"Championship Auto Racing Teams\") competition, as the Firestone [works team](/wiki/Works_team \"Works team\"). A few other smaller teams ran Firestones as well. Pruett won the [1995 Marlboro 500](/wiki/1995_Marlboro_500 \"1995 Marlboro 500\"), had three other podium finishes, and placed 7th in points.", "In the next few years, Patrick experienced moderate success in CART. Pruett also won the 1997 [Surfers Paradise](/wiki/1997_Sunbelt_IndyCarnival \"1997 Sunbelt IndyCarnival\") event. After the 1999 season, [Goodyear](/wiki/Goodyear_Tire_and_Rubber_Company \"Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company\") tires dropped out of Indy car racing. Firestone effectively became the exclusive tire supplier for both CART and IRL. As of 2023, Firestone continues to maintain that distinction in [IndyCar](/wiki/IndyCar_Series \"IndyCar Series\").", "Due to money issues and the constant uncertainty of racing in [Champ Car](/wiki/Champ_Car \"Champ Car\"), Patrick Racing jumped over the IRL in 2004\\. They ran [Al Unser Jr.](/wiki/Al_Unser_Jr. \"Al Unser Jr.\") until his mid\\-season retirement and then [Jeff Simmons](/wiki/Jeff_Simmons_%28driver%29 \"Jeff Simmons (driver)\"), [Jaques Lazier](/wiki/Jaques_Lazier \"Jaques Lazier\"), and [Tomáš Enge](/wiki/Tom%C3%A1%C5%A1_Enge \"Tomáš Enge\"). With no sponsorship for 2005, the team ceased operations and the assets were put up for sale.", "" ]
### First stint Pat Patrick started his Indy Car racing career as a sponsor of the team fielded by fellow Jackson oilman [Walt Michner](/wiki/Walt_Michner "Walt Michner") in 1967\. He became a co\-owner of the team in 1970 and established Patrick Racing. The team won the [1973](/wiki/1973_Indianapolis_500 "1973 Indianapolis 500") and [1982 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1982_Indianapolis_500 "1982 Indianapolis 500") with driver [Gordon Johncock](/wiki/Gordon_Johncock "Gordon Johncock"). Johncock also won the [1976 USAC National Championship](/wiki/1976_USAC_Championship_Car_season "1976 USAC Championship Car season"). The team was closely associated with [STP](/wiki/STP_%28motor_oil_company%29 "STP (motor oil company)") sponsorship, and was associated with [Andy Granatelli](/wiki/Andy_Granatelli "Andy Granatelli") during the time of the 1973 win. In the mid\-1980s, the team expanded to two cars, featuring drivers [Emerson Fittipaldi](/wiki/Emerson_Fittipaldi "Emerson Fittipaldi") and [Kevin Cogan](/wiki/Kevin_Cogan "Kevin Cogan"). The team parted ways with STP, and [7\-Eleven](/wiki/7-Eleven "7-Eleven") became their primary sponsor for 1985\. In 1986, [Marlboro](/wiki/Marlboro_%28cigarette%29 "Marlboro (cigarette)") joined the team, their first Indy car sponsorship program since 1971\. Cogan achieved his first and only win of his career in 1986 at Phoenix. Fittipaldi won his first CART race, the [Michigan 500](/wiki/Firestone_Indy_400 "Firestone Indy 400"), in 1985\. Cogan finished a heartbreaking second place in the [1986 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1986_Indianapolis_500 "1986 Indianapolis 500"), after being passed with just over two laps to go. For 1987, the team secured the use of the new [Ilmor Chevy Indy V\-8](/wiki/Ilmor "Ilmor") engine. Fittipaldi won two races, and finished 10th in points. Kevin Cogan, on the other hand, had a disappointing season full of retirements, and parted ways with the team at season's end. After dropping back down to a one\-car effort, Fittipaldi won two more races in 1988, finished 2nd at Indy, and improved to 7th in points. #### 1989\-1990 "trade" deal In 1989, [Chip Ganassi](/wiki/Chip_Ganassi "Chip Ganassi") joined Patrick as co\-owner for Fittipaldi's \#20 Marlboro entry. Patrick was preparing to retire from the sport, and began putting the pieces in place to sell the team at season's end. Patrick struck a lucrative deal with Ganassi, [Penske Racing](/wiki/Penske_Racing "Penske Racing"), and [Phillip Morris](/wiki/Philip_Morris_USA "Philip Morris USA"). Penske would supply Patrick with two [PC\-18](/wiki/Penske_PC-18 "Penske PC-18") chassis for the 1989 season for Fittipaldi to drive. In return, Penske would take driver Fittipaldi and sponsor [Marlboro](/wiki/Marlboro_%28cigarette%29 "Marlboro (cigarette)") starting with the 1990 season. Furthermore, Penske would receive interim Marlboro sponsorship to field a third car ([Al Unser Sr.](/wiki/Al_Unser "Al Unser")) at the three 500\-mile races in 1989 (Indy 500, Michigan 500, Pocono 500\). For 1990, Chip Ganassi would take over the assets of Patrick Racing (including the two coveted [PC\-18](/wiki/Penske_PC-18 "Penske PC-18") chassis, as well as the important Ilmor Chevrolet engine lease), which he would use to start [his own team](/wiki/Chip_Ganassi_Racing "Chip Ganassi Racing"). The Patrick team experienced dominating success in the [1989 CART season](/wiki/1989_CART_PPG_Indy_Car_World_Series "1989 CART PPG Indy Car World Series"). After winning the [1989 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1989_Indianapolis_500 "1989 Indianapolis 500") and the 1989 CART championship, at some point Pat Patrick changed his mind about retiring. With the wheels already in motion to dissolve his existing team, he decided to explore options, and was coaxed out of retirement for 1990\.
[ "### First stint", "Pat Patrick started his Indy Car racing career as a sponsor of the team fielded by fellow Jackson oilman [Walt Michner](/wiki/Walt_Michner \"Walt Michner\") in 1967\\. He became a co\\-owner of the team in 1970 and established Patrick Racing.", "The team won the [1973](/wiki/1973_Indianapolis_500 \"1973 Indianapolis 500\") and [1982 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1982_Indianapolis_500 \"1982 Indianapolis 500\") with driver [Gordon Johncock](/wiki/Gordon_Johncock \"Gordon Johncock\"). Johncock also won the [1976 USAC National Championship](/wiki/1976_USAC_Championship_Car_season \"1976 USAC Championship Car season\"). The team was closely associated with [STP](/wiki/STP_%28motor_oil_company%29 \"STP (motor oil company)\") sponsorship, and was associated with [Andy Granatelli](/wiki/Andy_Granatelli \"Andy Granatelli\") during the time of the 1973 win.", "In the mid\\-1980s, the team expanded to two cars, featuring drivers [Emerson Fittipaldi](/wiki/Emerson_Fittipaldi \"Emerson Fittipaldi\") and [Kevin Cogan](/wiki/Kevin_Cogan \"Kevin Cogan\"). The team parted ways with STP, and [7\\-Eleven](/wiki/7-Eleven \"7-Eleven\") became their primary sponsor for 1985\\. In 1986, [Marlboro](/wiki/Marlboro_%28cigarette%29 \"Marlboro (cigarette)\") joined the team, their first Indy car sponsorship program since 1971\\. Cogan achieved his first and only win of his career in 1986 at Phoenix. Fittipaldi won his first CART race, the [Michigan 500](/wiki/Firestone_Indy_400 \"Firestone Indy 400\"), in 1985\\. Cogan finished a heartbreaking second place in the [1986 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1986_Indianapolis_500 \"1986 Indianapolis 500\"), after being passed with just over two laps to go.", "For 1987, the team secured the use of the new [Ilmor Chevy Indy V\\-8](/wiki/Ilmor \"Ilmor\") engine. Fittipaldi won two races, and finished 10th in points. Kevin Cogan, on the other hand, had a disappointing season full of retirements, and parted ways with the team at season's end. After dropping back down to a one\\-car effort, Fittipaldi won two more races in 1988, finished 2nd at Indy, and improved to 7th in points.", "#### 1989\\-1990 \"trade\" deal", "In 1989, [Chip Ganassi](/wiki/Chip_Ganassi \"Chip Ganassi\") joined Patrick as co\\-owner for Fittipaldi's \\#20 Marlboro entry. Patrick was preparing to retire from the sport, and began putting the pieces in place to sell the team at season's end. Patrick struck a lucrative deal with Ganassi, [Penske Racing](/wiki/Penske_Racing \"Penske Racing\"), and [Phillip Morris](/wiki/Philip_Morris_USA \"Philip Morris USA\"). Penske would supply Patrick with two [PC\\-18](/wiki/Penske_PC-18 \"Penske PC-18\") chassis for the 1989 season for Fittipaldi to drive. In return, Penske would take driver Fittipaldi and sponsor [Marlboro](/wiki/Marlboro_%28cigarette%29 \"Marlboro (cigarette)\") starting with the 1990 season. Furthermore, Penske would receive interim Marlboro sponsorship to field a third car ([Al Unser Sr.](/wiki/Al_Unser \"Al Unser\")) at the three 500\\-mile races in 1989 (Indy 500, Michigan 500, Pocono 500\\).", "For 1990, Chip Ganassi would take over the assets of Patrick Racing (including the two coveted [PC\\-18](/wiki/Penske_PC-18 \"Penske PC-18\") chassis, as well as the important Ilmor Chevrolet engine lease), which he would use to start [his own team](/wiki/Chip_Ganassi_Racing \"Chip Ganassi Racing\").", "The Patrick team experienced dominating success in the [1989 CART season](/wiki/1989_CART_PPG_Indy_Car_World_Series \"1989 CART PPG Indy Car World Series\"). After winning the [1989 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1989_Indianapolis_500 \"1989 Indianapolis 500\") and the 1989 CART championship, at some point Pat Patrick changed his mind about retiring. With the wheels already in motion to dissolve his existing team, he decided to explore options, and was coaxed out of retirement for 1990\\.", "" ]
### Second stint As planned, Ganassi split off to form his own team in 1990 ([Chip Ganassi Racing](/wiki/Chip_Ganassi_Racing "Chip Ganassi Racing")). Pat Patrick took over the upstart [Alfa Romeo](/wiki/Alfa_Romeo_in_motorsport%23Indycars "Alfa Romeo in motorsport#Indycars") Indy car project previously run by Alex Morales Motorsports. [Roberto Guerrero](/wiki/Roberto_Guerrero "Roberto Guerrero") signed on as primary driver with [Al Unser Sr.](/wiki/Al_Unser "Al Unser") driving a second car at the [Indy 500](/wiki/1990_Indianapolis_500 "1990 Indianapolis 500") and the [Michigan 500](/wiki/Firestone_Indy_400 "Firestone Indy 400"). The new Patrick Racing team landed sponsorship from [Miller](/wiki/Miller_Brewing_Company "Miller Brewing Company"). It was effectively another "trade" between Penske and Patrick, as Miller (previously with Penske) and Marlboro (now over at Penske) were owned by the same parent company, [Phillip Morris](/wiki/Philip_Morris_USA "Philip Morris USA"). The services of Al Unser Sr. were also effectively a trade between the two outfits. Guerrero, meanwhile, had been with Alex Morales Motorsports running the Alfa Romeo on a part\-time schedule in 1989\. The team saw little on\-track success, and even less success in the engine development. This despite a significant investment by Alfa Romeo, and the retention of key crew members including Jim McGee and [Mo Nunn](/wiki/Mo_Nunn "Mo Nunn"). Al Unser had to sit out the Michigan 500 after he wrecked in practice, suffering a fractured leg. Unser then quit the team. For 1991, [Danny Sullivan](/wiki/Danny_Sullivan "Danny Sullivan") took over as primary driver (also another former Penske driver), and the team continued to fail miserably. Guerrero stayed on as a second driver for the [Indy 500](/wiki/1991_Indianapolis_500 "1991 Indianapolis 500") and other selected races. That year, Guerrero would be involved in a controversial crash at [Indianapolis](/wiki/1991_Indianapolis_500 "1991 Indianapolis 500") with [Kevin Cogan](/wiki/Kevin_Cogan "Kevin Cogan"). By the end of the 1991 CART season, Patrick was in financial and legal trouble. Rumors surfaced that the Patrick team had shipped one of the [Ilmor Chevrolet V\-8](/wiki/Ilmor-Chevrolet_265-A_engine "Ilmor-Chevrolet 265-A engine") engines over to the Alfa\-Romeo engine developers in Italy,[IndyCar Engine Woes have Deep Roots](http://morefrontwing.com/2012/05/17/indycar-engine-woes-have-deep-roots/), *More Front Wing*, May 17, 2012, Retrieved 2013\-01\-18 who in turn, tore the engine down to examine it and allegedly stole design ideas. It was returned in pieces and infuriated Ilmor officials. At the conclusion of the 1991 season, [Danny Sullivan](/wiki/Danny_Sullivan "Danny Sullivan") left the team, and was replaced by [Bobby Rahal](/wiki/Bobby_Rahal "Bobby Rahal").{{cite news\|title\=Rahal to sign with Patrick Racing\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13886929/\|newspaper\=The Indianapolis Star\|page\=54\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|date\=September 4, 1991\|access\-date\=September 20, 2017}}{{Open access}} Sullivan went to Rahal's old seat at [Galles\-Kraco Racing](/wiki/Galles_Racing "Galles Racing").{{cite news\|title\=Sullivan talking to Galles\-Kraco\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13886971/\|newspaper\=The Indianapolis Star\|page\=13\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|date\=September 5, 1991\|access\-date\=September 20, 2017}}{{Open access}} Patrick's contractual obligations with Alfa\-Romeo had ended, so the team attempted to re\-sign with Ilmor, or possibly acquire older Ilmor engines from [Newman/Haas](/wiki/Newman/Haas_Racing "Newman/Haas Racing").{{cite news\|title\=Rahal in, Patrick out as Indy\-car team owner (part 1\)\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13886695/rahal\_hogan\_racing\_december\_1991/\|first\=Robin\|last\=Miller\|newspaper\=The Indianapolis Star\|page\=49\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|date\=December 20, 1991\|access\-date\=September 20, 2017}}{{Open access}}{{cite news\|title\=Rahal in, Patrick out as Indy\-car team owner (part 2\)\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13886715/\|first\=Robin\|last\=Miller\|newspaper\=The Indianapolis Star\|page\=50\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|date\=December 20, 1991\|access\-date\=September 20, 2017}}{{Open access}} Due to the possible fraudulent actions by Patrick against Ilmor, the team was refused an Ilmor Chevrolet engine lease, despite inking the popular Rahal.{{cite news\|title\=Rahal buys into chance at Chevys (part 1\)\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13886546/bobby\_rahal\_patrick\_racing\_1991/\|first\=Robin\|last\=Miller\|newspaper\=The Indianapolis Star\|page\=57\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|date\=December 19, 1991\|access\-date\=September 20, 2017}}{{Open access}}{{cite news\|title\=Rahal buys into chance at Chevys (part 2\)\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13886585/\|first\=Robin\|last\=Miller\|newspaper\=The Indianapolis Star\|page\=63\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|date\=December 19, 1991\|access\-date\=September 20, 2017}}{{Open access}} Facing a decidedly uncompetitive powerplant situation for 1992, and escalating legal problems, in December 1991, Patrick sold the team outright to [Bobby Rahal](/wiki/Bobby_Rahal "Bobby Rahal") and his partner Carl Hogan. They formed **Rahal\-Hogan Racing**, which is now known as [Rahal Letterman Lanigan Racing](/wiki/Rahal_Letterman_Lanigan_Racing "Rahal Letterman Lanigan Racing").
[ "### Second stint", "As planned, Ganassi split off to form his own team in 1990 ([Chip Ganassi Racing](/wiki/Chip_Ganassi_Racing \"Chip Ganassi Racing\")). Pat Patrick took over the upstart [Alfa Romeo](/wiki/Alfa_Romeo_in_motorsport%23Indycars \"Alfa Romeo in motorsport#Indycars\") Indy car project previously run by Alex Morales Motorsports. [Roberto Guerrero](/wiki/Roberto_Guerrero \"Roberto Guerrero\") signed on as primary driver with [Al Unser Sr.](/wiki/Al_Unser \"Al Unser\") driving a second car at the [Indy 500](/wiki/1990_Indianapolis_500 \"1990 Indianapolis 500\") and the [Michigan 500](/wiki/Firestone_Indy_400 \"Firestone Indy 400\").", "The new Patrick Racing team landed sponsorship from [Miller](/wiki/Miller_Brewing_Company \"Miller Brewing Company\"). It was effectively another \"trade\" between Penske and Patrick, as Miller (previously with Penske) and Marlboro (now over at Penske) were owned by the same parent company, [Phillip Morris](/wiki/Philip_Morris_USA \"Philip Morris USA\"). The services of Al Unser Sr. were also effectively a trade between the two outfits. Guerrero, meanwhile, had been with Alex Morales Motorsports running the Alfa Romeo on a part\\-time schedule in 1989\\.", "The team saw little on\\-track success, and even less success in the engine development. This despite a significant investment by Alfa Romeo, and the retention of key crew members including Jim McGee and [Mo Nunn](/wiki/Mo_Nunn \"Mo Nunn\"). Al Unser had to sit out the Michigan 500 after he wrecked in practice, suffering a fractured leg. Unser then quit the team.", "For 1991, [Danny Sullivan](/wiki/Danny_Sullivan \"Danny Sullivan\") took over as primary driver (also another former Penske driver), and the team continued to fail miserably. Guerrero stayed on as a second driver for the [Indy 500](/wiki/1991_Indianapolis_500 \"1991 Indianapolis 500\") and other selected races. That year, Guerrero would be involved in a controversial crash at [Indianapolis](/wiki/1991_Indianapolis_500 \"1991 Indianapolis 500\") with [Kevin Cogan](/wiki/Kevin_Cogan \"Kevin Cogan\"). By the end of the 1991 CART season, Patrick was in financial and legal trouble. Rumors surfaced that the Patrick team had shipped one of the [Ilmor Chevrolet V\\-8](/wiki/Ilmor-Chevrolet_265-A_engine \"Ilmor-Chevrolet 265-A engine\") engines over to the Alfa\\-Romeo engine developers in Italy,[IndyCar Engine Woes have Deep Roots](http://morefrontwing.com/2012/05/17/indycar-engine-woes-have-deep-roots/), *More Front Wing*, May 17, 2012, Retrieved 2013\\-01\\-18 who in turn, tore the engine down to examine it and allegedly stole design ideas. It was returned in pieces and infuriated Ilmor officials.", "At the conclusion of the 1991 season, [Danny Sullivan](/wiki/Danny_Sullivan \"Danny Sullivan\") left the team, and was replaced by [Bobby Rahal](/wiki/Bobby_Rahal \"Bobby Rahal\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Rahal to sign with Patrick Racing\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13886929/\\|newspaper\\=The Indianapolis Star\\|page\\=54\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|date\\=September 4, 1991\\|access\\-date\\=September 20, 2017}}{{Open access}} Sullivan went to Rahal's old seat at [Galles\\-Kraco Racing](/wiki/Galles_Racing \"Galles Racing\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Sullivan talking to Galles\\-Kraco\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13886971/\\|newspaper\\=The Indianapolis Star\\|page\\=13\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|date\\=September 5, 1991\\|access\\-date\\=September 20, 2017}}{{Open access}} Patrick's contractual obligations with Alfa\\-Romeo had ended, so the team attempted to re\\-sign with Ilmor, or possibly acquire older Ilmor engines from [Newman/Haas](/wiki/Newman/Haas_Racing \"Newman/Haas Racing\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Rahal in, Patrick out as Indy\\-car team owner (part 1\\)\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13886695/rahal\\_hogan\\_racing\\_december\\_1991/\\|first\\=Robin\\|last\\=Miller\\|newspaper\\=The Indianapolis Star\\|page\\=49\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|date\\=December 20, 1991\\|access\\-date\\=September 20, 2017}}{{Open access}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Rahal in, Patrick out as Indy\\-car team owner (part 2\\)\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13886715/\\|first\\=Robin\\|last\\=Miller\\|newspaper\\=The Indianapolis Star\\|page\\=50\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|date\\=December 20, 1991\\|access\\-date\\=September 20, 2017}}{{Open access}} Due to the possible fraudulent actions by Patrick against Ilmor, the team was refused an Ilmor Chevrolet engine lease, despite inking the popular Rahal.{{cite news\\|title\\=Rahal buys into chance at Chevys (part 1\\)\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13886546/bobby\\_rahal\\_patrick\\_racing\\_1991/\\|first\\=Robin\\|last\\=Miller\\|newspaper\\=The Indianapolis Star\\|page\\=57\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|date\\=December 19, 1991\\|access\\-date\\=September 20, 2017}}{{Open access}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Rahal buys into chance at Chevys (part 2\\)\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13886585/\\|first\\=Robin\\|last\\=Miller\\|newspaper\\=The Indianapolis Star\\|page\\=63\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|date\\=December 19, 1991\\|access\\-date\\=September 20, 2017}}{{Open access}} Facing a decidedly uncompetitive powerplant situation for 1992, and escalating legal problems, in December 1991, Patrick sold the team outright to [Bobby Rahal](/wiki/Bobby_Rahal \"Bobby Rahal\") and his partner Carl Hogan. They formed **Rahal\\-Hogan Racing**, which is now known as [Rahal Letterman Lanigan Racing](/wiki/Rahal_Letterman_Lanigan_Racing \"Rahal Letterman Lanigan Racing\").", "" ]
Plot ---- Pughazhenthi Subramaniam is an athlete who lives in [Thanjavur](/wiki/Thanjavur "Thanjavur"). He is a [hurdles](/wiki/Hurdling "Hurdling") race champion and has won many awards – even beating the national record in a local sports meet. He and his fellow athlete friends get intensive training from their coach Devaraj to participate in an important sports meet in [Kolkata](/wiki/Kolkata "Kolkata"), the winners of which will qualify for the next major national sports event. A flashback reveals that Pughazh has [Glanzmann's thrombasthenia](/wiki/Glanzmann%27s_thrombasthenia "Glanzmann's thrombasthenia"), which prevents his blood from clotting following any injury. If he gets even a small scratch, he might bleed to death. His father Subramaniam is a [constable](/wiki/Constable "Constable") at the local police station who is very protective of him, has high hopes that he will advance well in life, and make a name for himself as an athlete. Gayathri Venugopal, a college student who lives in Chennai, finds out that her friend is being harassed on the phone every night by a guy. Gayathri decides to take action by calling him up and threatening him in foul language. However, due to a mix\-up, she ends up calling Pughazh in Thanjavur instead. The next day, she realizes her mistake and apologizes to Pughazh on the phone. As a joke, he asks her to top up his mobile phone account, and she quickly does so to make up for it. He then pesters her successfully for several days day for further credit for his mobile phone account until he introduces himself and tells her that he will not call and annoy her anymore. Even though they both have not seen each other's faces before, Gayathri realizes that she likes him and initiates their next communication. The [Calcutta](/wiki/Calcutta "Calcutta") sports meet gets unexpectedly relocated to [Chennai](/wiki/Chennai "Chennai") instead. Hence, Devaraj decides to go to Chennai with Pughazh and the rest of the team a few days early and train there, which was perfect for Pughazh to make plans to meet up with Gayathri. Gayathri's brother Dinesh Venugopal gets involved in a counterfeit money scam and calls the cops on the criminal gang who manufactures the currency notes without revealing his identity. The right\-hand man in the criminal gang falls for Gayathri when he sees her. The leader of the gang goes to Gayathri's house to speak to her parents to get her married off to his favorite henchman, but Dinesh intervenes and threatens to go to the police, in the process revealing that he is the one who called the cops on the gang. The gang decides to murder Dinesh. When the henchmen are chasing Dinesh, he gets a lift from Pughazh, who is on his way to meet Gayathri on his bike, lying to him that his sister is in the hospital. Due to stress, Dinesh forgets to thank Pughazh when he gets dropped off, but the gang members get a good look at Pughazh, thinking that he intentionally helped Dinesh escape. They find Pughazh, who is still on his way to meet Gayathri, and try to beat him up. However, he fights back and beats them up without getting a scratch on him. During the fight, he hurls one of the gang members, who accidentally falls on Gayathri, who is also in her way to see Pughazh. She gets knocked off her [scooty](/wiki/TVS_Scooty "TVS Scooty"), and her side mirror breaks. She calls Pughazh's mobile just as he is finishing off the fight. They both see each other for the first time. Pughazh immediately fall in love with her, but Gayathri believes that he is a rowdy. Pughazh is still able to get in the good books of Gayathri and Dinesh by seeing them again during Gayathri's birthday. She invites him to his house, where on Gayathri gets more romantically involved with Pughazh. Meanwhile, after further altercations, the gangsters track and kill Dinesh. In retaliation to Pughazh's beating of the gangsters, they beat Devaraj, who tries to get help from the police. The [DCP](/wiki/Deputy_commissioner_of_police_%28India%29 "Deputy commissioner of police (India)") gives a gun to Pughazh hidden from everyone so that he can once for all finish the gangs activities using Pughazh's motivated intentions to save Devaraj. He is tracked again by the gangsters, who try to harm his friends and Devaraj, but Pughazh fights them off and finally kills them with the gun that he has hidden in his shoes. The next day, he enters the competition, but a fake athlete planted by the gangsters earlier inflicts a cut on his arm. He still runs through the hurdles and ends up unconscious as he crosses the finish line. The final tally shows him winning the hurdles race in a photo finish ending by .01 seconds. The final scenes show Gayathri as his wife watching Pughazh winning the gold medal in the Asian games, following which he also gets the post of [DSP](/wiki/Deputy_Superintendent_of_Police "Deputy Superintendent of Police") in Thanjavur.
[ "Plot\n----", "Pughazhenthi Subramaniam is an athlete who lives in [Thanjavur](/wiki/Thanjavur \"Thanjavur\"). He is a [hurdles](/wiki/Hurdling \"Hurdling\") race champion and has won many awards – even beating the national record in a local sports meet. He and his fellow athlete friends get intensive training from their coach Devaraj to participate in an important sports meet in [Kolkata](/wiki/Kolkata \"Kolkata\"), the winners of which will qualify for the next major national sports event.", "A flashback reveals that Pughazh has [Glanzmann's thrombasthenia](/wiki/Glanzmann%27s_thrombasthenia \"Glanzmann's thrombasthenia\"), which prevents his blood from clotting following any injury. If he gets even a small scratch, he might bleed to death. His father Subramaniam is a [constable](/wiki/Constable \"Constable\") at the local police station who is very protective of him, has high hopes that he will advance well in life, and make a name for himself as an athlete.", "Gayathri Venugopal, a college student who lives in Chennai, finds out that her friend is being harassed on the phone every night by a guy. Gayathri decides to take action by calling him up and threatening him in foul language. However, due to a mix\\-up, she ends up calling Pughazh in Thanjavur instead. The next day, she realizes her mistake and apologizes to Pughazh on the phone. As a joke, he asks her to top up his mobile phone account, and she quickly does so to make up for it. He then pesters her successfully for several days day for further credit for his mobile phone account until he introduces himself and tells her that he will not call and annoy her anymore. Even though they both have not seen each other's faces before, Gayathri realizes that she likes him and initiates their next communication.", "The [Calcutta](/wiki/Calcutta \"Calcutta\") sports meet gets unexpectedly relocated to [Chennai](/wiki/Chennai \"Chennai\") instead. Hence, Devaraj decides to go to Chennai with Pughazh and the rest of the team a few days early and train there, which was perfect for Pughazh to make plans to meet up with Gayathri. Gayathri's brother Dinesh Venugopal gets involved in a counterfeit money scam and calls the cops on the criminal gang who manufactures the currency notes without revealing his identity. The right\\-hand man in the criminal gang falls for Gayathri when he sees her. The leader of the gang goes to Gayathri's house to speak to her parents to get her married off to his favorite henchman, but Dinesh intervenes and threatens to go to the police, in the process revealing that he is the one who called the cops on the gang.", "The gang decides to murder Dinesh. When the henchmen are chasing Dinesh, he gets a lift from Pughazh, who is on his way to meet Gayathri on his bike, lying to him that his sister is in the hospital. Due to stress, Dinesh forgets to thank Pughazh when he gets dropped off, but the gang members get a good look at Pughazh, thinking that he intentionally helped Dinesh escape. They find Pughazh, who is still on his way to meet Gayathri, and try to beat him up. However, he fights back and beats them up without getting a scratch on him. During the fight, he hurls one of the gang members, who accidentally falls on Gayathri, who is also in her way to see Pughazh. She gets knocked off her [scooty](/wiki/TVS_Scooty \"TVS Scooty\"), and her side mirror breaks. She calls Pughazh's mobile just as he is finishing off the fight. They both see each other for the first time. Pughazh immediately fall in love with her, but Gayathri believes that he is a rowdy.", "Pughazh is still able to get in the good books of Gayathri and Dinesh by seeing them again during Gayathri's birthday. She invites him to his house, where on Gayathri gets more romantically involved with Pughazh. Meanwhile, after further altercations, the gangsters track and kill Dinesh. In retaliation to Pughazh's beating of the gangsters, they beat Devaraj, who tries to get help from the police. The [DCP](/wiki/Deputy_commissioner_of_police_%28India%29 \"Deputy commissioner of police (India)\") gives a gun to Pughazh hidden from everyone so that he can once for all finish the gangs activities using Pughazh's motivated intentions to save Devaraj. He is tracked again by the gangsters, who try to harm his friends and Devaraj, but Pughazh fights them off and finally kills them with the gun that he has hidden in his shoes. The next day, he enters the competition, but a fake athlete planted by the gangsters earlier inflicts a cut on his arm. He still runs through the hurdles and ends up unconscious as he crosses the finish line. The final tally shows him winning the hurdles race in a photo finish ending by .01 seconds. The final scenes show Gayathri as his wife watching Pughazh winning the gold medal in the Asian games, following which he also gets the post of [DSP](/wiki/Deputy_Superintendent_of_Police \"Deputy Superintendent of Police\") in Thanjavur.", "" ]
History ------- [thumb\|left\|Naval Offices, around the time of construction](/wiki/File:Queensland_State_Archives_2680_Former_Naval_Offices_Edward_Street_Brisbane_c_1890.png "Queensland State Archives 2680 Former Naval Offices Edward Street Brisbane c 1890.png") The brick former Naval Offices at 3 Edward Street in Brisbane was constructed in 1900–01 by the Queensland Department of Public Works as the first purpose\-built headquarters for naval forces in Queensland. Built for the Queensland Marine Defence Force (QMDF), it was soon used by the Australian Commonwealth Navy (ACN). It was transferred to [Commonwealth](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Australia "Commonwealth of Australia") ownership in 1911 and was used by the [Royal Australian Navy](/wiki/Royal_Australian_Navy "Royal Australian Navy") (RAN). The former Naval Offices is located midway along the [Town Reach](/wiki/Town_Reach "Town Reach") ([Petrie Bight](/wiki/Petrie_Bight "Petrie Bight") to [Gardens Point](/wiki/Gardens_Point%2C_Brisbane "Gardens Point, Brisbane")) of the [Brisbane River](/wiki/Brisbane_River "Brisbane River"), within a block bounded by [Margaret](/wiki/Margaret_Street%2C_Brisbane "Margaret Street, Brisbane"), Edward and [Alice](/wiki/Alice_Street%2C_Brisbane "Alice Street, Brisbane") streets and the river. Over time this area was used by a number of [Queensland Government](/wiki/Queensland_Government "Queensland Government") entities dedicated to commercial shipping, including: the Government Shipping Office, Port Office, Marine Board Office, Harbours and Rivers Department, Hydraulic Engineers and Shipping Master's departments, Marine Department and the Government Seamen's Saving Bank. A Reserve for the Harbour Master's Department of {{convert\|1\|rood\|30\|sqperch}} was surveyed in 1862 between the corner of Alice and Edward streets and the river, and a stone and brick building was erected that year. Later known as the (first) Port Office, it included offices on the ground floor and store rooms and a boatshed underneath. Prior to this date the Harbour Master was based in [George Street](/wiki/George_Street%2C_Brisbane "George Street, Brisbane"). Military use of the immediate area started c.1886, when the QMDF occupied the 1862 Port Office. The QMDF was created in 1885 in response to fears that Queensland's coastal settlements were vulnerable to Russian warships. In the late 1870s tensions between Britain and Russia had raised concerns regarding the defence of Britain's overseas colonies. Colonel Sir [William Jervois](/wiki/William_Jervois "William Jervois") of the Royal Engineers, assisted by Lieutenant\-Colonel [Peter Scratchley](/wiki/Peter_Scratchley "Peter Scratchley"), toured the Australian colonies to make recommendations for defence arrangements and the pair visited Queensland in August 1877\. To deal with the perceived Russian naval threat to Brisbane they recommended using small naval vessels to disrupt enemy landings, a coastal fort with submarine mines across the river at [Lytton](/wiki/Lytton%2C_Queensland "Lytton, Queensland"), and a mobile field force of infantry and engineers with artillery. A Naval Brigade and a Torpedo Corps was also required. When the Defence Act 1884 was gazetted on 25 February 1885, the existing [Queensland Volunteer Force](/wiki/Queensland_Volunteer_Force "Queensland Volunteer Force") (land forces) became the [Queensland Defence Force](/wiki/Queensland_Defence_Force "Queensland Defence Force") (QDF). The Queensland Defence (Marine) Force was gazetted on 3 March 1885\. Lieutenant Walton Drake had taken command of the Naval Brigade from 1 January 1885, tasked with training volunteers. Two 50\-strong companies of Brisbane naval volunteers were announced that month and additional naval brigades were later formed at other Queensland ports, including [Townsville](/wiki/Townsville "Townsville"), [Rockhampton](/wiki/Rockhampton "Rockhampton"), [Maryborough](/wiki/Maryborough%2C_Queensland "Maryborough, Queensland"), [Cairns](/wiki/Cairns "Cairns"), [Cooktown](/wiki/Cooktown%2C_Queensland "Cooktown, Queensland"), [Bundaberg](/wiki/Bundaberg "Bundaberg"), [Thursday Island](/wiki/Thursday_Island%2C_Queensland "Thursday Island, Queensland") and [Mackay](/wiki/Mackay%2C_Queensland "Mackay, Queensland"). Naval vessels were also ordered as part of the proposed plan to defend Queensland. The first vessel of Queensland's new navy to be delivered was the steel, second\-class spar torpedo boat "Mosquito", which arrived as deck cargo in Brisbane in October 1884\. Prior to this the closest thing that Queensland had to a naval vessel was the Queensland Government schooner "Pearl", which conducted survey work and guarded the pearling fisheries in northern Queensland waters. The main strength of the QMDF, the sister Alpha class gunboats "[Gayundah](/wiki/HMQS_Gayundah "HMQS Gayundah")" (meaning Thunder) and "[Paluma](/wiki/HMQS_Paluma "HMQS Paluma")" (Lightning), ordered from Britain in 1883 and launched in 1884, arrived in March 1885 and May 1885 respectively. The "Gayundah" sailed to Queensland under Commander (later Captain) Henry Townley Wright, a retired Royal Navy officer. Wright was appointed as Senior Naval Officer (SNO) and Superintendent of the QMDF on 30 March 1885, as well as remaining in command of the "Gayundah". Those of the crew who elected to remain in Queensland's service became the first permanent members of the QMDF. The "Gayundah" was used to train QMDF seamen, while the "Paluma" was used on survey work by the British Admiralty until being handed back to Queensland in 1895\. The last regular vessel of the QMDF was the "[Midge](/wiki/HMQS_Midge "HMQS Midge")", a mahogany timber picquet boat/spar torpedo boat, which arrived in 1888\. Auxiliary vessels in the QMDF included a locally\-built steamer "[Miner](/wiki/HMQS_Miner "HMQS Miner")", and the government steamer "[Otter](/wiki/HMQS_Otter "HMQS Otter")". Five steam hopper barges of the Harbours and Rivers Department ([Queensland Maritime Defence Force Auxiliary Gunboats](/wiki/Queensland_Maritime_Defence_Force_Auxiliary_Gunboats "Queensland Maritime Defence Force Auxiliary Gunboats")), the "Bonito", "Stingaree", "Dolphin", "Bream" and "Pumba", could also be armed if required for port defence. A Permanent Force, HMQS Gayundah, QDF (Marine), was established in February 1892, but most of its full\-time crew were paid off in 1893 as part of cutbacks during the 1890s depression, as was the 'Paluma's' crew after the ship had completed its survey work. For most of the 1890s the gunboats were used by naval brigade crews solely for training. In and near Brisbane, a number of buildings were erected for the QMDF. The Naval Stores ([Naval Stores, Kangaroo Point](/wiki/Naval_Stores%2C_Kangaroo_Point "Naval Stores, Kangaroo Point")) and a wharf were built at the base of the [Kangaroo Point](/wiki/Kangaroo_Point%2C_Queensland "Kangaroo Point, Queensland") cliffs in 1886–87, across the river from the QMDF headquarters on Edward Street. A sub\-marine mining (naval mine) store was erected c.1886 at [Fort Lytton](/wiki/Fort_Lytton "Fort Lytton") ([Fort Lytton National Park](/wiki/Fort_Lytton_National_Park "Fort Lytton National Park")), and a sub\-marine mining drill hall was later built at the west end of [Alice Street](/wiki/Alice_Street%2C_Brisbane "Alice Street, Brisbane") in 1900\. By 1896, the old Port Office used by the QMDF was in a poor state and the foundations, inundated during the [1893 floods](/wiki/1893_Brisbane_flood "1893 Brisbane flood"), were settling and causing wall cracks. On 1 August 1899 the QMDF's Staff Paymaster, Edward Vincent Pollock, also complained that the roof was leaking water onto his paperwork. Later that month {{A£\|1500}} was allocated by the Department of Public Works for the construction of new offices. In May 1900 it was decided by Queensland's new Naval Commandant, Captain [William Rooke Creswell](/wiki/William_Rooke_Creswell "William Rooke Creswell"), that the new offices would replace the cottage of the Marine Department's messenger/caretaker at the corner of Edward and Alice Streets. Tenders were invited in late August and the cottage was demolished. Plans for the new Naval Offices were approved by AB Brady, the Government Architect within the Department of Public Works (DPW), on 14 September 1900, but since he was trained as an engineer it is unlikely to be his design. The DPW employed a number of accomplished architects at this time and the work could be attributed to Thomas Pye (First Assistant Architect from July 1899\), [John Smith Murdoch](/wiki/John_Smith_Murdoch "John Smith Murdoch") (Second Assistant Architect from 1 July 1899\), or George David Payne (Temporary Draughtsman 1898–1901\). Pye supervised larger works, while Murdoch took charge of the designing and drafting staff. The Department of Public Works was involved in the design and construction of Queensland's most important buildings and capital works following its formation in 1866\. Employing a succession of highly talented architects, the Department produced many fine buildings of high architectural merit. Prior to [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") these buildings were characterised by: highly\-functional, rational plan arrangements that were commodious and accommodating; use of high\- quality, durable materials, preferably sourced from Queensland; and a quality of civic dignity brought about through style, scaling, and form. The tender of James Mason of Brisbane of {{A£\|1845\|17\|6}} for the Brisbane Naval Offices was accepted in October 1900, and the building was completed by late June 1901\. "[The Queenslander](/wiki/The_Queenslander "The Queenslander")" reported on 16 November 1901 that the building's facing bricks were dark\-brown, relieved with cement dressings and rough\-cast work. The roof was covered with rolled galvanised iron. The Annual Report for DPW to 30 June 1901 (where the Naval Offices was listed under principal works completed during the year) mentioned internal fittings of pine and cedar. No other Australian colony built naval offices in this period, just prior to Federation and the transfer of defence assets. Queensland may have done so to ensure the continued use of Brisbane by the Commonwealth Navy. As a naval headquarters, the building was designed with spaces for the senior naval officers and their administrative staff, along with a strong room for the Staff Paymaster. The original ground floor plan included an entry porch off Edward Street, with double doors leading north\-west into a public space which was separated by a counter from the Clerk's office. There was also a set of double doors leading north\-east into a vestibule between the front offices, and onwards into a central hall. To the rear of the Clerk's Office was the Paymaster's Office, which included a projecting strong room at the rear of the building. The right front (southern) office was for the Commandant, while the right rear (eastern) office was for the Officer of the Naval Corps. Each had a fireplace. Behind the Naval Corp's office was the separate Brigade Entrance. From this entrance the ground floor rear verandah could be accessed, as well as a stairway up to a landing from which people could either descend to the ground floor offices, or continue up to the first floor. The latter was a large open space used as an Orderly (Administrative) Room, with four fireplaces and a small lavatory and store at the right rear (eastern) corner. This space may have been later partitioned for sleeping quarters and offices. The 1900 plans do not show the ventilation fleche which was present on the roof when the building was finished. This fleche was removed by the mid 1980s, and was replicated in the 1990s. Although the QMDF existed when the building was started, the first occupants were technically the Queensland components of a Commonwealth Navy. After the Australian Commonwealth was formed on 1 January 1901 the defence forces of the separate colonies were transferred to the new Federal Government in March. However, procedural delays meant arrangements were not completed until 1902\. At the time of Federation, Queensland's naval forces numbered 750 men of all ranks, and it was one of four states (including Victoria, New South Wales and South Australia) to contribute ships to the Australian Commonwealth Naval Force (ACNF), formed on 1 March 1901 – handing over the "Gayundah", "Paluma", "Mosquito" and "Midge". Captain Creswell remained the Commandant of the Queensland\-based flotilla of the ACN. In late 1904 Captain Creswell was appointed Director of Commonwealth Naval Forces, and his place as Queensland Naval Commandant was taken by Captain [Frederick Tickell](/wiki/Frederick_Tickell "Frederick Tickell") (to 1907\). By 1904, 49% of Australia's serving naval officers had served in the QMDF. Captain Creswell was a major advocate for an independent Australian navy. Australia had been a separate British Naval Station since 1859 and a squadron of the Royal Navy was maintained in Australian waters until 1913\. After March 1901 the Royal Navy was still paid to provide blue water defence (a force projection capability beyond coastal defence), but Captain Creswell lobbied for an autonomous Australian blue water navy. The 1909 Imperial Conference agreed to form an Australian fleet, and the first ships of this fleet, the destroyers "[Yarra](/wiki/HMAS_Yarra_%28D79%29 "HMAS Yarra (D79)")" and "[Parramatta](/wiki/HMAS_Parramatta_%28D55%29 "HMAS Parramatta (D55)")", reached Australia in 1910\. On 10 July 1911 King [George V](/wiki/George_V "George V") granted the title "Royal Australian Navy" to the ACN and in October 1913 formal control of these units was transferred to the Commonwealth Naval Board. Meanwhile, in 1911 district naval officers were appointed around Australia to replace the naval commandants. Although the Commonwealth took control of Queensland's naval forces in 1901, the Naval Offices was not transferred to Commonwealth ownership until 1911\. The state Department of Public Works was still maintaining the building in 1910 and it was still in Queensland ownership in June 1911\. A number of alterations were made to the Naval Offices during Commonwealth ownership. February 1933 plans included the addition of a first floor rear verandah with an enclosed laundry and new stairs from the side yard. At the same time the first floor was converted into a residence for the Senior Naval Officer, and the large space was partitioned into domestic rooms. The internal stairway from the main ground floor hall was removed, so the upstairs residence could only be accessed from the old Brigade Entrance or the new rear verandah. Two sets of French doors plus a single door were installed between the verandah and the residence. A "typiste" (typists) room was added to the north\-west end of the original ground floor rear verandah, and a new lavatory was added behind the strong room. Further additions in late 1939 resulted in a new office, lavatory and water closet (WC) being built behind the strong room, replacing the 1933 lavatory. Two other WCs were also built sometime between 1933 and 1939 on and adjacent to the rear verandah. After Japan entered World War II in December 1941, Brisbane became an important supply and command centre and the resulting expansion of the Allied naval presence in the city meant larger Naval Staff Offices were urgently required. During 1942–43 commercial buildings in [Queen Street](/wiki/Queen_Street%2C_Brisbane "Queen Street, Brisbane") were requisitioned and occupied by the Australian and United States navies. Although the Operational Staff of the RAN's Naval Officer in Charge (NOIC), Queensland, was based in Queen Street, the District Naval Officer, Queensland, remained at the Edward Street Naval Offices with the Civil Secretariat and Accounts staffs. Other wartime RAN facilities in Brisbane were located at Colmslie and [New Farm](/wiki/New_Farm%2C_Queensland "New Farm, Queensland"). The Smellie and Co. warehouse ([Old Mineral House](/wiki/Old_Mineral_House "Old Mineral House")) opposite the Naval Offices was used by the US Red Cross before becoming an [Australian Comforts Fund](/wiki/Australian_Comforts_Fund "Australian Comforts Fund") hostel for the Royal Navy in 1945\. Further alterations were made to accommodate the extra staff at the Naval Offices. In 1944 a two\-storey timber office extension was added behind the existing verandahs, the verandahs were enclosed as offices, and toilet arrangements were reconfigured. The stairway to the first floor 1933 verandah was removed, as was the first floor verandah laundry. The original steps up to the rear yard from Alice Street were removed and replaced with steps that climbed south\-west to the side yard. By 1977 the former Naval Offices was vacant, its functions having been transferred to [HMAS Moreton](/wiki/HMAS_Moreton "HMAS Moreton") at New Farm (naval base, closed 1994\). The Edward Street site was surplus to Commonwealth requirements but, as it was included on the [Register of the National Estate](/wiki/Register_of_the_National_Estate "Register of the National Estate") by this time, a decision was made to lease the property for 99 years rather than sell it. This enabled conditions protecting the heritage values of the original section of the former Naval Offices to be written into the lease. The building was leased to Jakuma Limited in November 1981\. The lease was transferred to Historic Holdings Pty Ltd in 1987, and to HSH Hotels (Australia) Limited in 2000\. From 1982 the former Naval Offices was used as Muddies Seafood Restaurant, and alterations were made including removing walls between the ground floor offices, constructing a new stair in the ground floor hall, removing internal partitions in the rear timber extensions on both levels, a new kitchen fit\-out on the first floor, and adding a fire escape stair to the rear. After the restaurant closed in 1989, the building was vacant for a period before being refurbished in the early 1990s. This refurbishment was designed by Bruce Buchanan Architects and saw the restoration of lost or obscured significant fabric. The 1944 office extensions to the rear of the building were demolished and the rear verandah was reconstructed. The ground floor toilets were upgraded, partitions were reinstated between the offices on the ground floor, and the first floor partitions were removed to make one large space. At some time after this work the first floor was again partitioned into rooms although these walls do not reach the ceiling. A new kitchenette was built at the rear eastern corner of the first floor. Behind the former Naval Offices, the Stamford Hotel, a large multi\-storey building, was constructed in 1990 and a boardwalk was built behind the former Naval Offices along the river edge. However, a visual connection between the former Naval Offices and the river was maintained. The flagpole at the front of the building is not an original feature, but was there by World War II; while the four flagpoles located near the rear northern corner of the building date from between 1974 and 1991\. The building was returned to Queensland State Government ownership in 2011, and in 2012 the ground floor was occupied by a florist, while an architectural firm and a property developer sub\-leased the first floor.
[ "History\n-------", "[thumb\\|left\\|Naval Offices, around the time of construction](/wiki/File:Queensland_State_Archives_2680_Former_Naval_Offices_Edward_Street_Brisbane_c_1890.png \"Queensland State Archives 2680 Former Naval Offices Edward Street Brisbane c 1890.png\")\nThe brick former Naval Offices at 3 Edward Street in Brisbane was constructed in 1900–01 by the Queensland Department of Public Works as the first purpose\\-built headquarters for naval forces in Queensland. Built for the Queensland Marine Defence Force (QMDF), it was soon used by the Australian Commonwealth Navy (ACN). It was transferred to [Commonwealth](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Australia \"Commonwealth of Australia\") ownership in 1911 and was used by the [Royal Australian Navy](/wiki/Royal_Australian_Navy \"Royal Australian Navy\") (RAN).", "The former Naval Offices is located midway along the [Town Reach](/wiki/Town_Reach \"Town Reach\") ([Petrie Bight](/wiki/Petrie_Bight \"Petrie Bight\") to [Gardens Point](/wiki/Gardens_Point%2C_Brisbane \"Gardens Point, Brisbane\")) of the [Brisbane River](/wiki/Brisbane_River \"Brisbane River\"), within a block bounded by [Margaret](/wiki/Margaret_Street%2C_Brisbane \"Margaret Street, Brisbane\"), Edward and [Alice](/wiki/Alice_Street%2C_Brisbane \"Alice Street, Brisbane\") streets and the river. Over time this area was used by a number of [Queensland Government](/wiki/Queensland_Government \"Queensland Government\") entities dedicated to commercial shipping, including: the Government Shipping Office, Port Office, Marine Board Office, Harbours and Rivers Department, Hydraulic Engineers and Shipping Master's departments, Marine Department and the Government Seamen's Saving Bank. A Reserve for the Harbour Master's Department of {{convert\\|1\\|rood\\|30\\|sqperch}} was surveyed in 1862 between the corner of Alice and Edward streets and the river, and a stone and brick building was erected that year. Later known as the (first) Port Office, it included offices on the ground floor and store rooms and a boatshed underneath. Prior to this date the Harbour Master was based in [George Street](/wiki/George_Street%2C_Brisbane \"George Street, Brisbane\").", "Military use of the immediate area started c.1886, when the QMDF occupied the 1862 Port Office. The QMDF was created in 1885 in response to fears that Queensland's coastal settlements were vulnerable to Russian warships. In the late 1870s tensions between Britain and Russia had raised concerns regarding the defence of Britain's overseas colonies. Colonel Sir [William Jervois](/wiki/William_Jervois \"William Jervois\") of the Royal Engineers, assisted by Lieutenant\\-Colonel [Peter Scratchley](/wiki/Peter_Scratchley \"Peter Scratchley\"), toured the Australian colonies to make recommendations for defence arrangements and the pair visited Queensland in August 1877\\. To deal with the perceived Russian naval threat to Brisbane they recommended using small naval vessels to disrupt enemy landings, a coastal fort with submarine mines across the river at [Lytton](/wiki/Lytton%2C_Queensland \"Lytton, Queensland\"), and a mobile field force of infantry and engineers with artillery. A Naval Brigade and a Torpedo Corps was also required. When the Defence Act 1884 was gazetted on 25 February 1885, the existing [Queensland Volunteer Force](/wiki/Queensland_Volunteer_Force \"Queensland Volunteer Force\") (land forces) became the [Queensland Defence Force](/wiki/Queensland_Defence_Force \"Queensland Defence Force\") (QDF). The Queensland Defence (Marine) Force was gazetted on 3 March 1885\\.", "Lieutenant Walton Drake had taken command of the Naval Brigade from 1 January 1885, tasked with training volunteers. Two 50\\-strong companies of Brisbane naval volunteers were announced that month and additional naval brigades were later formed at other Queensland ports, including [Townsville](/wiki/Townsville \"Townsville\"), [Rockhampton](/wiki/Rockhampton \"Rockhampton\"), [Maryborough](/wiki/Maryborough%2C_Queensland \"Maryborough, Queensland\"), [Cairns](/wiki/Cairns \"Cairns\"), [Cooktown](/wiki/Cooktown%2C_Queensland \"Cooktown, Queensland\"), [Bundaberg](/wiki/Bundaberg \"Bundaberg\"), [Thursday Island](/wiki/Thursday_Island%2C_Queensland \"Thursday Island, Queensland\") and [Mackay](/wiki/Mackay%2C_Queensland \"Mackay, Queensland\").", "Naval vessels were also ordered as part of the proposed plan to defend Queensland. The first vessel of Queensland's new navy to be delivered was the steel, second\\-class spar torpedo boat \"Mosquito\", which arrived as deck cargo in Brisbane in October 1884\\. Prior to this the closest thing that Queensland had to a naval vessel was the Queensland Government schooner \"Pearl\", which conducted survey work and guarded the pearling fisheries in northern Queensland waters.", "The main strength of the QMDF, the sister Alpha class gunboats \"[Gayundah](/wiki/HMQS_Gayundah \"HMQS Gayundah\")\" (meaning Thunder) and \"[Paluma](/wiki/HMQS_Paluma \"HMQS Paluma\")\" (Lightning), ordered from Britain in 1883 and launched in 1884, arrived in March 1885 and May 1885 respectively.", "The \"Gayundah\" sailed to Queensland under Commander (later Captain) Henry Townley Wright, a retired Royal Navy officer. Wright was appointed as Senior Naval Officer (SNO) and Superintendent of the QMDF on 30 March 1885, as well as remaining in command of the \"Gayundah\". Those of the crew who elected to remain in Queensland's service became the first permanent members of the QMDF. The \"Gayundah\" was used to train QMDF seamen, while the \"Paluma\" was used on survey work by the British Admiralty until being handed back to Queensland in 1895\\. The last regular vessel of the QMDF was the \"[Midge](/wiki/HMQS_Midge \"HMQS Midge\")\", a mahogany timber picquet boat/spar torpedo boat, which arrived in 1888\\.", "Auxiliary vessels in the QMDF included a locally\\-built steamer \"[Miner](/wiki/HMQS_Miner \"HMQS Miner\")\", and the government steamer \"[Otter](/wiki/HMQS_Otter \"HMQS Otter\")\". Five steam hopper barges of the Harbours and Rivers Department ([Queensland Maritime Defence Force Auxiliary Gunboats](/wiki/Queensland_Maritime_Defence_Force_Auxiliary_Gunboats \"Queensland Maritime Defence Force Auxiliary Gunboats\")), the \"Bonito\", \"Stingaree\", \"Dolphin\", \"Bream\" and \"Pumba\", could also be armed if required for port defence.", "A Permanent Force, HMQS Gayundah, QDF (Marine), was established in February 1892, but most of its full\\-time crew were paid off in 1893 as part of cutbacks during the 1890s depression, as was the 'Paluma's' crew after the ship had completed its survey work. For most of the 1890s the gunboats were used by naval brigade crews solely for training.", "In and near Brisbane, a number of buildings were erected for the QMDF. The Naval Stores ([Naval Stores, Kangaroo Point](/wiki/Naval_Stores%2C_Kangaroo_Point \"Naval Stores, Kangaroo Point\")) and a wharf were built at the base of the [Kangaroo Point](/wiki/Kangaroo_Point%2C_Queensland \"Kangaroo Point, Queensland\") cliffs in 1886–87, across the river from the QMDF headquarters on Edward Street. A sub\\-marine mining (naval mine) store was erected c.1886 at [Fort Lytton](/wiki/Fort_Lytton \"Fort Lytton\") ([Fort Lytton National Park](/wiki/Fort_Lytton_National_Park \"Fort Lytton National Park\")), and a sub\\-marine mining drill hall was later built at the west end of [Alice Street](/wiki/Alice_Street%2C_Brisbane \"Alice Street, Brisbane\") in 1900\\.", "By 1896, the old Port Office used by the QMDF was in a poor state and the foundations, inundated during the [1893 floods](/wiki/1893_Brisbane_flood \"1893 Brisbane flood\"), were settling and causing wall cracks. On 1 August 1899 the QMDF's Staff Paymaster, Edward Vincent Pollock, also complained that the roof was leaking water onto his paperwork. Later that month {{A£\\|1500}} was allocated by the Department of Public Works for the construction of new offices.", "In May 1900 it was decided by Queensland's new Naval Commandant, Captain [William Rooke Creswell](/wiki/William_Rooke_Creswell \"William Rooke Creswell\"), that the new offices would replace the cottage of the Marine Department's messenger/caretaker at the corner of Edward and Alice Streets. Tenders were invited in late August and the cottage was demolished.", "Plans for the new Naval Offices were approved by AB Brady, the Government Architect within the Department of Public Works (DPW), on 14 September 1900, but since he was trained as an engineer it is unlikely to be his design. The DPW employed a number of accomplished architects at this time and the work could be attributed to Thomas Pye (First Assistant Architect from July 1899\\), [John Smith Murdoch](/wiki/John_Smith_Murdoch \"John Smith Murdoch\") (Second Assistant Architect from 1 July 1899\\), or George David Payne (Temporary Draughtsman 1898–1901\\). Pye supervised larger works, while Murdoch took charge of the designing and drafting staff.", "The Department of Public Works was involved in the design and construction of Queensland's most important buildings and capital works following its formation in 1866\\. Employing a succession of highly talented architects, the Department produced many fine buildings of high architectural merit. Prior to [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") these buildings were characterised by: highly\\-functional, rational plan arrangements that were commodious and accommodating; use of high\\- quality, durable materials, preferably sourced from Queensland; and a quality of civic dignity brought about through style, scaling, and form.", "The tender of James Mason of Brisbane of {{A£\\|1845\\|17\\|6}} for the Brisbane Naval Offices was accepted in October 1900, and the building was completed by late June 1901\\. \"[The Queenslander](/wiki/The_Queenslander \"The Queenslander\")\" reported on 16 November 1901 that the building's facing bricks were dark\\-brown, relieved with cement dressings and rough\\-cast work. The roof was covered with rolled galvanised iron. The Annual Report for DPW to 30 June 1901 (where the Naval Offices was listed under principal works completed during the year) mentioned internal fittings of pine and cedar. No other Australian colony built naval offices in this period, just prior to Federation and the transfer of defence assets. Queensland may have done so to ensure the continued use of Brisbane by the Commonwealth Navy.", "As a naval headquarters, the building was designed with spaces for the senior naval officers and their administrative staff, along with a strong room for the Staff Paymaster. The original ground floor plan included an entry porch off Edward Street, with double doors leading north\\-west into a public space which was separated by a counter from the Clerk's office. There was also a set of double doors leading north\\-east into a vestibule between the front offices, and onwards into a central hall. To the rear of the Clerk's Office was the Paymaster's Office, which included a projecting strong room at the rear of the building. The right front (southern) office was for the Commandant, while the right rear (eastern) office was for the Officer of the Naval Corps. Each had a fireplace.", "Behind the Naval Corp's office was the separate Brigade Entrance. From this entrance the ground floor rear verandah could be accessed, as well as a stairway up to a landing from which people could either descend to the ground floor offices, or continue up to the first floor. The latter was a large open space used as an Orderly (Administrative) Room, with four fireplaces and a small lavatory and store at the right rear (eastern) corner. This space may have been later partitioned for sleeping quarters and offices. The 1900 plans do not show the ventilation fleche which was present on the roof when the building was finished. This fleche was removed by the mid 1980s, and was replicated in the 1990s.", "Although the QMDF existed when the building was started, the first occupants were technically the Queensland components of a Commonwealth Navy. After the Australian Commonwealth was formed on 1 January 1901 the defence forces of the separate colonies were transferred to the new Federal Government in March. However, procedural delays meant arrangements were not completed until 1902\\.", "At the time of Federation, Queensland's naval forces numbered 750 men of all ranks, and it was one of four states (including Victoria, New South Wales and South Australia) to contribute ships to the Australian Commonwealth Naval Force (ACNF), formed on 1 March 1901 – handing over the \"Gayundah\", \"Paluma\", \"Mosquito\" and \"Midge\". Captain Creswell remained the Commandant of the Queensland\\-based flotilla of the ACN. In late 1904 Captain Creswell was appointed Director of Commonwealth Naval Forces, and his place as Queensland Naval Commandant was taken by Captain [Frederick Tickell](/wiki/Frederick_Tickell \"Frederick Tickell\") (to 1907\\). By 1904, 49% of Australia's serving naval officers had served in the QMDF.", "Captain Creswell was a major advocate for an independent Australian navy. Australia had been a separate British Naval Station since 1859 and a squadron of the Royal Navy was maintained in Australian waters until 1913\\. After March 1901 the Royal Navy was still paid to provide blue water defence (a force projection capability beyond coastal defence), but Captain Creswell lobbied for an autonomous Australian blue water navy. The 1909 Imperial Conference agreed to form an Australian fleet, and the first ships of this fleet, the destroyers \"[Yarra](/wiki/HMAS_Yarra_%28D79%29 \"HMAS Yarra (D79)\")\" and \"[Parramatta](/wiki/HMAS_Parramatta_%28D55%29 \"HMAS Parramatta (D55)\")\", reached Australia in 1910\\. On 10 July 1911 King [George V](/wiki/George_V \"George V\") granted the title \"Royal Australian Navy\" to the ACN and in October 1913 formal control of these units was transferred to the Commonwealth Naval Board. Meanwhile, in 1911 district naval officers were appointed around Australia to replace the naval commandants.", "Although the Commonwealth took control of Queensland's naval forces in 1901, the Naval Offices was not transferred to Commonwealth ownership until 1911\\. The state Department of Public Works was still maintaining the building in 1910 and it was still in Queensland ownership in June 1911\\.", "A number of alterations were made to the Naval Offices during Commonwealth ownership. February 1933 plans included the addition of a first floor rear verandah with an enclosed laundry and new stairs from the side yard. At the same time the first floor was converted into a residence for the Senior Naval Officer, and the large space was partitioned into domestic rooms. The internal stairway from the main ground floor hall was removed, so the upstairs residence could only be accessed from the old Brigade Entrance or the new rear verandah. Two sets of French doors plus a single door were installed between the verandah and the residence. A \"typiste\" (typists) room was added to the north\\-west end of the original ground floor rear verandah, and a new lavatory was added behind the strong room. Further additions in late 1939 resulted in a new office, lavatory and water closet (WC) being built behind the strong room, replacing the 1933 lavatory. Two other WCs were also built sometime between 1933 and 1939 on and adjacent to the rear verandah.", "After Japan entered World War II in December 1941, Brisbane became an important supply and command centre and the resulting expansion of the Allied naval presence in the city meant larger Naval Staff Offices were urgently required. During 1942–43 commercial buildings in [Queen Street](/wiki/Queen_Street%2C_Brisbane \"Queen Street, Brisbane\") were requisitioned and occupied by the Australian and United States navies. Although the Operational Staff of the RAN's Naval Officer in Charge (NOIC), Queensland, was based in Queen Street, the District Naval Officer, Queensland, remained at the Edward Street Naval Offices with the Civil Secretariat and Accounts staffs. Other wartime RAN facilities in Brisbane were located at Colmslie and [New Farm](/wiki/New_Farm%2C_Queensland \"New Farm, Queensland\"). The Smellie and Co. warehouse ([Old Mineral House](/wiki/Old_Mineral_House \"Old Mineral House\")) opposite the Naval Offices was used by the US Red Cross before becoming an [Australian Comforts Fund](/wiki/Australian_Comforts_Fund \"Australian Comforts Fund\") hostel for the Royal Navy in 1945\\.", "Further alterations were made to accommodate the extra staff at the Naval Offices. In 1944 a two\\-storey timber office extension was added behind the existing verandahs, the verandahs were enclosed as offices, and toilet arrangements were reconfigured. The stairway to the first floor 1933 verandah was removed, as was the first floor verandah laundry. The original steps up to the rear yard from Alice Street were removed and replaced with steps that climbed south\\-west to the side yard.", "By 1977 the former Naval Offices was vacant, its functions having been transferred to [HMAS Moreton](/wiki/HMAS_Moreton \"HMAS Moreton\") at New Farm (naval base, closed 1994\\). The Edward Street site was surplus to Commonwealth requirements but, as it was included on the [Register of the National Estate](/wiki/Register_of_the_National_Estate \"Register of the National Estate\") by this time, a decision was made to lease the property for 99 years rather than sell it. This enabled conditions protecting the heritage values of the original section of the former Naval Offices to be written into the lease. The building was leased to Jakuma Limited in November 1981\\. The lease was transferred to Historic Holdings Pty Ltd in 1987, and to HSH Hotels (Australia) Limited in 2000\\.", "From 1982 the former Naval Offices was used as Muddies Seafood Restaurant, and alterations were made including removing walls between the ground floor offices, constructing a new stair in the ground floor hall, removing internal partitions in the rear timber extensions on both levels, a new kitchen fit\\-out on the first floor, and adding a fire escape stair to the rear.", "After the restaurant closed in 1989, the building was vacant for a period before being refurbished in the early 1990s. This refurbishment was designed by Bruce Buchanan Architects and saw the restoration of lost or obscured significant fabric. The 1944 office extensions to the rear of the building were demolished and the rear verandah was reconstructed. The ground floor toilets were upgraded, partitions were reinstated between the offices on the ground floor, and the first floor partitions were removed to make one large space. At some time after this work the first floor was again partitioned into rooms although these walls do not reach the ceiling. A new kitchenette was built at the rear eastern corner of the first floor.", "Behind the former Naval Offices, the Stamford Hotel, a large multi\\-storey building, was constructed in 1990 and a boardwalk was built behind the former Naval Offices along the river edge. However, a visual connection between the former Naval Offices and the river was maintained. The flagpole at the front of the building is not an original feature, but was there by World War II; while the four flagpoles located near the rear northern corner of the building date from between 1974 and 1991\\. The building was returned to Queensland State Government ownership in 2011, and in 2012 the ground floor was occupied by a florist, while an architectural firm and a property developer sub\\-leased the first floor.", "" ]
Description ----------- [thumb\|Building entrance, 2013](/wiki/File:Naval_Offices%2C_Brisbane_05.2013_192.jpg "Naval Offices, Brisbane 05.2013 192.jpg") The former Naval Offices is a two\-storey brick building on the corner of Edward and Alice streets, Brisbane, adjacent to and overlooking the Brisbane River. The building occupies the majority of the allotment with a small yard behind. Primary entrance is from Edward Street with a secondary entrance from the Alice Street road reserve. The building is of load\-bearing brick construction with timber floor and roof structure. A two\-storey timber verandah at the rear overlooks the yard to the river and is not of cultural heritage significance. The building elevations are face brick in English bond, with the upper level finished in stucco with face brick quoining to the corners and around windows. The bricks are deep red with contrasting pale grey tuck pointing. Windows are large and rectangular with brick [lintels](/wiki/Lintel_%28architecture%29 "Lintel (architecture)") and timber\-framed, double\-hung sashes with slender, moulded\-timber glazing bars. There is one circular window on the upper level of the Alice Street side closest to the river. The hipped roof [overhangs](/wiki/Overhang_%28architecture%29 "Overhang (architecture)") the upper floor, has bracketed timber [eaves](/wiki/Eaves "Eaves") and is clad with roll and pan metal sheet. There is a central metal octagonal ventilation fleche on the ridge and two tall [chimneys](/wiki/Chimneys "Chimneys") flank the sides of the building. The building is two\-storey with an asymmetrical, single\-storey projection to Edward Street accommodating the entry [portico](/wiki/Portico "Portico") and former public reception area. The building is notable for its Arts and Crafts decorative treatments including: extensive use of high\-quality, tuck pointed face brickwork and stucco; rendered dressings; tall decorative brickwork chimneys with [chimney](/wiki/Chimney "Chimney") pots; decorative eaves [brackets](/wiki/Bracket_%28architecture%29 "Bracket (architecture)"); a prominent semi\-circular window flanked by horizontal bands of render; and rusticated Tuscan order [columns](/wiki/Columns "Columns") and a curved [pediment](/wiki/Pediment "Pediment") with a sculpted naval coat of arms to the portico. A decorative [wrought iron](/wiki/Wrought_iron "Wrought iron") gate opens to the entry portico where the floor is finished with tessellated encaustic tiles with slate thresholds and the ceiling is v\-jointed timber boards. There are two adjacent entry doors from the [porch](/wiki/Porch "Porch"); both are timber double doors with leaded fanlights. The larger door opens into the hall via a small foyer and the smaller door into the front room which is divided into two parts by a large arched opening. The ground floor plan is organised around a central stair hall running front to back with two main rooms on either side. The ground floor has vinyl\-covered, timber floors; plaster walls; moulded timber skirtings, [architraves](/wiki/Architraves "Architraves") and [cornices](/wiki/Cornices "Cornices"); and v\-jointed timber board ceilings with decorative timber fretwork vents. Floor\-to\-ceiling height on the ground floor is {{convert\|3\.6\|m}}. The main rooms have a fireplace each with a simple moulded plaster surround and mantle, and a decorative cast\-iron firebox. The rear northern room has a strong room with a heavy iron door. The doors into the four rooms are varnished timber with moulded panels and rectangular glazed fanlights. The ground floor offices are numbered 1 to 4, and the interior double doors to the foyer carry the words "Commonwealth of Australia Naval Office" on the glass. A large plaster royal coat of arms is positioned above the doors of the small entry foyer. The timber half\-turn stair has a decorative timber balustrade and a small cleaner's cupboard with sink is underneath. The rear verandah of the ground floor leads to male and female toilets (1991\) that are not considered to be of cultural heritage significance. A rear yard has an enclosure for mechanical equipment and a garden with trees and shrubs – the vegetation is not considered to be of cultural heritage significance. Four flagpoles are located at the northern rear corner of the building and are not of cultural heritage significance. [thumb\|Plaque on the Naval Offices outlining its history, 2013](/wiki/File:Naval_Offices%2C_Brisbane_05.2013_193.jpg "Naval Offices, Brisbane 05.2013 193.jpg") On the Alice Street side concrete [stairs](/wiki/Stairs "Stairs") lead into a narrow side yard enclosed by a short, brick and timber fence. This yard wraps around the building along this side to meet the front porch on Edward Street. The Alice Street entrance door is timber v\-jointed boards, ledged and braced, with a rectangular fanlight. The threshold is a single, large slate. This door opens to a small hall and stair up to the landing of the main stair which rises to the first floor. French doors open into the stair landing from the first floor rear verandah at a height above floor level, indicating a previous floor and stair configuration. The first floor has carpet covered timber floors, plaster walls, simple timber skirtings and cornices, moulded timber architraves, and a ripple iron ceiling with metal ventilation panels. The floor is divided by timber partitions that are not full height. A layout of previous partitions is visible on the ceiling. There are four non\- functional fireplaces without mantle or firebox. A rear room contains a kitchen. Timber\-framed, glazed French doors and a clear\-finished panelled timber door open onto the rear verandah from the rear rooms of the first floor. The former Naval Offices is a small building within a streetscape of larger structures featuring other late\-nineteenth and early\-twentieth century masonry buildings including the former [Port Office](/wiki/Port_Office%2C_Brisbane "Port Office, Brisbane"), [Old Mineral House](/wiki/Old_Mineral_House "Old Mineral House") (Smellie \& Co. warehouse), [Smellie's Building](/wiki/Smellie%27s_Building "Smellie's Building"), and the [Port Office Hotel](/wiki/Port_Office_Hotel "Port Office Hotel") and is adjacent to the entrance gates of the [City Botanic Gardens](/wiki/City_Botanic_Gardens "City Botanic Gardens"). The building is visible from the Brisbane River and there is a sight line from the former Naval Offices to the former [Naval Stores](/wiki/Naval_Stores%2C_Kangaroo_Point "Naval Stores, Kangaroo Point") at Kangaroo Point across the river.
[ "Description\n-----------", "[thumb\\|Building entrance, 2013](/wiki/File:Naval_Offices%2C_Brisbane_05.2013_192.jpg \"Naval Offices, Brisbane 05.2013 192.jpg\")\nThe former Naval Offices is a two\\-storey brick building on the corner of Edward and Alice streets, Brisbane, adjacent to and overlooking the Brisbane River. The building occupies the majority of the allotment with a small yard behind. Primary entrance is from Edward Street with a secondary entrance from the Alice Street road reserve.", "The building is of load\\-bearing brick construction with timber floor and roof structure. A two\\-storey timber verandah at the rear overlooks the yard to the river and is not of cultural heritage significance. The building elevations are face brick in English bond, with the upper level finished in stucco with face brick quoining to the corners and around windows. The bricks are deep red with contrasting pale grey tuck pointing. Windows are large and rectangular with brick [lintels](/wiki/Lintel_%28architecture%29 \"Lintel (architecture)\") and timber\\-framed, double\\-hung sashes with slender, moulded\\-timber glazing bars. There is one circular window on the upper level of the Alice Street side closest to the river. The hipped roof [overhangs](/wiki/Overhang_%28architecture%29 \"Overhang (architecture)\") the upper floor, has bracketed timber [eaves](/wiki/Eaves \"Eaves\") and is clad with roll and pan metal sheet. There is a central metal octagonal ventilation fleche on the ridge and two tall [chimneys](/wiki/Chimneys \"Chimneys\") flank the sides of the building.", "The building is two\\-storey with an asymmetrical, single\\-storey projection to Edward Street accommodating the entry [portico](/wiki/Portico \"Portico\") and former public reception area. The building is notable for its Arts and Crafts decorative treatments including: extensive use of high\\-quality, tuck pointed face brickwork and stucco; rendered dressings; tall decorative brickwork chimneys with [chimney](/wiki/Chimney \"Chimney\") pots; decorative eaves [brackets](/wiki/Bracket_%28architecture%29 \"Bracket (architecture)\"); a prominent semi\\-circular window flanked by horizontal bands of render; and rusticated Tuscan order [columns](/wiki/Columns \"Columns\") and a curved [pediment](/wiki/Pediment \"Pediment\") with a sculpted naval coat of arms to the portico.", "A decorative [wrought iron](/wiki/Wrought_iron \"Wrought iron\") gate opens to the entry portico where the floor is finished with tessellated encaustic tiles with slate thresholds and the ceiling is v\\-jointed timber boards. There are two adjacent entry doors from the [porch](/wiki/Porch \"Porch\"); both are timber double doors with leaded fanlights. The larger door opens into the hall via a small foyer and the smaller door into the front room which is divided into two parts by a large arched opening.", "The ground floor plan is organised around a central stair hall running front to back with two main rooms on either side. The ground floor has vinyl\\-covered, timber floors; plaster walls; moulded timber skirtings, [architraves](/wiki/Architraves \"Architraves\") and [cornices](/wiki/Cornices \"Cornices\"); and v\\-jointed timber board ceilings with decorative timber fretwork vents. Floor\\-to\\-ceiling height on the ground floor is {{convert\\|3\\.6\\|m}}. The main rooms have a fireplace each with a simple moulded plaster surround and mantle, and a decorative cast\\-iron firebox. The rear northern room has a strong room with a heavy iron door. The doors into the four rooms are varnished timber with moulded panels and rectangular glazed fanlights. The ground floor offices are numbered 1 to 4, and the interior double doors to the foyer carry the words \"Commonwealth of Australia Naval Office\" on the glass.", "A large plaster royal coat of arms is positioned above the doors of the small entry foyer. The timber half\\-turn stair has a decorative timber balustrade and a small cleaner's cupboard with sink is underneath.", "The rear verandah of the ground floor leads to male and female toilets (1991\\) that are not considered to be of cultural heritage significance. A rear yard has an enclosure for mechanical equipment and a garden with trees and shrubs – the vegetation is not considered to be of cultural heritage significance. Four flagpoles are located at the northern rear corner of the building and are not of cultural heritage significance.", "[thumb\\|Plaque on the Naval Offices outlining its history, 2013](/wiki/File:Naval_Offices%2C_Brisbane_05.2013_193.jpg \"Naval Offices, Brisbane 05.2013 193.jpg\")\nOn the Alice Street side concrete [stairs](/wiki/Stairs \"Stairs\") lead into a narrow side yard enclosed by a short, brick and timber fence. This yard wraps around the building along this side to meet the front porch on Edward Street. The Alice Street entrance door is timber v\\-jointed boards, ledged and braced, with a rectangular fanlight. The threshold is a single, large slate. This door opens to a small hall and stair up to the landing of the main stair which rises to the first floor. French doors open into the stair landing from the first floor rear verandah at a height above floor level, indicating a previous floor and stair configuration.", "The first floor has carpet covered timber floors, plaster walls, simple timber skirtings and cornices, moulded timber architraves, and a ripple iron ceiling with metal ventilation panels. The floor is divided by timber partitions that are not full height. A layout of previous partitions is visible on the ceiling. There are four non\\- functional fireplaces without mantle or firebox. A rear room contains a kitchen. Timber\\-framed, glazed French doors and a clear\\-finished panelled timber door open onto the rear verandah from the rear rooms of the first floor.", "The former Naval Offices is a small building within a streetscape of larger structures featuring other late\\-nineteenth and early\\-twentieth century masonry buildings including the former [Port Office](/wiki/Port_Office%2C_Brisbane \"Port Office, Brisbane\"), [Old Mineral House](/wiki/Old_Mineral_House \"Old Mineral House\") (Smellie \\& Co. warehouse), [Smellie's Building](/wiki/Smellie%27s_Building \"Smellie's Building\"), and the [Port Office Hotel](/wiki/Port_Office_Hotel \"Port Office Hotel\") and is adjacent to the entrance gates of the [City Botanic Gardens](/wiki/City_Botanic_Gardens \"City Botanic Gardens\"). The building is visible from the Brisbane River and there is a sight line from the former Naval Offices to the former [Naval Stores](/wiki/Naval_Stores%2C_Kangaroo_Point \"Naval Stores, Kangaroo Point\") at Kangaroo Point across the river.", "" ]
Heritage listing ---------------- The former Naval Offices was listed on the [Queensland Heritage Register](/wiki/Queensland_Heritage_Register "Queensland Heritage Register") on 21 March 2013 having satisfied the following criteria. **The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.** The 1901 former Naval Offices, Brisbane, is important surviving evidence of the existence of the Queensland Marine Defence Force (QMDF, established 1885\) and the later policy of basing Australian naval vessels in Queensland. Although the QMDF ceased to exist soon after the building was finished, it was used by the Australian Commonwealth Navy (ACN) and then the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) until the 1970s. Constructed by the Queensland Government as the first purpose\-built headquarters for naval forces in Queensland, the former Naval Offices illustrates the importance placed on the naval defence of Queensland at the time of Federation. **The place demonstrates rare, uncommon or endangered aspects of Queensland's cultural heritage.** The intact and distinctive former Naval Offices is unique as the only naval headquarters building constructed by the Queensland government. **The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.** The former Naval Offices is a fine example of the well\-designed buildings constructed by the Queensland Department of Public Works. The building has a highly\-functional, rational plan; is well constructed using high\-quality, durable materials sourced from Queensland; and has a quality of civic dignity achieved through style, scaling, and form. The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a naval office. In particular its internal layout illustrates its former naval administrative use, with a separate front entrance for the public and a side entrance for the Naval Brigade leading to the first floor, separate offices on the ground floor, and a strong room. **The place is important because of its aesthetic significance.** The former Naval Offices is important for its aesthetic significance through an accomplished use of Arts and Crafts decorative treatments. These include: an asymmetrical composition; extensive use of high\-quality, tuck\-pointed face brickwork and stucco; rendered dressings; tall chimneys with decorative chimney pots; decorative eaves with brackets; circular accents; contrasting earthy colours and textures; a conspicuous use of hand\-crafted ornamentation; ornate decorative features of the portico including rusticated Tuscan order columns and a curved pediment with a sculpted naval coat of arms. As a finely crafted, small\-scale building, the former Naval Offices makes an important contribution to the streetscape of the Lower Edward Street precinct of late nineteenth and early twentieth century buildings including the [Port Office](/wiki/Port_Office%2C_Brisbane "Port Office, Brisbane"), Smellie \& Co. warehouse ([Old Mineral House](/wiki/Old_Mineral_House "Old Mineral House")), [Smellie's Building](/wiki/Smellie%27s_Building "Smellie's Building") and the [Port Office Hotel](/wiki/Port_Office_Hotel "Port Office Hotel"); as well as the [City Botanic Gardens](/wiki/City_Botanic_Gardens "City Botanic Gardens"). **The place has a special association with the life or work of a particular person, group or organisation of importance in Queensland's history.** The former Naval Offices has a long\-standing and important historical association with the naval forces of Queensland and Australia, being built for the QMDF before being used by the Queensland flotilla of the ACN, and later the RAN, between 1901 and the mid 1970s.
[ "Heritage listing\n----------------", "The former Naval Offices was listed on the [Queensland Heritage Register](/wiki/Queensland_Heritage_Register \"Queensland Heritage Register\") on 21 March 2013 having satisfied the following criteria.", "**The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.**", "The 1901 former Naval Offices, Brisbane, is important surviving evidence of the existence of the Queensland Marine Defence Force (QMDF, established 1885\\) and the later policy of basing Australian naval vessels in Queensland. Although the QMDF ceased to exist soon after the building was finished, it was used by the Australian Commonwealth Navy (ACN) and then the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) until the 1970s.", "Constructed by the Queensland Government as the first purpose\\-built headquarters for naval forces in Queensland, the former Naval Offices illustrates the importance placed on the naval defence of Queensland at the time of Federation.", "**The place demonstrates rare, uncommon or endangered aspects of Queensland's cultural heritage.**", "The intact and distinctive former Naval Offices is unique as the only naval headquarters building constructed by the Queensland government.", "**The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.**", "The former Naval Offices is a fine example of the well\\-designed buildings constructed by the Queensland Department of Public Works. The building has a highly\\-functional, rational plan; is well constructed using high\\-quality, durable materials sourced from Queensland; and has a quality of civic dignity achieved through style, scaling, and form.", "The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a naval office. In particular its internal layout illustrates its former naval administrative use, with a separate front entrance for the public and a side entrance for the Naval Brigade leading to the first floor, separate offices on the ground floor, and a strong room.", "**The place is important because of its aesthetic significance.**", "The former Naval Offices is important for its aesthetic significance through an accomplished use of Arts and Crafts decorative treatments. These include: an asymmetrical composition; extensive use of high\\-quality, tuck\\-pointed face brickwork and stucco; rendered dressings; tall chimneys with decorative chimney pots; decorative eaves with brackets; circular accents; contrasting earthy colours and textures; a conspicuous use of hand\\-crafted ornamentation; ornate decorative features of the portico including rusticated Tuscan order columns and a curved pediment with a sculpted naval coat of arms.", "As a finely crafted, small\\-scale building, the former Naval Offices makes an important contribution to the streetscape of the Lower Edward Street precinct of late nineteenth and early twentieth century buildings including the [Port Office](/wiki/Port_Office%2C_Brisbane \"Port Office, Brisbane\"), Smellie \\& Co. warehouse ([Old Mineral House](/wiki/Old_Mineral_House \"Old Mineral House\")), [Smellie's Building](/wiki/Smellie%27s_Building \"Smellie's Building\") and the [Port Office Hotel](/wiki/Port_Office_Hotel \"Port Office Hotel\"); as well as the [City Botanic Gardens](/wiki/City_Botanic_Gardens \"City Botanic Gardens\").", "**The place has a special association with the life or work of a particular person, group or organisation of importance in Queensland's history.**", "The former Naval Offices has a long\\-standing and important historical association with the naval forces of Queensland and Australia, being built for the QMDF before being used by the Queensland flotilla of the ACN, and later the RAN, between 1901 and the mid 1970s.", "" ]
Characters ---------- ### Sky People *Sky People* (also known as *Arkers*, or *Skaikru* in Trigedasleng) is a term the Grounders use for the people who came from the international space station known as the Ark. The Sky People alive today are descendants of humans who survived the nuclear apocalypse 97 years before the series by living in space in the Ark. Within the Sky People community, there is a subgroup. Known as The 100 (also known as the delinquents), this group includes one hundred juvenile delinquents who, after it became clear that the Ark was dying, were sent to Earth in order to determine if the planet had become habitable enough for the rest of the Sky People to survive in exchange for being pardoned of their crimes. However, the name *the 100* is a slight misnomer, since, along with the aforementioned hundred delinquents, there were also two additional young adults who came with them to Earth; one was a security guard who snuck aboard their ship to ensure the safety of his sister, and the other was a young engineer who came down to Earth in a pod shortly afterward to reassure the council that the delinquents survived their journey. In the sixth season, due to everything that has happened, it is revealed that there are not many Sky People left when Abby seeks blood donations in an effort to save Marcus Kane. ### Grounders *Grounders* (or *Outsiders*, as they are known by the Mountain Men) are groups of people who were born on Earth rather than in space or in [Mount Weather](/wiki/Mount_Weather_Emergency_Operations_Center "Mount Weather Emergency Operations Center"). The Grounders are descendants of humans who survived the nuclear apocalypse 97 years ago, due to their enhanced tolerance to nuclear radiation. Many of the Sky People have negative views toward Grounders, who they see as barbaric stone\-age savages, and many Grounders have a negative view of the Sky People, who they see as hostile colonizers. Relations between the two groups slowly improve, thanks to the Grounders' commander [Lexa](/wiki/Lexa_%28The_100%29 "Lexa (The 100)"). The Grounders speak an English\-based [pidgin language](/wiki/Pidgin_language "Pidgin language") called Trigedasleng, although many of them also know regular English. Grounders were the primary antagonists of the first season. There are at least twelve Grounder clans in eastern North America, including the woods clan known as the Tree People (*Trikru* or *Trigedakru* in Trigedasleng), the dominant clan; Ice Nation (*Azgeda*), antagonists of the third season (along with A.L.I.E.) and the fourth; the Boat People (*Floukru* or *Floudonkru*); and other tribes such as Glowing Forest (*Trishanakru*), Rock Line (*Boudalankru*), Broadleaf (*Yujleda*), Blue Cliff (*Ouskejonkru*), Plains\-riders (*Ingranronakru*), Shallow Valley (*Louwoda\-Klironkru*), the Desert Clan (*Sankru* or *Sangedakru*), the Lake People (*Podakru*), and the [Delphi](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia") (*Delfikru*). As revealed in "Anaconda", the Grounders were founded by Callie Cadogan and her followers, who left the Second Dawn bunker after taking Nightblood and the Flame. Having enough Nightblood for 2,000 more people, they intended to seek out and help other survivors of the nuclear apocalypse. Trigedasleng was a language created by Callie when she was only ten years old. The word *Trikru* appears to have been inspired by an environmentalist group that Callie was a part of before the apocalypse called Tree Crew, pronounced the same. In "The Dying of the Light", an *Azgeda* symbol on the floor of the bunker suggests that they were responsible for burying Earth's Anomaly Stone, though how, why and when remains unrevealed. ### Mountain Men Mountain Men (or *Maunon* in Trigedasleng) is the small colony of people who reside in Mount Weather. They are the primary antagonists of the second season. The Mountain Men (a term encompassing the women and children as well) are descendants of humans who survived the nuclear apocalypse 97 years before the start of the series by bunkering down inside Mount Weather, protecting them from the radiation caused by the bombing, but also preventing them from developing an immunity to the radiation as the Grounders did. This not only forced them to remain inside the facility unless they wore protective suits, they also had no choice but to capture Grounders and harvest their blood, which they used for transfusions to survive even the small amount of radiation exposure they received inside Mount Weather. The Mountain Men are responsible for creating the acid fog that has killed numerous outsiders, as well as the barbaric Reapers who helped them capture Grounders for their blood\-harvesting program. Because so many Grounder and Arker lives were lost in the name of the Mountain Men's survival, both groups hold very negative views toward those residing in Mount Weather, although some people within the mountain actively reject treatment with the blood stolen from Grounders unless absolutely necessary, for moral reasons. In the second season, while holding forty\-seven of the 100 prisoners, the Mountain Men discovered that a transfusion of bone marrow from the former Ark residents could grant them permanent immunity from the radiation, but the eventually fatal consequences for captured Arkers of the marrow\-harvesting drive Clarke to a point where she is forced to open the air filtration system of the mountain, killing every one of the Mountain Men in order to save her own people. The Mountain Men are finally extinct when Clarke kills Carl Emerson, the last of the Mountain Men living in the third season. ### *Eligius IV* prisoners The ship *Eligius IV* was carrying prisoners and was deployed to asteroid *Proxima VI* before the nuclear apocalypse on Earth happened. The purpose of the expedition was to mine *Hythylodium*. In 2047, the prisoners started to become sick and the captain issued "Order 11", which would abandon the prisoners on the asteroid. Out of altruistic reasons, one of the ship's pilots Miles Shaw deactivated the shock collars of prisoners that led to the massacre of the ship's crew and an explosion that destroyed one of the engines. Led by Charmaine Diyoza, the prisoners decide to return to the post\-apocalyptic Earth but with an engine destroyed, it would take decades to reach there. The prisoners put themselves through cryosleep to evade aging. In 2156, Shaw piloted the transport craft *Gagarin* and lands Diyoza with a party of prisoners in the Shallow Valley, which is apparently the only habitable place left after the radiation wave Praimfaya in the fourth\-season finale. They act as antagonists in the fifth season and are eventually defeated, but the lives of those who surrendered are spared. The prisoners' second leader McCreary launches the Damocles bomb against Shallow Valley in an act of [scorched earth](/wiki/Scorched_earth "Scorched earth"), destroying the valley and rendering the Earth uninhabitable. Even decades later the Earth fails to recover and as a result, is deemed permanently uninhabitable. In season 7's "From the Ashes", its stated that there are 36 prisoners left alive in Sanctum, while Diyoza is on another planet. The prisoners have been released to help build a new compound on Sanctum for everyone to live in. In "False Gods", Hatch, who had been imprisoned for bank robbery and murder, as well as three others die stopping a [nuclear reactor](/wiki/Nuclear_reactor "Nuclear reactor") meltdown, leaving 33 prisoners alive. In "The Flock", another prisoner is killed by a member of *Wonkru* following a hostage situation, reducing their population to 32\. In "A Little Sacrifice", Diyoza sacrifices herself to stop Gen\-9 from being released on Bardo, leaving 31 prisoners. In "The Stranger", the surviving prisoners bow to the Dark Commander's leadership. In "The Last War," the prisoners help Raven to rescue her friends from the bunker and join *Wonkru* in holding off the Disciples before Transcending with the rest of the human race. ### *Wonkru* *Wonkru* is a new, united clan, consisting of the former eleven remaining Grounder clans (all of Floukru died) and Skaikru, founded by Octavia Blake. Later, they are now led by the new Commander, named Madi. After the Flame is destroyed, many of *Wonkru* abandon the leadership of Clarke and her friends though some remain on their side. With the situation getting progressively worse, Indra attempts to get Madi to retake command without success. Instead, John Murphy and Emori convince Indra, who they realize was the true power behind *Wonkru* in the bunker, to take leadership of the clan herself. Indra is able to reunite *Wonkru* under her command with only one warrior, Knight, trying without success to challenge her. ### Sanctumites With Earth running out of oil, a colonization mission was sent out on *Eligius III* to five potentially habitable worlds. Alpha, later renamed Sanctum by Josephine Lightbourne, was a habitable moon settled by Mission Team Alpha who later became the ruling families, known as the Primes, with their leader, Russell Lightbourne. Although some of the Sanctum Citizens are potentially descendants of the Primes themselves, they had landed on Sanctum with a thousand frozen [embryos](/wiki/Embryo "Embryo") to start the colony which is the most likely origin of most of the people, though the remaining embryos were eventually destroyed by Gabriel Santiago. Taught to revere the Primes as living divinity due to their ability to resurrect themselves through Nightblood hosts, the citizens eventually rebel at the end of the sixth season after learning the truth, leading to the death of most of the Primes. In the seventh season, the Sanctum Citizens struggle to adapt to their new reality while tensions rise between the various factions on the moon. Some are subsequently slaughtered by *Sheidheda*. John Murphy takes command of the survivors to hide out and prepare to fight the Dark Commander's new reign. ### Children of Gabriel The Children of Gabriel is a rebel militia group, who are in conflict with the Primes, the twelve quasi\-immortal leaders of Sanctum. They were founded by Gabriel Santiago, also known as the Old Man, who was once the Thirteenth Prime but rebelled seventy years before the present after recognizing the immorality of what the Primes were doing. Gabriel is known as a demon to the people of Sanctum and an almost mythical figure amongst his followers, having been missing for ten years. Unknown to the Children of Gabriel, Gabriel has been hiding amongst them as Xavier, a high\-ranking and less extreme member of the organization, having been unwillingly resurrected in Xavier's body after his last host died. After the overthrow and death of most of the Primes, the organization moves back into Sanctum under the leadership of Nelson and pushes for the execution of Russell Lightbourne, the last Prime. Due to many being abandoned as children, they are unaware of the identity of their families in Sanctum even if their parents are still alive as discovered by Nelson when he returned following the successful rebellion. Though Emori tries to reunite them with their families, the Children of Gabriel ally with the remaining Eligius prisoners and take hostages in an effort to reveal the truth. *Wonkru*, with the help of *Sheidheda*, manages to stop the uprising and takes the Children of Gabriel into custody. In "The Stranger", the Children of Gabriel are massacred by *Sheidheda* with an assault rifle when they refuse to kneel. The only survivor aside from Gabriel himself is a teenager named Luca who plays dead amongst the corpses. Luca is later found and rescued by Indra who brings him to Murphy and Emori for protection. In "A Sort of Homecoming", Gabriel is killed by *Sheidheda*, leaving Luca as the only survivor of the group. ### The Disciples A mysterious group from another planet called Bardo. Though human, not much is known about them or their origins except that they are fanatically religious in some manner and that their current leader is named Anders. After finding Skyring due to a message in a bottle sent through the Anomaly by Octavia Blake, they captured Octavia and Charmaine Diyoza, later formed some sort of deal with Diyoza's daughter Hope and turned Skyring into a prison planet for their unbelievers. They are first encountered on Sanctum when several members kidnap Bellamy Blake through the Anomaly and attempt to capture Echo and Gabriel Santiago while targeting Hope for death. Three members are killed by Echo, revealing that they are humans with advanced technology, but not much else. After discovering that Skyring is one of the other planets on the *Eligius III* colony mission, Gabriel suggests that Bardo was another *Eligius* planet as well and that the Disciples are the descendants of one of the other *Eligius* mission teams who settled on Bardo like the people on Sanctum. It is later revealed that their full name is the Disciples of a Greater Truth and that they worship a mysterious figure called the Shepherd that saved them from the destruction of Earth. The Disciples believe in "the war to end all wars" which Clarke Griffin supposedly holds the key to winning. Disciple warriors hold rankings going up to at least Level 12 which appears to be a Master level. Of the named Disciples, Dev was a Level 7 while Orlando was a Level 12 who trained other Disciples and was on one occasion shown to be addressed as "Master Orlando". Gabriel, Echo and Hope later realize that the Disciples are not *Eligius* descendants but instead came directly from Earth through the Anomaly. Nathan Miller and Niylah later discover a sigil that suggests a connection between the Disciples and the Second Dawn [doomsday cult](/wiki/Doomsday_cult "Doomsday cult") that built the bunker that *Wonkru* survived in. Its later revealed that the Shepherd is Bill Cadogan, the founder and leader of the Second Dawn who has been kept alive in stasis by the Disciples. In "Anaconda", its revealed that the Disciples were originally the Second Dawn cult who had started worshipping Bill Cadogan by the time that Becca Franko had arrived on Earth two years after the first nuclear apocalypse. By the time they left for Bardo, those faithful to Cadogan were already called Disciples and were able to open the Anomaly with the help of Becca and the Flame. Their belief in the "war to end all wars" comes from Becca finding a combination using the Flame that showed her Judgment Day, the true end of the human race. However, they need the Flame, the key that they are searching for, to find the correct combination. In "The Flock", its revealed that the Disciples train themselves to focus on the good of the community and not the individual. Rather than having families, the Disciples are grown from embryos in incubators during which time they can be perfected to remove various conditions. Their numbers are left limited however due to a lack of resources to maintain a massive population. The war that they believe is coming is with the enemy that destroyed the native Bardoans. In "A Little Sacrifice", its revealed that the Disciples believe that Clarke has the Flame due to seeing Octavia's memory of Clarke using the AI to destroy A.L.I.E. Neither Octavia nor any of Clarke's other friends ever revealed that Clarke only had the Flame for a short period of time and has long\-since removed it. Cadogan explains to Gabriel Santiago, Niylah and Jordan Green that upon arriving on Bardo, the Disciples found logs left by the native Bardoans describing their use of the Anomaly Stone. After centuries of translating, the Disciples were able to decipher the logs which described a similar effect to what Becca experienced when she entered the final code into the Anomaly Stone and spoke of reaching Transcendence and supposedly a Last War that needs to be fought, the source of the Disciples belief system. After taking a closer look at the logs, Jordan comes to believe that the Bardoan language is structured similar to the [Korean language](/wiki/Korean_language "Korean language") which Jordan learned from his father and as a result, the Disciples may have mistranslated the message. Jordan's translation of the logs suggest not a Last War but a test, most likely involving one individual who uses the code representing their species to determine that race's future. The three decide to keep this to themselves as they know that Bill Cadogan is the wrong man to represent humanity in such a test if Jordan is in fact right. In "The Last War," the Disciple army enters into a standoff with *Wonkru* and the Eligius prisoners while Cadogan takes the test, Jordan having been proven right that it was a test and not a Last War. Cadogan is killed by Clarke while *Sheidheda* initiates a battle between the two sides. After Indra kills *Sheidheda*, Octavia is able to talk both sides down. This convinces the Judge that humanity is worthy the human race Transcends, achieving the Disciples goal.
[ "Characters\n----------", "### Sky People", "*Sky People* (also known as *Arkers*, or *Skaikru* in Trigedasleng) is a term the Grounders use for the people who came from the international space station known as the Ark. The Sky People alive today are descendants of humans who survived the nuclear apocalypse 97 years before the series by living in space in the Ark. Within the Sky People community, there is a subgroup. Known as The 100 (also known as the delinquents), this group includes one hundred juvenile delinquents who, after it became clear that the Ark was dying, were sent to Earth in order to determine if the planet had become habitable enough for the rest of the Sky People to survive in exchange for being pardoned of their crimes. However, the name *the 100* is a slight misnomer, since, along with the aforementioned hundred delinquents, there were also two additional young adults who came with them to Earth; one was a security guard who snuck aboard their ship to ensure the safety of his sister, and the other was a young engineer who came down to Earth in a pod shortly afterward to reassure the council that the delinquents survived their journey.", "In the sixth season, due to everything that has happened, it is revealed that there are not many Sky People left when Abby seeks blood donations in an effort to save Marcus Kane.", "### Grounders", "*Grounders* (or *Outsiders*, as they are known by the Mountain Men) are groups of people who were born on Earth rather than in space or in [Mount Weather](/wiki/Mount_Weather_Emergency_Operations_Center \"Mount Weather Emergency Operations Center\"). The Grounders are descendants of humans who survived the nuclear apocalypse 97 years ago, due to their enhanced tolerance to nuclear radiation. Many of the Sky People have negative views toward Grounders, who they see as barbaric stone\\-age savages, and many Grounders have a negative view of the Sky People, who they see as hostile colonizers. Relations between the two groups slowly improve, thanks to the Grounders' commander [Lexa](/wiki/Lexa_%28The_100%29 \"Lexa (The 100)\"). The Grounders speak an English\\-based [pidgin language](/wiki/Pidgin_language \"Pidgin language\") called Trigedasleng, although many of them also know regular English. Grounders were the primary antagonists of the first season. There are at least twelve Grounder clans in eastern North America, including the woods clan known as the Tree People (*Trikru* or *Trigedakru* in Trigedasleng), the dominant clan; Ice Nation (*Azgeda*), antagonists of the third season (along with A.L.I.E.) and the fourth; the Boat People (*Floukru* or *Floudonkru*); and other tribes such as Glowing Forest (*Trishanakru*), Rock Line (*Boudalankru*), Broadleaf (*Yujleda*), Blue Cliff (*Ouskejonkru*), Plains\\-riders (*Ingranronakru*), Shallow Valley (*Louwoda\\-Klironkru*), the Desert Clan (*Sankru* or *Sangedakru*), the Lake People (*Podakru*), and the [Delphi](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\") (*Delfikru*).", "As revealed in \"Anaconda\", the Grounders were founded by Callie Cadogan and her followers, who left the Second Dawn bunker after taking Nightblood and the Flame. Having enough Nightblood for 2,000 more people, they intended to seek out and help other survivors of the nuclear apocalypse. Trigedasleng was a language created by Callie when she was only ten years old. The word *Trikru* appears to have been inspired by an environmentalist group that Callie was a part of before the apocalypse called Tree Crew, pronounced the same. In \"The Dying of the Light\", an *Azgeda* symbol on the floor of the bunker suggests that they were responsible for burying Earth's Anomaly Stone, though how, why and when remains unrevealed.", "### Mountain Men", "Mountain Men (or *Maunon* in Trigedasleng) is the small colony of people who reside in Mount Weather. They are the primary antagonists of the second season. The Mountain Men (a term encompassing the women and children as well) are descendants of humans who survived the nuclear apocalypse 97 years before the start of the series by bunkering down inside Mount Weather, protecting them from the radiation caused by the bombing, but also preventing them from developing an immunity to the radiation as the Grounders did. This not only forced them to remain inside the facility unless they wore protective suits, they also had no choice but to capture Grounders and harvest their blood, which they used for transfusions to survive even the small amount of radiation exposure they received inside Mount Weather. The Mountain Men are responsible for creating the acid fog that has killed numerous outsiders, as well as the barbaric Reapers who helped them capture Grounders for their blood\\-harvesting program. Because so many Grounder and Arker lives were lost in the name of the Mountain Men's survival, both groups hold very negative views toward those residing in Mount Weather, although some people within the mountain actively reject treatment with the blood stolen from Grounders unless absolutely necessary, for moral reasons. In the second season, while holding forty\\-seven of the 100 prisoners, the Mountain Men discovered that a transfusion of bone marrow from the former Ark residents could grant them permanent immunity from the radiation, but the eventually fatal consequences for captured Arkers of the marrow\\-harvesting drive Clarke to a point where she is forced to open the air filtration system of the mountain, killing every one of the Mountain Men in order to save her own people. The Mountain Men are finally extinct when Clarke kills Carl Emerson, the last of the Mountain Men living in the third season.", "### *Eligius IV* prisoners", "The ship *Eligius IV* was carrying prisoners and was deployed to asteroid *Proxima VI* before the nuclear apocalypse on Earth happened. The purpose of the expedition was to mine *Hythylodium*. In 2047, the prisoners started to become sick and the captain issued \"Order 11\", which would abandon the prisoners on the asteroid. Out of altruistic reasons, one of the ship's pilots Miles Shaw deactivated the shock collars of prisoners that led to the massacre of the ship's crew and an explosion that destroyed one of the engines. Led by Charmaine Diyoza, the prisoners decide to return to the post\\-apocalyptic Earth but with an engine destroyed, it would take decades to reach there. The prisoners put themselves through cryosleep to evade aging. In 2156, Shaw piloted the transport craft *Gagarin* and lands Diyoza with a party of prisoners in the Shallow Valley, which is apparently the only habitable place left after the radiation wave Praimfaya in the fourth\\-season finale. They act as antagonists in the fifth season and are eventually defeated, but the lives of those who surrendered are spared. The prisoners' second leader McCreary launches the Damocles bomb against Shallow Valley in an act of [scorched earth](/wiki/Scorched_earth \"Scorched earth\"), destroying the valley and rendering the Earth uninhabitable. Even decades later the Earth fails to recover and as a result, is deemed permanently uninhabitable. In season 7's \"From the Ashes\", its stated that there are 36 prisoners left alive in Sanctum, while Diyoza is on another planet. The prisoners have been released to help build a new compound on Sanctum for everyone to live in. In \"False Gods\", Hatch, who had been imprisoned for bank robbery and murder, as well as three others die stopping a [nuclear reactor](/wiki/Nuclear_reactor \"Nuclear reactor\") meltdown, leaving 33 prisoners alive. In \"The Flock\", another prisoner is killed by a member of *Wonkru* following a hostage situation, reducing their population to 32\\. In \"A Little Sacrifice\", Diyoza sacrifices herself to stop Gen\\-9 from being released on Bardo, leaving 31 prisoners. In \"The Stranger\", the surviving prisoners bow to the Dark Commander's leadership. In \"The Last War,\" the prisoners help Raven to rescue her friends from the bunker and join *Wonkru* in holding off the Disciples before Transcending with the rest of the human race.", "### *Wonkru*", "*Wonkru* is a new, united clan, consisting of the former eleven remaining Grounder clans (all of Floukru died) and Skaikru, founded by Octavia Blake. Later, they are now led by the new Commander, named Madi. After the Flame is destroyed, many of *Wonkru* abandon the leadership of Clarke and her friends though some remain on their side. With the situation getting progressively worse, Indra attempts to get Madi to retake command without success. Instead, John Murphy and Emori convince Indra, who they realize was the true power behind *Wonkru* in the bunker, to take leadership of the clan herself. Indra is able to reunite *Wonkru* under her command with only one warrior, Knight, trying without success to challenge her.", "### Sanctumites", "With Earth running out of oil, a colonization mission was sent out on *Eligius III* to five potentially habitable worlds. Alpha, later renamed Sanctum by Josephine Lightbourne, was a habitable moon settled by Mission Team Alpha who later became the ruling families, known as the Primes, with their leader, Russell Lightbourne. Although some of the Sanctum Citizens are potentially descendants of the Primes themselves, they had landed on Sanctum with a thousand frozen [embryos](/wiki/Embryo \"Embryo\") to start the colony which is the most likely origin of most of the people, though the remaining embryos were eventually destroyed by Gabriel Santiago. Taught to revere the Primes as living divinity due to their ability to resurrect themselves through Nightblood hosts, the citizens eventually rebel at the end of the sixth season after learning the truth, leading to the death of most of the Primes. In the seventh season, the Sanctum Citizens struggle to adapt to their new reality while tensions rise between the various factions on the moon. Some are subsequently slaughtered by *Sheidheda*. John Murphy takes command of the survivors to hide out and prepare to fight the Dark Commander's new reign.", "### Children of Gabriel", "The Children of Gabriel is a rebel militia group, who are in conflict with the Primes, the twelve quasi\\-immortal leaders of Sanctum. They were founded by Gabriel Santiago, also known as the Old Man, who was once the Thirteenth Prime but rebelled seventy years before the present after recognizing the immorality of what the Primes were doing. Gabriel is known as a demon to the people of Sanctum and an almost mythical figure amongst his followers, having been missing for ten years. Unknown to the Children of Gabriel, Gabriel has been hiding amongst them as Xavier, a high\\-ranking and less extreme member of the organization, having been unwillingly resurrected in Xavier's body after his last host died. After the overthrow and death of most of the Primes, the organization moves back into Sanctum under the leadership of Nelson and pushes for the execution of Russell Lightbourne, the last Prime. Due to many being abandoned as children, they are unaware of the identity of their families in Sanctum even if their parents are still alive as discovered by Nelson when he returned following the successful rebellion. Though Emori tries to reunite them with their families, the Children of Gabriel ally with the remaining Eligius prisoners and take hostages in an effort to reveal the truth. *Wonkru*, with the help of *Sheidheda*, manages to stop the uprising and takes the Children of Gabriel into custody.", "In \"The Stranger\", the Children of Gabriel are massacred by *Sheidheda* with an assault rifle when they refuse to kneel. The only survivor aside from Gabriel himself is a teenager named Luca who plays dead amongst the corpses. Luca is later found and rescued by Indra who brings him to Murphy and Emori for protection.", "In \"A Sort of Homecoming\", Gabriel is killed by *Sheidheda*, leaving Luca as the only survivor of the group.", "### The Disciples", "A mysterious group from another planet called Bardo. Though human, not much is known about them or their origins except that they are fanatically religious in some manner and that their current leader is named Anders. After finding Skyring due to a message in a bottle sent through the Anomaly by Octavia Blake, they captured Octavia and Charmaine Diyoza, later formed some sort of deal with Diyoza's daughter Hope and turned Skyring into a prison planet for their unbelievers. They are first encountered on Sanctum when several members kidnap Bellamy Blake through the Anomaly and attempt to capture Echo and Gabriel Santiago while targeting Hope for death. Three members are killed by Echo, revealing that they are humans with advanced technology, but not much else. After discovering that Skyring is one of the other planets on the *Eligius III* colony mission, Gabriel suggests that Bardo was another *Eligius* planet as well and that the Disciples are the descendants of one of the other *Eligius* mission teams who settled on Bardo like the people on Sanctum. It is later revealed that their full name is the Disciples of a Greater Truth and that they worship a mysterious figure called the Shepherd that saved them from the destruction of Earth. The Disciples believe in \"the war to end all wars\" which Clarke Griffin supposedly holds the key to winning. Disciple warriors hold rankings going up to at least Level 12 which appears to be a Master level. Of the named Disciples, Dev was a Level 7 while Orlando was a Level 12 who trained other Disciples and was on one occasion shown to be addressed as \"Master Orlando\". Gabriel, Echo and Hope later realize that the Disciples are not *Eligius* descendants but instead came directly from Earth through the Anomaly. Nathan Miller and Niylah later discover a sigil that suggests a connection between the Disciples and the Second Dawn [doomsday cult](/wiki/Doomsday_cult \"Doomsday cult\") that built the bunker that *Wonkru* survived in. Its later revealed that the Shepherd is Bill Cadogan, the founder and leader of the Second Dawn who has been kept alive in stasis by the Disciples.", "In \"Anaconda\", its revealed that the Disciples were originally the Second Dawn cult who had started worshipping Bill Cadogan by the time that Becca Franko had arrived on Earth two years after the first nuclear apocalypse. By the time they left for Bardo, those faithful to Cadogan were already called Disciples and were able to open the Anomaly with the help of Becca and the Flame. Their belief in the \"war to end all wars\" comes from Becca finding a combination using the Flame that showed her Judgment Day, the true end of the human race. However, they need the Flame, the key that they are searching for, to find the correct combination.", "In \"The Flock\", its revealed that the Disciples train themselves to focus on the good of the community and not the individual. Rather than having families, the Disciples are grown from embryos in incubators during which time they can be perfected to remove various conditions. Their numbers are left limited however due to a lack of resources to maintain a massive population. The war that they believe is coming is with the enemy that destroyed the native Bardoans.", "In \"A Little Sacrifice\", its revealed that the Disciples believe that Clarke has the Flame due to seeing Octavia's memory of Clarke using the AI to destroy A.L.I.E. Neither Octavia nor any of Clarke's other friends ever revealed that Clarke only had the Flame for a short period of time and has long\\-since removed it. Cadogan explains to Gabriel Santiago, Niylah and Jordan Green that upon arriving on Bardo, the Disciples found logs left by the native Bardoans describing their use of the Anomaly Stone. After centuries of translating, the Disciples were able to decipher the logs which described a similar effect to what Becca experienced when she entered the final code into the Anomaly Stone and spoke of reaching Transcendence and supposedly a Last War that needs to be fought, the source of the Disciples belief system. After taking a closer look at the logs, Jordan comes to believe that the Bardoan language is structured similar to the [Korean language](/wiki/Korean_language \"Korean language\") which Jordan learned from his father and as a result, the Disciples may have mistranslated the message. Jordan's translation of the logs suggest not a Last War but a test, most likely involving one individual who uses the code representing their species to determine that race's future. The three decide to keep this to themselves as they know that Bill Cadogan is the wrong man to represent humanity in such a test if Jordan is in fact right.", "In \"The Last War,\" the Disciple army enters into a standoff with *Wonkru* and the Eligius prisoners while Cadogan takes the test, Jordan having been proven right that it was a test and not a Last War. Cadogan is killed by Clarke while *Sheidheda* initiates a battle between the two sides. After Indra kills *Sheidheda*, Octavia is able to talk both sides down. This convinces the Judge that humanity is worthy the human race Transcends, achieving the Disciples goal.", "" ]
### The Disciples A mysterious group from another planet called Bardo. Though human, not much is known about them or their origins except that they are fanatically religious in some manner and that their current leader is named Anders. After finding Skyring due to a message in a bottle sent through the Anomaly by Octavia Blake, they captured Octavia and Charmaine Diyoza, later formed some sort of deal with Diyoza's daughter Hope and turned Skyring into a prison planet for their unbelievers. They are first encountered on Sanctum when several members kidnap Bellamy Blake through the Anomaly and attempt to capture Echo and Gabriel Santiago while targeting Hope for death. Three members are killed by Echo, revealing that they are humans with advanced technology, but not much else. After discovering that Skyring is one of the other planets on the *Eligius III* colony mission, Gabriel suggests that Bardo was another *Eligius* planet as well and that the Disciples are the descendants of one of the other *Eligius* mission teams who settled on Bardo like the people on Sanctum. It is later revealed that their full name is the Disciples of a Greater Truth and that they worship a mysterious figure called the Shepherd that saved them from the destruction of Earth. The Disciples believe in "the war to end all wars" which Clarke Griffin supposedly holds the key to winning. Disciple warriors hold rankings going up to at least Level 12 which appears to be a Master level. Of the named Disciples, Dev was a Level 7 while Orlando was a Level 12 who trained other Disciples and was on one occasion shown to be addressed as "Master Orlando". Gabriel, Echo and Hope later realize that the Disciples are not *Eligius* descendants but instead came directly from Earth through the Anomaly. Nathan Miller and Niylah later discover a sigil that suggests a connection between the Disciples and the Second Dawn [doomsday cult](/wiki/Doomsday_cult "Doomsday cult") that built the bunker that *Wonkru* survived in. Its later revealed that the Shepherd is Bill Cadogan, the founder and leader of the Second Dawn who has been kept alive in stasis by the Disciples. In "Anaconda", its revealed that the Disciples were originally the Second Dawn cult who had started worshipping Bill Cadogan by the time that Becca Franko had arrived on Earth two years after the first nuclear apocalypse. By the time they left for Bardo, those faithful to Cadogan were already called Disciples and were able to open the Anomaly with the help of Becca and the Flame. Their belief in the "war to end all wars" comes from Becca finding a combination using the Flame that showed her Judgment Day, the true end of the human race. However, they need the Flame, the key that they are searching for, to find the correct combination. In "The Flock", its revealed that the Disciples train themselves to focus on the good of the community and not the individual. Rather than having families, the Disciples are grown from embryos in incubators during which time they can be perfected to remove various conditions. Their numbers are left limited however due to a lack of resources to maintain a massive population. The war that they believe is coming is with the enemy that destroyed the native Bardoans. In "A Little Sacrifice", its revealed that the Disciples believe that Clarke has the Flame due to seeing Octavia's memory of Clarke using the AI to destroy A.L.I.E. Neither Octavia nor any of Clarke's other friends ever revealed that Clarke only had the Flame for a short period of time and has long\-since removed it. Cadogan explains to Gabriel Santiago, Niylah and Jordan Green that upon arriving on Bardo, the Disciples found logs left by the native Bardoans describing their use of the Anomaly Stone. After centuries of translating, the Disciples were able to decipher the logs which described a similar effect to what Becca experienced when she entered the final code into the Anomaly Stone and spoke of reaching Transcendence and supposedly a Last War that needs to be fought, the source of the Disciples belief system. After taking a closer look at the logs, Jordan comes to believe that the Bardoan language is structured similar to the [Korean language](/wiki/Korean_language "Korean language") which Jordan learned from his father and as a result, the Disciples may have mistranslated the message. Jordan's translation of the logs suggest not a Last War but a test, most likely involving one individual who uses the code representing their species to determine that race's future. The three decide to keep this to themselves as they know that Bill Cadogan is the wrong man to represent humanity in such a test if Jordan is in fact right. In "The Last War," the Disciple army enters into a standoff with *Wonkru* and the Eligius prisoners while Cadogan takes the test, Jordan having been proven right that it was a test and not a Last War. Cadogan is killed by Clarke while *Sheidheda* initiates a battle between the two sides. After Indra kills *Sheidheda*, Octavia is able to talk both sides down. This convinces the Judge that humanity is worthy the human race Transcends, achieving the Disciples goal.
[ "### The Disciples", "A mysterious group from another planet called Bardo. Though human, not much is known about them or their origins except that they are fanatically religious in some manner and that their current leader is named Anders. After finding Skyring due to a message in a bottle sent through the Anomaly by Octavia Blake, they captured Octavia and Charmaine Diyoza, later formed some sort of deal with Diyoza's daughter Hope and turned Skyring into a prison planet for their unbelievers. They are first encountered on Sanctum when several members kidnap Bellamy Blake through the Anomaly and attempt to capture Echo and Gabriel Santiago while targeting Hope for death. Three members are killed by Echo, revealing that they are humans with advanced technology, but not much else. After discovering that Skyring is one of the other planets on the *Eligius III* colony mission, Gabriel suggests that Bardo was another *Eligius* planet as well and that the Disciples are the descendants of one of the other *Eligius* mission teams who settled on Bardo like the people on Sanctum. It is later revealed that their full name is the Disciples of a Greater Truth and that they worship a mysterious figure called the Shepherd that saved them from the destruction of Earth. The Disciples believe in \"the war to end all wars\" which Clarke Griffin supposedly holds the key to winning. Disciple warriors hold rankings going up to at least Level 12 which appears to be a Master level. Of the named Disciples, Dev was a Level 7 while Orlando was a Level 12 who trained other Disciples and was on one occasion shown to be addressed as \"Master Orlando\". Gabriel, Echo and Hope later realize that the Disciples are not *Eligius* descendants but instead came directly from Earth through the Anomaly. Nathan Miller and Niylah later discover a sigil that suggests a connection between the Disciples and the Second Dawn [doomsday cult](/wiki/Doomsday_cult \"Doomsday cult\") that built the bunker that *Wonkru* survived in. Its later revealed that the Shepherd is Bill Cadogan, the founder and leader of the Second Dawn who has been kept alive in stasis by the Disciples.", "In \"Anaconda\", its revealed that the Disciples were originally the Second Dawn cult who had started worshipping Bill Cadogan by the time that Becca Franko had arrived on Earth two years after the first nuclear apocalypse. By the time they left for Bardo, those faithful to Cadogan were already called Disciples and were able to open the Anomaly with the help of Becca and the Flame. Their belief in the \"war to end all wars\" comes from Becca finding a combination using the Flame that showed her Judgment Day, the true end of the human race. However, they need the Flame, the key that they are searching for, to find the correct combination.", "In \"The Flock\", its revealed that the Disciples train themselves to focus on the good of the community and not the individual. Rather than having families, the Disciples are grown from embryos in incubators during which time they can be perfected to remove various conditions. Their numbers are left limited however due to a lack of resources to maintain a massive population. The war that they believe is coming is with the enemy that destroyed the native Bardoans.", "In \"A Little Sacrifice\", its revealed that the Disciples believe that Clarke has the Flame due to seeing Octavia's memory of Clarke using the AI to destroy A.L.I.E. Neither Octavia nor any of Clarke's other friends ever revealed that Clarke only had the Flame for a short period of time and has long\\-since removed it. Cadogan explains to Gabriel Santiago, Niylah and Jordan Green that upon arriving on Bardo, the Disciples found logs left by the native Bardoans describing their use of the Anomaly Stone. After centuries of translating, the Disciples were able to decipher the logs which described a similar effect to what Becca experienced when she entered the final code into the Anomaly Stone and spoke of reaching Transcendence and supposedly a Last War that needs to be fought, the source of the Disciples belief system. After taking a closer look at the logs, Jordan comes to believe that the Bardoan language is structured similar to the [Korean language](/wiki/Korean_language \"Korean language\") which Jordan learned from his father and as a result, the Disciples may have mistranslated the message. Jordan's translation of the logs suggest not a Last War but a test, most likely involving one individual who uses the code representing their species to determine that race's future. The three decide to keep this to themselves as they know that Bill Cadogan is the wrong man to represent humanity in such a test if Jordan is in fact right.", "In \"The Last War,\" the Disciple army enters into a standoff with *Wonkru* and the Eligius prisoners while Cadogan takes the test, Jordan having been proven right that it was a test and not a Last War. Cadogan is killed by Clarke while *Sheidheda* initiates a battle between the two sides. After Indra kills *Sheidheda*, Octavia is able to talk both sides down. This convinces the Judge that humanity is worthy the human race Transcends, achieving the Disciples goal.", "" ]
Main cast --------- ### Clarke Griffin {{Main\|Clarke Griffin}} [thumb\|upright\=0\.68\|Eliza Taylor portrays the role of Clarke.](/wiki/File:Eliza_Taylor_by_Gage_Skidmore_cropped.jpg "Eliza Taylor by Gage Skidmore cropped.jpg") Portrayed by [Eliza Taylor](/wiki/Eliza_Taylor "Eliza Taylor"), Clarke Griffin{{cite web \| url\=http://www.thefutoncritic.com/showatch/100/ \| title\=100, THE (CW) \| publisher\=The Futon Critic \| access\-date\=May 10, 2013 }} is the daughter of Abigail Griffin and Jake Griffin, and the effective leader of the 100 for much of the series. Her backstory is that she was imprisoned as an accessory to the crimes of her father after attempting to inform their people that the Ark was dying, and thus ended up among the 100\. Down on the ground, she tries to ensure the 100's survival by assisting in the acquisition of food and resources, and she also continuously serves as their main medic before her mother and the other medical staff join them on Earth. She is portrayed as relatively benevolent, but has been shown to act ruthlessly to fight or kill in order to protect her people if there are no other options, and she possesses natural leadership qualities with the help (and early on, the opposition) of Bellamy. They learn to love each other. After killing the entire Mountain Men population to save her fellow Sky People, Clarke becomes known in Trigedasleng as *Wanheda* (literally "Death\-commander") and is sometimes also called Mountain\-slayer. Clarke becomes gradually hardened and matured by her experiences on Earth, namely the acts she has been forced to commit to survive and protect her people. This transforms her into a strong but personally troubled heroine in the series, as she continues to struggle to reunify humankind by maintaining the uneasy peace between the Arkers and some of the Grounders, and between groups among her own people. On February 28, 2015, the series creator Jason Rothenberg confirmed that Clarke is [bisexual](/wiki/Bisexual "Bisexual"); this makes her the first openly bisexual lead character on the CW network.{{cite web \|author\=Eliel Cruz \|url\=http://www.advocate.com/bisexuality/2015/02/26/cw\-has\-first\-bisexual\-lead\-character \|title\=CW Has First Bisexual Lead Character \|date\=February 26, 2015 \|publisher\=Advocate.com \|access\-date\=February 28, 2015 \|archive\-date\=June 16, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180616130303/https://www.advocate.com/bisexuality/2015/02/26/cw\-has\-first\-bisexual\-lead\-character \|url\-status\=live }} In the sixth season, Clarke's body is possessed by the consciousness of Josephine Lightbourne, but Clarke herself survives a mind wipe due to a remnant of the A.L.I.E. AI. Josephine later relinquishes control to Clarke to escape a [decapitation](/wiki/Decapitation "Decapitation") though the two continue to share her body. After Josephine manages to remain inside of Clarke's body even after the Mind Drive is removed, Clarke destroys Josephine's consciousness for good and regains full permanent control of her body. Shortly afterwards, Clarke loses her mother when Abby is mind\-wiped to become the new host for Josephine's mother, Simone. Clarke is subsequently forced to blow Simone and anything left of Abby into space in self\-defense, something that, along with her adopted daughter Madi becoming possessed by the Dark Commander, causes her to almost commit suicide, but Madi retakes control and arrests Russell. In the series finale, Clarke is the sole human not to achieve Transcendence, but her surviving friends decide to return to human form and join her in living out the rest of their lives on a regenerated Earth. ### Bellamy Blake [thumb\|left\|upright\=0\.60\|Bob Morley portrays the role of Bellamy.](/wiki/File:Bob_Morley_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg "Bob Morley by Gage Skidmore.jpg") Portrayed by [Bob Morley](/wiki/Bob_Morley "Bob Morley"), Bellamy Blake is the Co\-leader of the 100, leader of the Skaikru and The Heart in the lead dynamic \[The Head and The Heart] of the show. He's also Octavia's half brother. He professes a strong determination to protect his sister, spanning from her birth. He often says "my sister, my responsibility", something their mother had told him when Octavia was born. He was the leader of the 100 and described as the one who inspires masses. He's often inspired by Clarke after a tumultuous start to their relationship. He and Clarke develop a mutual respect and learn to compromise for each other's methods. He still feels guilty for his mother's death. In the second season, he went undercover in Mount Weather, which was a huge risk, to save 40 of his people who were held captive to extract their bone marrow. In the end he along with Clarke were able to save all of their people, although they had to kill everyone in Mount Weather, over three hundred people, after being betrayed by Lexa and the Grounder army. In the third season, he saw Clarke while she was a prisoner of Roan. In order to save her he took a huge risk by dressing as a grounder and crossed an army of grounders in order to retrieve Clarke but his attempt resulted in him being knocked out. Clarke sacrificed her freedom to prevent him from getting killed. He was manipulated by the new Chancellor after Azgeda (Ice Nation) bombed Mt Weather, killing 49 people, including his new girlfriend, Gina. In the process, he betrays Marcus Kane and put the whole of The Ark at risk of death. The bombing was made possible because Bellamy trusted Echo, the Grounder he saved in the previous season in Mt Weather. He listened to the false information she delivered in order to save Clarke. After Pike's election, Bellamy is one of the nine guards (along with Pike himself) that carry out the chancellor's orders to kill the 299 Grounder warriors sent by Lexa. Bellamy soon feels guilt for his actions, and while he saves Indra's life, this puts a rift between him and Octavia, as well as Kane. Pike gains more power with Bellamy's help, resulting in the tragic death of Lincoln, Octavia's lover. He remains one of the few people not taken over by A.L.I.E., and fights alongside Octavia and Pike to stop her. In the fourth season, he saved his people, including Riley, who were held as slaves by an Ice Nation gang. His determination to save his people often puts him in danger. Afterward, he reconciled with Kane. He is often on the grounders' side, feeling it is selfish for the Sky People to hog all the places in the bunker. In the finale he had to leave Clarke behind on the ground in order to reach the Ark. In the fifth season, it is revealed he survived on the Ark in space. After being reunited with Octavia, he feels he does not recognize her anymore due to her brutal and unforgiving ways, but still tries to get through to her. It was also his idea to try and take the cryogenically frozen prisoners hostage and have leverage with Diyoza in order to save Clarke. He also made Madi realize that they had made mistakes and asked her to forgive the Eligius crew and they all boarded the ship at his request. Also, his denial to board the ship without all of his people on board indicated his PTSD regarding leaving Clarke behind in S4 finale. He also poisoned his own sister to spare Clarke's life thus indicating a shift in his priority. In the sixth season he's still feeling guilt over Monty and Harper's along with several of his friends death which resulted in a conflict between him and Echo. When Clarke was body\-snatched by the Primes it was him who recognized it wasn't her in Clarke's body which resulted in him being knocked out. He's also the one who learns Clarke is still alive based on a Morse code message Clarke sent him. Bellamy kidnaps Josephine in an effort to save Clarke, leading to a conversation between Bellamy and Josephine about the complexity of his relationship with Clarke. After an attempt by Gabriel Santiago to remove Josephine fails, Bellamy desperately performs CPR on a dying Clarke and urges her to fight. Hearing him, Clarke destroys Josephine's consciousness and is reunited with Bellamy and Octavia. Angry at his sister, Bellamy maintains a distance from her, eventually stating that while Octavia is still his sister, she is no longer his responsibility. Together, Bellamy and Clarke work to overthrow the Primes with minimal bloodshed, though Clarke loses her mother in the process. At the end of the season, Bellamy witnesses Octavia be stabbed by Hope Diyoza and then mysteriously vanish into the Anomaly. In the seventh season, Bellamy is abducted by the mysterious Disciples through the Anomaly, chased by Echo, Gabriel Santiago and Hope Diyoza. After escaping their grasp, Bellamy attempts to rescue Octavia who negotiates for Bellamy to be returned to Sanctum instead of risking his life. However, after Anders opens the Anomaly, a dying Disciple detonates a grenade and Bellamy vanishes when the explosion clears. Bellamy is presumed dead by everyone else, driving Echo into a genocidal grief and rage against the Disciples. It's later revealed that Bellamy and his hostage the Conductor were flung through the Anomaly to Etherea where they were forced to work together over the course of at least two months to survive. Bellamy's experiences on Etherea cause him to devote himself to the Disciple cause and betray his friends when he returns to Bardo. In "Blood Giant", after Bellamy refuses to stand down, he is shot and killed by Clarke. After being informed of Bellamy's death in "A Sort of Homecoming", Octavia and Echo tell Clarke that they lost the real Bellamy a long time ago and his need for a meaning and a cause killed him, not Clarke. In "The Last War," Bellamy's beliefs about Transcendence are proven to be correct. However, Bellamy does not Transcend due to his earlier death and the fact that only the living can achieve Transcendence. ### Cece Cartwig [thumb\|right\|upright\=0\.60\|Kelly Hu](/wiki/File:Kelly_Hu_2016.jpg "Kelly Hu 2016.jpg") Portrayed by [Kelly Hu](/wiki/Kelly_Hu "Kelly Hu"), Callie "Cece" Cartwig (season 1\) is the best friend of Abigail Griffin as well as the Ark's communications officer. Callie is first seen talking to the people on The Ark about the 100 going down to Earth. She said that she cannot confirm or deny anything at the moment. When Callie learns that Abby is going to be executed she goes up to Marcus Kane to tell him that he is out of his mind and he cannot kill everyone who disagrees with him. Callie says that Abby is her friend leaving Kane to reply that he cannot do anything to stop it. Kane and Callie share a close moment. She tries to implore him to give Abby amnesty, asking him to think of their own relationship. He answers by saying that no matter what he feels, he cannot. When it is time, Callie breaks into tears walking with Abby to the place where she will be executed, embracing her and refusing to let go even at the behest of the guards. Abby asks that Callie watch out for her daughter before she dies. When the door is about to close Chancellor Thelonious Jaha demands the execution be stopped immediately and pardons Abby. Callie is thrilled for Abby, able to hold her friend again. Jason Rothenberg revealed that Hu was dropped after the first episode due to budget reasons, resulting in Callie's death offscreen.{{cite web\|last1\=Rothenberg\|first1\=Jason\|title\=Cece was floated off camera.\|url\=https://twitter.com/JRothenbergTV/status/541706696163221506\|website\=Twitter\|access\-date\=September 18, 2016\|date\=December 10, 2014\|archive\-date\=January 20, 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120063311/https://twitter.com/JRothenbergTV/status/541706696163221506\|url\-status\=live}} ### Abby Griffin Portrayed by [Paige Turco](/wiki/Paige_Turco "Paige Turco"), Abigail "Abby" Griffin (seasons 1–6; guest season 7\) is Clarke's mother. She is the chief medical officer of the Ark and the main proponent regarding the habitable status of Earth. Her husband was the chief engineer, Jake Griffin. She was a member of the Council led by Chancellor Jaha on the Ark before being stripped of her title, though she regained this position shortly afterward. Upon her arrival on Earth, Abby was Chancellor for a time when Marcus Kane gave her his pin. During this time she ruled autocratically, refusing to let Kane take over again on his return and betraying her former friend Jaha by putting him in prison. Abby becomes friends with Raven Reyes when she needs her mechanical expertise to try to get more information on what the 100 is dealing with on the ground. She begins to like the young engineer due to her reminding her of Clarke. Abby's relationship with her daughter became strained following Clarke's discovery of her mother's betrayal to her father which led to his execution. It only became more complicated once Abby and the rest of the people from the Ark joined the 100 on Earth, as they were both the leaders of their respective groups of people. Abby continues to work as the resident doctor in the newly established Sky People colony known as Arkadia (formally Camp Jaha) and has supported Marcus Kane's campaign for peaceful cohabitation with the Grounders, putting her at odds with the anti\-Grounder factions within their people. In season six's "Adjustment Protocol", Abby becomes a Nightblood to help save Clarke's adopted daughter Madi. Abby is subsequently mind\-wiped by Russell Lightbourne, effectively killing her and her body becomes the new host for Simone Lightbourne. In "The Blood of Sanctum", Clarke holds out hope that Abby survived in the same way that she did, but Russell confirms that Abby is truly gone. After a failed attempt by Simone to pose as Abby, Clarke blows Simone and several others out into space, killing them all. Abby's body is last seen floating away into deep space. In "From the Ashes", Clarke struggles with Abby's death while Murphy struggles with guilt over his role in it. Russell later returns Abby's things to Clarke in an attempt to get Clarke to kill him. In "The Last War," the Judge takes on the form of Abby when Raven takes the test to determine if the human race will Transcend or be annihilated. The Judge comments that while Abby is not Raven's mother, her opinion and judgment of Raven matters more to the young woman than that of her own biological mother. ### Finn Collins [thumb\|left\|upright\=0\.60\|Thomas McDonell portrays the role of Finn.](/wiki/File:Thomas_McDonell_2013_%28cropped%29.jpg "Thomas McDonell 2013 (cropped).jpg") Portrayed by [Thomas McDonell](/wiki/Thomas_McDonell "Thomas McDonell"), Finn Collins (seasons 1–2\) is a caring teenager who is always looking for fun and a peaceful solution. He is more interested in helping others than seeking vengeance. He was arrested for being a spacewalker and wasting the Ark's limited oxygen supply, but it was revealed that he was innocent and had taken the fall for Raven, his girlfriend, to ensure she did not ruin her engineering career or get floated. Originally Clarke's love interest, Finn's relationship with Clarke starts collapsing when she discovers his relationship with Raven. His romances with both girls ultimately end, but Finn and Clarke still love each other, and Raven still loves Finn. In the second season, his fear that Clarke has been killed by her captors in addition to the hardships he has endured cause him to become unpredictable and violent. He murders eighteen unarmed Grounders who he believed had taken Clarke hostage, and was willingly going to leave several fellow Arkers for dead in favor of continuing his search for her. As a result of his actions, the Grounders demanded retribution before they will agree to a truce between them and the Sky People, leading Commander Lexa to sentence Finn to death by a thousand cuts. However, he was mercifully killed by Clarke to prevent the Grounders from slowly and painfully killing him, though he did appear one last time during Clarke's grief\-induced hallucinations. ### Wells Jaha [thumb\|upright\=0\.60\|Eli Goree portrays the role of Wells.](/wiki/File:Eli_Goree_2011.jpg "Eli Goree 2011.jpg") Portrayed by [Eli Goree](/wiki/Eli_Goree "Eli Goree"), Wells Jaha (season 1; guest season 2\) was Clarke's childhood best friend and the son of Thelonious Jaha, who was the Ark's Chancellor at the start of the series. He is despised by some of the 100 upon landing on the ground because of his father. He intentionally committed a crime when he found out about the imminent launch of the delinquents to Earth so as to join the group in the hope to protect Clarke, for whom he harbors feelings. Clarke believed he was the reason her father is dead, only to find out later that her mother was the one who betrayed her father, and Wells willingly took the blame to prevent Clarke from hating her. On the ground, he is hardworking and thoughtful, volunteering to dig graves and collect rainwater to aid their newly established colony. It was his expert knowledge of botany that made him a valuable ally to Clarke, as she was tasked as the 100's medic due to her previous experience as the daughter of a doctor and needed herbal medicines to treat the ill and injured members of their community. He was murdered by Charlotte in the third episode, who wanted retribution for his father's execution of her parents on the Ark. He appears once again in the second season, when a hypoxic Thelonious hallucinates that Wells is alive and with him on the Ark, when everyone else has left for the surface. When Thelonious falls under A.L.I.E.'s influence, he forgets about Wells and has to be reminded by A.L.I.E., causing Abby to realize that something is wrong with him. ### Octavia Blake Portrayed by [Marie Avgeropoulos](/wiki/Marie_Avgeropoulos "Marie Avgeropoulos") (and by Olivia Steele Falconer as child) Octavia Blake is Bellamy's younger sister – a rare relationship given the Ark's one\-child rule. She was kept a secret by her family, living under the floor to avoid detection by authorities, but was eventually caught when Bellamy snuck her out of her room to attend a masked ball. Once discovered, some of the detainees discriminate against her for being a second child and thus an outcast to the Ark's dystopian society. She is a fiercely independent girl who is constantly rebelling and getting attention from men, most notably the Grounder Lincoln. However, just like Clarke, she is not exactly built for war so she is horrified at what she sees and experiences at first. In the second season, she becomes more immersed in Grounder culture and serves as Indra's second. Originally she felt hatred towards Clarke for being the daughter of someone in the same council who had her locked up. It is intensified when she discovers Clarke knew about the bombing of Tondc, did nothing about it, and allowed all those Grounders to die after the events of Mount Weather (even telling Indra that she will not leave behind Bellamy and her friends). She remains in her Grounder gear, and berates Lincoln for wearing an Ark jacket and for being naive as she still holds a grudge towards them. Eventually, Lincoln is brutally killed in front of her by Pike, causing a rift between her and Bellamy. In the fourth season, she shows more signs of being bloodthirsty after killing an ambassador who questions Roan's leadership. This new violent attitude earned her the nickname *Skairipa* ('Sky\-reaper') or Death from Above. After refusing to kill Illian and getting close with him she decides to drop the act and take him home. She later accepts the fact that she is a killer and will fight in the Grounder battle for the bunker alongside Trikru, in which she is victorious after killing Luna, and becoming the acting leader of all 12 clans by telling them they will share the bunker. She finally forgives Bellamy for Lincoln's death after he opened the bunker realizing that he would put his own life in danger just to save her and the Grounders. She later protects Nilyah and further solidified her role as new leader by saying if Skaikru does not choose the 100 people to stay in the bunker then she will kill every Skaikru member. In the season finale, she officially becomes the new leader of the new Grounder tribe consisting of Skaikru, Trikru, Azgeda, and other Grounder clans, regardless of her blood and what is in her head. In the fifth season, although still reluctant on being the leader, she tries to make peace with everyone. Eventually, overpopulation prevents from any real peace inside the bunker, so Octavia takes matters into her own hands and kills anyone who defies her or questions her view of what peace should be. Thus covering herself in their blood and being told by Gaia that it is best she keeps the blood on her, thus becoming *Blodreina* (the Red Queen) and decides anyone who breaks her laws must compete in deathmatches. During two years in the bunker, Abby's actions caused Octavia to become more dark and hateful that led to her ruthless actions as ruler of Wonkru, including murdering anyone who tries to defect, killing some of her own people in order to force them to stay alive when the only source of protein is their own dead, and culminating in her burning down the Hydrofarm in the bunker in order to force a conflict for the Shadow Valley rather than negotiating peace. Near the fifth\-season finale, she later has a change of heart, after realizing that she broke Wonkru. In the season finale, a remorseful Octavia unexpectedly helps Abby save Kane's life after a confrontation between the two women in which Octavia appeared to be torn between leaving or killing Kane. In the sixth season, she is exiled on Sanctum by Bellamy and works with Diyoza who was also exiled. After being poisoned, Octavia seeks healing from the mysterious Anomaly with the help of Gabriel Santiago. After being healed, Octavia decides to seek redemption for her actions and declares herself to be "*Blodreina* no more." At the end of season six, Octavia is stabbed by Diyoza's adult daughter Hope and disappears into the anomaly again, leaving her fate unknown. In the seventh season, its revealed that the Anomaly, which is in fact a [wormhole](/wiki/Wormhole "Wormhole"), had sent Octavia to another planet named Skyring where, due to [time dilation](/wiki/Time_dilation "Time dilation") from a [black hole](/wiki/Black_hole "Black hole"), Octavia lived for ten years with Hope and Diyoza, forming a family and finding peace. Eventually she and Diyoza were captured by a group called the Disciples and brought to another planet named Bardo where she formed a bond with a Disciple scientist named Levitt. Hope eventually rescued Octavia with Levitt's help and sent her back to Sanctum. However, as Octavia returned to a slower time dilated planet without one of the Disciples' protective helmets, she lost her memory of everything that had happened from the moment she left Sanctum. Before leaving, Levitt tattoos Hope's biometric code on Octavia's back so she can pull the young woman back to Sanctum later which is why Hope had appeared at the end of the sixth season. In the present, Hope reveals that she had only tagged Octavia with a locator tag so that she would be pulled through the Anomaly again and she is still alive. Having been returned to Bardo, Octavia regains her lost memories and witnesses Bellamy's apparent death before being rescued by Echo, Hope and Gabriel for whom five years has gone by after getting stuck on Skyring themselves. She later dedicates herself to the Disciple cause alongside Echo, Diyoza and Gabriel, although this is revealed to be a ruse. When Clarke arrives, it's revealed that the Disciples' belief that Clarke holds the Flame comes from Octavia's memories of A.L.I.E.'s destruction. Octavia is reunited with Bellamy before he betrays them, having converted to the Disciple cause. After Clarke is forced to kill Bellamy, Octavia forgives Clarke for killing her brother and is forced to face her demons due to Clarke and her friends getting stuck on Earth, specifically in the Second Dawn bunker where Octavia had ruled as *Blodreina*. When Clarke returns to Bardo to rescue Madi, Octavia joins her and is reunited with Levitt who sides with the two women. The three discover that Cadogan has gotten the needed code from Madi's mind, leaving her in a catatonic state. In "The Last War," Clarke, Octavia and Levitt fail to stop Cadogan from beginning the test to decide the fate of humanity. While Clarke kills Cadogan and takes the test herself, Octavia and Levitt join Echo in trying to stop the war between the Disciples, *Wonkru* and the Eligius prisoners. However, Levitt is shot and mortally wounded as is Echo while helping Octavia pull him to safety. After Indra finally kills the Dark Commander, Octavia steps between the two sides and gives a speech encouraging them to embrace peace with each other, acknowledging her own mistakes and reminding them that they are all humanity. Led by Indra and a Disciple named Kwame, both sides throw down their weapons and Raven is able to convince the Judge to change her mind about wiping out humanity. As a result, the human race, aside from Clarke, achieves Transcendence, saving Levitt and Echo's lives. As she Transcends, an amazed Octavia realizes that Bellamy was right in the end. Octavia subsequently chooses to return to human form to live out the rest of her life on Earth with her friends and Levitt. ### Monty Green Portrayed by [Christopher Larkin](/wiki/Christopher_Larkin_%28actor%29 "Christopher Larkin (actor)"), Monty Green (seasons 1–5, guest season 6\) is a smart and tech\-savvy teenager who is a valuable asset to the teens on Earth due to his pharmaceutical and engineering knowledge. He and Jasper were arrested for making illegal substances. He is best friends with Jasper and is among the 48 held in Mount Weather; he eventually escapes and reunites with his mother in the third season. He tries to help Jasper recover from the traumatic events in Mount Weather. He eventually becomes part of Chancellor Pike's cause after his friend Monroe is killed by the Grounders. In the process, he gets Marcus Kane put in prison and Lincoln killed. He eventually betrays his mother and Pike in "Stealing Fire" by helping Kane, Octavia, Harper, Miller, and Sinclair escape by feeding members of the Ark Guard faulty intel and distracting them. In "Nevermore", Monty is forced to kill his mother—who had taken A.L.I.E.'s key—after she nearly kills Octavia. In "Red Sky At Morning", Monty has sex with Harper in Arkadia, and is forced to delete and essentially kill his mother for a second time by wiping her memory from the City of Light. In the fourth season, he comes up with the idea of protecting his people by shielding Arkadia with a hydrogen generator and recruits Bellamy, Harper and Miller to procure it. When they do, they blow it up to rescue the slaves taken by the Ice Nation. There he learns that the Chief had killed his father and, instead of Monty killing him himself, he allows the slaves vengeance by freeing them. After realizing that Harper chose to stay behind in Arkadia, he decides to stay with her until she changes her mind; she is eventually convinced and they search for more people to recruit. In the fifth season, he is still with Harper but feels guilty about killing his mother and letting Jasper commit suicide. By the end of the season, it is revealed that he died with Harper after growing old together and raising their son, Jordan. 125 years after they had entered cryo sleep, the survivors of Earth are greeted by Jordan, who shows them Monty's video logs, which reveal that Earth is completely uninhabitable, but that Monty had found them a new habitable planet on which to live. In the sixth season, though he is dead, Monty returns as a manifestation of Clarke's mind in "Nevermind". Monty appears as Clarke is giving up the fight to encourage her to keep going and helps Clarke access Josephine's most traumatizing memory in an effort to regain some control over Clarke's body. Though they fail to stop Josephine, Monty helps Clarke send Bellamy a [Morse code](/wiki/Morse_code "Morse code") message, revealing that she is still alive by discreetly taking control of one of Clarke's fingers. ### Jasper Jordan [thumb\|left\|upright\=0\.60\|Devon Bostick portrays the role of Jasper.](/wiki/File:Devon_Bostick_2014.jpg "Devon Bostick 2014.jpg") Portrayed by [Devon Bostick](/wiki/Devon_Bostick "Devon Bostick"), Jasper Jordan (seasons 1–4\) is a goofy and geeky chemist. He is Monty's best friend. After his capture and subsequent rescue from Grounders, he becomes traumatized by his near\-death experience which he struggles to overcome. Early in the series, he has a crush on Octavia, even saving her life during an animal attack, but she offers her friendship in return instead. He was one of the delinquents' camp's gunners and is among the 48 held in Mount Weather, and becomes an acting leader of his surviving people in Clarke's and Bellamy's absences. Jasper later becomes romantically involved with a Mount Weather resident, Maya who was later killed. In grief, Jasper becomes an alcoholic and he is disgusted that his own people would steal from Mount Weather after the war with its inhabitants as well as hating Clarke. Monty and Octavia struggle to help Jasper to cope with his loss, but although Jasper was briefly tempted by the City of Light tablets, when he realised that they erased all good memories relating to painful topics, he refused to take one, even breaking Raven out of Camp Jaha and taking her to Clarke and other escapees for medical treatment to remove the chip. It is revealed that he has been chipped while on Luna's oil rig and turns on the 100 under A.L.I.E.'s command. He is freed from her control once she is defeated. In the fourth season, he attempts suicide only for Raven to tell him they only have six months to live. He eventually commits suicide by remaining at Arkadia and taking an [overdose](/wiki/Drug_overdose "Drug overdose") of hallucinogenic nuts, convincing several other people to join him. Monty attempts to save Jasper as the death wave approaches, but can only be at his side as he dies. In the fifth season, Clarke recovers Jasper's goggles and suicide note from the ruins of Arkadia and Monty learns that Jasper had been intending to commit suicide since he emerged from the City of Light and held a belief that they ruin everything around them. Monty and Harper later name their son Jordan Jasper Green in Jasper's honor. {{clear}} ### Thelonious Jaha [thumb\|upright\=0\.60\|Isaiah Washington portrays the role of Thelonious.](/wiki/File:Isaiah_Washington.JPG "Isaiah Washington.JPG") Portrayed by [Isaiah Washington](/wiki/Isaiah_Washington "Isaiah Washington"), Thelonious Jaha, commonly referred to as "Jaha" (seasons 1–5\) is Wells' father and the former Chancellor of the Ark. Jaha, along with Marcus, were best friends with Jake Griffin and his family. However, his and Marcus' friendship with the Griffins deteriorates after Jake's death and Clarke's subsequent arrest but he manages to maintain his friendship with Abby. He loses his power while on Earth as he clashes with Abby and Marcus over their views on the Grounders in addition to the unconfirmed destination, the "City of Light". Along with Murphy, he leads a small group of his followers from Camp Jaha to find the city. Having discovered A.L.I.E., the artificial intelligence that controls the City of Light, Jaha has become the delegated leader of A.L.I.E.'s cult, manipulating others into joining to escape the pain of daily life. Jaha is unconcerned about the side\-effects even when presented with clear evidence that the City of Light erases even good memories to spare the users from psychological pain, such as Jaha having lost all memory of his son, he is soon freed from A.L.I.E.'s control after her defeat. He becomes guilt\-ridden after he sees all the casualties in Polis due to him feeding everyone a chip. In the fourth season, he assists Clarke in being a leader for her people such as suggesting they find shelter in a lost bunker, only to discover it could not hold out radiation. Jaha tells everyone that if they want to survive the second nuclear explosion they must earn a lottery pick to ensure they will be on that list. He eventually comes to the realization the bunker was a decoy and the real one is in Polis, the Grounder capital, so he decides to recruit Gaia on what she knows about the symbol on the token and eventually learns it is a key to open the bunker. He eventually finds it and successfully opens it, he takes a child after promising his father to take care of him. In the fifth season, he is stabbed by an *Azgeda* warrior and dies in front of Kane, Abby, and Octavia. His death is avenged by Octavia who kills the warrior who had stabbed Jaha while establishing her reign as *Blodreina*. ### Marcus Kane [thumb\|left\|upright\=0\.60\|Henry Ian Cusick portrays the role of Marcus.](/wiki/File:Henry_Ian_Cusick_%289425069422%29_Cropped.jpg "Henry Ian Cusick (9425069422) Cropped.jpg") Portrayed by [Henry Ian Cusick](/wiki/Henry_Ian_Cusick "Henry Ian Cusick"), Marcus Kane (seasons 1–6\) is one of the Councillors on the Ark. When Thelonious Jaha was Chancellor, he was second\-in\-command. He, along with Jaha, were friends with Jake Griffin and his family, but his friendship with them did not last after Jake's execution and Clarke's subsequent arrest. Though he initially supports population culls to extend life on the Ark, when Earth is shown to be survivable, he is guilt\-stricken and works with everyone to survive in hopes of making amends of his past misdeeds. This, in addition to his mother's influence and death, affect his later actions of seeking peaceful and compromising solutions when governing his people after arriving on Earth. In the process, he gains allies who respect his new approaches, rebuilds his friendship with Jake's wife Abby Griffin, and earns the Grounders commander Lexa's trust. Kane aligns himself with Abby, who becomes Jaha's successor, avoid becoming a Chancellor so that he make decisions for his people on his own terms. In the fifth season, six years after Praimfaya he takes the fall for Abby's crime and proceeds to fight in gladiator battles but refuses once Octavia shows signs of being a dictator. After being severely injured in the fifth\-season finale, he is put into stasis and remains there in the sixth season after a failed attempt to save his life. Kane's mind is eventually transferred into the body of a young man named Gavin to save his life, erasing Gavin's mind in the process. In "What You Take With You", Kane decides to commit [suicide](/wiki/Suicide "Suicide") rather than continuing to live in someone else's body. After awakening Indra and leading a coup against the Primes on *Eligius IV*, Kane says a final goodbye to Abby before having Indra blow him out of an airlock along with the new Nightblood serum. In "Adjustment Protocol", when Abby is mind\-wiped to become the new host of Simone Lightbourne, she remembers Kane in her last moments alongside her daughter and deceased husband. ### Raven Reyes [thumb\|upright\=0\.70\|Lindsey Morgan portrays the role of Raven.](/wiki/File:Lindsey_Morgan_Wondercon_2016_cropped.jpg "Lindsey Morgan Wondercon 2016 cropped.jpg") Portrayed by [Lindsey Morgan](/wiki/Lindsey_Morgan "Lindsey Morgan"), Raven Reyes (seasons 2–7; recurring season 1\) is an ambitious zero\-gravity mechanic when on board the Ark who is not afraid of anyone or anything. She later collaborates with Abby Griffin in her escape from the Ark and launches herself in a pod to Earth, and occasionally advises Abby in the fields of electronics and mechanical engineering after she becomes chancellor on Earth. Brave and intelligent, Raven leads the camp in setting up communications and making bombs. She was childhood friends with Finn and was in a relationship with him until he fell in love with Clarke. It is revealed in the second season, that Finn took the blame for Raven's crime because she was already 18 and would be floated. She was the first zero G mech student under the age of 18 in 52 years. While she was originally rejected for medical reasons, leading to her illegal spacewalk, Jacapo Sinclair overrode the decision due to Raven's talent. In the third season, with Abby's help, Raven begins recovering from the injuries she sustained from last season. She joins Jaha's cause after reluctantly taking a tablet given to her by him, she does begin to fight the side effects after Jasper reminds her about Finn. She is soon saved by Clarke and freed of A.L.I.E.'s control using an [EMP](/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse "Electromagnetic pulse") device that Raven herself had designed and that Sinclair had finished for her. Retaining the intelligence she gained from the AI, Raven helps discover her weakness and aids Clarke in destroying her. In the fourth season, she bonds with Luna for her loss and convinces her to help save everyone on Earth, she also forgives Murphy for shooting her in the spine. It is revealed that due to retaining a remnant of A.L.I.E.'s code, she is able to use 90% of her brain but developed a negative side effect that could cause her to have a stroke, possibly leading to her death. As she works on a way to recreate Nightblood, Raven experiences a series of hallucinations, including Becca who tempts her with the chance to spacewalk before she dies of her deteriorating condition. However, a hallucination of Sinclair helps Raven to come up with a way to purge the code and save her own life. By freezing herself to death, thus preserving brain function and remaining flatlined for fifteen minutes, Raven is able to "reboot" her brain, purging the code and restoring herself to normal. Afterwards, Clarke rescues her and requests she fly them to the Ark to escape the second Apocalypse which she agrees to do, and successfully able to fly them to space and finally was able to spacewalk again. In the fifth season, Raven becomes an improved fighter being able to topple Echo in combat and plans to return to Earth. She soon notices another ship landing on Earth, and proceeds to follow it. She realizes that there are other life forms in cryostasis on the *Eligius IV* prison ship and decides to stay behind and lies about an escape pod so that Bellamy will not argue with her when she stays behind on *Eligius IV*. After returning to Earth, she forms a romantic relationship with the Eligius pilot Miles Shaw. Throughout the season, Raven is employed as a pilot by both her friends and the Eligius prisoners with their clashing priorities putting Raven and her friends at odds with Clarke. At the end of the season, as the one inhabitable valley left is destroyed, Raven and Shaw fly the survivors back to *Eligius IV*. In the sixth season, Raven loses Shaw soon after landing on the new world, Sanctum, and becomes bitter and angry towards Clarke and Abby for their various decisions. When the Lee family from Sanctum seizes control of *Eligius IV*, Raven awakens Charmaine Diyoza from cryosleep and retakes the ship with her and Madi's help, leading to the deaths of all but one of the hijackers. Raven is left as the sole pilot of both the Earth group and Sanctum following the deaths of the Lee family, the one survivor, Kaylee Lee, later being murdered on Sanctum by Josephine Lightbourne. After Josephine, posing as Clarke whose body she has taken over, makes a deal with Abby to save Marcus Kane using the Mind Drive technology, Raven flies Abby and a group from Sanctum back to the mothership. However, she is horrified to learn that a young man will be sacrificed to resurrect Kane. Raven reluctantly helps Abby, not wanting Abby's death on her conscience from an ill\-advised spacewalk of her own, but awakens Indra to help with the situation. Kane eventually decides to float himself and the new Nightblood, sacrificing himself to stop other people from being sacrificed. Upon returning to Sanctum, Raven is imprisoned and nearly burned at the stake before Murphy talks Russell Lightbourne out of it. Raven makes amends with Abby shortly before Abby's death to resurrect Simone Lightbourne and works to save Madi from the Dark Commander possessing her through the Flame. Raven is eventually forced to destroy the Flame to save Madi while Clarke manages to retake control of the ship after killing all of the Primes except for Russell. In the seventh season, Raven works to help keep the peace between the various factions on Sanctum, partially by helping to guide Murphy and Emori in their assumed roles as Daniel and Kaylee Prime. When Sanctum's [nuclear reactor](/wiki/Nuclear_reactor "Nuclear reactor") begins to [meltdown](/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown "Nuclear meltdown"), Raven is forced to enlist the help of four of the Eligius prisoners to fix the cooling system while Murphy and Emori, protected by their own Nightblood, fix the reactor core. Having originally lied to the prisoners about the severity of the danger that they are in, Raven is forced to lie to them again when the radiation exposure proves to be more extreme than she anticipated which causes it to be fatal to the prisoners. Unwilling to trust the prisoners to do the right thing in the face of death, Raven forces Murphy to help them with the last of the repairs, unaware that one had already figured it out but was continuing anyway to protect his loved ones. With Murphy's help, the prisoners fix the cooling system at the last possible second, but all perish aside from the Nightblood\-protected Murphy and Emori, leaving Raven devastated and haunted by the deaths that she had caused. Raven later teams up with Jordan Green to examine the armor of a dead Disciple, figuring out how to use it and learning that the mysterious Anomaly is in fact a [wormhole](/wiki/Wormhole "Wormhole"). With her friends in danger, Raven uses the armor to rescue them, but is further haunted by having to kill eight people to do it so soon after the deaths she caused in fixing the reactor. With the armor's help, Raven leads her friends on a rescue mission for Bellamy, Octavia, Echo and Hope, but accidentally directs them to the wrong planet, an icy world called Nakara with no sign of any way to reopen the Anomaly back. Using her armor, Raven leads the group to the Anomaly Stone and determines the code for the right planet, but Raven admits to Clarke that she feels like her soul is cracked with all of the deaths that she has caused. Raven successfully leads the group to Bardo where they learn of Bellamy's apparent death and meet Bill Cadogan while trying to save their remaining friends. In the series finale, it is Raven who takes the test that determines humanity's future, ultimately convincing the Judge that the human race is worthy of Transcendence. Though Raven Transcends as well, she joins Clarke's friends in choosing to return to human form to live out their lives on Earth. ### Lincoln [thumb\|left\|upright\=0\.60\|Ricky Whittle portrays the role of Lincoln.](/wiki/File:Ricky_Whittle_June_14%2C_2014_%28cropped%29.jpg "Ricky Whittle June 14, 2014 (cropped).jpg") Portrayed by [Ricky Whittle](/wiki/Ricky_Whittle "Ricky Whittle"), Lincoln (seasons 2–3; recurring season 1\) is a Grounder who rescues Octavia. The pair develop a romantic relationship, and Lincoln helps the 100 multiple times, causing him to be viewed as a traitor to his people. He later is drugged to become a reaper, but with Clarke's and Abby's assistance, he is successfully rehabilitated from the drug. During the final battle with Mount Weather, Lincoln catches up to and kills the escaping Cage Wallace. Having been viewed as a traitor by some of his people, Lincoln resides in Camp Jaha with Octavia. He is put in prison by Pike with the help of Bellamy and shot by Pike after surrendering to save his fellow Grounders from execution. His body is subsequently recovered and burned alongside that of Jacapo Sinclair. ### John Murphy [thumb\|upright\=0\.60\|Richard Harmon portrays the role of Murphy.](/wiki/File:Richard_Harmon_at_Cruel_and_Unusual_Premiere_-_14112581578.jpg "Richard Harmon at Cruel and Unusual Premiere - 14112581578.jpg") Portrayed by [Richard Harmon](/wiki/Richard_Harmon "Richard Harmon"), John Murphy (seasons 3–7; recurring seasons 1–2\) starts out as one of Bellamy's men and is generally disliked by the group due to his reputation of being a troublemaker and career criminal, making him one of the few members to actually have committed felonies and not petty misdemeanors. After being wrongfully accused by Clarke and nearly lynched, he tries to kill Charlotte. As a result of her suicide, he is banished from the camp. He later returns, surviving being tortured by the Grounders. He seems to have forgiven the 100, but he kills two and attempts to hang Bellamy and accidentally shoots Raven in the spine. In the second season, he is rescued by Raven from a surrounding Grounder and expresses remorse for his actions. Murphy explains to Raven that his father was executed for stealing medical supplies to help Murphy when he got sick and his mother became an alcoholic who drank herself to death after blaming Murphy for her husband's death. Murphy helps the 100 as they search for their lost members, even saving Bellamy's life when he could have let him drop. As he is still disliked in Camp Jaha, he accompanies Jaha to find the City of Light. On the way, he befriends a Grounder named Emori who later betrays and robs the group. He eventually finds a lighthouse where he is trapped by Jaha and A.L.I.E. after watching a video that shows that A.L.I.E. caused the [nuclear holocaust](/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust "Nuclear holocaust"). In the third season, he leaves the island after not wanting to be a part of Jaha's insane missions, and gets a boat ride from Emori. After Emori transports him and Jaha across the sea, he refuses to take the key and flees with Emori. They start robbing people in the Commander's Forrest and he is eventually captured by Grounder warriors and brought to Polis, as one of the captors discovers a chip in his pocket which has the "Sacred Symbol of the Commander". He is tortured for information by Titus and eventually tells him what he knows. After seeing an escape pod marked Polaris with the a and r burned off as well as drawings, Murphy pieces together the story of the First Commander Becca and her connection to The Ark. Later on, Titus tries to murder Clarke and frame Murphy but accidentally shoots and kills Lexa. After she dies he witnesses Titus remove the chip. After Titus gives Clarke the chip and commits suicide, Ontari makes him the new "Flamekeeper" since he is the only other person to have witnessed it being removed from another person. Ontari takes a liking to him and wants him to sleep with her; if he refuses, she will kill him. He later reunites with Emori who is under A.L.I.E.'s control, and A.L.I.E. implies to her that Ontari's had sex with him. During the final battle with A.L.I.E., Murphy plays a vital part by manually pumping the brain\-dead Ontari's heart to keep a blood transfusion to Clarke going so that she can use the Flame to destroy A.L.I.E. In the fourth season, after the City of Light is destroyed and A.L.I.E.'s control over everyone dissolves, Murphy stays behind with Emori. When he finds out there's a nuclear disaster coming which will wipe out everyone on Earth, he and Emori decide to side with Clarke, who has a plan that might save 100 people. Murphy ends up helping Raven with another plan, and he is confronted with what he is put her through after he shot her. When Raven opts to stay behind, he has a rare emotional moment and shares a tearful goodbye with her. Murphy later retreats to the remnants of the Ark in space with Bellamy, Raven, Emori and Echo to survive the coming nuclear apocalypse. In the fifth season, six years after Praimfaya, he breaks up with Emori and suffers from an inferiority complex. As they land on the Eligius ship before Bellamy and the others land on Earth, he decides to stay on the ship to protect Raven only for her to berate him by telling him she lied about the escape pod, much to his dismay. Murphy eventually returns to the ground where his skill in manipulation proves vital in causing a mass [riot](/wiki/Riot "Riot") between the prisoners, though Murphy elects to stay behind as the others flee in order to help Kane rescue Abby. In the final battle, Murphy is badly wounded and elects to remain behind until Emori refuses to leave him as she loves Murphy too much to lose him. Unwilling to let Emori lose him, Murphy allows Monty to carry him to safety shortly before the last inhabitable valley on Earth is destroyed. Murphy recovers from his injuries under Abby's care and goes into cryosleep with everyone except for Monty and Harper for the next 125 years. In the sixth season, Murphy allies himself with the Primes on Sanctum after being offered immortality for himself and Emori despite the Primes killing Clarke to become Josephine Lightbourne's new host. Murphy finds himself torn between his friends and immortality, particularly due to his fears of what awaits him after death. Murphy eventually proposes marriage to Emori who accepts. Though Murphy gains the chance to become a Prime and immortal, he turns his back on the Primes after losing both Abby and Clarke in favor of saving his people with Emori. Clarke, who survived and had been posing as Josephine, admits that she is proud of him, causing Murphy to realize that his friend is still alive. Murphy and Emori manage to rescue their friends and Murphy aids Gabriel Santiago in subduing the Sanctum citizens who have been driven insane by the Red Sun toxin, helping to prevent the massacre of innocent people as Murphy is the only one who can help Gabriel infiltrate their ranks in his guise as Daniel Lee. During this time, Murphy meets Zev, the male lover of Daniel. Murphy's reaction to Zev suggests that Murphy may not be strictly heterosexual, though this is unconfirmed. In the seventh season, Murphy struggles with guilt over his role in Abby's death and remorse for his actions. Murphy reluctantly assumes the role of Daniel alongside Emori as Kaylee in order to help keep the peace between all of the volatile factions inhabiting Sanctum. After Sanctum's [nuclear reactor](/wiki/Nuclear_reactor "Nuclear reactor") begins to [meltdown](/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown "Nuclear meltdown"), Raven enlists the help of Murphy and Emori, who had both become Nightbloods in preparation for becoming Primes, to help her and four Eligius prisoners fix the problem. With their Nightblood, Murphy and Emori are able to fix the reactor core, though both suffer negative effects from the radiation. After the prisoners suffer a fatal dose of radiation, Raven, not willing to trust them to do the right thing when faced with certain death, lies to them and tricks Murphy into helping, relying on his sense of self\-preservation. Murphy bonds with the prisoner Hatch who has already deduced the truth but like Murphy, is trying to protect someone he loves. Together, Murphy and Hatch manage to fix the reactor at the last possible second, though Hatch dies in the process. Murphy and Emori both survive due to their Nightblood, though it takes Emori longer to recover than it does Murphy. With the Faithful threatening self\-immolation, Indra enlists the help of a reluctant Murphy to pose as Daniel again and talk them down. Upon seeing the Faithful about to sacrifice children, Murphy risks his own life to rescue the children, but in the process reveals his deception to Daniel's lover Zev. Nearly burned alive, Murphy is rescued when Emori and Indra bring in Russell to talk down the Faithful, with Russell reaffirming Murphy and Emori's covers. However, Indra realizes in the process that Russell's body has in fact been taken over by *Sheidheda*, the Dark Commander. Murphy and Emori's deception is subsequently revealed by Nikki and Nelson, the leader of the Children of Gabriel, before *Sheidheda* slaughters many of the Faithful. In the aftermath of the massacre, with the Dark Commander consolidating his power and Indra deposed, Murphy takes leadership of the massacre survivors to hide and oppose *Sheidheda's* reign with Murphy showing an understanding of the way the Dark Commander operates and something of an ability to predict what he is up to. In turn, *Sheidheda* appears to genuinely like and respect Murphy despite being on opposing sides, the two treating their conflict like a game of chess and at one point, playing chess together to pass the time when their conflict is at a stalemate before Clarke's return. After discovering that Earth has regenerated, Murphy expresses a desire to relocate everyone on Sanctum to humanity's much\-safer homeworld. In the series finale, after Emori dies, Murphy decides to place her Mind Drive into his own head despite knowing that it will inevitably be fatal to him as he would rather spend his last few hours with Emori than the rest of his life without her. When the human race Transcends, Murphy and Emori join them, but decide to join the rest of Clarke's friends in returning to human form to live out the rest of their lives on Earth. ### Roan Portrayed by [Zach McGowan](/wiki/Zach_McGowan "Zach McGowan"), Roan (season 4; recurring season 3; guest season 7\) is an Ice Nation fugitive who is tempted by Lexa to kidnap Clarke. He turns out to be Prince Roan, son of Queen Nia. He later becomes king of the Ice Nation after Lexa kills Nia for attempting to overthrow her. He supports Ontari as the new Commander and attempts to track down Clarke who has escaped with the Flame. Roan and Clarke instead form an alliance to give Ontari the Flame to help shut down A.L.I.E. but the plan fails and Roan is shot by Kane. He is rescued when Clarke and Abby take the bullet out of his chest. Echo tries to tempt him to kill Clarke for her crimes as well as secure his position as ruler of the 13 clans. However, Clarke gives him A.L.I.E. 2\.0 in hopes that he will let her and her people live to save the planet from the nuclear explosion in 6 months which he accepts. Later, he learns that Skaikru seems to be protecting themselves thus ending the alliance. Clarke convinces Roan to share Arkadia until it explodes. He takes part in the challenge where each tribe sends a champion to fight for the position of the leader – who gets to decide which tribe survives in the bunker. He banishes Echo for trying to cheat in the tournament, and declines to fight Octavia, whom he respects. In the end he is killed by the Nightblood Luna, who drowns him. In season 7's "From the Ashes", Roan reappears to Echo along with the real Echo as a hallucination due to Red Sun toxin. The two accuse Echo of being a killer and press her on who Echo is now, reminding Echo of her many mistakes. ### Echo Portrayed by [Tasya Teles](/wiki/Tasya_Teles "Tasya Teles"), Echo (seasons 5–7; guest seasons 2–3; recurring season 4\) is a former Ice Nation Grounder who was trapped at Mount Weather. She saves Bellamy's life, which leads him to trust her and he helps her escape. She later betrays him and helps act out a plan that led to the destruction of Mount Weather. After the events in the City of Light she blames Skaikru for all the casualties and demands for Clarke's execution. She becomes a royal guard and the bodyguard of Roan, but is banished for her interference in the Grounder battle. She assists Octavia in trying to open the bunker, but Octavia will only help Azgeda and not her. She fights off Grounders who tried to kill Clarke and provides protection onward in exchange for her safety when the death wave hits. In the season finale, Bellamy talks Echo out of [suicide](/wiki/Suicide "Suicide") and she joins Bellamy's group in retreating to the remains of the Ark in space. In the fifth season, six years later, she is romantically involved with Bellamy, and afraid to return to Earth, knowing that Octavia will want her dead. Once she returns to Earth, she is confronted by Octavia who reminds her of her banishment but gives her an ultimatum on spying on the people of *Eligius IV* in exchange for banishment being lifted, and Octavia executes several of her people in order to make her defection seem legitimate. In season six's "Ashes to Ashes", it's revealed that the real Echo is long dead. The current Echo is her best friend Ash who was forced to kill Echo as a child and take her place by Queen Nia of the Ice Nation. In the same episode, Echo becomes a Nightblood after being injected with Madi's [bone marrow](/wiki/Bone_marrow "Bone marrow"), narrowly escaping being mind\-wiped with the help of Gaia and Nathan Miller. Echo helps to build a rebellion against the Primes and joins her friends in trying to do better by saving as many people as they can from a psychosis\-induced massacre created by the Primes releasing a toxin into the population. The group eventually succeeds, but in the aftermath, Octavia is stabbed by Hope Diyoza and vanishes into the mysterious Anomaly. In the seventh season, Echo works with Hope and Gabriel Santiago to rescue Octavia and Bellamy who has been kidnapped by the mysterious Disciples. Following the Disciples through the Anomaly, in reality a [wormhole](/wiki/Wormhole "Wormhole"), to the planet Skyring, the group becomes trapped when the message containing the code they need to continue on to Bardo is washed away. Due to the [time dilation](/wiki/Time_dilation "Time dilation") from a nearby [black hole](/wiki/Black_hole "Black hole"), time passes much faster on Skyring than on Sanctum, causing their friends to be initially unaware of how long they have been gone and the danger they are in. Echo, Hope and Gabriel are eventually forced to wait for five years on Sanctum for the Disciples to return for their prisoner Orlando in order to get a chance to reach Bardo. Orlando eventually agrees to train the group as Disciples to help in their rescue mission, but when the time comes to leave, Echo decides that they can't trust Orlando to help them on Bardo and abandons him on Skyring after killing all of the Disciples that they have subdued. As later revealed by Captain Meredith, Echo's betrayal caused Orlando to subsequently commit [suicide](/wiki/Suicide "Suicide"). On Bardo, the three manage to rescue Octavia from the Disciples' memory capture machine, only to learn that Bellamy had been apparently killed a week before trying to rescue his sister himself. Grief\-stricken and enraged, Echo brutally kills their hostage, ruining the plan to use him to help rescue Charmaine Diyoza. Echo later tries to commit genocide on the Disciples in revenge, but is stopped by her friends. Though Echo is reunited with Bellamy who had in fact survived, Bellamy has been changed for the worse by his experiences. After Clarke kills Bellamy, Echo tells Clarke that she feels the real Bellamy has been dead for awhile and sinks into a depression over his loss and her unwillingness to reveal the truth about her identity to him. In the series finale, Echo is mortally wounded risking her life to help Octavia. When humanity achieves Transcendence, as Hope has been keeping Echo alive with CPR after her heart stops, she is able to join them. Along with the rest of Clarke's surviving friends, Echo chooses to return to human form to live out the rest of her life on Earth rather than remain Transcended. ### Jordan Green Portrayed by [Shannon Kook](/wiki/Shannon_Kook "Shannon Kook"), Jordan Green (seasons 6–7; guest season 5\) is the son of Monty Green and Harper McIntyre. During his time on Sanctum, Jordan builds a relationship with Nightblood Delilah Workman who becomes the host to Prime Priya Desai, resulting in Delilah's mind being completely wiped. Due to his love for Priya's host, Jordan shows a great deal of care for Priya who has no memory of him, saving her life when Madi, under the influence of the Dark Commander, begins murdering Primes. Jordan is severely wounded in the process, but survives and Priya sees to his recovery personally. After learning that Clarke survived the mind wipe to become Josephine Lightbourne's host, Jordan expresses hope that Delilah survived as well and becomes angry when his friends refuse to even try to save Delilah, unaware that Clarke had only survived due to her experiences with A.L.I.E. During the revolution on Sanctum, the Adjustors attempt to brainwash Jordan who is rescued by his friends partway through the process but is left in an unresponsive trance until the next morning. In the aftermath of the revolution, which left all of the Primes aside from Russell Lightbourne dead, Jordan chooses to remain on Sanctum to help clean up the mess, pointing out that while Sanctum wasn't perfect before they got there, it worked. Jordan is shown to have kept one of the Prime's Mind Drives, presumably that of Priya who was killed by Delilah's vengeful mother. In season 7, Jordan attempts to act as an intermediary with the Adjustors and Russell. Despite undergoing the brainwashing, Jordan states that he doesn't believe in the divinity of the Primes and instead shows sympathy for Russell who he feels is simply a man who has lost his way. Though Jordan returns Priya's Mind Drive to Russell, the depressed and suicidal man destroys it instead. Jordan and Russell have a conversation about the mysterious Anomaly which Jordan finds himself drawn to due to the experiences he had under the influence of the Red Sun toxin. Having also been drawn to the Anomaly, Russell suggests that it is now Jordan's job to try to figure the mystery out. Jordan is eventually rejected by Russell's followers who dub themselves the Faithful while *Sheidheda*, who has killed Russell and taken over his body, manipulates Jordan as part of his own plans. Jordan teams up with Raven to examine the armor of a dead Disciple, having not seen her since they worked together briefly after *Eligius IV* arrived at Sanctum. Upon learning that the Anomaly is a [wormhole](/wiki/Wormhole "Wormhole") and that Clarke is in trouble, Raven and Jordan rush to their friends' rescue with Raven using the armor to kill eight Disciples, something that leaves her disturbed. Having learned that their friends are trapped on another planet, Jordan joins Clarke, Raven, Miller and Niylah in traveling through the Anomaly in search of them. Eventually reaching the Disciple homeworld of Bardo, Jordan is shown the logs of the native Bardoans by Bill Cadogan, logs that the Disciples believe speak of a last war and then transcendence after entering "the final code" into the Anomaly Stone. Based on his knowledge of the [Korean language](/wiki/Korean_language "Korean language") from Monty, Jordan comes to the conclusion that the Disciples mistranslated the logs. Instead of a last war, Jordan's translation of the logs suggest a test undertaken by whoever enters the code, that individual representing their species to determine that species' future. He grows close to Hope Diyoza with the two starting to form a romantic relationship with each other. ### Russell Lightbourne Portrayed by [JR Bourne](/wiki/JR_Bourne "JR Bourne") (season 7; recurring season 6\) and [Sean Maguire](/wiki/Sean_Maguire "Sean Maguire"), Russell Lightbourne is the leader of Sanctum. Originally a colonist from Earth and an [astronomer](/wiki/Astronomer "Astronomer"), Russell fell under the influence of the first Red Sun Eclipse and slaughtered many of the other Eligus colonists, including his own daughter Josephine, in a psychotic state. Russell subsequently spent the next twenty\-five years working with Josephine's boyfriend Gabriel Santiago to find a way to resurrect those that they lost, eventually succeeding through Mind Drives and Nightblood hosts and gaining a form of immortality. The original colonists became known as the Primes and ruled over the citizens of Sanctum, sacrificing innocent people in order to extend their own lives. However, due to moral concerns, Gabriel eventually abandoned the Primes to form the militant group known as the Children of Gabriel. When the survivors from Earth arrived, Russell and the other Primes were initially welcoming, but this changed after Russell and his wife Simone learned that [Clarke Griffin](/wiki/Clarke_Griffin "Clarke Griffin") was a Nightblood. Desperate to resurrect Josephine and unwilling to wait potentially 56 years for their chance, the two mind wiped Clarke, apparently killing her and kept the secret of Josephine's return. The two enticed Abigail Griffin to help them make more Nightblood to make new hosts to deal with the dwindling population of Nightbloods despite having murdered her daughter by promising to help her save Marcus Kane. Unlike his wife, Russell initially showed remorse and hesitation over some of their actions, being visibly anguished while killing Clarke and genuinely remorseful when apologizing to Bellamy Blake while trying to make a deal with him. Russell was elated to learn that Clarke had survived, seeing the new Nightblood as a solution that would allow him to bring Josephine back in a willing host while restoring Clarke. However, under the influence of the Dark Commander, Clarke's adopted daughter Madi began slaughtering Primes and Josephine was unwilling to give up Clarke's body, instead desiring to get rid of Clarke for good and keep her body. This led to conflict between the Primes and Earth survivors with Clarke's friends seeking out Gabriel to help free her from Josephine's control, though Bellamy intended to trade Josephine's Mind Drive to Russell for peace. After Clarke's friends began fostering rebellion, leading to Simone's death, Russell abandoned all restraint and nearly burned them at the stake before John Murphy offered a way to restore the Primes using [bone marrow transplants](/wiki/Bone_marrow_transplant "Bone marrow transplant") to recreate Nightblood. Russell sacrificed Abby to be the new host for Simone and unleashed Red Sun toxin to turn Sanctum's citizens on each other while the Primes fled the planet. Having killed Josephine and been posing as her, Clarke thwarted the Primes' plan to mind wipe Wonkru and blew all of the Primes except for Russell into deep space while her friends managed to stop the fighting on Sanctum. Russell allied himself with the Dark Commander to get revenge upon Clarke, but Madi regained control and had Russell arrested for his crimes. In "From the Ashes", a depressed and suicidal Russell has refused to eat, drink or sleep since his arrest while the various factions of Sanctum clamor for either his release or execution. Apparently disillusioned with his former image of a living divinity, Russell destroyed Priya's Mind Drive before discussing with Jordan Green the mysterious Anomaly that they were both drawn to. When Clarke sought his help to calm the factions, Russell purposefully goaded Clarke with her mother's memory in an attempt to get Clarke to kill him. Though nearly successful, Clarke knocked Russell unconscious instead. Russell awakened in a Mindspace in his original form where he was greeted by *Sheidheda*, the Dark Commander who had downloaded himself into Russell's Mind Drive when the Flame was deleted. The Dark Commander slit Russell's throat, killing him and destroying Russell's consciousness. With Russell gone, *Sheidheda* resurrected himself in Russell's body and began pretending to be the deposed Prime. [Jason Rothenberg](/wiki/Jason_Rothenberg "Jason Rothenberg") confirmed that Russell will stay dead and will not return to battle *Sheidheda* for control of his body as happened with Clarke and Josephine.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.hypable.com/the\-100\-season\-7\-jason\-rothenberg\-interview/\|title \= 'The 100' boss breaks down season 7 premiere: Is \[spoiler] really dead? Is Madi okay? Is there light ahead?\|date \= May 21, 2020}} Though *Sheidheda* initially is successful in posing as Russell, Indra realizes the truth in "Welcome to Bardo" and has Russell's Mind Drive removed from his body so that *Sheidheda* can never be resurrected again. Eventually, as he consolidated his power, *Sheidheda* revealed the truth to everyone that Russell was in fact dead and that it was now *Sheidheda* that controlled his host body. In the series finale, Indra kills *Sheidheda* by blowing up Russell's host body with a sonic cannon. With Russell's Mind Drive removed and the Flame destroyed, the Dark Commander's consciousness perishes with Russell's body, making his demise permanent. ### *Sheidheda* Portrayed by [Dakota Daulby](/wiki/Dakota_Daulby "Dakota Daulby") and [JR Bourne](/wiki/JR_Bourne "JR Bourne"), *Sheidheda* (season 7; recurring season 6\), also known as the Dark Commander, is a former Commander and leader of the Grounders. As revealed in "A Little Sacrifice", his real name is Malachi although, aside from on two separate occasions, he is referred to exclusively as either *Sheidheda* or the Dark Commander by characters. Unlike most of the other Commanders, *Sheidheda* is pure evil, killing his first three Flamekeepers, anyone who wouldn't bow to him and their entire families. As a child, Indra once saw the Dark Commander in action on *Trikru* land. Indra's father died in the battle while her mother bowed to *Sheidheda* with it later being suggested that she did so in exchange for him sparing her daughter's life. Eventually, the Dark Commander is killed by his fourth Flamekeeper. Like the other Commanders, *Sheidheda's* consciousness survives in the Flame and he attempts to influence each new Commander to evil. However, the Commanders and their Flamekeepers have a Separation Ritual which calls upon the Spirits of the Commanders to seal *Sheidheda* away from each new Commander. In the sixth season, new Commander Madi Griffin begins to see *Sheidheda* after arriving upon Sanctum. Initially able to resist the Dark Commander's influence, Madi eventually begins to see him in the waking world. Concerned, her Flamekeeper Gaia has Madi attempt the Separation Ritual, but it ultimately fails. After receiving word that her adopted mother [Clarke Griffin](/wiki/Clarke_Griffin "Clarke Griffin") had been killed in order to resurrect Josephine Lightbourne, Madi banishes Gaia and agrees to follow the Dark Commander to get revenge against the Primes. Under his influence, Madi begins assassinating Primes, killing Miranda Mason and nearly killing Priya Desai had Jordan Green not intervened. Due to Madi's actions and Bellamy kidnapping Josephine after learning that Clarke was still alive and trapped inside of her own body, relations between the Primes and the Earth people fall apart and they are imprisoned. Raven Reyes realizes that the Dark Commander had somehow managed to trick the Flame's AI into protecting him and isolating the other Commanders. Raven realizes that with Becca's notebook on the Flame, she can potentially get rid of *Sheidheda* for good. The Dark Commander is able to take full possession of Madi, particularly after Clarke returns posing as Josephine and claiming that Clarke was gone for good. With Madi's friends attempting to get rid of him, *Sheidheda* threatens to kill Madi if they tried to remove him from the Flame. When Raven attempts to get rid of him anyway, she discovers that the Dark Commander had added a kill code to the Flame that would get rid of him at the cost of destroying the Flame and the spirits of the other Commanders. After Clarke kills all of the other Primes, *Sheidheda* forges an alliance with Russell Lightbourne to get revenge, using Madi's control over *Wonkru*. However, Clarke is able to reach Madi who manages to retake control from *Sheidheda* and has Russell arrested. Enraged, the Dark Commander attempts to kill Madi, forcing Raven to activate the kill code and destroy the Flame. However, *Sheidheda* had anticipated this and manipulated the situation so that at least he and possibly the other Commanders are uploaded to another location. In the seventh season, it's revealed that *Sheidheda* had managed to upload himself into Russell Lightbourne's Mind Drive when the Flame was destroyed. After Clarke knocks Russell unconscious, *Sheidheda* greets him in a Mindspace resembling the location where he would meet with Madi. The Dark Commander slits the deposed Prime's throat, killing him and destroying Russell's consciousness. With Russell gone, *Sheidheda* is resurrected in the body of Russell's final host and preys on Clarke's emotions to get her to save him from a fire. As the Dark Commander revels in his resurrection, Clarke announces that "Russell" will be executed for his crimes the next day. Manipulating Russell's followers, *Sheidheda* is able to force an end to the execution or risk creating a [martyr](/wiki/Martyr "Martyr") for the fanatics. After *Sheidheda* stops the fanatics, now calling themselves the Faithful, from executing Murphy, Indra realizes who he really is from his behavior. Indra promises to kill *Sheidheda* herself when the time comes and has Russell's Mind Drive painfully removed by Eric Jackson so that the Dark Commander can not be resurrected again when he dies. *Sheidheda's* resurrection is later revealed after he brutally slaughters most of the Faithful and Knight and two other *Wonkru* guards bow before the resurrected Dark Commander. Escaping the scene, the Dark Commander begins solidifying his power over *Wonkru*, beating Indra in single combat and forcing her to kneel for Madi's sake. However, Madi manages to slash out his right eye with a knife while Murphy and Emori lead the surviving Sanctummites into hiding to prepare to fight back against the Dark Commander's reign. *Sheidheda* brings the prisoners under his control and massacres the Children of Gabriel for refusing to kneel, but continues to be opposed by Murphy who he takes prisoner while Emori forces a stalemate by threatening to detonate Sanctum's nuclear reactor if Murphy is harmed or if *Sheidheda* attacks. Shortly thereafter, Clarke returns with the Disciples in search of the Flame. The Dark Commander is severely wounded, but aids Indra in escaping their common enemy; in return, Indra chooses not to kill him but instead to leave *Sheidheda* to die of his wounds. However, in exchange for the Disciples helping him, the Dark Commander directs them to the sketchbook containing proof that Madi still has the memories of the Commanders. *Sheidheda's* wound is treated by the Disciples and he forges an alliance with Bill Cadogan to capture Madi, though secretly the Dark Commander opposes Cadogan's aims as he only wishes to rule and not Transcend. *Sheidheda's* attack leaves Gabriel Santiago mortally wounded, but the Dark Commander is defeated in combat by Indra and Gaia and forced to flee empty\-handed in order to survive. Locked up upon his return to Bardo, *Sheidheda* is released by Clarke and Octavia and agrees to act as a distraction for them, but disappears after slaughtering several Disciples. In "The Last War," *Sheidheda* attempts to cause a war between *Wonkru* and the Disciples during the test to determine if humanity deserves Transcendence or not, mortally wounding Levitt and Echo in the process. As the Dark Commander prepares to lead a charge on the Disciples' position, Indra confronts him with one of the Eligius sonic cannons. Declaring it to be for her mother, Indra blows *Sheidheda* up with the cannon, killing him. With his Mind Drive removed and the Flame destroyed, the Dark Commander's consciousness is left with nowhere to go and dies with Russell's host body, rendering his death permanent. *Sheidheda's* death allows Octavia to talk both *Wonkru* and the Disciples down from war. ### Gabriel Santiago Portrayed primarily by [Chuku Modu](/wiki/Chuku_Modu "Chuku Modu") (season 7; recurring season 6\), Gabriel Santiago was a [geneticist](/wiki/Geneticist "Geneticist") and one of the original Eligius colonists on Sanctum and the boyfriend of Josephine Lightbourne. During the first Red Sun Eclipse, Russell Lightbourne fell into a psychotic state and killed many of the other original colonists, including Josephine. Gabriel himself survived and dedicated the next twenty\-five years of his life to finding a way to bring back those they lost, particularly Josephine. Gabriel eventually discovered a way to resurrect the original colonists by implanting their Mind Drives into mind wiped Nightblood hosts, effectively granting them a form of immortality. The first to be successfully resurrected was Josephine herself. Josephine would later state that Gabriel had already been dying of cancer by the time that he succeeded and Josephine brought him back as she was unwilling to lose him either. Thanks to Gabriel, the original colonists became known as the Primes and ruled over Sanctum, using Nightblood hosts to resurrect themselves. However, Gabriel developed moral concerns about their actions, particularly sacrificing innocent people to save themselves and destroyed the Nightblood embryos in an attempt to stop the resurrections, escaping with the help of Ryker Desai. Over the next seventy years, Gabriel formed the militant group known as the Children of Gabriel, rescuing children sacrificed to the forest by Josephine and became known primarily as "The Old Man". Gabriel intended to die with his elderly host, but Eduardo, a loyal follower who was unwilling to let him go, resurrected Gabriel against his wishes in the body of Xavier, a free\-born Nightblood amongst the Children of Gabriel. Out of guilt, Gabriel killed Eduardo and lived as Xavier, vanishing to his followers for the next ten years. Despite their differences in ideology, Gabriel never stopped loving Josephine in 236 years, something that Josephine admitted to reciprocating. When the Earth survivors arrived on Sanctum, they came into conflict with the Children of Gabriel. During this time, Octavia Blake and Charmaine Diyoza met Gabriel as Xavier and he became interested in Octavia's connection to the mysterious Anomaly, something that Gabriel had spent over a century studying. With Octavia dying, Gabriel led the two to the anomaly with Diyoza deducing his true identity. Diyoza and Octavia entered the Anomaly, Diyoza vanishing to her apparent death while Octavia returned fully healed. Gabriel and Octavia attempted to determine the truth of Octavia's time in the Anomaly, instead leading her on a journey of self\-reflection. After learning that [Clarke Griffin](/wiki/Clarke_Griffin "Clarke Griffin") was the host of the once again resurrected Josephine, Gabriel worked with Octavia and Bellamy to save their friend and was reunited with Josephine for the first time in decades. Despite his continuing love for Josephine and vice versa, Gabriel refused to let her sacrifice Clarke's life and attempted to safely remove Josephine's Mind Drive. After Josephine hung on inside of Clarke, Clarke was forced to kill her for good in self\-defense to Gabriel's obvious grief. Gabriel's true identity became exposed to his followers and they worked together to stop the resurrection of the remaining Primes though Gabriel's haste foiled the original plan and caused chaos when Russell unleashed the Red Sun toxin upon the people of Sanctum. Gabriel worked with Clarke's friends, particularly John Murphy, to contain the chaos while Russell was arrested on *Eligius IV* and the other Primes were permanently killed by Clarke aside from Priya and Ryker Desai who died on Sanctum in the rebellion. After the rebellion, Gabriel discovered a tattoo on Octavia's back matching the symbols on the Anomaly Stone, a mysterious artifact connected to the Anomaly that he had been studying for over a century. When Gabriel and Octavia activated the artifact using the symbols, Diyoza's daughter Hope emerged from the Anomaly, stated that "he" had her mother and stabbed Octavia who vanished with the Anomaly. After the disappearance of Hope and the kidnapping of Bellamy Blake by the mysterious Disciples, Gabriel joined Echo and Hope in traveling through the Anomaly in search of their friends, emerging on another planet named Skyring by Hope where time ran much faster due to [time dilation](/wiki/Time_dilation "Time dilation") and where Octavia had spent ten years with Diyoza and Hope before being captured by the Disciples. Hope was able to provide Gabriel with some answers about how the Anomaly, in reality a [wormhole](/wiki/Wormhole "Wormhole") created by an alien race, worked and revealed that she had only injected Octavia with a locater tag to send Octavia through the Anomaly as per Hope's deal with the leader of the Disciples. On Skyring, Gabriel discovered the body of his friend [quantum physicist](/wiki/Quantum_physicist "Quantum physicist") Doctor Colin Benson and realized that Skyring was actually in fact planet Beta from the *Eliguis III* colony mission, though the mission had failed due to a transport ship crash that had killed all but Colin himself. Revealed to have kept Josephine's Mind Drive to be sure she was truly gone, Gabriel began using Colin's Memory Drive, the technology that Gabriel had first reverse\-engineered the Mind Drive from, to search for the code to open the Anomaly to Bardo where the Disciples came from and which Gabriel suspected was another *Eligius III* colony world. Though successful in finding the code, Orlando, a man imprisoned on Skyring by the Disciples destroyed Gabriel's computer before they could record the code for their use. The group subsequently works with Orlando to train to become Disciples to infiltrate Bardo and rescue their friends in five years. Gabriel ultimately betrays his friends on Bardo, unwilling to risk going to the surface and apparently becoming a willing member of the Disciple cause. Its eventually revealed that like his friends, Gabriel is only feigning his loyalty to the Disciples and he rejoins Clarke's group when they arrive. After returning to Sanctum, a hallucination of Josephine entices Gabriel to repair the Flame and use it to find the code to begin the last war. Gabriel begins repairing the Flame using Eligius technology, but comes to the conclusion that this is the wrong choice and he destroys the Flame instead. In "A Sort of Homecoming", Gabriel is stabbed several times while defending Madi from *Sheidheda*. Wanting to finally die, Gabriel rejects all medical help and peacefully passes away shortly thereafter surrounded by his friends and adopted family. ### Hope Diyoza Portrayed by Shelby Flannery, Hope Diyoza (season 7; guest season 6\) is the daughter of Charmaine Diyoza and Paxton McCreary. Throughout the fifth and sixth seasons, Diyoza is pregnant with Hope and chooses her name with the help of Marcus Kane. In the middle of the sixth season, hallucinations of a young Hope draw Diyoza into the mysterious Anomaly where she vanishes. At the end of the season, Octavia Blake, who followed Diyoza into the Anomaly but returned moments later, is discovered to have a mysterious code tattooed upon her back. When the code is entered, a twenty\-year old Hope emerges from the Anomaly, states that "he" has her mother and stabs Octavia who vanishes while Hope collapses. In the seventh season, a series of flashbacks reveal that Hope was raised by her mother and Octavia on a planet that Hope dubbed Skyring on the other side of the Anomaly which is revealed to be a [wormhole](/wiki/Wormhole "Wormhole") linking six different planets together, one of them being Earth. Due to [time dilation](/wiki/Time_dilation "Time dilation") from a nearby [black hole](/wiki/Black_hole "Black hole"), time passed much faster on Skyring than on Sanctum meaning that in the seconds Octavia and Diyoza were gone, ten years passed on Skyring. However, Diyoza and Octavia were eventually captured by the Disciples, leaving Hope alone for some time. She was later raised by a Disciple named Dev who was sent to the planet as punishment and ten years later, launched a rescue mission for her mother and Octavia, though Dev died in the process. With the help of a compassionate Disciple scientist named Levitt, Hope succeeded in sending Octavia back to Sanctum, but the travel wiped Octavia's memory of her time away. Before Octavia's departure, the three imprinted Hope's biometric code on Octavia's back so that she could later pull Hope through the Anomaly. However, Hope was captured trying to rescue her mother and forced by the Disciple leader Anders to inject Octavia with a locator tag when she was eventually pulled through the Anomaly in exchange for Diyoza's life. In the present of the seventh season, like Octavia, Hope initially loses her memory, but aids Echo and Gabriel Santiago in working to rescue a kidnapped Bellamy. Returning to Skyring restores Hope's memory, but the note Levitt left for Hope with the code for the Disciple homeworld Bardo is washed away. The group ends up trapped on Skyring for five years, but convince Orlando, a Disciple prisoner trapped there as well, to help them train for a rescue mission when the Disciples return for him. The ambush is successful, but Orlando is abandoned on Skyring where he commits suicide. On Bardo, Hope has to be talked out of an assassination attempt on Anders and they discover that Bellamy was apparently killed in a rescue attempt of his own for Octavia. Hope is reunited with her mother, who managed to escape captivity on her own, but they are betrayed by Gabriel who refuses to try a risky plan to survive. The more emotional Hope resists Disciple training and seeks vengeance upon them, leading her to aid Echo in her attempt at [genocide](/wiki/Genocide "Genocide"). Though Echo is ultimately talked down, Hope kills Anders and attempts to release the Gem\-9 [bioweapon](/wiki/Bioweapon "Bioweapon") herself. However, Diyoza sacrifices herself to stop her daughter from committing genocide. Grief\-stricken, Hope is comforted by Jordan Green and the two begin developing a romantic relationship with each other although she further suffers the loss of Gabriel. After humanity achieves Transcendence, Hope chooses to return to human form to live out the rest of her days on Earth with her friends and Jordan.
[ "Main cast\n---------", "### Clarke Griffin", "{{Main\\|Clarke Griffin}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.68\\|Eliza Taylor portrays the role of Clarke.](/wiki/File:Eliza_Taylor_by_Gage_Skidmore_cropped.jpg \"Eliza Taylor by Gage Skidmore cropped.jpg\")\nPortrayed by [Eliza Taylor](/wiki/Eliza_Taylor \"Eliza Taylor\"), Clarke Griffin{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.thefutoncritic.com/showatch/100/ \\| title\\=100, THE (CW) \\| publisher\\=The Futon Critic \\| access\\-date\\=May 10, 2013 }} is the daughter of Abigail Griffin and Jake Griffin, and the effective leader of the 100 for much of the series. Her backstory is that she was imprisoned as an accessory to the crimes of her father after attempting to inform their people that the Ark was dying, and thus ended up among the 100\\. Down on the ground, she tries to ensure the 100's survival by assisting in the acquisition of food and resources, and she also continuously serves as their main medic before her mother and the other medical staff join them on Earth. She is portrayed as relatively benevolent, but has been shown to act ruthlessly to fight or kill in order to protect her people if there are no other options, and she possesses natural leadership qualities with the help (and early on, the opposition) of Bellamy. They learn to love each other. After killing the entire Mountain Men population to save her fellow Sky People, Clarke becomes known in Trigedasleng as *Wanheda* (literally \"Death\\-commander\") and is sometimes also called Mountain\\-slayer. Clarke becomes gradually hardened and matured by her experiences on Earth, namely the acts she has been forced to commit to survive and protect her people. This transforms her into a strong but personally troubled heroine in the series, as she continues to struggle to reunify humankind by maintaining the uneasy peace between the Arkers and some of the Grounders, and between groups among her own people. On February 28, 2015, the series creator Jason Rothenberg confirmed that Clarke is [bisexual](/wiki/Bisexual \"Bisexual\"); this makes her the first openly bisexual lead character on the CW network.{{cite web \\|author\\=Eliel Cruz \\|url\\=http://www.advocate.com/bisexuality/2015/02/26/cw\\-has\\-first\\-bisexual\\-lead\\-character \\|title\\=CW Has First Bisexual Lead Character \\|date\\=February 26, 2015 \\|publisher\\=Advocate.com \\|access\\-date\\=February 28, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=June 16, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180616130303/https://www.advocate.com/bisexuality/2015/02/26/cw\\-has\\-first\\-bisexual\\-lead\\-character \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In the sixth season, Clarke's body is possessed by the consciousness of Josephine Lightbourne, but Clarke herself survives a mind wipe due to a remnant of the A.L.I.E. AI. Josephine later relinquishes control to Clarke to escape a [decapitation](/wiki/Decapitation \"Decapitation\") though the two continue to share her body. After Josephine manages to remain inside of Clarke's body even after the Mind Drive is removed, Clarke destroys Josephine's consciousness for good and regains full permanent control of her body. Shortly afterwards, Clarke loses her mother when Abby is mind\\-wiped to become the new host for Josephine's mother, Simone. Clarke is subsequently forced to blow Simone and anything left of Abby into space in self\\-defense, something that, along with her adopted daughter Madi becoming possessed by the Dark Commander, causes her to almost commit suicide, but Madi retakes control and arrests Russell. In the series finale, Clarke is the sole human not to achieve Transcendence, but her surviving friends decide to return to human form and join her in living out the rest of their lives on a regenerated Earth.", "### Bellamy Blake", "[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\=0\\.60\\|Bob Morley portrays the role of Bellamy.](/wiki/File:Bob_Morley_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg \"Bob Morley by Gage Skidmore.jpg\")\nPortrayed by [Bob Morley](/wiki/Bob_Morley \"Bob Morley\"), Bellamy Blake is the Co\\-leader of the 100, leader of the Skaikru and The Heart in the lead dynamic \\[The Head and The Heart] of the show. He's also Octavia's half brother. He professes a strong determination to protect his sister, spanning from her birth. He often says \"my sister, my responsibility\", something their mother had told him when Octavia was born. He was the leader of the 100 and described as the one who inspires masses. He's often inspired by Clarke after a tumultuous start to their relationship. He and Clarke develop a mutual respect and learn to compromise for each other's methods. He still feels guilty for his mother's death.", "In the second season, he went undercover in Mount Weather, which was a huge risk, to save 40 of his people who were held captive to extract their bone marrow. In the end he along with Clarke were able to save all of their people, although they had to kill everyone in Mount Weather, over three hundred people, after being betrayed by Lexa and the Grounder army.", "In the third season, he saw Clarke while she was a prisoner of Roan. In order to save her he took a huge risk by dressing as a grounder and crossed an army of grounders in order to retrieve Clarke but his attempt resulted in him being knocked out. Clarke sacrificed her freedom to prevent him from getting killed. He was manipulated by the new Chancellor after Azgeda (Ice Nation) bombed Mt Weather, killing 49 people, including his new girlfriend, Gina. In the process, he betrays Marcus Kane and put the whole of The Ark at risk of death. The bombing was made possible because Bellamy trusted Echo, the Grounder he saved in the previous season in Mt Weather. He listened to the false information she delivered in order to save Clarke. After Pike's election, Bellamy is one of the nine guards (along with Pike himself) that carry out the chancellor's orders to kill the 299 Grounder warriors sent by Lexa. Bellamy soon feels guilt for his actions, and while he saves Indra's life, this puts a rift between him and Octavia, as well as Kane. Pike gains more power with Bellamy's help, resulting in the tragic death of Lincoln, Octavia's lover. He remains one of the few people not taken over by A.L.I.E., and fights alongside Octavia and Pike to stop her.", "In the fourth season, he saved his people, including Riley, who were held as slaves by an Ice Nation gang. His determination to save his people often puts him in danger. Afterward, he reconciled with Kane. He is often on the grounders' side, feeling it is selfish for the Sky People to hog all the places in the bunker. In the finale he had to leave Clarke behind on the ground in order to reach the Ark.", "In the fifth season, it is revealed he survived on the Ark in space. After being reunited with Octavia, he feels he does not recognize her anymore due to her brutal and unforgiving ways, but still tries to get through to her. It was also his idea to try and take the cryogenically frozen prisoners hostage and have leverage with Diyoza in order to save Clarke. He also made Madi realize that they had made mistakes and asked her to forgive the Eligius crew and they all boarded the ship at his request. Also, his denial to board the ship without all of his people on board indicated his PTSD regarding leaving Clarke behind in S4 finale. He also poisoned his own sister to spare Clarke's life thus indicating a shift in his priority.", "In the sixth season he's still feeling guilt over Monty and Harper's along with several of his friends death which resulted in a conflict between him and Echo. When Clarke was body\\-snatched by the Primes it was him who recognized it wasn't her in Clarke's body which resulted in him being knocked out. He's also the one who learns Clarke is still alive based on a Morse code message Clarke sent him. Bellamy kidnaps Josephine in an effort to save Clarke, leading to a conversation between Bellamy and Josephine about the complexity of his relationship with Clarke. After an attempt by Gabriel Santiago to remove Josephine fails, Bellamy desperately performs CPR on a dying Clarke and urges her to fight. Hearing him, Clarke destroys Josephine's consciousness and is reunited with Bellamy and Octavia. Angry at his sister, Bellamy maintains a distance from her, eventually stating that while Octavia is still his sister, she is no longer his responsibility. Together, Bellamy and Clarke work to overthrow the Primes with minimal bloodshed, though Clarke loses her mother in the process. At the end of the season, Bellamy witnesses Octavia be stabbed by Hope Diyoza and then mysteriously vanish into the Anomaly.", "In the seventh season, Bellamy is abducted by the mysterious Disciples through the Anomaly, chased by Echo, Gabriel Santiago and Hope Diyoza. After escaping their grasp, Bellamy attempts to rescue Octavia who negotiates for Bellamy to be returned to Sanctum instead of risking his life. However, after Anders opens the Anomaly, a dying Disciple detonates a grenade and Bellamy vanishes when the explosion clears. Bellamy is presumed dead by everyone else, driving Echo into a genocidal grief and rage against the Disciples. It's later revealed that Bellamy and his hostage the Conductor were flung through the Anomaly to Etherea where they were forced to work together over the course of at least two months to survive. Bellamy's experiences on Etherea cause him to devote himself to the Disciple cause and betray his friends when he returns to Bardo.", "In \"Blood Giant\", after Bellamy refuses to stand down, he is shot and killed by Clarke. After being informed of Bellamy's death in \"A Sort of Homecoming\", Octavia and Echo tell Clarke that they lost the real Bellamy a long time ago and his need for a meaning and a cause killed him, not Clarke.", "In \"The Last War,\" Bellamy's beliefs about Transcendence are proven to be correct. However, Bellamy does not Transcend due to his earlier death and the fact that only the living can achieve Transcendence.", "### Cece Cartwig", "[thumb\\|right\\|upright\\=0\\.60\\|Kelly Hu](/wiki/File:Kelly_Hu_2016.jpg \"Kelly Hu 2016.jpg\")\nPortrayed by [Kelly Hu](/wiki/Kelly_Hu \"Kelly Hu\"), Callie \"Cece\" Cartwig (season 1\\) is the best friend of Abigail Griffin as well as the Ark's communications officer. Callie is first seen talking to the people on The Ark about the 100 going down to Earth. She said that she cannot confirm or deny anything at the moment. When Callie learns that Abby is going to be executed she goes up to Marcus Kane to tell him that he is out of his mind and he cannot kill everyone who disagrees with him. Callie says that Abby is her friend leaving Kane to reply that he cannot do anything to stop it. Kane and Callie share a close moment. She tries to implore him to give Abby amnesty, asking him to think of their own relationship. He answers by saying that no matter what he feels, he cannot. When it is time, Callie breaks into tears walking with Abby to the place where she will be executed, embracing her and refusing to let go even at the behest of the guards. Abby asks that Callie watch out for her daughter before she dies. When the door is about to close Chancellor Thelonious Jaha demands the execution be stopped immediately and pardons Abby. Callie is thrilled for Abby, able to hold her friend again. Jason Rothenberg revealed that Hu was dropped after the first episode due to budget reasons, resulting in Callie's death offscreen.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Rothenberg\\|first1\\=Jason\\|title\\=Cece was floated off camera.\\|url\\=https://twitter.com/JRothenbergTV/status/541706696163221506\\|website\\=Twitter\\|access\\-date\\=September 18, 2016\\|date\\=December 10, 2014\\|archive\\-date\\=January 20, 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120063311/https://twitter.com/JRothenbergTV/status/541706696163221506\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "### Abby Griffin", "Portrayed by [Paige Turco](/wiki/Paige_Turco \"Paige Turco\"), Abigail \"Abby\" Griffin (seasons 1–6; guest season 7\\) is Clarke's mother. She is the chief medical officer of the Ark and the main proponent regarding the habitable status of Earth. Her husband was the chief engineer, Jake Griffin. She was a member of the Council led by Chancellor Jaha on the Ark before being stripped of her title, though she regained this position shortly afterward. Upon her arrival on Earth, Abby was Chancellor for a time when Marcus Kane gave her his pin. During this time she ruled autocratically, refusing to let Kane take over again on his return and betraying her former friend Jaha by putting him in prison. Abby becomes friends with Raven Reyes when she needs her mechanical expertise to try to get more information on what the 100 is dealing with on the ground. She begins to like the young engineer due to her reminding her of Clarke. Abby's relationship with her daughter became strained following Clarke's discovery of her mother's betrayal to her father which led to his execution. It only became more complicated once Abby and the rest of the people from the Ark joined the 100 on Earth, as they were both the leaders of their respective groups of people. Abby continues to work as the resident doctor in the newly established Sky People colony known as Arkadia (formally Camp Jaha) and has supported Marcus Kane's campaign for peaceful cohabitation with the Grounders, putting her at odds with the anti\\-Grounder factions within their people.", "In season six's \"Adjustment Protocol\", Abby becomes a Nightblood to help save Clarke's adopted daughter Madi. Abby is subsequently mind\\-wiped by Russell Lightbourne, effectively killing her and her body becomes the new host for Simone Lightbourne. In \"The Blood of Sanctum\", Clarke holds out hope that Abby survived in the same way that she did, but Russell confirms that Abby is truly gone. After a failed attempt by Simone to pose as Abby, Clarke blows Simone and several others out into space, killing them all. Abby's body is last seen floating away into deep space. In \"From the Ashes\", Clarke struggles with Abby's death while Murphy struggles with guilt over his role in it. Russell later returns Abby's things to Clarke in an attempt to get Clarke to kill him.", "In \"The Last War,\" the Judge takes on the form of Abby when Raven takes the test to determine if the human race will Transcend or be annihilated. The Judge comments that while Abby is not Raven's mother, her opinion and judgment of Raven matters more to the young woman than that of her own biological mother.", "### Finn Collins", "[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\=0\\.60\\|Thomas McDonell portrays the role of Finn.](/wiki/File:Thomas_McDonell_2013_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Thomas McDonell 2013 (cropped).jpg\")\nPortrayed by [Thomas McDonell](/wiki/Thomas_McDonell \"Thomas McDonell\"), Finn Collins (seasons 1–2\\) is a caring teenager who is always looking for fun and a peaceful solution. He is more interested in helping others than seeking vengeance. He was arrested for being a spacewalker and wasting the Ark's limited oxygen supply, but it was revealed that he was innocent and had taken the fall for Raven, his girlfriend, to ensure she did not ruin her engineering career or get floated. Originally Clarke's love interest, Finn's relationship with Clarke starts collapsing when she discovers his relationship with Raven. His romances with both girls ultimately end, but Finn and Clarke still love each other, and Raven still loves Finn. In the second season, his fear that Clarke has been killed by her captors in addition to the hardships he has endured cause him to become unpredictable and violent. He murders eighteen unarmed Grounders who he believed had taken Clarke hostage, and was willingly going to leave several fellow Arkers for dead in favor of continuing his search for her. As a result of his actions, the Grounders demanded retribution before they will agree to a truce between them and the Sky People, leading Commander Lexa to sentence Finn to death by a thousand cuts. However, he was mercifully killed by Clarke to prevent the Grounders from slowly and painfully killing him, though he did appear one last time during Clarke's grief\\-induced hallucinations.", "### Wells Jaha", "[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.60\\|Eli Goree portrays the role of Wells.](/wiki/File:Eli_Goree_2011.jpg \"Eli Goree 2011.jpg\")\nPortrayed by [Eli Goree](/wiki/Eli_Goree \"Eli Goree\"), Wells Jaha (season 1; guest season 2\\) was Clarke's childhood best friend and the son of Thelonious Jaha, who was the Ark's Chancellor at the start of the series. He is despised by some of the 100 upon landing on the ground because of his father. He intentionally committed a crime when he found out about the imminent launch of the delinquents to Earth so as to join the group in the hope to protect Clarke, for whom he harbors feelings. Clarke believed he was the reason her father is dead, only to find out later that her mother was the one who betrayed her father, and Wells willingly took the blame to prevent Clarke from hating her. On the ground, he is hardworking and thoughtful, volunteering to dig graves and collect rainwater to aid their newly established colony. It was his expert knowledge of botany that made him a valuable ally to Clarke, as she was tasked as the 100's medic due to her previous experience as the daughter of a doctor and needed herbal medicines to treat the ill and injured members of their community. He was murdered by Charlotte in the third episode, who wanted retribution for his father's execution of her parents on the Ark. He appears once again in the second season, when a hypoxic Thelonious hallucinates that Wells is alive and with him on the Ark, when everyone else has left for the surface. When Thelonious falls under A.L.I.E.'s influence, he forgets about Wells and has to be reminded by A.L.I.E., causing Abby to realize that something is wrong with him.", "### Octavia Blake", "Portrayed by [Marie Avgeropoulos](/wiki/Marie_Avgeropoulos \"Marie Avgeropoulos\") (and by Olivia Steele Falconer as child) Octavia Blake is Bellamy's younger sister – a rare relationship given the Ark's one\\-child rule. She was kept a secret by her family, living under the floor to avoid detection by authorities, but was eventually caught when Bellamy snuck her out of her room to attend a masked ball. Once discovered, some of the detainees discriminate against her for being a second child and thus an outcast to the Ark's dystopian society. She is a fiercely independent girl who is constantly rebelling and getting attention from men, most notably the Grounder Lincoln. However, just like Clarke, she is not exactly built for war so she is horrified at what she sees and experiences at first. In the second season, she becomes more immersed in Grounder culture and serves as Indra's second. Originally she felt hatred towards Clarke for being the daughter of someone in the same council who had her locked up. It is intensified when she discovers Clarke knew about the bombing of Tondc, did nothing about it, and allowed all those Grounders to die after the events of Mount Weather (even telling Indra that she will not leave behind Bellamy and her friends). She remains in her Grounder gear, and berates Lincoln for wearing an Ark jacket and for being naive as she still holds a grudge towards them. Eventually, Lincoln is brutally killed in front of her by Pike, causing a rift between her and Bellamy. In the fourth season, she shows more signs of being bloodthirsty after killing an ambassador who questions Roan's leadership. This new violent attitude earned her the nickname *Skairipa* ('Sky\\-reaper') or Death from Above. After refusing to kill Illian and getting close with him she decides to drop the act and take him home. She later accepts the fact that she is a killer and will fight in the Grounder battle for the bunker alongside Trikru, in which she is victorious after killing Luna, and becoming the acting leader of all 12 clans by telling them they will share the bunker. She finally forgives Bellamy for Lincoln's death after he opened the bunker realizing that he would put his own life in danger just to save her and the Grounders. She later protects Nilyah and further solidified her role as new leader by saying if Skaikru does not choose the 100 people to stay in the bunker then she will kill every Skaikru member. In the season finale, she officially becomes the new leader of the new Grounder tribe consisting of Skaikru, Trikru, Azgeda, and other Grounder clans, regardless of her blood and what is in her head.", "In the fifth season, although still reluctant on being the leader, she tries to make peace with everyone. Eventually, overpopulation prevents from any real peace inside the bunker, so Octavia takes matters into her own hands and kills anyone who defies her or questions her view of what peace should be. Thus covering herself in their blood and being told by Gaia that it is best she keeps the blood on her, thus becoming *Blodreina* (the Red Queen) and decides anyone who breaks her laws must compete in deathmatches. During two years in the bunker, Abby's actions caused Octavia to become more dark and hateful that led to her ruthless actions as ruler of Wonkru, including murdering anyone who tries to defect, killing some of her own people in order to force them to stay alive when the only source of protein is their own dead, and culminating in her burning down the Hydrofarm in the bunker in order to force a conflict for the Shadow Valley rather than negotiating peace. Near the fifth\\-season finale, she later has a change of heart, after realizing that she broke Wonkru. In the season finale, a remorseful Octavia unexpectedly helps Abby save Kane's life after a confrontation between the two women in which Octavia appeared to be torn between leaving or killing Kane.", "In the sixth season, she is exiled on Sanctum by Bellamy and works with Diyoza who was also exiled. After being poisoned, Octavia seeks healing from the mysterious Anomaly with the help of Gabriel Santiago. After being healed, Octavia decides to seek redemption for her actions and declares herself to be \"*Blodreina* no more.\" At the end of season six, Octavia is stabbed by Diyoza's adult daughter Hope and disappears into the anomaly again, leaving her fate unknown.", "In the seventh season, its revealed that the Anomaly, which is in fact a [wormhole](/wiki/Wormhole \"Wormhole\"), had sent Octavia to another planet named Skyring where, due to [time dilation](/wiki/Time_dilation \"Time dilation\") from a [black hole](/wiki/Black_hole \"Black hole\"), Octavia lived for ten years with Hope and Diyoza, forming a family and finding peace. Eventually she and Diyoza were captured by a group called the Disciples and brought to another planet named Bardo where she formed a bond with a Disciple scientist named Levitt. Hope eventually rescued Octavia with Levitt's help and sent her back to Sanctum. However, as Octavia returned to a slower time dilated planet without one of the Disciples' protective helmets, she lost her memory of everything that had happened from the moment she left Sanctum. Before leaving, Levitt tattoos Hope's biometric code on Octavia's back so she can pull the young woman back to Sanctum later which is why Hope had appeared at the end of the sixth season. In the present, Hope reveals that she had only tagged Octavia with a locator tag so that she would be pulled through the Anomaly again and she is still alive. Having been returned to Bardo, Octavia regains her lost memories and witnesses Bellamy's apparent death before being rescued by Echo, Hope and Gabriel for whom five years has gone by after getting stuck on Skyring themselves. She later dedicates herself to the Disciple cause alongside Echo, Diyoza and Gabriel, although this is revealed to be a ruse. When Clarke arrives, it's revealed that the Disciples' belief that Clarke holds the Flame comes from Octavia's memories of A.L.I.E.'s destruction. Octavia is reunited with Bellamy before he betrays them, having converted to the Disciple cause. After Clarke is forced to kill Bellamy, Octavia forgives Clarke for killing her brother and is forced to face her demons due to Clarke and her friends getting stuck on Earth, specifically in the Second Dawn bunker where Octavia had ruled as *Blodreina*. When Clarke returns to Bardo to rescue Madi, Octavia joins her and is reunited with Levitt who sides with the two women. The three discover that Cadogan has gotten the needed code from Madi's mind, leaving her in a catatonic state.", "In \"The Last War,\" Clarke, Octavia and Levitt fail to stop Cadogan from beginning the test to decide the fate of humanity. While Clarke kills Cadogan and takes the test herself, Octavia and Levitt join Echo in trying to stop the war between the Disciples, *Wonkru* and the Eligius prisoners. However, Levitt is shot and mortally wounded as is Echo while helping Octavia pull him to safety. After Indra finally kills the Dark Commander, Octavia steps between the two sides and gives a speech encouraging them to embrace peace with each other, acknowledging her own mistakes and reminding them that they are all humanity. Led by Indra and a Disciple named Kwame, both sides throw down their weapons and Raven is able to convince the Judge to change her mind about wiping out humanity. As a result, the human race, aside from Clarke, achieves Transcendence, saving Levitt and Echo's lives. As she Transcends, an amazed Octavia realizes that Bellamy was right in the end. Octavia subsequently chooses to return to human form to live out the rest of her life on Earth with her friends and Levitt.", "### Monty Green", "Portrayed by [Christopher Larkin](/wiki/Christopher_Larkin_%28actor%29 \"Christopher Larkin (actor)\"), Monty Green (seasons 1–5, guest season 6\\) is a smart and tech\\-savvy teenager who is a valuable asset to the teens on Earth due to his pharmaceutical and engineering knowledge. He and Jasper were arrested for making illegal substances. He is best friends with Jasper and is among the 48 held in Mount Weather; he eventually escapes and reunites with his mother in the third season. He tries to help Jasper recover from the traumatic events in Mount Weather. He eventually becomes part of Chancellor Pike's cause after his friend Monroe is killed by the Grounders. In the process, he gets Marcus Kane put in prison and Lincoln killed. He eventually betrays his mother and Pike in \"Stealing Fire\" by helping Kane, Octavia, Harper, Miller, and Sinclair escape by feeding members of the Ark Guard faulty intel and distracting them. In \"Nevermore\", Monty is forced to kill his mother—who had taken A.L.I.E.'s key—after she nearly kills Octavia. In \"Red Sky At Morning\", Monty has sex with Harper in Arkadia, and is forced to delete and essentially kill his mother for a second time by wiping her memory from the City of Light. In the fourth season, he comes up with the idea of protecting his people by shielding Arkadia with a hydrogen generator and recruits Bellamy, Harper and Miller to procure it. When they do, they blow it up to rescue the slaves taken by the Ice Nation. There he learns that the Chief had killed his father and, instead of Monty killing him himself, he allows the slaves vengeance by freeing them. After realizing that Harper chose to stay behind in Arkadia, he decides to stay with her until she changes her mind; she is eventually convinced and they search for more people to recruit. In the fifth season, he is still with Harper but feels guilty about killing his mother and letting Jasper commit suicide. By the end of the season, it is revealed that he died with Harper after growing old together and raising their son, Jordan. 125 years after they had entered cryo sleep, the survivors of Earth are greeted by Jordan, who shows them Monty's video logs, which reveal that Earth is completely uninhabitable, but that Monty had found them a new habitable planet on which to live.", "In the sixth season, though he is dead, Monty returns as a manifestation of Clarke's mind in \"Nevermind\". Monty appears as Clarke is giving up the fight to encourage her to keep going and helps Clarke access Josephine's most traumatizing memory in an effort to regain some control over Clarke's body. Though they fail to stop Josephine, Monty helps Clarke send Bellamy a [Morse code](/wiki/Morse_code \"Morse code\") message, revealing that she is still alive by discreetly taking control of one of Clarke's fingers.", "### Jasper Jordan", "[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\=0\\.60\\|Devon Bostick portrays the role of Jasper.](/wiki/File:Devon_Bostick_2014.jpg \"Devon Bostick 2014.jpg\")\nPortrayed by [Devon Bostick](/wiki/Devon_Bostick \"Devon Bostick\"), Jasper Jordan (seasons 1–4\\) is a goofy and geeky chemist. He is Monty's best friend. After his capture and subsequent rescue from Grounders, he becomes traumatized by his near\\-death experience which he struggles to overcome. Early in the series, he has a crush on Octavia, even saving her life during an animal attack, but she offers her friendship in return instead. He was one of the delinquents' camp's gunners and is among the 48 held in Mount Weather, and becomes an acting leader of his surviving people in Clarke's and Bellamy's absences. Jasper later becomes romantically involved with a Mount Weather resident, Maya who was later killed. In grief, Jasper becomes an alcoholic and he is disgusted that his own people would steal from Mount Weather after the war with its inhabitants as well as hating Clarke. Monty and Octavia struggle to help Jasper to cope with his loss, but although Jasper was briefly tempted by the City of Light tablets, when he realised that they erased all good memories relating to painful topics, he refused to take one, even breaking Raven out of Camp Jaha and taking her to Clarke and other escapees for medical treatment to remove the chip. It is revealed that he has been chipped while on Luna's oil rig and turns on the 100 under A.L.I.E.'s command. He is freed from her control once she is defeated. In the fourth season, he attempts suicide only for Raven to tell him they only have six months to live. He eventually commits suicide by remaining at Arkadia and taking an [overdose](/wiki/Drug_overdose \"Drug overdose\") of hallucinogenic nuts, convincing several other people to join him. Monty attempts to save Jasper as the death wave approaches, but can only be at his side as he dies. In the fifth season, Clarke recovers Jasper's goggles and suicide note from the ruins of Arkadia and Monty learns that Jasper had been intending to commit suicide since he emerged from the City of Light and held a belief that they ruin everything around them. Monty and Harper later name their son Jordan Jasper Green in Jasper's honor.\n{{clear}}", "### Thelonious Jaha", "[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.60\\|Isaiah Washington portrays the role of Thelonious.](/wiki/File:Isaiah_Washington.JPG \"Isaiah Washington.JPG\")\nPortrayed by [Isaiah Washington](/wiki/Isaiah_Washington \"Isaiah Washington\"), Thelonious Jaha, commonly referred to as \"Jaha\" (seasons 1–5\\) is Wells' father and the former Chancellor of the Ark. Jaha, along with Marcus, were best friends with Jake Griffin and his family. However, his and Marcus' friendship with the Griffins deteriorates after Jake's death and Clarke's subsequent arrest but he manages to maintain his friendship with Abby. He loses his power while on Earth as he clashes with Abby and Marcus over their views on the Grounders in addition to the unconfirmed destination, the \"City of Light\". Along with Murphy, he leads a small group of his followers from Camp Jaha to find the city. Having discovered A.L.I.E., the artificial intelligence that controls the City of Light, Jaha has become the delegated leader of A.L.I.E.'s cult, manipulating others into joining to escape the pain of daily life. Jaha is unconcerned about the side\\-effects even when presented with clear evidence that the City of Light erases even good memories to spare the users from psychological pain, such as Jaha having lost all memory of his son, he is soon freed from A.L.I.E.'s control after her defeat. He becomes guilt\\-ridden after he sees all the casualties in Polis due to him feeding everyone a chip. In the fourth season, he assists Clarke in being a leader for her people such as suggesting they find shelter in a lost bunker, only to discover it could not hold out radiation. Jaha tells everyone that if they want to survive the second nuclear explosion they must earn a lottery pick to ensure they will be on that list. He eventually comes to the realization the bunker was a decoy and the real one is in Polis, the Grounder capital, so he decides to recruit Gaia on what she knows about the symbol on the token and eventually learns it is a key to open the bunker. He eventually finds it and successfully opens it, he takes a child after promising his father to take care of him. In the fifth season, he is stabbed by an *Azgeda* warrior and dies in front of Kane, Abby, and Octavia. His death is avenged by Octavia who kills the warrior who had stabbed Jaha while establishing her reign as *Blodreina*.", "### Marcus Kane", "[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\=0\\.60\\|Henry Ian Cusick portrays the role of Marcus.](/wiki/File:Henry_Ian_Cusick_%289425069422%29_Cropped.jpg \"Henry Ian Cusick (9425069422) Cropped.jpg\")\nPortrayed by [Henry Ian Cusick](/wiki/Henry_Ian_Cusick \"Henry Ian Cusick\"), Marcus Kane (seasons 1–6\\) is one of the Councillors on the Ark. When Thelonious Jaha was Chancellor, he was second\\-in\\-command. He, along with Jaha, were friends with Jake Griffin and his family, but his friendship with them did not last after Jake's execution and Clarke's subsequent arrest. Though he initially supports population culls to extend life on the Ark, when Earth is shown to be survivable, he is guilt\\-stricken and works with everyone to survive in hopes of making amends of his past misdeeds. This, in addition to his mother's influence and death, affect his later actions of seeking peaceful and compromising solutions when governing his people after arriving on Earth. In the process, he gains allies who respect his new approaches, rebuilds his friendship with Jake's wife Abby Griffin, and earns the Grounders commander Lexa's trust. Kane aligns himself with Abby, who becomes Jaha's successor, avoid becoming a Chancellor so that he make decisions for his people on his own terms. In the fifth season, six years after Praimfaya he takes the fall for Abby's crime and proceeds to fight in gladiator battles but refuses once Octavia shows signs of being a dictator. After being severely injured in the fifth\\-season finale, he is put into stasis and remains there in the sixth season after a failed attempt to save his life. Kane's mind is eventually transferred into the body of a young man named Gavin to save his life, erasing Gavin's mind in the process. In \"What You Take With You\", Kane decides to commit [suicide](/wiki/Suicide \"Suicide\") rather than continuing to live in someone else's body. After awakening Indra and leading a coup against the Primes on *Eligius IV*, Kane says a final goodbye to Abby before having Indra blow him out of an airlock along with the new Nightblood serum. In \"Adjustment Protocol\", when Abby is mind\\-wiped to become the new host of Simone Lightbourne, she remembers Kane in her last moments alongside her daughter and deceased husband.", "### Raven Reyes", "[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.70\\|Lindsey Morgan portrays the role of Raven.](/wiki/File:Lindsey_Morgan_Wondercon_2016_cropped.jpg \"Lindsey Morgan Wondercon 2016 cropped.jpg\")\nPortrayed by [Lindsey Morgan](/wiki/Lindsey_Morgan \"Lindsey Morgan\"), Raven Reyes (seasons 2–7; recurring season 1\\) is an ambitious zero\\-gravity mechanic when on board the Ark who is not afraid of anyone or anything. She later collaborates with Abby Griffin in her escape from the Ark and launches herself in a pod to Earth, and occasionally advises Abby in the fields of electronics and mechanical engineering after she becomes chancellor on Earth. Brave and intelligent, Raven leads the camp in setting up communications and making bombs. She was childhood friends with Finn and was in a relationship with him until he fell in love with Clarke. It is revealed in the second season, that Finn took the blame for Raven's crime because she was already 18 and would be floated. She was the first zero G mech student under the age of 18 in 52 years. While she was originally rejected for medical reasons, leading to her illegal spacewalk, Jacapo Sinclair overrode the decision due to Raven's talent.", "In the third season, with Abby's help, Raven begins recovering from the injuries she sustained from last season. She joins Jaha's cause after reluctantly taking a tablet given to her by him, she does begin to fight the side effects after Jasper reminds her about Finn. She is soon saved by Clarke and freed of A.L.I.E.'s control using an [EMP](/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse \"Electromagnetic pulse\") device that Raven herself had designed and that Sinclair had finished for her. Retaining the intelligence she gained from the AI, Raven helps discover her weakness and aids Clarke in destroying her.", "In the fourth season, she bonds with Luna for her loss and convinces her to help save everyone on Earth, she also forgives Murphy for shooting her in the spine. It is revealed that due to retaining a remnant of A.L.I.E.'s code, she is able to use 90% of her brain but developed a negative side effect that could cause her to have a stroke, possibly leading to her death. As she works on a way to recreate Nightblood, Raven experiences a series of hallucinations, including Becca who tempts her with the chance to spacewalk before she dies of her deteriorating condition. However, a hallucination of Sinclair helps Raven to come up with a way to purge the code and save her own life. By freezing herself to death, thus preserving brain function and remaining flatlined for fifteen minutes, Raven is able to \"reboot\" her brain, purging the code and restoring herself to normal. Afterwards, Clarke rescues her and requests she fly them to the Ark to escape the second Apocalypse which she agrees to do, and successfully able to fly them to space and finally was able to spacewalk again.", "In the fifth season, Raven becomes an improved fighter being able to topple Echo in combat and plans to return to Earth. She soon notices another ship landing on Earth, and proceeds to follow it. She realizes that there are other life forms in cryostasis on the *Eligius IV* prison ship and decides to stay behind and lies about an escape pod so that Bellamy will not argue with her when she stays behind on *Eligius IV*. After returning to Earth, she forms a romantic relationship with the Eligius pilot Miles Shaw. Throughout the season, Raven is employed as a pilot by both her friends and the Eligius prisoners with their clashing priorities putting Raven and her friends at odds with Clarke. At the end of the season, as the one inhabitable valley left is destroyed, Raven and Shaw fly the survivors back to *Eligius IV*.", "In the sixth season, Raven loses Shaw soon after landing on the new world, Sanctum, and becomes bitter and angry towards Clarke and Abby for their various decisions. When the Lee family from Sanctum seizes control of *Eligius IV*, Raven awakens Charmaine Diyoza from cryosleep and retakes the ship with her and Madi's help, leading to the deaths of all but one of the hijackers. Raven is left as the sole pilot of both the Earth group and Sanctum following the deaths of the Lee family, the one survivor, Kaylee Lee, later being murdered on Sanctum by Josephine Lightbourne. After Josephine, posing as Clarke whose body she has taken over, makes a deal with Abby to save Marcus Kane using the Mind Drive technology, Raven flies Abby and a group from Sanctum back to the mothership. However, she is horrified to learn that a young man will be sacrificed to resurrect Kane. Raven reluctantly helps Abby, not wanting Abby's death on her conscience from an ill\\-advised spacewalk of her own, but awakens Indra to help with the situation. Kane eventually decides to float himself and the new Nightblood, sacrificing himself to stop other people from being sacrificed. Upon returning to Sanctum, Raven is imprisoned and nearly burned at the stake before Murphy talks Russell Lightbourne out of it. Raven makes amends with Abby shortly before Abby's death to resurrect Simone Lightbourne and works to save Madi from the Dark Commander possessing her through the Flame. Raven is eventually forced to destroy the Flame to save Madi while Clarke manages to retake control of the ship after killing all of the Primes except for Russell.", "In the seventh season, Raven works to help keep the peace between the various factions on Sanctum, partially by helping to guide Murphy and Emori in their assumed roles as Daniel and Kaylee Prime. When Sanctum's [nuclear reactor](/wiki/Nuclear_reactor \"Nuclear reactor\") begins to [meltdown](/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown \"Nuclear meltdown\"), Raven is forced to enlist the help of four of the Eligius prisoners to fix the cooling system while Murphy and Emori, protected by their own Nightblood, fix the reactor core. Having originally lied to the prisoners about the severity of the danger that they are in, Raven is forced to lie to them again when the radiation exposure proves to be more extreme than she anticipated which causes it to be fatal to the prisoners. Unwilling to trust the prisoners to do the right thing in the face of death, Raven forces Murphy to help them with the last of the repairs, unaware that one had already figured it out but was continuing anyway to protect his loved ones. With Murphy's help, the prisoners fix the cooling system at the last possible second, but all perish aside from the Nightblood\\-protected Murphy and Emori, leaving Raven devastated and haunted by the deaths that she had caused. Raven later teams up with Jordan Green to examine the armor of a dead Disciple, figuring out how to use it and learning that the mysterious Anomaly is in fact a [wormhole](/wiki/Wormhole \"Wormhole\"). With her friends in danger, Raven uses the armor to rescue them, but is further haunted by having to kill eight people to do it so soon after the deaths she caused in fixing the reactor. With the armor's help, Raven leads her friends on a rescue mission for Bellamy, Octavia, Echo and Hope, but accidentally directs them to the wrong planet, an icy world called Nakara with no sign of any way to reopen the Anomaly back. Using her armor, Raven leads the group to the Anomaly Stone and determines the code for the right planet, but Raven admits to Clarke that she feels like her soul is cracked with all of the deaths that she has caused. Raven successfully leads the group to Bardo where they learn of Bellamy's apparent death and meet Bill Cadogan while trying to save their remaining friends.", "In the series finale, it is Raven who takes the test that determines humanity's future, ultimately convincing the Judge that the human race is worthy of Transcendence. Though Raven Transcends as well, she joins Clarke's friends in choosing to return to human form to live out their lives on Earth.", "### Lincoln", "[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\=0\\.60\\|Ricky Whittle portrays the role of Lincoln.](/wiki/File:Ricky_Whittle_June_14%2C_2014_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Ricky Whittle June 14, 2014 (cropped).jpg\")\nPortrayed by [Ricky Whittle](/wiki/Ricky_Whittle \"Ricky Whittle\"), Lincoln (seasons 2–3; recurring season 1\\) is a Grounder who rescues Octavia. The pair develop a romantic relationship, and Lincoln helps the 100 multiple times, causing him to be viewed as a traitor to his people. He later is drugged to become a reaper, but with Clarke's and Abby's assistance, he is successfully rehabilitated from the drug. During the final battle with Mount Weather, Lincoln catches up to and kills the escaping Cage Wallace. Having been viewed as a traitor by some of his people, Lincoln resides in Camp Jaha with Octavia. He is put in prison by Pike with the help of Bellamy and shot by Pike after surrendering to save his fellow Grounders from execution. His body is subsequently recovered and burned alongside that of Jacapo Sinclair.", "### John Murphy", "[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.60\\|Richard Harmon portrays the role of Murphy.](/wiki/File:Richard_Harmon_at_Cruel_and_Unusual_Premiere_-_14112581578.jpg \"Richard Harmon at Cruel and Unusual Premiere - 14112581578.jpg\")\nPortrayed by [Richard Harmon](/wiki/Richard_Harmon \"Richard Harmon\"), John Murphy (seasons 3–7; recurring seasons 1–2\\) starts out as one of Bellamy's men and is generally disliked by the group due to his reputation of being a troublemaker and career criminal, making him one of the few members to actually have committed felonies and not petty misdemeanors. After being wrongfully accused by Clarke and nearly lynched, he tries to kill Charlotte. As a result of her suicide, he is banished from the camp. He later returns, surviving being tortured by the Grounders. He seems to have forgiven the 100, but he kills two and attempts to hang Bellamy and accidentally shoots Raven in the spine.", "In the second season, he is rescued by Raven from a surrounding Grounder and expresses remorse for his actions. Murphy explains to Raven that his father was executed for stealing medical supplies to help Murphy when he got sick and his mother became an alcoholic who drank herself to death after blaming Murphy for her husband's death. Murphy helps the 100 as they search for their lost members, even saving Bellamy's life when he could have let him drop. As he is still disliked in Camp Jaha, he accompanies Jaha to find the City of Light. On the way, he befriends a Grounder named Emori who later betrays and robs the group. He eventually finds a lighthouse where he is trapped by Jaha and A.L.I.E. after watching a video that shows that A.L.I.E. caused the [nuclear holocaust](/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust \"Nuclear holocaust\").", "In the third season, he leaves the island after not wanting to be a part of Jaha's insane missions, and gets a boat ride from Emori. After Emori transports him and Jaha across the sea, he refuses to take the key and flees with Emori. They start robbing people in the Commander's Forrest and he is eventually captured by Grounder warriors and brought to Polis, as one of the captors discovers a chip in his pocket which has the \"Sacred Symbol of the Commander\". He is tortured for information by Titus and eventually tells him what he knows. After seeing an escape pod marked Polaris with the a and r burned off as well as drawings, Murphy pieces together the story of the First Commander Becca and her connection to The Ark. Later on, Titus tries to murder Clarke and frame Murphy but accidentally shoots and kills Lexa. After she dies he witnesses Titus remove the chip. After Titus gives Clarke the chip and commits suicide, Ontari makes him the new \"Flamekeeper\" since he is the only other person to have witnessed it being removed from another person. Ontari takes a liking to him and wants him to sleep with her; if he refuses, she will kill him. He later reunites with Emori who is under A.L.I.E.'s control, and A.L.I.E. implies to her that Ontari's had sex with him. During the final battle with A.L.I.E., Murphy plays a vital part by manually pumping the brain\\-dead Ontari's heart to keep a blood transfusion to Clarke going so that she can use the Flame to destroy A.L.I.E.", "In the fourth season, after the City of Light is destroyed and A.L.I.E.'s control over everyone dissolves, Murphy stays behind with Emori. When he finds out there's a nuclear disaster coming which will wipe out everyone on Earth, he and Emori decide to side with Clarke, who has a plan that might save 100 people. Murphy ends up helping Raven with another plan, and he is confronted with what he is put her through after he shot her. When Raven opts to stay behind, he has a rare emotional moment and shares a tearful goodbye with her. Murphy later retreats to the remnants of the Ark in space with Bellamy, Raven, Emori and Echo to survive the coming nuclear apocalypse.", "In the fifth season, six years after Praimfaya, he breaks up with Emori and suffers from an inferiority complex. As they land on the Eligius ship before Bellamy and the others land on Earth, he decides to stay on the ship to protect Raven only for her to berate him by telling him she lied about the escape pod, much to his dismay. Murphy eventually returns to the ground where his skill in manipulation proves vital in causing a mass [riot](/wiki/Riot \"Riot\") between the prisoners, though Murphy elects to stay behind as the others flee in order to help Kane rescue Abby. In the final battle, Murphy is badly wounded and elects to remain behind until Emori refuses to leave him as she loves Murphy too much to lose him. Unwilling to let Emori lose him, Murphy allows Monty to carry him to safety shortly before the last inhabitable valley on Earth is destroyed. Murphy recovers from his injuries under Abby's care and goes into cryosleep with everyone except for Monty and Harper for the next 125 years.", "In the sixth season, Murphy allies himself with the Primes on Sanctum after being offered immortality for himself and Emori despite the Primes killing Clarke to become Josephine Lightbourne's new host. Murphy finds himself torn between his friends and immortality, particularly due to his fears of what awaits him after death. Murphy eventually proposes marriage to Emori who accepts. Though Murphy gains the chance to become a Prime and immortal, he turns his back on the Primes after losing both Abby and Clarke in favor of saving his people with Emori. Clarke, who survived and had been posing as Josephine, admits that she is proud of him, causing Murphy to realize that his friend is still alive. Murphy and Emori manage to rescue their friends and Murphy aids Gabriel Santiago in subduing the Sanctum citizens who have been driven insane by the Red Sun toxin, helping to prevent the massacre of innocent people as Murphy is the only one who can help Gabriel infiltrate their ranks in his guise as Daniel Lee. During this time, Murphy meets Zev, the male lover of Daniel. Murphy's reaction to Zev suggests that Murphy may not be strictly heterosexual, though this is unconfirmed.", "In the seventh season, Murphy struggles with guilt over his role in Abby's death and remorse for his actions. Murphy reluctantly assumes the role of Daniel alongside Emori as Kaylee in order to help keep the peace between all of the volatile factions inhabiting Sanctum. After Sanctum's [nuclear reactor](/wiki/Nuclear_reactor \"Nuclear reactor\") begins to [meltdown](/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown \"Nuclear meltdown\"), Raven enlists the help of Murphy and Emori, who had both become Nightbloods in preparation for becoming Primes, to help her and four Eligius prisoners fix the problem. With their Nightblood, Murphy and Emori are able to fix the reactor core, though both suffer negative effects from the radiation. After the prisoners suffer a fatal dose of radiation, Raven, not willing to trust them to do the right thing when faced with certain death, lies to them and tricks Murphy into helping, relying on his sense of self\\-preservation. Murphy bonds with the prisoner Hatch who has already deduced the truth but like Murphy, is trying to protect someone he loves. Together, Murphy and Hatch manage to fix the reactor at the last possible second, though Hatch dies in the process. Murphy and Emori both survive due to their Nightblood, though it takes Emori longer to recover than it does Murphy. With the Faithful threatening self\\-immolation, Indra enlists the help of a reluctant Murphy to pose as Daniel again and talk them down. Upon seeing the Faithful about to sacrifice children, Murphy risks his own life to rescue the children, but in the process reveals his deception to Daniel's lover Zev. Nearly burned alive, Murphy is rescued when Emori and Indra bring in Russell to talk down the Faithful, with Russell reaffirming Murphy and Emori's covers. However, Indra realizes in the process that Russell's body has in fact been taken over by *Sheidheda*, the Dark Commander. Murphy and Emori's deception is subsequently revealed by Nikki and Nelson, the leader of the Children of Gabriel, before *Sheidheda* slaughters many of the Faithful. In the aftermath of the massacre, with the Dark Commander consolidating his power and Indra deposed, Murphy takes leadership of the massacre survivors to hide and oppose *Sheidheda's* reign with Murphy showing an understanding of the way the Dark Commander operates and something of an ability to predict what he is up to. In turn, *Sheidheda* appears to genuinely like and respect Murphy despite being on opposing sides, the two treating their conflict like a game of chess and at one point, playing chess together to pass the time when their conflict is at a stalemate before Clarke's return. After discovering that Earth has regenerated, Murphy expresses a desire to relocate everyone on Sanctum to humanity's much\\-safer homeworld.", "In the series finale, after Emori dies, Murphy decides to place her Mind Drive into his own head despite knowing that it will inevitably be fatal to him as he would rather spend his last few hours with Emori than the rest of his life without her. When the human race Transcends, Murphy and Emori join them, but decide to join the rest of Clarke's friends in returning to human form to live out the rest of their lives on Earth.", "### Roan", "Portrayed by [Zach McGowan](/wiki/Zach_McGowan \"Zach McGowan\"), Roan (season 4; recurring season 3; guest season 7\\) is an Ice Nation fugitive who is tempted by Lexa to kidnap Clarke. He turns out to be Prince Roan, son of Queen Nia. He later becomes king of the Ice Nation after Lexa kills Nia for attempting to overthrow her. He supports Ontari as the new Commander and attempts to track down Clarke who has escaped with the Flame. Roan and Clarke instead form an alliance to give Ontari the Flame to help shut down A.L.I.E. but the plan fails and Roan is shot by Kane. He is rescued when Clarke and Abby take the bullet out of his chest. Echo tries to tempt him to kill Clarke for her crimes as well as secure his position as ruler of the 13 clans. However, Clarke gives him A.L.I.E. 2\\.0 in hopes that he will let her and her people live to save the planet from the nuclear explosion in 6 months which he accepts. Later, he learns that Skaikru seems to be protecting themselves thus ending the alliance. Clarke convinces Roan to share Arkadia until it explodes. He takes part in the challenge where each tribe sends a champion to fight for the position of the leader – who gets to decide which tribe survives in the bunker. He banishes Echo for trying to cheat in the tournament, and declines to fight Octavia, whom he respects. In the end he is killed by the Nightblood Luna, who drowns him.", "In season 7's \"From the Ashes\", Roan reappears to Echo along with the real Echo as a hallucination due to Red Sun toxin. The two accuse Echo of being a killer and press her on who Echo is now, reminding Echo of her many mistakes.", "### Echo", "Portrayed by [Tasya Teles](/wiki/Tasya_Teles \"Tasya Teles\"), Echo (seasons 5–7; guest seasons 2–3; recurring season 4\\) is a former Ice Nation Grounder who was trapped at Mount Weather. She saves Bellamy's life, which leads him to trust her and he helps her escape. She later betrays him and helps act out a plan that led to the destruction of Mount Weather. After the events in the City of Light she blames Skaikru for all the casualties and demands for Clarke's execution. She becomes a royal guard and the bodyguard of Roan, but is banished for her interference in the Grounder battle. She assists Octavia in trying to open the bunker, but Octavia will only help Azgeda and not her. She fights off Grounders who tried to kill Clarke and provides protection onward in exchange for her safety when the death wave hits. In the season finale, Bellamy talks Echo out of [suicide](/wiki/Suicide \"Suicide\") and she joins Bellamy's group in retreating to the remains of the Ark in space. In the fifth season, six years later, she is romantically involved with Bellamy, and afraid to return to Earth, knowing that Octavia will want her dead. Once she returns to Earth, she is confronted by Octavia who reminds her of her banishment but gives her an ultimatum on spying on the people of *Eligius IV* in exchange for banishment being lifted, and Octavia executes several of her people in order to make her defection seem legitimate.", "In season six's \"Ashes to Ashes\", it's revealed that the real Echo is long dead. The current Echo is her best friend Ash who was forced to kill Echo as a child and take her place by Queen Nia of the Ice Nation. In the same episode, Echo becomes a Nightblood after being injected with Madi's [bone marrow](/wiki/Bone_marrow \"Bone marrow\"), narrowly escaping being mind\\-wiped with the help of Gaia and Nathan Miller. Echo helps to build a rebellion against the Primes and joins her friends in trying to do better by saving as many people as they can from a psychosis\\-induced massacre created by the Primes releasing a toxin into the population. The group eventually succeeds, but in the aftermath, Octavia is stabbed by Hope Diyoza and vanishes into the mysterious Anomaly.", "In the seventh season, Echo works with Hope and Gabriel Santiago to rescue Octavia and Bellamy who has been kidnapped by the mysterious Disciples. Following the Disciples through the Anomaly, in reality a [wormhole](/wiki/Wormhole \"Wormhole\"), to the planet Skyring, the group becomes trapped when the message containing the code they need to continue on to Bardo is washed away. Due to the [time dilation](/wiki/Time_dilation \"Time dilation\") from a nearby [black hole](/wiki/Black_hole \"Black hole\"), time passes much faster on Skyring than on Sanctum, causing their friends to be initially unaware of how long they have been gone and the danger they are in. Echo, Hope and Gabriel are eventually forced to wait for five years on Sanctum for the Disciples to return for their prisoner Orlando in order to get a chance to reach Bardo. Orlando eventually agrees to train the group as Disciples to help in their rescue mission, but when the time comes to leave, Echo decides that they can't trust Orlando to help them on Bardo and abandons him on Skyring after killing all of the Disciples that they have subdued. As later revealed by Captain Meredith, Echo's betrayal caused Orlando to subsequently commit [suicide](/wiki/Suicide \"Suicide\"). On Bardo, the three manage to rescue Octavia from the Disciples' memory capture machine, only to learn that Bellamy had been apparently killed a week before trying to rescue his sister himself. Grief\\-stricken and enraged, Echo brutally kills their hostage, ruining the plan to use him to help rescue Charmaine Diyoza. Echo later tries to commit genocide on the Disciples in revenge, but is stopped by her friends. Though Echo is reunited with Bellamy who had in fact survived, Bellamy has been changed for the worse by his experiences. After Clarke kills Bellamy, Echo tells Clarke that she feels the real Bellamy has been dead for awhile and sinks into a depression over his loss and her unwillingness to reveal the truth about her identity to him.", "In the series finale, Echo is mortally wounded risking her life to help Octavia. When humanity achieves Transcendence, as Hope has been keeping Echo alive with CPR after her heart stops, she is able to join them. Along with the rest of Clarke's surviving friends, Echo chooses to return to human form to live out the rest of her life on Earth rather than remain Transcended.", "### Jordan Green", "Portrayed by [Shannon Kook](/wiki/Shannon_Kook \"Shannon Kook\"), Jordan Green (seasons 6–7; guest season 5\\) is the son of Monty Green and Harper McIntyre. During his time on Sanctum, Jordan builds a relationship with Nightblood Delilah Workman who becomes the host to Prime Priya Desai, resulting in Delilah's mind being completely wiped. Due to his love for Priya's host, Jordan shows a great deal of care for Priya who has no memory of him, saving her life when Madi, under the influence of the Dark Commander, begins murdering Primes. Jordan is severely wounded in the process, but survives and Priya sees to his recovery personally. After learning that Clarke survived the mind wipe to become Josephine Lightbourne's host, Jordan expresses hope that Delilah survived as well and becomes angry when his friends refuse to even try to save Delilah, unaware that Clarke had only survived due to her experiences with A.L.I.E. During the revolution on Sanctum, the Adjustors attempt to brainwash Jordan who is rescued by his friends partway through the process but is left in an unresponsive trance until the next morning. In the aftermath of the revolution, which left all of the Primes aside from Russell Lightbourne dead, Jordan chooses to remain on Sanctum to help clean up the mess, pointing out that while Sanctum wasn't perfect before they got there, it worked. Jordan is shown to have kept one of the Prime's Mind Drives, presumably that of Priya who was killed by Delilah's vengeful mother.", "In season 7, Jordan attempts to act as an intermediary with the Adjustors and Russell. Despite undergoing the brainwashing, Jordan states that he doesn't believe in the divinity of the Primes and instead shows sympathy for Russell who he feels is simply a man who has lost his way. Though Jordan returns Priya's Mind Drive to Russell, the depressed and suicidal man destroys it instead. Jordan and Russell have a conversation about the mysterious Anomaly which Jordan finds himself drawn to due to the experiences he had under the influence of the Red Sun toxin. Having also been drawn to the Anomaly, Russell suggests that it is now Jordan's job to try to figure the mystery out. Jordan is eventually rejected by Russell's followers who dub themselves the Faithful while *Sheidheda*, who has killed Russell and taken over his body, manipulates Jordan as part of his own plans. Jordan teams up with Raven to examine the armor of a dead Disciple, having not seen her since they worked together briefly after *Eligius IV* arrived at Sanctum. Upon learning that the Anomaly is a [wormhole](/wiki/Wormhole \"Wormhole\") and that Clarke is in trouble, Raven and Jordan rush to their friends' rescue with Raven using the armor to kill eight Disciples, something that leaves her disturbed. Having learned that their friends are trapped on another planet, Jordan joins Clarke, Raven, Miller and Niylah in traveling through the Anomaly in search of them. Eventually reaching the Disciple homeworld of Bardo, Jordan is shown the logs of the native Bardoans by Bill Cadogan, logs that the Disciples believe speak of a last war and then transcendence after entering \"the final code\" into the Anomaly Stone. Based on his knowledge of the [Korean language](/wiki/Korean_language \"Korean language\") from Monty, Jordan comes to the conclusion that the Disciples mistranslated the logs. Instead of a last war, Jordan's translation of the logs suggest a test undertaken by whoever enters the code, that individual representing their species to determine that species' future. He grows close to Hope Diyoza with the two starting to form a romantic relationship with each other.", "### Russell Lightbourne", "Portrayed by [JR Bourne](/wiki/JR_Bourne \"JR Bourne\") (season 7; recurring season 6\\) and [Sean Maguire](/wiki/Sean_Maguire \"Sean Maguire\"), Russell Lightbourne is the leader of Sanctum. Originally a colonist from Earth and an [astronomer](/wiki/Astronomer \"Astronomer\"), Russell fell under the influence of the first Red Sun Eclipse and slaughtered many of the other Eligus colonists, including his own daughter Josephine, in a psychotic state. Russell subsequently spent the next twenty\\-five years working with Josephine's boyfriend Gabriel Santiago to find a way to resurrect those that they lost, eventually succeeding through Mind Drives and Nightblood hosts and gaining a form of immortality. The original colonists became known as the Primes and ruled over the citizens of Sanctum, sacrificing innocent people in order to extend their own lives. However, due to moral concerns, Gabriel eventually abandoned the Primes to form the militant group known as the Children of Gabriel.", "When the survivors from Earth arrived, Russell and the other Primes were initially welcoming, but this changed after Russell and his wife Simone learned that [Clarke Griffin](/wiki/Clarke_Griffin \"Clarke Griffin\") was a Nightblood. Desperate to resurrect Josephine and unwilling to wait potentially 56 years for their chance, the two mind wiped Clarke, apparently killing her and kept the secret of Josephine's return. The two enticed Abigail Griffin to help them make more Nightblood to make new hosts to deal with the dwindling population of Nightbloods despite having murdered her daughter by promising to help her save Marcus Kane. Unlike his wife, Russell initially showed remorse and hesitation over some of their actions, being visibly anguished while killing Clarke and genuinely remorseful when apologizing to Bellamy Blake while trying to make a deal with him. Russell was elated to learn that Clarke had survived, seeing the new Nightblood as a solution that would allow him to bring Josephine back in a willing host while restoring Clarke. However, under the influence of the Dark Commander, Clarke's adopted daughter Madi began slaughtering Primes and Josephine was unwilling to give up Clarke's body, instead desiring to get rid of Clarke for good and keep her body. This led to conflict between the Primes and Earth survivors with Clarke's friends seeking out Gabriel to help free her from Josephine's control, though Bellamy intended to trade Josephine's Mind Drive to Russell for peace. After Clarke's friends began fostering rebellion, leading to Simone's death, Russell abandoned all restraint and nearly burned them at the stake before John Murphy offered a way to restore the Primes using [bone marrow transplants](/wiki/Bone_marrow_transplant \"Bone marrow transplant\") to recreate Nightblood. Russell sacrificed Abby to be the new host for Simone and unleashed Red Sun toxin to turn Sanctum's citizens on each other while the Primes fled the planet. Having killed Josephine and been posing as her, Clarke thwarted the Primes' plan to mind wipe Wonkru and blew all of the Primes except for Russell into deep space while her friends managed to stop the fighting on Sanctum. Russell allied himself with the Dark Commander to get revenge upon Clarke, but Madi regained control and had Russell arrested for his crimes.", "In \"From the Ashes\", a depressed and suicidal Russell has refused to eat, drink or sleep since his arrest while the various factions of Sanctum clamor for either his release or execution. Apparently disillusioned with his former image of a living divinity, Russell destroyed Priya's Mind Drive before discussing with Jordan Green the mysterious Anomaly that they were both drawn to. When Clarke sought his help to calm the factions, Russell purposefully goaded Clarke with her mother's memory in an attempt to get Clarke to kill him. Though nearly successful, Clarke knocked Russell unconscious instead. Russell awakened in a Mindspace in his original form where he was greeted by *Sheidheda*, the Dark Commander who had downloaded himself into Russell's Mind Drive when the Flame was deleted. The Dark Commander slit Russell's throat, killing him and destroying Russell's consciousness. With Russell gone, *Sheidheda* resurrected himself in Russell's body and began pretending to be the deposed Prime. [Jason Rothenberg](/wiki/Jason_Rothenberg \"Jason Rothenberg\") confirmed that Russell will stay dead and will not return to battle *Sheidheda* for control of his body as happened with Clarke and Josephine.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hypable.com/the\\-100\\-season\\-7\\-jason\\-rothenberg\\-interview/\\|title \\= 'The 100' boss breaks down season 7 premiere: Is \\[spoiler] really dead? Is Madi okay? Is there light ahead?\\|date \\= May 21, 2020}} Though *Sheidheda* initially is successful in posing as Russell, Indra realizes the truth in \"Welcome to Bardo\" and has Russell's Mind Drive removed from his body so that *Sheidheda* can never be resurrected again. Eventually, as he consolidated his power, *Sheidheda* revealed the truth to everyone that Russell was in fact dead and that it was now *Sheidheda* that controlled his host body. In the series finale, Indra kills *Sheidheda* by blowing up Russell's host body with a sonic cannon. With Russell's Mind Drive removed and the Flame destroyed, the Dark Commander's consciousness perishes with Russell's body, making his demise permanent.", "### *Sheidheda*", "Portrayed by [Dakota Daulby](/wiki/Dakota_Daulby \"Dakota Daulby\") and [JR Bourne](/wiki/JR_Bourne \"JR Bourne\"), *Sheidheda* (season 7; recurring season 6\\), also known as the Dark Commander, is a former Commander and leader of the Grounders. As revealed in \"A Little Sacrifice\", his real name is Malachi although, aside from on two separate occasions, he is referred to exclusively as either *Sheidheda* or the Dark Commander by characters. Unlike most of the other Commanders, *Sheidheda* is pure evil, killing his first three Flamekeepers, anyone who wouldn't bow to him and their entire families. As a child, Indra once saw the Dark Commander in action on *Trikru* land. Indra's father died in the battle while her mother bowed to *Sheidheda* with it later being suggested that she did so in exchange for him sparing her daughter's life. Eventually, the Dark Commander is killed by his fourth Flamekeeper. Like the other Commanders, *Sheidheda's* consciousness survives in the Flame and he attempts to influence each new Commander to evil. However, the Commanders and their Flamekeepers have a Separation Ritual which calls upon the Spirits of the Commanders to seal *Sheidheda* away from each new Commander.", "In the sixth season, new Commander Madi Griffin begins to see *Sheidheda* after arriving upon Sanctum. Initially able to resist the Dark Commander's influence, Madi eventually begins to see him in the waking world. Concerned, her Flamekeeper Gaia has Madi attempt the Separation Ritual, but it ultimately fails. After receiving word that her adopted mother [Clarke Griffin](/wiki/Clarke_Griffin \"Clarke Griffin\") had been killed in order to resurrect Josephine Lightbourne, Madi banishes Gaia and agrees to follow the Dark Commander to get revenge against the Primes. Under his influence, Madi begins assassinating Primes, killing Miranda Mason and nearly killing Priya Desai had Jordan Green not intervened. Due to Madi's actions and Bellamy kidnapping Josephine after learning that Clarke was still alive and trapped inside of her own body, relations between the Primes and the Earth people fall apart and they are imprisoned. Raven Reyes realizes that the Dark Commander had somehow managed to trick the Flame's AI into protecting him and isolating the other Commanders. Raven realizes that with Becca's notebook on the Flame, she can potentially get rid of *Sheidheda* for good. The Dark Commander is able to take full possession of Madi, particularly after Clarke returns posing as Josephine and claiming that Clarke was gone for good. With Madi's friends attempting to get rid of him, *Sheidheda* threatens to kill Madi if they tried to remove him from the Flame. When Raven attempts to get rid of him anyway, she discovers that the Dark Commander had added a kill code to the Flame that would get rid of him at the cost of destroying the Flame and the spirits of the other Commanders. After Clarke kills all of the other Primes, *Sheidheda* forges an alliance with Russell Lightbourne to get revenge, using Madi's control over *Wonkru*. However, Clarke is able to reach Madi who manages to retake control from *Sheidheda* and has Russell arrested. Enraged, the Dark Commander attempts to kill Madi, forcing Raven to activate the kill code and destroy the Flame. However, *Sheidheda* had anticipated this and manipulated the situation so that at least he and possibly the other Commanders are uploaded to another location.", "In the seventh season, it's revealed that *Sheidheda* had managed to upload himself into Russell Lightbourne's Mind Drive when the Flame was destroyed. After Clarke knocks Russell unconscious, *Sheidheda* greets him in a Mindspace resembling the location where he would meet with Madi. The Dark Commander slits the deposed Prime's throat, killing him and destroying Russell's consciousness. With Russell gone, *Sheidheda* is resurrected in the body of Russell's final host and preys on Clarke's emotions to get her to save him from a fire. As the Dark Commander revels in his resurrection, Clarke announces that \"Russell\" will be executed for his crimes the next day. Manipulating Russell's followers, *Sheidheda* is able to force an end to the execution or risk creating a [martyr](/wiki/Martyr \"Martyr\") for the fanatics. After *Sheidheda* stops the fanatics, now calling themselves the Faithful, from executing Murphy, Indra realizes who he really is from his behavior. Indra promises to kill *Sheidheda* herself when the time comes and has Russell's Mind Drive painfully removed by Eric Jackson so that the Dark Commander can not be resurrected again when he dies. *Sheidheda's* resurrection is later revealed after he brutally slaughters most of the Faithful and Knight and two other *Wonkru* guards bow before the resurrected Dark Commander. Escaping the scene, the Dark Commander begins solidifying his power over *Wonkru*, beating Indra in single combat and forcing her to kneel for Madi's sake. However, Madi manages to slash out his right eye with a knife while Murphy and Emori lead the surviving Sanctummites into hiding to prepare to fight back against the Dark Commander's reign. *Sheidheda* brings the prisoners under his control and massacres the Children of Gabriel for refusing to kneel, but continues to be opposed by Murphy who he takes prisoner while Emori forces a stalemate by threatening to detonate Sanctum's nuclear reactor if Murphy is harmed or if *Sheidheda* attacks. Shortly thereafter, Clarke returns with the Disciples in search of the Flame. The Dark Commander is severely wounded, but aids Indra in escaping their common enemy; in return, Indra chooses not to kill him but instead to leave *Sheidheda* to die of his wounds. However, in exchange for the Disciples helping him, the Dark Commander directs them to the sketchbook containing proof that Madi still has the memories of the Commanders. *Sheidheda's* wound is treated by the Disciples and he forges an alliance with Bill Cadogan to capture Madi, though secretly the Dark Commander opposes Cadogan's aims as he only wishes to rule and not Transcend. *Sheidheda's* attack leaves Gabriel Santiago mortally wounded, but the Dark Commander is defeated in combat by Indra and Gaia and forced to flee empty\\-handed in order to survive. Locked up upon his return to Bardo, *Sheidheda* is released by Clarke and Octavia and agrees to act as a distraction for them, but disappears after slaughtering several Disciples.", "In \"The Last War,\" *Sheidheda* attempts to cause a war between *Wonkru* and the Disciples during the test to determine if humanity deserves Transcendence or not, mortally wounding Levitt and Echo in the process. As the Dark Commander prepares to lead a charge on the Disciples' position, Indra confronts him with one of the Eligius sonic cannons. Declaring it to be for her mother, Indra blows *Sheidheda* up with the cannon, killing him. With his Mind Drive removed and the Flame destroyed, the Dark Commander's consciousness is left with nowhere to go and dies with Russell's host body, rendering his death permanent. *Sheidheda's* death allows Octavia to talk both *Wonkru* and the Disciples down from war.", "### Gabriel Santiago", "Portrayed primarily by [Chuku Modu](/wiki/Chuku_Modu \"Chuku Modu\") (season 7; recurring season 6\\), Gabriel Santiago was a [geneticist](/wiki/Geneticist \"Geneticist\") and one of the original Eligius colonists on Sanctum and the boyfriend of Josephine Lightbourne. During the first Red Sun Eclipse, Russell Lightbourne fell into a psychotic state and killed many of the other original colonists, including Josephine. Gabriel himself survived and dedicated the next twenty\\-five years of his life to finding a way to bring back those they lost, particularly Josephine. Gabriel eventually discovered a way to resurrect the original colonists by implanting their Mind Drives into mind wiped Nightblood hosts, effectively granting them a form of immortality. The first to be successfully resurrected was Josephine herself. Josephine would later state that Gabriel had already been dying of cancer by the time that he succeeded and Josephine brought him back as she was unwilling to lose him either. Thanks to Gabriel, the original colonists became known as the Primes and ruled over Sanctum, using Nightblood hosts to resurrect themselves. However, Gabriel developed moral concerns about their actions, particularly sacrificing innocent people to save themselves and destroyed the Nightblood embryos in an attempt to stop the resurrections, escaping with the help of Ryker Desai. Over the next seventy years, Gabriel formed the militant group known as the Children of Gabriel, rescuing children sacrificed to the forest by Josephine and became known primarily as \"The Old Man\". Gabriel intended to die with his elderly host, but Eduardo, a loyal follower who was unwilling to let him go, resurrected Gabriel against his wishes in the body of Xavier, a free\\-born Nightblood amongst the Children of Gabriel. Out of guilt, Gabriel killed Eduardo and lived as Xavier, vanishing to his followers for the next ten years. Despite their differences in ideology, Gabriel never stopped loving Josephine in 236 years, something that Josephine admitted to reciprocating.", "When the Earth survivors arrived on Sanctum, they came into conflict with the Children of Gabriel. During this time, Octavia Blake and Charmaine Diyoza met Gabriel as Xavier and he became interested in Octavia's connection to the mysterious Anomaly, something that Gabriel had spent over a century studying. With Octavia dying, Gabriel led the two to the anomaly with Diyoza deducing his true identity. Diyoza and Octavia entered the Anomaly, Diyoza vanishing to her apparent death while Octavia returned fully healed. Gabriel and Octavia attempted to determine the truth of Octavia's time in the Anomaly, instead leading her on a journey of self\\-reflection. After learning that [Clarke Griffin](/wiki/Clarke_Griffin \"Clarke Griffin\") was the host of the once again resurrected Josephine, Gabriel worked with Octavia and Bellamy to save their friend and was reunited with Josephine for the first time in decades. Despite his continuing love for Josephine and vice versa, Gabriel refused to let her sacrifice Clarke's life and attempted to safely remove Josephine's Mind Drive. After Josephine hung on inside of Clarke, Clarke was forced to kill her for good in self\\-defense to Gabriel's obvious grief. Gabriel's true identity became exposed to his followers and they worked together to stop the resurrection of the remaining Primes though Gabriel's haste foiled the original plan and caused chaos when Russell unleashed the Red Sun toxin upon the people of Sanctum. Gabriel worked with Clarke's friends, particularly John Murphy, to contain the chaos while Russell was arrested on *Eligius IV* and the other Primes were permanently killed by Clarke aside from Priya and Ryker Desai who died on Sanctum in the rebellion. After the rebellion, Gabriel discovered a tattoo on Octavia's back matching the symbols on the Anomaly Stone, a mysterious artifact connected to the Anomaly that he had been studying for over a century. When Gabriel and Octavia activated the artifact using the symbols, Diyoza's daughter Hope emerged from the Anomaly, stated that \"he\" had her mother and stabbed Octavia who vanished with the Anomaly.", "After the disappearance of Hope and the kidnapping of Bellamy Blake by the mysterious Disciples, Gabriel joined Echo and Hope in traveling through the Anomaly in search of their friends, emerging on another planet named Skyring by Hope where time ran much faster due to [time dilation](/wiki/Time_dilation \"Time dilation\") and where Octavia had spent ten years with Diyoza and Hope before being captured by the Disciples. Hope was able to provide Gabriel with some answers about how the Anomaly, in reality a [wormhole](/wiki/Wormhole \"Wormhole\") created by an alien race, worked and revealed that she had only injected Octavia with a locater tag to send Octavia through the Anomaly as per Hope's deal with the leader of the Disciples. On Skyring, Gabriel discovered the body of his friend [quantum physicist](/wiki/Quantum_physicist \"Quantum physicist\") Doctor Colin Benson and realized that Skyring was actually in fact planet Beta from the *Eliguis III* colony mission, though the mission had failed due to a transport ship crash that had killed all but Colin himself. Revealed to have kept Josephine's Mind Drive to be sure she was truly gone, Gabriel began using Colin's Memory Drive, the technology that Gabriel had first reverse\\-engineered the Mind Drive from, to search for the code to open the Anomaly to Bardo where the Disciples came from and which Gabriel suspected was another *Eligius III* colony world. Though successful in finding the code, Orlando, a man imprisoned on Skyring by the Disciples destroyed Gabriel's computer before they could record the code for their use. The group subsequently works with Orlando to train to become Disciples to infiltrate Bardo and rescue their friends in five years. Gabriel ultimately betrays his friends on Bardo, unwilling to risk going to the surface and apparently becoming a willing member of the Disciple cause. Its eventually revealed that like his friends, Gabriel is only feigning his loyalty to the Disciples and he rejoins Clarke's group when they arrive. After returning to Sanctum, a hallucination of Josephine entices Gabriel to repair the Flame and use it to find the code to begin the last war. Gabriel begins repairing the Flame using Eligius technology, but comes to the conclusion that this is the wrong choice and he destroys the Flame instead.", "In \"A Sort of Homecoming\", Gabriel is stabbed several times while defending Madi from *Sheidheda*. Wanting to finally die, Gabriel rejects all medical help and peacefully passes away shortly thereafter surrounded by his friends and adopted family.", "### Hope Diyoza", "Portrayed by Shelby Flannery, Hope Diyoza (season 7; guest season 6\\) is the daughter of Charmaine Diyoza and Paxton McCreary. Throughout the fifth and sixth seasons, Diyoza is pregnant with Hope and chooses her name with the help of Marcus Kane. In the middle of the sixth season, hallucinations of a young Hope draw Diyoza into the mysterious Anomaly where she vanishes. At the end of the season, Octavia Blake, who followed Diyoza into the Anomaly but returned moments later, is discovered to have a mysterious code tattooed upon her back. When the code is entered, a twenty\\-year old Hope emerges from the Anomaly, states that \"he\" has her mother and stabs Octavia who vanishes while Hope collapses.", "In the seventh season, a series of flashbacks reveal that Hope was raised by her mother and Octavia on a planet that Hope dubbed Skyring on the other side of the Anomaly which is revealed to be a [wormhole](/wiki/Wormhole \"Wormhole\") linking six different planets together, one of them being Earth. Due to [time dilation](/wiki/Time_dilation \"Time dilation\") from a nearby [black hole](/wiki/Black_hole \"Black hole\"), time passed much faster on Skyring than on Sanctum meaning that in the seconds Octavia and Diyoza were gone, ten years passed on Skyring. However, Diyoza and Octavia were eventually captured by the Disciples, leaving Hope alone for some time. She was later raised by a Disciple named Dev who was sent to the planet as punishment and ten years later, launched a rescue mission for her mother and Octavia, though Dev died in the process. With the help of a compassionate Disciple scientist named Levitt, Hope succeeded in sending Octavia back to Sanctum, but the travel wiped Octavia's memory of her time away. Before Octavia's departure, the three imprinted Hope's biometric code on Octavia's back so that she could later pull Hope through the Anomaly. However, Hope was captured trying to rescue her mother and forced by the Disciple leader Anders to inject Octavia with a locator tag when she was eventually pulled through the Anomaly in exchange for Diyoza's life.", "In the present of the seventh season, like Octavia, Hope initially loses her memory, but aids Echo and Gabriel Santiago in working to rescue a kidnapped Bellamy. Returning to Skyring restores Hope's memory, but the note Levitt left for Hope with the code for the Disciple homeworld Bardo is washed away. The group ends up trapped on Skyring for five years, but convince Orlando, a Disciple prisoner trapped there as well, to help them train for a rescue mission when the Disciples return for him. The ambush is successful, but Orlando is abandoned on Skyring where he commits suicide. On Bardo, Hope has to be talked out of an assassination attempt on Anders and they discover that Bellamy was apparently killed in a rescue attempt of his own for Octavia. Hope is reunited with her mother, who managed to escape captivity on her own, but they are betrayed by Gabriel who refuses to try a risky plan to survive. The more emotional Hope resists Disciple training and seeks vengeance upon them, leading her to aid Echo in her attempt at [genocide](/wiki/Genocide \"Genocide\"). Though Echo is ultimately talked down, Hope kills Anders and attempts to release the Gem\\-9 [bioweapon](/wiki/Bioweapon \"Bioweapon\") herself. However, Diyoza sacrifices herself to stop her daughter from committing genocide. Grief\\-stricken, Hope is comforted by Jordan Green and the two begin developing a romantic relationship with each other although she further suffers the loss of Gabriel. After humanity achieves Transcendence, Hope chooses to return to human form to live out the rest of her days on Earth with her friends and Jordan.", "" ]
### Bellamy Blake [thumb\|left\|upright\=0\.60\|Bob Morley portrays the role of Bellamy.](/wiki/File:Bob_Morley_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg "Bob Morley by Gage Skidmore.jpg") Portrayed by [Bob Morley](/wiki/Bob_Morley "Bob Morley"), Bellamy Blake is the Co\-leader of the 100, leader of the Skaikru and The Heart in the lead dynamic \[The Head and The Heart] of the show. He's also Octavia's half brother. He professes a strong determination to protect his sister, spanning from her birth. He often says "my sister, my responsibility", something their mother had told him when Octavia was born. He was the leader of the 100 and described as the one who inspires masses. He's often inspired by Clarke after a tumultuous start to their relationship. He and Clarke develop a mutual respect and learn to compromise for each other's methods. He still feels guilty for his mother's death. In the second season, he went undercover in Mount Weather, which was a huge risk, to save 40 of his people who were held captive to extract their bone marrow. In the end he along with Clarke were able to save all of their people, although they had to kill everyone in Mount Weather, over three hundred people, after being betrayed by Lexa and the Grounder army. In the third season, he saw Clarke while she was a prisoner of Roan. In order to save her he took a huge risk by dressing as a grounder and crossed an army of grounders in order to retrieve Clarke but his attempt resulted in him being knocked out. Clarke sacrificed her freedom to prevent him from getting killed. He was manipulated by the new Chancellor after Azgeda (Ice Nation) bombed Mt Weather, killing 49 people, including his new girlfriend, Gina. In the process, he betrays Marcus Kane and put the whole of The Ark at risk of death. The bombing was made possible because Bellamy trusted Echo, the Grounder he saved in the previous season in Mt Weather. He listened to the false information she delivered in order to save Clarke. After Pike's election, Bellamy is one of the nine guards (along with Pike himself) that carry out the chancellor's orders to kill the 299 Grounder warriors sent by Lexa. Bellamy soon feels guilt for his actions, and while he saves Indra's life, this puts a rift between him and Octavia, as well as Kane. Pike gains more power with Bellamy's help, resulting in the tragic death of Lincoln, Octavia's lover. He remains one of the few people not taken over by A.L.I.E., and fights alongside Octavia and Pike to stop her. In the fourth season, he saved his people, including Riley, who were held as slaves by an Ice Nation gang. His determination to save his people often puts him in danger. Afterward, he reconciled with Kane. He is often on the grounders' side, feeling it is selfish for the Sky People to hog all the places in the bunker. In the finale he had to leave Clarke behind on the ground in order to reach the Ark. In the fifth season, it is revealed he survived on the Ark in space. After being reunited with Octavia, he feels he does not recognize her anymore due to her brutal and unforgiving ways, but still tries to get through to her. It was also his idea to try and take the cryogenically frozen prisoners hostage and have leverage with Diyoza in order to save Clarke. He also made Madi realize that they had made mistakes and asked her to forgive the Eligius crew and they all boarded the ship at his request. Also, his denial to board the ship without all of his people on board indicated his PTSD regarding leaving Clarke behind in S4 finale. He also poisoned his own sister to spare Clarke's life thus indicating a shift in his priority. In the sixth season he's still feeling guilt over Monty and Harper's along with several of his friends death which resulted in a conflict between him and Echo. When Clarke was body\-snatched by the Primes it was him who recognized it wasn't her in Clarke's body which resulted in him being knocked out. He's also the one who learns Clarke is still alive based on a Morse code message Clarke sent him. Bellamy kidnaps Josephine in an effort to save Clarke, leading to a conversation between Bellamy and Josephine about the complexity of his relationship with Clarke. After an attempt by Gabriel Santiago to remove Josephine fails, Bellamy desperately performs CPR on a dying Clarke and urges her to fight. Hearing him, Clarke destroys Josephine's consciousness and is reunited with Bellamy and Octavia. Angry at his sister, Bellamy maintains a distance from her, eventually stating that while Octavia is still his sister, she is no longer his responsibility. Together, Bellamy and Clarke work to overthrow the Primes with minimal bloodshed, though Clarke loses her mother in the process. At the end of the season, Bellamy witnesses Octavia be stabbed by Hope Diyoza and then mysteriously vanish into the Anomaly. In the seventh season, Bellamy is abducted by the mysterious Disciples through the Anomaly, chased by Echo, Gabriel Santiago and Hope Diyoza. After escaping their grasp, Bellamy attempts to rescue Octavia who negotiates for Bellamy to be returned to Sanctum instead of risking his life. However, after Anders opens the Anomaly, a dying Disciple detonates a grenade and Bellamy vanishes when the explosion clears. Bellamy is presumed dead by everyone else, driving Echo into a genocidal grief and rage against the Disciples. It's later revealed that Bellamy and his hostage the Conductor were flung through the Anomaly to Etherea where they were forced to work together over the course of at least two months to survive. Bellamy's experiences on Etherea cause him to devote himself to the Disciple cause and betray his friends when he returns to Bardo. In "Blood Giant", after Bellamy refuses to stand down, he is shot and killed by Clarke. After being informed of Bellamy's death in "A Sort of Homecoming", Octavia and Echo tell Clarke that they lost the real Bellamy a long time ago and his need for a meaning and a cause killed him, not Clarke. In "The Last War," Bellamy's beliefs about Transcendence are proven to be correct. However, Bellamy does not Transcend due to his earlier death and the fact that only the living can achieve Transcendence.
[ "### Bellamy Blake", "[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\=0\\.60\\|Bob Morley portrays the role of Bellamy.](/wiki/File:Bob_Morley_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg \"Bob Morley by Gage Skidmore.jpg\")\nPortrayed by [Bob Morley](/wiki/Bob_Morley \"Bob Morley\"), Bellamy Blake is the Co\\-leader of the 100, leader of the Skaikru and The Heart in the lead dynamic \\[The Head and The Heart] of the show. He's also Octavia's half brother. He professes a strong determination to protect his sister, spanning from her birth. He often says \"my sister, my responsibility\", something their mother had told him when Octavia was born. He was the leader of the 100 and described as the one who inspires masses. He's often inspired by Clarke after a tumultuous start to their relationship. He and Clarke develop a mutual respect and learn to compromise for each other's methods. He still feels guilty for his mother's death.", "In the second season, he went undercover in Mount Weather, which was a huge risk, to save 40 of his people who were held captive to extract their bone marrow. In the end he along with Clarke were able to save all of their people, although they had to kill everyone in Mount Weather, over three hundred people, after being betrayed by Lexa and the Grounder army.", "In the third season, he saw Clarke while she was a prisoner of Roan. In order to save her he took a huge risk by dressing as a grounder and crossed an army of grounders in order to retrieve Clarke but his attempt resulted in him being knocked out. Clarke sacrificed her freedom to prevent him from getting killed. He was manipulated by the new Chancellor after Azgeda (Ice Nation) bombed Mt Weather, killing 49 people, including his new girlfriend, Gina. In the process, he betrays Marcus Kane and put the whole of The Ark at risk of death. The bombing was made possible because Bellamy trusted Echo, the Grounder he saved in the previous season in Mt Weather. He listened to the false information she delivered in order to save Clarke. After Pike's election, Bellamy is one of the nine guards (along with Pike himself) that carry out the chancellor's orders to kill the 299 Grounder warriors sent by Lexa. Bellamy soon feels guilt for his actions, and while he saves Indra's life, this puts a rift between him and Octavia, as well as Kane. Pike gains more power with Bellamy's help, resulting in the tragic death of Lincoln, Octavia's lover. He remains one of the few people not taken over by A.L.I.E., and fights alongside Octavia and Pike to stop her.", "In the fourth season, he saved his people, including Riley, who were held as slaves by an Ice Nation gang. His determination to save his people often puts him in danger. Afterward, he reconciled with Kane. He is often on the grounders' side, feeling it is selfish for the Sky People to hog all the places in the bunker. In the finale he had to leave Clarke behind on the ground in order to reach the Ark.", "In the fifth season, it is revealed he survived on the Ark in space. After being reunited with Octavia, he feels he does not recognize her anymore due to her brutal and unforgiving ways, but still tries to get through to her. It was also his idea to try and take the cryogenically frozen prisoners hostage and have leverage with Diyoza in order to save Clarke. He also made Madi realize that they had made mistakes and asked her to forgive the Eligius crew and they all boarded the ship at his request. Also, his denial to board the ship without all of his people on board indicated his PTSD regarding leaving Clarke behind in S4 finale. He also poisoned his own sister to spare Clarke's life thus indicating a shift in his priority.", "In the sixth season he's still feeling guilt over Monty and Harper's along with several of his friends death which resulted in a conflict between him and Echo. When Clarke was body\\-snatched by the Primes it was him who recognized it wasn't her in Clarke's body which resulted in him being knocked out. He's also the one who learns Clarke is still alive based on a Morse code message Clarke sent him. Bellamy kidnaps Josephine in an effort to save Clarke, leading to a conversation between Bellamy and Josephine about the complexity of his relationship with Clarke. After an attempt by Gabriel Santiago to remove Josephine fails, Bellamy desperately performs CPR on a dying Clarke and urges her to fight. Hearing him, Clarke destroys Josephine's consciousness and is reunited with Bellamy and Octavia. Angry at his sister, Bellamy maintains a distance from her, eventually stating that while Octavia is still his sister, she is no longer his responsibility. Together, Bellamy and Clarke work to overthrow the Primes with minimal bloodshed, though Clarke loses her mother in the process. At the end of the season, Bellamy witnesses Octavia be stabbed by Hope Diyoza and then mysteriously vanish into the Anomaly.", "In the seventh season, Bellamy is abducted by the mysterious Disciples through the Anomaly, chased by Echo, Gabriel Santiago and Hope Diyoza. After escaping their grasp, Bellamy attempts to rescue Octavia who negotiates for Bellamy to be returned to Sanctum instead of risking his life. However, after Anders opens the Anomaly, a dying Disciple detonates a grenade and Bellamy vanishes when the explosion clears. Bellamy is presumed dead by everyone else, driving Echo into a genocidal grief and rage against the Disciples. It's later revealed that Bellamy and his hostage the Conductor were flung through the Anomaly to Etherea where they were forced to work together over the course of at least two months to survive. Bellamy's experiences on Etherea cause him to devote himself to the Disciple cause and betray his friends when he returns to Bardo.", "In \"Blood Giant\", after Bellamy refuses to stand down, he is shot and killed by Clarke. After being informed of Bellamy's death in \"A Sort of Homecoming\", Octavia and Echo tell Clarke that they lost the real Bellamy a long time ago and his need for a meaning and a cause killed him, not Clarke.", "In \"The Last War,\" Bellamy's beliefs about Transcendence are proven to be correct. However, Bellamy does not Transcend due to his earlier death and the fact that only the living can achieve Transcendence.", "" ]
### Octavia Blake Portrayed by [Marie Avgeropoulos](/wiki/Marie_Avgeropoulos "Marie Avgeropoulos") (and by Olivia Steele Falconer as child) Octavia Blake is Bellamy's younger sister – a rare relationship given the Ark's one\-child rule. She was kept a secret by her family, living under the floor to avoid detection by authorities, but was eventually caught when Bellamy snuck her out of her room to attend a masked ball. Once discovered, some of the detainees discriminate against her for being a second child and thus an outcast to the Ark's dystopian society. She is a fiercely independent girl who is constantly rebelling and getting attention from men, most notably the Grounder Lincoln. However, just like Clarke, she is not exactly built for war so she is horrified at what she sees and experiences at first. In the second season, she becomes more immersed in Grounder culture and serves as Indra's second. Originally she felt hatred towards Clarke for being the daughter of someone in the same council who had her locked up. It is intensified when she discovers Clarke knew about the bombing of Tondc, did nothing about it, and allowed all those Grounders to die after the events of Mount Weather (even telling Indra that she will not leave behind Bellamy and her friends). She remains in her Grounder gear, and berates Lincoln for wearing an Ark jacket and for being naive as she still holds a grudge towards them. Eventually, Lincoln is brutally killed in front of her by Pike, causing a rift between her and Bellamy. In the fourth season, she shows more signs of being bloodthirsty after killing an ambassador who questions Roan's leadership. This new violent attitude earned her the nickname *Skairipa* ('Sky\-reaper') or Death from Above. After refusing to kill Illian and getting close with him she decides to drop the act and take him home. She later accepts the fact that she is a killer and will fight in the Grounder battle for the bunker alongside Trikru, in which she is victorious after killing Luna, and becoming the acting leader of all 12 clans by telling them they will share the bunker. She finally forgives Bellamy for Lincoln's death after he opened the bunker realizing that he would put his own life in danger just to save her and the Grounders. She later protects Nilyah and further solidified her role as new leader by saying if Skaikru does not choose the 100 people to stay in the bunker then she will kill every Skaikru member. In the season finale, she officially becomes the new leader of the new Grounder tribe consisting of Skaikru, Trikru, Azgeda, and other Grounder clans, regardless of her blood and what is in her head. In the fifth season, although still reluctant on being the leader, she tries to make peace with everyone. Eventually, overpopulation prevents from any real peace inside the bunker, so Octavia takes matters into her own hands and kills anyone who defies her or questions her view of what peace should be. Thus covering herself in their blood and being told by Gaia that it is best she keeps the blood on her, thus becoming *Blodreina* (the Red Queen) and decides anyone who breaks her laws must compete in deathmatches. During two years in the bunker, Abby's actions caused Octavia to become more dark and hateful that led to her ruthless actions as ruler of Wonkru, including murdering anyone who tries to defect, killing some of her own people in order to force them to stay alive when the only source of protein is their own dead, and culminating in her burning down the Hydrofarm in the bunker in order to force a conflict for the Shadow Valley rather than negotiating peace. Near the fifth\-season finale, she later has a change of heart, after realizing that she broke Wonkru. In the season finale, a remorseful Octavia unexpectedly helps Abby save Kane's life after a confrontation between the two women in which Octavia appeared to be torn between leaving or killing Kane. In the sixth season, she is exiled on Sanctum by Bellamy and works with Diyoza who was also exiled. After being poisoned, Octavia seeks healing from the mysterious Anomaly with the help of Gabriel Santiago. After being healed, Octavia decides to seek redemption for her actions and declares herself to be "*Blodreina* no more." At the end of season six, Octavia is stabbed by Diyoza's adult daughter Hope and disappears into the anomaly again, leaving her fate unknown. In the seventh season, its revealed that the Anomaly, which is in fact a [wormhole](/wiki/Wormhole "Wormhole"), had sent Octavia to another planet named Skyring where, due to [time dilation](/wiki/Time_dilation "Time dilation") from a [black hole](/wiki/Black_hole "Black hole"), Octavia lived for ten years with Hope and Diyoza, forming a family and finding peace. Eventually she and Diyoza were captured by a group called the Disciples and brought to another planet named Bardo where she formed a bond with a Disciple scientist named Levitt. Hope eventually rescued Octavia with Levitt's help and sent her back to Sanctum. However, as Octavia returned to a slower time dilated planet without one of the Disciples' protective helmets, she lost her memory of everything that had happened from the moment she left Sanctum. Before leaving, Levitt tattoos Hope's biometric code on Octavia's back so she can pull the young woman back to Sanctum later which is why Hope had appeared at the end of the sixth season. In the present, Hope reveals that she had only tagged Octavia with a locator tag so that she would be pulled through the Anomaly again and she is still alive. Having been returned to Bardo, Octavia regains her lost memories and witnesses Bellamy's apparent death before being rescued by Echo, Hope and Gabriel for whom five years has gone by after getting stuck on Skyring themselves. She later dedicates herself to the Disciple cause alongside Echo, Diyoza and Gabriel, although this is revealed to be a ruse. When Clarke arrives, it's revealed that the Disciples' belief that Clarke holds the Flame comes from Octavia's memories of A.L.I.E.'s destruction. Octavia is reunited with Bellamy before he betrays them, having converted to the Disciple cause. After Clarke is forced to kill Bellamy, Octavia forgives Clarke for killing her brother and is forced to face her demons due to Clarke and her friends getting stuck on Earth, specifically in the Second Dawn bunker where Octavia had ruled as *Blodreina*. When Clarke returns to Bardo to rescue Madi, Octavia joins her and is reunited with Levitt who sides with the two women. The three discover that Cadogan has gotten the needed code from Madi's mind, leaving her in a catatonic state. In "The Last War," Clarke, Octavia and Levitt fail to stop Cadogan from beginning the test to decide the fate of humanity. While Clarke kills Cadogan and takes the test herself, Octavia and Levitt join Echo in trying to stop the war between the Disciples, *Wonkru* and the Eligius prisoners. However, Levitt is shot and mortally wounded as is Echo while helping Octavia pull him to safety. After Indra finally kills the Dark Commander, Octavia steps between the two sides and gives a speech encouraging them to embrace peace with each other, acknowledging her own mistakes and reminding them that they are all humanity. Led by Indra and a Disciple named Kwame, both sides throw down their weapons and Raven is able to convince the Judge to change her mind about wiping out humanity. As a result, the human race, aside from Clarke, achieves Transcendence, saving Levitt and Echo's lives. As she Transcends, an amazed Octavia realizes that Bellamy was right in the end. Octavia subsequently chooses to return to human form to live out the rest of her life on Earth with her friends and Levitt.
[ "### Octavia Blake", "Portrayed by [Marie Avgeropoulos](/wiki/Marie_Avgeropoulos \"Marie Avgeropoulos\") (and by Olivia Steele Falconer as child) Octavia Blake is Bellamy's younger sister – a rare relationship given the Ark's one\\-child rule. She was kept a secret by her family, living under the floor to avoid detection by authorities, but was eventually caught when Bellamy snuck her out of her room to attend a masked ball. Once discovered, some of the detainees discriminate against her for being a second child and thus an outcast to the Ark's dystopian society. She is a fiercely independent girl who is constantly rebelling and getting attention from men, most notably the Grounder Lincoln. However, just like Clarke, she is not exactly built for war so she is horrified at what she sees and experiences at first. In the second season, she becomes more immersed in Grounder culture and serves as Indra's second. Originally she felt hatred towards Clarke for being the daughter of someone in the same council who had her locked up. It is intensified when she discovers Clarke knew about the bombing of Tondc, did nothing about it, and allowed all those Grounders to die after the events of Mount Weather (even telling Indra that she will not leave behind Bellamy and her friends). She remains in her Grounder gear, and berates Lincoln for wearing an Ark jacket and for being naive as she still holds a grudge towards them. Eventually, Lincoln is brutally killed in front of her by Pike, causing a rift between her and Bellamy. In the fourth season, she shows more signs of being bloodthirsty after killing an ambassador who questions Roan's leadership. This new violent attitude earned her the nickname *Skairipa* ('Sky\\-reaper') or Death from Above. After refusing to kill Illian and getting close with him she decides to drop the act and take him home. She later accepts the fact that she is a killer and will fight in the Grounder battle for the bunker alongside Trikru, in which she is victorious after killing Luna, and becoming the acting leader of all 12 clans by telling them they will share the bunker. She finally forgives Bellamy for Lincoln's death after he opened the bunker realizing that he would put his own life in danger just to save her and the Grounders. She later protects Nilyah and further solidified her role as new leader by saying if Skaikru does not choose the 100 people to stay in the bunker then she will kill every Skaikru member. In the season finale, she officially becomes the new leader of the new Grounder tribe consisting of Skaikru, Trikru, Azgeda, and other Grounder clans, regardless of her blood and what is in her head.", "In the fifth season, although still reluctant on being the leader, she tries to make peace with everyone. Eventually, overpopulation prevents from any real peace inside the bunker, so Octavia takes matters into her own hands and kills anyone who defies her or questions her view of what peace should be. Thus covering herself in their blood and being told by Gaia that it is best she keeps the blood on her, thus becoming *Blodreina* (the Red Queen) and decides anyone who breaks her laws must compete in deathmatches. During two years in the bunker, Abby's actions caused Octavia to become more dark and hateful that led to her ruthless actions as ruler of Wonkru, including murdering anyone who tries to defect, killing some of her own people in order to force them to stay alive when the only source of protein is their own dead, and culminating in her burning down the Hydrofarm in the bunker in order to force a conflict for the Shadow Valley rather than negotiating peace. Near the fifth\\-season finale, she later has a change of heart, after realizing that she broke Wonkru. In the season finale, a remorseful Octavia unexpectedly helps Abby save Kane's life after a confrontation between the two women in which Octavia appeared to be torn between leaving or killing Kane.", "In the sixth season, she is exiled on Sanctum by Bellamy and works with Diyoza who was also exiled. After being poisoned, Octavia seeks healing from the mysterious Anomaly with the help of Gabriel Santiago. After being healed, Octavia decides to seek redemption for her actions and declares herself to be \"*Blodreina* no more.\" At the end of season six, Octavia is stabbed by Diyoza's adult daughter Hope and disappears into the anomaly again, leaving her fate unknown.", "In the seventh season, its revealed that the Anomaly, which is in fact a [wormhole](/wiki/Wormhole \"Wormhole\"), had sent Octavia to another planet named Skyring where, due to [time dilation](/wiki/Time_dilation \"Time dilation\") from a [black hole](/wiki/Black_hole \"Black hole\"), Octavia lived for ten years with Hope and Diyoza, forming a family and finding peace. Eventually she and Diyoza were captured by a group called the Disciples and brought to another planet named Bardo where she formed a bond with a Disciple scientist named Levitt. Hope eventually rescued Octavia with Levitt's help and sent her back to Sanctum. However, as Octavia returned to a slower time dilated planet without one of the Disciples' protective helmets, she lost her memory of everything that had happened from the moment she left Sanctum. Before leaving, Levitt tattoos Hope's biometric code on Octavia's back so she can pull the young woman back to Sanctum later which is why Hope had appeared at the end of the sixth season. In the present, Hope reveals that she had only tagged Octavia with a locator tag so that she would be pulled through the Anomaly again and she is still alive. Having been returned to Bardo, Octavia regains her lost memories and witnesses Bellamy's apparent death before being rescued by Echo, Hope and Gabriel for whom five years has gone by after getting stuck on Skyring themselves. She later dedicates herself to the Disciple cause alongside Echo, Diyoza and Gabriel, although this is revealed to be a ruse. When Clarke arrives, it's revealed that the Disciples' belief that Clarke holds the Flame comes from Octavia's memories of A.L.I.E.'s destruction. Octavia is reunited with Bellamy before he betrays them, having converted to the Disciple cause. After Clarke is forced to kill Bellamy, Octavia forgives Clarke for killing her brother and is forced to face her demons due to Clarke and her friends getting stuck on Earth, specifically in the Second Dawn bunker where Octavia had ruled as *Blodreina*. When Clarke returns to Bardo to rescue Madi, Octavia joins her and is reunited with Levitt who sides with the two women. The three discover that Cadogan has gotten the needed code from Madi's mind, leaving her in a catatonic state.", "In \"The Last War,\" Clarke, Octavia and Levitt fail to stop Cadogan from beginning the test to decide the fate of humanity. While Clarke kills Cadogan and takes the test herself, Octavia and Levitt join Echo in trying to stop the war between the Disciples, *Wonkru* and the Eligius prisoners. However, Levitt is shot and mortally wounded as is Echo while helping Octavia pull him to safety. After Indra finally kills the Dark Commander, Octavia steps between the two sides and gives a speech encouraging them to embrace peace with each other, acknowledging her own mistakes and reminding them that they are all humanity. Led by Indra and a Disciple named Kwame, both sides throw down their weapons and Raven is able to convince the Judge to change her mind about wiping out humanity. As a result, the human race, aside from Clarke, achieves Transcendence, saving Levitt and Echo's lives. As she Transcends, an amazed Octavia realizes that Bellamy was right in the end. Octavia subsequently chooses to return to human form to live out the rest of her life on Earth with her friends and Levitt.", "" ]
### Raven Reyes [thumb\|upright\=0\.70\|Lindsey Morgan portrays the role of Raven.](/wiki/File:Lindsey_Morgan_Wondercon_2016_cropped.jpg "Lindsey Morgan Wondercon 2016 cropped.jpg") Portrayed by [Lindsey Morgan](/wiki/Lindsey_Morgan "Lindsey Morgan"), Raven Reyes (seasons 2–7; recurring season 1\) is an ambitious zero\-gravity mechanic when on board the Ark who is not afraid of anyone or anything. She later collaborates with Abby Griffin in her escape from the Ark and launches herself in a pod to Earth, and occasionally advises Abby in the fields of electronics and mechanical engineering after she becomes chancellor on Earth. Brave and intelligent, Raven leads the camp in setting up communications and making bombs. She was childhood friends with Finn and was in a relationship with him until he fell in love with Clarke. It is revealed in the second season, that Finn took the blame for Raven's crime because she was already 18 and would be floated. She was the first zero G mech student under the age of 18 in 52 years. While she was originally rejected for medical reasons, leading to her illegal spacewalk, Jacapo Sinclair overrode the decision due to Raven's talent. In the third season, with Abby's help, Raven begins recovering from the injuries she sustained from last season. She joins Jaha's cause after reluctantly taking a tablet given to her by him, she does begin to fight the side effects after Jasper reminds her about Finn. She is soon saved by Clarke and freed of A.L.I.E.'s control using an [EMP](/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse "Electromagnetic pulse") device that Raven herself had designed and that Sinclair had finished for her. Retaining the intelligence she gained from the AI, Raven helps discover her weakness and aids Clarke in destroying her. In the fourth season, she bonds with Luna for her loss and convinces her to help save everyone on Earth, she also forgives Murphy for shooting her in the spine. It is revealed that due to retaining a remnant of A.L.I.E.'s code, she is able to use 90% of her brain but developed a negative side effect that could cause her to have a stroke, possibly leading to her death. As she works on a way to recreate Nightblood, Raven experiences a series of hallucinations, including Becca who tempts her with the chance to spacewalk before she dies of her deteriorating condition. However, a hallucination of Sinclair helps Raven to come up with a way to purge the code and save her own life. By freezing herself to death, thus preserving brain function and remaining flatlined for fifteen minutes, Raven is able to "reboot" her brain, purging the code and restoring herself to normal. Afterwards, Clarke rescues her and requests she fly them to the Ark to escape the second Apocalypse which she agrees to do, and successfully able to fly them to space and finally was able to spacewalk again. In the fifth season, Raven becomes an improved fighter being able to topple Echo in combat and plans to return to Earth. She soon notices another ship landing on Earth, and proceeds to follow it. She realizes that there are other life forms in cryostasis on the *Eligius IV* prison ship and decides to stay behind and lies about an escape pod so that Bellamy will not argue with her when she stays behind on *Eligius IV*. After returning to Earth, she forms a romantic relationship with the Eligius pilot Miles Shaw. Throughout the season, Raven is employed as a pilot by both her friends and the Eligius prisoners with their clashing priorities putting Raven and her friends at odds with Clarke. At the end of the season, as the one inhabitable valley left is destroyed, Raven and Shaw fly the survivors back to *Eligius IV*. In the sixth season, Raven loses Shaw soon after landing on the new world, Sanctum, and becomes bitter and angry towards Clarke and Abby for their various decisions. When the Lee family from Sanctum seizes control of *Eligius IV*, Raven awakens Charmaine Diyoza from cryosleep and retakes the ship with her and Madi's help, leading to the deaths of all but one of the hijackers. Raven is left as the sole pilot of both the Earth group and Sanctum following the deaths of the Lee family, the one survivor, Kaylee Lee, later being murdered on Sanctum by Josephine Lightbourne. After Josephine, posing as Clarke whose body she has taken over, makes a deal with Abby to save Marcus Kane using the Mind Drive technology, Raven flies Abby and a group from Sanctum back to the mothership. However, she is horrified to learn that a young man will be sacrificed to resurrect Kane. Raven reluctantly helps Abby, not wanting Abby's death on her conscience from an ill\-advised spacewalk of her own, but awakens Indra to help with the situation. Kane eventually decides to float himself and the new Nightblood, sacrificing himself to stop other people from being sacrificed. Upon returning to Sanctum, Raven is imprisoned and nearly burned at the stake before Murphy talks Russell Lightbourne out of it. Raven makes amends with Abby shortly before Abby's death to resurrect Simone Lightbourne and works to save Madi from the Dark Commander possessing her through the Flame. Raven is eventually forced to destroy the Flame to save Madi while Clarke manages to retake control of the ship after killing all of the Primes except for Russell. In the seventh season, Raven works to help keep the peace between the various factions on Sanctum, partially by helping to guide Murphy and Emori in their assumed roles as Daniel and Kaylee Prime. When Sanctum's [nuclear reactor](/wiki/Nuclear_reactor "Nuclear reactor") begins to [meltdown](/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown "Nuclear meltdown"), Raven is forced to enlist the help of four of the Eligius prisoners to fix the cooling system while Murphy and Emori, protected by their own Nightblood, fix the reactor core. Having originally lied to the prisoners about the severity of the danger that they are in, Raven is forced to lie to them again when the radiation exposure proves to be more extreme than she anticipated which causes it to be fatal to the prisoners. Unwilling to trust the prisoners to do the right thing in the face of death, Raven forces Murphy to help them with the last of the repairs, unaware that one had already figured it out but was continuing anyway to protect his loved ones. With Murphy's help, the prisoners fix the cooling system at the last possible second, but all perish aside from the Nightblood\-protected Murphy and Emori, leaving Raven devastated and haunted by the deaths that she had caused. Raven later teams up with Jordan Green to examine the armor of a dead Disciple, figuring out how to use it and learning that the mysterious Anomaly is in fact a [wormhole](/wiki/Wormhole "Wormhole"). With her friends in danger, Raven uses the armor to rescue them, but is further haunted by having to kill eight people to do it so soon after the deaths she caused in fixing the reactor. With the armor's help, Raven leads her friends on a rescue mission for Bellamy, Octavia, Echo and Hope, but accidentally directs them to the wrong planet, an icy world called Nakara with no sign of any way to reopen the Anomaly back. Using her armor, Raven leads the group to the Anomaly Stone and determines the code for the right planet, but Raven admits to Clarke that she feels like her soul is cracked with all of the deaths that she has caused. Raven successfully leads the group to Bardo where they learn of Bellamy's apparent death and meet Bill Cadogan while trying to save their remaining friends. In the series finale, it is Raven who takes the test that determines humanity's future, ultimately convincing the Judge that the human race is worthy of Transcendence. Though Raven Transcends as well, she joins Clarke's friends in choosing to return to human form to live out their lives on Earth.
[ "### Raven Reyes", "[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.70\\|Lindsey Morgan portrays the role of Raven.](/wiki/File:Lindsey_Morgan_Wondercon_2016_cropped.jpg \"Lindsey Morgan Wondercon 2016 cropped.jpg\")\nPortrayed by [Lindsey Morgan](/wiki/Lindsey_Morgan \"Lindsey Morgan\"), Raven Reyes (seasons 2–7; recurring season 1\\) is an ambitious zero\\-gravity mechanic when on board the Ark who is not afraid of anyone or anything. She later collaborates with Abby Griffin in her escape from the Ark and launches herself in a pod to Earth, and occasionally advises Abby in the fields of electronics and mechanical engineering after she becomes chancellor on Earth. Brave and intelligent, Raven leads the camp in setting up communications and making bombs. She was childhood friends with Finn and was in a relationship with him until he fell in love with Clarke. It is revealed in the second season, that Finn took the blame for Raven's crime because she was already 18 and would be floated. She was the first zero G mech student under the age of 18 in 52 years. While she was originally rejected for medical reasons, leading to her illegal spacewalk, Jacapo Sinclair overrode the decision due to Raven's talent.", "In the third season, with Abby's help, Raven begins recovering from the injuries she sustained from last season. She joins Jaha's cause after reluctantly taking a tablet given to her by him, she does begin to fight the side effects after Jasper reminds her about Finn. She is soon saved by Clarke and freed of A.L.I.E.'s control using an [EMP](/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse \"Electromagnetic pulse\") device that Raven herself had designed and that Sinclair had finished for her. Retaining the intelligence she gained from the AI, Raven helps discover her weakness and aids Clarke in destroying her.", "In the fourth season, she bonds with Luna for her loss and convinces her to help save everyone on Earth, she also forgives Murphy for shooting her in the spine. It is revealed that due to retaining a remnant of A.L.I.E.'s code, she is able to use 90% of her brain but developed a negative side effect that could cause her to have a stroke, possibly leading to her death. As she works on a way to recreate Nightblood, Raven experiences a series of hallucinations, including Becca who tempts her with the chance to spacewalk before she dies of her deteriorating condition. However, a hallucination of Sinclair helps Raven to come up with a way to purge the code and save her own life. By freezing herself to death, thus preserving brain function and remaining flatlined for fifteen minutes, Raven is able to \"reboot\" her brain, purging the code and restoring herself to normal. Afterwards, Clarke rescues her and requests she fly them to the Ark to escape the second Apocalypse which she agrees to do, and successfully able to fly them to space and finally was able to spacewalk again.", "In the fifth season, Raven becomes an improved fighter being able to topple Echo in combat and plans to return to Earth. She soon notices another ship landing on Earth, and proceeds to follow it. She realizes that there are other life forms in cryostasis on the *Eligius IV* prison ship and decides to stay behind and lies about an escape pod so that Bellamy will not argue with her when she stays behind on *Eligius IV*. After returning to Earth, she forms a romantic relationship with the Eligius pilot Miles Shaw. Throughout the season, Raven is employed as a pilot by both her friends and the Eligius prisoners with their clashing priorities putting Raven and her friends at odds with Clarke. At the end of the season, as the one inhabitable valley left is destroyed, Raven and Shaw fly the survivors back to *Eligius IV*.", "In the sixth season, Raven loses Shaw soon after landing on the new world, Sanctum, and becomes bitter and angry towards Clarke and Abby for their various decisions. When the Lee family from Sanctum seizes control of *Eligius IV*, Raven awakens Charmaine Diyoza from cryosleep and retakes the ship with her and Madi's help, leading to the deaths of all but one of the hijackers. Raven is left as the sole pilot of both the Earth group and Sanctum following the deaths of the Lee family, the one survivor, Kaylee Lee, later being murdered on Sanctum by Josephine Lightbourne. After Josephine, posing as Clarke whose body she has taken over, makes a deal with Abby to save Marcus Kane using the Mind Drive technology, Raven flies Abby and a group from Sanctum back to the mothership. However, she is horrified to learn that a young man will be sacrificed to resurrect Kane. Raven reluctantly helps Abby, not wanting Abby's death on her conscience from an ill\\-advised spacewalk of her own, but awakens Indra to help with the situation. Kane eventually decides to float himself and the new Nightblood, sacrificing himself to stop other people from being sacrificed. Upon returning to Sanctum, Raven is imprisoned and nearly burned at the stake before Murphy talks Russell Lightbourne out of it. Raven makes amends with Abby shortly before Abby's death to resurrect Simone Lightbourne and works to save Madi from the Dark Commander possessing her through the Flame. Raven is eventually forced to destroy the Flame to save Madi while Clarke manages to retake control of the ship after killing all of the Primes except for Russell.", "In the seventh season, Raven works to help keep the peace between the various factions on Sanctum, partially by helping to guide Murphy and Emori in their assumed roles as Daniel and Kaylee Prime. When Sanctum's [nuclear reactor](/wiki/Nuclear_reactor \"Nuclear reactor\") begins to [meltdown](/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown \"Nuclear meltdown\"), Raven is forced to enlist the help of four of the Eligius prisoners to fix the cooling system while Murphy and Emori, protected by their own Nightblood, fix the reactor core. Having originally lied to the prisoners about the severity of the danger that they are in, Raven is forced to lie to them again when the radiation exposure proves to be more extreme than she anticipated which causes it to be fatal to the prisoners. Unwilling to trust the prisoners to do the right thing in the face of death, Raven forces Murphy to help them with the last of the repairs, unaware that one had already figured it out but was continuing anyway to protect his loved ones. With Murphy's help, the prisoners fix the cooling system at the last possible second, but all perish aside from the Nightblood\\-protected Murphy and Emori, leaving Raven devastated and haunted by the deaths that she had caused. Raven later teams up with Jordan Green to examine the armor of a dead Disciple, figuring out how to use it and learning that the mysterious Anomaly is in fact a [wormhole](/wiki/Wormhole \"Wormhole\"). With her friends in danger, Raven uses the armor to rescue them, but is further haunted by having to kill eight people to do it so soon after the deaths she caused in fixing the reactor. With the armor's help, Raven leads her friends on a rescue mission for Bellamy, Octavia, Echo and Hope, but accidentally directs them to the wrong planet, an icy world called Nakara with no sign of any way to reopen the Anomaly back. Using her armor, Raven leads the group to the Anomaly Stone and determines the code for the right planet, but Raven admits to Clarke that she feels like her soul is cracked with all of the deaths that she has caused. Raven successfully leads the group to Bardo where they learn of Bellamy's apparent death and meet Bill Cadogan while trying to save their remaining friends.", "In the series finale, it is Raven who takes the test that determines humanity's future, ultimately convincing the Judge that the human race is worthy of Transcendence. Though Raven Transcends as well, she joins Clarke's friends in choosing to return to human form to live out their lives on Earth.", "" ]
### John Murphy [thumb\|upright\=0\.60\|Richard Harmon portrays the role of Murphy.](/wiki/File:Richard_Harmon_at_Cruel_and_Unusual_Premiere_-_14112581578.jpg "Richard Harmon at Cruel and Unusual Premiere - 14112581578.jpg") Portrayed by [Richard Harmon](/wiki/Richard_Harmon "Richard Harmon"), John Murphy (seasons 3–7; recurring seasons 1–2\) starts out as one of Bellamy's men and is generally disliked by the group due to his reputation of being a troublemaker and career criminal, making him one of the few members to actually have committed felonies and not petty misdemeanors. After being wrongfully accused by Clarke and nearly lynched, he tries to kill Charlotte. As a result of her suicide, he is banished from the camp. He later returns, surviving being tortured by the Grounders. He seems to have forgiven the 100, but he kills two and attempts to hang Bellamy and accidentally shoots Raven in the spine. In the second season, he is rescued by Raven from a surrounding Grounder and expresses remorse for his actions. Murphy explains to Raven that his father was executed for stealing medical supplies to help Murphy when he got sick and his mother became an alcoholic who drank herself to death after blaming Murphy for her husband's death. Murphy helps the 100 as they search for their lost members, even saving Bellamy's life when he could have let him drop. As he is still disliked in Camp Jaha, he accompanies Jaha to find the City of Light. On the way, he befriends a Grounder named Emori who later betrays and robs the group. He eventually finds a lighthouse where he is trapped by Jaha and A.L.I.E. after watching a video that shows that A.L.I.E. caused the [nuclear holocaust](/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust "Nuclear holocaust"). In the third season, he leaves the island after not wanting to be a part of Jaha's insane missions, and gets a boat ride from Emori. After Emori transports him and Jaha across the sea, he refuses to take the key and flees with Emori. They start robbing people in the Commander's Forrest and he is eventually captured by Grounder warriors and brought to Polis, as one of the captors discovers a chip in his pocket which has the "Sacred Symbol of the Commander". He is tortured for information by Titus and eventually tells him what he knows. After seeing an escape pod marked Polaris with the a and r burned off as well as drawings, Murphy pieces together the story of the First Commander Becca and her connection to The Ark. Later on, Titus tries to murder Clarke and frame Murphy but accidentally shoots and kills Lexa. After she dies he witnesses Titus remove the chip. After Titus gives Clarke the chip and commits suicide, Ontari makes him the new "Flamekeeper" since he is the only other person to have witnessed it being removed from another person. Ontari takes a liking to him and wants him to sleep with her; if he refuses, she will kill him. He later reunites with Emori who is under A.L.I.E.'s control, and A.L.I.E. implies to her that Ontari's had sex with him. During the final battle with A.L.I.E., Murphy plays a vital part by manually pumping the brain\-dead Ontari's heart to keep a blood transfusion to Clarke going so that she can use the Flame to destroy A.L.I.E. In the fourth season, after the City of Light is destroyed and A.L.I.E.'s control over everyone dissolves, Murphy stays behind with Emori. When he finds out there's a nuclear disaster coming which will wipe out everyone on Earth, he and Emori decide to side with Clarke, who has a plan that might save 100 people. Murphy ends up helping Raven with another plan, and he is confronted with what he is put her through after he shot her. When Raven opts to stay behind, he has a rare emotional moment and shares a tearful goodbye with her. Murphy later retreats to the remnants of the Ark in space with Bellamy, Raven, Emori and Echo to survive the coming nuclear apocalypse. In the fifth season, six years after Praimfaya, he breaks up with Emori and suffers from an inferiority complex. As they land on the Eligius ship before Bellamy and the others land on Earth, he decides to stay on the ship to protect Raven only for her to berate him by telling him she lied about the escape pod, much to his dismay. Murphy eventually returns to the ground where his skill in manipulation proves vital in causing a mass [riot](/wiki/Riot "Riot") between the prisoners, though Murphy elects to stay behind as the others flee in order to help Kane rescue Abby. In the final battle, Murphy is badly wounded and elects to remain behind until Emori refuses to leave him as she loves Murphy too much to lose him. Unwilling to let Emori lose him, Murphy allows Monty to carry him to safety shortly before the last inhabitable valley on Earth is destroyed. Murphy recovers from his injuries under Abby's care and goes into cryosleep with everyone except for Monty and Harper for the next 125 years. In the sixth season, Murphy allies himself with the Primes on Sanctum after being offered immortality for himself and Emori despite the Primes killing Clarke to become Josephine Lightbourne's new host. Murphy finds himself torn between his friends and immortality, particularly due to his fears of what awaits him after death. Murphy eventually proposes marriage to Emori who accepts. Though Murphy gains the chance to become a Prime and immortal, he turns his back on the Primes after losing both Abby and Clarke in favor of saving his people with Emori. Clarke, who survived and had been posing as Josephine, admits that she is proud of him, causing Murphy to realize that his friend is still alive. Murphy and Emori manage to rescue their friends and Murphy aids Gabriel Santiago in subduing the Sanctum citizens who have been driven insane by the Red Sun toxin, helping to prevent the massacre of innocent people as Murphy is the only one who can help Gabriel infiltrate their ranks in his guise as Daniel Lee. During this time, Murphy meets Zev, the male lover of Daniel. Murphy's reaction to Zev suggests that Murphy may not be strictly heterosexual, though this is unconfirmed. In the seventh season, Murphy struggles with guilt over his role in Abby's death and remorse for his actions. Murphy reluctantly assumes the role of Daniel alongside Emori as Kaylee in order to help keep the peace between all of the volatile factions inhabiting Sanctum. After Sanctum's [nuclear reactor](/wiki/Nuclear_reactor "Nuclear reactor") begins to [meltdown](/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown "Nuclear meltdown"), Raven enlists the help of Murphy and Emori, who had both become Nightbloods in preparation for becoming Primes, to help her and four Eligius prisoners fix the problem. With their Nightblood, Murphy and Emori are able to fix the reactor core, though both suffer negative effects from the radiation. After the prisoners suffer a fatal dose of radiation, Raven, not willing to trust them to do the right thing when faced with certain death, lies to them and tricks Murphy into helping, relying on his sense of self\-preservation. Murphy bonds with the prisoner Hatch who has already deduced the truth but like Murphy, is trying to protect someone he loves. Together, Murphy and Hatch manage to fix the reactor at the last possible second, though Hatch dies in the process. Murphy and Emori both survive due to their Nightblood, though it takes Emori longer to recover than it does Murphy. With the Faithful threatening self\-immolation, Indra enlists the help of a reluctant Murphy to pose as Daniel again and talk them down. Upon seeing the Faithful about to sacrifice children, Murphy risks his own life to rescue the children, but in the process reveals his deception to Daniel's lover Zev. Nearly burned alive, Murphy is rescued when Emori and Indra bring in Russell to talk down the Faithful, with Russell reaffirming Murphy and Emori's covers. However, Indra realizes in the process that Russell's body has in fact been taken over by *Sheidheda*, the Dark Commander. Murphy and Emori's deception is subsequently revealed by Nikki and Nelson, the leader of the Children of Gabriel, before *Sheidheda* slaughters many of the Faithful. In the aftermath of the massacre, with the Dark Commander consolidating his power and Indra deposed, Murphy takes leadership of the massacre survivors to hide and oppose *Sheidheda's* reign with Murphy showing an understanding of the way the Dark Commander operates and something of an ability to predict what he is up to. In turn, *Sheidheda* appears to genuinely like and respect Murphy despite being on opposing sides, the two treating their conflict like a game of chess and at one point, playing chess together to pass the time when their conflict is at a stalemate before Clarke's return. After discovering that Earth has regenerated, Murphy expresses a desire to relocate everyone on Sanctum to humanity's much\-safer homeworld. In the series finale, after Emori dies, Murphy decides to place her Mind Drive into his own head despite knowing that it will inevitably be fatal to him as he would rather spend his last few hours with Emori than the rest of his life without her. When the human race Transcends, Murphy and Emori join them, but decide to join the rest of Clarke's friends in returning to human form to live out the rest of their lives on Earth.
[ "### John Murphy", "[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.60\\|Richard Harmon portrays the role of Murphy.](/wiki/File:Richard_Harmon_at_Cruel_and_Unusual_Premiere_-_14112581578.jpg \"Richard Harmon at Cruel and Unusual Premiere - 14112581578.jpg\")\nPortrayed by [Richard Harmon](/wiki/Richard_Harmon \"Richard Harmon\"), John Murphy (seasons 3–7; recurring seasons 1–2\\) starts out as one of Bellamy's men and is generally disliked by the group due to his reputation of being a troublemaker and career criminal, making him one of the few members to actually have committed felonies and not petty misdemeanors. After being wrongfully accused by Clarke and nearly lynched, he tries to kill Charlotte. As a result of her suicide, he is banished from the camp. He later returns, surviving being tortured by the Grounders. He seems to have forgiven the 100, but he kills two and attempts to hang Bellamy and accidentally shoots Raven in the spine.", "In the second season, he is rescued by Raven from a surrounding Grounder and expresses remorse for his actions. Murphy explains to Raven that his father was executed for stealing medical supplies to help Murphy when he got sick and his mother became an alcoholic who drank herself to death after blaming Murphy for her husband's death. Murphy helps the 100 as they search for their lost members, even saving Bellamy's life when he could have let him drop. As he is still disliked in Camp Jaha, he accompanies Jaha to find the City of Light. On the way, he befriends a Grounder named Emori who later betrays and robs the group. He eventually finds a lighthouse where he is trapped by Jaha and A.L.I.E. after watching a video that shows that A.L.I.E. caused the [nuclear holocaust](/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust \"Nuclear holocaust\").", "In the third season, he leaves the island after not wanting to be a part of Jaha's insane missions, and gets a boat ride from Emori. After Emori transports him and Jaha across the sea, he refuses to take the key and flees with Emori. They start robbing people in the Commander's Forrest and he is eventually captured by Grounder warriors and brought to Polis, as one of the captors discovers a chip in his pocket which has the \"Sacred Symbol of the Commander\". He is tortured for information by Titus and eventually tells him what he knows. After seeing an escape pod marked Polaris with the a and r burned off as well as drawings, Murphy pieces together the story of the First Commander Becca and her connection to The Ark. Later on, Titus tries to murder Clarke and frame Murphy but accidentally shoots and kills Lexa. After she dies he witnesses Titus remove the chip. After Titus gives Clarke the chip and commits suicide, Ontari makes him the new \"Flamekeeper\" since he is the only other person to have witnessed it being removed from another person. Ontari takes a liking to him and wants him to sleep with her; if he refuses, she will kill him. He later reunites with Emori who is under A.L.I.E.'s control, and A.L.I.E. implies to her that Ontari's had sex with him. During the final battle with A.L.I.E., Murphy plays a vital part by manually pumping the brain\\-dead Ontari's heart to keep a blood transfusion to Clarke going so that she can use the Flame to destroy A.L.I.E.", "In the fourth season, after the City of Light is destroyed and A.L.I.E.'s control over everyone dissolves, Murphy stays behind with Emori. When he finds out there's a nuclear disaster coming which will wipe out everyone on Earth, he and Emori decide to side with Clarke, who has a plan that might save 100 people. Murphy ends up helping Raven with another plan, and he is confronted with what he is put her through after he shot her. When Raven opts to stay behind, he has a rare emotional moment and shares a tearful goodbye with her. Murphy later retreats to the remnants of the Ark in space with Bellamy, Raven, Emori and Echo to survive the coming nuclear apocalypse.", "In the fifth season, six years after Praimfaya, he breaks up with Emori and suffers from an inferiority complex. As they land on the Eligius ship before Bellamy and the others land on Earth, he decides to stay on the ship to protect Raven only for her to berate him by telling him she lied about the escape pod, much to his dismay. Murphy eventually returns to the ground where his skill in manipulation proves vital in causing a mass [riot](/wiki/Riot \"Riot\") between the prisoners, though Murphy elects to stay behind as the others flee in order to help Kane rescue Abby. In the final battle, Murphy is badly wounded and elects to remain behind until Emori refuses to leave him as she loves Murphy too much to lose him. Unwilling to let Emori lose him, Murphy allows Monty to carry him to safety shortly before the last inhabitable valley on Earth is destroyed. Murphy recovers from his injuries under Abby's care and goes into cryosleep with everyone except for Monty and Harper for the next 125 years.", "In the sixth season, Murphy allies himself with the Primes on Sanctum after being offered immortality for himself and Emori despite the Primes killing Clarke to become Josephine Lightbourne's new host. Murphy finds himself torn between his friends and immortality, particularly due to his fears of what awaits him after death. Murphy eventually proposes marriage to Emori who accepts. Though Murphy gains the chance to become a Prime and immortal, he turns his back on the Primes after losing both Abby and Clarke in favor of saving his people with Emori. Clarke, who survived and had been posing as Josephine, admits that she is proud of him, causing Murphy to realize that his friend is still alive. Murphy and Emori manage to rescue their friends and Murphy aids Gabriel Santiago in subduing the Sanctum citizens who have been driven insane by the Red Sun toxin, helping to prevent the massacre of innocent people as Murphy is the only one who can help Gabriel infiltrate their ranks in his guise as Daniel Lee. During this time, Murphy meets Zev, the male lover of Daniel. Murphy's reaction to Zev suggests that Murphy may not be strictly heterosexual, though this is unconfirmed.", "In the seventh season, Murphy struggles with guilt over his role in Abby's death and remorse for his actions. Murphy reluctantly assumes the role of Daniel alongside Emori as Kaylee in order to help keep the peace between all of the volatile factions inhabiting Sanctum. After Sanctum's [nuclear reactor](/wiki/Nuclear_reactor \"Nuclear reactor\") begins to [meltdown](/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown \"Nuclear meltdown\"), Raven enlists the help of Murphy and Emori, who had both become Nightbloods in preparation for becoming Primes, to help her and four Eligius prisoners fix the problem. With their Nightblood, Murphy and Emori are able to fix the reactor core, though both suffer negative effects from the radiation. After the prisoners suffer a fatal dose of radiation, Raven, not willing to trust them to do the right thing when faced with certain death, lies to them and tricks Murphy into helping, relying on his sense of self\\-preservation. Murphy bonds with the prisoner Hatch who has already deduced the truth but like Murphy, is trying to protect someone he loves. Together, Murphy and Hatch manage to fix the reactor at the last possible second, though Hatch dies in the process. Murphy and Emori both survive due to their Nightblood, though it takes Emori longer to recover than it does Murphy. With the Faithful threatening self\\-immolation, Indra enlists the help of a reluctant Murphy to pose as Daniel again and talk them down. Upon seeing the Faithful about to sacrifice children, Murphy risks his own life to rescue the children, but in the process reveals his deception to Daniel's lover Zev. Nearly burned alive, Murphy is rescued when Emori and Indra bring in Russell to talk down the Faithful, with Russell reaffirming Murphy and Emori's covers. However, Indra realizes in the process that Russell's body has in fact been taken over by *Sheidheda*, the Dark Commander. Murphy and Emori's deception is subsequently revealed by Nikki and Nelson, the leader of the Children of Gabriel, before *Sheidheda* slaughters many of the Faithful. In the aftermath of the massacre, with the Dark Commander consolidating his power and Indra deposed, Murphy takes leadership of the massacre survivors to hide and oppose *Sheidheda's* reign with Murphy showing an understanding of the way the Dark Commander operates and something of an ability to predict what he is up to. In turn, *Sheidheda* appears to genuinely like and respect Murphy despite being on opposing sides, the two treating their conflict like a game of chess and at one point, playing chess together to pass the time when their conflict is at a stalemate before Clarke's return. After discovering that Earth has regenerated, Murphy expresses a desire to relocate everyone on Sanctum to humanity's much\\-safer homeworld.", "In the series finale, after Emori dies, Murphy decides to place her Mind Drive into his own head despite knowing that it will inevitably be fatal to him as he would rather spend his last few hours with Emori than the rest of his life without her. When the human race Transcends, Murphy and Emori join them, but decide to join the rest of Clarke's friends in returning to human form to live out the rest of their lives on Earth.", "" ]
Plot ---- Patrick Sullivan is looking forward to a life with Sophia, until she calls into the radio show hosted by famed love expert Dr. Emma Lloyd. Emma questions Sophia's concept of romantic love and advises her to break their engagement, which she swiftly does. Patrick is so upset that when he hears that Emma is about to be married herself, he allows his young neighbour, Ajay, to hack into public records and create a fake marriage certificate between himself and Emma. Upon going to the public records office to get a marriage license, Emma and her perfect\-gentleman fiancé, Richard, are told she is already married. Emma sets out to find Patrick and give him [annulment](/wiki/Annulment "Annulment") papers to sign so that she can marry Richard. Emma finds Patrick in a bar, and their initial meeting ends with her getting drunk. The following day, Patrick comes to Emma's workplace to give her the annulment papers as she is leaving for a wedding cake tasting. Patrick accompanies her to the tasting, where Frau Greta Bollenbecker assumes he is Emma's fiancé, Richard. Greta later comes to Emma's book launch because her husband Herr Karl Bollenbecker is planning to liquidate Richard's publishing house. Greta meets Emma during the banquet and tells her of the same. Patrick still has the annulment papers, so he comes to the book launch. Matters get worse when Richard sees Greta and Karl with Emma and Patrick, who is posing as Richard, but Richard agrees to go along with it when he learns that Greta thinks Patrick will charm Karl so much that Karl will decide to continue business with "Richard". Patrick invites them all to Ajay's {{lang\|sa\-Latn\|\[\[upanayana]]}} ceremony. Emma and the other guests have a good time there, and she sees a whole new side of Patrick, who had been repulsive to her so far. There is a slight spark of attraction, but Emma flees the scene before anything can happen. Patrick decides to throw out everything related to Emma or Sophia, but instead reads Emma's book, *Real Love*. He comes to confront her about the book because he thinks it only points out all the bad things in a relationship. Patrick and Emma continue their argument in an elevator. Suddenly Patrick flashes his [New York City Fire Department](/wiki/New_York_City_Fire_Department "New York City Fire Department") badge and asks the other occupants to leave the elevator. He then locks the elevator to kiss Emma. Security staff see them through a CCTV in the elevator and ask them to leave. Emma finally has the signed and notarized annulment papers, but she considers calling off her wedding. She goes to Patrick's lodgings and they make love that night. The following morning, Emma finds all the papers related to her and Sophia in the trash. Patrick then confesses that he had initially wanted to teach her a lesson about love but then fell for her. Emma then goes back to the honorable Richard, who still loves her and says that she wants to marry him. One day before her wedding, Patrick calls her at the radio station and tells her that he loves her. She does not answer him. The next day, which is her wedding day, she confides in her father, Wilder, and asks for his advice. He tells her that the decision is hers. Richard comes to see Emma in the bridal chamber. Richard had also heard the radio show the night before and tells her that he wants her to be happy, and they amicably break up. Emma sets off the church's fire sprinklers in an attempt to get Patrick to the church. Meanwhile, the fire department where Patrick works is called to the church to put out the fire. When Patrick arrives there, Emma and Patrick get married and leave in the fire truck. The final scene shifts to a year later where it is shown that Emma is pregnant and that she and Patrick are still very much in love.
[ "Plot\n----", "Patrick Sullivan is looking forward to a life with Sophia, until she calls into the radio show hosted by famed love expert Dr. Emma Lloyd. Emma questions Sophia's concept of romantic love and advises her to break their engagement, which she swiftly does.", "Patrick is so upset that when he hears that Emma is about to be married herself, he allows his young neighbour, Ajay, to hack into public records and create a fake marriage certificate between himself and Emma. Upon going to the public records office to get a marriage license, Emma and her perfect\\-gentleman fiancé, Richard, are told she is already married.", "Emma sets out to find Patrick and give him [annulment](/wiki/Annulment \"Annulment\") papers to sign so that she can marry Richard. Emma finds Patrick in a bar, and their initial meeting ends with her getting drunk. The following day, Patrick comes to Emma's workplace to give her the annulment papers as she is leaving for a wedding cake tasting. Patrick accompanies her to the tasting, where Frau Greta Bollenbecker assumes he is Emma's fiancé, Richard. Greta later comes to Emma's book launch because her husband Herr Karl Bollenbecker is planning to liquidate Richard's publishing house. Greta meets Emma during the banquet and tells her of the same. Patrick still has the annulment papers, so he comes to the book launch. Matters get worse when Richard sees Greta and Karl with Emma and Patrick, who is posing as Richard, but Richard agrees to go along with it when he learns that Greta thinks Patrick will charm Karl so much that Karl will decide to continue business with \"Richard\".", "Patrick invites them all to Ajay's {{lang\\|sa\\-Latn\\|\\[\\[upanayana]]}} ceremony. Emma and the other guests have a good time there, and she sees a whole new side of Patrick, who had been repulsive to her so far. There is a slight spark of attraction, but Emma flees the scene before anything can happen.", "Patrick decides to throw out everything related to Emma or Sophia, but instead reads Emma's book, *Real Love*. He comes to confront her about the book because he thinks it only points out all the bad things in a relationship. Patrick and Emma continue their argument in an elevator. Suddenly Patrick flashes his [New York City Fire Department](/wiki/New_York_City_Fire_Department \"New York City Fire Department\") badge and asks the other occupants to leave the elevator. He then locks the elevator to kiss Emma. Security staff see them through a CCTV in the elevator and ask them to leave.", "Emma finally has the signed and notarized annulment papers, but she considers calling off her wedding. She goes to Patrick's lodgings and they make love that night. The following morning, Emma finds all the papers related to her and Sophia in the trash. Patrick then confesses that he had initially wanted to teach her a lesson about love but then fell for her. Emma then goes back to the honorable Richard, who still loves her and says that she wants to marry him.", "One day before her wedding, Patrick calls her at the radio station and tells her that he loves her. She does not answer him. The next day, which is her wedding day, she confides in her father, Wilder, and asks for his advice. He tells her that the decision is hers. Richard comes to see Emma in the bridal chamber. Richard had also heard the radio show the night before and tells her that he wants her to be happy, and they amicably break up.", "Emma sets off the church's fire sprinklers in an attempt to get Patrick to the church. Meanwhile, the fire department where Patrick works is called to the church to put out the fire. When Patrick arrives there, Emma and Patrick get married and leave in the fire truck. The final scene shifts to a year later where it is shown that Emma is pregnant and that she and Patrick are still very much in love.", "" ]
History ------- {{further\|List of gold mining disasters}} [Cyanide](/wiki/Cyanide "Cyanide"), a highly toxic chemical, has been the most widely used reagent for extracting gold from ore for the past century.{{cite book \|last1 \=Mudder \|first1 \=T.I. \|last2 \=Botz \|first2 \=M.M. \|last3 \=Smith \|first3 \=A.S. \|title \=Chemistry and Treatment of Cyanidation Wastes \|publisher \=Mining Journal Books, Ltd. \|series \=Second Edition \|date \= June 2011 }} The Cyanide Code grew out of the first\-of\-its\-kind workshop of multi\-stakeholders held in Paris in May, 2000 convened to consider developing a code of best practice for the use of cyanide in [gold mining](/wiki/Gold_mining "Gold mining") in response to a tailings spill from the Aural Mine at [Baia Mare](/wiki/Baia_Mare "Baia Mare") in Romania{{cite web \|url\=http://www.eecentre.org/wp\-content/uploads/2019/06/Baia\-Mare\-cyanide.pdf \|title\=The Cyanide Spill at Baia Mare, Romania: BEFORE, DURING AND AFTER }} in January 2000\. The meeting was co\-hosted by [The United Nations Environment Programme](/wiki/The_United_Nations_Environment_Programme "The United Nations Environment Programme") (UNEP) and the International Council on Metals and the Environment (now the [International Council on Mining and Metals](/wiki/International_Council_on_Mining_and_Metals "International Council on Mining and Metals")). Workshop participants were almost 40 representatives of such diverse organizations as the [Worldwide Fund for Nature](/wiki/Worldwide_Fund_for_Nature "Worldwide Fund for Nature"), the Mineral Policy Center (now Earthworks), the Sierra Club, and the [World Gold Council](/wiki/World_Gold_Council "World Gold Council"), along with representation from the [U.S. Environmental Protection Agency](/wiki/U.S._Environmental_Protection_Agency "U.S. Environmental Protection Agency"), the governments of Australia, France, Hungary, Romania, and the world's leading gold producers and cyanide producers.{{cite CiteSeerX \|title\=A Workshop on Industry Codes of Practice: Cyanide Management \|date\=May 25–26, 2000 \|citeseerx\=10\.1\.1\.194\.7588 }} As a result of the workshop, a multi\-stakeholder steering committee was established to oversee development of a code of best practice for the management of cyanide used for gold recovery. The committee met five times over a 13\-month period starting in late 2000, and each successive draft of the best practice document it produced was made available to the public on the UNEP web site with an open invitation for comments. The committee also solicited comments directly from 140 groups and individuals, including governments, NGOs, academics, consultants, industry, and financial institutions, and received 68 written responses and 15 stakeholder presentations at its meetings. In early 2002, the committee completed the *International Cyanide Management Code for The Manufacture, Transport and Use of Cyanide In The Production of Gold*. As conceived by the steering committee, the Cyanide Code was more than a guide to best management practices for the use of cyanide in the production of gold. The Cyanide Code also addressed the safe manufacture and transport of the cyanide used in the gold industry. Further, although the program is voluntary, the Cyanide Code includes a process by which its implementation at gold mines and other facilities is verified by independent third\-party professional auditors and audit results are made available to the public. The International Cyanide Management Institute (ICMI) was established in 2003 to oversee the Cyanide Code's implementation and verification, and by 2005, the administrative procedures, audit protocols and guidance documents necessary for full program implementation had been developed. 2015 marked the tenth year of implementation of the Cyanide Code globally.{{cite web \|url\= https://magazine.cim.org/en/management/a\-decade\-of\-safer\-gold\-extraction/ \|title\= A decade of safer gold extraction; Industry celebrates 10 years with the cyanide code }} In 2017, the International Cyanide Management Institute undertook a public consultation process to determine if the Cyanide Code should be extended to include primary silver mines, which is defined as an operation where silver is the main commodity produced. About 30% of the world's silver production comes from primary silver mines; the balance is produced as a co\-product from polymetallic, base metal, or gold mines. The Institute solicited input from stakeholders on the proposal, including its advisability, policy or technical issues, and any other related matters. Following receipt of stakeholder comments, all of which were supportive of the change, ICMI's Board of Directors approved the program's expansion, effective January 1, 2017\. The Cyanide Code is supported by a suite of documents that provide guidance and instructions to participating operations in preparing for certification and to auditors in assessing compliance. They also provide information, instruction, and details on administrative requirements for participating companies and auditors. In 2019, ICMI initiated a process to undertake a comprehensive review and updating of the Cyanide Code's supporting documents following a public consultation. The objective of the review was four\-fold: 1\) accounting for changes in industry practices since initial development of the Cyanide Code and its supporting documents; 2\) addressing gaps and "soft spots" in requirements for auditing and compliance; 3\) clarification of procedures and guidance for compliance auditing and certification; and 4\) making documents more "user friendly" by eliminating duplicate materials and discrepancies. The process resulted in one new document being created, the *Guidance for Use of the Cyanide Production Verification Protocol.* *The Guidance for Use of the Mining Operations Verification Protocol* previously had been used as a surrogate to provide guidance for compliance of production facilities. This revisions process has also included consolidation of selected documents to reduce duplication and discrepancies and make materials easier to locate. Substantial revisions were made to 11 documents in this review and revisions process to improve clarity and for consistency both within and between documents. Information previously included in multiple documents were consolidated, where possible, into a single document. Documents used by operations in preparing for certification and used by auditors in evaluating compliance have been revised to account for ICMI's experience with Cyanide Code implementation, compliance issues, and evaluating audit reports over the past 14 years, as well as changes in industry practices since initial development of the Cyanide Code. ICMI released the revised program documentation in June 2021, and for purposes of audit compliance, the new program documentation was effective September 1, 2021\.
[ "History\n-------", "{{further\\|List of gold mining disasters}}\n[Cyanide](/wiki/Cyanide \"Cyanide\"), a highly toxic chemical, has been the most widely used reagent for extracting gold from ore for the past century.{{cite book\n\\|last1 \\=Mudder\n\\|first1 \\=T.I.\n\\|last2 \\=Botz\n\\|first2 \\=M.M.\n\\|last3 \\=Smith\n\\|first3 \\=A.S.\n\\|title \\=Chemistry and Treatment of Cyanidation Wastes\n\\|publisher \\=Mining Journal Books, Ltd.\n\\|series \\=Second Edition\n\\|date \\= June 2011\n}} The Cyanide Code grew out of the first\\-of\\-its\\-kind workshop of multi\\-stakeholders held in Paris in May, 2000 convened to consider developing a code of best practice for the use of cyanide in [gold mining](/wiki/Gold_mining \"Gold mining\") in response to a tailings spill from the Aural Mine at [Baia Mare](/wiki/Baia_Mare \"Baia Mare\") in Romania{{cite web\n\\|url\\=http://www.eecentre.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2019/06/Baia\\-Mare\\-cyanide.pdf\n\\|title\\=The Cyanide Spill at Baia Mare, Romania: BEFORE, DURING AND AFTER\n}} in January 2000\\. The meeting was co\\-hosted by [The United Nations Environment Programme](/wiki/The_United_Nations_Environment_Programme \"The United Nations Environment Programme\") (UNEP) and the International Council on Metals and the Environment (now the [International Council on Mining and Metals](/wiki/International_Council_on_Mining_and_Metals \"International Council on Mining and Metals\")). Workshop participants were almost 40 representatives of such diverse organizations as the [Worldwide Fund for Nature](/wiki/Worldwide_Fund_for_Nature \"Worldwide Fund for Nature\"), the Mineral Policy Center (now Earthworks), the Sierra Club, and the [World Gold Council](/wiki/World_Gold_Council \"World Gold Council\"), along with representation from the [U.S. Environmental Protection Agency](/wiki/U.S._Environmental_Protection_Agency \"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency\"), the governments of Australia, France, Hungary, Romania, and the world's leading gold producers and cyanide producers.{{cite CiteSeerX\n\\|title\\=A Workshop on Industry Codes of Practice: Cyanide Management\n\\|date\\=May 25–26, 2000\n\\|citeseerx\\=10\\.1\\.1\\.194\\.7588\n}}", "As a result of the workshop, a multi\\-stakeholder steering committee was established to oversee development of a code of best practice for the management of cyanide used for gold recovery. The committee met five times over a 13\\-month period starting in late 2000, and each successive draft of the best practice document it produced was made available to the public on the UNEP web site with an open invitation for comments. The committee also solicited comments directly from 140 groups and individuals, including governments, NGOs, academics, consultants, industry, and financial institutions, and received 68 written responses and 15 stakeholder presentations at its meetings. In early 2002, the committee completed the *International Cyanide Management Code for The Manufacture, Transport and Use of Cyanide In The Production of Gold*.", "As conceived by the steering committee, the Cyanide Code was more than a guide to best management practices for the use of cyanide in the production of gold. The Cyanide Code also addressed the safe manufacture and transport of the cyanide used in the gold industry. Further, although the program is voluntary, the Cyanide Code includes a process by which its implementation at gold mines and other facilities is verified by independent third\\-party professional auditors and audit results are made available to the public. The International Cyanide Management Institute (ICMI) was established in 2003 to oversee the Cyanide Code's implementation and verification, and by 2005, the administrative procedures, audit protocols and guidance documents necessary for full program implementation had been developed.", "2015 marked the tenth year of implementation of the Cyanide Code globally.{{cite web\n\\|url\\= https://magazine.cim.org/en/management/a\\-decade\\-of\\-safer\\-gold\\-extraction/\n\\|title\\= A decade of safer gold extraction; Industry celebrates 10 years with the cyanide code\n}}", "In 2017, the International Cyanide Management Institute undertook a public consultation process to determine if the Cyanide Code should be extended to include primary silver mines, which is defined as an operation where silver is the main commodity produced. About 30% of the world's silver production comes from primary silver mines; the balance is produced as a co\\-product from polymetallic, base metal, or gold mines. The Institute solicited input from stakeholders on the proposal, including its advisability, policy or technical issues, and any other related matters. Following receipt of stakeholder comments, all of which were supportive of the change, ICMI's Board of Directors approved the program's expansion, effective January 1, 2017\\.", "The Cyanide Code is supported by a suite of documents that provide guidance and instructions to participating operations in preparing for certification and to auditors in assessing compliance. They also provide information, instruction, and details on administrative requirements for participating companies and auditors. In 2019, ICMI initiated a process to undertake a comprehensive review and updating of the Cyanide Code's supporting documents following a public consultation. The objective of the review was four\\-fold: 1\\) accounting for changes in industry practices since initial development of the Cyanide Code and its supporting documents; 2\\) addressing gaps and \"soft spots\" in requirements for auditing and compliance; 3\\) clarification of procedures and guidance for compliance auditing and certification; and 4\\) making documents more \"user friendly\" by eliminating duplicate materials and discrepancies.", "The process resulted in one new document being created, the *Guidance for Use of the Cyanide Production Verification Protocol.* *The Guidance for Use of the Mining Operations Verification Protocol* previously had been used as a surrogate to provide guidance for compliance of production facilities. This revisions process has also included consolidation of selected documents to reduce duplication and discrepancies and make materials easier to locate. Substantial revisions were made to 11 documents in this review and revisions process to improve clarity and for consistency both within and between documents. Information previously included in multiple documents were consolidated, where possible, into a single document. Documents used by operations in preparing for certification and used by auditors in evaluating compliance have been revised to account for ICMI's experience with Cyanide Code implementation, compliance issues, and evaluating audit reports over the past 14 years, as well as changes in industry practices since initial development of the Cyanide Code.\nICMI released the revised program documentation in June 2021, and for purposes of audit compliance, the new program documentation was effective September 1, 2021\\.", "" ]
Campuses -------- ### Sarmad Tanveer Campus Muridke The National Skills University Islamabad, Sarmad Tanveer Campus, was established in [Muridke](/wiki/Muridke "Muridke"), [Sheikhupura District](/wiki/Sheikhupura_District "Sheikhupura District"), after obtaining a provisional NOC from the [Higher Education Commission](/wiki/Higher_Education_Commission "Higher Education Commission"). The senate of National Skills University (NSU) Islamabad, in its 5th meeting, approved the Sarmad Tanveer Campus (STC) Muridke. The classes were inaugurated on January 9, 2023, by the then Honorable [Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training](/wiki/Ministry_of_Federal_Education_and_Professional_Training "Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training"). A sub\-campus on 12\-acre of land near Khawaja Rice Mills on Narowal Road, Muridke is under construction. The boundary wall has been successfully completed in phase 1, and a tender has been awarded for the purpose\-built academic and administrative blocks. The new campus will provide a larger and more spacious learning environment with additional classrooms, labs, workshops, and other facilities. This expansion will create a more conducive learning environment, enabling students to excel in their academic pursuits. Meanwhile, to commence its educational activities, the university has rented a 5,500\-square\-foot building. The university recognizes the need for technical and specialized skills in the job market and has therefore launched short courses to enhance the skills of young students, helping them secure potential jobs in Pakistan's evolving industry. The National Skills University Islamabad (Sarmad Tanveer Campus) Muridke plans to expand its educational activities and facilities in the future by offering degree programs, diplomas, and short courses in various technical fields. The university also aims to collaborate with national and international organizations to provide the best learning opportunities to its students. The NSU (STC) Muridke has also been allocated a spacious area by the Government of Punjab, with an approximately 7,000\-square\-foot building for launching Bachelor Degree programs in Computer Science and Medical Laboratory Technology, with admissions planned to start in Fall 2024\. The National Skills University Islamabad (Sarmad Tanveer Campus) Muridke initially started by offering short courses aimed at training students in technical skills that are in high demand in the job market. The duration of each course is 3\-6 months, allowing students to complete their training quickly and enter the job market at an accelerated pace. The NSU (STC) Muridke follows all educational standards set by HEC, NAVTTC and NVQF in terms of curriculum, faculty, and lab equipment. The assessments for all offered courses are also aligned with NAVTTC and NVQF guidelines, including practical quizzes, midterms, and final exams. The course folders for each short course are meticulously maintained, comprising lecture and practical plans, curriculum details, assessment materials, and records of industrial visits. The university actively encourages students to participate in industrial projects and visit relevant industries to enhance their practical skills. The NSU (STC) is dedicated to providing vocational training and skills development opportunities to the youth of Muridke and its vicinity. The successful commencement of the short courses and adherence to technical standards demonstrate the campus's commitment to quality education and preparing students for the job market. {{cite news \|title\=NSU establishes skills training campus in industrial hub \|url\=https://pakobserver.net/nsu\-establishes\-skills\-training\-campus\-in\-industrial\-hub/ \|access\-date\=2 July 2021 \|work\=Daily Times \|date\=29 March 2016}}{{cite news \|title\=Federal Minister For Education And Professional Training Rana Tanveer Hussain Inaugurates Classes At NSU Muridke Campus \|url\=https://www.urdupoint.com/en/pakistan/federal\-minister\-for\-education\-and\-profession\-1623147\.html \|access\-date\=2 July 2021 \|work\=Daily Times \|date\=29 March 2016}}
[ "Campuses\n--------", "### Sarmad Tanveer Campus Muridke", "The National Skills University Islamabad, Sarmad Tanveer Campus, was established in [Muridke](/wiki/Muridke \"Muridke\"), [Sheikhupura District](/wiki/Sheikhupura_District \"Sheikhupura District\"), after obtaining a provisional NOC from the [Higher Education Commission](/wiki/Higher_Education_Commission \"Higher Education Commission\"). The senate of National Skills University (NSU) Islamabad, in its 5th meeting, approved the Sarmad Tanveer Campus (STC) Muridke. The classes were inaugurated on January 9, 2023, by the then Honorable [Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training](/wiki/Ministry_of_Federal_Education_and_Professional_Training \"Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training\").", "A sub\\-campus on 12\\-acre of land near Khawaja Rice Mills on Narowal Road, Muridke is under construction. The boundary wall has been successfully completed in phase 1, and a tender has been awarded for the purpose\\-built academic and administrative blocks. The new campus will provide a larger and more spacious learning environment with additional classrooms, labs, workshops, and other facilities. This expansion will create a more conducive learning environment, enabling students to excel in their academic pursuits. Meanwhile, to commence its educational activities, the university has rented a 5,500\\-square\\-foot building. The university recognizes the need for technical and specialized skills in the job market and has therefore launched short courses to enhance the skills of young students, helping them secure potential jobs in Pakistan's evolving industry.", "The National Skills University Islamabad (Sarmad Tanveer Campus) Muridke plans to expand its educational activities and facilities in the future by offering degree programs, diplomas, and short courses in various technical fields. The university also aims to collaborate with national and international organizations to provide the best learning opportunities to its students. The NSU (STC) Muridke has also been allocated a spacious area by the Government of Punjab, with an approximately 7,000\\-square\\-foot building for launching Bachelor Degree programs in Computer Science and Medical Laboratory Technology, with admissions planned to start in Fall 2024\\.", "The National Skills University Islamabad (Sarmad Tanveer Campus) Muridke initially started by offering short courses aimed at training students in technical skills that are in high demand in the job market. The duration of each course is 3\\-6 months, allowing students to complete their training quickly and enter the job market at an accelerated pace.", "The NSU (STC) Muridke follows all educational standards set by HEC, NAVTTC and NVQF in terms of curriculum, faculty, and lab equipment. The assessments for all offered courses are also aligned with NAVTTC and NVQF guidelines, including practical quizzes, midterms, and final exams. The course folders for each short course are meticulously maintained, comprising lecture and practical plans, curriculum details, assessment materials, and records of industrial visits. The university actively encourages students to participate in industrial projects and visit relevant industries to enhance their practical skills.", "The NSU (STC) is dedicated to providing vocational training and skills development opportunities to the youth of Muridke and its vicinity. The successful commencement of the short courses and adherence to technical standards demonstrate the campus's commitment to quality education and preparing students for the job market.\n{{cite news \\|title\\=NSU establishes skills training campus in industrial hub \\|url\\=https://pakobserver.net/nsu\\-establishes\\-skills\\-training\\-campus\\-in\\-industrial\\-hub/ \\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2021 \\|work\\=Daily Times \\|date\\=29 March 2016}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Federal Minister For Education And Professional Training Rana Tanveer Hussain Inaugurates Classes At NSU Muridke Campus \\|url\\=https://www.urdupoint.com/en/pakistan/federal\\-minister\\-for\\-education\\-and\\-profession\\-1623147\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2021 \\|work\\=Daily Times \\|date\\=29 March 2016}}", "" ]
### Sarmad Tanveer Campus Muridke The National Skills University Islamabad, Sarmad Tanveer Campus, was established in [Muridke](/wiki/Muridke "Muridke"), [Sheikhupura District](/wiki/Sheikhupura_District "Sheikhupura District"), after obtaining a provisional NOC from the [Higher Education Commission](/wiki/Higher_Education_Commission "Higher Education Commission"). The senate of National Skills University (NSU) Islamabad, in its 5th meeting, approved the Sarmad Tanveer Campus (STC) Muridke. The classes were inaugurated on January 9, 2023, by the then Honorable [Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training](/wiki/Ministry_of_Federal_Education_and_Professional_Training "Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training"). A sub\-campus on 12\-acre of land near Khawaja Rice Mills on Narowal Road, Muridke is under construction. The boundary wall has been successfully completed in phase 1, and a tender has been awarded for the purpose\-built academic and administrative blocks. The new campus will provide a larger and more spacious learning environment with additional classrooms, labs, workshops, and other facilities. This expansion will create a more conducive learning environment, enabling students to excel in their academic pursuits. Meanwhile, to commence its educational activities, the university has rented a 5,500\-square\-foot building. The university recognizes the need for technical and specialized skills in the job market and has therefore launched short courses to enhance the skills of young students, helping them secure potential jobs in Pakistan's evolving industry. The National Skills University Islamabad (Sarmad Tanveer Campus) Muridke plans to expand its educational activities and facilities in the future by offering degree programs, diplomas, and short courses in various technical fields. The university also aims to collaborate with national and international organizations to provide the best learning opportunities to its students. The NSU (STC) Muridke has also been allocated a spacious area by the Government of Punjab, with an approximately 7,000\-square\-foot building for launching Bachelor Degree programs in Computer Science and Medical Laboratory Technology, with admissions planned to start in Fall 2024\. The National Skills University Islamabad (Sarmad Tanveer Campus) Muridke initially started by offering short courses aimed at training students in technical skills that are in high demand in the job market. The duration of each course is 3\-6 months, allowing students to complete their training quickly and enter the job market at an accelerated pace. The NSU (STC) Muridke follows all educational standards set by HEC, NAVTTC and NVQF in terms of curriculum, faculty, and lab equipment. The assessments for all offered courses are also aligned with NAVTTC and NVQF guidelines, including practical quizzes, midterms, and final exams. The course folders for each short course are meticulously maintained, comprising lecture and practical plans, curriculum details, assessment materials, and records of industrial visits. The university actively encourages students to participate in industrial projects and visit relevant industries to enhance their practical skills. The NSU (STC) is dedicated to providing vocational training and skills development opportunities to the youth of Muridke and its vicinity. The successful commencement of the short courses and adherence to technical standards demonstrate the campus's commitment to quality education and preparing students for the job market. {{cite news \|title\=NSU establishes skills training campus in industrial hub \|url\=https://pakobserver.net/nsu\-establishes\-skills\-training\-campus\-in\-industrial\-hub/ \|access\-date\=2 July 2021 \|work\=Daily Times \|date\=29 March 2016}}{{cite news \|title\=Federal Minister For Education And Professional Training Rana Tanveer Hussain Inaugurates Classes At NSU Muridke Campus \|url\=https://www.urdupoint.com/en/pakistan/federal\-minister\-for\-education\-and\-profession\-1623147\.html \|access\-date\=2 July 2021 \|work\=Daily Times \|date\=29 March 2016}}
[ "### Sarmad Tanveer Campus Muridke", "The National Skills University Islamabad, Sarmad Tanveer Campus, was established in [Muridke](/wiki/Muridke \"Muridke\"), [Sheikhupura District](/wiki/Sheikhupura_District \"Sheikhupura District\"), after obtaining a provisional NOC from the [Higher Education Commission](/wiki/Higher_Education_Commission \"Higher Education Commission\"). The senate of National Skills University (NSU) Islamabad, in its 5th meeting, approved the Sarmad Tanveer Campus (STC) Muridke. The classes were inaugurated on January 9, 2023, by the then Honorable [Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training](/wiki/Ministry_of_Federal_Education_and_Professional_Training \"Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training\").", "A sub\\-campus on 12\\-acre of land near Khawaja Rice Mills on Narowal Road, Muridke is under construction. The boundary wall has been successfully completed in phase 1, and a tender has been awarded for the purpose\\-built academic and administrative blocks. The new campus will provide a larger and more spacious learning environment with additional classrooms, labs, workshops, and other facilities. This expansion will create a more conducive learning environment, enabling students to excel in their academic pursuits. Meanwhile, to commence its educational activities, the university has rented a 5,500\\-square\\-foot building. The university recognizes the need for technical and specialized skills in the job market and has therefore launched short courses to enhance the skills of young students, helping them secure potential jobs in Pakistan's evolving industry.", "The National Skills University Islamabad (Sarmad Tanveer Campus) Muridke plans to expand its educational activities and facilities in the future by offering degree programs, diplomas, and short courses in various technical fields. The university also aims to collaborate with national and international organizations to provide the best learning opportunities to its students. The NSU (STC) Muridke has also been allocated a spacious area by the Government of Punjab, with an approximately 7,000\\-square\\-foot building for launching Bachelor Degree programs in Computer Science and Medical Laboratory Technology, with admissions planned to start in Fall 2024\\.", "The National Skills University Islamabad (Sarmad Tanveer Campus) Muridke initially started by offering short courses aimed at training students in technical skills that are in high demand in the job market. The duration of each course is 3\\-6 months, allowing students to complete their training quickly and enter the job market at an accelerated pace.", "The NSU (STC) Muridke follows all educational standards set by HEC, NAVTTC and NVQF in terms of curriculum, faculty, and lab equipment. The assessments for all offered courses are also aligned with NAVTTC and NVQF guidelines, including practical quizzes, midterms, and final exams. The course folders for each short course are meticulously maintained, comprising lecture and practical plans, curriculum details, assessment materials, and records of industrial visits. The university actively encourages students to participate in industrial projects and visit relevant industries to enhance their practical skills.", "The NSU (STC) is dedicated to providing vocational training and skills development opportunities to the youth of Muridke and its vicinity. The successful commencement of the short courses and adherence to technical standards demonstrate the campus's commitment to quality education and preparing students for the job market.\n{{cite news \\|title\\=NSU establishes skills training campus in industrial hub \\|url\\=https://pakobserver.net/nsu\\-establishes\\-skills\\-training\\-campus\\-in\\-industrial\\-hub/ \\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2021 \\|work\\=Daily Times \\|date\\=29 March 2016}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Federal Minister For Education And Professional Training Rana Tanveer Hussain Inaugurates Classes At NSU Muridke Campus \\|url\\=https://www.urdupoint.com/en/pakistan/federal\\-minister\\-for\\-education\\-and\\-profession\\-1623147\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2021 \\|work\\=Daily Times \\|date\\=29 March 2016}}", "" ]
Military career --------------- After his schooling, Beyers followed a career in the army. In 1913 he was attached to the [Royal Scots Fusiliers](/wiki/Royal_Scots_Fusiliers "Royal Scots Fusiliers"), with whom he trained while they were at [Roberts Heights](/wiki/Thaba_Tswane "Thaba Tswane"). After his initial training he was [commissioned](/wiki/Officer_%28armed_forces%29 "Officer (armed forces)") in the [Witwatersrand Rifles](/wiki/Witwatersrand_Rifles_Regiment "Witwatersrand Rifles Regiment"). In 1914, after four months service at the Military School in [Bloemfontein](/wiki/Bloemfontein "Bloemfontein"), Beyers was appointed to the [Permanent Force](/wiki/Permanent_Force "Permanent Force") with the rank of lieutenant. He served as [adjutant](/wiki/Adjutant "Adjutant") of units in Bloemfontein, [Standerton](/wiki/Standerton "Standerton") and [Cape Town](/wiki/Cape_Town "Cape Town"). In 1915, at the latter posting, he was promoted to the rank of [captain](/wiki/Captain_%28armed_forces%29 "Captain (armed forces)"). He was stationed in Cape Town for the greater part of the First World War. In 1917, he was transferred to [Johannesburg](/wiki/Johannesburg "Johannesburg") and in 1918 he became deputy assistant [adjutant\-general](/wiki/Adjutant-general "Adjutant-general") at Defence Headquarters, [Pretoria](/wiki/Pretoria "Pretoria"). While Beyers was a staff officer to the [Cape Peninsula](/wiki/Cape_Peninsula "Cape Peninsula") Garrison in 1922, he saw active service on the only occasion in his entire life. He served as a member of the force which suppressed the [Bondelswarts Rebellion](/wiki/Bondelswarts_Rebellion "Bondelswarts Rebellion"). Beyers acted as [aide\-de\-camp](/wiki/Aide-de-camp "Aide-de-camp") to the [Governor\-General](/wiki/Governor-General "Governor-General"), [the Earl of Athlone](/wiki/Alexander_Cambridge%2C_1st_Earl_of_Athlone "Alexander Cambridge, 1st Earl of Athlone") in 1924–25\. He then attended [staff](/wiki/Staff_%28military%29 "Staff (military)") courses in England. On his return to South Africa in 1927, Beyers was appointed officer instructor at the Military College at [Roberts Heights](/wiki/Thaba_Tswane "Thaba Tswane"). In the next four years he acted on occasion as [commandant](/wiki/Commandant "Commandant") of the college and of Roberts Heights. This gave him the opportunity to develop his abilities as a military leader. In 1928, Beyers was promoted to the rank of major and as a result of his increased responsibilities he was promoted to [lieutenant colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel "Lieutenant colonel") in 1930\. In 1931, he was appointed [commanding officer](/wiki/Commanding_officer "Commanding officer") of No. 5 Military District Pretoria. In 1932, Beyers was appointed director (military) of Prison Services. As a result of this move he was placed on the reserve of officers. According to the 2005 *Jali Commission*, the military nature of the pre\-1994 South African Prisons Service was put in place with the appointment of Beyers as Director of Prisons. The structure, mode of dress and the institutional culture was military in every respect, indicated by a rank structure similar to that used in the army and the requirement that [non\-commissioned](/wiki/Non-commissioned_officer "Non-commissioned officer") members salute [commissioned](/wiki/Officer_%28armed_forces%29 "Officer (armed forces)") members.{{cite book\|last\=Jali\|first\=Mr Justice TSB\|title\=Commission of Inquiry into Alleged Incidents of Corruption, Maladministration, Violence Or Intimidation into The Department of Correctional Services Appointed By Order of the President of the Republic of South Africa in Terms of Proclamation No. 135 of 2001, As Amended.\|date\=December 2005\|pages\=42\|url\=http://www.info.gov.za/otherdocs/2006/jali/chapt\_2\.pdf\|access\-date\=17 February 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604100520/http://www.info.gov.za/otherdocs/2006/jali/chapt\_2\.pdf\|archive\-date\=4 June 2011\|url\-status\=dead}} The demilitarisation of the correctional system was finally effected by the post\-Apartheid government on 1 April 1996\.{{cite web\|title\=History of Transformation of the Correctional System in South Africa \|url\=http://www.dcs.gov.za/Organisation/History.htm?path\=D:\\Inetpub\\DCSInternetSite\\Organisation\\History \|access\-date\=17 February 2009 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080521220209/http://www.dcs.gov.za/Organisation/History.htm?path\=D%3A%5CInetpub%5CDCSInternetSite%5COrganisation%5CHistory \|archive\-date\=21 May 2008 }} In 1937, Beyers returned to the [Permanent Force](/wiki/Permanent_Force "Permanent Force") as assistant commandant\-in\-chief, Burger [Commandos](/wiki/South_African_Army_corps_and_branches "South African Army corps and branches"). Later that year he was promoted to the rank of [brigadier general](/wiki/Brigadier_general_%28South_Africa%29 "Brigadier general (South Africa)"). On the outbreak of the Second World War, he relinquished his post in favour of becoming director\-general of the [Defence Rifle Association](/wiki/South_African_Army_corps_and_branches "South African Army corps and branches"), a post he held for almost a year before becoming [Adjutant\-general](/wiki/Adjutant-general "Adjutant-general"). He visited South African troops in the Middle East and acted as Chief of the General Staff when General [Sir Pierre van Ryneveld](/wiki/Pierre_van_Ryneveld "Pierre van Ryneveld") was in [North Africa](/wiki/North_African_campaign "North African campaign"). Beyers gave up his post as Adjutant\-general in 1945 owing to ill health and was placed on the retired list four months later. His retirement was short lived, however, for in 1949 he was appointed acting Chief of the General Staff with the rank of [lieutenant general](/wiki/Lieutenant_general "Lieutenant general"). On 2 May 1949, he succeeded Van Ryneveld as Chief of the General Staff. He remained in this position for only a short time, resigning on 15 March 1950\. The reason for his resignation was the interference in military matters and appointment of staff without consultation by [Frans Erasmus](/wiki/Frans_Erasmus "Frans Erasmus"), the Minister of Defence. Before resigning, Beyers had lengthy correspondence with both Erasmus and the Prime Minister, [D. F. Malan](/wiki/D._F._Malan "D. F. Malan"), on the matter: {{blockquote\|My resignation was in fact tendered as far back as November 1949, in protest against the unconstitutional and unwarranted interference in the functions of the Chief of General Staff who, in fact and in law, is the Commander\-in\-Chief of the Forces in South Africa. The facts are that the Minister sought to change the strategic dispositions of units and to appoint, promote, and transfer both officers and other ranks, without sufficient knowledge of their qualifications and without reference to the General Staff, of which I was the head. Without reference to me, he created posts for the absorption of persons in whom, irrespective of their unsuitability or otherwise, he personally reposed political confidence. Political ambitions ... should not be allowed to intrude into the responsibility of command and functions of military organizations.{{cite book\|last \= Bunting\|first \= Brian\|title \= The Rise of the South African Reich\|publisher \= Mayibuye Books\|date \= December 1986\|url \= https://archive.org/details/riseofsouthafric00bunt\|isbn \= 0\-904759\-74\-1\|url\-access \= registration}}}} Beyers was once again placed on the retired list in 1954\. The fact that at times he acted as Chief of the General Staff during the Second World War indicates that Van Ryneveld had immense trust in Beyers' abilities. However, Van Ryneveld was such a dominating personality that any meaningful delegation of his authority was never even discussed.
[ "Military career\n---------------", "After his schooling, Beyers followed a career in the army. In 1913 he was attached to the [Royal Scots Fusiliers](/wiki/Royal_Scots_Fusiliers \"Royal Scots Fusiliers\"), with whom he trained while they were at [Roberts Heights](/wiki/Thaba_Tswane \"Thaba Tswane\"). After his initial training he was [commissioned](/wiki/Officer_%28armed_forces%29 \"Officer (armed forces)\") in the [Witwatersrand Rifles](/wiki/Witwatersrand_Rifles_Regiment \"Witwatersrand Rifles Regiment\").", "In 1914, after four months service at the Military School in [Bloemfontein](/wiki/Bloemfontein \"Bloemfontein\"), Beyers was appointed to the [Permanent Force](/wiki/Permanent_Force \"Permanent Force\") with the rank of lieutenant. He served as [adjutant](/wiki/Adjutant \"Adjutant\") of units in Bloemfontein, [Standerton](/wiki/Standerton \"Standerton\") and [Cape Town](/wiki/Cape_Town \"Cape Town\"). In 1915, at the latter posting, he was promoted to the rank of [captain](/wiki/Captain_%28armed_forces%29 \"Captain (armed forces)\"). He was stationed in Cape Town for the greater part of the First World War. In 1917, he was transferred to [Johannesburg](/wiki/Johannesburg \"Johannesburg\") and in 1918 he became deputy assistant [adjutant\\-general](/wiki/Adjutant-general \"Adjutant-general\") at Defence Headquarters, [Pretoria](/wiki/Pretoria \"Pretoria\").", "While Beyers was a staff officer to the [Cape Peninsula](/wiki/Cape_Peninsula \"Cape Peninsula\") Garrison in 1922, he saw active service on the only occasion in his entire life. He served as a member of the force which suppressed the [Bondelswarts Rebellion](/wiki/Bondelswarts_Rebellion \"Bondelswarts Rebellion\").", "Beyers acted as [aide\\-de\\-camp](/wiki/Aide-de-camp \"Aide-de-camp\") to the [Governor\\-General](/wiki/Governor-General \"Governor-General\"), [the Earl of Athlone](/wiki/Alexander_Cambridge%2C_1st_Earl_of_Athlone \"Alexander Cambridge, 1st Earl of Athlone\") in 1924–25\\. He then attended [staff](/wiki/Staff_%28military%29 \"Staff (military)\") courses in England.", "On his return to South Africa in 1927, Beyers was appointed officer instructor at the Military College at [Roberts Heights](/wiki/Thaba_Tswane \"Thaba Tswane\"). In the next four years he acted on occasion as [commandant](/wiki/Commandant \"Commandant\") of the college and of Roberts Heights. This gave him the opportunity to develop his abilities as a military leader.", "In 1928, Beyers was promoted to the rank of major and as a result of his increased responsibilities he was promoted to [lieutenant colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel \"Lieutenant colonel\") in 1930\\. In 1931, he was appointed [commanding officer](/wiki/Commanding_officer \"Commanding officer\") of No. 5 Military District Pretoria.", "In 1932, Beyers was appointed director (military) of Prison Services. As a result of this move he was placed on the reserve of officers. According to the 2005 *Jali Commission*, the military nature of the pre\\-1994 South African Prisons Service was put in place with the appointment of Beyers as Director of Prisons. The structure, mode of dress and the institutional culture was military in every respect, indicated by a rank structure similar to that used in the army and the requirement that [non\\-commissioned](/wiki/Non-commissioned_officer \"Non-commissioned officer\") members salute [commissioned](/wiki/Officer_%28armed_forces%29 \"Officer (armed forces)\") members.{{cite book\\|last\\=Jali\\|first\\=Mr Justice TSB\\|title\\=Commission of Inquiry into Alleged Incidents of Corruption, Maladministration, Violence Or Intimidation into The Department of Correctional Services Appointed By Order of the President of the Republic of South Africa in Terms of Proclamation No. 135 of 2001, As Amended.\\|date\\=December 2005\\|pages\\=42\\|url\\=http://www.info.gov.za/otherdocs/2006/jali/chapt\\_2\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=17 February 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604100520/http://www.info.gov.za/otherdocs/2006/jali/chapt\\_2\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=4 June 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}\nThe demilitarisation of the correctional system was finally effected by the post\\-Apartheid government on 1 April 1996\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=History of Transformation of the Correctional System in South Africa \\|url\\=http://www.dcs.gov.za/Organisation/History.htm?path\\=D:\\\\Inetpub\\\\DCSInternetSite\\\\Organisation\\\\History \\|access\\-date\\=17 February 2009 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080521220209/http://www.dcs.gov.za/Organisation/History.htm?path\\=D%3A%5CInetpub%5CDCSInternetSite%5COrganisation%5CHistory \\|archive\\-date\\=21 May 2008 }}", "In 1937, Beyers returned to the [Permanent Force](/wiki/Permanent_Force \"Permanent Force\") as assistant commandant\\-in\\-chief, Burger [Commandos](/wiki/South_African_Army_corps_and_branches \"South African Army corps and branches\"). Later that year he was promoted to the rank of [brigadier general](/wiki/Brigadier_general_%28South_Africa%29 \"Brigadier general (South Africa)\"). On the outbreak of the Second World War, he relinquished his post in favour of becoming director\\-general of the [Defence Rifle Association](/wiki/South_African_Army_corps_and_branches \"South African Army corps and branches\"), a post he held for almost a year before becoming [Adjutant\\-general](/wiki/Adjutant-general \"Adjutant-general\"). He visited South African troops in the Middle East and acted as Chief of the General Staff when General [Sir Pierre van Ryneveld](/wiki/Pierre_van_Ryneveld \"Pierre van Ryneveld\") was in [North Africa](/wiki/North_African_campaign \"North African campaign\").", "Beyers gave up his post as Adjutant\\-general in 1945 owing to ill health and was placed on the retired list four months later. His retirement was short lived, however, for in 1949 he was appointed acting Chief of the General Staff with the rank of [lieutenant general](/wiki/Lieutenant_general \"Lieutenant general\"). On 2 May 1949, he succeeded Van Ryneveld as Chief of the General Staff. He remained in this position for only a short time, resigning on 15 March 1950\\. The reason for his resignation was the interference in military matters and appointment of staff without consultation by [Frans Erasmus](/wiki/Frans_Erasmus \"Frans Erasmus\"), the Minister of Defence. Before resigning, Beyers had lengthy correspondence with both Erasmus and the Prime Minister, [D. F. Malan](/wiki/D._F._Malan \"D. F. Malan\"), on the matter:\n{{blockquote\\|My resignation was in fact tendered as far back as November 1949, in protest against the unconstitutional and unwarranted interference in the functions of the Chief of General Staff who, in fact and in law, is the Commander\\-in\\-Chief of the Forces in South Africa. The facts are that the Minister sought to change the strategic dispositions of units and to appoint, promote, and transfer both officers and other ranks, without sufficient knowledge of their qualifications and without reference to the General Staff, of which I was the head. Without reference to me, he created posts for the absorption of persons in whom, irrespective of their unsuitability or otherwise, he personally reposed political confidence. Political ambitions ... should not be allowed to intrude into the responsibility of command and functions of military organizations.{{cite book\\|last \\= Bunting\\|first \\= Brian\\|title \\= The Rise of the South African Reich\\|publisher \\= Mayibuye Books\\|date \\= December 1986\\|url \\= https://archive.org/details/riseofsouthafric00bunt\\|isbn \\= 0\\-904759\\-74\\-1\\|url\\-access \\= registration}}}}", "Beyers was once again placed on the retired list in 1954\\.", "The fact that at times he acted as Chief of the General Staff during the Second World War indicates that Van Ryneveld had immense trust in Beyers' abilities. However, Van Ryneveld was such a dominating personality that any meaningful delegation of his authority was never even discussed.", "" ]
History ------- ### Subeshi culture (1100\-100 BCE) {{main\|Subeshi culture}} [thumb\|260px\|Gaochang's location (close to [Turpan](/wiki/Turpan "Turpan")) on the [Silk Road](/wiki/Silk_Road "Silk Road")](/wiki/File:Seidenstrasse_GMT.jpg "Seidenstrasse GMT.jpg") One of the earliest cultures of the region was the [Iron Age](/wiki/Iron_Age "Iron Age") [Subeshi culture](/wiki/Subeshi_culture "Subeshi culture") (1100\-100 BCE).{{cite journal \|last1\=Zhang \|first1\=Kai \|title\=The Spread and Integration of Painted pottery Art along the Silk Road \|journal\=Region \- Educational Research and Reviews \|date\=4 February 2021 \|volume\=3 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=18 \|doi\=10\.32629/RERR.V3I1\.242 \|s2cid\=234007445 \|quote\=In the late Neolithic period and the early Bronze age, pottery, ornamentation and bronze culture with the characteristics of West Asia and Central Asia were introduced into Xinjiang, including \[\[Qijia culture]] (2500\-1500 BC), \[\[Siba culture]] (about 2000\-1600 BC), Chawuhugoukou culture (around 800\-100 BC), Turpan Subeixi culture (1100 bc\-100 BC) and other cultures.\|doi\-access\=free }} The Subeshi culture contributes some of the later period [Tarim Mummies](/wiki/Tarim_Mummies "Tarim Mummies"). The culture is probably associated with the Cheshi state (車師, Chü\-shih, [Jushi Kingdom](/wiki/Jushi_Kingdom "Jushi Kingdom")) known from Chinese historical sources.{{cite journal \|last1\=Beck \|first1\=Ulrike \|last2\=Wagner \|first2\=Mayke \|last3\=Li \|first3\=Xiao \|last4\=Durkin\-Meisterernst \|first4\=Desmond \|last5\=Tarasov \|first5\=Pavel E. \|title\=The invention of trousers and its likely affiliation with horseback riding and mobility: A case study of late 2nd millennium BC finds from Turfan in eastern Central Asia \|journal\=Quaternary International \|date\=20 October 2014 \|volume\=348 \|pages\=225–226 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.quaint.2014\.04\.056 \|bibcode\=2014QuInt.348\..224B \|url\=https://doi.org/10\.1016/j.quaint.2014\.04\.056 \|issn\=1040\-6182\|quote\=The Yanghai graveyard is assigned to the Subeixi (Subeshi) culture (e.g. Jiang et al., 2006, 2009\), conventionally dated to the first millennium BC (Chen, 2002; Han, 2007; Xinjiang, 2011\). The culture is associated with the Cheshi (Chü\-shih) state known from Chinese historical sources (Sinor, 1990\).}} The Subeshi culture is documented by three closely related cemeteries the [Subeshi cemetery](/wiki/Commons:Category:Subeshi "Category:Subeshi"), the [Shengjindian cemetery](/wiki/Commons:Category:Shengjindian_cemetery "Category:Shengjindian cemetery"), and the [Yanghai cemetery](/wiki/Commons:Category:Yanghai_cemetery "Category:Yanghai cemetery").{{cite journal \|last1\=Jiang \|first1\=Hongen \|last2\=Li \|first2\=Cheng\-Sen \|last3\=Cao \|first3\=Hongyong \|last4\=Shading \|first4\=Palidanmu \|last5\=Cheng \|first5\=Ye\-Ming \|title\=Wood Utilization During the Late Bronze to Early Iron Age in the Turpan Basin of Xinjiang, China, With Special Emphasis on Betula (Betulaceae) \|journal\=SAGE Open \|date\=July 2021 \|volume\=11 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=215824402110469 \|doi\=10\.1177/21582440211046950 \|language\=en \|issn\=2158\-2440\|doi\-access\=free }} ### Jushi Kingdom and early Han Chinese rule {{main\|Jushi Kingdom}} The region around [Turfan](/wiki/Turfan "Turfan") was described during the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) as being occupied by the *Jūshī* ([Jushi Kingdom](/wiki/Jushi_Kingdom "Jushi Kingdom")), while control over the region swayed between the Han Chinese and the [Xiongnu](/wiki/Xiongnu "Xiongnu"). [thumb\|left\|Painted warriors, [Yanghai](/wiki/Yanghai "Yanghai") tomb, Gaochang Prefecture period, 327\-460 CE](/wiki/File:Painted_warriors%2C_Yanghai_tomb%2C_Gaochang_Prefecture_period%2C_327-460_CE.jpg "Painted warriors, Yanghai tomb, Gaochang Prefecture period, 327-460 CE.jpg") Gaochang was built in the 1st century BC, it was an important site along the [Silk Road](/wiki/Silk_Road "Silk Road"). It played a key role as a transportation hub in [Western China](/wiki/Western_China "Western China"). The Jushi leaders later pledged their allegiance to the [Han dynasty](/wiki/Han_dynasty "Han dynasty"). In 327, the Gaochang [Commandery](/wiki/Commandery_%28China%29 "Commandery (China)") (*jùn*) was created by the [Former Liang](/wiki/Former_Liang "Former Liang") under the Han Chinese ruler [Zhang Jun](/wiki/Zhang_Jun_%28prince%29 "Zhang Jun (prince)"). The Chinese set up a military colony/garrison and organized the land into multiple divisions. Han Chinese colonists from the Hexi region and the central plains also settled in the region.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=FcKtIPVQ6REC\&pg\=PA304 \|title\=History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume 3\|editor\=Ahmad Hasan Dani\|year\=1999\|publisher\=Motilal Banarsidass\|isbn\=81\-208\-1540\-8\|page\=304\|access\-date\=May 17, 2011}} After the fall of the [Western Jin dynasty](/wiki/Jin_dynasty_%28266%E2%80%93420%29 "Jin dynasty (266–420)"), Northern China split into multiple states, including the Central Asian oases.{{cite book\|url\=https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern \|url\-access\=registration \|title\=A history of Chinese civilization\|author\=Jacques Gernet\|year\=1996\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|isbn\=0\-521\-49781\-7\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern/page/186 186]\|access\-date\=17 May 2011}} Gaochang was ruled by the [Former Liang](/wiki/Former_Liang "Former Liang"), [Former Qin](/wiki/Former_Qin "Former Qin") and [Northern Liang](/wiki/Northern_Liang "Northern Liang") as part of a commandery. In 383 the general Lu Guang of the [Former Qin](/wiki/Former_Qin "Former Qin") seized control of the region.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=9hMSAQAAIAAJ\&q\=gaochang\+significant\|title\=Journal of Chinese religions, Issues 30\-31\|author\=Society for the Study of Chinese Religions (U.S.), Indiana University, Bloomington. East Asian Studies Center\|year\=2002\|publisher\=Society for the Study of Chinese Religions\|location\=the University of California\|page\=24\|access\-date\=May 17, 2011}} In 439, remnants of the [Northern Liang](/wiki/Northern_Liang "Northern Liang"),{{cite book\|author1\=Susan Whitfield\|author\-link\=Susan Whitfield\|author2\=British Library\|title\=The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ArWLD4Qop38C\&q\=gaochang\&pg\=PA309\|year\=2004\|publisher\=Serindia Publications, Inc.\|isbn\=978\-1\-932476\-13\-2\|pages\=309–}} led by [Juqu Wuhui](/wiki/Juqu_Wuhui "Juqu Wuhui") and [Juqu Anzhou](/wiki/Juqu_Anzhou "Juqu Anzhou"), fled to Gaochang where they would hold onto power until 460 when they were conquered by the [Rouran Khaganate](/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate "Rouran Khaganate"). Another version of this story says that in 439 a man named Ashina led 500 families from Gansu to Gaochang. In 460, the Rouran forced them to move to the Altai. They became the [Ashina](/wiki/Ashina_tribe "Ashina tribe") clan that formed the [Göktürk Khaganate](/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrk_Khaganate "Göktürk Khaganate")Christian, History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia, page 449, citing 'Sui annals' and Baumer, History of Central Asia, vol 2, page 174 [Six Dynasties](/wiki/Six_Dynasties "Six Dynasties") Turfan tombs contained [dumplings](/wiki/Jiaozi "Jiaozi").{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.thedailymeal.com/archaeologists\-ancient\-dumplings\-xinjiang\-china/21615\|title\=Archaeologists Discover Ancient Dumplings in China\|date\=February 16, 2016}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://shanghaiist.com/2016/02/15/1700\_year\_old\_dumplings\_found\_in\_xinjiang.php\|title \= YUM! Archaeologists discover that people in Xinjiang were snacking on dumplings 1,700 years ago\|date \= February 15, 2016}} ### Gaochang Kingdom [thumb\|Mummy of the Qushi Kingdom (麹氏王国) general Zhangxiong (583\-633 CE, 左卫大将军张雄). Xinjiang Museum](/wiki/File:%E9%BA%B9%E6%B0%8F%E9%AB%98%E6%98%8C%E5%B7%A6%E5%8D%AB%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%86%E5%86%9B%E5%BC%A0%E9%9B%84.jpg "麹氏高昌左卫大将军张雄.jpg") [thumb\|Manichaean priests, writing at their desks. Manuscript from Qocho. 8th/9th century](/wiki/File:Manicheans.jpg "Manicheans.jpg") From the mid\-5th century until the mid\-7th century, the Gaochang Kingdom was successively controlled by the Kan, Zhang, Ma and Qu clans. At the time of its conquest by the Rouran Khaganate, there were more than ten thousand [Han Chinese](/wiki/Han_Chinese "Han Chinese") households in Gaochang.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=FcKtIPVQ6REC\&pg\=PA305 \|title\=History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume 3\|editor\=Ahmad Hasan Dani\|year\=1999\|publisher\=Motilal Banarsidass\|isbn\=81\-208\-1540\-8\|page\=305\|access\-date\=May 17, 2011}} The Rouran Khaganate, which was based in Mongolia, appointed a Han Chinese named Kan Bozhou to rule as King of Gaochang in 460, and it became a separate vassal kingdom of the Khaganate.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=fAEUAQAAMAAJ\&q\=Kan\+Bozhou\+had\+been\+propped\+up\+as\+its\+king\+by\+the\+Ruan\-Ruan.\|title\=Proceedings of the Thirty\-First International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia and North Africa, Tokyo\-Kyoto, 31st August\-7th September 1983, Volume 2\|editor\=Tatsurō Yamamoto\|year\=1984\|publisher\=Tōhō Gakkai\|location\=Indiana University\|page\=997\|access\-date\=May 17, 2011}} Kan was dependent on Rouran backing.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=\-ORwAAAAMAAJ\&q\=Kan\+Bozhou,\+who\+seized\+control\+of\+Gaochang,\+relied\+on\+the\+Ruanruan\+for\+support\|title\=Chinese archaeological abstracts: post Han\|author1\=Albert E. Dien \|author2\=Jeffrey K. Riegel \|author3\=Nancy Thompson Price \|editor1\=Albert E. Dien \|editor2\=Jeffrey K. Riegel \|editor3\=Nancy Thompson Price \|volume\=4 of Chinese Archaeological Abstracts\|year\=1985\|publisher\=Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles\|location\=the University of Michigan\|isbn\=0\-917956\-54\-0\|page\=1567\|access\-date\=May 17, 2011}} Yicheng and Shougui were the last two kings of the Chinese Kan family to rule Gaochang. At this time the [Gaoche](/wiki/Gaoche "Gaoche") ({{linktext\|高\|車}}) was rising to challenge power of the Rouran in the [Tarim Basin](/wiki/Tarim_Basin "Tarim Basin"). The Gaoche king Afuzhiluo ({{linktext\|阿\|伏\|至\|羅}}) killed King Kan Shougui, who was the nephew of Kan Bozhou.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=3kwOAQAAMAAJ\&q\=Zhang\+Mengming\+from\+Dunhuang\+on\+the\+throne\+of\+Gaochang\|title\=Encyclopaedia of Asian civilizations, Volume 3\|author\=Louis\-Frédéric\|year\=1977\|publisher\=L. Frédéric\|location\=the University of Michigan\|page\=16\|isbn\=978\-2\-902228\-00\-3 \|access\-date\=May 17, 2011}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=G5z04Q046UgC\&q\=Zhang\+Mengming\+chinese\&pg\=PA5\|title\=Accounts of Western Nations in the History of the Northern Chou Dynasty\|editor\=ROY ANDREW MILLER\|year\=1959\|publisher\=UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS\|location\=Berkeley and Los Angeles\|page\=5\|access\-date\=May 17, 2011}}East Asia Studies Institute of International Studies University of California CHINESE DYNASTIC HISTORIES TRANSLATIONS No. 6 and appointed a Han from [Dunhuang](/wiki/Dunhuang "Dunhuang"), named Zhang Mengming (張孟明), as his own vassal King of Gaochang.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=FcKtIPVQ6REC\&q\=Zhang\+Mengming\+chinese\&pg\=PA306\|title\=History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume 3\|editor\=Ahmad Hasan Dani\|year\=1999\|publisher\=Motilal Banarsidass\|isbn\=81\-208\-1540\-8\|page\=306\|access\-date\=May 17, 2011}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=uxUUAQAAMAAJ\&q\=two\+Chinese\+kings\+named\+Chang\+Meng\-ming\+%3C%5E:SM\+ancl\+Ma\+Hsu\+,Hj%5E%7C\+respectively\+ruled\+the\+kingdom.\|title\=Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (the Oriental Library), Volumes 32\-34\|author\=Tōyō Bunko (Japan). Kenkyūbu\|year\=1974\|publisher\=The Toyo Bunko\|location\=the University of Michigan\|page\=107\|access\-date\=May 17, 2011}} Gaochang thus passed under Gaoche rule. Later, Zhang Mengming was killed in an uprising by the people of Gaochang and replaced by Ma Ru ({{linktext\|馬\|儒}}). In 501, Ma Ru himself was overthrown and killed, and the people of Gaochang appointed Qu Jia ({{linktext\|麴\|嘉}}) of Jincheng (in [Gansu](/wiki/Gansu "Gansu")) as their king, forming the Qushi Kingdom (麹氏王国, 501\-640 CE). Qu Jia hailed from the Zhong district of Jincheng commandery (金城, roughly corresponding to modern day [Lanzhou](/wiki/Lanzhou "Lanzhou"), [Gansu](/wiki/Gansu "Gansu")) Qu Jia at first pledged allegiance to the Rouran, but the Rouran khaghan was soon killed by the Gaoche and he had to submit to Gaoche overlordship. During Qu rule, powerful families established marriage ties with each other and dominated the kingdom, they included the Zhang, Fan, Yin, Ma, Shi and Xin families. Later, when the [Göktürks](/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks "Göktürks") emerged as the supreme power in the region, the Qu dynasty of Gaochang became vassals of the Göktürks.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=883OZBe2sMYC\&pg\=PA306 \|title\=The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750\|author\=Chang Kuan\-ta\|editor1\=Boris Anatol'evich Litvinskiĭ \|editor2\=Zhang, Guang\-da \|editor3\=R. Shabani Samghabadi\|year\=1996\|publisher\=UNESCO\|isbn\=92\-3\-103211\-9\|page\=306\|access\-date\=May 17, 2011}} While the material civilization of [Kucha](/wiki/Kucha "Kucha") to its west in this period remained chiefly Indo\-Iranian in character, in Gaochang it gradually merged into the [Tang](/wiki/Tang_dynasty "Tang dynasty") aesthetics.{{cite book \|title\=The Empire of the Steppes:A History of Central Asia \|author\=Rene Grousset \|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/98 98–99] \|publisher\=Rutgers University Press \|year\=1991 \|isbn\=0813513049 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/98 }} In 607 the ruler of Gaochang Qu Boya paid tribute to the [Sui dynasty](/wiki/Sui_dynasty "Sui dynasty"), but his attempt at sinicization provoked a coup which overthrew the Qu ruler.{{cite book\|url\=https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern \|url\-access\=registration \|title\=A history of Chinese civilization\|author\=Jacques Gernet\|year\=1996\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|isbn\=0\-521\-49781\-7\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern/page/253 253]\|access\-date\=June 6, 2012 }} The Qu family was restored six years later and the successor Qu Wentai welcomed the Tang pilgrim [Xuanzang](/wiki/Xuanzang "Xuanzang") with great enthusiasm in 629 AD. [left\|thumb\|[Wall painting from a Christian church](/wiki/Murals_from_the_Christian_temple_at_Qocho "Murals from the Christian temple at Qocho"), Qocho 683–770 CE](/wiki/File:Palm_Sunday_%28probably%29%2C_Khocho%2C_Nestorian_Temple%2C_683-770_AD%2C_wall_painting_-_Ethnological_Museum%2C_Berlin_-_DSC01741.JPG "Palm Sunday (probably), Khocho, Nestorian Temple, 683-770 AD, wall painting - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC01741.JPG") The Kingdom of Gaochang was made out of Han Chinese migrants and ruled by the Han Chinese{{cite book\|author\=Baij Nath Puri\|title\=Buddhism in Central Asia\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=sluKZfTrr3oC\&pg\=PA78\|year\=1987\|publisher\=Motilal Banarsidass\|isbn\=978\-81\-208\-0372\-5\|pages\=78–}}{{cite book\|author1\=Charles Eliot\|author2\=Sir Charles Eliot\|title\=Hinduism and Buddhism: An Historical Sketch\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=KbPgG6ondlUC\&pg\=PA206\|year\=1998\|publisher\=Psychology Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-7007\-0679\-2\|pages\=206–}} Qu family which originated from Gansu.{{cite book\|author\=Marc S. Abramson\|title\=Ethnic Identity in Tang China\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=\-GLGnRspmcAC\&q\=gaochang\&pg\=PA119\|date\=31 December 2011\|publisher\=University of Pennsylvania Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-8122\-0101\-7\|pages\=119–}} Jincheng commandery 金城 (Lanzhou), district of Yuzhong 榆中 was the home of the Qu Jia.{{cite book\|author\=Roy Andrew Miller\|title\=Accounts of Western Nations in the History of the Northern Chou Dynasty \[Chou Shu 50\. 10b\-17b]: Translated and Annotated by Roy Andrew Miller\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=G5z04Q046UgC\&q\=kao\+ch%27ang\&pg\=PA5\|year\=1959\|publisher\=University of California Press\|pages\=5–\|id\=GGKEY:SXHP29BAXQY}} The Qu family was linked by marriage alliances to the Turks,{{cite book\|author\=Valerie Hansen\|title\=The Silk Road\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=0LYDf02jgdAC\&q\=gaochang\&pg\=PA262\|date\=11 October 2012\|publisher\=OUP USA\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-515931\-8\|pages\=262–}} with a Turk being the grandmother of King Qu Boya's.{{cite book\|author\=Jonathan Karam Skaff\|title\=Straddling steppe and town: Tang China's relations with the nomads of inner Asia (640\-756\).\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=tDgfAQAAMAAJ\&q\=The\+most\+striking\+example\+of\+this\+phenomena\+occurred\+in\+the\+Kingdom\+of\+Gaochang\+when\+Qu\+Boya\+Hffi\|year\=1998\|publisher\=University of Michigan.\|page\=57\|isbn\=9780599084643}}{{cite book\|title\=Asia Major\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=8O8VAQAAMAAJ\&q\=kao\+ch%27ang\+turkic\|year\=1998\|publisher\=Institute of History and Philology of the Academia Sinica\|page\=87}} During this period, Gaochang's administration, language, city planning, and Confucian society was so heavily dominated by Chinese models that it was known in Sogdian as "Chinatown", a usage which continued as late as the tenth\-century Persian geography *Ḥudūd al\-‘Ālam*.{{cite journal \|last1\=Hansen, Valerie \|title\=The Impact of the Silk Road trade on a local community: The Turfan Oasis, 500\-800\. \|journal\=Les Sogdiens en Chine \|date\=2005 \|volume\=17 \|pages\=283–310}} ### Tang rule {{Main\|Tang campaign against Karakhoja\|Tang campaigns against the Western Turks\|l2\=the Western Turks\|Tang campaign against the oasis states\|l3\=the oasis states}} However, fearing Tang expansion, Qu Wentai later formed an alliance with the [Western Turks](/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate "Western Turkic Khaganate") and rebelled against Tang [suzerainty](/wiki/Suzerainty "Suzerainty"). [Emperor Taizong](/wiki/Emperor_Taizong_of_Tang "Emperor Taizong of Tang") sent an army led by General [Hou Junji](/wiki/Hou_Junji "Hou Junji") against the kingdom in 640 and Qu Wentai apparently died of shock at news of the approaching army. Gaochang [was annexed](/wiki/Tang_campaign_against_Karakhoja "Tang campaign against Karakhoja") by the Chinese [Tang dynasty](/wiki/Tang_dynasty "Tang dynasty") and turned into a sub\-prefecture of Xizhou (西州){{cite book\|author\=E. Bretschneider\|title\=Notices of the Mediæval Geography and History of Central and Western Asia\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=R98\-AAAAYAAJ\&q\=kao\+ch%27ang\&pg\=PA122\|year\=1876\|publisher\=Trübner \& Company\|pages\=122–}}{{cite book\|title\=Journal of the North\-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=bcNFAQAAMAAJ\&q\=kao\+ch%27ang\&pg\=PA196\|year\=1876\|publisher\=The Branch\|pages\=196–}} and the seat of government of [Anxi](/wiki/Protectorate_General_to_Pacify_the_West "Protectorate General to Pacify the West") (安西). Before the Chinese conquered Gaochang, it was an impediment to Chinese access to Tarim and Transoxiania.{{cite book\|url\=https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern\_0/page/238\|title\=A history of Chinese civilization\|author\=Jacques Gernet\|year\=1996\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|isbn\=0\-521\-49781\-7\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern\_0/page/238 238]\|access\-date\=17 May 2011}} Gaochang was populated by Han people and Shanxi (Hedong) was the original home of the royal family at the time of the Tang dynasty's annexation. The Tang dynasty accepted arguments at court who said that because Gaochang was Han populated that they needed to annex it.{{cite book \|last\= Abramson \|first\=Marc S. \|series\=Encounters with Asia\|author\-link\= \|date\= 2011 \|title\= Ethnic Identity in Tang China\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=\-GLGnRspmcAC\&dq\=%22Gaochang\+ruling\+house\+itself\+claimed\+to\+be\+from\+the\+Hedong\+region%22\&pg\=PA119\|location\= \|publisher\=University of Pennsylvania Press\|page\=119 \|isbn\=978\-0812201017}} Under Tang rule, Gaochang was inhabited by Chinese, [Sogdians](/wiki/Sogdians "Sogdians") and [Tocharians](/wiki/Tocharians "Tocharians").{{citation needed\|date\=January 2016}} 7th or 8th century old [dumplings](/wiki/Jiaozi "Jiaozi") and [wontons](/wiki/Wonton "Wonton") were found in [Turfan](/wiki/Turfan "Turfan").[Hansen 2012](https://books.google.com/books?id=0LYDf02jgdAC&pg=PA11), p. 11\. The Tang dynasty became greatly weakened due to the [An Lushan Rebellion](/wiki/An_Lushan_Rebellion "An Lushan Rebellion") and in 755, the Chinese were forced to pull back their soldiers from the region. The area was first taken by the Tibetans, then finally by the Uyghurs{{cite book\|author1\=Matthew Kapstein\|author2\=Brandon Dotson\|title\=Contributions to the Cultural History of Early Tibet\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=deyvCQAAQBAJ\&q\=gaochang\&pg\=PA91\|date\=20 July 2007\|publisher\=Brill\|isbn\=978\-90\-474\-2119\-1\|pages\=91–}}{{harvp\|Chen\|2014}}.{{cite book\|title\=Eighteen Lectures on Dunhuang\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=HvIa9sere\_8C\&q\=gaochang\&pg\=PA201\|date\=7 June 2013\|publisher\=Brill\|isbn\=978\-90\-04\-25233\-2\|pages\=201–}}{{cite book\|author\=Victor Cunrui Xiong\|title\=Historical Dictionary of Medieval China\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=0vhMCwAAQBAJ\&q\=gaochang\&pg\=PA175\|date\=4 December 2008\|publisher\=Scarecrow Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-8108\-6258\-6\|pages\=175–}} in 803, who called the area Kocho (Qocho). [thumb\|Uyghur princesses, cave 9, wall painting from Bezeklik caves](/wiki/File:Uighur_princesses%2C_Bezeklik%2C_Cave_9%2C_c._8th-9th_century_AD%2C_wall_painting_-_Ethnological_Museum%2C_Berlin_-_DSC01749.JPG "Uighur princesses, Bezeklik, Cave 9, c. 8th-9th century AD, wall painting - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC01749.JPG") [thumb\|Man of Gaochang (高昌國, [Turfan](/wiki/Turfan "Turfan")) in [番客入朝圖](/wiki/Portraits_of_Periodical_Offering "Portraits of Periodical Offering") (937\-976 CE)](/wiki/File:Man_of_Gaochang_%28%E9%AB%98%E6%98%8C%E5%9C%8B%2C_Turfan%29_in_%E7%95%AA%E5%AE%A2%E5%85%A5%E6%9C%9D%E5%9C%96_%28937-976_CE%29.jpg "Man of Gaochang (高昌國, Turfan) in 番客入朝圖 (937-976 CE).jpg") ### Uyghur Kingdom of Qocho {{main\|Qocho}} After 840 Gaochang became [occupied by remnants](/wiki/Islamicisation_and_Turkicisation_of_Xinjiang%23Uyghur_migration_into_the_Tarim_Basin "Islamicisation and Turkicisation of Xinjiang#Uyghur migration into the Tarim Basin") of the [Uyghur Khaganate](/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate "Uyghur Khaganate") fleeing [Yenisei Kirghiz](/wiki/Yenisei_Kirghiz "Yenisei Kirghiz") invasion of their land.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ArWLD4Qop38C\&q\=gaochang\+colony\&pg\=PA309\|title\=The Silk Road: trade, travel, war and faith\|author1\=Susan Whitfield \|author2\=British Library \|year\=2004\|publisher\=Serindia Publications, Inc.\|edition\=illustrated\|isbn\=1\-932476\-13\-X\|page\=309\|access\-date\=May 17, 2011}} The Uyghurs established the [Kingdom of Qocho](/wiki/Kara-Khoja_Kingdom "Kara-Khoja Kingdom") (Kara\-Khoja) in 850\. The inhabitants of Qocho practiced [Buddhism](/wiki/Buddhism "Buddhism"), [Manichaeism](/wiki/Manichaeism "Manichaeism") and [Christianity](/wiki/Church_of_the_East_in_China "Church of the East in China"). The Uyghurs converted to Buddhism and sponsored building of temple caves in the nearby [Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves](/wiki/Bezeklik_Thousand_Buddha_Caves "Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves") where depictions of Uyghur sponsors may be seen. The Buddhist Uyghur kings, who called themselves idiquts, retained their nomadic lifestyle, residing in Qocho during the winter, but moved to the cooler [Bishbalik](/wiki/Jimsar_County "Jimsar County") near [Urumchi](/wiki/Urumchi "Urumchi") in the summer.{{cite book \|title\=A history of Inner Asia \|author\=Svatopluk Soucek \|chapter\=Chapter 4 \- The Uighur Kingdom of Qocho \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|year\=2000 \|isbn\=0\-521\-65704\-0 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/historyofinneras00souc }} Qocho later became a [vassal](/wiki/Vassal "Vassal") state of the [Kara\-Khitans](/wiki/Kara-Khitan "Kara-Khitan"). However, In 1209, the idiqut [Barchuq](/wiki/Baurchuk_Art_Tekin "Baurchuk Art Tekin") offered [Genghis Khan](/wiki/Genghis_Khan "Genghis Khan") the [suzerainty](/wiki/Suzerainty "Suzerainty") of his kingdom, and went personally to Genghis Khan with a sizeable tribute when demanded in 1211\.{{cite book \|author\=Biran, Michal. \|title\=The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History: Between China and the Islamic World \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|year\=2005 \|page\=75 \|isbn\= 0\-521\-84226\-3 }} The Uyghurs thus went into the service of the Mongols,{{cite book \|title\=A history of Inner Asia \|author\=Svatopluk Soucek \|chapter\=Chapter 7 \- The Conquering Mongols \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|year\=2000 \|isbn\=0\-521\-65704\-0 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/historyofinneras00souc }} who later formed the [Yuan dynasty](/wiki/Yuan_dynasty "Yuan dynasty") in the territories of what is now China. The Uyghurs became bureaucrats (*[semu](/wiki/Semu "Semu")*) of the Mongol Empire and their [Uyghur script](/wiki/Old_Uyghur_alphabet "Old Uyghur alphabet") was modified for Mongolian. As far south as [Quanzhou](/wiki/Quanzhou "Quanzhou"), preponderance of Gaochang Uyghur in [Church of the East](/wiki/Church_of_the_East "Church of the East") inscriptions of the Yuan period attests to their importance in the Christian community there.[The Stones of Zayton speak](http://chinaheritagenewsletter.anu.edu.au/scholarship.php?searchterm=005_zayton.inc&issue=005) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024092550/http://chinaheritagenewsletter.anu.edu.au/scholarship.php?searchterm\=005\_zayton.inc\&issue\=005 \|date\=2013\-10\-24 }}, *China Heritage Newsletter*, No. 5, March 2006 The Gaochang area was [conquered by](/wiki/Islamicisation_and_Turkicisation_of_Xinjiang%23Khizr_Khoja.27s_attack_on_Turfan_and_Qocho "Islamicisation and Turkicisation of Xinjiang#Khizr Khoja.27s attack on Turfan and Qocho") the Mongols of the [Chagatai Khanate](/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate "Chagatai Khanate") (not part of the [Yuan dynasty](/wiki/Yuan_dynasty "Yuan dynasty")) from 1275 to 1318 by as many as 120,000 troops.
[ "History\n-------", "### Subeshi culture (1100\\-100 BCE)", "{{main\\|Subeshi culture}}", "[thumb\\|260px\\|Gaochang's location (close to [Turpan](/wiki/Turpan \"Turpan\")) on the [Silk Road](/wiki/Silk_Road \"Silk Road\")](/wiki/File:Seidenstrasse_GMT.jpg \"Seidenstrasse GMT.jpg\")\nOne of the earliest cultures of the region was the [Iron Age](/wiki/Iron_Age \"Iron Age\") [Subeshi culture](/wiki/Subeshi_culture \"Subeshi culture\") (1100\\-100 BCE).{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Zhang \\|first1\\=Kai \\|title\\=The Spread and Integration of Painted pottery Art along the Silk Road \\|journal\\=Region \\- Educational Research and Reviews \\|date\\=4 February 2021 \\|volume\\=3 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=18 \\|doi\\=10\\.32629/RERR.V3I1\\.242 \\|s2cid\\=234007445 \\|quote\\=In the late Neolithic period and the early Bronze age, pottery, ornamentation and bronze culture with the characteristics of West Asia and Central Asia were introduced into Xinjiang, including \\[\\[Qijia culture]] (2500\\-1500 BC), \\[\\[Siba culture]] (about 2000\\-1600 BC), Chawuhugoukou culture (around 800\\-100 BC), Turpan Subeixi culture (1100 bc\\-100 BC) and other cultures.\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} The Subeshi culture contributes some of the later period [Tarim Mummies](/wiki/Tarim_Mummies \"Tarim Mummies\"). The culture is probably associated with the Cheshi state (車師, Chü\\-shih, [Jushi Kingdom](/wiki/Jushi_Kingdom \"Jushi Kingdom\")) known from Chinese historical sources.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Beck \\|first1\\=Ulrike \\|last2\\=Wagner \\|first2\\=Mayke \\|last3\\=Li \\|first3\\=Xiao \\|last4\\=Durkin\\-Meisterernst \\|first4\\=Desmond \\|last5\\=Tarasov \\|first5\\=Pavel E. \\|title\\=The invention of trousers and its likely affiliation with horseback riding and mobility: A case study of late 2nd millennium BC finds from Turfan in eastern Central Asia \\|journal\\=Quaternary International \\|date\\=20 October 2014 \\|volume\\=348 \\|pages\\=225–226 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.quaint.2014\\.04\\.056 \\|bibcode\\=2014QuInt.348\\..224B \\|url\\=https://doi.org/10\\.1016/j.quaint.2014\\.04\\.056 \\|issn\\=1040\\-6182\\|quote\\=The Yanghai graveyard is assigned to the Subeixi (Subeshi) culture (e.g. Jiang et al., 2006, 2009\\), conventionally dated to the first millennium BC (Chen, 2002; Han, 2007; Xinjiang, 2011\\). The culture is associated with the Cheshi (Chü\\-shih) state known from Chinese historical sources (Sinor, 1990\\).}} The Subeshi culture is documented by three closely related cemeteries the [Subeshi cemetery](/wiki/Commons:Category:Subeshi \"Category:Subeshi\"), the [Shengjindian cemetery](/wiki/Commons:Category:Shengjindian_cemetery \"Category:Shengjindian cemetery\"), and the [Yanghai cemetery](/wiki/Commons:Category:Yanghai_cemetery \"Category:Yanghai cemetery\").{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Jiang \\|first1\\=Hongen \\|last2\\=Li \\|first2\\=Cheng\\-Sen \\|last3\\=Cao \\|first3\\=Hongyong \\|last4\\=Shading \\|first4\\=Palidanmu \\|last5\\=Cheng \\|first5\\=Ye\\-Ming \\|title\\=Wood Utilization During the Late Bronze to Early Iron Age in the Turpan Basin of Xinjiang, China, With Special Emphasis on Betula (Betulaceae) \\|journal\\=SAGE Open \\|date\\=July 2021 \\|volume\\=11 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=215824402110469 \\|doi\\=10\\.1177/21582440211046950 \\|language\\=en \\|issn\\=2158\\-2440\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}", "### Jushi Kingdom and early Han Chinese rule", "{{main\\|Jushi Kingdom}}\nThe region around [Turfan](/wiki/Turfan \"Turfan\") was described during the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) as being occupied by the *Jūshī* ([Jushi Kingdom](/wiki/Jushi_Kingdom \"Jushi Kingdom\")), while control over the region swayed between the Han Chinese and the [Xiongnu](/wiki/Xiongnu \"Xiongnu\").", "[thumb\\|left\\|Painted warriors, [Yanghai](/wiki/Yanghai \"Yanghai\") tomb, Gaochang Prefecture period, 327\\-460 CE](/wiki/File:Painted_warriors%2C_Yanghai_tomb%2C_Gaochang_Prefecture_period%2C_327-460_CE.jpg \"Painted warriors, Yanghai tomb, Gaochang Prefecture period, 327-460 CE.jpg\")\nGaochang was built in the 1st century BC, it was an important site along the [Silk Road](/wiki/Silk_Road \"Silk Road\"). It played a key role as a transportation hub in [Western China](/wiki/Western_China \"Western China\"). The Jushi leaders later pledged their allegiance to the [Han dynasty](/wiki/Han_dynasty \"Han dynasty\"). In 327, the Gaochang [Commandery](/wiki/Commandery_%28China%29 \"Commandery (China)\") (*jùn*) was created by the [Former Liang](/wiki/Former_Liang \"Former Liang\") under the Han Chinese ruler [Zhang Jun](/wiki/Zhang_Jun_%28prince%29 \"Zhang Jun (prince)\"). The Chinese set up a military colony/garrison and organized the land into multiple divisions. Han Chinese colonists from the Hexi region and the central plains also settled in the region.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=FcKtIPVQ6REC\\&pg\\=PA304 \\|title\\=History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume 3\\|editor\\=Ahmad Hasan Dani\\|year\\=1999\\|publisher\\=Motilal Banarsidass\\|isbn\\=81\\-208\\-1540\\-8\\|page\\=304\\|access\\-date\\=May 17, 2011}}", "After the fall of the [Western Jin dynasty](/wiki/Jin_dynasty_%28266%E2%80%93420%29 \"Jin dynasty (266–420)\"), Northern China split into multiple states, including the Central Asian oases.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern \\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|title\\=A history of Chinese civilization\\|author\\=Jacques Gernet\\|year\\=1996\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|isbn\\=0\\-521\\-49781\\-7\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern/page/186 186]\\|access\\-date\\=17 May 2011}} Gaochang was ruled by the [Former Liang](/wiki/Former_Liang \"Former Liang\"), [Former Qin](/wiki/Former_Qin \"Former Qin\") and [Northern Liang](/wiki/Northern_Liang \"Northern Liang\") as part of a commandery. In 383 the general Lu Guang of the [Former Qin](/wiki/Former_Qin \"Former Qin\") seized control of the region.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=9hMSAQAAIAAJ\\&q\\=gaochang\\+significant\\|title\\=Journal of Chinese religions, Issues 30\\-31\\|author\\=Society for the Study of Chinese Religions (U.S.), Indiana University, Bloomington. East Asian Studies Center\\|year\\=2002\\|publisher\\=Society for the Study of Chinese Religions\\|location\\=the University of California\\|page\\=24\\|access\\-date\\=May 17, 2011}}", "In 439, remnants of the [Northern Liang](/wiki/Northern_Liang \"Northern Liang\"),{{cite book\\|author1\\=Susan Whitfield\\|author\\-link\\=Susan Whitfield\\|author2\\=British Library\\|title\\=The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ArWLD4Qop38C\\&q\\=gaochang\\&pg\\=PA309\\|year\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Serindia Publications, Inc.\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-932476\\-13\\-2\\|pages\\=309–}} led by [Juqu Wuhui](/wiki/Juqu_Wuhui \"Juqu Wuhui\") and [Juqu Anzhou](/wiki/Juqu_Anzhou \"Juqu Anzhou\"), fled to Gaochang where they would hold onto power until 460 when they were conquered by the [Rouran Khaganate](/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate \"Rouran Khaganate\"). Another version of this story says that in 439 a man named Ashina led 500 families from Gansu to Gaochang. In 460, the Rouran forced them to move to the Altai. They became the [Ashina](/wiki/Ashina_tribe \"Ashina tribe\") clan that formed the [Göktürk Khaganate](/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrk_Khaganate \"Göktürk Khaganate\")Christian, History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia, page 449, citing 'Sui annals' and Baumer, History of Central Asia, vol 2, page 174", "[Six Dynasties](/wiki/Six_Dynasties \"Six Dynasties\") Turfan tombs contained [dumplings](/wiki/Jiaozi \"Jiaozi\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.thedailymeal.com/archaeologists\\-ancient\\-dumplings\\-xinjiang\\-china/21615\\|title\\=Archaeologists Discover Ancient Dumplings in China\\|date\\=February 16, 2016}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://shanghaiist.com/2016/02/15/1700\\_year\\_old\\_dumplings\\_found\\_in\\_xinjiang.php\\|title \\= YUM! Archaeologists discover that people in Xinjiang were snacking on dumplings 1,700 years ago\\|date \\= February 15, 2016}}", "### Gaochang Kingdom", "[thumb\\|Mummy of the Qushi Kingdom (麹氏王国) general Zhangxiong (583\\-633 CE, 左卫大将军张雄). Xinjiang Museum](/wiki/File:%E9%BA%B9%E6%B0%8F%E9%AB%98%E6%98%8C%E5%B7%A6%E5%8D%AB%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%86%E5%86%9B%E5%BC%A0%E9%9B%84.jpg \"麹氏高昌左卫大将军张雄.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Manichaean priests, writing at their desks. Manuscript from Qocho. 8th/9th century](/wiki/File:Manicheans.jpg \"Manicheans.jpg\")", "From the mid\\-5th century until the mid\\-7th century, the Gaochang Kingdom was successively controlled by the Kan, Zhang, Ma and Qu clans.", "At the time of its conquest by the Rouran Khaganate, there were more than ten thousand [Han Chinese](/wiki/Han_Chinese \"Han Chinese\") households in Gaochang.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=FcKtIPVQ6REC\\&pg\\=PA305 \\|title\\=History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume 3\\|editor\\=Ahmad Hasan Dani\\|year\\=1999\\|publisher\\=Motilal Banarsidass\\|isbn\\=81\\-208\\-1540\\-8\\|page\\=305\\|access\\-date\\=May 17, 2011}} The Rouran Khaganate, which was based in Mongolia, appointed a Han Chinese named Kan Bozhou to rule as King of Gaochang in 460, and it became a separate vassal kingdom of the Khaganate.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=fAEUAQAAMAAJ\\&q\\=Kan\\+Bozhou\\+had\\+been\\+propped\\+up\\+as\\+its\\+king\\+by\\+the\\+Ruan\\-Ruan.\\|title\\=Proceedings of the Thirty\\-First International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia and North Africa, Tokyo\\-Kyoto, 31st August\\-7th September 1983, Volume 2\\|editor\\=Tatsurō Yamamoto\\|year\\=1984\\|publisher\\=Tōhō Gakkai\\|location\\=Indiana University\\|page\\=997\\|access\\-date\\=May 17, 2011}} Kan was dependent on Rouran backing.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\-ORwAAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=Kan\\+Bozhou,\\+who\\+seized\\+control\\+of\\+Gaochang,\\+relied\\+on\\+the\\+Ruanruan\\+for\\+support\\|title\\=Chinese archaeological abstracts: post Han\\|author1\\=Albert E. Dien \\|author2\\=Jeffrey K. Riegel \\|author3\\=Nancy Thompson Price \\|editor1\\=Albert E. Dien \\|editor2\\=Jeffrey K. Riegel \\|editor3\\=Nancy Thompson Price \\|volume\\=4 of Chinese Archaeological Abstracts\\|year\\=1985\\|publisher\\=Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles\\|location\\=the University of Michigan\\|isbn\\=0\\-917956\\-54\\-0\\|page\\=1567\\|access\\-date\\=May 17, 2011}} Yicheng and Shougui were the last two kings of the Chinese Kan family to rule Gaochang.", "At this time the [Gaoche](/wiki/Gaoche \"Gaoche\") ({{linktext\\|高\\|車}}) was rising to challenge power of the Rouran in the [Tarim Basin](/wiki/Tarim_Basin \"Tarim Basin\"). The Gaoche king Afuzhiluo ({{linktext\\|阿\\|伏\\|至\\|羅}}) killed King Kan Shougui, who was the nephew of Kan Bozhou.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=3kwOAQAAMAAJ\\&q\\=Zhang\\+Mengming\\+from\\+Dunhuang\\+on\\+the\\+throne\\+of\\+Gaochang\\|title\\=Encyclopaedia of Asian civilizations, Volume 3\\|author\\=Louis\\-Frédéric\\|year\\=1977\\|publisher\\=L. Frédéric\\|location\\=the University of Michigan\\|page\\=16\\|isbn\\=978\\-2\\-902228\\-00\\-3 \\|access\\-date\\=May 17, 2011}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=G5z04Q046UgC\\&q\\=Zhang\\+Mengming\\+chinese\\&pg\\=PA5\\|title\\=Accounts of Western Nations in the History of the Northern Chou Dynasty\\|editor\\=ROY ANDREW MILLER\\|year\\=1959\\|publisher\\=UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS\\|location\\=Berkeley and Los Angeles\\|page\\=5\\|access\\-date\\=May 17, 2011}}East Asia Studies Institute of International Studies University of California CHINESE DYNASTIC HISTORIES TRANSLATIONS No. 6 and appointed a Han from [Dunhuang](/wiki/Dunhuang \"Dunhuang\"), named Zhang Mengming (張孟明), as his own vassal King of Gaochang.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=FcKtIPVQ6REC\\&q\\=Zhang\\+Mengming\\+chinese\\&pg\\=PA306\\|title\\=History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume 3\\|editor\\=Ahmad Hasan Dani\\|year\\=1999\\|publisher\\=Motilal Banarsidass\\|isbn\\=81\\-208\\-1540\\-8\\|page\\=306\\|access\\-date\\=May 17, 2011}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=uxUUAQAAMAAJ\\&q\\=two\\+Chinese\\+kings\\+named\\+Chang\\+Meng\\-ming\\+%3C%5E:SM\\+ancl\\+Ma\\+Hsu\\+,Hj%5E%7C\\+respectively\\+ruled\\+the\\+kingdom.\\|title\\=Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (the Oriental Library), Volumes 32\\-34\\|author\\=Tōyō Bunko (Japan). Kenkyūbu\\|year\\=1974\\|publisher\\=The Toyo Bunko\\|location\\=the University of Michigan\\|page\\=107\\|access\\-date\\=May 17, 2011}} Gaochang thus passed under Gaoche rule.", "Later, Zhang Mengming was killed in an uprising by the people of Gaochang and replaced by Ma Ru ({{linktext\\|馬\\|儒}}). In 501, Ma Ru himself was overthrown and killed, and the people of Gaochang appointed Qu Jia ({{linktext\\|麴\\|嘉}}) of Jincheng (in [Gansu](/wiki/Gansu \"Gansu\")) as their king, forming the Qushi Kingdom (麹氏王国, 501\\-640 CE). Qu Jia hailed from the Zhong district of Jincheng commandery (金城, roughly corresponding to modern day [Lanzhou](/wiki/Lanzhou \"Lanzhou\"), [Gansu](/wiki/Gansu \"Gansu\")) Qu Jia at first pledged allegiance to the Rouran, but the Rouran khaghan was soon killed by the Gaoche and he had to submit to Gaoche overlordship. During Qu rule, powerful families established marriage ties with each other and dominated the kingdom, they included the Zhang, Fan, Yin, Ma, Shi and Xin families. Later, when the [Göktürks](/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks \"Göktürks\") emerged as the supreme power in the region, the Qu dynasty of Gaochang became vassals of the Göktürks.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=883OZBe2sMYC\\&pg\\=PA306 \\|title\\=The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750\\|author\\=Chang Kuan\\-ta\\|editor1\\=Boris Anatol'evich Litvinskiĭ \\|editor2\\=Zhang, Guang\\-da \\|editor3\\=R. Shabani Samghabadi\\|year\\=1996\\|publisher\\=UNESCO\\|isbn\\=92\\-3\\-103211\\-9\\|page\\=306\\|access\\-date\\=May 17, 2011}}", "While the material civilization of [Kucha](/wiki/Kucha \"Kucha\") to its west in this period remained chiefly Indo\\-Iranian in character, in Gaochang it gradually merged into the [Tang](/wiki/Tang_dynasty \"Tang dynasty\") aesthetics.{{cite book \\|title\\=The Empire of the Steppes:A History of Central Asia \\|author\\=Rene Grousset \\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/98 98–99] \\|publisher\\=Rutgers University Press \\|year\\=1991 \\|isbn\\=0813513049 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/98 }} In 607 the ruler of Gaochang Qu Boya paid tribute to the [Sui dynasty](/wiki/Sui_dynasty \"Sui dynasty\"), but his attempt at sinicization provoked a coup which overthrew the Qu ruler.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern \\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|title\\=A history of Chinese civilization\\|author\\=Jacques Gernet\\|year\\=1996\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|isbn\\=0\\-521\\-49781\\-7\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern/page/253 253]\\|access\\-date\\=June 6, 2012 }} The Qu family was restored six years later and the successor Qu Wentai welcomed the Tang pilgrim [Xuanzang](/wiki/Xuanzang \"Xuanzang\") with great enthusiasm in 629 AD.", "[left\\|thumb\\|[Wall painting from a Christian church](/wiki/Murals_from_the_Christian_temple_at_Qocho \"Murals from the Christian temple at Qocho\"), Qocho 683–770 CE](/wiki/File:Palm_Sunday_%28probably%29%2C_Khocho%2C_Nestorian_Temple%2C_683-770_AD%2C_wall_painting_-_Ethnological_Museum%2C_Berlin_-_DSC01741.JPG \"Palm Sunday (probably), Khocho, Nestorian Temple, 683-770 AD, wall painting - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC01741.JPG\")", "The Kingdom of Gaochang was made out of Han Chinese migrants and ruled by the Han Chinese{{cite book\\|author\\=Baij Nath Puri\\|title\\=Buddhism in Central Asia\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=sluKZfTrr3oC\\&pg\\=PA78\\|year\\=1987\\|publisher\\=Motilal Banarsidass\\|isbn\\=978\\-81\\-208\\-0372\\-5\\|pages\\=78–}}{{cite book\\|author1\\=Charles Eliot\\|author2\\=Sir Charles Eliot\\|title\\=Hinduism and Buddhism: An Historical Sketch\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=KbPgG6ondlUC\\&pg\\=PA206\\|year\\=1998\\|publisher\\=Psychology Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7007\\-0679\\-2\\|pages\\=206–}} Qu family which originated from Gansu.{{cite book\\|author\\=Marc S. Abramson\\|title\\=Ethnic Identity in Tang China\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\-GLGnRspmcAC\\&q\\=gaochang\\&pg\\=PA119\\|date\\=31 December 2011\\|publisher\\=University of Pennsylvania Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8122\\-0101\\-7\\|pages\\=119–}} Jincheng commandery 金城 (Lanzhou), district of Yuzhong 榆中 was the home of the Qu Jia.{{cite book\\|author\\=Roy Andrew Miller\\|title\\=Accounts of Western Nations in the History of the Northern Chou Dynasty \\[Chou Shu 50\\. 10b\\-17b]: Translated and Annotated by Roy Andrew Miller\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=G5z04Q046UgC\\&q\\=kao\\+ch%27ang\\&pg\\=PA5\\|year\\=1959\\|publisher\\=University of California Press\\|pages\\=5–\\|id\\=GGKEY:SXHP29BAXQY}} The Qu family was linked by marriage alliances to the Turks,{{cite book\\|author\\=Valerie Hansen\\|title\\=The Silk Road\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=0LYDf02jgdAC\\&q\\=gaochang\\&pg\\=PA262\\|date\\=11 October 2012\\|publisher\\=OUP USA\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-515931\\-8\\|pages\\=262–}} with a Turk being the grandmother of King Qu Boya's.{{cite book\\|author\\=Jonathan Karam Skaff\\|title\\=Straddling steppe and town: Tang China's relations with the nomads of inner Asia (640\\-756\\).\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=tDgfAQAAMAAJ\\&q\\=The\\+most\\+striking\\+example\\+of\\+this\\+phenomena\\+occurred\\+in\\+the\\+Kingdom\\+of\\+Gaochang\\+when\\+Qu\\+Boya\\+Hffi\\|year\\=1998\\|publisher\\=University of Michigan.\\|page\\=57\\|isbn\\=9780599084643}}{{cite book\\|title\\=Asia Major\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=8O8VAQAAMAAJ\\&q\\=kao\\+ch%27ang\\+turkic\\|year\\=1998\\|publisher\\=Institute of History and Philology of the Academia Sinica\\|page\\=87}} During this period, Gaochang's administration, language, city planning, and Confucian society was so heavily dominated by Chinese models that it was known in Sogdian as \"Chinatown\", a usage which continued as late as the tenth\\-century Persian geography *Ḥudūd al\\-‘Ālam*.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Hansen, Valerie \\|title\\=The Impact of the Silk Road trade on a local community: The Turfan Oasis, 500\\-800\\. \\|journal\\=Les Sogdiens en Chine \\|date\\=2005 \\|volume\\=17 \\|pages\\=283–310}}", "### Tang rule", "{{Main\\|Tang campaign against Karakhoja\\|Tang campaigns against the Western Turks\\|l2\\=the Western Turks\\|Tang campaign against the oasis states\\|l3\\=the oasis states}}", "However, fearing Tang expansion, Qu Wentai later formed an alliance with the [Western Turks](/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate \"Western Turkic Khaganate\") and rebelled against Tang [suzerainty](/wiki/Suzerainty \"Suzerainty\"). [Emperor Taizong](/wiki/Emperor_Taizong_of_Tang \"Emperor Taizong of Tang\") sent an army led by General [Hou Junji](/wiki/Hou_Junji \"Hou Junji\") against the kingdom in 640 and Qu Wentai apparently died of shock at news of the approaching army. Gaochang [was annexed](/wiki/Tang_campaign_against_Karakhoja \"Tang campaign against Karakhoja\") by the Chinese [Tang dynasty](/wiki/Tang_dynasty \"Tang dynasty\") and turned into a sub\\-prefecture of Xizhou (西州){{cite book\\|author\\=E. Bretschneider\\|title\\=Notices of the Mediæval Geography and History of Central and Western Asia\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=R98\\-AAAAYAAJ\\&q\\=kao\\+ch%27ang\\&pg\\=PA122\\|year\\=1876\\|publisher\\=Trübner \\& Company\\|pages\\=122–}}{{cite book\\|title\\=Journal of the North\\-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=bcNFAQAAMAAJ\\&q\\=kao\\+ch%27ang\\&pg\\=PA196\\|year\\=1876\\|publisher\\=The Branch\\|pages\\=196–}} and the seat of government of [Anxi](/wiki/Protectorate_General_to_Pacify_the_West \"Protectorate General to Pacify the West\") (安西). Before the Chinese conquered Gaochang, it was an impediment to Chinese access to Tarim and Transoxiania.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern\\_0/page/238\\|title\\=A history of Chinese civilization\\|author\\=Jacques Gernet\\|year\\=1996\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|isbn\\=0\\-521\\-49781\\-7\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern\\_0/page/238 238]\\|access\\-date\\=17 May 2011}}", "Gaochang was populated by Han people and Shanxi (Hedong) was the original home of the royal family at the time of the Tang dynasty's annexation. The Tang dynasty accepted arguments at court who said that because Gaochang was Han populated that they needed to annex it.{{cite book \\|last\\= Abramson \\|first\\=Marc S. \\|series\\=Encounters with Asia\\|author\\-link\\= \\|date\\= 2011 \\|title\\= Ethnic Identity in Tang China\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\-GLGnRspmcAC\\&dq\\=%22Gaochang\\+ruling\\+house\\+itself\\+claimed\\+to\\+be\\+from\\+the\\+Hedong\\+region%22\\&pg\\=PA119\\|location\\= \\|publisher\\=University of Pennsylvania Press\\|page\\=119 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0812201017}}", "Under Tang rule, Gaochang was inhabited by Chinese, [Sogdians](/wiki/Sogdians \"Sogdians\") and [Tocharians](/wiki/Tocharians \"Tocharians\").{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2016}}", "7th or 8th century old [dumplings](/wiki/Jiaozi \"Jiaozi\") and [wontons](/wiki/Wonton \"Wonton\") were found in [Turfan](/wiki/Turfan \"Turfan\").[Hansen 2012](https://books.google.com/books?id=0LYDf02jgdAC&pg=PA11), p. 11\\.", "The Tang dynasty became greatly weakened due to the [An Lushan Rebellion](/wiki/An_Lushan_Rebellion \"An Lushan Rebellion\") and in 755, the Chinese were forced to pull back their soldiers from the region. The area was first taken by the Tibetans, then finally by the Uyghurs{{cite book\\|author1\\=Matthew Kapstein\\|author2\\=Brandon Dotson\\|title\\=Contributions to the Cultural History of Early Tibet\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=deyvCQAAQBAJ\\&q\\=gaochang\\&pg\\=PA91\\|date\\=20 July 2007\\|publisher\\=Brill\\|isbn\\=978\\-90\\-474\\-2119\\-1\\|pages\\=91–}}{{harvp\\|Chen\\|2014}}.{{cite book\\|title\\=Eighteen Lectures on Dunhuang\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=HvIa9sere\\_8C\\&q\\=gaochang\\&pg\\=PA201\\|date\\=7 June 2013\\|publisher\\=Brill\\|isbn\\=978\\-90\\-04\\-25233\\-2\\|pages\\=201–}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Victor Cunrui Xiong\\|title\\=Historical Dictionary of Medieval China\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=0vhMCwAAQBAJ\\&q\\=gaochang\\&pg\\=PA175\\|date\\=4 December 2008\\|publisher\\=Scarecrow Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8108\\-6258\\-6\\|pages\\=175–}} in 803, who called the area Kocho (Qocho).", "[thumb\\|Uyghur princesses, cave 9, wall painting from Bezeklik caves](/wiki/File:Uighur_princesses%2C_Bezeklik%2C_Cave_9%2C_c._8th-9th_century_AD%2C_wall_painting_-_Ethnological_Museum%2C_Berlin_-_DSC01749.JPG \"Uighur princesses, Bezeklik, Cave 9, c. 8th-9th century AD, wall painting - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC01749.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|Man of Gaochang (高昌國, [Turfan](/wiki/Turfan \"Turfan\")) in [番客入朝圖](/wiki/Portraits_of_Periodical_Offering \"Portraits of Periodical Offering\") (937\\-976 CE)](/wiki/File:Man_of_Gaochang_%28%E9%AB%98%E6%98%8C%E5%9C%8B%2C_Turfan%29_in_%E7%95%AA%E5%AE%A2%E5%85%A5%E6%9C%9D%E5%9C%96_%28937-976_CE%29.jpg \"Man of Gaochang (高昌國, Turfan) in 番客入朝圖 (937-976 CE).jpg\")", "### Uyghur Kingdom of Qocho", "{{main\\|Qocho}}", "After 840 Gaochang became [occupied by remnants](/wiki/Islamicisation_and_Turkicisation_of_Xinjiang%23Uyghur_migration_into_the_Tarim_Basin \"Islamicisation and Turkicisation of Xinjiang#Uyghur migration into the Tarim Basin\") of the [Uyghur Khaganate](/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate \"Uyghur Khaganate\") fleeing [Yenisei Kirghiz](/wiki/Yenisei_Kirghiz \"Yenisei Kirghiz\") invasion of their land.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ArWLD4Qop38C\\&q\\=gaochang\\+colony\\&pg\\=PA309\\|title\\=The Silk Road: trade, travel, war and faith\\|author1\\=Susan Whitfield \\|author2\\=British Library \\|year\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Serindia Publications, Inc.\\|edition\\=illustrated\\|isbn\\=1\\-932476\\-13\\-X\\|page\\=309\\|access\\-date\\=May 17, 2011}} The Uyghurs established the [Kingdom of Qocho](/wiki/Kara-Khoja_Kingdom \"Kara-Khoja Kingdom\") (Kara\\-Khoja) in 850\\. The inhabitants of Qocho practiced [Buddhism](/wiki/Buddhism \"Buddhism\"), [Manichaeism](/wiki/Manichaeism \"Manichaeism\") and [Christianity](/wiki/Church_of_the_East_in_China \"Church of the East in China\"). The Uyghurs converted to Buddhism and sponsored building of temple caves in the nearby [Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves](/wiki/Bezeklik_Thousand_Buddha_Caves \"Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves\") where depictions of Uyghur sponsors may be seen. The Buddhist Uyghur kings, who called themselves idiquts, retained their nomadic lifestyle, residing in Qocho during the winter, but moved to the cooler [Bishbalik](/wiki/Jimsar_County \"Jimsar County\") near [Urumchi](/wiki/Urumchi \"Urumchi\") in the summer.{{cite book \\|title\\=A history of Inner Asia \\|author\\=Svatopluk Soucek \\|chapter\\=Chapter 4 \\- The Uighur Kingdom of Qocho \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|year\\=2000 \\|isbn\\=0\\-521\\-65704\\-0 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/historyofinneras00souc }}", "Qocho later became a [vassal](/wiki/Vassal \"Vassal\") state of the [Kara\\-Khitans](/wiki/Kara-Khitan \"Kara-Khitan\"). However, In 1209, the idiqut [Barchuq](/wiki/Baurchuk_Art_Tekin \"Baurchuk Art Tekin\") offered [Genghis Khan](/wiki/Genghis_Khan \"Genghis Khan\") the [suzerainty](/wiki/Suzerainty \"Suzerainty\") of his kingdom, and went personally to Genghis Khan with a sizeable tribute when demanded in 1211\\.{{cite book \\|author\\=Biran, Michal. \\|title\\=The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History: Between China and the Islamic World \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|year\\=2005 \\|page\\=75 \\|isbn\\= 0\\-521\\-84226\\-3 }} The Uyghurs thus went into the service of the Mongols,{{cite book \\|title\\=A history of Inner Asia \\|author\\=Svatopluk Soucek \\|chapter\\=Chapter 7 \\- The Conquering Mongols \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|year\\=2000 \\|isbn\\=0\\-521\\-65704\\-0 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/historyofinneras00souc }} who later formed the [Yuan dynasty](/wiki/Yuan_dynasty \"Yuan dynasty\") in the territories of what is now China. The Uyghurs became bureaucrats (*[semu](/wiki/Semu \"Semu\")*) of the Mongol Empire and their [Uyghur script](/wiki/Old_Uyghur_alphabet \"Old Uyghur alphabet\") was modified for Mongolian. As far south as [Quanzhou](/wiki/Quanzhou \"Quanzhou\"), preponderance of Gaochang Uyghur in [Church of the East](/wiki/Church_of_the_East \"Church of the East\") inscriptions of the Yuan period attests to their importance in the Christian community there.[The Stones of Zayton speak](http://chinaheritagenewsletter.anu.edu.au/scholarship.php?searchterm=005_zayton.inc&issue=005) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024092550/http://chinaheritagenewsletter.anu.edu.au/scholarship.php?searchterm\\=005\\_zayton.inc\\&issue\\=005 \\|date\\=2013\\-10\\-24 }}, *China Heritage Newsletter*, No. 5, March 2006", "The Gaochang area was [conquered by](/wiki/Islamicisation_and_Turkicisation_of_Xinjiang%23Khizr_Khoja.27s_attack_on_Turfan_and_Qocho \"Islamicisation and Turkicisation of Xinjiang#Khizr Khoja.27s attack on Turfan and Qocho\") the Mongols of the [Chagatai Khanate](/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate \"Chagatai Khanate\") (not part of the [Yuan dynasty](/wiki/Yuan_dynasty \"Yuan dynasty\")) from 1275 to 1318 by as many as 120,000 troops.", "" ]
First modern drachma -------------------- The drachma was reintroduced in May 1832, shortly before the establishment of the [Kingdom of Greece](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece "Kingdom of Greece").{{cite web \|url\=http://colnect.com/en/coins/list/country/1669\-Greece/currency/757\-%E2%82%AF\_\-\_Greek\_drachma \|title\=The first modern drachma coins catalog \|access\-date\=2013\-06\-22}} It replaced the *[phoenix](/wiki/Phoenix_%28currency%29 "Phoenix (currency)")* at par. The drachma was subdivided into 100 [lepta](/wiki/Greek_lepton "Greek lepton").{{refn\|group\=n\|Greek: {{lang\|el\|λεπτά}}; plural of {{lang\|el\|λεπτόν}}, ''lepton''.}} ### Coins The first coinage consisted of copper denominations of 1 lepton, 2 lepta, 5 lepta and 10 lepta, silver denominations of {{frac\|1\|4}} drachma, {{frac\|1\|2}} drachma, 1 drachma and 5 drachmae and a gold coin of 20 drachmae. The drachma coin weighed 4\.5{{nbsp}}g and contained 90% silver, with the 20 drachmae coin containing 5\.8{{nbsp}}g of gold. In 1868, Greece joined the [Latin Monetary Union](/wiki/Latin_Monetary_Union "Latin Monetary Union") and the drachma became equal in weight and value to the [French franc](/wiki/French_franc "French franc"). The new coinage issued consisted of copper coins of 1, 2, 5 and 10 lepta, with the 5\- and 10\-lepton coins bearing the names *obolos* ({{lang\|el\|ὀβολός}}) and *diobolon* ({{lang\|el\|διώβολον}}), respectively; silver coins of 20 lepta, 50 lepta, 1 drachma, 2 drachmae and 5 drachmae and gold coins of 5, 10 and 20 drachmae. (Very small numbers of 50\- and 100\-drachma coins in gold were also issued.) In 1894, [cupro\-nickel](/wiki/Cupro-nickel "Cupro-nickel") 5\-, 10\- and 20\-lepton coins were introduced. No 1\- or 2\-lepton coin had been issued since the late 1870s. Silver coins of 1 and 2 drachmae were last issued in 1911, and no coins were issued between 1912 and 1922, during which time the [Latin Monetary Union](/wiki/Latin_Monetary_Union "Latin Monetary Union") collapsed due to [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"). Between 1926 and 1930, a new coinage was introduced for the new Hellenic Republic, consisting of cupro\-nickel coins in denominations of 20 lepta, 50 lepta, 1 drachma, and 2 drachmae; nickel coins of 5 drachmae; and silver coins of 10 and 20 drachmae. These were the last coins issued for the first modern drachma, none were issued for the second. ### Notes Notes were issued by the [National Bank of Greece](/wiki/National_Bank_of_Greece "National Bank of Greece") from 1841 until 1928\. The Bank of Greece issued notes from 1928 until 2001, when Greece joined the [Euro](/wiki/Euro "Euro"). Early denominations ranged from 10 to 500 drachmae. Smaller denominations (1, 2, 3 and 5 drachmae) were issued from 1885, with the first 5\-drachma notes being made by cutting 10\-drachma notes in half. When Greece finally achieved its independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1828, the [phoenix](/wiki/Greek_Phoenix "Greek Phoenix") was introduced as the monetary unit; its use was short\-lived, however, and in 1832 the phoenix was replaced by the drachma, adorned with the image of [King Otto of Greece](/wiki/Otto_of_Greece "Otto of Greece"), who reigned as modern Greece's first king from 1832 to 1862\. The drachma was divided into 100 lepta. In 2002 the drachma ceased to be legal tender after the euro, the monetary unit of the European Union, became Greece's sole currency. From 1917 to 1920, the Greek government took control of issuing small change notes under Law 991/1917\. During that time, the government issued denominations of 10 and 50 lepta, and 1, 2 and 5 drachmae. The National Bank of Greece introduced 1,000\-drachma notes in 1901, and the Bank of Greece introduced 5,000\-drachma notes in 1928\. [thumb\|Banknote of 1912 issued by the NBG](/wiki/File:NBG_banknote-1912.jpg "NBG banknote-1912.jpg") The economic depression of the 1920s affected many nations around the globe, including Greece. In 1922, the Greek government issued a forced loan in order to finance their growing budget deficit. On 1 April 1922, the government decreed that half of all bank notes had to be surrendered and exchanged for 6\.5% bonds. The notes were then cut in half, with the portion bearing the Greek crown standing in for the bonds while the other half was exchanged for a new issue of central bank notes at half the original value.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.pmgnotes.com/news/article/7195/The\-Greek\-Financial\-Note\-Crisis\-of\-Early\-1900s/\|title\=The Greek Financial Crises: Getting by with the Half\-Drachmai \| PMG\|website\=pmgnotes.com}} The Greek government again issued notes between 1940 and 1944, in denominations ranging from 50 lepta to 20\. [thumb\|5\-drachma note that has been cut in half by government for the purpose of issuing bonds](/wiki/File:Image_of_5_Drachma_note_cut_in_half.jpg "Image of 5 Drachma note cut in half.jpg") During the [German](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany")–[Italian](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy "Kingdom of Italy") [occupation of Greece](/wiki/Axis_Occupation_of_Greece "Axis Occupation of Greece") from 1941 to 1944, catastrophic [hyperinflation](/wiki/Hyperinflation "Hyperinflation") caused much higher denominations to be issued, culminating in 100,000,000,000\-drachma notes in 1944\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://banknoteindex.com/browse.mhtml?browseBy\=Id\&browse\=45508\|title\=Banknote Index\|website\=banknoteindex.com\|access\-date\=2019\-02\-01}} The Italian occupation authorities in the Ionian Islands printed their own currency, the Ionian drachma. | \+ Greek banknotes of the 1942–1944 inflation{{cite web \|title\=PMG World Paper Money Values and Note Price Guide, search category:Greece and series:194 \|url\=https://www.pmgnotes.com/priceguide/world\-note\-price\-guide.aspx \|website\=Paper Money Guide \|access\-date\=20 September 2024\|author\=pmg1}} | | --- | | Image | PickNo. | Denomination | DateIssued | | | 118 | 1,000 | 1942 | | | 119 | 5,000 | 1942 | | | 120 | 10,000 | 1942 | | | 121 | 50 | 1943 | | | 122 | 5,000 | 1943 | | | 123 | 25,000 | 1943 | | | 124 | 50,000 | 1944 | | | 125 | 100,000 | 1944 | | | 126 | 500,000 | 1944 | | | 127 | 1,000,000 | 1944 | | [150px](/wiki/File:5_million_drachma%2C_1944%2C_Numismatic_Museum_of_Athens.jpg "5 million drachma, 1944, Numismatic Museum of Athens.jpg") | 128 | 5,000,000 | 1944 | | | 129 | 10,000,000 | 1944 | | | 130 | 25,000,000 | 1944 | | [150px](/wiki/File:200_million_drachma%2C_1944%2C_Numismatic_Museum_of_Athens.jpg "200 million drachma, 1944, Numismatic Museum of Athens.jpg") | 131 | 200,000,000 | 1944 | | | 132 | 500,000,000 | 1944 | | [150px\|2 billion drachma, 1944, Numismatic Museum of Athens](/wiki/File:2%2C000_million_drachma%2C_1944%2C_Numismatic_Museum_of_Athens.jpg "2,000 million drachma, 1944, Numismatic Museum of Athens.jpg") | 133 | 2,000,000,000 | 1944 | | | 134 | 10,000,000,000 | 1944 | | [150px\|100 billion drachmas, 1944, Numismatic Museum of Athens](/wiki/File:100_billion_drachmas%2C_1944%2C_Numismatic_Museum_of_Athens.jpg "100 billion drachmas, 1944, Numismatic Museum of Athens.jpg") | 135 | 100,000,000,000 | 1944 |
[ "First modern drachma\n--------------------", "The drachma was reintroduced in May 1832, shortly before the establishment of the [Kingdom of Greece](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece \"Kingdom of Greece\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://colnect.com/en/coins/list/country/1669\\-Greece/currency/757\\-%E2%82%AF\\_\\-\\_Greek\\_drachma \\|title\\=The first modern drachma coins catalog \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-06\\-22}} It replaced the *[phoenix](/wiki/Phoenix_%28currency%29 \"Phoenix (currency)\")* at par. The drachma was subdivided into 100 [lepta](/wiki/Greek_lepton \"Greek lepton\").{{refn\\|group\\=n\\|Greek: {{lang\\|el\\|λεπτά}}; plural of {{lang\\|el\\|λεπτόν}}, ''lepton''.}}", "### Coins", "The first coinage consisted of copper denominations of 1 lepton, 2 lepta, 5 lepta and 10 lepta, silver denominations of {{frac\\|1\\|4}} drachma, {{frac\\|1\\|2}} drachma, 1 drachma and 5 drachmae and a gold coin of 20 drachmae. The drachma coin weighed 4\\.5{{nbsp}}g and contained 90% silver, with the 20 drachmae coin containing 5\\.8{{nbsp}}g of gold.", "In 1868, Greece joined the [Latin Monetary Union](/wiki/Latin_Monetary_Union \"Latin Monetary Union\") and the drachma became equal in weight and value to the [French franc](/wiki/French_franc \"French franc\"). The new coinage issued consisted of copper coins of 1, 2, 5 and 10 lepta, with the 5\\- and 10\\-lepton coins bearing the names *obolos* ({{lang\\|el\\|ὀβολός}}) and *diobolon* ({{lang\\|el\\|διώβολον}}), respectively; silver coins of 20 lepta, 50 lepta, 1 drachma, 2 drachmae and 5 drachmae and gold coins of 5, 10 and 20 drachmae. (Very small numbers of 50\\- and 100\\-drachma coins in gold were also issued.)", "In 1894, [cupro\\-nickel](/wiki/Cupro-nickel \"Cupro-nickel\") 5\\-, 10\\- and 20\\-lepton coins were introduced. No 1\\- or 2\\-lepton coin had been issued since the late 1870s. Silver coins of 1 and 2 drachmae were last issued in 1911, and no coins were issued between 1912 and 1922, during which time the [Latin Monetary Union](/wiki/Latin_Monetary_Union \"Latin Monetary Union\") collapsed due to [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\").", "Between 1926 and 1930, a new coinage was introduced for the new Hellenic Republic, consisting of cupro\\-nickel coins in denominations of 20 lepta, 50 lepta, 1 drachma, and 2 drachmae; nickel coins of 5 drachmae; and silver coins of 10 and 20 drachmae. These were the last coins issued for the first modern drachma, none were issued for the second.", "### Notes", "Notes were issued by the [National Bank of Greece](/wiki/National_Bank_of_Greece \"National Bank of Greece\") from 1841 until 1928\\. The Bank of Greece issued notes from 1928 until 2001, when Greece joined the [Euro](/wiki/Euro \"Euro\"). Early denominations ranged from 10 to 500 drachmae. Smaller denominations (1, 2, 3 and 5 drachmae) were issued from 1885, with the first 5\\-drachma notes being made by cutting 10\\-drachma notes in half.", "When Greece finally achieved its independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1828, the [phoenix](/wiki/Greek_Phoenix \"Greek Phoenix\") was introduced as the monetary unit; its use was short\\-lived, however, and in 1832 the phoenix was replaced by the drachma, adorned with the image of [King Otto of Greece](/wiki/Otto_of_Greece \"Otto of Greece\"), who reigned as modern Greece's first king from 1832 to 1862\\. The drachma was divided into 100 lepta. In 2002 the drachma ceased to be legal tender after the euro, the monetary unit of the European Union, became Greece's sole currency.", "From 1917 to 1920, the Greek government took control of issuing small change notes under Law 991/1917\\. During that time, the government issued denominations of 10 and 50 lepta, and 1, 2 and 5 drachmae. The National Bank of Greece introduced 1,000\\-drachma notes in 1901, and the Bank of Greece introduced 5,000\\-drachma notes in 1928\\. [thumb\\|Banknote of 1912 issued by the NBG](/wiki/File:NBG_banknote-1912.jpg \"NBG banknote-1912.jpg\") The economic depression of the 1920s affected many nations around the globe, including Greece. In 1922, the Greek government issued a forced loan in order to finance their growing budget deficit. On 1 April 1922, the government decreed that half of all bank notes had to be surrendered and exchanged for 6\\.5% bonds. The notes were then cut in half, with the portion bearing the Greek crown standing in for the bonds while the other half was exchanged for a new issue of central bank notes at half the original value.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.pmgnotes.com/news/article/7195/The\\-Greek\\-Financial\\-Note\\-Crisis\\-of\\-Early\\-1900s/\\|title\\=The Greek Financial Crises: Getting by with the Half\\-Drachmai \\| PMG\\|website\\=pmgnotes.com}} The Greek government again issued notes between 1940 and 1944, in denominations ranging from 50 lepta to 20\\.\n[thumb\\|5\\-drachma note that has been cut in half by government for the purpose of issuing bonds](/wiki/File:Image_of_5_Drachma_note_cut_in_half.jpg \"Image of 5 Drachma note cut in half.jpg\")", "During the [German](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\")–[Italian](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy \"Kingdom of Italy\") [occupation of Greece](/wiki/Axis_Occupation_of_Greece \"Axis Occupation of Greece\") from 1941 to 1944, catastrophic [hyperinflation](/wiki/Hyperinflation \"Hyperinflation\") caused much higher denominations to be issued, culminating in 100,000,000,000\\-drachma notes in 1944\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://banknoteindex.com/browse.mhtml?browseBy\\=Id\\&browse\\=45508\\|title\\=Banknote Index\\|website\\=banknoteindex.com\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-01}} The Italian occupation authorities in the Ionian Islands printed their own currency, the Ionian drachma.", "", "| \\+ Greek banknotes of the 1942–1944 inflation{{cite web \\|title\\=PMG World Paper Money Values and Note Price Guide, search category:Greece and series:194 \\|url\\=https://www.pmgnotes.com/priceguide/world\\-note\\-price\\-guide.aspx \\|website\\=Paper Money Guide \\|access\\-date\\=20 September 2024\\|author\\=pmg1}} |\n| --- |\n| Image | PickNo. | Denomination | DateIssued |\n| | 118 | 1,000 | 1942 |\n| | 119 | 5,000 | 1942 |\n| | 120 | 10,000 | 1942 |\n| | 121 | 50 | 1943 |\n| | 122 | 5,000 | 1943 |\n| | 123 | 25,000 | 1943 |\n| | 124 | 50,000 | 1944 |\n| | 125 | 100,000 | 1944 |\n| | 126 | 500,000 | 1944 |\n| | 127 | 1,000,000 | 1944 |\n| [150px](/wiki/File:5_million_drachma%2C_1944%2C_Numismatic_Museum_of_Athens.jpg \"5 million drachma, 1944, Numismatic Museum of Athens.jpg\") | 128 | 5,000,000 | 1944 |\n| | 129 | 10,000,000 | 1944 |\n| | 130 | 25,000,000 | 1944 |\n| [150px](/wiki/File:200_million_drachma%2C_1944%2C_Numismatic_Museum_of_Athens.jpg \"200 million drachma, 1944, Numismatic Museum of Athens.jpg\") | 131 | 200,000,000 | 1944 |\n| | 132 | 500,000,000 | 1944 |\n| [150px\\|2 billion drachma, 1944, Numismatic Museum of Athens](/wiki/File:2%2C000_million_drachma%2C_1944%2C_Numismatic_Museum_of_Athens.jpg \"2,000 million drachma, 1944, Numismatic Museum of Athens.jpg\") | 133 | 2,000,000,000 | 1944 |\n| | 134 | 10,000,000,000 | 1944 |\n| [150px\\|100 billion drachmas, 1944, Numismatic Museum of Athens](/wiki/File:100_billion_drachmas%2C_1944%2C_Numismatic_Museum_of_Athens.jpg \"100 billion drachmas, 1944, Numismatic Museum of Athens.jpg\") | 135 | 100,000,000,000 | 1944 |", "" ]
{{anchor\|GRD}}Third modern drachma ----------------------------------- On 9 April 1953, in an effort to halt inflation, Greece joined the [Bretton Woods system](/wiki/Bretton_Woods_system "Bretton Woods system"). On 1 May 1954, the drachma was revalued at a rate of 1,000 old drachmae to 1 new drachma, and small change notes were abolished for the last time. The third drachma assumed a fixed exchange rate of 30 drachmae per [dollar](/wiki/United_States_dollar "United States dollar") until 20 October 1973: over the next 25 years, the official exchange rate gradually declined, reaching 400 drachmae per dollar. On 1 January 2002, the Greek drachma was officially replaced as the circulating currency by the [euro](/wiki/Euro "Euro"), and it has not been [legal tender](/wiki/Legal_tender "Legal tender") since 1 March 2002\. ### Third modern drachma coins The first issue of coins minted in 1954 consisted of holed aluminium 5\-, 10\- and 20\-lepton pieces, with 50\-lepton, 1\-drachma, 2\-drachma and 5\-drachma pieces in cupro\-nickel. 10\-drachma coins of a brighter alloy were issued in 1959 and a silver 20\-drachma piece was issued in 1960, replacing the corresponding banknotes. Coins in denominations from 50 lepta to 20 drachmae carried a portrait of [King Paul](/wiki/Paul_of_Greece "Paul of Greece") (1947–1964\). New coins were introduced in 1966, ranging from 50 lepta to 10 drachmae, depicting [King Constantine II](/wiki/Constantine_II_of_Greece "Constantine II of Greece") (1964–1974\). A silver 30\-drachma coin for the centennial of Greece's royal dynasty was minted in 1963\. The following year a non\-circulating coin of this value was produced to commemorate the royal wedding. The reverse of all coins was altered in 1971 to reflect the military junta which was in power from 1967 to 1974\. This design included a soldier standing in front of the flames of the rising phoenix replacing the (royal) coat of arms and the date of the coup d'état, April 21, 1967\. A 20\-drachma coin in cupro\-nickel with an image of [Europa](/wiki/Europa_%28mythology%29 "Europa (mythology)") on the obverse was issued in the first series of 1973, alongside unholed aluminium lepta coins (10 and 20 lepta). Following the abolition of the monarcy by the junta in June 1973, several new coin types were introduced: nickel\-brass (50 lepta, 1 and 2 drachmae) and cupro\-nickel (5, 10 and 20 drachmae). These coins carried the design of the phoenix rising from the flame on the obverse\-but now without the soldier, a nod to the *"liberalization plan"* pursued by Papadopoulos, and used the country's new designation as the "Hellenic Republic", replacing the coins also issued in 1973 as the Kingdom of Greece with King Constantine II's portrait. Following the downfall of the dictatorship, a new series of all 8 denominations was introduced in 1976 carrying images of Pericles, Democritus and Aristotle on the 20\-, 10\- and 5\-drachma coins respectively and [Georgios Karaiskakis](/wiki/Georgios_Karaiskakis "Georgios Karaiskakis"), [Konstantinos Kanaris](/wiki/Konstantinos_Kanaris "Konstantinos Kanaris") and [Markos Botsaris](/wiki/Markos_Botsaris "Markos Botsaris") on the 1\-drachma, 2\-drachma and 50\-lepton coins respectively. The 20\- and 10\-lepton coins would be the only circulating, non\-commemorative coins to bear the post\-1975 [Coat of arms of Greece](/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Greece "Coat of arms of Greece") on the obverse. Cupro\-nickel 50\-drachma coins were introduced in 1980, featuring [Solon](/wiki/Solon "Solon"). Starting in 1982, all coins now bore the inscription drachmes rather than the [katharevousa](/wiki/Katharevousa "Katharevousa") drachmai type, reflecting the resolution of the [Greek language question](/wiki/Greek_language_question "Greek language question"). In 1986, aluminium\-bronze 50\-drachma coins were introduced, followed by new, smaller copper 1\-drachma ([Laskarina Bouboulina](/wiki/Laskarina_Bouboulina "Laskarina Bouboulina")) and 2\-drachma ([Manto Mavrogenous](/wiki/Manto_Mavrogenous "Manto Mavrogenous")) pieces in 1988 and aluminium\-bronze coins of 20 drachmes ([Ioannis Kapodistrias](/wiki/Ioannis_Kapodistrias "Ioannis Kapodistrias")) and 100 drachmes ([Alexander the Great](/wiki/Alexander_the_Great "Alexander the Great")) in 1990\. In 2000, a set of 6 themed 500\-drachma coins were issued to commemorate the [2004 Athens Olympic Games](/wiki/2004_Summer_Olympics "2004 Summer Olympics").{{Cite web \|title\=Drachma Coins \|url\=https://www.bankofgreece.gr/RelatedDocuments/coins\_drachma.pdf \|access\-date\=10 February 2023 \|website\=Bank of Greece \|language\=Greek}} #### Subdivision 5\-lepton coins were discontinued in the first series of 1973\. 10\- and 20\-lepton coins were last minted in 1978 and the 50\-lepton (half drachma) coin was last minted in 1986\. By 1990, the lepton as a subdivision had become practically obsolete and the drachma itself was now used for small change—the prices of sundries were in the hundreds; its size and weight had been reduced in 1988 from 21mm, 4\.1 grams to 20mm, 2\.75 grams. The 2\-drachma coin experienced similar changes. [Coins](/wiki/Coin "Coin") in circulation at the time of the adoption of the euro{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bankofgreece.gr/en/Banknotes/coins.htm \|title\=Bank of Greece \- Coins in circulation \|access\-date\=2005\-01\-12 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050204174343/http://www.bankofgreece.gr/en/banknotes/coins.htm \|archive\-date\=4 February 2005 }} were * 50 lepta (€0\.0015\){{refn\|group\=n\|name\=coin1\|Minted but rarely used. Usually, prices were rounded up to the next multiple of 10 drachmes.}} * 1 drachma (€0\.0029\){{refn\|group\=n\|name\=coin2\|Not minted but remained legal tender (not in actual use in 2002\).}} * 2 drachmes (€0\.0059\){{refn\|group\=n\|name\=coin2}} * 5 drachmes (€0\.0147\) * 10 drachmes (€0\.0293\) * 20 drachmes (€0\.0587\) * 50 drachmes (€0\.147\) * 100 drachmes (€0\.293\) * 500 drachmes (€1\.47\) Up until the introduction of the euro, the Greek government did not attempt to redenominate the drachma (to a simple 100 old drachmes \= 1 new drachma rate), something that could have possibly contributed in a smooth transition to the new currency. The transition proved challenging due to the fact that the exchange rate (340\.750 to 1 euro) included lepta (despite the fact that lepta were not used in physical transactions) and that the 20\- and 50\-cent coins (also called "lepta"), which were very similar in size and composition ([Nordic Gold](/wiki/Nordic_Gold "Nordic Gold") as opposed to 92% [copper](/wiki/Copper "Copper") 6% [nickel](/wiki/Nickel "Nickel") 2% [aluminium](/wiki/Aluminium "Aluminium")) to the 20\-, 50\- and 100\-drachma coins, were initially deemed worthless (alluding to the [pp](/wiki/Purchasing_power "Purchasing power") of their drachma predecessors), allowing vendors to take advantage of [psychological pricing](/wiki/Psychological_pricing "Psychological pricing").{{Cite web \|date\=2006\-04\-21 \|title\=Οι 50 δραχμές έγιναν... 50 λεπτά \|url\=https://www.tanea.gr/2006/04/21/greece/oi\-50\-draxmes\-eginan\-50\-lepta/ \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-07 \|website\=ΤΑ ΝΕΑ \|language\=el}} The most obvious example is the retail price of a 500ml bottle of water: once costing 50 drachmes (€0\.147 in 2002\), the price was driven by inflation to 100 drachmes (€0\.293\);{{Cite web \|date\=2008\-11\-24 \|title\=Πόσο να πληρώνετε το νερό \|url\=https://www.tovima.gr/2008/11/24/archive/poso\-na\-plirwnete\-to\-nero/ \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-07 \|website\=ΤΟ ΒΗΜΑ \|language\=el}}{{Cite web \|date\=1997\-07\-12 \|title\=«Τρελές» τιμές επιβάλλουν κερδοσκόποι στις παραλίες \|url\=https://www.tanea.gr/1997/07/12/world/treles\-times\-epiballoyn\-kerdoskopoi\-stis\-paralies/ \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-07 \|website\=ΤΑ ΝΕΑ \|language\=el}} but the introduction of the euro would increase the price to 0\.50 euros, where it stands to date. ### Gallery File:Otto\-dr.jpg\|Gold 20\-drachma coin depicting king \[\[Otto of Greece\|Othon I]], 1833 File:Geo 20dr.jpg\|Gold 20\-drachma coin depicting king \[\[George I of Greece\|Georgios I]], 1876 George\-50dr.jpg\|Gold 50\-drachma coin depicting king Georgios I, 1876 File:5dracme1874front.jpg\|5\-drachma coin, 1876 File:1drachmi 1973\.jpg\|1\-drachma coin during the \[\[Metapolitefsi\#Prologue\|1973–1974 military controlled Republic]], 1973 File:Konstantinos Kanaris 1 Drachma.png\|1\-drachma coin depicting \[\[Konstantinos Kanaris]], 1976 File:1drachmaowlfr.jpg\|1\-drachma coin depicting the \[\[Owl of Athena]] File:2drachma1971fbl.jpg\|2\-drachma coin with a soldier standing in front of a Phoenix ### Banknotes The first issues of banknotes were in denominations of 10, 20 and 50 drachmes, soon followed by 100, 500 and 1,000 drachmes by 1956\. 5,000\-drachma notes were introduced in 1984, followed by 10,000\-drachma notes in 1995 and 200\-drachma notes in 1997\. [Banknotes](/wiki/Banknote "Banknote") in circulation at the time of the adoption of the euro{{cite web \|url\=http://greekcurrency.110mb.com/ \|title\=History of Greek Banknotes \|publisher\=Greekcurrency.110mb.com \|access\-date\=2013\-11\-17 \|archive\-date\=2020\-03\-09 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200309132202/http://greekcurrency.110mb.com/ \|url\-status\=dead }} were * 100 drachmes (€0\.2935\), depicting [Athena](/wiki/Athena "Athena") and [Adamantios Korais](/wiki/Adamantios_Korais "Adamantios Korais") * 200 drachmes (€0\.5869\), depicting [Rigas Feraios](/wiki/Rigas_Feraios "Rigas Feraios") * 500 drachmes (€1\.47\), depicting [Ioannis Capodistrias](/wiki/Ioannis_Capodistrias "Ioannis Capodistrias") * 1,000 drachmes (€2\.93\), depicting [Apollo](/wiki/Apollo "Apollo") * 5,000 drachmes (€14\.67\), depicting [Theodoros Kolokotronis](/wiki/Theodoros_Kolokotronis "Theodoros Kolokotronis") * 10,000 drachmes (€29\.35\), depicting [George Papanicolaou](/wiki/Georgios_Papanikolaou "Georgios Papanikolaou") and [Asclepius](/wiki/Asclepius "Asclepius") | Banknotes of the Greek drachma (circa AD 2000\) | Image | Value | Equivalent in [Euro (€)](/wiki/Euro "Euro") | Main Color | Obverse | Reverse | Watermark | | [https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greece\-currency\-money\-50\-greek\-drachmas\-banknote\-1978\-poseidon.html](https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greece-currency-money-50-greek-drachmas-banknote-1978-poseidon.html) 50{{nbsp}}δρ. | €0\.1467 | Blue | Head of [Poseidon](/wiki/Poseidon "Poseidon") | [Laskarina Bouboulina](/wiki/Laskarina_Bouboulina "Laskarina Bouboulina") directing cannon fire at two Ottoman ships at [Palamidi](/wiki/Palamidi "Palamidi") during the [Greek War of Independence](/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence "Greek War of Independence") | Head of the [Charioteer of Delphi](/wiki/Charioteer_of_Delphi "Charioteer of Delphi") | | [https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greek\-currency\-money\-100\-drachmas\-banknote\-1978\-piraeus\-athena.html](https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greek-currency-money-100-drachmas-banknote-1978-piraeus-athena.html) 100{{nbsp}}δρ. | €0\.2935 | Brown and violet (obverse); Maroon, green and orange (reverse) | Head of [Piraeus Athena](/wiki/Piraeus_Athena "Piraeus Athena"); [Christian Hansen](/wiki/Christian_Hansen_%28architect%29 "Christian Hansen (architect)")'s [National and Kapodistrian University of Athens](/wiki/National_and_Kapodistrian_University_of_Athens "National and Kapodistrian University of Athens") building | [Adamantios Korais](/wiki/Adamantios_Korais "Adamantios Korais"); [Arkadi Monastery](/wiki/Arkadi_Monastery "Arkadi Monastery"), [Crete](/wiki/Crete "Crete") | Head of the Charioteer of Delphi | | [https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greece\-currency\-money\-200\-greek\-drachmas\-banknote\-1996\-rigas\-feraios.html](https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greece-currency-money-200-greek-drachmas-banknote-1996-rigas-feraios.html) | 200{{nbsp}}δρ. | €0\.5869 | Deep orange | [Rigas Feraios](/wiki/Rigas_Feraios "Rigas Feraios"); Feraios singing his patriotic song at lower right | [Nikolaos Gyzis](/wiki/Nikolaos_Gyzis "Nikolaos Gyzis")'s *[Krifo scholio](/wiki/Krifo_scholio "Krifo scholio")* ("secret school") | Bust of [Philip of Macedonia](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon "Philip II of Macedon") | | [https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greek\-currency\-money\-500\-drachmas\-banknote\-1983\-ioannis\-kapodistrias.html](https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greek-currency-money-500-drachmas-banknote-1983-ioannis-kapodistrias.html) | 500{{nbsp}}δρ. | €1\.47 | Deep green | [Ioannis Kapodistrias](/wiki/Ioannis_Kapodistrias "Ioannis Kapodistrias"); Capodistrias's home on [Corfu](/wiki/Corfu "Corfu") | [Old Fortress](/wiki/Old_Fortress%2C_Corfu "Old Fortress, Corfu"), [Corfu City](/wiki/Corfu_City "Corfu City") | Head of the Charioteer of Delphi | | [https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greece\-currency\-money\-1000\-greek\-drachmas\-banknote\-1987\-apollon\-olympia.html](https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greece-currency-money-1000-greek-drachmas-banknote-1987-apollon-olympia.html) | 1,000{{nbsp}}δρ. | €2\.93 | Brown | Bust of [Apollon of Olympia](/wiki/Apollon_of_Olympia "Apollon of Olympia") | [Myron](/wiki/Myron "Myron")'s [Discobolus](/wiki/Discobolus "Discobolus"); [Temple of Hera, Olympia](/wiki/Temple_of_Hera%2C_Olympia "Temple of Hera, Olympia") | Head of the Charioteer of Delphi | | [https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greek\-currency\-money\-5000\-drachmas\-banknote\-1997\-theodoros\-kolokotronis.html](https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greek-currency-money-5000-drachmas-banknote-1997-theodoros-kolokotronis.html) 5,000{{nbsp}}δρ. | €14\.67 | Deep Blue or Purple and yellow\-green | [Theodoros Kolokotronis](/wiki/Theodoros_Kolokotronis "Theodoros Kolokotronis"); Church of the Holy Apostles, [Kalamata](/wiki/Kalamata "Kalamata") | [Karytaina](/wiki/Karytaina "Karytaina"), [Arcadia](/wiki/Arcadia_%28regional_unit%29 "Arcadia (regional unit)") | Bust of Philip of Macedonia | | [https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greece\-currency\-money\-10000\-greek\-drachmas\-banknote\-1995\-georgios\-papanikolaou.html](https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greece-currency-money-10000-greek-drachmas-banknote-1995-georgios-papanikolaou.html) 10,000{{nbsp}}δρ. | €29\.35 | Deep purple | [Georgios Papanikolaou](/wiki/Georgios_Papanikolaou "Georgios Papanikolaou"); microscope | [Asclepius](/wiki/Asclepius "Asclepius") | Bust of Philip of Macedonia | ### Gallery (banknotes) File:NBG banknote\-1912\.jpg\|5\-drachma banknote, 1912 File:5\.000\.000\_drachmas,\_1944\_(3543707844\).jpg\|5,000,000\-drachma banknote during the \[\[Axis occupation of Greece\|Axis Occupation]] \[\[hyperinflation]] period, 1944 File:20\_drachmas,\_1955\_(3542899543\).jpg\|20\-drachma banknote, 1955
[ "{{anchor\\|GRD}}Third modern drachma\n-----------------------------------", "On 9 April 1953, in an effort to halt inflation, Greece joined the [Bretton Woods system](/wiki/Bretton_Woods_system \"Bretton Woods system\"). On 1 May 1954, the drachma was revalued at a rate of 1,000 old drachmae to 1 new drachma, and small change notes were abolished for the last time. The third drachma assumed a fixed exchange rate of 30 drachmae per [dollar](/wiki/United_States_dollar \"United States dollar\") until 20 October 1973: over the next 25 years, the official exchange rate gradually declined, reaching 400 drachmae per dollar. On 1 January 2002, the Greek drachma was officially replaced as the circulating currency by the [euro](/wiki/Euro \"Euro\"), and it has not been [legal tender](/wiki/Legal_tender \"Legal tender\") since 1 March 2002\\.", "### Third modern drachma coins", "The first issue of coins minted in 1954 consisted of holed aluminium 5\\-, 10\\- and 20\\-lepton pieces, with 50\\-lepton, 1\\-drachma, 2\\-drachma and 5\\-drachma pieces in cupro\\-nickel. 10\\-drachma coins of a brighter alloy were issued in 1959 and a silver 20\\-drachma piece was issued in 1960, replacing the corresponding banknotes. Coins in denominations from 50 lepta to 20 drachmae carried a portrait of [King Paul](/wiki/Paul_of_Greece \"Paul of Greece\") (1947–1964\\). New coins were introduced in 1966, ranging from 50 lepta to 10 drachmae, depicting [King Constantine II](/wiki/Constantine_II_of_Greece \"Constantine II of Greece\") (1964–1974\\). A silver 30\\-drachma coin for the centennial of Greece's royal dynasty was minted in 1963\\. The following year a non\\-circulating coin of this value was produced to commemorate the royal wedding. The reverse of all coins was altered in 1971 to reflect the military junta which was in power from 1967 to 1974\\. This design included a soldier standing in front of the flames of the rising phoenix replacing the (royal) coat of arms and the date of the coup d'état, April 21, 1967\\.", "A 20\\-drachma coin in cupro\\-nickel with an image of [Europa](/wiki/Europa_%28mythology%29 \"Europa (mythology)\") on the obverse was issued in the first series of 1973, alongside unholed aluminium lepta coins (10 and 20 lepta). Following the abolition of the monarcy by the junta in June 1973, several new coin types were introduced: nickel\\-brass (50 lepta, 1 and 2 drachmae) and cupro\\-nickel (5, 10 and 20 drachmae). These coins carried the design of the phoenix rising from the flame on the obverse\\-but now without the soldier, a nod to the *\"liberalization plan\"* pursued by Papadopoulos, and used the country's new designation as the \"Hellenic Republic\", replacing the coins also issued in 1973 as the Kingdom of Greece with King Constantine II's portrait.", "Following the downfall of the dictatorship, a new series of all 8 denominations was introduced in 1976 carrying images of Pericles, Democritus and Aristotle on the 20\\-, 10\\- and 5\\-drachma coins respectively and [Georgios Karaiskakis](/wiki/Georgios_Karaiskakis \"Georgios Karaiskakis\"), [Konstantinos Kanaris](/wiki/Konstantinos_Kanaris \"Konstantinos Kanaris\") and [Markos Botsaris](/wiki/Markos_Botsaris \"Markos Botsaris\") on the 1\\-drachma, 2\\-drachma and 50\\-lepton coins respectively. The 20\\- and 10\\-lepton coins would be the only circulating, non\\-commemorative coins to bear the post\\-1975 [Coat of arms of Greece](/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Greece \"Coat of arms of Greece\") on the obverse.", "Cupro\\-nickel 50\\-drachma coins were introduced in 1980, featuring [Solon](/wiki/Solon \"Solon\"). Starting in 1982, all coins now bore the inscription drachmes rather than the [katharevousa](/wiki/Katharevousa \"Katharevousa\") drachmai type, reflecting the resolution of the [Greek language question](/wiki/Greek_language_question \"Greek language question\"). In 1986, aluminium\\-bronze 50\\-drachma coins were introduced, followed by new, smaller copper 1\\-drachma ([Laskarina Bouboulina](/wiki/Laskarina_Bouboulina \"Laskarina Bouboulina\")) and 2\\-drachma ([Manto Mavrogenous](/wiki/Manto_Mavrogenous \"Manto Mavrogenous\")) pieces in 1988 and aluminium\\-bronze coins of 20 drachmes ([Ioannis Kapodistrias](/wiki/Ioannis_Kapodistrias \"Ioannis Kapodistrias\")) and 100 drachmes ([Alexander the Great](/wiki/Alexander_the_Great \"Alexander the Great\")) in 1990\\. In 2000, a set of 6 themed 500\\-drachma coins were issued to commemorate the [2004 Athens Olympic Games](/wiki/2004_Summer_Olympics \"2004 Summer Olympics\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Drachma Coins \\|url\\=https://www.bankofgreece.gr/RelatedDocuments/coins\\_drachma.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=10 February 2023 \\|website\\=Bank of Greece \\|language\\=Greek}}", "#### Subdivision", "5\\-lepton coins were discontinued in the first series of 1973\\. 10\\- and 20\\-lepton coins were last minted in 1978 and the 50\\-lepton (half drachma) coin was last minted in 1986\\. By 1990, the lepton as a subdivision had become practically obsolete and the drachma itself was now used for small change—the prices of sundries were in the hundreds; its size and weight had been reduced in 1988 from 21mm, 4\\.1 grams to 20mm, 2\\.75 grams. The 2\\-drachma coin experienced similar changes.", "[Coins](/wiki/Coin \"Coin\") in circulation at the time of the adoption of the euro{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bankofgreece.gr/en/Banknotes/coins.htm \\|title\\=Bank of Greece \\- Coins in circulation \\|access\\-date\\=2005\\-01\\-12 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050204174343/http://www.bankofgreece.gr/en/banknotes/coins.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=4 February 2005 }} were\n* 50 lepta (€0\\.0015\\){{refn\\|group\\=n\\|name\\=coin1\\|Minted but rarely used. Usually, prices were rounded up to the next multiple of 10 drachmes.}}\n* 1 drachma (€0\\.0029\\){{refn\\|group\\=n\\|name\\=coin2\\|Not minted but remained legal tender (not in actual use in 2002\\).}}\n* 2 drachmes (€0\\.0059\\){{refn\\|group\\=n\\|name\\=coin2}}\n* 5 drachmes (€0\\.0147\\)\n* 10 drachmes (€0\\.0293\\)\n* 20 drachmes (€0\\.0587\\)\n* 50 drachmes (€0\\.147\\)\n* 100 drachmes (€0\\.293\\)\n* 500 drachmes (€1\\.47\\)\nUp until the introduction of the euro, the Greek government did not attempt to redenominate the drachma (to a simple 100 old drachmes \\= 1 new drachma rate), something that could have possibly contributed in a smooth transition to the new currency. The transition proved challenging due to the fact that the exchange rate (340\\.750 to 1 euro) included lepta (despite the fact that lepta were not used in physical transactions) and that the 20\\- and 50\\-cent coins (also called \"lepta\"), which were very similar in size and composition ([Nordic Gold](/wiki/Nordic_Gold \"Nordic Gold\") as opposed to 92% [copper](/wiki/Copper \"Copper\") 6% [nickel](/wiki/Nickel \"Nickel\") 2% [aluminium](/wiki/Aluminium \"Aluminium\")) to the 20\\-, 50\\- and 100\\-drachma coins, were initially deemed worthless (alluding to the [pp](/wiki/Purchasing_power \"Purchasing power\") of their drachma predecessors), allowing vendors to take advantage of [psychological pricing](/wiki/Psychological_pricing \"Psychological pricing\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2006\\-04\\-21 \\|title\\=Οι 50 δραχμές έγιναν... 50 λεπτά \\|url\\=https://www.tanea.gr/2006/04/21/greece/oi\\-50\\-draxmes\\-eginan\\-50\\-lepta/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-07 \\|website\\=ΤΑ ΝΕΑ \\|language\\=el}} The most obvious example is the retail price of a 500ml bottle of water: once costing 50 drachmes (€0\\.147 in 2002\\), the price was driven by inflation to 100 drachmes (€0\\.293\\);{{Cite web \\|date\\=2008\\-11\\-24 \\|title\\=Πόσο να πληρώνετε το νερό \\|url\\=https://www.tovima.gr/2008/11/24/archive/poso\\-na\\-plirwnete\\-to\\-nero/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-07 \\|website\\=ΤΟ ΒΗΜΑ \\|language\\=el}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=1997\\-07\\-12 \\|title\\=«Τρελές» τιμές επιβάλλουν κερδοσκόποι στις παραλίες \\|url\\=https://www.tanea.gr/1997/07/12/world/treles\\-times\\-epiballoyn\\-kerdoskopoi\\-stis\\-paralies/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-07 \\|website\\=ΤΑ ΝΕΑ \\|language\\=el}} but the introduction of the euro would increase the price to 0\\.50 euros, where it stands to date.", "### Gallery", "", "File:Otto\\-dr.jpg\\|Gold 20\\-drachma coin depicting king \\[\\[Otto of Greece\\|Othon I]], 1833\nFile:Geo 20dr.jpg\\|Gold 20\\-drachma coin depicting king \\[\\[George I of Greece\\|Georgios I]], 1876\nGeorge\\-50dr.jpg\\|Gold 50\\-drachma coin depicting king Georgios I, 1876\nFile:5dracme1874front.jpg\\|5\\-drachma coin, 1876\nFile:1drachmi 1973\\.jpg\\|1\\-drachma coin during the \\[\\[Metapolitefsi\\#Prologue\\|1973–1974 military controlled Republic]], 1973\nFile:Konstantinos Kanaris 1 Drachma.png\\|1\\-drachma coin depicting \\[\\[Konstantinos Kanaris]], 1976\nFile:1drachmaowlfr.jpg\\|1\\-drachma coin depicting the \\[\\[Owl of Athena]]\nFile:2drachma1971fbl.jpg\\|2\\-drachma coin with a soldier standing in front of a Phoenix", "", "### Banknotes", "The first issues of banknotes were in denominations of 10, 20 and 50 drachmes, soon followed by 100, 500 and 1,000 drachmes by 1956\\. 5,000\\-drachma notes were introduced in 1984, followed by 10,000\\-drachma notes in 1995 and 200\\-drachma notes in 1997\\.", "[Banknotes](/wiki/Banknote \"Banknote\") in circulation at the time of the adoption of the euro{{cite web \\|url\\=http://greekcurrency.110mb.com/ \\|title\\=History of Greek Banknotes \\|publisher\\=Greekcurrency.110mb.com \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-11\\-17 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-03\\-09 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200309132202/http://greekcurrency.110mb.com/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} were\n* 100 drachmes (€0\\.2935\\), depicting [Athena](/wiki/Athena \"Athena\") and [Adamantios Korais](/wiki/Adamantios_Korais \"Adamantios Korais\")\n* 200 drachmes (€0\\.5869\\), depicting [Rigas Feraios](/wiki/Rigas_Feraios \"Rigas Feraios\")\n* 500 drachmes (€1\\.47\\), depicting [Ioannis Capodistrias](/wiki/Ioannis_Capodistrias \"Ioannis Capodistrias\")\n* 1,000 drachmes (€2\\.93\\), depicting [Apollo](/wiki/Apollo \"Apollo\")\n* 5,000 drachmes (€14\\.67\\), depicting [Theodoros Kolokotronis](/wiki/Theodoros_Kolokotronis \"Theodoros Kolokotronis\")\n* 10,000 drachmes (€29\\.35\\), depicting [George Papanicolaou](/wiki/Georgios_Papanikolaou \"Georgios Papanikolaou\") and [Asclepius](/wiki/Asclepius \"Asclepius\")", "", "| Banknotes of the Greek drachma (circa AD 2000\\)", "| Image | Value | Equivalent in [Euro (€)](/wiki/Euro \"Euro\") | Main Color | Obverse | Reverse | Watermark |\n| [https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greece\\-currency\\-money\\-50\\-greek\\-drachmas\\-banknote\\-1978\\-poseidon.html](https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greece-currency-money-50-greek-drachmas-banknote-1978-poseidon.html)", "50{{nbsp}}δρ. |\n €0\\.1467 |\n Blue |\n Head of [Poseidon](/wiki/Poseidon \"Poseidon\") |\n [Laskarina Bouboulina](/wiki/Laskarina_Bouboulina \"Laskarina Bouboulina\") directing cannon fire at two Ottoman ships at [Palamidi](/wiki/Palamidi \"Palamidi\") during the [Greek War of Independence](/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence \"Greek War of Independence\") |\n Head of the [Charioteer of Delphi](/wiki/Charioteer_of_Delphi \"Charioteer of Delphi\") |\n| [https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greek\\-currency\\-money\\-100\\-drachmas\\-banknote\\-1978\\-piraeus\\-athena.html](https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greek-currency-money-100-drachmas-banknote-1978-piraeus-athena.html)", "100{{nbsp}}δρ. |\n €0\\.2935 |\n Brown and violet (obverse); Maroon, green and orange (reverse) |\n Head of [Piraeus Athena](/wiki/Piraeus_Athena \"Piraeus Athena\"); [Christian Hansen](/wiki/Christian_Hansen_%28architect%29 \"Christian Hansen (architect)\")'s [National and Kapodistrian University of Athens](/wiki/National_and_Kapodistrian_University_of_Athens \"National and Kapodistrian University of Athens\") building |\n [Adamantios Korais](/wiki/Adamantios_Korais \"Adamantios Korais\"); [Arkadi Monastery](/wiki/Arkadi_Monastery \"Arkadi Monastery\"), [Crete](/wiki/Crete \"Crete\") |\n Head of the Charioteer of Delphi |\n| [https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greece\\-currency\\-money\\-200\\-greek\\-drachmas\\-banknote\\-1996\\-rigas\\-feraios.html](https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greece-currency-money-200-greek-drachmas-banknote-1996-rigas-feraios.html) | 200{{nbsp}}δρ. | €0\\.5869 | Deep orange | [Rigas Feraios](/wiki/Rigas_Feraios \"Rigas Feraios\"); Feraios singing his patriotic song at lower right | [Nikolaos Gyzis](/wiki/Nikolaos_Gyzis \"Nikolaos Gyzis\")'s *[Krifo scholio](/wiki/Krifo_scholio \"Krifo scholio\")* (\"secret school\") | Bust of [Philip of Macedonia](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon \"Philip II of Macedon\") |\n| [https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greek\\-currency\\-money\\-500\\-drachmas\\-banknote\\-1983\\-ioannis\\-kapodistrias.html](https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greek-currency-money-500-drachmas-banknote-1983-ioannis-kapodistrias.html) | 500{{nbsp}}δρ. | €1\\.47 | Deep green | [Ioannis Kapodistrias](/wiki/Ioannis_Kapodistrias \"Ioannis Kapodistrias\"); Capodistrias's home on [Corfu](/wiki/Corfu \"Corfu\") | [Old Fortress](/wiki/Old_Fortress%2C_Corfu \"Old Fortress, Corfu\"), [Corfu City](/wiki/Corfu_City \"Corfu City\") | Head of the Charioteer of Delphi |\n| [https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greece\\-currency\\-money\\-1000\\-greek\\-drachmas\\-banknote\\-1987\\-apollon\\-olympia.html](https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greece-currency-money-1000-greek-drachmas-banknote-1987-apollon-olympia.html) | 1,000{{nbsp}}δρ. | €2\\.93 | Brown | Bust of [Apollon of Olympia](/wiki/Apollon_of_Olympia \"Apollon of Olympia\") | [Myron](/wiki/Myron \"Myron\")'s [Discobolus](/wiki/Discobolus \"Discobolus\"); [Temple of Hera, Olympia](/wiki/Temple_of_Hera%2C_Olympia \"Temple of Hera, Olympia\") | Head of the Charioteer of Delphi |\n| [https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greek\\-currency\\-money\\-5000\\-drachmas\\-banknote\\-1997\\-theodoros\\-kolokotronis.html](https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greek-currency-money-5000-drachmas-banknote-1997-theodoros-kolokotronis.html)", "5,000{{nbsp}}δρ. |\n €14\\.67 |\n Deep Blue or Purple and yellow\\-green |\n [Theodoros Kolokotronis](/wiki/Theodoros_Kolokotronis \"Theodoros Kolokotronis\"); Church of the Holy Apostles, [Kalamata](/wiki/Kalamata \"Kalamata\") |\n [Karytaina](/wiki/Karytaina \"Karytaina\"), [Arcadia](/wiki/Arcadia_%28regional_unit%29 \"Arcadia (regional unit)\") |\n Bust of Philip of Macedonia |\n| [https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greece\\-currency\\-money\\-10000\\-greek\\-drachmas\\-banknote\\-1995\\-georgios\\-papanikolaou.html](https://moneycurrencypictures.blogspot.com/2018/12/greece-currency-money-10000-greek-drachmas-banknote-1995-georgios-papanikolaou.html)", "10,000{{nbsp}}δρ. |\n €29\\.35 |\n Deep purple |\n [Georgios Papanikolaou](/wiki/Georgios_Papanikolaou \"Georgios Papanikolaou\"); microscope |\n [Asclepius](/wiki/Asclepius \"Asclepius\") |\n Bust of Philip of Macedonia |", "### Gallery (banknotes)", "", "File:NBG banknote\\-1912\\.jpg\\|5\\-drachma banknote, 1912\nFile:5\\.000\\.000\\_drachmas,\\_1944\\_(3543707844\\).jpg\\|5,000,000\\-drachma banknote during the \\[\\[Axis occupation of Greece\\|Axis Occupation]] \\[\\[hyperinflation]] period, 1944\nFile:20\\_drachmas,\\_1955\\_(3542899543\\).jpg\\|20\\-drachma banknote, 1955", "", "" ]
Description ----------- A visual representation of the TMF MTOSI offered [SOA](/wiki/Service-oriented_architecture "Service-oriented architecture") Service Candidates is shown in the figure.{{confusing\|date\=August 2022}} The MTOSI specifications are produced by the TM Forum MToP program.{{Citation needed\|date\=October 2015}} MTOSI standard is a unified open interface that can be used among multiple types of management systems to provide network and service management. MTOSI standard covers all communication technologies (from layer 1, e.g., SONET/SDH, through higher layer technologies such as VoIP). MTOSI facilitates application\-to\-application inter\-working, reduces time to deployment, and lowers the cost of ownership of systems. [Figure 1](http://www.nocvue.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/nocvue-july-2013-2-resized-600.png) Current management and support system implementations employ diverse middleware technologies, a reality that is not likely to change in the immediate future. To be widely adopted, MTOSI cannot mandate specific middleware technologies for its implementation. Therefore, the MTOSI interfaces are sufficiently abstract to be middleware neutral, yet rigorous enough that vendors can map them quickly to their middleware of choice. The CCV is the common middleware required to implement MTOSI. CCV is a middleware abstraction that allows MTOSI interfaces to be bound to different middleware technologies as needed. By exploiting the expressive power of Web Services Description Language, MTOSI interfaces are composed of logical and physical definitions. MTOSI standard offers a number of unique business advantages (1\-4\) as well as advantages applicable to any well\-designed and well\-supported interface standard (5\-8\): 1\. MTOSI provides a standard interface between different systems for fulfillment and assurance functionality. In effect different instances of the same interface are reused at different reference points. Benefit: Knowledge can be re\-used in the design of systems 2\. MTOSI uses XML (eXtended Mark\-Up Language) based messaging. Benefit: XML technology is widely accepted and used technology. 3\. MTOSI provides rules for versioning and for vendor extensions to the XML messages. Benefit: When MTOSI is deployed, the server and consumer application ends of the interfaces can be upgraded independently. Also, when several vendors’ equipment is deployed, the proprietary extensions are managed in a consistent manner. 4\. MTOSI uses standard communication patterns to support business activities that can be implemented by a range of IT platforms and transport protocols. Benefit: The underlying platform can be changed without propagating the change to the applications. 5\. MTOSI allows service providers to implement management and support systems quickly. For example, without MTOSI, each of the four EMS providers in Figure 1 would need to define and agree upon a common interface (on a pair\-wise basis), build the interface and then do interoperability testing. Benefit: MTOSI lowers the time and costs needed to integrate management and support system software from different suppliers. 6\. MTOSI is designed to support service provider requirements for an open systems environment. Benefit: This allows service providers to more easily deploy management and support systems from multiple vendors and to replace existing ones. This increase in choice creates a more competitive environment for service providers, allowing them to choose products that best fit their functional and financial needs. 7\. MTOSI encourages system integrators to pre\-integrate products that are MTOSI\-compliant. Benefit: This results in lower up\-front costs and faster deployment for service providers. 8\. MTOSI helps carriers to avoid wholesale replacements of legacy systems and instead allows them to introduce and integrate point applications that can address new solutions and services. Benefit: Allows a service provider to preserve its investment in legacy systems while still addressing the need to manage new technologies and services. The MTOSI standard is available for download to members of the TM Forum. Membership fees are based on corporate annual revenues.
[ "Description\n-----------", "A visual representation of the TMF MTOSI offered [SOA](/wiki/Service-oriented_architecture \"Service-oriented architecture\") Service Candidates is shown in the figure.{{confusing\\|date\\=August 2022}}", "The MTOSI specifications are produced by the TM Forum MToP program.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2015}}", "MTOSI standard is a unified open interface that can be used among multiple types of management systems to provide network and service management. MTOSI standard covers all communication technologies (from layer 1, e.g., SONET/SDH, through higher layer technologies such as VoIP).", "MTOSI facilitates application\\-to\\-application inter\\-working, reduces time to deployment, and lowers the cost of ownership of systems.", "[Figure 1](http://www.nocvue.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/nocvue-july-2013-2-resized-600.png)", "Current management and support system implementations employ diverse middleware technologies, a reality that is not likely to change in the immediate future. To be widely adopted, MTOSI cannot mandate specific middleware technologies for its implementation. Therefore, the MTOSI interfaces are sufficiently abstract to be middleware neutral, yet rigorous enough that vendors can map them quickly to their middleware of choice. The CCV is the common middleware required to implement MTOSI.", "CCV is a middleware abstraction that allows MTOSI interfaces to be bound to different middleware technologies as needed. By exploiting the expressive power of Web Services Description Language, MTOSI interfaces are composed of logical and physical definitions.", "MTOSI standard offers a number of unique business advantages (1\\-4\\) as well as advantages applicable to any well\\-designed and well\\-supported interface standard (5\\-8\\):", "1\\. MTOSI provides a standard interface between different systems for fulfillment and assurance functionality. In effect different instances of the same interface are reused at different reference points.\nBenefit: Knowledge can be re\\-used in the design of systems", "2\\. MTOSI uses XML (eXtended Mark\\-Up Language) based messaging. \nBenefit: XML technology is widely accepted and used technology.", "3\\. MTOSI provides rules for versioning and for vendor extensions to the XML messages. \nBenefit: When MTOSI is deployed, the server and consumer application ends of the interfaces can be upgraded independently. Also, when several vendors’ equipment is deployed, the proprietary extensions are managed in a consistent manner.", "4\\. MTOSI uses standard communication patterns to support business activities that can be implemented by a range of IT platforms and transport protocols. \nBenefit: The underlying platform can be changed without propagating the change to the applications.", "5\\. MTOSI allows service providers to implement management and support systems quickly. For example, without MTOSI, each of the four EMS providers in Figure 1 would need to define and agree upon a common interface (on a pair\\-wise basis), build the interface and then do interoperability testing. \nBenefit: MTOSI lowers the time and costs needed to integrate management and support system software from different suppliers.", "6\\. MTOSI is designed to support service provider requirements for an open systems environment. \nBenefit: This allows service providers to more easily deploy management and support systems from multiple vendors and to replace existing ones. This increase in choice creates a more competitive environment for service providers, allowing them to choose products that best fit their functional and financial needs.", "7\\. MTOSI encourages system integrators to pre\\-integrate products that are MTOSI\\-compliant. \nBenefit: This results in lower up\\-front costs and faster deployment for service providers.", "8\\. MTOSI helps carriers to avoid wholesale replacements of legacy systems and instead allows them to introduce and integrate point applications that can address new solutions and services.\nBenefit: Allows a service provider to preserve its investment in legacy systems while still addressing the need to manage new technologies and services.", "The MTOSI standard is available for download to members of the TM Forum. Membership fees are based on corporate annual revenues.", "" ]
Culture ------- [thumb\|left\|upright\|[Yupʼik mask](/wiki/Yup%CA%BCik_mask "Yupʼik mask"), [Sitka, Alaska](/wiki/Sitka%2C_Alaska "Sitka, Alaska"), collection of the [Alaska State Museum](/wiki/Alaska_State_Museum "Alaska State Museum")](/wiki/File:Alaska_yupik_mask.jpg "Alaska yupik mask.jpg") [thumb\|upright\|Yupʼik basket](/wiki/File:Central_Yup%27ik_basket_%28UBC-2011%29.jpg "Central Yup'ik basket (UBC-2011).jpg") Traditionally, families spent the spring and summer at fish camp, then joined others at village sites for the winter. Many families still harvest the traditional subsistence resources, especially [Pacific salmon](/wiki/Oncorhynchus "Oncorhynchus") and [seal](/wiki/Pinniped "Pinniped"). The men's communal house, the *[qasgiq](/wiki/Qargi "Qargi")*, was the community center for ceremonies and festivals that included singing, dancing, and [storytelling](/wiki/Storytelling "Storytelling"). The qasgiq was used mainly during the winter months because people would travel in family groups following food sources throughout the spring, summer, and fall months. Aside from ceremonies and festivals, the qasgiq was also where the men taught the young boys survival and hunting skills, as well as other life lessons. The young boys were also taught how to make tools and *[qayaq](/wiki/Kayak "Kayak")* (kayaks) during the winter months in the qasgiq. The ceremonies involve a [shaman](/wiki/Shaman "Shaman"). The women's house, the *ena*, was traditionally right next door. In some areas, the two communal houses were connected by a tunnel. Women taught the young girls how to tan hides and sew, process and cook game and fish, and weave. Boys would live with their mothers until they were approximately five years old, then they would join the men in the qasgiq. For a period varying between three and six weeks, the boys and girls would switch cultural educational situations, with the men teaching the girls survival, hunting skills, and toolmaking, and the women teaching the boys the skills they taught to the girls. In [Yupʼik group dances](/wiki/Yup%CA%BCik_dance "Yupʼik dance"), individuals often remain stationary while moving their upper body and arms rhythmically, their gestures accentuated by handheld dance fans, very similar in design to Cherokee dance fans. The limited motion by no means limits the expressiveness of the dances, which can be gracefully flowing, bursting with energy, or wryly humorous. The Yupʼik are unique among native peoples of the Americas in that they name children after the most recent person in the community to have died. The *[kuspuk](/wiki/Kuspuk "Kuspuk")* (*qaspeq*) is a traditional Yupʼik garment worn by both genders. In Alaska, it is worn in both casual and formal settings. The [seal\-oil lamp](/wiki/Qulliq "Qulliq") *(naniq)* was an important piece of furniture.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.nmai.si.edu/searchcollections/results.aspx?objtype\=Furnishings\+(Home)\&objid\=Lamp \|title\=National Museum of the American Indian : Yupʼik (Yupik Eskimo) Lamps \|access\-date\=2016\-07\-12 \|archive\-date\=2017\-09\-10 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910173341/http://www.nmai.si.edu/searchcollections/results.aspx?objtype\=Furnishings\+(Home)\&objid\=Lamp \|url\-status\=dead }}
[ "Culture\n-------", "[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|[Yupʼik mask](/wiki/Yup%CA%BCik_mask \"Yupʼik mask\"), [Sitka, Alaska](/wiki/Sitka%2C_Alaska \"Sitka, Alaska\"), collection of the [Alaska State Museum](/wiki/Alaska_State_Museum \"Alaska State Museum\")](/wiki/File:Alaska_yupik_mask.jpg \"Alaska yupik mask.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Yupʼik basket](/wiki/File:Central_Yup%27ik_basket_%28UBC-2011%29.jpg \"Central Yup'ik basket (UBC-2011).jpg\")\nTraditionally, families spent the spring and summer at fish camp, then joined others at village sites for the winter. Many families still harvest the traditional subsistence resources, especially [Pacific salmon](/wiki/Oncorhynchus \"Oncorhynchus\") and [seal](/wiki/Pinniped \"Pinniped\").", "The men's communal house, the *[qasgiq](/wiki/Qargi \"Qargi\")*, was the community center for ceremonies and festivals that included singing, dancing, and [storytelling](/wiki/Storytelling \"Storytelling\"). The qasgiq was used mainly during the winter months because people would travel in family groups following food sources throughout the spring, summer, and fall months. Aside from ceremonies and festivals, the qasgiq was also where the men taught the young boys survival and hunting skills, as well as other life lessons. The young boys were also taught how to make tools and *[qayaq](/wiki/Kayak \"Kayak\")* (kayaks) during the winter months in the qasgiq. The ceremonies involve a [shaman](/wiki/Shaman \"Shaman\").", "The women's house, the *ena*, was traditionally right next door. In some areas, the two communal houses were connected by a tunnel. Women taught the young girls how to tan hides and sew, process and cook game and fish, and weave. Boys would live with their mothers until they were approximately five years old, then they would join the men in the qasgiq.", "For a period varying between three and six weeks, the boys and girls would switch cultural educational situations, with the men teaching the girls survival, hunting skills, and toolmaking, and the women teaching the boys the skills they taught to the girls.", "In [Yupʼik group dances](/wiki/Yup%CA%BCik_dance \"Yupʼik dance\"), individuals often remain stationary while moving their upper body and arms rhythmically, their gestures accentuated by handheld dance fans, very similar in design to Cherokee dance fans. The limited motion by no means limits the expressiveness of the dances, which can be gracefully flowing, bursting with energy, or wryly humorous.", "The Yupʼik are unique among native peoples of the Americas in that they name children after the most recent person in the community to have died.", "The *[kuspuk](/wiki/Kuspuk \"Kuspuk\")* (*qaspeq*) is a traditional Yupʼik garment worn by both genders. In Alaska, it is worn in both casual and formal settings.", "The [seal\\-oil lamp](/wiki/Qulliq \"Qulliq\") *(naniq)* was an important piece of furniture.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.nmai.si.edu/searchcollections/results.aspx?objtype\\=Furnishings\\+(Home)\\&objid\\=Lamp \\|title\\=National Museum of the American Indian : Yupʼik (Yupik Eskimo) Lamps \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-07\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-09\\-10 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910173341/http://www.nmai.si.edu/searchcollections/results.aspx?objtype\\=Furnishings\\+(Home)\\&objid\\=Lamp \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "" ]
History ------- ### Initial structure The Monastery of San Isidro de Loriana was erected in 1551 next to the Loriana river under direction of Fray Alonso del Manzanete, a native of the town of Manzanete (now Puebla de Obando). It is located in close proximity to the [Sierra de San Pedro](/wiki/Sierra_de_San_Pedro "Sierra de San Pedro"), in the Loriana meadow, in what is now the Vidrio estate. The meadow began to be populated in the sixteenth century and was jurisdictionally attached to [La Nava de Santiago](/wiki/La_Nava_de_Santiago "La Nava de Santiago"). The location takes the name of the nearby stream that waters the area, the Lourianilla or Lorianilla, a tributary of the Alcazaba river. The late eighteenth century [Census of Floridablanca](/wiki/Census_of_Floridablanca "Census of Floridablanca") places it in Mérida. The property on which the monastery was built belonged to Juan Velázquez Dávila, who offered to bear the cost of building and maintaining the convent, provided that the building was located on his property.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.hispanianostra.org/lista\-roja/monasterio\-de\-san\-isidro\-de\-loriana \|title\=Monasterio de San Isidro de Loriana \|accessdate\=15 March 2014 \|work\=Lista Roja del Patrimonio \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140316183036/http://www.hispanianostra.org/lista\-roja/monasterio\-de\-san\-isidro\-de\-loriana \|archive\-date\=16 March 2014 \|url\-status\=dead }} The structure was built on an ancient chapel dedicated to [Saint Isidore](/wiki/Isidore_the_Laborer "Isidore the Laborer"), believed to have formerly belonged to the [Templars](/wiki/Knights_Templars "Knights Templars"). The construction featured a narrow building with a single nave, separated into three sections, which had no more than two small rooms and no cloister. The upper section was divided into seven cells, which included the refectory, a kitchen, an office and the vestry. Fray Alonso remained Guardian of the Convent for seven years. He was later sent to [Rocamadour](/wiki/Rocamadour "Rocamadour"), [Salvatierra de Santiago](/wiki/Salvatierra_de_Santiago "Salvatierra de Santiago") and [Alconchel](/wiki/Alconchel "Alconchel"), where he died in 1569\. The Definitorios Provinciales (an entity that makes religious decisions) of 1557 and 1559 were held in the San Isidro de Loriana monastery. In one of those sessions Franciscan friar, San Pedro de Alcántara, was elected Provincial Commissioner. ### Refurbishment Its location in close proximity to the river resulted in exposure to high humidity and eventual deterioration. The structure was refurbished in 1605 and relocated to safer and higher ground. New construction techniques were employed, that reflected its geographical proximity to the Portuguese border. Indigenous [slate](/wiki/Slate "Slate") material was used in its construction, and involved masonry, brick and [ashlar](/wiki/Ashlar "Ashlar") stones. It maintained the simplicity and frugality characteristic of the [Franciscan](/wiki/Franciscan "Franciscan") order. The newly constructed monastery had a small 5x5 meter central cloister with eight [Tuscan order](/wiki/Tuscan_order "Tuscan order") granite columns supporting eight [arches](/wiki/Arch "Arch"). This formed the lower gallery of the [courtyard](/wiki/Courtyard "Courtyard"). The upper gallery was composed of an equal number of [arcs](/wiki/Arch "Arch"). A granite well made of square curbstone was built indoors in the center of the courtyard. There is also an upper floor where the bedrooms of the Franciscans were located. The interior features a dining area, a [barrel vault](/wiki/Barrel_vault "Barrel vault") made of brick, an interior courtyard, a [choir](/wiki/Choir_%28architecture%29 "Choir (architecture)") in the church and more bedrooms. Towards the southeast there are a series of swinging [buttress](/wiki/Buttress "Buttress") double doors that lead into the [aisle](/wiki/Aisle "Aisle"). The church is small and is attached to the cloister. There are other rooms around the cloister including the refectory, choir, [sacristy](/wiki/Sacristy "Sacristy"), library, corridors and twelve cells.
[ "History\n-------", "### Initial structure", "The Monastery of San Isidro de Loriana was erected in 1551 next to the Loriana river under direction of Fray Alonso del Manzanete, a native of the town of Manzanete (now Puebla de Obando). It is located in close proximity to the [Sierra de San Pedro](/wiki/Sierra_de_San_Pedro \"Sierra de San Pedro\"), in the Loriana meadow, in what is now the Vidrio estate. The meadow began to be populated in the sixteenth century and was jurisdictionally attached to [La Nava de Santiago](/wiki/La_Nava_de_Santiago \"La Nava de Santiago\"). The location takes the name of the nearby stream that waters the area, the Lourianilla or Lorianilla, a tributary of the Alcazaba river. The late eighteenth century [Census of Floridablanca](/wiki/Census_of_Floridablanca \"Census of Floridablanca\") places it in Mérida.", "The property on which the monastery was built belonged to Juan Velázquez Dávila, who offered to bear the cost of building and maintaining the convent, provided that the building was located on his property.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.hispanianostra.org/lista\\-roja/monasterio\\-de\\-san\\-isidro\\-de\\-loriana \\|title\\=Monasterio de San Isidro de Loriana \\|accessdate\\=15 March 2014 \\|work\\=Lista Roja del Patrimonio \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140316183036/http://www.hispanianostra.org/lista\\-roja/monasterio\\-de\\-san\\-isidro\\-de\\-loriana \\|archive\\-date\\=16 March 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The structure was built on an ancient chapel dedicated to [Saint Isidore](/wiki/Isidore_the_Laborer \"Isidore the Laborer\"), believed to have formerly belonged to the [Templars](/wiki/Knights_Templars \"Knights Templars\"). The construction featured a narrow building with a single nave, separated into three sections, which had no more than two small rooms and no cloister. The upper section was divided into seven cells, which included the refectory, a kitchen, an office and the vestry.", "Fray Alonso remained Guardian of the Convent for seven years. He was later sent to [Rocamadour](/wiki/Rocamadour \"Rocamadour\"), [Salvatierra de Santiago](/wiki/Salvatierra_de_Santiago \"Salvatierra de Santiago\") and [Alconchel](/wiki/Alconchel \"Alconchel\"), where he died in 1569\\. The Definitorios Provinciales (an entity that makes religious decisions) of 1557 and 1559 were held in the San Isidro de Loriana monastery. In one of those sessions Franciscan friar, San Pedro de Alcántara, was elected Provincial Commissioner.", "### Refurbishment", "Its location in close proximity to the river resulted in exposure to high humidity and eventual deterioration. The structure was refurbished in 1605 and relocated to safer and higher ground. New construction techniques were employed, that reflected its geographical proximity to the Portuguese border. Indigenous [slate](/wiki/Slate \"Slate\") material was used in its construction, and involved masonry, brick and [ashlar](/wiki/Ashlar \"Ashlar\") stones. It maintained the simplicity and frugality characteristic of the [Franciscan](/wiki/Franciscan \"Franciscan\") order.", "The newly constructed monastery had a small 5x5 meter central cloister with eight [Tuscan order](/wiki/Tuscan_order \"Tuscan order\") granite columns supporting eight [arches](/wiki/Arch \"Arch\"). This formed the lower gallery of the [courtyard](/wiki/Courtyard \"Courtyard\"). The upper gallery was composed of an equal number of [arcs](/wiki/Arch \"Arch\"). A granite well made of square curbstone was built indoors in the center of the courtyard. There is also an upper floor where the bedrooms of the Franciscans were located.", "The interior features a dining area, a [barrel vault](/wiki/Barrel_vault \"Barrel vault\") made of brick, an interior courtyard, a [choir](/wiki/Choir_%28architecture%29 \"Choir (architecture)\") in the church and more bedrooms. Towards the southeast there are a series of swinging [buttress](/wiki/Buttress \"Buttress\") double doors that lead into the [aisle](/wiki/Aisle \"Aisle\"). The church is small and is attached to the cloister. There are other rooms around the cloister including the refectory, choir, [sacristy](/wiki/Sacristy \"Sacristy\"), library, corridors and twelve cells.", "" ]
Rules ----- {{Main\|List of miniature wargames}} There are many miniature wargaming rules, not all of which are currently in print, including some which are available free on the internet; many gamers also write their own, creating so\-called "house rules" or "club sets". Most rules are intended for a specific historical period or fictional genre. Rules also vary in the model scale they use: one infantry figure may represent one man, one squad, or much larger numbers of actual troops. [Wargaming](/wiki/Wargaming "Wargaming") in general owes its origins to military [simulations](/wiki/Simulations "Simulations"), most famously to the [Prussian](/wiki/Prussia "Prussia") staff training system [Kriegsspiel](/wiki/Kriegsspiel_%28wargame%29 "Kriegsspiel (wargame)"). Consequently, rules designers struggle with the perceived obligation to actually 'simulate' something, and with the seldom compatible necessity to make an enjoyable 'game'. Historical battles were seldom fair or even, and the potential detail that can be brought to bear to represent this in a set of rules always comes at the cost of pace of the game and enjoyment. In [Osprey Publishing](/wiki/Osprey_Publishing "Osprey Publishing")'s book about the [Battle of Crécy](/wiki/Battle_of_Cr%C3%A9cy "Battle of Crécy"), from its series on historical campaigns, there is included a detailed section on wargaming the battle, in which Stuart Asquith writes: {{blockquote\|When refighting a particular battle, it is important to adhere as closely as possible to the original historical engagement. The counter\-argument is that the wargamer(s) know who is going to win. Fair comment, but knowing the outcome of any battle does not usually prevent one from reading about that action, so why should such knowledge debar a refight?''Crécy 1346: Triumph of the longbow'', p 93\-94}} He adds that unless at least the initial moves are recreated, "then an interesting medieval battle may well take place, but it will not be a re\-creation of Crécy." Still, rules aimed at the non\-professional hobby market therefore inevitably contain abstractions. It is generally in the area of the abstraction liberties taken by the designers that the differences between rules can be found. Most follow tried and true conventions to the extent that a [chess](/wiki/Chess "Chess") player would recognize wargaming merely as a different scaled version of his or her own game. ### Role\-playing games {{Main\|Role\-playing game}} During the 1960s and 1970s, two new trends in wargaming emerged: First were small\-unit rules sets which allowed individual players to portray small units down to even a single figure. These rules expanded the abilities of the smaller units accordingly, to magnify their effect on the overall battle. Second was an interest in fantasy miniatures wargaming. [J.R.R. Tolkien](/wiki/J.R.R._Tolkien "J.R.R. Tolkien")'s novel *[The Hobbit](/wiki/The_Hobbit "The Hobbit")* and his epic cycle *[The Lord of the Rings](/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings "The Lord of the Rings")* were gaining strong interest in the United States, and as a result, rules were quickly developed to play [medieval](/wiki/Medieval "Medieval") and [Roman](/wiki/Ancient_Rome "Ancient Rome")\-era wargames, where these eras had previously been largely ignored in favor of [Napoleonic](/wiki/Napoleonic "Napoleonic") and [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") gaming. The two converged in the early 1970s. The first known occurrence, from 1970, is a set of rules by Len Patt{{cite magazine \|last\=Patt \|first\=Len \|date\=1970 \|title\=Rules for Middle Earth \|magazine\=The Courier,Volume II,No. 7 \|location\=Brockton, Massachusetts\|publisher\=New England Wargamers Association\|pages\=12–13}}{{cite magazine \|last\=Bryant \|first\=R \|date\=1970 \|title\=Editors Notes\|magazine\=The Courier,Volume II,No. 7 \|location\=Brockton, Massachusetts\|publisher\=New England Wargamers Association\|quote\= TheTbiggest\[sic] news from this part or the country these last few weeks was the Philadelphia wargames convention held Oct. 10 ..... and last but no means least NEWA won "Best of Show" with our demonstration or a wargame based on Middle Earth (see page 12 and photo page).}} published in The New England Wargames Association's bulletin, The Courier. In 1971 a set of miniatures medieval miniatures rules entitled *[Chainmail](/wiki/Chainmail_%28game%29 "Chainmail (game)")*, published by a tiny company called [Guidon Games](/wiki/Guidon_Games "Guidon Games"), headquartered in [Belfast, Maine](/wiki/Belfast%2C_Maine "Belfast, Maine"){{cite book \|author1\=Gygax,Gary \|author2\=Perren,Jeff \|date\=1972 \|title\=Chainmail rules for medieval miniatures, 2nd Edition \|url\=https://archive.org/details/chainmail\-2nd\-edition \|location\= Belfast,Maine\|publisher\=Donald S. Lowry}} included a fantasy supplement detailing rules for battle involving fantastic creatures. Later, in 1974, [TSR](/wiki/TSR%2C_Inc. "TSR, Inc.") designer [E. Gary Gygax](/wiki/E._Gary_Gygax "E. Gary Gygax") wrote a set of rules for individual characters under *Chainmail*, and entitled it *[Dungeons \& Dragons](/wiki/Dungeons_%26_Dragons "Dungeons & Dragons")*. Further developments ensued, and the [role\-playing game](/wiki/Role-playing_game "Role-playing game") hobby quickly became distinct from the wargaming hobby which preceded it. ### Naval wargames {{Main\|Naval wargaming}} Although generally less popular than wargames set on land, naval wargaming nevertheless enjoys a degree of support around the world. [Model ships](/wiki/Model_ships "Model ships") have long been used for wargaming, but it was the introduction of elaborate rules in the early 20th century that made the hobby more popular. Small miniature ships, often in 1:1200 scale and [1:1250 scale](/wiki/1:1250_scale "1250 scale"), were maneuvered on large playing surfaces to recreate historical battles. Prior to World War II, firms such as [Bassett\-Lowke](/wiki/Bassett-Lowke "Bassett-Lowke") in England and the German company [Wiking](/wiki/Wiking_Modellbau "Wiking Modellbau") marketed these to the public.Head, Derek. *Bassett\-Lowke Waterline Ship Models* London 1996 {{ISBN\|1\-872727\-72\-7}}Schönfeld, Peter *Wiking\-Modelle Die Schiffe und Flugseuge* Hamburg 1998 {{ISBN\|3\-7822\-0731\-9}} After World War II, several manufacturers started business in Germany, which remains the center of production to this day,{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.steelnavy.com/1250hist.htm\#A\+BRIEF\+HISTORY\+OF\+THE\+HOBBY\|title\=1250 History\|website\=www.steelnavy.com\|access\-date\=May 20, 2020}} while other companies started in England and the United States. Rules can vary greatly between game systems; both in complexity and era. Historical rulesets range from the ancient and medieval ships to the fleets of the [Age of Sail](/wiki/Age_of_Sail "Age of Sail") and the [modern era](/wiki/Modern_era "Modern era"). Often the hobbyists have to provide their own models of ships. The 1972 game, *[Don't Give Up The Ship!](/wiki/Don%27t_Give_Up_The_Ship%21 "Don't Give Up The Ship!")*, called for pencil and paper, six\-sided dice, rulers and [protractors](/wiki/Protractor "Protractor"), and model ships, ideally of 1:1200 scale. The elaborate rules cover morale, sinking, fires, broken masts, and [boarding](/wiki/Boarding_%28attack%29 "Boarding (attack)"). Dice determined wind speed and direction, and hence the ship's speed and the use of its [cannon](/wiki/Cannon "Cannon") by measuring angles with the protractor.*[Don't Give Up The Ship!](/wiki/Don%27t_Give_Up_The_Ship%21 "Don't Give Up The Ship!")*, 1st Edition, 1972, [Guidon Games](/wiki/Guidon_Games "Guidon Games"), 50 pages, blue \& black cover In naval wargaming of the modern period, *[General Quarters](/wiki/General_Quarters_%28rules%29 "General Quarters (rules)")*, primarily (though not exclusively) using six\-sided dice, has established itself as one of the leading sets of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") and II era rules.*Survey of Naval Wargames Rules*, NWS journal "Battlefleet" 1996 Some land\-based miniature wargames have also been adapted to naval wargaming. *[All at Sea](/wiki/All_at_Sea_%28ruleset%29 "All at Sea (ruleset)")*, for example, is an adaptation of *[The Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Game](/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings_Strategy_Battle_Game "The Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Game")* rules for naval conflicts. The game's mechanics centered around boarding parties, with options for [ramming actions](/wiki/Naval_ram "Naval ram") and [siege engines](/wiki/Siege_engine "Siege engine").{{cite web \| author \= Nick Davis \| title \= All At Sea Part One \| work \= Ruleset \| publisher \= White Dwarf \| url \= http://www.alt\-world.com/alt\-world/LOTR/undersail.htm \| access\-date \= 2007\-06\-14 \| url\-status \= dead \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20071009185152/http://www.alt\-world.com/alt\-world/LOTR/undersail.htm \| archive\-date \= October 9, 2007 \| df \= mdy\-all }} As such, the ship's scale ratio corresponds to the 25 mm scale miniatures used by *The Lord of the Rings*. Model ships are built by hobbyists, just as normal miniature terrain, such as "[great ships](/wiki/Carrack "Carrack")" of [Pelargir](/wiki/Pelargir "Pelargir"), [cogs](/wiki/Cog_%28ship%29 "Cog (ship)") of [Dol Amroth](/wiki/Dol_Amroth "Dol Amroth") and [Corsair](/wiki/Corsairs_of_Umbar "Corsairs of Umbar") [galleys](/wiki/Galleass "Galleass").{{cite web \| title \= The Ports of Pelargir \| work \= Website \| url \= http://www.freewebs.com/portsofpelargir \| access\-date \= 2007\-06\-14 \| url\-status \= dead \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20070313074610/http://www.freewebs.com/portsofpelargir/ \| archive\-date \= March 13, 2007 \| df \= mdy\-all }} ### Air wargames [right\|thumb\|*Wings of War*, which simulates World War 1 aerial combat.](/wiki/File:Wings_of_War_2.jpg "Wings of War 2.jpg") {{Main\|Air wargaming}} Air wargaming, like naval wargaming, is a smaller niche within the larger hobby of miniatures wargaming. Aerial combat has developed over a relatively short time compared with naval or land warfare. As such, air wargaming tends to break down into three broad periods: * World War I – from the earliest days of air combat to the 1920s * World War II – 1930s to the early 1950s * "Modern" – the missile age In addition there are science fiction and "alternative history" games such as *Aeronefs* and those in the *[Crimson Skies](/wiki/Crimson_Skies "Crimson Skies")* universe.
[ "Rules\n-----", "{{Main\\|List of miniature wargames}}", "There are many miniature wargaming rules, not all of which are currently in print, including some which are available free on the internet; many gamers also write their own, creating so\\-called \"house rules\" or \"club sets\". Most rules are intended for a specific historical period or fictional genre. Rules also vary in the model scale they use: one infantry figure may represent one man, one squad, or much larger numbers of actual troops.", "[Wargaming](/wiki/Wargaming \"Wargaming\") in general owes its origins to military [simulations](/wiki/Simulations \"Simulations\"), most famously to the [Prussian](/wiki/Prussia \"Prussia\") staff training system [Kriegsspiel](/wiki/Kriegsspiel_%28wargame%29 \"Kriegsspiel (wargame)\"). Consequently, rules designers struggle with the perceived obligation to actually 'simulate' something, and with the seldom compatible necessity to make an enjoyable 'game'. Historical battles were seldom fair or even, and the potential detail that can be brought to bear to represent this in a set of rules always comes at the cost of pace of the game and enjoyment. In [Osprey Publishing](/wiki/Osprey_Publishing \"Osprey Publishing\")'s book about the [Battle of Crécy](/wiki/Battle_of_Cr%C3%A9cy \"Battle of Crécy\"), from its series on historical campaigns, there is included a detailed section on wargaming the battle, in which Stuart Asquith writes:", "{{blockquote\\|When refighting a particular battle, it is important to adhere as closely as possible to the original historical engagement. The counter\\-argument is that the wargamer(s) know who is going to win. Fair comment, but knowing the outcome of any battle does not usually prevent one from reading about that action, so why should such knowledge debar a refight?''Crécy 1346: Triumph of the longbow'', p 93\\-94}}", "He adds that unless at least the initial moves are recreated, \"then an interesting medieval battle may well take place, but it will not be a re\\-creation of Crécy.\" Still, rules aimed at the non\\-professional hobby market therefore inevitably contain abstractions. It is generally in the area of the abstraction liberties taken by the designers that the differences between rules can be found. Most follow tried and true conventions to the extent that a [chess](/wiki/Chess \"Chess\") player would recognize wargaming merely as a different scaled version of his or her own game.", "### Role\\-playing games", "{{Main\\|Role\\-playing game}}\nDuring the 1960s and 1970s, two new trends in wargaming emerged: First were small\\-unit rules sets which allowed individual players to portray small units down to even a single figure. These rules expanded the abilities of the smaller units accordingly, to magnify their effect on the overall battle.", "Second was an interest in fantasy miniatures wargaming. [J.R.R. Tolkien](/wiki/J.R.R._Tolkien \"J.R.R. Tolkien\")'s novel *[The Hobbit](/wiki/The_Hobbit \"The Hobbit\")* and his epic cycle *[The Lord of the Rings](/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings \"The Lord of the Rings\")* were gaining strong interest in the United States, and as a result, rules were quickly developed to play [medieval](/wiki/Medieval \"Medieval\") and [Roman](/wiki/Ancient_Rome \"Ancient Rome\")\\-era wargames, where these eras had previously been largely ignored in favor of [Napoleonic](/wiki/Napoleonic \"Napoleonic\") and [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") gaming.", "The two converged in the early 1970s. The first known occurrence, from 1970, is a set of rules by Len Patt{{cite magazine \\|last\\=Patt \\|first\\=Len \\|date\\=1970 \\|title\\=Rules for Middle Earth \\|magazine\\=The Courier,Volume II,No. 7 \\|location\\=Brockton, Massachusetts\\|publisher\\=New England Wargamers Association\\|pages\\=12–13}}{{cite magazine \\|last\\=Bryant \\|first\\=R \\|date\\=1970 \\|title\\=Editors Notes\\|magazine\\=The Courier,Volume II,No. 7 \\|location\\=Brockton, Massachusetts\\|publisher\\=New England Wargamers Association\\|quote\\= TheTbiggest\\[sic] news from this part or the country these last few weeks was the Philadelphia wargames convention held Oct. 10 ..... and last but no means least NEWA won \"Best of Show\" with our demonstration or a wargame based on Middle Earth (see page 12 and photo page).}} published in The New England Wargames Association's bulletin, The Courier. In 1971 a set of miniatures medieval miniatures rules entitled *[Chainmail](/wiki/Chainmail_%28game%29 \"Chainmail (game)\")*, published by a tiny company called [Guidon Games](/wiki/Guidon_Games \"Guidon Games\"), headquartered in [Belfast, Maine](/wiki/Belfast%2C_Maine \"Belfast, Maine\"){{cite book \\|author1\\=Gygax,Gary \\|author2\\=Perren,Jeff \\|date\\=1972 \\|title\\=Chainmail rules for medieval miniatures, 2nd Edition \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/chainmail\\-2nd\\-edition \\|location\\= Belfast,Maine\\|publisher\\=Donald S. Lowry}} included a fantasy supplement detailing rules for battle involving fantastic creatures. Later, in 1974, [TSR](/wiki/TSR%2C_Inc. \"TSR, Inc.\") designer [E. Gary Gygax](/wiki/E._Gary_Gygax \"E. Gary Gygax\") wrote a set of rules for individual characters under *Chainmail*, and entitled it *[Dungeons \\& Dragons](/wiki/Dungeons_%26_Dragons \"Dungeons & Dragons\")*. Further developments ensued, and the [role\\-playing game](/wiki/Role-playing_game \"Role-playing game\") hobby quickly became distinct from the wargaming hobby which preceded it.", "### Naval wargames", "{{Main\\|Naval wargaming}}\nAlthough generally less popular than wargames set on land, naval wargaming nevertheless enjoys a degree of support around the world. [Model ships](/wiki/Model_ships \"Model ships\") have long been used for wargaming, but it was the introduction of elaborate rules in the early 20th century that made the hobby more popular. Small miniature ships, often in 1:1200 scale and [1:1250 scale](/wiki/1:1250_scale \"1250 scale\"), were maneuvered on large playing surfaces to recreate historical battles. Prior to World War II, firms such as [Bassett\\-Lowke](/wiki/Bassett-Lowke \"Bassett-Lowke\") in England and the German company [Wiking](/wiki/Wiking_Modellbau \"Wiking Modellbau\") marketed these to the public.Head, Derek. *Bassett\\-Lowke Waterline Ship Models* London 1996 {{ISBN\\|1\\-872727\\-72\\-7}}Schönfeld, Peter *Wiking\\-Modelle Die Schiffe und Flugseuge* Hamburg 1998 {{ISBN\\|3\\-7822\\-0731\\-9}} After World War II, several manufacturers started business in Germany, which remains the center of production to this day,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.steelnavy.com/1250hist.htm\\#A\\+BRIEF\\+HISTORY\\+OF\\+THE\\+HOBBY\\|title\\=1250 History\\|website\\=www.steelnavy.com\\|access\\-date\\=May 20, 2020}} while other companies started in England and the United States.", "Rules can vary greatly between game systems; both in complexity and era. Historical rulesets range from the ancient and medieval ships to the fleets of the [Age of Sail](/wiki/Age_of_Sail \"Age of Sail\") and the [modern era](/wiki/Modern_era \"Modern era\"). Often the hobbyists have to provide their own models of ships. The 1972 game, *[Don't Give Up The Ship!](/wiki/Don%27t_Give_Up_The_Ship%21 \"Don't Give Up The Ship!\")*, called for pencil and paper, six\\-sided dice, rulers and [protractors](/wiki/Protractor \"Protractor\"), and model ships, ideally of 1:1200 scale. The elaborate rules cover morale, sinking, fires, broken masts, and [boarding](/wiki/Boarding_%28attack%29 \"Boarding (attack)\"). Dice determined wind speed and direction, and hence the ship's speed and the use of its [cannon](/wiki/Cannon \"Cannon\") by measuring angles with the protractor.*[Don't Give Up The Ship!](/wiki/Don%27t_Give_Up_The_Ship%21 \"Don't Give Up The Ship!\")*, 1st Edition, 1972, [Guidon Games](/wiki/Guidon_Games \"Guidon Games\"), 50 pages, blue \\& black cover", "In naval wargaming of the modern period, *[General Quarters](/wiki/General_Quarters_%28rules%29 \"General Quarters (rules)\")*, primarily (though not exclusively) using six\\-sided dice, has established itself as one of the leading sets of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") and II era rules.*Survey of Naval Wargames Rules*, NWS journal \"Battlefleet\" 1996", "Some land\\-based miniature wargames have also been adapted to naval wargaming. *[All at Sea](/wiki/All_at_Sea_%28ruleset%29 \"All at Sea (ruleset)\")*, for example, is an adaptation of *[The Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Game](/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings_Strategy_Battle_Game \"The Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Game\")* rules for naval conflicts. The game's mechanics centered around boarding parties, with options for [ramming actions](/wiki/Naval_ram \"Naval ram\") and [siege engines](/wiki/Siege_engine \"Siege engine\").{{cite web \\| author \\= Nick Davis \\| title \\= All At Sea Part One \\| work \\= Ruleset \\| publisher \\= White Dwarf \\| url \\= http://www.alt\\-world.com/alt\\-world/LOTR/undersail.htm \\| access\\-date \\= 2007\\-06\\-14 \\| url\\-status \\= dead \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20071009185152/http://www.alt\\-world.com/alt\\-world/LOTR/undersail.htm \\| archive\\-date \\= October 9, 2007 \\| df \\= mdy\\-all }} As such, the ship's scale ratio corresponds to the 25 mm scale miniatures used by *The Lord of the Rings*. Model ships are built by hobbyists, just as normal miniature terrain, such as \"[great ships](/wiki/Carrack \"Carrack\")\" of [Pelargir](/wiki/Pelargir \"Pelargir\"), [cogs](/wiki/Cog_%28ship%29 \"Cog (ship)\") of [Dol Amroth](/wiki/Dol_Amroth \"Dol Amroth\") and [Corsair](/wiki/Corsairs_of_Umbar \"Corsairs of Umbar\") [galleys](/wiki/Galleass \"Galleass\").{{cite web \\| title \\= The Ports of Pelargir \\| work \\= Website \\| url \\= http://www.freewebs.com/portsofpelargir \\| access\\-date \\= 2007\\-06\\-14 \\| url\\-status \\= dead \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20070313074610/http://www.freewebs.com/portsofpelargir/ \\| archive\\-date \\= March 13, 2007 \\| df \\= mdy\\-all }}", "### Air wargames", "[right\\|thumb\\|*Wings of War*, which simulates World War 1 aerial combat.](/wiki/File:Wings_of_War_2.jpg \"Wings of War 2.jpg\")\n{{Main\\|Air wargaming}}\nAir wargaming, like naval wargaming, is a smaller niche within the larger hobby of miniatures wargaming. Aerial combat has developed over a relatively short time compared with naval or land warfare. As such, air wargaming tends to break down into three broad periods:\n* World War I – from the earliest days of air combat to the 1920s\n* World War II – 1930s to the early 1950s\n* \"Modern\" – the missile age", "In addition there are science fiction and \"alternative history\" games such as *Aeronefs* and those in the *[Crimson Skies](/wiki/Crimson_Skies \"Crimson Skies\")* universe.", "" ]
History ------- ### Precursors {{See also\|History of Wargaming}} Wargaming was invented in [Prussia](/wiki/Prussia "Prussia") near the end of the 18th century. The earliest wargames were based on chess; the pieces represented real military units (artillery, cavalry, etc.) and squares on the board were color\-coded to represent different terrain types. Later wargames used realistic maps over which troop pieces could move in a free\-form manner, and instead of chess\-like sculpted pieces they used little rectangular blocks because they were played at smaller scales (e.g. 1:8000\). The Prussian army formally adopted wargaming as a training tool in 1824\. After Prussia defeated France in the [Franco\-Prussian War](/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War "Franco-Prussian War") of 1870, wargaming spread around the world and was played enthusiastically by both officers and civilians. ### Birth In 1881, the Scottish writer [Robert Louis Stevenson](/wiki/Robert_Louis_Stevenson "Robert Louis Stevenson") became the first documented person to use toy soldiers in a wargame, and thus he might be the inventor of miniature wargaming, although he never published his rules. According to an account by his stepson, they were very sophisticated and realistic, on par with German military wargames. Stevenson played his wargame on the floor, on a map drawn with chalk.{{cite magazine \|author1\=Robert Louis Stevenson \|author2\=Lloyd Osbourne \|date\=Dec 1898 \|title\=Stevenson at Play (With an Introduction by Lloyd Osbourne) \|url\=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id\=miun.acd5969\.0024\.006;view\=1up;seq\=6 \|magazine\=Scribner's Magazine \|volume\=24 \|issue\=6 \|pages\=709–719}} [right\|thumb\|[H. G. Wells](/wiki/H._G._Wells "H. G. Wells") and his friends playing *[Little Wars](/wiki/Little_Wars "Little Wars")*.](/wiki/File:HG_Wells_playing_to_Little_Wars.jpg "HG Wells playing to Little Wars.jpg") The English writer [H. G. Wells](/wiki/H._G._Wells "H. G. Wells") developed his own codified rules for playing with toy soldiers, which he published in a book titled *[Little Wars](/wiki/Little_Wars "Little Wars")* (1913\). This is widely remembered as the first rulebook for miniature wargaming. *Little Wars* had very simple rules to make it fun and accessible to anyone. *Little Wars* did not use dice or computation to resolve fights. For artillery attacks, players used spring\-loaded toy cannons which fired little wooden cylinders to physically knock over enemy models. As for infantry and cavalry, they could only engage in hand\-to\-hand combat (even if the figurines exhibited firearms). When two infantry units fought in close quarters, the units would suffer non\-random losses determined by their relative sizes. *Little Wars* was designed for a large field of play, such as a lawn or the floor of a large room, because the toy soldiers available to Wells were too large for tabletop play. An infantryman could move up to one foot per turn, and a cavalryman could move up to two feet per turn. To measure these distances, players used a two\-foot long piece of string. Wells was also the first wargamer to use models of buildings, trees, and other terrain features to create a three\-dimensional battlefield.H. G. Wells (1913\). *Little Wars* Wells' rulebook was for a long time regarded as the standard system by which other miniature wargames were judged. However, the nascent miniature wargaming community would remain very small for a long time to come. A possible reason was the two World Wars, which de\-glamorized war and caused shortages of tin and lead that made model soldiers expensive.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.sarahsundin.com/make\-it\-do\-metal\-shortages\-during\-world\-war\-ii/ \|title\=Make It Do – Metal Shortages During World War II \| website\=www.sarahsundin.com \|date\=11 July 2011}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bmssonline.com/about\-the\-bmss.html \|title\=History of the British Model Soldier Society \|website\=www.bmssonline.com}} Another reason may have been the lack of magazines or clubs dedicated to miniature wargames. Miniature wargaming was seen as a niche within the larger hobby of making and collecting model soldiers. ### Post\-War growth In 1955, an American named [Jack Scruby](/wiki/Jack_Scruby "Jack Scruby") began making inexpensive miniature models for [miniature wargames](/wiki/Miniature_wargame "Miniature wargame") out of [type metal](/wiki/Type_metal "Type metal"). Scruby's major contribution to the miniature wargaming hobby was to network players across [America](/wiki/United_States "United States") and the UK. At the time, the miniature wargaming community was minuscule, and players struggled to find each other. In 1956, Scruby organized the first miniature wargaming convention in America, which was attended by just fourteen people. From 1957 to 1962, he self\-published the world's first miniature wargaming magazine, titled *The War Game Digest*, through which wargamers could publish their rules and share game reports. It had less than two hundred subscribers, but it did establish a community that kept growing.Jon Peterson, in {{harvp\|Harrigan\|Kirschenbaum\|2016\|p\=19}} Around the same time in the United Kingdom, [Donald Featherstone](/wiki/Donald_Featherstone_%28wargamer%29 "Donald Featherstone (wargamer)") began writing an influential series of books on wargaming, which represented the first mainstream published contribution to wargaming since *Little Wars*. Titles included : *War Games* (1962\), *Advanced Wargames*, *Solo Wargaming*, *Wargame Campaigns*, *Battles with Model Tanks*, *Skirmish Wargaming*. Such was the popularity of such titles that other authors were able to have published wargaming titles. This output of published wargaming titles from British authors coupled with the emergence at the same time of several manufacturers providing suitable wargame miniatures (e.g. Miniature Figurines, Hinchliffe, Peter Laing, Garrison, [Airfix](/wiki/Airfix "Airfix"), Skytrex, Davco, Heroic \& Ros) was responsible for the huge upsurge of popularity of the hobby in the late 1960s and into the 1970s.See James Dunnigan's Foreword to Donald Featherstone's Lost Tales, published 2009\. Dunnigan clearly places Featherstone in his role as a key propagator of wargaming as a hobby and tool for professionals. In 1956, [Tony Bath](/wiki/Tony_Bath "Tony Bath") published what was the first ruleset for a miniature wargame set in the medieval period. In 1971, [Gary Gygax](/wiki/Gary_Gygax "Gary Gygax") developed his own miniature wargame system for medieval warfare called *[Chainmail](/wiki/Chainmail_%28game%29 "Chainmail (game)")*. Gygax later produced a supplement for *Chainmail* that added magic and fantasy creatures, making this the first fantasy miniature wargame. This supplement was inspired by the growing popularity of *[The Lord of the Rings](/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings "The Lord of the Rings")* novels by [J. R. R. Tolkien](/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien "J. R. R. Tolkien"). Gygax later went on to develop the first tabletop role\-playing game: *[Dungeons \& Dragons](/wiki/Dungeons_%26_Dragons "Dungeons & Dragons")*. *Dungeons \& Dragons* was a story\-driven game, but adapted wargaming rules to model the fights players could get in. Battles in *Dungeons and Dragons* rarely featured more than a dozen combatants, so the combat rules were designed to model the capabilities of the warriors in very great detail. Strictly speaking, *Dungeons \& Dragons* did not require miniature models to play, but many players found that using miniature models made the fights easier to arbitrate and more immersive. ### Commercial wargames with proprietary models In 1983, a British company called [Games Workshop](/wiki/Games_Workshop "Games Workshop") released a fantasy miniature wargame called *[Warhammer](/wiki/Warhammer_%28game%29 "Warhammer (game)")*,{{efn\|It was originally titled ''Warhammer Fantasy Battle'', then shortened to simply ''Warhammer'' in subsequent editions, and often referred to as ''Warhammer Fantasy'' to better distinguish it from ''Warhammer 40,000''. It was supplanted by ''\[\[Warhammer Age of Sigmar]]'', which is officially a new product line but uses the same setting as ''Warhammer Fantasy''.}} which was the first miniature wargame designed to use proprietary models. Games Workshop at the time made miniature models for use in *Dungeons \& Dragons*. *Warhammer* was meant to encourage customers to buy more of these models. Whereas miniature models were optional in *Dungeons \& Dragons*, *Warhammer* mandated their use and the battles tended to be larger.{{cite web \|url\=https://juegosydados.com/2016/08/26/interview\-with\-rick\-priestley/ \|title\=Interview with Rick Priestley \|date\=26 August 2016 \|website\=Juegos y Dados \|access\-date\=2019\-03\-23 \|quote\=What Bryan realised was that Citadel could sell a lot more models if there was a battle game that would enable players to field dozens or hundreds of models at once. Bryan asked Richard Halliwell to come up with a game, and because we always worked together on projects, Richard and I came up with the game that would become Warhammer.}} Initially, *Warhammer* had a threadbare fictional setting and used generic stock characters common to fantasy fiction, but as time went on, Games Workshop expanded the setting with original characters with distinctive visual designs. Games Workshop's official line of models for *Warhammer* eventually took on such a distinctive look that rival manufacturers could not produce similar\-looking models without risking a lawsuit over copyright infringement. Although there was nothing to stop players of *Warhammer* from using foreign models from third\-party manufacturers, doing so could spoil the aesthetic and cause confusion. In 1987, Games Workshop released a science\-fiction spinoff of *Warhammer* called *[Warhammer 40,000](/wiki/Warhammer_40%2C000 "Warhammer 40,000")*. Like *Warhammer*, *Warhammer 40,000* obliged players to buy proprietary models from Games Workshop. *Warhammer 40,000* became even more successful than *Warhammer*. The success of the *Warhammer* games promoted the sales of Games Workshop's line of gaming models. Other game companies sought to emulate Games Workshop's business model. Examples include [Mantic Games](/wiki/Mantic_Games "Mantic Games"), [Fantasy Flight Games](/wiki/Fantasy_Flight_Games "Fantasy Flight Games"), [Privateer Press](/wiki/Privateer_Press "Privateer Press"), and [Warlord Games](/wiki/Warlord_Games "Warlord Games"), all of which have released their own miniature wargame systems that were designed to promote sales of their respective lines of proprietary gaming models. This business model has proven lucrative, and thanks to the marketing resources of these companies, sci\-fi / fantasy wargames have displaced historical wargames in popularity.
[ "History\n-------", "### Precursors", "{{See also\\|History of Wargaming}}\nWargaming was invented in [Prussia](/wiki/Prussia \"Prussia\") near the end of the 18th century. The earliest wargames were based on chess; the pieces represented real military units (artillery, cavalry, etc.) and squares on the board were color\\-coded to represent different terrain types. Later wargames used realistic maps over which troop pieces could move in a free\\-form manner, and instead of chess\\-like sculpted pieces they used little rectangular blocks because they were played at smaller scales (e.g. 1:8000\\). The Prussian army formally adopted wargaming as a training tool in 1824\\. After Prussia defeated France in the [Franco\\-Prussian War](/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War \"Franco-Prussian War\") of 1870, wargaming spread around the world and was played enthusiastically by both officers and civilians.", "### Birth", "In 1881, the Scottish writer [Robert Louis Stevenson](/wiki/Robert_Louis_Stevenson \"Robert Louis Stevenson\") became the first documented person to use toy soldiers in a wargame, and thus he might be the inventor of miniature wargaming, although he never published his rules. According to an account by his stepson, they were very sophisticated and realistic, on par with German military wargames. Stevenson played his wargame on the floor, on a map drawn with chalk.{{cite magazine \\|author1\\=Robert Louis Stevenson \\|author2\\=Lloyd Osbourne \\|date\\=Dec 1898 \\|title\\=Stevenson at Play (With an Introduction by Lloyd Osbourne) \\|url\\=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id\\=miun.acd5969\\.0024\\.006;view\\=1up;seq\\=6 \\|magazine\\=Scribner's Magazine \\|volume\\=24 \\|issue\\=6 \\|pages\\=709–719}}", "[right\\|thumb\\|[H. G. Wells](/wiki/H._G._Wells \"H. G. Wells\") and his friends playing *[Little Wars](/wiki/Little_Wars \"Little Wars\")*.](/wiki/File:HG_Wells_playing_to_Little_Wars.jpg \"HG Wells playing to Little Wars.jpg\")\nThe English writer [H. G. Wells](/wiki/H._G._Wells \"H. G. Wells\") developed his own codified rules for playing with toy soldiers, which he published in a book titled *[Little Wars](/wiki/Little_Wars \"Little Wars\")* (1913\\). This is widely remembered as the first rulebook for miniature wargaming. *Little Wars* had very simple rules to make it fun and accessible to anyone. *Little Wars* did not use dice or computation to resolve fights. For artillery attacks, players used spring\\-loaded toy cannons which fired little wooden cylinders to physically knock over enemy models. As for infantry and cavalry, they could only engage in hand\\-to\\-hand combat (even if the figurines exhibited firearms). When two infantry units fought in close quarters, the units would suffer non\\-random losses determined by their relative sizes. *Little Wars* was designed for a large field of play, such as a lawn or the floor of a large room, because the toy soldiers available to Wells were too large for tabletop play. An infantryman could move up to one foot per turn, and a cavalryman could move up to two feet per turn. To measure these distances, players used a two\\-foot long piece of string. Wells was also the first wargamer to use models of buildings, trees, and other terrain features to create a three\\-dimensional battlefield.H. G. Wells (1913\\). *Little Wars*", "Wells' rulebook was for a long time regarded as the standard system by which other miniature wargames were judged. However, the nascent miniature wargaming community would remain very small for a long time to come. A possible reason was the two World Wars, which de\\-glamorized war and caused shortages of tin and lead that made model soldiers expensive.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sarahsundin.com/make\\-it\\-do\\-metal\\-shortages\\-during\\-world\\-war\\-ii/ \\|title\\=Make It Do – Metal Shortages During World War II \\| website\\=www.sarahsundin.com \\|date\\=11 July 2011}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bmssonline.com/about\\-the\\-bmss.html \\|title\\=History of the British Model Soldier Society \\|website\\=www.bmssonline.com}} Another reason may have been the lack of magazines or clubs dedicated to miniature wargames. Miniature wargaming was seen as a niche within the larger hobby of making and collecting model soldiers.", "### Post\\-War growth", "In 1955, an American named [Jack Scruby](/wiki/Jack_Scruby \"Jack Scruby\") began making inexpensive miniature models for [miniature wargames](/wiki/Miniature_wargame \"Miniature wargame\") out of [type metal](/wiki/Type_metal \"Type metal\"). Scruby's major contribution to the miniature wargaming hobby was to network players across [America](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") and the UK. At the time, the miniature wargaming community was minuscule, and players struggled to find each other. In 1956, Scruby organized the first miniature wargaming convention in America, which was attended by just fourteen people. From 1957 to 1962, he self\\-published the world's first miniature wargaming magazine, titled *The War Game Digest*, through which wargamers could publish their rules and share game reports. It had less than two hundred subscribers, but it did establish a community that kept growing.Jon Peterson, in {{harvp\\|Harrigan\\|Kirschenbaum\\|2016\\|p\\=19}}", "Around the same time in the United Kingdom, [Donald Featherstone](/wiki/Donald_Featherstone_%28wargamer%29 \"Donald Featherstone (wargamer)\") began writing an influential series of books on wargaming, which represented the first mainstream published contribution to wargaming since *Little Wars*. Titles included : *War Games* (1962\\), *Advanced Wargames*, *Solo Wargaming*, *Wargame Campaigns*, *Battles with Model Tanks*, *Skirmish Wargaming*. Such was the popularity of such titles that other authors were able to have published wargaming titles. This output of published wargaming titles from British authors coupled with the emergence at the same time of several manufacturers providing suitable wargame miniatures (e.g. Miniature Figurines, Hinchliffe, Peter Laing, Garrison, [Airfix](/wiki/Airfix \"Airfix\"), Skytrex, Davco, Heroic \\& Ros) was responsible for the huge upsurge of popularity of the hobby in the late 1960s and into the 1970s.See James Dunnigan's Foreword to Donald Featherstone's Lost Tales, published 2009\\. Dunnigan clearly places Featherstone in his role as a key propagator of wargaming as a hobby and tool for professionals.", "In 1956, [Tony Bath](/wiki/Tony_Bath \"Tony Bath\") published what was the first ruleset for a miniature wargame set in the medieval period. In 1971, [Gary Gygax](/wiki/Gary_Gygax \"Gary Gygax\") developed his own miniature wargame system for medieval warfare called *[Chainmail](/wiki/Chainmail_%28game%29 \"Chainmail (game)\")*. Gygax later produced a supplement for *Chainmail* that added magic and fantasy creatures, making this the first fantasy miniature wargame. This supplement was inspired by the growing popularity of *[The Lord of the Rings](/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings \"The Lord of the Rings\")* novels by [J. R. R. Tolkien](/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien \"J. R. R. Tolkien\").", "Gygax later went on to develop the first tabletop role\\-playing game: *[Dungeons \\& Dragons](/wiki/Dungeons_%26_Dragons \"Dungeons & Dragons\")*. *Dungeons \\& Dragons* was a story\\-driven game, but adapted wargaming rules to model the fights players could get in. Battles in *Dungeons and Dragons* rarely featured more than a dozen combatants, so the combat rules were designed to model the capabilities of the warriors in very great detail. Strictly speaking, *Dungeons \\& Dragons* did not require miniature models to play, but many players found that using miniature models made the fights easier to arbitrate and more immersive.", "### Commercial wargames with proprietary models", "In 1983, a British company called [Games Workshop](/wiki/Games_Workshop \"Games Workshop\") released a fantasy miniature wargame called *[Warhammer](/wiki/Warhammer_%28game%29 \"Warhammer (game)\")*,{{efn\\|It was originally titled ''Warhammer Fantasy Battle'', then shortened to simply ''Warhammer'' in subsequent editions, and often referred to as ''Warhammer Fantasy'' to better distinguish it from ''Warhammer 40,000''. It was supplanted by ''\\[\\[Warhammer Age of Sigmar]]'', which is officially a new product line but uses the same setting as ''Warhammer Fantasy''.}} which was the first miniature wargame designed to use proprietary models. Games Workshop at the time made miniature models for use in *Dungeons \\& Dragons*. *Warhammer* was meant to encourage customers to buy more of these models. Whereas miniature models were optional in *Dungeons \\& Dragons*, *Warhammer* mandated their use and the battles tended to be larger.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://juegosydados.com/2016/08/26/interview\\-with\\-rick\\-priestley/ \\|title\\=Interview with Rick Priestley \\|date\\=26 August 2016 \\|website\\=Juegos y Dados \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-03\\-23 \\|quote\\=What Bryan realised was that Citadel could sell a lot more models if there was a battle game that would enable players to field dozens or hundreds of models at once. Bryan asked Richard Halliwell to come up with a game, and because we always worked together on projects, Richard and I came up with the game that would become Warhammer.}} Initially, *Warhammer* had a threadbare fictional setting and used generic stock characters common to fantasy fiction, but as time went on, Games Workshop expanded the setting with original characters with distinctive visual designs. Games Workshop's official line of models for *Warhammer* eventually took on such a distinctive look that rival manufacturers could not produce similar\\-looking models without risking a lawsuit over copyright infringement. Although there was nothing to stop players of *Warhammer* from using foreign models from third\\-party manufacturers, doing so could spoil the aesthetic and cause confusion.", "In 1987, Games Workshop released a science\\-fiction spinoff of *Warhammer* called *[Warhammer 40,000](/wiki/Warhammer_40%2C000 \"Warhammer 40,000\")*. Like *Warhammer*, *Warhammer 40,000* obliged players to buy proprietary models from Games Workshop. *Warhammer 40,000* became even more successful than *Warhammer*. The success of the *Warhammer* games promoted the sales of Games Workshop's line of gaming models.", "Other game companies sought to emulate Games Workshop's business model. Examples include [Mantic Games](/wiki/Mantic_Games \"Mantic Games\"), [Fantasy Flight Games](/wiki/Fantasy_Flight_Games \"Fantasy Flight Games\"), [Privateer Press](/wiki/Privateer_Press \"Privateer Press\"), and [Warlord Games](/wiki/Warlord_Games \"Warlord Games\"), all of which have released their own miniature wargame systems that were designed to promote sales of their respective lines of proprietary gaming models. This business model has proven lucrative, and thanks to the marketing resources of these companies, sci\\-fi / fantasy wargames have displaced historical wargames in popularity.", "" ]
Training exercise ----------------- Planning for the exercise began in the spring of 1943\. By July 1943, preparations for the maneuver were underway in central Oregon. Before training could begin, army engineers had to complete a number of infrastructure projects including the construction of several airfields. Supply depots were established at key locations and a [Signal Corps](/wiki/Signal_Corps_%28United_States_Army%29 "Signal Corps (United States Army)") [battalion](/wiki/Battalion "Battalion") set up a communication network in the maneuver area.["Northwest Army Maneuvers Started in Great Triangle Near central Oregon Towns"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=MtssAAAAIBAJ&sjid=vh8EAAAAIBAJ&pg=1843,1044595&dq=oregon-maneuver&hl=en), *[The Bend Bulletin](/wiki/The_Bulletin_%28Bend%29 "The Bulletin (Bend)")*, Bend, Oregon, 16 Jul 1943, p. 1\.["Signal Corps men, Engineers Set up Telephone Network"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=ktssAAAAIBAJ&sjid=vh8EAAAAIBAJ&pg=1741,916917&dq=oregon-maneuver&hl=en), *The Bend Bulletin*, Bend, Oregon, 20 Jul 1943, p. 1\. On 27 July 1943, [General Patch](/wiki/Alexander_Patch "Alexander Patch") and his senior staff arrived at Camp Abbot.["General Visitor at Field Base"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=odssAAAAIBAJ&sjid=vh8EAAAAIBAJ&pg=6104,650909&dq=oregon+maneuver&hl=en), *The Bend Bulletin*, Bend Oregon, 27 Jul 1943, p. 1\. The main bodies of infantry arrived in the maneuver area in early August. Most of the infantry units were initially bivouacked along [U.S. Route 20](/wiki/U.S._Route_20 "U.S. Route 20") between Sisters and Bend.["Major Dates"](http://www.104infdiv.org/key%20dates.htm), 104th Infantry Division National Timberwolf Association, Wichita, Kansas, 9 September 2010\. As the divisions moved to the maneuver area from Camp White and Camp Adair, Oregon state officials warned civilians there would be heavy military traffic crossing the [Cascade Mountains](/wiki/Cascade_Mountains "Cascade Mountains") over the [McKenzie](/wiki/McKenzie_Pass "McKenzie Pass") and [Santiam](/wiki/Santiam_Pass "Santiam Pass") passes and on [U.S. Route 97](/wiki/U.S._Route_97 "U.S. Route 97"). The public was also reminded to obey directions from military police when traveling anywhere in the maneuver area.["Oregonian Must Obey MPs, Farrell States"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=HaERAAAAIBAJ&sjid=n-gDAAAAIBAJ&pg=2972,4384298&dq=oregon+maneuver&hl=en), *Eugene Register\-Guard*, Eugene, Oregon, 4 Aug 1943, p. 8\.["Night Driving in Midstate is Not Advised"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=j9ssAAAAIBAJ&sjid=vh8EAAAAIBAJ&pg=4250,217756&dq=oregon+maneuver&hl=en), *The Bend Bulletin*, Bend, Oregon, 7 Aug 1943, p. 1\. [left\|thumb\|220px\|[General Patch](/wiki/Alexander_Patch "Alexander Patch") led the Oregon Maneuver](/wiki/File:Alexander_Patch_portrait.jpg "Alexander Patch portrait.jpg") The initial phase of the maneuver was conducted in the triangle between Sisters, Bend, and Redmond. This phase lasted four weeks and focused on combat preparations including live\-fire exercises.["Maneuvers Begin in Central Oregon"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=DKERAAAAIBAJ&sjid=n-gDAAAAIBAJ&pg=1655,2930844&dq=oregon+maneuver&hl=en), *Eugene Register\-Guard*, Eugene, Oregon, 16 Jul 1943, p. 1\. [Combat engineers](/wiki/Combat_engineers "Combat engineers") of the [United States Army Corps of Engineers](/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers "United States Army Corps of Engineers"), many from the engineer training center at Camp Abbot, conducted bridging exercises along the [Deschutes River](/wiki/Deschutes_River_%28Oregon%29 "Deschutes River (Oregon)"). They also built roads and did other construction work throughout the maneuver area. Medical personnel participated in the maneuver as well, provided on\-site medical care to injured and sick troops. As the maneuver got underway, Army logistics troops began working around the clock to move combat supplies, food, water, gasoline, and equipment from a special railhead near Bend to the front lines.["Supplies from Maneuver Troops Moved in by Train Daily"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=WdssAAAAIBAJ&sjid=vh8EAAAAIBAJ&pg=1757,460004&dq=oregon-maneuver&hl=en), *The Bend Bulletin*, Bend, Oregon, 31 Jul 1943, p. 1\. In mid\-September, the Red Force deployed to positions {{convert\|40\|mi\|km}} east of Bend, establishing a north\-south defensive line near [Brothers, Oregon](/wiki/Brothers%2C_Oregon "Brothers, Oregon"). The Blue Force attacked the line, forcing the Red division to withdraw further east.Hannifin, Jerry, ["Battle Line in Big Maneuver Takes Shape on High Desert"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Ts4sAAAAIBAJ&sjid=7h8EAAAAIBAJ&dq=maneuver&pg=3944%2C1406412), *The Bend Bulletin*, Bend, Oregon, 15 September 1943, p. 1\. The Red Force's new defensive position was approximately {{convert\|65\|mi\|km}} east of Bend, near Hampton Mountain. Their defensive line stretched {{convert\|20\|mi\|km}} north to south. Again, Blue units attacked the Red line. After several days of stubborn resistance, the Red Force withdrew to the east toward Burns, fighting a delaying action as it pulled back.Hannifin, Jerry, ["Blue Assault Force Captures Butte in High Desert Battle"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=RM4sAAAAIBAJ&sjid=7h8EAAAAIBAJ&dq=jerry-hannifin&pg=4286%2C1587035), *The Bend Bulletin*, Bend, Oregon, 20 September 1943, p. 1\. The Red Force abandoned the town of Burns, withdrawing to positions {{convert\|30\|mi\|km}} southwest of the city. The final battle of the Oregon Maneuver was conducted east of [Wagontire, Oregon](/wiki/Wagontire%2C_Oregon "Wagontire, Oregon"), near [Silver Creek](/wiki/Silver_Creek_%28Harney_County%2C_Oregon%29 "Silver Creek (Harney County, Oregon)") in Harney County, near where a real battle was fought during the [Bannock War](/wiki/Bannock_War "Bannock War") in 1878\. The final battle lasted three days, with the Red Force occupying strong positions on high ground blocking [U.S. Route 395](/wiki/U.S._Route_395 "U.S. Route 395"). The larger Blue Force used tanks to spearhead their final assault, knocking out one Red outpost after another until the defenders could no longer maintain their line.Hannifin, Jerry, ["Motorized Units Clash on Desert"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Ms4sAAAAIBAJ&sjid=7h8EAAAAIBAJ&pg=4098%2C1982264), *The Bend Bulletin*, Bend, Oregon, 27 September 1943, p. 1\.Hannifin, Jerry, ["High Desert Battle Center on ‘Town’ of Wagontire"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Ms4sAAAAIBAJ&sjid=7h8EAAAAIBAJ&pg=6350%2C2055247), *The Bend Bulletin*, Bend, Oregon, 28 September 1943, p. 1\.["Maneuver Army Under Attack"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Kc4sAAAAIBAJ&sjid=7h8EAAAAIBAJ&pg=4671,2098752&dq=oregon+maneuver&hl=en), *The Bend Bulletin*, Bend, Oregon, 30 Sep 1943, p. 1\. The final phase of the maneuver was observed by [Lieutenant General](/wiki/Lieutenant_General_%28United_States%29 "Lieutenant General (United States)") [Lesley McNair](/wiki/Lesley_McNair "Lesley McNair"), chief of United States Army Ground Forces. During an interview at a dirt airfield near [Alkali Lake](/wiki/Alkali_Lake_%28Oregon%29 "Alkali Lake (Oregon)"), south of the Wagontire battle area, General McNair pronounced the maneuver a success. He also noted that the rugged [High Desert](/wiki/High_Desert_%28Oregon%29 "High Desert (Oregon)") terrain was an exceptionally good training environment for the troops participating in the maneuver.["Army Prepared Fight 10 Year War, Asserts High Ranking General in Midstate Battle Area"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Kc4sAAAAIBAJ&sjid=7h8EAAAAIBAJ&pg=4671,2098752&dq=oregon+maneuver&hl=en), *The Bend Bulletin*, Bend, Oregon, 30 Sep 1943, p. 1\. On 13 October 1943, General Patch officially ended the maneuver, declaring that the Red and Blue forces had both accomplished their training missions.["War Games End in Central Oregon"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=154zAAAAIBAJ&sjid=U-gDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6816,2536379&dq=oregon+maneuver&hl=en), *Eugene Register\-Guard*, Eugene, Oregon, 13 Oct 1943, p. 6\. The participating units began departing the maneuver area for their home stations in early November 1943\.["Troops in War Games Returning to Stations"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=4J4zAAAAIBAJ&sjid=U-gDAAAAIBAJ&pg=2377,3989031&dq=oregon-maneuver&hl=en), *Eugene Register\-Guard*, Eugene, Oregon, 1 Nov 1943, p. 1\. On 9 November 1943, Army officials announced they would repair roads damaged by tanks and other heavy vehicles during the maneuver.["Around Oregon"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=554zAAAAIBAJ&sjid=U-gDAAAAIBAJ&pg=2779,4598477&dq=oregon+war-game&hl=en), *Eugene Register\-Guard*, Eugene, Oregon, 9 Nov 1943, p. 7\. The [United States War Department](/wiki/United_States_War_Department "United States War Department") report on the Oregon Maneuver said the high desert environment proved to be ideal for the prescribed training. It noted that "the generally clear, cold weather facilitated long foot marches and permitted almost continuous operations of aircraft." Commanders also found that temperatures could vary by as much as 50 °F (28 °C) in a twenty\-four\-hour period. This tested the troops in a wide variety of conditions. The report stated that the last two exercise problems were conducted when the temperatures were well below [freezing](/wiki/Freezing "Freezing"), dropping to {{convert\|6\|F\|C}} on some occasions. This was particularly challenging during a river\-crossing operation that left participating personnel thoroughly wet; nevertheless, at the end of the maneuver the health of the entire command was found to be excellent.
[ "Training exercise\n-----------------", "Planning for the exercise began in the spring of 1943\\. By July 1943, preparations for the maneuver were underway in central Oregon. Before training could begin, army engineers had to complete a number of infrastructure projects including the construction of several airfields. Supply depots were established at key locations and a [Signal Corps](/wiki/Signal_Corps_%28United_States_Army%29 \"Signal Corps (United States Army)\") [battalion](/wiki/Battalion \"Battalion\") set up a communication network in the maneuver area.[\"Northwest Army Maneuvers Started in Great Triangle Near central Oregon Towns\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=MtssAAAAIBAJ&sjid=vh8EAAAAIBAJ&pg=1843,1044595&dq=oregon-maneuver&hl=en), *[The Bend Bulletin](/wiki/The_Bulletin_%28Bend%29 \"The Bulletin (Bend)\")*, Bend, Oregon, 16 Jul 1943, p. 1\\.[\"Signal Corps men, Engineers Set up Telephone Network\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=ktssAAAAIBAJ&sjid=vh8EAAAAIBAJ&pg=1741,916917&dq=oregon-maneuver&hl=en), *The Bend Bulletin*, Bend, Oregon, 20 Jul 1943, p. 1\\.", "On 27 July 1943, [General Patch](/wiki/Alexander_Patch \"Alexander Patch\") and his senior staff arrived at Camp Abbot.[\"General Visitor at Field Base\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=odssAAAAIBAJ&sjid=vh8EAAAAIBAJ&pg=6104,650909&dq=oregon+maneuver&hl=en), *The Bend Bulletin*, Bend Oregon, 27 Jul 1943, p. 1\\. The main bodies of infantry arrived in the maneuver area in early August. Most of the infantry units were initially bivouacked along [U.S. Route 20](/wiki/U.S._Route_20 \"U.S. Route 20\") between Sisters and Bend.[\"Major Dates\"](http://www.104infdiv.org/key%20dates.htm), 104th Infantry Division National Timberwolf Association, Wichita, Kansas, 9 September 2010\\. As the divisions moved to the maneuver area from Camp White and Camp Adair, Oregon state officials warned civilians there would be heavy military traffic crossing the [Cascade Mountains](/wiki/Cascade_Mountains \"Cascade Mountains\") over the [McKenzie](/wiki/McKenzie_Pass \"McKenzie Pass\") and [Santiam](/wiki/Santiam_Pass \"Santiam Pass\") passes and on [U.S. Route 97](/wiki/U.S._Route_97 \"U.S. Route 97\"). The public was also reminded to obey directions from military police when traveling anywhere in the maneuver area.[\"Oregonian Must Obey MPs, Farrell States\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=HaERAAAAIBAJ&sjid=n-gDAAAAIBAJ&pg=2972,4384298&dq=oregon+maneuver&hl=en), *Eugene Register\\-Guard*, Eugene, Oregon, 4 Aug 1943, p. 8\\.[\"Night Driving in Midstate is Not Advised\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=j9ssAAAAIBAJ&sjid=vh8EAAAAIBAJ&pg=4250,217756&dq=oregon+maneuver&hl=en), *The Bend Bulletin*, Bend, Oregon, 7 Aug 1943, p. 1\\.", "[left\\|thumb\\|220px\\|[General Patch](/wiki/Alexander_Patch \"Alexander Patch\") led the Oregon Maneuver](/wiki/File:Alexander_Patch_portrait.jpg \"Alexander Patch portrait.jpg\")", "The initial phase of the maneuver was conducted in the triangle between Sisters, Bend, and Redmond. This phase lasted four weeks and focused on combat preparations including live\\-fire exercises.[\"Maneuvers Begin in Central Oregon\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=DKERAAAAIBAJ&sjid=n-gDAAAAIBAJ&pg=1655,2930844&dq=oregon+maneuver&hl=en), *Eugene Register\\-Guard*, Eugene, Oregon, 16 Jul 1943, p. 1\\. [Combat engineers](/wiki/Combat_engineers \"Combat engineers\") of the [United States Army Corps of Engineers](/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers \"United States Army Corps of Engineers\"), many from the engineer training center at Camp Abbot, conducted bridging exercises along the [Deschutes River](/wiki/Deschutes_River_%28Oregon%29 \"Deschutes River (Oregon)\"). They also built roads and did other construction work throughout the maneuver area. Medical personnel participated in the maneuver as well, provided on\\-site medical care to injured and sick troops. As the maneuver got underway, Army logistics troops began working around the clock to move combat supplies, food, water, gasoline, and equipment from a special railhead near Bend to the front lines.[\"Supplies from Maneuver Troops Moved in by Train Daily\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=WdssAAAAIBAJ&sjid=vh8EAAAAIBAJ&pg=1757,460004&dq=oregon-maneuver&hl=en), *The Bend Bulletin*, Bend, Oregon, 31 Jul 1943, p. 1\\.", "In mid\\-September, the Red Force deployed to positions {{convert\\|40\\|mi\\|km}} east of Bend, establishing a north\\-south defensive line near [Brothers, Oregon](/wiki/Brothers%2C_Oregon \"Brothers, Oregon\"). The Blue Force attacked the line, forcing the Red division to withdraw further east.Hannifin, Jerry, [\"Battle Line in Big Maneuver Takes Shape on High Desert\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Ts4sAAAAIBAJ&sjid=7h8EAAAAIBAJ&dq=maneuver&pg=3944%2C1406412), *The Bend Bulletin*, Bend, Oregon, 15 September 1943, p. 1\\. The Red Force's new defensive position was approximately {{convert\\|65\\|mi\\|km}} east of Bend, near Hampton Mountain. Their defensive line stretched {{convert\\|20\\|mi\\|km}} north to south. Again, Blue units attacked the Red line. After several days of stubborn resistance, the Red Force withdrew to the east toward Burns, fighting a delaying action as it pulled back.Hannifin, Jerry, [\"Blue Assault Force Captures Butte in High Desert Battle\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=RM4sAAAAIBAJ&sjid=7h8EAAAAIBAJ&dq=jerry-hannifin&pg=4286%2C1587035), *The Bend Bulletin*, Bend, Oregon, 20 September 1943, p. 1\\. The Red Force abandoned the town of Burns, withdrawing to positions {{convert\\|30\\|mi\\|km}} southwest of the city. The final battle of the Oregon Maneuver was conducted east of [Wagontire, Oregon](/wiki/Wagontire%2C_Oregon \"Wagontire, Oregon\"), near [Silver Creek](/wiki/Silver_Creek_%28Harney_County%2C_Oregon%29 \"Silver Creek (Harney County, Oregon)\") in Harney County, near where a real battle was fought during the [Bannock War](/wiki/Bannock_War \"Bannock War\") in 1878\\. The final battle lasted three days, with the Red Force occupying strong positions on high ground blocking [U.S. Route 395](/wiki/U.S._Route_395 \"U.S. Route 395\"). The larger Blue Force used tanks to spearhead their final assault, knocking out one Red outpost after another until the defenders could no longer maintain their line.Hannifin, Jerry, [\"Motorized Units Clash on Desert\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Ms4sAAAAIBAJ&sjid=7h8EAAAAIBAJ&pg=4098%2C1982264), *The Bend Bulletin*, Bend, Oregon, 27 September 1943, p. 1\\.Hannifin, Jerry, [\"High Desert Battle Center on ‘Town’ of Wagontire\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Ms4sAAAAIBAJ&sjid=7h8EAAAAIBAJ&pg=6350%2C2055247), *The Bend Bulletin*, Bend, Oregon, 28 September 1943, p. 1\\.[\"Maneuver Army Under Attack\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Kc4sAAAAIBAJ&sjid=7h8EAAAAIBAJ&pg=4671,2098752&dq=oregon+maneuver&hl=en), *The Bend Bulletin*, Bend, Oregon, 30 Sep 1943, p. 1\\.", "The final phase of the maneuver was observed by [Lieutenant General](/wiki/Lieutenant_General_%28United_States%29 \"Lieutenant General (United States)\") [Lesley McNair](/wiki/Lesley_McNair \"Lesley McNair\"), chief of United States Army Ground Forces. During an interview at a dirt airfield near [Alkali Lake](/wiki/Alkali_Lake_%28Oregon%29 \"Alkali Lake (Oregon)\"), south of the Wagontire battle area, General McNair pronounced the maneuver a success. He also noted that the rugged [High Desert](/wiki/High_Desert_%28Oregon%29 \"High Desert (Oregon)\") terrain was an exceptionally good training environment for the troops participating in the maneuver.[\"Army Prepared Fight 10 Year War, Asserts High Ranking General in Midstate Battle Area\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Kc4sAAAAIBAJ&sjid=7h8EAAAAIBAJ&pg=4671,2098752&dq=oregon+maneuver&hl=en), *The Bend Bulletin*, Bend, Oregon, 30 Sep 1943, p. 1\\. On 13 October 1943, General Patch officially ended the maneuver, declaring that the Red and Blue forces had both accomplished their training missions.[\"War Games End in Central Oregon\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=154zAAAAIBAJ&sjid=U-gDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6816,2536379&dq=oregon+maneuver&hl=en), *Eugene Register\\-Guard*, Eugene, Oregon, 13 Oct 1943, p. 6\\. The participating units began departing the maneuver area for their home stations in early November 1943\\.[\"Troops in War Games Returning to Stations\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=4J4zAAAAIBAJ&sjid=U-gDAAAAIBAJ&pg=2377,3989031&dq=oregon-maneuver&hl=en), *Eugene Register\\-Guard*, Eugene, Oregon, 1 Nov 1943, p. 1\\. On 9 November 1943, Army officials announced they would repair roads damaged by tanks and other heavy vehicles during the maneuver.[\"Around Oregon\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=554zAAAAIBAJ&sjid=U-gDAAAAIBAJ&pg=2779,4598477&dq=oregon+war-game&hl=en), *Eugene Register\\-Guard*, Eugene, Oregon, 9 Nov 1943, p. 7\\.", "The [United States War Department](/wiki/United_States_War_Department \"United States War Department\") report on the Oregon Maneuver said the high desert environment proved to be ideal for the prescribed training. It noted that \"the generally clear, cold weather facilitated long foot marches and permitted almost continuous operations of aircraft.\" Commanders also found that temperatures could vary by as much as 50 °F (28 °C) in a twenty\\-four\\-hour period. This tested the troops in a wide variety of conditions. The report stated that the last two exercise problems were conducted when the temperatures were well below [freezing](/wiki/Freezing \"Freezing\"), dropping to {{convert\\|6\\|F\\|C}} on some occasions. This was particularly challenging during a river\\-crossing operation that left participating personnel thoroughly wet; nevertheless, at the end of the maneuver the health of the entire command was found to be excellent.", "" ]
Branch lines ------------ Two branch lines are plainly visible veering off north of the bridge at the north end of Shirebrook station. The double tracks branching off eastwards (i.e. to the right as viewed from the station) to the side of the signalbox joined the LD\&ECR's one\-time main line to Lincoln, next stop {{rws\|Warsop}}. The branch only ever carried a regular passenger service for a few years in Edwardian times. It did, however, carry Summer holiday trains such as the Summer Saturdays Radford to Skegness in at least 1963\.[1963 Shirebrook\-Warsop Timetable: via *psul4all*](http://www.psul4all.free-online.co.uk/summer63-intro.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120620124011/http://www.psul4all.free\-online.co.uk/summer63\-intro.htm \|date\=20 June 2012 }} The branch's main purpose was always freight traffic, with coal being overwhelmingly dominant. In 2013 the line gives access to [UK Coal's](/wiki/UK_Coal "UK Coal") Thoresby Colliery and to the [High Marnham Test Track](/wiki/High_Marnham_Test_Track "High Marnham Test Track"). There is some hope of reopening the line as a branch off the [Robin Hood Line](/wiki/Robin_Hood_Line "Robin Hood Line") and reopening {{rws\|Warsop}}, [Edwinstowe](/wiki/Edwinstowe_railway_station "Edwinstowe railway station") and [Ollerton](/wiki/Ollerton_railway_station "Ollerton railway station") stations, providing an hourly service to Mansfield and Nottingham. {{cite web \|url \= http://www.worksopguardian.co.uk/shirebrook\-and\-bolsover\-area\-news/New\-bid\-to\-extend\-rail.5478521\.jp \|title \= New bid to extend rail link to Ollerton \|first \= Helen \|last \= Lambourne \|publisher \= Worksop Today \|date \= 22 July 2009 \|access\-date \= 21 February 2010}} The single line veering off westwards (to the left as viewed from the station) was removed in the 1940s and relaid in 1974\. It used to have a matching second track coming down on the other side of the main lines, behind the signalbox as viewed from the station, but that was not reinstated. The reinstated single line serves W H Davis's wagon works in Langwith Junction. From 1900 to 1939 the pair of lines enabled trains to run from Sheffield through {{rws\|Spinkhill}}, {{rws\|Clowne South}}, Creswell's old "Top Station" ({{rws\|Creswell and Welbeck}}), {{rws\|Shirebrook North}}, Shirebrook West, and {{rws\|Mansfield Woodhouse}} to {{rws\|Mansfield\|England}}. Finally, up to 1974 the next station north from Shirebrook on what is now the [Robin Hood Line](/wiki/Robin_Hood_Line "Robin Hood Line") was not {{rws\|Langwith\-Whaley Thorns}} but simply "{{rws\|Langwith}}". That station was at Langwith Maltings. In the 1964\-1998 closure period it was demolished. As a new station would have to be built at Langwith when the Robin Hood Line was to be reopened it was decided that the community would be better served by a station at Nether Langwith/Whaley Thorns than at the old station site.
[ "Branch lines\n------------", "Two branch lines are plainly visible veering off north of the bridge at the north end of Shirebrook station.", "The double tracks branching off eastwards (i.e. to the right as viewed from the station) to the side of the signalbox joined the LD\\&ECR's one\\-time main line to Lincoln, next stop {{rws\\|Warsop}}. The branch only ever carried a regular passenger service for a few years in Edwardian times. It did, however, carry Summer holiday trains such as the Summer Saturdays Radford to Skegness in at least 1963\\.[1963 Shirebrook\\-Warsop Timetable: via *psul4all*](http://www.psul4all.free-online.co.uk/summer63-intro.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120620124011/http://www.psul4all.free\\-online.co.uk/summer63\\-intro.htm \\|date\\=20 June 2012 }} The branch's main purpose was always freight traffic, with coal being overwhelmingly dominant.", "In 2013 the line gives access to [UK Coal's](/wiki/UK_Coal \"UK Coal\") Thoresby Colliery and to the [High Marnham Test Track](/wiki/High_Marnham_Test_Track \"High Marnham Test Track\").", "There is some hope of reopening the line as a branch off the [Robin Hood Line](/wiki/Robin_Hood_Line \"Robin Hood Line\") and reopening {{rws\\|Warsop}}, [Edwinstowe](/wiki/Edwinstowe_railway_station \"Edwinstowe railway station\") and [Ollerton](/wiki/Ollerton_railway_station \"Ollerton railway station\") stations, providing an hourly service to Mansfield and Nottingham.\n{{cite web \\|url \\= http://www.worksopguardian.co.uk/shirebrook\\-and\\-bolsover\\-area\\-news/New\\-bid\\-to\\-extend\\-rail.5478521\\.jp \\|title \\= New bid to extend rail link to Ollerton \\|first \\= Helen \\|last \\= Lambourne \\|publisher \\= Worksop Today \n \\|date \\= 22 July 2009 \\|access\\-date \\= 21 February 2010}}", "The single line veering off westwards (to the left as viewed from the station) was removed in the 1940s and relaid in 1974\\. It used to have a matching second track coming down on the other side of the main lines, behind the signalbox as viewed from the station, but that was not reinstated.", "The reinstated single line serves W H Davis's wagon works in Langwith Junction. From 1900 to 1939 the pair of lines enabled trains to run from Sheffield through {{rws\\|Spinkhill}}, {{rws\\|Clowne South}}, Creswell's old \"Top Station\" ({{rws\\|Creswell and Welbeck}}), {{rws\\|Shirebrook North}}, Shirebrook West, and {{rws\\|Mansfield Woodhouse}} to {{rws\\|Mansfield\\|England}}.", "Finally, up to 1974 the next station north from Shirebrook on what is now the [Robin Hood Line](/wiki/Robin_Hood_Line \"Robin Hood Line\") was not {{rws\\|Langwith\\-Whaley Thorns}} but simply \"{{rws\\|Langwith}}\". That station was at Langwith Maltings. In the 1964\\-1998 closure period it was demolished. As a new station would have to be built at Langwith when the Robin Hood Line was to be reopened it was decided that the community would be better served by a station at Nether Langwith/Whaley Thorns than at the old station site.", "" ]
Driving career -------------- Born in [Texarkana, Arkansas](/wiki/Texarkana%2C_Arkansas "Texarkana, Arkansas"), Jones' family moved to [Torrance, California](/wiki/Torrance%2C_California "Torrance, California"), where he grew up (and lived in nearby [Rolling Hills](/wiki/Rolling_Hills%2C_CA "Rolling Hills, CA")). He was nicknamed Parnelli by his boyhood friend Billy Calder, who hoped that the Jones family would not discover their son was racing cars as a 17\-year\-old minor.[Biography](http://offroadmotorsportshalloffame.com/inductees.fx?id=10) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930035336/http://offroadmotorsportshalloffame.com/inductees.fx?id\=10 \|date\=2011\-09\-30 }} at the [Off\-road Motorsports Hall of Fame](/wiki/Off-road_Motorsports_Hall_of_Fame "Off-road Motorsports Hall of Fame") Jones participated in his first race in a [Jalopy](/wiki/Jalopy "Jalopy") race at [Carrell Speedway](/wiki/Carrell_Speedway "Carrell Speedway") in [Gardena, California](/wiki/Gardena%2C_California "Gardena, California"). He developed his racing skills by racing in many different classes in the 1950s, including 15 [stock car racing](/wiki/Stock_car_racing "Stock car racing") wins in the [NASCAR Pacific Coast Late Model Series](/wiki/NASCAR_Grand_National_Division%2C_West_Series "NASCAR Grand National Division, West Series").[Biography](http://www.stockcarreunion.com/inductees.html) at the [West Coast Stock Car Hall of Fame](/wiki/West_Coast_Stock_Car_Hall_of_Fame "West Coast Stock Car Hall of Fame"), Retrieved November 8, 2007 His first major championship was the [Midwest](/wiki/Midwestern_United_States "Midwestern United States") region [Sprint car](/wiki/Sprint_car_racing "Sprint car racing") title in 1960\. The title caught the attention of [promoter](/wiki/Promoter_%28entertainment%29 "Promoter (entertainment)") [J. C. Agajanian](/wiki/J._C._Agajanian "J. C. Agajanian"), who became his sponsor.[Biography](http://www.motorsportshalloffame.com/halloffame/1990/Parnelli_Jones_main.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427195733/http://www.motorsportshalloffame.com/halloffame/1990/Parnelli\_Jones\_main.htm \|date\=2006\-04\-27 }} at the [International Motorsports Hall of Fame](/wiki/International_Motorsports_Hall_of_Fame "International Motorsports Hall of Fame") He began racing at [Indianapolis](/wiki/Indianapolis_500 "Indianapolis 500") in 1961\. Jones was named the [1961 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1961_Indianapolis_500 "1961 Indianapolis 500") [Rookie of the Year](/wiki/List_of_Indianapolis_500_Rookies_of_the_Year "List of Indianapolis 500 Rookies of the Year"), an honor that he shared with [Bobby Marshman](/wiki/Bobby_Marshman "Bobby Marshman"). Jones led early in the race and ran among the leaders until being hit in the face with a stone, bloodying his face, blurring his vision and slowing him to a 12th\-place finish. In 1962, he was the first driver to qualify over 150 mph at the [Indianapolis 500](/wiki/Indianapolis_500 "Indianapolis 500"), winning the pole position at a speed of {{convert\|150\.370\|mi/h\|km/h\|abbr\=on}}. Jones dominated the first two\-thirds of the race until a brake line failure slowed him, and he settled for a seventh\-place finish. [thumb\|Jones drives the car he drove in the Indianapolis 500 from 1961 through 1964 around the [Indianapolis Motor Speedway](/wiki/Indianapolis_Motor_Speedway "Indianapolis Motor Speedway") track in 2012\.\|300x300px](/wiki/File:Parnelli_Jones_20120519.jpg "Parnelli Jones 20120519.jpg") In the 1963 [Indianapolis 500](/wiki/Indianapolis_500 "Indianapolis 500"), he started on the pole. This was the year the controversial [Lotus](/wiki/Lotus_Cars "Lotus Cars")\-[Ford](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company "Ford Motor Company") rear\-engined cars made their first appearance, and had ruffled the Indianapolis establishment. Before the race, the chief steward, [Harlan Fengler](/wiki/Harlan_Fengler "Harlan Fengler"), told the teams that he would black\-flag any cars that leaked oil on the track, warning, *"Don't believe me, just try me."* With Scotsman [Jim Clark](/wiki/Jim_Clark "Jim Clark") in a Lotus\-Ford closing on Jones in the waning laps, Jones' car developed a horizontal crack in the external oil reservoir. At that moment, driver [Eddie Sachs](/wiki/Eddie_Sachs "Eddie Sachs") crashed on the oil\-slickened racing surface and brought out a yellow caution flag, slowing the field. Agajanian, Jones' car owner, argued with chief steward Harlan Fengler not to issue a black flag, insisting the oil level had dropped below the level of the crack, and that the leak had stopped. As Agajanian pleaded with Fengler, Lotus head man [Colin Chapman](/wiki/Colin_Chapman "Colin Chapman") rushed up to join the conversation and demanded that Fengler follow the rules about disqualifying cars with oil leaks. With the end of the race just minutes away, Fengler took no action, and Jones went on to win. The Lotus\-Ford team, while unhappy with the obvious favoritism displayed by race officials toward Jones and Agajanian, also acknowledged Jones' clear superiority in the event. In addition, Ford officials recognized that a victory through disqualification of Clark's biggest competitor would not be well received by the public, so they declined to protest. Also that year, legendary vehicle fabricator [Bill Stroppe](/wiki/Bill_Stroppe "Bill Stroppe") built a [Mercury Marauder](/wiki/Mercury_Marauder "Mercury Marauder") USAC Stock car for Jones. Jones won the 1963 [Pikes Peak International Hill Climb](/wiki/Pikes_Peak_International_Hill_Climb "Pikes Peak International Hill Climb") in the car, and broke the stock car speed record. In 1964, he won seven races (and tied for a win) on his way to the [USAC](/wiki/United_States_Automobile_Club "United States Automobile Club") Stock car crown. He won the [Turkey Night Grand Prix](/wiki/Turkey_Night_Grand_Prix "Turkey Night Grand Prix") [midget car](/wiki/Midget_car_racing "Midget car racing") event. [Mercury](/wiki/Mercury_%28car%29 "Mercury (car)") decided to pull out of stock car racing after the season. The following year, Jones almost won Indy for a second time, finishing second behind Jim Clark. He won five of the nine midget car events that he entered in 1966, including the [Turkey Night Grand Prix](/wiki/Turkey_Night_Grand_Prix "Turkey Night Grand Prix"). He finished fourteenth in the final points despite competing in only nine of 65 events. [thumb\|Jones's [STP\-Paxton Turbocar](/wiki/STP-Paxton_Turbocar "STP-Paxton Turbocar") from the [1967 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1967_Indianapolis_500 "1967 Indianapolis 500").](/wiki/File:STP_Turbine.jpg "STP Turbine.jpg") In [1967](/wiki/1967_Indianapolis_500 "1967 Indianapolis 500"), he drove in the [Indianapolis 500](/wiki/Indianapolis_500 "Indianapolis 500") for owner [Andy Granatelli](/wiki/Andy_Granatelli "Andy Granatelli") in the revolutionary [STP\-Paxton Turbocar](/wiki/STP-Paxton_Turbocar "STP-Paxton Turbocar"). Jones dominated the race but dropped out with three laps to go when a small, inexpensive transmission bearing broke. After 1968, turbine\-powered cars were legislated out of competition. Also in 1967, as part of his stock car contract with the [Lincoln\-Mercury](/wiki/Lincoln-Mercury "Lincoln-Mercury") division of the Ford Motor Company, Jones drove a [Mercury Cougar](/wiki/Mercury_Cougar "Mercury Cougar") for Bud Moore in the second\-year Trans Am series. In April, Jones dueled with teammate, friend and rival [Dan Gurney](/wiki/Dan_Gurney "Dan Gurney") in a brutal {{convert\|300\|mi\|km\|adj\=on}}, 4\-hour event at [Green Valley, Texas](/wiki/Green_Valley%2C_Texas "Green Valley, Texas") in 113\-degree heat, losing by inches to Gurney. Stroppe suggested that Jones try his hand at [off\-road racing](/wiki/Off-road_racing "Off-road racing") in front of a large crowd at a Christmas party in 1967\. Jones at first said no, since he had enough of dirt. Stroppe suggested that maybe off\-road racing was too hard for Jones, and the challenge started Jones' off\-road career. Jones and Stroppe teamed up for the {{convert\|711\|mi\|km\|sing\=on}} [Star Dust 7/11](/wiki/Star_Dust_7/11 "Star Dust 7/11") race across the [Nevada](/wiki/Nevada "Nevada") [desert](/wiki/Desert "Desert") in early 1968\. Jones had never driven or pre\-run the [Ford Bronco](/wiki/Ford_Bronco "Ford Bronco"). Jones hit a dry wash at full speed, which broke the wheels and blew out the front tires. Jones would later have a guest appearance in the original film *[Gone in 60 Seconds](/wiki/Gone_in_60_Seconds_%281974_film%29 "Gone in 60 Seconds (1974 film)")* featuring him and his Bronco which was stolen in the plot. Jones had become hooked on off\-road racing. In 1968, Jones headed a super\-roster of seven drivers signed by Andy Granatelli to drive STP [Lotus 56](/wiki/Lotus_56 "Lotus 56") turbine cars in an unprecedented single\-team assault on the Indianapolis 500\. The deaths of [Jim Clark](/wiki/Jim_Clark "Jim Clark") and [Mike Spence](/wiki/Mike_Spence "Mike Spence"), plus a serious injury to [Jackie Stewart](/wiki/Jackie_Stewart "Jackie Stewart"), whittled the entry to four. Jones, testing his reworked 1967 car in practice, was dissatisfied with the car's performance compared to the newer "wedge"\-shaped Lotus 56 turbines, and had concluded the car was unsafe. He stepped out of the car, which was subsequently assigned to Joe Leonard, who promptly wrecked the car in practice. Jones retired from driving IndyCars, but later admitted, "If I hadn't already won Indy, they could never have kept me out of that car." Jones entered the 1968 [NORRA](/wiki/NORRA "NORRA") Mexican 1000 (now [Baja 1000](/wiki/Baja_1000 "Baja 1000")). Jones led until the {{convert\|150\|mi\|km\|sing\=on}} marker. The [Off\-road Motorsports Hall of Fame](/wiki/Off-road_Motorsports_Hall_of_Fame "Off-road Motorsports Hall of Fame") describes Jones' racing style: "Jones and Stroppe had to find a way to keep their vehicles in one piece. During races Jones would push the vehicles at maximum speeds until they gave way, with Stroppe telling him at top volume the entire time to take it easier on the vehicle." [alt\=Image of Ford Bronco known as Big Oly driven by Parnelli Jones in multiple offroad events\|thumb\|300x300px\|Parnelli Jones driving Big Oly in Baja 500](/wiki/File:Big-oly-returns-to-baja-at-the-norra-mexican-1000-2022-03-28_16-27-56_931323-1440x670.jpg "Big-oly-returns-to-baja-at-the-norra-mexican-1000-2022-03-28 16-27-56 931323-1440x670.jpg") Jones had a special car fabricated by Dick Russell via Bill Stroppe that looked like a Bronco, but had racing parts that could withstand rigorous jarring that off\-road vehicles endure. Jones named the vehicle "Big Oly" after his sponsor [Olympia Beer](/wiki/Olympia_Brewing_Company "Olympia Brewing Company"). Jones used the vehicle to lead the 1971 Mexican 1000 from start to finish in a new record time of 14 hours and 59 minutes. It was the first off\-road racing victory by an Indy 500\-winning driver. In Big Oly, Jones won back\-to\-back Mexican NORRA 1000s, a Mint 400, a Baja 500, along with other victories. [alt\=Parnelli Jones sitting in 1970 Boss 302 Mustang\|thumb\|300x300px\|Jones's 1970 Boss 302 Mustang](/wiki/File:1970-parnelli-jones-boss-302.jpg "1970-parnelli-jones-boss-302.jpg") Capitalizing on his long history with Ford, Parnelli joined with [Bud Moore Engineering](/wiki/Bud_Moore_Engineering "Bud Moore Engineering") to race in the SCCA [Trans\-Am Championship](/wiki/Trans-Am_Series "Trans-Am Series") series. In 1967, to help with the vehicle launch, Jones raced a prepped 1967 Mercury Cougar. The car was not overly competitive, however Ford did win the Manufacturers Title. Jones did not race in 1968 season. Jones returned to Bud Moore and Trans\-Am in 1969 to help with the debut of the [Boss 302 Mustang](/wiki/Boss_302_Mustang "Boss 302 Mustang"). Teamed with [George Follmer](/wiki/George_Follmer "George Follmer"), Jones finished second in the Drivers Championship to Mark Donohue driving a 1969 [Penkse](/wiki/Roger_Penske "Roger Penske") prepared [Camaro](/wiki/Chevrolet_Camaro_%28first_generation%29 "Chevrolet Camaro (first generation)"). Both Moore and Jones agreed that the [Firestone tires](/wiki/Firestone_Tire_and_Rubber_Company "Firestone Tire and Rubber Company") were the reason they did not win the championship due to their short life compared to Goodyear, but due to Jones's Firestone sponsorship, they were required.{{Cite web \|last\=Farr \|first\=Donald \|date\=June 1, 2005 \|title\=Bud Moore Engineering \- Reflecting With Bud \|url\=https://www.motortrend.com/news/mump\-0506\-bud\-moore\-engineering\-reflecting\-ford\-mustangs/}} In 1970, Moore, Jones, and Follmer returned to dominate the 1970 Trans\-Am season. Jones finished his racing career with major wins during the year 1973\. He won his second Mexican 1000 in 16 hours and 42 minutes. He also won the 1973 [Baja 500](/wiki/Baja_500 "Baja 500") and [Mint 400](/wiki/Mint_400 "Mint 400") off\-road events. Jones had a major accident at [SCORE International](/wiki/SCORE_International "SCORE International")'s 1974 Baja 500, and stepped away from full\-time off\-road racing to become a race car owner. ### Driving career summary Jones retired with six [IndyCar](/wiki/IndyCar "IndyCar") wins and twelve pole positions, four wins in 34 [NASCAR](/wiki/NASCAR "NASCAR") starts, including the 1967 Motor Trend 500 at [Riverside](/wiki/Riverside_International_Raceway "Riverside International Raceway"),{{cite web \|url\=https://www.racing\-reference.info/driver/Parnelli\_Jones/ \|title\=Parnelli Jones \|work\=Racing\-Reference \|publisher\=NASCAR Digital Media, LLC \|access\-date\=June 6, 2024}} 25 midget car feature wins in occasional races between 1960 and 1967,{{cite web \|url\=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1uaAxLO1dIHW21L\-31bZ6O8dhlB1BOQTJ/view?usp\=sharing \|title\=USAC National Midget Driver Feature Wins \|website\=usacracing.com \|access\-date\=June 6, 2024 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20240606035007/https://drive.google.com/file/d/1uaAxLO1dIHW21L\-31bZ6O8dhlB1BOQTJ/view \|archive\-date\=June 6, 2024}} 25 career [sprint car](/wiki/Sprint_car_racing "Sprint car racing") wins,{{cite web \|url\=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Ad1fpKMBfY1EBvX5ZYXz2ijfHo6eplgp/view \|title\=USAC National Sprint Car Driver Feature Wins \|website\=usacracing.com \|access\-date\=June 6, 2024 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20240606035722/https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Ad1fpKMBfY1EBvX5ZYXz2ijfHo6eplgp/view \|archive\-date\=June 6, 2024}} and seven Tran\-Am wins and a Drivers Championship in 1970\.{{Cite web \|title\=50 Years Ago: 1970 Trans\-Am {{!}} SpeedTour \|url\=https://speedtour.net/articles/50\-years\-ago\-1970\-trans\-am/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-25 \|language\=en\-US}} His fifteen wins is eighth on the all\-time in NASCAR Pacific Coast Late Model history. In 1993, Jones took part in the [Fast Masters](/wiki/Fast_Masters "Fast Masters"). He advanced to the final championship round and placed 6th overall.
[ "Driving career\n--------------", "Born in [Texarkana, Arkansas](/wiki/Texarkana%2C_Arkansas \"Texarkana, Arkansas\"), Jones' family moved to [Torrance, California](/wiki/Torrance%2C_California \"Torrance, California\"), where he grew up (and lived in nearby [Rolling Hills](/wiki/Rolling_Hills%2C_CA \"Rolling Hills, CA\")). He was nicknamed Parnelli by his boyhood friend Billy Calder, who hoped that the Jones family would not discover their son was racing cars as a 17\\-year\\-old minor.[Biography](http://offroadmotorsportshalloffame.com/inductees.fx?id=10) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930035336/http://offroadmotorsportshalloffame.com/inductees.fx?id\\=10 \\|date\\=2011\\-09\\-30 }} at the [Off\\-road Motorsports Hall of Fame](/wiki/Off-road_Motorsports_Hall_of_Fame \"Off-road Motorsports Hall of Fame\") Jones participated in his first race in a [Jalopy](/wiki/Jalopy \"Jalopy\") race at [Carrell Speedway](/wiki/Carrell_Speedway \"Carrell Speedway\") in [Gardena, California](/wiki/Gardena%2C_California \"Gardena, California\"). He developed his racing skills by racing in many different classes in the 1950s, including 15 [stock car racing](/wiki/Stock_car_racing \"Stock car racing\") wins in the [NASCAR Pacific Coast Late Model Series](/wiki/NASCAR_Grand_National_Division%2C_West_Series \"NASCAR Grand National Division, West Series\").[Biography](http://www.stockcarreunion.com/inductees.html) at the [West Coast Stock Car Hall of Fame](/wiki/West_Coast_Stock_Car_Hall_of_Fame \"West Coast Stock Car Hall of Fame\"), Retrieved November 8, 2007", "His first major championship was the [Midwest](/wiki/Midwestern_United_States \"Midwestern United States\") region [Sprint car](/wiki/Sprint_car_racing \"Sprint car racing\") title in 1960\\. The title caught the attention of [promoter](/wiki/Promoter_%28entertainment%29 \"Promoter (entertainment)\") [J. C. Agajanian](/wiki/J._C._Agajanian \"J. C. Agajanian\"), who became his sponsor.[Biography](http://www.motorsportshalloffame.com/halloffame/1990/Parnelli_Jones_main.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427195733/http://www.motorsportshalloffame.com/halloffame/1990/Parnelli\\_Jones\\_main.htm \\|date\\=2006\\-04\\-27 }} at the [International Motorsports Hall of Fame](/wiki/International_Motorsports_Hall_of_Fame \"International Motorsports Hall of Fame\") He began racing at [Indianapolis](/wiki/Indianapolis_500 \"Indianapolis 500\") in 1961\\.", "Jones was named the [1961 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1961_Indianapolis_500 \"1961 Indianapolis 500\") [Rookie of the Year](/wiki/List_of_Indianapolis_500_Rookies_of_the_Year \"List of Indianapolis 500 Rookies of the Year\"), an honor that he shared with [Bobby Marshman](/wiki/Bobby_Marshman \"Bobby Marshman\"). Jones led early in the race and ran among the leaders until being hit in the face with a stone, bloodying his face, blurring his vision and slowing him to a 12th\\-place finish.", "In 1962, he was the first driver to qualify over 150 mph at the [Indianapolis 500](/wiki/Indianapolis_500 \"Indianapolis 500\"), winning the pole position at a speed of {{convert\\|150\\.370\\|mi/h\\|km/h\\|abbr\\=on}}. Jones dominated the first two\\-thirds of the race until a brake line failure slowed him, and he settled for a seventh\\-place finish.", "[thumb\\|Jones drives the car he drove in the Indianapolis 500 from 1961 through 1964 around the [Indianapolis Motor Speedway](/wiki/Indianapolis_Motor_Speedway \"Indianapolis Motor Speedway\") track in 2012\\.\\|300x300px](/wiki/File:Parnelli_Jones_20120519.jpg \"Parnelli Jones 20120519.jpg\")\nIn the 1963 [Indianapolis 500](/wiki/Indianapolis_500 \"Indianapolis 500\"), he started on the pole. This was the year the controversial [Lotus](/wiki/Lotus_Cars \"Lotus Cars\")\\-[Ford](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company \"Ford Motor Company\") rear\\-engined cars made their first appearance, and had ruffled the Indianapolis establishment. Before the race, the chief steward, [Harlan Fengler](/wiki/Harlan_Fengler \"Harlan Fengler\"), told the teams that he would black\\-flag any cars that leaked oil on the track, warning, *\"Don't believe me, just try me.\"*", "With Scotsman [Jim Clark](/wiki/Jim_Clark \"Jim Clark\") in a Lotus\\-Ford closing on Jones in the waning laps, Jones' car developed a horizontal crack in the external oil reservoir. At that moment, driver [Eddie Sachs](/wiki/Eddie_Sachs \"Eddie Sachs\") crashed on the oil\\-slickened racing surface and brought out a yellow caution flag, slowing the field. Agajanian, Jones' car owner, argued with chief steward Harlan Fengler not to issue a black flag, insisting the oil level had dropped below the level of the crack, and that the leak had stopped. As Agajanian pleaded with Fengler, Lotus head man [Colin Chapman](/wiki/Colin_Chapman \"Colin Chapman\") rushed up to join the conversation and demanded that Fengler follow the rules about disqualifying cars with oil leaks. With the end of the race just minutes away, Fengler took no action, and Jones went on to win. The Lotus\\-Ford team, while unhappy with the obvious favoritism displayed by race officials toward Jones and Agajanian, also acknowledged Jones' clear superiority in the event. In addition, Ford officials recognized that a victory through disqualification of Clark's biggest competitor would not be well received by the public, so they declined to protest.", "Also that year, legendary vehicle fabricator [Bill Stroppe](/wiki/Bill_Stroppe \"Bill Stroppe\") built a [Mercury Marauder](/wiki/Mercury_Marauder \"Mercury Marauder\") USAC Stock car for Jones. Jones won the 1963 [Pikes Peak International Hill Climb](/wiki/Pikes_Peak_International_Hill_Climb \"Pikes Peak International Hill Climb\") in the car, and broke the stock car speed record.", "In 1964, he won seven races (and tied for a win) on his way to the [USAC](/wiki/United_States_Automobile_Club \"United States Automobile Club\") Stock car crown. He won the [Turkey Night Grand Prix](/wiki/Turkey_Night_Grand_Prix \"Turkey Night Grand Prix\") [midget car](/wiki/Midget_car_racing \"Midget car racing\") event. [Mercury](/wiki/Mercury_%28car%29 \"Mercury (car)\") decided to pull out of stock car racing after the season. The following year, Jones almost won Indy for a second time, finishing second behind Jim Clark.", "He won five of the nine midget car events that he entered in 1966, including the [Turkey Night Grand Prix](/wiki/Turkey_Night_Grand_Prix \"Turkey Night Grand Prix\"). He finished fourteenth in the final points despite competing in only nine of 65 events.", "[thumb\\|Jones's [STP\\-Paxton Turbocar](/wiki/STP-Paxton_Turbocar \"STP-Paxton Turbocar\") from the [1967 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/1967_Indianapolis_500 \"1967 Indianapolis 500\").](/wiki/File:STP_Turbine.jpg \"STP Turbine.jpg\")\nIn [1967](/wiki/1967_Indianapolis_500 \"1967 Indianapolis 500\"), he drove in the [Indianapolis 500](/wiki/Indianapolis_500 \"Indianapolis 500\") for owner [Andy Granatelli](/wiki/Andy_Granatelli \"Andy Granatelli\") in the revolutionary [STP\\-Paxton Turbocar](/wiki/STP-Paxton_Turbocar \"STP-Paxton Turbocar\"). Jones dominated the race but dropped out with three laps to go when a small, inexpensive transmission bearing broke. After 1968, turbine\\-powered cars were legislated out of competition.", "Also in 1967, as part of his stock car contract with the [Lincoln\\-Mercury](/wiki/Lincoln-Mercury \"Lincoln-Mercury\") division of the Ford Motor Company, Jones drove a [Mercury Cougar](/wiki/Mercury_Cougar \"Mercury Cougar\") for Bud Moore in the second\\-year Trans Am series. In April, Jones dueled with teammate, friend and rival [Dan Gurney](/wiki/Dan_Gurney \"Dan Gurney\") in a brutal {{convert\\|300\\|mi\\|km\\|adj\\=on}}, 4\\-hour event at [Green Valley, Texas](/wiki/Green_Valley%2C_Texas \"Green Valley, Texas\")\nin 113\\-degree heat, losing by inches to Gurney.", "Stroppe suggested that Jones try his hand at [off\\-road racing](/wiki/Off-road_racing \"Off-road racing\") in front of a large crowd at a Christmas party in 1967\\. Jones at first said no, since he had enough of dirt. Stroppe suggested that maybe off\\-road racing was too hard for Jones, and the challenge started Jones' off\\-road career. Jones and Stroppe teamed up for the {{convert\\|711\\|mi\\|km\\|sing\\=on}} [Star Dust 7/11](/wiki/Star_Dust_7/11 \"Star Dust 7/11\") race across the [Nevada](/wiki/Nevada \"Nevada\") [desert](/wiki/Desert \"Desert\") in early 1968\\. Jones had never driven or pre\\-run the [Ford Bronco](/wiki/Ford_Bronco \"Ford Bronco\"). Jones hit a dry wash at full speed, which broke the wheels and blew out the front tires. Jones would later have a guest appearance in the original film *[Gone in 60 Seconds](/wiki/Gone_in_60_Seconds_%281974_film%29 \"Gone in 60 Seconds (1974 film)\")* featuring him and his Bronco which was stolen in the plot. Jones had become hooked on off\\-road racing.", "In 1968, Jones headed a super\\-roster of seven drivers signed by Andy Granatelli to drive STP [Lotus 56](/wiki/Lotus_56 \"Lotus 56\") turbine cars in an unprecedented single\\-team assault on the Indianapolis 500\\. The deaths of [Jim Clark](/wiki/Jim_Clark \"Jim Clark\") and [Mike Spence](/wiki/Mike_Spence \"Mike Spence\"), plus a serious injury to [Jackie Stewart](/wiki/Jackie_Stewart \"Jackie Stewart\"), whittled the entry to four. Jones, testing his reworked 1967 car in practice, was dissatisfied with the car's performance compared to the newer \"wedge\"\\-shaped Lotus 56 turbines, and had concluded the car was unsafe. He stepped out of the car, which was subsequently assigned to Joe Leonard, who promptly wrecked the car in practice. Jones retired from driving IndyCars, but later admitted, \"If I hadn't already won Indy, they could never have kept me out of that car.\"", "Jones entered the 1968 [NORRA](/wiki/NORRA \"NORRA\") Mexican 1000 (now [Baja 1000](/wiki/Baja_1000 \"Baja 1000\")). Jones led until the {{convert\\|150\\|mi\\|km\\|sing\\=on}} marker. The [Off\\-road Motorsports Hall of Fame](/wiki/Off-road_Motorsports_Hall_of_Fame \"Off-road Motorsports Hall of Fame\") describes Jones' racing style: \"Jones and Stroppe had to find a way to keep their vehicles in one piece. During races Jones would push the vehicles at maximum speeds until they gave way, with Stroppe telling him at top volume the entire time to take it easier on the vehicle.\"\n[alt\\=Image of Ford Bronco known as Big Oly driven by Parnelli Jones in multiple offroad events\\|thumb\\|300x300px\\|Parnelli Jones driving Big Oly in Baja 500](/wiki/File:Big-oly-returns-to-baja-at-the-norra-mexican-1000-2022-03-28_16-27-56_931323-1440x670.jpg \"Big-oly-returns-to-baja-at-the-norra-mexican-1000-2022-03-28 16-27-56 931323-1440x670.jpg\")", "Jones had a special car fabricated by Dick Russell via Bill Stroppe that looked like a Bronco, but had racing parts that could withstand rigorous jarring that off\\-road vehicles endure. Jones named the vehicle \"Big Oly\" after his sponsor [Olympia Beer](/wiki/Olympia_Brewing_Company \"Olympia Brewing Company\"). Jones used the vehicle to lead the 1971 Mexican 1000 from start to finish in a new record time of 14 hours and 59 minutes. It was the first off\\-road racing victory by an Indy 500\\-winning driver. In Big Oly, Jones won back\\-to\\-back Mexican NORRA 1000s, a Mint 400, a Baja 500, along with other victories.", "[alt\\=Parnelli Jones sitting in 1970 Boss 302 Mustang\\|thumb\\|300x300px\\|Jones's 1970 Boss 302 Mustang](/wiki/File:1970-parnelli-jones-boss-302.jpg \"1970-parnelli-jones-boss-302.jpg\")", "Capitalizing on his long history with Ford, Parnelli joined with [Bud Moore Engineering](/wiki/Bud_Moore_Engineering \"Bud Moore Engineering\") to race in the SCCA [Trans\\-Am Championship](/wiki/Trans-Am_Series \"Trans-Am Series\") series. In 1967, to help with the vehicle launch, Jones raced a prepped 1967 Mercury Cougar. The car was not overly competitive, however Ford did win the Manufacturers Title. Jones did not race in 1968 season. Jones returned to Bud Moore and Trans\\-Am in 1969 to help with the debut of the [Boss 302 Mustang](/wiki/Boss_302_Mustang \"Boss 302 Mustang\"). Teamed with [George Follmer](/wiki/George_Follmer \"George Follmer\"), Jones finished second in the Drivers Championship to Mark Donohue driving a 1969 [Penkse](/wiki/Roger_Penske \"Roger Penske\") prepared [Camaro](/wiki/Chevrolet_Camaro_%28first_generation%29 \"Chevrolet Camaro (first generation)\"). Both Moore and Jones agreed that the [Firestone tires](/wiki/Firestone_Tire_and_Rubber_Company \"Firestone Tire and Rubber Company\") were the reason they did not win the championship due to their short life compared to Goodyear, but due to Jones's Firestone sponsorship, they were required.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Farr \\|first\\=Donald \\|date\\=June 1, 2005 \\|title\\=Bud Moore Engineering \\- Reflecting With Bud \\|url\\=https://www.motortrend.com/news/mump\\-0506\\-bud\\-moore\\-engineering\\-reflecting\\-ford\\-mustangs/}} In 1970, Moore, Jones, and Follmer returned to dominate the 1970 Trans\\-Am season.", "Jones finished his racing career with major wins during the year 1973\\. He won his second Mexican 1000 in 16 hours and 42 minutes. He also won the 1973 [Baja 500](/wiki/Baja_500 \"Baja 500\") and [Mint 400](/wiki/Mint_400 \"Mint 400\") off\\-road events. Jones had a major accident at [SCORE International](/wiki/SCORE_International \"SCORE International\")'s 1974 Baja 500, and stepped away from full\\-time off\\-road racing to become a race car owner.", "### Driving career summary", "Jones retired with six [IndyCar](/wiki/IndyCar \"IndyCar\") wins and twelve pole positions, four wins in 34 [NASCAR](/wiki/NASCAR \"NASCAR\") starts, including the 1967 Motor Trend 500 at [Riverside](/wiki/Riverside_International_Raceway \"Riverside International Raceway\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.racing\\-reference.info/driver/Parnelli\\_Jones/ \\|title\\=Parnelli Jones \\|work\\=Racing\\-Reference \\|publisher\\=NASCAR Digital Media, LLC \\|access\\-date\\=June 6, 2024}} 25 midget car feature wins in occasional races between 1960 and 1967,{{cite web \\|url\\=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1uaAxLO1dIHW21L\\-31bZ6O8dhlB1BOQTJ/view?usp\\=sharing \\|title\\=USAC National Midget Driver Feature Wins \\|website\\=usacracing.com \\|access\\-date\\=June 6, 2024 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20240606035007/https://drive.google.com/file/d/1uaAxLO1dIHW21L\\-31bZ6O8dhlB1BOQTJ/view \\|archive\\-date\\=June 6, 2024}} 25 career [sprint car](/wiki/Sprint_car_racing \"Sprint car racing\") wins,{{cite web \\|url\\=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Ad1fpKMBfY1EBvX5ZYXz2ijfHo6eplgp/view \\|title\\=USAC National Sprint Car Driver Feature Wins \\|website\\=usacracing.com \\|access\\-date\\=June 6, 2024 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20240606035722/https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Ad1fpKMBfY1EBvX5ZYXz2ijfHo6eplgp/view \\|archive\\-date\\=June 6, 2024}} and seven Tran\\-Am wins and a Drivers Championship in 1970\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=50 Years Ago: 1970 Trans\\-Am {{!}} SpeedTour \\|url\\=https://speedtour.net/articles/50\\-years\\-ago\\-1970\\-trans\\-am/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-25 \\|language\\=en\\-US}} His fifteen wins is eighth on the all\\-time in NASCAR Pacific Coast Late Model history.", "In 1993, Jones took part in the [Fast Masters](/wiki/Fast_Masters \"Fast Masters\"). He advanced to the final championship round and placed 6th overall.", "" ]
Political career ---------------- From 1983 to 1987 Fernando Maura served as a councilor in the city of Bilbao. In 1989, together with [Jaime Mayor Oreja](/wiki/Jaime_Mayor_Oreja "Jaime Mayor Oreja"), he took part in the foundation of the People's Party in the Basque Country and became its Secretary\-general until 1992\. In 1990 Maura was elected as a member of the Basque Parliament where he was the spokesman of the areas of Finance, Employment, Social Affairs and Culture until 2007, year in which he decided to leave the People's Party and founded, together with other Spanish politicians, a new party called [Unión, Progreso y Democracia](/wiki/Union%2C_Progress_and_Democracy "Union, Progress and Democracy"). Since then, he became the Territorial Council spokesman of the party in the Basque Country, the coordinator of the international area and a member of the Board of Directors until August 2014\. ### Member of the European Parliament, 2014–2015 In May 2014, Maura was elected as a Member of the European Parliament. He served on the [Committee on Culture and Education](/wiki/European_Parliament_Committee_on_Culture_and_Education "European Parliament Committee on Culture and Education") and the delegation to the [Parliamentary Assembly of the Mediterranean](/wiki/Parliamentary_Assembly_of_the_Mediterranean "Parliamentary Assembly of the Mediterranean") from 2014 until 2015\. He was also one of six vice\-presidents of the [Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Group](/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe_Group "Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Group") (ALDE), under the leadership of chairman [Guy Verhofstadt](/wiki/Guy_Verhofstadt "Guy Verhofstadt").[ALDE Group's senior office holders announced](https://www.aldeparty.eu/news/alde-groups-senior-office-holders-announced) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527015641/https://www.aldeparty.eu/news/alde\-groups\-senior\-office\-holders\-announced \|date\=2019\-05\-27 }} [Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Group](/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe_Group "Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Group") (ALDE), press release of July 1, 2014\. In addition to this, Maura served as vice\-chair of the Delegation for relations with the Maghreb countries and the [Arab Maghreb Union](/wiki/Arab_Maghreb_Union "Arab Maghreb Union") and substitute in the Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on Security and Defence and the Delegation to the [ACP–EU Joint Parliamentary Assembly](/wiki/ACP%E2%80%93EU_Joint_Parliamentary_Assembly "ACP–EU Joint Parliamentary Assembly"). In 2015, Maura and [Dita Charanzová](/wiki/Dita_Charanzov%C3%A1 "Dita Charanzová") nominated the [Democratic Unity Roundtable](/wiki/Democratic_Unity_Roundtable "Democratic Unity Roundtable") (MUD), a Venezuelan election coalition formed to unify the opposition to president [Hugo Chávez](/wiki/Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez "Hugo Chávez"), for the [Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought](/wiki/Sakharov_Prize "Sakharov Prize").Vince Chadwick (October 15, 2015\), [Slain Kremlin critic shortlisted for EU award](https://www.politico.eu/article/slain-kremlin-critic-shortlisted-for-eu-award/) *[Politico Europe](/wiki/Politico_Europe "Politico Europe")*. ### Member of the Spanish Parliament, since 2016 In addition to his role in parliament, Maura has been serving as member of the Spanish delegation to the [Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe](/wiki/Parliamentary_Assembly_of_the_Council_of_Europe "Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe") since late 2016\. As member of Ciudadanos, he is part of the [Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe](/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe_in_the_Parliamentary_Assembly_of_the_Council_of_Europe "Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe in the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe") group. In that capacity, he is a member of the Committee on Legal Affairs and Human Rights. He was also a member of a cross\-party delegation to observe the [2017 parliamentary elections](/wiki/2017_Albanian_parliamentary_election "2017 Albanian parliamentary election") in [Albania](/wiki/Albania "Albania").[AD HOC Committee for the Observation of the Parliamentary Elections in Albania, 25 June 2017](http://website-pace.net/documents/1653350/3604929/AS-BUR-ALB-2017-01-BIL.pdf/936905d1-24cd-4f40-9ec1-7555ca6a5893) [Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe](/wiki/Parliamentary_Assembly_of_the_Council_of_Europe "Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe"), press release of June 20, 2017\.
[ "Political career\n----------------", "From 1983 to 1987 Fernando Maura served as a councilor in the city of Bilbao. In 1989, together with [Jaime Mayor Oreja](/wiki/Jaime_Mayor_Oreja \"Jaime Mayor Oreja\"), he took part in the foundation of the People's Party in the Basque Country and became its Secretary\\-general until 1992\\.", "In 1990 Maura was elected as a member of the Basque Parliament where he was the spokesman of the areas of Finance, Employment, Social Affairs and Culture until 2007, year in which he decided to leave the People's Party and founded, together with other Spanish politicians, a new party called [Unión, Progreso y Democracia](/wiki/Union%2C_Progress_and_Democracy \"Union, Progress and Democracy\"). Since then, he became the Territorial Council spokesman of the party in the Basque Country, the coordinator of the international area and a member of the Board of Directors until August 2014\\.", "### Member of the European Parliament, 2014–2015", "In May 2014, Maura was elected as a Member of the European Parliament. He served on the [Committee on Culture and Education](/wiki/European_Parliament_Committee_on_Culture_and_Education \"European Parliament Committee on Culture and Education\") and the delegation to the [Parliamentary Assembly of the Mediterranean](/wiki/Parliamentary_Assembly_of_the_Mediterranean \"Parliamentary Assembly of the Mediterranean\") from 2014 until 2015\\. He was also one of six vice\\-presidents of the [Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Group](/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe_Group \"Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Group\") (ALDE), under the leadership of chairman [Guy Verhofstadt](/wiki/Guy_Verhofstadt \"Guy Verhofstadt\").[ALDE Group's senior office holders announced](https://www.aldeparty.eu/news/alde-groups-senior-office-holders-announced) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527015641/https://www.aldeparty.eu/news/alde\\-groups\\-senior\\-office\\-holders\\-announced \\|date\\=2019\\-05\\-27 }} [Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Group](/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe_Group \"Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Group\") (ALDE), press release of July 1, 2014\\.", "In addition to this, Maura served as vice\\-chair of the Delegation for relations with the Maghreb countries and the [Arab Maghreb Union](/wiki/Arab_Maghreb_Union \"Arab Maghreb Union\") and substitute in the Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on Security and Defence and the Delegation to the [ACP–EU Joint Parliamentary Assembly](/wiki/ACP%E2%80%93EU_Joint_Parliamentary_Assembly \"ACP–EU Joint Parliamentary Assembly\").", "In 2015, Maura and [Dita Charanzová](/wiki/Dita_Charanzov%C3%A1 \"Dita Charanzová\") nominated the [Democratic Unity Roundtable](/wiki/Democratic_Unity_Roundtable \"Democratic Unity Roundtable\") (MUD), a Venezuelan election coalition formed to unify the opposition to president [Hugo Chávez](/wiki/Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez \"Hugo Chávez\"), for the [Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought](/wiki/Sakharov_Prize \"Sakharov Prize\").Vince Chadwick (October 15, 2015\\), [Slain Kremlin critic shortlisted for EU award](https://www.politico.eu/article/slain-kremlin-critic-shortlisted-for-eu-award/) *[Politico Europe](/wiki/Politico_Europe \"Politico Europe\")*.", "### Member of the Spanish Parliament, since 2016", "In addition to his role in parliament, Maura has been serving as member of the Spanish delegation to the [Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe](/wiki/Parliamentary_Assembly_of_the_Council_of_Europe \"Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe\") since late 2016\\. As member of Ciudadanos, he is part of the [Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe](/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe_in_the_Parliamentary_Assembly_of_the_Council_of_Europe \"Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe in the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe\") group. In that capacity, he is a member of the Committee on Legal Affairs and Human Rights. He was also a member of a cross\\-party delegation to observe the [2017 parliamentary elections](/wiki/2017_Albanian_parliamentary_election \"2017 Albanian parliamentary election\") in [Albania](/wiki/Albania \"Albania\").[AD HOC Committee for the Observation of the Parliamentary Elections in Albania, 25 June 2017](http://website-pace.net/documents/1653350/3604929/AS-BUR-ALB-2017-01-BIL.pdf/936905d1-24cd-4f40-9ec1-7555ca6a5893) [Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe](/wiki/Parliamentary_Assembly_of_the_Council_of_Europe \"Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe\"), press release of June 20, 2017\\.", "" ]
Synopsis -------- ### *Ultra Galaxy Fight: New Generation Heroes* {{Main\|List of Ultraman Taiga characters}} The first series, {{nihongo\|'''''Ultra Galaxy Fight: New Generation Heroes'''''\|ウルトラギャラクシーファイト ニュージェネレーションヒーローズ\|Urutora Gyarakushī Faito Nyū Jenerēshon Hīrōzu}}, aired from September 29 to December 22, 2019\. It follows after the end of *[Ultraman R/B the Movie](/wiki/Ultraman_R/B_the_Movie "Ultraman R/B the Movie")* and prelude to *Ultraman Taiga* with a total of 13 episodes. In Planet Sundowin, Ultraman X and Geed were sent to apprehend Dark\-killer after he terrorized the universe until their energies were stolen for the creation of X and Geed Darkness. The two copies defeated their counterparts and proceed to attack Orb on Planet O\-50\. Due to Zero's failure in protecting Grigio and ended up within the Dark\-Killer Zone, the Ultra Brothers summon Rosso and Blu to their headquarters but they fly away before Taro can provide enough explanation, leading to their encounter with Etelgar. After saving a lone Ragon, Ribut bailed Rosso and Blu from Planet Penol whereas Victory and Ginga rescued Orb, X and Geed respectively. Taro explained Dark\-Killer's origin: a being of darkness born from the grudges of past monsters that the Ultra Brothers fought before. Taro was able to defeat him with the Ultra Brothers' help, but Dark\-Killer was revived, conscripting the resurrected Dark Lugiel and Etelgar to the League of Darkness as he create armies of evil Ultras for intergalactic conquest. Using Zero and Grigio as hostages, Dark\-Killer goaded the New Generation Heroes to Planet Tenebris, which they did so despite the possibility of getting into a trap. Orb, Geed and X stay behind to fight their copies, Ginga and Victory faced Lugiel and Etelgar in the Dark Palace as Rosso and Blu entered the Dark\-Killer Zone, only to be ambushed by the namesake villain himself. Meanwhile, Ribut unmasked Tregear as the mysterious benefactor of the League of Darkness and attempted to arrest him. Under memories of Ultraman Zero, the first five Ultras harnessed Zero's power to destroy their revived rivals. Grigio managed to muster enough strength to get past Zero Darkness to recharge her brothers, giving them a chance of counterattack by forming Ultraman Ruebe and killing both Zero Darkness and Ultra Dark\-Killer. In an attempt to gain advantage against the New Generation Heroes, Tregear revived Zero Darkness and Dark\-Killer (the latter enlarged to 200 meters) before escaping from Ribut and send the Red Kings as his distraction. After transforming Zero into Zero Beyond for his fight with Zero Darkness, the New Generation Heroes accessed their strongest forms for the final battle. The insane Dark\-Killer made his desperate attempt by recreating the evil Ultramen to consume them and grew larger. Under Taro's instructions, the New Generation Heroes charged the Strium Brace for Ginga Strium to perform New Generation Dynamite. While Dark\-Killer's fate was guaranteed not to return, Zero revealed that Grigio's kidnapping was to prevent the formation of [Groob](/wiki/List_of_Ultraman_R/B_characters%23Ultraman_Groob "List of Ultraman R/B characters#Ultraman Groob"). The only person other than the Ultras to know about this is none other than Tregear, who voiced his intent to attack the Land of Light and left immediately. [The rest of the New Generation Heroes chased after the rogue Ultra](/wiki/Ultraman_Taiga "Ultraman Taiga") as Zero sent Grigio back to her home world, wanting her to protect Ayaka City in her brothers' absence. ### *Ultra Galaxy Fight: The Absolute Conspiracy* {{Main\|List of Ultraman Z characters}} The second series, {{nihongo\|'''''Ultra Galaxy Fight: The Absolute Conspiracy'''''\|ウルトラギャラクシーファイト 大いなる陰謀\|Urutora Gyarakushī Faito Ōinaru Inbō}}, aired as a 10\-episode format with the duration of 10 minutes per episode from November 22, 2020, to January 13, 2021\.{{cite web \|title\=『ウルトラギャラクシーファイト 大いなる陰謀』豪華声優陣 発表！ 新キャラ・アブソリュートタルタロスを諏訪部順一さん、ウルトラマン80を長谷川初範さんが担当 \|url\=https://m\-78\.jp/news/post\-5639/ \|publisher\=m\-78\.jp \|access\-date\=24 September 2020 \|language\=ja \|date\=24 September 2020}}{{cite web \|title\=The story for all three chapters of Ultra Galaxy Fight: The Absolute Conspiracy is revealed! Meet the cast of Japanese voice actors! \|url\=https://en.tsuburaya\-prod.co.jp/news/2289 \|publisher\=Tsuburaya Productions \|access\-date\=24 September 2020 \|date\=24 September 2020}} The story takes place after the end of *[Ultraman Taiga The Movie](/wiki/Ultraman_Taiga_The_Movie "Ultraman Taiga The Movie")* and serving as the prelude to *[Ultraman Z](/wiki/Ultraman_Z "Ultraman Z")*. Chapter 1: {{nihongo\|The Beginning\|動き出す陰謀\|Ugokidasu Inbō\|The Conspiracy Starts}}{{cite web \|title\=『ウルトラギャラクシーファイト』最新作、坂本浩一監督が語る大いなる陰謀「歴代ウルトラマンたちの魅力を再発見してほしい」 (2/4\) \|url\=https://news.mynavi.jp/article/20201121\-1515154/2 \|publisher\=MyNavi \|access\-date\=2 February 2021 \|language\=ja \|date\=21 November 2020}} (episodes 1\-3\) Prior to his membership in the Galaxy Rescue Force, Ribut was a civilization guardian alongside [Ultraman Max](/wiki/Ultraman_Max "Ultraman Max") and investigated the Planet Mikarito's sudden depletion of energy. Discovering the Maga\-Orochi egg to be its source of problem, their attempt at attacking it provoked Hellberus into defending the egg and Alien Sran infecting Max with the [Gudis Cells](/wiki/Ultraman:Towards_the_Future "Towards the Future") to turn him into Maga\-Orochi's ration. At the same time in Planet Kanon, 80 defended Yullian and Sora when Leugocyte attacked them during their peaceful negotiation on [Planet Kanon](/wiki/Ultraman_Orb:The_Origin_Saga "The Origin Saga"). Both incidents were reported to the Inter\-Galactic Defense Force, where a rescue operation was held to create an antidote to save Max while Ribut undergoes training from Great and Powered. 80 on the other hand lead a strike force consist of [Neos and Seven 21](/wiki/Ultraman_Neos "Ultraman Neos") in tracking Leugocyte to Planet Feed where the two join forces with Cosmos and Justice, the latter two arriving in the middle of their investigation on behalf of Delacion. Tartarus appeared and challenged them when both Leugocyte and Gymaira were killed, but was forced to retreat due to Ultraman Legend's presence. After receiving his new weapons once his training concluded, Ribut and his instructors brought the Gudis Vaccine created by Hikari and Sora to cure Max of the Gudis Cells, but Maga\-Orochi had awakened by that point. Xenon joins the fray by replenishing Max's energy and all three Civilization Guardians finished the planet eater with their attacks. After the incident, Ribut and Sora were awarded with membership within the Galaxy Rescue Force. Alien Sran survived his defeat, but was killed by Tartarus for his incompetence.{{cite web \|title\=TURNING POINT: THE ABSOLUTE CONSPIRACY CHANGES EVERYTHING \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308092959/https://ultramangalaxy.com/turning\-point\-the\-absolute\-conspiracy\-changes\-everything/\|url\=https://ultramangalaxy.com/turning\-point\-the\-absolute\-conspiracy\-changes\-everything/ \|publisher\=Ultraman Galaxy \|access\-date\=3 February 2021 \|date\=3 February 2021\|archive\-date\=8 March 2021\|url\-status\=dead}} Tartarus left the scene with a new plan in mind, with his presence sensed by Ultraman King. Chapter 2: {{nihongo\|The Divergence\|交錯する物語\|Kōsakusuru Monogatari\|Interlacing Stories}}{{cite web \|title\=『ウルトラギャラクシーファイト』最新作、坂本浩一監督が語る大いなる陰謀「歴代ウルトラマンたちの魅力を再発見してほしい」(3/4\) \|url\=https://news.mynavi.jp/article/20201121\-1515154/3 \|publisher\=MyNavi \|access\-date\=2 February 2021 \|language\=ja \|date\=21 November 2020}} (episodes 4\-6\) In addition to Alien Bat, Zett and Reibatos, Absolute Tartarus begins assembling a group of his own in against the Ultra Warriors. Tartarus scouted various villains from different points in the Land of Light's history, including Juda and Mold from [their active period](/wiki/Andro_Melos "Andro Melos"). To recruit the fallen Ultras, he jumped into the past before any of them would convert to the darkness. He started off by traversing into the era of [Great Ultra War](/wiki/Mega_Monster_Battle:Ultra_Galaxy "Ultra Galaxy"), where the Land of Light had recently fending off against Alien Empera and his army. Tartarus took advantage of [Ultraman Belial](/wiki/Ultraman_Belial "Ultraman Belial")'s growing jealousy against Ken by preventing his eventual fusion with Rayblood. He proceed to do the same with a young [Ultraman Tregear](/wiki/Ultraman_Tregear "Ultraman Tregear"), who was already disillusioned with Hikari's [quest for vengeance against Bogarl](/wiki/Ultraman_Mebius_Side_Story:Hikari_Saga "Hikari Saga") prior to [forming a pact with Grimdo](/wiki/Ultraman_Taiga_The_Movie "Ultraman Taiga The Movie").{{cite web \|title\=『ウルトラギャラクシーファイト 大いなる陰謀』最新ムービー公開！ウルトラマントレギア(CV:内田雄馬)が、悪に堕ちる前の本来の姿で初登場、主題歌・宮野真守「ZERO to INFINITY」も披露 \|url\=https://m\-78\.jp/news/post\-5675/ \|publisher\=m\-78\.jp \|access\-date\=23 October 2020 \|language\=ja \|date\=23 October 2020}}{{cite web \|title\=Presenting the New Poster and Ultimate Trailer for Ultra Galaxy Fight: The Absolute Conspiracy! \|url\=https://en.tsuburaya\-prod.co.jp/news/2343 \|publisher\=Tsuburaya Productions \|access\-date\=23 October 2020 \|date\=23 October 2020}} In the present era, the Gua Army brothers fought against the original six Ultra Brothers under the impression to summon the Andro Defense Force, but was killed by Taro's Cosmo Miracle Beam. Although in Early Styles, Belial and Tregear took advantage of their recently acquired Absolutian powers to lay waste on the Ultra Brothers and came close to defeating Ultraman Zero before Tartarus called off the fight, escorting the fallen Ultras back to The Kingdom. Upon discovering of Tartarus' plan to threaten both the timeline and parallel universes, Father of Ultra decided to enlist Zero for his ability to travel between dimensions. Chapter 3: {{nihongo\|The Appearance\|明かされし野望\|Akasareshi Yabō\|Ambitions Revealed}} (episodes 7\-10\) Taking place after their fight with Grimdo, the Tri\-Squad continue their training and found themselves against Zett, an anti\-Ultraman life form and his army of Zettons. Zero had jumped into various dimensions to recruit Joneus and Grigio into his newly formed Ultra League, bringing along Ribut and Andro Melos by sending them to save the Tri\-Squad. In order to prepare for their upcoming fight with Tartarus' faction, the Tri\-Squad train themselves as Taiga met a rookie Ultraman Z and his master, Mebius. A few days later, the convoy that was set to bring Yullian for a peaceful negotiation on Planet Kanon was hunted down by Zett and his Zetton Army on Planet Ebil, leaving her and 80 as survivors of the attacks. Mebius, Taiga and Z went to their rescue, but Z's immaturity and inexperience became a hindrance. The Ultra League arrived to further assist the battle and Zero try to exert his full power as Ultimate Shining Zero, but failed to intercept Tartarus in his pocket dimension Narak.{{cite web \|title\=やったー！諏訪部順一「ウルトラギャラクシーファイト 大いなる陰謀」最終話に大興奮 \|url\=https://natalie.mu/eiga/news/413824 \|publisher\=Natalie \|access\-date\=31 January 2021 \|language\=ja \|date\=31 January 2021}} Although Zett was killed by the combined effort of Taiga and Ultraman Z, Tartarus successfully kidnapped Yullian. Absolute Tartarus revealed that he plans to use Yullian as a [hostage](/wiki/Hostage "Hostage") to force the Ultras into surrendering the Land of Light for his people, Absolutian, to populate as their new home. Before they could make any progress, Hikari alarmed the theft of Ultra Medals by Genegarg as Zero and Z [left to pursue the monster](/wiki/Ultraman_Z "Ultraman Z"). Yullian on the other hand was placed into Narak alongside another figure in captivity. ### *Ultra Galaxy Fight: The Destined Crossroad* {{main\|List of Ultraman Trigger: New Generation Tiga characters}} After the final episode of *The Absolute Conspiracy*, a sequel work was announced to be under progress.{{Cite tweet \|user \= tsuburayaprod \|number \= 1355685238265921538 \|title \= 次回作決定‼}} Writer Junichiro Ashiki confirmed his participation in his Twitter account.{{Cite tweet \|user\=ashiki\_u40 \|number\=1355735076173041667 \|title\=ウルトラギャラクシーファイトいかがでしたでしょうか。というわけで次回作もやります。\#ギャラファイTAC}} The title is later announced to be {{nihongo\|''Ultra Galaxy Fight: The Destined Crossroad''\|ウルトラギャラクシーファイト 運命の衝突\|Urutora Gyarakushī Faito Unmei no Shōtotsu}} during an online event. The prologue of the miniseries first aired on December 17, 2021, in the Ultraman Connection Live online livestream event in Ultraman Connection website in English dub.{{cite web \|title\=ULTRAMAN CONNECTION LIVE: HOLIDAY SPECIAL BRINGS FANS MANY SURPRISES \& EXCLUSIVES! \|url\=https://www.ultramanconnection.com/news\-articles/ultraman\-connection\-live\-holiday\-special\-brings\-fans\-many\-surprises\-exclusives \|publisher\=Ultraman Connection \|access\-date\=26 December 2021 \|date\=22 December 2021}} *The Destined Crossroad* aired in Tsuburaya Imagination from April 29 to July 1, 2022, with its English dub on May 29, 2022, both of which are under the [pay\-per\-view](/wiki/Pay-per-view "Pay-per-view") contents.{{cite web \|title\=『ウルトラギャラクシーファイト 運命の衝突』 2022年4月29日(金・祝)配信開始決定！！ 新ビジュアル\&新PV＆主題歌＆豪華声優キャスト 大公開！！ \|url\=https://m\-78\.jp/news/post\-6276 \|publisher\=Tsuburaya Station \|access\-date\=29 March 2022 \|language\=ja \|date\=29 March 2022}}{{cite web \|title\=New Trailer and Poster Released for Ultra Galaxy Fight: The Destined Crossroad! Series to be Available for Rental in English from May 28th on Ultraman Connection! \|url\=https://en.tsuburaya\-prod.co.jp/news/4158 \|publisher\=Tsuburaya Productions \|access\-date\=29 March 2022 \|date\=29 March 2022}} In the prologue, Cosmos managed to fend off against a squad of Absolutians who invaded Planet Juran. Members of the Inter\-Galactic Defense Force reorganized their plans after Yullian's kidnapping, with Mebius in particular continues to train the other Ultras for their upcoming war with the Absolutians. Returning from his pursuit against Genegarg, Zero approaches Joneus and seeks to further train himself in against Tartarus. Ultraman King however disagree with the idea and tries to find a way to avoid the conflict between both races. The Tri\-Squad decided to recruit the New Generation Heroes as part of the reformed Ultra League, only to find themselves assisting their seniors (including Z after his fight with Destrudos) in their hunt for the Devil Splinters, especially when Gina Spectre joins the fray to steal them. While training with Mebius, Grigio became fast friends with Ultraman Zearth, Nice and Boy, as they later dragged into the conflict with the New Generation Heroes and The Kingdom. Seeing Gina's emotional pain of losing her brothers, Grigio's attempt at saving her were all for naught when she was forcefully fused into Gua Spectre. At the same time, Abolute Titan was assigned to attack Ultraman Noa at Planet Babel, leading to a confrontation with the Ultra Force and eventually getting trapped into a Meta Field, wherein his cooperation with Ribut was used as a test by Nexus/Noa to confirm his believes that the two race can achieve a peaceful coexistence. Ribut was sent back to be revived after losing his life on Babel, while Zero faces Tartarus using his newfound ability to become unpredictable. As Tartarus threatens to execute Yullian, the Land of Light assembles a rescue squad (later joined by Ultraman Justice) to storm The Kingdom's Central Planet to rescue the princess, additionally saving an Ultraman named Regulos, who was also held captive as part of The Kingdom's experimentation. The Absolutians' attempt at chasing them leads to a confrontation with the Inter\-Galactic Defense Force in Planet Blizzard. While Titan, Belial and Tregear left the fight after being dispirited, the loss of a majority of his forces convinces Tartarus to unleash his full power on his opponents. King intervenes at the last minute as their crossfire created a black hole that drags Ribut, Tartarus and Diavolo's heart into it. As Ribut was declared [missing in action](/wiki/Missing_in_action "Missing in action"), The Kingdom went into a temporary hiding as Belial plans on deserting his employers to obtain power on his own merit. On the other hand, Regulos joins the Ultras on training for their upcoming fight with The Kingdom, while Ultraman King, Zoffy, Father and Mother of Ultra and Yullian plan on seeking the Absolutians' lord in hopes that both of their race can reach a peaceful solution. Ultraman Z left to retrieve Haruki and returns to the latter's Earth, while the black hole from Planet Blizzard sends Ribut, Tartarus and a revived Diavolo to the world of Eternity Core, observing the fight between Ultraman Trigger and the Giants of Darkness taking place. Both of these events lead to the characters' respective guest appearances in episodes 7 and 14 of *[Ultraman Trigger: New Generation Tiga](/wiki/Ultraman_Trigger:New_Generation_Tiga "New Generation Tiga")*.
[ "Synopsis\n--------", "### *Ultra Galaxy Fight: New Generation Heroes*", "{{Main\\|List of Ultraman Taiga characters}}\nThe first series, {{nihongo\\|'''''Ultra Galaxy Fight: New Generation Heroes'''''\\|ウルトラギャラクシーファイト ニュージェネレーションヒーローズ\\|Urutora Gyarakushī Faito Nyū Jenerēshon Hīrōzu}}, aired from September 29 to December 22, 2019\\. It follows after the end of *[Ultraman R/B the Movie](/wiki/Ultraman_R/B_the_Movie \"Ultraman R/B the Movie\")* and prelude to *Ultraman Taiga* with a total of 13 episodes.", "In Planet Sundowin, Ultraman X and Geed were sent to apprehend Dark\\-killer after he terrorized the universe until their energies were stolen for the creation of X and Geed Darkness. The two copies defeated their counterparts and proceed to attack Orb on Planet O\\-50\\. Due to Zero's failure in protecting Grigio and ended up within the Dark\\-Killer Zone, the Ultra Brothers summon Rosso and Blu to their headquarters but they fly away before Taro can provide enough explanation, leading to their encounter with Etelgar. After saving a lone Ragon, Ribut bailed Rosso and Blu from Planet Penol whereas Victory and Ginga rescued Orb, X and Geed respectively.", "Taro explained Dark\\-Killer's origin: a being of darkness born from the grudges of past monsters that the Ultra Brothers fought before. Taro was able to defeat him with the Ultra Brothers' help, but Dark\\-Killer was revived, conscripting the resurrected Dark Lugiel and Etelgar to the League of Darkness as he create armies of evil Ultras for intergalactic conquest. Using Zero and Grigio as hostages, Dark\\-Killer goaded the New Generation Heroes to Planet Tenebris, which they did so despite the possibility of getting into a trap. Orb, Geed and X stay behind to fight their copies, Ginga and Victory faced Lugiel and Etelgar in the Dark Palace as Rosso and Blu entered the Dark\\-Killer Zone, only to be ambushed by the namesake villain himself. Meanwhile, Ribut unmasked Tregear as the mysterious benefactor of the League of Darkness and attempted to arrest him. Under memories of Ultraman Zero, the first five Ultras harnessed Zero's power to destroy their revived rivals. Grigio managed to muster enough strength to get past Zero Darkness to recharge her brothers, giving them a chance of counterattack by forming Ultraman Ruebe and killing both Zero Darkness and Ultra Dark\\-Killer.", "In an attempt to gain advantage against the New Generation Heroes, Tregear revived Zero Darkness and Dark\\-Killer (the latter enlarged to 200 meters) before escaping from Ribut and send the Red Kings as his distraction. After transforming Zero into Zero Beyond for his fight with Zero Darkness, the New Generation Heroes accessed their strongest forms for the final battle. The insane Dark\\-Killer made his desperate attempt by recreating the evil Ultramen to consume them and grew larger. Under Taro's instructions, the New Generation Heroes charged the Strium Brace for Ginga Strium to perform New Generation Dynamite. While Dark\\-Killer's fate was guaranteed not to return, Zero revealed that Grigio's kidnapping was to prevent the formation of [Groob](/wiki/List_of_Ultraman_R/B_characters%23Ultraman_Groob \"List of Ultraman R/B characters#Ultraman Groob\"). The only person other than the Ultras to know about this is none other than Tregear, who voiced his intent to attack the Land of Light and left immediately. [The rest of the New Generation Heroes chased after the rogue Ultra](/wiki/Ultraman_Taiga \"Ultraman Taiga\") as Zero sent Grigio back to her home world, wanting her to protect Ayaka City in her brothers' absence.", "### *Ultra Galaxy Fight: The Absolute Conspiracy*", "{{Main\\|List of Ultraman Z characters}}\nThe second series, {{nihongo\\|'''''Ultra Galaxy Fight: The Absolute Conspiracy'''''\\|ウルトラギャラクシーファイト 大いなる陰謀\\|Urutora Gyarakushī Faito Ōinaru Inbō}}, aired as a 10\\-episode format with the duration of 10 minutes per episode from November 22, 2020, to January 13, 2021\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=『ウルトラギャラクシーファイト 大いなる陰謀』豪華声優陣 発表！ 新キャラ・アブソリュートタルタロスを諏訪部順一さん、ウルトラマン80を長谷川初範さんが担当 \\|url\\=https://m\\-78\\.jp/news/post\\-5639/ \\|publisher\\=m\\-78\\.jp \\|access\\-date\\=24 September 2020 \\|language\\=ja \\|date\\=24 September 2020}}{{cite web \\|title\\=The story for all three chapters of Ultra Galaxy Fight: The Absolute Conspiracy is revealed! Meet the cast of Japanese voice actors! \\|url\\=https://en.tsuburaya\\-prod.co.jp/news/2289 \\|publisher\\=Tsuburaya Productions \\|access\\-date\\=24 September 2020 \\|date\\=24 September 2020}} The story takes place after the end of *[Ultraman Taiga The Movie](/wiki/Ultraman_Taiga_The_Movie \"Ultraman Taiga The Movie\")* and serving as the prelude to *[Ultraman Z](/wiki/Ultraman_Z \"Ultraman Z\")*.", "Chapter 1: {{nihongo\\|The Beginning\\|動き出す陰謀\\|Ugokidasu Inbō\\|The Conspiracy Starts}}{{cite web \\|title\\=『ウルトラギャラクシーファイト』最新作、坂本浩一監督が語る大いなる陰謀「歴代ウルトラマンたちの魅力を再発見してほしい」 (2/4\\) \\|url\\=https://news.mynavi.jp/article/20201121\\-1515154/2 \\|publisher\\=MyNavi \\|access\\-date\\=2 February 2021 \\|language\\=ja \\|date\\=21 November 2020}} (episodes 1\\-3\\)\nPrior to his membership in the Galaxy Rescue Force, Ribut was a civilization guardian alongside [Ultraman Max](/wiki/Ultraman_Max \"Ultraman Max\") and investigated the Planet Mikarito's sudden depletion of energy. Discovering the Maga\\-Orochi egg to be its source of problem, their attempt at attacking it provoked Hellberus into defending the egg and Alien Sran infecting Max with the [Gudis Cells](/wiki/Ultraman:Towards_the_Future \"Towards the Future\") to turn him into Maga\\-Orochi's ration. At the same time in Planet Kanon, 80 defended Yullian and Sora when Leugocyte attacked them during their peaceful negotiation on [Planet Kanon](/wiki/Ultraman_Orb:The_Origin_Saga \"The Origin Saga\"). Both incidents were reported to the Inter\\-Galactic Defense Force, where a rescue operation was held to create an antidote to save Max while Ribut undergoes training from Great and Powered.\n80 on the other hand lead a strike force consist of [Neos and Seven 21](/wiki/Ultraman_Neos \"Ultraman Neos\") in tracking Leugocyte to Planet Feed where the two join forces with Cosmos and Justice, the latter two arriving in the middle of their investigation on behalf of Delacion. Tartarus appeared and challenged them when both Leugocyte and Gymaira were killed, but was forced to retreat due to Ultraman Legend's presence.", "After receiving his new weapons once his training concluded, Ribut and his instructors brought the Gudis Vaccine created by Hikari and Sora to cure Max of the Gudis Cells, but Maga\\-Orochi had awakened by that point. Xenon joins the fray by replenishing Max's energy and all three Civilization Guardians finished the planet eater with their attacks. After the incident, Ribut and Sora were awarded with membership within the Galaxy Rescue Force. Alien Sran survived his defeat, but was killed by Tartarus for his incompetence.{{cite web \\|title\\=TURNING POINT: THE ABSOLUTE CONSPIRACY CHANGES EVERYTHING \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308092959/https://ultramangalaxy.com/turning\\-point\\-the\\-absolute\\-conspiracy\\-changes\\-everything/\\|url\\=https://ultramangalaxy.com/turning\\-point\\-the\\-absolute\\-conspiracy\\-changes\\-everything/ \\|publisher\\=Ultraman Galaxy \\|access\\-date\\=3 February 2021 \\|date\\=3 February 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=8 March 2021\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Tartarus left the scene with a new plan in mind, with his presence sensed by Ultraman King.", "Chapter 2: {{nihongo\\|The Divergence\\|交錯する物語\\|Kōsakusuru Monogatari\\|Interlacing Stories}}{{cite web \\|title\\=『ウルトラギャラクシーファイト』最新作、坂本浩一監督が語る大いなる陰謀「歴代ウルトラマンたちの魅力を再発見してほしい」(3/4\\) \\|url\\=https://news.mynavi.jp/article/20201121\\-1515154/3 \\|publisher\\=MyNavi \\|access\\-date\\=2 February 2021 \\|language\\=ja \\|date\\=21 November 2020}} (episodes 4\\-6\\)\nIn addition to Alien Bat, Zett and Reibatos, Absolute Tartarus begins assembling a group of his own in against the Ultra Warriors. Tartarus scouted various villains from different points in the Land of Light's history, including Juda and Mold from [their active period](/wiki/Andro_Melos \"Andro Melos\"). To recruit the fallen Ultras, he jumped into the past before any of them would convert to the darkness. He started off by traversing into the era of [Great Ultra War](/wiki/Mega_Monster_Battle:Ultra_Galaxy \"Ultra Galaxy\"), where the Land of Light had recently fending off against Alien Empera and his army. Tartarus took advantage of [Ultraman Belial](/wiki/Ultraman_Belial \"Ultraman Belial\")'s growing jealousy against Ken by preventing his eventual fusion with Rayblood. He proceed to do the same with a young [Ultraman Tregear](/wiki/Ultraman_Tregear \"Ultraman Tregear\"), who was already disillusioned with Hikari's [quest for vengeance against Bogarl](/wiki/Ultraman_Mebius_Side_Story:Hikari_Saga \"Hikari Saga\") prior to [forming a pact with Grimdo](/wiki/Ultraman_Taiga_The_Movie \"Ultraman Taiga The Movie\").{{cite web \\|title\\=『ウルトラギャラクシーファイト 大いなる陰謀』最新ムービー公開！ウルトラマントレギア(CV:内田雄馬)が、悪に堕ちる前の本来の姿で初登場、主題歌・宮野真守「ZERO to INFINITY」も披露 \\|url\\=https://m\\-78\\.jp/news/post\\-5675/ \\|publisher\\=m\\-78\\.jp \\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2020 \\|language\\=ja \\|date\\=23 October 2020}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Presenting the New Poster and Ultimate Trailer for Ultra Galaxy Fight: The Absolute Conspiracy! \\|url\\=https://en.tsuburaya\\-prod.co.jp/news/2343 \\|publisher\\=Tsuburaya Productions \\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2020 \\|date\\=23 October 2020}}\nIn the present era, the Gua Army brothers fought against the original six Ultra Brothers under the impression to summon the Andro Defense Force, but was killed by Taro's Cosmo Miracle Beam. Although in Early Styles, Belial and Tregear took advantage of their recently acquired Absolutian powers to lay waste on the Ultra Brothers and came close to defeating Ultraman Zero before Tartarus called off the fight, escorting the fallen Ultras back to The Kingdom. Upon discovering of Tartarus' plan to threaten both the timeline and parallel universes, Father of Ultra decided to enlist Zero for his ability to travel between dimensions.", "Chapter 3: {{nihongo\\|The Appearance\\|明かされし野望\\|Akasareshi Yabō\\|Ambitions Revealed}} (episodes 7\\-10\\)\nTaking place after their fight with Grimdo, the Tri\\-Squad continue their training and found themselves against Zett, an anti\\-Ultraman life form and his army of Zettons. Zero had jumped into various dimensions to recruit Joneus and Grigio into his newly formed Ultra League, bringing along Ribut and Andro Melos by sending them to save the Tri\\-Squad. In order to prepare for their upcoming fight with Tartarus' faction, the Tri\\-Squad train themselves as Taiga met a rookie Ultraman Z and his master, Mebius. A few days later, the convoy that was set to bring Yullian for a peaceful negotiation on Planet Kanon was hunted down by Zett and his Zetton Army on Planet Ebil, leaving her and 80 as survivors of the attacks. Mebius, Taiga and Z went to their rescue, but Z's immaturity and inexperience became a hindrance. The Ultra League arrived to further assist the battle and Zero try to exert his full power as Ultimate Shining Zero, but failed to intercept Tartarus in his pocket dimension Narak.{{cite web \\|title\\=やったー！諏訪部順一「ウルトラギャラクシーファイト 大いなる陰謀」最終話に大興奮 \\|url\\=https://natalie.mu/eiga/news/413824 \\|publisher\\=Natalie \\|access\\-date\\=31 January 2021 \\|language\\=ja \\|date\\=31 January 2021}} Although Zett was killed by the combined effort of Taiga and Ultraman Z, Tartarus successfully kidnapped Yullian. Absolute Tartarus revealed that he plans to use Yullian as a [hostage](/wiki/Hostage \"Hostage\") to force the Ultras into surrendering the Land of Light for his people, Absolutian, to populate as their new home. Before they could make any progress, Hikari alarmed the theft of Ultra Medals by Genegarg as Zero and Z [left to pursue the monster](/wiki/Ultraman_Z \"Ultraman Z\"). Yullian on the other hand was placed into Narak alongside another figure in captivity.\n### *Ultra Galaxy Fight: The Destined Crossroad*", "{{main\\|List of Ultraman Trigger: New Generation Tiga characters}} \nAfter the final episode of *The Absolute Conspiracy*, a sequel work was announced to be under progress.{{Cite tweet \\|user \\= tsuburayaprod \\|number \\= 1355685238265921538 \\|title \\= 次回作決定‼}} Writer Junichiro Ashiki confirmed his participation in his Twitter account.{{Cite tweet \\|user\\=ashiki\\_u40 \\|number\\=1355735076173041667 \\|title\\=ウルトラギャラクシーファイトいかがでしたでしょうか。というわけで次回作もやります。\\#ギャラファイTAC}} The title is later announced to be {{nihongo\\|''Ultra Galaxy Fight: The Destined Crossroad''\\|ウルトラギャラクシーファイト 運命の衝突\\|Urutora Gyarakushī Faito Unmei no Shōtotsu}} during an online event. The prologue of the miniseries first aired on December 17, 2021, in the Ultraman Connection Live online livestream event in Ultraman Connection website in English dub.{{cite web \\|title\\=ULTRAMAN CONNECTION LIVE: HOLIDAY SPECIAL BRINGS FANS MANY SURPRISES \\& EXCLUSIVES! \\|url\\=https://www.ultramanconnection.com/news\\-articles/ultraman\\-connection\\-live\\-holiday\\-special\\-brings\\-fans\\-many\\-surprises\\-exclusives \\|publisher\\=Ultraman Connection \\|access\\-date\\=26 December 2021 \\|date\\=22 December 2021}} *The Destined Crossroad* aired in Tsuburaya Imagination from April 29 to July 1, 2022, with its English dub on May 29, 2022, both of which are under the [pay\\-per\\-view](/wiki/Pay-per-view \"Pay-per-view\") contents.{{cite web \\|title\\=『ウルトラギャラクシーファイト 運命の衝突』 2022年4月29日(金・祝)配信開始決定！！ 新ビジュアル\\&新PV＆主題歌＆豪華声優キャスト 大公開！！ \\|url\\=https://m\\-78\\.jp/news/post\\-6276 \\|publisher\\=Tsuburaya Station \\|access\\-date\\=29 March 2022 \\|language\\=ja \\|date\\=29 March 2022}}{{cite web \\|title\\=New Trailer and Poster Released for Ultra Galaxy Fight: The Destined Crossroad! Series to be Available for Rental in English from May 28th on Ultraman Connection! \\|url\\=https://en.tsuburaya\\-prod.co.jp/news/4158 \\|publisher\\=Tsuburaya Productions \\|access\\-date\\=29 March 2022 \\|date\\=29 March 2022}}", "In the prologue, Cosmos managed to fend off against a squad of Absolutians who invaded Planet Juran. Members of the Inter\\-Galactic Defense Force reorganized their plans after Yullian's kidnapping, with Mebius in particular continues to train the other Ultras for their upcoming war with the Absolutians. Returning from his pursuit against Genegarg, Zero approaches Joneus and seeks to further train himself in against Tartarus. Ultraman King however disagree with the idea and tries to find a way to avoid the conflict between both races.", "The Tri\\-Squad decided to recruit the New Generation Heroes as part of the reformed Ultra League, only to find themselves assisting their seniors (including Z after his fight with Destrudos) in their hunt for the Devil Splinters, especially when Gina Spectre joins the fray to steal them. While training with Mebius, Grigio became fast friends with Ultraman Zearth, Nice and Boy, as they later dragged into the conflict with the New Generation Heroes and The Kingdom. Seeing Gina's emotional pain of losing her brothers, Grigio's attempt at saving her were all for naught when she was forcefully fused into Gua Spectre. At the same time, Abolute Titan was assigned to attack Ultraman Noa at Planet Babel, leading to a confrontation with the Ultra Force and eventually getting trapped into a Meta Field, wherein his cooperation with Ribut was used as a test by Nexus/Noa to confirm his believes that the two race can achieve a peaceful coexistence. Ribut was sent back to be revived after losing his life on Babel, while Zero faces Tartarus using his newfound ability to become unpredictable.", "As Tartarus threatens to execute Yullian, the Land of Light assembles a rescue squad (later joined by Ultraman Justice) to storm The Kingdom's Central Planet to rescue the princess, additionally saving an Ultraman named Regulos, who was also held captive as part of The Kingdom's experimentation. The Absolutians' attempt at chasing them leads to a confrontation with the Inter\\-Galactic Defense Force in Planet Blizzard. While Titan, Belial and Tregear left the fight after being dispirited, the loss of a majority of his forces convinces Tartarus to unleash his full power on his opponents. King intervenes at the last minute as their crossfire created a black hole that drags Ribut, Tartarus and Diavolo's heart into it. As Ribut was declared [missing in action](/wiki/Missing_in_action \"Missing in action\"), The Kingdom went into a temporary hiding as Belial plans on deserting his employers to obtain power on his own merit. On the other hand, Regulos joins the Ultras on training for their upcoming fight with The Kingdom, while Ultraman King, Zoffy, Father and Mother of Ultra and Yullian plan on seeking the Absolutians' lord in hopes that both of their race can reach a peaceful solution.", "Ultraman Z left to retrieve Haruki and returns to the latter's Earth, while the black hole from Planet Blizzard sends Ribut, Tartarus and a revived Diavolo to the world of Eternity Core, observing the fight between Ultraman Trigger and the Giants of Darkness taking place. Both of these events lead to the characters' respective guest appearances in episodes 7 and 14 of *[Ultraman Trigger: New Generation Tiga](/wiki/Ultraman_Trigger:New_Generation_Tiga \"New Generation Tiga\")*.", "" ]
History ------- After returning to the Philippines in 1993, April Boy Regino, together with his brothers Vingo and Jimmy, formed the musical group April Boys. Their debut song, "Sana'y Laging Magkapiling" from their debut album *Dugong Pilipino* became popular. However, in 1995, April Boy Regino left the group to pursue a solo career before signing to the label [Ivory Records (now Ivory Music \& Video)](/wiki/Ivory_Music_and_Video "Ivory Music and Video"). In a 2015 interview with [Jessica Soho](/wiki/Jessica_Soho "Jessica Soho"), he explained that the brothers competed amongst themselves which led to a falling out, but they later reconciled. Vingo and Jimmy released their first album as a duo, the self\-titled *April Boys* in 1995 containing the songs "Ikaw Pa Rin ang Mamahalin", "Sana ay Mahalin Mo Rin Ako" and "Tunay na Pag\-Ibig" under [Vicor Music](/wiki/Vicor_Music "Vicor Music"), followed by the Christmas album, *Tanging Hiling Sa Pasko*. In 1996, the duo were given a shot at acting, co\-starring alongside [Nida Blanca](/wiki/Nida_Blanca "Nida Blanca"), [Vina Morales](/wiki/Vina_Morales "Vina Morales"), [Donita Rose](/wiki/Donita_Rose "Donita Rose") and [Candy Pangilinan](/wiki/Candy_Pangilinan "Candy Pangilinan") in the romantic film *April Boys: Sana'y Mahalin Mo Rin Ako*, produced by [Viva Films](/wiki/Viva_Films "Viva Films").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0377383/\|title\=April Boys: Sana'y mahalin mo rin ako\|via\=IMDb}} The duo's next album was *Sana'y Tanggapin ang Pag\-ibig Ko*. In 1997, they released the album *Ganyan Talaga Ang... April Boys* which contains the Tagalog/English cover version of the song いとしのエリー("Itoshi no Ellie"), renamed "Honey My Love So Sweet". In 2002, after departure of [Vicor Music](/wiki/Vicor_Music "Vicor Music") the duo released the same title and self\-album *Labs Kita* under Prime Music Corporation (is a wholly owned subsidiaries of [VIVA Entertainment](/wiki/Viva_Entertainment "Viva Entertainment")) after one\-year recording contract. Followed by next year in 2003 was another album of U2L Utol under D' Concorde Recording Corporation. In 2004, the duo released their last self\-titled album of *Oo at Hindi* if contained songs of "Oo at Hindi" "Pogi Naman Ako", "Nakilala Kong Pag\-Ibig" and "Kahit Sana Sandali" was last released album under Synergy Music Corporation. The duo then disbanded and moved to the United States. April Boy Regino also migrated there a year later. In 2020, the original three\-member boy band reunited for the last time after 25 years for live concerts in [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego"), California on March 14 and in [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas "Las Vegas"), Nevada on March 28\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.rappler.com/entertainment/celebrities/april\-boy\-regino\-dies\|title\=OPM icon April Boy Regino dies\|website\=Rappler\|date\=November 29, 2020}} April Boy Regino died on November 29, 2020, at the age of 59, as confirmed by his brother, Vingo.{{Cite web\|url\=https://entertainment.inquirer.net/397699/april\-boy\-regino\-passes\-away\-at\-59\|title\=April Boy Regino passes away at 59\|first\=Darryl John\|last\=Esguerra\|date\=November 29, 2020\|website\=INQUIRER.net}} He was diagnosed with [chronic kidney disease](/wiki/Chronic_kidney_disease "Chronic kidney disease") and [acute respiratory failure](/wiki/Respiratory_failure "Respiratory failure") prior to his death.{{cite news \|title\=April Boy pumanaw dahil sa komplikasyon sa bato\| url\=https://ent.abs\-cbn.com/videos/tv\-patrol\-april\-boy\-pumanaw\-dahil\-sa\-kumplikasyon\-sa\-bato\-295336 \|work\=\[\[ABS\-CBN\|ABS\-CBN Entertainment]]}} In 2023, April Boy's son JC Regino alongside Vingo and Jimmy released a new song, "Idolo", which JC wrote as a way of giving thanks to his late dad's fans for the never\-ending support they have shown. It was released as a single under [GMA Music](/wiki/GMA_Music "GMA Music").{{Cite web \|title\=JC Regino dedicates self\-composed song 'Idolo' to the supporters of the April Boys {{!}} GMA Music \|url\=https://www.gmanetwork.com/music/exclusives/news/91500/jc\-regino\-dedicates\-self\-composed\-song\-idolo\-to\-the\-supporters\-of\-the\-april\-boys/story/ \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-07 \|website\=www.gmanetwork.com \|language\=en}} After this next single of April Boy's son JC Regino with the duo's was another released the song of "Tama Na Sa 'Kin Ikaw" so which Vingo and Jimmy as a wrote of this song.
[ "History\n-------", "After returning to the Philippines in 1993, April Boy Regino, together with his brothers Vingo and Jimmy, formed the musical group April Boys. Their debut song, \"Sana'y Laging Magkapiling\" from their debut album *Dugong Pilipino* became popular. However, in 1995, April Boy Regino left the group to pursue a solo career before signing to the label [Ivory Records (now Ivory Music \\& Video)](/wiki/Ivory_Music_and_Video \"Ivory Music and Video\"). In a 2015 interview with [Jessica Soho](/wiki/Jessica_Soho \"Jessica Soho\"), he explained that the brothers competed amongst themselves which led to a falling out, but they later reconciled.", "Vingo and Jimmy released their first album as a duo, the self\\-titled *April Boys* in 1995 containing the songs \"Ikaw Pa Rin ang Mamahalin\", \"Sana ay Mahalin Mo Rin Ako\" and \"Tunay na Pag\\-Ibig\" under [Vicor Music](/wiki/Vicor_Music \"Vicor Music\"), followed by the Christmas album, *Tanging Hiling Sa Pasko*.", "In 1996, the duo were given a shot at acting, co\\-starring alongside [Nida Blanca](/wiki/Nida_Blanca \"Nida Blanca\"), [Vina Morales](/wiki/Vina_Morales \"Vina Morales\"), [Donita Rose](/wiki/Donita_Rose \"Donita Rose\") and [Candy Pangilinan](/wiki/Candy_Pangilinan \"Candy Pangilinan\") in the romantic film *April Boys: Sana'y Mahalin Mo Rin Ako*, produced by [Viva Films](/wiki/Viva_Films \"Viva Films\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0377383/\\|title\\=April Boys: Sana'y mahalin mo rin ako\\|via\\=IMDb}} The duo's next album was *Sana'y Tanggapin ang Pag\\-ibig Ko*.", "In 1997, they released the album *Ganyan Talaga Ang... April Boys* which contains the Tagalog/English cover version of the song いとしのエリー(\"Itoshi no Ellie\"), renamed \"Honey My Love So Sweet\".", "In 2002, after departure of [Vicor Music](/wiki/Vicor_Music \"Vicor Music\") the duo released the same title and self\\-album *Labs Kita* under Prime Music Corporation (is a wholly owned subsidiaries of [VIVA Entertainment](/wiki/Viva_Entertainment \"Viva Entertainment\")) after one\\-year recording contract. Followed by next year in 2003 was another album of U2L Utol under D' Concorde Recording Corporation.", "In 2004, the duo released their last self\\-titled album of *Oo at Hindi* if contained songs of \"Oo at Hindi\" \"Pogi Naman Ako\", \"Nakilala Kong Pag\\-Ibig\" and \"Kahit Sana Sandali\" was last released album under Synergy Music Corporation. The duo then disbanded and moved to the United States. April Boy Regino also migrated there a year later.", "In 2020, the original three\\-member boy band reunited for the last time after 25 years for live concerts in [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\"), California on March 14 and in [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas \"Las Vegas\"), Nevada on March 28\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.rappler.com/entertainment/celebrities/april\\-boy\\-regino\\-dies\\|title\\=OPM icon April Boy Regino dies\\|website\\=Rappler\\|date\\=November 29, 2020}}", "April Boy Regino died on November 29, 2020, at the age of 59, as confirmed by his brother, Vingo.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://entertainment.inquirer.net/397699/april\\-boy\\-regino\\-passes\\-away\\-at\\-59\\|title\\=April Boy Regino passes away at 59\\|first\\=Darryl John\\|last\\=Esguerra\\|date\\=November 29, 2020\\|website\\=INQUIRER.net}} He was diagnosed with [chronic kidney disease](/wiki/Chronic_kidney_disease \"Chronic kidney disease\") and [acute respiratory failure](/wiki/Respiratory_failure \"Respiratory failure\") prior to his death.{{cite news \\|title\\=April Boy pumanaw dahil sa komplikasyon sa bato\\| url\\=https://ent.abs\\-cbn.com/videos/tv\\-patrol\\-april\\-boy\\-pumanaw\\-dahil\\-sa\\-kumplikasyon\\-sa\\-bato\\-295336 \\|work\\=\\[\\[ABS\\-CBN\\|ABS\\-CBN Entertainment]]}}", "In 2023, April Boy's son JC Regino alongside Vingo and Jimmy released a new song, \"Idolo\", which JC wrote as a way of giving thanks to his late dad's fans for the never\\-ending support they have shown. It was released as a single under [GMA Music](/wiki/GMA_Music \"GMA Music\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=JC Regino dedicates self\\-composed song 'Idolo' to the supporters of the April Boys {{!}} GMA Music \\|url\\=https://www.gmanetwork.com/music/exclusives/news/91500/jc\\-regino\\-dedicates\\-self\\-composed\\-song\\-idolo\\-to\\-the\\-supporters\\-of\\-the\\-april\\-boys/story/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-07 \\|website\\=www.gmanetwork.com \\|language\\=en}} After this next single of April Boy's son JC Regino with the duo's was another released the song of \"Tama Na Sa 'Kin Ikaw\" so which Vingo and Jimmy as a wrote of this song.", "" ]
History ------- Prior to the [American Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War "American Revolutionary War"), this area had been inhabited for thousands of years by differing cultures of [indigenous peoples](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples "Indigenous peoples"). The historic tribe were the [Iroquoian](/wiki/Iroquoian "Iroquoian")\-speaking [Onondaga](/wiki/Onondaga_people "Onondaga people"), part of the *[Haudenosaunee](/wiki/Haudenosaunee "Haudenosaunee")*, or [Iroquois Confederacy](/wiki/Iroquois_Confederacy "Iroquois Confederacy"). Long trading with the French and English, the [Mohawk](/wiki/Mohawk_people "Mohawk people") and most of the [Six Nations](/wiki/Iroquois_Confederacy "Iroquois Confederacy") allied with the British during the Revolution, hoping to dislodge the American colonists from their territory. Following the war, they were forced to make major cessions of most of their land in New York to the United States. Most of the Iroquois went to Canada and settled on land granted by Great Britain. In the large\-scale sales of {{convert\|5\|e6acre\|km2}} of public lands in the postwar period, Sackets Harbor was founded in 1801 by [Augustus Sackett](/wiki/Augustus_Sackett "Augustus Sackett"), a land speculator from New York City. He and others had high hopes for trade across Lake Ontario with [Kingston](/wiki/Kingston%2C_Ontario "Kingston, Ontario") and other parts of Canada. With one of the few natural harbors on Lake Ontario, Sackets Harbor was the most significant community in the area until the founding of the city of [Watertown](/wiki/Watertown_%28city%29%2C_New_York "Watertown (city), New York"). The area attracted migrants from [New England](/wiki/New_England "New England"), as well as immigrants from Great Britain and France. The latter were fleeing the turmoil of the [French Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution "French Revolution") and the [Napoleonic Wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars "Napoleonic Wars"). They cleared heavy forest and gradually constructed houses for a village center. Edmund Luff, a young English immigrant, constructed a [non\-denominational](/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity "Nondenominational Christianity") [meetinghouse](/wiki/Meetinghouse "Meetinghouse"), where all Christians met until they built their own churches in later decades. Converted to a residence, the house still stands. The American Revolution did not resolve all issues with Great Britain. Border issues and increasing tensions led the US to impose the [Embargo Act of 1807](/wiki/Embargo_Act_of_1807 "Embargo Act of 1807") prohibiting trade with Great Britain, which effectively included Canada. People on both sides of the border, Canadian (many of them Native Americans, including [Loyalists](/wiki/Loyalists "Loyalists") who had fled there after the Revolution) and American, quickly built up a vigorous [smuggling](/wiki/Smuggling "Smuggling") trade across the waters and through the nearby [Thousand Islands](/wiki/Thousand_Islands "Thousand Islands") area along the [St. Lawrence River](/wiki/St._Lawrence_River "St. Lawrence River"). But the embargo reduced trade. The US government first stationed forces in the area to try to reduce smuggling. By the 1810 census, there were 943 qualified voters in the village. Sackets Harbor incorporated as a village in 1814, during the War of 1812\. ### War of 1812 {{main\|First Battle of Sacket's Harbor\|Second Battle of Sacket's Harbor}} As tensions increased with Great Britain, the US began to build up its military forces at Sackets Harbor, including creating a major shipyard at what became Navy Point. The scale of buildup was such that the citizens were outnumbered on a scale of about 8:1 by thousands of sailors and soldiers, camp followers and traders. Some 3,000 workers built the warships, and most had been recruited from the New York City area. Limited sanitary facilities and medical knowledge made the dense troop encampments breeding grounds for [infectious diseases](/wiki/Infectious_disease "Infectious disease"), such as [typhus](/wiki/Typhus "Typhus"), which quickly spread to villagers, too. By February 1813, Sackets Harbor was the largest community in the state north of the [Mohawk River](/wiki/Mohawk_River "Mohawk River").[Gary M. Gibson, "Militia, Mud, and Misery: Sackets Harbor in the War of 1812"](http://www.fenimoreartmuseum.org/sites/all/themes/fenimore7/issues.php?url=2013/Summer/index.html), *New York History Journal*, Summer/Fall 2013\- 94\-3/4, pp.241\-266 The village was the site of two battles during the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 "War of 1812"). In the first battle in 1812, the brig [USS *Oneida*](/wiki/USS_Oneida_%281809%29 "USS Oneida (1809)") and shore batteries repulsed an attacking force of five British ships. The village became a major base of operations for both the Navy (including US Marine Corps) and Army for the duration of the war. The Army built defensive earthworks around much of the village, and Fort Tompkins with barracks near Navy Point. Local militia built Fort Volunteer north of the village main streets.{{Cite web\|url\=https://museum.dmna.ny.gov/forts\|title\=Forts :: New York State Military Museum and Veterans Research Center\|website\=museum.dmna.ny.gov}} Thousands of troops gathered to defend the shipyard and village, and to attack Canada. The numbers of troops so exceeded what could be built to shelter them that in 1813 troops were housed with residents, in stores, in barns and in tents. Village women counted themselves lucky if they were only cooking for officers. By the spring of 1813, the Army had gathered approximately 5,200 men in the village.Wilder, Patrick A. *The Battle of Sackett's Harbour: 1813,* Baltimore, MD, Nautical \& Aviation Publishing Company of America, 1994, p.40 Most importantly, by 1813 the village became the US Naval Headquarters on the Great Lakes. Working at the Navy Point shipyard were 3,000 highly skilled men, including hundreds of shipbuilders and carpenters brought from New York City because of a lack of locally skilled craftsmen. The yard was constructed and supervised during the war by New York City naval architect and shipbuilder [Henry Eckford](/wiki/Henry_Eckford_%28shipbuilder%29 "Henry Eckford (shipbuilder)"). They rapidly built eleven warships to establish control over the Great Lakes. Control of the Great Lakes ultimately ended up in the hands of both the peoples of Canada and the United States (with the exception of [Lake Michigan](/wiki/Lake_Michigan "Lake Michigan"), which is located entirely within the United States) and has been managed since 1909 by the [International Joint Commission](/wiki/International_Joint_Commission "International Joint Commission"). In the [Second Battle of Sacket's Harbor](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Sacket%27s_Harbor "Second Battle of Sacket's Harbor") in May 1813, British forces landed and attacked the village, but they were again driven off. Most of the American garrison and ships were at the western end of the lake at the time in another conflict. The American defense was marred by officers' mistaken orders at Navy Point to destroy stores and a partially constructed ship, to prevent capture by the British. The buildup continued. In the fall of 1813, the Navy had moved its hospital off a ship and was temporarily renting the non\-denominational meeting house from settler and preacher Edmund Luff.Gibson (2013\), p. 264 The next year a two\-story hospital was constructed on land just north of the village and south of Mill Creek, on land that was bought from his father Samuel Luff. By the fall of 1814, Sackets Harbor was the third\-largest population center in all of New York state, after Albany and New York City.Gibson (2013\), p. 265 Until the federal government established the [U.S. Naval Academy](/wiki/U.S._Naval_Academy "U.S. Naval Academy") in [Annapolis, Maryland](/wiki/Annapolis%2C_Maryland "Annapolis, Maryland"), it had several schools for the training of [midshipmen](/wiki/Midshipmen "Midshipmen"). Commodore [Isaac Chauncey](/wiki/Isaac_Chauncey "Isaac Chauncey"), writing to the [Secretary of the Navy](/wiki/Secretary_of_the_Navy "Secretary of the Navy") on November 30, 1814, described a school established at Sacket's Harbor on Lake Ontario in that year: > Sir. I have the pleasure to inform you that I have established a Mathematical School under the direction of my Chaplain the Revd. Mr. Felch who is fully competent to the duties of such a School. More than One hundred Officers attend this School, as they can be spared from duty and about Sixty Lieutenants and Midshipmen attend daily who make great progress in the various branches of Mathematics Navigation. etc.*History of the Chaplain Corps*, Vol. 1, NAVEDTRA 14281, chapter 5, pg. 30 The end of the war came in 1815 before the Navy completed construction of the last warship, the [USS *New Orleans*](/wiki/USS_New_Orleans_%281815%29 "USS New Orleans (1815)"). She was put into storage and never completed. She was finally scrapped in 1883\. ### 19th through 20th centuries {{see also\|National Register of Historic Places listings in Jefferson County, New York}} The military recognized the continued importance of Sackets Harbor's strategic location. The Navy Shipyard operated until 1874, building ships such as [USRC *Active* (1843\)](/wiki/USRC_Active_%281843%29 "USRC Active (1843)"), a [revenue cutter](/wiki/United_States_Revenue_Cutter_Service "United States Revenue Cutter Service"). In 1848 a new Sackets Harbor Naval Station was constructed. After 1884, the base was used mostly for training. The Army took over privately owned land of Samuel Luff just north of the village to build [Madison Barracks](/wiki/Madison_Barracks "Madison Barracks") (c. 1814–1819\). Well into the late 19th century, this was a substantial military installation; the Army added new construction including housing, a school, a hospital, stables for horses, and supporting infrastructure. [Ulysses S. Grant](/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant "Ulysses S. Grant") was among the officers who served here. During World War I, the base was used primarily as a hospital post, and in World War II as a training post. Madison Barracks has been designated as an Historic District and listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places "National Register of Historic Places"). The New York State Museum of Military History calls it "a living museum of military architecture". [Forts :: New York State Military Museum and Veterans Research Center](http://www.dmna.state.ny.us/forts/fortsQ_S/sackettsHarborForts.htm) Comprising the northeastern quarter of the village, the Madison Barracks is being slowly redeveloped as a planned commercial/residential area.{{Cite web\|url\=https://madisonbarracks.com/\|title\=Madison Barracks Apartment Home Rental \| Sackets Harbor NY}} The New York City consortium Fort Pike Associates holds title to unsold land in the complex. In July 2017, the {{convert\|24\|acre\|adj\=on}} [Horse Island](/wiki/Horse_Island%2C_New_York "Horse Island, New York"), located just west of the village, was acquired for preservation by the [Civil War Trust](/wiki/Civil_War_Trust "Civil War Trust"), aided by a grant from the [National Park Service](/wiki/National_Park_Service "National Park Service"). It was the site of a War of 1812 engagement. This was the first time in the US that a grant from the American Battlefield Land Grant program has been used to preserve a War of 1812 site.["Campaign 1776 Announces First Battlefield Preservation Victories in New York State"](https://www.civilwar.org/news/campaign-1776-announces-first-battlefield-preservation-victories-new-york-state), Civil War Trust Sackets Harbor developed as an important Great Lakes port through most of the 19th century. Commercial shipyards were built that adjoined Navy Point. In 1817 a local consortium of military officers and businessmen—General [Jacob Brown](/wiki/Jacob_Brown_%28general%29 "Jacob Brown (general)"), Commodore [Melancthon Taylor Woolsey](/wiki/Melancthon_Taylor_Woolsey "Melancthon Taylor Woolsey"), Charles Smyth, Eric Lusher, Elisha Camp, Samuel F. Hooker, and Hunter Crane—financed the construction of the 240\-ton *Ontario*. It was the first US [steamboat](/wiki/Steamboat "Steamboat") to be built west of the Hudson River and operated on the [Great Lakes](/wiki/Great_Lakes "Great Lakes").[historyofthegreatlakes.ca, Barlow Cumberland, *A Century of Sail and Steam on the Niagara River*](http://www.maritime){{Dead link\|date\=March 2020 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}, 1911, accessed August 21, 2010 This was the beginning of extensive steamboat traffic on the Great Lakes, including passenger boats that stopped at towns around the lakes. On July 12, 1834, Louis Hooker, a son of Samuel Hooker, was aboard the [schooner](/wiki/Schooner "Schooner") *Illinois* from Sackets Harbor when it was the first commercial ship to enter [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago") harbor, a sign of what was soon to be greatly increased Great Lakes trade with that city and region.[Lloyd Lewis and Henry Justin Smith, *Chicago: The History of Its Reputation*](https://books.google.com/books?id=WtGysjXWyu0C&q=Lloyd+Lewis,+%27%27Chicago:+The+History+of+Its+Reputation), Chicago: 1929;, Kessinger Publishing, LLC, reprint 2009, p. 29, accessed August 20, 2010 Samuel F. Hooker and his sons had shipping interests in Sackets Harbor with national networks; their firm had steamboats based in [Louisville, Kentucky](/wiki/Louisville%2C_Kentucky "Louisville, Kentucky"). These were part of the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River "Mississippi River") trade to and from [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans "New Orleans"), a major port and one of the wealthiest cities in the nation before the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War"). Thus Hooker and similar upstate New York businessmen gained some of their wealth from the domestic [slave trade](/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States "Slavery in the United States"), as Louisville was a major shipping point for slaves sold to New Orleans markets and the [Deep South](/wiki/Deep_South "Deep South"). As cities industrialized and major economic development moved West, from 1870–1930 the village became a popular destination for families taking lengthy summer vacations. It attracted visitors from Chicago and other major cities around the Great Lakes, many of whom had family who had lived in Sackets Harbor before the mid\-19th century westward migration. Some maintained second homes in historic properties of the village. In the early 21st century, [heritage tourism](/wiki/Heritage_tourism "Heritage tourism") and summer recreation have been renewed sources of growth for the village. Navy Point is a marina providing moorings and facilities for private boats. The [Elisha Camp House](/wiki/Elisha_Camp_House "Elisha Camp House"), [Galloo Island Light](/wiki/Galloo_Island_Light "Galloo Island Light"), [Madison Barracks](/wiki/Madison_Barracks "Madison Barracks"), [Sackets Harbor Battlefield](/wiki/Sackets_Harbor_Battlefield_State_Historic_Site "Sackets Harbor Battlefield State Historic Site"), [Sackets Harbor Village Historic District](/wiki/Sackets_Harbor_Village_Historic_District "Sackets Harbor Village Historic District"), and [Union Hotel](/wiki/Union_Hotel_%28Sackets_Harbor%2C_New_York%29 "Union Hotel (Sackets Harbor, New York)") are listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places "National Register of Historic Places").{{NRISref\|2010a}} ### Notable people * [Frances Bible](/wiki/Frances_Bible "Frances Bible"), opera singer * American military officer and explorer [Zebulon Pike](/wiki/Zebulon_Pike "Zebulon Pike") was buried in Sackets Harbor after his death in combat at the [Battle of York](/wiki/Battle_of_York "Battle of York") in 1813\. His remains were interred with honors at the military cemetery on Dodge Avenue.{{Cite book \|title\=Guidebook to the Historic Sites of the War of 1812 \|last1\=Collins \|first1\=Gilbert \|year\=2006 \|orig\-year\=1998 \|publisher\=Dundum \|location\=Toronto \|isbn\=1550026267 \|page\=189 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=UmbQbOcdKngC\&pg\=PA189 }} A namesake warship, [USS *General Pike*](/wiki/USS_General_Pike_%281813%29 "USS General Pike (1813)"), was built and launched at Sackets Harbor before the end of that year.{{Cite book \|title\=The Sailing Navy, 1775\-1854 \|last1\=Silverstone \|first1\=Paul H. \|year\=2006 \|publisher\=Taylor \& Francis \|location\=New York \|isbn\=9780415978729 \|page\=66 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=fyk6ocYiVvwC\&pg\=PA66 }} * Brigadier General and former U.S. Representative from Maryland [Leonard Covington](/wiki/Leonard_Covington "Leonard Covington"), who also perished in 1813, at the [Battle of Crysler's Farm](/wiki/Battle_of_Crysler%27s_Farm "Battle of Crysler's Farm"). * Colonel Elisha Camp founded and built historic Camp Manor in 1811\. He also served the US Army in the War of 1812 as one of its Quartermasters under [General Jacob Brown](/wiki/General_Jacob_Brown "General Jacob Brown"). * President [Ulysses S. Grant](/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant "Ulysses S. Grant") served two tours of duty at Madison Barracks in Sackets Harbor as a junior army officer. * General [Mark Wayne Clark](/wiki/Mark_Wayne_Clark "Mark Wayne Clark") was born at the Madison Barracks. * Bartender [Jerry Thomas](/wiki/Jerry_Thomas_%28bartender%29 "Jerry Thomas (bartender)"), considered "the father of American mixology," was born in Sackets Harbor in 1830\. * Wisconsin State Assemblyman and Senator [Hobart Sterling Sacket](/wiki/Hobart_Sterling_Sacket "Hobart Sterling Sacket") was born in Sackets Harbor in 1844\. * Wisconsin State Assemblyman [Samuel Ryan, Jr.](/wiki/Samuel_Ryan%2C_Jr. "Samuel Ryan, Jr."), was born in Sackets Harbor in 1824\. * [Martha Foote Crow](/wiki/Martha_Foote_Crow "Martha Foote Crow"), writer, literary scholar and pioneer in women's higher education in the United States, was born in Sackets Harbor in 1854\. ### Additional facts * Company B of the United States Regiment of Dragoons, which is today 2nd Squadron, 1st Cavalry Regiment, was organized at Sackets Harbor on July 29, 1833\. It moved west to join the rest of the regiment at [Jefferson Barracks](/wiki/Jefferson_Barracks "Jefferson Barracks"), [Lemay, Missouri](/wiki/Lemay%2C_Missouri "Lemay, Missouri"), arriving September 6, 1833\. * The World War II tanker, the *[SS Sackets Harbor](/wiki/SS_Sackets_Harbor "SS Sackets Harbor")*, was named after the village. * Sackets Harbor is the hometown of "[Funny Cide](/wiki/Funny_Cide "Funny Cide")", the famous gelding owned by Sackatoga Stable. In 2003 he won the [Kentucky Derby](/wiki/Kentucky_Derby "Kentucky Derby") and the [Preakness Stakes](/wiki/Preakness_Stakes "Preakness Stakes"), making him a contender for the [Triple Crown](/wiki/United_States_Triple_Crown_of_Thoroughbred_Racing "United States Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing"), but lost the Belmont. * The village is the setting for [American Girl](/wiki/American_Girl "American Girl")'s *[Caroline Abbott](/wiki/Caroline_Abbott "Caroline Abbott")* doll, introduced in 2013, and her stories,{{cite web\|url\=http://toys.about.com/od/dolls/fr/The\-New\-American\-Girl\-Caroline\-Abbott.htm\|title\=American Girl Caroline Abbott\|access\-date\=May 9, 2013\|archive\-date\=April 24, 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424103151/http://toys.about.com/od/dolls/fr/The\-New\-American\-Girl\-Caroline\-Abbott.htm\|url\-status\=dead}} which are set during the War of 1812\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.babble.com/mom/meet\-caroline\-abbott\-the\-new\-historical\-american\-girl\-doll/\|title\=Caroline Abbott \- The New American Girl doll from 1812\|publisher\=Babble\|access\-date\=May 9, 2013}}
[ "History\n-------", "Prior to the [American Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War \"American Revolutionary War\"), this area had been inhabited for thousands of years by differing cultures of [indigenous peoples](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples \"Indigenous peoples\"). The historic tribe were the [Iroquoian](/wiki/Iroquoian \"Iroquoian\")\\-speaking [Onondaga](/wiki/Onondaga_people \"Onondaga people\"), part of the *[Haudenosaunee](/wiki/Haudenosaunee \"Haudenosaunee\")*, or [Iroquois Confederacy](/wiki/Iroquois_Confederacy \"Iroquois Confederacy\"). Long trading with the French and English, the [Mohawk](/wiki/Mohawk_people \"Mohawk people\") and most of the [Six Nations](/wiki/Iroquois_Confederacy \"Iroquois Confederacy\") allied with the British during the Revolution, hoping to dislodge the American colonists from their territory. Following the war, they were forced to make major cessions of most of their land in New York to the United States. Most of the Iroquois went to Canada and settled on land granted by Great Britain.", "In the large\\-scale sales of {{convert\\|5\\|e6acre\\|km2}} of public lands in the postwar period, Sackets Harbor was founded in 1801 by [Augustus Sackett](/wiki/Augustus_Sackett \"Augustus Sackett\"), a land speculator from New York City. He and others had high hopes for trade across Lake Ontario with [Kingston](/wiki/Kingston%2C_Ontario \"Kingston, Ontario\") and other parts of Canada. With one of the few natural harbors on Lake Ontario, Sackets Harbor was the most significant community in the area until the founding of the city of [Watertown](/wiki/Watertown_%28city%29%2C_New_York \"Watertown (city), New York\").", "The area attracted migrants from [New England](/wiki/New_England \"New England\"), as well as immigrants from Great Britain and France. The latter were fleeing the turmoil of the [French Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution \"French Revolution\") and the [Napoleonic Wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars \"Napoleonic Wars\"). They cleared heavy forest and gradually constructed houses for a village center. Edmund Luff, a young English immigrant, constructed a [non\\-denominational](/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity \"Nondenominational Christianity\") [meetinghouse](/wiki/Meetinghouse \"Meetinghouse\"), where all Christians met until they built their own churches in later decades. Converted to a residence, the house still stands.", "The American Revolution did not resolve all issues with Great Britain. Border issues and increasing tensions led the US to impose the [Embargo Act of 1807](/wiki/Embargo_Act_of_1807 \"Embargo Act of 1807\") prohibiting trade with Great Britain, which effectively included Canada. People on both sides of the border, Canadian (many of them Native Americans, including [Loyalists](/wiki/Loyalists \"Loyalists\") who had fled there after the Revolution) and American, quickly built up a vigorous [smuggling](/wiki/Smuggling \"Smuggling\") trade across the waters and through the nearby [Thousand Islands](/wiki/Thousand_Islands \"Thousand Islands\") area along the [St. Lawrence River](/wiki/St._Lawrence_River \"St. Lawrence River\"). But the embargo reduced trade. The US government first stationed forces in the area to try to reduce smuggling.", "By the 1810 census, there were 943 qualified voters in the village. Sackets Harbor incorporated as a village in 1814, during the War of 1812\\.", "### War of 1812", "{{main\\|First Battle of Sacket's Harbor\\|Second Battle of Sacket's Harbor}}\nAs tensions increased with Great Britain, the US began to build up its military forces at Sackets Harbor, including creating a major shipyard at what became Navy Point. The scale of buildup was such that the citizens were outnumbered on a scale of about 8:1 by thousands of sailors and soldiers, camp followers and traders. Some 3,000 workers built the warships, and most had been recruited from the New York City area.", "Limited sanitary facilities and medical knowledge made the dense troop encampments breeding grounds for [infectious diseases](/wiki/Infectious_disease \"Infectious disease\"), such as [typhus](/wiki/Typhus \"Typhus\"), which quickly spread to villagers, too. By February 1813, Sackets Harbor was the largest community in the state north of the [Mohawk River](/wiki/Mohawk_River \"Mohawk River\").[Gary M. Gibson, \"Militia, Mud, and Misery: Sackets Harbor in the War of 1812\"](http://www.fenimoreartmuseum.org/sites/all/themes/fenimore7/issues.php?url=2013/Summer/index.html), *New York History Journal*, Summer/Fall 2013\\- 94\\-3/4, pp.241\\-266", "The village was the site of two battles during the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 \"War of 1812\"). In the first battle in 1812, the brig [USS *Oneida*](/wiki/USS_Oneida_%281809%29 \"USS Oneida (1809)\") and shore batteries repulsed an attacking force of five British ships. The village became a major base of operations for both the Navy (including US Marine Corps) and Army for the duration of the war. The Army built defensive earthworks around much of the village, and Fort Tompkins with barracks near Navy Point. Local militia built Fort Volunteer north of the village main streets.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://museum.dmna.ny.gov/forts\\|title\\=Forts :: New York State Military Museum and Veterans Research Center\\|website\\=museum.dmna.ny.gov}} Thousands of troops gathered to defend the shipyard and village, and to attack Canada.", "The numbers of troops so exceeded what could be built to shelter them that in 1813 troops were housed with residents, in stores, in barns and in tents. Village women counted themselves lucky if they were only cooking for officers. By the spring of 1813, the Army had gathered approximately 5,200 men in the village.Wilder, Patrick A. *The Battle of Sackett's Harbour: 1813,* Baltimore, MD, Nautical \\& Aviation Publishing Company of America, 1994, p.40", "Most importantly, by 1813 the village became the US Naval Headquarters on the Great Lakes. Working at the Navy Point shipyard were 3,000 highly skilled men, including hundreds of shipbuilders and carpenters brought from New York City because of a lack of locally skilled craftsmen. The yard was constructed and supervised during the war by New York City naval architect and shipbuilder [Henry Eckford](/wiki/Henry_Eckford_%28shipbuilder%29 \"Henry Eckford (shipbuilder)\"). They rapidly built eleven warships to establish control over the Great Lakes.", "Control of the Great Lakes ultimately ended up in the hands of both the peoples of Canada and the United States (with the exception of [Lake Michigan](/wiki/Lake_Michigan \"Lake Michigan\"), which is located entirely within the United States) and has been managed since 1909 by the [International Joint Commission](/wiki/International_Joint_Commission \"International Joint Commission\").", "In the [Second Battle of Sacket's Harbor](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Sacket%27s_Harbor \"Second Battle of Sacket's Harbor\") in May 1813, British forces landed and attacked the village, but they were again driven off. Most of the American garrison and ships were at the western end of the lake at the time in another conflict. The American defense was marred by officers' mistaken orders at Navy Point to destroy stores and a partially constructed ship, to prevent capture by the British.", "The buildup continued. In the fall of 1813, the Navy had moved its hospital off a ship and was temporarily renting the non\\-denominational meeting house from settler and preacher Edmund Luff.Gibson (2013\\), p. 264 The next year a two\\-story hospital was constructed on land just north of the village and south of Mill Creek, on land that was bought from his father Samuel Luff. By the fall of 1814, Sackets Harbor was the third\\-largest population center in all of New York state, after Albany and New York City.Gibson (2013\\), p. 265", "Until the federal government established the [U.S. Naval Academy](/wiki/U.S._Naval_Academy \"U.S. Naval Academy\") in [Annapolis, Maryland](/wiki/Annapolis%2C_Maryland \"Annapolis, Maryland\"), it had several schools for the training of [midshipmen](/wiki/Midshipmen \"Midshipmen\"). Commodore [Isaac Chauncey](/wiki/Isaac_Chauncey \"Isaac Chauncey\"), writing to the [Secretary of the Navy](/wiki/Secretary_of_the_Navy \"Secretary of the Navy\") on November 30, 1814, described a school established at Sacket's Harbor on Lake Ontario in that year:", "", "> Sir. I have the pleasure to inform you that I have established a Mathematical School under the direction of my Chaplain the Revd. Mr. Felch who is fully competent to the duties of such a School. More than One hundred Officers attend this School, as they can be spared from duty and about Sixty Lieutenants and Midshipmen attend daily who make great progress in the various branches of Mathematics Navigation. etc.*History of the Chaplain Corps*, Vol. 1, NAVEDTRA 14281, chapter 5, pg. 30", "The end of the war came in 1815 before the Navy completed construction of the last warship, the [USS *New Orleans*](/wiki/USS_New_Orleans_%281815%29 \"USS New Orleans (1815)\"). She was put into storage and never completed. She was finally scrapped in 1883\\.", "### 19th through 20th centuries", "{{see also\\|National Register of Historic Places listings in Jefferson County, New York}}\nThe military recognized the continued importance of Sackets Harbor's strategic location. The Navy Shipyard operated until 1874, building ships such as [USRC *Active* (1843\\)](/wiki/USRC_Active_%281843%29 \"USRC Active (1843)\"), a [revenue cutter](/wiki/United_States_Revenue_Cutter_Service \"United States Revenue Cutter Service\"). In 1848 a new Sackets Harbor Naval Station was constructed. After 1884, the base was used mostly for training.", "The Army took over privately owned land of Samuel Luff just north of the village to build [Madison Barracks](/wiki/Madison_Barracks \"Madison Barracks\") (c. 1814–1819\\). Well into the late 19th century, this was a substantial military installation; the Army added new construction including housing, a school, a hospital, stables for horses, and supporting infrastructure. [Ulysses S. Grant](/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant \"Ulysses S. Grant\") was among the officers who served here. During World War I, the base was used primarily as a hospital post, and in World War II as a training post.", "Madison Barracks has been designated as an Historic District and listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places \"National Register of Historic Places\"). The New York State Museum of Military History calls it \"a living museum of military architecture\". [Forts :: New York State Military Museum and Veterans Research Center](http://www.dmna.state.ny.us/forts/fortsQ_S/sackettsHarborForts.htm) Comprising the northeastern quarter of the village, the Madison Barracks is being slowly redeveloped as a planned commercial/residential area.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://madisonbarracks.com/\\|title\\=Madison Barracks Apartment Home Rental \\| Sackets Harbor NY}} The New York City consortium Fort Pike Associates holds title to unsold land in the complex.", "In July 2017, the {{convert\\|24\\|acre\\|adj\\=on}} [Horse Island](/wiki/Horse_Island%2C_New_York \"Horse Island, New York\"), located just west of the village, was acquired for preservation by the [Civil War Trust](/wiki/Civil_War_Trust \"Civil War Trust\"), aided by a grant from the [National Park Service](/wiki/National_Park_Service \"National Park Service\"). It was the site of a War of 1812 engagement. This was the first time in the US that a grant from the American Battlefield Land Grant program has been used to preserve a War of 1812 site.[\"Campaign 1776 Announces First Battlefield Preservation Victories in New York State\"](https://www.civilwar.org/news/campaign-1776-announces-first-battlefield-preservation-victories-new-york-state), Civil War Trust", "Sackets Harbor developed as an important Great Lakes port through most of the 19th century. Commercial shipyards were built that adjoined Navy Point. In 1817 a local consortium of military officers and businessmen—General [Jacob Brown](/wiki/Jacob_Brown_%28general%29 \"Jacob Brown (general)\"), Commodore [Melancthon Taylor Woolsey](/wiki/Melancthon_Taylor_Woolsey \"Melancthon Taylor Woolsey\"), Charles Smyth, Eric Lusher, Elisha Camp, Samuel F. Hooker, and Hunter Crane—financed the construction of the 240\\-ton *Ontario*. It was the first US [steamboat](/wiki/Steamboat \"Steamboat\") to be built west of the Hudson River and operated on the [Great Lakes](/wiki/Great_Lakes \"Great Lakes\").[historyofthegreatlakes.ca, Barlow Cumberland, *A Century of Sail and Steam on the Niagara River*](http://www.maritime){{Dead link\\|date\\=March 2020 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}, 1911, accessed August 21, 2010 This was the beginning of extensive steamboat traffic on the Great Lakes, including passenger boats that stopped at towns around the lakes.", "On July 12, 1834, Louis Hooker, a son of Samuel Hooker, was aboard the [schooner](/wiki/Schooner \"Schooner\") *Illinois* from Sackets Harbor when it was the first commercial ship to enter [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\") harbor, a sign of what was soon to be greatly increased Great Lakes trade with that city and region.[Lloyd Lewis and Henry Justin Smith, *Chicago: The History of Its Reputation*](https://books.google.com/books?id=WtGysjXWyu0C&q=Lloyd+Lewis,+%27%27Chicago:+The+History+of+Its+Reputation), Chicago: 1929;, Kessinger Publishing, LLC, reprint 2009, p. 29, accessed August 20, 2010 Samuel F. Hooker and his sons had shipping interests in Sackets Harbor with national networks; their firm had steamboats based in [Louisville, Kentucky](/wiki/Louisville%2C_Kentucky \"Louisville, Kentucky\"). These were part of the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River \"Mississippi River\") trade to and from [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans \"New Orleans\"), a major port and one of the wealthiest cities in the nation before the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\"). Thus Hooker and similar upstate New York businessmen gained some of their wealth from the domestic [slave trade](/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States \"Slavery in the United States\"), as Louisville was a major shipping point for slaves sold to New Orleans markets and the [Deep South](/wiki/Deep_South \"Deep South\").", "As cities industrialized and major economic development moved West, from 1870–1930 the village became a popular destination for families taking lengthy summer vacations. It attracted visitors from Chicago and other major cities around the Great Lakes, many of whom had family who had lived in Sackets Harbor before the mid\\-19th century westward migration. Some maintained second homes in historic properties of the village.", "In the early 21st century, [heritage tourism](/wiki/Heritage_tourism \"Heritage tourism\") and summer recreation have been renewed sources of growth for the village. Navy Point is a marina providing moorings and facilities for private boats.", "The [Elisha Camp House](/wiki/Elisha_Camp_House \"Elisha Camp House\"), [Galloo Island Light](/wiki/Galloo_Island_Light \"Galloo Island Light\"), [Madison Barracks](/wiki/Madison_Barracks \"Madison Barracks\"), [Sackets Harbor Battlefield](/wiki/Sackets_Harbor_Battlefield_State_Historic_Site \"Sackets Harbor Battlefield State Historic Site\"), [Sackets Harbor Village Historic District](/wiki/Sackets_Harbor_Village_Historic_District \"Sackets Harbor Village Historic District\"), and [Union Hotel](/wiki/Union_Hotel_%28Sackets_Harbor%2C_New_York%29 \"Union Hotel (Sackets Harbor, New York)\") are listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places \"National Register of Historic Places\").{{NRISref\\|2010a}}", "### Notable people", "* [Frances Bible](/wiki/Frances_Bible \"Frances Bible\"), opera singer\n* American military officer and explorer [Zebulon Pike](/wiki/Zebulon_Pike \"Zebulon Pike\") was buried in Sackets Harbor after his death in combat at the [Battle of York](/wiki/Battle_of_York \"Battle of York\") in 1813\\. His remains were interred with honors at the military cemetery on Dodge Avenue.{{Cite book \\|title\\=Guidebook to the Historic Sites of the War of 1812 \\|last1\\=Collins \\|first1\\=Gilbert \\|year\\=2006 \\|orig\\-year\\=1998 \\|publisher\\=Dundum \\|location\\=Toronto \\|isbn\\=1550026267 \\|page\\=189 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=UmbQbOcdKngC\\&pg\\=PA189 }} A namesake warship, [USS *General Pike*](/wiki/USS_General_Pike_%281813%29 \"USS General Pike (1813)\"), was built and launched at Sackets Harbor before the end of that year.{{Cite book \\|title\\=The Sailing Navy, 1775\\-1854 \\|last1\\=Silverstone \\|first1\\=Paul H. \\|year\\=2006 \\|publisher\\=Taylor \\& Francis \\|location\\=New York \\|isbn\\=9780415978729 \\|page\\=66 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=fyk6ocYiVvwC\\&pg\\=PA66 }}\n* Brigadier General and former U.S. Representative from Maryland [Leonard Covington](/wiki/Leonard_Covington \"Leonard Covington\"), who also perished in 1813, at the [Battle of Crysler's Farm](/wiki/Battle_of_Crysler%27s_Farm \"Battle of Crysler's Farm\").\n* Colonel Elisha Camp founded and built historic Camp Manor in 1811\\. He also served the US Army in the War of 1812 as one of its Quartermasters under [General Jacob Brown](/wiki/General_Jacob_Brown \"General Jacob Brown\").\n* President [Ulysses S. Grant](/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant \"Ulysses S. Grant\") served two tours of duty at Madison Barracks in Sackets Harbor as a junior army officer.\n* General [Mark Wayne Clark](/wiki/Mark_Wayne_Clark \"Mark Wayne Clark\") was born at the Madison Barracks.\n* Bartender [Jerry Thomas](/wiki/Jerry_Thomas_%28bartender%29 \"Jerry Thomas (bartender)\"), considered \"the father of American mixology,\" was born in Sackets Harbor in 1830\\.\n* Wisconsin State Assemblyman and Senator [Hobart Sterling Sacket](/wiki/Hobart_Sterling_Sacket \"Hobart Sterling Sacket\") was born in Sackets Harbor in 1844\\.\n* Wisconsin State Assemblyman [Samuel Ryan, Jr.](/wiki/Samuel_Ryan%2C_Jr. \"Samuel Ryan, Jr.\"), was born in Sackets Harbor in 1824\\.\n* [Martha Foote Crow](/wiki/Martha_Foote_Crow \"Martha Foote Crow\"), writer, literary scholar and pioneer in women's higher education in the United States, was born in Sackets Harbor in 1854\\.", "### Additional facts", "* Company B of the United States Regiment of Dragoons, which is today 2nd Squadron, 1st Cavalry Regiment, was organized at Sackets Harbor on July 29, 1833\\. It moved west to join the rest of the regiment at [Jefferson Barracks](/wiki/Jefferson_Barracks \"Jefferson Barracks\"), [Lemay, Missouri](/wiki/Lemay%2C_Missouri \"Lemay, Missouri\"), arriving September 6, 1833\\.\n* The World War II tanker, the *[SS Sackets Harbor](/wiki/SS_Sackets_Harbor \"SS Sackets Harbor\")*, was named after the village.\n* Sackets Harbor is the hometown of \"[Funny Cide](/wiki/Funny_Cide \"Funny Cide\")\", the famous gelding owned by Sackatoga Stable. In 2003 he won the [Kentucky Derby](/wiki/Kentucky_Derby \"Kentucky Derby\") and the [Preakness Stakes](/wiki/Preakness_Stakes \"Preakness Stakes\"), making him a contender for the [Triple Crown](/wiki/United_States_Triple_Crown_of_Thoroughbred_Racing \"United States Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing\"), but lost the Belmont.\n* The village is the setting for [American Girl](/wiki/American_Girl \"American Girl\")'s *[Caroline Abbott](/wiki/Caroline_Abbott \"Caroline Abbott\")* doll, introduced in 2013, and her stories,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://toys.about.com/od/dolls/fr/The\\-New\\-American\\-Girl\\-Caroline\\-Abbott.htm\\|title\\=American Girl Caroline Abbott\\|access\\-date\\=May 9, 2013\\|archive\\-date\\=April 24, 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424103151/http://toys.about.com/od/dolls/fr/The\\-New\\-American\\-Girl\\-Caroline\\-Abbott.htm\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} which are set during the War of 1812\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.babble.com/mom/meet\\-caroline\\-abbott\\-the\\-new\\-historical\\-american\\-girl\\-doll/\\|title\\=Caroline Abbott \\- The New American Girl doll from 1812\\|publisher\\=Babble\\|access\\-date\\=May 9, 2013}}" ]
### War of 1812 {{main\|First Battle of Sacket's Harbor\|Second Battle of Sacket's Harbor}} As tensions increased with Great Britain, the US began to build up its military forces at Sackets Harbor, including creating a major shipyard at what became Navy Point. The scale of buildup was such that the citizens were outnumbered on a scale of about 8:1 by thousands of sailors and soldiers, camp followers and traders. Some 3,000 workers built the warships, and most had been recruited from the New York City area. Limited sanitary facilities and medical knowledge made the dense troop encampments breeding grounds for [infectious diseases](/wiki/Infectious_disease "Infectious disease"), such as [typhus](/wiki/Typhus "Typhus"), which quickly spread to villagers, too. By February 1813, Sackets Harbor was the largest community in the state north of the [Mohawk River](/wiki/Mohawk_River "Mohawk River").[Gary M. Gibson, "Militia, Mud, and Misery: Sackets Harbor in the War of 1812"](http://www.fenimoreartmuseum.org/sites/all/themes/fenimore7/issues.php?url=2013/Summer/index.html), *New York History Journal*, Summer/Fall 2013\- 94\-3/4, pp.241\-266 The village was the site of two battles during the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 "War of 1812"). In the first battle in 1812, the brig [USS *Oneida*](/wiki/USS_Oneida_%281809%29 "USS Oneida (1809)") and shore batteries repulsed an attacking force of five British ships. The village became a major base of operations for both the Navy (including US Marine Corps) and Army for the duration of the war. The Army built defensive earthworks around much of the village, and Fort Tompkins with barracks near Navy Point. Local militia built Fort Volunteer north of the village main streets.{{Cite web\|url\=https://museum.dmna.ny.gov/forts\|title\=Forts :: New York State Military Museum and Veterans Research Center\|website\=museum.dmna.ny.gov}} Thousands of troops gathered to defend the shipyard and village, and to attack Canada. The numbers of troops so exceeded what could be built to shelter them that in 1813 troops were housed with residents, in stores, in barns and in tents. Village women counted themselves lucky if they were only cooking for officers. By the spring of 1813, the Army had gathered approximately 5,200 men in the village.Wilder, Patrick A. *The Battle of Sackett's Harbour: 1813,* Baltimore, MD, Nautical \& Aviation Publishing Company of America, 1994, p.40 Most importantly, by 1813 the village became the US Naval Headquarters on the Great Lakes. Working at the Navy Point shipyard were 3,000 highly skilled men, including hundreds of shipbuilders and carpenters brought from New York City because of a lack of locally skilled craftsmen. The yard was constructed and supervised during the war by New York City naval architect and shipbuilder [Henry Eckford](/wiki/Henry_Eckford_%28shipbuilder%29 "Henry Eckford (shipbuilder)"). They rapidly built eleven warships to establish control over the Great Lakes. Control of the Great Lakes ultimately ended up in the hands of both the peoples of Canada and the United States (with the exception of [Lake Michigan](/wiki/Lake_Michigan "Lake Michigan"), which is located entirely within the United States) and has been managed since 1909 by the [International Joint Commission](/wiki/International_Joint_Commission "International Joint Commission"). In the [Second Battle of Sacket's Harbor](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Sacket%27s_Harbor "Second Battle of Sacket's Harbor") in May 1813, British forces landed and attacked the village, but they were again driven off. Most of the American garrison and ships were at the western end of the lake at the time in another conflict. The American defense was marred by officers' mistaken orders at Navy Point to destroy stores and a partially constructed ship, to prevent capture by the British. The buildup continued. In the fall of 1813, the Navy had moved its hospital off a ship and was temporarily renting the non\-denominational meeting house from settler and preacher Edmund Luff.Gibson (2013\), p. 264 The next year a two\-story hospital was constructed on land just north of the village and south of Mill Creek, on land that was bought from his father Samuel Luff. By the fall of 1814, Sackets Harbor was the third\-largest population center in all of New York state, after Albany and New York City.Gibson (2013\), p. 265 Until the federal government established the [U.S. Naval Academy](/wiki/U.S._Naval_Academy "U.S. Naval Academy") in [Annapolis, Maryland](/wiki/Annapolis%2C_Maryland "Annapolis, Maryland"), it had several schools for the training of [midshipmen](/wiki/Midshipmen "Midshipmen"). Commodore [Isaac Chauncey](/wiki/Isaac_Chauncey "Isaac Chauncey"), writing to the [Secretary of the Navy](/wiki/Secretary_of_the_Navy "Secretary of the Navy") on November 30, 1814, described a school established at Sacket's Harbor on Lake Ontario in that year: > Sir. I have the pleasure to inform you that I have established a Mathematical School under the direction of my Chaplain the Revd. Mr. Felch who is fully competent to the duties of such a School. More than One hundred Officers attend this School, as they can be spared from duty and about Sixty Lieutenants and Midshipmen attend daily who make great progress in the various branches of Mathematics Navigation. etc.*History of the Chaplain Corps*, Vol. 1, NAVEDTRA 14281, chapter 5, pg. 30 The end of the war came in 1815 before the Navy completed construction of the last warship, the [USS *New Orleans*](/wiki/USS_New_Orleans_%281815%29 "USS New Orleans (1815)"). She was put into storage and never completed. She was finally scrapped in 1883\.
[ "### War of 1812", "{{main\\|First Battle of Sacket's Harbor\\|Second Battle of Sacket's Harbor}}\nAs tensions increased with Great Britain, the US began to build up its military forces at Sackets Harbor, including creating a major shipyard at what became Navy Point. The scale of buildup was such that the citizens were outnumbered on a scale of about 8:1 by thousands of sailors and soldiers, camp followers and traders. Some 3,000 workers built the warships, and most had been recruited from the New York City area.", "Limited sanitary facilities and medical knowledge made the dense troop encampments breeding grounds for [infectious diseases](/wiki/Infectious_disease \"Infectious disease\"), such as [typhus](/wiki/Typhus \"Typhus\"), which quickly spread to villagers, too. By February 1813, Sackets Harbor was the largest community in the state north of the [Mohawk River](/wiki/Mohawk_River \"Mohawk River\").[Gary M. Gibson, \"Militia, Mud, and Misery: Sackets Harbor in the War of 1812\"](http://www.fenimoreartmuseum.org/sites/all/themes/fenimore7/issues.php?url=2013/Summer/index.html), *New York History Journal*, Summer/Fall 2013\\- 94\\-3/4, pp.241\\-266", "The village was the site of two battles during the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 \"War of 1812\"). In the first battle in 1812, the brig [USS *Oneida*](/wiki/USS_Oneida_%281809%29 \"USS Oneida (1809)\") and shore batteries repulsed an attacking force of five British ships. The village became a major base of operations for both the Navy (including US Marine Corps) and Army for the duration of the war. The Army built defensive earthworks around much of the village, and Fort Tompkins with barracks near Navy Point. Local militia built Fort Volunteer north of the village main streets.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://museum.dmna.ny.gov/forts\\|title\\=Forts :: New York State Military Museum and Veterans Research Center\\|website\\=museum.dmna.ny.gov}} Thousands of troops gathered to defend the shipyard and village, and to attack Canada.", "The numbers of troops so exceeded what could be built to shelter them that in 1813 troops were housed with residents, in stores, in barns and in tents. Village women counted themselves lucky if they were only cooking for officers. By the spring of 1813, the Army had gathered approximately 5,200 men in the village.Wilder, Patrick A. *The Battle of Sackett's Harbour: 1813,* Baltimore, MD, Nautical \\& Aviation Publishing Company of America, 1994, p.40", "Most importantly, by 1813 the village became the US Naval Headquarters on the Great Lakes. Working at the Navy Point shipyard were 3,000 highly skilled men, including hundreds of shipbuilders and carpenters brought from New York City because of a lack of locally skilled craftsmen. The yard was constructed and supervised during the war by New York City naval architect and shipbuilder [Henry Eckford](/wiki/Henry_Eckford_%28shipbuilder%29 \"Henry Eckford (shipbuilder)\"). They rapidly built eleven warships to establish control over the Great Lakes.", "Control of the Great Lakes ultimately ended up in the hands of both the peoples of Canada and the United States (with the exception of [Lake Michigan](/wiki/Lake_Michigan \"Lake Michigan\"), which is located entirely within the United States) and has been managed since 1909 by the [International Joint Commission](/wiki/International_Joint_Commission \"International Joint Commission\").", "In the [Second Battle of Sacket's Harbor](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Sacket%27s_Harbor \"Second Battle of Sacket's Harbor\") in May 1813, British forces landed and attacked the village, but they were again driven off. Most of the American garrison and ships were at the western end of the lake at the time in another conflict. The American defense was marred by officers' mistaken orders at Navy Point to destroy stores and a partially constructed ship, to prevent capture by the British.", "The buildup continued. In the fall of 1813, the Navy had moved its hospital off a ship and was temporarily renting the non\\-denominational meeting house from settler and preacher Edmund Luff.Gibson (2013\\), p. 264 The next year a two\\-story hospital was constructed on land just north of the village and south of Mill Creek, on land that was bought from his father Samuel Luff. By the fall of 1814, Sackets Harbor was the third\\-largest population center in all of New York state, after Albany and New York City.Gibson (2013\\), p. 265", "Until the federal government established the [U.S. Naval Academy](/wiki/U.S._Naval_Academy \"U.S. Naval Academy\") in [Annapolis, Maryland](/wiki/Annapolis%2C_Maryland \"Annapolis, Maryland\"), it had several schools for the training of [midshipmen](/wiki/Midshipmen \"Midshipmen\"). Commodore [Isaac Chauncey](/wiki/Isaac_Chauncey \"Isaac Chauncey\"), writing to the [Secretary of the Navy](/wiki/Secretary_of_the_Navy \"Secretary of the Navy\") on November 30, 1814, described a school established at Sacket's Harbor on Lake Ontario in that year:", "", "> Sir. I have the pleasure to inform you that I have established a Mathematical School under the direction of my Chaplain the Revd. Mr. Felch who is fully competent to the duties of such a School. More than One hundred Officers attend this School, as they can be spared from duty and about Sixty Lieutenants and Midshipmen attend daily who make great progress in the various branches of Mathematics Navigation. etc.*History of the Chaplain Corps*, Vol. 1, NAVEDTRA 14281, chapter 5, pg. 30", "The end of the war came in 1815 before the Navy completed construction of the last warship, the [USS *New Orleans*](/wiki/USS_New_Orleans_%281815%29 \"USS New Orleans (1815)\"). She was put into storage and never completed. She was finally scrapped in 1883\\.", "" ]
### 19th through 20th centuries {{see also\|National Register of Historic Places listings in Jefferson County, New York}} The military recognized the continued importance of Sackets Harbor's strategic location. The Navy Shipyard operated until 1874, building ships such as [USRC *Active* (1843\)](/wiki/USRC_Active_%281843%29 "USRC Active (1843)"), a [revenue cutter](/wiki/United_States_Revenue_Cutter_Service "United States Revenue Cutter Service"). In 1848 a new Sackets Harbor Naval Station was constructed. After 1884, the base was used mostly for training. The Army took over privately owned land of Samuel Luff just north of the village to build [Madison Barracks](/wiki/Madison_Barracks "Madison Barracks") (c. 1814–1819\). Well into the late 19th century, this was a substantial military installation; the Army added new construction including housing, a school, a hospital, stables for horses, and supporting infrastructure. [Ulysses S. Grant](/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant "Ulysses S. Grant") was among the officers who served here. During World War I, the base was used primarily as a hospital post, and in World War II as a training post. Madison Barracks has been designated as an Historic District and listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places "National Register of Historic Places"). The New York State Museum of Military History calls it "a living museum of military architecture". [Forts :: New York State Military Museum and Veterans Research Center](http://www.dmna.state.ny.us/forts/fortsQ_S/sackettsHarborForts.htm) Comprising the northeastern quarter of the village, the Madison Barracks is being slowly redeveloped as a planned commercial/residential area.{{Cite web\|url\=https://madisonbarracks.com/\|title\=Madison Barracks Apartment Home Rental \| Sackets Harbor NY}} The New York City consortium Fort Pike Associates holds title to unsold land in the complex. In July 2017, the {{convert\|24\|acre\|adj\=on}} [Horse Island](/wiki/Horse_Island%2C_New_York "Horse Island, New York"), located just west of the village, was acquired for preservation by the [Civil War Trust](/wiki/Civil_War_Trust "Civil War Trust"), aided by a grant from the [National Park Service](/wiki/National_Park_Service "National Park Service"). It was the site of a War of 1812 engagement. This was the first time in the US that a grant from the American Battlefield Land Grant program has been used to preserve a War of 1812 site.["Campaign 1776 Announces First Battlefield Preservation Victories in New York State"](https://www.civilwar.org/news/campaign-1776-announces-first-battlefield-preservation-victories-new-york-state), Civil War Trust Sackets Harbor developed as an important Great Lakes port through most of the 19th century. Commercial shipyards were built that adjoined Navy Point. In 1817 a local consortium of military officers and businessmen—General [Jacob Brown](/wiki/Jacob_Brown_%28general%29 "Jacob Brown (general)"), Commodore [Melancthon Taylor Woolsey](/wiki/Melancthon_Taylor_Woolsey "Melancthon Taylor Woolsey"), Charles Smyth, Eric Lusher, Elisha Camp, Samuel F. Hooker, and Hunter Crane—financed the construction of the 240\-ton *Ontario*. It was the first US [steamboat](/wiki/Steamboat "Steamboat") to be built west of the Hudson River and operated on the [Great Lakes](/wiki/Great_Lakes "Great Lakes").[historyofthegreatlakes.ca, Barlow Cumberland, *A Century of Sail and Steam on the Niagara River*](http://www.maritime){{Dead link\|date\=March 2020 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}, 1911, accessed August 21, 2010 This was the beginning of extensive steamboat traffic on the Great Lakes, including passenger boats that stopped at towns around the lakes. On July 12, 1834, Louis Hooker, a son of Samuel Hooker, was aboard the [schooner](/wiki/Schooner "Schooner") *Illinois* from Sackets Harbor when it was the first commercial ship to enter [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago") harbor, a sign of what was soon to be greatly increased Great Lakes trade with that city and region.[Lloyd Lewis and Henry Justin Smith, *Chicago: The History of Its Reputation*](https://books.google.com/books?id=WtGysjXWyu0C&q=Lloyd+Lewis,+%27%27Chicago:+The+History+of+Its+Reputation), Chicago: 1929;, Kessinger Publishing, LLC, reprint 2009, p. 29, accessed August 20, 2010 Samuel F. Hooker and his sons had shipping interests in Sackets Harbor with national networks; their firm had steamboats based in [Louisville, Kentucky](/wiki/Louisville%2C_Kentucky "Louisville, Kentucky"). These were part of the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River "Mississippi River") trade to and from [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans "New Orleans"), a major port and one of the wealthiest cities in the nation before the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War"). Thus Hooker and similar upstate New York businessmen gained some of their wealth from the domestic [slave trade](/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States "Slavery in the United States"), as Louisville was a major shipping point for slaves sold to New Orleans markets and the [Deep South](/wiki/Deep_South "Deep South"). As cities industrialized and major economic development moved West, from 1870–1930 the village became a popular destination for families taking lengthy summer vacations. It attracted visitors from Chicago and other major cities around the Great Lakes, many of whom had family who had lived in Sackets Harbor before the mid\-19th century westward migration. Some maintained second homes in historic properties of the village. In the early 21st century, [heritage tourism](/wiki/Heritage_tourism "Heritage tourism") and summer recreation have been renewed sources of growth for the village. Navy Point is a marina providing moorings and facilities for private boats. The [Elisha Camp House](/wiki/Elisha_Camp_House "Elisha Camp House"), [Galloo Island Light](/wiki/Galloo_Island_Light "Galloo Island Light"), [Madison Barracks](/wiki/Madison_Barracks "Madison Barracks"), [Sackets Harbor Battlefield](/wiki/Sackets_Harbor_Battlefield_State_Historic_Site "Sackets Harbor Battlefield State Historic Site"), [Sackets Harbor Village Historic District](/wiki/Sackets_Harbor_Village_Historic_District "Sackets Harbor Village Historic District"), and [Union Hotel](/wiki/Union_Hotel_%28Sackets_Harbor%2C_New_York%29 "Union Hotel (Sackets Harbor, New York)") are listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places "National Register of Historic Places").{{NRISref\|2010a}}
[ "### 19th through 20th centuries", "{{see also\\|National Register of Historic Places listings in Jefferson County, New York}}\nThe military recognized the continued importance of Sackets Harbor's strategic location. The Navy Shipyard operated until 1874, building ships such as [USRC *Active* (1843\\)](/wiki/USRC_Active_%281843%29 \"USRC Active (1843)\"), a [revenue cutter](/wiki/United_States_Revenue_Cutter_Service \"United States Revenue Cutter Service\"). In 1848 a new Sackets Harbor Naval Station was constructed. After 1884, the base was used mostly for training.", "The Army took over privately owned land of Samuel Luff just north of the village to build [Madison Barracks](/wiki/Madison_Barracks \"Madison Barracks\") (c. 1814–1819\\). Well into the late 19th century, this was a substantial military installation; the Army added new construction including housing, a school, a hospital, stables for horses, and supporting infrastructure. [Ulysses S. Grant](/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant \"Ulysses S. Grant\") was among the officers who served here. During World War I, the base was used primarily as a hospital post, and in World War II as a training post.", "Madison Barracks has been designated as an Historic District and listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places \"National Register of Historic Places\"). The New York State Museum of Military History calls it \"a living museum of military architecture\". [Forts :: New York State Military Museum and Veterans Research Center](http://www.dmna.state.ny.us/forts/fortsQ_S/sackettsHarborForts.htm) Comprising the northeastern quarter of the village, the Madison Barracks is being slowly redeveloped as a planned commercial/residential area.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://madisonbarracks.com/\\|title\\=Madison Barracks Apartment Home Rental \\| Sackets Harbor NY}} The New York City consortium Fort Pike Associates holds title to unsold land in the complex.", "In July 2017, the {{convert\\|24\\|acre\\|adj\\=on}} [Horse Island](/wiki/Horse_Island%2C_New_York \"Horse Island, New York\"), located just west of the village, was acquired for preservation by the [Civil War Trust](/wiki/Civil_War_Trust \"Civil War Trust\"), aided by a grant from the [National Park Service](/wiki/National_Park_Service \"National Park Service\"). It was the site of a War of 1812 engagement. This was the first time in the US that a grant from the American Battlefield Land Grant program has been used to preserve a War of 1812 site.[\"Campaign 1776 Announces First Battlefield Preservation Victories in New York State\"](https://www.civilwar.org/news/campaign-1776-announces-first-battlefield-preservation-victories-new-york-state), Civil War Trust", "Sackets Harbor developed as an important Great Lakes port through most of the 19th century. Commercial shipyards were built that adjoined Navy Point. In 1817 a local consortium of military officers and businessmen—General [Jacob Brown](/wiki/Jacob_Brown_%28general%29 \"Jacob Brown (general)\"), Commodore [Melancthon Taylor Woolsey](/wiki/Melancthon_Taylor_Woolsey \"Melancthon Taylor Woolsey\"), Charles Smyth, Eric Lusher, Elisha Camp, Samuel F. Hooker, and Hunter Crane—financed the construction of the 240\\-ton *Ontario*. It was the first US [steamboat](/wiki/Steamboat \"Steamboat\") to be built west of the Hudson River and operated on the [Great Lakes](/wiki/Great_Lakes \"Great Lakes\").[historyofthegreatlakes.ca, Barlow Cumberland, *A Century of Sail and Steam on the Niagara River*](http://www.maritime){{Dead link\\|date\\=March 2020 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}, 1911, accessed August 21, 2010 This was the beginning of extensive steamboat traffic on the Great Lakes, including passenger boats that stopped at towns around the lakes.", "On July 12, 1834, Louis Hooker, a son of Samuel Hooker, was aboard the [schooner](/wiki/Schooner \"Schooner\") *Illinois* from Sackets Harbor when it was the first commercial ship to enter [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\") harbor, a sign of what was soon to be greatly increased Great Lakes trade with that city and region.[Lloyd Lewis and Henry Justin Smith, *Chicago: The History of Its Reputation*](https://books.google.com/books?id=WtGysjXWyu0C&q=Lloyd+Lewis,+%27%27Chicago:+The+History+of+Its+Reputation), Chicago: 1929;, Kessinger Publishing, LLC, reprint 2009, p. 29, accessed August 20, 2010 Samuel F. Hooker and his sons had shipping interests in Sackets Harbor with national networks; their firm had steamboats based in [Louisville, Kentucky](/wiki/Louisville%2C_Kentucky \"Louisville, Kentucky\"). These were part of the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River \"Mississippi River\") trade to and from [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans \"New Orleans\"), a major port and one of the wealthiest cities in the nation before the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\"). Thus Hooker and similar upstate New York businessmen gained some of their wealth from the domestic [slave trade](/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States \"Slavery in the United States\"), as Louisville was a major shipping point for slaves sold to New Orleans markets and the [Deep South](/wiki/Deep_South \"Deep South\").", "As cities industrialized and major economic development moved West, from 1870–1930 the village became a popular destination for families taking lengthy summer vacations. It attracted visitors from Chicago and other major cities around the Great Lakes, many of whom had family who had lived in Sackets Harbor before the mid\\-19th century westward migration. Some maintained second homes in historic properties of the village.", "In the early 21st century, [heritage tourism](/wiki/Heritage_tourism \"Heritage tourism\") and summer recreation have been renewed sources of growth for the village. Navy Point is a marina providing moorings and facilities for private boats.", "The [Elisha Camp House](/wiki/Elisha_Camp_House \"Elisha Camp House\"), [Galloo Island Light](/wiki/Galloo_Island_Light \"Galloo Island Light\"), [Madison Barracks](/wiki/Madison_Barracks \"Madison Barracks\"), [Sackets Harbor Battlefield](/wiki/Sackets_Harbor_Battlefield_State_Historic_Site \"Sackets Harbor Battlefield State Historic Site\"), [Sackets Harbor Village Historic District](/wiki/Sackets_Harbor_Village_Historic_District \"Sackets Harbor Village Historic District\"), and [Union Hotel](/wiki/Union_Hotel_%28Sackets_Harbor%2C_New_York%29 \"Union Hotel (Sackets Harbor, New York)\") are listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places \"National Register of Historic Places\").{{NRISref\\|2010a}}", "" ]
History ------- The tribe's first contact with non\-native people came through [friars](/wiki/Friar "Friar") who, in the second half of the 16th century, made an incursion into the region. However, it was not until the 18th century that missionaries (this time [Franciscans](/wiki/Franciscan "Franciscan")) managed to establish steady relations with the Yanesha' and other ethnic groups living nearby. Father Francisco de San José founded various missions around [Cerro de la Sal](/wiki/Cerro_de_la_Sal "Cerro de la Sal") (Villa Rica District) and Quimiri ([La Merced, Junin](/wiki/La_Merced%2C_Junin "La Merced, Junin")) to convert the indigenous populations to [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity "Christianity"). However, in 1742, indigenous people commanded by [Juan Santos Atahualpa](/wiki/Juan_Santos_Atahualpa "Juan Santos Atahualpa") rebelled against the Spaniards and destroyed a number of missions, effectively cutting off outside contact for several decades. It's not known for sure the population of the Yanesha' people at this time but they had certainly already begun to die off from European diseases. During the 19th century, the area inhabited by the Yanesha' and other groups was reexplored by expeditions looking to establish routes to the lower Amazon and to [colonize](/wiki/Colonization "Colonization") the area. The arrival of westerners represented for the Yanesha' the loss of land and a dramatic change of living customs ensued; they were grouped into towns and their extensive territories became the property of colonists. With this situation, they were compelled to group together and became the first ethnic group to form a professional organization: the Amuesha Congress. This later became the Yanesha' Federation. The Law of Indigenous Communities ([sp](/wiki/Spanish_language "Spanish language"): *La Ley de Comunidades Indígenas*), promulgated in 1974, partly repaired the situation of dispossession by granting some land to Yanesha' groups. The Yanesha' people once lived through [hunting](/wiki/Hunting "Hunting"), [fishing](/wiki/Fishing "Fishing"), and [subsistence agriculture](/wiki/Subsistence_agriculture "Subsistence agriculture"); in modern times, the emphasis is on [agricultural diversification](/wiki/Agricultural_diversification "Agricultural diversification") and cultivation of [cash crops](/wiki/Cash_crop "Cash crop") like [coffee](/wiki/Coffee "Coffee") and [annatto](/wiki/Annatto "Annatto"). Hunting became much rarer after the Yanesha' people began raising animals for consumption. In addition, groups have begun exploiting [Cat's claw](/wiki/Uncaria_tomentosa "Uncaria tomentosa"). The marketing of ceramic [crafts](/wiki/Craft "Craft") has also become a source of income. In 1988, a territory of over 34,774 [hectares](/wiki/Hectare "Hectare") was set up in [Palcazu District](/wiki/Palcazu_District "Palcazu District") as the [Yanesha' Communal Reservation](/wiki/Yanesha_Communal_Reservation "Yanesha Communal Reservation") (*Reserva Communal Yanesha'*) with the purpose of protecting important [fauna](/wiki/Fauna "Fauna") that serves as sustenance to Yanesha' communities in the area.
[ "History\n-------", "The tribe's first contact with non\\-native people came through [friars](/wiki/Friar \"Friar\") who, in the second half of the 16th century, made an incursion into the region. However, it was not until the 18th century that missionaries (this time [Franciscans](/wiki/Franciscan \"Franciscan\")) managed to establish steady relations with the Yanesha' and other ethnic groups living nearby. Father Francisco de San José founded various missions around [Cerro de la Sal](/wiki/Cerro_de_la_Sal \"Cerro de la Sal\") (Villa Rica District) and Quimiri ([La Merced, Junin](/wiki/La_Merced%2C_Junin \"La Merced, Junin\")) to convert the indigenous populations to [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\"). However, in 1742, indigenous people commanded by [Juan Santos Atahualpa](/wiki/Juan_Santos_Atahualpa \"Juan Santos Atahualpa\") rebelled against the Spaniards and destroyed a number of missions, effectively cutting off outside contact for several decades.", "It's not known for sure the population of the Yanesha' people at this time but they had certainly already begun to die off from European diseases. During the 19th century, the area inhabited by the Yanesha' and other groups was reexplored by expeditions looking to establish routes to the lower Amazon and to [colonize](/wiki/Colonization \"Colonization\") the area.", "The arrival of westerners represented for the Yanesha' the loss of land and a dramatic change of living customs ensued; they were grouped into towns and their extensive territories became the property of colonists. With this situation, they were compelled to group together and became the first ethnic group to form a professional organization: the Amuesha Congress. This later became the Yanesha' Federation. The Law of Indigenous Communities ([sp](/wiki/Spanish_language \"Spanish language\"): *La Ley de Comunidades Indígenas*), promulgated in 1974, partly repaired the situation of dispossession by granting some land to Yanesha' groups.", "The Yanesha' people once lived through [hunting](/wiki/Hunting \"Hunting\"), [fishing](/wiki/Fishing \"Fishing\"), and [subsistence agriculture](/wiki/Subsistence_agriculture \"Subsistence agriculture\"); in modern times, the emphasis is on [agricultural diversification](/wiki/Agricultural_diversification \"Agricultural diversification\") and cultivation of [cash crops](/wiki/Cash_crop \"Cash crop\") like [coffee](/wiki/Coffee \"Coffee\") and [annatto](/wiki/Annatto \"Annatto\"). Hunting became much rarer after the Yanesha' people began raising animals for consumption. In addition, groups have begun exploiting [Cat's claw](/wiki/Uncaria_tomentosa \"Uncaria tomentosa\"). The marketing of ceramic [crafts](/wiki/Craft \"Craft\") has also become a source of income.", "In 1988, a territory of over 34,774 [hectares](/wiki/Hectare \"Hectare\") was set up in [Palcazu District](/wiki/Palcazu_District \"Palcazu District\") as the [Yanesha' Communal Reservation](/wiki/Yanesha_Communal_Reservation \"Yanesha Communal Reservation\") (*Reserva Communal Yanesha'*) with the purpose of protecting important [fauna](/wiki/Fauna \"Fauna\") that serves as sustenance to Yanesha' communities in the area.", "" ]
Biography --------- ### Early life and career Susan Glaspell was born in Iowa in 1876 to Elmer Glaspell, a hay farmer, and his wife Alice Keating, a public school teacher. She had an older brother, Raymond, and a younger brother, Frank.1900 United States Federal Census She was raised on a rural homestead just below the bluffs of the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River "Mississippi River") along the western edge of [Davenport, Iowa](/wiki/Davenport%2C_Iowa "Davenport, Iowa"). This property had been bought by her paternal great\-grandfather James Glaspell from the federal government following its [Black Hawk Purchase](/wiki/Black_Hawk_Purchase "Black Hawk Purchase").Ben\-Zvi, Linda (2005\). *Susan Glaspell: Her Life and Times*. Oxford University Press, pp. 13 Having a fairly conservative upbringing, "Susie" was remembered as "a precocious child" who would often rescue [stray animals](/wiki/Stray_animal "Stray animal").Ben\-Zvi, p. 25\. As the family farm increasingly became surrounded by residential development, Glaspell's worldview was still shaped by the pioneer tales of her grandmother. She told of regular visits by Indians to the farm in the years before Iowa statehood.Ben\-Zvi, p. 5\. Growing up directly across the river from [Black Hawk's](/wiki/Black_Hawk_%28Sauk_leader%29 "Black Hawk (Sauk leader)") ancestral [village](/wiki/Saukenuk "Saukenuk"), Glaspell was also influenced by the [Sauk](/wiki/Sauk_people "Sauk people") leader's autobiography; he wrote that Americans should be worthy inheritors of the land. In 1891, her father sold the farm, and the family moved into Davenport.Ben\-Zvi, p. 17\. [thumb\|210px\|right\|Glaspell, circa 1883\.](/wiki/File:Sgchild1883.jpg "Sgchild1883.jpg") Glaspell was an accomplished student in the city's public schools, taking an advanced course of study and giving a commencement speech at her 1894 graduation. By eighteen, she was earning a regular salary as a journalist for a local newspaper. By twenty, she wrote a weekly 'Society' column that lampooned Davenport's upper class.Ben\-Zvi, p. 30\. At twenty\-one, Glaspell enrolled at [Drake University](/wiki/Drake_University "Drake University"), against the local belief that college made women unfit for marriage.Ben\-Zvi, p. 35\. A [philosophy](/wiki/Philosophy "Philosophy") major, she excelled in male\-dominated debate competitions, winning the right to represent Drake at the state debate tournament her senior year.Ben\-Zvi, p. 37\. A *[Des Moines Daily News](/wiki/Des_Moines_Daily_News "Des Moines Daily News")* article on her graduation ceremony cited Glaspell as "a leader in the social and intellectual life of the university."Ben\-Zvi, p. 28\. The day after graduation, Glaspell began working full\-time for the Des Moines paper as a reporter, a rare position for a woman, particularly as she was assigned to cover the state legislature and murder cases.Ben\-Zvi, p. 38\. After covering the conviction of a woman accused of murdering her abusive husband, Glaspell abruptly resigned at age twenty\-four. She moved back to Davenport to focus on writing fiction.Ben\-Zvi, p. 47\. Unlike many new writers, she readily had her stories accepted and was published by the most widely read periodicals,Ben\-Zvi, p. 51\. including *[Harper's](/wiki/Harper%27s "Harper's")*, *[Munsey's](/wiki/Munsey%27s_Magazine "Munsey's Magazine")*, *[Ladies' Home Journal](/wiki/Ladies%27_Home_Journal "Ladies' Home Journal")*, and *[Woman's Home Companion](/wiki/Woman%27s_Home_Companion "Woman's Home Companion")*. It was a golden age of short stories. She used a large cash prize from a [short story magazine](/wiki/The_Black_Cat_%28US_magazine%29 "The Black Cat (US magazine)") to finance her move to [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago"), where she wrote her first novel, *[The Glory of the Conquered](/wiki/The_Glory_of_the_Conquered "The Glory of the Conquered")*, published in 1909\. It was a best\-seller, and *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* declared, > "Unless Susan Glaspell is an assumed name covering that of some already well\-known author—and the book has qualities so out of the ordinary in American fiction and so individual that this does not seem likely—*The Glory of the Conquered* brings forward a new author of fine and notable gifts."Ben\-Zvi, p. 98\. Glaspell published her second novel, *[The Visioning](/wiki/The_Visioning "The Visioning")*, in 1911\. *The New York Times* said of the book, "it does prove Miss Glaspell's staying power, her possession of abilities that put her high among the ranks of American storytellers."Ben\-Zvi, p. 113\. Her third novel, *[Fidelity](/wiki/Fidelity_%28novel%29 "Fidelity (novel)")*, was published in 1915\. *The New York Times* described it as "a big and real contribution to American novels."Ben\-Zvi, p. 159\. ### Theatre [thumb\|Glaspell and husband George Cram Cook in 1917](/wiki/File:George_Cram_Cook_and_Susan_Glaspell.jpg "George Cram Cook and Susan Glaspell.jpg") While in Davenport, Glaspell associated with other local writers to form the [Davenport group](/wiki/Davenport_Group_%28literature%29 "Davenport Group (literature)"). Among them was [George Cram Cook](/wiki/George_Cram_Cook "George Cram Cook"), who was teaching English literature at the University of Iowa. He was from a wealthy family and also was a gentleman farmer. Though he was already in his second, troubled marriage, Glaspell fell in love with him. He divorced and they wed in 1913\. To escape Davenport's disapproving gossip and seek a larger artistic world, Glaspell and Cook moved to New York City's [Greenwich Village](/wiki/Greenwich_Village "Greenwich Village"). There they became key participants in America's first [avant\-garde](/wiki/Avant-garde "Avant-garde") artistic movement, and associated with many of the era's most well\-known social reformers and activists, including [Upton Sinclair](/wiki/Upton_Sinclair "Upton Sinclair"), [Emma Goldman](/wiki/Emma_Goldman "Emma Goldman"), and [John Reed](/wiki/John_Reed_%28journalist%29 "John Reed (journalist)"). Glaspell became a leading member of [Heterodoxy](/wiki/Heterodoxy_%28group%29 "Heterodoxy (group)"), an early feminist debating group composed of the premier women's rights crusaders. After a series of miscarriages, she underwent surgery to remove a fibroid tumor. Along with many others of their artistic circles, Glaspell and Cook went to [Provincetown, Massachusetts](/wiki/Provincetown%2C_Massachusetts "Provincetown, Massachusetts"), on Cape Cod, for the summer of 1915, where they rented a cottage. Although still weak from surgery, Glaspell worked with Cook and friends to start an experimental theatre company, a "creative collective". They produced their first plays in a refurbished fishing wharf arranged for by another member of their group. What became known as the [Provincetown Playhouse](/wiki/Provincetown_Players "Provincetown Players") would be devoted to creating and producing artistic plays to reflect contemporary American issues. The Players rejected the more commercial and escapist melodramas produced on [Broadway.](/wiki/Broadway_theatre "Broadway theatre") Despite the successes of her earlier fiction, Glaspell would be most remembered for the twelve groundbreaking plays she submitted to the company over the next seven years. Her first play, *[Trifles](/wiki/Trifles "Trifles")* (1916\), was based on the murder trial she had covered as a young reporter in Des Moines. Today considered an early feminist masterpiece, it was an instant success, riveting audiences with its daring views of justice and morality. It has since become one of the most anthologized works in American theatre history. In 1921 she completed [*Inheritors*](/wiki/Inheritors_%28play%29 "Inheritors (play)"); following three generations of a pioneer family, it is perhaps America's first modern historical drama. This same year she also finished *The Verge*, one of the earliest American works of [expressionist](/wiki/Expressionism "Expressionism") art. Believing an amateur staff would lead to increased innovation, the Provincetown playwrights often participated directly in the production of their own plays. Though untrained, Glaspell received further acclaim as an actress. [William Zorach](/wiki/William_Zorach "William Zorach"), an early member of the group, reported "she had only to be on the stage and the play and the audience came alive." [Jacques Copeau](/wiki/Jacques_Copeau "Jacques Copeau"), a legendary French theatre director and critic, was moved to tears by a Glaspell performance. He described her as "a truly great actress."Helen Deutsch and Stella Hanau, *The Provincetown: A Story of the Theatre* (New York: Farrar \& Rinehart, 1931\), pp. 24\-25\. [thumb\|Lewis Wharf](/wiki/File:Lewis_Wharf.jpg "Lewis Wharf.jpg") While considering new plays to produce, Glaspell discovered [Eugene O'Neill](/wiki/Eugene_O%27Neill "Eugene O'Neill"), who would eventually be recognized as one of the greatest playwrights in American history. Other notables associated with the group include [Edna St. Vincent Millay](/wiki/Edna_St._Vincent_Millay "Edna St. Vincent Millay"), [Theodore Dreiser](/wiki/Theodore_Dreiser "Theodore Dreiser"), and [Floyd Dell](/wiki/Floyd_Dell "Floyd Dell"), Glaspell's friend from the [Davenport group](/wiki/Davenport_Group_%28literature%29 "Davenport Group (literature)"). After their first two seasons in Provincetown, the players moved their theater to New York City. As the company became more successful, playwrights began to view it as a means to get picked up by other, more commercial theatre venues, a violation of the group's original purpose. Cook and Glaspell decided to leave the company they founded, which had become 'too successful'. Glaspell was by now at the height of her theatre career, with her most recent play, *The Verge*, bringing the most praise. In 1922 Glaspell and Cook moved to [Delphi](/wiki/Delphi "Delphi"), Greece. Cook died there in 1924 of [glanders](/wiki/Glanders "Glanders"), an infectious disease he caught from his dog. From the onset, Glaspell's plays were also published in print form, receiving laudatory reviews by New York's most prestigious periodicals. By 1918 Glaspell was already considered one of America's most significant new playwrights. In 1920, her plays began to be printed in England by the highly reputable British publisher, [Small \& Maynard](/wiki/Small%2C_Maynard_%26_Company "Small, Maynard & Company"). She was even better received there. English critics hailed her as a genius and ranked her above O'Neill. They compared her favorably to [Henrik Ibsen](/wiki/Henrik_Ibsen "Henrik Ibsen"), whom they ranked as the most important playwright since Shakespeare. To satisfy demand for Glaspell's writing, a British version of her novel *Fidelity* was published, going through five editions in five weeks. When *Inheritors* was produced for England in 1925, every leading newspaper and literary magazine published an extensive review, most unanimous in their praise. The reviewer for the *[Liverpool Echo](/wiki/Liverpool_Echo "Liverpool Echo")* claimed, "This play will live when Liverpool is a rubbish heap."{{Cite book \|last\=Ben\-Zvi \|first\=Linda \|title\=Susan Glaspell: Her Life and Times \|date\=2005\-04\-28 \|publisher\=\[\[Oxford University Press]] \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-511506\-2 \|location\=New York \|pages\=309, 426 \|language\=en}} However, the influence and critical success of Glaspell's plays did not translate into financial gain. In order to support herself and her husband during their years with the theater, Glaspell continued to submit short stories to top periodicals for publication. Literary scholars consider the stories from this period to be her finest. It was during her productive time as a playwright that Glaspell also established herself as, in the words of biographer Linda Ben\-Zvi, "a central figure in the development of the modern American short story."{{Cite web \|title\=Her America {{!}} University of Iowa Press \- The University of Iowa \|url\=https://uipress.uiowa.edu/books/her\-america \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005042715/https://uipress.uiowa.edu/books/her\-america \|archive\-date\=2022\-10\-05 \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-27 \|website\=\[\[University of Iowa Press]] \|date\=April 2012 \|language\=en}} ### Later career [thumb\|240px\|right\|Poster for the 1938 [WPA](/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration "Works Progress Administration") production of *Alison's House*, for which Glaspell won the [Pulitzer Prize for Drama](/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize "Pulitzer Prize").](/wiki/File:Alison%27s_House_by_Susan_Glaspell_1938.jpg "Alison's House by Susan Glaspell 1938.jpg") Glaspell returned to Cape Cod after Cook's death, where she wrote a well\-received biography and tribute to her late husband, *[The Road to the Temple](/wiki/The_Road_to_the_Temple "The Road to the Temple")* (1927\). During the late twenties, she was romantically involved with the younger writer [Norman H. Matson](/wiki/Norman_H._Matson "Norman H. Matson"). In this period she wrote three best\-selling novels, which she considered personal favorites: *Brook Evans* (1928\), *Fugitive's Return* (1929\), and *Ambrose Holt and Family* (1931\). She also wrote the play *[Alison's House](/wiki/Alison%27s_House "Alison's House")* (1930\), for which she was awarded the [Pulitzer Prize](/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Drama "Pulitzer Prize for Drama") in 1931\. In 1932, Glaspell's relationship with Matson ended after eight years. She fell into her first and only period of low productivity as she struggled with depression, alcoholism, and poor health. In 1936, Glaspell moved to Chicago after being appointed Midwest Bureau Director of the [Federal Theater Project](/wiki/Federal_Theater_Project "Federal Theater Project") during the Great Depression. Over the next few years, she reconnected with siblings and regained control of her drinking and creativity. Glaspell returned to Cape Cod when her work for the Federal Theater Project was finished. Her years in the Midwest influenced her work. Her last three novels increasingly focused on the region, family life, and theistic questions. They included *The Morning is Near Us* (1939\), *Norma Ashe* (1942\), and *Judd Rankin's Daughter* (1945\). Susan Glaspell died of viral pneumonia in Provincetown on July 28, 1948\.
[ "Biography\n---------", "### Early life and career", "Susan Glaspell was born in Iowa in 1876 to Elmer Glaspell, a hay farmer, and his wife Alice Keating, a public school teacher. She had an older brother, Raymond, and a younger brother, Frank.1900 United States Federal Census She was raised on a rural homestead just below the bluffs of the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River \"Mississippi River\") along the western edge of [Davenport, Iowa](/wiki/Davenport%2C_Iowa \"Davenport, Iowa\"). This property had been bought by her paternal great\\-grandfather James Glaspell from the federal government following its [Black Hawk Purchase](/wiki/Black_Hawk_Purchase \"Black Hawk Purchase\").Ben\\-Zvi, Linda (2005\\). *Susan Glaspell: Her Life and Times*. Oxford University Press, pp. 13 Having a fairly conservative upbringing, \"Susie\" was remembered as \"a precocious child\" who would often rescue [stray animals](/wiki/Stray_animal \"Stray animal\").Ben\\-Zvi, p. 25\\. As the family farm increasingly became surrounded by residential development, Glaspell's worldview was still shaped by the pioneer tales of her grandmother. She told of regular visits by Indians to the farm in the years before Iowa statehood.Ben\\-Zvi, p. 5\\. Growing up directly across the river from [Black Hawk's](/wiki/Black_Hawk_%28Sauk_leader%29 \"Black Hawk (Sauk leader)\") ancestral [village](/wiki/Saukenuk \"Saukenuk\"), Glaspell was also influenced by the [Sauk](/wiki/Sauk_people \"Sauk people\") leader's autobiography; he wrote that Americans should be worthy inheritors of the land. In 1891, her father sold the farm, and the family moved into Davenport.Ben\\-Zvi, p. 17\\.\n[thumb\\|210px\\|right\\|Glaspell, circa 1883\\.](/wiki/File:Sgchild1883.jpg \"Sgchild1883.jpg\")\nGlaspell was an accomplished student in the city's public schools, taking an advanced course of study and giving a commencement speech at her 1894 graduation. By eighteen, she was earning a regular salary as a journalist for a local newspaper. By twenty, she wrote a weekly 'Society' column that lampooned Davenport's upper class.Ben\\-Zvi, p. 30\\.", "At twenty\\-one, Glaspell enrolled at [Drake University](/wiki/Drake_University \"Drake University\"), against the local belief that college made women unfit for marriage.Ben\\-Zvi, p. 35\\. A [philosophy](/wiki/Philosophy \"Philosophy\") major, she excelled in male\\-dominated debate competitions, winning the right to represent Drake at the state debate tournament her senior year.Ben\\-Zvi, p. 37\\. A *[Des Moines Daily News](/wiki/Des_Moines_Daily_News \"Des Moines Daily News\")* article on her graduation ceremony cited Glaspell as \"a leader in the social and intellectual life of the university.\"Ben\\-Zvi, p. 28\\.", "The day after graduation, Glaspell began working full\\-time for the Des Moines paper as a reporter, a rare position for a woman, particularly as she was assigned to cover the state legislature and murder cases.Ben\\-Zvi, p. 38\\. After covering the conviction of a woman accused of murdering her abusive husband, Glaspell abruptly resigned at age twenty\\-four.", "She moved back to Davenport to focus on writing fiction.Ben\\-Zvi, p. 47\\. Unlike many new writers, she readily had her stories accepted and was published by the most widely read periodicals,Ben\\-Zvi, p. 51\\. including *[Harper's](/wiki/Harper%27s \"Harper's\")*, *[Munsey's](/wiki/Munsey%27s_Magazine \"Munsey's Magazine\")*, *[Ladies' Home Journal](/wiki/Ladies%27_Home_Journal \"Ladies' Home Journal\")*, and *[Woman's Home Companion](/wiki/Woman%27s_Home_Companion \"Woman's Home Companion\")*. It was a golden age of short stories. She used a large cash prize from a [short story magazine](/wiki/The_Black_Cat_%28US_magazine%29 \"The Black Cat (US magazine)\") to finance her move to [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\"), where she wrote her first novel, *[The Glory of the Conquered](/wiki/The_Glory_of_the_Conquered \"The Glory of the Conquered\")*, published in 1909\\. It was a best\\-seller, and *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* declared, \n> \"Unless Susan Glaspell is an assumed name covering that of some already well\\-known author—and the book has qualities so out of the ordinary in American fiction and so individual that this does not seem likely—*The Glory of the Conquered* brings forward a new author of fine and notable gifts.\"Ben\\-Zvi, p. 98\\.", "", "Glaspell published her second novel, *[The Visioning](/wiki/The_Visioning \"The Visioning\")*, in 1911\\. *The New York Times* said of the book, \"it does prove Miss Glaspell's staying power, her possession of abilities that put her high among the ranks of American storytellers.\"Ben\\-Zvi, p. 113\\. Her third novel, *[Fidelity](/wiki/Fidelity_%28novel%29 \"Fidelity (novel)\")*, was published in 1915\\. *The New York Times* described it as \"a big and real contribution to American novels.\"Ben\\-Zvi, p. 159\\.", "### Theatre", "[thumb\\|Glaspell and husband George Cram Cook in 1917](/wiki/File:George_Cram_Cook_and_Susan_Glaspell.jpg \"George Cram Cook and Susan Glaspell.jpg\")\nWhile in Davenport, Glaspell associated with other local writers to form the [Davenport group](/wiki/Davenport_Group_%28literature%29 \"Davenport Group (literature)\"). Among them was [George Cram Cook](/wiki/George_Cram_Cook \"George Cram Cook\"), who was teaching English literature at the University of Iowa. He was from a wealthy family and also was a gentleman farmer. Though he was already in his second, troubled marriage, Glaspell fell in love with him. He divorced and they wed in 1913\\.", "To escape Davenport's disapproving gossip and seek a larger artistic world, Glaspell and Cook moved to New York City's [Greenwich Village](/wiki/Greenwich_Village \"Greenwich Village\"). There they became key participants in America's first [avant\\-garde](/wiki/Avant-garde \"Avant-garde\") artistic movement, and associated with many of the era's most well\\-known social reformers and activists, including [Upton Sinclair](/wiki/Upton_Sinclair \"Upton Sinclair\"), [Emma Goldman](/wiki/Emma_Goldman \"Emma Goldman\"), and [John Reed](/wiki/John_Reed_%28journalist%29 \"John Reed (journalist)\"). Glaspell became a leading member of [Heterodoxy](/wiki/Heterodoxy_%28group%29 \"Heterodoxy (group)\"), an early feminist debating group composed of the premier women's rights crusaders. After a series of miscarriages, she underwent surgery to remove a fibroid tumor.", "Along with many others of their artistic circles, Glaspell and Cook went to [Provincetown, Massachusetts](/wiki/Provincetown%2C_Massachusetts \"Provincetown, Massachusetts\"), on Cape Cod, for the summer of 1915, where they rented a cottage. Although still weak from surgery, Glaspell worked with Cook and friends to start an experimental theatre company, a \"creative collective\". They produced their first plays in a refurbished fishing wharf arranged for by another member of their group. What became known as the [Provincetown Playhouse](/wiki/Provincetown_Players \"Provincetown Players\") would be devoted to creating and producing artistic plays to reflect contemporary American issues. The Players rejected the more commercial and escapist melodramas produced on [Broadway.](/wiki/Broadway_theatre \"Broadway theatre\")", "Despite the successes of her earlier fiction, Glaspell would be most remembered for the twelve groundbreaking plays she submitted to the company over the next seven years. Her first play, *[Trifles](/wiki/Trifles \"Trifles\")* (1916\\), was based on the murder trial she had covered as a young reporter in Des Moines. Today considered an early feminist masterpiece, it was an instant success, riveting audiences with its daring views of justice and morality. It has since become one of the most anthologized works in American theatre history. In 1921 she completed [*Inheritors*](/wiki/Inheritors_%28play%29 \"Inheritors (play)\"); following three generations of a pioneer family, it is perhaps America's first modern historical drama. This same year she also finished *The Verge*, one of the earliest American works of [expressionist](/wiki/Expressionism \"Expressionism\") art.", "Believing an amateur staff would lead to increased innovation, the Provincetown playwrights often participated directly in the production of their own plays. Though untrained, Glaspell received further acclaim as an actress. [William Zorach](/wiki/William_Zorach \"William Zorach\"), an early member of the group, reported \"she had only to be on the stage and the play and the audience came alive.\" [Jacques Copeau](/wiki/Jacques_Copeau \"Jacques Copeau\"), a legendary French theatre director and critic, was moved to tears by a Glaspell performance. He described her as \"a truly great actress.\"Helen Deutsch and Stella Hanau, *The Provincetown: A Story of the Theatre* (New York: Farrar \\& Rinehart, 1931\\), pp. 24\\-25\\.\n[thumb\\|Lewis Wharf](/wiki/File:Lewis_Wharf.jpg \"Lewis Wharf.jpg\")", "While considering new plays to produce, Glaspell discovered [Eugene O'Neill](/wiki/Eugene_O%27Neill \"Eugene O'Neill\"), who would eventually be recognized as one of the greatest playwrights in American history. Other notables associated with the group include [Edna St. Vincent Millay](/wiki/Edna_St._Vincent_Millay \"Edna St. Vincent Millay\"), [Theodore Dreiser](/wiki/Theodore_Dreiser \"Theodore Dreiser\"), and [Floyd Dell](/wiki/Floyd_Dell \"Floyd Dell\"), Glaspell's friend from the [Davenport group](/wiki/Davenport_Group_%28literature%29 \"Davenport Group (literature)\").", "After their first two seasons in Provincetown, the players moved their theater to New York City. As the company became more successful, playwrights began to view it as a means to get picked up by other, more commercial theatre venues, a violation of the group's original purpose.", "Cook and Glaspell decided to leave the company they founded, which had become 'too successful'. Glaspell was by now at the height of her theatre career, with her most recent play, *The Verge*, bringing the most praise. In 1922 Glaspell and Cook moved to [Delphi](/wiki/Delphi \"Delphi\"), Greece. Cook died there in 1924 of [glanders](/wiki/Glanders \"Glanders\"), an infectious disease he caught from his dog.", "From the onset, Glaspell's plays were also published in print form, receiving laudatory reviews by New York's most prestigious periodicals. By 1918 Glaspell was already considered one of America's most significant new playwrights. In 1920, her plays began to be printed in England by the highly reputable British publisher, [Small \\& Maynard](/wiki/Small%2C_Maynard_%26_Company \"Small, Maynard & Company\"). She was even better received there. English critics hailed her as a genius and ranked her above O'Neill. They compared her favorably to [Henrik Ibsen](/wiki/Henrik_Ibsen \"Henrik Ibsen\"), whom they ranked as the most important playwright since Shakespeare. To satisfy demand for Glaspell's writing, a British version of her novel *Fidelity* was published, going through five editions in five weeks. When *Inheritors* was produced for England in 1925, every leading newspaper and literary magazine published an extensive review, most unanimous in their praise. The reviewer for the *[Liverpool Echo](/wiki/Liverpool_Echo \"Liverpool Echo\")* claimed, \"This play will live when Liverpool is a rubbish heap.\"{{Cite book \\|last\\=Ben\\-Zvi \\|first\\=Linda \\|title\\=Susan Glaspell: Her Life and Times \\|date\\=2005\\-04\\-28 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Oxford University Press]] \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-511506\\-2 \\|location\\=New York \\|pages\\=309, 426 \\|language\\=en}}", "However, the influence and critical success of Glaspell's plays did not translate into financial gain. In order to support herself and her husband during their years with the theater, Glaspell continued to submit short stories to top periodicals for publication. Literary scholars consider the stories from this period to be her finest. It was during her productive time as a playwright that Glaspell also established herself as, in the words of biographer Linda Ben\\-Zvi, \"a central figure in the development of the modern American short story.\"{{Cite web \\|title\\=Her America {{!}} University of Iowa Press \\- The University of Iowa \\|url\\=https://uipress.uiowa.edu/books/her\\-america \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005042715/https://uipress.uiowa.edu/books/her\\-america \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-05 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=\\[\\[University of Iowa Press]] \\|date\\=April 2012 \\|language\\=en}}", "### Later career", "[thumb\\|240px\\|right\\|Poster for the 1938 [WPA](/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration \"Works Progress Administration\") production of *Alison's House*, for which Glaspell won the [Pulitzer Prize for Drama](/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize \"Pulitzer Prize\").](/wiki/File:Alison%27s_House_by_Susan_Glaspell_1938.jpg \"Alison's House by Susan Glaspell 1938.jpg\")\nGlaspell returned to Cape Cod after Cook's death, where she wrote a well\\-received biography and tribute to her late husband, *[The Road to the Temple](/wiki/The_Road_to_the_Temple \"The Road to the Temple\")* (1927\\). During the late twenties, she was romantically involved with the younger writer [Norman H. Matson](/wiki/Norman_H._Matson \"Norman H. Matson\"). In this period she wrote three best\\-selling novels, which she considered personal favorites: *Brook Evans* (1928\\), *Fugitive's Return* (1929\\), and *Ambrose Holt and Family* (1931\\). She also wrote the play *[Alison's House](/wiki/Alison%27s_House \"Alison's House\")* (1930\\), for which she was awarded the [Pulitzer Prize](/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Drama \"Pulitzer Prize for Drama\") in 1931\\. In 1932, Glaspell's relationship with Matson ended after eight years. She fell into her first and only period of low productivity as she struggled with depression, alcoholism, and poor health.", "In 1936, Glaspell moved to Chicago after being appointed Midwest Bureau Director of the [Federal Theater Project](/wiki/Federal_Theater_Project \"Federal Theater Project\") during the Great Depression. Over the next few years, she reconnected with siblings and regained control of her drinking and creativity. Glaspell returned to Cape Cod when her work for the Federal Theater Project was finished. Her years in the Midwest influenced her work. Her last three novels increasingly focused on the region, family life, and theistic questions. They included *The Morning is Near Us* (1939\\), *Norma Ashe* (1942\\), and *Judd Rankin's Daughter* (1945\\).", "Susan Glaspell died of viral pneumonia in Provincetown on July 28, 1948\\.", "" ]
### Early life and career Susan Glaspell was born in Iowa in 1876 to Elmer Glaspell, a hay farmer, and his wife Alice Keating, a public school teacher. She had an older brother, Raymond, and a younger brother, Frank.1900 United States Federal Census She was raised on a rural homestead just below the bluffs of the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River "Mississippi River") along the western edge of [Davenport, Iowa](/wiki/Davenport%2C_Iowa "Davenport, Iowa"). This property had been bought by her paternal great\-grandfather James Glaspell from the federal government following its [Black Hawk Purchase](/wiki/Black_Hawk_Purchase "Black Hawk Purchase").Ben\-Zvi, Linda (2005\). *Susan Glaspell: Her Life and Times*. Oxford University Press, pp. 13 Having a fairly conservative upbringing, "Susie" was remembered as "a precocious child" who would often rescue [stray animals](/wiki/Stray_animal "Stray animal").Ben\-Zvi, p. 25\. As the family farm increasingly became surrounded by residential development, Glaspell's worldview was still shaped by the pioneer tales of her grandmother. She told of regular visits by Indians to the farm in the years before Iowa statehood.Ben\-Zvi, p. 5\. Growing up directly across the river from [Black Hawk's](/wiki/Black_Hawk_%28Sauk_leader%29 "Black Hawk (Sauk leader)") ancestral [village](/wiki/Saukenuk "Saukenuk"), Glaspell was also influenced by the [Sauk](/wiki/Sauk_people "Sauk people") leader's autobiography; he wrote that Americans should be worthy inheritors of the land. In 1891, her father sold the farm, and the family moved into Davenport.Ben\-Zvi, p. 17\. [thumb\|210px\|right\|Glaspell, circa 1883\.](/wiki/File:Sgchild1883.jpg "Sgchild1883.jpg") Glaspell was an accomplished student in the city's public schools, taking an advanced course of study and giving a commencement speech at her 1894 graduation. By eighteen, she was earning a regular salary as a journalist for a local newspaper. By twenty, she wrote a weekly 'Society' column that lampooned Davenport's upper class.Ben\-Zvi, p. 30\. At twenty\-one, Glaspell enrolled at [Drake University](/wiki/Drake_University "Drake University"), against the local belief that college made women unfit for marriage.Ben\-Zvi, p. 35\. A [philosophy](/wiki/Philosophy "Philosophy") major, she excelled in male\-dominated debate competitions, winning the right to represent Drake at the state debate tournament her senior year.Ben\-Zvi, p. 37\. A *[Des Moines Daily News](/wiki/Des_Moines_Daily_News "Des Moines Daily News")* article on her graduation ceremony cited Glaspell as "a leader in the social and intellectual life of the university."Ben\-Zvi, p. 28\. The day after graduation, Glaspell began working full\-time for the Des Moines paper as a reporter, a rare position for a woman, particularly as she was assigned to cover the state legislature and murder cases.Ben\-Zvi, p. 38\. After covering the conviction of a woman accused of murdering her abusive husband, Glaspell abruptly resigned at age twenty\-four. She moved back to Davenport to focus on writing fiction.Ben\-Zvi, p. 47\. Unlike many new writers, she readily had her stories accepted and was published by the most widely read periodicals,Ben\-Zvi, p. 51\. including *[Harper's](/wiki/Harper%27s "Harper's")*, *[Munsey's](/wiki/Munsey%27s_Magazine "Munsey's Magazine")*, *[Ladies' Home Journal](/wiki/Ladies%27_Home_Journal "Ladies' Home Journal")*, and *[Woman's Home Companion](/wiki/Woman%27s_Home_Companion "Woman's Home Companion")*. It was a golden age of short stories. She used a large cash prize from a [short story magazine](/wiki/The_Black_Cat_%28US_magazine%29 "The Black Cat (US magazine)") to finance her move to [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago"), where she wrote her first novel, *[The Glory of the Conquered](/wiki/The_Glory_of_the_Conquered "The Glory of the Conquered")*, published in 1909\. It was a best\-seller, and *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* declared, > "Unless Susan Glaspell is an assumed name covering that of some already well\-known author—and the book has qualities so out of the ordinary in American fiction and so individual that this does not seem likely—*The Glory of the Conquered* brings forward a new author of fine and notable gifts."Ben\-Zvi, p. 98\. Glaspell published her second novel, *[The Visioning](/wiki/The_Visioning "The Visioning")*, in 1911\. *The New York Times* said of the book, "it does prove Miss Glaspell's staying power, her possession of abilities that put her high among the ranks of American storytellers."Ben\-Zvi, p. 113\. Her third novel, *[Fidelity](/wiki/Fidelity_%28novel%29 "Fidelity (novel)")*, was published in 1915\. *The New York Times* described it as "a big and real contribution to American novels."Ben\-Zvi, p. 159\.
[ "### Early life and career", "Susan Glaspell was born in Iowa in 1876 to Elmer Glaspell, a hay farmer, and his wife Alice Keating, a public school teacher. She had an older brother, Raymond, and a younger brother, Frank.1900 United States Federal Census She was raised on a rural homestead just below the bluffs of the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River \"Mississippi River\") along the western edge of [Davenport, Iowa](/wiki/Davenport%2C_Iowa \"Davenport, Iowa\"). This property had been bought by her paternal great\\-grandfather James Glaspell from the federal government following its [Black Hawk Purchase](/wiki/Black_Hawk_Purchase \"Black Hawk Purchase\").Ben\\-Zvi, Linda (2005\\). *Susan Glaspell: Her Life and Times*. Oxford University Press, pp. 13 Having a fairly conservative upbringing, \"Susie\" was remembered as \"a precocious child\" who would often rescue [stray animals](/wiki/Stray_animal \"Stray animal\").Ben\\-Zvi, p. 25\\. As the family farm increasingly became surrounded by residential development, Glaspell's worldview was still shaped by the pioneer tales of her grandmother. She told of regular visits by Indians to the farm in the years before Iowa statehood.Ben\\-Zvi, p. 5\\. Growing up directly across the river from [Black Hawk's](/wiki/Black_Hawk_%28Sauk_leader%29 \"Black Hawk (Sauk leader)\") ancestral [village](/wiki/Saukenuk \"Saukenuk\"), Glaspell was also influenced by the [Sauk](/wiki/Sauk_people \"Sauk people\") leader's autobiography; he wrote that Americans should be worthy inheritors of the land. In 1891, her father sold the farm, and the family moved into Davenport.Ben\\-Zvi, p. 17\\.\n[thumb\\|210px\\|right\\|Glaspell, circa 1883\\.](/wiki/File:Sgchild1883.jpg \"Sgchild1883.jpg\")\nGlaspell was an accomplished student in the city's public schools, taking an advanced course of study and giving a commencement speech at her 1894 graduation. By eighteen, she was earning a regular salary as a journalist for a local newspaper. By twenty, she wrote a weekly 'Society' column that lampooned Davenport's upper class.Ben\\-Zvi, p. 30\\.", "At twenty\\-one, Glaspell enrolled at [Drake University](/wiki/Drake_University \"Drake University\"), against the local belief that college made women unfit for marriage.Ben\\-Zvi, p. 35\\. A [philosophy](/wiki/Philosophy \"Philosophy\") major, she excelled in male\\-dominated debate competitions, winning the right to represent Drake at the state debate tournament her senior year.Ben\\-Zvi, p. 37\\. A *[Des Moines Daily News](/wiki/Des_Moines_Daily_News \"Des Moines Daily News\")* article on her graduation ceremony cited Glaspell as \"a leader in the social and intellectual life of the university.\"Ben\\-Zvi, p. 28\\.", "The day after graduation, Glaspell began working full\\-time for the Des Moines paper as a reporter, a rare position for a woman, particularly as she was assigned to cover the state legislature and murder cases.Ben\\-Zvi, p. 38\\. After covering the conviction of a woman accused of murdering her abusive husband, Glaspell abruptly resigned at age twenty\\-four.", "She moved back to Davenport to focus on writing fiction.Ben\\-Zvi, p. 47\\. Unlike many new writers, she readily had her stories accepted and was published by the most widely read periodicals,Ben\\-Zvi, p. 51\\. including *[Harper's](/wiki/Harper%27s \"Harper's\")*, *[Munsey's](/wiki/Munsey%27s_Magazine \"Munsey's Magazine\")*, *[Ladies' Home Journal](/wiki/Ladies%27_Home_Journal \"Ladies' Home Journal\")*, and *[Woman's Home Companion](/wiki/Woman%27s_Home_Companion \"Woman's Home Companion\")*. It was a golden age of short stories. She used a large cash prize from a [short story magazine](/wiki/The_Black_Cat_%28US_magazine%29 \"The Black Cat (US magazine)\") to finance her move to [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\"), where she wrote her first novel, *[The Glory of the Conquered](/wiki/The_Glory_of_the_Conquered \"The Glory of the Conquered\")*, published in 1909\\. It was a best\\-seller, and *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* declared, \n> \"Unless Susan Glaspell is an assumed name covering that of some already well\\-known author—and the book has qualities so out of the ordinary in American fiction and so individual that this does not seem likely—*The Glory of the Conquered* brings forward a new author of fine and notable gifts.\"Ben\\-Zvi, p. 98\\.", "", "Glaspell published her second novel, *[The Visioning](/wiki/The_Visioning \"The Visioning\")*, in 1911\\. *The New York Times* said of the book, \"it does prove Miss Glaspell's staying power, her possession of abilities that put her high among the ranks of American storytellers.\"Ben\\-Zvi, p. 113\\. Her third novel, *[Fidelity](/wiki/Fidelity_%28novel%29 \"Fidelity (novel)\")*, was published in 1915\\. *The New York Times* described it as \"a big and real contribution to American novels.\"Ben\\-Zvi, p. 159\\.", "" ]
### Theatre [thumb\|Glaspell and husband George Cram Cook in 1917](/wiki/File:George_Cram_Cook_and_Susan_Glaspell.jpg "George Cram Cook and Susan Glaspell.jpg") While in Davenport, Glaspell associated with other local writers to form the [Davenport group](/wiki/Davenport_Group_%28literature%29 "Davenport Group (literature)"). Among them was [George Cram Cook](/wiki/George_Cram_Cook "George Cram Cook"), who was teaching English literature at the University of Iowa. He was from a wealthy family and also was a gentleman farmer. Though he was already in his second, troubled marriage, Glaspell fell in love with him. He divorced and they wed in 1913\. To escape Davenport's disapproving gossip and seek a larger artistic world, Glaspell and Cook moved to New York City's [Greenwich Village](/wiki/Greenwich_Village "Greenwich Village"). There they became key participants in America's first [avant\-garde](/wiki/Avant-garde "Avant-garde") artistic movement, and associated with many of the era's most well\-known social reformers and activists, including [Upton Sinclair](/wiki/Upton_Sinclair "Upton Sinclair"), [Emma Goldman](/wiki/Emma_Goldman "Emma Goldman"), and [John Reed](/wiki/John_Reed_%28journalist%29 "John Reed (journalist)"). Glaspell became a leading member of [Heterodoxy](/wiki/Heterodoxy_%28group%29 "Heterodoxy (group)"), an early feminist debating group composed of the premier women's rights crusaders. After a series of miscarriages, she underwent surgery to remove a fibroid tumor. Along with many others of their artistic circles, Glaspell and Cook went to [Provincetown, Massachusetts](/wiki/Provincetown%2C_Massachusetts "Provincetown, Massachusetts"), on Cape Cod, for the summer of 1915, where they rented a cottage. Although still weak from surgery, Glaspell worked with Cook and friends to start an experimental theatre company, a "creative collective". They produced their first plays in a refurbished fishing wharf arranged for by another member of their group. What became known as the [Provincetown Playhouse](/wiki/Provincetown_Players "Provincetown Players") would be devoted to creating and producing artistic plays to reflect contemporary American issues. The Players rejected the more commercial and escapist melodramas produced on [Broadway.](/wiki/Broadway_theatre "Broadway theatre") Despite the successes of her earlier fiction, Glaspell would be most remembered for the twelve groundbreaking plays she submitted to the company over the next seven years. Her first play, *[Trifles](/wiki/Trifles "Trifles")* (1916\), was based on the murder trial she had covered as a young reporter in Des Moines. Today considered an early feminist masterpiece, it was an instant success, riveting audiences with its daring views of justice and morality. It has since become one of the most anthologized works in American theatre history. In 1921 she completed [*Inheritors*](/wiki/Inheritors_%28play%29 "Inheritors (play)"); following three generations of a pioneer family, it is perhaps America's first modern historical drama. This same year she also finished *The Verge*, one of the earliest American works of [expressionist](/wiki/Expressionism "Expressionism") art. Believing an amateur staff would lead to increased innovation, the Provincetown playwrights often participated directly in the production of their own plays. Though untrained, Glaspell received further acclaim as an actress. [William Zorach](/wiki/William_Zorach "William Zorach"), an early member of the group, reported "she had only to be on the stage and the play and the audience came alive." [Jacques Copeau](/wiki/Jacques_Copeau "Jacques Copeau"), a legendary French theatre director and critic, was moved to tears by a Glaspell performance. He described her as "a truly great actress."Helen Deutsch and Stella Hanau, *The Provincetown: A Story of the Theatre* (New York: Farrar \& Rinehart, 1931\), pp. 24\-25\. [thumb\|Lewis Wharf](/wiki/File:Lewis_Wharf.jpg "Lewis Wharf.jpg") While considering new plays to produce, Glaspell discovered [Eugene O'Neill](/wiki/Eugene_O%27Neill "Eugene O'Neill"), who would eventually be recognized as one of the greatest playwrights in American history. Other notables associated with the group include [Edna St. Vincent Millay](/wiki/Edna_St._Vincent_Millay "Edna St. Vincent Millay"), [Theodore Dreiser](/wiki/Theodore_Dreiser "Theodore Dreiser"), and [Floyd Dell](/wiki/Floyd_Dell "Floyd Dell"), Glaspell's friend from the [Davenport group](/wiki/Davenport_Group_%28literature%29 "Davenport Group (literature)"). After their first two seasons in Provincetown, the players moved their theater to New York City. As the company became more successful, playwrights began to view it as a means to get picked up by other, more commercial theatre venues, a violation of the group's original purpose. Cook and Glaspell decided to leave the company they founded, which had become 'too successful'. Glaspell was by now at the height of her theatre career, with her most recent play, *The Verge*, bringing the most praise. In 1922 Glaspell and Cook moved to [Delphi](/wiki/Delphi "Delphi"), Greece. Cook died there in 1924 of [glanders](/wiki/Glanders "Glanders"), an infectious disease he caught from his dog. From the onset, Glaspell's plays were also published in print form, receiving laudatory reviews by New York's most prestigious periodicals. By 1918 Glaspell was already considered one of America's most significant new playwrights. In 1920, her plays began to be printed in England by the highly reputable British publisher, [Small \& Maynard](/wiki/Small%2C_Maynard_%26_Company "Small, Maynard & Company"). She was even better received there. English critics hailed her as a genius and ranked her above O'Neill. They compared her favorably to [Henrik Ibsen](/wiki/Henrik_Ibsen "Henrik Ibsen"), whom they ranked as the most important playwright since Shakespeare. To satisfy demand for Glaspell's writing, a British version of her novel *Fidelity* was published, going through five editions in five weeks. When *Inheritors* was produced for England in 1925, every leading newspaper and literary magazine published an extensive review, most unanimous in their praise. The reviewer for the *[Liverpool Echo](/wiki/Liverpool_Echo "Liverpool Echo")* claimed, "This play will live when Liverpool is a rubbish heap."{{Cite book \|last\=Ben\-Zvi \|first\=Linda \|title\=Susan Glaspell: Her Life and Times \|date\=2005\-04\-28 \|publisher\=\[\[Oxford University Press]] \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-511506\-2 \|location\=New York \|pages\=309, 426 \|language\=en}} However, the influence and critical success of Glaspell's plays did not translate into financial gain. In order to support herself and her husband during their years with the theater, Glaspell continued to submit short stories to top periodicals for publication. Literary scholars consider the stories from this period to be her finest. It was during her productive time as a playwright that Glaspell also established herself as, in the words of biographer Linda Ben\-Zvi, "a central figure in the development of the modern American short story."{{Cite web \|title\=Her America {{!}} University of Iowa Press \- The University of Iowa \|url\=https://uipress.uiowa.edu/books/her\-america \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005042715/https://uipress.uiowa.edu/books/her\-america \|archive\-date\=2022\-10\-05 \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-27 \|website\=\[\[University of Iowa Press]] \|date\=April 2012 \|language\=en}}
[ "### Theatre", "[thumb\\|Glaspell and husband George Cram Cook in 1917](/wiki/File:George_Cram_Cook_and_Susan_Glaspell.jpg \"George Cram Cook and Susan Glaspell.jpg\")\nWhile in Davenport, Glaspell associated with other local writers to form the [Davenport group](/wiki/Davenport_Group_%28literature%29 \"Davenport Group (literature)\"). Among them was [George Cram Cook](/wiki/George_Cram_Cook \"George Cram Cook\"), who was teaching English literature at the University of Iowa. He was from a wealthy family and also was a gentleman farmer. Though he was already in his second, troubled marriage, Glaspell fell in love with him. He divorced and they wed in 1913\\.", "To escape Davenport's disapproving gossip and seek a larger artistic world, Glaspell and Cook moved to New York City's [Greenwich Village](/wiki/Greenwich_Village \"Greenwich Village\"). There they became key participants in America's first [avant\\-garde](/wiki/Avant-garde \"Avant-garde\") artistic movement, and associated with many of the era's most well\\-known social reformers and activists, including [Upton Sinclair](/wiki/Upton_Sinclair \"Upton Sinclair\"), [Emma Goldman](/wiki/Emma_Goldman \"Emma Goldman\"), and [John Reed](/wiki/John_Reed_%28journalist%29 \"John Reed (journalist)\"). Glaspell became a leading member of [Heterodoxy](/wiki/Heterodoxy_%28group%29 \"Heterodoxy (group)\"), an early feminist debating group composed of the premier women's rights crusaders. After a series of miscarriages, she underwent surgery to remove a fibroid tumor.", "Along with many others of their artistic circles, Glaspell and Cook went to [Provincetown, Massachusetts](/wiki/Provincetown%2C_Massachusetts \"Provincetown, Massachusetts\"), on Cape Cod, for the summer of 1915, where they rented a cottage. Although still weak from surgery, Glaspell worked with Cook and friends to start an experimental theatre company, a \"creative collective\". They produced their first plays in a refurbished fishing wharf arranged for by another member of their group. What became known as the [Provincetown Playhouse](/wiki/Provincetown_Players \"Provincetown Players\") would be devoted to creating and producing artistic plays to reflect contemporary American issues. The Players rejected the more commercial and escapist melodramas produced on [Broadway.](/wiki/Broadway_theatre \"Broadway theatre\")", "Despite the successes of her earlier fiction, Glaspell would be most remembered for the twelve groundbreaking plays she submitted to the company over the next seven years. Her first play, *[Trifles](/wiki/Trifles \"Trifles\")* (1916\\), was based on the murder trial she had covered as a young reporter in Des Moines. Today considered an early feminist masterpiece, it was an instant success, riveting audiences with its daring views of justice and morality. It has since become one of the most anthologized works in American theatre history. In 1921 she completed [*Inheritors*](/wiki/Inheritors_%28play%29 \"Inheritors (play)\"); following three generations of a pioneer family, it is perhaps America's first modern historical drama. This same year she also finished *The Verge*, one of the earliest American works of [expressionist](/wiki/Expressionism \"Expressionism\") art.", "Believing an amateur staff would lead to increased innovation, the Provincetown playwrights often participated directly in the production of their own plays. Though untrained, Glaspell received further acclaim as an actress. [William Zorach](/wiki/William_Zorach \"William Zorach\"), an early member of the group, reported \"she had only to be on the stage and the play and the audience came alive.\" [Jacques Copeau](/wiki/Jacques_Copeau \"Jacques Copeau\"), a legendary French theatre director and critic, was moved to tears by a Glaspell performance. He described her as \"a truly great actress.\"Helen Deutsch and Stella Hanau, *The Provincetown: A Story of the Theatre* (New York: Farrar \\& Rinehart, 1931\\), pp. 24\\-25\\.\n[thumb\\|Lewis Wharf](/wiki/File:Lewis_Wharf.jpg \"Lewis Wharf.jpg\")", "While considering new plays to produce, Glaspell discovered [Eugene O'Neill](/wiki/Eugene_O%27Neill \"Eugene O'Neill\"), who would eventually be recognized as one of the greatest playwrights in American history. Other notables associated with the group include [Edna St. Vincent Millay](/wiki/Edna_St._Vincent_Millay \"Edna St. Vincent Millay\"), [Theodore Dreiser](/wiki/Theodore_Dreiser \"Theodore Dreiser\"), and [Floyd Dell](/wiki/Floyd_Dell \"Floyd Dell\"), Glaspell's friend from the [Davenport group](/wiki/Davenport_Group_%28literature%29 \"Davenport Group (literature)\").", "After their first two seasons in Provincetown, the players moved their theater to New York City. As the company became more successful, playwrights began to view it as a means to get picked up by other, more commercial theatre venues, a violation of the group's original purpose.", "Cook and Glaspell decided to leave the company they founded, which had become 'too successful'. Glaspell was by now at the height of her theatre career, with her most recent play, *The Verge*, bringing the most praise. In 1922 Glaspell and Cook moved to [Delphi](/wiki/Delphi \"Delphi\"), Greece. Cook died there in 1924 of [glanders](/wiki/Glanders \"Glanders\"), an infectious disease he caught from his dog.", "From the onset, Glaspell's plays were also published in print form, receiving laudatory reviews by New York's most prestigious periodicals. By 1918 Glaspell was already considered one of America's most significant new playwrights. In 1920, her plays began to be printed in England by the highly reputable British publisher, [Small \\& Maynard](/wiki/Small%2C_Maynard_%26_Company \"Small, Maynard & Company\"). She was even better received there. English critics hailed her as a genius and ranked her above O'Neill. They compared her favorably to [Henrik Ibsen](/wiki/Henrik_Ibsen \"Henrik Ibsen\"), whom they ranked as the most important playwright since Shakespeare. To satisfy demand for Glaspell's writing, a British version of her novel *Fidelity* was published, going through five editions in five weeks. When *Inheritors* was produced for England in 1925, every leading newspaper and literary magazine published an extensive review, most unanimous in their praise. The reviewer for the *[Liverpool Echo](/wiki/Liverpool_Echo \"Liverpool Echo\")* claimed, \"This play will live when Liverpool is a rubbish heap.\"{{Cite book \\|last\\=Ben\\-Zvi \\|first\\=Linda \\|title\\=Susan Glaspell: Her Life and Times \\|date\\=2005\\-04\\-28 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Oxford University Press]] \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-511506\\-2 \\|location\\=New York \\|pages\\=309, 426 \\|language\\=en}}", "However, the influence and critical success of Glaspell's plays did not translate into financial gain. In order to support herself and her husband during their years with the theater, Glaspell continued to submit short stories to top periodicals for publication. Literary scholars consider the stories from this period to be her finest. It was during her productive time as a playwright that Glaspell also established herself as, in the words of biographer Linda Ben\\-Zvi, \"a central figure in the development of the modern American short story.\"{{Cite web \\|title\\=Her America {{!}} University of Iowa Press \\- The University of Iowa \\|url\\=https://uipress.uiowa.edu/books/her\\-america \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005042715/https://uipress.uiowa.edu/books/her\\-america \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-05 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=\\[\\[University of Iowa Press]] \\|date\\=April 2012 \\|language\\=en}}", "" ]
Career ------ James was initially known as the leader and founder of the [rockabilly](/wiki/Rockabilly "Rockabilly") trio The Kingbees, active between 1978 and 1982\. The group included drummer Rex Roberts and bassist Michael Rummans. The Kingbees recorded two albums with David J. Holman, producing on RSO. The first, titled *The Kingbees*, (released March 1980\) featured the James\-penned hit "My Mistake" (\#81 on [Billboard Hot 100](/wiki/Billboard_Hot_100 "Billboard Hot 100") chart). The second album, titled *The Big Rock*, was released in March 1981 and also spawned national touring, a performance on [Dick Clark](/wiki/Dick_Clark "Dick Clark")'s [American Bandstand](/wiki/American_Bandstand "American Bandstand") and a cameo role in the movie *[The Idolmaker](/wiki/The_Idolmaker "The Idolmaker")*. Shortly thereafter the band split up. In 1983 James released a solo EP with Vanity Records titled *The Big One*. In the late 1980s, James hooked up with noted actor [Harry Dean Stanton](/wiki/Harry_Dean_Stanton "Harry Dean Stanton") to form a unique musical ensemble which performed until the year 2000\. In 2000 James went on to form the rock and roll band "DQ and The Sharks" featuring actor/musician [Dennis Quaid](/wiki/Dennis_Quaid "Dennis Quaid"). In 1993 James had also released a solo LP on Schoolkids Records titled *Cruel World*. In 2000 he released his latest solo LP on Oglio Records, titled *Crossroads*. Oglio also released a two\-album CD issue of the Kingbees first and second LPs. James resides in Los Angeles, where he formed a new record label with friend and business partner Fred Wehba. We Jam Music was created by James and Wehba to produce and release new albums including James' newest release Love Attack.
[ "Career\n------", "James was initially known as the leader and founder of the [rockabilly](/wiki/Rockabilly \"Rockabilly\") trio The Kingbees, active between 1978 and 1982\\. The group included drummer Rex Roberts and bassist Michael Rummans. The Kingbees recorded two albums with David J. Holman, producing on RSO. The first, titled *The Kingbees*, (released March 1980\\) featured the James\\-penned hit \"My Mistake\" (\\#81 on [Billboard Hot 100](/wiki/Billboard_Hot_100 \"Billboard Hot 100\") chart). The second album, titled *The Big Rock*, was released in March 1981 and also spawned national touring, a performance on [Dick Clark](/wiki/Dick_Clark \"Dick Clark\")'s [American Bandstand](/wiki/American_Bandstand \"American Bandstand\") and a cameo role in the movie *[The Idolmaker](/wiki/The_Idolmaker \"The Idolmaker\")*. Shortly thereafter the band split up.", "In 1983 James released a solo EP with Vanity Records titled *The Big One*. In the late 1980s, James hooked up with noted actor [Harry Dean Stanton](/wiki/Harry_Dean_Stanton \"Harry Dean Stanton\") to form a unique musical ensemble which performed until the year 2000\\.", "In 2000 James went on to form the rock and roll band \"DQ and The Sharks\" featuring actor/musician [Dennis Quaid](/wiki/Dennis_Quaid \"Dennis Quaid\").", "In 1993 James had also released a solo LP on Schoolkids Records titled *Cruel World*. In 2000 he released his latest solo LP on Oglio Records, titled *Crossroads*. Oglio also released a two\\-album CD issue of the Kingbees first and second LPs.", "James resides in Los Angeles, where he formed a new record label with friend and business partner Fred Wehba. We Jam Music was created by James and Wehba to produce and release new albums including James' newest release Love Attack.", "" ]
History ------- USS *Butte* was launched on 20 July 1944 by [Consolidated Steel Corporation](/wiki/Consolidated_Steel_Corporation "Consolidated Steel Corporation"), [Wilmington, Los Angeles](/wiki/Wilmington%2C_Los_Angeles "Wilmington, Los Angeles"), under a [Maritime Commission](/wiki/Maritime_Commission "Maritime Commission") contract; sponsored by Mrs. Thomas W. Mearns; acquired on 21 November 1944; and commissioned the next day. *Butte* was named for counties in [California](/wiki/California "California"), [Idaho](/wiki/Idaho "Idaho"), and [South Dakota](/wiki/South_Dakota "South Dakota"). Following shakedown training along the [California](/wiki/California "California") coast, *Butte* embarked troops at [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego"), California, and, on 5 January 1945, got underway for the western [Pacific](/wiki/Pacific "Pacific"). En route to the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines"), *Butte* made stops of varying duration at [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor "Pearl Harbor"), [Eniwetok](/wiki/Eniwetok "Eniwetok"), [Saipan](/wiki/Saipan "Saipan"), [Ulithi](/wiki/Ulithi "Ulithi"), and in the [Palau Islands](/wiki/Palau_Islands "Palau Islands"). She arrived at [Leyte](/wiki/Leyte "Leyte") on 21 February and began five weeks of training in preparation for the amphibious assault on [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island "Okinawa Island") in the [Ryukyu Islands](/wiki/Ryukyu_Islands "Ryukyu Islands"). On 27 March, *Butte* set sail for Okinawa as a unit of Task Group (TG) 55\.1 of the Southern Attack Force (Task Force (TF) 55\) with elements of the Army's [7th Infantry Division](/wiki/7th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 "7th Infantry Division (United States)") embarked. She arrived off the objective early in the morning of 1 April – the day the assault was launched. During the next two weeks, *Butte* disembarked her troops and helped to repel air attacks, both conventional and [kamikaze](/wiki/Kamikaze "Kamikaze"). On one occasion, two of her crewmen suffered wounds, but the ship escaped damage. On 14 April, *Butte* departed the Ryukyus with Okinawa wounded embarked. The ship made brief stops at Saipan, Ulithi, and in the Palaus before arriving at Leyte on 24 April. Five days later, she returned to sea to begin making the passenger circuit among the various islands of the western Pacific. Her last port of call in the western Pacific was [Eniwetok](/wiki/Eniwetok "Eniwetok") from which she took departure on 5 June. *Butte* made an overnight stop at [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor "Pearl Harbor") on 11 June and then resumed her voyage to the west coast. She reached [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco") on 18 June. On 21 June, the *Butte* shaped a course for [Seattle](/wiki/Seattle "Seattle"), Washington. She stayed at Seattle from 23 June to 8 July. On 8 July, *Butte* stood out of Seattle to return to the western Pacific. She made a short visit at [Eniwetok](/wiki/Eniwetok "Eniwetok") on 21 and 22 July then continued on to [Ulithi](/wiki/Ulithi "Ulithi") where she remained from 25 July to 8 August. From Ulithi, *Butte* moved on to her true destination, Okinawa, and arrived there on 12 August. Three days later, hostilities ceased; and the Japanese surrendered formally on 2 September. On 5 September, *Butte* put to sea from Okinawa carrying occupation troops to [Korea](/wiki/Korea "Korea"). She arrived at [Jinsen](/wiki/Jinsen "Jinsen"), Korea, on 8 September and remained there until 13 September. The ship returned to Okinawa on 18 September towing another transport crippled by a floating mine in the [East China Sea](/wiki/East_China_Sea "East China Sea"). After 11 days at Okinawa, *Butte* shaped a course for northern [China](/wiki/China "China") on 26 September carrying another complement of occupation troops. She arrived at [Taku](/wiki/Taku_Forts "Taku Forts"), China, on 30 September and remained there until 5 October. From Taku, the ship headed for [Manila](/wiki/Manila "Manila") in the Philippines and an eight\-day liberty call. On 23 October, she laid in a course back to China. Arriving at [Kowloon](/wiki/Kowloon "Kowloon"), near [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong"), on 25 October, she embarked [Chinese Nationalist](/wiki/Kuomintang "Kuomintang") troops for passage to northern China where the [Chinese Communists](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_China "Communist Party of China") were on the advance. *Butte* disembarked her first contingent of Chinese soldiers at [Qinhuangdao](/wiki/Qinhuangdao "Qinhuangdao") between 31 October and 2 November. She returned to Kowloon on 8 November and took additional Nationalist troops on board. The ship departed Kowloon on 10 November and arrived in [Qingdao](/wiki/Qingdao "Qingdao") on 15 November. Later that month, she embarked homeward\-bound American servicemen and shaped a course for the west coast of the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"). *Butte* arrived in the United States on 18 December 1945 and, after repairs, was ordered to [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor "Pearl Harbor") on 23 February 1946 for assignment to JTF 1\. She served as a unit of the target group for "[Operation Crossroads](/wiki/Operation_Crossroads "Operation Crossroads")". She survived the atomic bomb tests and was retained for structural and radiation study at [Kwajalein](/wiki/Kwajalein "Kwajalein") until 12 May 1948 when she was disposed of by sinking. Her name was struck from the Navy list on 28 May 1948\. USS *Butte* (APA\-68\) earned one battle star during World War II.
[ "History\n-------", "USS *Butte* was launched on 20 July 1944 by [Consolidated Steel Corporation](/wiki/Consolidated_Steel_Corporation \"Consolidated Steel Corporation\"), [Wilmington, Los Angeles](/wiki/Wilmington%2C_Los_Angeles \"Wilmington, Los Angeles\"), under a [Maritime Commission](/wiki/Maritime_Commission \"Maritime Commission\") contract; sponsored by Mrs. Thomas W. Mearns; acquired on 21 November 1944; and commissioned the next day. *Butte* was named for counties in [California](/wiki/California \"California\"), [Idaho](/wiki/Idaho \"Idaho\"), and [South Dakota](/wiki/South_Dakota \"South Dakota\").", "Following shakedown training along the [California](/wiki/California \"California\") coast, *Butte* embarked troops at [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\"), California, and, on 5 January 1945, got underway for the western [Pacific](/wiki/Pacific \"Pacific\"). En route to the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\"), *Butte* made stops of varying duration at [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\"), [Eniwetok](/wiki/Eniwetok \"Eniwetok\"), [Saipan](/wiki/Saipan \"Saipan\"), [Ulithi](/wiki/Ulithi \"Ulithi\"), and in the [Palau Islands](/wiki/Palau_Islands \"Palau Islands\"). She arrived at [Leyte](/wiki/Leyte \"Leyte\") on 21 February and began five weeks of training in preparation for the amphibious assault on [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island \"Okinawa Island\") in the [Ryukyu Islands](/wiki/Ryukyu_Islands \"Ryukyu Islands\"). On 27 March, *Butte* set sail for Okinawa as a unit of Task Group (TG) 55\\.1 of the Southern Attack Force (Task Force (TF) 55\\) with elements of the Army's [7th Infantry Division](/wiki/7th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 \"7th Infantry Division (United States)\") embarked. She arrived off the objective early in the morning of 1 April – the day the assault was launched. During the next two weeks, *Butte* disembarked her troops and helped to repel air attacks, both conventional and [kamikaze](/wiki/Kamikaze \"Kamikaze\"). On one occasion, two of her crewmen suffered wounds, but the ship escaped damage.", "On 14 April, *Butte* departed the Ryukyus with Okinawa wounded embarked. The ship made brief stops at Saipan, Ulithi, and in the Palaus before arriving at Leyte on 24 April. Five days later, she returned to sea to begin making the passenger circuit among the various islands of the western Pacific. Her last port of call in the western Pacific was [Eniwetok](/wiki/Eniwetok \"Eniwetok\") from which she took departure on 5 June. *Butte* made an overnight stop at [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\") on 11 June and then resumed her voyage to the west coast. She reached [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\") on 18 June. On 21 June, the *Butte* shaped a course for [Seattle](/wiki/Seattle \"Seattle\"), Washington. She stayed at Seattle from 23 June to 8 July.", "On 8 July, *Butte* stood out of Seattle to return to the western Pacific. She made a short visit at [Eniwetok](/wiki/Eniwetok \"Eniwetok\") on 21 and 22 July then continued on to [Ulithi](/wiki/Ulithi \"Ulithi\") where she remained from 25 July to 8 August. From Ulithi, *Butte* moved on to her true destination, Okinawa, and arrived there on 12 August. Three days later, hostilities ceased; and the Japanese surrendered formally on 2 September. On 5 September, *Butte* put to sea from Okinawa carrying occupation troops to [Korea](/wiki/Korea \"Korea\"). She arrived at [Jinsen](/wiki/Jinsen \"Jinsen\"), Korea, on 8 September and remained there until 13 September. The ship returned to Okinawa on 18 September towing another transport crippled by a floating mine in the [East China Sea](/wiki/East_China_Sea \"East China Sea\"). After 11 days at Okinawa, *Butte* shaped a course for northern [China](/wiki/China \"China\") on 26 September carrying another complement of occupation troops. She arrived at [Taku](/wiki/Taku_Forts \"Taku Forts\"), China, on 30 September and remained there until 5 October. From Taku, the ship headed for [Manila](/wiki/Manila \"Manila\") in the Philippines and an eight\\-day liberty call.", "On 23 October, she laid in a course back to China. Arriving at [Kowloon](/wiki/Kowloon \"Kowloon\"), near [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\"), on 25 October, she embarked [Chinese Nationalist](/wiki/Kuomintang \"Kuomintang\") troops for passage to northern China where the [Chinese Communists](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_China \"Communist Party of China\") were on the advance. *Butte* disembarked her first contingent of Chinese soldiers at [Qinhuangdao](/wiki/Qinhuangdao \"Qinhuangdao\") between 31 October and 2 November. She returned to Kowloon on 8 November and took additional Nationalist troops on board. The ship departed Kowloon on 10 November and arrived in [Qingdao](/wiki/Qingdao \"Qingdao\") on 15 November. Later that month, she embarked homeward\\-bound American servicemen and shaped a course for the west coast of the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\").", "*Butte* arrived in the United States on 18 December 1945 and, after repairs, was ordered to [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\") on 23 February 1946 for assignment to JTF 1\\. She served as a unit of the target group for \"[Operation Crossroads](/wiki/Operation_Crossroads \"Operation Crossroads\")\". She survived the atomic bomb tests and was retained for structural and radiation study at [Kwajalein](/wiki/Kwajalein \"Kwajalein\") until 12 May 1948 when she was disposed of by sinking. Her name was struck from the Navy list on 28 May 1948\\.", "USS *Butte* (APA\\-68\\) earned one battle star during World War II.", "" ]
Biography --------- Terumasa was the 2nd son and heir of [Ikeda Nobuteru](/wiki/Ikeda_Nobuteru "Ikeda Nobuteru"), Terumasa held Ikejiri Castle ([Mino Province](/wiki/Mino_Province "Mino Province")) In 1579, during the [Siege of Itami (1574\)](/wiki/Siege_of_Itami_%281574%29 "Siege of Itami (1574)"), Terumasa was stationed at Settsukura Bridge with his father.{{harvtxt\|Okada Masato\|1999\|p\=444}} Then later in 1580, during the Siege of Hanakuma castle, they camped at Kitasuwagamine,{{Cite book \|editor1\=阿部猛\|editor1\-link\=阿部猛\|editor2\=西村圭子 \|date \= 1990 \|title \= 戦国人名事典 \|publisher \= 新人物往来社 \|page\= 76}} and on March 2nd, Terumasa performed notable action where he personally killed six enemies during the battle.{{harvtxt\|Okada Masato\|1999\|p\=222}} Due to his military exploits, he was awarded a letter of commendation from Nobunaga. In 1584 on April 9th, during the [Battle of Nagakute](/wiki/Battle_of_Komaki_and_Nagakute "Battle of Komaki and Nagakute"), Terumasa served under the [Ikeda Tsuneoki](/wiki/Ikeda_Tsuneoki "Ikeda Tsuneoki") and [Mori Nagayoshi](/wiki/Mori_Nagayoshi "Mori Nagayoshi") who commanded 3,000 and 2,000 soldiers respectively. During this battle, Nagayoshi was shot and killed in action, while Tsuneoki was also killed by [Nagai Naokatsu](/wiki/Nagai_Naokatsu "Nagai Naokatsu")'s spear and died in battle. Terumasa was then persuaded by his vassals to retreat. Eventually, the Tsuneoki and Mori forces were crushed, and the battle ended in victory for the Tokugawa forces.{{Cite journal\|author\=花見朔已\|date\=1942\|title\=小牧・長久手の役\|journal\=大日本戦史\|publisher\=三教書院\|page\=44}}{{cite book \|author1\=参謀本部 編 \|title\=日本戦史第13巻 小牧役\|page\=35\-39\|trans\-title\=Japanese War History Volume 13: Komaki Role \|date\=1978 \|access\-date\=12 May 2024 \|url\=https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000001\-I13111100098139\|language\=Ja \|quote\=modern digital library edit of original edition 1908}} In 1590, following the transfer of [Tokugawa Ieyasu](/wiki/Tokugawa_Ieyasu "Tokugawa Ieyasu") to the [Kanto](/wiki/Kant%C5%8D_region "Kantō region"), Terumasa was established at Yoshida in Mikawa, a 152,000\-*koku* fief. In 1594 Terumasa married one of Tokugawa's daughters, and after Hideyoshi died in 1598, the Ikeda drifted into Ieyasu's camp. In 1592, Terumasa participated in [Japanese invasions of Korea](/wiki/Japanese_invasions_of_Korea_%281592%E2%80%931598%29 "Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)"). He stays in the castle and is in charge of guarding the East Country. As for his duties regarding the dispatch of troops to Korea, Terumasa was ordered to build large ships and transport provisions and rice to [Nagoya Castle](/wiki/Nagoya_Castle "Nagoya Castle").{{harvtxt\|Okada Masato\|1999\|p\=223}} He also worked on constructing [Fushimi Castle](/wiki/Fushimi_Castle "Fushimi Castle") and Toyotomi Hideyasu's Yamatotanai Castle. In 1594, Terumasa married to Tokuhime, the daughter of Tokugawa Ieyasu with Hideyoshi's mediation.{{harvtxt\|Kōhei Murakawa\|2000\|p\=112}} ### Conflict with Ishida Mitsunari According to popular theory In 1598 after the death of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the government of Japan have an accident when seven military generals consisted of [Fukushima Masanori](/wiki/Fukushima_Masanori "Fukushima Masanori"), [Katō Kiyomasa](/wiki/Kat%C5%8D_Kiyomasa "Katō Kiyomasa"), [Ikeda Terumasa](/wiki/Ikeda_Terumasa "Ikeda Terumasa"), [Hosokawa Tadaoki](/wiki/Hosokawa_Tadaoki "Hosokawa Tadaoki"), [Asano Yoshinaga](/wiki/Asano_Yoshinaga_%28Lord_of_Hiroshima%29 "Asano Yoshinaga (Lord of Hiroshima)"), [Katō Yoshiaki](/wiki/Kat%C5%8D_Yoshiaki "Katō Yoshiaki"), and [Kuroda Nagamasa](/wiki/Kuroda_Nagamasa "Kuroda Nagamasa") planned a conspiracy to kill Ishida Mitsunari. It was said that the reason of this conspiracy was dissatisfaction of those generals towards Mitsunari as he wrote bad assessments and underreported the achievements of those generals during the Imjin war against Korea \& Chinese empire. However, despite the classical historiography depiction of the event as "seven generals against Mitsunari", modern historian Watanabe Daimon has pointed out there were more generals involved such as [Hachisuka Iemasa](/wiki/Hachisuka_Iemasa "Hachisuka Iemasa"), [Tōdō Takatora](/wiki/T%C5%8Dd%C5%8D_Takatora "Tōdō Takatora"), and [Kuroda Yoshitaka](/wiki/Kuroda_Yoshitaka "Kuroda Yoshitaka") also brought their troops and entourage to confront Mitsunari.{{cite web \|author1\=Watanabe Daimon \|title\="Ishida Mitsunari Attack Incident" No attack occurred? What happened to the seven warlords who planned it, and Ieyasu?\|url\=https://rekishikaido.php.co.jp/detail/10229?p\=1 \|website\=rekishikaido \|publisher\=PHP Online \|pages\=1–2 \|access\-date\=11 June 2024 \|language\=Ja \|date\=2023}} At first, these generals gathered at Kiyomasa's mansion in [Osaka Castle](/wiki/Osaka_Castle "Osaka Castle"), and from there they moved into Mitsunari's mansion. However, Mitsunari learned of this through a report from a servant of [Toyotomi Hideyori](/wiki/Toyotomi_Hideyori "Toyotomi Hideyori") named Jiemon Kuwajima, and fled to [Satake Yoshinobu](/wiki/Satake_Yoshinobu "Satake Yoshinobu")'s mansion together with [Shima Sakon](/wiki/Shima_Sakon "Shima Sakon") and others to hide.{{Cite journal \|author \=Mizuno Goki \|title \= 前田利家の死と石田三成襲撃事件 \|trans\-title\=Death of Toshiie Maeda and attack on Mitsunari Ishida \|date \= 2013 \|journal \= 政治経済史学 \|issue \= 557号 \|pages \= 1–27 \|url\=https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1520290885037880832 \|language\=Ja}} When the seven generals found out that Mitsunari was not in the mansion, they searched the mansions of various feudal lords in Osaka Castle, and Kato's army also approached the Satake residence. Therefore, Mitsunari and his party escaped from the Satake residence and barricaded themselves at [Fushimi Castle](/wiki/Fushimi_Castle "Fushimi Castle").{{Cite journal \|author \= Kasaya Kazuhiko\|title \= 豊臣七将の石田三成襲撃事件―歴史認識形成のメカニズムとその陥穽― \|trans\-title\=Seven Toyotomi Generals' Attack on Ishida Mitsunari \- Mechanism of formation of historical perception and its downfall \|date \= 2000 \|journal \= 日本研究 \|issue \= 22集 \|language\=Ja}} The next day, the seven generals surrounded Fushimi Castle with their soldiers as they knew Mitsunari was hiding there. [Tokugawa Ieyasu](/wiki/Tokugawa_Ieyasu "Tokugawa Ieyasu"), who was in charge of political affairs in Fushimi Castle trying to arbitrate the situation. The seven generals requested Ieyasu to hand over Mitsunari, which refused by Ieyasu. Ieyasu then negotiated the promised to let Mitsunari retire and to review the assessment of the Battle of Ulsan Castle in Korea which became the major source of this incident, and had his second son, [Yūki Hideyasu](/wiki/Y%C5%ABki_Hideyasu "Yūki Hideyasu"), to escort Mitsunari to Sawayama Castle.{{Cite journal \|author \= Kasaya Kazuhiko \|title \= 徳川家康の人情と決断―三成"隠匿"の顚末とその意義― \|trans\-title\=Tokugawa Ieyasu's humanity and decisions \- The story of Mitsunari's "concealment" and its significance \|date \= 2000 \|journal \= 大日光 \|issue \= 70号 }} However, modern historians such as Daimon, Junji Mitsunari, and Goki Mizuno has stated from the primary and secondary sources text about the accident this was more of a legal conflict between those generals with Mitsunari, rather than a conspiracy to murder him. The role of Ieyasu here was not to physically protect Mitsunari from any physical harm from them, but to mediate the complaints of those generals.{{cite web \|title\=七将に襲撃された石田三成が徳川家康に助けを求めたというのは誤りだった \|url\=https://news.yahoo.co.jp/expert/articles/b9b580be2b347ecaf183e72ab6eb4039a09af98d \|website\=yahoo.co.jp/expert/articles/ \|publisher\=渡邊大門 無断転載を禁じます。 © LY Corporation \|access\-date\=2 June 2024 \|language\=Ja}} Nevertheless, historians viewed this incident not just as simply personal problems between those generals and Mitsunari, but rather as an extension of the political rivalries of greater scope between the Tokugawa faction and the anti\-Tokugawa faction led by Mitsunari. Since this incident, those military figures who were on bad terms with Mitsunari would later support Ieyasu during the conflict of Sekigahara between the Eastern army led by Tokugawa Ieyasu and the Western army led by Ishida Mitsunari.{{Cite book\|author\=Mizuno Goki\|chapter\=石田三成襲撃事件の真相とは\|trans\-title\=What is the truth behind the Ishida Mitsunari attack?\|editor1\=Watanabe Daimon \|title\=戦国史の俗説を覆す\|publisher\=柏書房\|date\=2016\|language\=Ja}} Muramatsu Shunkichi, writer of "*The Surprising Colors and Desires of the Heroes of Japanese History and violent womens*”, gave his assessment that the reason of Mitsunari failure in his war against Ieyasu was due to his unpopularity among the major political figures of that time.{{cite book \|title\=歴代文化皇國史大觀 \|trans\-title\=Overview of history of past cultural empires \|date\=1934 \|publisher\=Oriental Cultural Association \|location\=Japan \|page\=592 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=bYHLa7bOSwAC \|access\-date\=23 May 2024 \|language\=Ja}} When the [Sekigahara Campaign](/wiki/Sekigahara_Campaign "Sekigahara Campaign") began in the fall of 1600, Terumasa immediately sided with his father\-in\-law, Tokugawa.{{Cite book\|title\=Great Buildings\|last\=Wilkinson\|first\=Philip\|date\=2012\-08\-20\|publisher\=Dorling Kindersley Limited\|isbn\=9780756698294\|location\=London\|pages\=128}} He also manages to convince [Nakagawa Hidenari](/wiki/Nakagawa_Hidenari "Nakagawa Hidenari") to side with Ieyasu during this conflicts. In August 21, the Eastern Army led by Terumasa Ikeda, began crossing the river from Kawada. Terumasa army engaged in a battle at Yoneno against [Oda Hidenobu](/wiki/Oda_Hidenobu "Oda Hidenobu"). After the Hidenobu army routed, the Eastern army led by Naomasa and Fukushima crossed the river and directly attacked Takegahana Castle at 9:00 AM on the August 22nd. Shigekatsu himself setting the castle on fire and committed suicide as a final act of defiance.{{Cite book \|author\= 竹鼻町史編集委員会\|date\= 1999\|title\= 竹鼻の歴史 \|trans\-title\=Takehana \|language\=ja\|publisher\= Takehana Town History Publication Committee \|pages\= 30–31}} At the [Battle of Sekigahara](/wiki/Battle_of_Sekigahara "Battle of Sekigahara"), Ikeda commanded 4,560 troops in the rear guard and saw some desultory fighting with [Chosokabe Morichika](/wiki/Chosokabe_Morichika "Chosokabe Morichika")'s contingent as the battle wound down. [thumb\|right\|Grave of Ikeda Terumasa\|203x203px](/wiki/Image:Gravestone_of_Ikeda_Terumasa.jpg "Gravestone of Ikeda Terumasa.jpg") Following the Tokugawa victory, Terumasa was given a 520,000\-*[koku](/wiki/Koku "Koku")* fief and the province of Harima.{{Cite book\|title\=The Anime Companion 2: More What's Japanese in Japanese Animation?\|last\=Poitras\|first\=Gilles\|date\=2005\|publisher\=Stone Bridge Press\|isbn\=1880656965\|location\=Berkeley, CA\|pages\=30}}{{Sfn\|Taniguchi\|1999\|p\=18}} He also rewarded by his father\-in\-law, Ieyasu, with [Himeji Castle](/wiki/Himeji_Castle "Himeji Castle").{{cite book \|author1\=Peter Louis Bonfitto \|title\=World Architecture and Society: From Stonehenge to One World Trade Center \[2 volumes] \|date\=2021 \|publisher\=Bloomsbury Publishing \|location\=USA \|isbn\=9781440865855 \|page\=587 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=XETPEAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA587 \|access\-date\=26 May 2024 \|language\=En}} which he expanded and completed in 1609\.{{Cite book\|title\=Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan\|last\=Deal\|first\=William E.\|date\=2007\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|isbn\=9780195331264\|location\=Oxford\|pages\=316}} In 1603 [Bizen](/wiki/Bizen_Province "Bizen Province") was added to Terumasa's territory, and this he assigned to his eldest son, Toshitaka (1584–1616\). By the time of Terumasa's death in 1613, the Ikeda had grown to rule over [Harima](/wiki/Harima_Province "Harima Province"), Bizen, [Inaba](/wiki/Inaba_Province "Inaba Province"), and [Awaji](/wiki/Awaji_Province "Awaji Province"), with a combined income of around 1,000,000\-*koku*.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2024}} Following the death of Toshitaka, the Tokugawa Bakufu took steps to reduce the alarming power of the Ikeda and eventually reduced the family to Tottori (Inaba) and Okayama (Bizen).
[ "Biography\n---------", "Terumasa was the 2nd son and heir of [Ikeda Nobuteru](/wiki/Ikeda_Nobuteru \"Ikeda Nobuteru\"), Terumasa held Ikejiri Castle ([Mino Province](/wiki/Mino_Province \"Mino Province\"))", "In 1579, during the [Siege of Itami (1574\\)](/wiki/Siege_of_Itami_%281574%29 \"Siege of Itami (1574)\"), Terumasa was stationed at Settsukura Bridge with his father.{{harvtxt\\|Okada Masato\\|1999\\|p\\=444}} Then later in 1580, during the Siege of Hanakuma castle, they camped at Kitasuwagamine,{{Cite book \\|editor1\\=阿部猛\\|editor1\\-link\\=阿部猛\\|editor2\\=西村圭子 \\|date \\= 1990 \\|title \\= 戦国人名事典 \\|publisher \\= 新人物往来社 \\|page\\= 76}} and on March 2nd, Terumasa performed notable action where he personally killed six enemies during the battle.{{harvtxt\\|Okada Masato\\|1999\\|p\\=222}} Due to his military exploits, he was awarded a letter of commendation from Nobunaga.", "In 1584 on April 9th, during the [Battle of Nagakute](/wiki/Battle_of_Komaki_and_Nagakute \"Battle of Komaki and Nagakute\"), Terumasa served under the [Ikeda Tsuneoki](/wiki/Ikeda_Tsuneoki \"Ikeda Tsuneoki\") and [Mori Nagayoshi](/wiki/Mori_Nagayoshi \"Mori Nagayoshi\") who commanded 3,000 and 2,000 soldiers respectively. During this battle, Nagayoshi was shot and killed in action, while Tsuneoki was also killed by [Nagai Naokatsu](/wiki/Nagai_Naokatsu \"Nagai Naokatsu\")'s spear and died in battle. Terumasa was then persuaded by his vassals to retreat. Eventually, the Tsuneoki and Mori forces were crushed, and the battle ended in victory for the Tokugawa forces.{{Cite journal\\|author\\=花見朔已\\|date\\=1942\\|title\\=小牧・長久手の役\\|journal\\=大日本戦史\\|publisher\\=三教書院\\|page\\=44}}{{cite book \\|author1\\=参謀本部 編 \\|title\\=日本戦史第13巻 小牧役\\|page\\=35\\-39\\|trans\\-title\\=Japanese War History Volume 13: Komaki Role \\|date\\=1978 \\|access\\-date\\=12 May 2024 \\|url\\=https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000001\\-I13111100098139\\|language\\=Ja \\|quote\\=modern digital library edit of original edition 1908}}", "In 1590, following the transfer of [Tokugawa Ieyasu](/wiki/Tokugawa_Ieyasu \"Tokugawa Ieyasu\") to the [Kanto](/wiki/Kant%C5%8D_region \"Kantō region\"), Terumasa was established at Yoshida in Mikawa, a 152,000\\-*koku* fief. In 1594 Terumasa married one of Tokugawa's daughters, and after Hideyoshi died in 1598, the Ikeda drifted into Ieyasu's camp.", "In 1592, Terumasa participated in [Japanese invasions of Korea](/wiki/Japanese_invasions_of_Korea_%281592%E2%80%931598%29 \"Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)\"). He stays in the castle and is in charge of guarding the East Country. As for his duties regarding the dispatch of troops to Korea, Terumasa was ordered to build large ships and transport provisions and rice to [Nagoya Castle](/wiki/Nagoya_Castle \"Nagoya Castle\").{{harvtxt\\|Okada Masato\\|1999\\|p\\=223}} He also worked on constructing [Fushimi Castle](/wiki/Fushimi_Castle \"Fushimi Castle\") and Toyotomi Hideyasu's Yamatotanai Castle.", "In 1594, Terumasa married to Tokuhime, the daughter of Tokugawa Ieyasu with Hideyoshi's mediation.{{harvtxt\\|Kōhei Murakawa\\|2000\\|p\\=112}}", "### Conflict with Ishida Mitsunari", "According to popular theory In 1598 after the death of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the government of Japan have an accident when seven military generals consisted of [Fukushima Masanori](/wiki/Fukushima_Masanori \"Fukushima Masanori\"), [Katō Kiyomasa](/wiki/Kat%C5%8D_Kiyomasa \"Katō Kiyomasa\"), [Ikeda Terumasa](/wiki/Ikeda_Terumasa \"Ikeda Terumasa\"), [Hosokawa Tadaoki](/wiki/Hosokawa_Tadaoki \"Hosokawa Tadaoki\"), [Asano Yoshinaga](/wiki/Asano_Yoshinaga_%28Lord_of_Hiroshima%29 \"Asano Yoshinaga (Lord of Hiroshima)\"), [Katō Yoshiaki](/wiki/Kat%C5%8D_Yoshiaki \"Katō Yoshiaki\"), and [Kuroda Nagamasa](/wiki/Kuroda_Nagamasa \"Kuroda Nagamasa\") planned a conspiracy to kill Ishida Mitsunari. It was said that the reason of this conspiracy was dissatisfaction of those generals towards Mitsunari as he wrote bad assessments and underreported the achievements of those generals during the Imjin war against Korea \\& Chinese empire. However, despite the classical historiography depiction of the event as \"seven generals against Mitsunari\", modern historian Watanabe Daimon has pointed out there were more generals involved such as [Hachisuka Iemasa](/wiki/Hachisuka_Iemasa \"Hachisuka Iemasa\"), [Tōdō Takatora](/wiki/T%C5%8Dd%C5%8D_Takatora \"Tōdō Takatora\"), and [Kuroda Yoshitaka](/wiki/Kuroda_Yoshitaka \"Kuroda Yoshitaka\") also brought their troops and entourage to confront Mitsunari.{{cite web \\|author1\\=Watanabe Daimon \\|title\\=\"Ishida Mitsunari Attack Incident\" No attack occurred? What happened to the seven warlords who planned it, and Ieyasu?\\|url\\=https://rekishikaido.php.co.jp/detail/10229?p\\=1 \\|website\\=rekishikaido \\|publisher\\=PHP Online \\|pages\\=1–2 \\|access\\-date\\=11 June 2024 \\|language\\=Ja \\|date\\=2023}}", "At first, these generals gathered at Kiyomasa's mansion in [Osaka Castle](/wiki/Osaka_Castle \"Osaka Castle\"), and from there they moved into Mitsunari's mansion. However, Mitsunari learned of this through a report from a servant of [Toyotomi Hideyori](/wiki/Toyotomi_Hideyori \"Toyotomi Hideyori\") named Jiemon Kuwajima, and fled to [Satake Yoshinobu](/wiki/Satake_Yoshinobu \"Satake Yoshinobu\")'s mansion together with [Shima Sakon](/wiki/Shima_Sakon \"Shima Sakon\") and others to hide.{{Cite journal \\|author \\=Mizuno Goki \\|title \\= 前田利家の死と石田三成襲撃事件 \\|trans\\-title\\=Death of Toshiie Maeda and attack on Mitsunari Ishida \\|date \\= 2013 \\|journal \\= 政治経済史学 \\|issue \\= 557号 \\|pages \\= 1–27 \\|url\\=https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1520290885037880832 \\|language\\=Ja}} When the seven generals found out that Mitsunari was not in the mansion, they searched the mansions of various feudal lords in Osaka Castle, and Kato's army also approached the Satake residence. Therefore, Mitsunari and his party escaped from the Satake residence and barricaded themselves at [Fushimi Castle](/wiki/Fushimi_Castle \"Fushimi Castle\").{{Cite journal \\|author \\= Kasaya Kazuhiko\\|title \\= 豊臣七将の石田三成襲撃事件―歴史認識形成のメカニズムとその陥穽― \\|trans\\-title\\=Seven Toyotomi Generals' Attack on Ishida Mitsunari \\- Mechanism of formation of historical perception and its downfall \\|date \\= 2000 \\|journal \\= 日本研究 \\|issue \\= 22集 \\|language\\=Ja}} The next day, the seven generals surrounded Fushimi Castle with their soldiers as they knew Mitsunari was hiding there. [Tokugawa Ieyasu](/wiki/Tokugawa_Ieyasu \"Tokugawa Ieyasu\"), who was in charge of political affairs in Fushimi Castle trying to arbitrate the situation. The seven generals requested Ieyasu to hand over Mitsunari, which refused by Ieyasu. Ieyasu then negotiated the promised to let Mitsunari retire and to review the assessment of the Battle of Ulsan Castle in Korea which became the major source of this incident, and had his second son, [Yūki Hideyasu](/wiki/Y%C5%ABki_Hideyasu \"Yūki Hideyasu\"), to escort Mitsunari to Sawayama Castle.{{Cite journal \\|author \\= Kasaya Kazuhiko \\|title \\= 徳川家康の人情と決断―三成\"隠匿\"の顚末とその意義― \\|trans\\-title\\=Tokugawa Ieyasu's humanity and decisions \\- The story of Mitsunari's \"concealment\" and its significance \\|date \\= 2000 \\|journal \\= 大日光 \\|issue \\= 70号 }}", "However, modern historians such as Daimon, Junji Mitsunari, and Goki Mizuno has stated from the primary and secondary sources text about the accident this was more of a legal conflict between those generals with Mitsunari, rather than a conspiracy to murder him. The role of Ieyasu here was not to physically protect Mitsunari from any physical harm from them, but to mediate the complaints of those generals.{{cite web \\|title\\=七将に襲撃された石田三成が徳川家康に助けを求めたというのは誤りだった \\|url\\=https://news.yahoo.co.jp/expert/articles/b9b580be2b347ecaf183e72ab6eb4039a09af98d \\|website\\=yahoo.co.jp/expert/articles/ \\|publisher\\=渡邊大門 無断転載を禁じます。 © LY Corporation \\|access\\-date\\=2 June 2024 \\|language\\=Ja}}", "Nevertheless, historians viewed this incident not just as simply personal problems between those generals and Mitsunari, but rather as an extension of the political rivalries of greater scope between the Tokugawa faction and the anti\\-Tokugawa faction led by Mitsunari. Since this incident, those military figures who were on bad terms with Mitsunari would later support Ieyasu during the conflict of Sekigahara between the Eastern army led by Tokugawa Ieyasu and the Western army led by Ishida Mitsunari.{{Cite book\\|author\\=Mizuno Goki\\|chapter\\=石田三成襲撃事件の真相とは\\|trans\\-title\\=What is the truth behind the Ishida Mitsunari attack?\\|editor1\\=Watanabe Daimon \\|title\\=戦国史の俗説を覆す\\|publisher\\=柏書房\\|date\\=2016\\|language\\=Ja}} Muramatsu Shunkichi, writer of \"*The Surprising Colors and Desires of the Heroes of Japanese History and violent womens*”, gave his assessment that the reason of Mitsunari failure in his war against Ieyasu was due to his unpopularity among the major political figures of that time.{{cite book \\|title\\=歴代文化皇國史大觀 \\|trans\\-title\\=Overview of history of past cultural empires \\|date\\=1934 \\|publisher\\=Oriental Cultural Association \\|location\\=Japan \\|page\\=592 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=bYHLa7bOSwAC \\|access\\-date\\=23 May 2024 \\|language\\=Ja}}", "When the [Sekigahara Campaign](/wiki/Sekigahara_Campaign \"Sekigahara Campaign\") began in the fall of 1600, Terumasa immediately sided with his father\\-in\\-law, Tokugawa.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Great Buildings\\|last\\=Wilkinson\\|first\\=Philip\\|date\\=2012\\-08\\-20\\|publisher\\=Dorling Kindersley Limited\\|isbn\\=9780756698294\\|location\\=London\\|pages\\=128}} He also manages to convince [Nakagawa Hidenari](/wiki/Nakagawa_Hidenari \"Nakagawa Hidenari\") to side with Ieyasu during this conflicts.", "In August 21, the Eastern Army led by Terumasa Ikeda, began crossing the river from Kawada. Terumasa army engaged in a battle at Yoneno against [Oda Hidenobu](/wiki/Oda_Hidenobu \"Oda Hidenobu\"). After the Hidenobu army routed, the Eastern army led by Naomasa and Fukushima crossed the river and directly attacked Takegahana Castle at 9:00 AM on the August 22nd. Shigekatsu himself setting the castle on fire and committed suicide as a final act of defiance.{{Cite book \\|author\\= 竹鼻町史編集委員会\\|date\\= 1999\\|title\\= 竹鼻の歴史 \\|trans\\-title\\=Takehana \\|language\\=ja\\|publisher\\= Takehana Town History Publication Committee \\|pages\\= 30–31}}", "At the [Battle of Sekigahara](/wiki/Battle_of_Sekigahara \"Battle of Sekigahara\"), Ikeda commanded 4,560 troops in the rear guard and saw some desultory fighting with [Chosokabe Morichika](/wiki/Chosokabe_Morichika \"Chosokabe Morichika\")'s contingent as the battle wound down.", "[thumb\\|right\\|Grave of Ikeda Terumasa\\|203x203px](/wiki/Image:Gravestone_of_Ikeda_Terumasa.jpg \"Gravestone of Ikeda Terumasa.jpg\")", "Following the Tokugawa victory, Terumasa was given a 520,000\\-*[koku](/wiki/Koku \"Koku\")* fief and the province of Harima.{{Cite book\\|title\\=The Anime Companion 2: More What's Japanese in Japanese Animation?\\|last\\=Poitras\\|first\\=Gilles\\|date\\=2005\\|publisher\\=Stone Bridge Press\\|isbn\\=1880656965\\|location\\=Berkeley, CA\\|pages\\=30}}{{Sfn\\|Taniguchi\\|1999\\|p\\=18}} He also rewarded by his father\\-in\\-law, Ieyasu, with [Himeji Castle](/wiki/Himeji_Castle \"Himeji Castle\").{{cite book \\|author1\\=Peter Louis Bonfitto \\|title\\=World Architecture and Society: From Stonehenge to One World Trade Center \\[2 volumes] \\|date\\=2021 \\|publisher\\=Bloomsbury Publishing \\|location\\=USA \\|isbn\\=9781440865855 \\|page\\=587 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XETPEAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA587 \\|access\\-date\\=26 May 2024 \\|language\\=En}} which he expanded and completed in 1609\\.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan\\|last\\=Deal\\|first\\=William E.\\|date\\=2007\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|isbn\\=9780195331264\\|location\\=Oxford\\|pages\\=316}} In 1603 [Bizen](/wiki/Bizen_Province \"Bizen Province\") was added to Terumasa's territory, and this he assigned to his eldest son, Toshitaka (1584–1616\\).", "By the time of Terumasa's death in 1613, the Ikeda had grown to rule over [Harima](/wiki/Harima_Province \"Harima Province\"), Bizen, [Inaba](/wiki/Inaba_Province \"Inaba Province\"), and [Awaji](/wiki/Awaji_Province \"Awaji Province\"), with a combined income of around 1,000,000\\-*koku*.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2024}}", "Following the death of Toshitaka, the Tokugawa Bakufu took steps to reduce the alarming power of the Ikeda and eventually reduced the family to Tottori (Inaba) and Okayama (Bizen).", "" ]
Biography and career -------------------- Hugo Stuven was born in [Valparaíso](/wiki/Valpara%C3%ADso "Valparaíso"), [Chile](/wiki/Chile "Chile") on 2 November 1940 as the son of a banker and a judge.{{Cite journal\|url\=https://www.elmundo.es/loc/famosos/2020/11/14/5fad2993fdddff0b8f8b465a.html\|journal\=\[\[El Mundo (Spain)\|El Mundo]]\|title\=Hugo Stuven padre e hijo: del especial de Sabrina en Nochevieja al documental de Amazon sobre ETA\|date\=14 November 2020\|language\=es\|first\=Beatriz\|last\=Miranda}} He arrived in Spain in 1965 after he asked a compatriot who worked in radio for a job, and, as he had worked in Spanish television, he opted for [Televisión Española](/wiki/Televisi%C3%B3n_Espa%C3%B1ola "Televisión Española"). He joined Televisión Española in 1966\. He worked alongside as a director. Later, as assistant director, Stuven collaborated with established professionals of the station such as [Pilar Miró](/wiki/Pilar_Mir%C3%B3 "Pilar Miró"), [Pedro Amalio López](/wiki/Pedro_Amalio_L%C3%B3pez "Pedro Amalio López") and in programs such as *Antena Infantil*, (1972\-1974\) and (1974\).{{Cite journal\|url\=https://www.elconfidencial.com/television/programas\-tv/2021\-04\-24/tve\-hugo\-stuven\-muere\-80\-anos\-coronavirus\_3049219/\|journal\=\[\[El Confidencial]]\|title\=Muere Hugo Stuven, ilustre realizador y productor de TVE, a los 80 años\|date\=24 April 2021\|language\=es}} In the mid\-seventies he began his career as a director at the head of programs such as *Más allá*, with . However, it was in music, entertainment and variety programs where Stuven deployed his skills, and transferred his brand to such emblematic programs in the history of TVE as *Voces a 45* (1975\-1976\), with a, and *Aplauso* (1978\-1982\); "Rock and Ríos", mythical concert of [Miguel Ríos](/wiki/Miguel_R%C3%ADos "Miguel Ríos") (1982\); "Especial Serrat", with [Joan Manuel Serrat](/wiki/Joan_Manuel_Serrat "Joan Manuel Serrat") (TVE 1982\); "El Rock de una Noche de Verano", Miguel Ríos concert in Barcelona (TVE 1983\); "Rock en el ruedo" with Miguel Ríos (TVE 1984\); "Especial [Camilo Sesto](/wiki/Camilo_Sesto "Camilo Sesto")"; "Concierto desde Mallorca" (TVE 1983\) and "Concierto de Miguel Bosé" (TVE 1983\). He also made advertising spots, among them in 1982 for [Freixenet](/wiki/Freixenet "Freixenet") with [Norma Duval](/wiki/Norma_Duval "Norma Duval"), [Cheryl Ladd](/wiki/Cheryl_Ladd "Cheryl Ladd") and [Ann\-Margret](/wiki/Ann-Margret "Ann-Margret").{{Cite journal\|url\=https://www.freixenet.es/es/descubre\-freixenet/icono\-de\-la\-publicidad/1982\|journal\=\[\[Freixenet]]\|title\=1982 Ann\-Margret, Cheryl Ladd y Norma Duval\|language\=es}}{{Cite journal\|url\=https://www.vanitatis.elconfidencial.com/famosos/2021\-04\-24/muere\-hugo\-stuven\-tve\-productor\-realizador\_3049208/\|journal\=El Confidencial Vanitatis\|title\=Muere Hugo Stuven: gran defensor de Pilar Miró, diez hijos y un heredero artístico\|first\=Paloma\|last\=Barrientos\|date\=24 April 2021\|language\=es}} In the 1980s he directed *Como Pedro por su casa* (1985\),{{Cite journal\|url\=https://www.rtve.es/rtve/20210426/tesoros\-tele\-homenajea\-hugo\-stuven/2087748\.shtml\|journal\=RTVE\|title\='Tesoros de la tele' homenajea a Hugo Stuven\| date\=26 April 2021\|language\=es}} with [Pedro Ruiz](/wiki/Pedro_Ruiz_%28actor%29 "Pedro Ruiz (actor)"), and the New Year's Eve Specials of 1987, "Súper 88" with [Carmen Maura](/wiki/Carmen_Maura "Carmen Maura") and [Arturo Fernández](/wiki/Arturo_Fern%C3%A1ndez_Rodr%C3%ADguez "Arturo Fernández Rodríguez"),{{Cite journal\|url\=https://elpais.com/elpais/2017/12/20/icon/1513787410\_146505\.html\|journal\=\[\[El País]]\|title\=Un engaño, un bofetón: la verdadera historia tras el pecho de Sabrina que nos escandalizó hace 30 años\|date\=30 December 2017\|first\=Guillermo\|last\=Alonso\|language\=es}} and 1988, with [Martes y 13](/wiki/Martes_y_Trece "Martes y Trece"), *Hola Hola 89*.{{Cite journal\|url\=https://www.diezminutos.es/teleprograma/programacion\-tv/a36275656/tesoros\-de\-la\-tele\-la2\-especial\-hugo\-stuven\-muerte/\|journal\=\[\[Diez Minutos]]\|title\='Tesoros de la tele' dedica un especial a Hugo Stuven\|date\=29 April 2021\|language\=es}} In 1987 and 1988 he was appointed by Pilar Miró as head of the Design and Promotions Section of TVE, in which the promotion system and the headers of the programs were changed. He hired [Nacho Cano](/wiki/Nacho_Cano "Nacho Cano") for the music of some headers.{{Cite journal\|url\=https://www.elmundo.es/television/medios/2021/04/24/6083ef9021efa09e448b464b.html\|journal\=El Mundo\|title\=Adiós a Hugo Stuven, histórico realizador de programas como Aplauso y la célebre Nochevieja de Sabrina\|date\=24 April 2021\|language\=es\|first\=Jorge\|last\=Benítez}} Between 1989 and 1991 he directed for TVE *Pero.... ¿esto qué es?*, which was the television debut of the duo , [Ángel Garó](/wiki/%C3%81ngel_Gar%C3%B3 "Ángel Garó"), [Pepe Viyuela](/wiki/Pepe_Viyuela "Pepe Viyuela"), , and Las Virtudes y *Caliente*, with [Ana Obregón](/wiki/Ana_Obreg%C3%B3n "Ana Obregón"), and . Subsequently, he was hired by private television channels, and made, among other programs, *El Gordo*, with ([Antena 3](/wiki/Antena_3_%28Spanish_TV_channel%29 "Antena 3 (Spanish TV channel)"), 1993\); *Uno para todas* (1995\-1996\), with Goyo González and *[Popstars](/wiki/Popstars "Popstars")* (2002\), with [Jesús Vázquez](/wiki/Jes%C3%BAs_V%C3%A1zquez_%28television_presenter%29 "Jesús Vázquez (television presenter)"). He was also in charge of the [Miss Spain](/wiki/Miss_Spain "Miss Spain") galas from 1998 to 2002 for [Telecinco](/wiki/Telecinco "Telecinco"), the *Gala de la Hispanidad* for Telecinco from 1999 to 2001, the *Gala de los Premios Amigo* with [Andreu Buenafuente](/wiki/Andreu_Buenafuente "Andreu Buenafuente") for Telecinco (2000\), the *Gala de los Premios TP de Oro* and many other live programs.{{Cite journal\|url\=https://informalia.eleconomista.es/noticias/noticias/11177742/04/21/Muere\-por\-covid\-el\-legendario\-realizador\-Hugo\-Stuven\-a\-los\-80\-anos.html\|journal\=\[\[El Economista (Spain)\|El Economista]]\|title\=Muere por covid en el Zendal el legendario realizador Hugo Stuven a los 80 años\|date\=24 April 2021\|language\=es\|first\=Javier\|last\=Huerta}} He also worked with [Jesús Quintero](/wiki/Jes%C3%BAs_Quintero "Jesús Quintero") in *[Ratones coloraos](/wiki/Ratones_coloraos "Ratones coloraos")* (2002\-2004\), on Canal Sur; *El loco de la colina* (2006\), on TVE; and *La noche de Quintero*, on TVE (2007\). In 2006 he published the autobiographical book *Quién te ha visto y quién TVE. Historias de mi tele*. Also during 2008 he produced and directed five documentary chapters for Canal Sur television under the title *La guerra de la Independencia en Andalucía*, on the occasion of the bicentenary of this event.{{Cite journal\|url\=https://www.lavozdigital.es/cadiz/20080502/television/serie\-documental\-sobre\-guerra\-20080502\.html\|journal\=\[\[La Voz de Cádiz]]\|title\=Una serie documental sobre la Guerra de la Independencia, en Canal 2 Andalucía\|date\=2 May 2008\|language\=es}} In July 2008, the distinguished him with the award for Best Director for the program *Ratones coloraos*. In 2009 he continued making the series Ratones coloraos de Jesús Quintero in its 9th season for Canal Sur, as well as the first season of *Paz en la Tierra*, presented by [Paz Padilla](/wiki/Paz_Padilla "Paz Padilla"), being replaced by Víctor Rivero in the second season. At the same time, the Channel commissioned him a documentary for Canal Sur 2, with recreations in Córdoba province of the Battle of Munda, which was the last battle of Julius Caesar before he was assassinated.{{Cite journal\|url\=https://www.eldiadecordoba.es/ocio/Hugo\-Stuven\-comienza\-Munda\-Cabra\_0\_233077149\.html\|journal\={{ill\|El Día de Córdoba\|es}}\|title\=Hugo Stuven comienza mañana el rodaje de "La batalla de Munda" en Cabra\|date\=16 February 2009\|language\=es}} In 2010 he continued with the 9th season of *Ratones coloraos* as director and preparing new projects for various channels. In 2011 he directed the *Gala Innocente, innocente* for Antena 3 presented by . He also directed the Gala Una Noche única de la [ONCE](/wiki/ONCE "ONCE") on TVE on 11 November 2011\. This is the case of Lolita with her brother Antonio both on the set of the Gala. He also conducted and directed a new Mister and Miss Spain gala from Seville through TDT Metropolitan TV and directed *El Disco del* Año in its eighth year broadcast in December by TVE. In 2012, Hugo directed a gala broadcast by TVE where he brought together most of the Spanish humorists in a great tribute to the late comedian [Miguel Gila](/wiki/Miguel_Gila "Miguel Gila"). Sponsored by Campofrío after the spot directed by [Álex de la Iglesia](/wiki/%C3%81lex_de_la_Iglesia "Álex de la Iglesia"), Hugo together with Grupo Vértice took the helm of this special gala entitled *Arriba ese Ánimo* presented by [Santiago Segura](/wiki/Santiago_Segura "Santiago Segura"). He also directed another gala on 24 December 2012 titled *Bailando y Cantando contigo* for TVE where TVE presenters and singers such as [Rosa López](/wiki/Rosa_L%C3%B3pez "Rosa López") and [Daniel Diges](/wiki/Daniel_Diges "Daniel Diges") presented by comedian [Carlos Latre](/wiki/Carlos_Latre "Carlos Latre") participated.{{Cite journal\|url\=https://vertele.eldiario.es/videos/actualidad/furor\-nochebuena\-bailando\-cantando\-contigo\_1\_7693376\.amp.html?op\=saveref\&rd\=\|journal\=ElDiario.es\|title\=Furor en la Nochebuena de La 1 con 12 famosos "Bailando y cantando contigo"\|date\=19 December 2012\|language\=es}} In 2013 and 2014, he made two seasons of the program "Desexos Cumpridos" (Wishes Fulfilled) for [TVG](/wiki/Televisi%C3%B3n_de_Galicia "Televisión de Galicia") (Galician Autonomous Television). Between 2014 and 2015, he directed, made and co\-wrote three documentaries about olive oil *El Oro de Andalucía* (The Gold of Andalusia) investing a year in filming in [Andalusia](/wiki/Andalusia "Andalusia"), and editing, following from the planting of the olive trees, through flowering, harvesting, oil mills, packaging until it is consumed that was broadcast on [Canal Sur Televisión](/wiki/Canal_Sur_Televisi%C3%B3n "Canal Sur Televisión"). In the 2017–2018 academic year he began teaching Music Making (Theory and Practices) at the Official Institute of Spanish Radio Television where he continued as a teacher until his death. Since 2018 he was part of the creative team of the NGO Voces as a volunteer. In 2020 he directed the documentary "La voz de la Cañada" about the illegal settlement of [Cañada Real](/wiki/Ca%C3%B1ada_Real "Cañada Real"), for the NGO in co\-production with TVE and [SGAE](/wiki/Sociedad_General_de_Autores_y_Editores "Sociedad General de Autores y Editores") and the collaboration of the TVE Institute and volunteer students.{{Cite journal\|url\=https://www.rtve.es/noticias/20210424/muere\-hugo\-stuven\-historico\-realizador\-television\-espanola/2087604\.shtml\|journal\=RTVE\|title\=Muere Hugo Stuven, histórico realizador de Televisión Española\|date\=24 April 2021\|language\=es}}
[ "Biography and career\n--------------------", "Hugo Stuven was born in [Valparaíso](/wiki/Valpara%C3%ADso \"Valparaíso\"), [Chile](/wiki/Chile \"Chile\") on 2 November 1940 as the son of a banker and a judge.{{Cite journal\\|url\\=https://www.elmundo.es/loc/famosos/2020/11/14/5fad2993fdddff0b8f8b465a.html\\|journal\\=\\[\\[El Mundo (Spain)\\|El Mundo]]\\|title\\=Hugo Stuven padre e hijo: del especial de Sabrina en Nochevieja al documental de Amazon sobre ETA\\|date\\=14 November 2020\\|language\\=es\\|first\\=Beatriz\\|last\\=Miranda}} He arrived in Spain in 1965 after he asked a compatriot who worked in radio for a job, and, as he had worked in Spanish television, he opted for [Televisión Española](/wiki/Televisi%C3%B3n_Espa%C3%B1ola \"Televisión Española\"). He joined Televisión Española in 1966\\. He worked alongside as a director. Later, as assistant director, Stuven collaborated with established professionals of the station such as [Pilar Miró](/wiki/Pilar_Mir%C3%B3 \"Pilar Miró\"), [Pedro Amalio López](/wiki/Pedro_Amalio_L%C3%B3pez \"Pedro Amalio López\") and in programs such as *Antena Infantil*, (1972\\-1974\\) and (1974\\).{{Cite journal\\|url\\=https://www.elconfidencial.com/television/programas\\-tv/2021\\-04\\-24/tve\\-hugo\\-stuven\\-muere\\-80\\-anos\\-coronavirus\\_3049219/\\|journal\\=\\[\\[El Confidencial]]\\|title\\=Muere Hugo Stuven, ilustre realizador y productor de TVE, a los 80 años\\|date\\=24 April 2021\\|language\\=es}}", "In the mid\\-seventies he began his career as a director at the head of programs such as *Más allá*, with . However, it was in music, entertainment and variety programs where Stuven deployed his skills, and transferred his brand to such emblematic programs in the history of TVE as *Voces a 45* (1975\\-1976\\), with a, and *Aplauso* (1978\\-1982\\); \"Rock and Ríos\", mythical concert of [Miguel Ríos](/wiki/Miguel_R%C3%ADos \"Miguel Ríos\") (1982\\); \"Especial Serrat\", with [Joan Manuel Serrat](/wiki/Joan_Manuel_Serrat \"Joan Manuel Serrat\") (TVE 1982\\); \"El Rock de una Noche de Verano\", Miguel Ríos concert in Barcelona (TVE 1983\\); \"Rock en el ruedo\" with Miguel Ríos (TVE 1984\\); \"Especial [Camilo Sesto](/wiki/Camilo_Sesto \"Camilo Sesto\")\"; \"Concierto desde Mallorca\" (TVE 1983\\) and \"Concierto de Miguel Bosé\" (TVE 1983\\).", "He also made advertising spots, among them in 1982 for [Freixenet](/wiki/Freixenet \"Freixenet\") with [Norma Duval](/wiki/Norma_Duval \"Norma Duval\"), [Cheryl Ladd](/wiki/Cheryl_Ladd \"Cheryl Ladd\") and [Ann\\-Margret](/wiki/Ann-Margret \"Ann-Margret\").{{Cite journal\\|url\\=https://www.freixenet.es/es/descubre\\-freixenet/icono\\-de\\-la\\-publicidad/1982\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Freixenet]]\\|title\\=1982 Ann\\-Margret, Cheryl Ladd y Norma Duval\\|language\\=es}}{{Cite journal\\|url\\=https://www.vanitatis.elconfidencial.com/famosos/2021\\-04\\-24/muere\\-hugo\\-stuven\\-tve\\-productor\\-realizador\\_3049208/\\|journal\\=El Confidencial Vanitatis\\|title\\=Muere Hugo Stuven: gran defensor de Pilar Miró, diez hijos y un heredero artístico\\|first\\=Paloma\\|last\\=Barrientos\\|date\\=24 April 2021\\|language\\=es}}", "In the 1980s he directed *Como Pedro por su casa* (1985\\),{{Cite journal\\|url\\=https://www.rtve.es/rtve/20210426/tesoros\\-tele\\-homenajea\\-hugo\\-stuven/2087748\\.shtml\\|journal\\=RTVE\\|title\\='Tesoros de la tele' homenajea a Hugo Stuven\\| date\\=26 April 2021\\|language\\=es}} with [Pedro Ruiz](/wiki/Pedro_Ruiz_%28actor%29 \"Pedro Ruiz (actor)\"), and the New Year's Eve Specials of 1987, \"Súper 88\" with [Carmen Maura](/wiki/Carmen_Maura \"Carmen Maura\") and [Arturo Fernández](/wiki/Arturo_Fern%C3%A1ndez_Rodr%C3%ADguez \"Arturo Fernández Rodríguez\"),{{Cite journal\\|url\\=https://elpais.com/elpais/2017/12/20/icon/1513787410\\_146505\\.html\\|journal\\=\\[\\[El País]]\\|title\\=Un engaño, un bofetón: la verdadera historia tras el pecho de Sabrina que nos escandalizó hace 30 años\\|date\\=30 December 2017\\|first\\=Guillermo\\|last\\=Alonso\\|language\\=es}} and 1988, with [Martes y 13](/wiki/Martes_y_Trece \"Martes y Trece\"), *Hola Hola 89*.{{Cite journal\\|url\\=https://www.diezminutos.es/teleprograma/programacion\\-tv/a36275656/tesoros\\-de\\-la\\-tele\\-la2\\-especial\\-hugo\\-stuven\\-muerte/\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Diez Minutos]]\\|title\\='Tesoros de la tele' dedica un especial a Hugo Stuven\\|date\\=29 April 2021\\|language\\=es}}", "In 1987 and 1988 he was appointed by Pilar Miró as head of the Design and Promotions Section of TVE, in which the promotion system and the headers of the programs were changed. He hired [Nacho Cano](/wiki/Nacho_Cano \"Nacho Cano\") for the music of some headers.{{Cite journal\\|url\\=https://www.elmundo.es/television/medios/2021/04/24/6083ef9021efa09e448b464b.html\\|journal\\=El Mundo\\|title\\=Adiós a Hugo Stuven, histórico realizador de programas como Aplauso y la célebre Nochevieja de Sabrina\\|date\\=24 April 2021\\|language\\=es\\|first\\=Jorge\\|last\\=Benítez}}", "Between 1989 and 1991 he directed for TVE *Pero.... ¿esto qué es?*, which was the television debut of the duo , [Ángel Garó](/wiki/%C3%81ngel_Gar%C3%B3 \"Ángel Garó\"), [Pepe Viyuela](/wiki/Pepe_Viyuela \"Pepe Viyuela\"), , and Las Virtudes y *Caliente*, with [Ana Obregón](/wiki/Ana_Obreg%C3%B3n \"Ana Obregón\"), and .", "Subsequently, he was hired by private television channels, and made, among other programs, *El Gordo*, with ([Antena 3](/wiki/Antena_3_%28Spanish_TV_channel%29 \"Antena 3 (Spanish TV channel)\"), 1993\\); *Uno para todas* (1995\\-1996\\), with Goyo González and *[Popstars](/wiki/Popstars \"Popstars\")* (2002\\), with [Jesús Vázquez](/wiki/Jes%C3%BAs_V%C3%A1zquez_%28television_presenter%29 \"Jesús Vázquez (television presenter)\"). He was also in charge of the [Miss Spain](/wiki/Miss_Spain \"Miss Spain\") galas from 1998 to 2002 for [Telecinco](/wiki/Telecinco \"Telecinco\"), the *Gala de la Hispanidad* for Telecinco from 1999 to 2001, the *Gala de los Premios Amigo* with [Andreu Buenafuente](/wiki/Andreu_Buenafuente \"Andreu Buenafuente\") for Telecinco (2000\\), the *Gala de los Premios TP de Oro* and many other live programs.{{Cite journal\\|url\\=https://informalia.eleconomista.es/noticias/noticias/11177742/04/21/Muere\\-por\\-covid\\-el\\-legendario\\-realizador\\-Hugo\\-Stuven\\-a\\-los\\-80\\-anos.html\\|journal\\=\\[\\[El Economista (Spain)\\|El Economista]]\\|title\\=Muere por covid en el Zendal el legendario realizador Hugo Stuven a los 80 años\\|date\\=24 April 2021\\|language\\=es\\|first\\=Javier\\|last\\=Huerta}}", "He also worked with [Jesús Quintero](/wiki/Jes%C3%BAs_Quintero \"Jesús Quintero\") in *[Ratones coloraos](/wiki/Ratones_coloraos \"Ratones coloraos\")* (2002\\-2004\\), on Canal Sur; *El loco de la colina* (2006\\), on TVE; and *La noche de Quintero*, on TVE (2007\\). In 2006 he published the autobiographical book *Quién te ha visto y quién TVE. Historias de mi tele*. Also during 2008 he produced and directed five documentary chapters for Canal Sur television under the title *La guerra de la Independencia en Andalucía*, on the occasion of the bicentenary of this event.{{Cite journal\\|url\\=https://www.lavozdigital.es/cadiz/20080502/television/serie\\-documental\\-sobre\\-guerra\\-20080502\\.html\\|journal\\=\\[\\[La Voz de Cádiz]]\\|title\\=Una serie documental sobre la Guerra de la Independencia, en Canal 2 Andalucía\\|date\\=2 May 2008\\|language\\=es}}", "In July 2008, the distinguished him with the award for Best Director for the program *Ratones coloraos*.", "In 2009 he continued making the series Ratones coloraos de Jesús Quintero in its 9th season for Canal Sur, as well as the first season of *Paz en la Tierra*, presented by [Paz Padilla](/wiki/Paz_Padilla \"Paz Padilla\"), being replaced by Víctor Rivero in the second season. At the same time, the Channel commissioned him a documentary for Canal Sur 2, with recreations in Córdoba province of the Battle of Munda, which was the last battle of Julius Caesar before he was assassinated.{{Cite journal\\|url\\=https://www.eldiadecordoba.es/ocio/Hugo\\-Stuven\\-comienza\\-Munda\\-Cabra\\_0\\_233077149\\.html\\|journal\\={{ill\\|El Día de Córdoba\\|es}}\\|title\\=Hugo Stuven comienza mañana el rodaje de \"La batalla de Munda\" en Cabra\\|date\\=16 February 2009\\|language\\=es}}", "In 2010 he continued with the 9th season of *Ratones coloraos* as director and preparing new projects for various channels. In 2011 he directed the *Gala Innocente, innocente* for Antena 3 presented by . He also directed the Gala Una Noche única de la [ONCE](/wiki/ONCE \"ONCE\") on TVE on 11 November 2011\\. This is the case of Lolita with her brother Antonio both on the set of the Gala. He also conducted and directed a new Mister and Miss Spain gala from Seville through TDT Metropolitan TV and directed *El Disco del* Año in its eighth year broadcast in December by TVE.", "In 2012, Hugo directed a gala broadcast by TVE where he brought together most of the Spanish humorists in a great tribute to the late comedian [Miguel Gila](/wiki/Miguel_Gila \"Miguel Gila\"). Sponsored by Campofrío after the spot directed by [Álex de la Iglesia](/wiki/%C3%81lex_de_la_Iglesia \"Álex de la Iglesia\"), Hugo together with Grupo Vértice took the helm of this special gala entitled *Arriba ese Ánimo* presented by [Santiago Segura](/wiki/Santiago_Segura \"Santiago Segura\"). He also directed another gala on 24 December 2012 titled *Bailando y Cantando contigo* for TVE where TVE presenters and singers such as [Rosa López](/wiki/Rosa_L%C3%B3pez \"Rosa López\") and [Daniel Diges](/wiki/Daniel_Diges \"Daniel Diges\") presented by comedian [Carlos Latre](/wiki/Carlos_Latre \"Carlos Latre\") participated.{{Cite journal\\|url\\=https://vertele.eldiario.es/videos/actualidad/furor\\-nochebuena\\-bailando\\-cantando\\-contigo\\_1\\_7693376\\.amp.html?op\\=saveref\\&rd\\=\\|journal\\=ElDiario.es\\|title\\=Furor en la Nochebuena de La 1 con 12 famosos \"Bailando y cantando contigo\"\\|date\\=19 December 2012\\|language\\=es}}", "In 2013 and 2014, he made two seasons of the program \"Desexos Cumpridos\" (Wishes Fulfilled) for [TVG](/wiki/Televisi%C3%B3n_de_Galicia \"Televisión de Galicia\") (Galician Autonomous Television).", "Between 2014 and 2015, he directed, made and co\\-wrote three documentaries about olive oil *El Oro de Andalucía* (The Gold of Andalusia) investing a year in filming in [Andalusia](/wiki/Andalusia \"Andalusia\"), and editing, following from the planting of the olive trees, through flowering, harvesting, oil mills, packaging until it is consumed that was broadcast on [Canal Sur Televisión](/wiki/Canal_Sur_Televisi%C3%B3n \"Canal Sur Televisión\").", "In the 2017–2018 academic year he began teaching Music Making (Theory and Practices) at the Official Institute of Spanish Radio Television where he continued as a teacher until his death.", "Since 2018 he was part of the creative team of the NGO Voces as a volunteer. In 2020 he directed the documentary \"La voz de la Cañada\" about the illegal settlement of [Cañada Real](/wiki/Ca%C3%B1ada_Real \"Cañada Real\"), for the NGO in co\\-production with TVE and [SGAE](/wiki/Sociedad_General_de_Autores_y_Editores \"Sociedad General de Autores y Editores\") and the collaboration of the TVE Institute and volunteer students.{{Cite journal\\|url\\=https://www.rtve.es/noticias/20210424/muere\\-hugo\\-stuven\\-historico\\-realizador\\-television\\-espanola/2087604\\.shtml\\|journal\\=RTVE\\|title\\=Muere Hugo Stuven, histórico realizador de Televisión Española\\|date\\=24 April 2021\\|language\\=es}}", "" ]
History ------- In 1969, at the age of 23, Peter Connew was asked by a friend if he wanted to attend the [Italian Grand Prix](/wiki/1969_Italian_Grand_Prix "1969 Italian Grand Prix") at [Monza](/wiki/Autodromo_Nazionale_Monza "Autodromo Nazionale Monza"). Connew's employer refused to give him time off to attend the race, so he resigned and travelled to the race anyway.{{cite magazine\|last\=Nye \|first\=Doug \|author\-link\=Doug Nye \|date\=17 February 1972\|title\=Connew: the story so far \|magazine\=\[\[Autosport]] \|volume\=46 \|issue\=7 \|pages\=26–8}} Upon returning Connew needed employment and was hired by [Surtees](/wiki/Surtees_Racing_Organisation "Surtees Racing Organisation"), a [Formula One](/wiki/Formula_One "Formula One") team run by former champion [John Surtees](/wiki/John_Surtees "John Surtees"), as a [draughtsman](/wiki/Drafter "Drafter"). ### 1972: Formula One {{Quote box \| quote \= His car proves you can build a Formula One car by sweat alone, and makes you wonder about some of the astronomic development costs you hear the Establishment quoting!" \| width \= 24em \| source \= Stuart Turner, Competition Manager for \[\[Ford Motor Company\|Ford]]. }} [thumb\|Connew PC1](/wiki/File:Connew_PC1.png "Connew PC1.png") After a falling out with team principal [John Surtees](/wiki/John_Surtees "John Surtees"),{{citation needed\|date\=October 2014}} Connew left the team to pursue designing his own car. A [garage](/wiki/Garage_%28house%29 "Garage (house)") was rented in [Chadwell Heath](/wiki/Chadwell_Heath "Chadwell Heath") and the initial construction of the [chassis](/wiki/Chassis "Chassis") [jig](/wiki/Jig_%28tool%29 "Jig (tool)") began in December 1970\. Connew was assisted by Roger Doran, who worked as a shopfitter, and Connew's cousin Barry Boor.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.forix.com/8w/connew.html \|title\=DIY heroes\|access\-date\=24 August 2007\|last1\=Diepraam\|first1\= Mattijs\|last2\=Muelas\|first2\=Felix\|website\=forix.com}} Connew's design philosophy was that whilst the car should be efficient, it should also be easy to work on and maintain. The Connew design was tested and refined by utilising a wind tunnel of a local technical college. During the build, drivers [Tony Trimmer](/wiki/Tony_Trimmer "Tony Trimmer"), [Howden Ganley](/wiki/Howden_Ganley "Howden Ganley") and [Gerry Birrell](/wiki/Gerry_Birrell "Gerry Birrell") all came to view the car, with Trimmer stating it to be one of the most comfortable cars he had ever sat in. The team planned to make their racing debut at the [Monaco Grand Prix](/wiki/1972_Monaco_Grand_Prix "1972 Monaco Grand Prix"), but a sudden rule change required the construction of another chassis in a different type of [aluminium](/wiki/Aluminium "Aluminium"). In the meantime, Connew made a deal with [McLaren](/wiki/McLaren_%28racing%29 "McLaren (racing)") to purchase a second hand [Cosworth DFV](/wiki/Cosworth_DFV "Cosworth DFV") engine. Frenchman [François Migault](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Migault "François Migault") signed a deal to drive for the team and also provided a [Ford](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company "Ford Motor Company") [truck](/wiki/Truck "Truck"), which carried the car to France. The truck broke down before it could get to the [Clermont\-Ferrand](/wiki/Circuit_de_Charade "Circuit de Charade") circuit, the location of the [French Grand Prix](/wiki/1972_French_Grand_Prix "1972 French Grand Prix") and instead the team tested at the [Bugatti Circuit](/wiki/Bugatti_Circuit "Bugatti Circuit") in [Le Mans](/wiki/Le_Mans "Le Mans"). The car finally took part in practice for the [1972 British Grand Prix](/wiki/1972_British_Grand_Prix "1972 British Grand Prix") but was withdrawn before the race. The car had an unusual rear suspension which proved not to be up to the job. It was taken back to the workshop and repaired overnight, but upon loading the next day, a rear upright was found to be cracked and it was withdrawn. The small team also managed to show up at the [1972 German Grand Prix](/wiki/1972_German_Grand_Prix "1972 German Grand Prix"), but without having made a proper prior entry, participation was denied by the race officials. The car was modified and entered in the [1972 Austrian Grand Prix](/wiki/1972_Austrian_Grand_Prix "1972 Austrian Grand Prix"). Migault qualified at the end of the field despite some engine troubles. After 22 laps, Migault had passed four competitors, but a rear [wishbone](/wiki/Double_wishbone_suspension "Double wishbone suspension") mounting point failed{{cite book\|title\=The Guinness Complete Grand Prix Who's Who\|first\=Steve\|last\=Small\|page\=255\|isbn\=0851127029}} and Migault had a nasty moment. The car swerved towards the barriers on the start/finish straight, but the driver brought the car safely to a halt without damage. The Connew reappeared at the end of season [World Championship Victory Race](/wiki/1972_World_Championship_Victory_Race "1972 World Championship Victory Race") at [Brands Hatch](/wiki/Brands_Hatch "Brands Hatch") with [David Purley](/wiki/David_Purley "David Purley") driving but did not start because of electrical problems. Purley had asked for an electrical "kill" switch to be fitted to the steering wheel, but on the warm\-up lap this malfunctioned, the engine stopped and the car was retired. ### 1973: Formula 5000 The car was modified to meet [Formula 5000](/wiki/Formula_5000 "Formula 5000") regulations and appeared in the [European Formula 5000 Championship](/wiki/European_Formula_5000_Championship "European Formula 5000 Championship") in 1973, fitted with a [Chevrolet](/wiki/Chevrolet "Chevrolet") [V8 engine](/wiki/V8_engine "V8 engine").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.oldracingcars.com/f1/car.php?CarID\=Connew/2 \|title\=Connew PC1\-002 \|access\-date\=2007\-08\-24 \|last\=Brown \|first\=Allen \|website\=oldracingcars.com \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317153136/http://www.oldracingcars.com/f1/car.php?carid\=connew%2F2 \|archive\-date\=17 March 2016 \|url\-status\=dead }} The car made its first outing in the series at [Mallory Park](/wiki/Mallory_Park "Mallory Park") for round 10 of 18\. Swiss driver [Pierre Soukry](/wiki/Pierre_Soukry "Pierre Soukry") qualified the car in twenty\-first place, but was unable to start due to a split oil pipe.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.oldracingcars.com/results/result.php?RaceID\=E73J \|title\=Rothmans F5000 Championship round: Mallory Park, 8 Jul 1973 \|access\-date\=2007\-08\-24 \|last\=Brown \|first\=Allen \|website\=oldracingcars.com}} Three races later, the Connew failed to qualify at [Brands Hatch](/wiki/Brands_Hatch "Brands Hatch"), with Soukry at the wheel.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.oldracingcars.com/results/result.php?RaceID\=E73M \|title\=Rothmans F5000 Championship round: Brands Hatch, 27 Aug 1973 \|access\-date\=2007\-08\-24 \|last\=Brown \|first\=Allen \|website\=oldracingcars.com}} The car's final appearance was at the season finale, again at Brands Hatch. [Tony Trimmer](/wiki/Tony_Trimmer "Tony Trimmer") drove but a collision with a barrier put the chassis beyond repair.
[ "History\n-------", "In 1969, at the age of 23, Peter Connew was asked by a friend if he wanted to attend the [Italian Grand Prix](/wiki/1969_Italian_Grand_Prix \"1969 Italian Grand Prix\") at [Monza](/wiki/Autodromo_Nazionale_Monza \"Autodromo Nazionale Monza\"). Connew's employer refused to give him time off to attend the race, so he resigned and travelled to the race anyway.{{cite magazine\\|last\\=Nye \\|first\\=Doug \\|author\\-link\\=Doug Nye \\|date\\=17 February 1972\\|title\\=Connew: the story so far \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Autosport]] \\|volume\\=46 \\|issue\\=7 \\|pages\\=26–8}} Upon returning Connew needed employment and was hired by [Surtees](/wiki/Surtees_Racing_Organisation \"Surtees Racing Organisation\"), a [Formula One](/wiki/Formula_One \"Formula One\") team run by former champion [John Surtees](/wiki/John_Surtees \"John Surtees\"), as a [draughtsman](/wiki/Drafter \"Drafter\").", "### 1972: Formula One", "{{Quote box\n \\| quote \\= His car proves you can build a Formula One car by sweat alone, and makes you wonder about some of the astronomic development costs you hear the Establishment quoting!\"\n \\| width \\= 24em\n \\| source \\= Stuart Turner, Competition Manager for \\[\\[Ford Motor Company\\|Ford]].\n}}\n[thumb\\|Connew PC1](/wiki/File:Connew_PC1.png \"Connew PC1.png\")\nAfter a falling out with team principal [John Surtees](/wiki/John_Surtees \"John Surtees\"),{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2014}} Connew left the team to pursue designing his own car. A [garage](/wiki/Garage_%28house%29 \"Garage (house)\") was rented in [Chadwell Heath](/wiki/Chadwell_Heath \"Chadwell Heath\") and the initial construction of the [chassis](/wiki/Chassis \"Chassis\") [jig](/wiki/Jig_%28tool%29 \"Jig (tool)\") began in December 1970\\. Connew was assisted by Roger Doran, who worked as a shopfitter, and Connew's cousin Barry Boor.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.forix.com/8w/connew.html \\|title\\=DIY heroes\\|access\\-date\\=24 August 2007\\|last1\\=Diepraam\\|first1\\= Mattijs\\|last2\\=Muelas\\|first2\\=Felix\\|website\\=forix.com}}", "Connew's design philosophy was that whilst the car should be efficient, it should also be easy to work on and maintain. The Connew design was tested and refined by utilising a wind tunnel of a local technical college. During the build, drivers [Tony Trimmer](/wiki/Tony_Trimmer \"Tony Trimmer\"), [Howden Ganley](/wiki/Howden_Ganley \"Howden Ganley\") and [Gerry Birrell](/wiki/Gerry_Birrell \"Gerry Birrell\") all came to view the car, with Trimmer stating it to be one of the most comfortable cars he had ever sat in.", "The team planned to make their racing debut at the [Monaco Grand Prix](/wiki/1972_Monaco_Grand_Prix \"1972 Monaco Grand Prix\"), but a sudden rule change required the construction of another chassis in a different type of [aluminium](/wiki/Aluminium \"Aluminium\"). In the meantime, Connew made a deal with [McLaren](/wiki/McLaren_%28racing%29 \"McLaren (racing)\") to purchase a second hand [Cosworth DFV](/wiki/Cosworth_DFV \"Cosworth DFV\") engine. Frenchman [François Migault](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Migault \"François Migault\") signed a deal to drive for the team and also provided a [Ford](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company \"Ford Motor Company\") [truck](/wiki/Truck \"Truck\"), which carried the car to France. The truck broke down before it could get to the [Clermont\\-Ferrand](/wiki/Circuit_de_Charade \"Circuit de Charade\") circuit, the location of the [French Grand Prix](/wiki/1972_French_Grand_Prix \"1972 French Grand Prix\") and instead the team tested at the [Bugatti Circuit](/wiki/Bugatti_Circuit \"Bugatti Circuit\") in [Le Mans](/wiki/Le_Mans \"Le Mans\").", "The car finally took part in practice for the [1972 British Grand Prix](/wiki/1972_British_Grand_Prix \"1972 British Grand Prix\") but was withdrawn before the race. The car had an unusual rear suspension which proved not to be up to the job. It was taken back to the workshop and repaired overnight, but upon loading the next day, a rear upright was found to be cracked and it was withdrawn.", "The small team also managed to show up at the [1972 German Grand Prix](/wiki/1972_German_Grand_Prix \"1972 German Grand Prix\"), but without having made a proper prior entry, participation was denied by the race officials.", "The car was modified and entered in the [1972 Austrian Grand Prix](/wiki/1972_Austrian_Grand_Prix \"1972 Austrian Grand Prix\"). Migault qualified at the end of the field despite some engine troubles. After 22 laps, Migault had passed four competitors, but a rear [wishbone](/wiki/Double_wishbone_suspension \"Double wishbone suspension\") mounting point failed{{cite book\\|title\\=The Guinness Complete Grand Prix Who's Who\\|first\\=Steve\\|last\\=Small\\|page\\=255\\|isbn\\=0851127029}} and Migault had a nasty moment. The car swerved towards the barriers on the start/finish straight, but the driver brought the car safely to a halt without damage.", "The Connew reappeared at the end of season [World Championship Victory Race](/wiki/1972_World_Championship_Victory_Race \"1972 World Championship Victory Race\") at [Brands Hatch](/wiki/Brands_Hatch \"Brands Hatch\") with [David Purley](/wiki/David_Purley \"David Purley\") driving but did not start because of electrical problems. Purley had asked for an electrical \"kill\" switch to be fitted to the steering wheel, but on the warm\\-up lap this malfunctioned, the engine stopped and the car was retired.", "### 1973: Formula 5000", "The car was modified to meet [Formula 5000](/wiki/Formula_5000 \"Formula 5000\") regulations and appeared in the [European Formula 5000 Championship](/wiki/European_Formula_5000_Championship \"European Formula 5000 Championship\") in 1973, fitted with a [Chevrolet](/wiki/Chevrolet \"Chevrolet\") [V8 engine](/wiki/V8_engine \"V8 engine\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.oldracingcars.com/f1/car.php?CarID\\=Connew/2 \\|title\\=Connew PC1\\-002 \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-08\\-24 \\|last\\=Brown \\|first\\=Allen \\|website\\=oldracingcars.com \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317153136/http://www.oldracingcars.com/f1/car.php?carid\\=connew%2F2 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 March 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The car made its first outing in the series at [Mallory Park](/wiki/Mallory_Park \"Mallory Park\") for round 10 of 18\\. Swiss driver [Pierre Soukry](/wiki/Pierre_Soukry \"Pierre Soukry\") qualified the car in twenty\\-first place, but was unable to start due to a split oil pipe.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.oldracingcars.com/results/result.php?RaceID\\=E73J \\|title\\=Rothmans F5000 Championship round: Mallory Park, 8 Jul 1973 \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-08\\-24 \\|last\\=Brown \\|first\\=Allen \\|website\\=oldracingcars.com}} Three races later, the Connew failed to qualify at [Brands Hatch](/wiki/Brands_Hatch \"Brands Hatch\"), with Soukry at the wheel.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.oldracingcars.com/results/result.php?RaceID\\=E73M \\|title\\=Rothmans F5000 Championship round: Brands Hatch, 27 Aug 1973 \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-08\\-24 \\|last\\=Brown \\|first\\=Allen \\|website\\=oldracingcars.com}} The car's final appearance was at the season finale, again at Brands Hatch. [Tony Trimmer](/wiki/Tony_Trimmer \"Tony Trimmer\") drove but a collision with a barrier put the chassis beyond repair.", "" ]
### 1972: Formula One {{Quote box \| quote \= His car proves you can build a Formula One car by sweat alone, and makes you wonder about some of the astronomic development costs you hear the Establishment quoting!" \| width \= 24em \| source \= Stuart Turner, Competition Manager for \[\[Ford Motor Company\|Ford]]. }} [thumb\|Connew PC1](/wiki/File:Connew_PC1.png "Connew PC1.png") After a falling out with team principal [John Surtees](/wiki/John_Surtees "John Surtees"),{{citation needed\|date\=October 2014}} Connew left the team to pursue designing his own car. A [garage](/wiki/Garage_%28house%29 "Garage (house)") was rented in [Chadwell Heath](/wiki/Chadwell_Heath "Chadwell Heath") and the initial construction of the [chassis](/wiki/Chassis "Chassis") [jig](/wiki/Jig_%28tool%29 "Jig (tool)") began in December 1970\. Connew was assisted by Roger Doran, who worked as a shopfitter, and Connew's cousin Barry Boor.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.forix.com/8w/connew.html \|title\=DIY heroes\|access\-date\=24 August 2007\|last1\=Diepraam\|first1\= Mattijs\|last2\=Muelas\|first2\=Felix\|website\=forix.com}} Connew's design philosophy was that whilst the car should be efficient, it should also be easy to work on and maintain. The Connew design was tested and refined by utilising a wind tunnel of a local technical college. During the build, drivers [Tony Trimmer](/wiki/Tony_Trimmer "Tony Trimmer"), [Howden Ganley](/wiki/Howden_Ganley "Howden Ganley") and [Gerry Birrell](/wiki/Gerry_Birrell "Gerry Birrell") all came to view the car, with Trimmer stating it to be one of the most comfortable cars he had ever sat in. The team planned to make their racing debut at the [Monaco Grand Prix](/wiki/1972_Monaco_Grand_Prix "1972 Monaco Grand Prix"), but a sudden rule change required the construction of another chassis in a different type of [aluminium](/wiki/Aluminium "Aluminium"). In the meantime, Connew made a deal with [McLaren](/wiki/McLaren_%28racing%29 "McLaren (racing)") to purchase a second hand [Cosworth DFV](/wiki/Cosworth_DFV "Cosworth DFV") engine. Frenchman [François Migault](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Migault "François Migault") signed a deal to drive for the team and also provided a [Ford](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company "Ford Motor Company") [truck](/wiki/Truck "Truck"), which carried the car to France. The truck broke down before it could get to the [Clermont\-Ferrand](/wiki/Circuit_de_Charade "Circuit de Charade") circuit, the location of the [French Grand Prix](/wiki/1972_French_Grand_Prix "1972 French Grand Prix") and instead the team tested at the [Bugatti Circuit](/wiki/Bugatti_Circuit "Bugatti Circuit") in [Le Mans](/wiki/Le_Mans "Le Mans"). The car finally took part in practice for the [1972 British Grand Prix](/wiki/1972_British_Grand_Prix "1972 British Grand Prix") but was withdrawn before the race. The car had an unusual rear suspension which proved not to be up to the job. It was taken back to the workshop and repaired overnight, but upon loading the next day, a rear upright was found to be cracked and it was withdrawn. The small team also managed to show up at the [1972 German Grand Prix](/wiki/1972_German_Grand_Prix "1972 German Grand Prix"), but without having made a proper prior entry, participation was denied by the race officials. The car was modified and entered in the [1972 Austrian Grand Prix](/wiki/1972_Austrian_Grand_Prix "1972 Austrian Grand Prix"). Migault qualified at the end of the field despite some engine troubles. After 22 laps, Migault had passed four competitors, but a rear [wishbone](/wiki/Double_wishbone_suspension "Double wishbone suspension") mounting point failed{{cite book\|title\=The Guinness Complete Grand Prix Who's Who\|first\=Steve\|last\=Small\|page\=255\|isbn\=0851127029}} and Migault had a nasty moment. The car swerved towards the barriers on the start/finish straight, but the driver brought the car safely to a halt without damage. The Connew reappeared at the end of season [World Championship Victory Race](/wiki/1972_World_Championship_Victory_Race "1972 World Championship Victory Race") at [Brands Hatch](/wiki/Brands_Hatch "Brands Hatch") with [David Purley](/wiki/David_Purley "David Purley") driving but did not start because of electrical problems. Purley had asked for an electrical "kill" switch to be fitted to the steering wheel, but on the warm\-up lap this malfunctioned, the engine stopped and the car was retired.
[ "### 1972: Formula One", "{{Quote box\n \\| quote \\= His car proves you can build a Formula One car by sweat alone, and makes you wonder about some of the astronomic development costs you hear the Establishment quoting!\"\n \\| width \\= 24em\n \\| source \\= Stuart Turner, Competition Manager for \\[\\[Ford Motor Company\\|Ford]].\n}}\n[thumb\\|Connew PC1](/wiki/File:Connew_PC1.png \"Connew PC1.png\")\nAfter a falling out with team principal [John Surtees](/wiki/John_Surtees \"John Surtees\"),{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2014}} Connew left the team to pursue designing his own car. A [garage](/wiki/Garage_%28house%29 \"Garage (house)\") was rented in [Chadwell Heath](/wiki/Chadwell_Heath \"Chadwell Heath\") and the initial construction of the [chassis](/wiki/Chassis \"Chassis\") [jig](/wiki/Jig_%28tool%29 \"Jig (tool)\") began in December 1970\\. Connew was assisted by Roger Doran, who worked as a shopfitter, and Connew's cousin Barry Boor.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.forix.com/8w/connew.html \\|title\\=DIY heroes\\|access\\-date\\=24 August 2007\\|last1\\=Diepraam\\|first1\\= Mattijs\\|last2\\=Muelas\\|first2\\=Felix\\|website\\=forix.com}}", "Connew's design philosophy was that whilst the car should be efficient, it should also be easy to work on and maintain. The Connew design was tested and refined by utilising a wind tunnel of a local technical college. During the build, drivers [Tony Trimmer](/wiki/Tony_Trimmer \"Tony Trimmer\"), [Howden Ganley](/wiki/Howden_Ganley \"Howden Ganley\") and [Gerry Birrell](/wiki/Gerry_Birrell \"Gerry Birrell\") all came to view the car, with Trimmer stating it to be one of the most comfortable cars he had ever sat in.", "The team planned to make their racing debut at the [Monaco Grand Prix](/wiki/1972_Monaco_Grand_Prix \"1972 Monaco Grand Prix\"), but a sudden rule change required the construction of another chassis in a different type of [aluminium](/wiki/Aluminium \"Aluminium\"). In the meantime, Connew made a deal with [McLaren](/wiki/McLaren_%28racing%29 \"McLaren (racing)\") to purchase a second hand [Cosworth DFV](/wiki/Cosworth_DFV \"Cosworth DFV\") engine. Frenchman [François Migault](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Migault \"François Migault\") signed a deal to drive for the team and also provided a [Ford](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company \"Ford Motor Company\") [truck](/wiki/Truck \"Truck\"), which carried the car to France. The truck broke down before it could get to the [Clermont\\-Ferrand](/wiki/Circuit_de_Charade \"Circuit de Charade\") circuit, the location of the [French Grand Prix](/wiki/1972_French_Grand_Prix \"1972 French Grand Prix\") and instead the team tested at the [Bugatti Circuit](/wiki/Bugatti_Circuit \"Bugatti Circuit\") in [Le Mans](/wiki/Le_Mans \"Le Mans\").", "The car finally took part in practice for the [1972 British Grand Prix](/wiki/1972_British_Grand_Prix \"1972 British Grand Prix\") but was withdrawn before the race. The car had an unusual rear suspension which proved not to be up to the job. It was taken back to the workshop and repaired overnight, but upon loading the next day, a rear upright was found to be cracked and it was withdrawn.", "The small team also managed to show up at the [1972 German Grand Prix](/wiki/1972_German_Grand_Prix \"1972 German Grand Prix\"), but without having made a proper prior entry, participation was denied by the race officials.", "The car was modified and entered in the [1972 Austrian Grand Prix](/wiki/1972_Austrian_Grand_Prix \"1972 Austrian Grand Prix\"). Migault qualified at the end of the field despite some engine troubles. After 22 laps, Migault had passed four competitors, but a rear [wishbone](/wiki/Double_wishbone_suspension \"Double wishbone suspension\") mounting point failed{{cite book\\|title\\=The Guinness Complete Grand Prix Who's Who\\|first\\=Steve\\|last\\=Small\\|page\\=255\\|isbn\\=0851127029}} and Migault had a nasty moment. The car swerved towards the barriers on the start/finish straight, but the driver brought the car safely to a halt without damage.", "The Connew reappeared at the end of season [World Championship Victory Race](/wiki/1972_World_Championship_Victory_Race \"1972 World Championship Victory Race\") at [Brands Hatch](/wiki/Brands_Hatch \"Brands Hatch\") with [David Purley](/wiki/David_Purley \"David Purley\") driving but did not start because of electrical problems. Purley had asked for an electrical \"kill\" switch to be fitted to the steering wheel, but on the warm\\-up lap this malfunctioned, the engine stopped and the car was retired.", "" ]
Career ------ In the mid\-1950s, Eula started working with [Eugenia Sheppard](/wiki/Eugenia_Sheppard "Eugenia Sheppard"), illustrating her syndicated column *Inside Fashion* in the *[New York Herald Tribune](/wiki/New_York_Herald_Tribune "New York Herald Tribune")*. He later went on to work with [Ernestine Carter](/wiki/Ernestine_Carter "Ernestine Carter") in the *[London Sunday Times](/wiki/London_Sunday_Times "London Sunday Times")*, covering European fashion. This was common practice at the time, since the fashion salons were too small to accommodate photographers and writer–artist pairs had to be present to report on the trends and fashion shows. Among his work for *[American Vogue](/wiki/American_Vogue "American Vogue")* and *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*, Eula also had a long\-standing association with Italian *[Harper's Bazaar](/wiki/Harper%27s_Bazaar "Harper's Bazaar")*. In this occupation he notably covered [Yves Saint Laurent](/wiki/Yves_Saint_Laurent_%28designer%29 "Yves Saint Laurent (designer)")'s first (1958\) and last (2002\) collections, and was a house artist for several other designers, including [Coco Chanel](/wiki/Coco_Chanel "Coco Chanel"), [Hubert de Givenchy](/wiki/Hubert_de_Givenchy "Hubert de Givenchy"), [Gianni Versace](/wiki/Gianni_Versace "Gianni Versace"), [Christian Dior](/wiki/Christian_Dior "Christian Dior") and [Karl Lagerfeld](/wiki/Karl_Lagerfeld "Karl Lagerfeld"). He maintained a friendly relationship with some of these distinguished figures of the fashion world, especially with Coco Chanel, whose collections he often drew.{{cite web\|last1\=Villarreal\|first1\=Alexandra\|title\=Cathy Horyn on Joe Eula is a delight\|url\=http://observer.com/2014/11/cathy\-horyn\-on\-joe\-eula\-is\-a\-delight/\|website\=Observer\|access\-date\=June 17, 2015\|date\=November 24, 2014}} He is known to have attended an Yves Saint Laurent couture show on one occasion, only to shout out that it was terrible after a brief time and walk out; his friendship with Yves Saint Laurent and his partner, [Pierre Bergé](/wiki/Pierre_Berg%C3%A9 "Pierre Bergé"), remained unaffected.{{cite news\|last1\=Indvik\|first1\=Lauren\|title\=Cathy Horyn on Joe Eula and Life After the 'New York Times'\|url\=http://fashionista.com/2014/11/cathy\-horyn\-joe\-eula\|access\-date\=June 17, 2015\|work\=Fashionista\|date\=November 14, 2014}}{{cite web\|last1\=Standen\|first1\=Dirk\|title\=Cathy Horyn on Her New Joe Eula Book, Galliano at Margiela, and More\|url\=http://www.style.com/trends/industry/2014/cathy\-horyn\-joe\-eula\-book\|website\=Style.com\|date\=November 11, 2014}} He also had close personal and professional relationships with leading figures of other artistic fields, designing a suit for jazz musician [Miles Davis](/wiki/Miles_Davis "Miles Davis"), in addition to the stick\-like figures on the cover of his 1960 album *[Sketches of Spain](/wiki/Sketches_of_Spain "Sketches of Spain")*,{{cite book\|title \= Joe Eula: Master of Twentieth\-Century Fashion Illustration\|last \= Horyn\|first \= Cathy\|publisher \= Harper Design\|year \= 2014\|isbn \= 978\-0\-06\-222513\-9\|page \= 20}} concert posters for [The Supremes](/wiki/The_Supremes "The Supremes") (Lincoln Center, New York, 1965\) and [Liza Minnelli](/wiki/Liza_Minnelli "Liza Minnelli")'s *[Liza with a "Z"](/wiki/Liza_with_a_Z "Liza with a Z")* (1972\).{{cite news\|title \= Joe Eula, 79; Fashion Illustrator Worked With Major Designers\|url \= https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-2004\-oct\-29\-me\-passings29\.1\-story.html\|newspaper \= Los Angeles Times\|date \= October 29, 2004\|access\-date \= June 17, 2015\|issn \= 0458\-3035\|first \= Times\|last \= Staff\|first2 \= Wire\|last2 \= Reports}}{{cite news\|last1\=Atkinston\|first1\=Nathalie\|title\=Paying tribute to the all\-but\-forgotten career of fashion illustrator Joe Eula\|url\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/fashion\-and\-beauty/fashion/joe\-eula\-fashion\-artist/article21648097/\|access\-date\=June 17, 2015\|work\=The Globe and Mail\|date\=November 21, 2014}} Being friends with photographer [Milton Greene](/wiki/Milton_H._Greene "Milton H. Greene") since the 1940s, he shared a flat with him in New York City and worked with him for [*Life* magazine](/wiki/Life_%28magazine%29 "Life (magazine)"), upon his return from Europe. Parting with Greene in 1968, Eula went into theatre where his work on a Broadway production of *[Private Lives](/wiki/Private_Lives "Private Lives")* earned him a [Tony Award](/wiki/Tony_Award "Tony Award"). He also designed sets and costumes for [*Dances At a Gathering*](/wiki/Dances_at_a_Gathering "Dances at a Gathering") (1969\) and later costumes for [*The Goldberg Variations*](/wiki/The_Goldberg_Variations_%28ballet%29 "The Goldberg Variations (ballet)") at the request of [Jerome Robbins](/wiki/Jerome_Robbins "Jerome Robbins") of the [New York City Ballet](/wiki/New_York_City_Ballet "New York City Ballet"). In the early 70s Joe Eula was a freelance creative art director consultant to Halston Ltd., American Vogue, Interview magazine, and numerous publications. In 1973, he designed the backdrop of a presentation by five American designers (including Halston) to five French couturiers at Versailles. Due to a botched conversion from imperial to metric units, the drapery they were to use came out short. He famously remedied the situation by adding a white paper strip and sketching the [Eiffel Tower](/wiki/Eiffel_Tower "Eiffel Tower") with black stove paint and a broom. He was to remain at Halston as a creative director for most of the 70s. In 1974 he became a consultant for the newly created Halston Enterprise Inc. His role was creative director of all Halston images, ad campaigns, and collections from 1974 to 1980\.
[ "Career\n------", "In the mid\\-1950s, Eula started working with [Eugenia Sheppard](/wiki/Eugenia_Sheppard \"Eugenia Sheppard\"), illustrating her syndicated column *Inside Fashion* in the *[New York Herald Tribune](/wiki/New_York_Herald_Tribune \"New York Herald Tribune\")*. He later went on to work with [Ernestine Carter](/wiki/Ernestine_Carter \"Ernestine Carter\") in the *[London Sunday Times](/wiki/London_Sunday_Times \"London Sunday Times\")*, covering European fashion. This was common practice at the time, since the fashion salons were too small to accommodate photographers and writer–artist pairs had to be present to report on the trends and fashion shows.", "Among his work for *[American Vogue](/wiki/American_Vogue \"American Vogue\")* and *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, Eula also had a long\\-standing association with Italian *[Harper's Bazaar](/wiki/Harper%27s_Bazaar \"Harper's Bazaar\")*. In this occupation he notably covered [Yves Saint Laurent](/wiki/Yves_Saint_Laurent_%28designer%29 \"Yves Saint Laurent (designer)\")'s first (1958\\) and last (2002\\) collections, and was a house artist for several other designers, including [Coco Chanel](/wiki/Coco_Chanel \"Coco Chanel\"), [Hubert de Givenchy](/wiki/Hubert_de_Givenchy \"Hubert de Givenchy\"), [Gianni Versace](/wiki/Gianni_Versace \"Gianni Versace\"), [Christian Dior](/wiki/Christian_Dior \"Christian Dior\") and [Karl Lagerfeld](/wiki/Karl_Lagerfeld \"Karl Lagerfeld\"). He maintained a friendly relationship with some of these distinguished figures of the fashion world, especially with Coco Chanel, whose collections he often drew.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Villarreal\\|first1\\=Alexandra\\|title\\=Cathy Horyn on Joe Eula is a delight\\|url\\=http://observer.com/2014/11/cathy\\-horyn\\-on\\-joe\\-eula\\-is\\-a\\-delight/\\|website\\=Observer\\|access\\-date\\=June 17, 2015\\|date\\=November 24, 2014}} He is known to have attended an Yves Saint Laurent couture show on one occasion, only to shout out that it was terrible after a brief time and walk out; his friendship with Yves Saint Laurent and his partner, [Pierre Bergé](/wiki/Pierre_Berg%C3%A9 \"Pierre Bergé\"), remained unaffected.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Indvik\\|first1\\=Lauren\\|title\\=Cathy Horyn on Joe Eula and Life After the 'New York Times'\\|url\\=http://fashionista.com/2014/11/cathy\\-horyn\\-joe\\-eula\\|access\\-date\\=June 17, 2015\\|work\\=Fashionista\\|date\\=November 14, 2014}}{{cite web\\|last1\\=Standen\\|first1\\=Dirk\\|title\\=Cathy Horyn on Her New Joe Eula Book, Galliano at Margiela, and More\\|url\\=http://www.style.com/trends/industry/2014/cathy\\-horyn\\-joe\\-eula\\-book\\|website\\=Style.com\\|date\\=November 11, 2014}}", "He also had close personal and professional relationships with leading figures of other artistic fields, designing a suit for jazz musician [Miles Davis](/wiki/Miles_Davis \"Miles Davis\"), in addition to the stick\\-like figures on the cover of his 1960 album *[Sketches of Spain](/wiki/Sketches_of_Spain \"Sketches of Spain\")*,{{cite book\\|title \\= Joe Eula: Master of Twentieth\\-Century Fashion Illustration\\|last \\= Horyn\\|first \\= Cathy\\|publisher \\= Harper Design\\|year \\= 2014\\|isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-06\\-222513\\-9\\|page \\= 20}} concert posters for [The Supremes](/wiki/The_Supremes \"The Supremes\") (Lincoln Center, New York, 1965\\) and [Liza Minnelli](/wiki/Liza_Minnelli \"Liza Minnelli\")'s *[Liza with a \"Z\"](/wiki/Liza_with_a_Z \"Liza with a Z\")* (1972\\).{{cite news\\|title \\= Joe Eula, 79; Fashion Illustrator Worked With Major Designers\\|url \\= https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-2004\\-oct\\-29\\-me\\-passings29\\.1\\-story.html\\|newspaper \\= Los Angeles Times\\|date \\= October 29, 2004\\|access\\-date \\= June 17, 2015\\|issn \\= 0458\\-3035\\|first \\= Times\\|last \\= Staff\\|first2 \\= Wire\\|last2 \\= Reports}}{{cite news\\|last1\\=Atkinston\\|first1\\=Nathalie\\|title\\=Paying tribute to the all\\-but\\-forgotten career of fashion illustrator Joe Eula\\|url\\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/fashion\\-and\\-beauty/fashion/joe\\-eula\\-fashion\\-artist/article21648097/\\|access\\-date\\=June 17, 2015\\|work\\=The Globe and Mail\\|date\\=November 21, 2014}} Being friends with photographer [Milton Greene](/wiki/Milton_H._Greene \"Milton H. Greene\") since the 1940s, he shared a flat with him in New York City and worked with him for [*Life* magazine](/wiki/Life_%28magazine%29 \"Life (magazine)\"), upon his return from Europe.", "Parting with Greene in 1968, Eula went into theatre where his work on a Broadway production of *[Private Lives](/wiki/Private_Lives \"Private Lives\")* earned him a [Tony Award](/wiki/Tony_Award \"Tony Award\"). He also designed sets and costumes for [*Dances At a Gathering*](/wiki/Dances_at_a_Gathering \"Dances at a Gathering\") (1969\\) and later costumes for [*The Goldberg Variations*](/wiki/The_Goldberg_Variations_%28ballet%29 \"The Goldberg Variations (ballet)\") at the request of [Jerome Robbins](/wiki/Jerome_Robbins \"Jerome Robbins\") of the [New York City Ballet](/wiki/New_York_City_Ballet \"New York City Ballet\").", "In the early 70s Joe Eula was a freelance creative art director consultant to Halston Ltd., American Vogue, Interview magazine, and numerous publications.", "In 1973, he designed the backdrop of a presentation by five American designers (including Halston) to five French couturiers at Versailles. Due to a botched conversion from imperial to metric units, the drapery they were to use came out short. He famously remedied the situation by adding a white paper strip and sketching the [Eiffel Tower](/wiki/Eiffel_Tower \"Eiffel Tower\") with black stove paint and a broom. He was to remain at Halston as a creative director for most of the 70s.", "In 1974 he became a consultant for the newly created Halston Enterprise Inc. His role was creative director of all Halston images, ad campaigns, and collections from 1974 to 1980\\.", "" ]
Biography --------- ### Born and grown up in Leuven, Belgium On 30 August 1888, Philippe Jean Hissette was born in Louvain as the third child of Jeanne Catherine Wouters (1855–1936\) and the mining engineer, Louis Hissette (1858–1888\). Four months before the birth his father had died at the age of 30\. Philippe Jean had two brothers, Louis\-Ferdinand (1885–1972\) and Jean\-Baptiste (1886–1887\). After her husband, Louis Hissette, had died, Jeanne Catherine remarried to Joseph Pieraerts in 1892\. Jean, as he was called visited Schools in Louvain and in Melle, Ghent. From 1908 until 1909 he was recruited for the military service. After that he began to study medicine in Louvain. ### WWI When the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War "First World War") broke out in 1914 Jean Hissette was still a medicine student and had spent his July vacations in Lacuisine. On 1 August 1914, mobilization day, he left Lacuisine for the duration of the war. During the First World War and after the war had ended, Jean performed four years of military service as a medically adorned sanitary officer in the medical service unit of the 1st division of the Belgian Army. He was mainly deployed in the front line against the Germans at the Yser. ### Florenville In 1919 he passed his state examination at the University of Ghent. Later the same year he married the anversoise Hilda de Vriendt (old Flemish painter family) and at this point he settled as a private doctor and obstetrician in the independent practice in Florenville\-sur\-Semois en Gaume, Rue d’Orval Nr.7\. Hissette was not very busy because there were a total of four practising physicians. During this time he also visited the eye clinic of Ghent’s university, which was run by van Duyse, on a regular basis. Soon after, he visited his colleagues and doctor friends, de Mets and Moorkens, in Antwerp to continue his education in ophthalmology. On the farms around Florenville he collected eyes of pigs to train on. In quick succession his five children were born, Madeleine, the oldest (\*1920\), Marguerite (1922–2002\), Marie Thérèse (\*1923\), Gabrielle (1925–1983\) and his son George (1926–1988\). [thumb\|alt\=Dr. Jean Hissette and his nurse Mademoiselle de Salmon\|Dr. Jean Hissette and his nurse Mademoiselle de Salmon assisting him with a cataract operation outdoors at Thielen\-Saint Jacques, Kasai in the Belgian Congo, 1930](/wiki/File:Hissette_Augenoperation_1930.jpg "Hissette Augenoperation 1930.jpg") ### The family Hissette decided to move into the Belgian Congo They did not have much money and in 1928, at the age of 40, Jean and his wife Hilda decided to move into the Belgian Congo with the Belgian National Mission. On 27 February 1929, Hilda, Jean and their two youngest children boarded the ‘Anversville’ in Antwerp. Passing the Matadi Harbour on their way they moved to the Scheutist missionary station (Mission nationale) in Thielen\-Saint Jacques in Kasai (Belgian Congo). The three older children stayed in Belgium for their school education. Although Hissette came to the Congo as a general practitioner his real interest was his specialisation in ophthalmology. With approval of the emissive mission in Thielen\-Saint Jacques he set up an ophthalmological centre and straight away conducted eye surgery. Nevertheless, he did not neglect his function as a general practitioner for [tropical medicines](/wiki/Tropical_medicine "Tropical medicine"), nor as obstetrician and carer for newborns. On the Scheutist missionary station l’A.M.M. (l’Aide Médicale aux Missions) it was his task to take on the medical service. In June 1929 the Belgian nurse, Mademoiselle de Salmon, followed him. The space in the hospital was so tiny that Hissette preferred to operate out on the terrace (Fig.1\). Hissette made an effort to gain the trust of the sick people, he showed great compassion for distress and suffering in people regardless of whether they were black or white. After about one and a half years an attentive priest led him to the discovery of his lifetime: In September 1930, he discovers the first people in Africa affected by river blindness at the Sankuru and Lomami River in the Belgian Congo (Kluxen2011\). A year after the initial discovery he undertakes another expedition to the same region to complete his scientific investigations which he includes in his famous work from 1932 (Hissette 1932\). ### Return to Congo After receiving further qualifications and becoming equipped with some privileges from the colonial ministry in Brussels he returns to the Congo without his family as a qualified ophthalmologist. In October 1932, he travels via Tunis and Egypt into the Sudan and arrives in the Northeast of the Belgian Congo Colony at the end of the year. Here he also discovers a foyer of ocular onchocerciasis at the Uéle. In the year 1933 he is still in Thielen\-Saint Jacques but only for a short time until he leaves the Scheutists to establish a dispensary for eye patients in Elisabethville. His family followed him to [Elisabethville](/wiki/Elisabethville "Elisabethville") ([Lubumbashi](/wiki/Lubumbashi "Lubumbashi")) in 1934/1935 where the children had the opportunity for an accredited school education. In July 1934, as an advisor and guide, he attends the Harvard African Expedition under R. P. Strong to research the onchocerciasis along the Sankuru. In 1938 the results were published in a supplement of the American Journal for Tropical Medicine (Strong 1938, Hissette 1938\). His reputation as an ophthalmologist grows to such an extent that patients even come from the neighbouring colonies to be consulted. In June 1936, Hissette presented a slide show in London and became a Fellow of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicines and Hygiene. On 18 July 1936 he exhibited his aquarelles on the pathology of ocular onchocerciasis at the Colonial exhibition in Brussels (l’Institut royal colonial belge, l’actuelle Académie royale des Sciences d’Outre\-mer) and also published them in the Collection des Mémoires de l’Institut (Hissette 1937\). Amongst the aquarelles there is one picture of a typical chorioretinitis of the African ocular onchocerciasis, which creates blotchy scars (Hissette 1937, Hissette 1938\). In 1937, he investigates the ocular complications of a measles epidemic in the colonial M’Pweto Region. Due to measles and a concurrent vitamin A deficiency spontaneous double\-sided cornea perforations and blindness were caused in many children. At the beginning of the Second World War Hissette was appointed the position of the provincial doctor in Katanga. In 1952 he and his wife returned to Belgium. Around the same time he fell seriously ill and never really recovered from it, making it impossible for him to ever work in the medical field again. In the first few years the couple stayed in Lacuisine\-sur\-Semois but soon moved to an apartment in Brussels. Jean died in Brussels on 26 August 1965\. He and his wife are buried in a family grave in Lacuisine, Florenville. ### Onchocerciasis in Africa and Central America before 1930 The first persons to mention ocular onchocerciasis were Rodolfo Robles and Rafael Pacheco Luna in Guatemala in 1915/1916 (Pacheco Luna 1918, Robles 1917, Grove 1990\). Ophthalmic symptoms and signs were marked in the Triassic, also known as “Morbus Robles”: 1\. Filarial worm infection of an adult Onchocerca in America, 2\. Erisipela de la costa, an oedema of the face, 3\. Conjunctivitis and iritis of the anterior segment of the eye. The early investigators of onchocerciasis from 1874\-1930 in Africa made no mention at all of concomitant severe eye disease. Publications of the observations in Central America by Rodolfo Robles and [Émile Brumpt](/wiki/%C3%89mile_Brumpt "Émile Brumpt") in 1917/1919 (Brumpt 1919, Robles 1919\) prompted some specialists in tropical medicine to look for eye disease associated with African onchocerciasis. But nobody described any eye involvement leading to blindness. And then, in 1930, Hissette discovered thousands of people with river blindness along the Sankuru in Africa. He demonstrated the pathomechanism of the blindness during his first home leave in Belgium in 1932, when he found microfilariae in various tissues of an enucleated eye that he had brought home with him from the Sankuru: among other injurious effects, these microfilariae cause the severe eye inflammation. His special observational skill and his intuitive grasp of causalities meant that his descriptions were very precise. He described the chorioretinitical scarring of the fundus in onchocerciasis (Hissette 1932\). Despite the fact that Ridley's description followed only thirteen years later in 1945 (Ridley 1945\), the atrophic flecked retina was referred to simply as "Ridley fundus". Now it is more appropriated called “Hissette\-Ridley fundus”. And he found that living microfilariae elicited no or only a very slight reaction in the anterior chamber of the eye, whereas dead ones provoked a strong inflammation. According to the “Zeitgeist” (spirit of the age) Hissette thought that the latter reaction was probably due to the brisk release of the toxins of the disintegrated parasites. This is not the fact, but research has identified the cause. The very strong inducers of the immune responses are endosymbionts (bacteria called [Wolbachia](/wiki/Wolbachia "Wolbachia")). It has now become increasingly clear that Wolbachia play the major role in the pathogenesis of ocular onchocerciasis (river blindness) in the human host (Saint André et al. 2002\). ### The Harvard African Expedition The Harvard African Expedition of 1934 had been arranged and paid for by the Belgian colonial administration. This proves that the expedition indeed had been a control commission assigned to check Hissette’s findings on the blind people because they were doubted. Hissette had never mentioned that he was checked. Strong had been urged by the colonial administration to keep silent about the assignment and in 1938 he had hoped to distract from this by writing that the expedition had been entirely his idea. It was feared that the public would have seen the considerable costs of the expedition as a waste since upon their return the Americans confirmed all of Hissette’s published findings about ocular affection through onchocerciasis. By no means had Hissette been displeased with the commission, instead he had felt honoured that such renowned tropical scientists showed an interest in his work. If the colonial administration had trusted Hissette, the commission and the “Harvard African Expedition” would have been dispensable. Confronted in 1934 by a commission in the form of the Harvard African Expedition, Hissette traveled once more to the [Sankuru](/wiki/Sankuru_River "Sankuru River") with the Americans as the seventh member of the expedition and showed them "his" river blindness patients. Richard Pearson Strong was Professor of Tropical Medicine of Harvard University Medical School. His opinion was greatly respected in Tropical Medicine circles. The Americans sailed from Antwerp and disembarked, after a voyage of sixteen days, on the west coast of Africa at Lobito Bay (Angola). The expedition proceeded eastward from Lobito by rail for four days to the city of Elisabethville, now known as Lubumbashi. The train journey was continued, now accompanied by Dr. Jean Hissette. They travelled in a north\-westerly direction for nearly three days to the village of Luputa, then by car and truck to the village of Kabinda, then further northward to the village of Pania Mutombo on the [Sankuru](/wiki/Sankuru "Sankuru")\-Lubilash River. This was exactly the same way Hissette had taken in 1930\. Members of the expedition were [Jack Sandground](/wiki/Jack_Sandground "Jack Sandground"), helminthologist, [Joseph Bequaert](/wiki/Joseph_Bequaert "Joseph Bequaert"), entomologist, and Henry Mallinckrodt, photographer. The first headquarters was established in the village of Kassende, Lusambo. Hissette arranged for the blind people to be brought from the surrounding villages to the expedition’s headquarters after an arrangement between the chiefs of the villages there and himself. The great prevalence of disturbances of vision in association with onchocercal infection was by far the most striking clinical phenomena observed in this region. In Kassende multiple tumours, small sized nodules, were present; cases from 25 to 100 or more nodules were not uncommon. The Harvard African expedition of 1934 finally confirmed all the observations on river blindness caused by onchocerciasis (Strong 1938\) that had already been communicated by Hissette (Hissette 1932\). Hissette’s findings prompted renewed efforts to find ocular complications of onchocerciasis in other parts of Africa. Hissette was really able to help only a few of these blind people in 1934\. In some cases, he succeeded in attaining a certain restoration of vision by means of cataract extraction or optic iridectomy (Hissette 1932/33\). Dr Hissette died in Forest/[Brussels](/wiki/Brussels "Brussels").
[ "Biography\n---------", "### Born and grown up in Leuven, Belgium", "On 30 August 1888, Philippe Jean Hissette was born in Louvain as the third child of Jeanne Catherine Wouters (1855–1936\\) and the mining engineer, Louis Hissette (1858–1888\\). Four months before the birth his father had died at the age of 30\\. Philippe Jean had two brothers, Louis\\-Ferdinand (1885–1972\\) and Jean\\-Baptiste (1886–1887\\). After her husband, Louis Hissette, had died, Jeanne Catherine remarried to Joseph Pieraerts in 1892\\. Jean, as he was called visited Schools in Louvain and in Melle, Ghent. From 1908 until 1909 he was recruited for the military service. After that he began to study medicine in Louvain.", "### WWI", "When the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War \"First World War\") broke out in 1914 Jean Hissette was still a medicine student and had spent his July vacations in Lacuisine. On 1 August 1914, mobilization day, he left Lacuisine for the duration of the war. During the First World War and after the war had ended, Jean performed four years of military service as a medically adorned sanitary officer in the medical service unit of the 1st division of the Belgian Army. He was mainly deployed in the front line against the Germans at the Yser.", "### Florenville", "In 1919 he passed his state examination at the University of Ghent. Later the same year he married the anversoise Hilda de Vriendt (old Flemish painter family) and at this point he settled as a private doctor and obstetrician in the independent practice in Florenville\\-sur\\-Semois en Gaume, Rue d’Orval Nr.7\\. Hissette was not very busy because there were a total of four practising physicians. During this time he also visited the eye clinic of Ghent’s university, which was run by van Duyse, on a regular basis. Soon after, he visited his colleagues and doctor friends, de Mets and Moorkens, in Antwerp to continue his education in ophthalmology. On the farms around Florenville he collected eyes of pigs to train on. In quick succession his five children were born, Madeleine, the oldest (\\*1920\\), Marguerite (1922–2002\\), Marie Thérèse (\\*1923\\), Gabrielle (1925–1983\\) and his son George (1926–1988\\).\n[thumb\\|alt\\=Dr. Jean Hissette and his nurse Mademoiselle de Salmon\\|Dr. Jean Hissette and his nurse Mademoiselle de Salmon assisting him with a cataract operation outdoors at Thielen\\-Saint Jacques, Kasai in the Belgian Congo, 1930](/wiki/File:Hissette_Augenoperation_1930.jpg \"Hissette Augenoperation 1930.jpg\")", "### The family Hissette decided to move into the Belgian Congo", "They did not have much money and in 1928, at the age of 40, Jean and his wife Hilda decided to move into the Belgian Congo with the Belgian National Mission. On 27 February 1929, Hilda, Jean and their two youngest children boarded the ‘Anversville’ in Antwerp. Passing the Matadi Harbour on their way they moved to the Scheutist missionary station (Mission nationale) in Thielen\\-Saint Jacques in Kasai (Belgian Congo). The three older children stayed in Belgium for their school education.", "Although Hissette came to the Congo as a general practitioner his real interest was his specialisation in ophthalmology. With approval of the emissive mission in Thielen\\-Saint Jacques he set up an ophthalmological centre and straight away conducted eye surgery. Nevertheless, he did not neglect his function as a general practitioner for [tropical medicines](/wiki/Tropical_medicine \"Tropical medicine\"), nor as obstetrician and carer for newborns. On the Scheutist missionary station l’A.M.M. (l’Aide Médicale aux Missions) it was his task to take on the medical service. In June 1929 the Belgian nurse, Mademoiselle de Salmon, followed him. The space in the hospital was so tiny that Hissette preferred to operate out on the terrace (Fig.1\\).", "Hissette made an effort to gain the trust of the sick people, he showed great compassion for distress and suffering in people regardless of whether they were black or white. After about one and a half years an attentive priest led him to the discovery of his lifetime: In September 1930, he discovers the first people in Africa affected by river blindness at the Sankuru and Lomami River in the Belgian Congo (Kluxen2011\\). A year after the initial discovery he undertakes another expedition to the same region to complete his scientific investigations which he includes in his famous work from 1932 (Hissette 1932\\).", "### Return to Congo", "After receiving further qualifications and becoming equipped with some privileges from the colonial ministry in Brussels he returns to the Congo without his family as a qualified ophthalmologist. In October 1932, he travels via Tunis and Egypt into the Sudan and arrives in the Northeast of the Belgian Congo Colony at the end of the year. Here he also discovers a foyer of ocular onchocerciasis at the Uéle. In the year 1933 he is still in Thielen\\-Saint Jacques but only for a short time until he leaves the Scheutists to establish a dispensary for eye patients in Elisabethville. His family followed him to [Elisabethville](/wiki/Elisabethville \"Elisabethville\") ([Lubumbashi](/wiki/Lubumbashi \"Lubumbashi\")) in 1934/1935 where the children had the opportunity for an accredited school education.", "In July 1934, as an advisor and guide, he attends the Harvard African Expedition under R. P. Strong to research the onchocerciasis along the Sankuru. In 1938 the results were published in a supplement of the American Journal for Tropical Medicine (Strong 1938, Hissette 1938\\). His reputation as an ophthalmologist grows to such an extent that patients even come from the neighbouring colonies to be consulted.", "In June 1936, Hissette presented a slide show in London and became a Fellow of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicines and Hygiene. On 18 July 1936 he exhibited his aquarelles on the pathology of ocular onchocerciasis at the Colonial exhibition in Brussels (l’Institut royal colonial belge, l’actuelle Académie royale des Sciences d’Outre\\-mer) and also published them in the Collection des Mémoires de l’Institut (Hissette 1937\\). Amongst the aquarelles there is one picture of a typical chorioretinitis of the African ocular onchocerciasis, which creates blotchy scars (Hissette 1937, Hissette 1938\\). In 1937, he investigates the ocular complications of a measles epidemic in the colonial M’Pweto Region. Due to measles and a concurrent vitamin A deficiency spontaneous double\\-sided cornea perforations and blindness were caused in many children. At the beginning of the Second World War Hissette was appointed the position of the provincial doctor in Katanga. In 1952 he and his wife returned to Belgium. Around the same time he fell seriously ill and never really recovered from it, making it impossible for him to ever work in the medical field again. In the first few years the couple stayed in Lacuisine\\-sur\\-Semois but soon moved to an apartment in Brussels. Jean died in Brussels on 26 August 1965\\. He and his wife are buried in a family grave in Lacuisine, Florenville.", "### Onchocerciasis in Africa and Central America before 1930", "The first persons to mention ocular onchocerciasis were Rodolfo Robles and Rafael Pacheco Luna in Guatemala in 1915/1916 (Pacheco Luna 1918, Robles 1917, Grove 1990\\). Ophthalmic symptoms and signs were marked in the Triassic, also known as “Morbus Robles”:\n1\\. Filarial worm infection of an adult Onchocerca in America,\n2\\. Erisipela de la costa, an oedema of the face,\n3\\. Conjunctivitis and iritis of the anterior segment of the eye.\nThe early investigators of onchocerciasis from 1874\\-1930 in Africa made no mention at all of concomitant severe eye disease. Publications of the observations in Central America by Rodolfo Robles and [Émile Brumpt](/wiki/%C3%89mile_Brumpt \"Émile Brumpt\") in 1917/1919 (Brumpt 1919, Robles 1919\\) prompted some specialists in tropical medicine to look for eye disease associated with African onchocerciasis. But nobody described any eye involvement leading to blindness.", "And then, in 1930, Hissette discovered thousands of people with river blindness along the Sankuru in Africa. He demonstrated the pathomechanism of the blindness during his first home leave in Belgium in 1932, when he found microfilariae in various tissues of an enucleated eye that he had brought home with him from the Sankuru: among other injurious effects, these microfilariae cause the severe eye inflammation. His special observational skill and his intuitive grasp of causalities meant that his descriptions were very precise. He described the chorioretinitical scarring of the fundus in onchocerciasis (Hissette 1932\\).\nDespite the fact that Ridley's description followed only thirteen years later in 1945 (Ridley 1945\\), the atrophic flecked retina was referred to simply as \"Ridley fundus\". Now it is more appropriated called “Hissette\\-Ridley fundus”. And he found that living microfilariae elicited no or only a very slight reaction in the anterior chamber of the eye, whereas dead ones provoked a strong inflammation. According to the “Zeitgeist” (spirit of the age) Hissette thought that the latter reaction was probably due to the brisk release of the toxins of the disintegrated parasites. This is not the fact, but research has identified the cause. The very strong inducers of the immune responses are endosymbionts (bacteria called [Wolbachia](/wiki/Wolbachia \"Wolbachia\")). It has now become increasingly clear that Wolbachia play the major role in the pathogenesis of ocular onchocerciasis (river blindness) in the human host (Saint André et al. 2002\\).", "### The Harvard African Expedition", "The Harvard African Expedition of 1934 had been arranged and paid for by the Belgian colonial administration. This proves that the expedition indeed had been a control commission assigned to check Hissette’s findings on the blind people because they were doubted. Hissette had never mentioned that he was checked. Strong had been urged by the colonial administration to keep silent about the assignment and in 1938 he had hoped to distract from this by writing that the expedition had been entirely his idea. It was feared that the public would have seen the considerable costs of the expedition as a waste since upon their return the Americans confirmed all of Hissette’s published findings about ocular affection through onchocerciasis. By no means had Hissette been displeased with the commission, instead he had felt honoured that such renowned tropical scientists showed an interest in his work. If the colonial administration had trusted Hissette, the commission and the “Harvard African Expedition” would have been dispensable.", "Confronted in 1934 by a commission in the form of the Harvard African Expedition, Hissette traveled once more to the [Sankuru](/wiki/Sankuru_River \"Sankuru River\") with the Americans as the seventh member of the expedition and showed them \"his\" river blindness patients. Richard Pearson Strong was Professor of Tropical Medicine of Harvard University Medical School. His opinion was greatly respected in Tropical Medicine circles. The Americans sailed from Antwerp and disembarked, after a voyage of sixteen days, on the west coast of Africa at Lobito Bay (Angola). The expedition proceeded eastward from Lobito by rail for four days to the city of Elisabethville, now known as Lubumbashi. The train journey was continued, now accompanied by Dr. Jean Hissette. They travelled in a north\\-westerly direction for nearly three days to the village of Luputa, then by car and truck to the village of Kabinda, then further northward to the village of Pania Mutombo on the [Sankuru](/wiki/Sankuru \"Sankuru\")\\-Lubilash River. This was exactly the same way Hissette had taken in 1930\\. Members of the expedition were [Jack Sandground](/wiki/Jack_Sandground \"Jack Sandground\"), helminthologist, [Joseph Bequaert](/wiki/Joseph_Bequaert \"Joseph Bequaert\"), entomologist, and Henry Mallinckrodt, photographer. The first headquarters was established in the village of Kassende, Lusambo. Hissette arranged for the blind people to be brought from the surrounding villages to the expedition’s headquarters after an arrangement between the chiefs of the villages there and himself. The great prevalence of disturbances of vision in association with onchocercal infection was by far the most striking clinical phenomena observed in this region. In Kassende multiple tumours, small sized nodules, were present; cases from 25 to 100 or more nodules were not uncommon. The Harvard African expedition of 1934 finally confirmed all the observations on river blindness caused by onchocerciasis (Strong 1938\\) that had already been communicated by Hissette (Hissette 1932\\). Hissette’s findings prompted renewed efforts to find ocular complications of onchocerciasis in other parts of Africa. Hissette was really able to help only a few of these blind people in 1934\\. In some cases, he succeeded in attaining a certain restoration of vision by means of cataract extraction or optic iridectomy (Hissette 1932/33\\).", "Dr Hissette died in Forest/[Brussels](/wiki/Brussels \"Brussels\").", "" ]
Origins ------- After German Reunification in 1990, there was a sharp drop in passenger numbers on the rail network in all the new [Bundesländer](/wiki/Bundesland_%28Germany%29 "Bundesland (Germany)"). Saxony, and thus Vogtland, was no exception. The railways had old rolling stock and could not compete with rapidly improving roads. The Saxon government invested in an attempt to improve the attractiveness of the [Zwickau](/wiki/Zwickau "Zwickau")–[Falkenstein](/wiki/Falkenstein/Vogtl. "Falkenstein/Vogtl.")–[Klingenthal](/wiki/Klingenthal "Klingenthal") line and the [Herlasgrün](/wiki/P%C3%B6hl "Pöhl")–[Falkenstein](/wiki/Falkenstein/Vogtl. "Falkenstein/Vogtl.")–[Adorf](/wiki/Adorf/Vogtl. "Adorf/Vogtl.") (timetable route 539\). The track was relaid to an 80 km/h standard, disabled access was facilitated at all stations and new stations opened. Maintenance and tracks were rationalised. Some platforms were removed, some stations such as [Schöneck](/wiki/Sch%C3%B6neck/Vogtl. "Schöneck/Vogtl.") were restyled as halts. [thumb\|left\|A Vogtlandbahn RegioSprinter near the [Schöneck](/wiki/Sch%C3%B6neck/Vogtl. "Schöneck/Vogtl.") Ferienpark halt.](/wiki/File:Vogtlandbahn1.jpg "Vogtlandbahn1.jpg") One component of the project model was the reallocation of the public transport services within the framework of a competitive environment. In addition to new vehicles, timetables and optimised transfer connections between the transport modes were required. In response to an invitation to tender published in September 1994, the contract was won by *Regental\-Bahnbetriebs\-GmbH* from [Viechtach](/wiki/Viechtach "Viechtach"), Bavaria. After the completion of the redevelopment measures, operations started on 23 November 1997\. On 1 January 1998, Vogtlandbahn was acquired by *Regental\-Bahnbetriebs\-GmbH* and operated as an independent company under the umbrella of the [Länderbahn](/wiki/Regentalbahn "Regentalbahn") group. In contrast to the trains formerly operated by [Deutsche Bahn](/wiki/Deutsche_Bahn "Deutsche Bahn"), services have been well used since Vogtlandbahn took over the company. Therefore, it began construction of its own locomotive depot in [Neumark](/wiki/Neumark%2C_Saxony "Neumark, Saxony") in the spring of 1998, which was opened after two years of construction on 4 July 2000\. The locomotive depot in Reichenbach that had been used previously was no longer needed. ### "Zwickau Model" [thumb\|VT 45 railcar with BO\-Strab equipment at the end of the line in central Zwickau](/wiki/File:25a_Bf_Zwickau_Zentrum%2C_VT45_VB.jpg "25a Bf Zwickau Zentrum, VT45 VB.jpg") A further success is the extension of the network into Zwickau town centre. Following the example set by the [Karlsruhe Stadtbahn](/wiki/Karlsruhe_Stadtbahn "Karlsruhe Stadtbahn"), the lines extend from [Zwickau Hauptbahnhof](/wiki/Zwickau_Hauptbahnhof "Zwickau Hauptbahnhof") to the central markets. As most of the Vogtland network has not been electrified, the train\-trams do not use current from the tramwires (as in Karlsruhe) but are driven by diesel engines. Between the Hauptbahnhof and *Stadthall* there was a link that could be reactivated. From there to *Zentrum* the train and the tram use the same tracks. To do this, [dual\-gauge track](/wiki/Dual_gauge "Dual gauge") has been laid; there are three rails, the tram uses [metre gauge](/wiki/Metre_gauge "Metre gauge") {{RailGauge\|1000mm}}, and the Vogtlandbahn uses [standard gauge](/wiki/Standard_gauge "Standard gauge"), {{RailGauge\|1435mm}}. An extra rail was laid next to the tram line so that they share one rail and each use one of the others as appropriate. Since the tramway was only built at this time, a third track and a larger distance between the tracks could be planned from the start, making the retrofitting possible. The diesel sets run on the common route under [BOStrab](/wiki/Verordnung_%C3%BCber_den_Bau_und_Betrieb_der_Stra%C3%9Fenbahnen "Verordnung über den Bau und Betrieb der Straßenbahnen") procedures, so they were equipped with indicators and brake lights. Because of their breadth, however, they do not operate with road traffic; Äußere Schneeberger Straße is largely closed to car traffic. However, the area used by the tracks can be used by rescue vehicles and rail replacement buses. ### Expansion outside of Saxony [thumb\|RegioSprinter in [Sokolov](/wiki/Sokolov%2C_Czech_Republic "Sokolov, Czech Republic"), since 2003 the southern end of the line](/wiki/File:Sokolov%2C_n%C3%A1dra%C5%BE%C3%AD%2C_souprava_Vogtlandbahn.jpg "Sokolov, nádraží, souprava Vogtlandbahn.jpg") In the years that followed Vogtlandbahn had many opportunities to bid for further routes to expand its network. From their core routes in the Vogtland they moved over into [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria "Bavaria") and [Thuringia](/wiki/Thuringia "Thuringia"), with lines to [Hof](/wiki/Hof_%28Saale%29 "Hof (Saale)"), Schleiz and Gera. When the Czech Republic became a candidate for [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union") membership a new market opened. In 2000, after a 55\-year gap, the Zwickau–Klingenthal line was reconnected to [Kraslice](/wiki/Kraslice "Kraslice") (Graslitz). In 2003 it connected to [Sokolov](/wiki/Sokolov_%28Sokolov_District%29 "Sokolov (Sokolov District)") (Falkenau) on the Czech [Chomutov–Cheb railway](/wiki/Chomutov%E2%80%93Cheb_railway "Chomutov–Cheb railway"). On 14 December 2003, Vogtlandbahn secured an agreement with DB Regio AG to use the [Gera](/wiki/Gera "Gera")–[Weida](/wiki/Weida%2C_Thuringia "Weida, Thuringia")–[Zeulenroda](/wiki/Zeulenroda "Zeulenroda")–[Mehltheuer](/wiki/Mehltheuer "Mehltheuer") line and thus started a general traffic service on the [Elstertalbahn](/wiki/Elstertalbahn "Elstertalbahn") between Gera, [Greiz](/wiki/Greiz "Greiz") and [Weischlitz](/wiki/Weischlitz "Weischlitz"), which previously had required a change. Following the extension of the Zwickau–Plauen–Bad Brambach line over the Czech border to [Cheb](/wiki/Cheb "Cheb") (German: Eger) and thus Marktredwitz in Bavaria, the Plauen\-Hof service was extended through Marktredwitz and [Weiden](/wiki/Weiden_in_der_Oberpfalz "Weiden in der Oberpfalz") (10 June 2001\) to [Regensburg](/wiki/Regensburg "Regensburg") (15 December 2002\). At the timetable change on 8 December 2006, Vogtlandbahn had to give up the operation of a service for the first time. Traffic had not increased [between Schönberg and Schleiz](/wiki/Sch%C3%B6nberg%E2%80%93Schleiz_railway "Schönberg–Schleiz railway"), so that the Thuringian local transport authority was not willing to extend the contract for the operation. There was no connection with the reduction in the support for regionalisation measures, which had been decided a few months earlier, since the end of the service was already anticipated. On the other hand, Vogtlandbahn would gain new services in the north\-east of Bavaria. Vogtlandbahn operated [Regionalbahn](/wiki/Regionalbahn "Regionalbahn") services on behalf of *[DB Regio](/wiki/DB_Regio "DB Regio") Nordostbayern* from December 2006 until the takeover of the *Dieselnetz Oberfranken* (upper Fancononia diesel network) by [agilis](/wiki/Agilis "Agilis") in June 2011 on the (Hof –) [Münchberg](/wiki/M%C3%BCnchberg "Münchberg")–[Helmbrechts](/wiki/Helmbrechts "Helmbrechts") and [Lichtenfels](/wiki/Lichtenfels_station "Lichtenfels station")–[Neuenmarkt\-Wirsberg](/wiki/Neuenmarkt-Wirsberg_station "Neuenmarkt-Wirsberg station") routes, partly together with Deutsche Bahn, but also by itself. ### Sale Finally, in autumn 2004 Bavaria sold its final stake in the Länderbahn to the British\-owned [Arriva](/wiki/Arriva "Arriva") group, who already owned the [Prignitz railway](/wiki/Prignitz_railway "Prignitz railway") in [Brandenburg](/wiki/Brandenburg "Brandenburg"). This made them the second largest railway company in Germany. After Arriva was bought by [Deutsche Bahn](/wiki/Deutsche_Bahn "Deutsche Bahn") in 2010, the business had to be resold to preserve competition. The new owners were the Italian state railways (*Ferrovie dello Stato*) together with Luxembourg infrastructure fund *Cube*. The German parent company has been called *Netinera* since March 2011\. ### Re\-tender The core network of Vogtlandbahn in the [Vogtlandkreis](/wiki/Vogtlandkreis "Vogtlandkreis"), west [Saxony](/wiki/Saxony "Saxony") and east Thuringia was re\-tendered by the transport authority in the spring of 2010\. The tendered *Vogtland* network includes the Hof–Falkenstein–Adorf, Mariánské Lázne–Plauen ob Bf–Zwickau Zentrum, Weischlitz–Gera and Zwickau Zentrum–Kraslice lines with an annual 3\.16 million train\-kilometres. Vogtlandbahn won the contract in September 2010, so the traffic in the Vogtland will continue to be operated by this company from December 2012 to December 2027\. Regio\-Shuttles, Desiros and RegioSprinters are used for these operations. The brand name in the core network is *vogtlandbahn* (in lower case), despite the renaming of the company as *Die Länderbahn*. At the timetable change on 8 December 2012, scheduled services ended between Zwotental and Adorf, which had recently only operated on weekends.
[ "Origins\n-------", "After German Reunification in 1990, there was a sharp drop in passenger numbers on the rail network in all the new [Bundesländer](/wiki/Bundesland_%28Germany%29 \"Bundesland (Germany)\"). Saxony, and thus Vogtland, was no exception. The railways had old rolling stock and could not compete with rapidly improving roads. The Saxon government invested in an attempt to improve the attractiveness of the [Zwickau](/wiki/Zwickau \"Zwickau\")–[Falkenstein](/wiki/Falkenstein/Vogtl. \"Falkenstein/Vogtl.\")–[Klingenthal](/wiki/Klingenthal \"Klingenthal\") line and the [Herlasgrün](/wiki/P%C3%B6hl \"Pöhl\")–[Falkenstein](/wiki/Falkenstein/Vogtl. \"Falkenstein/Vogtl.\")–[Adorf](/wiki/Adorf/Vogtl. \"Adorf/Vogtl.\") (timetable route 539\\). The track was relaid to an 80 km/h standard, disabled access was facilitated at all stations and new stations opened. Maintenance and tracks were rationalised. Some platforms were removed, some stations such as [Schöneck](/wiki/Sch%C3%B6neck/Vogtl. \"Schöneck/Vogtl.\") were restyled as halts.", "[thumb\\|left\\|A Vogtlandbahn RegioSprinter near the [Schöneck](/wiki/Sch%C3%B6neck/Vogtl. \"Schöneck/Vogtl.\") Ferienpark halt.](/wiki/File:Vogtlandbahn1.jpg \"Vogtlandbahn1.jpg\")", "One component of the project model was the reallocation of the public transport services within the framework of a competitive environment. In addition to new vehicles, timetables and optimised transfer connections between the transport modes were required. In response to an invitation to tender published in September 1994, the contract was won by *Regental\\-Bahnbetriebs\\-GmbH* from [Viechtach](/wiki/Viechtach \"Viechtach\"), Bavaria. After the completion of the redevelopment measures, operations started on 23 November 1997\\. On 1 January 1998, Vogtlandbahn was acquired by *Regental\\-Bahnbetriebs\\-GmbH* and operated as an independent company under the umbrella of the [Länderbahn](/wiki/Regentalbahn \"Regentalbahn\") group. In contrast to the trains formerly operated by [Deutsche Bahn](/wiki/Deutsche_Bahn \"Deutsche Bahn\"), services have been well used since Vogtlandbahn took over the company. Therefore, it began construction of its own locomotive depot in [Neumark](/wiki/Neumark%2C_Saxony \"Neumark, Saxony\") in the spring of 1998, which was opened after two years of construction on 4 July 2000\\. The locomotive depot in Reichenbach that had been used previously was no longer needed.", "### \"Zwickau Model\"", "[thumb\\|VT 45 railcar with BO\\-Strab equipment at the end of the line in central Zwickau](/wiki/File:25a_Bf_Zwickau_Zentrum%2C_VT45_VB.jpg \"25a Bf Zwickau Zentrum, VT45 VB.jpg\")", "A further success is the extension of the network into Zwickau town centre. Following the example set by the [Karlsruhe Stadtbahn](/wiki/Karlsruhe_Stadtbahn \"Karlsruhe Stadtbahn\"), the lines extend from [Zwickau Hauptbahnhof](/wiki/Zwickau_Hauptbahnhof \"Zwickau Hauptbahnhof\") to the central markets. As most of the Vogtland network has not been electrified, the train\\-trams do not use current from the tramwires (as in Karlsruhe) but are driven by diesel engines. Between the Hauptbahnhof and *Stadthall* there was a link that could be reactivated. From there to *Zentrum* the train and the tram use the same tracks. To do this, [dual\\-gauge track](/wiki/Dual_gauge \"Dual gauge\") has been laid; there are three rails, the tram uses [metre gauge](/wiki/Metre_gauge \"Metre gauge\") {{RailGauge\\|1000mm}}, and the Vogtlandbahn uses [standard gauge](/wiki/Standard_gauge \"Standard gauge\"), {{RailGauge\\|1435mm}}. An extra rail was laid next to the tram line so that they share one rail and each use one of the others as appropriate. Since the tramway was only built at this time, a third track and a larger distance between the tracks could be planned from the start, making the retrofitting possible. The diesel sets run on the common route under [BOStrab](/wiki/Verordnung_%C3%BCber_den_Bau_und_Betrieb_der_Stra%C3%9Fenbahnen \"Verordnung über den Bau und Betrieb der Straßenbahnen\") procedures, so they were equipped with indicators and brake lights. Because of their breadth, however, they do not operate with road traffic; Äußere Schneeberger Straße is largely closed to car traffic. However, the area used by the tracks can be used by rescue vehicles and rail replacement buses.", "### Expansion outside of Saxony", "[thumb\\|RegioSprinter in [Sokolov](/wiki/Sokolov%2C_Czech_Republic \"Sokolov, Czech Republic\"), since 2003 the southern end of the line](/wiki/File:Sokolov%2C_n%C3%A1dra%C5%BE%C3%AD%2C_souprava_Vogtlandbahn.jpg \"Sokolov, nádraží, souprava Vogtlandbahn.jpg\")", "In the years that followed Vogtlandbahn had many opportunities to bid for further routes to expand its network. From their core routes in the Vogtland they moved over into [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria \"Bavaria\") and [Thuringia](/wiki/Thuringia \"Thuringia\"), with lines to [Hof](/wiki/Hof_%28Saale%29 \"Hof (Saale)\"), Schleiz and Gera. When the Czech Republic became a candidate for [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\") membership a new market opened. In 2000, after a 55\\-year gap, the Zwickau–Klingenthal line was reconnected to [Kraslice](/wiki/Kraslice \"Kraslice\") (Graslitz). In 2003 it connected to [Sokolov](/wiki/Sokolov_%28Sokolov_District%29 \"Sokolov (Sokolov District)\") (Falkenau) on the Czech [Chomutov–Cheb railway](/wiki/Chomutov%E2%80%93Cheb_railway \"Chomutov–Cheb railway\").", "On 14 December 2003, Vogtlandbahn secured an agreement with DB Regio AG to use the [Gera](/wiki/Gera \"Gera\")–[Weida](/wiki/Weida%2C_Thuringia \"Weida, Thuringia\")–[Zeulenroda](/wiki/Zeulenroda \"Zeulenroda\")–[Mehltheuer](/wiki/Mehltheuer \"Mehltheuer\") line and thus started a general traffic service on the [Elstertalbahn](/wiki/Elstertalbahn \"Elstertalbahn\") between Gera, [Greiz](/wiki/Greiz \"Greiz\") and [Weischlitz](/wiki/Weischlitz \"Weischlitz\"), which previously had required a change. Following the extension of the Zwickau–Plauen–Bad Brambach line over the Czech border to [Cheb](/wiki/Cheb \"Cheb\") (German: Eger) and thus Marktredwitz in Bavaria, the Plauen\\-Hof service was extended through Marktredwitz and [Weiden](/wiki/Weiden_in_der_Oberpfalz \"Weiden in der Oberpfalz\") (10 June 2001\\) to [Regensburg](/wiki/Regensburg \"Regensburg\") (15 December 2002\\).", "At the timetable change on 8 December 2006, Vogtlandbahn had to give up the operation of a service for the first time. Traffic had not increased [between Schönberg and Schleiz](/wiki/Sch%C3%B6nberg%E2%80%93Schleiz_railway \"Schönberg–Schleiz railway\"), so that the Thuringian local transport authority was not willing to extend the contract for the operation. There was no connection with the reduction in the support for regionalisation measures, which had been decided a few months earlier, since the end of the service was already anticipated. On the other hand, Vogtlandbahn would gain new services in the north\\-east of Bavaria. Vogtlandbahn operated [Regionalbahn](/wiki/Regionalbahn \"Regionalbahn\") services on behalf of *[DB Regio](/wiki/DB_Regio \"DB Regio\") Nordostbayern* from December 2006 until the takeover of the *Dieselnetz Oberfranken* (upper Fancononia diesel network) by [agilis](/wiki/Agilis \"Agilis\") in June 2011 on the (Hof –) [Münchberg](/wiki/M%C3%BCnchberg \"Münchberg\")–[Helmbrechts](/wiki/Helmbrechts \"Helmbrechts\") and [Lichtenfels](/wiki/Lichtenfels_station \"Lichtenfels station\")–[Neuenmarkt\\-Wirsberg](/wiki/Neuenmarkt-Wirsberg_station \"Neuenmarkt-Wirsberg station\") routes, partly together with Deutsche Bahn, but also by itself.", "### Sale", "Finally, in autumn 2004 Bavaria sold its final stake in the Länderbahn to the British\\-owned [Arriva](/wiki/Arriva \"Arriva\") group, who already owned the [Prignitz railway](/wiki/Prignitz_railway \"Prignitz railway\") in [Brandenburg](/wiki/Brandenburg \"Brandenburg\"). This made them the second largest railway company in Germany. After Arriva was bought by [Deutsche Bahn](/wiki/Deutsche_Bahn \"Deutsche Bahn\") in 2010, the business had to be resold to preserve competition. The new owners were the Italian state railways (*Ferrovie dello Stato*) together with Luxembourg infrastructure fund *Cube*. The German parent company has been called *Netinera* since March 2011\\.", "### Re\\-tender", "The core network of Vogtlandbahn in the [Vogtlandkreis](/wiki/Vogtlandkreis \"Vogtlandkreis\"), west [Saxony](/wiki/Saxony \"Saxony\") and east Thuringia was re\\-tendered by the transport authority in the spring of 2010\\. The tendered *Vogtland* network includes the Hof–Falkenstein–Adorf, Mariánské Lázne–Plauen ob Bf–Zwickau Zentrum, Weischlitz–Gera and Zwickau Zentrum–Kraslice lines with an annual 3\\.16 million train\\-kilometres. Vogtlandbahn won the contract in September 2010, so the traffic in the Vogtland will continue to be operated by this company from December 2012 to December 2027\\. Regio\\-Shuttles, Desiros and RegioSprinters are used for these operations. The brand name in the core network is *vogtlandbahn* (in lower case), despite the renaming of the company as *Die Länderbahn*.", "At the timetable change on 8 December 2012, scheduled services ended between Zwotental and Adorf, which had recently only operated on weekends.", "" ]
Other brands ------------ ### Trilex [thumb\|left\|Trilex logo](/wiki/File:Logo_Trilex.svg "Logo Trilex.svg") [thumb\|Trilex Regio\-Shuttle at Bischofswerda](/wiki/File:DLB_650_067_Bischofswerda.jpg "DLB 650 067 Bischofswerda.jpg") Länderbahn has operated the [Liberec–Zittau](/wiki/Liberec%E2%80%93Zittau_railway "Liberec–Zittau railway")–[Varnsdorf–Rybniště](/wiki/Rybni%C5%A1t%C4%9B%E2%80%93Varnsdorf_railway "Rybniště–Varnsdorf railway")/[Seifhennersdorf](/wiki/Mittelherwigsdorf%E2%80%93Varnsdorf%E2%80%93Eibau_railway "Mittelherwigsdorf–Varnsdorf–Eibau railway") lines in the Germany/Poland/Czechia corner since 12 December 2010\. [Siemens Desiro](/wiki/Siemens_Desiro "Siemens Desiro") Classic and [Regio\-Shuttle](/wiki/Stadler_Regio-Shuttle_RS1 "Stadler Regio-Shuttle RS1") rolling stock are used, and some are staffed with bilingual [conductors](/wiki/Conductor_%28rail%29 "Conductor (rail)"). Since the timetable change in December 2014, the Länderbahn has also operated the [Dresden–Bischofswerda–Bautzen–Görlitz](/wiki/G%C3%B6rlitz%E2%80%93Dresden_railway "Görlitz–Dresden railway") and Dresden–[Bischofswerda–Zittau](/wiki/South-Lausitz_Railway "South-Lausitz Railway")–Liberec lines of the so\-called *Ostsachsennetzes* (East Saxon network) under the brand name of *trilex*. These are operated exclusively with Desiro sets. Individual services are operated to [Wrocław](/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw "Wrocław") in cooperation with DB Regio. | Line | Route | Distance | Stations | Start date | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | {{rcb\|Trilex\|RE 1\|inline\=croute}} | Dresden Hbf–Bischofswerda–Bautzen–Löbau–Görlitz (–Wrocław Główny)Individual trains continue to Wrocław Główny (Dresden\-Wrocław\-Express) | 105 km 10 14 December 2014 | | {{rcb\|Trilex\|RE 2\|inline\=croute}} | Dresden Hbf–Bischofswerda–Zittau (–Liberec) | 105/132 km 13/19 14 December 2014 | | {{rcb\|Trilex\|RB 60\|inline\=croute}} | Dresden Hbf–Bischofswerda–Bautzen–Löbau–Görlitz | 105 km 23 14 December 2014 | | {{rcb\|Trilex\|RB 61\|inline\=croute}} | Dresden Hbf–Bischofswerda–Zittau | 105 km 28 14 December 2014 | | {{rcb\|Trilex\|L 2\|inline\=croute}} | Liberec – Česká Lípa – Děčín St. n. | about 70 km 14 11 December 2022 | | {{rcb\|Trilex\|L 4\|inline\=croute}} | Rumburk – Ceska Lipa – Mlada Boleslav mesto | 99 km 22 12 December 2021 | | {{rcb\|Trilex\|L 7\|inline\=croute}} | Liberec–Zittau–Varnsdorf–Rybniště/ Seifhennersdorf ([Mittelherwigsdorf–Varnsdorf–Eibau railway](/wiki/Mittelherwigsdorf%E2%80%93Varnsdorf%E2%80%93Eibau_railway "Mittelherwigsdorf–Varnsdorf–Eibau railway")) | 56/50 km 16 12 December 2010 | ### alex [thumb\|left\|alex logo](/wiki/File:Alex_%28Zug%29_Logo.svg "Alex (Zug) Logo.svg") [thumb\|Alex 183\-004 in Landshut Hbf](/wiki/File:Alex_183-004_Landshut_1501161227.jpg "Alex 183-004 Landshut 1501161227.jpg") As a result of a tender called in 2005 by the [Bayerische Eisenbahngesellschaft](/wiki/Bayerische_Eisenbahngesellschaft "Bayerische Eisenbahngesellschaft"), a contract was awarded to Länderbahn in October 2005 for the operation of the service branded as the *Arriva\-Länderbahn\-Express.* The tender specification included a *regionalen Schnellverkehr* (regional fast train) at two\-hour intervals from Munich via Regensburg to Schwandorf, from where trains continue every four hours alternatively to Hof or [Furth im Wald](/wiki/Furth_im_Wald "Furth im Wald"). Länderbahn was also able to tender for the continuation of services on the Munich–[Kempten](/wiki/Kempten "Kempten")–[Oberstdorf](/wiki/Oberstdorf "Oberstdorf")/[Lindau](/wiki/Lindau "Lindau") route, which they had already operated together with the Swiss [SBB GmbH](/wiki/Swiss_Federal_Railways "Swiss Federal Railways") since December 2003 under the brand name of *Allgäu\-Express*. For the new services, Vogtlandbahn purchased 90 used passenger coaches, 60 of which were modernised in Halberstadt and Neumünster. Since the 2009 timetable change, seven double\-deck coaches have been based in Bautzen. Eleven diesel locomotives of class 223 ([EuroRunner](/wiki/EuroRunner "EuroRunner")), built by [Siemens](/wiki/Siemens_Mobility "Siemens Mobility"), are leased from the company [Alpha Trains](/wiki/Alpha_Trains "Alpha Trains") for the haulage of the trains between Oberstdorf/Lindau and Munich and between Regensburg and Hof/Plzeň. An additional four locomotives of Siemens class ES64U4 were leased for the electrified Munich–Regensburg section and classified as class 183\. These trains are all based in the new plant of the Länderbahn in Schwandorf. Since the takeover by Netinera, the service is marketed simply as *alex*. Länderbahn lost the concession for the Munich–Kempten–Oberstdorf/Lindau route from December 2020\. | Line | Route | Distance | Stations | Start date | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | {{rcb\|alex\|RE 2\|inline\=croute}} {{rcb\|alex\|RE 25\|inline\=croute}} | [Munich Hbf](/wiki/M%C3%BCnchen_Hauptbahnhof "München Hauptbahnhof")–[Landshut Hbf](/wiki/Landshut_Hauptbahnhof "Landshut Hauptbahnhof")–[Regensburg Hbf](/wiki/Regensburg "Regensburg")–[Schwandorf](/wiki/Schwandorf_station "Schwandorf station") –  / [Weiden](/wiki/Weiden_in_der_Oberpfalz "Weiden in der Oberpfalz")–[Marktredwitz](/wiki/Marktredwitz_station "Marktredwitz station")–[Hof Hbf](/wiki/Hof_Hauptbahnhof "Hof Hauptbahnhof")  / [Furth im Wald](/wiki/Furth_im_Wald "Furth im Wald")–[Plzeň](/wiki/Plze%C5%88_hlavn%C3%AD_n%C3%A1dra%C5%BE%C3%AD "Plzeň hlavní nádraží")–[Prague](/wiki/Praha_hlavn%C3%AD_n%C3%A1dra%C5%BE%C3%AD "Praha hlavní nádraží") | 318/443 km | 16/16 | 9 December 2007 | ### Oberpfalzbahn [thumb\|left\|Oberpfalzbahn logo](/wiki/File:Oberpfalzbahn_logo.svg "Oberpfalzbahn logo.svg") [thumb\|Alstom Coradia LINT 41 1648\-205 in Schwandorf](/wiki/File:Oberpfalzbahn_1648-205_Schwandorf.jpg "Oberpfalzbahn 1648-205 Schwandorf.jpg") Länderbahn operates five services in eastern Bavaria between Hof, Schwandorf, Regensburg, Waldmünchen, Furth im Wald and Lam under the brand name of *Oberpfalzbahn*. With [Cheb](/wiki/Cheb "Cheb") and [Domažlice](/wiki/Doma%C5%BElice "Domažlice") as well as some smaller halts, Czech stations are also connected to the main line network. The Oberpfalzbahn was launched with eleven [Stadler Regio\-Shuttle RS1](/wiki/Stadler_Regio-Shuttle_RS1 "Stadler Regio-Shuttle RS1") railcars in the summer of 2001\. The fleet was supplemented in 2013 with two used railcars of the same type. Polish [Pesa](/wiki/Pesa_SA "Pesa SA") Link railcars were originally planned to operate the Regensburg–Marktredwitz railway. Due to problems with gaining a licence to operate, this order was canceled. Instead, [LINT 41](/wiki/Alstom_Coradia_LINT "Alstom Coradia LINT") railcars have been used since 9 March 2013\. | Line | Route | Distance | Stations | Start date | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | {{rcb\|Oberpfalzbahn\|RE 23\|inline\=croute}} {{rcb\|Oberpfalzbahn\|RB 23\|inline\=croute}} | Marktredwitz – Weiden (Oberpf) – Schwandorf – Regensburg Hbf | 137 km | 6/18 | 14 December 2014 | | {{rcb\|Oberpfalzbahn\|RB 95\|inline\=croute}} | Marktredwitz – Cheb – Aš – Selb\-Ploessberg – Hof Hbf | 89 km | 16 | 14 December 2014 | | {{rcb\|Oberpfalzbahn\|RB 27\|inline\=croute}} | Schwandorf – Cham (Oberpf) – Furth im Wald (– Domažlice) | 67 km | 10/14 | | | {{rcb\|Oberpfalzbahn\|RB 28\|inline\=croute}} | Cham (Oberpf) – Bad Kötzing – Lam | 40 km | 13 | | | {{rcb\|Oberpfalzbahn\|RB 29\|inline\=croute}} | Cham (Oberpf) – Waldmünchen | 22km | 8 | | ### Waldbahn [thumb\|left\|Waldbahn logo](/wiki/File:Waldbahn_logo.svg "Waldbahn logo.svg") [thumb\|Stadler Regio\-Shuttles RS1 in Zwiesel](/wiki/File:Rbg-vt23-01.jpg "Rbg-vt23-01.jpg") Länderbahn operates four services in the [Zwiesel](/wiki/Zwiesel "Zwiesel") region in the [Bavarian Forest](/wiki/Bavarian_Forest "Bavarian Forest") (*Bayerischer Wald*) under the brand name of *Waldbahn*: [Plattling–Bayerisch Eisenstein](/wiki/Plattling%E2%80%93Bayerisch_Eisenstein_railway "Plattling–Bayerisch Eisenstein railway"), [Zwiesel–Grafenau](/wiki/Zwiesel%E2%80%93Grafenau_railway "Zwiesel–Grafenau railway") and [Zwiesel–Bodenmais](/wiki/Zwiesel%E2%80%93Bodenmais_railway "Zwiesel–Bodenmais railway"), as well as [Gotteszell–Viechtach](/wiki/Gotteszell%E2%80%93Blaibach_railway "Gotteszell–Blaibach railway"), which was reactivated in September 2016\. The service to [Bayerisch Eisenstein/Železná Ruda\-Alžbětín station](/wiki/Bayerisch_Eisenstein/%C5%BDelezn%C3%A1_Ruda-Al%C5%BEb%C4%9Bt%C3%ADn_station "Bayerisch Eisenstein/Železná Ruda-Alžbětín station") connects with Czech trains towards Prague and Pilsen. The Waldbahn is part of the [Bavarian Forest National Park](/wiki/Bavarian_Forest_National_Park "Bavarian Forest National Park") transport plan and one of four reference lines of the *Bayerischen Eisenbahngesellschaft* (BEG). These routes are particularly studied by BEG, in order to evaluate various innovative concepts for quality improvement. 14 modernised Stadler Regio\-Shuttle RS1 diesel railcars are currently under construction for the Waldbahn at the Viechtach locomotive depot. | Line | Route | Distance | Stations | Start date | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | {{rcb\|Waldbahn\|RB 35\|inline\=croute}} | Bayerisch Eisenstein–Zwiesel (Bay)–Gotteszell–Plattling | 72 km 11 15 December 2013 | | {{rcb\|Waldbahn\|RB 37\|inline\=croute}} | Bodenmais–Zwiesel (Bay) | 15 km 5 15 December 2013 | | {{rcb\|Waldbahn\|RB 36\|inline\=croute}} | Zwiesel (Bay)–Grafenau | 32 km 9 15 December 2013 | | {{rcb\|Waldbahn\|RB 38\|inline\=croute}} | Viechtach–Gotteszell | 25 km 8 12 September 2016{{cite web\| publisher\=Die Länderbahn GmbH\| url\=http://www.laenderbahn.com/waldbahn/ueber\-uns/gotteszell\-viechtach/\| title\=Seit 12\. September 2016 mit der waldbahn von Gotteszell nach Viechtach fahren\| access\-date\=28 May 2017\| language\=de\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180730140523/https://www.laenderbahn.com/waldbahn/ueber\-uns/gotteszell\-viechtach/\| archive\-date\=30 July 2018\| url\-status\=dead}} |
[ "Other brands\n------------", "### Trilex", "[thumb\\|left\\|Trilex logo](/wiki/File:Logo_Trilex.svg \"Logo Trilex.svg\")\n[thumb\\|Trilex Regio\\-Shuttle at Bischofswerda](/wiki/File:DLB_650_067_Bischofswerda.jpg \"DLB 650 067 Bischofswerda.jpg\")", "Länderbahn has operated the [Liberec–Zittau](/wiki/Liberec%E2%80%93Zittau_railway \"Liberec–Zittau railway\")–[Varnsdorf–Rybniště](/wiki/Rybni%C5%A1t%C4%9B%E2%80%93Varnsdorf_railway \"Rybniště–Varnsdorf railway\")/[Seifhennersdorf](/wiki/Mittelherwigsdorf%E2%80%93Varnsdorf%E2%80%93Eibau_railway \"Mittelherwigsdorf–Varnsdorf–Eibau railway\") lines in the Germany/Poland/Czechia corner since 12 December 2010\\. [Siemens Desiro](/wiki/Siemens_Desiro \"Siemens Desiro\") Classic and [Regio\\-Shuttle](/wiki/Stadler_Regio-Shuttle_RS1 \"Stadler Regio-Shuttle RS1\") rolling stock are used, and some are staffed with bilingual [conductors](/wiki/Conductor_%28rail%29 \"Conductor (rail)\").", "Since the timetable change in December 2014, the Länderbahn has also operated the [Dresden–Bischofswerda–Bautzen–Görlitz](/wiki/G%C3%B6rlitz%E2%80%93Dresden_railway \"Görlitz–Dresden railway\") and Dresden–[Bischofswerda–Zittau](/wiki/South-Lausitz_Railway \"South-Lausitz Railway\")–Liberec lines of the so\\-called *Ostsachsennetzes* (East Saxon network) under the brand name of *trilex*. These are operated exclusively with Desiro sets. Individual services are operated to [Wrocław](/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw \"Wrocław\") in cooperation with DB Regio.", "| Line | Route | Distance | Stations | Start date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| {{rcb\\|Trilex\\|RE 1\\|inline\\=croute}} | Dresden Hbf–Bischofswerda–Bautzen–Löbau–Görlitz (–Wrocław Główny)Individual trains continue to Wrocław Główny (Dresden\\-Wrocław\\-Express) | 105 km", "10", "14 December 2014 |\n| {{rcb\\|Trilex\\|RE 2\\|inline\\=croute}} | Dresden Hbf–Bischofswerda–Zittau (–Liberec) | 105/132 km", "13/19", "14 December 2014 |\n| {{rcb\\|Trilex\\|RB 60\\|inline\\=croute}} | Dresden Hbf–Bischofswerda–Bautzen–Löbau–Görlitz | 105 km", "23", "14 December 2014 |\n| {{rcb\\|Trilex\\|RB 61\\|inline\\=croute}} | Dresden Hbf–Bischofswerda–Zittau | 105 km", "28", "14 December 2014 |\n| {{rcb\\|Trilex\\|L 2\\|inline\\=croute}} | Liberec – Česká Lípa – Děčín St. n. | about 70 km", "14", "11 December 2022 |\n| {{rcb\\|Trilex\\|L 4\\|inline\\=croute}} | Rumburk – Ceska Lipa – Mlada Boleslav mesto | 99 km", "22", "12 December 2021 |\n| {{rcb\\|Trilex\\|L 7\\|inline\\=croute}} | Liberec–Zittau–Varnsdorf–Rybniště/ Seifhennersdorf ([Mittelherwigsdorf–Varnsdorf–Eibau railway](/wiki/Mittelherwigsdorf%E2%80%93Varnsdorf%E2%80%93Eibau_railway \"Mittelherwigsdorf–Varnsdorf–Eibau railway\")) | 56/50 km", "16", "12 December 2010 |", "", "### alex", "[thumb\\|left\\|alex logo](/wiki/File:Alex_%28Zug%29_Logo.svg \"Alex (Zug) Logo.svg\")\n[thumb\\|Alex 183\\-004 in Landshut Hbf](/wiki/File:Alex_183-004_Landshut_1501161227.jpg \"Alex 183-004 Landshut 1501161227.jpg\")", "As a result of a tender called in 2005 by the [Bayerische Eisenbahngesellschaft](/wiki/Bayerische_Eisenbahngesellschaft \"Bayerische Eisenbahngesellschaft\"), a contract was awarded to Länderbahn in October 2005 for the operation of the service branded as the *Arriva\\-Länderbahn\\-Express.* The tender specification included a *regionalen Schnellverkehr* (regional fast train) at two\\-hour intervals from Munich via Regensburg to Schwandorf, from where trains continue every four hours alternatively to Hof or [Furth im Wald](/wiki/Furth_im_Wald \"Furth im Wald\"). Länderbahn was also able to tender for the continuation of services on the Munich–[Kempten](/wiki/Kempten \"Kempten\")–[Oberstdorf](/wiki/Oberstdorf \"Oberstdorf\")/[Lindau](/wiki/Lindau \"Lindau\") route, which they had already operated together with the Swiss [SBB GmbH](/wiki/Swiss_Federal_Railways \"Swiss Federal Railways\") since December 2003 under the brand name of *Allgäu\\-Express*.", "For the new services, Vogtlandbahn purchased 90 used passenger coaches, 60 of which were modernised in Halberstadt and Neumünster. Since the 2009 timetable change, seven double\\-deck coaches have been based in Bautzen. Eleven diesel locomotives of class 223 ([EuroRunner](/wiki/EuroRunner \"EuroRunner\")), built by [Siemens](/wiki/Siemens_Mobility \"Siemens Mobility\"), are leased from the company [Alpha Trains](/wiki/Alpha_Trains \"Alpha Trains\") for the haulage of the trains between Oberstdorf/Lindau and Munich and between Regensburg and Hof/Plzeň. An additional four locomotives of Siemens class ES64U4 were leased for the electrified Munich–Regensburg section and classified as class 183\\. These trains are all based in the new plant of the Länderbahn in Schwandorf. Since the takeover by Netinera, the service is marketed simply as *alex*. Länderbahn lost the concession for the Munich–Kempten–Oberstdorf/Lindau route from December 2020\\.", "| Line | Route | Distance | Stations | Start date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| {{rcb\\|alex\\|RE 2\\|inline\\=croute}} {{rcb\\|alex\\|RE 25\\|inline\\=croute}} | [Munich Hbf](/wiki/M%C3%BCnchen_Hauptbahnhof \"München Hauptbahnhof\")–[Landshut Hbf](/wiki/Landshut_Hauptbahnhof \"Landshut Hauptbahnhof\")–[Regensburg Hbf](/wiki/Regensburg \"Regensburg\")–[Schwandorf](/wiki/Schwandorf_station \"Schwandorf station\") –  / [Weiden](/wiki/Weiden_in_der_Oberpfalz \"Weiden in der Oberpfalz\")–[Marktredwitz](/wiki/Marktredwitz_station \"Marktredwitz station\")–[Hof Hbf](/wiki/Hof_Hauptbahnhof \"Hof Hauptbahnhof\")  / [Furth im Wald](/wiki/Furth_im_Wald \"Furth im Wald\")–[Plzeň](/wiki/Plze%C5%88_hlavn%C3%AD_n%C3%A1dra%C5%BE%C3%AD \"Plzeň hlavní nádraží\")–[Prague](/wiki/Praha_hlavn%C3%AD_n%C3%A1dra%C5%BE%C3%AD \"Praha hlavní nádraží\") | 318/443 km | 16/16 | 9 December 2007 |", "", "### Oberpfalzbahn", "[thumb\\|left\\|Oberpfalzbahn logo](/wiki/File:Oberpfalzbahn_logo.svg \"Oberpfalzbahn logo.svg\")\n[thumb\\|Alstom Coradia LINT 41 1648\\-205 in Schwandorf](/wiki/File:Oberpfalzbahn_1648-205_Schwandorf.jpg \"Oberpfalzbahn 1648-205 Schwandorf.jpg\")", "Länderbahn operates five services in eastern Bavaria between Hof, Schwandorf, Regensburg, Waldmünchen, Furth im Wald and Lam under the brand name of *Oberpfalzbahn*. With [Cheb](/wiki/Cheb \"Cheb\") and [Domažlice](/wiki/Doma%C5%BElice \"Domažlice\") as well as some smaller halts, Czech stations are also connected to the main line network.", "The Oberpfalzbahn was launched with eleven [Stadler Regio\\-Shuttle RS1](/wiki/Stadler_Regio-Shuttle_RS1 \"Stadler Regio-Shuttle RS1\") railcars in the summer of 2001\\. The fleet was supplemented in 2013 with two used railcars of the same type. Polish [Pesa](/wiki/Pesa_SA \"Pesa SA\") Link railcars were originally planned to operate the Regensburg–Marktredwitz railway. Due to problems with gaining a licence to operate, this order was canceled. Instead, [LINT 41](/wiki/Alstom_Coradia_LINT \"Alstom Coradia LINT\") railcars have been used since 9 March 2013\\.", "| Line | Route | Distance | Stations | Start date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| {{rcb\\|Oberpfalzbahn\\|RE 23\\|inline\\=croute}} {{rcb\\|Oberpfalzbahn\\|RB 23\\|inline\\=croute}} | Marktredwitz – Weiden (Oberpf) – Schwandorf – Regensburg Hbf | 137 km | 6/18 | 14 December 2014 |\n| {{rcb\\|Oberpfalzbahn\\|RB 95\\|inline\\=croute}} | Marktredwitz – Cheb – Aš – Selb\\-Ploessberg – Hof Hbf | 89 km | 16 | 14 December 2014 |\n| {{rcb\\|Oberpfalzbahn\\|RB 27\\|inline\\=croute}} | Schwandorf – Cham (Oberpf) – Furth im Wald (– Domažlice) | 67 km | 10/14 | |\n| {{rcb\\|Oberpfalzbahn\\|RB 28\\|inline\\=croute}} | Cham (Oberpf) – Bad Kötzing – Lam | 40 km | 13 | |\n| {{rcb\\|Oberpfalzbahn\\|RB 29\\|inline\\=croute}} | Cham (Oberpf) – Waldmünchen | 22km | 8 | |", "", "### Waldbahn", "[thumb\\|left\\|Waldbahn logo](/wiki/File:Waldbahn_logo.svg \"Waldbahn logo.svg\")\n[thumb\\|Stadler Regio\\-Shuttles RS1 in Zwiesel](/wiki/File:Rbg-vt23-01.jpg \"Rbg-vt23-01.jpg\")", "Länderbahn operates four services in the [Zwiesel](/wiki/Zwiesel \"Zwiesel\") region in the [Bavarian Forest](/wiki/Bavarian_Forest \"Bavarian Forest\") (*Bayerischer Wald*) under the brand name of *Waldbahn*: [Plattling–Bayerisch Eisenstein](/wiki/Plattling%E2%80%93Bayerisch_Eisenstein_railway \"Plattling–Bayerisch Eisenstein railway\"), [Zwiesel–Grafenau](/wiki/Zwiesel%E2%80%93Grafenau_railway \"Zwiesel–Grafenau railway\") and [Zwiesel–Bodenmais](/wiki/Zwiesel%E2%80%93Bodenmais_railway \"Zwiesel–Bodenmais railway\"), as well as [Gotteszell–Viechtach](/wiki/Gotteszell%E2%80%93Blaibach_railway \"Gotteszell–Blaibach railway\"), which was reactivated in September 2016\\. The service to [Bayerisch Eisenstein/Železná Ruda\\-Alžbětín station](/wiki/Bayerisch_Eisenstein/%C5%BDelezn%C3%A1_Ruda-Al%C5%BEb%C4%9Bt%C3%ADn_station \"Bayerisch Eisenstein/Železná Ruda-Alžbětín station\") connects with Czech trains towards Prague and Pilsen.", "The Waldbahn is part of the [Bavarian Forest National Park](/wiki/Bavarian_Forest_National_Park \"Bavarian Forest National Park\") transport plan and one of four reference lines of the *Bayerischen Eisenbahngesellschaft* (BEG). These routes are particularly studied by BEG, in order to evaluate various innovative concepts for quality improvement.", "14 modernised Stadler Regio\\-Shuttle RS1 diesel railcars are currently under construction for the Waldbahn at the Viechtach locomotive depot.", "| Line | Route | Distance | Stations | Start date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| {{rcb\\|Waldbahn\\|RB 35\\|inline\\=croute}} | Bayerisch Eisenstein–Zwiesel (Bay)–Gotteszell–Plattling | 72 km", "11", "15 December 2013 |\n| {{rcb\\|Waldbahn\\|RB 37\\|inline\\=croute}} | Bodenmais–Zwiesel (Bay) | 15 km", "5", "15 December 2013 |\n| {{rcb\\|Waldbahn\\|RB 36\\|inline\\=croute}} | Zwiesel (Bay)–Grafenau | 32 km", "9", "15 December 2013 |\n| {{rcb\\|Waldbahn\\|RB 38\\|inline\\=croute}} | Viechtach–Gotteszell | 25 km", "8", "12 September 2016{{cite web\\| publisher\\=Die Länderbahn GmbH\\| url\\=http://www.laenderbahn.com/waldbahn/ueber\\-uns/gotteszell\\-viechtach/\\| title\\=Seit 12\\. September 2016 mit der waldbahn von Gotteszell nach Viechtach fahren\\| access\\-date\\=28 May 2017\\| language\\=de\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180730140523/https://www.laenderbahn.com/waldbahn/ueber\\-uns/gotteszell\\-viechtach/\\| archive\\-date\\=30 July 2018\\| url\\-status\\=dead}} |", "", "" ]
Biography --------- Agostina Segatori was born in the Italian city of [Ancona](/wiki/Ancona "Ancona"). In 1860 she posed for Manet and in 1873 for Jean\-Baptiste\-Camille Corot. Little is known of her life until she met the Parisian painter [Edouard Dantan](/wiki/%C3%89douard_Joseph_Dantan "Édouard Joseph Dantan") in 1873, with whom she lived in a stormy relationship until 1884\. Agostina had a child by Dantan named Jean\-Pierre Segatori.Jean\-Pierre Segatori was born on 17 June 1873\. He was made legitimate by court order on 18 March 1884 as the son of Pierre Gustave Julien Morière and his wife Augusta Segatori In 1874, she was depicted by Edouard Dantan in the first work that he exhibited at the Salon, a wax medallion. During the summers of 1874, 1875 and 1877, Agostina Segatori posed many times for Dantan. In 1884, Edwourd Dantan described his former mistress by the name of "Madame Segatori\-Morière": it seems that Agostina Segatori had married a Mr. Morière. His son Jean\-Pierre is also called Morière, so he may have been recognized or adopted by her husband. Agostina Segatori is not only known for being the mistress of Edouard Dantan, she was the proprietress of the Café Tambourin, at 62 [Boulevard de Clichy](/wiki/Boulevard_de_Clichy "Boulevard de Clichy") in Paris. Segatori's [Café du Tambourin](/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_du_Tambourin "Café du Tambourin") was originally located at 27 rue de Richelieu in Paris, before reopening at 62 Boulevard de Clichy; [Jules Chéret](/wiki/Jules_Ch%C3%A9ret "Jules Chéret") made a poster for the Cabaret at the reopening.[Site Autour du père Tanguy](http://autourduperetanguy.blogspirit.com/archive/2010/09/25/temp-0aa44a124c11990cf8fc529867c45fcb.html) The decor included works offered to her by Edouard Dantan, but also featured those by Vincent van Gogh. In 1887, [Henri de Toulouse\-Lautrec](/wiki/Henri_de_Toulouse-Lautrec "Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec") created a [portrait of Vincent van Gogh](/wiki/Portrait_of_Vincent_van_Gogh_%281887%29 "Portrait of Vincent van Gogh (1887)") at the Café. Agostina Segatori became famous for her relationship in the spring of 1887 with [Vincent van Gogh](/wiki/Vincent_van_Gogh "Vincent van Gogh"), who lived in Paris from 1886 until 1888\. There is little information on this relationship as Vincent van Gogh lived with his brother during this time, and there is thus very little correspondence between the brothers from this period. However Agostina Segatori was cited in two letters by the painter.{{cite book \|title\=Correspondance complète de Vincent Van Gogh \|year\=1960 \|location\=Paris \|pages\=letters 461 and 462}} Information on the relationship was related by one of the closest friends of Vincent van Gogh, the painter [Émile Bernard](/wiki/%C3%89mile_Bernard "Émile Bernard") in an article he wrote on [Pere Tanguy](/wiki/Pere_Tanguy "Pere Tanguy"), an important Parisian character in the 19th century.Julien Tanguy in *Mercure de France*, LXXXIV, 16 December 1908, page 606 It seems that Vincent van Gogh and Agostina Segatori were very fond of each other, and she inspired the painter, who made two portraits of her and several nudes in oil. Agostina Segatori gave Vincent van Gogh's first exhibition at her Café Tambourin. Their relationship quickly became stormy and they decided by mutual agreement to separate in July 1887\. After this separation, Agostina Segatori improperly retained works by Van Gogh in her Café. [thumb\|250px\|[Henri de Toulouse\-Lautrec](/wiki/Henri_de_Toulouse-Lautrec "Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec") (1864–1901\), *[Portrait of Vincent van Gogh](/wiki/Portrait_of_Vincent_van_Gogh_%281887%29 "Portrait of Vincent van Gogh (1887)")*, 1887](/wiki/File:Henri_de_Toulouse-Lautrec_056.jpg "Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec 056.jpg") Agostina Segatori died in Paris in 1910 after experiencing a number of setbacks including the loss of her Café.Archives familiales de la famille Ségatori aux archives de la ville de Paris.
[ "Biography\n---------", "Agostina Segatori was born in the Italian city of [Ancona](/wiki/Ancona \"Ancona\"). \nIn 1860 she posed for Manet and in 1873 for Jean\\-Baptiste\\-Camille Corot.\nLittle is known of her life until she met the Parisian painter [Edouard Dantan](/wiki/%C3%89douard_Joseph_Dantan \"Édouard Joseph Dantan\") in 1873, with whom she lived in a stormy relationship until 1884\\. Agostina had a child by Dantan named Jean\\-Pierre Segatori.Jean\\-Pierre Segatori was born on 17 June 1873\\. He was made legitimate by court order on 18 March 1884 as the son of Pierre Gustave Julien Morière and his wife Augusta Segatori In 1874, she was depicted by Edouard Dantan in the first work that he exhibited at the Salon, a wax medallion. During the summers of 1874, 1875 and 1877, Agostina Segatori posed many times for Dantan.", "In 1884, Edwourd Dantan described his former mistress by the name of \"Madame Segatori\\-Morière\": it seems that Agostina Segatori had married a Mr. Morière. His son Jean\\-Pierre is also called Morière, so he may have been recognized or adopted by her husband.", "Agostina Segatori is not only known for being the mistress of Edouard Dantan, she was the proprietress of the Café Tambourin, at 62 [Boulevard de Clichy](/wiki/Boulevard_de_Clichy \"Boulevard de Clichy\") in Paris. Segatori's [Café du Tambourin](/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_du_Tambourin \"Café du Tambourin\") was originally located at 27 rue de Richelieu in Paris, before reopening at 62 Boulevard de Clichy; [Jules Chéret](/wiki/Jules_Ch%C3%A9ret \"Jules Chéret\") made a poster for the Cabaret at the reopening.[Site Autour du père Tanguy](http://autourduperetanguy.blogspirit.com/archive/2010/09/25/temp-0aa44a124c11990cf8fc529867c45fcb.html) The decor included works offered to her by Edouard Dantan, but also featured those by Vincent van Gogh. In 1887, [Henri de Toulouse\\-Lautrec](/wiki/Henri_de_Toulouse-Lautrec \"Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec\") created a [portrait of Vincent van Gogh](/wiki/Portrait_of_Vincent_van_Gogh_%281887%29 \"Portrait of Vincent van Gogh (1887)\") at the Café.", "Agostina Segatori became famous for her relationship in the spring of 1887 with [Vincent van Gogh](/wiki/Vincent_van_Gogh \"Vincent van Gogh\"), who lived in Paris from 1886 until 1888\\. There is little information on this relationship as Vincent van Gogh lived with his brother during this time, and there is thus very little correspondence between the brothers from this period. However Agostina Segatori was cited in two letters by the painter.{{cite book\n \\|title\\=Correspondance complète de Vincent Van Gogh\n \\|year\\=1960 \\|location\\=Paris \\|pages\\=letters 461 and 462}} Information on the relationship was related by one of the closest friends of Vincent van Gogh, the painter [Émile Bernard](/wiki/%C3%89mile_Bernard \"Émile Bernard\") in an article he wrote on [Pere Tanguy](/wiki/Pere_Tanguy \"Pere Tanguy\"), an important Parisian character in the 19th century.Julien Tanguy in *Mercure de France*, LXXXIV, 16 December 1908, page 606 \nIt seems that Vincent van Gogh and Agostina Segatori were very fond of each other, and she inspired the painter, who made two portraits of her and several nudes in oil.", "Agostina Segatori gave Vincent van Gogh's first exhibition at her Café Tambourin. Their relationship quickly became stormy and they decided by mutual agreement to separate in July 1887\\. After this separation, Agostina Segatori improperly retained works by Van Gogh in her Café.", "[thumb\\|250px\\|[Henri de Toulouse\\-Lautrec](/wiki/Henri_de_Toulouse-Lautrec \"Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec\") (1864–1901\\), *[Portrait of Vincent van Gogh](/wiki/Portrait_of_Vincent_van_Gogh_%281887%29 \"Portrait of Vincent van Gogh (1887)\")*, 1887](/wiki/File:Henri_de_Toulouse-Lautrec_056.jpg \"Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec 056.jpg\")", "Agostina Segatori died in Paris in 1910 after experiencing a number of setbacks including the loss of her Café.Archives familiales de la famille Ségatori aux archives de la ville de Paris.", "" ]
Plot summary ------------ {{Long plot\|section\|date\=May 2021}} Fitz, Riddle and the Fool arrive at Buckkeep. They cannot risk a Skill\-healing for the Fool since he is too weak. They have arrived for Winterfest. Since he is there, Chade puts him to work, and Fitz plays the part of a minor noble to explain his presence. He tries to heal the Fool as best he can, but the Fool remains near death. The Fool tells him how he returned to Clerres with Prillkop and that the Servants, the pale people who tend to While Prophets, are the ones who tortured him. They wanted him to tell them where the Unexpected Son was. The Fool thought they meant a son he was supposed to have, although the Fool knew of no such child. Web asks Fitz to meet a crow who is not bonded with a human, but is in danger from other crows by having white feathers among her black ones. She can speak some words. Through Fitz, she meets the Fool and they connect. The Fool names her Motley. Chade has a new apprentice \- Ash. Ash is very capable and both Fitz and the Fool grow to like him. Despite the king forbidding her to marry, Nettle becomes pregnant with Riddle’s child. Eliannia helps them marry, and recognizes Nettle and Riddle's unborn child and thinks it will be a girl. She wants to claim the child for her Motherhouse, and does so publicly on the last day of Winterfest, recognizing Nettle as Fitz's daughter. So she is not known as the son of a traitor, Kettricken has Starling finally sing the song she had made of Fitz, the journey into the mountains, and the stone dragons. Overcome by the moment, Chade tells Fitz it is time he is recognized for who he is. Dutiful recognizes Fitz in front of the court, and he is crowned Prince FitzChivalry. News of what happened at Withywoods finally reaches Buckkeep, and both Fitz and Chade immediately return to Withywoods through the pillars. Chade reveals that both Lant and Shun (really named Shine) are both his children from different mothers. The staff do not remember what happened and do not remember Bee, Shun, or any of those killed. Per is the only one who knows what happened. Realizing some sort of skill spell has been placed on them, Chade and Fitz revive the staff's memory with elfbark tea. They gather as much information that they can, but cannot determine which way the invaders left. Thinking the attack may have something to do with the servants who tortured the Fool, they plan to return to Buckkeep via the pillars to get information from him. They are attacked on the way by the guard accompanying them, who were after a reward for Chade’s death. Chade is in very bad shape from the attack, but goes through the pillars anyway. He faints just as he enters, and Fitz has a hard time keeping Chade’s essence together (one of the risks of the pillars). They are lost in the pillar for a day before Dutiful and his coterie help pull him out. Chade never fully recovers, and is forbidden from using the skill for fear he would completely lose himself in it. While they had been gone, Ash gave the Fool dragon blood which puts him on the path to healing and turns his eyes gold. Fitz and the Fool discover Ash is really a girl \- Spark \- who can shift back and forth between being Ash and Spark, at Chade's encouragement. Meanwhile, the Servants take Bee and Shun on a long journey. Shun tells Bee to make sure they don't realize she is a girl, since they think she is a boy. Shun thinks that this is the only reason they are keeping Bee and Shun alive. Bee becomes very ill with a high fever and begins to shed her skin. She is whiter underneath. Ellik and his mercenaries figure out that the Servants are controlling them using Vindeliar, a white who has the ability to cause forgetfulness or change the thoughts of large groups of people at once (such as the forgetfulness of those at Withywoods). They take Vindeliar with them to town to test his powers and pillage. Once they get back to camp with all of their loot, they get drunk. Hogen, the handsome rapist, convinces Ellik to let him have one of the women. He gives him one of the Servants. Shun realizes what is happening and drags Bee away. The two of them try to escape. In the meantime Fitz is told by Dutiful and Nettle that they have figured out where Bee and Shun/Shine are. Soldiers are sent to intercept the Servants and their Chalcedean mercenaries. Fitz decides not to wait for others to find Bee for him, and leaves immediately. Riddle, Lant and Per catch up with Fitz, wanting to join him in finding Bee and Shun immediately. When they stop for the night, Fitz drugs them all and leaves. After travelling for long hours, Motely the crow leads him to the camp. Fitz finds the Servants’ camp in disarray with many of the soldiers dead \- having apparently killed each other \- and some of the Servants dead and Bee and Shun gone. Ellik and Hogen remain. By subduing and threatening the two men, Fitz learns Ellik agreed to follow the Servants and help them find the Unexpected Son for gold and in hope of regaining his status as heir to the Chalcedean throne. Everything went wrong at the camp when the Servant Dwalia tried to stop the rape of one of her followers. They attacked Dwalia and Vindeliar became distressed. His panic spilled over into the camp, turning soldiers against each other. When Riddle, Per, Lant, and the soldiers arrive the remaining Chalcedean soldiers are killed. Parties are sent to look for Shun and Bee, but there is no sign of them until they begin the journey back to Buckkeep and come across Shun. She tells them that they had been recaptured by Dwalia and the remaining whites. Bee had been taken to one of the skill pillars and dragged in. Shun would have been dragged in too, if Bee had not bit one of the captors to make him let go of Shun. One of Nettle’s skill coteries goes through the pillar to try to get Bee back, but there is no trace of them on the other side. They are forced to conclude that the group has been lost in the skill pillar, and knowing that those in group did not seem to be too powerful in the skill, assume they were all swept away in the skill current, and Bee was lost forever. After spending a few months recovering and regaining some of his old skills, Fitz sets off on his journey to Clerres to seek vengeance. He plans to go alone, but as he goes into a skill pillar for the first leg of his journey, both Lant and Per grab onto him and are dragged along too. Shortly after, Spark and the Fool join them, having used dragons blood on the Fool’s fingers to go through the pillars. Spark and the Fool also go to Kelsingra so the Fool can resilver his hand from the skill well. For the next part of the journey, all five of them go to Kelsingra. There, Fitz heals many of the children of the elderlings though he is nearly lost in the skill doing so because of how strong the skill current is in Kelsingra. The fool, as Amber, saves him with her newly skilled hand. In the last chapter, Bee and her captors emerge from the stone pillar in spring, having been lost inside for months.
[ "Plot summary\n------------", "{{Long plot\\|section\\|date\\=May 2021}}\nFitz, Riddle and the Fool arrive at Buckkeep. They cannot risk a Skill\\-healing for the Fool since he is too weak. They have arrived for Winterfest. Since he is there, Chade puts him to work, and Fitz plays the part of a minor noble to explain his presence. He tries to heal the Fool as best he can, but the Fool remains near death.\nThe Fool tells him how he returned to Clerres with Prillkop and that the Servants, the pale people who tend to While Prophets, are the ones who tortured him. They wanted him to tell them where the Unexpected Son was. The Fool thought they meant a son he was supposed to have, although the Fool knew of no such child.", "Web asks Fitz to meet a crow who is not bonded with a human, but is in danger from other crows by having white feathers among her black ones. She can speak some words. Through Fitz, she meets the Fool and they connect. The Fool names her Motley. Chade has a new apprentice \\- Ash. Ash is very capable and both Fitz and the Fool grow to like him.", "Despite the king forbidding her to marry, Nettle becomes pregnant with Riddle’s child. Eliannia helps them marry, and recognizes Nettle and Riddle's unborn child and thinks it will be a girl. She wants to claim the child for her Motherhouse, and does so publicly on the last day of Winterfest, recognizing Nettle as Fitz's daughter. So she is not known as the son of a traitor, Kettricken has Starling finally sing the song she had made of Fitz, the journey into the mountains, and the stone dragons. Overcome by the moment, Chade tells Fitz it is time he is recognized for who he is. Dutiful recognizes Fitz in front of the court, and he is crowned Prince FitzChivalry.", "News of what happened at Withywoods finally reaches Buckkeep, and both Fitz and Chade immediately return to Withywoods through the pillars. Chade reveals that both Lant and Shun (really named Shine) are both his children from different mothers. The staff do not remember what happened and do not remember Bee, Shun, or any of those killed. Per is the only one who knows what happened. Realizing some sort of skill spell has been placed on them, Chade and Fitz revive the staff's memory with elfbark tea. They gather as much information that they can, but cannot determine which way the invaders left.", "Thinking the attack may have something to do with the servants who tortured the Fool, they plan to return to Buckkeep via the pillars to get information from him. They are attacked on the way by the guard accompanying them, who were after a reward for Chade’s death. Chade is in very bad shape from the attack, but goes through the pillars anyway. He faints just as he enters, and Fitz has a hard time keeping Chade’s essence together (one of the risks of the pillars). They are lost in the pillar for a day before Dutiful and his coterie help pull him out. Chade never fully recovers, and is forbidden from using the skill for fear he would completely lose himself in it.", "While they had been gone, Ash gave the Fool dragon blood which puts him on the path to healing and turns his eyes gold. Fitz and the Fool discover Ash is really a girl \\- Spark \\- who can shift back and forth between being Ash and Spark, at Chade's encouragement.", "Meanwhile, the Servants take Bee and Shun on a long journey. Shun tells Bee to make sure they don't realize she is a girl, since they think she is a boy. Shun thinks that this is the only reason they are keeping Bee and Shun alive. Bee becomes very ill with a high fever and begins to shed her skin. She is whiter underneath.", "Ellik and his mercenaries figure out that the Servants are controlling them using Vindeliar, a white who has the ability to cause forgetfulness or change the thoughts of large groups of people at once (such as the forgetfulness of those at Withywoods). They take Vindeliar with them to town to test his powers and pillage. \nOnce they get back to camp with all of their loot, they get drunk. Hogen, the handsome rapist, convinces Ellik to let him have one of the women. He gives him one of the Servants. Shun realizes what is happening and drags Bee away. The two of them try to escape.", "In the meantime Fitz is told by Dutiful and Nettle that they have figured out where Bee and Shun/Shine are. Soldiers are sent to intercept the Servants and their Chalcedean mercenaries. Fitz decides not to wait for others to find Bee for him, and leaves immediately. Riddle, Lant and Per catch up with Fitz, wanting to join him in finding Bee and Shun immediately. When they stop for the night, Fitz drugs them all and leaves. \nAfter travelling for long hours, Motely the crow leads him to the camp. Fitz finds the Servants’ camp in disarray with many of the soldiers dead \\- having apparently killed each other \\- and some of the Servants dead and Bee and Shun gone. Ellik and Hogen remain.\nBy subduing and threatening the two men, Fitz learns Ellik agreed to follow the Servants and help them find the Unexpected Son for gold and in hope of regaining his status as heir to the Chalcedean throne. Everything went wrong at the camp when the Servant Dwalia tried to stop the rape of one of her followers. They attacked Dwalia and Vindeliar became distressed. His panic spilled over into the camp, turning soldiers against each other.", "When Riddle, Per, Lant, and the soldiers arrive the remaining Chalcedean soldiers are killed. Parties are sent to look for Shun and Bee, but there is no sign of them until they begin the journey back to Buckkeep and come across Shun. She tells them that they had been recaptured by Dwalia and the remaining whites. Bee had been taken to one of the skill pillars and dragged in. Shun would have been dragged in too, if Bee had not bit one of the captors to make him let go of Shun.", "One of Nettle’s skill coteries goes through the pillar to try to get Bee back, but there is no trace of them on the other side. They are forced to conclude that the group has been lost in the skill pillar, and knowing that those in group did not seem to be too powerful in the skill, assume they were all swept away in the skill current, and Bee was lost forever.", "After spending a few months recovering and regaining some of his old skills, Fitz sets off on his journey to Clerres to seek vengeance. He plans to go alone, but as he goes into a skill pillar for the first leg of his journey, both Lant and Per grab onto him and are dragged along too. Shortly after, Spark and the Fool join them, having used dragons blood on the Fool’s fingers to go through the pillars. Spark and the Fool also go to Kelsingra so the Fool can resilver his hand from the skill well.", "For the next part of the journey, all five of them go to Kelsingra. There, Fitz heals many of the children of the elderlings though he is nearly lost in the skill doing so because of how strong the skill current is in Kelsingra. The fool, as Amber, saves him with her newly skilled hand.", "In the last chapter, Bee and her captors emerge from the stone pillar in spring, having been lost inside for months.", "" ]
Biography --------- In 1987, Krasauskas graduated from Kaunas applied arts technical school named after S.Žukas, specialising in decorative wood processing. After graduation, from 1988 to 1992 he worked at the [Rumšiškės](/wiki/Rum%C5%A1i%C5%A1k%C4%97s "Rumšiškės") Open\-air Ethnographic Museum. From 1992 to 1996, Krasauskas studied sculpture at the [Vilnius Academy of Arts](/wiki/Vilnius_Academy_of_Arts "Vilnius Academy of Arts") and obtained a bachelor's degree in sculpture. His tutors were Mindaugas Šnipas, Gediminas Karalius and Konstantinas Bogdanas. [frameless\|right\|200px](/wiki/File:K%C4%99stutis_Krasauskas.jpg "Kęstutis Krasauskas.jpg") In 2002, Krasauskas graduated from Vilnius Academy of Arts with a master's degree. He has participated in exhibitions and plein\-airs since 1987\. His sculptures have been exhibited in Lithuania (in Vilnius, Kaunas, Panevėžys, Šiauliai, Pasvalys, Joniškis, Rokiškis, Biržai, Ukmergė, Palanga and Anykščiai), as well as in Denmark, Germany and Italy. He has also exhibited in the Seimas Parliament Houses of Lithuania. He has participated in republican plein\-airs in Rokiškis, Vilnius, Kupiškis, Anykščiai, Raseiniai, Kulautuva, Kėdainiai, Joniškis, Pakruojis, Varėna, Ramygala and Pasvalys. He also took part in international woodwork sculpture exhibitions in: * Plein\-airs in Kupiškis, Lithuania 2006, * St. Annaparochie in the Netherlands 2005, * Wilkendorf in Germany 2008, * [Temù](/wiki/Tem%C3%B9 "Temù") in Italy 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, * Rokiškis in Lithuania 2009, * Joniškis in Lithuania 2011, 2012\. * Grimming\-symposium, [Irdning](/wiki/Irdning%23Kultur_und_Sehensw%C3%BCrdigkeiten "Irdning#Kultur und Sehenswürdigkeiten") in Austria 2012\. Since 2003 Krasauskas he has been a member of the Pasvalys woodwork sculptures club "Šilo genys". Since 2004 he has been a member of the club "Rats" ("Around"). He has been the author and idea presenter of the tournament "a sculpture during 5 hours" which started in Pasvalys, Lithuania since 2003\. In 2024, by decree of the [President of the Republic of Lithuania](/wiki/President_of_Lithuania "President of Lithuania"), he was awarded the Medal of the Order ["For Merits to Lithuania"](/wiki/Medal_of_the_Order_for_Merits_to_Lithuania "Medal of the Order for Merits to Lithuania"). Krasauskas work in his own studio, Sereikoniai village, [Pumpėnai](/wiki/Pump%C4%97nai "Pumpėnai"), [Pasvalys](/wiki/Pasvalys "Pasvalys") region, [Lithuania](/wiki/Lithuania "Lithuania").
[ "Biography\n---------", "In 1987, Krasauskas graduated from Kaunas applied arts technical school named after S.Žukas, specialising in decorative wood processing. After graduation, from 1988 to 1992 he worked at the [Rumšiškės](/wiki/Rum%C5%A1i%C5%A1k%C4%97s \"Rumšiškės\") Open\\-air Ethnographic Museum.", "From 1992 to 1996, Krasauskas studied sculpture at the [Vilnius Academy of Arts](/wiki/Vilnius_Academy_of_Arts \"Vilnius Academy of Arts\") and obtained a bachelor's degree in sculpture. His tutors were Mindaugas Šnipas, Gediminas Karalius and Konstantinas Bogdanas.\n[frameless\\|right\\|200px](/wiki/File:K%C4%99stutis_Krasauskas.jpg \"Kęstutis Krasauskas.jpg\")\nIn 2002, Krasauskas graduated from Vilnius Academy of Arts with a master's degree.", "He has participated in exhibitions and plein\\-airs since 1987\\.", "His sculptures have been exhibited in Lithuania (in Vilnius, Kaunas, Panevėžys, Šiauliai, Pasvalys, Joniškis, Rokiškis, Biržai, Ukmergė, Palanga and Anykščiai), as well as in Denmark, Germany and Italy.\nHe has also exhibited in the Seimas Parliament Houses of Lithuania.", "He has participated in republican plein\\-airs in Rokiškis, Vilnius, Kupiškis, Anykščiai, Raseiniai, Kulautuva, Kėdainiai, Joniškis, Pakruojis, Varėna, Ramygala and Pasvalys.", "He also took part in international woodwork sculpture exhibitions in: \n* Plein\\-airs in Kupiškis, Lithuania 2006,\n* St. Annaparochie in the Netherlands 2005,\n* Wilkendorf in Germany 2008,\n* [Temù](/wiki/Tem%C3%B9 \"Temù\") in Italy 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011,\n* Rokiškis in Lithuania 2009,\n* Joniškis in Lithuania 2011, 2012\\.\n* Grimming\\-symposium, [Irdning](/wiki/Irdning%23Kultur_und_Sehensw%C3%BCrdigkeiten \"Irdning#Kultur und Sehenswürdigkeiten\") in Austria 2012\\.", "Since 2003 Krasauskas he has been a member of the Pasvalys woodwork sculptures club \"Šilo genys\". Since 2004 he has been a member of the club \"Rats\" (\"Around\").", "He has been the author and idea presenter of the tournament \"a sculpture during 5 hours\" which started in Pasvalys, Lithuania since 2003\\.", "In 2024, by decree of the [President of the Republic of Lithuania](/wiki/President_of_Lithuania \"President of Lithuania\"), he was awarded the Medal of the Order [\"For Merits to Lithuania\"](/wiki/Medal_of_the_Order_for_Merits_to_Lithuania \"Medal of the Order for Merits to Lithuania\").", "Krasauskas work in his own studio, Sereikoniai village, [Pumpėnai](/wiki/Pump%C4%97nai \"Pumpėnai\"), [Pasvalys](/wiki/Pasvalys \"Pasvalys\") region, [Lithuania](/wiki/Lithuania \"Lithuania\").", "" ]
Career ------ In 1988, Reeves was cast in a short\-term role as Jake Hogansen on the [NBC Daytime](/wiki/NBC_Daytime "NBC Daytime") soap opera *[Days of Our Lives](/wiki/Days_of_Our_Lives "Days of Our Lives")*. He also had a recurring role as Dustin Nelson on the syndicated comedy series *[The Munsters Today](/wiki/The_Munsters_Today "The Munsters Today")*.{{Cite web \|title\=The Munsters Today Season 1 Episodes \|url\=https://www.tvguide.com/tvshows/the\-munsters\-today/episodes\-season\-1/1030245422/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240815194725/https://www.tvguide.com/tvshows/the\-munsters\-today/episodes\-season\-1/1030245422/ \|archive\-date\=August 15, 2024 \|access\-date\=August 15, 2024 \|website\=\[\[TV Guide (magazine)\|TV Guide]]}} Reeves played an Emcee in the comedy film *[Big Man on Campus](/wiki/Big_Man_on_Campus "Big Man on Campus")* (1989\).{{Cite web \|title\=Big Man on Campus \- Full Cast \& Crew \|url\=https://www.tvguide.com/movies/big\-man\-on\-campus/cast/2000033723/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240815195620/https://www.tvguide.com/movies/big\-man\-on\-campus/cast/2000033723/ \|archive\-date\=August 15, 2024 \|access\-date\=August 15, 2024 \|website\=\[\[TV Guide (magazine)\|TV Guide]]}} He also played Sean Robertson in the horror film *[Friday the 13th Part VIII: Jason Takes Manhattan](/wiki/Friday_the_13th_Part_VIII:Jason_Takes_Manhattan "Jason Takes Manhattan")* (1989\).{{Cite web \|last\=James \|first\=Caryn \|date\=July 29, 1989 \|title\=Another 'Friday the 13th' Puts Jason in Times Square \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/07/29/movies/another\-friday\-the\-13th\-puts\-jason\-in\-times\-square.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316014832/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/07/29/movies/another\-friday\-the\-13th\-puts\-jason\-in\-times\-square.html \|archive\-date\=March 16, 2023 \|access\-date\=August 15, 2024 \|website\=\[\[The New York Times]]}} Reeves played Bruce in the television miniseries *[I Know My First Name is Steven](/wiki/I_Know_My_First_Name_is_Steven "I Know My First Name is Steven")*.{{Cite web \|title\=I Know My First Name is Steven \- Full Cast \& Crew \|url\=https://www.tvguide.com/movies/i\-know\-my\-first\-name\-is\-steven/cast/2030112719/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805170459/https://www.tvguide.com/movies/i\-know\-my\-first\-name\-is\-steven/cast/2030112719/ \|archive\-date\=August 5, 2021 \|access\-date\=August 16, 2024 \|website\=\[\[TV Guide (magazine)\|TV Guide]]}} He guest starred on *[Teen Angel](/wiki/Teen_Angel_%281989_TV_series%29 "Teen Angel (1989 TV series)") Returns*. He appeared in television commercials for [Diet Coke](/wiki/Diet_Coke "Diet Coke") and [McDonald's](/wiki/McDonald%27s "McDonald's"). He played Luke in the action film *[Edge of Honor](/wiki/Edge_of_Honor "Edge of Honor")* (1991\), co\-starring with [Corey Feldman](/wiki/Corey_Feldman "Corey Feldman").{{Cite web \|title\=Edge of Honor \- Full Cast \& Crew \|url\=https://www.tvguide.com/movies/edge\-of\-honor/cast/2030281780/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240816201520/https://www.tvguide.com/movies/edge\-of\-honor/cast/2030281780/ \|archive\-date\=August 16, 2024 \|access\-date\=August 16, 2024 \|website\=\[\[TV Guide (magazine)\|TV Guide]]}} In 1991, Reeves was cast as [Ryan McNeil](/wiki/Ryan_McNeil "Ryan McNeil") on the [CBS Daytime](/wiki/CBS_Daytime "CBS Daytime") soap opera *[The Young and the Restless](/wiki/The_Young_and_the_Restless "The Young and the Restless")*.{{Cite web \|title\=Who's Who in Genoa City: Ryan McNeil \|url\=https://www.soapcentral.com/young\-and\-restless/whoswho/ryan.php \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802125827/https://www.soapcentral.com/young\-and\-restless/whoswho/ryan.php \|archive\-date\=August 2, 2024 \|access\-date\=August 16, 2024 \|website\=Soap Central}} The role was intended to be recurring, but he was soon offered a contract. In 1993, he was nominated for a [Soap Opera Digest Award](/wiki/Soap_Opera_Digest_Awards "Soap Opera Digest Awards") for Outstanding Younger Leading Actor for his work on *The Young and the Restless*.{{Cite journal \|date\=September 29, 1992 \|title\=The Soap Opera Awards Nominations \|journal\=\[\[Soap Opera Digest]] \|volume\=17 \|issue\=20 \|pages\=66–79}} He was nominated again in the same category in 1994 and won the award.{{Cite web \|title\=The Soap Opera Digest Awards 1994 \|url\=http://www.soapoperadigest.com/awards/1994/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040809201141/http://www.soapoperadigest.com/awards/1994/ \|archive\-date\=August 9, 2004 \|access\-date\=August 16, 2024 \|website\=\[\[Soap Opera Digest]]}} Reeves played Kyle Raines in the television film *[Hearts Adrift](/wiki/Hearts_Adrift_%281996_film%29 "Hearts Adrift (1996 film)")* (1996\), co\-starring with [Sydney Penny](/wiki/Sydney_Penny "Sydney Penny").{{Cite web \|title\=Hearts Adrift \|url\=https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/467530/hearts\-adrift/\#overview \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201025835/https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/467530/hearts\-adrift/\#overview \|archive\-date\=December 1, 2022 \|access\-date\=August 16, 2024 \|website\=tcm.com}} He played Brian McDermott in the television film *[When the Cradle Falls](/wiki/When_the_Cradle_Falls_%281997_film%29 "When the Cradle Falls (1997 film)")* (1997\), co\-starring with [Martha Byrne](/wiki/Martha_Byrne "Martha Byrne").{{Cite web \|last\=Horst \|first\=Carole \|date\=March 3, 1997 \|title\=When the Cradle Falls \|url\=http://variety.com/1997/tv/reviews/when\-the\-cradle\-falls\-1200449373/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180504235400/http://variety.com/1997/tv/reviews/when\-the\-cradle\-falls\-1200449373/ \|archive\-date\=May 4, 2018 \|access\-date\=August 16, 2024 \|website\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]}} In 1997, Reeves was nominated for a [Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series](/wiki/Daytime_Emmy_Award_for_Outstanding_Supporting_Actor_in_a_Drama_Series "Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series") for his work on *The Young and the Restless*.{{Cite web \|title\=The Twenty\-Fourth Annual Daytime Emmy Awards (1997\) \|url\=https://www.soapcentral.com/daytime\-emmys/archives/1996\.php \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240420233902/https://www.soapcentral.com/daytime\-emmys/archives/1996\.php \|archive\-date\=April 20, 2024 \|access\-date\=August 16, 2024 \|website\=Soap Central}} He was nominated again in the same category in 1998\.{{Cite web \|title\=The Twenty\-Fifth Annual Daytime Emmy Awards (1998\) \|url\=https://www.soapcentral.com/daytime\-emmys/archives/1997\.php \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240420233902/https://www.soapcentral.com/daytime\-emmys/archives/1997\.php \|archive\-date\=April 20, 2024 \|access\-date\=August 16, 2024 \|website\=Soap Central}} Reeves guest starred on *[Chicago Hope](/wiki/Chicago_Hope "Chicago Hope")* in 1998\. He co\-starred with his wife, [Melissa Reeves](/wiki/Melissa_Reeves "Melissa Reeves"), in the television film *[Half a Dozen Babies](/wiki/Half_a_Dozen_Babies "Half a Dozen Babies")* (1999\). The movie was based on the true story of the [Dilley sextuplets](/wiki/Dilley_sextuplets "Dilley sextuplets"), with the Reeves' playing their parents.{{Cite web \|last\=Speier \|first\=Michael \|date\=May 17, 1999 \|title\=Half a Dozen Babies \|url\=https://variety.com/1999/tv/reviews/half\-a\-dozen\-babies\-1117499752/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512062118/https://variety.com/1999/tv/reviews/half\-a\-dozen\-babies\-1117499752/ \|archive\-date\=May 12, 2021 \|access\-date\=August 14, 2024 \|website\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]}} In 1999, he received a Soap Opera Digest Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor for his work on *The Young and the Restless*. In 2001, he guest starred on *[The King of Queens](/wiki/The_King_of_Queens "The King of Queens")* and *[Touched by an Angel](/wiki/Touched_by_an_Angel "Touched by an Angel")*.{{Cite web \|title\=Credits: Scott Reeves \|url\=https://www.tvguide.com/celebrities/scott\-reeves/credits/3030212660/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240816204928/https://www.tvguide.com/celebrities/scott\-reeves/credits/3030212660/ \|archive\-date\=August 16, 2024 \|access\-date\=August 16, 2024 \|website\=\[\[TV Guide (magazine)\|TV Guide]]}} He played Alan in the short film *Basic Training*. In August 2001, it was announced that Reeves had been dismissed from his role on *The Young and the Restless*.{{Cite web \|last\=Kroll \|first\=Dan J. \|date\=August 17, 2001 \|title\=Scott Reeves, Ryan out at Y\&R \|url\=https://www.soapcentral.com/young\-and\-restless/news/2001/0917\-reeves.php \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240815190922/https://www.soapcentral.com/young\-and\-restless/news/2001/0917\-reeves.php \|archive\-date\=August 15, 2024 \|access\-date\=August 16, 2024 \|website\=Soap Central}} His final airdate was November 27, 2001\. The character of Ryan died when he jumped in front of a bullet to save [Victoria Newman](/wiki/Victoria_Newman "Victoria Newman"). Reeves played Gilbert Ray Johnson in the film *[Waitin' to Live](/wiki/Waitin%27_to_Live_%282003_film%29 "Waitin' to Live (2003 film)")* (2003\).{{Cite web \|last\=Davis \|first\=Sandi \|date\=October 10, 2003 \|title\='Waitin' to Live' has funny moments \|url\=https://www.oklahoman.com/story/news/2003/10/10/waitin\-to\-live\-has\-funny\-moments/62022032007/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817211008/https://www.oklahoman.com/story/news/2003/10/10/waitin\-to\-live\-has\-funny\-moments/62022032007/ \|archive\-date\=August 17, 2024 \|access\-date\=August 17, 2024 \|website\=The Oklahoman}} In 2003, Reeves and [Aaron Benward](/wiki/Aaron_Benward "Aaron Benward") formed the country music duo [Blue County](/wiki/Blue_County_%28music_group%29 "Blue County (music group)").{{Cite web \|last\=Howard \|first\=Rebecca C. \|date\=July 7, 2006 \|title\=Blue County Just Kind of Clicks \|url\=https://www.deseret.com/2006/7/7/19962340/blue\-county\-just\-kind\-of\-clicks/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817201604/https://www.deseret.com/2006/7/7/19962340/blue\-county\-just\-kind\-of\-clicks/ \|archive\-date\=August 17, 2024 \|access\-date\=August 17, 2024 \|website\=\[\[Deseret News]]}} They toured with singers [Tim McGraw](/wiki/Tim_McGraw "Tim McGraw"), [Kenny Chesney](/wiki/Kenny_Chesney "Kenny Chesney"), and [Keith Urban](/wiki/Keith_Urban "Keith Urban").{{Cite web \|title\=Scott Reeves and the Reeves Brothers \|url\=https://www.hendersonbeachresort.com/events/scott\-reeves\-and\-the\-reeves\-brothers/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416213042/https://www.hendersonbeachresort.com/events/scott\-reeves\-and\-the\-reeves\-brothers/ \|archive\-date\=April 16, 2024 \|access\-date\=August 17, 2024 \|website\=hendersonbeachresort.com}} In 2005, they were nominated for Top Vocal Duo at the [Academy of Country Music Awards](/wiki/Academy_of_Country_Music_Awards "Academy of Country Music Awards").{{Cite web \|date\=March 4, 2005 \|title\=2005 Academy of Country Music Awards Nominees \|url\=https://www.billboard.com/music/music\-news/2005\-academy\-of\-country\-music\-awards\-nominees\-63880/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405112404/https://www.billboard.com/music/music\-news/2005\-academy\-of\-country\-music\-awards\-nominees\-63880/ \|archive\-date\=April 5, 2023 \|access\-date\=August 17, 2024 \|website\=\[\[Billboard (magazine)\|Billboard]]}} They released their self\-titled debut album on [Curb Records](/wiki/Curb_Records "Curb Records") in 2006\. Blue County released four singles that made it to the [Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 "Billboard (magazine)") charts, "Good Little Girls" "That's Cool", "Nothing but Cowboy Boots" and "That Summer Song." They also released three music videos. Reeves returned to acting, appearing in the [Hallmark Channel](/wiki/Hallmark_Channel "Hallmark Channel") television film *[Final Approach](/wiki/Final_Approach_%282007_film%29 "Final Approach (2007 film)")* (2007\).{{Cite web \|last\=Conaway \|first\=Alanna \|date\=December 9, 2009 \|title\=Blue County's Scott Reeves Check in to 'General Hospital' \|url\=https://theboot.com/scott\-reeves\-general\-hospital/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928074411/https://theboot.com/scott\-reeves\-general\-hospital/ \|archive\-date\=September 28, 2022 \|access\-date\=August 17, 2024 \|website\=theboot.com}} He joined the cast of the [ABC Daytime](/wiki/ABC_Daytime "ABC Daytime") soap opera *[General Hospital](/wiki/General_Hospital "General Hospital")*, playing [Steven Webber](/wiki/Steven_Webber "Steven Webber"). His first airdate was December 9, 2009\.{{Cite web \|date\=November 19, 2009 \|title\=Scott Reeves announces his first airdate on GH! \|url\=https://michaelfairmantv.com/scott\-reeves\-announces\-his\-first\-airdate\-on\-gh/2009/11/19/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922093303/https://michaelfairmantv.com/scott\-reeves\-announces\-his\-first\-airdate\-on\-gh/2009/11/19/ \|archive\-date\=September 22, 2023 \|access\-date\=August 17, 2024 \|website\=michaelfairmantv.com}} The role was initially recurring, but Reeves was put on contract in February 2010\. The part had previously been played by [Shaun Benson](/wiki/Shaun_Benson "Shaun Benson") in 2005\.{{Cite web \|title\=Who's Who in Port Charles: Steven Lars Webber \|url\=https://soapcentral.com/general\-hospital/whoswho/stevenlars.php \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240519172706/https://soapcentral.com/general\-hospital/whoswho/stevenlars.php \|archive\-date\=May 19, 2024 \|access\-date\=August 17, 2024 \|website\=Soap Central}} Reeves co\-wrote [Toby Keith](/wiki/Toby_Keith "Toby Keith")'s 2011 number one single, "[Made in America](/wiki/Made_in_America_%28Toby_Keith_song%29 "Made in America (Toby Keith song)")". He also formed a band, Port Chuck, along with *General Hospital* co\-stars [Steve Burton](/wiki/Steve_Burton_%28actor%29 "Steve Burton (actor)"), [Bradford Anderson](/wiki/Bradford_Anderson "Bradford Anderson"), and [Brandon Barash](/wiki/Brandon_Barash "Brandon Barash").{{Cite web \|last\=Hoffman \|first\=Lori \|date\=March 19, 2012 \|title\=5 Questions with Bradford Anderson \|url\=https://atlanticcityweekly.com/casinos/5\-questions\-with\-bradford\-anderson/article\_4761afd2\-0222\-5692\-8cbe\-ba10ea86ea15\.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240621200032/https://atlanticcityweekly.com/casinos/5\-questions\-with\-bradford\-anderson/article\_4761afd2\-0222\-5692\-8cbe\-ba10ea86ea15\.html \|archive\-date\=June 21, 2024 \|access\-date\=August 17, 2024 \|website\=Atlantic City Weekly}} In 2012, Reeves guest starred on *[GCB](/wiki/GCB_%28TV_series%29 "GCB (TV series)")*.{{Cite web \|last\=Bowe \|first\=Jillian \|date\=March 22, 2012 \|title\=Scott Reeves Ropes GCB! \|url\=https://daytimeconfidential.com/2012/03/22/scott\-reeves\-snags\-gcb \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231128092600/https://daytimeconfidential.com/2012/03/22/scott\-reeves\-snags\-gcb \|archive\-date\=November 28, 2023 \|access\-date\=August 18, 2024 \|website\=Daytime Confidential}} In December 2012, Reeves announced that he had been dismissed from his role on *General Hospital*.{{Cite web \|date\=December 13, 2012 \|title\=Scott Reeves Out at GH \|url\=http://www.soapoperadigest.com/content/scott\-reeves\-out\-gh/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170507140805/http://www.soapoperadigest.com/content/scott\-reeves\-out\-gh/ \|archive\-date\=May 7, 2017 \|access\-date\=August 18, 2024 \|website\=\[\[Soap Opera Digest]]}} His final airdate was March 5, 2013\. The character of Steve was sent to prison for murdering a patient. From 2014 to 2016, Reeves played the recurring role of Noel Laughlin on the [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company "American Broadcasting Company") series *[Nashville](/wiki/Nashville_%282012_TV_series%29 "Nashville (2012 TV series)")*.{{Cite web \|date\=November 25, 2014 \|title\=Scott Reeves to Appear Next Week on ABC's Nashville! \|url\=https://michaelfairmantv.com/scott\-reeves\-to\-appear\-next\-week\-on\-abcs\-nashville/2014/11/25/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230507211725/https://michaelfairmantv.com/scott\-reeves\-to\-appear\-next\-week\-on\-abcs\-nashville/2014/11/25/ \|archive\-date\=May 7, 2023 \|access\-date\=August 18, 2024 \|website\=michaelfairmantv.com}} In 2015, he appeared in the [Disney Channel](/wiki/Disney_Channel "Disney Channel") television film *[Invisible Sister](/wiki/Invisible_Sister "Invisible Sister")*.{{Cite web \|title\=Invisible Sister \- Full Cast \& Crew \|url\=https://www.tvguide.com/movies/invisible\-sister/cast/2030308483/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240818173316/https://www.tvguide.com/movies/invisible\-sister/cast/2030308483/ \|archive\-date\=August 18, 2024 \|access\-date\=August 18, 2024 \|website\=\[\[TV Guide (magazine)\|TV Guide]]}} He guest starred on *[Finding Carter](/wiki/Finding_Carter "Finding Carter")*. He co\-starred with his wife, Melissa Reeves, in the film *[Where the Fast Lane Ends](/wiki/Where_the_Fast_Lane_Ends_%282017_film%29 "Where the Fast Lane Ends (2017 film)")* (2017\)*.*{{Cite web \|date\=April 21, 2017 \|title\=Special Movie Premiere: "Where the Fast Lane Ends" \|url\=https://www.rfdtv.com/special\-movie\-premiere\-where\-the\-fast\-lane\-ends \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240421061432/https://www.rfdtv.com/special\-movie\-premiere\-where\-the\-fast\-lane\-ends \|archive\-date\=April 21, 2024 \|access\-date\=August 14, 2024 \|website\=rfdtv.com}} He played a country singer in the [Hallmark Channel](/wiki/Hallmark_Channel "Hallmark Channel") television film *[Christmas at Graceland](/wiki/Christmas_at_Graceland_%282018_film%29 "Christmas at Graceland (2018 film)")* (2018\), co\-starring with [Kellie Pickler](/wiki/Kellie_Pickler "Kellie Pickler").{{Cite web \|title\=Christmas at Graceland \- Full Cast \& Crew \|url\=https://www.tvguide.com/movies/christmas\-at\-graceland/cast/2000249996/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240818173653/https://www.tvguide.com/movies/christmas\-at\-graceland/cast/2000249996/ \|archive\-date\=August 18, 2024 \|access\-date\=August 18, 2024 \|website\=\[\[TV Guide (magazine)\|TV Guide]]}} In 2019, Reeves guest starred on *[The Resident](/wiki/The_Resident_%28TV_series%29 "The Resident (TV series)")*. He also appeared on the [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix "Netflix") series *[Dolly Parton's Heartstrings](/wiki/Dolly_Parton%27s_Heartstrings "Dolly Parton's Heartstrings")*.{{Cite web \|last\=Young \|first\=Candace \|date\=September 19, 2019 \|title\=Scott Reeves Teases 'The Resident' Appearance, Joins Dolly Parton Series \|url\=https://soaps.sheknows.com/the\-young\-and\-the\-restless/news/549742/scott\-reeves\-the\-resident\-appearance\-dolly\-parton\-series/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207200026/https://soaps.sheknows.com/the\-young\-and\-the\-restless/news/549742/scott\-reeves\-the\-resident\-appearance\-dolly\-parton\-series/ \|archive\-date\=December 7, 2022 \|access\-date\=August 18, 2024 \|website\=soaps.sheknows.com}} In 2022, he was cast in the film *[Someone Like You](/wiki/Someone_Like_You_%282024_film%29 "Someone Like You (2024 film)").*{{Cite web \|last\=Complex \|first\=Valerie \|date\=September 27, 2022 \|title\=Karen Kingsbury’s 'Someone Like You' Starring Sarah Fisher And Jake Allyn Begins Production In October \|url\=https://deadline.com/2022/09/karen\-kingsburys\-someone\-like\-you\-starring\-1235128171/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240511082056/https://deadline.com/2022/09/karen\-kingsburys\-someone\-like\-you\-starring\-1235128171/ \|archive\-date\=May 11, 2024 \|access\-date\=August 18, 2024 \|website\=\[\[Deadline Hollywood]]}} In 2024, he appeared in the film *[Ride](/wiki/Ride_%282024_film%29 "Ride (2024 film)"),* co\-starring with [C. Thomas Howell](/wiki/C._Thomas_Howell "C. Thomas Howell").{{Cite web \|last\=Leydon \|first\=Joe \|date\=June 13, 2024 \|title\='Ride' Review: A Texas Rodeo Family Turns to Crime to Fund a Young Girl's Cancer Treatment \|url\=https://variety.com/2024/film/reviews/ride\-review\-jake\-allyn\-rodeo\-cancer\-1236037425/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715020239/https://variety.com/2024/film/reviews/ride\-review\-jake\-allyn\-rodeo\-cancer\-1236037425/ \|archive\-date\=July 15, 2024 \|access\-date\=August 18, 2024 \|website\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]}} His first cousins, Matt and Cole, have a band called [The Reeves Brothers](/wiki/The_Reeves_Brothers "The Reeves Brothers"), that he has managed since 2022\. In October 2024, it was announced that Reeves would be returning to *General Hospital* as Steven Webber for several episodes.{{Cite web \|last\=Mangalindan \|first\=JP \|date\=October 9, 2024 \|title\=General Hospital Alum Scott Reeves Is Returning to the Soap After 11 Years: I'm 'Coming Home' \|url\=https://people.com/general\-hospital\-alum\-scott\-reeves\-returning\-to\-soap\-after\-11\-years\-8725919 \|access\-date\=October 15, 2024 \|website\=\[\[People (magazine)\|People]]}}
[ "Career\n------", "In 1988, Reeves was cast in a short\\-term role as Jake Hogansen on the [NBC Daytime](/wiki/NBC_Daytime \"NBC Daytime\") soap opera *[Days of Our Lives](/wiki/Days_of_Our_Lives \"Days of Our Lives\")*. He also had a recurring role as Dustin Nelson on the syndicated comedy series *[The Munsters Today](/wiki/The_Munsters_Today \"The Munsters Today\")*.{{Cite web \\|title\\=The Munsters Today Season 1 Episodes \\|url\\=https://www.tvguide.com/tvshows/the\\-munsters\\-today/episodes\\-season\\-1/1030245422/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240815194725/https://www.tvguide.com/tvshows/the\\-munsters\\-today/episodes\\-season\\-1/1030245422/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 15, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=August 15, 2024 \\|website\\=\\[\\[TV Guide (magazine)\\|TV Guide]]}} Reeves played an Emcee in the comedy film *[Big Man on Campus](/wiki/Big_Man_on_Campus \"Big Man on Campus\")* (1989\\).{{Cite web \\|title\\=Big Man on Campus \\- Full Cast \\& Crew \\|url\\=https://www.tvguide.com/movies/big\\-man\\-on\\-campus/cast/2000033723/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240815195620/https://www.tvguide.com/movies/big\\-man\\-on\\-campus/cast/2000033723/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 15, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=August 15, 2024 \\|website\\=\\[\\[TV Guide (magazine)\\|TV Guide]]}} He also played Sean Robertson in the horror film *[Friday the 13th Part VIII: Jason Takes Manhattan](/wiki/Friday_the_13th_Part_VIII:Jason_Takes_Manhattan \"Jason Takes Manhattan\")* (1989\\).{{Cite web \\|last\\=James \\|first\\=Caryn \\|date\\=July 29, 1989 \\|title\\=Another 'Friday the 13th' Puts Jason in Times Square \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/07/29/movies/another\\-friday\\-the\\-13th\\-puts\\-jason\\-in\\-times\\-square.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316014832/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/07/29/movies/another\\-friday\\-the\\-13th\\-puts\\-jason\\-in\\-times\\-square.html \\|archive\\-date\\=March 16, 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=August 15, 2024 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]}} Reeves played Bruce in the television miniseries *[I Know My First Name is Steven](/wiki/I_Know_My_First_Name_is_Steven \"I Know My First Name is Steven\")*.{{Cite web \\|title\\=I Know My First Name is Steven \\- Full Cast \\& Crew \\|url\\=https://www.tvguide.com/movies/i\\-know\\-my\\-first\\-name\\-is\\-steven/cast/2030112719/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805170459/https://www.tvguide.com/movies/i\\-know\\-my\\-first\\-name\\-is\\-steven/cast/2030112719/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 5, 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=August 16, 2024 \\|website\\=\\[\\[TV Guide (magazine)\\|TV Guide]]}} He guest starred on *[Teen Angel](/wiki/Teen_Angel_%281989_TV_series%29 \"Teen Angel (1989 TV series)\") Returns*.", "He appeared in television commercials for [Diet Coke](/wiki/Diet_Coke \"Diet Coke\") and [McDonald's](/wiki/McDonald%27s \"McDonald's\"). He played Luke in the action film *[Edge of Honor](/wiki/Edge_of_Honor \"Edge of Honor\")* (1991\\), co\\-starring with [Corey Feldman](/wiki/Corey_Feldman \"Corey Feldman\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Edge of Honor \\- Full Cast \\& Crew \\|url\\=https://www.tvguide.com/movies/edge\\-of\\-honor/cast/2030281780/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240816201520/https://www.tvguide.com/movies/edge\\-of\\-honor/cast/2030281780/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 16, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=August 16, 2024 \\|website\\=\\[\\[TV Guide (magazine)\\|TV Guide]]}} In 1991, Reeves was cast as [Ryan McNeil](/wiki/Ryan_McNeil \"Ryan McNeil\") on the [CBS Daytime](/wiki/CBS_Daytime \"CBS Daytime\") soap opera *[The Young and the Restless](/wiki/The_Young_and_the_Restless \"The Young and the Restless\")*.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Who's Who in Genoa City: Ryan McNeil \\|url\\=https://www.soapcentral.com/young\\-and\\-restless/whoswho/ryan.php \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802125827/https://www.soapcentral.com/young\\-and\\-restless/whoswho/ryan.php \\|archive\\-date\\=August 2, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=August 16, 2024 \\|website\\=Soap Central}} The role was intended to be recurring, but he was soon offered a contract. In 1993, he was nominated for a [Soap Opera Digest Award](/wiki/Soap_Opera_Digest_Awards \"Soap Opera Digest Awards\") for Outstanding Younger Leading Actor for his work on *The Young and the Restless*.{{Cite journal \\|date\\=September 29, 1992 \\|title\\=The Soap Opera Awards Nominations \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Soap Opera Digest]] \\|volume\\=17 \\|issue\\=20 \\|pages\\=66–79}} He was nominated again in the same category in 1994 and won the award.{{Cite web \\|title\\=The Soap Opera Digest Awards 1994 \\|url\\=http://www.soapoperadigest.com/awards/1994/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040809201141/http://www.soapoperadigest.com/awards/1994/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 9, 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=August 16, 2024 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Soap Opera Digest]]}}", "Reeves played Kyle Raines in the television film *[Hearts Adrift](/wiki/Hearts_Adrift_%281996_film%29 \"Hearts Adrift (1996 film)\")* (1996\\), co\\-starring with [Sydney Penny](/wiki/Sydney_Penny \"Sydney Penny\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Hearts Adrift \\|url\\=https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/467530/hearts\\-adrift/\\#overview \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201025835/https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/467530/hearts\\-adrift/\\#overview \\|archive\\-date\\=December 1, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=August 16, 2024 \\|website\\=tcm.com}} He played Brian McDermott in the television film *[When the Cradle Falls](/wiki/When_the_Cradle_Falls_%281997_film%29 \"When the Cradle Falls (1997 film)\")* (1997\\), co\\-starring with [Martha Byrne](/wiki/Martha_Byrne \"Martha Byrne\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Horst \\|first\\=Carole \\|date\\=March 3, 1997 \\|title\\=When the Cradle Falls \\|url\\=http://variety.com/1997/tv/reviews/when\\-the\\-cradle\\-falls\\-1200449373/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180504235400/http://variety.com/1997/tv/reviews/when\\-the\\-cradle\\-falls\\-1200449373/ \\|archive\\-date\\=May 4, 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=August 16, 2024 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]}} In 1997, Reeves was nominated for a [Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series](/wiki/Daytime_Emmy_Award_for_Outstanding_Supporting_Actor_in_a_Drama_Series \"Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series\") for his work on *The Young and the Restless*.{{Cite web \\|title\\=The Twenty\\-Fourth Annual Daytime Emmy Awards (1997\\) \\|url\\=https://www.soapcentral.com/daytime\\-emmys/archives/1996\\.php \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240420233902/https://www.soapcentral.com/daytime\\-emmys/archives/1996\\.php \\|archive\\-date\\=April 20, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=August 16, 2024 \\|website\\=Soap Central}} He was nominated again in the same category in 1998\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=The Twenty\\-Fifth Annual Daytime Emmy Awards (1998\\) \\|url\\=https://www.soapcentral.com/daytime\\-emmys/archives/1997\\.php \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240420233902/https://www.soapcentral.com/daytime\\-emmys/archives/1997\\.php \\|archive\\-date\\=April 20, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=August 16, 2024 \\|website\\=Soap Central}}", "Reeves guest starred on *[Chicago Hope](/wiki/Chicago_Hope \"Chicago Hope\")* in 1998\\. He co\\-starred with his wife, [Melissa Reeves](/wiki/Melissa_Reeves \"Melissa Reeves\"), in the television film *[Half a Dozen Babies](/wiki/Half_a_Dozen_Babies \"Half a Dozen Babies\")* (1999\\). The movie was based on the true story of the [Dilley sextuplets](/wiki/Dilley_sextuplets \"Dilley sextuplets\"), with the Reeves' playing their parents.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Speier \\|first\\=Michael \\|date\\=May 17, 1999 \\|title\\=Half a Dozen Babies \\|url\\=https://variety.com/1999/tv/reviews/half\\-a\\-dozen\\-babies\\-1117499752/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512062118/https://variety.com/1999/tv/reviews/half\\-a\\-dozen\\-babies\\-1117499752/ \\|archive\\-date\\=May 12, 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=August 14, 2024 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]}} In 1999, he received a Soap Opera Digest Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor for his work on *The Young and the Restless*.", "In 2001, he guest starred on *[The King of Queens](/wiki/The_King_of_Queens \"The King of Queens\")* and *[Touched by an Angel](/wiki/Touched_by_an_Angel \"Touched by an Angel\")*.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Credits: Scott Reeves \\|url\\=https://www.tvguide.com/celebrities/scott\\-reeves/credits/3030212660/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240816204928/https://www.tvguide.com/celebrities/scott\\-reeves/credits/3030212660/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 16, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=August 16, 2024 \\|website\\=\\[\\[TV Guide (magazine)\\|TV Guide]]}} He played Alan in the short film *Basic Training*. In August 2001, it was announced that Reeves had been dismissed from his role on *The Young and the Restless*.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Kroll \\|first\\=Dan J. \\|date\\=August 17, 2001 \\|title\\=Scott Reeves, Ryan out at Y\\&R \\|url\\=https://www.soapcentral.com/young\\-and\\-restless/news/2001/0917\\-reeves.php \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240815190922/https://www.soapcentral.com/young\\-and\\-restless/news/2001/0917\\-reeves.php \\|archive\\-date\\=August 15, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=August 16, 2024 \\|website\\=Soap Central}} His final airdate was November 27, 2001\\. The character of Ryan died when he jumped in front of a bullet to save [Victoria Newman](/wiki/Victoria_Newman \"Victoria Newman\"). Reeves played Gilbert Ray Johnson in the film *[Waitin' to Live](/wiki/Waitin%27_to_Live_%282003_film%29 \"Waitin' to Live (2003 film)\")* (2003\\).{{Cite web \\|last\\=Davis \\|first\\=Sandi \\|date\\=October 10, 2003 \\|title\\='Waitin' to Live' has funny moments \\|url\\=https://www.oklahoman.com/story/news/2003/10/10/waitin\\-to\\-live\\-has\\-funny\\-moments/62022032007/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817211008/https://www.oklahoman.com/story/news/2003/10/10/waitin\\-to\\-live\\-has\\-funny\\-moments/62022032007/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 17, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=August 17, 2024 \\|website\\=The Oklahoman}}", "In 2003, Reeves and [Aaron Benward](/wiki/Aaron_Benward \"Aaron Benward\") formed the country music duo [Blue County](/wiki/Blue_County_%28music_group%29 \"Blue County (music group)\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Howard \\|first\\=Rebecca C. \\|date\\=July 7, 2006 \\|title\\=Blue County Just Kind of Clicks \\|url\\=https://www.deseret.com/2006/7/7/19962340/blue\\-county\\-just\\-kind\\-of\\-clicks/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817201604/https://www.deseret.com/2006/7/7/19962340/blue\\-county\\-just\\-kind\\-of\\-clicks/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 17, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=August 17, 2024 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Deseret News]]}} They toured with singers [Tim McGraw](/wiki/Tim_McGraw \"Tim McGraw\"), [Kenny Chesney](/wiki/Kenny_Chesney \"Kenny Chesney\"), and [Keith Urban](/wiki/Keith_Urban \"Keith Urban\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Scott Reeves and the Reeves Brothers \\|url\\=https://www.hendersonbeachresort.com/events/scott\\-reeves\\-and\\-the\\-reeves\\-brothers/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416213042/https://www.hendersonbeachresort.com/events/scott\\-reeves\\-and\\-the\\-reeves\\-brothers/ \\|archive\\-date\\=April 16, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=August 17, 2024 \\|website\\=hendersonbeachresort.com}} In 2005, they were nominated for Top Vocal Duo at the [Academy of Country Music Awards](/wiki/Academy_of_Country_Music_Awards \"Academy of Country Music Awards\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=March 4, 2005 \\|title\\=2005 Academy of Country Music Awards Nominees \\|url\\=https://www.billboard.com/music/music\\-news/2005\\-academy\\-of\\-country\\-music\\-awards\\-nominees\\-63880/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405112404/https://www.billboard.com/music/music\\-news/2005\\-academy\\-of\\-country\\-music\\-awards\\-nominees\\-63880/ \\|archive\\-date\\=April 5, 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=August 17, 2024 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Billboard (magazine)\\|Billboard]]}} They released their self\\-titled debut album on [Curb Records](/wiki/Curb_Records \"Curb Records\") in 2006\\. Blue County released four singles that made it to the [Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\") charts, \"Good Little Girls\" \"That's Cool\", \"Nothing but Cowboy Boots\" and \"That Summer Song.\" They also released three music videos.", "Reeves returned to acting, appearing in the [Hallmark Channel](/wiki/Hallmark_Channel \"Hallmark Channel\") television film *[Final Approach](/wiki/Final_Approach_%282007_film%29 \"Final Approach (2007 film)\")* (2007\\).{{Cite web \\|last\\=Conaway \\|first\\=Alanna \\|date\\=December 9, 2009 \\|title\\=Blue County's Scott Reeves Check in to 'General Hospital' \\|url\\=https://theboot.com/scott\\-reeves\\-general\\-hospital/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928074411/https://theboot.com/scott\\-reeves\\-general\\-hospital/ \\|archive\\-date\\=September 28, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=August 17, 2024 \\|website\\=theboot.com}} He joined the cast of the [ABC Daytime](/wiki/ABC_Daytime \"ABC Daytime\") soap opera *[General Hospital](/wiki/General_Hospital \"General Hospital\")*, playing [Steven Webber](/wiki/Steven_Webber \"Steven Webber\"). His first airdate was December 9, 2009\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=November 19, 2009 \\|title\\=Scott Reeves announces his first airdate on GH! \\|url\\=https://michaelfairmantv.com/scott\\-reeves\\-announces\\-his\\-first\\-airdate\\-on\\-gh/2009/11/19/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922093303/https://michaelfairmantv.com/scott\\-reeves\\-announces\\-his\\-first\\-airdate\\-on\\-gh/2009/11/19/ \\|archive\\-date\\=September 22, 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=August 17, 2024 \\|website\\=michaelfairmantv.com}} The role was initially recurring, but Reeves was put on contract in February 2010\\. The part had previously been played by [Shaun Benson](/wiki/Shaun_Benson \"Shaun Benson\") in 2005\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Who's Who in Port Charles: Steven Lars Webber \\|url\\=https://soapcentral.com/general\\-hospital/whoswho/stevenlars.php \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240519172706/https://soapcentral.com/general\\-hospital/whoswho/stevenlars.php \\|archive\\-date\\=May 19, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=August 17, 2024 \\|website\\=Soap Central}}", "Reeves co\\-wrote [Toby Keith](/wiki/Toby_Keith \"Toby Keith\")'s 2011 number one single, \"[Made in America](/wiki/Made_in_America_%28Toby_Keith_song%29 \"Made in America (Toby Keith song)\")\". He also formed a band, Port Chuck, along with *General Hospital* co\\-stars [Steve Burton](/wiki/Steve_Burton_%28actor%29 \"Steve Burton (actor)\"), [Bradford Anderson](/wiki/Bradford_Anderson \"Bradford Anderson\"), and [Brandon Barash](/wiki/Brandon_Barash \"Brandon Barash\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Hoffman \\|first\\=Lori \\|date\\=March 19, 2012 \\|title\\=5 Questions with Bradford Anderson \\|url\\=https://atlanticcityweekly.com/casinos/5\\-questions\\-with\\-bradford\\-anderson/article\\_4761afd2\\-0222\\-5692\\-8cbe\\-ba10ea86ea15\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240621200032/https://atlanticcityweekly.com/casinos/5\\-questions\\-with\\-bradford\\-anderson/article\\_4761afd2\\-0222\\-5692\\-8cbe\\-ba10ea86ea15\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=June 21, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=August 17, 2024 \\|website\\=Atlantic City Weekly}} In 2012, Reeves guest starred on *[GCB](/wiki/GCB_%28TV_series%29 \"GCB (TV series)\")*.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Bowe \\|first\\=Jillian \\|date\\=March 22, 2012 \\|title\\=Scott Reeves Ropes GCB! \\|url\\=https://daytimeconfidential.com/2012/03/22/scott\\-reeves\\-snags\\-gcb \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231128092600/https://daytimeconfidential.com/2012/03/22/scott\\-reeves\\-snags\\-gcb \\|archive\\-date\\=November 28, 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=August 18, 2024 \\|website\\=Daytime Confidential}} In December 2012, Reeves announced that he had been dismissed from his role on *General Hospital*.{{Cite web \\|date\\=December 13, 2012 \\|title\\=Scott Reeves Out at GH \\|url\\=http://www.soapoperadigest.com/content/scott\\-reeves\\-out\\-gh/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170507140805/http://www.soapoperadigest.com/content/scott\\-reeves\\-out\\-gh/ \\|archive\\-date\\=May 7, 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=August 18, 2024 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Soap Opera Digest]]}} His final airdate was March 5, 2013\\. The character of Steve was sent to prison for murdering a patient.", "From 2014 to 2016, Reeves played the recurring role of Noel Laughlin on the [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company \"American Broadcasting Company\") series *[Nashville](/wiki/Nashville_%282012_TV_series%29 \"Nashville (2012 TV series)\")*.{{Cite web \\|date\\=November 25, 2014 \\|title\\=Scott Reeves to Appear Next Week on ABC's Nashville! \\|url\\=https://michaelfairmantv.com/scott\\-reeves\\-to\\-appear\\-next\\-week\\-on\\-abcs\\-nashville/2014/11/25/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230507211725/https://michaelfairmantv.com/scott\\-reeves\\-to\\-appear\\-next\\-week\\-on\\-abcs\\-nashville/2014/11/25/ \\|archive\\-date\\=May 7, 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=August 18, 2024 \\|website\\=michaelfairmantv.com}} In 2015, he appeared in the [Disney Channel](/wiki/Disney_Channel \"Disney Channel\") television film *[Invisible Sister](/wiki/Invisible_Sister \"Invisible Sister\")*.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Invisible Sister \\- Full Cast \\& Crew \\|url\\=https://www.tvguide.com/movies/invisible\\-sister/cast/2030308483/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240818173316/https://www.tvguide.com/movies/invisible\\-sister/cast/2030308483/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 18, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=August 18, 2024 \\|website\\=\\[\\[TV Guide (magazine)\\|TV Guide]]}} He guest starred on *[Finding Carter](/wiki/Finding_Carter \"Finding Carter\")*. He co\\-starred with his wife, Melissa Reeves, in the film *[Where the Fast Lane Ends](/wiki/Where_the_Fast_Lane_Ends_%282017_film%29 \"Where the Fast Lane Ends (2017 film)\")* (2017\\)*.*{{Cite web \\|date\\=April 21, 2017 \\|title\\=Special Movie Premiere: \"Where the Fast Lane Ends\" \\|url\\=https://www.rfdtv.com/special\\-movie\\-premiere\\-where\\-the\\-fast\\-lane\\-ends \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240421061432/https://www.rfdtv.com/special\\-movie\\-premiere\\-where\\-the\\-fast\\-lane\\-ends \\|archive\\-date\\=April 21, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=August 14, 2024 \\|website\\=rfdtv.com}} He played a country singer in the [Hallmark Channel](/wiki/Hallmark_Channel \"Hallmark Channel\") television film *[Christmas at Graceland](/wiki/Christmas_at_Graceland_%282018_film%29 \"Christmas at Graceland (2018 film)\")* (2018\\), co\\-starring with [Kellie Pickler](/wiki/Kellie_Pickler \"Kellie Pickler\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Christmas at Graceland \\- Full Cast \\& Crew \\|url\\=https://www.tvguide.com/movies/christmas\\-at\\-graceland/cast/2000249996/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240818173653/https://www.tvguide.com/movies/christmas\\-at\\-graceland/cast/2000249996/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 18, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=August 18, 2024 \\|website\\=\\[\\[TV Guide (magazine)\\|TV Guide]]}}", "In 2019, Reeves guest starred on *[The Resident](/wiki/The_Resident_%28TV_series%29 \"The Resident (TV series)\")*. He also appeared on the [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix \"Netflix\") series *[Dolly Parton's Heartstrings](/wiki/Dolly_Parton%27s_Heartstrings \"Dolly Parton's Heartstrings\")*.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Young \\|first\\=Candace \\|date\\=September 19, 2019 \\|title\\=Scott Reeves Teases 'The Resident' Appearance, Joins Dolly Parton Series \\|url\\=https://soaps.sheknows.com/the\\-young\\-and\\-the\\-restless/news/549742/scott\\-reeves\\-the\\-resident\\-appearance\\-dolly\\-parton\\-series/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207200026/https://soaps.sheknows.com/the\\-young\\-and\\-the\\-restless/news/549742/scott\\-reeves\\-the\\-resident\\-appearance\\-dolly\\-parton\\-series/ \\|archive\\-date\\=December 7, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=August 18, 2024 \\|website\\=soaps.sheknows.com}} In 2022, he was cast in the film *[Someone Like You](/wiki/Someone_Like_You_%282024_film%29 \"Someone Like You (2024 film)\").*{{Cite web \\|last\\=Complex \\|first\\=Valerie \\|date\\=September 27, 2022 \\|title\\=Karen Kingsbury’s 'Someone Like You' Starring Sarah Fisher And Jake Allyn Begins Production In October \\|url\\=https://deadline.com/2022/09/karen\\-kingsburys\\-someone\\-like\\-you\\-starring\\-1235128171/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240511082056/https://deadline.com/2022/09/karen\\-kingsburys\\-someone\\-like\\-you\\-starring\\-1235128171/ \\|archive\\-date\\=May 11, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=August 18, 2024 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Deadline Hollywood]]}} In 2024, he appeared in the film *[Ride](/wiki/Ride_%282024_film%29 \"Ride (2024 film)\"),* co\\-starring with [C. Thomas Howell](/wiki/C._Thomas_Howell \"C. Thomas Howell\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Leydon \\|first\\=Joe \\|date\\=June 13, 2024 \\|title\\='Ride' Review: A Texas Rodeo Family Turns to Crime to Fund a Young Girl's Cancer Treatment \\|url\\=https://variety.com/2024/film/reviews/ride\\-review\\-jake\\-allyn\\-rodeo\\-cancer\\-1236037425/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715020239/https://variety.com/2024/film/reviews/ride\\-review\\-jake\\-allyn\\-rodeo\\-cancer\\-1236037425/ \\|archive\\-date\\=July 15, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=August 18, 2024 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]}} His first cousins, Matt and Cole, have a band called [The Reeves Brothers](/wiki/The_Reeves_Brothers \"The Reeves Brothers\"), that he has managed since 2022\\.", "In October 2024, it was announced that Reeves would be returning to *General Hospital* as Steven Webber for several episodes.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Mangalindan \\|first\\=JP \\|date\\=October 9, 2024 \\|title\\=General Hospital Alum Scott Reeves Is Returning to the Soap After 11 Years: I'm 'Coming Home' \\|url\\=https://people.com/general\\-hospital\\-alum\\-scott\\-reeves\\-returning\\-to\\-soap\\-after\\-11\\-years\\-8725919 \\|access\\-date\\=October 15, 2024 \\|website\\=\\[\\[People (magazine)\\|People]]}}", "" ]
History ------- ### 1998–1999: Formation Hi\-5 were formed in September 1998 in Sydney, Australia, as a [children's musical group](/wiki/Children%27s_music "Children's music").{{cite press release\|url\=https://www.nineentertainmentco.com.au/2016/12/15/10/08/new\-hi5\-cast\-unveiled \|date\=15 December 2016 \| title \= New Hi\-5 Cast Unveiled \| work \= \[\[Nine.com.au]] \|publisher\=\[\[Nine Entertainment]] \|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20161223224132/https://www.nineentertainmentco.com.au/2016/12/15/10/08/new\-hi5\-cast\-unveiled \| archive\-date \= 23 December 2016\| access\-date \= 8 December 2019}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/119705377/ \|format\=PDF \|title\=Second banana no more\|work\=\[\[The Sun\-Herald]] \|publisher\=Nine Entertainment \|pages\=64\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201213141702/https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/119705377/\|archive\-date\=13 December 2020\|url\-status\=live\|date\=5 September 1999 \|access\-date\=2 April 2018\|via\=\[\[Ancestry.com\#Newspapers.com\|Newspapers.com]]\|quote\=since Hi\-5 was formed last September}} Television producer Helena Harris, who had worked on *[Bananas in Pyjamas](/wiki/Bananas_in_Pyjamas "Bananas in Pyjamas")*, co\-created Hi\-5 as a concept for a new [television show of the same name](/wiki/Hi-5_%28Australian_TV_series%29 "Hi-5 (Australian TV series)") for the [Nine Network](/wiki/Nine_Network "Nine Network").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/newslocal/manly\-daily/hi5\-and\-bananas\-in\-pyjamas\-reveals\-creator\-helena\-harris\-reveals\-the\-secret\-to\-her\-success/news\-story/9a3b5b0dc6261c12b3d19cf1faa5998d \|last\= Welling \|first\= Kathryn \|date\=19 November 2016 \| title \=''Hi\-5'' and ''Bananas in Pyjamas'' creator Helena Harris reveals the secrets to her success \| work \= \[\[The Daily Telegraph (Sydney)\|The Daily Telegraph]] \|publisher\=\[\[News Corp Australia]]\| access\-date\= 3 August 2017\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20201206022052/https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/newslocal/manly\-daily/hi5\-and\-bananas\-in\-pyjamas\-reveals\-creator\-helena\-harris\-reveals\-the\-secret\-to\-her\-success/news\-story/9a3b5b0dc6261c12b3d19cf1faa5998d?nk\=a529828d8c34c927f72250af517152b9\-1607221252 \| archive\-date \= 6 December 2020}} She and co\-producer [Posie Graeme\-Evans](/wiki/Posie_Graeme-Evans "Posie Graeme-Evans") developed the series as [preschool](/wiki/Preschool "Preschool") entertainment, blending educational theories with a musical appeal to capture children's attention.{{sfn\|Keys\|2004\|p\=141}}{{cite web\|date\=2001\|title\=About Hi\-5\|url\=http://ninemsn.com.au/kids/hi5/abouthf.asp\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413163931/http://ninemsn.com.au/kids/hi5/abouthf.asp\|archive\-date\=13 April 2001\|access\-date\=22 April 2020\|work\=\[\[NineMSN]]\|publisher\=Nine Entertainment}} Harris said that while *Hi\-5* was predominantly a television series, its music was able to be differentiated from the show. Featuring five performers, the cast were intended to act as the audience's older siblings or friends, rather than adults teaching children.{{sfn\|Hynd\|2006\|p\=40}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.straitstimes.com/lifestyle/entertainment/learning\-from\-kids\-with\-hi\-5 \| last \= Kaur \| first \= Gurveen \|date\=7 September 2015 \|title\=Learning from kids with Hi\-5 \|newspaper\=\[\[The Straits Times]]\|publisher\=\[\[Singapore Press Holdings]] \|access\-date\= 27 February 2016\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20151117030926/https://www.straitstimes.com/lifestyle/entertainment/learning\-from\-kids\-with\-hi\-5 \| archive\-date\=17 November 2015\|url\-status\=live}} Harris was inspired to develop a show with broad appeal and accessible themes such as family and animals.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.bbc.co.uk/norfolk/stage/HI5\_helena\_harris.shtml \| last \= Binns \| first \= Rachel \| work \= Norfolk on Stage \| title \= Hi\-5 Comes Alive at the Theatre Royal \| publisher \= \[\[BBC Online]] \| date \= 5 February 2004 \| access\-date \= 20 February 2016\|pages\=\[http://www.bbc.co.uk/norfolk/stage/HI5\_helena\_harris.shtml 1], \[http://www.bbc.co.uk/norfolk/stage/HI5\_helena\_harris\_2\.shtml 2]\|archive\-url \=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107073401/http://www.bbc.co.uk/norfolk/stage/HI5\_helena\_harris.shtml \| archive\-date \= 7 January 2016\|url\-status\=live}} Note: Article is published across two pages. She modelled the group's style on the fast\-paced nature of contemporary music videos and strove to allude to items of current interest (such as relevant [curriculum](/wiki/Curriculum%23Australia "Curriculum#Australia") as well as popular jokes, films and music) to keep children engaged.{{sfn\|Hynd\|2006\|p\=42}}{{cite web \| url \= http://anthillonline.com/tv\-production/ \| last \= Ryan \| first \= Paul \| work \= Australian Anthill \| title \= TV production \| date \= 1 October 2005 \| access\-date \= 20 February 2016 \| archive\-date \= 6 January 2010 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20100106162426/http://anthillonline.com/tv\-production/ \| url\-status \= live }} Harris recalled watching [the Spice Girls](/wiki/The_Spice_Girls "The Spice Girls"), whose dance moves she believed preschoolers could copy.{{cite AV media \| people \= Hi\-5 Latino \| date \= 15 October 2014 \| title \= La historia de Hi\-5 \| trans\-title\= The history of Hi\-5 \| url \= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=vuC2Idq6TTk \| access\-date \= 20 February 2016 \| minutes \= 0:48 \| language \= es \| publisher \= \[\[YouTube]]}} The creators saw the need for "life\-affirming" television for rapidly maturing preschoolers and found most children learn from programs which use music and movement.{{sfn\|Keys\|2004\|p\=141}} After auditions for the group in June 1998 (narrowing down around 300 people to only five),{{cite news\|url\=https://www.theage.com.au/news/tv\-\-radio/hi5s\-magic\-act/2005/11/15/1132016790061\.html?page\=fullpage \| last\= Debelle \| first \= Penelope \| date \= 16 November 2005 \| title\= Hi\-5's magic act \|newspaper\= \[\[The Age]] \|publisher\= Nine Entertainment \|access\-date\= 20 February 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20181009172109/https://www.theage.com.au/entertainment/hi\-5s\-magic\-act\-20051116\-ge18vb.html?page\=fullpage \| archive\-date \= 9 October 2018}} the television pilot for *Hi\-5* was produced in mid\-1998\.{{cite web \| url \= http://posiegraemeevans.net/my\-television\-life/ \| title \= My Television Life \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20150321071238/http://posiegraemeevans.net/my\-television\-life/\| url\-status \= dead\| publisher \= Posie Graeme\-Evans \| archive\-date\=21 March 2015\| date \= 2015 \| access\-date \= 1 October 2019 \|quote\=We produced a pilot in mid 1998\. The series rolled in October that year.}} The original cast consisted of [Kellie Crawford](/wiki/Kellie_Crawford "Kellie Crawford") (née Hoggart), [Kathleen de Leon Jones](/wiki/Kathleen_de_Leon_Jones "Kathleen de Leon Jones"), [Nathan Foley](/wiki/Nathan_Foley_%28singer%29 "Nathan Foley (singer)"), [Tim Harding](/wiki/Tim_Harding_%28musician%29 "Tim Harding (musician)") and [Charli Robinson](/wiki/Charli_Robinson "Charli Robinson"). After being commissioned, production began in October 1998\. The [first series](/wiki/Hi-5_%28series_1%29 "Hi-5 (series 1)") premiered in April 1999 on the Nine Network.{{cite news \|url\= http://televisionau.com/2013/04/special\-australian\-tv\-history\-timeline\-pt\-2\.html \|last1\= Bayley \|first1\= Andrew \|last2\= Knox \|first2\= David \|date\= 26 April 2013 \|title\= Special: Australian TV History Timeline Pt 2 \|newspaper\= televisionau.com \|access\-date\= 20 February 2016 \|archive\-date\= 20 February 2016 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160220160833/http://televisionau.com/2013/04/special\-australian\-tv\-history\-timeline\-pt\-2\.html \|url\-status\= live }}{{cite news \|url\=http://kidscreen.com/1999/06/01/25638\-19990601/ \|last\=Mazurkewich \|first\=Karen \|date\=1 June 1999 \|title\=The Kids Licensing Biz Down Under \|newspaper\=\[\[Brunico Communications\|Kidscreen]] \|quote\=On April 12, the terrestrial station launched a new variety series called Hi\-5\. \|access\-date\=18 February 2018 \|archive\-date\=18 February 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180218091227/http://kidscreen.com/1999/06/01/25638\-19990601/ \|url\-status\=live }} In September, [Sony Music](/wiki/Sony_Music_Australia "Sony Music Australia") released their debut album, *Jump and Jive with Hi\-5*, which reached number 33 on the [Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA)](/wiki/Australian_Recording_Industry_Association "Australian Recording Industry Association") [Albums Chart](/wiki/ARIA_Charts "ARIA Charts").{{cite web \| url\=https://itunes.apple.com/au/album/jump\-and\-jive\-with\-hi\-5/id305858463 \| title\=Jump and Jive with Hi\-5 by Hi\-5 \| work\=\[\[iTunes Store]] \| access\-date\=4 December 2016 \| archive\-date\=20 December 2016 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220140443/https://itunes.apple.com/au/album/jump\-and\-jive\-with\-hi\-5/id305858463 \| url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \| url \= http://australian\-charts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpret\=Hi\-5 \| title \= Discography Hi\-5 \| last \= Hung \| first \= Steffen \| work \= Australian Charts Portal \| publisher \= Hung Medien \| access\-date \= 25 February 2016 \| archive\-date \= 19 October 2016 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20161019214313/http://australian\-charts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpret\=Hi\-5 \| url\-status \= live }} ### 2000–2006: Early success [thumb\|left\|[Kellie Crawford](/wiki/Kellie_Crawford "Kellie Crawford") and puppet character Chatterbox, January 2006\|alt\=A distant stage shot of a female performer wearing bright clothes and singing into a headset microphone. A jack\-in\-the\-box style puppet sits behind her on a movable section, which is brightly coloured.](/wiki/File:Kellie_Hoggart_singing_Hi-5_Jan_06_landscape.jpg "Kellie Hoggart singing Hi-5 Jan 06 landscape.jpg") Hi\-5 won the 2000 [Logie Award for Most Outstanding Children's Program](/wiki/Logie_Award_for_Most_Outstanding_Children%27s_Program "Logie Award for Most Outstanding Children's Program") in recognition of their television program, and the [ARIA Award for Best Children's Album](/wiki/ARIA_Award_for_Best_Children%27s_Album "ARIA Award for Best Children's Album") for *Jump and Jive with Hi\-5*.{{cite web\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127054330/http://www.tvweeklogieawards.com.au/logie\-history/2000s/2000/ \|url\=http://www.tvweeklogieawards.com.au/logie\-history/2000s/2000/ \|title\=Logies Timeline 2000 \|work\=\[\[TV Week]] \|publisher\=\[\[Bauer Media Group]] \|archive\-date\=27 January 2013 \|access\-date\=27 February 2016 \|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109051644/http://www.ariaawards.com.au/history/year/2000 \|url\=http://www.ariaawards.com.au/history/year/2000 \|title\=Winners by Year 2000 \|publisher\=\[\[Australian Recording Industry Association]] (ARIA) \|archive\-date\=9 January 2012 \|access\-date\=26 February 2016\|url\-status\=dead}} Their releases consistently received album accreditations; *Celebrate* was certified as gold, while *Jump and Jive with Hi\-5*, *Boom Boom Beat* and *It{{'s}} a Hi\-5 Christmas* went platinum, and *It{{'s}} a Party* received double platinum status.{{Cite certification\|region\=Australia\|type\=album\|certyear\=2000\|access\-date\=18 March 2019}}{{Cite certification\|region\=Australia\|type\=album\|certyear\=2001\|access\-date\=18 March 2019}}{{Cite certification\|region\=Australia\|type\=album\|certyear\=2002\|access\-date\=18 March 2019}} Four of their albums reached the top 10 on the ARIA Albums Chart; *It{{'s}} a Party* (number four, July 2000\), *Boom Boom Beat* (number three, August 2001\), *It{{'s}} a Hi\-5 Christmas* (number four, December 2001\) and *Hi\-5 Hits* (number ten, July 2003\). It was reported in 2005 that a [feature film](/wiki/Feature_film "Feature film") starring the group was in early development, as well as arrangements for a [single](/wiki/Single_%28music%29 "Single (music)") release.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/news/tv\-\-radio/hi5\-in\-hindi/2005/07/27/1122143892219\.html \|date\=27 July 2005\|title\=Hi\-5 in Hindi \|newspaper\= \[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]] \|publisher\=Nine Entertainment \|agency \= \[\[Australian Associated Press]] (AAP)\|access\-date\= 18 October 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201226021824/https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/hi\-5\-in\-hindi\-20050728\-gdlriy.html\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=26 December 2020}} Hi\-5 [toured nationally](/wiki/List_of_Hi-5_live_performances "List of Hi-5 live performances") for up to eight months of every year, with sell\-out concerts in venues such as the [Sydney Opera House](/wiki/Sydney_Opera_House "Sydney Opera House").{{sfn\|Keys\|2004\|p\=138}}{{cite press release \|url\= http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/CU0209/S00100\.htm \|date\= 27 September 2002 \|title\= Australia's Hi\-5 touring New Zealand \|newspaper\= \[\[Scoop (website)\|Scoop]] \|publisher\= Scoop Media \|access\-date\= 21 February 2016 \|quote\= Following sell\-out national tours in 1999, 2000 and 2001\... \|archive\-date\= 5 March 2016 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160305075456/http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/CU0209/S00100\.htm \|url\-status\= live }}{{cite news \|url\= http://m.nzherald.co.nz/lifestyle/news/article.cfm?c\_id\=6\&objectid\=10007017 \|last\= Harris \|first\= Catherine \|date\= 18 January 2005 \|title\= Hi5 hit town \|newspaper\= \[\[The New Zealand Herald]] \|publisher\= \[\[New Zealand Media and Entertainment]] (NZME) \|access\-date\= 21 February 2016 \|quote\= On the road for up to eight months of the year. \|archive\-date\= 4 March 2016 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304100708/http://m.nzherald.co.nz/lifestyle/news/article.cfm?c\_id\=6\&objectid\=10007017 \|url\-status\= live }} The quintet's production of *Hi\-5 Alive* won the 2002 [Helpmann Award for Best Presentation for Children](/wiki/Helpmann_Award_for_Best_Presentation_for_Children "Helpmann Award for Best Presentation for Children"), while their *Space Magic* production was nominated in the same category in [2006](/wiki/6th_Helpmann_Awards "6th Helpmann Awards").{{cite web\|url\= http://www.helpmannawards.com.au/2002/past\-nominees\-and\-winners/presentation\-for\-children \| work \= \[\[Helpmann Awards]] \| title \= Past nominees and winners – 2002 – Best Presentation for Children \| access\-date\= 19 February 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202021418/http://www.helpmannawards.com.au/2002/past\-nominees\-and\-winners/presentation\-for\-children\|archive\-date\=2 February 2020 \|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\= http://www.helpmannawards.com.au/2006/past\-nominees\-and\-winners/presentation\-for\-children \| work \= Helpmann Awards \| title \= Past nominees and winners – 2006 – Best Presentation for Children \| access\-date\=2 February 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202021303/http://www.helpmannawards.com.au/2006/past\-nominees\-and\-winners/presentation\-for\-children\|archive\-date\=2 February 2020 \|url\-status\=live}} The group first toured the UK in 2004, and in 2005 performed in [arenas](/wiki/Arena "Arena") around Australia to maximise the audience capacity. In addition to their regular tours, Hi\-5 appeared annually at [Vision Australia](/wiki/Vision_Australia "Vision Australia"){{'}}s [Carols by Candlelight](/wiki/Carols_by_Candlelight "Carols by Candlelight") in Melbourne, broadcast live by the Nine Network on Christmas Eve.{{cite news \|url\=https://televisionau.com/2007/12/twas\-the\-night\-before\-christmas.html \|last\=Bayley \|first\=Andrew \|date\=23 December 2007 \|title\=Twas the night before Christmas \|newspaper\=televisionau.com \|access\-date\=5 October 2019 \|archive\-date\=18 May 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518011215/https://televisionau.com/2007/12/twas\-the\-night\-before\-christmas.html \|url\-status\=live }} ### 2006–2008: Replacement of original members [thumb\|[Stevie Nicholson](/wiki/Stevie_Nicholson "Stevie Nicholson"), Surry Hills, November 2011\|upright\|alt\=An upper body shot of a 27\-year\-old man. He is standing with his hands tucked into his pants' pockets and smiling. Behind him are hoarding signs with names of commercial sponsors.](/wiki/File:Stevie_Nicholson%2C_2011_%284%29.jpg "Stevie Nicholson, 2011 (4).jpg") In early 2006, de Leon Jones announced she was pregnant, and would take maternity leave from April onwards.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2006/03/04/1141191886876\.html \|last\= Wood \|first\=Miranda \|date\=5 March 2006\|title\= It's Hi\-5s and hugs all round as Sophie and Molly reunite \|newspaper\= The Sydney Morning Herald \|publisher\=Nine Entertainment \|access\-date\= 21 February 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url \=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206034524/https://www.smh.com.au/national/its\-hi\-5s\-and\-hugs\-all\-round\-as\-sophie\-and\-molly\-reunite\-20060305\-gdn38u.html \| archive\-date \=6 December 2020}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2006/07/28/1153816364460\.html \|date\=28 July 2006\|title\= It's a girl for Kathleen\|newspaper\= The Age \| agency \= Australian Associated Press (AAP) \|publisher\= Nine Entertainment \|access\-date\= 21 February 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url \=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019164113/https://www.theage.com.au/entertainment/celebrity/its\-a\-girl\-for\-kathleen\-20060729\-ge2t5p.html \| archive\-date \=19 October 2018\|quote\=The 28\-year\-old took maternity leave from Hi\-5 in April to prepare for the birth.}} [Sun Park](/wiki/Sun_Park "Sun Park") was introduced as her temporary replacement; de Leon Jones gave birth to her first child in July. Park was part of the television series filming in 2006 and toured with the group across Australia.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.sydneystage.com.au/component/option,com\_events/task,view\_detail/agid,421/year,2006/month,10/day,21/Itemid,34/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107073402/http://www.sydneystage.com.au/component/option,com\_events/task,view\_detail/agid,421/year,2006/month,10/day,21/Itemid,34/ \| work \= Australian Stage Online \| title \= Hi\-5 Live Action Heroes \| date \= July 2006 \| archive\-date\=7 January 2016 \| access\-date \= 20 October 2018\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.bordermail.com.au/news/bm/national/280865\.html\|date\=19 June 2006\|title\=Sun comes up for Hi\-5 group\|work\=\[\[The Border Mail]]\|publisher\=\[\[Australian Community Media]]\|access\-date\=6 December 2020\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060829071232/http://www.bordermail.com.au/news/bm/national/280865\.html\|archive\-date\=29 August 2006}} In July 2006, de Leon Jones said she was intent on returning to Hi\-5;{{cite news\|url\=http://news.ninemsn.com.au/article.aspx?id\=117775 \|date\=27 July 2006 \|title\="Hi\-5" Star Kath de Leon Has Baby Girl \|newspaper\=NineMSN\|publisher\=Nine Entertainment \|agency\=Australian Associated Press (AAP) \|access\-date\=21 February 2016 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060914200031/http://news.ninemsn.com.au/article.aspx?id\=117775 \|archive\-date\=14 September 2006 }} however, in July 2007, made the decision to leave the group permanently to focus on being a mother. Park took her place as a full\-time member.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/news/entertainment/being\-a\-mum\-is\-number\-one\-for\-hi5\-fave/2007/07/14/1184438124537\.html \|last\=Sams \|first\=Christine \|date\=15 July 2007\|title\=Being a mum is number one for Hi\-5 fave \|newspaper\= \[\[Brisbane Times]] \|publisher\=Nine Entertainment\|access\-date\= 21 February 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206054757/https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/entertainment/being\-a\-mum\-is\-number\-one\-for\-hi\-5\-fave\-20070715\-ge8vyh.html \|archive\-date\=6 December 2020}} A serious motorcycle accident in June 2007 left Harding unable to keep up with the pace of Hi\-5's performances.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/tv/harding\-weighs\-up\-his\-options/story\-e6frfmyi\-1111114252830\| last \= Connolly \| first \= Fiona \|date\=24 August 2007\|title\=Harding weighs up his options \|newspaper\= The Daily Telegraph \|access\-date\= 21 February 2016\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206031853/https://www.news.com.au/entertainment/tv/harding\-weighs\-up\-his\-options/news\-story/7a5bf0a381f2784f0c721726b4f386d2 \|archive\-date\=6 December 2020}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2007/11/new\-look\-hi\-5\-says\-hi\-to\-sunrise.html\|last\=Knox \|first\=David \|date\=15 November 2007\|title\=New look Hi\-5 says hi to ''Sunrise''\|newspaper\= TV Tonight\|access\-date\= 21 February 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305041803/https://tvtonight.com.au/2007/11/new\-look\-hi\-5\-says\-hi\-to\-sunrise.html\|archive\-date\=5 March 2016}} Just a few days before this, [Stevie Nicholson](/wiki/Stevie_Nicholson "Stevie Nicholson") had been hired as an understudy and was put straight to work as a temporary replacement for Harding.{{cite news\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20130410200314/http://www.stevie.com.au/stevie\-articles/2007/11/11/hi5s\-got\-a\-new\-man\-about\-the\-set/ \|url\=http://www.stevie.com.au/stevie\-articles/2007/11/11/hi5s\-got\-a\-new\-man\-about\-the\-set/\| last\=Sams \|first\= Christine \| date\= 11 November 2007 \| work \= The Sun\-Herald \| publisher \= Nine Entertainment \| archive\-date \= 10 April 2013 \|title \= Hi\-5's Got a New Man About the Set \| url\-status\=dead \| access\-date\= 21 February 2016}} The group toured the *Hi\-5 Circus Stageshow* in 2007; the show adopted a [circus](/wiki/Circus "Circus") theme and incorporated tricks such as [trapeze](/wiki/Trapeze "Trapeze"), [tightrope walking](/wiki/Tightrope_walking "Tightrope walking") and [gymnastics](/wiki/Gymnastics "Gymnastics"). They had only one week of training; some members benefitted from prior experience. Nicholson debuted on tour with the *Circus* show in Singapore.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/news/tv\-\-radio/highflyers\-have\-found\-new\-tricks/2007/11/17/1194767020226\.html\|last\=Marcus \|first\=Caroline \|date\=18 November 2007\|title\=High\-flyers have found new tricks \|newspaper\= The Sydney Morning Herald\|publisher\=Nine Entertainment\|access\-date\= 21 February 2016\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20201206034639/https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/high\-flyers\-have\-found\-new\-tricks\-20071118\-gdrml3\.html \| archive\-date \= 6 December 2020 \|url\-status\=live}} Harding permanently departed in November after recovering from his injuries and was replaced by Nicholson.{{cite news\|last\=Knox\|first\=David\|date\=24 June 2008\|title\=Returning: ''Hi\-5''\|newspaper\=TV Tonight\|url\=http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2008/06/returning\-hi\-5\.html\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=14 October 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316195132/https://tvtonight.com.au/2008/06/returning\-hi\-5\.html\|archive\-date\=16 March 2016}}{{cite news \| url \= http://www.abc.net.au/news/2007\-11\-12/harding\-waves\-farewell\-to\-hi\-5/722512 \| date \= 12 November 2007 \| title \= Harding waves farewell to ''Hi\-5'' \| work \= \[\[ABC News (Australia)\|ABC News]] \| publisher \= \[\[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] (ABC) \| access\-date \= 21 February 2016 \| archive\-date \= 20 December 2015 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20151220034750/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2007\-11\-12/harding\-waves\-farewell\-to\-hi\-5/722512 \| url\-status \= live }} Robinson (then referred to as Delaney) exited from the group in February 2008\.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/television/no\-song\-and\-dance\-for\-charli/story\-e6frfmyi\-1111115616501\|date\=22 February 2008\|title\=No song and dance as Charli Delaney quits Hi\-5\|work\=The Daily Telegraph\|access\-date\=28 February 2016\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831014644/http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/television/no\-song\-and\-dance\-for\-charli/story\-e6frfmyi\-1111115616501\|archive\-date\=31 August 2010}} She expressed an interest in proving herself as an actor for an adult audience and said she would help find a replacement member.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/celebrity\-life/charli\-delaney\-quits\-hi\-5/story\-e6frfmqr\-1111115615660\|date\=21 February 2008\|title\=Charli Delaney quits Hi\-5 for Adam Gilchrist\|newspaper\=The Daily Telegraph\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20151215180820/http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/celebrity\-life/charli\-delaney\-quits\-hi\-5/story\-e6frfmqr\-1111115615660 \| archive\-date \= 15 December 2015 \|url\-status\=dead\|access\-date\= 19 February 2019}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2008/02/charli\-quits\-hi\-5\.html\|last\=Knox\|first\=David\|date\=22 February 2008\|title\=Charli quits Hi\-5\|newspaper\= TV Tonight\|access\-date\=6 December 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160221184930/http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2008/02/charli\-quits\-hi\-5\.html\|archive\-date\=21 February 2016\|url\-status\=live}} After leaving, she established a career in the Australian media industry as a presenter. In April, [Casey Burgess](/wiki/Casey_Burgess "Casey Burgess") was revealed as Robinson's replacement and began touring with the group.{{cite news\|url\=https://tvtonight.com.au/2008/05/hi\-5\-touring\-tas\-vic\-and\-nsw.html\|last\=Knox\|first\=David\|date\=14 May 2008\|title\=Hi\-5 touring Tas, Vic and NSW\|newspaper\=\[\[TV Tonight]]\|access\-date\= 1 October 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160221185036/https://tvtonight.com.au/2008/05/hi\-5\-touring\-tas\-vic\-and\-nsw.html\|archive\-date\=21 February 2016\|url\-status\=live\|quote\=Children aged between 2–8 years of age}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2008/04/casey\-gets\-the\-big\-hi\-5\.html\|last\=Knox\|first\=David\|date\=2 April 2008\|title\=Casey gets the big Hi\-5\|newspaper\= TV Tonight\|access\-date\= 21 February 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160221185013/http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2008/04/casey\-gets\-the\-big\-hi\-5\.html\|archive\-date\=21 February 2016\|url\-status\=live}} In March 2008, the Nine Network, along with production company Southern Star, purchased the Hi\-5 brand. The change of ownership saw Harris and Graeme\-Evans end their involvement with the franchise, which was placed under the direction of Martin Hersov and Cathy Payne, Nine and Southern Star executives. By November 2008, the remaining original cast members had stated their intent to withdraw from the group. Crawford reported in October that she would be leaving at the end of the year to explore other options, and a month later, Foley outlined his plan to exit and focus on his adult music career.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2008/11/nathan\-the\-last\-to\-exit\-hi\-5\.html\|last\=Knox\|first\=David\|date\=12 November 2008\|title\=Nathan, the last to exit Hi\-5\|newspaper\= TV Tonight\|access\-date\= 12 June 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804015140/https://tvtonight.com.au/2008/11/nathan\-the\-last\-to\-exit\-hi\-5\.html\|archive\-date\=4 August 2016\|url\-status\=live\|quote\=Martin Hersov and Cathy Payne, directors of Hi\-5 Operations.}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/tv/kellie\-crawford\-quits\-hi\-5/story\-e6frfmyi\-1111117912421\|date\=31 October 2008\|title\=Kellie Crawford quits Hi\-5\|newspaper\= News.com.au\|publisher\=News Corp Australia \|agency \=Australian Associated Press (AAP)\|access\-date\= 22 February 2016\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20201206032119/https://www.news.com.au/entertainment/tv/kellie\-crawford\-quits\-hi\-5/news\-story/1750249c0d2712f1219e63cfa863bea2 \| archive\-date \= 6 December 2020 \|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.theage.com.au/news/entertainment/tv\-\-radio/last\-of\-the\-originals\-nathan\-quits\-hi5/2008/11/12/1226318713076\.html\|date\=12 November 2008\|title\=Last of the originals, Nathan quits Hi\-5\|newspaper\= The Age\| agency \= Australian Associated Press (AAP) \|publisher\=Nine Entertainment\|access\-date\= 22 February 2016\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20190220063206/https://www.theage.com.au/entertainment/last\-of\-the\-originals\-nathan\-quits\-hi\-5\-20081112\-ge7ijg.html \| archive\-date \= 20 February 2019\|url\-status\=live}} In December, Park also stated she would be departing the group since she had expected only to be a temporary replacement.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/entertainment/hi\-5s\-sun\-third\-to\-quit/news\-story/133eaad08c45866c2474250ad55d40b8\|last\=Moran\|first\=Jonothan\|date\=21 December 2008\|title\=Hi\-5's Sun Park quits after Nathan Foley and Kellie Crawford \|newspaper\=The Daily Telegraph\|access\-date\= 6 December 2020\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201206044150/https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/entertainment/hi\-5s\-sun\-third\-to\-quit/news\-story/133eaad08c45866c2474250ad55d40b8?nk\=d4644650c024d467da72d00375a8d2e1\-1607229710 \| archive\-date\= 6 December 2020 \|url\-status\=live}} *[The Daily Telegraph](/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph_%28Sydney%29 "The Daily Telegraph (Sydney)")*{{'}}s *Sydney Confidential* reporter alleged that Hi\-5's production company had asked Crawford and Foley to leave, and that the producers were "opting to recruit younger, cheaper performers".{{cite news\|url\=http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/tv/hi\-5\-pairs\-bitter\-finale/story\-e6frfmyi\-1111118262668\|date\=9 December 2008\|title\=Bitter finale for Hi\-5 pair Nathan Foley and Kellie Hoggart \| work \= The Daily Telegraph\|access\-date\= 22 February 2016\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20201206032105/https://www.news.com.au/entertainment/tv/hi\-5\-pairs\-bitter\-finale/news\-story/47e06468dde47c5bb13018540894ca94 \| archive\-date \= 6 December 2020 \|url\-status\=dead}} Neither of them responded to these reports, but Park denied the industry rumours, saying that there had been no pressure for any of them to resign. The departing members gave their final performance at Carols by Candlelight on Christmas Eve in Melbourne. ### 2009–2013: Second generation [thumb\|[Lauren Brant](/wiki/Lauren_Brant "Lauren Brant") and Dayen Zheng, The Ivy Ballroom, Sydney, November 2012\|alt\=Full body shot of two smiling women. Woman at left is taller and has her right hand at her hip. The other woman has her arm around the back of the first. They stand in front of hoarding signs.](/wiki/File:Lauren_Brant_%288189940169%29.jpg "Lauren Brant (8189940169).jpg") In February 2009, [Lauren Brant](/wiki/Lauren_Brant "Lauren Brant"), [Fely Irvine](/wiki/Fely_Irvine "Fely Irvine") and [Tim Maddren](/wiki/Tim_Maddren "Tim Maddren") joined Nicholson and Burgess to complete the group's new line\-up.{{cite news\|url\=https://tvtonight.com.au/2009/02/5\-seasons\-for\-new\-look\-hi\-5\.html\|last\=Knox\|first\=David\|date\=24 February 2009 \|title\=5 seasons for new look Hi\-5\|newspaper\=TV Tonight\|access\-date\=2 October 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160221195416/https://tvtonight.com.au/2009/02/5\-seasons\-for\-new\-look\-hi\-5\.html\|archive\-date\=21 February 2016\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.news.com.au/entertainment/tv/hi\-5s\-complete\-group\-makeover/news\-story/730dd352145fc3eae7584990b2ff4a91?sv\=411b636ec50db23d3c5573ebd683f3fc\|last\=McWhirter\|first\=Erin\|date\=18 March 2009\|title\=Hi\-5's complete group makeover\|newspaper\=The Daily Telegraph \|access\-date\= 6 December 2020\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201206050805/https://www.news.com.au/entertainment/tv/hi\-5s\-complete\-group\-makeover/news\-story/730dd352145fc3eae7584990b2ff4a91?sv\=411b636ec50db23d3c5573ebd683f3fc \| archive\-date\= 6 December 2020 \|url\-status\=live}} Burgess described the change as a difficult transition period that led to uncertainty over their future.{{Cite news\|url \= http://www.smh.com.au/news/entertainment/tv\-\-radio/surprise\-five\-line\-up\-for\-a\-new\-adventure/2010/01/09/1262453697393\.html \|title \= Surprise! Five line up for a new adventure \| last \=Marcus\|first \=Caroline \|date \= 10 January 2010\|work \= The Sydney Morning Herald\|publisher\=Nine Entertainment \|access\-date \= 7 September 2015\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20201206034639/https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/surprise\-five\-line\-up\-for\-a\-new\-adventure\-20100110\-gdtuke.html \| archive\-date \= 6 December 2020 \|url\-status\=live}} They toured regional Australian locations in early 2010 to build a new audience.{{cite web \| url \= http://www.femail.com.au/hi\-5\-surprise\-tour.htm \| work \= Femail.com.au \| title \= Hi\-5 Surprise! Live Tour \| date \= 2009 \| access\-date \= 22 February 2016 \| archive\-date \= 2 March 2016 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160302011356/http://www.femail.com.au/hi\-5\-surprise\-tour.htm \| url\-status \= live }} The group celebrated the 500th episode of the television series in 2010,{{cite news\|url\=http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2010/08/returning\-hi\-5\-2\.html\|last\=Knox\|first\=David\|date\=31 August 2010\|title\=Returning: ''Hi\-5'' \|newspaper\= TV Tonight\|access\-date\= 22 February 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305070117/https://tvtonight.com.au/2010/08/returning\-hi\-5\-2\.html\|archive\-date\=5 March 2016\|url\-status\=live}} and in 2011, they rerecorded several of the original line\-up's songs.{{cite news\|url\= http://tvtonight.com.au/2011/10/returning\-hi\-5\-3\.html\|last\=Knox\|first\=David\|date\=6 October 2011 \|title\= Returning: ''Hi\-5'' \|newspaper\= TV Tonight\|access\-date\= 22 February 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305014922/https://tvtonight.com.au/2011/10/returning\-hi\-5\-3\.html\|archive\-date\=5 March 2016\|url\-status\=live}} They did not receive the same positive critical reception as the original members; one reviewer found fault with the new line\-up's vocal abilities. The group joined [World Vision Australia](/wiki/World_Vision_Australia "World Vision Australia") as ambassadors in 2009, beginning their work in the Philippines while on a promotional tour, and completing a volunteer trip to Cambodia in 2012\.{{cite press release\|last1\=Crowe\|first1\=Tara\|last2\=Bocking\|first2\=Catherine\|title\=Hi\-5 joins World Vision in the fight to end poverty for children\|publisher\=\[\[World Vision Australia]]\|url\=https://www.worldvision.com.au/media\-centre/resource/hi\-5\-joins\-world\-vision\-in\-the\-fight\-to\-end\-poverty\-for\-children\|date\=6 August 2009\|access\-date\=25 February 2016\|archive\-date\=5 April 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160405111341/https://www.worldvision.com.au/media\-centre/resource/hi\-5\-joins\-world\-vision\-in\-the\-fight\-to\-end\-poverty\-for\-children\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web \|title\= Hi\-5 – Goodwill Ambassador \|publisher\= World Vision Australia \|url\= https://www.worldvision.com.au/get\-involved/partner\-with\-us/ambassadors/hi\-5 \|access\-date\= 3 October 2019 \|archive\-date\= 3 October 2019 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20191003101208/https://www.worldvision.com.au/get\-involved/partner\-with\-us/ambassadors/hi\-5 \|url\-status\= live }} They also became representatives of the [Starlight Children's Foundation](/wiki/Starlight_Children%27s_Foundation "Starlight Children's Foundation") in 2009; their work included regular visits to hospitals while on tour.{{cite web\|url\= https://starlight.org.au/what\-we\-do/our\-stories/ambassador/hi\-5 \| title \= Hi\-5 – Our Stories \| publisher \= \[\[Starlight Children's Foundation\|Starlight Foundation]] \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160330010200/https://starlight.org.au/what\-we\-do/our\-stories/ambassador/hi\-5 \| archive\-date \= 30 March 2016 \| access\-date\= 19 February 2019 }}{{cite news \|url\=http://www.perthnow.com.au/news/western\-australia/hi5\-visit\-sick\-kids\-at\-princess\-margaret\-hospital\-ahead\-of\-perth\-shows/news\-story/486fafb23281e1834d3f35d06750a233 \|last\=Symonds \|first\=Kristy \|date\=13 July 2015 \|title\=Hi\-5 brings song, dance and smiles to PMH patients during Perth tour \|newspaper\=\[\[Perth Now]] \|publisher\=Seven West Media\|access\-date\=25 February 2016 \|archive\-date\=18 January 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118094356/http://www.perthnow.com.au/news/western\-australia/hi5\-visit\-sick\-kids\-at\-princess\-margaret\-hospital\-ahead\-of\-perth\-shows/news\-story/486fafb23281e1834d3f35d06750a233 \|url\-status\=live }} Irvine's final performance as part of Hi\-5 was at Carols by Candlelight on Christmas Eve 2011\. Nine Network representatives said she would leave to explore "other career options".{{cite news\|url\=http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2011/12/cast\-change\-at\-hi\-5\.html \|last\=Knox\|first\=David\|date\=20 December 2011 \|title\=Cast change at Hi\-5 \|newspaper\= TV Tonight\|access\-date\= 22 February 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160223115423/https://tvtonight.com.au/2011/12/cast\-change\-at\-hi\-5\.html\|archive\-date\=23 February 2016\|url\-status\=live}} Her replacement, Dayen Zheng, joined the group in January 2012\.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.asiaone.com/print/News/Latest%2BNews/Showbiz/Story/A1Story20120622\-354737\.html\|author\=Kwok Kar Peng\|date\=25 June 2012\|title\=Cool to be a fool\|newspaper\=\[\[The New Paper]]\|publisher\=Asiaone.com.sg\|access\-date\=22 February 2016\|archive\-date\=22 February 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190222041844/https://www.asiaone.com/print/News/Latest%2BNews/Showbiz/Story/A1Story20120622\-354737\.html \|url\-status\=live}} Burgess and Maddren departed in early 2013; Maddren had secured a role in the Australian musical production of *[The Addams Family](/wiki/The_Addams_Family_%28musical%29%23International_productions "The Addams Family (musical)#International productions")*, while Burgess had decided to further her solo music career.{{cite news\| url \= https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/newslocal/north\-shore/creep\-show\-for\-young\-and\-old/news\-story/968d58c01ad78bce8946f7f5b6bd148c\| last\= Smith\|first\=Rohan\| title \= New generation bound to fall for the creepy, kooky Addams family ... click, click\| work\=The Daily Telegraph\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20210113031836/https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/newslocal/north\-shore/creep\-show\-for\-young\-and\-old/news\-story/968d58c01ad78bce8946f7f5b6bd148c?nk\=33b5fd1023817193fbcfc915d516bb70\-1610507916 \| archive\-date \= 13 January 2021 \|date\=25 February 2013\| access\-date \= 13 January 2021 }} In June 2012, the Nine Network announced that because of their ongoing financial difficulties, they had sold the Hi\-5 brand in its entirety to Malaysian\-based [equity group](/wiki/Private-equity_firm "Private-equity firm"), Asiasons.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/business/channel\-nine\-on\-brink\-as\-banks\-circle\-20120925\-26jpx.html\|last1\=Kruger \|first1\=Colin\|last2\=Hawthorne\|first2\=Mark\|date\= 26 September 2012 \|title\=Channel Nine on brink as banks circle \|newspaper\=The Sydney Morning Herald \|publisher\= Nine Entertainment \|access\-date\= 25 February 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url \=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206034943/https://www.smh.com.au/business/channel\-nine\-on\-brink\-as\-banks\-circle\-20120925\-26jpx.html \| archive\-date \=6 December 2020}} Datuk Jared Lim, Asiasons's managing director, described plans to expand Hi\-5 throughout Southeast Asia, while keeping the group's presence in Australia intact.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.smartcompany.com.au//growth/economy/26460\-hi\-5\-sold\-off\-to\-\-250\-million\-asian\-private\-equity\-group/ \|last\=Schmidl \|first\=Engel \|date\=21 June 2012 \|title\=Hi\-5 sold off to $250 million Asian private equity group \|newspaper\=Smart Company \|access\-date\=22 February 2016 \|archive\-date\=8 December 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208215316/https://www.smartcompany.com.au/finance/economy/hi\-5\-sold\-off\-to\-250\-million\-asian\-private\-equity\-group/ \|url\-status\=live }} Julie Greene, former producer of the television series, assumed the role of executive creative director. ### 2013–2016: Third generation, shift to Southeast Asia New members Mary Lascaris and [Ainsley Melham](/wiki/Ainsley_Melham "Ainsley Melham") joined Nicholson, Brant, and Zheng in early 2013\. The audition process was filmed and turned into a documentary\-style film, *Some Kind of Wonderful*, which premiered exclusively through [Hoyts Cinemas](/wiki/Hoyts "Hoyts") in Australia in March.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.qt.com.au/news/popular\-aussie\-childrens\-show\-hi\-5\-set\-big\-screen/1782951\|last\=Tapaleao\|first\=Vaimoana\|date\=7 March 2013\|title\=Popular Aussie children's show Hi\-5 set for the big screen\|newspaper\=\[\[The Queensland Times]]\|publisher\=News Corp Australia\|access\-date\=1 May 2019\|url\-status\=live\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20190501095434/https://www.qt.com.au/news/popular\-aussie\-childrens\-show\-hi\-5\-set\-big\-screen/1782951/ \| archive\-date \=1 May 2019}} The press branded this line\-up as a "new generation" of the group.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/music/hi\-5\-new\-members\-ainsley\-melham\-mary\-lascaris\-dayen\-zheng\-unveiled/story\-e6frfn09\-1226598246320 \| date \= 16 March 2013 \| title \= Hi\-5 new members Ainsley Melham, Mary Lascaris, Dayen Zheng unveiled \| first \= Kathy \| last \= McCabe \| newspaper \= News.com.au \| publisher \= News Corp Australia \| access\-date \= 27 February 2016\|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206032944/https://www.news.com.au/entertainment/music/hi\-5\-new\-members\-ainsley\-melham\-mary\-lascaris\-dayen\-zheng\-unveiled/news\-story/556c9db593091ba9c619317052aaa3c2 \|archive\-date\=6 December 2020 }} Note: McCabe describes this line\-up as the "fourth generation". Throughout this period, the production company shifted the commercial focus of the group to the Southeast Asian market, with an increase in Asian touring locations. In 2014, the group debuted in the Middle East with a Dubai show and toured Bangkok for the first time in ten years.{{cite press release \|url\=http://tremasia.com/hi\-5\-milestones/ \|date\=3 October 2014 \|title\=Hi\-5 adds more milestones with its roaring success in Asia and premiere in the Middle East \|newspaper\=Tremendous Asia Partners \|access\-date\=24 February 2016 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107073402/http://tremasia.com/hi\-5\-milestones/ \|archive\-date\=7 January 2016 }} They returned to the Philippines in 2015 for an encore season after a sold\-out run of concerts the previous year. A new television series entitled *[Hi\-5 House](/wiki/Hi-5_House "Hi-5 House")* was filmed in Singapore and Malaysia between 2013 and 2015, and aired on pay\-TV channel [Nick Jr.](/wiki/Nick_Jr._%28Australia%29 "Nick Jr. (Australia)") in Australia and [Disney Junior](/wiki/Disney_Junior_%28Asia%29 "Disney Junior (Asia)") in Asia; For filming in Singapore in 2013, see {{cite news \| url \= http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/music/hi5\-will\-head\-home\-to\-australia\-for\-house\-party\-tour\-after\-filming\-new\-series\-in\-singapore/story\-e6frfn09\-1226699053225 \| date \= 18 August 2013 \| title \= Hi\-5 will head home to Australia for House Party tour after filming new series in Singapore \| last \= McCabe \| first \= Kathy \| newspaper \= News.com.au \| publisher \= News Corp Australia \| access\-date \= 27 February 2016 \| url\-status \= live \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20201206032712/https://www.news.com.au/entertainment/music/hi5\-will\-head\-home\-to\-australia\-for\-house\-party\-tour\-after\-filming\-new\-series\-in\-singapore/news\-story/5a3e321952f5a1956d02dc2859a0973f \| archive\-date \= 6 December 2020 }} For filming in Malaysia in 2015, see {{cite news \| url \= http://www.goldcoastbulletin.com.au/entertainment/childrens\-band\-hi5\-launches\-promotional\-tour\-on\-the\-gold\-coast/news\-story/e41fe207fd114965bde509ac98a99c29 \| date \= 18 May 2015 \| title \= Children's band Hi\-5 launches promotional tour on the Gold Coast \| newspaper \= \[\[Gold Coast Bulletin]] \| publisher \= News Corp Australia \| access\-date \= 7 November 2016 \| quote \= The band members have recently spent eight weeks in Malaysia filming ''Hi\-5 House''. \| archive\-date \= 8 December 2020 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20201208215313/https://www.goldcoastbulletin.com.au/entertainment/childrens\-band\-hi5\-launches\-promotional\-tour\-on\-the\-gold\-coast/news\-story/e41fe207fd114965bde509ac98a99c29?nk\=6b5055fe6d7d43f93c3744ee8e7b6205\-1607464393 \| url\-status \= live }} For Nick Jr. airing, see {{cite news\|url\=https://tvtonight.com.au/2013/12/foxtel\-summer\-highlights\-for\-kids.html\|last\=Knox\|first\=David\|date\=4 December 2013 \|title\=Foxtel: Summer highlights for kids\|newspaper\=TV Tonight \|access\-date\=30 December 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127122704/https://tvtonight.com.au/2013/12/foxtel\-summer\-highlights\-for\-kids.html\|archive\-date\=27 November 2020\|url\-status\=live}} For Disney Junior airing, see {{cite news \| url \= http://www.straitstimes.com/lifestyle/entertainment/8\-questions\-with\-tanika\-anderson\-hi\-5s\-newest\-member\-was\-a\-busker \| date \= 8 December 2014 \| title \= 8 Questions With Tanika Anderson: Hi\-5's newest member was a busker \| last \= Low \| first \= Phoebe \| newspaper \=The Straits Times\| publisher \= Singapore Press Holdings \| access\-date \= 5 November 2016 \| quote \= She will be starring in the second season of Hi\-5's latest TV series, ''Hi\-5 House'', which will air weekly from today on Disney Junior. \| url\-status \= live \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20150706104539/http://www.straitstimes.com/lifestyle/entertainment/8\-questions\-with\-tanika\-anderson\-hi\-5s\-newest\-member\-was\-a\-busker \| archive\-date \= 6 July 2015 }}* + - * its success in Asia resulted in an [Asian Television Award](/wiki/Asian_Television_Award "Asian Television Award") for Best Preschool Program in 2015\. The program premiered worldwide on online television streaming service [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix "Netflix") in March 2016\.{{cite news \|url\=http://usa.newonnetflix.info/info/80093413/s \|title\=''Hi\-5 House'' on Netflix USA \|newspaper\=New on Netflix USA \|access\-date\=9 October 2016 \|archive\-date\=10 October 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010180954/http://usa.newonnetflix.info/info/80093413/s \|url\-status\=live }} Brant's final performances were in July 2014 for the Australian *House Hits* tour, in which the cast wore costumes she designed under her new fashion label, Loliboli.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/lauren\-brant\-quits\-hi5\-for\-other\-projects\-in\-entertainment\-industry\-and\-growing\-fashion\-business/news\-story/d08fb8574991bfde3cdf75ddcbd37356\|last\=Pierce\|first\=Jeremy\|date\=28 June 2014\|title\=Lauren Brant quits Hi\-5 for other projects in entertainment industry and growing fashion business\| newspaper\= \[\[The Courier\-Mail]] \|publisher\= News Corp Australia \|access\-date\= 24 February 2016\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20201206030818/https://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/lauren\-brant\-quits\-hi5\-for\-other\-projects\-in\-entertainment\-industry\-and\-growing\-fashion\-business/news\-story/d08fb8574991bfde3cdf75ddcbd37356?nk\=8b0c4236a72ab7caadce8f878c0f50c0\-1607224098 \| archive\-date\=6 December 2020\|url\-status\=live}} Her successor, [Tanika Anderson](/wiki/Tanika_Anderson "Tanika Anderson"), was already working with the group as an understudy and puppeteer.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/newslocal/the\-hills/tanika\-anderson\-joins\-hi5\-replacing\-lauren\-brant/news\-story/d3b25cfdaa51d83e803ab88a24cce19a\|last\=Ranke\|first\=Angela\|date\=24 June 2014\|title\=Tanika Anderson joins Hi\-5, replacing Lauren Brant \|newspaper\= The Daily Telegraph \|access\-date\= 24 February 2016\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20201206024512/https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/newslocal/the\-hills/tanika\-anderson\-joins\-hi5\-replacing\-lauren\-brant/news\-story/d3b25cfdaa51d83e803ab88a24cce19a?nk\=f177bdc33cd07652e23cb24c7943cf2e\-1607222711 \| archive\-date\=6 December 2020\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite news\|url \= http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/entertainment/sydney\-confidential/former\-puppeteer\-tanika\-anderson\-lands\-dream\-job/story\-fni0cvc9\-1226955097811\|title \= Former puppeteer Tanika Anderson lands dream job \| last \= Sams \| first \= Christine \|date \= 16 June 2014\|newspaper \= The Daily Telegraph\|access\-date \= 24 February 2016\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160712020638/http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/entertainment/sydney\-confidential/former\-puppeteer\-tanika\-anderson\-lands\-dream\-job/story\-fni0cvc9\-1226955097811 \| archive\-date\=12 July 2016\|url\-status\=dead}} Nicholson departed in December 2015 to further his performing career and promote his children's book, *Superdudes*.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/entertainment/sydney\-confidential/departing\-stevie\-reflects\-on\-whirlwind\-nine\-years\-as\-hi5\-member/news\-story/ebdb163ebd985817e6e5d9682095a44f\|date\=3 September 2015 \|title\=Departing Stevie reflects on 'whirlwind' nine years as Hi\-5 member\|newspaper\=The Daily Telegraph\|access\-date\= 24 February 2016\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20220731112636/https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/entertainment/sydney\-confidential/departing\-stevie\-reflects\-on\-whirlwind\-nine\-years\-as\-hi5\-member/news\-story/ebdb163ebd985817e6e5d9682095a44f \| archive\-date\=31 July 2022\|url\-status\=live}} He was replaced by Lachie Dearing, who was introduced on tour in January 2016\.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.theleader.com.au/story/3670381/dream\-to\-reality\-for\-shire\-hi\-5\-recruit\-dearing/\|last\=Heary\|first\=Monica\|date\=21 January 2016\|title\=Dream to reality for shire Hi\-5 recruit Dearing\|newspaper\=\[\[St George \& Sutherland Shire Leader]]\|access\-date\=26 May 2016\|archive\-date\=16 August 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816185836/http://www.theleader.com.au/story/3670381/dream\-to\-reality\-for\-shire\-hi\-5\-recruit\-dearing/\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.alphabetstreet.com.au/index.php/australias\-got\-talent\-finalist\-joins\-hi\-5\-cast/\|date\=2015 \|title\=Australia's Got Talent Finalist Joins Hi\-5 Cast! \|newspaper\=Alphabet Street\|access\-date\= 24 February 2016\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20151208061822/http://www.alphabetstreet.com.au/index.php/australias\-got\-talent\-finalist\-joins\-hi\-5\-cast/ \| archive\-date\=8 December 2015\|url\-status\=dead}} After being cast in an Australian musical production of *[Xanadu](/wiki/Xanadu_%28musical%29 "Xanadu (musical)")* in January 2016, Melham left the group, and new member Gabe Brown took his place in February.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/entertainment/arts/xanadu\-musical\-revival\-in\-sydney\-promises\-to\-be\-a\-thrilling\-scary\-ride\-for\-actors/news\-story/bc25f72356aeeda78b99f3cc6b57b2dc\|last\=Hook\|first\=Chris\|date\=23 January 2016\|title\=''Xanadu'': Musical revival in Sydney promises to be a thrilling, scary ride for actors\|newspaper\=The Daily Telegraph\|access\-date\= 24 February 2016\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20201206025252/https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/entertainment/arts/xanadu\-musical\-revival\-in\-sydney\-promises\-to\-be\-a\-thrilling\-scary\-ride\-for\-actors/news\-story/bc25f72356aeeda78b99f3cc6b57b2dc?nk\=35a610e29c658483a85cc35ad17cf7dd\-1607223172 \| archive\-date\=6 December 2020\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.fairfieldchampion.com.au/story/3736861/hi\-5\-to\-visit\-mounties \|last\=Chlopicki \|first\=Kirstie \|date\=18 February 2016\|title\=Hi\-5 to perform at Mounties \|newspaper\=Fairfield City Champion \|access\-date\= 24 February 2016\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160307015851/https://www.fairfieldchampion.com.au/story/3736861/hi\-5\-to\-visit\-mounties/ \| archive\-date\=7 March 2016\|url\-status\=live}} Brown was later succeeded by Chris White.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nst.com.my/news/2016/07/160609/if\-you\-love\-fairytale\-give\-me\-hi\-5\|date\=25 July 2016\|last\=Alhamzah\|first\=Tahir\|work\=\[\[New Straits Times]]\|publisher\=\[\[New Straits Times Press]]\|title\=If you love fairytale, give me a Hi\-5!\|access\-date\=30 December 2020\|archive\-date\=22 August 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822044727/http://www.nst.com.my/news/2016/07/160609/if\-you\-love\-fairytale\-give\-me\-hi\-5\|url\-status\=live}} ### 2016–2019: Fourth generation, short\-lived television revival The Nine Network renewed its partnership with the Hi\-5 franchise in October 2016 and expressed plans to revive the original television series with a new cast in 2017\.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2016/10/nine\-reviving\-hi\-5\.html\|last\=Knox\|first\=David\|date\=14 October 2016 \|title\=Nine reviving ''Hi\-5''\|newspaper\=TV Tonight \|access\-date\= 14 October 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018203206/https://tvtonight.com.au/2016/10/nine\-reviving\-hi\-5\.html\|archive\-date\=18 October 2016\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite press release\|url\=http://www.nineentertainmentco.com.au/2016/10/18/08/59/hi5\-returns\-on\-nine\#FlKRIJUsf31Gv8Sr.99 \|last\= Stamper \|first\=Michelle \|date\=18 October 2016 \| title \= Hi\-5 Returns To Nine \| work\=Nine.com.au \| publisher \= Nine Entertainment \|access\-date\= 23 October 2016 \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20161120005702/http://www.nineentertainmentco.com.au/2016/10/18/08/59/hi5\-returns\-on\-nine \|url\-status\=dead \| archive\-date\=20 November 2016}} As a result, Zheng, Lascaris, Anderson and White gave their last performances in December 2016\.{{Cite tweet \|author\=Hi\-5 \|user\=hi5officialtv \|date\=4 December 2016 \|title\=SPECIAL ANNOUNCEMENT!! 💕✨ Our beautiful friends Dayen, Mary and Tanika will be leaving Hi\-5 at the end of this \|url\=https://twitter.com/hi5officialtv/status/805236974684688384 \|number\=805236974684688384\|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201209212539/https://twitter.com/hi5officialtv/status/805236974684688384?s\=21 \|archive\-date\=9 December 2020 \|access\-date\=9 December 2020}} After auditions were held in November 2016, new members Courtney Clarke, Shay Clifford, Joe Kalou and Bailey Spalding were revealed in December, joining Dearing to form the fourth generation of the group.{{cite news\|url\=http://honey.nine.com.au/2016/12/14/16/28/hi5\-comeback\|last\=Malbon\|first\=Abigail\|date\=15 December 2016 \|title\=This children's TV favourite is making a return to screens\|newspaper\=\[\[Nine Digital\#9Honey\|9Honey]] \|publisher\=Nine Entertainment\|access\-date\= 15 December 2016\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20200809024419/https://honey.nine.com.au/latest/hi5\-comeback/7f73a85b\-d25a\-492f\-8851\-69a9cfd0d027 \|url\-status\=live \| archive\-date\=9 August 2020}}{{cite news\|url\= https://thewest.com.au/entertainment/tv/fourth\-take\-on\-tvs\-hi\-5\-ng\-b88470561z\|last\=Williams \|first\=Vanessa \|date\=12 May 2017 \|title\=Fourth take on TV's Hi\-5\|newspaper\=\[\[The West Australian]]\|publisher\=\[\[Seven West Media]]\|access\-date\= 10 September 2017\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20170910091010/https://thewest.com.au/entertainment/tv/fourth\-take\-on\-tvs\-hi\-5\-ng\-b88470561z\|archive\-date\=10 September 2017 \|url\-status\=live }} The quintet debuted at Carols by Candlelight on Christmas Eve, Hi\-5's first appearance at the Nine event since 2012\.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/entertainment/sydney\-confidential/introducing\-the\-new\-kids\-on\-the\-block\-meet\-the\-2017\-cast\-for\-iconic\-childrens\-group\-hi5/news\-story/b9138c0c2e291613fac7d38a095cae06\|last\=Moran\|first\=Jonathon\|date\=15 December 2016 \|title\=Introducing the new kids on the block! Meet the 2017 cast for iconic children's group Hi\-5\|newspaper\=The Daily Telegraph \|access\-date\= 15 December 2016\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20170820154504/https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/entertainment/sydney\-confidential/introducing\-the\-new\-kids\-on\-the\-block\-meet\-the\-2017\-cast\-for\-iconic\-childrens\-group\-hi5/news\-story/b9138c0c2e291613fac7d38a095cae06 \|archive\-date\=20 August 2017 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2016/12/new\-look\-hi\-5\-cast.html\|last\=Knox\|first\=David\|date\=16 December 2016\|title\=New\-look Hi\-5 cast\|newspaper\= TV Tonight\|access\-date\= 16 December 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018191543/https://tvtonight.com.au/2016/12/new\-look\-hi\-5\-cast.html\|archive\-date\=18 October 2017\|url\-status\=live}} The [new television series](/wiki/Hi-5_%282017_TV_series%2C_series_1%29 "Hi-5 (2017 TV series, series 1)") was filmed in Malaysia and premiered in May 2017 on Nine's multichannel, [9Go!](/wiki/9Go%21 "9Go!") in Australia.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2017/04/returning\-hi\-5\-4\.html\|last\=Knox\|first\=David\|date\=27 April 2017\|title\=Returning: ''Hi\-5''\|newspaper\=TV Tonight \|access\-date\=28 April 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170902142211/https://tvtonight.com.au/2017/04/returning\-hi\-5\-4\.html\|archive\-date\=2 September 2017\|url\-status\=live}} Additional filming in 2018 was halted before the Australian production office was closed and the brand was relocated to Singapore.{{cite news\|url\=https://tvtonight.com.au/2018/09/hi\-5\-closes\-production\-office\-new\-cast\-expected.html\|last\=Knox\|first\=David\|date\=29 September 2018\|title\=Hi\-5 closes production office, cast changes ahead. \|newspaper\=TV Tonight \|access\-date\=29 September 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181010012852/https://tvtonight.com.au/2018/09/hi\-5\-closes\-production\-office\-new\-cast\-expected.html\|archive\-date\=10 October 2018\|url\-status\=live}} All five members departed the group, and the brand used temporary touring members for the remainder of 2018\.{{cite news\|url\=https://tvtonight.com.au/2018/10/another\-hi\-5\-star\-quits.html\|last\=Knox\|first\=David\|date\=11 October 2018\|title\=Another Hi\-5 star quits \|newspaper\=TV Tonight\|access\-date\=11 October 2018\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231173632/https://tvtonight.com.au/2018/10/another\-hi\-5\-star\-quits.html \|archive\-date\=31 December 2019\|quote\=Casting has been underway in Australia for stage performances while producers in Singapore and Nine are yet to confirm future TV cast or episodes.}} The franchise continued employing non\-permanent performers for touring purposes in 2019\.{{cite news\|title\=Celebrate Australia Day with Hi\-5 at Bella Vista Farm\|url\=http://hillsfocus.com.au/?p\=1211/\|access\-date\=14 February 2019\|work\=The Sydney Hills Focus\|date\=24 January 2019\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214085848/http://hillsfocus.com.au/?p\=1211%2F\|archive\-date\=14 February 2019}} Note: Jarrod Barke, Jacqui Bramwell and Dani Mirels were temporary touring members.
[ "History\n-------", "### 1998–1999: Formation", "Hi\\-5 were formed in September 1998 in Sydney, Australia, as a [children's musical group](/wiki/Children%27s_music \"Children's music\").{{cite press release\\|url\\=https://www.nineentertainmentco.com.au/2016/12/15/10/08/new\\-hi5\\-cast\\-unveiled \\|date\\=15 December 2016 \\| title \\= New Hi\\-5 Cast Unveiled \\| work \\= \\[\\[Nine.com.au]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Nine Entertainment]] \\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20161223224132/https://www.nineentertainmentco.com.au/2016/12/15/10/08/new\\-hi5\\-cast\\-unveiled \\| archive\\-date \\= 23 December 2016\\| access\\-date \\= 8 December 2019}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/119705377/ \\|format\\=PDF \\|title\\=Second banana no more\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Sun\\-Herald]] \\|publisher\\=Nine Entertainment \\|pages\\=64\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201213141702/https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/119705377/\\|archive\\-date\\=13 December 2020\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|date\\=5 September 1999 \\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2018\\|via\\=\\[\\[Ancestry.com\\#Newspapers.com\\|Newspapers.com]]\\|quote\\=since Hi\\-5 was formed last September}} Television producer Helena Harris, who had worked on *[Bananas in Pyjamas](/wiki/Bananas_in_Pyjamas \"Bananas in Pyjamas\")*, co\\-created Hi\\-5 as a concept for a new [television show of the same name](/wiki/Hi-5_%28Australian_TV_series%29 \"Hi-5 (Australian TV series)\") for the [Nine Network](/wiki/Nine_Network \"Nine Network\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/newslocal/manly\\-daily/hi5\\-and\\-bananas\\-in\\-pyjamas\\-reveals\\-creator\\-helena\\-harris\\-reveals\\-the\\-secret\\-to\\-her\\-success/news\\-story/9a3b5b0dc6261c12b3d19cf1faa5998d \\|last\\= Welling \\|first\\= Kathryn \\|date\\=19 November 2016 \\| title \\=''Hi\\-5'' and ''Bananas in Pyjamas'' creator Helena Harris reveals the secrets to her success \\| work \\= \\[\\[The Daily Telegraph (Sydney)\\|The Daily Telegraph]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[News Corp Australia]]\\| access\\-date\\= 3 August 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201206022052/https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/newslocal/manly\\-daily/hi5\\-and\\-bananas\\-in\\-pyjamas\\-reveals\\-creator\\-helena\\-harris\\-reveals\\-the\\-secret\\-to\\-her\\-success/news\\-story/9a3b5b0dc6261c12b3d19cf1faa5998d?nk\\=a529828d8c34c927f72250af517152b9\\-1607221252 \\| archive\\-date \\= 6 December 2020}} She and co\\-producer [Posie Graeme\\-Evans](/wiki/Posie_Graeme-Evans \"Posie Graeme-Evans\") developed the series as [preschool](/wiki/Preschool \"Preschool\") entertainment, blending educational theories with a musical appeal to capture children's attention.{{sfn\\|Keys\\|2004\\|p\\=141}}{{cite web\\|date\\=2001\\|title\\=About Hi\\-5\\|url\\=http://ninemsn.com.au/kids/hi5/abouthf.asp\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413163931/http://ninemsn.com.au/kids/hi5/abouthf.asp\\|archive\\-date\\=13 April 2001\\|access\\-date\\=22 April 2020\\|work\\=\\[\\[NineMSN]]\\|publisher\\=Nine Entertainment}} Harris said that while *Hi\\-5* was predominantly a television series, its music was able to be differentiated from the show. Featuring five performers, the cast were intended to act as the audience's older siblings or friends, rather than adults teaching children.{{sfn\\|Hynd\\|2006\\|p\\=40}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.straitstimes.com/lifestyle/entertainment/learning\\-from\\-kids\\-with\\-hi\\-5 \\| last \\= Kaur \\| first \\= Gurveen \\|date\\=7 September 2015 \\|title\\=Learning from kids with Hi\\-5 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Straits Times]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Singapore Press Holdings]] \\|access\\-date\\= 27 February 2016\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20151117030926/https://www.straitstimes.com/lifestyle/entertainment/learning\\-from\\-kids\\-with\\-hi\\-5 \\| archive\\-date\\=17 November 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Harris was inspired to develop a show with broad appeal and accessible themes such as family and animals.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bbc.co.uk/norfolk/stage/HI5\\_helena\\_harris.shtml \\| last \\= Binns \\| first \\= Rachel \\| work \\= Norfolk on Stage \\| title \\= Hi\\-5 Comes Alive at the Theatre Royal \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[BBC Online]] \\| date \\= 5 February 2004 \\| access\\-date \\= 20 February 2016\\|pages\\=\\[http://www.bbc.co.uk/norfolk/stage/HI5\\_helena\\_harris.shtml 1], \\[http://www.bbc.co.uk/norfolk/stage/HI5\\_helena\\_harris\\_2\\.shtml 2]\\|archive\\-url \\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107073401/http://www.bbc.co.uk/norfolk/stage/HI5\\_helena\\_harris.shtml \\| archive\\-date \\= 7 January 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Note: Article is published across two pages. She modelled the group's style on the fast\\-paced nature of contemporary music videos and strove to allude to items of current interest (such as relevant [curriculum](/wiki/Curriculum%23Australia \"Curriculum#Australia\") as well as popular jokes, films and music) to keep children engaged.{{sfn\\|Hynd\\|2006\\|p\\=42}}{{cite web \\| url \\= http://anthillonline.com/tv\\-production/ \\| last \\= Ryan \\| first \\= Paul \\| work \\= Australian Anthill \\| title \\= TV production \\| date \\= 1 October 2005 \\| access\\-date \\= 20 February 2016 \\| archive\\-date \\= 6 January 2010 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20100106162426/http://anthillonline.com/tv\\-production/ \\| url\\-status \\= live }} Harris recalled watching [the Spice Girls](/wiki/The_Spice_Girls \"The Spice Girls\"), whose dance moves she believed preschoolers could copy.{{cite AV media \\| people \\= Hi\\-5 Latino \\| date \\= 15 October 2014 \\| title \\= La historia de Hi\\-5 \\| trans\\-title\\= The history of Hi\\-5 \\| url \\= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=vuC2Idq6TTk \\| access\\-date \\= 20 February 2016 \\| minutes \\= 0:48 \\| language \\= es \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[YouTube]]}} The creators saw the need for \"life\\-affirming\" television for rapidly maturing preschoolers and found most children learn from programs which use music and movement.{{sfn\\|Keys\\|2004\\|p\\=141}}", "After auditions for the group in June 1998 (narrowing down around 300 people to only five),{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theage.com.au/news/tv\\-\\-radio/hi5s\\-magic\\-act/2005/11/15/1132016790061\\.html?page\\=fullpage \\| last\\= Debelle \\| first \\= Penelope \\| date \\= 16 November 2005 \\| title\\= Hi\\-5's magic act \\|newspaper\\= \\[\\[The Age]] \\|publisher\\= Nine Entertainment \\|access\\-date\\= 20 February 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20181009172109/https://www.theage.com.au/entertainment/hi\\-5s\\-magic\\-act\\-20051116\\-ge18vb.html?page\\=fullpage \\| archive\\-date \\= 9 October 2018}} the television pilot for *Hi\\-5* was produced in mid\\-1998\\.{{cite web \\| url \\= http://posiegraemeevans.net/my\\-television\\-life/ \\| title \\= My Television Life \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20150321071238/http://posiegraemeevans.net/my\\-television\\-life/\\| url\\-status \\= dead\\| publisher \\= Posie Graeme\\-Evans \\| archive\\-date\\=21 March 2015\\| date \\= 2015 \\| access\\-date \\= 1 October 2019 \\|quote\\=We produced a pilot in mid 1998\\. The series rolled in October that year.}} The original cast consisted of [Kellie Crawford](/wiki/Kellie_Crawford \"Kellie Crawford\") (née Hoggart), [Kathleen de Leon Jones](/wiki/Kathleen_de_Leon_Jones \"Kathleen de Leon Jones\"), [Nathan Foley](/wiki/Nathan_Foley_%28singer%29 \"Nathan Foley (singer)\"), [Tim Harding](/wiki/Tim_Harding_%28musician%29 \"Tim Harding (musician)\") and [Charli Robinson](/wiki/Charli_Robinson \"Charli Robinson\"). After being commissioned, production began in October 1998\\. The [first series](/wiki/Hi-5_%28series_1%29 \"Hi-5 (series 1)\") premiered in April 1999 on the Nine Network.{{cite news \\|url\\= http://televisionau.com/2013/04/special\\-australian\\-tv\\-history\\-timeline\\-pt\\-2\\.html \\|last1\\= Bayley \\|first1\\= Andrew \\|last2\\= Knox \\|first2\\= David \\|date\\= 26 April 2013 \\|title\\= Special: Australian TV History Timeline Pt 2 \\|newspaper\\= televisionau.com \\|access\\-date\\= 20 February 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\= 20 February 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160220160833/http://televisionau.com/2013/04/special\\-australian\\-tv\\-history\\-timeline\\-pt\\-2\\.html \\|url\\-status\\= live }}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://kidscreen.com/1999/06/01/25638\\-19990601/ \\|last\\=Mazurkewich \\|first\\=Karen \\|date\\=1 June 1999 \\|title\\=The Kids Licensing Biz Down Under \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Brunico Communications\\|Kidscreen]] \\|quote\\=On April 12, the terrestrial station launched a new variety series called Hi\\-5\\. \\|access\\-date\\=18 February 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 February 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180218091227/http://kidscreen.com/1999/06/01/25638\\-19990601/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In September, [Sony Music](/wiki/Sony_Music_Australia \"Sony Music Australia\") released their debut album, *Jump and Jive with Hi\\-5*, which reached number 33 on the [Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA)](/wiki/Australian_Recording_Industry_Association \"Australian Recording Industry Association\") [Albums Chart](/wiki/ARIA_Charts \"ARIA Charts\").{{cite web \\| url\\=https://itunes.apple.com/au/album/jump\\-and\\-jive\\-with\\-hi\\-5/id305858463 \\| title\\=Jump and Jive with Hi\\-5 by Hi\\-5 \\| work\\=\\[\\[iTunes Store]] \\| access\\-date\\=4 December 2016 \\| archive\\-date\\=20 December 2016 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220140443/https://itunes.apple.com/au/album/jump\\-and\\-jive\\-with\\-hi\\-5/id305858463 \\| url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\| url \\= http://australian\\-charts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpret\\=Hi\\-5 \\| title \\= Discography Hi\\-5 \\| last \\= Hung \\| first \\= Steffen \\| work \\= Australian Charts Portal \\| publisher \\= Hung Medien \\| access\\-date \\= 25 February 2016 \\| archive\\-date \\= 19 October 2016 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20161019214313/http://australian\\-charts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpret\\=Hi\\-5 \\| url\\-status \\= live }}", "### 2000–2006: Early success", "[thumb\\|left\\|[Kellie Crawford](/wiki/Kellie_Crawford \"Kellie Crawford\") and puppet character Chatterbox, January 2006\\|alt\\=A distant stage shot of a female performer wearing bright clothes and singing into a headset microphone. A jack\\-in\\-the\\-box style puppet sits behind her on a movable section, which is brightly coloured.](/wiki/File:Kellie_Hoggart_singing_Hi-5_Jan_06_landscape.jpg \"Kellie Hoggart singing Hi-5 Jan 06 landscape.jpg\")\nHi\\-5 won the 2000 [Logie Award for Most Outstanding Children's Program](/wiki/Logie_Award_for_Most_Outstanding_Children%27s_Program \"Logie Award for Most Outstanding Children's Program\") in recognition of their television program, and the [ARIA Award for Best Children's Album](/wiki/ARIA_Award_for_Best_Children%27s_Album \"ARIA Award for Best Children's Album\") for *Jump and Jive with Hi\\-5*.{{cite web\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127054330/http://www.tvweeklogieawards.com.au/logie\\-history/2000s/2000/ \\|url\\=http://www.tvweeklogieawards.com.au/logie\\-history/2000s/2000/ \\|title\\=Logies Timeline 2000 \\|work\\=\\[\\[TV Week]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Bauer Media Group]] \\|archive\\-date\\=27 January 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=27 February 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109051644/http://www.ariaawards.com.au/history/year/2000 \\|url\\=http://www.ariaawards.com.au/history/year/2000 \\|title\\=Winners by Year 2000 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Australian Recording Industry Association]] (ARIA) \\|archive\\-date\\=9 January 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=26 February 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Their releases consistently received album accreditations; *Celebrate* was certified as gold, while *Jump and Jive with Hi\\-5*, *Boom Boom Beat* and *It{{'s}} a Hi\\-5 Christmas* went platinum, and *It{{'s}} a Party* received double platinum status.{{Cite certification\\|region\\=Australia\\|type\\=album\\|certyear\\=2000\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2019}}{{Cite certification\\|region\\=Australia\\|type\\=album\\|certyear\\=2001\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2019}}{{Cite certification\\|region\\=Australia\\|type\\=album\\|certyear\\=2002\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2019}} Four of their albums reached the top 10 on the ARIA Albums Chart; *It{{'s}} a Party* (number four, July 2000\\), *Boom Boom Beat* (number three, August 2001\\), *It{{'s}} a Hi\\-5 Christmas* (number four, December 2001\\) and *Hi\\-5 Hits* (number ten, July 2003\\). It was reported in 2005 that a [feature film](/wiki/Feature_film \"Feature film\") starring the group was in early development, as well as arrangements for a [single](/wiki/Single_%28music%29 \"Single (music)\") release.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/news/tv\\-\\-radio/hi5\\-in\\-hindi/2005/07/27/1122143892219\\.html \\|date\\=27 July 2005\\|title\\=Hi\\-5 in Hindi \\|newspaper\\= \\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]] \\|publisher\\=Nine Entertainment \\|agency \\= \\[\\[Australian Associated Press]] (AAP)\\|access\\-date\\= 18 October 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201226021824/https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/hi\\-5\\-in\\-hindi\\-20050728\\-gdlriy.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=26 December 2020}}", "Hi\\-5 [toured nationally](/wiki/List_of_Hi-5_live_performances \"List of Hi-5 live performances\") for up to eight months of every year, with sell\\-out concerts in venues such as the [Sydney Opera House](/wiki/Sydney_Opera_House \"Sydney Opera House\").{{sfn\\|Keys\\|2004\\|p\\=138}}{{cite press release \\|url\\= http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/CU0209/S00100\\.htm \\|date\\= 27 September 2002 \\|title\\= Australia's Hi\\-5 touring New Zealand \\|newspaper\\= \\[\\[Scoop (website)\\|Scoop]] \\|publisher\\= Scoop Media \\|access\\-date\\= 21 February 2016 \\|quote\\= Following sell\\-out national tours in 1999, 2000 and 2001\\... \\|archive\\-date\\= 5 March 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160305075456/http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/CU0209/S00100\\.htm \\|url\\-status\\= live }}{{cite news \\|url\\= http://m.nzherald.co.nz/lifestyle/news/article.cfm?c\\_id\\=6\\&objectid\\=10007017 \\|last\\= Harris \\|first\\= Catherine \\|date\\= 18 January 2005 \\|title\\= Hi5 hit town \\|newspaper\\= \\[\\[The New Zealand Herald]] \\|publisher\\= \\[\\[New Zealand Media and Entertainment]] (NZME) \\|access\\-date\\= 21 February 2016 \\|quote\\= On the road for up to eight months of the year. \\|archive\\-date\\= 4 March 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304100708/http://m.nzherald.co.nz/lifestyle/news/article.cfm?c\\_id\\=6\\&objectid\\=10007017 \\|url\\-status\\= live }} The quintet's production of *Hi\\-5 Alive* won the 2002 [Helpmann Award for Best Presentation for Children](/wiki/Helpmann_Award_for_Best_Presentation_for_Children \"Helpmann Award for Best Presentation for Children\"), while their *Space Magic* production was nominated in the same category in [2006](/wiki/6th_Helpmann_Awards \"6th Helpmann Awards\").{{cite web\\|url\\= http://www.helpmannawards.com.au/2002/past\\-nominees\\-and\\-winners/presentation\\-for\\-children \\| work \\= \\[\\[Helpmann Awards]] \\| title \\= Past nominees and winners – 2002 – Best Presentation for Children \\| access\\-date\\= 19 February 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202021418/http://www.helpmannawards.com.au/2002/past\\-nominees\\-and\\-winners/presentation\\-for\\-children\\|archive\\-date\\=2 February 2020 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\= http://www.helpmannawards.com.au/2006/past\\-nominees\\-and\\-winners/presentation\\-for\\-children \\| work \\= Helpmann Awards \\| title \\= Past nominees and winners – 2006 – Best Presentation for Children \\| access\\-date\\=2 February 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202021303/http://www.helpmannawards.com.au/2006/past\\-nominees\\-and\\-winners/presentation\\-for\\-children\\|archive\\-date\\=2 February 2020 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} The group first toured the UK in 2004, and in 2005 performed in [arenas](/wiki/Arena \"Arena\") around Australia to maximise the audience capacity. In addition to their regular tours, Hi\\-5 appeared annually at [Vision Australia](/wiki/Vision_Australia \"Vision Australia\"){{'}}s [Carols by Candlelight](/wiki/Carols_by_Candlelight \"Carols by Candlelight\") in Melbourne, broadcast live by the Nine Network on Christmas Eve.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://televisionau.com/2007/12/twas\\-the\\-night\\-before\\-christmas.html \\|last\\=Bayley \\|first\\=Andrew \\|date\\=23 December 2007 \\|title\\=Twas the night before Christmas \\|newspaper\\=televisionau.com \\|access\\-date\\=5 October 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 May 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518011215/https://televisionau.com/2007/12/twas\\-the\\-night\\-before\\-christmas.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "### 2006–2008: Replacement of original members", "[thumb\\|[Stevie Nicholson](/wiki/Stevie_Nicholson \"Stevie Nicholson\"), Surry Hills, November 2011\\|upright\\|alt\\=An upper body shot of a 27\\-year\\-old man. He is standing with his hands tucked into his pants' pockets and smiling. Behind him are hoarding signs with names of commercial sponsors.](/wiki/File:Stevie_Nicholson%2C_2011_%284%29.jpg \"Stevie Nicholson, 2011 (4).jpg\")\nIn early 2006, de Leon Jones announced she was pregnant, and would take maternity leave from April onwards.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2006/03/04/1141191886876\\.html \\|last\\= Wood \\|first\\=Miranda \\|date\\=5 March 2006\\|title\\= It's Hi\\-5s and hugs all round as Sophie and Molly reunite \\|newspaper\\= The Sydney Morning Herald \\|publisher\\=Nine Entertainment \\|access\\-date\\= 21 February 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url \\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206034524/https://www.smh.com.au/national/its\\-hi\\-5s\\-and\\-hugs\\-all\\-round\\-as\\-sophie\\-and\\-molly\\-reunite\\-20060305\\-gdn38u.html \\| archive\\-date \\=6 December 2020}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2006/07/28/1153816364460\\.html \\|date\\=28 July 2006\\|title\\= It's a girl for Kathleen\\|newspaper\\= The Age \\| agency \\= Australian Associated Press (AAP) \\|publisher\\= Nine Entertainment \\|access\\-date\\= 21 February 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url \\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019164113/https://www.theage.com.au/entertainment/celebrity/its\\-a\\-girl\\-for\\-kathleen\\-20060729\\-ge2t5p.html \\| archive\\-date \\=19 October 2018\\|quote\\=The 28\\-year\\-old took maternity leave from Hi\\-5 in April to prepare for the birth.}} [Sun Park](/wiki/Sun_Park \"Sun Park\") was introduced as her temporary replacement; de Leon Jones gave birth to her first child in July. Park was part of the television series filming in 2006 and toured with the group across Australia.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sydneystage.com.au/component/option,com\\_events/task,view\\_detail/agid,421/year,2006/month,10/day,21/Itemid,34/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107073402/http://www.sydneystage.com.au/component/option,com\\_events/task,view\\_detail/agid,421/year,2006/month,10/day,21/Itemid,34/ \\| work \\= Australian Stage Online \\| title \\= Hi\\-5 Live Action Heroes \\| date \\= July 2006 \\| archive\\-date\\=7 January 2016 \\| access\\-date \\= 20 October 2018\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.bordermail.com.au/news/bm/national/280865\\.html\\|date\\=19 June 2006\\|title\\=Sun comes up for Hi\\-5 group\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Border Mail]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Australian Community Media]]\\|access\\-date\\=6 December 2020\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060829071232/http://www.bordermail.com.au/news/bm/national/280865\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=29 August 2006}} In July 2006, de Leon Jones said she was intent on returning to Hi\\-5;{{cite news\\|url\\=http://news.ninemsn.com.au/article.aspx?id\\=117775 \\|date\\=27 July 2006 \\|title\\=\"Hi\\-5\" Star Kath de Leon Has Baby Girl \\|newspaper\\=NineMSN\\|publisher\\=Nine Entertainment \\|agency\\=Australian Associated Press (AAP) \\|access\\-date\\=21 February 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060914200031/http://news.ninemsn.com.au/article.aspx?id\\=117775 \\|archive\\-date\\=14 September 2006 }} however, in July 2007, made the decision to leave the group permanently to focus on being a mother. Park took her place as a full\\-time member.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/news/entertainment/being\\-a\\-mum\\-is\\-number\\-one\\-for\\-hi5\\-fave/2007/07/14/1184438124537\\.html \\|last\\=Sams \\|first\\=Christine \\|date\\=15 July 2007\\|title\\=Being a mum is number one for Hi\\-5 fave \\|newspaper\\= \\[\\[Brisbane Times]] \\|publisher\\=Nine Entertainment\\|access\\-date\\= 21 February 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206054757/https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/entertainment/being\\-a\\-mum\\-is\\-number\\-one\\-for\\-hi\\-5\\-fave\\-20070715\\-ge8vyh.html \\|archive\\-date\\=6 December 2020}}", "A serious motorcycle accident in June 2007 left Harding unable to keep up with the pace of Hi\\-5's performances.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/tv/harding\\-weighs\\-up\\-his\\-options/story\\-e6frfmyi\\-1111114252830\\| last \\= Connolly \\| first \\= Fiona \\|date\\=24 August 2007\\|title\\=Harding weighs up his options \\|newspaper\\= The Daily Telegraph \\|access\\-date\\= 21 February 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206031853/https://www.news.com.au/entertainment/tv/harding\\-weighs\\-up\\-his\\-options/news\\-story/7a5bf0a381f2784f0c721726b4f386d2 \\|archive\\-date\\=6 December 2020}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2007/11/new\\-look\\-hi\\-5\\-says\\-hi\\-to\\-sunrise.html\\|last\\=Knox \\|first\\=David \\|date\\=15 November 2007\\|title\\=New look Hi\\-5 says hi to ''Sunrise''\\|newspaper\\= TV Tonight\\|access\\-date\\= 21 February 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305041803/https://tvtonight.com.au/2007/11/new\\-look\\-hi\\-5\\-says\\-hi\\-to\\-sunrise.html\\|archive\\-date\\=5 March 2016}} Just a few days before this, [Stevie Nicholson](/wiki/Stevie_Nicholson \"Stevie Nicholson\") had been hired as an understudy and was put straight to work as a temporary replacement for Harding.{{cite news\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20130410200314/http://www.stevie.com.au/stevie\\-articles/2007/11/11/hi5s\\-got\\-a\\-new\\-man\\-about\\-the\\-set/ \\|url\\=http://www.stevie.com.au/stevie\\-articles/2007/11/11/hi5s\\-got\\-a\\-new\\-man\\-about\\-the\\-set/\\| last\\=Sams \\|first\\= Christine \\| date\\= 11 November 2007 \\| work \\= The Sun\\-Herald \\| publisher \\= Nine Entertainment \\| archive\\-date \\= 10 April 2013 \\|title \\= Hi\\-5's Got a New Man About the Set \\| url\\-status\\=dead \\| access\\-date\\= 21 February 2016}} The group toured the *Hi\\-5 Circus Stageshow* in 2007; the show adopted a [circus](/wiki/Circus \"Circus\") theme and incorporated tricks such as [trapeze](/wiki/Trapeze \"Trapeze\"), [tightrope walking](/wiki/Tightrope_walking \"Tightrope walking\") and [gymnastics](/wiki/Gymnastics \"Gymnastics\"). They had only one week of training; some members benefitted from prior experience. Nicholson debuted on tour with the *Circus* show in Singapore.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/news/tv\\-\\-radio/highflyers\\-have\\-found\\-new\\-tricks/2007/11/17/1194767020226\\.html\\|last\\=Marcus \\|first\\=Caroline \\|date\\=18 November 2007\\|title\\=High\\-flyers have found new tricks \\|newspaper\\= The Sydney Morning Herald\\|publisher\\=Nine Entertainment\\|access\\-date\\= 21 February 2016\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201206034639/https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/high\\-flyers\\-have\\-found\\-new\\-tricks\\-20071118\\-gdrml3\\.html \\| archive\\-date \\= 6 December 2020 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} Harding permanently departed in November after recovering from his injuries and was replaced by Nicholson.{{cite news\\|last\\=Knox\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=24 June 2008\\|title\\=Returning: ''Hi\\-5''\\|newspaper\\=TV Tonight\\|url\\=http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2008/06/returning\\-hi\\-5\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=14 October 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316195132/https://tvtonight.com.au/2008/06/returning\\-hi\\-5\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=16 March 2016}}{{cite news \\| url \\= http://www.abc.net.au/news/2007\\-11\\-12/harding\\-waves\\-farewell\\-to\\-hi\\-5/722512 \\| date \\= 12 November 2007 \\| title \\= Harding waves farewell to ''Hi\\-5'' \\| work \\= \\[\\[ABC News (Australia)\\|ABC News]] \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] (ABC) \\| access\\-date \\= 21 February 2016 \\| archive\\-date \\= 20 December 2015 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20151220034750/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2007\\-11\\-12/harding\\-waves\\-farewell\\-to\\-hi\\-5/722512 \\| url\\-status \\= live }}", "Robinson (then referred to as Delaney) exited from the group in February 2008\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/television/no\\-song\\-and\\-dance\\-for\\-charli/story\\-e6frfmyi\\-1111115616501\\|date\\=22 February 2008\\|title\\=No song and dance as Charli Delaney quits Hi\\-5\\|work\\=The Daily Telegraph\\|access\\-date\\=28 February 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831014644/http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/television/no\\-song\\-and\\-dance\\-for\\-charli/story\\-e6frfmyi\\-1111115616501\\|archive\\-date\\=31 August 2010}} She expressed an interest in proving herself as an actor for an adult audience and said she would help find a replacement member.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/celebrity\\-life/charli\\-delaney\\-quits\\-hi\\-5/story\\-e6frfmqr\\-1111115615660\\|date\\=21 February 2008\\|title\\=Charli Delaney quits Hi\\-5 for Adam Gilchrist\\|newspaper\\=The Daily Telegraph\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20151215180820/http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/celebrity\\-life/charli\\-delaney\\-quits\\-hi\\-5/story\\-e6frfmqr\\-1111115615660 \\| archive\\-date \\= 15 December 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|access\\-date\\= 19 February 2019}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2008/02/charli\\-quits\\-hi\\-5\\.html\\|last\\=Knox\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=22 February 2008\\|title\\=Charli quits Hi\\-5\\|newspaper\\= TV Tonight\\|access\\-date\\=6 December 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160221184930/http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2008/02/charli\\-quits\\-hi\\-5\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=21 February 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}} After leaving, she established a career in the Australian media industry as a presenter. In April, [Casey Burgess](/wiki/Casey_Burgess \"Casey Burgess\") was revealed as Robinson's replacement and began touring with the group.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://tvtonight.com.au/2008/05/hi\\-5\\-touring\\-tas\\-vic\\-and\\-nsw.html\\|last\\=Knox\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=14 May 2008\\|title\\=Hi\\-5 touring Tas, Vic and NSW\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[TV Tonight]]\\|access\\-date\\= 1 October 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160221185036/https://tvtonight.com.au/2008/05/hi\\-5\\-touring\\-tas\\-vic\\-and\\-nsw.html\\|archive\\-date\\=21 February 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|quote\\=Children aged between 2–8 years of age}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2008/04/casey\\-gets\\-the\\-big\\-hi\\-5\\.html\\|last\\=Knox\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=2 April 2008\\|title\\=Casey gets the big Hi\\-5\\|newspaper\\= TV Tonight\\|access\\-date\\= 21 February 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160221185013/http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2008/04/casey\\-gets\\-the\\-big\\-hi\\-5\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=21 February 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "In March 2008, the Nine Network, along with production company Southern Star, purchased the Hi\\-5 brand. The change of ownership saw Harris and Graeme\\-Evans end their involvement with the franchise, which was placed under the direction of Martin Hersov and Cathy Payne, Nine and Southern Star executives.", "By November 2008, the remaining original cast members had stated their intent to withdraw from the group. Crawford reported in October that she would be leaving at the end of the year to explore other options, and a month later, Foley outlined his plan to exit and focus on his adult music career.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2008/11/nathan\\-the\\-last\\-to\\-exit\\-hi\\-5\\.html\\|last\\=Knox\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=12 November 2008\\|title\\=Nathan, the last to exit Hi\\-5\\|newspaper\\= TV Tonight\\|access\\-date\\= 12 June 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804015140/https://tvtonight.com.au/2008/11/nathan\\-the\\-last\\-to\\-exit\\-hi\\-5\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=4 August 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|quote\\=Martin Hersov and Cathy Payne, directors of Hi\\-5 Operations.}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/tv/kellie\\-crawford\\-quits\\-hi\\-5/story\\-e6frfmyi\\-1111117912421\\|date\\=31 October 2008\\|title\\=Kellie Crawford quits Hi\\-5\\|newspaper\\= News.com.au\\|publisher\\=News Corp Australia \\|agency \\=Australian Associated Press (AAP)\\|access\\-date\\= 22 February 2016\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201206032119/https://www.news.com.au/entertainment/tv/kellie\\-crawford\\-quits\\-hi\\-5/news\\-story/1750249c0d2712f1219e63cfa863bea2 \\| archive\\-date \\= 6 December 2020 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.theage.com.au/news/entertainment/tv\\-\\-radio/last\\-of\\-the\\-originals\\-nathan\\-quits\\-hi5/2008/11/12/1226318713076\\.html\\|date\\=12 November 2008\\|title\\=Last of the originals, Nathan quits Hi\\-5\\|newspaper\\= The Age\\| agency \\= Australian Associated Press (AAP) \\|publisher\\=Nine Entertainment\\|access\\-date\\= 22 February 2016\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20190220063206/https://www.theage.com.au/entertainment/last\\-of\\-the\\-originals\\-nathan\\-quits\\-hi\\-5\\-20081112\\-ge7ijg.html \\| archive\\-date \\= 20 February 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In December, Park also stated she would be departing the group since she had expected only to be a temporary replacement.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/entertainment/hi\\-5s\\-sun\\-third\\-to\\-quit/news\\-story/133eaad08c45866c2474250ad55d40b8\\|last\\=Moran\\|first\\=Jonothan\\|date\\=21 December 2008\\|title\\=Hi\\-5's Sun Park quits after Nathan Foley and Kellie Crawford \\|newspaper\\=The Daily Telegraph\\|access\\-date\\= 6 December 2020\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201206044150/https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/entertainment/hi\\-5s\\-sun\\-third\\-to\\-quit/news\\-story/133eaad08c45866c2474250ad55d40b8?nk\\=d4644650c024d467da72d00375a8d2e1\\-1607229710 \\| archive\\-date\\= 6 December 2020 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} *[The Daily Telegraph](/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph_%28Sydney%29 \"The Daily Telegraph (Sydney)\")*{{'}}s *Sydney Confidential* reporter alleged that Hi\\-5's production company had asked Crawford and Foley to leave, and that the producers were \"opting to recruit younger, cheaper performers\".{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/tv/hi\\-5\\-pairs\\-bitter\\-finale/story\\-e6frfmyi\\-1111118262668\\|date\\=9 December 2008\\|title\\=Bitter finale for Hi\\-5 pair Nathan Foley and Kellie Hoggart \\| work \\= The Daily Telegraph\\|access\\-date\\= 22 February 2016\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201206032105/https://www.news.com.au/entertainment/tv/hi\\-5\\-pairs\\-bitter\\-finale/news\\-story/47e06468dde47c5bb13018540894ca94 \\| archive\\-date \\= 6 December 2020 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Neither of them responded to these reports, but Park denied the industry rumours, saying that there had been no pressure for any of them to resign. The departing members gave their final performance at Carols by Candlelight on Christmas Eve in Melbourne.", "### 2009–2013: Second generation", "[thumb\\|[Lauren Brant](/wiki/Lauren_Brant \"Lauren Brant\") and Dayen Zheng, The Ivy Ballroom, Sydney, November 2012\\|alt\\=Full body shot of two smiling women. Woman at left is taller and has her right hand at her hip. The other woman has her arm around the back of the first. They stand in front of hoarding signs.](/wiki/File:Lauren_Brant_%288189940169%29.jpg \"Lauren Brant (8189940169).jpg\")\nIn February 2009, [Lauren Brant](/wiki/Lauren_Brant \"Lauren Brant\"), [Fely Irvine](/wiki/Fely_Irvine \"Fely Irvine\") and [Tim Maddren](/wiki/Tim_Maddren \"Tim Maddren\") joined Nicholson and Burgess to complete the group's new line\\-up.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://tvtonight.com.au/2009/02/5\\-seasons\\-for\\-new\\-look\\-hi\\-5\\.html\\|last\\=Knox\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=24 February 2009 \\|title\\=5 seasons for new look Hi\\-5\\|newspaper\\=TV Tonight\\|access\\-date\\=2 October 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160221195416/https://tvtonight.com.au/2009/02/5\\-seasons\\-for\\-new\\-look\\-hi\\-5\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=21 February 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.news.com.au/entertainment/tv/hi\\-5s\\-complete\\-group\\-makeover/news\\-story/730dd352145fc3eae7584990b2ff4a91?sv\\=411b636ec50db23d3c5573ebd683f3fc\\|last\\=McWhirter\\|first\\=Erin\\|date\\=18 March 2009\\|title\\=Hi\\-5's complete group makeover\\|newspaper\\=The Daily Telegraph \\|access\\-date\\= 6 December 2020\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201206050805/https://www.news.com.au/entertainment/tv/hi\\-5s\\-complete\\-group\\-makeover/news\\-story/730dd352145fc3eae7584990b2ff4a91?sv\\=411b636ec50db23d3c5573ebd683f3fc \\| archive\\-date\\= 6 December 2020 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} Burgess described the change as a difficult transition period that led to uncertainty over their future.{{Cite news\\|url \\= http://www.smh.com.au/news/entertainment/tv\\-\\-radio/surprise\\-five\\-line\\-up\\-for\\-a\\-new\\-adventure/2010/01/09/1262453697393\\.html \\|title \\= Surprise! Five line up for a new adventure \\| last \\=Marcus\\|first \\=Caroline \\|date \\= 10 January 2010\\|work \\= The Sydney Morning Herald\\|publisher\\=Nine Entertainment \\|access\\-date \\= 7 September 2015\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201206034639/https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/surprise\\-five\\-line\\-up\\-for\\-a\\-new\\-adventure\\-20100110\\-gdtuke.html \\| archive\\-date \\= 6 December 2020 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} They toured regional Australian locations in early 2010 to build a new audience.{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.femail.com.au/hi\\-5\\-surprise\\-tour.htm \\| work \\= Femail.com.au \\| title \\= Hi\\-5 Surprise! Live Tour \\| date \\= 2009 \\| access\\-date \\= 22 February 2016 \\| archive\\-date \\= 2 March 2016 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160302011356/http://www.femail.com.au/hi\\-5\\-surprise\\-tour.htm \\| url\\-status \\= live }} The group celebrated the 500th episode of the television series in 2010,{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2010/08/returning\\-hi\\-5\\-2\\.html\\|last\\=Knox\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=31 August 2010\\|title\\=Returning: ''Hi\\-5'' \\|newspaper\\= TV Tonight\\|access\\-date\\= 22 February 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305070117/https://tvtonight.com.au/2010/08/returning\\-hi\\-5\\-2\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=5 March 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}} and in 2011, they rerecorded several of the original line\\-up's songs.{{cite news\\|url\\= http://tvtonight.com.au/2011/10/returning\\-hi\\-5\\-3\\.html\\|last\\=Knox\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=6 October 2011 \\|title\\= Returning: ''Hi\\-5'' \\|newspaper\\= TV Tonight\\|access\\-date\\= 22 February 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305014922/https://tvtonight.com.au/2011/10/returning\\-hi\\-5\\-3\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=5 March 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}} They did not receive the same positive critical reception as the original members; one reviewer found fault with the new line\\-up's vocal abilities. The group joined [World Vision Australia](/wiki/World_Vision_Australia \"World Vision Australia\") as ambassadors in 2009, beginning their work in the Philippines while on a promotional tour, and completing a volunteer trip to Cambodia in 2012\\.{{cite press release\\|last1\\=Crowe\\|first1\\=Tara\\|last2\\=Bocking\\|first2\\=Catherine\\|title\\=Hi\\-5 joins World Vision in the fight to end poverty for children\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World Vision Australia]]\\|url\\=https://www.worldvision.com.au/media\\-centre/resource/hi\\-5\\-joins\\-world\\-vision\\-in\\-the\\-fight\\-to\\-end\\-poverty\\-for\\-children\\|date\\=6 August 2009\\|access\\-date\\=25 February 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=5 April 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160405111341/https://www.worldvision.com.au/media\\-centre/resource/hi\\-5\\-joins\\-world\\-vision\\-in\\-the\\-fight\\-to\\-end\\-poverty\\-for\\-children\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web \\|title\\= Hi\\-5 – Goodwill Ambassador \\|publisher\\= World Vision Australia \\|url\\= https://www.worldvision.com.au/get\\-involved/partner\\-with\\-us/ambassadors/hi\\-5 \\|access\\-date\\= 3 October 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\= 3 October 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20191003101208/https://www.worldvision.com.au/get\\-involved/partner\\-with\\-us/ambassadors/hi\\-5 \\|url\\-status\\= live }} They also became representatives of the [Starlight Children's Foundation](/wiki/Starlight_Children%27s_Foundation \"Starlight Children's Foundation\") in 2009; their work included regular visits to hospitals while on tour.{{cite web\\|url\\= https://starlight.org.au/what\\-we\\-do/our\\-stories/ambassador/hi\\-5 \\| title \\= Hi\\-5 – Our Stories \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Starlight Children's Foundation\\|Starlight Foundation]] \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160330010200/https://starlight.org.au/what\\-we\\-do/our\\-stories/ambassador/hi\\-5 \\| archive\\-date \\= 30 March 2016 \\| access\\-date\\= 19 February 2019 }}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.perthnow.com.au/news/western\\-australia/hi5\\-visit\\-sick\\-kids\\-at\\-princess\\-margaret\\-hospital\\-ahead\\-of\\-perth\\-shows/news\\-story/486fafb23281e1834d3f35d06750a233 \\|last\\=Symonds \\|first\\=Kristy \\|date\\=13 July 2015 \\|title\\=Hi\\-5 brings song, dance and smiles to PMH patients during Perth tour \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Perth Now]] \\|publisher\\=Seven West Media\\|access\\-date\\=25 February 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 January 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118094356/http://www.perthnow.com.au/news/western\\-australia/hi5\\-visit\\-sick\\-kids\\-at\\-princess\\-margaret\\-hospital\\-ahead\\-of\\-perth\\-shows/news\\-story/486fafb23281e1834d3f35d06750a233 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "Irvine's final performance as part of Hi\\-5 was at Carols by Candlelight on Christmas Eve 2011\\. Nine Network representatives said she would leave to explore \"other career options\".{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2011/12/cast\\-change\\-at\\-hi\\-5\\.html \\|last\\=Knox\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=20 December 2011 \\|title\\=Cast change at Hi\\-5 \\|newspaper\\= TV Tonight\\|access\\-date\\= 22 February 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160223115423/https://tvtonight.com.au/2011/12/cast\\-change\\-at\\-hi\\-5\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=23 February 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Her replacement, Dayen Zheng, joined the group in January 2012\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.asiaone.com/print/News/Latest%2BNews/Showbiz/Story/A1Story20120622\\-354737\\.html\\|author\\=Kwok Kar Peng\\|date\\=25 June 2012\\|title\\=Cool to be a fool\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New Paper]]\\|publisher\\=Asiaone.com.sg\\|access\\-date\\=22 February 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=22 February 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190222041844/https://www.asiaone.com/print/News/Latest%2BNews/Showbiz/Story/A1Story20120622\\-354737\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live}} Burgess and Maddren departed in early 2013; Maddren had secured a role in the Australian musical production of *[The Addams Family](/wiki/The_Addams_Family_%28musical%29%23International_productions \"The Addams Family (musical)#International productions\")*, while Burgess had decided to further her solo music career.{{cite news\\| url \\= https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/newslocal/north\\-shore/creep\\-show\\-for\\-young\\-and\\-old/news\\-story/968d58c01ad78bce8946f7f5b6bd148c\\| last\\= Smith\\|first\\=Rohan\\| title \\= New generation bound to fall for the creepy, kooky Addams family ... click, click\\| work\\=The Daily Telegraph\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20210113031836/https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/newslocal/north\\-shore/creep\\-show\\-for\\-young\\-and\\-old/news\\-story/968d58c01ad78bce8946f7f5b6bd148c?nk\\=33b5fd1023817193fbcfc915d516bb70\\-1610507916 \\| archive\\-date \\= 13 January 2021 \\|date\\=25 February 2013\\| access\\-date \\= 13 January 2021 }}", "In June 2012, the Nine Network announced that because of their ongoing financial difficulties, they had sold the Hi\\-5 brand in its entirety to Malaysian\\-based [equity group](/wiki/Private-equity_firm \"Private-equity firm\"), Asiasons.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/business/channel\\-nine\\-on\\-brink\\-as\\-banks\\-circle\\-20120925\\-26jpx.html\\|last1\\=Kruger \\|first1\\=Colin\\|last2\\=Hawthorne\\|first2\\=Mark\\|date\\= 26 September 2012 \\|title\\=Channel Nine on brink as banks circle \\|newspaper\\=The Sydney Morning Herald \\|publisher\\= Nine Entertainment \\|access\\-date\\= 25 February 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url \\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206034943/https://www.smh.com.au/business/channel\\-nine\\-on\\-brink\\-as\\-banks\\-circle\\-20120925\\-26jpx.html \\| archive\\-date \\=6 December 2020}} Datuk Jared Lim, Asiasons's managing director, described plans to expand Hi\\-5 throughout Southeast Asia, while keeping the group's presence in Australia intact.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.smartcompany.com.au//growth/economy/26460\\-hi\\-5\\-sold\\-off\\-to\\-\\-250\\-million\\-asian\\-private\\-equity\\-group/ \\|last\\=Schmidl \\|first\\=Engel \\|date\\=21 June 2012 \\|title\\=Hi\\-5 sold off to $250 million Asian private equity group \\|newspaper\\=Smart Company \\|access\\-date\\=22 February 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 December 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208215316/https://www.smartcompany.com.au/finance/economy/hi\\-5\\-sold\\-off\\-to\\-250\\-million\\-asian\\-private\\-equity\\-group/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Julie Greene, former producer of the television series, assumed the role of executive creative director.", "### 2013–2016: Third generation, shift to Southeast Asia", "New members Mary Lascaris and [Ainsley Melham](/wiki/Ainsley_Melham \"Ainsley Melham\") joined Nicholson, Brant, and Zheng in early 2013\\. The audition process was filmed and turned into a documentary\\-style film, *Some Kind of Wonderful*, which premiered exclusively through [Hoyts Cinemas](/wiki/Hoyts \"Hoyts\") in Australia in March.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.qt.com.au/news/popular\\-aussie\\-childrens\\-show\\-hi\\-5\\-set\\-big\\-screen/1782951\\|last\\=Tapaleao\\|first\\=Vaimoana\\|date\\=7 March 2013\\|title\\=Popular Aussie children's show Hi\\-5 set for the big screen\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Queensland Times]]\\|publisher\\=News Corp Australia\\|access\\-date\\=1 May 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20190501095434/https://www.qt.com.au/news/popular\\-aussie\\-childrens\\-show\\-hi\\-5\\-set\\-big\\-screen/1782951/ \\| archive\\-date \\=1 May 2019}} The press branded this line\\-up as a \"new generation\" of the group.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/music/hi\\-5\\-new\\-members\\-ainsley\\-melham\\-mary\\-lascaris\\-dayen\\-zheng\\-unveiled/story\\-e6frfn09\\-1226598246320 \\| date \\= 16 March 2013 \\| title \\= Hi\\-5 new members Ainsley Melham, Mary Lascaris, Dayen Zheng unveiled \\| first \\= Kathy \\| last \\= McCabe \\| newspaper \\= News.com.au \\| publisher \\= News Corp Australia \\| access\\-date \\= 27 February 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206032944/https://www.news.com.au/entertainment/music/hi\\-5\\-new\\-members\\-ainsley\\-melham\\-mary\\-lascaris\\-dayen\\-zheng\\-unveiled/news\\-story/556c9db593091ba9c619317052aaa3c2 \\|archive\\-date\\=6 December 2020 }} Note: McCabe describes this line\\-up as the \"fourth generation\".", "Throughout this period, the production company shifted the commercial focus of the group to the Southeast Asian market, with an increase in Asian touring locations. In 2014, the group debuted in the Middle East with a Dubai show and toured Bangkok for the first time in ten years.{{cite press release \\|url\\=http://tremasia.com/hi\\-5\\-milestones/ \\|date\\=3 October 2014 \\|title\\=Hi\\-5 adds more milestones with its roaring success in Asia and premiere in the Middle East \\|newspaper\\=Tremendous Asia Partners \\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107073402/http://tremasia.com/hi\\-5\\-milestones/ \\|archive\\-date\\=7 January 2016 }} They returned to the Philippines in 2015 for an encore season after a sold\\-out run of concerts the previous year. A new television series entitled *[Hi\\-5 House](/wiki/Hi-5_House \"Hi-5 House\")* was filmed in Singapore and Malaysia between 2013 and 2015, and aired on pay\\-TV channel [Nick Jr.](/wiki/Nick_Jr._%28Australia%29 \"Nick Jr. (Australia)\") in Australia and [Disney Junior](/wiki/Disney_Junior_%28Asia%29 \"Disney Junior (Asia)\") in Asia;\n For filming in Singapore in 2013, see {{cite news \\| url \\= http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/music/hi5\\-will\\-head\\-home\\-to\\-australia\\-for\\-house\\-party\\-tour\\-after\\-filming\\-new\\-series\\-in\\-singapore/story\\-e6frfn09\\-1226699053225 \\| date \\= 18 August 2013 \\| title \\= Hi\\-5 will head home to Australia for House Party tour after filming new series in Singapore \\| last \\= McCabe \\| first \\= Kathy \\| newspaper \\= News.com.au \\| publisher \\= News Corp Australia \\| access\\-date \\= 27 February 2016 \\| url\\-status \\= live \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201206032712/https://www.news.com.au/entertainment/music/hi5\\-will\\-head\\-home\\-to\\-australia\\-for\\-house\\-party\\-tour\\-after\\-filming\\-new\\-series\\-in\\-singapore/news\\-story/5a3e321952f5a1956d02dc2859a0973f \\| archive\\-date \\= 6 December 2020 }}\n For filming in Malaysia in 2015, see {{cite news \\| url \\= http://www.goldcoastbulletin.com.au/entertainment/childrens\\-band\\-hi5\\-launches\\-promotional\\-tour\\-on\\-the\\-gold\\-coast/news\\-story/e41fe207fd114965bde509ac98a99c29 \\| date \\= 18 May 2015 \\| title \\= Children's band Hi\\-5 launches promotional tour on the Gold Coast \\| newspaper \\= \\[\\[Gold Coast Bulletin]] \\| publisher \\= News Corp Australia \\| access\\-date \\= 7 November 2016 \\| quote \\= The band members have recently spent eight weeks in Malaysia filming ''Hi\\-5 House''. \\| archive\\-date \\= 8 December 2020 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201208215313/https://www.goldcoastbulletin.com.au/entertainment/childrens\\-band\\-hi5\\-launches\\-promotional\\-tour\\-on\\-the\\-gold\\-coast/news\\-story/e41fe207fd114965bde509ac98a99c29?nk\\=6b5055fe6d7d43f93c3744ee8e7b6205\\-1607464393 \\| url\\-status \\= live }}\n For Nick Jr. airing, see {{cite news\\|url\\=https://tvtonight.com.au/2013/12/foxtel\\-summer\\-highlights\\-for\\-kids.html\\|last\\=Knox\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=4 December 2013 \\|title\\=Foxtel: Summer highlights for kids\\|newspaper\\=TV Tonight \\|access\\-date\\=30 December 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127122704/https://tvtonight.com.au/2013/12/foxtel\\-summer\\-highlights\\-for\\-kids.html\\|archive\\-date\\=27 November 2020\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n For Disney Junior airing, see {{cite news \\| url \\= http://www.straitstimes.com/lifestyle/entertainment/8\\-questions\\-with\\-tanika\\-anderson\\-hi\\-5s\\-newest\\-member\\-was\\-a\\-busker \\| date \\= 8 December 2014 \\| title \\= 8 Questions With Tanika Anderson: Hi\\-5's newest member was a busker \\| last \\= Low \\| first \\= Phoebe \\| newspaper \\=The Straits Times\\| publisher \\= Singapore Press Holdings \\| access\\-date \\= 5 November 2016 \\| quote \\= She will be starring in the second season of Hi\\-5's latest TV series, ''Hi\\-5 House'', which will air weekly from today on Disney Junior. \\| url\\-status \\= live \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20150706104539/http://www.straitstimes.com/lifestyle/entertainment/8\\-questions\\-with\\-tanika\\-anderson\\-hi\\-5s\\-newest\\-member\\-was\\-a\\-busker \\| archive\\-date \\= 6 July 2015 }}* + - * its success in Asia resulted in an [Asian Television Award](/wiki/Asian_Television_Award \"Asian Television Award\") for Best Preschool Program in 2015\\. The program premiered worldwide on online television streaming service [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix \"Netflix\") in March 2016\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://usa.newonnetflix.info/info/80093413/s \\|title\\=''Hi\\-5 House'' on Netflix USA \\|newspaper\\=New on Netflix USA \\|access\\-date\\=9 October 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=10 October 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010180954/http://usa.newonnetflix.info/info/80093413/s \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "Brant's final performances were in July 2014 for the Australian *House Hits* tour, in which the cast wore costumes she designed under her new fashion label, Loliboli.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/lauren\\-brant\\-quits\\-hi5\\-for\\-other\\-projects\\-in\\-entertainment\\-industry\\-and\\-growing\\-fashion\\-business/news\\-story/d08fb8574991bfde3cdf75ddcbd37356\\|last\\=Pierce\\|first\\=Jeremy\\|date\\=28 June 2014\\|title\\=Lauren Brant quits Hi\\-5 for other projects in entertainment industry and growing fashion business\\| newspaper\\= \\[\\[The Courier\\-Mail]] \\|publisher\\= News Corp Australia \\|access\\-date\\= 24 February 2016\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201206030818/https://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/lauren\\-brant\\-quits\\-hi5\\-for\\-other\\-projects\\-in\\-entertainment\\-industry\\-and\\-growing\\-fashion\\-business/news\\-story/d08fb8574991bfde3cdf75ddcbd37356?nk\\=8b0c4236a72ab7caadce8f878c0f50c0\\-1607224098 \\| archive\\-date\\=6 December 2020\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Her successor, [Tanika Anderson](/wiki/Tanika_Anderson \"Tanika Anderson\"), was already working with the group as an understudy and puppeteer.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/newslocal/the\\-hills/tanika\\-anderson\\-joins\\-hi5\\-replacing\\-lauren\\-brant/news\\-story/d3b25cfdaa51d83e803ab88a24cce19a\\|last\\=Ranke\\|first\\=Angela\\|date\\=24 June 2014\\|title\\=Tanika Anderson joins Hi\\-5, replacing Lauren Brant \\|newspaper\\= The Daily Telegraph \\|access\\-date\\= 24 February 2016\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201206024512/https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/newslocal/the\\-hills/tanika\\-anderson\\-joins\\-hi5\\-replacing\\-lauren\\-brant/news\\-story/d3b25cfdaa51d83e803ab88a24cce19a?nk\\=f177bdc33cd07652e23cb24c7943cf2e\\-1607222711 \\| archive\\-date\\=6 December 2020\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite news\\|url \\= http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/entertainment/sydney\\-confidential/former\\-puppeteer\\-tanika\\-anderson\\-lands\\-dream\\-job/story\\-fni0cvc9\\-1226955097811\\|title \\= Former puppeteer Tanika Anderson lands dream job \\| last \\= Sams \\| first \\= Christine \\|date \\= 16 June 2014\\|newspaper \\= The Daily Telegraph\\|access\\-date \\= 24 February 2016\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160712020638/http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/entertainment/sydney\\-confidential/former\\-puppeteer\\-tanika\\-anderson\\-lands\\-dream\\-job/story\\-fni0cvc9\\-1226955097811 \\| archive\\-date\\=12 July 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Nicholson departed in December 2015 to further his performing career and promote his children's book, *Superdudes*.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/entertainment/sydney\\-confidential/departing\\-stevie\\-reflects\\-on\\-whirlwind\\-nine\\-years\\-as\\-hi5\\-member/news\\-story/ebdb163ebd985817e6e5d9682095a44f\\|date\\=3 September 2015 \\|title\\=Departing Stevie reflects on 'whirlwind' nine years as Hi\\-5 member\\|newspaper\\=The Daily Telegraph\\|access\\-date\\= 24 February 2016\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20220731112636/https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/entertainment/sydney\\-confidential/departing\\-stevie\\-reflects\\-on\\-whirlwind\\-nine\\-years\\-as\\-hi5\\-member/news\\-story/ebdb163ebd985817e6e5d9682095a44f \\| archive\\-date\\=31 July 2022\\|url\\-status\\=live}} He was replaced by Lachie Dearing, who was introduced on tour in January 2016\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.theleader.com.au/story/3670381/dream\\-to\\-reality\\-for\\-shire\\-hi\\-5\\-recruit\\-dearing/\\|last\\=Heary\\|first\\=Monica\\|date\\=21 January 2016\\|title\\=Dream to reality for shire Hi\\-5 recruit Dearing\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[St George \\& Sutherland Shire Leader]]\\|access\\-date\\=26 May 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=16 August 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816185836/http://www.theleader.com.au/story/3670381/dream\\-to\\-reality\\-for\\-shire\\-hi\\-5\\-recruit\\-dearing/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.alphabetstreet.com.au/index.php/australias\\-got\\-talent\\-finalist\\-joins\\-hi\\-5\\-cast/\\|date\\=2015 \\|title\\=Australia's Got Talent Finalist Joins Hi\\-5 Cast! \\|newspaper\\=Alphabet Street\\|access\\-date\\= 24 February 2016\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20151208061822/http://www.alphabetstreet.com.au/index.php/australias\\-got\\-talent\\-finalist\\-joins\\-hi\\-5\\-cast/ \\| archive\\-date\\=8 December 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} After being cast in an Australian musical production of *[Xanadu](/wiki/Xanadu_%28musical%29 \"Xanadu (musical)\")* in January 2016, Melham left the group, and new member Gabe Brown took his place in February.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/entertainment/arts/xanadu\\-musical\\-revival\\-in\\-sydney\\-promises\\-to\\-be\\-a\\-thrilling\\-scary\\-ride\\-for\\-actors/news\\-story/bc25f72356aeeda78b99f3cc6b57b2dc\\|last\\=Hook\\|first\\=Chris\\|date\\=23 January 2016\\|title\\=''Xanadu'': Musical revival in Sydney promises to be a thrilling, scary ride for actors\\|newspaper\\=The Daily Telegraph\\|access\\-date\\= 24 February 2016\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201206025252/https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/entertainment/arts/xanadu\\-musical\\-revival\\-in\\-sydney\\-promises\\-to\\-be\\-a\\-thrilling\\-scary\\-ride\\-for\\-actors/news\\-story/bc25f72356aeeda78b99f3cc6b57b2dc?nk\\=35a610e29c658483a85cc35ad17cf7dd\\-1607223172 \\| archive\\-date\\=6 December 2020\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.fairfieldchampion.com.au/story/3736861/hi\\-5\\-to\\-visit\\-mounties \\|last\\=Chlopicki \\|first\\=Kirstie \\|date\\=18 February 2016\\|title\\=Hi\\-5 to perform at Mounties \\|newspaper\\=Fairfield City Champion \\|access\\-date\\= 24 February 2016\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160307015851/https://www.fairfieldchampion.com.au/story/3736861/hi\\-5\\-to\\-visit\\-mounties/ \\| archive\\-date\\=7 March 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Brown was later succeeded by Chris White.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nst.com.my/news/2016/07/160609/if\\-you\\-love\\-fairytale\\-give\\-me\\-hi\\-5\\|date\\=25 July 2016\\|last\\=Alhamzah\\|first\\=Tahir\\|work\\=\\[\\[New Straits Times]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[New Straits Times Press]]\\|title\\=If you love fairytale, give me a Hi\\-5!\\|access\\-date\\=30 December 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=22 August 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822044727/http://www.nst.com.my/news/2016/07/160609/if\\-you\\-love\\-fairytale\\-give\\-me\\-hi\\-5\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "### 2016–2019: Fourth generation, short\\-lived television revival", "The Nine Network renewed its partnership with the Hi\\-5 franchise in October 2016 and expressed plans to revive the original television series with a new cast in 2017\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2016/10/nine\\-reviving\\-hi\\-5\\.html\\|last\\=Knox\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=14 October 2016 \\|title\\=Nine reviving ''Hi\\-5''\\|newspaper\\=TV Tonight \\|access\\-date\\= 14 October 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018203206/https://tvtonight.com.au/2016/10/nine\\-reviving\\-hi\\-5\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=18 October 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite press release\\|url\\=http://www.nineentertainmentco.com.au/2016/10/18/08/59/hi5\\-returns\\-on\\-nine\\#FlKRIJUsf31Gv8Sr.99 \\|last\\= Stamper \\|first\\=Michelle \\|date\\=18 October 2016 \\| title \\= Hi\\-5 Returns To Nine \\| work\\=Nine.com.au \\| publisher \\= Nine Entertainment \\|access\\-date\\= 23 October 2016 \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20161120005702/http://www.nineentertainmentco.com.au/2016/10/18/08/59/hi5\\-returns\\-on\\-nine \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\| archive\\-date\\=20 November 2016}} As a result, Zheng, Lascaris, Anderson and White gave their last performances in December 2016\\.{{Cite tweet \\|author\\=Hi\\-5 \\|user\\=hi5officialtv \\|date\\=4 December 2016 \\|title\\=SPECIAL ANNOUNCEMENT!! 💕✨ Our beautiful friends Dayen, Mary and Tanika will be leaving Hi\\-5 at the end of this \\|url\\=https://twitter.com/hi5officialtv/status/805236974684688384 \\|number\\=805236974684688384\\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201209212539/https://twitter.com/hi5officialtv/status/805236974684688384?s\\=21 \\|archive\\-date\\=9 December 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=9 December 2020}} After auditions were held in November 2016, new members Courtney Clarke, Shay Clifford, Joe Kalou and Bailey Spalding were revealed in December, joining Dearing to form the fourth generation of the group.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://honey.nine.com.au/2016/12/14/16/28/hi5\\-comeback\\|last\\=Malbon\\|first\\=Abigail\\|date\\=15 December 2016 \\|title\\=This children's TV favourite is making a return to screens\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Nine Digital\\#9Honey\\|9Honey]] \\|publisher\\=Nine Entertainment\\|access\\-date\\= 15 December 2016\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20200809024419/https://honey.nine.com.au/latest/hi5\\-comeback/7f73a85b\\-d25a\\-492f\\-8851\\-69a9cfd0d027 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\| archive\\-date\\=9 August 2020}}{{cite news\\|url\\= https://thewest.com.au/entertainment/tv/fourth\\-take\\-on\\-tvs\\-hi\\-5\\-ng\\-b88470561z\\|last\\=Williams \\|first\\=Vanessa \\|date\\=12 May 2017 \\|title\\=Fourth take on TV's Hi\\-5\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The West Australian]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Seven West Media]]\\|access\\-date\\= 10 September 2017\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170910091010/https://thewest.com.au/entertainment/tv/fourth\\-take\\-on\\-tvs\\-hi\\-5\\-ng\\-b88470561z\\|archive\\-date\\=10 September 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The quintet debuted at Carols by Candlelight on Christmas Eve, Hi\\-5's first appearance at the Nine event since 2012\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/entertainment/sydney\\-confidential/introducing\\-the\\-new\\-kids\\-on\\-the\\-block\\-meet\\-the\\-2017\\-cast\\-for\\-iconic\\-childrens\\-group\\-hi5/news\\-story/b9138c0c2e291613fac7d38a095cae06\\|last\\=Moran\\|first\\=Jonathon\\|date\\=15 December 2016 \\|title\\=Introducing the new kids on the block! Meet the 2017 cast for iconic children's group Hi\\-5\\|newspaper\\=The Daily Telegraph \\|access\\-date\\= 15 December 2016\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170820154504/https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/entertainment/sydney\\-confidential/introducing\\-the\\-new\\-kids\\-on\\-the\\-block\\-meet\\-the\\-2017\\-cast\\-for\\-iconic\\-childrens\\-group\\-hi5/news\\-story/b9138c0c2e291613fac7d38a095cae06 \\|archive\\-date\\=20 August 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2016/12/new\\-look\\-hi\\-5\\-cast.html\\|last\\=Knox\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=16 December 2016\\|title\\=New\\-look Hi\\-5 cast\\|newspaper\\= TV Tonight\\|access\\-date\\= 16 December 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018191543/https://tvtonight.com.au/2016/12/new\\-look\\-hi\\-5\\-cast.html\\|archive\\-date\\=18 October 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The [new television series](/wiki/Hi-5_%282017_TV_series%2C_series_1%29 \"Hi-5 (2017 TV series, series 1)\") was filmed in Malaysia and premiered in May 2017 on Nine's multichannel, [9Go!](/wiki/9Go%21 \"9Go!\") in Australia.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2017/04/returning\\-hi\\-5\\-4\\.html\\|last\\=Knox\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=27 April 2017\\|title\\=Returning: ''Hi\\-5''\\|newspaper\\=TV Tonight \\|access\\-date\\=28 April 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170902142211/https://tvtonight.com.au/2017/04/returning\\-hi\\-5\\-4\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2 September 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Additional filming in 2018 was halted before the Australian production office was closed and the brand was relocated to Singapore.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://tvtonight.com.au/2018/09/hi\\-5\\-closes\\-production\\-office\\-new\\-cast\\-expected.html\\|last\\=Knox\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=29 September 2018\\|title\\=Hi\\-5 closes production office, cast changes ahead. \\|newspaper\\=TV Tonight \\|access\\-date\\=29 September 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181010012852/https://tvtonight.com.au/2018/09/hi\\-5\\-closes\\-production\\-office\\-new\\-cast\\-expected.html\\|archive\\-date\\=10 October 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live}} All five members departed the group, and the brand used temporary touring members for the remainder of 2018\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://tvtonight.com.au/2018/10/another\\-hi\\-5\\-star\\-quits.html\\|last\\=Knox\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=11 October 2018\\|title\\=Another Hi\\-5 star quits \\|newspaper\\=TV Tonight\\|access\\-date\\=11 October 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231173632/https://tvtonight.com.au/2018/10/another\\-hi\\-5\\-star\\-quits.html \\|archive\\-date\\=31 December 2019\\|quote\\=Casting has been underway in Australia for stage performances while producers in Singapore and Nine are yet to confirm future TV cast or episodes.}} The franchise continued employing non\\-permanent performers for touring purposes in 2019\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Celebrate Australia Day with Hi\\-5 at Bella Vista Farm\\|url\\=http://hillsfocus.com.au/?p\\=1211/\\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2019\\|work\\=The Sydney Hills Focus\\|date\\=24 January 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214085848/http://hillsfocus.com.au/?p\\=1211%2F\\|archive\\-date\\=14 February 2019}} Note: Jarrod Barke, Jacqui Bramwell and Dani Mirels were temporary touring members.", "" ]
Biography --------- As a competitive skater, Callaghan was coached by [Don Laws](/wiki/Don_Laws "Don Laws"). His best finish was 5th at the 1965 U.S. Championships. He turned professional in 1967, touring with [Ice Capades](/wiki/Ice_Capades "Ice Capades") and [Holiday on Ice](/wiki/Holiday_on_Ice "Holiday on Ice") before he began to coach in 1972\. He worked in [Rochester, New York](/wiki/Rochester%2C_New_York "Rochester, New York"), [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia"), [Colorado Springs](/wiki/Colorado_Springs%2C_Colorado "Colorado Springs, Colorado"), and [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego") before settling in the [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit "Detroit") area in 1992\. In March 1999, Callaghan announced his resignation from his position at the Detroit Skating Club and his intention to retire at the end of that skating season. In April 1999, *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* reported that Callaghan had been accused of sexual misconduct by [Craig Maurizi](/wiki/Craig_Maurizi "Craig Maurizi"), one of his former students who had continued to work with him for many years as a coaching assistant. Maurizi alleged that Callaghan had engaged in inappropriate sexual conduct with him beginning when he was 15 years old, more than 20 years previously. The *Times* article additionally quoted two other former students who also claimed to have been molested by Callaghan. Callaghan denied the charges and alleged that Maurizi was attempting to destroy his professional reputation as the result of a dispute the previous year that arose when Lipinski fired Callaghan and named Maurizi as her official coach. In the *Times* article, Maurizi also claimed to have maintained a romantic and sexual relationship with Callaghan, which was consensual in nature, until he was around 30 years old. Maurizi filed a grievance against Callaghan with [United States Figure Skating Association](/wiki/United_States_Figure_Skating_Association "United States Figure Skating Association") (USFSA), but the grievance was dismissed in June 1999 without a hearing on the grounds that he had waited too long to file it. Until May, the chairman of the grievance committee, Steve Hazen, said that senior members tried to keep him from reviewing the case. In October 1999, a three\-member panel of the Professional Skaters Association said it had found no violation of its ethics standards. As a consequence of the case and the publicity it caused, the USFSA did adopt a formal policy on [sexual harassment](/wiki/Sexual_harassment "Sexual harassment") and other forms of abuse, and has since taken aggressive action against other coaches accused of sexual misconduct with their students. In March 2018, Callaghan was suspended from all participation in sports under the auspices of U.S. Olympic Committee member organizations. Callaghan said he had grown tired of the travel and grind of being a top coach and that his planned retirement had nothing to do with the grievance. He ultimately did not retire but instead moved to another rink in the Detroit area where he continued to coach Eldredge and other skaters, including [Angela Nikodinov](/wiki/Angela_Nikodinov "Angela Nikodinov"), [Shizuka Arakawa](/wiki/Shizuka_Arakawa "Shizuka Arakawa"), and [Jennifer Kirk](/wiki/Jennifer_Kirk "Jennifer Kirk"). He is currently based in [Coral Gables, Florida](/wiki/Coral_Gables%2C_Florida "Coral Gables, Florida") where he coached [Kimmie Meissner](/wiki/Kimmie_Meissner "Kimmie Meissner"). He now lives in Naples, Florida, and coaches at Germain Arena. In October 2022, as part of a legal settlement with one of his accusers, Callaghan agreed to no longer coach minor skaters.
[ "Biography\n---------", "As a competitive skater, Callaghan was coached by [Don Laws](/wiki/Don_Laws \"Don Laws\"). His best finish was 5th at the 1965 U.S. Championships. He turned professional in 1967, touring with [Ice Capades](/wiki/Ice_Capades \"Ice Capades\") and [Holiday on Ice](/wiki/Holiday_on_Ice \"Holiday on Ice\") before he began to coach in 1972\\. He worked in [Rochester, New York](/wiki/Rochester%2C_New_York \"Rochester, New York\"), [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\"), [Colorado Springs](/wiki/Colorado_Springs%2C_Colorado \"Colorado Springs, Colorado\"), and [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\") before settling in the [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit \"Detroit\") area in 1992\\.", "In March 1999, Callaghan announced his resignation from his position at the Detroit Skating Club and his intention to retire at the end of that skating season. In April 1999, *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* reported that Callaghan had been accused of sexual misconduct by [Craig Maurizi](/wiki/Craig_Maurizi \"Craig Maurizi\"), one of his former students who had continued to work with him for many years as a coaching assistant. Maurizi alleged that Callaghan had engaged in inappropriate sexual conduct with him beginning when he was 15 years old, more than 20 years previously. The *Times* article additionally quoted two other former students who also claimed to have been molested by Callaghan. Callaghan denied the charges and alleged that Maurizi was attempting to destroy his professional reputation as the result of a dispute the previous year that arose when Lipinski fired Callaghan and named Maurizi as her official coach. In the *Times* article, Maurizi also claimed to have maintained a romantic and sexual relationship with Callaghan, which was consensual in nature, until he was around 30 years old.", "Maurizi filed a grievance against Callaghan with [United States Figure Skating Association](/wiki/United_States_Figure_Skating_Association \"United States Figure Skating Association\") (USFSA), but the grievance was dismissed in June 1999 without a hearing on the grounds that he had waited too long to file it. Until May, the chairman of the grievance committee, Steve Hazen, said that senior members tried to keep him from reviewing the case. In October 1999, a three\\-member panel of the Professional Skaters Association said it had found no violation of its ethics standards. As a consequence of the case and the publicity it caused, the USFSA did adopt a formal policy on [sexual harassment](/wiki/Sexual_harassment \"Sexual harassment\") and other forms of abuse, and has since taken aggressive action against other coaches accused of sexual misconduct with their students. In March 2018, Callaghan was suspended from all participation in sports under the auspices of U.S. Olympic Committee member organizations.", "Callaghan said he had grown tired of the travel and grind of being a top coach and that his planned retirement had nothing to do with the grievance. He ultimately did not retire but instead moved to another rink in the Detroit area where he continued to coach Eldredge and other skaters, including [Angela Nikodinov](/wiki/Angela_Nikodinov \"Angela Nikodinov\"), [Shizuka Arakawa](/wiki/Shizuka_Arakawa \"Shizuka Arakawa\"), and [Jennifer Kirk](/wiki/Jennifer_Kirk \"Jennifer Kirk\"). He is currently based in [Coral Gables, Florida](/wiki/Coral_Gables%2C_Florida \"Coral Gables, Florida\") where he coached [Kimmie Meissner](/wiki/Kimmie_Meissner \"Kimmie Meissner\"). He now lives in Naples, Florida, and coaches at Germain Arena.", "In October 2022, as part of a legal settlement with one of his accusers, Callaghan agreed to no longer coach minor skaters.", "" ]
Academics --------- ### Study The school runs two undergraduate courses, on either a six\-year course leading to an [MBBS](/wiki/MBBS "MBBS") and [BSc](/wiki/BSc "BSc"), or a three\-year BSc course in medical biosciences.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.imperial.ac.uk/medicine/study/undergraduate/\|title\=Undergraduate\|publisher\=Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London\|access\-date\=4 Apr 2018}} Graduates of the school are also awarded the [Associateship of Imperial College School of Medicine](/wiki/Associateships_of_Imperial_College_London "Associateships of Imperial College London"), AICSM, alongside their medical degrees. #### Six\-year MBBS/BSc As of 2019, Imperial College School of Medicine updated their entire curriculum, shifting towards a more integrated spiral curriculum, in which students cover most topics multiple times, adding more depth and range each year. They also vastly increased the amount of early clinical contact and team\-based learning the students experience. The course is split into 3 'Phases'. Phase 1 spans years 1\-3 of the course (Phase 1a 1b, and 1c). Phase 2 is the BSc year, with the final two years of the course containing Phase 3a and 3b. In Phase 1a students begin by learning the biochemistry underpinning medicine in their first module. By the end of Term 1 they move onto their main systems\-based medicine module. Each system is covered both in Phase 1a and 1b, with a more clinical focus in Phase 1b, building on the scientific basis established in the year prior. There is also a module that focuses on the wider determinants of health, looking at social, political, and economical factors which affect patients spanning the first two years of the course. Across modules, there are other themes covered such as communication skills, medical ethics, professionalism and law. Teaching primarily comprises interactive lectures followed up often by smaller group tutorials. Other teaching methods include learning with cadaveric prosection (and later dissection), laboratory practical and clinical skills classes, independent study, and a lot of team\-based learning. Unique to Phase 1b is a clinical research experience, where students are attached to a medical research team in a company, hospital, or university to learn about and partake in research. Phase 1c consists of three eight\-week placements \- the Medicine in the Community Apprenticeship (general practice placement), hospital medicine, and surgery. Within this, students will rotate through a number of specialties and wards \- including a two\-week hands\-on anaesthetics placement during the surgery rotation. Teaching consists of three weeks of induction at the start of the year; in\-hospital clinical teaching, tutorials, simulations, history\-taking, and examination practice; a mid\-weekly central teaching program delivered by the university, and finally two weeks of intensive consolidation teaching at the end of each placement. Finally, an innovative series of team\-based cases integrating the clinical and scientific approach to various common diseases running through the first three years, where students work in, and are assessed, as a team. (The new curriculum started four years ago. The information about the latter two years is based on the old course but is likely to be similar.) Phase 2 involves study for the BSc, comprising three 5\-week modules then a 10\-week supervised research project or specialist course, leading to a BSc (Hons) in Medical Sciences with one of the following: Anaesthesia and Critical Care; Biomedical Engineering; Cancer Frontiers; Cardiovascular Sciences; Endocrinology; Gastroenterology and Hepatology; Global Health; Molecular and Translational Haematology; Humanities, Philosophy and Law; Immunity and infection; Management; Neuroscience and Mental Health; Pharmacology; Remote Medicine; Reproductive and Developmental Sciences; Surgical Design, Technology and Innovation; and Translational Respiratory Medicine. The following specialist courses are available instead of undertaking a research project: Medical Humanities, History of Medicine, Epidemiology, and International Health. BSc courses that have available places after the allocation of Imperial students are open to medical students from other universities who wish to intercalate. Phase 3a covers the specialties of obstetrics and genecology, radiology, pediatrics, psychiatry, oncology, general practice, critical care, infectious diseases, dermatology, rheumatology and orthopedics through clinical attachments. It includes a 4\-week course in clinical pathology at the start of the year and a one\-week teaching skills course. Phase 3b, the final year, consists of seven three\-week clinical attachments in accident and emergency medicine; general practice; cardiology and radiology; ear, nose and throat, ophthalmology and renal medicine; two professional work experience attachments (one in medicine and one in surgery); one specialty choice module; an eight\-week elective period which may be spent in the UK or overseas, and a practical medicine course, which provides specific preparation for the foundation year after graduation.{{cite web\|url\=http://www3\.imperial.ac.uk/ugprospectus/facultiesanddepartments/medicine/coursestructure/medicine \|title\=Course structure \|publisher\=Imperial College \|access\-date\=28 May 2013}} [thumb\|[Hammersmith Hospital](/wiki/Hammersmith_Hospital "Hammersmith Hospital") has some of the school's main clinical teaching facilities](/wiki/File:Campus_of_Imperial_College_in_Hammersmith_and_Fullham%2C_London%2C_spring_2013_%283%29.jpg "Campus of Imperial College in Hammersmith and Fullham, London, spring 2013 (3).jpg") #### Medical Biosciences {{Tone\|section\|date\=February 2020}} The school offers a 3\-year BSc biomedical science degree which opened in 2006\. The course was re\-designed to reflect new teaching methods such as ‘[flipped classroom](/wiki/Flipped_classroom "Flipped classroom")’ and an intensive laboratory curriculum. Renamed Medical Biosciences, the course accepted its first cohort in 2017\. In the first and second years, students study fundamental human biology and the molecular basis of human disease. Modules on cellular and molecular biology and pharmacology underpin, for example, infectious diseases and immunology, cancer and neurobiology. Students learn to ‘think like a scientist’ with a research\-intensive, laboratory\-focused curriculum, whilst attending workshops on critical health issues and modules in science communication and ethics aimed to broaden their outlook and employability skills. In the third\-year students will choose specialist modules, each of which examines a global health problem, and a final year project. Students have the option to complete a 20\-week intensive research project; a placement; or undertake a dissertation on a biomedical science topic. Placement possibilities may include industry, hospitals, publishing houses, museums, charities and government agencies. Students also have the option of studying for a 4th year with Imperial College Business School, graduating in BSc Medical Biosciences with Management.
[ "Academics\n---------", "### Study", "The school runs two undergraduate courses, on either a six\\-year course leading to an [MBBS](/wiki/MBBS \"MBBS\") and [BSc](/wiki/BSc \"BSc\"), or a three\\-year BSc course in medical biosciences.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.imperial.ac.uk/medicine/study/undergraduate/\\|title\\=Undergraduate\\|publisher\\=Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London\\|access\\-date\\=4 Apr 2018}} Graduates of the school are also awarded the [Associateship of Imperial College School of Medicine](/wiki/Associateships_of_Imperial_College_London \"Associateships of Imperial College London\"), AICSM, alongside their medical degrees.", "#### Six\\-year MBBS/BSc", "As of 2019, Imperial College School of Medicine updated their entire curriculum, shifting towards a more integrated spiral curriculum, in which students cover most topics multiple times, adding more depth and range each year. They also vastly increased the amount of early clinical contact and team\\-based learning the students experience. The course is split into 3 'Phases'.", "Phase 1 spans years 1\\-3 of the course (Phase 1a 1b, and 1c). Phase 2 is the BSc year, with the final two years of the course containing Phase 3a and 3b.", "In Phase 1a students begin by learning the biochemistry underpinning medicine in their first module. By the end of Term 1 they move onto their main systems\\-based medicine module. Each system is covered both in Phase 1a and 1b, with a more clinical focus in Phase 1b, building on the scientific basis established in the year prior.", "There is also a module that focuses on the wider determinants of health, looking at social, political, and economical factors which affect patients spanning the first two years of the course.", "Across modules, there are other themes covered such as communication skills, medical ethics, professionalism and law. Teaching primarily comprises interactive lectures followed up often by smaller group tutorials. Other teaching methods include learning with cadaveric prosection (and later dissection), laboratory practical and clinical skills classes, independent study, and a lot of team\\-based learning.", "Unique to Phase 1b is a clinical research experience, where students are attached to a medical research team in a company, hospital, or university to learn about and partake in research.", "Phase 1c consists of three eight\\-week placements \\- the Medicine in the Community Apprenticeship (general practice placement), hospital medicine, and surgery. Within this, students will rotate through a number of specialties and wards \\- including a two\\-week hands\\-on anaesthetics placement during the surgery rotation.", "Teaching consists of three weeks of induction at the start of the year; in\\-hospital clinical teaching, tutorials, simulations, history\\-taking, and examination practice; a mid\\-weekly central teaching program delivered by the university, and finally two weeks of intensive consolidation teaching at the end of each placement.", "Finally, an innovative series of team\\-based cases integrating the clinical and scientific approach to various common diseases running through the first three years, where students work in, and are assessed, as a team.", "(The new curriculum started four years ago. The information about the latter two years is based on the old course but is likely to be similar.)", "Phase 2 involves study for the BSc, comprising three 5\\-week modules then a 10\\-week supervised research project or specialist course, leading to a BSc (Hons) in Medical Sciences with one of the following: Anaesthesia and Critical Care; Biomedical Engineering; Cancer Frontiers; Cardiovascular Sciences; Endocrinology; Gastroenterology and Hepatology; Global Health; Molecular and Translational Haematology; Humanities, Philosophy and Law; Immunity and infection; Management; Neuroscience and Mental Health; Pharmacology; Remote Medicine; Reproductive and Developmental Sciences; Surgical Design, Technology and Innovation; and Translational Respiratory Medicine. The following specialist courses are available instead of undertaking a research project: Medical Humanities, History of Medicine, Epidemiology, and International Health. BSc courses that have available places after the allocation of Imperial students are open to medical students from other universities who wish to intercalate.", "Phase 3a covers the specialties of obstetrics and genecology, radiology, pediatrics, psychiatry, oncology, general practice, critical care, infectious diseases, dermatology, rheumatology and orthopedics through clinical attachments. It includes a 4\\-week course in clinical pathology at the start of the year and a one\\-week teaching skills course.", "Phase 3b, the final year, consists of seven three\\-week clinical attachments in accident and emergency medicine; general practice; cardiology and radiology; ear, nose and throat, ophthalmology and renal medicine; two professional work experience attachments (one in medicine and one in surgery); one specialty choice module; an eight\\-week elective period which may be spent in the UK or overseas, and a practical medicine course, which provides specific preparation for the foundation year after graduation.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www3\\.imperial.ac.uk/ugprospectus/facultiesanddepartments/medicine/coursestructure/medicine \\|title\\=Course structure \\|publisher\\=Imperial College \\|access\\-date\\=28 May 2013}}", "[thumb\\|[Hammersmith Hospital](/wiki/Hammersmith_Hospital \"Hammersmith Hospital\") has some of the school's main clinical teaching facilities](/wiki/File:Campus_of_Imperial_College_in_Hammersmith_and_Fullham%2C_London%2C_spring_2013_%283%29.jpg \"Campus of Imperial College in Hammersmith and Fullham, London, spring 2013 (3).jpg\")", "#### Medical Biosciences", "{{Tone\\|section\\|date\\=February 2020}}\nThe school offers a 3\\-year BSc biomedical science degree which opened in 2006\\. The course was re\\-designed to reflect new teaching methods such as ‘[flipped classroom](/wiki/Flipped_classroom \"Flipped classroom\")’ and an intensive laboratory curriculum. Renamed Medical Biosciences, the course accepted its first cohort in 2017\\.", "In the first and second years, students study fundamental human biology and the molecular basis of human disease. Modules on cellular and molecular biology and pharmacology underpin, for example, infectious diseases and immunology, cancer and neurobiology. Students learn to ‘think like a scientist’ with a research\\-intensive, laboratory\\-focused curriculum, whilst attending workshops on critical health issues and modules in science communication and ethics aimed to broaden their outlook and employability skills.", "In the third\\-year students will choose specialist modules, each of which examines a global health problem, and a final year project. Students have the option to complete a 20\\-week intensive research project; a placement; or undertake a dissertation on a biomedical science topic. Placement possibilities may include industry, hospitals, publishing houses, museums, charities and government agencies.", "Students also have the option of studying for a 4th year with Imperial College Business School, graduating in BSc Medical Biosciences with Management.", "" ]
### Study The school runs two undergraduate courses, on either a six\-year course leading to an [MBBS](/wiki/MBBS "MBBS") and [BSc](/wiki/BSc "BSc"), or a three\-year BSc course in medical biosciences.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.imperial.ac.uk/medicine/study/undergraduate/\|title\=Undergraduate\|publisher\=Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London\|access\-date\=4 Apr 2018}} Graduates of the school are also awarded the [Associateship of Imperial College School of Medicine](/wiki/Associateships_of_Imperial_College_London "Associateships of Imperial College London"), AICSM, alongside their medical degrees. #### Six\-year MBBS/BSc As of 2019, Imperial College School of Medicine updated their entire curriculum, shifting towards a more integrated spiral curriculum, in which students cover most topics multiple times, adding more depth and range each year. They also vastly increased the amount of early clinical contact and team\-based learning the students experience. The course is split into 3 'Phases'. Phase 1 spans years 1\-3 of the course (Phase 1a 1b, and 1c). Phase 2 is the BSc year, with the final two years of the course containing Phase 3a and 3b. In Phase 1a students begin by learning the biochemistry underpinning medicine in their first module. By the end of Term 1 they move onto their main systems\-based medicine module. Each system is covered both in Phase 1a and 1b, with a more clinical focus in Phase 1b, building on the scientific basis established in the year prior. There is also a module that focuses on the wider determinants of health, looking at social, political, and economical factors which affect patients spanning the first two years of the course. Across modules, there are other themes covered such as communication skills, medical ethics, professionalism and law. Teaching primarily comprises interactive lectures followed up often by smaller group tutorials. Other teaching methods include learning with cadaveric prosection (and later dissection), laboratory practical and clinical skills classes, independent study, and a lot of team\-based learning. Unique to Phase 1b is a clinical research experience, where students are attached to a medical research team in a company, hospital, or university to learn about and partake in research. Phase 1c consists of three eight\-week placements \- the Medicine in the Community Apprenticeship (general practice placement), hospital medicine, and surgery. Within this, students will rotate through a number of specialties and wards \- including a two\-week hands\-on anaesthetics placement during the surgery rotation. Teaching consists of three weeks of induction at the start of the year; in\-hospital clinical teaching, tutorials, simulations, history\-taking, and examination practice; a mid\-weekly central teaching program delivered by the university, and finally two weeks of intensive consolidation teaching at the end of each placement. Finally, an innovative series of team\-based cases integrating the clinical and scientific approach to various common diseases running through the first three years, where students work in, and are assessed, as a team. (The new curriculum started four years ago. The information about the latter two years is based on the old course but is likely to be similar.) Phase 2 involves study for the BSc, comprising three 5\-week modules then a 10\-week supervised research project or specialist course, leading to a BSc (Hons) in Medical Sciences with one of the following: Anaesthesia and Critical Care; Biomedical Engineering; Cancer Frontiers; Cardiovascular Sciences; Endocrinology; Gastroenterology and Hepatology; Global Health; Molecular and Translational Haematology; Humanities, Philosophy and Law; Immunity and infection; Management; Neuroscience and Mental Health; Pharmacology; Remote Medicine; Reproductive and Developmental Sciences; Surgical Design, Technology and Innovation; and Translational Respiratory Medicine. The following specialist courses are available instead of undertaking a research project: Medical Humanities, History of Medicine, Epidemiology, and International Health. BSc courses that have available places after the allocation of Imperial students are open to medical students from other universities who wish to intercalate. Phase 3a covers the specialties of obstetrics and genecology, radiology, pediatrics, psychiatry, oncology, general practice, critical care, infectious diseases, dermatology, rheumatology and orthopedics through clinical attachments. It includes a 4\-week course in clinical pathology at the start of the year and a one\-week teaching skills course. Phase 3b, the final year, consists of seven three\-week clinical attachments in accident and emergency medicine; general practice; cardiology and radiology; ear, nose and throat, ophthalmology and renal medicine; two professional work experience attachments (one in medicine and one in surgery); one specialty choice module; an eight\-week elective period which may be spent in the UK or overseas, and a practical medicine course, which provides specific preparation for the foundation year after graduation.{{cite web\|url\=http://www3\.imperial.ac.uk/ugprospectus/facultiesanddepartments/medicine/coursestructure/medicine \|title\=Course structure \|publisher\=Imperial College \|access\-date\=28 May 2013}} [thumb\|[Hammersmith Hospital](/wiki/Hammersmith_Hospital "Hammersmith Hospital") has some of the school's main clinical teaching facilities](/wiki/File:Campus_of_Imperial_College_in_Hammersmith_and_Fullham%2C_London%2C_spring_2013_%283%29.jpg "Campus of Imperial College in Hammersmith and Fullham, London, spring 2013 (3).jpg") #### Medical Biosciences {{Tone\|section\|date\=February 2020}} The school offers a 3\-year BSc biomedical science degree which opened in 2006\. The course was re\-designed to reflect new teaching methods such as ‘[flipped classroom](/wiki/Flipped_classroom "Flipped classroom")’ and an intensive laboratory curriculum. Renamed Medical Biosciences, the course accepted its first cohort in 2017\. In the first and second years, students study fundamental human biology and the molecular basis of human disease. Modules on cellular and molecular biology and pharmacology underpin, for example, infectious diseases and immunology, cancer and neurobiology. Students learn to ‘think like a scientist’ with a research\-intensive, laboratory\-focused curriculum, whilst attending workshops on critical health issues and modules in science communication and ethics aimed to broaden their outlook and employability skills. In the third\-year students will choose specialist modules, each of which examines a global health problem, and a final year project. Students have the option to complete a 20\-week intensive research project; a placement; or undertake a dissertation on a biomedical science topic. Placement possibilities may include industry, hospitals, publishing houses, museums, charities and government agencies. Students also have the option of studying for a 4th year with Imperial College Business School, graduating in BSc Medical Biosciences with Management.
[ "### Study", "The school runs two undergraduate courses, on either a six\\-year course leading to an [MBBS](/wiki/MBBS \"MBBS\") and [BSc](/wiki/BSc \"BSc\"), or a three\\-year BSc course in medical biosciences.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.imperial.ac.uk/medicine/study/undergraduate/\\|title\\=Undergraduate\\|publisher\\=Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London\\|access\\-date\\=4 Apr 2018}} Graduates of the school are also awarded the [Associateship of Imperial College School of Medicine](/wiki/Associateships_of_Imperial_College_London \"Associateships of Imperial College London\"), AICSM, alongside their medical degrees.", "#### Six\\-year MBBS/BSc", "As of 2019, Imperial College School of Medicine updated their entire curriculum, shifting towards a more integrated spiral curriculum, in which students cover most topics multiple times, adding more depth and range each year. They also vastly increased the amount of early clinical contact and team\\-based learning the students experience. The course is split into 3 'Phases'.", "Phase 1 spans years 1\\-3 of the course (Phase 1a 1b, and 1c). Phase 2 is the BSc year, with the final two years of the course containing Phase 3a and 3b.", "In Phase 1a students begin by learning the biochemistry underpinning medicine in their first module. By the end of Term 1 they move onto their main systems\\-based medicine module. Each system is covered both in Phase 1a and 1b, with a more clinical focus in Phase 1b, building on the scientific basis established in the year prior.", "There is also a module that focuses on the wider determinants of health, looking at social, political, and economical factors which affect patients spanning the first two years of the course.", "Across modules, there are other themes covered such as communication skills, medical ethics, professionalism and law. Teaching primarily comprises interactive lectures followed up often by smaller group tutorials. Other teaching methods include learning with cadaveric prosection (and later dissection), laboratory practical and clinical skills classes, independent study, and a lot of team\\-based learning.", "Unique to Phase 1b is a clinical research experience, where students are attached to a medical research team in a company, hospital, or university to learn about and partake in research.", "Phase 1c consists of three eight\\-week placements \\- the Medicine in the Community Apprenticeship (general practice placement), hospital medicine, and surgery. Within this, students will rotate through a number of specialties and wards \\- including a two\\-week hands\\-on anaesthetics placement during the surgery rotation.", "Teaching consists of three weeks of induction at the start of the year; in\\-hospital clinical teaching, tutorials, simulations, history\\-taking, and examination practice; a mid\\-weekly central teaching program delivered by the university, and finally two weeks of intensive consolidation teaching at the end of each placement.", "Finally, an innovative series of team\\-based cases integrating the clinical and scientific approach to various common diseases running through the first three years, where students work in, and are assessed, as a team.", "(The new curriculum started four years ago. The information about the latter two years is based on the old course but is likely to be similar.)", "Phase 2 involves study for the BSc, comprising three 5\\-week modules then a 10\\-week supervised research project or specialist course, leading to a BSc (Hons) in Medical Sciences with one of the following: Anaesthesia and Critical Care; Biomedical Engineering; Cancer Frontiers; Cardiovascular Sciences; Endocrinology; Gastroenterology and Hepatology; Global Health; Molecular and Translational Haematology; Humanities, Philosophy and Law; Immunity and infection; Management; Neuroscience and Mental Health; Pharmacology; Remote Medicine; Reproductive and Developmental Sciences; Surgical Design, Technology and Innovation; and Translational Respiratory Medicine. The following specialist courses are available instead of undertaking a research project: Medical Humanities, History of Medicine, Epidemiology, and International Health. BSc courses that have available places after the allocation of Imperial students are open to medical students from other universities who wish to intercalate.", "Phase 3a covers the specialties of obstetrics and genecology, radiology, pediatrics, psychiatry, oncology, general practice, critical care, infectious diseases, dermatology, rheumatology and orthopedics through clinical attachments. It includes a 4\\-week course in clinical pathology at the start of the year and a one\\-week teaching skills course.", "Phase 3b, the final year, consists of seven three\\-week clinical attachments in accident and emergency medicine; general practice; cardiology and radiology; ear, nose and throat, ophthalmology and renal medicine; two professional work experience attachments (one in medicine and one in surgery); one specialty choice module; an eight\\-week elective period which may be spent in the UK or overseas, and a practical medicine course, which provides specific preparation for the foundation year after graduation.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www3\\.imperial.ac.uk/ugprospectus/facultiesanddepartments/medicine/coursestructure/medicine \\|title\\=Course structure \\|publisher\\=Imperial College \\|access\\-date\\=28 May 2013}}", "[thumb\\|[Hammersmith Hospital](/wiki/Hammersmith_Hospital \"Hammersmith Hospital\") has some of the school's main clinical teaching facilities](/wiki/File:Campus_of_Imperial_College_in_Hammersmith_and_Fullham%2C_London%2C_spring_2013_%283%29.jpg \"Campus of Imperial College in Hammersmith and Fullham, London, spring 2013 (3).jpg\")", "#### Medical Biosciences", "{{Tone\\|section\\|date\\=February 2020}}\nThe school offers a 3\\-year BSc biomedical science degree which opened in 2006\\. The course was re\\-designed to reflect new teaching methods such as ‘[flipped classroom](/wiki/Flipped_classroom \"Flipped classroom\")’ and an intensive laboratory curriculum. Renamed Medical Biosciences, the course accepted its first cohort in 2017\\.", "In the first and second years, students study fundamental human biology and the molecular basis of human disease. Modules on cellular and molecular biology and pharmacology underpin, for example, infectious diseases and immunology, cancer and neurobiology. Students learn to ‘think like a scientist’ with a research\\-intensive, laboratory\\-focused curriculum, whilst attending workshops on critical health issues and modules in science communication and ethics aimed to broaden their outlook and employability skills.", "In the third\\-year students will choose specialist modules, each of which examines a global health problem, and a final year project. Students have the option to complete a 20\\-week intensive research project; a placement; or undertake a dissertation on a biomedical science topic. Placement possibilities may include industry, hospitals, publishing houses, museums, charities and government agencies.", "Students also have the option of studying for a 4th year with Imperial College Business School, graduating in BSc Medical Biosciences with Management.", "" ]
#### Six\-year MBBS/BSc As of 2019, Imperial College School of Medicine updated their entire curriculum, shifting towards a more integrated spiral curriculum, in which students cover most topics multiple times, adding more depth and range each year. They also vastly increased the amount of early clinical contact and team\-based learning the students experience. The course is split into 3 'Phases'. Phase 1 spans years 1\-3 of the course (Phase 1a 1b, and 1c). Phase 2 is the BSc year, with the final two years of the course containing Phase 3a and 3b. In Phase 1a students begin by learning the biochemistry underpinning medicine in their first module. By the end of Term 1 they move onto their main systems\-based medicine module. Each system is covered both in Phase 1a and 1b, with a more clinical focus in Phase 1b, building on the scientific basis established in the year prior. There is also a module that focuses on the wider determinants of health, looking at social, political, and economical factors which affect patients spanning the first two years of the course. Across modules, there are other themes covered such as communication skills, medical ethics, professionalism and law. Teaching primarily comprises interactive lectures followed up often by smaller group tutorials. Other teaching methods include learning with cadaveric prosection (and later dissection), laboratory practical and clinical skills classes, independent study, and a lot of team\-based learning. Unique to Phase 1b is a clinical research experience, where students are attached to a medical research team in a company, hospital, or university to learn about and partake in research. Phase 1c consists of three eight\-week placements \- the Medicine in the Community Apprenticeship (general practice placement), hospital medicine, and surgery. Within this, students will rotate through a number of specialties and wards \- including a two\-week hands\-on anaesthetics placement during the surgery rotation. Teaching consists of three weeks of induction at the start of the year; in\-hospital clinical teaching, tutorials, simulations, history\-taking, and examination practice; a mid\-weekly central teaching program delivered by the university, and finally two weeks of intensive consolidation teaching at the end of each placement. Finally, an innovative series of team\-based cases integrating the clinical and scientific approach to various common diseases running through the first three years, where students work in, and are assessed, as a team. (The new curriculum started four years ago. The information about the latter two years is based on the old course but is likely to be similar.) Phase 2 involves study for the BSc, comprising three 5\-week modules then a 10\-week supervised research project or specialist course, leading to a BSc (Hons) in Medical Sciences with one of the following: Anaesthesia and Critical Care; Biomedical Engineering; Cancer Frontiers; Cardiovascular Sciences; Endocrinology; Gastroenterology and Hepatology; Global Health; Molecular and Translational Haematology; Humanities, Philosophy and Law; Immunity and infection; Management; Neuroscience and Mental Health; Pharmacology; Remote Medicine; Reproductive and Developmental Sciences; Surgical Design, Technology and Innovation; and Translational Respiratory Medicine. The following specialist courses are available instead of undertaking a research project: Medical Humanities, History of Medicine, Epidemiology, and International Health. BSc courses that have available places after the allocation of Imperial students are open to medical students from other universities who wish to intercalate. Phase 3a covers the specialties of obstetrics and genecology, radiology, pediatrics, psychiatry, oncology, general practice, critical care, infectious diseases, dermatology, rheumatology and orthopedics through clinical attachments. It includes a 4\-week course in clinical pathology at the start of the year and a one\-week teaching skills course. Phase 3b, the final year, consists of seven three\-week clinical attachments in accident and emergency medicine; general practice; cardiology and radiology; ear, nose and throat, ophthalmology and renal medicine; two professional work experience attachments (one in medicine and one in surgery); one specialty choice module; an eight\-week elective period which may be spent in the UK or overseas, and a practical medicine course, which provides specific preparation for the foundation year after graduation.{{cite web\|url\=http://www3\.imperial.ac.uk/ugprospectus/facultiesanddepartments/medicine/coursestructure/medicine \|title\=Course structure \|publisher\=Imperial College \|access\-date\=28 May 2013}} [thumb\|[Hammersmith Hospital](/wiki/Hammersmith_Hospital "Hammersmith Hospital") has some of the school's main clinical teaching facilities](/wiki/File:Campus_of_Imperial_College_in_Hammersmith_and_Fullham%2C_London%2C_spring_2013_%283%29.jpg "Campus of Imperial College in Hammersmith and Fullham, London, spring 2013 (3).jpg")
[ "#### Six\\-year MBBS/BSc", "As of 2019, Imperial College School of Medicine updated their entire curriculum, shifting towards a more integrated spiral curriculum, in which students cover most topics multiple times, adding more depth and range each year. They also vastly increased the amount of early clinical contact and team\\-based learning the students experience. The course is split into 3 'Phases'.", "Phase 1 spans years 1\\-3 of the course (Phase 1a 1b, and 1c). Phase 2 is the BSc year, with the final two years of the course containing Phase 3a and 3b.", "In Phase 1a students begin by learning the biochemistry underpinning medicine in their first module. By the end of Term 1 they move onto their main systems\\-based medicine module. Each system is covered both in Phase 1a and 1b, with a more clinical focus in Phase 1b, building on the scientific basis established in the year prior.", "There is also a module that focuses on the wider determinants of health, looking at social, political, and economical factors which affect patients spanning the first two years of the course.", "Across modules, there are other themes covered such as communication skills, medical ethics, professionalism and law. Teaching primarily comprises interactive lectures followed up often by smaller group tutorials. Other teaching methods include learning with cadaveric prosection (and later dissection), laboratory practical and clinical skills classes, independent study, and a lot of team\\-based learning.", "Unique to Phase 1b is a clinical research experience, where students are attached to a medical research team in a company, hospital, or university to learn about and partake in research.", "Phase 1c consists of three eight\\-week placements \\- the Medicine in the Community Apprenticeship (general practice placement), hospital medicine, and surgery. Within this, students will rotate through a number of specialties and wards \\- including a two\\-week hands\\-on anaesthetics placement during the surgery rotation.", "Teaching consists of three weeks of induction at the start of the year; in\\-hospital clinical teaching, tutorials, simulations, history\\-taking, and examination practice; a mid\\-weekly central teaching program delivered by the university, and finally two weeks of intensive consolidation teaching at the end of each placement.", "Finally, an innovative series of team\\-based cases integrating the clinical and scientific approach to various common diseases running through the first three years, where students work in, and are assessed, as a team.", "(The new curriculum started four years ago. The information about the latter two years is based on the old course but is likely to be similar.)", "Phase 2 involves study for the BSc, comprising three 5\\-week modules then a 10\\-week supervised research project or specialist course, leading to a BSc (Hons) in Medical Sciences with one of the following: Anaesthesia and Critical Care; Biomedical Engineering; Cancer Frontiers; Cardiovascular Sciences; Endocrinology; Gastroenterology and Hepatology; Global Health; Molecular and Translational Haematology; Humanities, Philosophy and Law; Immunity and infection; Management; Neuroscience and Mental Health; Pharmacology; Remote Medicine; Reproductive and Developmental Sciences; Surgical Design, Technology and Innovation; and Translational Respiratory Medicine. The following specialist courses are available instead of undertaking a research project: Medical Humanities, History of Medicine, Epidemiology, and International Health. BSc courses that have available places after the allocation of Imperial students are open to medical students from other universities who wish to intercalate.", "Phase 3a covers the specialties of obstetrics and genecology, radiology, pediatrics, psychiatry, oncology, general practice, critical care, infectious diseases, dermatology, rheumatology and orthopedics through clinical attachments. It includes a 4\\-week course in clinical pathology at the start of the year and a one\\-week teaching skills course.", "Phase 3b, the final year, consists of seven three\\-week clinical attachments in accident and emergency medicine; general practice; cardiology and radiology; ear, nose and throat, ophthalmology and renal medicine; two professional work experience attachments (one in medicine and one in surgery); one specialty choice module; an eight\\-week elective period which may be spent in the UK or overseas, and a practical medicine course, which provides specific preparation for the foundation year after graduation.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www3\\.imperial.ac.uk/ugprospectus/facultiesanddepartments/medicine/coursestructure/medicine \\|title\\=Course structure \\|publisher\\=Imperial College \\|access\\-date\\=28 May 2013}}", "[thumb\\|[Hammersmith Hospital](/wiki/Hammersmith_Hospital \"Hammersmith Hospital\") has some of the school's main clinical teaching facilities](/wiki/File:Campus_of_Imperial_College_in_Hammersmith_and_Fullham%2C_London%2C_spring_2013_%283%29.jpg \"Campus of Imperial College in Hammersmith and Fullham, London, spring 2013 (3).jpg\")", "" ]
Vehicles -------- [thumb\|The [Honda FCX](/wiki/Honda_FCX "Honda FCX"), along with the [Toyota FCHV](/wiki/Toyota_FCHV "Toyota FCHV"), is the world's first government\-certified commercial hydrogen fuel cell vehicle.](/wiki/File:FCX-Honda.JPG "FCX-Honda.JPG"){{further\|Fuel cell vehicle}} ### Rationale and context The rationale for hydrogen vehicles lies in their potential to reduce reliance on fossil fuels, associated greenhouse gas emissions and localised air pollution from transportation.{{cite web \|last \= McCarthy \|first \= J. \|title \= Hydrogen \|publisher \= \[\[Stanford University]] \|date \= 31 December 1995 \|url \= http://www\-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/hydrogen.html \|access\-date \= 14 March 2008 \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20080314043136/http://www\-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/hydrogen.html \|archive\-date \= 14 March 2008 \|df \= dmy\-all}} This would require hydrogen to be produced cleanly, for use in sectors and applications where cheaper and more energy efficient mitigation alternatives are limited. ### Rockets [thumb\|[Centaur (rocket stage)](/wiki/Centaur_%28rocket_stage%29 "Centaur (rocket stage)") was the first to use liquid hydrogen](/wiki/File:Centaur_Rocket_Engine_-_GPN-2000-000387.jpg "Centaur Rocket Engine - GPN-2000-000387.jpg") Many large rockets use [liquid hydrogen](/wiki/Liquid_hydrogen "Liquid hydrogen") as fuel, with [liquid oxygen](/wiki/Liquid_oxygen "Liquid oxygen") as an oxidizer (LH2/LOX). An advantage of hydrogen rocket fuel is the high [effective exhaust velocity](/wiki/Effective_exhaust_velocity "Effective exhaust velocity") compared to [kerosene](/wiki/Kerosene "Kerosene")/[LOX](/wiki/LOX "LOX") or [UDMH](/wiki/UDMH "UDMH")/[NTO](/wiki/Nitrogen_tetroxide "Nitrogen tetroxide") engines. According to the [Tsiolkovsky rocket equation](/wiki/Tsiolkovsky_rocket_equation "Tsiolkovsky rocket equation"), a rocket with higher exhaust velocity uses less propellant to accelerate. Also the [energy density](/wiki/Energy_density "Energy density") of hydrogen is greater than any other fuel.College of the Desert, “Module 1, Hydrogen Properties”, Revision 0, December 2001 [Hydrogen Properties](http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f12/fcm01r0.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701144015/https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f12/fcm01r0\.pdf \|date\=2017\-07\-01 }}. Retrieved 2015\-10\-05\. LH2/LOX also yields the greatest efficiency in relation to the amount of propellant consumed, of any known rocket propellant.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/technology/hydrogen/hydrogen\_fuel\_of\_choice.html\|title\=NASA \- Liquid Hydrogen\-\-the Fuel of Choice for Space Exploration\|website\=www.nasa.gov\|access\-date\=15 April 2018\|archive\-date\=8 February 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180208130412/https://www.nasa.gov/topics/technology/hydrogen/hydrogen\_fuel\_of\_choice.html\|url\-status\=live}} A disadvantage of LH2/LOX engines is the low density and low temperature of liquid hydrogen, which means bigger and insulated and thus heavier fuel tanks are needed compared to methane, although methane is more polluting.{{Cite web \|last\= \|first\= \|date\=2023\-09\-21 \|title\=Will hydrogen power the future of aerospace? {{!}} Hydrogen in space \|url\=https://wha\-international.com/will\-hydrogen\-power\-the\-future\-of\-aerospace/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-08 \|website\=WHA International, Inc.}} This increases the rocket's structural mass which reduces its delta\-v accordingly. Another disadvantage is the poor storability of LH2/LOX\-powered rockets: Due to the constant hydrogen boil\-off, the rocket must be fueled shortly before launch, which makes cryogenic engines unsuitable for [ICBMs](/wiki/ICBM "ICBM") and other rocket applications with the need for short launch preparations. Overall, the delta\-v of a hydrogen stage is typically not much different from that of a dense fuelled stage, but the weight of a hydrogen stage is much less, which makes it particularly effective for upper stages, since they are carried by the lower stages. For first stages, dense fuelled rockets in studies may show a small advantage, due to the smaller vehicle size and lower air drag.Sutton, George P. and Oscar Biblarz. [*Rocket Propulsion Elements*](http://web.mit.edu/e_peters/Public/Rockets/Rocket_Propulsion_Elements.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130102204553/http://web.mit.edu/e\_peters/Public/Rockets/Rocket\_Propulsion\_Elements.pdf \|date\=2013\-01\-02 }}, Seventh edition, John Wiley \& Sons (2001\), p. 257, {{ISBN\|0\-471\-32642\-9}} LH2/LOX were also used in the [Space Shuttle](/wiki/Space_Shuttle "Space Shuttle") to run the fuel cells that power the electrical systems.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/technology/hydrogen/fc\_shuttle.html \|title\=Fuel cell use in the Space Shuttle \|publisher\=NASA \|access\-date\=2012\-02\-17 \|archive\-date\=2012\-01\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125075553/http://www.nasa.gov/topics/technology/hydrogen/fc\_shuttle.html \|url\-status\=live }} The byproduct of the fuel cell is water, which is used for drinking and other applications that require water in space. ### Automobiles [thumb\|The [Toyota Mirai](/wiki/Toyota_Mirai "Toyota Mirai")](/wiki/File:Toyota_Mirai_%28JPD20%29_IMG_5303.jpg "Toyota Mirai (JPD20) IMG 5303.jpg") {{as of\|2021}}, there were two hydrogen cars publicly available in select markets: the [Toyota Mirai](/wiki/Toyota_Mirai "Toyota Mirai") and the [Hyundai Nexo](/wiki/Hyundai_Nexo "Hyundai Nexo").{{cite web\|url\=http://press.ihs.com/press\-release/automotive/global\-hydrogen\-fuel\-cell\-electric\-vehicle\-market\-buoyed\-oems\-will\-launch\-1\|title\=Global Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Market Buoyed as OEMs Will Launch 17 Vehicle Models by 2027, IHS Says\|publisher\=\[\[IHS Inc.]]\|date\=4 May 2016\|access\-date\=13 May 2016\|archive\-date\=2 March 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302032701/https://news.ihsmarkit.com/\|url\-status\=live}} The [Honda Clarity](/wiki/Honda_Clarity "Honda Clarity") was produced from 2016 to 2021\.{{cite web \|date\=June 16, 2021 \|title\=Honda discontinues hydrogen\-fuelled Clarity FCV due to slow sales \|url\=https://www.autocar.co.uk/car\-news/industry\-news\-manufacturing/honda\-discontinues\-hydrogen\-fuelled\-clarity\-fcv\-due\-slow\-sales \|access\-date\=July 29, 2021}} [Hydrogen combustion cars](/wiki/Hydrogen_internal_combustion_engine_vehicle "Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle") are not commercially available.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2023}} In the light road vehicle segment, by the end of 2022, 70,200 fuel cell electric vehicles had been sold worldwide,{{Cite book \|last1\=Chu \|first1\=Yidan \|url\=https://theicct.org/wp\-content/uploads/2023/06/Global\-EV\-sales\-2022\_FINAL.pdf \|title\=Annual update on the global transition to electric vehicles: 2022 \|last2\=Cui \|first2\=Hongyang \|publisher\=International Council on Clean Transportation \|pages\=2–3 \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-25}} compared with 26 million plug\-in electric vehicles.{{Cite book \|url\=https://www.iea.org/reports/global\-ev\-outlook\-2023 \|title\=Global EV Outlook 2023 \|date\=26 April 2023 \|publisher\=IEA \|pages\=14–24 \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-25}} In 2023, 3,143 hydrogen cars were sold in the US compared with 380,000 BEVs.Woody, Todd. ["Few Stations and $200 to Fill Up: Life on California’s 'Hydrogen Highway'"](https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2024-04-04/california-s-hydrogen-fuel-cell-cars-lose-traction-against-battery-models), Bloomberg, April 4, 2024 With the rapid rise of [electric vehicles](/wiki/Electric_vehicle "Electric vehicle") and associated battery technology and infrastructure, the global scope for hydrogen's role in cars is shrinking relative to earlier expectations.{{Cite journal \|last\=Plötz \|first\=Patrick \|date\=January 2022 \|title\=Hydrogen technology is unlikely to play a major role in sustainable road transport \|url\=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41928\-021\-00706\-6 \|journal\=Nature Electronics \|volume\=5 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=8–10 \|doi\=10\.1038/s41928\-021\-00706\-6 \|s2cid\=246465284 \|issn\=2520\-1131}}{{Cite web \|last\=Collins (l\_collins) \|first\=Leigh \|date\=2022\-02\-02 \|title\='Hydrogen unlikely to play major role in road transport, even for heavy trucks': Fraunhofer \|url\=https://www.rechargenews.com/energy\-transition/\-hydrogen\-unlikely\-to\-play\-major\-role\-in\-road\-transport\-even\-for\-heavy\-trucks\-fraunhofer/2\-1\-1162055 \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-08 \|website\=Recharge}} John Max of *Hydrogen Fuel News* believes that hydrogen may, however, be used directly, or as a feedstock for efuel, for vintage and muscle cars.{{Cite web \|last\=Max \|first\=John \|date\=2022\-11\-14 \|title\=Hydrogen\-powered Vehicles Include Classic Car Conversions \- H2 News \|url\=https://www.hydrogenfuelnews.com/hydrogen\-powered\-vehicles\-classic/8555907/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-10 \|website\=www.hydrogenfuelnews.com}}{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-07\-24 \|title\=Classic cars accelerate along the road to sustainability \|url\=https://www.theengineer.co.uk/content/in\-depth/classic\-cars\-accelerate\-along\-the\-road\-to\-sustainability/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-10 \|website\=The Engineer}}{{Cite web \|title\=What is the future of muscle cars… \|url\=https://www.musclecarmag.com.au/feature/what\-is\-the\-future\-of\-muscle\-cars\-583508 \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-10 \|website\=Muscle Car Magazine (Australia)}} The first road vehicle powered by a hydrogen fuel cell was the Chevrolet Electrovan, introduced by [General Motors](/wiki/General_Motors "General Motors") in 1966\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.carsguide.com.au/car\-advice/the\-history\-of\-hydrogen\-fuel\-cell\-cars\-85330\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129181457/https://www.carsguide.com.au/car\-advice/the\-history\-of\-hydrogen\-fuel\-cell\-cars\-85330\|title\=The history of hydrogen fuel cell cars\|publisher\=The Market Herald\|date\=29 December 2021\|archive\-date\=29 January 2023}} The [Toyota FCHV](/wiki/Toyota_FCHV "Toyota FCHV") and [Honda FCX](/wiki/Honda_FCX "Honda FCX"), which began leasing on December 2, 2002, became the world's first government\-certified commercial hydrogen fuel cell vehicles,{{cite web\|url\=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2002/11/19/business/toyota\-to\-lease\-fuel\-cell\-cars\-to\-state/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308232938/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2002/11/19/business/toyota\-to\-lease\-fuel\-cell\-cars\-to\-state/\|title\=Toyota to lease fuel\-cell cars to state\|publisher\=\[\[The Japan Times]]\|date\=19 November 2002\|archive\-date\=8 March 2023}}{{cite web\|url\=https://global.honda/newsroom/news/2002/4021203\-fcx\-eng.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308233714/https://global.honda/newsroom/news/2002/4021203\-fcx\-eng.html\|title\=First Honda FCX Fuel Cell Vehicles Delivered on Same Day in Japan and the U.S.\|publisher\=Honda\|date\=3 December 2002\|archive\-date\=8 March 2023}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2002/07/26/business/hydrogen\-powered\-honda\-achieves\-world\-first/\#.XDN1\-XZ\_q3A\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107155311/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2002/07/26/business/hydrogen\-powered\-honda\-achieves\-world\-first/\#.XDN1\-XZ\_q3A\|title\=Hydrogen\-powered Honda achieves world first\|publisher\=\[\[The Japan Times]]\|date\=26 July 2002\|archive\-date\=7 January 2019}} and the [Honda FCX Clarity](/wiki/Honda_Clarity "Honda Clarity"), which began leasing in 2008, was the world's first hydrogen fuel cell vehicle designed for mass production rather than adapting an existing model.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.autoblog.com/2007/11/18/first\-drive\-2009\-honda\-fcx\-clarity\-worlds\-first\-series\-produc/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729003834/https://www.autoblog.com/2007/11/18/first\-drive\-2009\-honda\-fcx\-clarity\-worlds\-first\-series\-produc/\|title\=Honda FCX Clarity, world's first series production fuel cell car\|publisher\=Verizon Media\|date\=18 November 2007\|archive\-date\=29 July 2021}} Honda established the world's first fuel cell vehicle dealer network in 2008, and at the time was the only company able to lease hydrogen fuel cell vehicles to private customers.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/aug/24/hydrogen\-powered\-vehicles\-on\-horizon/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220930034059/https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/aug/24/hydrogen\-powered\-vehicles\-on\-horizon/\|title\=Hydrogen\-powered vehicles on horizon\|website\=\[\[The Washington Times]] \|publisher\=\|date\=24 August 2009\|archive\-date\=30 September 2022}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.thecarconnection.com/news/1015667\_honda\-sets\-up\-worlds\-first\-fuel\-cell\-dealer\-network\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521025801/https://www.thecarconnection.com/news/1015667\_honda\-sets\-up\-worlds\-first\-fuel\-cell\-dealer\-network\|title\=Honda Sets Up World's First Fuel Cell Dealer Network\|publisher\=The Car Connection\|date\=16 June 2018\|archive\-date\=21 May 2022}} The 2013 [Hyundai Tucson FCEV](/wiki/Hyundai_Tucson_FCEV "Hyundai Tucson FCEV"), a modified Tucson, was introduced to the market as a lease\-only vehicle,{{cite web\|url\=https://www.drive.com.au/news/hyundai\-ix35\-fuel\-cell\-launching\-in\-2014\-with\-free\-hydrogen\-fuel/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706002038/https://www.drive.com.au/news/hyundai\-ix35\-fuel\-cell\-launching\-in\-2014\-with\-free\-hydrogen\-fuel/\|title\=Hyundai ix35 Fuel Cell launching in 2014 with free hydrogen fuel\|publisher\=Drive.com.au\|date\=22 November 2013\|archive\-date\=6 July 2022}}{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.hyundaihydrogen.ca/faq.html \|title\=The Tucson Fuel Cell FAQ \| HyundaiHydrogen.ca \|access\-date\=2016\-03\-28 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324212819/http://www.hyundaihydrogen.ca/faq.html \|archive\-date\=2016\-03\-24}} and [Hyundai Motors](/wiki/Hyundai_Motors "Hyundai Motors") claimed it was the world's first mass\-produced hydrogen fuel cell vehicle.{{cite web\| url\=https://www.hyundainews.com/en\-us/releases/1624\| title\=Hyundai ix35 Fuel Cell\| publisher\=Hyundai\| access\-date\=18 November 2018\| archive\-date\=18 November 2018\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118171602/https://www.hyundainews.com/en\-us/releases/1624\| url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\| url\=http://www.businesskorea.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno\=552\| title\=The World's First Mass\-Production of FCEV\| access\-date\=18 November 2018\| archive\-date\=18 November 2018\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118164724/http://www.businesskorea.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno\=552\| url\-status\=live}} However, due to high prices and a lack of charging infrastructure, sales fell far short of initial plans, with only 273 units sold by the end of May 2015\.{{cite web\|url\=http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/full/2015/06/15/38/1200000000AEN20150615002600320F.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150621070638/http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/full/2015/06/15/38/1200000000AEN20150615002600320F.html\|title\=Hyundai Motor's fuel\-cell car sales miss target\|publisher\=\[\[Yonhap News Agency]]\|date\=15 June 2015\|archive\-date\=21 June 2015}} [Hyundai Nexo](/wiki/Hyundai_Nexo "Hyundai Nexo"), which succeeded the Tucson in 2018, was selected as the "safest SUV" by the Euro NCAP in 2018,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.euroncap.com:443/en/ratings\-rewards/best\-in\-class\-cars/2018\|title\=Euro NCAP Best in Class 2018 \- new award for best performing hybrid \& electric car of 2018 \| Euro NCAP\|website\=www.euroncap.com\|access\-date\=2019\-06\-24\|archive\-date\=2019\-06\-24\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190624190214/https://www.euroncap.com/en/ratings\-rewards/best\-in\-class\-cars/2018\|url\-status\=live}} but In October 2024, Hyundai recalled all 1,600 Nexo vehicles sold in the US to that time due to a risk of fuel leaks and fire from a faulty "pressure relief device".["Hyundai recalls hydrogen fuel cell vehicles due to fire risk and tells owners to park them outdoors"](https://www.boston.com/news/business/2024/10/18/hyundai-recalls-hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles-due-to-fire-risk-and-tells-owners-to-park-them-outdoors), Associated Press, via Boston.com, October 18, 2024 [Toyota](/wiki/Toyota "Toyota") launched the world's first dedicated mass\-produced fuel cell vehicle (FCV), the [Mirai](/wiki/Toyota_Mirai "Toyota Mirai"), in Japan at the end of 2014{{cite web\|url\=https://blogs.wsj.com/japanrealtime/2014/12/15/toyotas\-fuel\-cell\-powered\-mirai\-hits\-showrooms/?guid\=BL\-JRTB\-18738\&dsk\=y\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180526232252/https://blogs.wsj.com/japanrealtime/2014/12/15/toyotas\-fuel\-cell\-powered\-mirai\-hits\-showrooms/?guid\=BL\-JRTB\-18738\&dsk\=y\|title\=Toyota's Fuel\-Cell Car Mirai Goes on Sale\|publisher\=\[\[The Wall Street Journal]]\|date\=15 December 2014\|archive\-date\=26 May 2018}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/01/23/business/corporate\-business/toyota\-to\-quadruple\-production\-of\-mirai\-fuel\-cell\-vehicles\-by\-2017/\#.VZqmPXZ\_q3B\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706160050/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/01/23/business/corporate\-business/toyota\-to\-quadruple\-production\-of\-mirai\-fuel\-cell\-vehicles\-by\-2017/\#.VZqmPXZ\_q3B\|title\=Toyota to quadruple production of Mirai fuel\-cell vehicles by 2017\|publisher\=\[\[The Japan Times]]\|date\=23 January 2015\|archive\-date\=6 July 2015}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.adrianflux.co.uk/influx/features/toyota\-mirai\-hydrogen/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516151134/https://www.adrianflux.co.uk/influx/features/toyota\-mirai\-hydrogen/\|title\=Toyota Mirai x Hydrogen: the world's first mass produced HFCV\|date\=20 January 2017 \|archive\-date\=16 May 2022\|access\-date\=8 March 2023}} and began sales in California, mainly the [Los Angeles area](/wiki/Los_Angeles_metropolitan_area "Los Angeles metropolitan area") and also in selected markets in Europe, the UK, Germany and Denmark{{Cite web\|url\=https://insideevs.com/news/325606/european\-sales\-of\-toyota\-mirai\-to\-begin\-this\-september/\|title\=European Sales Of Toyota Mirai To Begin This September\|website\=InsideEVs}} later in 2015\.Voelcker, John. ["Decades Of Promises: 'Dude, Where's My Hydrogen Fuel\-Cell Car?'"](https://autos.yahoo.com/news/decades-promises-dude-wheres-hydrogen-fuel-cell-car-130000421.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302032700/https://autos.yahoo.com/news/decades\-promises\-dude\-wheres\-hydrogen\-fuel\-cell\-car\-130000421\.html \|date\=2021\-03\-02 }}, Yahoo.com, March 31, 2015 The car has a range of {{convert\|312\|mi\|abbr\=on}} and takes about five minutes to refill its hydrogen tank. The initial sale price in Japan was about 7 million yen ($69,000\).{{cite news\|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014\-06\-25/toyota\-to\-offer\-69\-000\-car\-as\-musk\-pans\-fool\-cells\-.html/\|title\=Toyota to Offer $69,000 Car After Musk Pans 'Fool Cells'\|newspaper\=Bloomberg.com \|date\=2014\-06\-25\|access\-date\=2014\-06\-27\|archive\-date\=2014\-06\-27\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627055520/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014\-06\-25/toyota\-to\-offer\-69\-000\-car\-as\-musk\-pans\-fool\-cells\-.html\|url\-status\=live}} Former European Parliament President [Pat Cox](/wiki/Pat_Cox "Pat Cox") estimated that Toyota would initially lose about $100,000 on each Mirai sold.Ayre, James. ["Toyota To Lose $100,000 On Every Hydrogen FCV Sold?"](http://cleantechnica.com/2014/11/19/toyota-lose-100000-every-hydrogen-fcv-sold) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103131510/https://cleantechnica.com/2014/11/19/toyota\-lose\-100000\-every\-hydrogen\-fcv\-sold/ \|date\=2015\-01\-03 }}, CleanTechnica.com, November 19, 2014; and Blanco, Sebastian. ["Bibendum 2014: Former EU President says Toyota could lose 100,000 euros per hydrogen FCV sedan"](http://green.autoblog.com/2014/11/12/bibendum-2014-toyota-lose-100000-euros-fcv-hydrogen-car/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141124221312/http://green.autoblog.com/2014/11/12/bibendum\-2014\-toyota\-lose\-100000\-euros\-fcv\-hydrogen\-car/ \|date\=2014\-11\-24 }}, GreenAutoblog.com, November 12, 2014 At the end of 2019, Toyota had sold over 10,000 Mirais.{{Cite web \| url\=https://global.toyota/en/company/profile/production\-sales\-figures/202003\.html?\_ga\=2\.211351126\.219919894\.1589198585\-1423135873\.1589198585 \| title\=Sales, Production, and Export Results for March 2020 \| Sales, Production, and Export Results \| Profile \| Company \| access\-date\=2020\-05\-11 \| archive\-date\=2021\-03\-02 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302032735/https://global.toyota/en/company/profile/production\-sales\-figures/202003\.html?\_ga\=2\.211351126\.219919894\.1589198585\-1423135873\.1589198585 \| url\-status\=live }}["Realising the hydrogen economy"](https://www.power-technology.com/comment/standing-at-the-precipice-of-the-hydrogen-economy) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191105054643/https://www.power\-technology.com/comment/standing\-at\-the\-precipice\-of\-the\-hydrogen\-economy/ \|date\=2019\-11\-05 }},*Power Technology*, 11 October 2019 Many automobile companies introduced demonstration models in limited numbers (see [List of fuel cell vehicles](/wiki/List_of_fuel_cell_vehicles "List of fuel cell vehicles") and [List of hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles](/wiki/List_of_hydrogen_internal_combustion_engine_vehicles "List of hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles")).Whoriskey, Peter. ["The Hydrogen Car Gets Its Fuel Back"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/10/16/AR2009101601002.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226082540/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\-dyn/content/article/2009/10/16/AR2009101601002\.html \|date\=2017\-02\-26 }}, *Washington Post*, October 17, 2009[Riversimple](/wiki/Riversimple "Riversimple") plans to lease a vehicle to the public by 2018 ["Hydrogen Car You Can Actually Afford"](http://www.topgear.com/car-news/first-look/hydrogen-car-you-can-actually-afford) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306210051/http://www.topgear.com/car\-news/first\-look/hydrogen\-car\-you\-can\-actually\-afford \|date\=2016\-03\-06 }}, TopGear.com In 2013 [BMW](/wiki/BMW "BMW") leased hydrogen technology from [Toyota](/wiki/Toyota "Toyota"), and a group formed by [Ford Motor Company](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company "Ford Motor Company"), [Daimler AG](/wiki/Daimler_AG "Daimler AG"), and [Nissan](/wiki/Nissan "Nissan") announced a collaboration on hydrogen technology development.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/510416/ford\-daimler\-and\-nissan\-commit\-to\-fuel\-cells\|title\=Ford, Daimler, and Nissan Commit to Fuel Cells\|first\=Martin\|last\=LaMonica\|website\=technologyreview.com\|access\-date\=15 April 2018\|archive\-date\=9 November 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109042120/https://www.technologyreview.com/s/510416/ford\-daimler\-and\-nissan\-commit\-to\-fuel\-cells/\|url\-status\=live}} In 2015, Toyota announced that it would offer all 5,680 patents related to hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and hydrogen fuel cell charging station technology, which it has been researching for over 20 years, to its competitors free of charge to stimulate the market for hydrogen\-powered vehicles.{{cite web\|url\=https://time.com/3654899/toyota\-mirai\-patents\-hydrogen\-power/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707054645/https://time.com/3654899/toyota\-mirai\-patents\-hydrogen\-power/\|title\=Toyota Wants Everyone to Know How It Made Its Hydrogen\-Powered Car\|publisher\=\[\[Time (magazine)\|Time]]\|date\=5 January 2015\|archive\-date\=7 July 2022}} By 2017, however, Daimler had abandoned hydrogen vehicle development,Gordon\-Bloomfield, Nikki. ["Are Hydrogen Fuel Cell Cars Doomed – And Have Electric Cars Won?"](https://transportevolved.com/2017/04/04/are-hydrogen-fuel-cell-cars-doomed-and-have-electric-cars-won) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406022441/https://transportevolved.com/2017/04/04/are\-hydrogen\-fuel\-cell\-cars\-doomed\-and\-have\-electric\-cars\-won/ \|date\=2017\-04\-06 }}, TransportEvolved.com, April 4, 2017 and most of the automobile companies developing hydrogen cars had switched their focus to battery electric vehicles.Williams, Keith. ["The Switch from Hydrogen to Electric Vehicles Continues, Now Hyundai Makes the Move"](https://seekingalpha.com/article/4103682-switch-hydrogen-electric-vehicles-continues-now-hyundai-makes-move), *[Seeking Alpha](/wiki/Seeking_Alpha "Seeking Alpha")*, September 1, 2017 By 2020, all but three automobile companies had abandoned plans to manufacture hydrogen cars.Morris, Charles. ["Why Are 3 Automakers Still Hyping Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles?"](https://cleantechnica.com/2021/10/14/why-are-3-automakers-still-hyping-hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles), CleanTechnica, October 14, 2021 The [Honda CR\-V e:FCEV](/wiki/Honda_CR-V_%28sixth_generation%29%23CR-V_e:FCEV "FCEV") became available, for lease only, in very limited quantities in 2024\. A significant number of the public hydrogen fuel stations in the California are not able to dispense hydrogen.["Station Status"](https://h2fcp.org/sites/default/files/Hydrogen-Distribution-and-Supply.pdf), *Hydrogen Fuel Cell Partnership*. Retrieved October 17, 2024; and ["Southern California Retail Hydrogen Station Network Status in California"](https://h2fcp.org/sites/default/files/Hydrogen-Distribution-and-Supply.pdf), *Hydrogen Fuel Cell Partnership*, July 19, 2024 In 2024, Mirai owners filed a [class action](/wiki/Class_action "Class action") lawsuit in California over the lack of availability of hydrogen available for fuel cell electric cars, alleging, among other things, fraudulent concealment and misrepresentation as well as violations of California’s false advertising law and breaches of implied warranty.Martin, Polly. ["Toyota sued over lack of hydrogen availability for fuel cell cars in California"](https://www.hydrogeninsight.com/transport/toyota-sued-over-lack-of-hydrogen-availability-for-fuel-cell-cars-in-california/2-1-1676965), *Hydrogen Insight*, July 15, 2024 ### Heavy trucks The International Energy Agency's 2022 net\-zero emissions scenario sees hydrogen meeting approximately 30% of heavy truck energy demand in 2050, mainly for long\-distance heavy freight (with battery electric power accounting for around 60%).{{Cite book \|last1\=Cozzi \|first1\=Laura \|url\=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/830fe099\-5530\-48f2\-a7c1\-11f35d510983/WorldEnergyOutlook2022\.pdf \|title\=World Energy Outlook 2022 \|last2\=Gould \|first2\=Tim \|publisher\=International Energy Agency \|pages\=148}}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice\|cc\=by4\|from this source\=yes}} [United Parcel Service](/wiki/United_Parcel_Service "United Parcel Service") began testing of a hydrogen powered delivery vehicle in 2017\.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.cnet.com/roadshow/news/ups\-begins\-testing\-hydrogen\-fuel\-cell\-delivery\-truck/\|title\=UPS begins testing hydrogen fuel\-cell delivery truck \- Roadshow\|work\=Roadshow\|access\-date\=May 7, 2017\|archive\-date\=May 3, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170503195209/https://www.cnet.com/roadshow/news/ups\-begins\-testing\-hydrogen\-fuel\-cell\-delivery\-truck/\|url\-status\=live}} In 2020, [Hyundai](/wiki/Hyundai_Motor_Company "Hyundai Motor Company") began commercial production of its [Xcient](/wiki/Hyundai_Xcient "Hyundai Xcient") fuel cell trucks and shipped ten of them to [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland").{{Cite web\|last\=Ryu\|first\=Jung\|date\=2020\-07\-07\|title\=Hyundai Starts Mass Production of Hydrogen Trucks\|url\=http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html\_dir/2020/07/07/2020070701792\.html\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-26\|website\=The Chosun Ilbo\|archive\-date\=2020\-09\-25\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925082413/http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html\_dir/2020/07/07/2020070701792\.html\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|title\=Hyundai XCIENT Fuel Cell Heads to Europe for Commercial Use\|url\=https://www.hyundai.news/eu/brand/hyundai\-xcient\-fuel\-cell\-heads\-to\-europe\-for\-commercial\-use/\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-26\|website\=Hyundai Media Newsroom\|archive\-date\=2020\-09\-25\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925040152/https://www.hyundai.news/eu/brand/hyundai\-xcient\-fuel\-cell\-heads\-to\-europe\-for\-commercial\-use/\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|title\=World's First Fuel Cell Heavy\-Duty Truck, Hyundai XCIENT Fuel Cell, Heads to Europe for Commercial Use \- Hyundai Motor Group TECH\|url\=https://tech.hyundaimotorgroup.com/press\-release/worlds\-first\-fuel\-cell\-heavy\-duty\-truck\-hyundai\-xcient\-fuel\-cell\-heads\-to\-europe\-for\-commercial\-use/\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-26\|website\=tech.hyundaimotorgroup.com\|archive\-date\=2020\-08\-10\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810162444/https://tech.hyundaimotorgroup.com/press\-release/worlds\-first\-fuel\-cell\-heavy\-duty\-truck\-hyundai\-xcient\-fuel\-cell\-heads\-to\-europe\-for\-commercial\-use/\|url\-status\=live}} In 2022 in Australia, five hydrogen fuel cell [class 8](/wiki/Truck_classification%23Class_8 "Truck classification#Class 8") trucks were placed into use to transport zinc from Sun Metals' [Townsville](/wiki/Townsville "Townsville") mine to the [Port of Townsville](/wiki/Port_of_Townsville "Port of Townsville"), Queensland, to be shipped around the world.{{Cite web \|title\=Hydrogen powered prime movers to roll into Townsville \|url\=https://arena.gov.au/blog/hydrogen\-powered\-prime\-movers\-to\-roll\-into\-townsville/ \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-15 \|website\=Australian Renewable Energy Agency\|date\=10 November 2021 }} ### Aeroplanes {{Main\|Hydrogen planes}} [thumb\|right\|The [Boeing](/wiki/Boeing "Boeing") Fuel Cell Demonstrator powered by a hydrogen fuel cell](/wiki/File:Boeing_Fuel_Cell_Demonstrator_AB1.JPG "Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator AB1.JPG") [thumb\|Hydrogen projections](/wiki/File:The_Hydrogen_Ladder%2C_Version_5.0.jpg "The Hydrogen Ladder, Version 5.0.jpg") Some publications project hydrogen may be used in shipping{{Cite web \|last\= \|title\=Potential of hydrogen as fuel for shipping \|url\=https://www.emsa.europa.eu/publications/reports/item/5062\-potential\-of\-hydrogen\-as\-fuel\-for\-shipping.html \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-10 \|website\=www.emsa.europa.eu}} and jetplanes,{{Cite web \|title\=Towards the world's first hydrogen\-powered commercial aircraft \|url\=https://www.airbus.com/en/innovation/low\-carbon\-aviation/hydrogen/zeroe \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-10 \|website\=www.airbus.com\|date\=24 June 2021 }} while others predict that biofuels and batteries will have more commercial success.{{Cite web \|last\=Barnard \|first\=Michael \|date\=2023\-10\-22 \|title\=What's New On The Rungs Of Liebreich's Hydrogen Ladder? \|url\=https://cleantechnica.com/2023/10/22/whats\-new\-on\-the\-rungs\-of\-liebreichs\-hydrogen\-ladder/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-10 \|website\=CleanTechnica}} Companies such as [Boeing](/wiki/Boeing "Boeing"), [Lange Aviation](/wiki/Lange_Aviation "Lange Aviation"), and the [German Aerospace Center](/wiki/German_Aerospace_Center "German Aerospace Center") are pursuing hydrogen as fuel for crewed and uncrewed aeroplanes. In February 2008 Boeing tested a crewed flight of a small aircraft powered by a hydrogen fuel cell. Uncrewed hydrogen planes have also been tested.{{cite web \|date\=2009\-10\-15 \|title\=Ion tiger hydrogen UAV \|url\=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/10/091013123350\.htm \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101221131439/http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/10/091013123350\.htm \|archive\-date\=2010\-12\-21 \|access\-date\=2010\-12\-12 \|publisher\=Sciencedaily.com}} For large passenger aeroplanes, *[The Times](/wiki/The_Times "The Times")* reported that "Boeing said that hydrogen fuel cells were unlikely to power the engines of large passenger jet aeroplanes but could be used as backup or auxiliary power units onboard."{{cite news \|author\=David Robertson \|date\=3 April 2008 \|title\=Boeing tests first hydrogen powered plane \|newspaper\=The Times \|location\=London \|url\=http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry\_sectors/transport/article3675188\.ece \|url\-status\=dead \|access\-date\=3 April 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612042658/http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry\_sectors/transport/article3675188\.ece \|archive\-date\=12 June 2011}} In July 2010, Boeing unveiled its hydrogen\-powered [Phantom Eye](/wiki/Boeing_Phantom_Eye "Boeing Phantom Eye") [UAV](/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle "Unmanned aerial vehicle"), powered by two Ford internal\-combustion engines that have been converted to run on hydrogen.{{cite web \|date\=2010\-07\-13 \|title\=Boeing's 'Phantom Eye' Ford Fusion powered stratocraft \|url\=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2010/07/13/phantom\_eye\_rollout/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100714220048/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2010/07/13/phantom\_eye\_rollout/ \|archive\-date\=2010\-07\-14 \|access\-date\=2010\-07\-14 \|website\=The Register}} ### Ships {{Main\|Hydrogen\-powered ship}} {{As of\|2019}} hydrogen fuel cells are not suitable for propulsion in large long\-distance ships but are being considered as a range\-extender for smaller, short\-distance, low\-speed electric vessels, such as ferries.{{Cite web\|url\=https://ship.nridigital.com/ship\_mar19/could\_fuel\_cells\_soon\_be\_used\_in\_ship\_propulsion\|title\=Could fuel cells soon be used in ship propulsion?\|date\=2019\-03\-07\|website\=Ship Technology\|access\-date\=2019\-06\-18\|archive\-date\=2019\-07\-24\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724190243/https://ship.nridigital.com/ship\_mar19/could\_fuel\_cells\_soon\_be\_used\_in\_ship\_propulsion\|url\-status\=live}} Hydrogen in [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia "Ammonia") is being considered as a long\-distance fuel.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/2018\_11\_Roadmap\_decarbonising\_European\_shipping.pdf\|title\=Roadmap to decarbonizing European shipping\|last\=Abbasov\|first\=Faig\|date\=November 2018\|website\=Transportenvironment.org\|access\-date\=June 18, 2019\|archive\-date\=June 25, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625210807/https://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/2018\_11\_Roadmap\_decarbonising\_European\_shipping.pdf\|url\-status\=live}} ### Buses {{Main\|Fuel cell bus}} [thumb\|A Solaris Urbino 12 bus near its factory in [Bolechowo, Poland](/wiki/Bolechowo%2C_Greater_Poland_Voivodeship "Bolechowo, Greater Poland Voivodeship")](/wiki/File:Solaris_Urbino_12_hydrogen_2.jpg "Solaris Urbino 12 hydrogen 2.jpg") Fuel\-cell buses were [trialed](/wiki/Fuel_cell_bus_trial "Fuel cell bus trial") in [Ursus](/wiki/Ursus_Factory "Ursus Factory") Lublin in 2017\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://en.ursus.com.pl/\|title\=Ursus Lublin\|access\-date\=2017\-04\-06\|archive\-date\=2017\-05\-01\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501214643/http://en.ursus.com.pl/\|url\-status\=live}} [Solaris Bus \& Coach](/wiki/Solaris_Bus_%26_Coach "Solaris Bus & Coach") introduced its Urbino 12 hydrogen electric buses in 2019\. Several dozen were ordered.["Connexxion orders 20 Solaris hydrogen buses for South Holland"](https://www.greencarcongress.com/2020/04/20200415-solaris.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626081233/https://www.greencarcongress.com/2020/04/20200415\-solaris.html \|date\=2020\-06\-26 }}, Green Car Congress, 15 April 2020 The first city in the U.S. to have a fleet of hydrogen powered buses was [Champaign](/wiki/Champaign%E2%80%93Urbana_metropolitan_area "Champaign–Urbana metropolitan area"), Illinois, when in 2021 the [Champaign–Urbana Mass Transit District](/wiki/Champaign%E2%80%93Urbana_Mass_Transit_District "Champaign–Urbana Mass Transit District") ordered two New Flyer XHE60 articulated hydrogen fuel cell buses, with 10 more New Flyer XHE40 buses added in 2024\.{{Cite web \|title\=Champaign–Urbana Mass Transit District \|url\=https://mtd.org/ \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-18 \|website\=MTD}} In 2022, the city of [Montpellier](/wiki/Montpellier "Montpellier"), France, cancelled a contract to procure 51 buses powered by hydrogen fuel cells, when it found that "the cost of operation for hydrogen \[buses] is 6 times the cost of electricity".Hanley, Steve. ["French City Cancels Hydrogen Bus Contract, Opts for Electric Buses"](https://cleantechnica.com/2022/01/11/french-city-cancels-hydrogen-bus-contract-opts-for-electric-buses), CleanTechnica.com, January 11, 2022 ### Fork trucks A [hydrogen internal combustion engine](/wiki/Hydrogen_internal_combustion_engine "Hydrogen internal combustion engine") (or "HICE") [forklift](/wiki/Forklift "Forklift") or HICE lift truck is a hydrogen fueled, [internal combustion engine](/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine "Internal combustion engine")\-powered industrial forklift truck used for lifting and [transporting](/wiki/Transport "Transport") materials. The first production HICE forklift truck based on the Linde X39 Diesel was presented at an exposition in [Hannover](/wiki/Hannover "Hannover") on May 27, 2008\. It used a 2\.0 litre, {{convert\|43\|kW\|abbr\=on}} diesel internal combustion engine converted to use hydrogen as a fuel with the use of a compressor and [direct injection](/wiki/Fuel_injection%23Direct_injection_systems "Fuel injection#Direct injection systems").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary\_0286\-35668015\_ITM \|title\=Hydrogen engines get a lift \|publisher\=Accessmylibrary.com \|date\=2008\-10\-01 \|access\-date\=2010\-12\-12}}[HyICE](https://www.hfpeurope.org/uploads/700/836/2005_HFP_Brussels_HyICE.pdf){{dead link\|date\=February 2018 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} In 2013 there were over 4,000 [fuel cell forklifts](/wiki/Fuel_cell_forklift "Fuel cell forklift") used in [material handling](/wiki/Material_handling "Material handling") in the US.[Press release: "Fuel Cell Forklifts Gain Ground"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130821025808/http://www.fuelcells.org/pdfs/FuelCellForkliftsGainGround.pdf), fuelcells.org, July 9, 2013 As of 2024, approximately 50,000 hydrogen forklifts are in operation worldwide (the bulk of which are in the U.S.), as compared with 1\.2 million battery electric forklifts that were purchased in 2021\.Barnard, Michael. ["On Hydrogen Forklifts, Bitcoin Mining and Green Fertilizer"](https://cleantechnica.com/2024/01/02/on-hydrogen-forklifts-bitcoin-mining-and-green-fertilizer), *CleanTechnica*, January 2, 2024 Most companies in Europe and the US do not use petroleum powered forklifts, as these vehicles work indoors where emissions must be controlled and instead use electric forklifts.["Global and Chinese Forklift Industry Report, 2014\-2016"](http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-and-chinese-forklift-industry-report-2014-2016-281752401.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129020439/http://www.prnewswire.com/news\-releases/global\-and\-chinese\-forklift\-industry\-report\-2014\-2016\-281752401\.html \|date\=2014\-11\-29 }}, Research and Markets, November 6, 2014{{Cite web\|url\=http://www1\.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/forklift\_anl\_esd.pdf\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217104928/http://www2\.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/forklift\_anl\_esd.pdf\|url\-status\=dead\|title\=Full Fuel\-Cycle Comparison of Forklift Propulsion Systems\|archive\-date\=February 17, 2013}} Fuel\-cell\-powered forklifts can be refueled in 3 minutes. They can be used in refrigerated warehouses, as their performance is not degraded by lower temperatures. The fuel cell units are often designed as drop\-in replacements.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.still.co.uk/fuel\-cell\-technology\-uk.0\.0\.html\|title\=Fuel cell technology\|access\-date\=30 May 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203104905/http://www.still.co.uk/fuel\-cell\-technology\-uk.0\.0\.html\|archive\-date\=3 December 2013\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|url\=http://graftechaet.com/getattachment/065811d2\-720e\-40c6\-b236\-0440c4d90d76/OFCC\-Forklift\-Case\-Study.aspx\|title\=Creating Innovative Graphite Solutions for Over 125 Years\|work\=GrafTech International\|access\-date\=30 May 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206072419/http://www.graftechaet.com/getattachment/065811d2\-720e\-40c6\-b236\-0440c4d90d76/OFCC\-Forklift\-Case\-Study.aspx\|archive\-date\=6 December 2010\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=dmy\-all}} ### Trams and trains {{external media\|video1\=\[http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2021\-01/28/c\_139704342\.htm China rolls out its first hydrogen fuel cell hybrid locomotive], ''Xinhua'', 28 January 2021}}{{Main\|Hydrogen train}} In the [International Energy Agency](/wiki/International_Energy_Agency "International Energy Agency")’s 2022 Net Zero Emissions Scenario, hydrogen is forecast to account for 2% of rail energy demand in 2050, while 90% of rail travel is expected to be electrified by then (up from 45% today). Hydrogen’s role in rail would likely be focused on lines that prove difficult or costly to electrify.{{Cite book \|url\=https://www.iea.org/reports/world\-energy\-outlook\-2022 \|title\=World energy outlook 2022 \|date\=27 October 2022 \|publisher\=International Energy Agency \|pages\=150}}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice\|cc\=by4\|from this source\=yes}} In March 2015, [China South Rail Corporation](/wiki/CSR_Corporation_Limited "CSR Corporation Limited") (CSR) demonstrated the world's first hydrogen fuel cell\-powered tramcar at an assembly facility in Qingdao.{{cite web\|url\=http://en.yibada.com/articles/21142/20150321/china\-worlds\-first\-hydrogen\-fueled\-tram.htm\#\|title\=China Presents the World's First Hydrogen\-Fueled Tram\|date\=21 March 2015\|access\-date\=6 May 2015\|archive\-date\=6 September 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906125005/http://en.yibada.com/articles/21142/20150321/china\-worlds\-first\-hydrogen\-fueled\-tram.htm\|url\-status\=live}} Tracks for the new vehicle have been built in seven Chinese cities.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015\-03\-25/china\-s\-hydrogen\-powered\-future\-starts\-in\-trams\-not\-cars\|title\=China's Hydrogen\-Powered Future Starts in Trams, Not Cars\|newspaper\=Bloomberg.com \|date\=March 25, 2015\|via\=www.bloomberg.com\|access\-date\=2017\-03\-07\|archive\-date\=2016\-11\-25\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125010057/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015\-03\-25/china\-s\-hydrogen\-powered\-future\-starts\-in\-trams\-not\-cars\|url\-status\=live}} In northern Germany in 2018 the first fuel\-cell powered [Coradia iLint](/wiki/Coradia_iLint "Coradia iLint") trains were placed into service; excess power is stored in [lithium\-ion batteries](/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery "Lithium-ion battery").["Germany launches world's first hydrogen\-powered train"](https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/sep/17/germany-launches-worlds-first-hydrogen-powered-train) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917170608/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/sep/17/germany\-launches\-worlds\-first\-hydrogen\-powered\-train \|date\=2018\-09\-17 }}, *The Guardian*, September 17, 2018 ### Bicycles and stand\-up scooters [thumb\|[PHB](/wiki/PHB_%28bicycle%29 "PHB (bicycle)") hydrogen bicycle](/wiki/Image:Hydrogen_bicycle.jpg "Hydrogen bicycle.jpg") In 2007, Pearl Hydrogen Power Source Technology Co of [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai "Shanghai"), China, demonstrated a [PHB](/wiki/PHB_%28bicycle%29 "PHB (bicycle)") hydrogen bicycle.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.treehugger.com/bikes/chinese\-company\-plans\-hydrogen\-fuel\-cell\-bike.html\|title\=Chinese Company Plans Hydrogen Fuel Cell Bike\|last\=Fisher\|first\=Sean\|website\=\[\[TreeHugger]]\|date\=September 10, 2007\|access\-date\=August 15, 2019\|archive\-date\=August 19, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819141439/https://www.treehugger.com/bikes/chinese\-company\-plans\-hydrogen\-fuel\-cell\-bike.html\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=https://gizmodo.com/hydrogen\-fuel\-cell\-bike\-298773\|title\=Hydrogen Fuel Cell Bike\|website\=\[\[Gizmodo]]\|date\=November 9, 2007\|access\-date\=August 15, 2019\|archive\-date\=August 19, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819141432/https://gizmodo.com/hydrogen\-fuel\-cell\-bike\-298773\|url\-status\=live}} In 2014, Australian scientists from the [University of New South Wales](/wiki/University_of_New_South_Wales "University of New South Wales") presented their Hy\-Cycle model.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.autoevolution.com/news/hy\-cycle\-is\-australia\-s\-first\-hydrogen\-fuel\-cell\-bicycle\-motorcycles\-next\-maybe\-video\-86720\.html\|title\=Hy\-Cycle Is Australia's First Hydrogen Fuel Cell Bicycle. Motorcycles Next, Maybe?\|last\=Tibu\|first\=Florin\|website\=autoevolution.com\|date\=September 18, 2014\|access\-date\=August 15, 2019\|archive\-date\=August 19, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819141433/https://www.autoevolution.com/news/hy\-cycle\-is\-australia\-s\-first\-hydrogen\-fuel\-cell\-bicycle\-motorcycles\-next\-maybe\-video\-86720\.html\|url\-status\=live}} The same year, [Canyon Bicycles](/wiki/Canyon_Bicycles "Canyon Bicycles") started to work on the Eco Speed concept bicycle.{{cite web\|url\=https://ebiketips.road.cc/content/news/future\-tech\-canyon\-s\-eco\-speed\-hydrogen\-powered\-e\-bike\-concept\-82\|title\=Future Tech: Canyon's Eco Speed hydrogen powered e\-bike concept\|last\=Arthur\|first\=David\|website\=ebiketips.road.cc\|date\=January 30, 2016\|access\-date\=August 15, 2019\|archive\-date\=August 19, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819141439/https://ebiketips.road.cc/content/news/future\-tech\-canyon\-s\-eco\-speed\-hydrogen\-powered\-e\-bike\-concept\-82\|url\-status\=live}} In 2017, Pragma Industries of France developed a bicycle that was able to travel 100 km on a single hydrogen cylinder.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.designboom.com/technology/pragma\-industries\-alpha\-hydrogen\-bicycle\-03\-2017\|title\=Pragma Industries' alpha model is a powerful hydrogen\-fueled bike\|last\=Chaya\|first\=Lynn\|website\=\[\[Designboom]]\|date\=November 3, 2017\|access\-date\=August 15, 2019\|archive\-date\=August 19, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819141427/https://www.designboom.com/technology/pragma\-industries\-alpha\-hydrogen\-bicycle\-03\-2017/\|url\-status\=live}} In 2019, Pragma announced that the product, "Alpha Bike", has been improved to offer an electrically assisted pedalling range of 150 km, and the first 200 of the bikes are to be provided to journalists covering the [45th G7 summit](/wiki/45th_G7_summit "45th G7 summit") in [Biarritz](/wiki/Biarritz "Biarritz"), France.Coxworth, Ben. ["World's first fuel\-cell e\-bike gets a big boost in range"](https://newatlas.com/alter-fuel-cell-bike-range-boost/61035) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815023344/https://newatlas.com/alter\-fuel\-cell\-bike\-range\-boost/61035/ \|date\=2019\-08\-15 }}, NewAtlas.com, August 13, 2019 In 2020, Alles over Waterstof{{Cite web \|title\=HydroRange Waterstof Range Extender \|url\=https://allesoverwaterstof.nl/hydrorange/ \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-03 \|website\=Alles over Waterstof \|language\=nl\-NL}} developed a 2\-wheel hydrogen powered stand\-up scooter. The stand\-up scooter has a range of over 20 km on 15 grams of hydrogen. It uses a swappable 1 litre 200 bar hydrogen cylinder. In 2021 the company developed a hydrogen powered cargo\-bike, using a static 3 litre 300 bar refillable hydrogen cylinder. The HydroCargo bike has a range of up to 100 km on 80 grams of hydrogen.{{Cite web \|title\=HydroCargo 'Last Mile' bakfiets \|url\=https://allesoverwaterstof.nl/hydrocargo/ \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-03 \|website\=Alles over Waterstof \|language\=nl\-NL}} Lloyd Alter of [TreeHugger](/wiki/TreeHugger "TreeHugger") responded to the announcement, asking "why … go through the trouble of using electricity to make hydrogen, only to turn it back into electricity to charge a battery to run the e\-bike \[or] pick a fuel that needs an expensive filling station that can only handle 35 bikes a day, when you can charge a battery powered bike anywhere. \[If] you were a captive fleet operator, why \[not] just swap out batteries to get the range and the fast turnover?"Alter, Lloyd. ["Hydrogen\-powered e\-bike cranked up to 93 mile range"](https://www.treehugger.com/bikes/hydrogen-powered-e-bike-cranked-93-mile-range.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815064811/https://www.treehugger.com/bikes/hydrogen\-powered\-e\-bike\-cranked\-93\-mile\-range.html \|date\=2019\-08\-15 }}, [TreeHugger](/wiki/TreeHugger "TreeHugger"), August 14, 2019 ### Military vehicles [General Motors](/wiki/General_Motors "General Motors")' military division, [GM Defense](/wiki/GM_Defense "GM Defense"), focuses on hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.autonews.com/article/20171009/OEM/171009800/gm\-military\-defense\-contractor \|title\=General Motors establishing new military defense division \|publisher\=AutoNews.com \|date\=October 9, 2017 \|access\-date\=October 16, 2018 \|archive\-date\=October 9, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009220738/https://www.autonews.com/article/20171009/OEM/171009800/general\-motors\-establishing\-new\-military\-defense\-division \|url\-status\=live }} Its SURUS (Silent Utility Rover Universal Superstructure) is a flexible fuel cell electric platform with autonomous capabilities. Since April 2017, the U.S. Army has been testing the commercial [Chevrolet Colorado](/wiki/Chevrolet_Colorado "Chevrolet Colorado") ZH2 on its U.S. bases to determine the viability of hydrogen\-powered vehicles in military mission tactical environments.{{cite news \|url\=https://media.gm.com/media/us/en/gm/home.detail.html/content/Pages/news/us/en/2017/oct/1006\-fuel\-cell\-platform.html \|title\=GM Outlines Possibilities for Flexible, Autonomous Fuel Cell Electric Platform \|publisher\=GM Media Release \|date\=October 6, 2017 \|access\-date\=October 16, 2018 \|archive\-date\=April 12, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412202210/https://media.gm.com/media/us/en/gm/home.detail.html/content/Pages/news/us/en/2017/oct/1006\-fuel\-cell\-platform.html \|url\-status\=live }} ### Motorcycles and scooters [ENV](/wiki/ENV "ENV") develops electric motorcycles powered by a hydrogen fuel cell, including the [Crosscage](/wiki/Crosscage "Crosscage") and [Biplane](/wiki/Biplane_%28motorcycle%29 "Biplane (motorcycle)"). Other manufacturers as Vectrix are working on hydrogen scooters.{{cite web \|url\=http://jalopnik.com/cars/lighter\_than\_air\-scooting/the\-graf\-scooter\-278441\.php \|title\=Hydrogen scooter by vectrix \|publisher\=Jalopnik.com \|date\=2007\-07\-13 \|access\-date\=2010\-12\-12 \|archive\-date\=2009\-06\-03 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090603172511/http://jalopnik.com/cars/lighter\_than\_air\-scooting/the\-graf\-scooter\-278441\.php \|url\-status\=live }} Finally, hydrogen\-fuel\-cell\-electric\-hybrid scooters are being made such as the [Suzuki Burgman fuel\-cell scooter](/wiki/Suzuki_Burgman "Suzuki Burgman"){{cite web \|url\=http://www.hydrogencarsnow.com/blog2/index.php/hydrogen\-vehicles/suzuki\-burgman\-fuel\-cell\-scooter\-to\-rollout\-within\-months/ \|title\=Suzuki Burgman fuel\-cell scooter \|publisher\=Hydrogencarsnow.com \|date\=2009\-10\-27 \|access\-date\=2010\-12\-12 \|archive\-date\=2011\-01\-26 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110126134224/http://www.hydrogencarsnow.com/blog2/index.php/hydrogen\-vehicles/suzuki\-burgman\-fuel\-cell\-scooter\-to\-rollout\-within\-months/ \|url\-status\=live }} and the [FHybrid](/wiki/FHybrid "FHybrid").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.io.tudelft.nl/live/pagina.jsp?id\=b679efb4\-ec62\-4a49\-96c8\-eaf3839d6480⟨\=en \|title\=Fhybrid fuel cell\-electric hybrid scooter \|publisher\=Io.tudelft.nl \|access\-date\=2010\-12\-12 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090604151714/http://www.io.tudelft.nl/live/pagina.jsp?id\=b679efb4\-ec62\-4a49\-96c8\-eaf3839d6480⟨\=en \|archive\-date\=2009\-06\-04 }} The Burgman received "whole vehicle type" approval in the EU.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.globalsuzuki.com/Burgman\_Fuel\-Cell\_Scooter/index.html\|title\=SUZUKI \- BURGMAN Fuel\-Cell Scooter\|access\-date\=30 May 2015\|archive\-date\=10 March 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150310073140/http://www.globalsuzuki.com/Burgman\_Fuel\-Cell\_Scooter/index.html\|url\-status\=live}} The Taiwanese company APFCT conducted a live street test with 80 fuel\-cell scooters for Taiwan's Bureau of Energy.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.apfct.com/article\_cat.php?act\=view\&no\=26\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130101222331/http://www.apfct.com/article\_cat.php?act\=view\&no\=26\|url\-status\=dead\|title\=Asia Pacific Fuel Cell Technologies, Ltd. \-\-fuel cell systems and fue…\|date\=1 January 2013\|archive\-date\=1 January 2013\|website\=apfct.com\|access\-date\=15 April 2018}} ### Auto rickshaws Hydrogen [auto rickshaw](/wiki/Auto_rickshaw "Auto rickshaw") concept vehicles have been built by Mahindra HyAlfa and Bajaj Auto.{{Cite web\|url\=https://thecityfix.com/blog/india\-showcases\-hydrogen\-fuel\-auto\-rickshaws/\|title\=India Showcases Hydrogen Fuel Auto\-Rickshaws \|\|date\=February 21, 2012\|access\-date\=September 21, 2019\|archive\-date\=September 20, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920170327/https://thecityfix.com/blog/india\-showcases\-hydrogen\-fuel\-auto\-rickshaws/\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite news\|url\=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/news\-by\-industry/transportation/shipping\-/\-transport/iit\-delhi\-scientists\-develop\-autos\-that\-run\-on\-hydrogen\-cause\-negligible\-pollution/articleshow/11858081\.cms\|title\=IIT\-Delhi scientists develop autos that run on hydrogen; cause negligible pollution\|first\=Jayashree\|last\=Nandi\|newspaper\=The Economic Times\|access\-date\=2019\-09\-21\|archive\-date\=2019\-09\-21\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190921074423/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/news\-by\-industry/transportation/shipping\-/\-transport/iit\-delhi\-scientists\-develop\-autos\-that\-run\-on\-hydrogen\-cause\-negligible\-pollution/articleshow/11858081\.cms\|url\-status\=live}} ### Quads and tractors [Autostudi S.r.l](/wiki/Autostudi_S.r.l "Autostudi S.r.l")'s H\-Due{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ecofriend.org/entry/smallest\-of\-em\-rides\-piemonte\-h\-due\-concept/ \|title\=Autostudi S.r.l. H\-Due \|publisher\=Ecofriend.org \|date\=2008\-04\-15 \|access\-date\=2010\-12\-12 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121209090937/http://www.ecofriend.org/entry/smallest\-of\-em\-rides\-piemonte\-h\-due\-concept/ \|archive\-date\=2012\-12\-09 }} is a hydrogen\-powered quad, capable of transporting 1\-3 passengers. A concept for a hydrogen\-powered tractor has been proposed.[New Holland Wins Gold for Energy Independent Farm Concept](http://www.efarming.com.au/NewProducts/machinery/08/01/2009/1358/new-holland-wins-gold-for-energy-independent-farm-concept.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://archive.today/20120728155828/http://www.efarming.com.au/NewProducts/machinery/08/01/2009/1358/new\-holland\-wins\-gold\-for\-energy\-independent\-farm\-concept.html \|date\=2012\-07\-28 }} or [Hydrogen\-powered tractor in an Energy Independent Farm](http://www.terre-net.fr/materiel-agricole/tracteur-quad/article-new-holland-hydrogene-pile-a-combustible-nh2-harris-ihrig-tracteur-hydrogene-prototype-hydrogen-fuel-cell-powered-tractor-207-53740.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090702035628/http://www.terre\-net.fr/materiel\-agricole/tracteur\-quad/article\-new\-holland\-hydrogene\-pile\-a\-combustible\-nh2\-harris\-ihrig\-tracteur\-hydrogene\-prototype\-hydrogen\-fuel\-cell\-powered\-tractor\-207\-53740\.html \|date\=2009\-07\-02 }}{{Cite web \|title\=Cummins and Versatile partner to bring 15L hydrogen engines to ag market \|url\=https://www.greencarcongress.com/2022/08/20220830\-m15h.html \|access\-date\=2022\-09\-02 \|website\=Green Car Congress}} #### Auto racing A record of {{convert\|207\.297\|mph}} was set by a prototype Ford Fusion Hydrogen 999 Fuel Cell Race Car at the Bonneville Salt Flats, in August 2007, using a large compressed oxygen tank to increase power.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.motorsportsjournal.com/archives/fuel\_saving\_vehicles\_hybrids/ \|title\=New Hydrogen\-Powered Land Speed Record from Ford \|publisher\=Motorsportsjournal.com \|access\-date\=2010\-12\-12 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209034212/http://www.motorsportsjournal.com/archives/fuel\_saving\_vehicles\_hybrids/ \|archive\-date\=2010\-12\-09 }} The land\-speed record for a hydrogen\-powered vehicle of {{convert\|286\.476\|mph}} was set by [Ohio State University](/wiki/Ohio_State_University "Ohio State University")'s [Buckeye Bullet 2](/wiki/Buckeye_Bullet "Buckeye Bullet"), which achieved a "flying\-mile" speed of {{convert\|280\.007\|mph}} at the [Bonneville Salt Flats](/wiki/Bonneville_Salt_Flats "Bonneville Salt Flats") in August 2008\. In 2007, the [Hydrogen Electric Racing Federation](/wiki/Hydrogen_Electric_Racing_Federation "Hydrogen Electric Racing Federation") was formed as a racing organization for hydrogen fuel cell\-powered vehicles. The organization sponsored the Hydrogen 500, a 500\-mile race.{{cite web \|title\=Hydrogen Electric Racing Federation looks to revolutionize motorsports \|url\=https://www.autoweek.com/news/a2049231/hydrogen\-electric\-racing\-federation\-looks\-revolutionize\-motorsports/ \|website\=Autoweek \|access\-date\=17 June 2020 \|date\=9 January 2007 \|archive\-date\=17 June 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617081459/https://www.autoweek.com/news/a2049231/hydrogen\-electric\-racing\-federation\-looks\-revolutionize\-motorsports/ \|url\-status\=live }}
[ "Vehicles\n--------", "[thumb\\|The [Honda FCX](/wiki/Honda_FCX \"Honda FCX\"), along with the [Toyota FCHV](/wiki/Toyota_FCHV \"Toyota FCHV\"), is the world's first government\\-certified commercial hydrogen fuel cell vehicle.](/wiki/File:FCX-Honda.JPG \"FCX-Honda.JPG\"){{further\\|Fuel cell vehicle}}", "### Rationale and context", "The rationale for hydrogen vehicles lies in their potential to reduce reliance on fossil fuels, associated greenhouse gas emissions and localised air pollution from transportation.{{cite web \\|last \\= McCarthy \\|first \\= J. \\|title \\= Hydrogen \\|publisher \\= \\[\\[Stanford University]] \\|date \\= 31 December 1995 \\|url \\= http://www\\-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/hydrogen.html \\|access\\-date \\= 14 March 2008 \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080314043136/http://www\\-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/hydrogen.html \\|archive\\-date \\= 14 March 2008 \\|df \\= dmy\\-all}} This would require hydrogen to be produced cleanly, for use in sectors and applications where cheaper and more energy efficient mitigation alternatives are limited.", "### Rockets", "[thumb\\|[Centaur (rocket stage)](/wiki/Centaur_%28rocket_stage%29 \"Centaur (rocket stage)\") was the first to use liquid hydrogen](/wiki/File:Centaur_Rocket_Engine_-_GPN-2000-000387.jpg \"Centaur Rocket Engine - GPN-2000-000387.jpg\")\nMany large rockets use [liquid hydrogen](/wiki/Liquid_hydrogen \"Liquid hydrogen\") as fuel, with [liquid oxygen](/wiki/Liquid_oxygen \"Liquid oxygen\") as an oxidizer (LH2/LOX). An advantage of hydrogen rocket fuel is the high [effective exhaust velocity](/wiki/Effective_exhaust_velocity \"Effective exhaust velocity\") compared to [kerosene](/wiki/Kerosene \"Kerosene\")/[LOX](/wiki/LOX \"LOX\") or [UDMH](/wiki/UDMH \"UDMH\")/[NTO](/wiki/Nitrogen_tetroxide \"Nitrogen tetroxide\") engines. According to the [Tsiolkovsky rocket equation](/wiki/Tsiolkovsky_rocket_equation \"Tsiolkovsky rocket equation\"), a rocket with higher exhaust velocity uses less propellant to accelerate. Also the [energy density](/wiki/Energy_density \"Energy density\") of hydrogen is greater than any other fuel.College of the Desert, “Module 1, Hydrogen Properties”, Revision 0, December 2001 [Hydrogen Properties](http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f12/fcm01r0.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701144015/https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f12/fcm01r0\\.pdf \\|date\\=2017\\-07\\-01 }}. Retrieved 2015\\-10\\-05\\. LH2/LOX also yields the greatest efficiency in relation to the amount of propellant consumed, of any known rocket propellant.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/technology/hydrogen/hydrogen\\_fuel\\_of\\_choice.html\\|title\\=NASA \\- Liquid Hydrogen\\-\\-the Fuel of Choice for Space Exploration\\|website\\=www.nasa.gov\\|access\\-date\\=15 April 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=8 February 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180208130412/https://www.nasa.gov/topics/technology/hydrogen/hydrogen\\_fuel\\_of\\_choice.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "A disadvantage of LH2/LOX engines is the low density and low temperature of liquid hydrogen, which means bigger and insulated and thus heavier fuel tanks are needed compared to methane, although methane is more polluting.{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\=2023\\-09\\-21 \\|title\\=Will hydrogen power the future of aerospace? {{!}} Hydrogen in space \\|url\\=https://wha\\-international.com/will\\-hydrogen\\-power\\-the\\-future\\-of\\-aerospace/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-08 \\|website\\=WHA International, Inc.}} This increases the rocket's structural mass which reduces its delta\\-v accordingly. Another disadvantage is the poor storability of LH2/LOX\\-powered rockets: Due to the constant hydrogen boil\\-off, the rocket must be fueled shortly before launch, which makes cryogenic engines unsuitable for [ICBMs](/wiki/ICBM \"ICBM\") and other rocket applications with the need for short launch preparations.", "Overall, the delta\\-v of a hydrogen stage is typically not much different from that of a dense fuelled stage, but the weight of a hydrogen stage is much less, which makes it particularly effective for upper stages, since they are carried by the lower stages. For first stages, dense fuelled rockets in studies may show a small advantage, due to the smaller vehicle size and lower air drag.Sutton, George P. and Oscar Biblarz. [*Rocket Propulsion Elements*](http://web.mit.edu/e_peters/Public/Rockets/Rocket_Propulsion_Elements.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130102204553/http://web.mit.edu/e\\_peters/Public/Rockets/Rocket\\_Propulsion\\_Elements.pdf \\|date\\=2013\\-01\\-02 }}, Seventh edition, John Wiley \\& Sons (2001\\), p. 257, {{ISBN\\|0\\-471\\-32642\\-9}}", "LH2/LOX were also used in the [Space Shuttle](/wiki/Space_Shuttle \"Space Shuttle\") to run the fuel cells that power the electrical systems.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/technology/hydrogen/fc\\_shuttle.html \\|title\\=Fuel cell use in the Space Shuttle \\|publisher\\=NASA \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-02\\-17 \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-01\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125075553/http://www.nasa.gov/topics/technology/hydrogen/fc\\_shuttle.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The byproduct of the fuel cell is water, which is used for drinking and other applications that require water in space.", "### Automobiles", "[thumb\\|The [Toyota Mirai](/wiki/Toyota_Mirai \"Toyota Mirai\")](/wiki/File:Toyota_Mirai_%28JPD20%29_IMG_5303.jpg \"Toyota Mirai (JPD20) IMG 5303.jpg\")\n{{as of\\|2021}}, there were two hydrogen cars publicly available in select markets: the [Toyota Mirai](/wiki/Toyota_Mirai \"Toyota Mirai\") and the [Hyundai Nexo](/wiki/Hyundai_Nexo \"Hyundai Nexo\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://press.ihs.com/press\\-release/automotive/global\\-hydrogen\\-fuel\\-cell\\-electric\\-vehicle\\-market\\-buoyed\\-oems\\-will\\-launch\\-1\\|title\\=Global Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Market Buoyed as OEMs Will Launch 17 Vehicle Models by 2027, IHS Says\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[IHS Inc.]]\\|date\\=4 May 2016\\|access\\-date\\=13 May 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=2 March 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302032701/https://news.ihsmarkit.com/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The [Honda Clarity](/wiki/Honda_Clarity \"Honda Clarity\") was produced from 2016 to 2021\\.{{cite web \\|date\\=June 16, 2021 \\|title\\=Honda discontinues hydrogen\\-fuelled Clarity FCV due to slow sales \\|url\\=https://www.autocar.co.uk/car\\-news/industry\\-news\\-manufacturing/honda\\-discontinues\\-hydrogen\\-fuelled\\-clarity\\-fcv\\-due\\-slow\\-sales \\|access\\-date\\=July 29, 2021}} [Hydrogen combustion cars](/wiki/Hydrogen_internal_combustion_engine_vehicle \"Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle\") are not commercially available.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2023}} In the light road vehicle segment, by the end of 2022, 70,200 fuel cell electric vehicles had been sold worldwide,{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Chu \\|first1\\=Yidan \\|url\\=https://theicct.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2023/06/Global\\-EV\\-sales\\-2022\\_FINAL.pdf \\|title\\=Annual update on the global transition to electric vehicles: 2022 \\|last2\\=Cui \\|first2\\=Hongyang \\|publisher\\=International Council on Clean Transportation \\|pages\\=2–3 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-25}} compared with 26 million plug\\-in electric vehicles.{{Cite book \\|url\\=https://www.iea.org/reports/global\\-ev\\-outlook\\-2023 \\|title\\=Global EV Outlook 2023 \\|date\\=26 April 2023 \\|publisher\\=IEA \\|pages\\=14–24 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-25}} In 2023, 3,143 hydrogen cars were sold in the US compared with 380,000 BEVs.Woody, Todd. [\"Few Stations and $200 to Fill Up: Life on California’s 'Hydrogen Highway'\"](https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2024-04-04/california-s-hydrogen-fuel-cell-cars-lose-traction-against-battery-models), Bloomberg, April 4, 2024 With the rapid rise of [electric vehicles](/wiki/Electric_vehicle \"Electric vehicle\") and associated battery technology and infrastructure, the global scope for hydrogen's role in cars is shrinking relative to earlier expectations.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Plötz \\|first\\=Patrick \\|date\\=January 2022 \\|title\\=Hydrogen technology is unlikely to play a major role in sustainable road transport \\|url\\=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41928\\-021\\-00706\\-6 \\|journal\\=Nature Electronics \\|volume\\=5 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=8–10 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/s41928\\-021\\-00706\\-6 \\|s2cid\\=246465284 \\|issn\\=2520\\-1131}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Collins (l\\_collins) \\|first\\=Leigh \\|date\\=2022\\-02\\-02 \\|title\\='Hydrogen unlikely to play major role in road transport, even for heavy trucks': Fraunhofer \\|url\\=https://www.rechargenews.com/energy\\-transition/\\-hydrogen\\-unlikely\\-to\\-play\\-major\\-role\\-in\\-road\\-transport\\-even\\-for\\-heavy\\-trucks\\-fraunhofer/2\\-1\\-1162055 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-08 \\|website\\=Recharge}} John Max of *Hydrogen Fuel News* believes that hydrogen may, however, be used directly, or as a feedstock for efuel, for vintage and muscle cars.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Max \\|first\\=John \\|date\\=2022\\-11\\-14 \\|title\\=Hydrogen\\-powered Vehicles Include Classic Car Conversions \\- H2 News \\|url\\=https://www.hydrogenfuelnews.com/hydrogen\\-powered\\-vehicles\\-classic/8555907/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-10 \\|website\\=www.hydrogenfuelnews.com}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-07\\-24 \\|title\\=Classic cars accelerate along the road to sustainability \\|url\\=https://www.theengineer.co.uk/content/in\\-depth/classic\\-cars\\-accelerate\\-along\\-the\\-road\\-to\\-sustainability/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-10 \\|website\\=The Engineer}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=What is the future of muscle cars… \\|url\\=https://www.musclecarmag.com.au/feature/what\\-is\\-the\\-future\\-of\\-muscle\\-cars\\-583508 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-10 \\|website\\=Muscle Car Magazine (Australia)}}", "The first road vehicle powered by a hydrogen fuel cell was the Chevrolet Electrovan, introduced by [General Motors](/wiki/General_Motors \"General Motors\") in 1966\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.carsguide.com.au/car\\-advice/the\\-history\\-of\\-hydrogen\\-fuel\\-cell\\-cars\\-85330\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129181457/https://www.carsguide.com.au/car\\-advice/the\\-history\\-of\\-hydrogen\\-fuel\\-cell\\-cars\\-85330\\|title\\=The history of hydrogen fuel cell cars\\|publisher\\=The Market Herald\\|date\\=29 December 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=29 January 2023}} The [Toyota FCHV](/wiki/Toyota_FCHV \"Toyota FCHV\") and [Honda FCX](/wiki/Honda_FCX \"Honda FCX\"), which began leasing on December 2, 2002, became the world's first government\\-certified commercial hydrogen fuel cell vehicles,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2002/11/19/business/toyota\\-to\\-lease\\-fuel\\-cell\\-cars\\-to\\-state/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308232938/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2002/11/19/business/toyota\\-to\\-lease\\-fuel\\-cell\\-cars\\-to\\-state/\\|title\\=Toyota to lease fuel\\-cell cars to state\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Japan Times]]\\|date\\=19 November 2002\\|archive\\-date\\=8 March 2023}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://global.honda/newsroom/news/2002/4021203\\-fcx\\-eng.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308233714/https://global.honda/newsroom/news/2002/4021203\\-fcx\\-eng.html\\|title\\=First Honda FCX Fuel Cell Vehicles Delivered on Same Day in Japan and the U.S.\\|publisher\\=Honda\\|date\\=3 December 2002\\|archive\\-date\\=8 March 2023}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2002/07/26/business/hydrogen\\-powered\\-honda\\-achieves\\-world\\-first/\\#.XDN1\\-XZ\\_q3A\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107155311/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2002/07/26/business/hydrogen\\-powered\\-honda\\-achieves\\-world\\-first/\\#.XDN1\\-XZ\\_q3A\\|title\\=Hydrogen\\-powered Honda achieves world first\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Japan Times]]\\|date\\=26 July 2002\\|archive\\-date\\=7 January 2019}} and the [Honda FCX Clarity](/wiki/Honda_Clarity \"Honda Clarity\"), which began leasing in 2008, was the world's first hydrogen fuel cell vehicle designed for mass production rather than adapting an existing model.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.autoblog.com/2007/11/18/first\\-drive\\-2009\\-honda\\-fcx\\-clarity\\-worlds\\-first\\-series\\-produc/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729003834/https://www.autoblog.com/2007/11/18/first\\-drive\\-2009\\-honda\\-fcx\\-clarity\\-worlds\\-first\\-series\\-produc/\\|title\\=Honda FCX Clarity, world's first series production fuel cell car\\|publisher\\=Verizon Media\\|date\\=18 November 2007\\|archive\\-date\\=29 July 2021}} Honda established the world's first fuel cell vehicle dealer network in 2008, and at the time was the only company able to lease hydrogen fuel cell vehicles to private customers.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/aug/24/hydrogen\\-powered\\-vehicles\\-on\\-horizon/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220930034059/https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/aug/24/hydrogen\\-powered\\-vehicles\\-on\\-horizon/\\|title\\=Hydrogen\\-powered vehicles on horizon\\|website\\=\\[\\[The Washington Times]] \\|publisher\\=\\|date\\=24 August 2009\\|archive\\-date\\=30 September 2022}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.thecarconnection.com/news/1015667\\_honda\\-sets\\-up\\-worlds\\-first\\-fuel\\-cell\\-dealer\\-network\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521025801/https://www.thecarconnection.com/news/1015667\\_honda\\-sets\\-up\\-worlds\\-first\\-fuel\\-cell\\-dealer\\-network\\|title\\=Honda Sets Up World's First Fuel Cell Dealer Network\\|publisher\\=The Car Connection\\|date\\=16 June 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=21 May 2022}}", "The 2013 [Hyundai Tucson FCEV](/wiki/Hyundai_Tucson_FCEV \"Hyundai Tucson FCEV\"), a modified Tucson, was introduced to the market as a lease\\-only vehicle,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.drive.com.au/news/hyundai\\-ix35\\-fuel\\-cell\\-launching\\-in\\-2014\\-with\\-free\\-hydrogen\\-fuel/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706002038/https://www.drive.com.au/news/hyundai\\-ix35\\-fuel\\-cell\\-launching\\-in\\-2014\\-with\\-free\\-hydrogen\\-fuel/\\|title\\=Hyundai ix35 Fuel Cell launching in 2014 with free hydrogen fuel\\|publisher\\=Drive.com.au\\|date\\=22 November 2013\\|archive\\-date\\=6 July 2022}}{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.hyundaihydrogen.ca/faq.html \\|title\\=The Tucson Fuel Cell FAQ \\| HyundaiHydrogen.ca \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-28 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324212819/http://www.hyundaihydrogen.ca/faq.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-24}} and [Hyundai Motors](/wiki/Hyundai_Motors \"Hyundai Motors\") claimed it was the world's first mass\\-produced hydrogen fuel cell vehicle.{{cite web\\| url\\=https://www.hyundainews.com/en\\-us/releases/1624\\| title\\=Hyundai ix35 Fuel Cell\\| publisher\\=Hyundai\\| access\\-date\\=18 November 2018\\| archive\\-date\\=18 November 2018\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118171602/https://www.hyundainews.com/en\\-us/releases/1624\\| url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\| url\\=http://www.businesskorea.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno\\=552\\| title\\=The World's First Mass\\-Production of FCEV\\| access\\-date\\=18 November 2018\\| archive\\-date\\=18 November 2018\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118164724/http://www.businesskorea.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno\\=552\\| url\\-status\\=live}} However, due to high prices and a lack of charging infrastructure, sales fell far short of initial plans, with only 273 units sold by the end of May 2015\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/full/2015/06/15/38/1200000000AEN20150615002600320F.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150621070638/http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/full/2015/06/15/38/1200000000AEN20150615002600320F.html\\|title\\=Hyundai Motor's fuel\\-cell car sales miss target\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Yonhap News Agency]]\\|date\\=15 June 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=21 June 2015}} [Hyundai Nexo](/wiki/Hyundai_Nexo \"Hyundai Nexo\"), which succeeded the Tucson in 2018, was selected as the \"safest SUV\" by the Euro NCAP in 2018,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.euroncap.com:443/en/ratings\\-rewards/best\\-in\\-class\\-cars/2018\\|title\\=Euro NCAP Best in Class 2018 \\- new award for best performing hybrid \\& electric car of 2018 \\| Euro NCAP\\|website\\=www.euroncap.com\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-06\\-24\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-06\\-24\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190624190214/https://www.euroncap.com/en/ratings\\-rewards/best\\-in\\-class\\-cars/2018\\|url\\-status\\=live}} but In October 2024, Hyundai recalled all 1,600 Nexo vehicles sold in the US to that time due to a risk of fuel leaks and fire from a faulty \"pressure relief device\".[\"Hyundai recalls hydrogen fuel cell vehicles due to fire risk and tells owners to park them outdoors\"](https://www.boston.com/news/business/2024/10/18/hyundai-recalls-hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles-due-to-fire-risk-and-tells-owners-to-park-them-outdoors), Associated Press, via Boston.com, October 18, 2024", "[Toyota](/wiki/Toyota \"Toyota\") launched the world's first dedicated mass\\-produced fuel cell vehicle (FCV), the [Mirai](/wiki/Toyota_Mirai \"Toyota Mirai\"), in Japan at the end of 2014{{cite web\\|url\\=https://blogs.wsj.com/japanrealtime/2014/12/15/toyotas\\-fuel\\-cell\\-powered\\-mirai\\-hits\\-showrooms/?guid\\=BL\\-JRTB\\-18738\\&dsk\\=y\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180526232252/https://blogs.wsj.com/japanrealtime/2014/12/15/toyotas\\-fuel\\-cell\\-powered\\-mirai\\-hits\\-showrooms/?guid\\=BL\\-JRTB\\-18738\\&dsk\\=y\\|title\\=Toyota's Fuel\\-Cell Car Mirai Goes on Sale\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Wall Street Journal]]\\|date\\=15 December 2014\\|archive\\-date\\=26 May 2018}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/01/23/business/corporate\\-business/toyota\\-to\\-quadruple\\-production\\-of\\-mirai\\-fuel\\-cell\\-vehicles\\-by\\-2017/\\#.VZqmPXZ\\_q3B\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706160050/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/01/23/business/corporate\\-business/toyota\\-to\\-quadruple\\-production\\-of\\-mirai\\-fuel\\-cell\\-vehicles\\-by\\-2017/\\#.VZqmPXZ\\_q3B\\|title\\=Toyota to quadruple production of Mirai fuel\\-cell vehicles by 2017\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Japan Times]]\\|date\\=23 January 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=6 July 2015}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.adrianflux.co.uk/influx/features/toyota\\-mirai\\-hydrogen/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516151134/https://www.adrianflux.co.uk/influx/features/toyota\\-mirai\\-hydrogen/\\|title\\=Toyota Mirai x Hydrogen: the world's first mass produced HFCV\\|date\\=20 January 2017 \\|archive\\-date\\=16 May 2022\\|access\\-date\\=8 March 2023}} and began sales in California, mainly the [Los Angeles area](/wiki/Los_Angeles_metropolitan_area \"Los Angeles metropolitan area\") and also in selected markets in Europe, the UK, Germany and Denmark{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://insideevs.com/news/325606/european\\-sales\\-of\\-toyota\\-mirai\\-to\\-begin\\-this\\-september/\\|title\\=European Sales Of Toyota Mirai To Begin This September\\|website\\=InsideEVs}} later in 2015\\.Voelcker, John. [\"Decades Of Promises: 'Dude, Where's My Hydrogen Fuel\\-Cell Car?'\"](https://autos.yahoo.com/news/decades-promises-dude-wheres-hydrogen-fuel-cell-car-130000421.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302032700/https://autos.yahoo.com/news/decades\\-promises\\-dude\\-wheres\\-hydrogen\\-fuel\\-cell\\-car\\-130000421\\.html \\|date\\=2021\\-03\\-02 }}, Yahoo.com, March 31, 2015 The car has a range of {{convert\\|312\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} and takes about five minutes to refill its hydrogen tank. The initial sale price in Japan was about 7 million yen ($69,000\\).{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014\\-06\\-25/toyota\\-to\\-offer\\-69\\-000\\-car\\-as\\-musk\\-pans\\-fool\\-cells\\-.html/\\|title\\=Toyota to Offer $69,000 Car After Musk Pans 'Fool Cells'\\|newspaper\\=Bloomberg.com \\|date\\=2014\\-06\\-25\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-06\\-27\\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-06\\-27\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627055520/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014\\-06\\-25/toyota\\-to\\-offer\\-69\\-000\\-car\\-as\\-musk\\-pans\\-fool\\-cells\\-.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Former European Parliament President [Pat Cox](/wiki/Pat_Cox \"Pat Cox\") estimated that Toyota would initially lose about $100,000 on each Mirai sold.Ayre, James. [\"Toyota To Lose $100,000 On Every Hydrogen FCV Sold?\"](http://cleantechnica.com/2014/11/19/toyota-lose-100000-every-hydrogen-fcv-sold) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103131510/https://cleantechnica.com/2014/11/19/toyota\\-lose\\-100000\\-every\\-hydrogen\\-fcv\\-sold/ \\|date\\=2015\\-01\\-03 }}, CleanTechnica.com, November 19, 2014; and Blanco, Sebastian. [\"Bibendum 2014: Former EU President says Toyota could lose 100,000 euros per hydrogen FCV sedan\"](http://green.autoblog.com/2014/11/12/bibendum-2014-toyota-lose-100000-euros-fcv-hydrogen-car/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141124221312/http://green.autoblog.com/2014/11/12/bibendum\\-2014\\-toyota\\-lose\\-100000\\-euros\\-fcv\\-hydrogen\\-car/ \\|date\\=2014\\-11\\-24 }}, GreenAutoblog.com, November 12, 2014 At the end of 2019, Toyota had sold over 10,000 Mirais.{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://global.toyota/en/company/profile/production\\-sales\\-figures/202003\\.html?\\_ga\\=2\\.211351126\\.219919894\\.1589198585\\-1423135873\\.1589198585 \\| title\\=Sales, Production, and Export Results for March 2020 \\| Sales, Production, and Export Results \\| Profile \\| Company \\| access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-11 \\| archive\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-02 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302032735/https://global.toyota/en/company/profile/production\\-sales\\-figures/202003\\.html?\\_ga\\=2\\.211351126\\.219919894\\.1589198585\\-1423135873\\.1589198585 \\| url\\-status\\=live }}[\"Realising the hydrogen economy\"](https://www.power-technology.com/comment/standing-at-the-precipice-of-the-hydrogen-economy) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191105054643/https://www.power\\-technology.com/comment/standing\\-at\\-the\\-precipice\\-of\\-the\\-hydrogen\\-economy/ \\|date\\=2019\\-11\\-05 }},*Power Technology*, 11 October 2019 Many automobile companies introduced demonstration models in limited numbers (see [List of fuel cell vehicles](/wiki/List_of_fuel_cell_vehicles \"List of fuel cell vehicles\") and [List of hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles](/wiki/List_of_hydrogen_internal_combustion_engine_vehicles \"List of hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles\")).Whoriskey, Peter. [\"The Hydrogen Car Gets Its Fuel Back\"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/10/16/AR2009101601002.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226082540/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\\-dyn/content/article/2009/10/16/AR2009101601002\\.html \\|date\\=2017\\-02\\-26 }}, *Washington Post*, October 17, 2009[Riversimple](/wiki/Riversimple \"Riversimple\") plans to lease a vehicle to the public by 2018 [\"Hydrogen Car You Can Actually Afford\"](http://www.topgear.com/car-news/first-look/hydrogen-car-you-can-actually-afford) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306210051/http://www.topgear.com/car\\-news/first\\-look/hydrogen\\-car\\-you\\-can\\-actually\\-afford \\|date\\=2016\\-03\\-06 }}, TopGear.com", "In 2013 [BMW](/wiki/BMW \"BMW\") leased hydrogen technology from [Toyota](/wiki/Toyota \"Toyota\"), and a group formed by [Ford Motor Company](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company \"Ford Motor Company\"), [Daimler AG](/wiki/Daimler_AG \"Daimler AG\"), and [Nissan](/wiki/Nissan \"Nissan\") announced a collaboration on hydrogen technology development.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/510416/ford\\-daimler\\-and\\-nissan\\-commit\\-to\\-fuel\\-cells\\|title\\=Ford, Daimler, and Nissan Commit to Fuel Cells\\|first\\=Martin\\|last\\=LaMonica\\|website\\=technologyreview.com\\|access\\-date\\=15 April 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=9 November 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109042120/https://www.technologyreview.com/s/510416/ford\\-daimler\\-and\\-nissan\\-commit\\-to\\-fuel\\-cells/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 2015, Toyota announced that it would offer all 5,680 patents related to hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and hydrogen fuel cell charging station technology, which it has been researching for over 20 years, to its competitors free of charge to stimulate the market for hydrogen\\-powered vehicles.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://time.com/3654899/toyota\\-mirai\\-patents\\-hydrogen\\-power/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707054645/https://time.com/3654899/toyota\\-mirai\\-patents\\-hydrogen\\-power/\\|title\\=Toyota Wants Everyone to Know How It Made Its Hydrogen\\-Powered Car\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Time (magazine)\\|Time]]\\|date\\=5 January 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=7 July 2022}} By 2017, however, Daimler had abandoned hydrogen vehicle development,Gordon\\-Bloomfield, Nikki. [\"Are Hydrogen Fuel Cell Cars Doomed – And Have Electric Cars Won?\"](https://transportevolved.com/2017/04/04/are-hydrogen-fuel-cell-cars-doomed-and-have-electric-cars-won) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406022441/https://transportevolved.com/2017/04/04/are\\-hydrogen\\-fuel\\-cell\\-cars\\-doomed\\-and\\-have\\-electric\\-cars\\-won/ \\|date\\=2017\\-04\\-06 }}, TransportEvolved.com, April 4, 2017 and most of the automobile companies developing hydrogen cars had switched their focus to battery electric vehicles.Williams, Keith. [\"The Switch from Hydrogen to Electric Vehicles Continues, Now Hyundai Makes the Move\"](https://seekingalpha.com/article/4103682-switch-hydrogen-electric-vehicles-continues-now-hyundai-makes-move), *[Seeking Alpha](/wiki/Seeking_Alpha \"Seeking Alpha\")*, September 1, 2017 By 2020, all but three automobile companies had abandoned plans to manufacture hydrogen cars.Morris, Charles. [\"Why Are 3 Automakers Still Hyping Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles?\"](https://cleantechnica.com/2021/10/14/why-are-3-automakers-still-hyping-hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles), CleanTechnica, October 14, 2021 The [Honda CR\\-V e:FCEV](/wiki/Honda_CR-V_%28sixth_generation%29%23CR-V_e:FCEV \"FCEV\") became available, for lease only, in very limited quantities in 2024\\.", "A significant number of the public hydrogen fuel stations in the California are not able to dispense hydrogen.[\"Station Status\"](https://h2fcp.org/sites/default/files/Hydrogen-Distribution-and-Supply.pdf), *Hydrogen Fuel Cell Partnership*. Retrieved October 17, 2024; and [\"Southern California Retail Hydrogen Station Network Status in California\"](https://h2fcp.org/sites/default/files/Hydrogen-Distribution-and-Supply.pdf), *Hydrogen Fuel Cell Partnership*, July 19, 2024 In 2024, Mirai owners filed a [class action](/wiki/Class_action \"Class action\") lawsuit in California over the lack of availability of hydrogen available for fuel cell electric cars, alleging, among other things, fraudulent concealment and misrepresentation as well as violations of California’s false advertising law and breaches of implied warranty.Martin, Polly. [\"Toyota sued over lack of hydrogen availability for fuel cell cars in California\"](https://www.hydrogeninsight.com/transport/toyota-sued-over-lack-of-hydrogen-availability-for-fuel-cell-cars-in-california/2-1-1676965), *Hydrogen Insight*, July 15, 2024", "### Heavy trucks", "The International Energy Agency's 2022 net\\-zero emissions scenario sees hydrogen meeting approximately 30% of heavy truck energy demand in 2050, mainly for long\\-distance heavy freight (with battery electric power accounting for around 60%).{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Cozzi \\|first1\\=Laura \\|url\\=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/830fe099\\-5530\\-48f2\\-a7c1\\-11f35d510983/WorldEnergyOutlook2022\\.pdf \\|title\\=World Energy Outlook 2022 \\|last2\\=Gould \\|first2\\=Tim \\|publisher\\=International Energy Agency \\|pages\\=148}}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice\\|cc\\=by4\\|from this source\\=yes}}", "[United Parcel Service](/wiki/United_Parcel_Service \"United Parcel Service\") began testing of a hydrogen powered delivery vehicle in 2017\\.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.cnet.com/roadshow/news/ups\\-begins\\-testing\\-hydrogen\\-fuel\\-cell\\-delivery\\-truck/\\|title\\=UPS begins testing hydrogen fuel\\-cell delivery truck \\- Roadshow\\|work\\=Roadshow\\|access\\-date\\=May 7, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=May 3, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170503195209/https://www.cnet.com/roadshow/news/ups\\-begins\\-testing\\-hydrogen\\-fuel\\-cell\\-delivery\\-truck/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 2020, [Hyundai](/wiki/Hyundai_Motor_Company \"Hyundai Motor Company\") began commercial production of its [Xcient](/wiki/Hyundai_Xcient \"Hyundai Xcient\") fuel cell trucks and shipped ten of them to [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\").{{Cite web\\|last\\=Ryu\\|first\\=Jung\\|date\\=2020\\-07\\-07\\|title\\=Hyundai Starts Mass Production of Hydrogen Trucks\\|url\\=http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html\\_dir/2020/07/07/2020070701792\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-26\\|website\\=The Chosun Ilbo\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-25\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925082413/http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html\\_dir/2020/07/07/2020070701792\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Hyundai XCIENT Fuel Cell Heads to Europe for Commercial Use\\|url\\=https://www.hyundai.news/eu/brand/hyundai\\-xcient\\-fuel\\-cell\\-heads\\-to\\-europe\\-for\\-commercial\\-use/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-26\\|website\\=Hyundai Media Newsroom\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-25\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925040152/https://www.hyundai.news/eu/brand/hyundai\\-xcient\\-fuel\\-cell\\-heads\\-to\\-europe\\-for\\-commercial\\-use/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=World's First Fuel Cell Heavy\\-Duty Truck, Hyundai XCIENT Fuel Cell, Heads to Europe for Commercial Use \\- Hyundai Motor Group TECH\\|url\\=https://tech.hyundaimotorgroup.com/press\\-release/worlds\\-first\\-fuel\\-cell\\-heavy\\-duty\\-truck\\-hyundai\\-xcient\\-fuel\\-cell\\-heads\\-to\\-europe\\-for\\-commercial\\-use/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-26\\|website\\=tech.hyundaimotorgroup.com\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-10\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810162444/https://tech.hyundaimotorgroup.com/press\\-release/worlds\\-first\\-fuel\\-cell\\-heavy\\-duty\\-truck\\-hyundai\\-xcient\\-fuel\\-cell\\-heads\\-to\\-europe\\-for\\-commercial\\-use/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "In 2022 in Australia, five hydrogen fuel cell [class 8](/wiki/Truck_classification%23Class_8 \"Truck classification#Class 8\") trucks were placed into use to transport zinc from Sun Metals' [Townsville](/wiki/Townsville \"Townsville\") mine to the [Port of Townsville](/wiki/Port_of_Townsville \"Port of Townsville\"), Queensland, to be shipped around the world.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Hydrogen powered prime movers to roll into Townsville \\|url\\=https://arena.gov.au/blog/hydrogen\\-powered\\-prime\\-movers\\-to\\-roll\\-into\\-townsville/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-15 \\|website\\=Australian Renewable Energy Agency\\|date\\=10 November 2021 }}", "### Aeroplanes", "{{Main\\|Hydrogen planes}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|The [Boeing](/wiki/Boeing \"Boeing\") Fuel Cell Demonstrator powered by a hydrogen fuel cell](/wiki/File:Boeing_Fuel_Cell_Demonstrator_AB1.JPG \"Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator AB1.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|Hydrogen projections](/wiki/File:The_Hydrogen_Ladder%2C_Version_5.0.jpg \"The Hydrogen Ladder, Version 5.0.jpg\")\nSome publications project hydrogen may be used in shipping{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|title\\=Potential of hydrogen as fuel for shipping \\|url\\=https://www.emsa.europa.eu/publications/reports/item/5062\\-potential\\-of\\-hydrogen\\-as\\-fuel\\-for\\-shipping.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-10 \\|website\\=www.emsa.europa.eu}} and jetplanes,{{Cite web \\|title\\=Towards the world's first hydrogen\\-powered commercial aircraft \\|url\\=https://www.airbus.com/en/innovation/low\\-carbon\\-aviation/hydrogen/zeroe \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-10 \\|website\\=www.airbus.com\\|date\\=24 June 2021 }} while others predict that biofuels and batteries will have more commercial success.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Barnard \\|first\\=Michael \\|date\\=2023\\-10\\-22 \\|title\\=What's New On The Rungs Of Liebreich's Hydrogen Ladder? \\|url\\=https://cleantechnica.com/2023/10/22/whats\\-new\\-on\\-the\\-rungs\\-of\\-liebreichs\\-hydrogen\\-ladder/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-10 \\|website\\=CleanTechnica}} Companies such as [Boeing](/wiki/Boeing \"Boeing\"), [Lange Aviation](/wiki/Lange_Aviation \"Lange Aviation\"), and the [German Aerospace Center](/wiki/German_Aerospace_Center \"German Aerospace Center\") are pursuing hydrogen as fuel for crewed and uncrewed aeroplanes. In February 2008 Boeing tested a crewed flight of a small aircraft powered by a hydrogen fuel cell. Uncrewed hydrogen planes have also been tested.{{cite web \\|date\\=2009\\-10\\-15 \\|title\\=Ion tiger hydrogen UAV \\|url\\=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/10/091013123350\\.htm \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101221131439/http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/10/091013123350\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-12\\-21 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-12\\-12 \\|publisher\\=Sciencedaily.com}} For large passenger aeroplanes, *[The Times](/wiki/The_Times \"The Times\")* reported that \"Boeing said that hydrogen fuel cells were unlikely to power the engines of large passenger jet aeroplanes but could be used as backup or auxiliary power units onboard.\"{{cite news \\|author\\=David Robertson \\|date\\=3 April 2008 \\|title\\=Boeing tests first hydrogen powered plane \\|newspaper\\=The Times \\|location\\=London \\|url\\=http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry\\_sectors/transport/article3675188\\.ece \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|access\\-date\\=3 April 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612042658/http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry\\_sectors/transport/article3675188\\.ece \\|archive\\-date\\=12 June 2011}}", "In July 2010, Boeing unveiled its hydrogen\\-powered [Phantom Eye](/wiki/Boeing_Phantom_Eye \"Boeing Phantom Eye\") [UAV](/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle \"Unmanned aerial vehicle\"), powered by two Ford internal\\-combustion engines that have been converted to run on hydrogen.{{cite web \\|date\\=2010\\-07\\-13 \\|title\\=Boeing's 'Phantom Eye' Ford Fusion powered stratocraft \\|url\\=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2010/07/13/phantom\\_eye\\_rollout/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100714220048/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2010/07/13/phantom\\_eye\\_rollout/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-07\\-14 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-07\\-14 \\|website\\=The Register}}", "### Ships", "{{Main\\|Hydrogen\\-powered ship}}\n{{As of\\|2019}} hydrogen fuel cells are not suitable for propulsion in large long\\-distance ships but are being considered as a range\\-extender for smaller, short\\-distance, low\\-speed electric vessels, such as ferries.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://ship.nridigital.com/ship\\_mar19/could\\_fuel\\_cells\\_soon\\_be\\_used\\_in\\_ship\\_propulsion\\|title\\=Could fuel cells soon be used in ship propulsion?\\|date\\=2019\\-03\\-07\\|website\\=Ship Technology\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-06\\-18\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-24\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724190243/https://ship.nridigital.com/ship\\_mar19/could\\_fuel\\_cells\\_soon\\_be\\_used\\_in\\_ship\\_propulsion\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Hydrogen in [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia \"Ammonia\") is being considered as a long\\-distance fuel.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/2018\\_11\\_Roadmap\\_decarbonising\\_European\\_shipping.pdf\\|title\\=Roadmap to decarbonizing European shipping\\|last\\=Abbasov\\|first\\=Faig\\|date\\=November 2018\\|website\\=Transportenvironment.org\\|access\\-date\\=June 18, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=June 25, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625210807/https://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/2018\\_11\\_Roadmap\\_decarbonising\\_European\\_shipping.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "### Buses", "{{Main\\|Fuel cell bus}}\n[thumb\\|A Solaris Urbino 12 bus near its factory in [Bolechowo, Poland](/wiki/Bolechowo%2C_Greater_Poland_Voivodeship \"Bolechowo, Greater Poland Voivodeship\")](/wiki/File:Solaris_Urbino_12_hydrogen_2.jpg \"Solaris Urbino 12 hydrogen 2.jpg\")\nFuel\\-cell buses were [trialed](/wiki/Fuel_cell_bus_trial \"Fuel cell bus trial\") in [Ursus](/wiki/Ursus_Factory \"Ursus Factory\") Lublin in 2017\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://en.ursus.com.pl/\\|title\\=Ursus Lublin\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-06\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-05\\-01\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501214643/http://en.ursus.com.pl/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} [Solaris Bus \\& Coach](/wiki/Solaris_Bus_%26_Coach \"Solaris Bus & Coach\") introduced its Urbino 12 hydrogen electric buses in 2019\\. Several dozen were ordered.[\"Connexxion orders 20 Solaris hydrogen buses for South Holland\"](https://www.greencarcongress.com/2020/04/20200415-solaris.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626081233/https://www.greencarcongress.com/2020/04/20200415\\-solaris.html \\|date\\=2020\\-06\\-26 }}, Green Car Congress, 15 April 2020 The first city in the U.S. to have a fleet of hydrogen powered buses was [Champaign](/wiki/Champaign%E2%80%93Urbana_metropolitan_area \"Champaign–Urbana metropolitan area\"), Illinois, when in 2021 the [Champaign–Urbana Mass Transit District](/wiki/Champaign%E2%80%93Urbana_Mass_Transit_District \"Champaign–Urbana Mass Transit District\") ordered two New Flyer XHE60 articulated hydrogen fuel cell buses, with 10 more New Flyer XHE40 buses added in 2024\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Champaign–Urbana Mass Transit District \\|url\\=https://mtd.org/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-18 \\|website\\=MTD}} In 2022, the city of [Montpellier](/wiki/Montpellier \"Montpellier\"), France, cancelled a contract to procure 51 buses powered by hydrogen fuel cells, when it found that \"the cost of operation for hydrogen \\[buses] is 6 times the cost of electricity\".Hanley, Steve. [\"French City Cancels Hydrogen Bus Contract, Opts for Electric Buses\"](https://cleantechnica.com/2022/01/11/french-city-cancels-hydrogen-bus-contract-opts-for-electric-buses), CleanTechnica.com, January 11, 2022", "### Fork trucks", "A [hydrogen internal combustion engine](/wiki/Hydrogen_internal_combustion_engine \"Hydrogen internal combustion engine\") (or \"HICE\") [forklift](/wiki/Forklift \"Forklift\") or HICE lift truck is a hydrogen fueled, [internal combustion engine](/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine \"Internal combustion engine\")\\-powered industrial forklift truck used for lifting and [transporting](/wiki/Transport \"Transport\") materials. The first production HICE forklift truck based on the Linde X39 Diesel was presented at an exposition in [Hannover](/wiki/Hannover \"Hannover\") on May 27, 2008\\. It used a 2\\.0 litre, {{convert\\|43\\|kW\\|abbr\\=on}} diesel internal combustion engine converted to use hydrogen as a fuel with the use of a compressor and [direct injection](/wiki/Fuel_injection%23Direct_injection_systems \"Fuel injection#Direct injection systems\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary\\_0286\\-35668015\\_ITM \\|title\\=Hydrogen engines get a lift \\|publisher\\=Accessmylibrary.com \\|date\\=2008\\-10\\-01 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-12\\-12}}[HyICE](https://www.hfpeurope.org/uploads/700/836/2005_HFP_Brussels_HyICE.pdf){{dead link\\|date\\=February 2018 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}", "In 2013 there were over 4,000 [fuel cell forklifts](/wiki/Fuel_cell_forklift \"Fuel cell forklift\") used in [material handling](/wiki/Material_handling \"Material handling\") in the US.[Press release: \"Fuel Cell Forklifts Gain Ground\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130821025808/http://www.fuelcells.org/pdfs/FuelCellForkliftsGainGround.pdf), fuelcells.org, July 9, 2013 As of 2024, approximately 50,000 hydrogen forklifts are in operation worldwide (the bulk of which are in the U.S.), as compared with 1\\.2 million battery electric forklifts that were purchased in 2021\\.Barnard, Michael. [\"On Hydrogen Forklifts, Bitcoin Mining and Green Fertilizer\"](https://cleantechnica.com/2024/01/02/on-hydrogen-forklifts-bitcoin-mining-and-green-fertilizer), *CleanTechnica*, January 2, 2024", "Most companies in Europe and the US do not use petroleum powered forklifts, as these vehicles work indoors where emissions must be controlled and instead use electric forklifts.[\"Global and Chinese Forklift Industry Report, 2014\\-2016\"](http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-and-chinese-forklift-industry-report-2014-2016-281752401.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129020439/http://www.prnewswire.com/news\\-releases/global\\-and\\-chinese\\-forklift\\-industry\\-report\\-2014\\-2016\\-281752401\\.html \\|date\\=2014\\-11\\-29 }}, Research and Markets, November 6, 2014{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www1\\.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/forklift\\_anl\\_esd.pdf\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217104928/http://www2\\.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/forklift\\_anl\\_esd.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|title\\=Full Fuel\\-Cycle Comparison of Forklift Propulsion Systems\\|archive\\-date\\=February 17, 2013}} Fuel\\-cell\\-powered forklifts can be refueled in 3 minutes. They can be used in refrigerated warehouses, as their performance is not degraded by lower temperatures. The fuel cell units are often designed as drop\\-in replacements.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.still.co.uk/fuel\\-cell\\-technology\\-uk.0\\.0\\.html\\|title\\=Fuel cell technology\\|access\\-date\\=30 May 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203104905/http://www.still.co.uk/fuel\\-cell\\-technology\\-uk.0\\.0\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=3 December 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://graftechaet.com/getattachment/065811d2\\-720e\\-40c6\\-b236\\-0440c4d90d76/OFCC\\-Forklift\\-Case\\-Study.aspx\\|title\\=Creating Innovative Graphite Solutions for Over 125 Years\\|work\\=GrafTech International\\|access\\-date\\=30 May 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206072419/http://www.graftechaet.com/getattachment/065811d2\\-720e\\-40c6\\-b236\\-0440c4d90d76/OFCC\\-Forklift\\-Case\\-Study.aspx\\|archive\\-date\\=6 December 2010\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}", "### Trams and trains", "{{external media\\|video1\\=\\[http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2021\\-01/28/c\\_139704342\\.htm China rolls out its first hydrogen fuel cell hybrid locomotive], ''Xinhua'', 28 January 2021}}{{Main\\|Hydrogen train}}\nIn the [International Energy Agency](/wiki/International_Energy_Agency \"International Energy Agency\")’s 2022 Net Zero Emissions Scenario, hydrogen is forecast to account for 2% of rail energy demand in 2050, while 90% of rail travel is expected to be electrified by then (up from 45% today). Hydrogen’s role in rail would likely be focused on lines that prove difficult or costly to electrify.{{Cite book \\|url\\=https://www.iea.org/reports/world\\-energy\\-outlook\\-2022 \\|title\\=World energy outlook 2022 \\|date\\=27 October 2022 \\|publisher\\=International Energy Agency \\|pages\\=150}}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice\\|cc\\=by4\\|from this source\\=yes}}", "In March 2015, [China South Rail Corporation](/wiki/CSR_Corporation_Limited \"CSR Corporation Limited\") (CSR) demonstrated the world's first hydrogen fuel cell\\-powered tramcar at an assembly facility in Qingdao.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://en.yibada.com/articles/21142/20150321/china\\-worlds\\-first\\-hydrogen\\-fueled\\-tram.htm\\#\\|title\\=China Presents the World's First Hydrogen\\-Fueled Tram\\|date\\=21 March 2015\\|access\\-date\\=6 May 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=6 September 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906125005/http://en.yibada.com/articles/21142/20150321/china\\-worlds\\-first\\-hydrogen\\-fueled\\-tram.htm\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Tracks for the new vehicle have been built in seven Chinese cities.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015\\-03\\-25/china\\-s\\-hydrogen\\-powered\\-future\\-starts\\-in\\-trams\\-not\\-cars\\|title\\=China's Hydrogen\\-Powered Future Starts in Trams, Not Cars\\|newspaper\\=Bloomberg.com \\|date\\=March 25, 2015\\|via\\=www.bloomberg.com\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-07\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-11\\-25\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125010057/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015\\-03\\-25/china\\-s\\-hydrogen\\-powered\\-future\\-starts\\-in\\-trams\\-not\\-cars\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "In northern Germany in 2018 the first fuel\\-cell powered [Coradia iLint](/wiki/Coradia_iLint \"Coradia iLint\") trains were placed into service; excess power is stored in [lithium\\-ion batteries](/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery \"Lithium-ion battery\").[\"Germany launches world's first hydrogen\\-powered train\"](https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/sep/17/germany-launches-worlds-first-hydrogen-powered-train) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917170608/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/sep/17/germany\\-launches\\-worlds\\-first\\-hydrogen\\-powered\\-train \\|date\\=2018\\-09\\-17 }}, *The Guardian*, September 17, 2018", "### Bicycles and stand\\-up scooters", "[thumb\\|[PHB](/wiki/PHB_%28bicycle%29 \"PHB (bicycle)\") hydrogen bicycle](/wiki/Image:Hydrogen_bicycle.jpg \"Hydrogen bicycle.jpg\")\nIn 2007, Pearl Hydrogen Power Source Technology Co of [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai \"Shanghai\"), China, demonstrated a [PHB](/wiki/PHB_%28bicycle%29 \"PHB (bicycle)\") hydrogen bicycle.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.treehugger.com/bikes/chinese\\-company\\-plans\\-hydrogen\\-fuel\\-cell\\-bike.html\\|title\\=Chinese Company Plans Hydrogen Fuel Cell Bike\\|last\\=Fisher\\|first\\=Sean\\|website\\=\\[\\[TreeHugger]]\\|date\\=September 10, 2007\\|access\\-date\\=August 15, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=August 19, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819141439/https://www.treehugger.com/bikes/chinese\\-company\\-plans\\-hydrogen\\-fuel\\-cell\\-bike.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://gizmodo.com/hydrogen\\-fuel\\-cell\\-bike\\-298773\\|title\\=Hydrogen Fuel Cell Bike\\|website\\=\\[\\[Gizmodo]]\\|date\\=November 9, 2007\\|access\\-date\\=August 15, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=August 19, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819141432/https://gizmodo.com/hydrogen\\-fuel\\-cell\\-bike\\-298773\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 2014, Australian scientists from the [University of New South Wales](/wiki/University_of_New_South_Wales \"University of New South Wales\") presented their Hy\\-Cycle model.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.autoevolution.com/news/hy\\-cycle\\-is\\-australia\\-s\\-first\\-hydrogen\\-fuel\\-cell\\-bicycle\\-motorcycles\\-next\\-maybe\\-video\\-86720\\.html\\|title\\=Hy\\-Cycle Is Australia's First Hydrogen Fuel Cell Bicycle. Motorcycles Next, Maybe?\\|last\\=Tibu\\|first\\=Florin\\|website\\=autoevolution.com\\|date\\=September 18, 2014\\|access\\-date\\=August 15, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=August 19, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819141433/https://www.autoevolution.com/news/hy\\-cycle\\-is\\-australia\\-s\\-first\\-hydrogen\\-fuel\\-cell\\-bicycle\\-motorcycles\\-next\\-maybe\\-video\\-86720\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The same year, [Canyon Bicycles](/wiki/Canyon_Bicycles \"Canyon Bicycles\") started to work on the Eco Speed concept bicycle.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://ebiketips.road.cc/content/news/future\\-tech\\-canyon\\-s\\-eco\\-speed\\-hydrogen\\-powered\\-e\\-bike\\-concept\\-82\\|title\\=Future Tech: Canyon's Eco Speed hydrogen powered e\\-bike concept\\|last\\=Arthur\\|first\\=David\\|website\\=ebiketips.road.cc\\|date\\=January 30, 2016\\|access\\-date\\=August 15, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=August 19, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819141439/https://ebiketips.road.cc/content/news/future\\-tech\\-canyon\\-s\\-eco\\-speed\\-hydrogen\\-powered\\-e\\-bike\\-concept\\-82\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "In 2017, Pragma Industries of France developed a bicycle that was able to travel 100 km on a single hydrogen cylinder.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.designboom.com/technology/pragma\\-industries\\-alpha\\-hydrogen\\-bicycle\\-03\\-2017\\|title\\=Pragma Industries' alpha model is a powerful hydrogen\\-fueled bike\\|last\\=Chaya\\|first\\=Lynn\\|website\\=\\[\\[Designboom]]\\|date\\=November 3, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=August 15, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=August 19, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819141427/https://www.designboom.com/technology/pragma\\-industries\\-alpha\\-hydrogen\\-bicycle\\-03\\-2017/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 2019, Pragma announced that the product, \"Alpha Bike\", has been improved to offer an electrically assisted pedalling range of 150 km, and the first 200 of the bikes are to be provided to journalists covering the [45th G7 summit](/wiki/45th_G7_summit \"45th G7 summit\") in [Biarritz](/wiki/Biarritz \"Biarritz\"), France.Coxworth, Ben. [\"World's first fuel\\-cell e\\-bike gets a big boost in range\"](https://newatlas.com/alter-fuel-cell-bike-range-boost/61035) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815023344/https://newatlas.com/alter\\-fuel\\-cell\\-bike\\-range\\-boost/61035/ \\|date\\=2019\\-08\\-15 }}, NewAtlas.com, August 13, 2019", "In 2020, Alles over Waterstof{{Cite web \\|title\\=HydroRange Waterstof Range Extender \\|url\\=https://allesoverwaterstof.nl/hydrorange/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-03 \\|website\\=Alles over Waterstof \\|language\\=nl\\-NL}} developed a 2\\-wheel hydrogen powered stand\\-up scooter. The stand\\-up scooter has a range of over 20 km on 15 grams of hydrogen. It uses a swappable 1 litre 200 bar hydrogen cylinder. In 2021 the company developed a hydrogen powered cargo\\-bike, using a static 3 litre 300 bar refillable hydrogen cylinder. The HydroCargo bike has a range of up to 100 km on 80 grams of hydrogen.{{Cite web \\|title\\=HydroCargo 'Last Mile' bakfiets \\|url\\=https://allesoverwaterstof.nl/hydrocargo/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-03 \\|website\\=Alles over Waterstof \\|language\\=nl\\-NL}}", "Lloyd Alter of [TreeHugger](/wiki/TreeHugger \"TreeHugger\") responded to the announcement, asking \"why … go through the trouble of using electricity to make hydrogen, only to turn it back into electricity to charge a battery to run the e\\-bike \\[or] pick a fuel that needs an expensive filling station that can only handle 35 bikes a day, when you can charge a battery powered bike anywhere. \\[If] you were a captive fleet operator, why \\[not] just swap out batteries to get the range and the fast turnover?\"Alter, Lloyd. [\"Hydrogen\\-powered e\\-bike cranked up to 93 mile range\"](https://www.treehugger.com/bikes/hydrogen-powered-e-bike-cranked-93-mile-range.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815064811/https://www.treehugger.com/bikes/hydrogen\\-powered\\-e\\-bike\\-cranked\\-93\\-mile\\-range.html \\|date\\=2019\\-08\\-15 }}, [TreeHugger](/wiki/TreeHugger \"TreeHugger\"), August 14, 2019", "### Military vehicles", "[General Motors](/wiki/General_Motors \"General Motors\")' military division, [GM Defense](/wiki/GM_Defense \"GM Defense\"), focuses on hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.autonews.com/article/20171009/OEM/171009800/gm\\-military\\-defense\\-contractor \\|title\\=General Motors establishing new military defense division \\|publisher\\=AutoNews.com \\|date\\=October 9, 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=October 16, 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 9, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009220738/https://www.autonews.com/article/20171009/OEM/171009800/general\\-motors\\-establishing\\-new\\-military\\-defense\\-division \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Its SURUS (Silent Utility Rover Universal Superstructure) is a flexible fuel cell electric platform with autonomous capabilities. Since April 2017, the U.S. Army has been testing the commercial [Chevrolet Colorado](/wiki/Chevrolet_Colorado \"Chevrolet Colorado\") ZH2 on its U.S. bases to determine the viability of hydrogen\\-powered vehicles in military mission tactical environments.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://media.gm.com/media/us/en/gm/home.detail.html/content/Pages/news/us/en/2017/oct/1006\\-fuel\\-cell\\-platform.html \\|title\\=GM Outlines Possibilities for Flexible, Autonomous Fuel Cell Electric Platform \\|publisher\\=GM Media Release \\|date\\=October 6, 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=October 16, 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=April 12, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412202210/https://media.gm.com/media/us/en/gm/home.detail.html/content/Pages/news/us/en/2017/oct/1006\\-fuel\\-cell\\-platform.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "### Motorcycles and scooters", "[ENV](/wiki/ENV \"ENV\") develops electric motorcycles powered by a hydrogen fuel cell, including the [Crosscage](/wiki/Crosscage \"Crosscage\") and [Biplane](/wiki/Biplane_%28motorcycle%29 \"Biplane (motorcycle)\"). Other manufacturers as Vectrix are working on hydrogen scooters.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://jalopnik.com/cars/lighter\\_than\\_air\\-scooting/the\\-graf\\-scooter\\-278441\\.php \\|title\\=Hydrogen scooter by vectrix \\|publisher\\=Jalopnik.com \\|date\\=2007\\-07\\-13 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-12\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-06\\-03 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090603172511/http://jalopnik.com/cars/lighter\\_than\\_air\\-scooting/the\\-graf\\-scooter\\-278441\\.php \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Finally, hydrogen\\-fuel\\-cell\\-electric\\-hybrid scooters are being made such as the [Suzuki Burgman fuel\\-cell scooter](/wiki/Suzuki_Burgman \"Suzuki Burgman\"){{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.hydrogencarsnow.com/blog2/index.php/hydrogen\\-vehicles/suzuki\\-burgman\\-fuel\\-cell\\-scooter\\-to\\-rollout\\-within\\-months/ \\|title\\=Suzuki Burgman fuel\\-cell scooter \\|publisher\\=Hydrogencarsnow.com \\|date\\=2009\\-10\\-27 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-12\\-12 \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-01\\-26 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110126134224/http://www.hydrogencarsnow.com/blog2/index.php/hydrogen\\-vehicles/suzuki\\-burgman\\-fuel\\-cell\\-scooter\\-to\\-rollout\\-within\\-months/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} and the [FHybrid](/wiki/FHybrid \"FHybrid\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.io.tudelft.nl/live/pagina.jsp?id\\=b679efb4\\-ec62\\-4a49\\-96c8\\-eaf3839d6480⟨\\=en \\|title\\=Fhybrid fuel cell\\-electric hybrid scooter \\|publisher\\=Io.tudelft.nl \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-12\\-12 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090604151714/http://www.io.tudelft.nl/live/pagina.jsp?id\\=b679efb4\\-ec62\\-4a49\\-96c8\\-eaf3839d6480⟨\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-06\\-04 }} The Burgman received \"whole vehicle type\" approval in the EU.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.globalsuzuki.com/Burgman\\_Fuel\\-Cell\\_Scooter/index.html\\|title\\=SUZUKI \\- BURGMAN Fuel\\-Cell Scooter\\|access\\-date\\=30 May 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=10 March 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150310073140/http://www.globalsuzuki.com/Burgman\\_Fuel\\-Cell\\_Scooter/index.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The Taiwanese company APFCT conducted a live street test with 80 fuel\\-cell scooters for Taiwan's Bureau of Energy.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.apfct.com/article\\_cat.php?act\\=view\\&no\\=26\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130101222331/http://www.apfct.com/article\\_cat.php?act\\=view\\&no\\=26\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|title\\=Asia Pacific Fuel Cell Technologies, Ltd. \\-\\-fuel cell systems and fue…\\|date\\=1 January 2013\\|archive\\-date\\=1 January 2013\\|website\\=apfct.com\\|access\\-date\\=15 April 2018}}", "### Auto rickshaws", "Hydrogen [auto rickshaw](/wiki/Auto_rickshaw \"Auto rickshaw\") concept vehicles have been built by Mahindra HyAlfa and Bajaj Auto.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://thecityfix.com/blog/india\\-showcases\\-hydrogen\\-fuel\\-auto\\-rickshaws/\\|title\\=India Showcases Hydrogen Fuel Auto\\-Rickshaws \\|\\|date\\=February 21, 2012\\|access\\-date\\=September 21, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=September 20, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920170327/https://thecityfix.com/blog/india\\-showcases\\-hydrogen\\-fuel\\-auto\\-rickshaws/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/news\\-by\\-industry/transportation/shipping\\-/\\-transport/iit\\-delhi\\-scientists\\-develop\\-autos\\-that\\-run\\-on\\-hydrogen\\-cause\\-negligible\\-pollution/articleshow/11858081\\.cms\\|title\\=IIT\\-Delhi scientists develop autos that run on hydrogen; cause negligible pollution\\|first\\=Jayashree\\|last\\=Nandi\\|newspaper\\=The Economic Times\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-09\\-21\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-09\\-21\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190921074423/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/news\\-by\\-industry/transportation/shipping\\-/\\-transport/iit\\-delhi\\-scientists\\-develop\\-autos\\-that\\-run\\-on\\-hydrogen\\-cause\\-negligible\\-pollution/articleshow/11858081\\.cms\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "### Quads and tractors", "[Autostudi S.r.l](/wiki/Autostudi_S.r.l \"Autostudi S.r.l\")'s H\\-Due{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ecofriend.org/entry/smallest\\-of\\-em\\-rides\\-piemonte\\-h\\-due\\-concept/ \\|title\\=Autostudi S.r.l. H\\-Due \\|publisher\\=Ecofriend.org \\|date\\=2008\\-04\\-15 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-12\\-12 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121209090937/http://www.ecofriend.org/entry/smallest\\-of\\-em\\-rides\\-piemonte\\-h\\-due\\-concept/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-12\\-09 }} is a hydrogen\\-powered quad, capable of transporting 1\\-3 passengers. A concept for a hydrogen\\-powered tractor has been proposed.[New Holland Wins Gold for Energy Independent Farm Concept](http://www.efarming.com.au/NewProducts/machinery/08/01/2009/1358/new-holland-wins-gold-for-energy-independent-farm-concept.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://archive.today/20120728155828/http://www.efarming.com.au/NewProducts/machinery/08/01/2009/1358/new\\-holland\\-wins\\-gold\\-for\\-energy\\-independent\\-farm\\-concept.html \\|date\\=2012\\-07\\-28 }} or [Hydrogen\\-powered tractor in an Energy Independent Farm](http://www.terre-net.fr/materiel-agricole/tracteur-quad/article-new-holland-hydrogene-pile-a-combustible-nh2-harris-ihrig-tracteur-hydrogene-prototype-hydrogen-fuel-cell-powered-tractor-207-53740.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090702035628/http://www.terre\\-net.fr/materiel\\-agricole/tracteur\\-quad/article\\-new\\-holland\\-hydrogene\\-pile\\-a\\-combustible\\-nh2\\-harris\\-ihrig\\-tracteur\\-hydrogene\\-prototype\\-hydrogen\\-fuel\\-cell\\-powered\\-tractor\\-207\\-53740\\.html \\|date\\=2009\\-07\\-02 }}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Cummins and Versatile partner to bring 15L hydrogen engines to ag market \\|url\\=https://www.greencarcongress.com/2022/08/20220830\\-m15h.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-09\\-02 \\|website\\=Green Car Congress}}", "#### Auto racing", "A record of {{convert\\|207\\.297\\|mph}} was set by a prototype Ford Fusion Hydrogen 999 Fuel Cell Race Car at the Bonneville Salt Flats, in August 2007, using a large compressed oxygen tank to increase power.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.motorsportsjournal.com/archives/fuel\\_saving\\_vehicles\\_hybrids/ \\|title\\=New Hydrogen\\-Powered Land Speed Record from Ford \\|publisher\\=Motorsportsjournal.com \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-12\\-12 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209034212/http://www.motorsportsjournal.com/archives/fuel\\_saving\\_vehicles\\_hybrids/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-12\\-09 }} The land\\-speed record for a hydrogen\\-powered vehicle of {{convert\\|286\\.476\\|mph}} was set by [Ohio State University](/wiki/Ohio_State_University \"Ohio State University\")'s [Buckeye Bullet 2](/wiki/Buckeye_Bullet \"Buckeye Bullet\"), which achieved a \"flying\\-mile\" speed of {{convert\\|280\\.007\\|mph}} at the [Bonneville Salt Flats](/wiki/Bonneville_Salt_Flats \"Bonneville Salt Flats\") in August 2008\\.", "In 2007, the [Hydrogen Electric Racing Federation](/wiki/Hydrogen_Electric_Racing_Federation \"Hydrogen Electric Racing Federation\") was formed as a racing organization for hydrogen fuel cell\\-powered vehicles. The organization sponsored the Hydrogen 500, a 500\\-mile race.{{cite web \\|title\\=Hydrogen Electric Racing Federation looks to revolutionize motorsports \\|url\\=https://www.autoweek.com/news/a2049231/hydrogen\\-electric\\-racing\\-federation\\-looks\\-revolutionize\\-motorsports/ \\|website\\=Autoweek \\|access\\-date\\=17 June 2020 \\|date\\=9 January 2007 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 June 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617081459/https://www.autoweek.com/news/a2049231/hydrogen\\-electric\\-racing\\-federation\\-looks\\-revolutionize\\-motorsports/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "" ]
Data structures --------------- {{main\|C data types}} ### Primitive data types The C programming language represents numbers in three forms: *[integral](/wiki/Integer_%28computer_science%29 "Integer (computer science)")*, *[real](/wiki/Real_data_type "Real data type")* and *[complex](/wiki/Complex_data_type "Complex data type")*. This distinction reflects similar distinctions in the [instruction set](/wiki/Instruction_set "Instruction set") architecture of most [central processing units](/wiki/Central_processing_unit "Central processing unit"). *Integral* data types store numbers in the set of [integers](/wiki/Integer "Integer"), while *real* and *complex* numbers represent numbers (or pair of numbers) in the set of [real numbers](/wiki/Real_number "Real number") in [floating\-point](/wiki/Floating-point_arithmetic "Floating-point arithmetic") form. All C integer types have {{code\|signed}} and {{code\|unsigned}} variants. If {{code\|signed}} or {{code\|unsigned}} is not specified explicitly, in most circumstances, {{code\|signed}} is assumed. However, for historic reasons, plain {{code\|char}} is a type distinct from both {{code\|signed char}} and {{code\|unsigned char}}. It may be a signed type or an unsigned type, depending on the compiler and the character set (C guarantees that members of the C basic character set have positive values). Also, [bit field](/wiki/Bit_field "Bit field") types specified as plain {{code\|int}} may be signed or unsigned, depending on the compiler. #### Integer types C's integer types come in different fixed sizes, capable of representing various ranges of numbers. The type {{code\|char}} occupies exactly one [byte](/wiki/Byte "Byte") (the smallest addressable storage unit), which is typically 8 bits wide. (Although {{code\|char}} can represent any of C's "basic" characters, a wider type may be required for international character sets.) Most integer types have both [signed and unsigned](/wiki/Signedness "Signedness") varieties, designated by the {{code\|signed}} and {{code\|unsigned}} keywords. Signed integer types always use the [two's complement](/wiki/Two%27s_complement "Two's complement") [representation](/wiki/Signed_number_representations "Signed number representations"), since [C23](/wiki/C23_%28C_standard_revision%29 "C23 (C standard revision)"){{cite web \|title\=WG14\-N2412: Two's complement sign representation \|url\=https://www.open\-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n2412\.pdf \|website\=open\-std.org \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227174224/https://www.open\-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n2412\.pdf \|archive\-date\=December 27, 2022 \|date\=August 11, 2019 \|url\-status\=live}} (and in practive before; in older C versions before C23 the representation might alternatively have been [ones' complement](/wiki/Ones%27_complement "Ones' complement"), or [sign\-and\-magnitude](/wiki/Sign-and-magnitude "Sign-and-magnitude"), but in practice that has not been the case for decades on modern nardware). In many cases, there are multiple equivalent ways to designate the type; for example, {{code\|signed short int}} and {{code\|short}} are synonymous. The representation of some types may include unused "padding" bits, which occupy storage but are not included in the width. The following table provides a complete list of the standard integer types and their *minimum* allowed widths (including any sign bit). | \+ Specifications for standard integer types | | --- | | Shortest form of specifier | Minimum width (bits) | | {{code\|\_Bool}} | 1 | | {{code\|char}} | 8 | | {{code\|signed char}} | 8 | | {{code\|unsigned char}} | 8 | | {{code\|short}} | 16 | | {{code\|unsigned short}} | 16 | | {{code\|int}} | 16 | | {{code\|unsigned int}} | 16 | | {{code\|long}} | 32 | | {{code\|unsigned long}} | 32 | | {{code\|long long}}The {{code\|long long}} modifier was introduced in the [C99](/wiki/C99 "C99") standard. | 64 | | {{code\|unsigned long long}} | 64 | The {{code\|char}} type is distinct from both {{code\|signed char}} and {{code\|unsigned char}}, but is guaranteed to have the same representation as one of them. The {{code\|\_Bool}} and {{code\|long long}} types are standardized since 1999, and may not be supported by older C compilers. Type {{code\|\_Bool}} is usually accessed via the `[typedef](/wiki/Typedef "Typedef")` name {{code\|bool}} defined by the standard header `[stdbool.h](/wiki/Stdbool.h "Stdbool.h")`. In general, the widths and representation scheme implemented for any given platform are chosen based on the machine architecture, with some consideration given to the ease of importing source code developed for other platforms. The width of the {{code\|int}} type varies especially widely among C implementations; it often corresponds to the most "natural" word size for the specific platform. The standard header [limits.h](/wiki/Limits.h "Limits.h") defines macros for the minimum and maximum representable values of the standard integer types as implemented on any specific platform. In addition to the standard integer types, there may be other "extended" integer types, which can be used for {{code\|typedef}}s in standard headers. For more precise specification of width, programmers can and should use {{code\|typedef}}s from the standard header [stdint.h](/wiki/Stdint.h "Stdint.h"). Integer constants may be specified in source code in several ways. Numeric values can be specified as [decimal](/wiki/Decimal "Decimal") (example: {{code\|1022}}), [octal](/wiki/Octal "Octal") with zero ({{code\|0}}) as a prefix ({{code\|01776}}), or [hexadecimal](/wiki/Hexadecimal "Hexadecimal") with {{code\|0x}} (zero x) as a prefix ({{code\|0x3FE}}). A character in single quotes (example: {{code\|'R'}}), called a "character constant," represents the value of that character in the execution character set, with type {{code\|int}}. Except for character constants, the type of an integer constant is determined by the width required to represent the specified value, but is always at least as wide as {{code\|int}}. This can be overridden by appending an explicit length and/or signedness modifier; for example, {{code\|12lu}} has type {{code\|unsigned long}}. There are no negative integer constants, but the same effect can often be obtained by using a unary negation operator "{{code\|\-}}". #### Enumerated type The [enumerated type](/wiki/Enumerated_type "Enumerated type") in C, specified with the {{code\|enum}} keyword, and often just called an "enum" (usually pronounced {{IPAc\-en\|'\|i:\|n\|V\|m}} {{respell\|EE\|num}} or {{IPAc\-en\|'\|i:\|n\|u:\|m}} {{respell\|EE\|noom}}), is a type designed to represent values across a series of named constants. Each of the enumerated constants has type {{code\|int}}. Each {{code\|enum}} type itself is compatible with {{code\|char}} or a signed or unsigned integer type, but each implementation defines its own rules for choosing a type. Some compilers warn if an object with enumerated type is assigned a value that is not one of its constants. However, such an object can be assigned any values in the range of their compatible type, and {{code\|enum}} constants can be used anywhere an integer is expected. For this reason, {{code\|enum}} values are often used in place of preprocessor {{code\|\#define}} directives to create named constants. Such constants are generally safer to use than macros, since they reside within a specific identifier namespace. An enumerated type is declared with the {{code\|enum}} specifier and an optional name (or *tag*) for the enum, followed by a list of one or more constants contained within curly braces and separated by commas, and an optional list of variable names. Subsequent references to a specific enumerated type use the {{code\|enum}} keyword and the name of the enum. By default, the first constant in an enumeration is assigned the value zero, and each subsequent value is incremented by one over the previous constant. Specific values may also be assigned to constants in the declaration, and any subsequent constants without specific values will be given incremented values from that point onward. For example, consider the following declaration: enum colors { RED, GREEN, BLUE \= 5, YELLOW } paint\_color; This declares the {{code\|enum colors}} type; the {{code\|int}} constants {{code\|RED}} (whose value is 0\), {{code\|GREEN}} (whose value is one greater than {{code\|RED}}, 1\), {{code\|BLUE}} (whose value is the given value, 5\), and {{code\|YELLOW}} (whose value is one greater than {{code\|BLUE}}, 6\); and the {{code\|enum colors}} variable {{code\|paint\_color}}. The constants may be used outside of the context of the {{code\|enum}} (where any integer value is allowed), and values other than the constants may be assigned to {{code\|paint\_color}}, or any other variable of type {{code\|enum colors}}. #### Floating\-point types A floating\-point form is used to represent numbers with a fractional component. They do not, however, represent most rational numbers exactly; they are instead a close approximation. There are three standard types of real values, denoted by their specifiers (and since [C23](/wiki/C23_%28C_standard_revision%29 "C23 (C standard revision)") three more decimal types): single precision ({{code\|float}}), double precision ({{code\|double}}), and double extended precision ({{code\|long double}}). Each of these may represent values in a different form, often one of the [IEEE floating\-point](/wiki/IEEE_floating-point "IEEE floating-point") formats. | \+ Floating\-point types | | --- | | Type specifiers | Precision (decimal digits) | | Exponent range | | | Minimum | IEEE 754 | Minimum | IEEE 754 | | {{code\|float}} | 6 | 7\.2 (24 bits) | ±37 | ±38 (8 bits) | | {{code\|double}} | 10 | 15\.9 (53 bits) | ±37 | ±307 (11 bits) | | {{code\|long double}} | 10 | 34\.0 (113 bits) | ±37 | ±4931 (15 bits) | Floating\-point constants may be written in [decimal notation](/wiki/Decimal_notation "Decimal notation"), e.g. {{code\|1\.23}}. [Decimal scientific notation](/wiki/Decimal_scientific_notation "Decimal scientific notation") may be used by adding {{code\|e}} or {{code\|E}} followed by a decimal exponent, also known as [E notation](/wiki/E_notation "E notation"), e.g. {{code\|1\.23e2}} (which has the value 1\.23 × 102 \= 123\.0\). Either a decimal point or an exponent is required (otherwise, the number is parsed as an integer constant). [Hexadecimal floating\-point constants](/wiki/Hexadecimal_floating-point_constant "Hexadecimal floating-point constant") follow similar rules, except that they must be prefixed by {{code\|0x}} and use {{code\|p}} or {{code\|P}} to specify a binary exponent, e.g. {{code\|0xAp\-2}} (which has the value 2\.5, since Ah × 2−2 \= 10 × 2−2 \= 10 ÷ 4\). Both decimal and hexadecimal floating\-point constants may be suffixed by {{code\|f}} or {{code\|F}} to indicate a constant of type {{code\|float}}, by {{code\|l}} (letter {{code\|l}}) or {{code\|L}} to indicate type {{code\|long double}}, or left unsuffixed for a {{code\|double}} constant. The standard header file [{{code\|float.h}}](/wiki/Float.h "Float.h") defines the minimum and maximum values of the implementation's floating\-point types {{code\|float}}, {{code\|double}}, and {{code\|long double}}. It also defines other limits that are relevant to the processing of floating\-point numbers. [C23](/wiki/C23_%28C_standard_revision%29 "C23 (C standard revision)") introduces three additional *decimal* (as opposed to binary) real floating\-point types: \_Decimal32, \_Decimal64, and \_Decimal128\. NOTE C does not specify a radix for **float**, **double**, and **long double**. An implementation can choose the representation of **float**, **double**, and **long double** to be the same as the decimal floating types.{{cite web \|title\=WG14\-N2341: ISO/IEC TS 18661\-2 \- Floating\-point extensions for C \- Part 2: Decimal floating\-point arithmetic \|url\=https://www.open\-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n2341\.pdf \|website\=open\-std.org \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221121122559/https://open\-std.org/JTC1/SC22/WG14/www/docs/n2341\.pdf \|archive\-date\=November 21, 2022 \|date\=February 26, 2019 \|url\-status\=live}} Despite that, the radix has historically been binary (base 2\), meaning numbers like 1/2 or 1/4 are exact, but not 1/10, 1/100 or 1/3\. With decimal floating point all the same numbers are exact plus numbers like 1/10 and 1/100, but still not e.g. 1/3\. No known implementation does opt into the decimal radix for the previously known to be binary types. Since most computers do not even have the hardware for the decimal types, and those few that do (e.g. IBM mainframes since [IBM System z10](/wiki/IBM_System_z10 "IBM System z10")), can use the explicitly decimal types. #### Storage class specifiers Every object has a storage class. This specifies most basically the storage *duration,* which may be static (default for global), automatic (default for local), or dynamic (allocated), together with other features (linkage and register hint). | \+ Storage classes | | --- | | Specifiers | Lifetime | Scope | Default initializer | | {{code\|auto}} | Block (stack) | Block | Uninitialized | | {{code\|register}} | Block (stack or CPU register) | Block | Uninitialized | | {{code\|static}} | Program | Block or compilation unit | Zero | | {{code\|extern}} | Program | Global (entire program) | Zero | | {{code\|\_Thread\_local}} | Thread | | | | *(none)*1 | Dynamic (heap) | | Uninitialized (initialized to {{code\|0}} if using {{code\|calloc()}}) | 1 Allocated and deallocated using the {{code\|malloc()}} and {{code\|free()}} library functions. Variables declared within a [block](/wiki/Block_%28programming%29 "Block (programming)") by default have automatic storage, as do those explicitly declared with the [{{code\|auto}}](/wiki/Automatic_variable "Automatic variable")The meaning of auto is a type specifier rather than a storage class specifier in C\+\+0x or [{{code\|register}}](/wiki/Register_%28keyword%29 "Register (keyword)") storage class specifiers. The {{code\|auto}} and {{code\|register}} specifiers may only be used within functions and function argument declarations; as such, the {{code\|auto}} specifier is always redundant. Objects declared outside of all blocks and those explicitly declared with the [{{code\|static}}](/wiki/Static_variable "Static variable") storage class specifier have static storage duration. Static variables are initialized to zero by default by the [compiler](/wiki/Compiler "Compiler"). Objects with automatic storage are local to the block in which they were declared and are discarded when the block is exited. Additionally, objects declared with the {{code\|register}} storage class may be given higher priority by the compiler for access to [registers](/wiki/Register_%28computing%29 "Register (computing)"); although the compiler may choose not to actually store any of them in a register. Objects with this storage class may not be used with the address\-of ({{code\|\&}}) unary operator. Objects with static storage persist for the program's entire duration. In this way, the same object can be accessed by a function across multiple calls. Objects with allocated storage duration are created and destroyed explicitly with [{{code\|malloc}}](/wiki/Malloc "Malloc"), {{code\|free}}, and related functions. The [{{code\|extern}}](/wiki/External_variable "External variable") storage class specifier indicates that the storage for an object has been defined elsewhere. When used inside a block, it indicates that the storage has been defined by a declaration outside of that block. When used outside of all blocks, it indicates that the storage has been defined outside of the compilation unit. The {{code\|extern}} storage class specifier is redundant when used on a function declaration. It indicates that the declared function has been defined outside of the compilation unit. The [{{code\|\_Thread\_local}}](/wiki/Thread-local_storage "Thread-local storage") (`thread_local` in [C\+\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B "C++"), and in C since [C23](/wiki/C23_%28C_standard_revision%29 "C23 (C standard revision)"), and in earlier versions of C if the header `<threads.h>` is included) storage class specifier, introduced in [C11](/wiki/C11_%28C_standard_revision%29 "C11 (C standard revision)"), is used to declare a thread\-local variable. It can be combined with {{code\|static}} or {{code\|extern}} to determine linkage. Note that storage specifiers apply only to functions and objects; other things such as type and enum declarations are private to the compilation unit in which they appear. Types, on the other hand, have qualifiers (see below). #### Type qualifiers {{main\|Type qualifier}} Types can be qualified to indicate special properties of their data. The type qualifier `[const](/wiki/Const_%28computer_programming%29 "Const (computer programming)")` indicates that a value does not change once it has been initialized. Attempting to modify a `const` qualified value yields undefined behavior, so some C compilers store them in [rodata](/wiki/Rodata "Rodata") or (for embedded systems) in [read\-only memory](/wiki/Read-only_memory "Read-only memory") (ROM). The type qualifier `[volatile](/wiki/Volatile_%28computer_programming%29 "Volatile (computer programming)")` indicates to an [optimizing compiler](/wiki/Optimizing_compiler "Optimizing compiler") that it may not remove apparently redundant reads or writes, as the value may change even if it was not modified by any expression or statement, or multiple writes may be necessary, such as for [memory\-mapped I/O](/wiki/Memory-mapped_I/O "Memory-mapped I/O"). ### Incomplete types An incomplete type is a [structure or union](/wiki/%23Structures_and_unions "#Structures and unions") type whose members have not yet been specified, an [array type](/wiki/%23Arrays "#Arrays") whose dimension has not yet been specified, or the {{code\|void}} type (the {{code\|void}} type cannot be completed). Such a type may not be instantiated (its size is not known), nor may its members be accessed (they, too, are unknown); however, the derived pointer type may be used (but not dereferenced). They are often used with pointers, either as forward or external declarations. For instance, code could declare an incomplete type like this: struct thing \*pt; This declares {{code\|pt}} as a pointer to {{code\|struct thing}} *and* the incomplete type {{code\|struct thing}}. Pointers to data always have the same byte\-width regardless of what they point to, so this statement is valid by itself (as long as {{code\|pt}} is not dereferenced). The incomplete type can be completed later in the same scope by redeclaring it: struct thing { ``` int num; ``` }; /\* thing struct type is now completed \*/ Incomplete types are used to implement [recursive](/wiki/Recursion_%28computer_science%29 "Recursion (computer science)") structures; the body of the type declaration may be deferred to later in the translation unit: typedef struct Bert Bert; typedef struct Wilma Wilma; struct Bert { ``` Wilma *wilma; ``` }; struct Wilma { ``` Bert *bert; ``` }; Incomplete types are also used for [data hiding](/wiki/Data_hiding "Data hiding"); the incomplete type is defined in a [header file](/wiki/Header_file "Header file"), and the body only within the relevant source file. ### Pointers In declarations the asterisk modifier ({{code\|\*}}) specifies a pointer type. For example, where the specifier {{code\|int}} would refer to the integer type, the specifier {{code\|int\*}} refers to the type "pointer to integer". Pointer values associate two pieces of information: a memory address and a data type. The following line of code declares a pointer\-to\-integer variable called *ptr*: int \*ptr; #### Referencing When a non\-static pointer is declared, it has an unspecified value associated with it. The address associated with such a pointer must be changed by assignment prior to using it. In the following example, *ptr* is set so that it points to the data associated with the variable *a*: int a \= 0; int \*ptr \= \&a; In order to accomplish this, the "address\-of" operator (unary {{code\|\&}}) is used. It produces the memory location of the data object that follows. #### Dereferencing The pointed\-to data can be accessed through a pointer value. In the following example, the integer variable *b* is set to the value of integer variable *a*, which is 10: int a\=10; int \*p; p \= \&a; int b \= \*p; In order to accomplish that task, the unary [dereference operator](/wiki/Dereference_operator "Dereference operator"), denoted by an asterisk (\*), is used. It returns the data to which its operand—which must be of pointer type—points. Thus, the expression \**p* denotes the same value as *a*. Dereferencing a [null pointer](/wiki/Null_pointer "Null pointer") is illegal. ### Arrays #### Array definition Arrays are used in C to represent structures of consecutive elements of the same type. The definition of a (fixed\-size) array has the following syntax: int array\[100]; which defines an array named *array* to hold 100 values of the primitive type {{code\|int}}. If declared within a function, the array dimension may also be a non\-constant expression, in which case memory for the specified number of elements will be allocated. In most contexts in later use, a mention of the variable *array* is converted to a pointer to the first item in the array. The [{{code\|sizeof}}](/wiki/Sizeof "Sizeof") operator is an exception: {{code\|sizeof array}} yields the size of the entire array (that is, 100 times the size of an {{code\|int}}, and {{code\|sizeof(array) / sizeof(int)}} will return 100\). Another exception is the \& (address\-of) operator, which yields a pointer to the entire array, for example int (\*ptr\_to\_array)\[100] \= \&array; #### Accessing elements The primary facility for accessing the values of the elements of an array is the array subscript operator. To access the *i*\-indexed element of *array*, the syntax would be {{code\|array\[i]}}, which refers to the value stored in that array element. Array subscript numbering begins at 0 (see [Zero\-based indexing](/wiki/Zero-based_indexing "Zero-based indexing")). The largest allowed array subscript is therefore equal to the number of elements in the array minus 1\. To illustrate this, consider an array *a* declared as having 10 elements; the first element would be {{code\|a\[0]}} and the last element would be {{code\|a\[9]}}. C provides no facility for automatic [bounds checking](/wiki/Bounds_checking "Bounds checking") for array usage. Though logically the last subscript in an array of 10 elements would be 9, subscripts 10, 11, and so forth could accidentally be specified, with undefined results. Due to arrays and pointers being interchangeable, the addresses of each of the array elements can be expressed in equivalent [pointer arithmetic](/wiki/Pointer_arithmetic "Pointer arithmetic"). The following table illustrates both methods for the existing array: | \+ Array subscripts vs. pointer arithmetic | Element | First | Second | Third | *n*th | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Array subscript | {{C\-lang\|array\[0]}} | {{C\-lang\|array\[1]}} | {{C\-lang\|array\[2]}} | {{C\-lang\|array\[n \- 1]}} | | Dereferenced pointer | {{C\-lang\|\*array}} | {{C\-lang\|\*(array \+ 1\)}} | {{C\-lang\|\*(array \+ 2\)}} | {{C\-lang\|\*(array \+ n \- 1\)}} | Since the expression {{code\|a\[i]}} is semantically equivalent to {{code\|\*(a\+i)}}, which in turn is equivalent to {{code\|\*(i\+a)}}, the expression can also be written as {{code\|i\[a]}}, although this form is rarely used. #### Variable\-length arrays [C99](/wiki/C99 "C99") standardised [variable\-length arrays](/wiki/Variable-length_array "Variable-length array") (VLAs) within block scope. Such array variables are allocated based on the value of an integer value at runtime upon entry to a block, and are deallocated at the end of the block. As of [C11](/wiki/C11_%28C_standard_revision%29 "C11 (C standard revision)") this feature is no longer required to be implemented by the compiler. int n \= ...; int a\[n]; a\[3] \= 10; This syntax produces an array whose size is fixed until the end of the block. #### Dynamic arrays {{main\|C dynamic memory allocation}} Arrays that can be resized dynamically can be produced with the help of the [C standard library](/wiki/C_standard_library "C standard library"). The `[malloc](/wiki/Malloc "Malloc")` function provides a simple method for allocating memory. It takes one parameter: the amount of memory to allocate in bytes. Upon successful allocation, {{code\|malloc}} returns a generic ({{code\|void}}) pointer value, pointing to the beginning of the allocated space. The pointer value returned is converted to an appropriate type implicitly by assignment. If the allocation could not be completed, {{code\|malloc}} returns a [null pointer](/wiki/Null_pointer "Null pointer"). The following segment is therefore similar in function to the above desired declaration: \#include \<stdlib.h\> /\* declares malloc \*/ ... int \*a \= malloc(n \* sizeof \*a); a\[3] \= 10; The result is a "pointer to {{code\|int}}" variable (*a*) that points to the first of *n* contiguous {{code\|int}} objects; due to array–pointer equivalence this can be used in place of an actual array name, as shown in the last line. The advantage in using this [dynamic allocation](/wiki/Dynamic_allocation "Dynamic allocation") is that the amount of memory that is allocated to it can be limited to what is actually needed at run time, and this can be changed as needed (using the standard library function [{{code\|realloc}}](/wiki/Realloc "Realloc")). When the dynamically allocated memory is no longer needed, it should be released back to the run\-time system. This is done with a call to the {{code\|free}} function. It takes a single parameter: a pointer to previously allocated memory. This is the value that was returned by a previous call to {{code\|malloc}}. As a security measure, some programmers {{who\|date\=August 2020}} then set the pointer variable to {{code\|NULL}}: free(a); a \= NULL; This ensures that further attempts to dereference the pointer, on most systems, will crash the program. If this is not done, the variable becomes a [dangling pointer](/wiki/Dangling_pointer "Dangling pointer") which can lead to a use\-after\-free bug. However, if the pointer is a local variable, setting it to {{code\|NULL}} does not prevent the program from using other copies of the pointer. Local use\-after\-free bugs are usually easy for [static analyzers](/wiki/Static_analyzer "Static analyzer") to recognize. Therefore, this approach is less useful for local pointers and it is more often used with pointers stored in long\-living structs. In general though, setting pointers to {{code\|NULL}} is good practice {{according to whom\|date\=August 2020}} as it allows a programmer to {{code\|NULL}}\-check pointers prior to dereferencing, thus helping prevent crashes. Recalling the array example, one could also create a fixed\-size array through dynamic allocation: int (\*a)\[100] \= malloc(sizeof \*a); ...Which yields a pointer\-to\-array. Accessing the pointer\-to\-array can be done in two ways: (\*a)\[index]; index\[\*a]; Iterating can also be done in two ways: for (int i \= 0; i \< 100; i\+\+) ``` (*a)[i]; ``` for (int \*i \= a\[0]; i \< a\[1]; i\+\+) ``` *i; ``` The benefit to using the second example is that the numeric limit of the first example isn't required, which means that the pointer\-to\-array could be of any size and the second example can execute without any modifications. #### Multidimensional arrays In addition, C supports arrays of multiple dimensions, which are stored in [row\-major order](/wiki/Row-major_order "Row-major order"). Technically, C multidimensional arrays are just one\-dimensional arrays whose elements are arrays. The syntax for declaring multidimensional arrays is as follows: int array2d\[ROWS]\[COLUMNS]; where *ROWS* and *COLUMNS* are constants. This defines a two\-dimensional array. Reading the subscripts from left to right, *array2d* is an array of length *ROWS*, each element of which is an array of *COLUMNS* integers. To access an integer element in this multidimensional array, one would use array2d\[4]\[3] Again, reading from left to right, this accesses the 5th row, and the 4th element in that row. The expression {{code\|array2d\[4]}} is an array, which we are then subscripting with \[3] to access the fourth integer. | \+ Array subscripts vs. pointer arithmetic{{cite book\|last\=Balagurusamy\|first\=E\|title\=Programming in ANSI C\|publisher\=Tata McGraw Hill\|pages\=366}} | Element | First | Second row, second column | *i*th row, *j*th column | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Array subscript | {{C\-lang\|array\[0]\[0]}} | {{C\-lang\|array\[1]\[1]}} | {{C\-lang\|array\[i \- 1]\[j \- 1]}} | | Dereferenced pointer | {{C\-lang\|\*(\*(array \+ 0\) \+ 0\)}} | {{C\-lang\|\*(\*(array \+ 1\) \+ 1\)}} | {{C\-lang\|\*(\*(array \+ i \- 1\) \+ j \- 1\)}} | Higher\-dimensional arrays can be declared in a similar manner. A multidimensional array should not be confused with an array of pointers to arrays (also known as an [Iliffe vector](/wiki/Iliffe_vector "Iliffe vector") or sometimes an *array of arrays*). The former is always rectangular (all subarrays must be the same size), and occupies a contiguous region of memory. The latter is a one\-dimensional array of pointers, each of which may point to the first element of a subarray in a different place in memory, and the sub\-arrays do not have to be the same size. The latter can be created by multiple uses of {{code\|malloc}}. ### Strings {{main \| C string handling}} In C, string literals are surrounded by double quotes ({{code\|"}}) (e.g., {{code\|"Hello world!"}}) and are compiled to an array of the specified {{code\|char}} values with an additional [null terminating character](/wiki/Null_terminating_character "Null terminating character") (0\-valued) code to mark the end of the string. [String literals](/wiki/String_literal "String literal") may not contain embedded newlines; this proscription somewhat simplifies parsing of the language. To include a newline in a string, the [backslash escape](/wiki/%23Backslash_escapes "#Backslash escapes") {{code\|\\n}} may be used, as below. There are several standard library functions for operating with string data (not necessarily constant) organized as array of {{code\|char}} using this null\-terminated format; see [below](/wiki/%23Library_functions "#Library functions"). C's string\-literal syntax has been very influential, and has made its way into many other languages, such as C\+\+, Objective\-C, Perl, Python, PHP, Java, JavaScript, C\#, and Ruby. Nowadays, almost all new languages adopt or build upon C\-style string syntax. Languages that lack this syntax tend to precede C. #### Backslash escapes {{main\|Escape sequences in C}} Because certain characters cannot be part of a literal string expression directly, they are instead identified by an escape sequence starting with a backslash ({{code\|\\}}). For example, the backslashes in {{code\|"This string contains \\"double quotes\\"."}} indicate (to the compiler) that the inner pair of quotes are intended as an actual part of the string, rather than the default reading as a delimiter (endpoint) of the string itself. Backslashes may be used to enter various control characters, etc., into a string: | Escape | Meaning | | --- | --- | | {{code\|\\\\}} | Literal backslash | | {{code\|\\"}} | Double quote | | {{code\|\\'}} | Single quote | | {{code\|\\n}} | Newline (line feed) | | {{code\|\\r}} | Carriage return | | {{code\|\\b}} | Backspace | | {{code\|\\t}} | Horizontal tab | | {{code\|\\f}} | Form feed | | {{code\|\\a}} | Alert (bell) | | {{code\|\\v}} | Vertical tab | | {{code\|\\?}} | Question mark (used to escape [trigraphs](/wiki/C_trigraph "C trigraph"), obsolete features dropped in C23\) | | {{code\|%%}} | Percentage mark, [printf format strings](/wiki/Printf_format_string "Printf format string") only (Note \\% is non standard and is not always recognised) | | `\OOO` | Character with octal value *OOO* (where *OOO* is 1\-3 octal digits, '0'\-'7') | | `\xHH` | Character with hexadecimal value *HH* (where *HH* is 1 or more hex digits, '0'\-'9','A'\-'F','a'\-'f') | The use of other backslash escapes is not defined by the C standard, although compiler vendors often provide additional escape codes as language extensions. One of these is the escape sequence `\e` for the [escape character](/wiki/Escape_character "Escape character") with ASCII hex value 1B which was not added to the C standard due to lacking representation in other [character sets](/wiki/Character_set "Character set") (such as [EBCDIC](/wiki/EBCDIC "EBCDIC")). It is available in [GCC](/wiki/GNU_Compiler_Collection "GNU Compiler Collection"), [clang](/wiki/Clang "Clang") and [tcc](/wiki/Tiny_C_Compiler "Tiny C Compiler"). #### String literal concatenation C has [string literal concatenation](/wiki/String_literal_concatenation "String literal concatenation"), meaning that adjacent string literals are concatenated at compile time; this allows long strings to be split over multiple lines, and also allows string literals resulting from [C preprocessor](/wiki/C_preprocessor "C preprocessor") defines and macros to be appended to strings at compile time: ``` printf(__FILE__ ": %d: Hello " "world\n", __LINE__); ``` will expand to ``` printf("helloworld.c" ": %d: Hello " "world\n", 10); ``` which is syntactically equivalent to ``` printf("helloworld.c: %d: Hello world\n", 10); ``` #### Character constants Individual character constants are single\-quoted, e.g. {{code\|'A'}}, and have type {{code\|int}} (in C\+\+, {{code\|char}}). The difference is that {{code\|"A"}} represents a null\-terminated array of two characters, 'A' and '\\0', whereas {{code\|'A'}} directly represents the character value (65 if ASCII is used). The same backslash\-escapes are supported as for strings, except that (of course) {{code\|"}} can validly be used as a character without being escaped, whereas {{code\|'}} must now be escaped. A character constant cannot be empty (i.e. {{code\|*}} is invalid syntax), although a string may be (it still has the null terminating character). Multi\-character constants (e.g. {{code\|'xy'}}) are valid, although rarely useful — they let one store several characters in an integer (e.g. 4 ASCII characters can fit in a 32\-bit integer, 8 in a 64\-bit one). Since the order in which the characters are packed into an {{code\|int}} is not specified (left to the implementation to define), portable use of multi\-character constants is difficult.* Nevertheless, in situations limited to a specific platform and the compiler implementation, multicharacter constants do find their use in specifying signatures. One common use case is the [OSType](/wiki/OSType "OSType"), where the combination of Classic Mac OS compilers and its inherent big\-endianness means that bytes in the integer appear in the exact order of characters defined in the literal. The definition by popular "implementations" are in fact consistent: in GCC, Clang, and [Visual C\+\+](/wiki/Visual_C%2B%2B "Visual C++"), {{code\|'1234'}} yields `0x31323334` under ASCII.{{cite web \|title\=The C Preprocessor: Implementation\-defined behavior \|url\=https://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/cpp/Implementation\-defined\-behavior.html \|website\=gcc.gnu.org}}{{cite web \|title\=String and character literals (C\+\+) \|url\=https://docs.microsoft.com/en\-us/cpp/cpp/string\-and\-character\-literals\-cpp?view\=vs\-2019\#code\-try\-2 \|website\=Visual C\+\+ 19 Documentation \|access\-date\=20 November 2019 \|language\=en\-us}} Like string literals, character constants can also be modified by prefixes, for example {{code\|L'A'}} has type {{code\|wchar\_t}} and represents the character value of "A" in the wide character encoding. #### Wide character strings Since type {{code\|char}} is 1 byte wide, a single {{code\|char}} value typically can represent at most 255 distinct character codes, not nearly enough for all the characters in use worldwide. To provide better support for international characters, the first C standard (C89\) introduced [wide characters](/wiki/Wide_character "Wide character") (encoded in type {{code\|wchar\_t}}) and wide character strings, which are written as {{code\|L"Hello world!"}} Wide characters are most commonly either 2 bytes (using a 2\-byte encoding such as [UTF\-16](/wiki/UTF-16 "UTF-16")) or 4 bytes (usually [UTF\-32](/wiki/UTF-32 "UTF-32")), but Standard C does not specify the width for {{code\|wchar\_t}}, leaving the choice to the implementor. [Microsoft Windows](/wiki/Microsoft_Windows "Microsoft Windows") generally uses UTF\-16, thus the above string would be 26 bytes long for a Microsoft compiler; the [Unix](/wiki/Unix "Unix") world prefers UTF\-32, thus compilers such as GCC would generate a 52\-byte string. A 2\-byte wide {{code\|wchar\_t}} suffers the same limitation as {{code\|char}}, in that certain characters (those outside the [BMP](/wiki/Basic_Multilingual_Plane "Basic Multilingual Plane")) cannot be represented in a single {{code\|wchar\_t}}; but must be represented using [surrogate pairs](/wiki/Surrogate_pair "Surrogate pair"). The original C standard specified only minimal functions for operating with wide character strings; in 1995 the standard was modified to include much more extensive support, comparable to that for {{code\|char}} strings. The relevant functions are mostly named after their {{code\|char}} equivalents, with the addition of a "w" or the replacement of "str" with "wcs"; they are specified in {{code\|}}, with {{code\|}} containing wide\-character classification and mapping functions. The now generally recommended methodsee [UTF\-8](/wiki/UTF-8 "UTF-8") first section for references of supporting international characters is through [UTF\-8](/wiki/UTF-8 "UTF-8"), which is stored in {{code\|char}} arrays, and can be written directly in the source code if using a UTF\-8 editor, because UTF\-8 is a direct [ASCII extension](/wiki/Extended_ASCII "Extended ASCII"). #### Variable width strings A common alternative to {{code\|wchar\_t}} is to use a [variable\-width encoding](/wiki/Variable-width_encoding "Variable-width encoding"), whereby a logical character may extend over multiple positions of the string. Variable\-width strings may be encoded into literals verbatim, at the risk of confusing the compiler, or using numerical backslash escapes (e.g. {{code\|"\\xc3\\xa9"}} for "é" in UTF\-8\). The [UTF\-8](/wiki/UTF-8 "UTF-8") encoding was specifically designed (under [Plan 9](/wiki/Plan_9_from_Bell_Labs "Plan 9 from Bell Labs")) for compatibility with the standard library string functions; supporting features of the encoding include a lack of embedded nulls, no valid interpretations for subsequences, and trivial resynchronisation. Encodings lacking these features are likely to prove incompatible with the standard library functions; encoding\-aware string functions are often used in such cases. #### Library functions [Strings](/wiki/String_%28computer_science%29 "String (computer science)"), both constant and variable, can be manipulated without using the [standard library](/wiki/Standard_library "Standard library"). However, the library contains many [useful functions](/wiki/C_string_handling "C string handling") for working with null\-terminated strings. ### Structures and unions #### Structures Structures and [unions](/wiki/Union_type "Union type") in C are defined as data containers consisting of a sequence of named members of various types. They are similar to records in other programming languages. The members of a structure are stored in consecutive locations in memory, although the compiler is allowed to insert padding between or after members (but not before the first member) for efficiency or as padding required for proper [alignment](/wiki/Data_structure_alignment "Data structure alignment") by the target architecture. The size of a structure is equal to the sum of the sizes of its members, plus the size of the padding. #### Unions Unions in C are related to structures and are defined as objects that may hold (at different times) objects of different types and sizes. They are analogous to variant records in other programming languages. Unlike structures, the components of a union all refer to the same location in memory. In this way, a union can be used at various times to hold different types of objects, without the need to create a separate object for each new type. The size of a union is equal to the size of its largest component type. #### Declaration Structures are declared with the [{{code\|struct}}](/wiki/Struct_%28C_programming_language%29 "Struct (C programming language)") keyword and unions are declared with the {{code\|union}} keyword. The specifier keyword is followed by an optional identifier name, which is used to identify the form of the structure or union. The identifier is followed by the declaration of the structure or union's body: a list of member declarations, contained within curly braces, with each declaration terminated by a semicolon. Finally, the declaration concludes with an optional list of identifier names, which are declared as instances of the structure or union. For example, the following statement declares a structure named {{code\|s}} that contains three members; it will also declare an instance of the structure known as {{code\|tee}}: struct s { ``` int x; float y; char *z; ``` } tee; And the following statement will declare a similar union named {{code\|u}} and an instance of it named {{code\|n}}: union u { ``` int x; float y; char *z; ``` } n; Members of structures and unions cannot have an incomplete or function type. Thus members cannot be an instance of the structure or union being declared (because it is incomplete at that point) but can be pointers to the type being declared. Once a structure or union body has been declared and given a name, it can be considered a new data type using the specifier {{code\|struct}} or {{code\|union}}, as appropriate, and the name. For example, the following statement, given the above structure declaration, declares a new instance of the structure {{code\|s}} named {{code\|r}}: struct s r; It is also common to use the `[typedef](/wiki/Typedef "Typedef")` specifier to eliminate the need for the {{code\|struct}} or {{code\|union}} keyword in later references to the structure. The first identifier after the body of the structure is taken as the new name for the structure type (structure instances may not be declared in this context). For example, the following statement will declare a new type known as s\_type *that will contain some structure:* typedef struct {...} s\_type; Future statements can then use the specifier s\_type *(instead of the expanded {{code\|struct}} ... specifier) to refer to the structure.* #### Accessing members Members are accessed using the name of the instance of a structure or union, a period ({{code\|.}}), and the name of the member. For example, given the declaration of tee *from above, the member known as* y *(of type {{code\|float}}) can be accessed using the following syntax:* tee.y Structures are commonly accessed through pointers. Consider the following example that defines a pointer to tee*, known as* ptr\_to\_tee*:* struct s \*ptr\_to\_tee \= \&tee; Member y *of* tee *can then be accessed by dereferencing* ptr\_to\_tee *and using the result as the left operand:* (\*ptr\_to\_tee).y Which is identical to the simpler {{code\|tee.y}} above as long as ptr\_to\_tee *points to* tee*. Due to [operator precedence](/wiki/Operators_in_C_and_C%2B%2B%23Operator_precedence "Operators in C and C++#Operator precedence") ("." being higher than "\*"), the shorter `*ptr_to_tee.y` is incorrect for this purpose, instead being parsed as `*(ptr_to_tee.y)` and thus the parentheses are necessary. Because this operation is common, C provides an [abbreviated syntax](/wiki/Syntactic_sugar "Syntactic sugar") for accessing a member directly from a pointer. With this syntax, the name of the instance is replaced with the name of the pointer and the period is replaced with the character sequence {{code\|\-\>}}. Thus, the following method of accessing* y *is identical to the previous two:* ptr\_to\_tee\-\>y Members of unions are accessed in the same way. This can be chained; for example, in a linked list, one may refer to `n->next->next` for the second following node (assuming that `n->next` is not null). #### Assignment Assigning values to individual members of structures and unions is syntactically identical to assigning values to any other object. The only difference is that the lvalue *of the assignment is the name of the member, as accessed by the syntax mentioned above.* A structure can also be assigned as a unit to another structure of the same type. Structures (and pointers to structures) may also be used as function parameter and return types. For example, the following statement assigns the value of 74 (the ASCII code point for the letter 't') to the member named x *in the structure* tee*, from above:* tee.x \= 74; And the same assignment, using ptr\_to\_tee *in place of* tee*, would look like:* ptr\_to\_tee\-\>x \= 74; Assignment with members of unions is identical. #### Other operations According to the C standard, the only legal operations that can be performed on a structure are copying it, assigning to it as a unit (or initializing it), taking its address with the address\-of ({{code\|\&}}) unary operator, and accessing its members. Unions have the same restrictions. One of the operations implicitly forbidden is comparison: structures and unions cannot be compared using C's standard comparison facilities ({{code\|1\=\=\=}}, {{code\|\>}}, {{code\|\<}}, etc.). #### Bit fields C also provides a special type of member known as a [bit field](/wiki/Bit_field "Bit field"), which is an integer with an explicitly specified number of bits. A bit field is declared as a structure (or union) member of type {{code\|int}}, {{code\|signed int}}, {{code\|unsigned int}}, or {{code\|\_Bool}},Other implementation\-defined types are also allowed. C\+\+ allows using all integral and enumerated types and a lot of C compilers do the same. following the member name by a colon ({{code\|:}}) and the number of bits it should occupy. The total number of bits in a single bit field must not exceed the total number of bits in its declared type (this is allowed in C\+\+ however, where the extra bits are used for padding). As a special exception to the usual C syntax rules, it is implementation\-defined whether a bit field declared as type {{code\|int}}, without specifying {{code\|signed}} or {{code\|unsigned}}, is signed or unsigned. Thus, it is recommended to explicitly specify {{code\|signed}} or {{code\|unsigned}} on all structure members for portability. Unnamed fields consisting of just a colon followed by a number of bits are also allowed; these indicate [padding](/wiki/Data_padding "Data padding"). Specifying a width of zero for an unnamed field is used to force [alignment](/wiki/Data_structure_alignment "Data structure alignment") to a new word.Kernighan \& Richie Since all members of a union occupy the same memory, unnamed bit\-fields of width zero do nothing in unions, however unnamed bit\-fields of non zero width can change the size of the union since they have to fit in it. The members of bit fields do not have addresses, and as such cannot be used with the address\-of ({{code\|\&}}) unary operator. The {{code\|sizeof}} operator may not be applied to bit fields. The following declaration declares a new structure type known as {{code\|f}} and an instance of it known as {{code\|g}}. Comments provide a description of each of the members: struct f { ``` unsigned int flag : 1; /* a bit flag: can either be on (1) or off (0) */ signed int num : 4; /* a signed 4-bit field; range -7...7 or -8...7 */ signed int : 3; /* 3 bits of padding to round out to 8 bits */ ``` } g; ### Initialization Default initialization depends on the [storage class specifier](/wiki/%23Storage_class_specifiers "#Storage class specifiers"), described above. Because of the language's grammar, a scalar initializer may be enclosed in any number of curly brace pairs. Most compilers issue a warning if there is more than one such pair, though. int x \= 12; int y \= { 23 }; //Legal, no warning int z \= { { 34 } }; //Legal, expect a warning Structures, unions and arrays can be initialized in their declarations using an initializer list. Unless designators are used, the components of an initializer correspond with the elements in the order they are defined and stored, thus all preceding values must be provided before any particular element's value. Any unspecified elements are set to zero (except for unions). Mentioning too many initialization values yields an error. The following statement will initialize a new instance of the structure s *known as* pi*: struct s { ``` int x; float y; char *z; ``` };* struct s pi \= { 3, 3\.1415, "Pi" }; #### Designated initializers Designated initializers allow members to be initialized by name, in any order, and without explicitly providing the preceding values. The following initialization is equivalent to the previous one: struct s pi \= { .z \= "Pi", .x \= 3, .y \= 3\.1415 }; Using a designator in an initializer moves the initialization "cursor". In the example below, if `MAX` is greater than 10, there will be some zero\-valued elements in the middle of `a`; if it is less than 10, some of the values provided by the first five initializers will be overridden by the second five (if `MAX` is less than 5, there will be a compilation error): int a\[MAX] \= { 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, \[MAX\-5] \= 8, 6, 4, 2, 0 }; In [C89](/wiki/C89_%28C_version%29 "C89 (C version)"), a union was initialized with a single value applied to its first member. That is, the union u *defined above could only have its* int x *member initialized: union u value \= { 3 };* Using a designated initializer, the member to be initialized does not have to be the first member: union u value \= { .y \= 3\.1415 }; If an array has unknown size (i.e. the array was an [incomplete type](/wiki/%23Incomplete_types "#Incomplete types")), the number of initializers determines the size of the array and its type becomes complete: int x\[] \= { 0, 1, 2 } ; Compound designators can be used to provide explicit initialization when unadorned initializer lists might be misunderstood. In the example below, `w` is declared as an array of structures, each structure consisting of a member `a` (an array of 3 `int`) and a member `b` (an `int`). The initializer sets the size of `w` to 2 and sets the values of the first element of each `a`: struct { int a\[3], b; } w\[] \= { \[0].a \= {1}, \[1].a\[0] \= 2 }; This is equivalent to:struct { int a\[3], b; } w\[] \= { ``` { { 1, 0, 0 }, 0 }, { { 2, 0, 0 }, 0 } ``` }; There is no way to specify repetition of an initializer in standard C. #### Compound literals It is possible to borrow the initialization methodology to generate compound structure and array literals: // pointer created from array literal. int \*ptr \= (int\[]){ 10, 20, 30, 40 }; // pointer to array. float (\*foo)\[3] \= \&(float\[]){ 0\.5f, 1\.f, \-0\.5f }; struct s pi \= (struct s){ 3, 3\.1415, "Pi" }; Compound literals are often combined with designated initializers to make the declaration more readable: pi \= (struct s){ .z \= "Pi", .x \= 3, .y \= 3\.1415 }; Operators --------- {{main\|Operators in C and C\+\+}} Control structures ------------------ C is a [free\-form language](/wiki/Free-form_language "Free-form language"). [Bracing style](/wiki/Indentation_style "Indentation style") varies from [programmer](/wiki/Computer_programming "Computer programming") to programmer and can be the subject of debate. See [Indentation style](/wiki/Indentation_style "Indentation style") for more details. ### Compound statements In the items in this section, any \<statement\> can be replaced with a **compound statement**. Compound statements have the form: { ``` <optional-declaration-list> <optional-statement-list> ``` } and are used as the body of a function or anywhere that a single statement is expected. The declaration\-list declares variables to be used in that [scope](/wiki/Scope_%28programming%29 "Scope (programming)"), and the statement\-list are the actions to be performed. Brackets define their own scope, and variables defined inside those brackets will be automatically deallocated at the closing bracket. Declarations and statements can be freely intermixed within a compound statement (as in [C\+\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B "C++")). ### Selection statements C has two types of [selection statements](/wiki/Selection_statement "Selection statement"): the [{{code\|if}} statement](/wiki/If_statement "If statement") and the [{{code\|switch}} statement](/wiki/Switch_statement "Switch statement"). The {{code\|if}} statement is in the form: if (\<expression\>) ``` <statement1> ``` else ``` <statement2> ``` In the {{code\|if}} statement, if the {{code\|}} in parentheses is nonzero (true), control passes to {{code\|}}. If the {{code\|else}} clause is present and the {{code\|}} is zero (false), control will pass to {{code\|}}. The {{code\|else }} part is optional and, if absent, a false {{code\|}} will simply result in skipping over the {{code\|}}. An {{code\|else}} always matches the nearest previous unmatched {{code\|if}}; braces may be used to override this when necessary, or for clarity. The {{code\|switch}} statement causes control to be transferred to one of several statements depending on the value of an [expression](/wiki/Expression_%28mathematics%29 "Expression (mathematics)"), which must have [integral type](/wiki/Integral_type "Integral type"). The substatement controlled by a switch is typically compound. Any statement within the substatement may be labeled with one or more {{code\|case}} labels, which consist of the keyword {{code\|case}} followed by a constant expression and then a colon (:). The syntax is as follows: switch (\<expression\>) { ``` case <label1> : <statements 1> case <label2> : <statements 2> break; default : <statements 3> ``` } No two of the case constants associated with the same switch may have the same value. There may be at most one {{code\|default}} label associated with a switch. If none of the case labels are equal to the expression in the parentheses following {{code\|switch}}, control passes to the {{code\|default}} label or, if there is no {{code\|default}} label, execution resumes just beyond the entire construct. Switches may be nested; a {{code\|case}} or {{code\|default}} label is associated with the innermost {{code\|switch}} that contains it. Switch statements can "fall through", that is, when one case section has completed its execution, statements will continue to be executed downward until a {{code\|break;}} statement is encountered. Fall\-through is useful in some circumstances, but is usually not desired. In the preceding example, if {{code\|}} is reached, the statements {{code\|}} are executed and nothing more inside the braces. However, if {{code\|}} is reached, both {{code\|}} and {{code\|}} are executed since there is no {{code\|break}} to separate the two case statements. It is possible, although unusual, to insert the {{code\|switch}} labels into the sub\-blocks of other control structures. Examples of this include [Duff's device](/wiki/Duff%27s_device "Duff's device") and [Simon Tatham](/wiki/Simon_Tatham "Simon Tatham")'s implementation of [coroutines](/wiki/Coroutine "Coroutine") in [Putty](/wiki/Putty_%28SSH%29 "Putty (SSH)").{{cite web \| first\=Simon \| last\=Tatham \| author\-link\=Simon Tatham \| date\=2000 \| url\=https://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/\~sgtatham/coroutines.html \| title \= Coroutines in C\| access\-date\=2017\-04\-30}} ### Iteration statements C has three forms of [iteration](/wiki/Iteration "Iteration") statement: do ``` <statement> ``` while ( \<expression\> ) ; while ( \<expression\> ) ``` <statement> ``` for ( \<expression\> ; \<expression\> ; \<expression\> ) ``` <statement> ``` In the [{{code\|while}}](/wiki/While_loop "While loop") and {{code\|do}} statements, the sub\-statement is executed repeatedly so long as the value of the {{code\|expression}} remains non\-zero (equivalent to true). With {{code\|while}}, the test, including all side effects from {{code\|}}, occurs before each iteration (execution of {{code\|}}); with {{code\|do}}, the test occurs after each iteration. Thus, a {{code\|do}} statement always executes its sub\-statement at least once, whereas {{code\|while}} may not execute the sub\-statement at all. The statement: for (e1; e2; e3\) ``` s; ``` is equivalent to: e1; while (e2\) { ``` s; ``` cont: ``` e3; ``` } except for the behaviour of a {{code\|continue;}} statement (which in the {{code\|for}} loop jumps to {{code\|e3}} instead of {{code\|e2}}). If {{code\|e2}} is blank, it would have to be replaced with a {{code\|1}}. Any of the three expressions in the {{code\|for}} loop may be omitted. A missing second expression makes the {{code\|while}} test always non\-zero, creating a potentially infinite loop. Since [C99](/wiki/C99 "C99"), the first expression may take the form of a declaration, typically including an initializer, such as: for (int i \= 0; i \< limit; \+\+i) { ``` // ... ``` } The declaration's scope is limited to the extent of the {{code\|for}} loop. ### Jump statements Jump statements transfer control unconditionally. There are four types of [jump statements](/wiki/Branch_%28computer_science%29 "Branch (computer science)") in C: [{{code\|goto}}](/wiki/GOTO "GOTO"), {{code\|continue}}, {{code\|break}}, and [{{code\|return}}](/wiki/Return_statement "Return statement"). The {{code\|goto}} statement looks like this: goto \<identifier\> ; The [identifier](/wiki/Identifier "Identifier") must be a [label](/wiki/Label_%28programming_language%29 "Label (programming language)") (followed by a colon) located in the current function. Control transfers to the labeled statement. A {{code\|continue}} statement may appear only within an [iteration statement](/wiki/C_syntax%23Iteration_statements "C syntax#Iteration statements") and causes control to pass to the loop\-continuation portion of the innermost enclosing iteration statement. That is, within each of the statements while (expression) { ``` /* ... */ cont: ; ``` } do { ``` /* ... */ cont: ; ``` } while (expression); for (expr1; expr2; expr3\) { ``` /* ... */ cont: ; ``` } a {{code\|continue}} not contained within a nested iteration statement is the same as {{code\|goto cont}}. The {{code\|break}} statement is used to end a {{code\|for}} loop, {{code\|while}} loop, {{code\|do}} loop, or {{code\|switch}} statement. Control passes to the statement following the terminated statement. A function returns to its caller by the {{code\|return}} statement. When {{code\|return}} is followed by an expression, the value is returned to the caller as the value of the function. Encountering the end of the function is equivalent to a {{code\|return}} with no expression. In that case, if the function is declared as returning a value and the caller tries to use the returned value, the result is undefined. #### Storing the address of a label [GCC](/wiki/GNU_Compiler_Collection "GNU Compiler Collection") extends the C language with a unary {{code\|\&\&}} operator that returns the address of a label. This address can be stored in a {{code\|void\*}} variable type and may be used later in a {{code\|goto}} instruction. For example, the following prints {{code\|"hi "}} in an infinite loop: ``` void *ptr = &&J1; ``` J1: printf("hi "); ``` goto *ptr; ``` This feature can be used to implement a [jump table](/wiki/Jump_table "Jump table"). Functions --------- ### Syntax A C function definition consists of a [return type](/wiki/Return_type "Return type") ({{code\|void}} if no value is returned), a unique name, a list of parameters in parentheses, and various statements: \<return\-type\> functionName( \<parameter\-list\> ) { ``` <statements> return <expression of type return-type>; ``` } A function with non\-{{code\|void}} return type should include at least one {{code\|return}} statement. The parameters are given by the {{code\|}}, a comma\-separated list of parameter declarations, each item in the list being a data type followed by an identifier: {{code\| , , ...}}. The return type cannot be an array type or function type. int f()\[3]; // Error: function returning an array int (\*g())\[3]; // OK: function returning a pointer to an array. void h()(); // Error: function returning a function void (\*k())(); // OK: function returning a function pointer If there are no parameters, the {{code\|}} may be left empty or optionally be specified with the single word {{code\|void}}. It is possible to define a function as taking a variable number of parameters by providing the {{code\|...}} keyword as the last parameter instead of a data type ad variable identifier. A commonly used function that does this is the standard library function {{code\|printf}}, which has the declaration: int printf (const char\*, ...); Manipulation of these parameters can be done by using the routines in the standard library header [{{code\|}}](/wiki/Stdarg.h "Stdarg.h"). #### Function Pointers A pointer to a function can be declared as follows: \<return\-type\> (\*\<function\-name\>)(\<parameter\-list\>); The following program shows use of a [function pointer](/wiki/Function_pointer "Function pointer") for selecting between addition and subtraction: \#include \<stdio.h\> int (\*operation)(int x, int y); int add(int x, int y) { ``` return x + y; ``` } int subtract(int x, int y) { ``` return x - y; ``` } int main(int argc, char\* args\[]) { ``` int foo = 1, bar = 1; ``` ``` operation = add; printf("%d + %d = %d\n", foo, bar, operation(foo, bar)); operation = subtract; printf("%d - %d = %d\n", foo, bar, operation(foo, bar)); return 0; ``` } ### Global structure After preprocessing, at the highest level a [C](/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29 "C (programming language)") [program](/wiki/Computer_program "Computer program") consists of a sequence of declarations at file scope. These may be partitioned into several separate source files, which may be compiled separately; the resulting object modules are then [linked](/wiki/Linker_%28computing%29 "Linker (computing)") along with implementation\-provided run\-time support modules to produce an executable image. The declarations introduce [functions](/wiki/Function_%28programming%29 "Function (programming)"), [variables](/wiki/Variable_%28programming%29 "Variable (programming)") and [types](/wiki/Data_type "Data type"). C functions are akin to the subroutines of [Fortran](/wiki/Fortran "Fortran") or the procedures of [Pascal](/wiki/Pascal_%28programming_language%29 "Pascal (programming language)"). A definition *is a special type of declaration. A variable definition sets aside storage and possibly initializes it, a function definition provides its body.* An implementation of C providing all of the standard library functions is called a hosted implementation*. Programs written for hosted implementations are required to define a special function called [{{code\|main}}](/wiki/Entry_point "Entry point"), which is the first function called when a program begins executing.* Hosted implementations start program execution by invoking the {{code\|main}} function, which must be defined following one of these prototypes (using different parameter names or spelling the types differently is allowed): int main() {...} int main(void) {...} int main(int argc, char \*argv\[]) {...} int main(int argc, char \*\*argv) {...} // char \*argv\[] and char \*\*argv have the same type as function parameters The first two definitions are equivalent (and both are compatible with C\+\+). It is probably up to individual preference which one is used (the current C standard contains two examples of {{code\|main()}} and two of {{code\|main(void)}}, but the draft C\+\+ standard uses {{code\|main()}}). The return value of {{code\|main}} (which should be {{code\|int}}) serves as termination status *returned to the host environment.* The C standard defines return values {{code\|0}} and {{code\|EXIT\_SUCCESS}} as indicating success and {{code\|EXIT\_FAILURE}} as indicating failure. ({{code\|EXIT\_SUCCESS}} and {{code\|EXIT\_FAILURE}} are defined in [{{code\|}}](/wiki/Stdlib.h "Stdlib.h")). Other return values have implementation\-defined meanings; for example, under [Linux](/wiki/Linux "Linux") a program killed by a [signal](/wiki/Signal_%28computing%29 "Signal (computing)") yields a return code of the numerical value of the signal plus 128\. A minimal correct C program consists of an empty {{code\|main}} routine, taking no arguments and doing nothing: int main(void){} Because no `return` statement is present, `main` returns 0 on exit. (This is a special\-case feature introduced in [C99](/wiki/C99 "C99") that applies only to `main`.) The {{code\|main}} function will usually call other functions to help it perform its job. Some implementations are not hosted, usually because they are not intended to be used with an [operating system](/wiki/Operating_system "Operating system"). Such implementations are called free\-standing *in the C standard. A free\-standing implementation is free to specify how it handles program startup; in particular it need not require a program to define a {{code\|main}} function.* Functions may be written by the programmer or provided by existing libraries. Interfaces for the latter are usually declared by including header files—with the {{code\|\#include}} [preprocessing directive](/wiki/Preprocessing_directive "Preprocessing directive")—and the library objects are linked into the final executable image. Certain library functions, such as [{{code\|printf}}](/wiki/Printf "Printf"), are defined by the C standard; these are referred to as the [standard library](/wiki/ISO_C_standard_library "ISO C standard library") functions. A function may return a value to caller (usually another C function, or the hosting environment for the function {{code\|main}}). The {{code\|printf}} function mentioned above returns how many characters were printed, but this value is often ignored. ### Argument passing In C, arguments are passed to functions [by value](/wiki/Pass_by_value "Pass by value") while other languages may pass variables [by reference](/wiki/Pass_by_reference "Pass by reference"). This means that the receiving function gets copies of the values and has no direct way of altering the original variables. For a function to alter a variable passed from another function, the caller must pass its address *(a* pointer *to it), which can then be dereferenced in the receiving function. See [Pointers](/wiki/C_syntax%23Pointers "C syntax#Pointers") for more information.* void incInt(int \*y) { ``` (*y)++; // Increase the value of 'x', in 'main' below, by one ``` } int main(void) { ``` int x = 0; incInt(&x); // pass a reference to the var 'x' return 0; ``` } The function [scanf](/wiki/Scanf "Scanf") works the same way: int x; scanf("%d", \&x); In order to pass an editable pointer to a function (such as for the purpose of returning an allocated array to the calling code) you have to pass a pointer to that *pointer: its address.* \#include \<stdio.h\> \#include \<stdlib.h\> void allocate\_array(int \*\* const a\_p, const int A) { /\* ``` allocate array of A ints assigning to *a_p alters the 'a' in main() ``` \*/ ``` *a_p = malloc(sizeof(int) * A); ``` } int main(void) { ``` int * a; /* create a pointer to one or more ints, this will be the array */ ``` ``` /* pass the address of 'a' */ allocate_array(&a, 42); ``` /\* 'a' is now an array of length 42 and can be manipulated and freed here \*/ ``` free(a); return 0; ``` } The parameter {{code\|int \*\*a\_p}} is a pointer to a pointer to an {{code\|int}}, which is the address of the pointer {{code\|p}} defined in the main *function in this case.* #### Array parameters Function parameters of array type may at first glance appear to be an exception to C's pass\-by\-value rule. The following program will print 2, not 1: \#include \<stdio.h\> void setArray(int array\[], int index, int value) { ``` array[index] = value; ``` } int main(void) { ``` int a[1] = {1}; setArray(a, 0, 2); printf ("a[0]=%d\n", a[0]); return 0; ``` } However, there is a different reason for this behavior. In fact, a function parameter declared with an array type is treated like one declared to be a pointer. That is, the preceding declaration of {{code\|setArray}} is equivalent to the following: void setArray(int \*array, int index, int value) At the same time, C rules for the use of arrays in expressions cause the value of {{code\|a}} in the call to {{code\|setArray}} to be converted to a pointer to the first element of array {{code\|a}}. Thus, in fact this is still an example of pass\-by\-value, with the caveat that it is the address of the first element of the array being passed by value, not the contents of the array. Since C99, the programmer can specify that a function takes an array of a certain size by using the keyword {{code\|static}}. In `void setArray(int array[static 4], int index, int value)` the first parameter must be a pointer to the first element of an array of length at least 4\. It is also possible to add qualifiers (`const`, `volatile` and `restrict`) to the pointer type that the array is converted to by putting them between the brackets. ### Anonymous functions {{Excerpt\|Anonymous function\|C (non\-standard extension)}} Miscellaneous ------------- ### Reserved keywords The following words are [reserved](/wiki/Reserved_word "Reserved word"), and may not be used as identifiers: {{col\-begin}} {{col\-break\|width\=20%}} {{mono\|\_Alignas}} {{mono\|\_Alignof}} {{mono\|\_Atomic}} {{mono\|auto}} {{mono\|\_Bool}} {{mono\|break}} {{mono\|case}} {{mono\|char}} {{mono\|\_Complex}} {{mono\|const}} {{mono\|continue}} {{mono\|default}} {{mono\|do}} {{col\-break\|width\=20%}} {{mono\|double}} {{mono\|else}} {{mono\|enum}} {{mono\|extern}} {{mono\|float}} {{mono\|for}} {{mono\|\_Generic}} {{mono\|goto}} {{mono\|if}} {{mono\|\_Imaginary}} {{mono\|inline}} {{col\-break\|width\=20%}} {{mono\|int}} {{mono\|long}} {{mono\|\_Noreturn}} {{mono\|register}} {{mono\|restrict}} {{mono\|return}} {{mono\|short}} {{mono\|signed}} {{mono\|sizeof}} {{mono\|static}} {{mono\|struct}} {{col\-break}} {{mono\|switch}} {{mono\|\_Thread\_local}} {{mono\|typedef}} {{mono\|union}} {{mono\|unsigned}} {{mono\|void}} {{mono\|volatile}} {{mono\|while}} {{col\-end}} Implementations may reserve other keywords, such as {{code\|asm}}, although implementations typically provide non\-standard keywords that begin with one or two underscores. ### Case sensitivity C identifiers are case sensitive (e.g., {{code\|foo}}, {{code\|FOO}}, and {{code\|Foo}} are the names of different objects). Some linkers may map external identifiers to a single case, although this is uncommon in most modern linkers. ### Comments Text starting with the [token](/wiki/Lexical_analysis%23Token "Lexical analysis#Token") {{code\|/\*}} is treated as a [comment](/wiki/Comment_%28computer_programming%29 "Comment (computer programming)") and ignored. The comment ends at the next {{code\|\*/}}; it can occur within expressions, and can span multiple lines. Accidental omission of the comment terminator is problematic in that the next comment's properly constructed comment terminator will be used to terminate the initial comment, and all code in between the comments will be considered as a comment. C\-style comments do not nest; that is, accidentally placing a comment within a comment has unintended results: /\* This line will be ignored. /\* A compiler warning may be produced here. These lines will also be ignored. The comment opening token above did not start a new comment, and the comment closing token below will close the comment begun on line 1\. \*/ This line and the line below it will not be ignored. Both will likely produce compile errors. \*/ [C\+\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B "C++") style line comments start with {{code\|//}} and extend to the end of the line. This style of comment originated in [BCPL](/wiki/BCPL "BCPL") and became valid C syntax in [C99](/wiki/C99 "C99"); it is not available in the original K\&R C nor in [ANSI C](/wiki/ANSI_C "ANSI C"): // this line will be ignored by the compiler /\* these lines ``` will be ignored by the compiler */ ``` x \= \*p/\*q; /\* this comment starts after the 'p' \*/ ### Command\-line arguments The [parameters](/wiki/Parameter "Parameter") given on a [command line](/wiki/Command_line "Command line") are passed to a C program with two predefined variables \- the count of the command\-line arguments in {{code\|argc}} and the individual [arguments](/wiki/Parameter "Parameter") as [character strings](/wiki/Character_string "Character string") in the pointer array {{code\|argv}}. So the command: ``` myFilt p1 p2 p3 ``` results in something like: | m | y | F | i | l | t |\\0 p | 1 |\\0 p | 2 |\\0 p | 3 |\\0 |argv\[0]argv\[1]argv\[2]argv\[3] While individual strings are arrays of contiguous characters, there is no guarantee that the strings are stored as a contiguous group. The name of the program, {{code\|argv\[0]}}, may be useful when printing diagnostic messages or for making one binary serve multiple purposes. The individual values of the parameters may be accessed with {{code\|argv\[1]}}, {{code\|argv\[2]}}, and {{code\|argv\[3]}}, as shown in the following program: \#include \<stdio.h\> int main(int argc, char \*argv\[]) { ``` printf("argc\t= %d\n", argc); for (int i = 0; i < argc; i++) printf("argv[%i]\t= %s\n", i, argv[i]); ``` } ### Evaluation order In any reasonably complex expression, there arises a choice as to the order in which to evaluate the parts of the expression: {{C\-lang\|(1\+1\)\+(3\+3\)}} may be evaluated in the order {{C\-lang\|(1\+1\)\+(3\+3\)}}, {{C\-lang\|(2\)\+(3\+3\)}}, {{C\-lang\|(2\)\+(6\)}}, {{C\-lang\|(8\)}}, or in the order {{C\-lang\|(1\+1\)\+(3\+3\)}}, {{C\-lang\|(1\+1\)\+(6\)}}, {{C\-lang\|(2\)\+(6\)}}, {{C\-lang\|(8\)}}. Formally, a conforming C compiler may evaluate expressions in any *order between* [sequence points](/wiki/Sequence_point "Sequence point") *(this allows the compiler to do some optimization). Sequence points are defined by:* * Statement ends *at semicolons. The* * sequencing operator*: a comma. However, commas that delimit function arguments are not sequence points. The* * short\-circuit operators*: logical* and *({{code\|\&\&}}, which can be read* and then*) and logical* or *(`||`, which can be read* or else*). The* * [ternary operator](/wiki/%3F:) *({{code\|?:}}): This operator evaluates its first sub\-expression first, and then its second or third (never both of them) based on the value of the first. Entry to and exit from a* * function call *(but not between evaluations of the arguments).* Expressions before a sequence point are always evaluated before those after a sequence point. In the case of short\-circuit evaluation, the second expression may not be evaluated depending on the result of the first expression. For example, in the expression {{C\-lang\|(a() {{!}}{{!}} b())}}, if the first argument evaluates to nonzero (true), the result of the entire expression cannot be anything else than true, so {{code\|b()}} is not evaluated. Similarly, in the expression {{C\-lang\|(a() \&\& b())}}, if the first argument evaluates to zero (false), the result of the entire expression cannot be anything else than false, so {{code\|b()}} is not evaluated. The arguments to a function call may be evaluated in any order, as long as they are all evaluated by the time the function is entered. The following expression, for example, has undefined behavior: ``` printf("%s %s\n", argv[i = 0], argv[++i]); ``` ### Undefined behavior {{main\|Undefined behavior}} {{unreferenced section\|date\=November 2011}} An aspect of the C standard (not unique to C) is that the behavior of certain code is said to be "undefined". In practice, this means that the program produced from this code can do anything, from working as the programmer intended, to crashing every time it is run. For example, the following code produces undefined behavior, because the variable b *is modified more than once with no intervening sequence point:* \#include \<stdio.h\> int main(void) { ``` int b = 1; int a = b++ + b++; printf("%d\n", a); ``` } Because there is no sequence point between the modifications of b *in "*b*\+\+ \+* b''\+\+", it is possible to perform the evaluation steps in more than one order, resulting in an ambiguous statement. This can be fixed by rewriting the code to insert a sequence point in order to enforce an unambiguous behavior, for example: a \= b\+\+; a \+\= b\+\+;
[ "Data structures\n---------------", "{{main\\|C data types}}", "### Primitive data types", "The C programming language represents numbers in three forms: *[integral](/wiki/Integer_%28computer_science%29 \"Integer (computer science)\")*, *[real](/wiki/Real_data_type \"Real data type\")* and *[complex](/wiki/Complex_data_type \"Complex data type\")*. This distinction reflects similar distinctions in the [instruction set](/wiki/Instruction_set \"Instruction set\") architecture of most [central processing units](/wiki/Central_processing_unit \"Central processing unit\"). *Integral* data types store numbers in the set of [integers](/wiki/Integer \"Integer\"), while *real* and *complex* numbers represent numbers (or pair of numbers) in the set of [real numbers](/wiki/Real_number \"Real number\") in [floating\\-point](/wiki/Floating-point_arithmetic \"Floating-point arithmetic\") form.", "All C integer types have {{code\\|signed}} and {{code\\|unsigned}} variants. If {{code\\|signed}} or {{code\\|unsigned}} is not specified explicitly, in most circumstances, {{code\\|signed}} is assumed. However, for historic reasons, plain {{code\\|char}} is a type distinct from both {{code\\|signed char}} and {{code\\|unsigned char}}. It may be a signed type or an unsigned type, depending on the compiler and the character set (C guarantees that members of the C basic character set have positive values). Also, [bit field](/wiki/Bit_field \"Bit field\") types specified as plain {{code\\|int}} may be signed or unsigned, depending on the compiler.", "#### Integer types", "C's integer types come in different fixed sizes, capable of representing various ranges of numbers. The type {{code\\|char}} occupies exactly one [byte](/wiki/Byte \"Byte\") (the smallest addressable storage unit), which is typically 8 bits wide. (Although {{code\\|char}} can represent any of C's \"basic\" characters, a wider type may be required for international character sets.) Most integer types have both [signed and unsigned](/wiki/Signedness \"Signedness\") varieties, designated by the {{code\\|signed}} and {{code\\|unsigned}} keywords. Signed integer types always use the [two's complement](/wiki/Two%27s_complement \"Two's complement\") [representation](/wiki/Signed_number_representations \"Signed number representations\"), since [C23](/wiki/C23_%28C_standard_revision%29 \"C23 (C standard revision)\"){{cite web \\|title\\=WG14\\-N2412: Two's complement sign representation \\|url\\=https://www.open\\-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n2412\\.pdf \\|website\\=open\\-std.org \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227174224/https://www.open\\-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n2412\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=December 27, 2022 \\|date\\=August 11, 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} (and in practive before; in older C versions before C23 the representation might alternatively have been [ones' complement](/wiki/Ones%27_complement \"Ones' complement\"), or [sign\\-and\\-magnitude](/wiki/Sign-and-magnitude \"Sign-and-magnitude\"), but in practice that has not been the case for decades on modern nardware). In many cases, there are multiple equivalent ways to designate the type; for example, {{code\\|signed short int}} and {{code\\|short}} are synonymous.", "The representation of some types may include unused \"padding\" bits, which occupy storage but are not included in the width. The following table provides a complete list of the standard integer types and their *minimum* allowed widths (including any sign bit).", "", "| \\+ Specifications for standard integer types |\n| --- |\n| Shortest form of specifier | Minimum width (bits) |\n| {{code\\|\\_Bool}} | 1 |\n| {{code\\|char}} | 8 |\n| {{code\\|signed char}} | 8 |\n| {{code\\|unsigned char}} | 8 |\n| {{code\\|short}} | 16 |\n| {{code\\|unsigned short}} | 16 |\n| {{code\\|int}} | 16 |\n| {{code\\|unsigned int}} | 16 |\n| {{code\\|long}} | 32 |\n| {{code\\|unsigned long}} | 32 |\n| {{code\\|long long}}The {{code\\|long long}} modifier was introduced in the [C99](/wiki/C99 \"C99\") standard. | 64 |\n| {{code\\|unsigned long long}} | 64 |", "The {{code\\|char}} type is distinct from both {{code\\|signed char}} and {{code\\|unsigned char}}, but is guaranteed to have the same representation as one of them. The {{code\\|\\_Bool}} and {{code\\|long long}} types are standardized since 1999, and may not be supported by older C compilers. Type {{code\\|\\_Bool}} is usually accessed via the `[typedef](/wiki/Typedef \"Typedef\")` name {{code\\|bool}} defined by the standard header `[stdbool.h](/wiki/Stdbool.h \"Stdbool.h\")`.", "In general, the widths and representation scheme implemented for any given platform are chosen based on the machine architecture, with some consideration given to the ease of importing source code developed for other platforms. The width of the {{code\\|int}} type varies especially widely among C implementations; it often corresponds to the most \"natural\" word size for the specific platform. The standard header [limits.h](/wiki/Limits.h \"Limits.h\") defines macros for the minimum and maximum representable values of the standard integer types as implemented on any specific platform.", "In addition to the standard integer types, there may be other \"extended\" integer types, which can be used for {{code\\|typedef}}s in standard headers. For more precise specification of width, programmers can and should use {{code\\|typedef}}s from the standard header [stdint.h](/wiki/Stdint.h \"Stdint.h\").", "Integer constants may be specified in source code in several ways. Numeric values can be specified as [decimal](/wiki/Decimal \"Decimal\") (example: {{code\\|1022}}), [octal](/wiki/Octal \"Octal\") with zero ({{code\\|0}}) as a prefix ({{code\\|01776}}), or [hexadecimal](/wiki/Hexadecimal \"Hexadecimal\") with {{code\\|0x}} (zero x) as a prefix ({{code\\|0x3FE}}). A character in single quotes (example: {{code\\|'R'}}), called a \"character constant,\" represents the value of that character in the execution character set, with type {{code\\|int}}. Except for character constants, the type of an integer constant is determined by the width required to represent the specified value, but is always at least as wide as {{code\\|int}}. This can be overridden by appending an explicit length and/or signedness modifier; for example, {{code\\|12lu}} has type {{code\\|unsigned long}}. There are no negative integer constants, but the same effect can often be obtained by using a unary negation operator \"{{code\\|\\-}}\".", "#### Enumerated type", "The [enumerated type](/wiki/Enumerated_type \"Enumerated type\") in C, specified with the {{code\\|enum}} keyword, and often just called an \"enum\" (usually pronounced {{IPAc\\-en\\|'\\|i:\\|n\\|V\\|m}} {{respell\\|EE\\|num}} or {{IPAc\\-en\\|'\\|i:\\|n\\|u:\\|m}} {{respell\\|EE\\|noom}}), is a type designed to represent values across a series of named constants. Each of the enumerated constants has type {{code\\|int}}. Each {{code\\|enum}} type itself is compatible with {{code\\|char}} or a signed or unsigned integer type, but each implementation defines its own rules for choosing a type.", "Some compilers warn if an object with enumerated type is assigned a value that is not one of its constants. However, such an object can be assigned any values in the range of their compatible type, and {{code\\|enum}} constants can be used anywhere an integer is expected. For this reason, {{code\\|enum}} values are often used in place of preprocessor {{code\\|\\#define}} directives to create named constants. Such constants are generally safer to use than macros, since they reside within a specific identifier namespace.", "An enumerated type is declared with the {{code\\|enum}} specifier and an optional name (or *tag*) for the enum, followed by a list of one or more constants contained within curly braces and separated by commas, and an optional list of variable names. Subsequent references to a specific enumerated type use the {{code\\|enum}} keyword and the name of the enum. By default, the first constant in an enumeration is assigned the value zero, and each subsequent value is incremented by one over the previous constant. Specific values may also be assigned to constants in the declaration, and any subsequent constants without specific values will be given incremented values from that point onward.\nFor example, consider the following declaration:", "enum colors { RED, GREEN, BLUE \\= 5, YELLOW } paint\\_color;", "This declares the {{code\\|enum colors}} type; the {{code\\|int}} constants {{code\\|RED}} (whose value is 0\\), {{code\\|GREEN}} (whose value is one greater than {{code\\|RED}}, 1\\), {{code\\|BLUE}} (whose value is the given value, 5\\), and {{code\\|YELLOW}} (whose value is one greater than {{code\\|BLUE}}, 6\\); and the {{code\\|enum colors}} variable {{code\\|paint\\_color}}. The constants may be used outside of the context of the {{code\\|enum}} (where any integer value is allowed), and values other than the constants may be assigned to {{code\\|paint\\_color}}, or any other variable of type {{code\\|enum colors}}.", "#### Floating\\-point types", "A floating\\-point form is used to represent numbers with a fractional component. They do not, however, represent most rational numbers exactly; they are instead a close approximation. There are three standard types of real values, denoted by their specifiers (and since [C23](/wiki/C23_%28C_standard_revision%29 \"C23 (C standard revision)\") three more decimal types): single precision ({{code\\|float}}), double precision ({{code\\|double}}), and double extended precision ({{code\\|long double}}). Each of these may represent values in a different form, often one of the [IEEE floating\\-point](/wiki/IEEE_floating-point \"IEEE floating-point\") formats.", "", "| \\+ Floating\\-point types |\n| --- |\n| Type specifiers | Precision (decimal digits) | | Exponent range | |\n| Minimum | IEEE 754 | Minimum | IEEE 754 |\n| {{code\\|float}} | 6 | 7\\.2 (24 bits) | ±37 | ±38 (8 bits) |\n| {{code\\|double}} | 10 | 15\\.9 (53 bits) | ±37 | ±307 (11 bits) |\n| {{code\\|long double}} | 10 | 34\\.0 (113 bits) | ±37 | ±4931 (15 bits) |", "Floating\\-point constants may be written in [decimal notation](/wiki/Decimal_notation \"Decimal notation\"), e.g. {{code\\|1\\.23}}. [Decimal scientific notation](/wiki/Decimal_scientific_notation \"Decimal scientific notation\") may be used by adding {{code\\|e}} or {{code\\|E}} followed by a decimal exponent, also known as [E notation](/wiki/E_notation \"E notation\"), e.g. {{code\\|1\\.23e2}} (which has the value 1\\.23 × 102 \\= 123\\.0\\). Either a decimal point or an exponent is required (otherwise, the number is parsed as an integer constant). [Hexadecimal floating\\-point constants](/wiki/Hexadecimal_floating-point_constant \"Hexadecimal floating-point constant\") follow similar rules, except that they must be prefixed by {{code\\|0x}} and use {{code\\|p}} or {{code\\|P}} to specify a binary exponent, e.g. {{code\\|0xAp\\-2}} (which has the value 2\\.5, since Ah × 2−2 \\= 10 × 2−2 \\= 10 ÷ 4\\). Both decimal and hexadecimal floating\\-point constants may be suffixed by {{code\\|f}} or {{code\\|F}} to indicate a constant of type {{code\\|float}}, by {{code\\|l}} (letter {{code\\|l}}) or {{code\\|L}} to indicate type {{code\\|long double}}, or left unsuffixed for a {{code\\|double}} constant.", "The standard header file [{{code\\|float.h}}](/wiki/Float.h \"Float.h\") defines the minimum and maximum values of the implementation's floating\\-point types {{code\\|float}}, {{code\\|double}}, and {{code\\|long double}}. It also defines other limits that are relevant to the processing of floating\\-point numbers.", "[C23](/wiki/C23_%28C_standard_revision%29 \"C23 (C standard revision)\") introduces three additional *decimal* (as opposed to binary) real floating\\-point types: \\_Decimal32, \\_Decimal64, and \\_Decimal128\\.", "NOTE C does not specify a radix for **float**, **double**, and **long double**. An implementation can choose the representation of **float**, **double**, and **long double** to be the same as the decimal floating types.{{cite web \\|title\\=WG14\\-N2341: ISO/IEC TS 18661\\-2 \\- Floating\\-point extensions for C \\- Part 2: Decimal floating\\-point arithmetic \\|url\\=https://www.open\\-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n2341\\.pdf \\|website\\=open\\-std.org \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221121122559/https://open\\-std.org/JTC1/SC22/WG14/www/docs/n2341\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=November 21, 2022 \\|date\\=February 26, 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}\nDespite that, the radix has historically been binary (base 2\\), meaning numbers like 1/2 or 1/4 are exact, but not 1/10, 1/100 or 1/3\\. With decimal floating point all the same numbers are exact plus numbers like 1/10 and 1/100, but still not e.g. 1/3\\. No known implementation does opt into the decimal radix for the previously known to be binary types. Since most computers do not even have the hardware for the decimal types, and those few that do (e.g. IBM mainframes since [IBM System z10](/wiki/IBM_System_z10 \"IBM System z10\")), can use the explicitly decimal types.", "", "#### Storage class specifiers", "Every object has a storage class. This specifies most basically the storage *duration,* which may be static (default for global), automatic (default for local), or dynamic (allocated), together with other features (linkage and register hint).", "", "| \\+ Storage classes |\n| --- |\n| Specifiers | Lifetime | Scope | Default initializer |\n| {{code\\|auto}} | Block (stack) | Block | Uninitialized |\n| {{code\\|register}} | Block (stack or CPU register) | Block | Uninitialized |\n| {{code\\|static}} | Program | Block or compilation unit | Zero |\n| {{code\\|extern}} | Program | Global (entire program) | Zero |\n| {{code\\|\\_Thread\\_local}} | Thread | | |\n| *(none)*1 | Dynamic (heap) | | Uninitialized (initialized to {{code\\|0}} if using {{code\\|calloc()}}) |", "1 Allocated and deallocated using the {{code\\|malloc()}} and {{code\\|free()}} library functions.\nVariables declared within a [block](/wiki/Block_%28programming%29 \"Block (programming)\") by default have automatic storage, as do those explicitly declared with the [{{code\\|auto}}](/wiki/Automatic_variable \"Automatic variable\")The meaning of auto is a type specifier rather than a storage class specifier in C\\+\\+0x or [{{code\\|register}}](/wiki/Register_%28keyword%29 \"Register (keyword)\") storage class specifiers. The {{code\\|auto}} and {{code\\|register}} specifiers may only be used within functions and function argument declarations; as such, the {{code\\|auto}} specifier is always redundant. Objects declared outside of all blocks and those explicitly declared with the [{{code\\|static}}](/wiki/Static_variable \"Static variable\") storage class specifier have static storage duration. Static variables are initialized to zero by default by the [compiler](/wiki/Compiler \"Compiler\").", "Objects with automatic storage are local to the block in which they were declared and are discarded when the block is exited. Additionally, objects declared with the {{code\\|register}} storage class may be given higher priority by the compiler for access to [registers](/wiki/Register_%28computing%29 \"Register (computing)\"); although the compiler may choose not to actually store any of them in a register. Objects with this storage class may not be used with the address\\-of ({{code\\|\\&}}) unary operator. Objects with static storage persist for the program's entire duration. In this way, the same object can be accessed by a function across multiple calls. Objects with allocated storage duration are created and destroyed explicitly with [{{code\\|malloc}}](/wiki/Malloc \"Malloc\"), {{code\\|free}}, and related functions.", "The [{{code\\|extern}}](/wiki/External_variable \"External variable\") storage class specifier indicates that the storage for an object has been defined elsewhere. When used inside a block, it indicates that the storage has been defined by a declaration outside of that block. When used outside of all blocks, it indicates that the storage has been defined outside of the compilation unit. The {{code\\|extern}} storage class specifier is redundant when used on a function declaration. It indicates that the declared function has been defined outside of the compilation unit.", "The [{{code\\|\\_Thread\\_local}}](/wiki/Thread-local_storage \"Thread-local storage\") (`thread_local` in [C\\+\\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B \"C++\"), and in C since [C23](/wiki/C23_%28C_standard_revision%29 \"C23 (C standard revision)\"), and in earlier versions of C if the header `<threads.h>` is included) storage class specifier, introduced in [C11](/wiki/C11_%28C_standard_revision%29 \"C11 (C standard revision)\"), is used to declare a thread\\-local variable. It can be combined with {{code\\|static}} or {{code\\|extern}} to determine linkage.", "Note that storage specifiers apply only to functions and objects; other things such as type and enum declarations are private to the compilation unit in which they appear. Types, on the other hand, have qualifiers (see below).", "#### Type qualifiers", "{{main\\|Type qualifier}}\nTypes can be qualified to indicate special properties of their data. The type qualifier `[const](/wiki/Const_%28computer_programming%29 \"Const (computer programming)\")` indicates that a value does not change once it has been initialized. Attempting to modify a `const` qualified value yields undefined behavior, so some C compilers store them in [rodata](/wiki/Rodata \"Rodata\") or (for embedded systems) in [read\\-only memory](/wiki/Read-only_memory \"Read-only memory\") (ROM). The type qualifier `[volatile](/wiki/Volatile_%28computer_programming%29 \"Volatile (computer programming)\")` indicates to an [optimizing compiler](/wiki/Optimizing_compiler \"Optimizing compiler\") that it may not remove apparently redundant reads or writes, as the value may change even if it was not modified by any expression or statement, or multiple writes may be necessary, such as for [memory\\-mapped I/O](/wiki/Memory-mapped_I/O \"Memory-mapped I/O\").", "### Incomplete types", "An incomplete type is a [structure or union](/wiki/%23Structures_and_unions \"#Structures and unions\") type whose members have not yet been specified, an [array type](/wiki/%23Arrays \"#Arrays\") whose dimension has not yet been specified, or the {{code\\|void}} type (the {{code\\|void}} type cannot be completed). Such a type may not be instantiated (its size is not known), nor may its members be accessed (they, too, are unknown); however, the derived pointer type may be used (but not dereferenced).", "They are often used with pointers, either as forward or external declarations. For instance, code could declare an incomplete type like this:", "", "struct thing \\*pt;", "", "This declares {{code\\|pt}} as a pointer to {{code\\|struct thing}} *and* the incomplete type {{code\\|struct thing}}. Pointers to data always have the same byte\\-width regardless of what they point to, so this statement is valid by itself (as long as {{code\\|pt}} is not dereferenced). The incomplete type can be completed later in the same scope by redeclaring it:", "", "struct thing {", "```\n int num;", "```\n}; /\\* thing struct type is now completed \\*/", "", "Incomplete types are used to implement [recursive](/wiki/Recursion_%28computer_science%29 \"Recursion (computer science)\") structures; the body of the type declaration may be deferred to later in the translation unit:", "", "typedef struct Bert Bert;\ntypedef struct Wilma Wilma;", "struct Bert {", "```\n Wilma *wilma;", "```\n};\nstruct Wilma {", "```\n Bert *bert;", "```\n};", "Incomplete types are also used for [data hiding](/wiki/Data_hiding \"Data hiding\"); the incomplete type is defined in a [header file](/wiki/Header_file \"Header file\"), and the body only within the relevant source file.", "### Pointers", "In declarations the asterisk modifier ({{code\\|\\*}}) specifies a pointer type. For example, where the specifier {{code\\|int}} would refer to the integer type, the specifier {{code\\|int\\*}} refers to the type \"pointer to integer\". Pointer values associate two pieces of information: a memory address and a data type. The following line of code declares a pointer\\-to\\-integer variable called *ptr*:", "int \\*ptr;", "#### Referencing", "When a non\\-static pointer is declared, it has an unspecified value associated with it. The address associated with such a pointer must be changed by assignment prior to using it. In the following example, *ptr* is set so that it points to the data associated with the variable *a*:", "", "int a \\= 0;\nint \\*ptr \\= \\&a;", "", "In order to accomplish this, the \"address\\-of\" operator (unary {{code\\|\\&}}) is used. It produces the memory location of the data object that follows.", "#### Dereferencing", "The pointed\\-to data can be accessed through a pointer value. In the following example, the integer variable *b* is set to the value of integer variable *a*, which is 10:", "", "int a\\=10;\nint \\*p;\np \\= \\&a;\nint b \\= \\*p;", "", "In order to accomplish that task, the unary [dereference operator](/wiki/Dereference_operator \"Dereference operator\"), denoted by an asterisk (\\*), is used. It returns the data to which its operand—which must be of pointer type—points. Thus, the expression \\**p* denotes the same value as *a*. Dereferencing a [null pointer](/wiki/Null_pointer \"Null pointer\") is illegal.", "### Arrays", "#### Array definition", "Arrays are used in C to represent structures of consecutive elements of the same type. The definition of a (fixed\\-size) array has the following syntax:", "int array\\[100];", "which defines an array named *array* to hold 100 values of the primitive type {{code\\|int}}. If declared within a function, the array dimension may also be a non\\-constant expression, in which case memory for the specified number of elements will be allocated. In most contexts in later use, a mention of the variable *array* is converted to a pointer to the first item in the array. The [{{code\\|sizeof}}](/wiki/Sizeof \"Sizeof\") operator is an exception: {{code\\|sizeof array}} yields the size of the entire array (that is, 100 times the size of an {{code\\|int}}, and {{code\\|sizeof(array) / sizeof(int)}} will return 100\\). Another exception is the \\& (address\\-of) operator, which yields a pointer to the entire array, for example", "int (\\*ptr\\_to\\_array)\\[100] \\= \\&array;", "#### Accessing elements", "The primary facility for accessing the values of the elements of an array is the array subscript operator. To access the *i*\\-indexed element of *array*, the syntax would be {{code\\|array\\[i]}}, which refers to the value stored in that array element.", "Array subscript numbering begins at 0 (see [Zero\\-based indexing](/wiki/Zero-based_indexing \"Zero-based indexing\")). The largest allowed array subscript is therefore equal to the number of elements in the array minus 1\\. To illustrate this, consider an array *a* declared as having 10 elements; the first element would be {{code\\|a\\[0]}} and the last element would be {{code\\|a\\[9]}}.", "C provides no facility for automatic [bounds checking](/wiki/Bounds_checking \"Bounds checking\") for array usage. Though logically the last subscript in an array of 10 elements would be 9, subscripts 10, 11, and so forth could accidentally be specified, with undefined results.", "Due to arrays and pointers being interchangeable, the addresses of each of the array elements can be expressed in equivalent [pointer arithmetic](/wiki/Pointer_arithmetic \"Pointer arithmetic\"). The following table illustrates both methods for the existing array:", "", "| \\+ Array subscripts vs. pointer arithmetic | Element | First | Second | Third | *n*th |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Array subscript | {{C\\-lang\\|array\\[0]}} | {{C\\-lang\\|array\\[1]}} | {{C\\-lang\\|array\\[2]}} | {{C\\-lang\\|array\\[n \\- 1]}} |\n| Dereferenced pointer | {{C\\-lang\\|\\*array}} | {{C\\-lang\\|\\*(array \\+ 1\\)}} | {{C\\-lang\\|\\*(array \\+ 2\\)}} | {{C\\-lang\\|\\*(array \\+ n \\- 1\\)}} |", "Since the expression {{code\\|a\\[i]}} is semantically equivalent to {{code\\|\\*(a\\+i)}}, which in turn is equivalent to {{code\\|\\*(i\\+a)}}, the expression can also be written as {{code\\|i\\[a]}}, although this form is rarely used.", "#### Variable\\-length arrays", "[C99](/wiki/C99 \"C99\") standardised [variable\\-length arrays](/wiki/Variable-length_array \"Variable-length array\") (VLAs) within block scope. Such array variables are allocated based on the value of an integer value at runtime upon entry to a block, and are deallocated at the end of the block. As of [C11](/wiki/C11_%28C_standard_revision%29 \"C11 (C standard revision)\") this feature is no longer required to be implemented by the compiler.", "", "int n \\= ...;\nint a\\[n];\na\\[3] \\= 10;", "", "This syntax produces an array whose size is fixed until the end of the block.", "#### Dynamic arrays", "{{main\\|C dynamic memory allocation}}\nArrays that can be resized dynamically can be produced with the help of the [C standard library](/wiki/C_standard_library \"C standard library\"). The `[malloc](/wiki/Malloc \"Malloc\")` function provides a simple method for allocating memory. It takes one parameter: the amount of memory to allocate in bytes. Upon successful allocation, {{code\\|malloc}} returns a generic ({{code\\|void}}) pointer value, pointing to the beginning of the allocated space. The pointer value returned is converted to an appropriate type implicitly by assignment. If the allocation could not be completed, {{code\\|malloc}} returns a [null pointer](/wiki/Null_pointer \"Null pointer\"). The following segment is therefore similar in function to the above desired declaration:", "", "\\#include \\<stdlib.h\\> /\\* declares malloc \\*/\n...\nint \\*a \\= malloc(n \\* sizeof \\*a);\na\\[3] \\= 10;", "", "The result is a \"pointer to {{code\\|int}}\" variable (*a*) that points to the first of *n* contiguous {{code\\|int}} objects; due to array–pointer equivalence this can be used in place of an actual array name, as shown in the last line. The advantage in using this [dynamic allocation](/wiki/Dynamic_allocation \"Dynamic allocation\") is that the amount of memory that is allocated to it can be limited to what is actually needed at run time, and this can be changed as needed (using the standard library function [{{code\\|realloc}}](/wiki/Realloc \"Realloc\")).", "When the dynamically allocated memory is no longer needed, it should be released back to the run\\-time system. This is done with a call to the {{code\\|free}} function. It takes a single parameter: a pointer to previously allocated memory. This is the value that was returned by a previous call to {{code\\|malloc}}.", "As a security measure, some programmers {{who\\|date\\=August 2020}} then set the pointer variable to {{code\\|NULL}}:", "", "free(a);\na \\= NULL;", "", "This ensures that further attempts to dereference the pointer, on most systems, will crash the program. If this is not done, the variable becomes a [dangling pointer](/wiki/Dangling_pointer \"Dangling pointer\") which can lead to a use\\-after\\-free bug. However, if the pointer is a local variable, setting it to {{code\\|NULL}} does not prevent the program from using other copies of the pointer. Local use\\-after\\-free bugs are usually easy for [static analyzers](/wiki/Static_analyzer \"Static analyzer\") to recognize. Therefore, this approach is less useful for local pointers and it is more often used with pointers stored in long\\-living structs. In general though, setting pointers to {{code\\|NULL}} is good practice {{according to whom\\|date\\=August 2020}} as it allows a programmer to {{code\\|NULL}}\\-check pointers prior to dereferencing, thus helping prevent crashes.", "Recalling the array example, one could also create a fixed\\-size array through dynamic allocation:", "", "int (\\*a)\\[100] \\= malloc(sizeof \\*a);", "", "...Which yields a pointer\\-to\\-array.", "Accessing the pointer\\-to\\-array can be done in two ways:", "(\\*a)\\[index];", "index\\[\\*a];", "Iterating can also be done in two ways:", "for (int i \\= 0; i \\< 100; i\\+\\+)", "```\n (*a)[i];", "```", "for (int \\*i \\= a\\[0]; i \\< a\\[1]; i\\+\\+)", "```\n *i;", "```", "", "The benefit to using the second example is that the numeric limit of the first example isn't required, which means that the pointer\\-to\\-array could be of any size and the second example can execute without any modifications.", "#### Multidimensional arrays", "In addition, C supports arrays of multiple dimensions, which are stored in [row\\-major order](/wiki/Row-major_order \"Row-major order\"). Technically, C multidimensional arrays are just one\\-dimensional arrays whose elements are arrays. The syntax for declaring multidimensional arrays is as follows:\n int array2d\\[ROWS]\\[COLUMNS];", "where *ROWS* and *COLUMNS* are constants. This defines a two\\-dimensional array. Reading the subscripts from left to right, *array2d* is an array of length *ROWS*, each element of which is an array of *COLUMNS* integers.", "To access an integer element in this multidimensional array, one would use\n array2d\\[4]\\[3]", "Again, reading from left to right, this accesses the 5th row, and the 4th element in that row. The expression {{code\\|array2d\\[4]}} is an array, which we are then subscripting with \\[3] to access the fourth integer.", "", "| \\+ Array subscripts vs. pointer arithmetic{{cite book\\|last\\=Balagurusamy\\|first\\=E\\|title\\=Programming in ANSI C\\|publisher\\=Tata McGraw Hill\\|pages\\=366}} | Element | First | Second row, second column | *i*th row, *j*th column |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Array subscript | {{C\\-lang\\|array\\[0]\\[0]}} | {{C\\-lang\\|array\\[1]\\[1]}} | {{C\\-lang\\|array\\[i \\- 1]\\[j \\- 1]}} |\n| Dereferenced pointer | {{C\\-lang\\|\\*(\\*(array \\+ 0\\) \\+ 0\\)}} | {{C\\-lang\\|\\*(\\*(array \\+ 1\\) \\+ 1\\)}} | {{C\\-lang\\|\\*(\\*(array \\+ i \\- 1\\) \\+ j \\- 1\\)}} |", "Higher\\-dimensional arrays can be declared in a similar manner.", "A multidimensional array should not be confused with an array of pointers to arrays (also known as an [Iliffe vector](/wiki/Iliffe_vector \"Iliffe vector\") or sometimes an *array of arrays*). The former is always rectangular (all subarrays must be the same size), and occupies a contiguous region of memory. The latter is a one\\-dimensional array of pointers, each of which may point to the first element of a subarray in a different place in memory, and the sub\\-arrays do not have to be the same size. The latter can be created by multiple uses of {{code\\|malloc}}.", "### Strings", "{{main \\| C string handling}}", "In C, string literals are surrounded by double quotes ({{code\\|\"}}) (e.g., {{code\\|\"Hello world!\"}}) and are compiled to an array of the specified {{code\\|char}} values with an additional [null terminating character](/wiki/Null_terminating_character \"Null terminating character\") (0\\-valued) code to mark the end of the string.", "[String literals](/wiki/String_literal \"String literal\") may not contain embedded newlines; this proscription somewhat simplifies parsing of the language. To include a newline in a string, the [backslash escape](/wiki/%23Backslash_escapes \"#Backslash escapes\") {{code\\|\\\\n}} may be used, as below.", "There are several standard library functions for operating with string data (not necessarily constant) organized as array of {{code\\|char}} using this null\\-terminated format; see [below](/wiki/%23Library_functions \"#Library functions\").", "C's string\\-literal syntax has been very influential, and has made its way into many other languages, such as C\\+\\+, Objective\\-C, Perl, Python, PHP, Java, JavaScript, C\\#, and Ruby. Nowadays, almost all new languages adopt or build upon C\\-style string syntax. Languages that lack this syntax tend to precede C.", "#### Backslash escapes", "{{main\\|Escape sequences in C}}\nBecause certain characters cannot be part of a literal string expression directly, they are instead identified by an escape sequence starting with a backslash ({{code\\|\\\\}}). For example, the backslashes in {{code\\|\"This string contains \\\\\"double quotes\\\\\".\"}} indicate (to the compiler) that the inner pair of quotes are intended as an actual part of the string, rather than the default reading as a delimiter (endpoint) of the string itself.", "Backslashes may be used to enter various control characters, etc., into a string:", "| Escape | Meaning |\n| --- | --- |\n| {{code\\|\\\\\\\\}} | Literal backslash |\n| {{code\\|\\\\\"}} | Double quote |\n| {{code\\|\\\\'}} | Single quote |\n| {{code\\|\\\\n}} | Newline (line feed) |\n| {{code\\|\\\\r}} | Carriage return |\n| {{code\\|\\\\b}} | Backspace |\n| {{code\\|\\\\t}} | Horizontal tab |\n| {{code\\|\\\\f}} | Form feed |\n| {{code\\|\\\\a}} | Alert (bell) |\n| {{code\\|\\\\v}} | Vertical tab |\n| {{code\\|\\\\?}} | Question mark (used to escape [trigraphs](/wiki/C_trigraph \"C trigraph\"), obsolete features dropped in C23\\) |\n| {{code\\|%%}} | Percentage mark, [printf format strings](/wiki/Printf_format_string \"Printf format string\") only (Note \\\\% is non standard and is not always recognised) |\n| `\\OOO` | Character with octal value *OOO* (where *OOO* is 1\\-3 octal digits, '0'\\-'7') |\n| `\\xHH` | Character with hexadecimal value *HH* (where *HH* is 1 or more hex digits, '0'\\-'9','A'\\-'F','a'\\-'f') |", "", "The use of other backslash escapes is not defined by the C standard, although compiler vendors often provide additional escape codes as language extensions. One of these is the escape sequence `\\e` for the [escape character](/wiki/Escape_character \"Escape character\") with ASCII hex value 1B which was not added to the C standard due to lacking representation in other [character sets](/wiki/Character_set \"Character set\") (such as [EBCDIC](/wiki/EBCDIC \"EBCDIC\")). It is available in [GCC](/wiki/GNU_Compiler_Collection \"GNU Compiler Collection\"), [clang](/wiki/Clang \"Clang\") and [tcc](/wiki/Tiny_C_Compiler \"Tiny C Compiler\").", "#### String literal concatenation", "C has [string literal concatenation](/wiki/String_literal_concatenation \"String literal concatenation\"), meaning that adjacent string literals are concatenated at compile time; this allows long strings to be split over multiple lines, and also allows string literals resulting from [C preprocessor](/wiki/C_preprocessor \"C preprocessor\") defines and macros to be appended to strings at compile time:", "```\n printf(__FILE__ \": %d: Hello \"\n \"world\\n\", __LINE__);", "```", "will expand to", "```\n printf(\"helloworld.c\" \": %d: Hello \"\n \"world\\n\", 10);", "```", "which is syntactically equivalent to", "```\n printf(\"helloworld.c: %d: Hello world\\n\", 10);", "```", "", "#### Character constants", "Individual character constants are single\\-quoted, e.g. {{code\\|'A'}}, and have type {{code\\|int}} (in C\\+\\+, {{code\\|char}}). The difference is that {{code\\|\"A\"}} represents a null\\-terminated array of two characters, 'A' and '\\\\0', whereas {{code\\|'A'}} directly represents the character value (65 if ASCII is used). The same backslash\\-escapes are supported as for strings, except that (of course) {{code\\|\"}} can validly be used as a character without being escaped, whereas {{code\\|'}} must now be escaped.", "A character constant cannot be empty (i.e. {{code\\|*}} is invalid syntax), although a string may be (it still has the null terminating character). Multi\\-character constants (e.g. {{code\\|'xy'}}) are valid, although rarely useful — they let one store several characters in an integer (e.g. 4 ASCII characters can fit in a 32\\-bit integer, 8 in a 64\\-bit one). Since the order in which the characters are packed into an {{code\\|int}} is not specified (left to the implementation to define), portable use of multi\\-character constants is difficult.*", "Nevertheless, in situations limited to a specific platform and the compiler implementation, multicharacter constants do find their use in specifying signatures. One common use case is the [OSType](/wiki/OSType \"OSType\"), where the combination of Classic Mac OS compilers and its inherent big\\-endianness means that bytes in the integer appear in the exact order of characters defined in the literal. The definition by popular \"implementations\" are in fact consistent: in GCC, Clang, and [Visual C\\+\\+](/wiki/Visual_C%2B%2B \"Visual C++\"), {{code\\|'1234'}} yields `0x31323334` under ASCII.{{cite web \\|title\\=The C Preprocessor: Implementation\\-defined behavior \\|url\\=https://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/cpp/Implementation\\-defined\\-behavior.html \\|website\\=gcc.gnu.org}}{{cite web \\|title\\=String and character literals (C\\+\\+) \\|url\\=https://docs.microsoft.com/en\\-us/cpp/cpp/string\\-and\\-character\\-literals\\-cpp?view\\=vs\\-2019\\#code\\-try\\-2 \\|website\\=Visual C\\+\\+ 19 Documentation \\|access\\-date\\=20 November 2019 \\|language\\=en\\-us}}\nLike string literals, character constants can also be modified by prefixes, for example {{code\\|L'A'}} has type {{code\\|wchar\\_t}} and represents the character value of \"A\" in the wide character encoding.\n#### Wide character strings", "Since type {{code\\|char}} is 1 byte wide, a single {{code\\|char}} value typically can represent at most 255 distinct character codes, not nearly enough for all the characters in use worldwide. To provide better support for international characters, the first C standard (C89\\) introduced [wide characters](/wiki/Wide_character \"Wide character\") (encoded in type {{code\\|wchar\\_t}}) and wide character strings, which are written as {{code\\|L\"Hello world!\"}}\nWide characters are most commonly either 2 bytes (using a 2\\-byte encoding such as [UTF\\-16](/wiki/UTF-16 \"UTF-16\")) or 4 bytes (usually [UTF\\-32](/wiki/UTF-32 \"UTF-32\")), but Standard C does not specify the width for {{code\\|wchar\\_t}}, leaving the choice to the implementor. [Microsoft Windows](/wiki/Microsoft_Windows \"Microsoft Windows\") generally uses UTF\\-16, thus the above string would be 26 bytes long for a Microsoft compiler; the [Unix](/wiki/Unix \"Unix\") world prefers UTF\\-32, thus compilers such as GCC would generate a 52\\-byte string. A 2\\-byte wide {{code\\|wchar\\_t}} suffers the same limitation as {{code\\|char}}, in that certain characters (those outside the [BMP](/wiki/Basic_Multilingual_Plane \"Basic Multilingual Plane\")) cannot be represented in a single {{code\\|wchar\\_t}}; but must be represented using [surrogate pairs](/wiki/Surrogate_pair \"Surrogate pair\").\nThe original C standard specified only minimal functions for operating with wide character strings; in 1995 the standard was modified to include much more extensive support, comparable to that for {{code\\|char}} strings. The relevant functions are mostly named after their {{code\\|char}} equivalents, with the addition of a \"w\" or the replacement of \"str\" with \"wcs\"; they are specified in {{code\\|}}, with {{code\\|}} containing wide\\-character classification and mapping functions.\nThe now generally recommended methodsee [UTF\\-8](/wiki/UTF-8 \"UTF-8\") first section for references of supporting international characters is through [UTF\\-8](/wiki/UTF-8 \"UTF-8\"), which is stored in {{code\\|char}} arrays, and can be written directly in the source code if using a UTF\\-8 editor, because UTF\\-8 is a direct [ASCII extension](/wiki/Extended_ASCII \"Extended ASCII\").\n#### Variable width strings", "A common alternative to {{code\\|wchar\\_t}} is to use a [variable\\-width encoding](/wiki/Variable-width_encoding \"Variable-width encoding\"), whereby a logical character may extend over multiple positions of the string. Variable\\-width strings may be encoded into literals verbatim, at the risk of confusing the compiler, or using numerical backslash escapes (e.g. {{code\\|\"\\\\xc3\\\\xa9\"}} for \"é\" in UTF\\-8\\). The [UTF\\-8](/wiki/UTF-8 \"UTF-8\") encoding was specifically designed (under [Plan 9](/wiki/Plan_9_from_Bell_Labs \"Plan 9 from Bell Labs\")) for compatibility with the standard library string functions; supporting features of the encoding include a lack of embedded nulls, no valid interpretations for subsequences, and trivial resynchronisation. Encodings lacking these features are likely to prove incompatible with the standard library functions; encoding\\-aware string functions are often used in such cases.\n#### Library functions", "[Strings](/wiki/String_%28computer_science%29 \"String (computer science)\"), both constant and variable, can be manipulated without using the [standard library](/wiki/Standard_library \"Standard library\"). However, the library contains many [useful functions](/wiki/C_string_handling \"C string handling\") for working with null\\-terminated strings.\n### Structures and unions", "#### Structures", "Structures and [unions](/wiki/Union_type \"Union type\") in C are defined as data containers consisting of a sequence of named members of various types. They are similar to records in other programming languages. The members of a structure are stored in consecutive locations in memory, although the compiler is allowed to insert padding between or after members (but not before the first member) for efficiency or as padding required for proper [alignment](/wiki/Data_structure_alignment \"Data structure alignment\") by the target architecture. The size of a structure is equal to the sum of the sizes of its members, plus the size of the padding.\n#### Unions", "Unions in C are related to structures and are defined as objects that may hold (at different times) objects of different types and sizes. They are analogous to variant records in other programming languages. Unlike structures, the components of a union all refer to the same location in memory. In this way, a union can be used at various times to hold different types of objects, without the need to create a separate object for each new type. The size of a union is equal to the size of its largest component type.\n#### Declaration", "Structures are declared with the [{{code\\|struct}}](/wiki/Struct_%28C_programming_language%29 \"Struct (C programming language)\") keyword and unions are declared with the {{code\\|union}} keyword. The specifier keyword is followed by an optional identifier name, which is used to identify the form of the structure or union. The identifier is followed by the declaration of the structure or union's body: a list of member declarations, contained within curly braces, with each declaration terminated by a semicolon. Finally, the declaration concludes with an optional list of identifier names, which are declared as instances of the structure or union.\nFor example, the following statement declares a structure named {{code\\|s}} that contains three members; it will also declare an instance of the structure known as {{code\\|tee}}:", "struct s {", "```\n int x;\n float y;\n char *z;", "```\n} tee;", "And the following statement will declare a similar union named {{code\\|u}} and an instance of it named {{code\\|n}}:", "union u {", "```\n int x;\n float y;\n char *z;", "```\n} n;", "Members of structures and unions cannot have an incomplete or function type. Thus members cannot be an instance of the structure or union being declared (because it is incomplete at that point) but can be pointers to the type being declared.\nOnce a structure or union body has been declared and given a name, it can be considered a new data type using the specifier {{code\\|struct}} or {{code\\|union}}, as appropriate, and the name. For example, the following statement, given the above structure declaration, declares a new instance of the structure {{code\\|s}} named {{code\\|r}}:\nstruct s r;\nIt is also common to use the `[typedef](/wiki/Typedef \"Typedef\")` specifier to eliminate the need for the {{code\\|struct}} or {{code\\|union}} keyword in later references to the structure. The first identifier after the body of the structure is taken as the new name for the structure type (structure instances may not be declared in this context). For example, the following statement will declare a new type known as s\\_type *that will contain some structure:*", "typedef struct {...} s\\_type;\nFuture statements can then use the specifier s\\_type *(instead of the expanded {{code\\|struct}} ... specifier) to refer to the structure.*", "#### Accessing members", "Members are accessed using the name of the instance of a structure or union, a period ({{code\\|.}}), and the name of the member. For example, given the declaration of tee *from above, the member known as* y *(of type {{code\\|float}}) can be accessed using the following syntax:*", "tee.y\nStructures are commonly accessed through pointers. Consider the following example that defines a pointer to tee*, known as* ptr\\_to\\_tee*:*", "struct s \\*ptr\\_to\\_tee \\= \\&tee;\nMember y *of* tee *can then be accessed by dereferencing* ptr\\_to\\_tee *and using the result as the left operand:*", "(\\*ptr\\_to\\_tee).y\nWhich is identical to the simpler {{code\\|tee.y}} above as long as ptr\\_to\\_tee *points to* tee*. Due to [operator precedence](/wiki/Operators_in_C_and_C%2B%2B%23Operator_precedence \"Operators in C and C++#Operator precedence\") (\".\" being higher than \"\\*\"), the shorter `*ptr_to_tee.y` is incorrect for this purpose, instead being parsed as `*(ptr_to_tee.y)` and thus the parentheses are necessary. Because this operation is common, C provides an [abbreviated syntax](/wiki/Syntactic_sugar \"Syntactic sugar\") for accessing a member directly from a pointer. With this syntax, the name of the instance is replaced with the name of the pointer and the period is replaced with the character sequence {{code\\|\\-\\>}}. Thus, the following method of accessing* y *is identical to the previous two:*", "ptr\\_to\\_tee\\-\\>y\nMembers of unions are accessed in the same way.\nThis can be chained; for example, in a linked list, one may refer to `n->next->next` for the second following node (assuming that `n->next` is not null).\n#### Assignment", "Assigning values to individual members of structures and unions is syntactically identical to assigning values to any other object. The only difference is that the lvalue *of the assignment is the name of the member, as accessed by the syntax mentioned above.*", "A structure can also be assigned as a unit to another structure of the same type. Structures (and pointers to structures) may also be used as function parameter and return types.\nFor example, the following statement assigns the value of 74 (the ASCII code point for the letter 't') to the member named x *in the structure* tee*, from above:*", "tee.x \\= 74;\nAnd the same assignment, using ptr\\_to\\_tee *in place of* tee*, would look like:*", "ptr\\_to\\_tee\\-\\>x \\= 74;\nAssignment with members of unions is identical.\n#### Other operations", "According to the C standard, the only legal operations that can be performed on a structure are copying it, assigning to it as a unit (or initializing it), taking its address with the address\\-of ({{code\\|\\&}}) unary operator, and accessing its members. Unions have the same restrictions. One of the operations implicitly forbidden is comparison: structures and unions cannot be compared using C's standard comparison facilities ({{code\\|1\\=\\=\\=}}, {{code\\|\\>}}, {{code\\|\\<}}, etc.).\n#### Bit fields", "C also provides a special type of member known as a [bit field](/wiki/Bit_field \"Bit field\"), which is an integer with an explicitly specified number of bits. A bit field is declared as a structure (or union) member of type {{code\\|int}}, {{code\\|signed int}}, {{code\\|unsigned int}}, or {{code\\|\\_Bool}},Other implementation\\-defined types are also allowed. C\\+\\+ allows using all integral and enumerated types and a lot of C compilers do the same. following the member name by a colon ({{code\\|:}}) and the number of bits it should occupy. The total number of bits in a single bit field must not exceed the total number of bits in its declared type (this is allowed in C\\+\\+ however, where the extra bits are used for padding).\nAs a special exception to the usual C syntax rules, it is implementation\\-defined whether a bit field declared as type {{code\\|int}}, without specifying {{code\\|signed}} or {{code\\|unsigned}}, is signed or unsigned. Thus, it is recommended to explicitly specify {{code\\|signed}} or {{code\\|unsigned}} on all structure members for portability.\nUnnamed fields consisting of just a colon followed by a number of bits are also allowed; these indicate [padding](/wiki/Data_padding \"Data padding\"). Specifying a width of zero for an unnamed field is used to force [alignment](/wiki/Data_structure_alignment \"Data structure alignment\") to a new word.Kernighan \\& Richie Since all members of a union occupy the same memory, unnamed bit\\-fields of width zero do nothing in unions, however unnamed bit\\-fields of non zero width can change the size of the union since they have to fit in it.\nThe members of bit fields do not have addresses, and as such cannot be used with the address\\-of ({{code\\|\\&}}) unary operator. The {{code\\|sizeof}} operator may not be applied to bit fields.\nThe following declaration declares a new structure type known as {{code\\|f}} and an instance of it known as {{code\\|g}}. Comments provide a description of each of the members:", "struct f {", "```\n unsigned int flag : 1; /* a bit flag: can either be on (1) or off (0) */\n signed int num : 4; /* a signed 4-bit field; range -7...7 or -8...7 */\n signed int : 3; /* 3 bits of padding to round out to 8 bits */", "```\n} g;", "### Initialization", "Default initialization depends on the [storage class specifier](/wiki/%23Storage_class_specifiers \"#Storage class specifiers\"), described above.\nBecause of the language's grammar, a scalar initializer may be enclosed in any number of curly brace pairs. Most compilers issue a warning if there is more than one such pair, though.\nint x \\= 12;\nint y \\= { 23 }; //Legal, no warning\nint z \\= { { 34 } }; //Legal, expect a warning\nStructures, unions and arrays can be initialized in their declarations using an initializer list. Unless designators are used, the components of an initializer correspond with the elements in the order they are defined and stored, thus all preceding values must be provided before any particular element's value. Any unspecified elements are set to zero (except for unions). Mentioning too many initialization values yields an error.\nThe following statement will initialize a new instance of the structure s *known as* pi*:\nstruct s {", "```\n int x;\n float y;\n char *z;", "```\n};*", "struct s pi \\= { 3, 3\\.1415, \"Pi\" };\n#### Designated initializers", "Designated initializers allow members to be initialized by name, in any order, and without explicitly providing the preceding values. The following initialization is equivalent to the previous one:\nstruct s pi \\= { .z \\= \"Pi\", .x \\= 3, .y \\= 3\\.1415 };\nUsing a designator in an initializer moves the initialization \"cursor\". In the example below, if `MAX` is greater than 10, there will be some zero\\-valued elements in the middle of `a`; if it is less than 10, some of the values provided by the first five initializers will be overridden by the second five (if `MAX` is less than 5, there will be a compilation error):\nint a\\[MAX] \\= { 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, \\[MAX\\-5] \\= 8, 6, 4, 2, 0 };\nIn [C89](/wiki/C89_%28C_version%29 \"C89 (C version)\"), a union was initialized with a single value applied to its first member. That is, the union u *defined above could only have its* int x *member initialized:\nunion u value \\= { 3 };*", "Using a designated initializer, the member to be initialized does not have to be the first member:\nunion u value \\= { .y \\= 3\\.1415 }; \nIf an array has unknown size (i.e. the array was an [incomplete type](/wiki/%23Incomplete_types \"#Incomplete types\")), the number of initializers determines the size of the array and its type becomes complete:", "int x\\[] \\= { 0, 1, 2 } ;\nCompound designators can be used to provide explicit initialization when unadorned initializer lists\nmight be misunderstood. In the example below, `w` is declared as an array of structures, each structure consisting of a member `a` (an array of 3 `int`) and a member `b` (an `int`). The initializer sets the size of `w` to 2 and sets the values of the first element of each `a`:\nstruct { int a\\[3], b; } w\\[] \\= { \\[0].a \\= {1}, \\[1].a\\[0] \\= 2 };\nThis is equivalent to:struct { int a\\[3], b; } w\\[] \\=\n{", "```\n { { 1, 0, 0 }, 0 },\n { { 2, 0, 0 }, 0 }", "```\n};\nThere is no way to specify repetition of an initializer in standard C.\n#### Compound literals", "It is possible to borrow the initialization methodology to generate compound structure and array literals:", "// pointer created from array literal.\nint \\*ptr \\= (int\\[]){ 10, 20, 30, 40 };\n// pointer to array.\nfloat (\\*foo)\\[3] \\= \\&(float\\[]){ 0\\.5f, 1\\.f, \\-0\\.5f };\nstruct s pi \\= (struct s){ 3, 3\\.1415, \"Pi\" };", "Compound literals are often combined with designated initializers to make the declaration more readable:\npi \\= (struct s){ .z \\= \"Pi\", .x \\= 3, .y \\= 3\\.1415 };\nOperators\n---------", "{{main\\|Operators in C and C\\+\\+}}\nControl structures\n------------------", "C is a [free\\-form language](/wiki/Free-form_language \"Free-form language\").\n[Bracing style](/wiki/Indentation_style \"Indentation style\") varies from [programmer](/wiki/Computer_programming \"Computer programming\") to programmer and can be the subject of debate. See [Indentation style](/wiki/Indentation_style \"Indentation style\") for more details.\n### Compound statements", "In the items in this section, any \\<statement\\> can be replaced with a **compound statement**. Compound statements have the form:", "{", "```\n <optional-declaration-list>\n <optional-statement-list>", "```\n}", "and are used as the body of a function or anywhere that a single statement is expected. The declaration\\-list declares variables to be used in that [scope](/wiki/Scope_%28programming%29 \"Scope (programming)\"), and the statement\\-list are the actions to be performed. Brackets define their own scope, and variables defined inside those brackets will be automatically\ndeallocated at the closing bracket. Declarations and statements can be freely intermixed within a compound statement (as in [C\\+\\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B \"C++\")).\n### Selection statements", "C has two types of [selection statements](/wiki/Selection_statement \"Selection statement\"): the [{{code\\|if}} statement](/wiki/If_statement \"If statement\") and the [{{code\\|switch}} statement](/wiki/Switch_statement \"Switch statement\").\nThe {{code\\|if}} statement is in the form:", "if (\\<expression\\>)", "```\n <statement1>", "```\nelse", "```\n <statement2>", "```", "In the {{code\\|if}} statement, if the {{code\\|}} in parentheses is nonzero (true), control passes to {{code\\|}}. If the {{code\\|else}} clause is present and the {{code\\|}} is zero (false), control will pass to {{code\\|}}. The {{code\\|else }} part is optional and, if absent, a false {{code\\|}} will simply result in skipping over the {{code\\|}}. An {{code\\|else}} always matches the nearest previous unmatched {{code\\|if}}; braces may be used to override this when necessary, or for clarity.\nThe {{code\\|switch}} statement causes control to be transferred to one of several statements depending on the value of an [expression](/wiki/Expression_%28mathematics%29 \"Expression (mathematics)\"), which must have [integral type](/wiki/Integral_type \"Integral type\"). The substatement controlled by a switch is typically compound. Any statement within the substatement may be labeled with one or more {{code\\|case}} labels, which consist of the keyword {{code\\|case}} followed by a constant expression and then a colon (:). The syntax is as follows:", "switch (\\<expression\\>)\n{", "```\n case <label1> :\n <statements 1>\n case <label2> :\n <statements 2>\n break;\n default :\n <statements 3>", "```\n}", "No two of the case constants associated with the same switch may have the same value. There may be at most one {{code\\|default}} label associated with a switch. If none of the case labels are equal to the expression in the parentheses following {{code\\|switch}}, control passes to the {{code\\|default}} label or, if there is no {{code\\|default}} label, execution resumes just beyond the entire construct.\nSwitches may be nested; a {{code\\|case}} or {{code\\|default}} label is associated with the innermost {{code\\|switch}} that contains it. Switch statements can \"fall through\", that is, when one case section has completed its execution, statements will continue to be executed downward until a {{code\\|break;}} statement is encountered. Fall\\-through is useful in some circumstances, but is usually not desired.\nIn the preceding example, if {{code\\|}} is reached, the statements {{code\\|}} are executed and nothing more inside the braces. However, if {{code\\|}} is reached, both {{code\\|}} and {{code\\|}} are executed since there is no {{code\\|break}} to separate the two case statements.\nIt is possible, although unusual, to insert the {{code\\|switch}} labels into the sub\\-blocks of other control structures. Examples of this include [Duff's device](/wiki/Duff%27s_device \"Duff's device\") and [Simon Tatham](/wiki/Simon_Tatham \"Simon Tatham\")'s implementation of [coroutines](/wiki/Coroutine \"Coroutine\") in [Putty](/wiki/Putty_%28SSH%29 \"Putty (SSH)\").{{cite web \\| first\\=Simon \\| last\\=Tatham \\| author\\-link\\=Simon Tatham \\| date\\=2000 \\| url\\=https://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/\\~sgtatham/coroutines.html \\| title \\= Coroutines in C\\| access\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-30}}\n### Iteration statements", "C has three forms of [iteration](/wiki/Iteration \"Iteration\") statement:", "do", "```\n <statement>", "```\nwhile ( \\<expression\\> ) ;\nwhile ( \\<expression\\> )", "```\n <statement>", "```", "for ( \\<expression\\> ; \\<expression\\> ; \\<expression\\> )", "```\n <statement>", "```", "In the [{{code\\|while}}](/wiki/While_loop \"While loop\") and {{code\\|do}} statements, the sub\\-statement is executed repeatedly so long as the value of the {{code\\|expression}} remains non\\-zero (equivalent to true). With {{code\\|while}}, the test, including all side effects from {{code\\|}}, occurs before each iteration (execution of {{code\\|}}); with {{code\\|do}}, the test occurs after each iteration. Thus, a {{code\\|do}} statement always executes its sub\\-statement at least once, whereas {{code\\|while}} may not execute the sub\\-statement at all.\nThe statement:", "for (e1; e2; e3\\)", "```\n s;", "```", "is equivalent to:", "e1;\nwhile (e2\\)\n{", "```\n s;", "```\ncont:", "```\n e3;", "```\n}", "except for the behaviour of a {{code\\|continue;}} statement (which in the {{code\\|for}} loop jumps to {{code\\|e3}} instead of {{code\\|e2}}). If {{code\\|e2}} is blank, it would have to be replaced with a {{code\\|1}}.\nAny of the three expressions in the {{code\\|for}} loop may be omitted. A missing second expression makes the {{code\\|while}} test always non\\-zero, creating a potentially infinite loop.\nSince [C99](/wiki/C99 \"C99\"), the first expression may take the form of a declaration, typically including an initializer, such as:", "for (int i \\= 0; i \\< limit; \\+\\+i) {", "```\n // ...", "```\n}", "The declaration's scope is limited to the extent of the {{code\\|for}} loop.\n### Jump statements", "Jump statements transfer control unconditionally. There are four types of [jump statements](/wiki/Branch_%28computer_science%29 \"Branch (computer science)\") in C: [{{code\\|goto}}](/wiki/GOTO \"GOTO\"), {{code\\|continue}}, {{code\\|break}}, and [{{code\\|return}}](/wiki/Return_statement \"Return statement\").\nThe {{code\\|goto}} statement looks like this:", "goto \\<identifier\\> ;", "The [identifier](/wiki/Identifier \"Identifier\") must be a [label](/wiki/Label_%28programming_language%29 \"Label (programming language)\") (followed by a colon) located in the current function. Control transfers to the labeled statement.\nA {{code\\|continue}} statement may appear only within an [iteration statement](/wiki/C_syntax%23Iteration_statements \"C syntax#Iteration statements\") and causes control to pass to the loop\\-continuation portion of the innermost enclosing iteration statement. That is, within each of the statements", "while (expression)\n{", "```\n /* ... */\n cont: ;", "```\n}\ndo\n{", "```\n /* ... */\n cont: ;", "```\n} while (expression);\nfor (expr1; expr2; expr3\\) {", "```\n /* ... */\n cont: ;", "```\n}", "a {{code\\|continue}} not contained within a nested iteration statement is the same as {{code\\|goto cont}}.\nThe {{code\\|break}} statement is used to end a {{code\\|for}} loop, {{code\\|while}} loop, {{code\\|do}} loop, or {{code\\|switch}} statement. Control passes to the statement following the terminated statement.\nA function returns to its caller by the {{code\\|return}} statement. When {{code\\|return}} is followed by an expression, the value is returned to the caller as the value of the function. Encountering the end of the function is equivalent to a {{code\\|return}} with no expression. In that case, if the function is declared as returning a value and the caller tries to use the returned value, the result is undefined.\n#### Storing the address of a label", "[GCC](/wiki/GNU_Compiler_Collection \"GNU Compiler Collection\") extends the C language with a unary {{code\\|\\&\\&}} operator that returns the address of a label. This address can be stored in a {{code\\|void\\*}} variable type and may be used later in a {{code\\|goto}} instruction. For example, the following prints {{code\\|\"hi \"}} in an infinite loop:", "```\n void *ptr = &&J1;", "```", "J1: printf(\"hi \");", "```\n goto *ptr;", "```", "This feature can be used to implement a [jump table](/wiki/Jump_table \"Jump table\").\nFunctions\n---------", "### Syntax", "A C function definition consists of a [return type](/wiki/Return_type \"Return type\") ({{code\\|void}} if no value is returned), a unique name, a list of parameters in parentheses, and various statements:", "\\<return\\-type\\> functionName( \\<parameter\\-list\\> )\n{", "```\n <statements>\n return <expression of type return-type>;", "```\n}", "A function with non\\-{{code\\|void}} return type should include at least one {{code\\|return}} statement. The parameters are given by the {{code\\|}}, a comma\\-separated list of parameter declarations, each item in the list being a data type followed by an identifier: {{code\\| , , ...}}.\nThe return type cannot be an array type or function type.", "int f()\\[3]; // Error: function returning an array\nint (\\*g())\\[3]; // OK: function returning a pointer to an array.\nvoid h()(); // Error: function returning a function\nvoid (\\*k())(); // OK: function returning a function pointer", "If there are no parameters, the {{code\\|}} may be left empty or optionally be specified with the single word {{code\\|void}}.\nIt is possible to define a function as taking a variable number of parameters by providing the {{code\\|...}} keyword as the last parameter instead of a data type ad variable identifier. A commonly used function that does this is the standard library function {{code\\|printf}}, which has the declaration:", "int printf (const char\\*, ...);", "Manipulation of these parameters can be done by using the routines in the standard library header [{{code\\|}}](/wiki/Stdarg.h \"Stdarg.h\").\n#### Function Pointers", "A pointer to a function can be declared as follows:", "\\<return\\-type\\> (\\*\\<function\\-name\\>)(\\<parameter\\-list\\>);", "The following program shows use of a [function pointer](/wiki/Function_pointer \"Function pointer\") for selecting between addition and subtraction:", "\\#include \\<stdio.h\\>\nint (\\*operation)(int x, int y);\nint add(int x, int y)\n{", "```\n return x + y;", "```\n}\nint subtract(int x, int y)\n{", "```\n return x - y;", "```\n}\nint main(int argc, char\\* args\\[])\n{", "```\n int foo = 1, bar = 1;", "```", "```\n operation = add;\n printf(\"%d + %d = %d\\n\", foo, bar, operation(foo, bar));\n operation = subtract;\n printf(\"%d - %d = %d\\n\", foo, bar, operation(foo, bar));\n return 0;", "```\n}", "### Global structure", "After preprocessing, at the highest level a [C](/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29 \"C (programming language)\") [program](/wiki/Computer_program \"Computer program\") consists of a sequence of declarations at file scope. These may be partitioned into several separate source files, which may be compiled separately; the resulting object modules are then [linked](/wiki/Linker_%28computing%29 \"Linker (computing)\") along with implementation\\-provided run\\-time support modules to produce an executable image.\nThe declarations introduce [functions](/wiki/Function_%28programming%29 \"Function (programming)\"), [variables](/wiki/Variable_%28programming%29 \"Variable (programming)\") and [types](/wiki/Data_type \"Data type\"). C functions are akin to the subroutines of [Fortran](/wiki/Fortran \"Fortran\") or the procedures of [Pascal](/wiki/Pascal_%28programming_language%29 \"Pascal (programming language)\").\nA definition *is a special type of declaration. A variable definition sets aside storage and possibly initializes it, a function definition provides its body.*", "An implementation of C providing all of the standard library functions is called a hosted implementation*. Programs written for hosted implementations are required to define a special function called [{{code\\|main}}](/wiki/Entry_point \"Entry point\"), which is the first function called when a program begins executing.*", "Hosted implementations start program execution by invoking the {{code\\|main}} function, which must be defined following one of these prototypes (using different parameter names or spelling the types differently is allowed):", "int main() {...}\nint main(void) {...}\nint main(int argc, char \\*argv\\[]) {...}\nint main(int argc, char \\*\\*argv) {...} // char \\*argv\\[] and char \\*\\*argv have the same type as function parameters", "The first two definitions are equivalent (and both are compatible with C\\+\\+). It is probably up to individual preference which one is used (the current C standard contains two examples of {{code\\|main()}} and two of {{code\\|main(void)}}, but the draft C\\+\\+ standard uses {{code\\|main()}}). The return value of {{code\\|main}} (which should be {{code\\|int}}) serves as termination status *returned to the host environment.*", "The C standard defines return values {{code\\|0}} and {{code\\|EXIT\\_SUCCESS}} as indicating success and {{code\\|EXIT\\_FAILURE}} as indicating failure. ({{code\\|EXIT\\_SUCCESS}} and {{code\\|EXIT\\_FAILURE}} are defined in [{{code\\|}}](/wiki/Stdlib.h \"Stdlib.h\")). Other return values have implementation\\-defined meanings; for example, under [Linux](/wiki/Linux \"Linux\") a program killed by a [signal](/wiki/Signal_%28computing%29 \"Signal (computing)\") yields a return code of the numerical value of the signal plus 128\\.\nA minimal correct C program consists of an empty {{code\\|main}} routine, taking no arguments and doing nothing:", "int main(void){}", "Because no `return` statement is present, `main` returns 0 on exit. (This is a special\\-case feature introduced in [C99](/wiki/C99 \"C99\") that applies only to `main`.)\nThe {{code\\|main}} function will usually call other functions to help it perform its job.\nSome implementations are not hosted, usually because they are not intended to be used with an [operating system](/wiki/Operating_system \"Operating system\"). Such implementations are called free\\-standing *in the C standard. A free\\-standing implementation is free to specify how it handles program startup; in particular it need not require a program to define a {{code\\|main}} function.*", "Functions may be written by the programmer or provided by existing libraries. Interfaces for the latter are usually declared by including header files—with the {{code\\|\\#include}} [preprocessing directive](/wiki/Preprocessing_directive \"Preprocessing directive\")—and the library objects are linked into the final executable image. Certain library functions, such as [{{code\\|printf}}](/wiki/Printf \"Printf\"), are defined by the C standard; these are referred to as the [standard library](/wiki/ISO_C_standard_library \"ISO C standard library\") functions.\nA function may return a value to caller (usually another C function, or the hosting environment for the function {{code\\|main}}). The {{code\\|printf}} function mentioned above returns how many characters were printed, but this value is often ignored.\n### Argument passing", "In C, arguments are passed to functions [by value](/wiki/Pass_by_value \"Pass by value\") while other languages may pass variables [by reference](/wiki/Pass_by_reference \"Pass by reference\"). This means that the receiving function gets copies of the values and has no direct way of altering the original variables. For a function to alter a variable passed from another function, the caller must pass its address *(a* pointer *to it), which can then be dereferenced in the receiving function. See [Pointers](/wiki/C_syntax%23Pointers \"C syntax#Pointers\") for more information.*", "void incInt(int \\*y)\n{", "```\n (*y)++; // Increase the value of 'x', in 'main' below, by one", "```\n}\nint main(void)\n{", "```\n int x = 0;\n incInt(&x); // pass a reference to the var 'x'\n return 0;", "```\n}", "The function [scanf](/wiki/Scanf \"Scanf\") works the same way:", "int x;\nscanf(\"%d\", \\&x);", "In order to pass an editable pointer to a function (such as for the purpose of returning an allocated array to the calling code) you have to pass a pointer to that *pointer: its address.*", "\\#include \\<stdio.h\\>\n\\#include \\<stdlib.h\\>\nvoid allocate\\_array(int \\*\\* const a\\_p, const int A) {\n/\\*", "```\nallocate array of A ints\nassigning to *a_p alters the 'a' in main()", "```\n\\*/", "```\n *a_p = malloc(sizeof(int) * A);", "```\n}\nint main(void) {", "```\n int * a; /* create a pointer to one or more ints, this will be the array */", "```", "```\n/* pass the address of 'a' */\n allocate_array(&a, 42);", "```", "/\\* 'a' is now an array of length 42 and can be manipulated and freed here \\*/", "```\n free(a);\n return 0;", "```\n}", "The parameter {{code\\|int \\*\\*a\\_p}} is a pointer to a pointer to an {{code\\|int}}, which is the address of the pointer {{code\\|p}} defined in the main *function in this case.*", "#### Array parameters", "Function parameters of array type may at first glance appear to be an exception to C's pass\\-by\\-value rule. The following program will print 2, not 1:", "\\#include \\<stdio.h\\>\nvoid setArray(int array\\[], int index, int value)\n{", "```\n array[index] = value;", "```\n}\nint main(void)\n{", "```\n int a[1] = {1};\n setArray(a, 0, 2);\n printf (\"a[0]=%d\\n\", a[0]);\n return 0;", "```\n}", "However, there is a different reason for this behavior. In fact, a function parameter declared with an array type is treated like one declared to be a pointer. That is, the preceding declaration of {{code\\|setArray}} is equivalent to the following:", "void setArray(int \\*array, int index, int value)", "At the same time, C rules for the use of arrays in expressions cause the value of {{code\\|a}} in the call to {{code\\|setArray}} to be converted to a pointer to the first element of array {{code\\|a}}. Thus, in fact this is still an example of pass\\-by\\-value, with the caveat that it is the address of the first element of the array being passed by value, not the contents of the array.\nSince C99, the programmer can specify that a function takes an array of a certain size by using the keyword {{code\\|static}}. In `void setArray(int array[static 4], int index, int value)` the first parameter must be a pointer to the first element of an array of length at least 4\\. It is also possible to add qualifiers (`const`, `volatile` and `restrict`) to the pointer type that the array is converted to by putting them between the brackets.\n### Anonymous functions", "{{Excerpt\\|Anonymous function\\|C (non\\-standard extension)}}\nMiscellaneous\n-------------", "### Reserved keywords", "The following words are [reserved](/wiki/Reserved_word \"Reserved word\"), and may not be used as identifiers:\n{{col\\-begin}}\n{{col\\-break\\|width\\=20%}}\n{{mono\\|\\_Alignas}}\n{{mono\\|\\_Alignof}}\n{{mono\\|\\_Atomic}}\n{{mono\\|auto}}\n{{mono\\|\\_Bool}}\n{{mono\\|break}}\n{{mono\\|case}}\n{{mono\\|char}}\n{{mono\\|\\_Complex}}\n{{mono\\|const}}\n{{mono\\|continue}}\n{{mono\\|default}}\n{{mono\\|do}}\n{{col\\-break\\|width\\=20%}}\n{{mono\\|double}}\n{{mono\\|else}}\n{{mono\\|enum}}\n{{mono\\|extern}}\n{{mono\\|float}}\n{{mono\\|for}}\n{{mono\\|\\_Generic}}\n{{mono\\|goto}}\n{{mono\\|if}}\n{{mono\\|\\_Imaginary}}\n{{mono\\|inline}}\n{{col\\-break\\|width\\=20%}}\n{{mono\\|int}}\n{{mono\\|long}}\n{{mono\\|\\_Noreturn}}\n{{mono\\|register}}\n{{mono\\|restrict}}\n{{mono\\|return}}\n{{mono\\|short}}\n{{mono\\|signed}}\n{{mono\\|sizeof}}\n{{mono\\|static}}\n{{mono\\|struct}}\n{{col\\-break}}\n{{mono\\|switch}}\n{{mono\\|\\_Thread\\_local}} \n{{mono\\|typedef}}\n{{mono\\|union}}\n{{mono\\|unsigned}}\n{{mono\\|void}}\n{{mono\\|volatile}}\n{{mono\\|while}}\n{{col\\-end}}\nImplementations may reserve other keywords, such as {{code\\|asm}}, although implementations typically provide non\\-standard keywords that begin with one or two underscores.\n### Case sensitivity", "C identifiers are case sensitive (e.g., {{code\\|foo}}, {{code\\|FOO}}, and {{code\\|Foo}} are the names of different objects). Some linkers may map external identifiers to a single case, although this is uncommon in most modern linkers.\n### Comments", "Text starting with the [token](/wiki/Lexical_analysis%23Token \"Lexical analysis#Token\") {{code\\|/\\*}} is treated as a [comment](/wiki/Comment_%28computer_programming%29 \"Comment (computer programming)\") and ignored. The comment ends at the next {{code\\|\\*/}}; it can occur within expressions, and can span multiple lines. Accidental omission of the comment terminator is problematic in that the next comment's properly constructed comment terminator will be used to terminate the initial comment, and all code in between the comments will be considered as a comment. C\\-style comments do not nest; that is, accidentally placing a comment within a comment has unintended results:", "/\\*\nThis line will be ignored.\n/\\*\nA compiler warning may be produced here. These lines will also be ignored.\nThe comment opening token above did not start a new comment,\nand the comment closing token below will close the comment begun on line 1\\.\n\\*/\nThis line and the line below it will not be ignored. Both will likely produce compile errors.\n\\*/", "[C\\+\\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B \"C++\") style line comments start with {{code\\|//}} and extend to the end of the line. This style of comment originated in [BCPL](/wiki/BCPL \"BCPL\") and became valid C syntax in [C99](/wiki/C99 \"C99\"); it is not available in the original K\\&R C nor in [ANSI C](/wiki/ANSI_C \"ANSI C\"):", "// this line will be ignored by the compiler\n/\\* these lines", "```\n will be ignored\n by the compiler */", "```", "x \\= \\*p/\\*q; /\\* this comment starts after the 'p' \\*/", "### Command\\-line arguments", "The [parameters](/wiki/Parameter \"Parameter\") given on a [command line](/wiki/Command_line \"Command line\") are passed to a C program with two predefined variables \\- the count of the command\\-line arguments in {{code\\|argc}} and the individual [arguments](/wiki/Parameter \"Parameter\") as [character strings](/wiki/Character_string \"Character string\") in the pointer array {{code\\|argv}}. So the command:", "```\nmyFilt p1 p2 p3", "```", "results in something like:", "| m | y | F | i | l | t |\\\\0 p | 1 |\\\\0 p | 2 |\\\\0 p | 3 |\\\\0", "|argv\\[0]argv\\[1]argv\\[2]argv\\[3]", "While individual strings are arrays of contiguous characters, there is no guarantee that the strings are stored as a contiguous group.\nThe name of the program, {{code\\|argv\\[0]}}, may be useful when printing diagnostic messages or for making one binary serve multiple purposes. The individual values of the parameters may be accessed with {{code\\|argv\\[1]}}, {{code\\|argv\\[2]}}, and {{code\\|argv\\[3]}}, as shown in the following program:", "\\#include \\<stdio.h\\>\nint main(int argc, char \\*argv\\[])\n{", "```\n printf(\"argc\\t= %d\\n\", argc);\n for (int i = 0; i < argc; i++)\n printf(\"argv[%i]\\t= %s\\n\", i, argv[i]);", "```\n}", "### Evaluation order", "In any reasonably complex expression, there arises a choice as to the order in which to evaluate the parts of the expression: {{C\\-lang\\|(1\\+1\\)\\+(3\\+3\\)}} may be evaluated in the order {{C\\-lang\\|(1\\+1\\)\\+(3\\+3\\)}}, {{C\\-lang\\|(2\\)\\+(3\\+3\\)}}, {{C\\-lang\\|(2\\)\\+(6\\)}}, {{C\\-lang\\|(8\\)}}, or in the order {{C\\-lang\\|(1\\+1\\)\\+(3\\+3\\)}}, {{C\\-lang\\|(1\\+1\\)\\+(6\\)}}, {{C\\-lang\\|(2\\)\\+(6\\)}}, {{C\\-lang\\|(8\\)}}. Formally, a conforming C compiler may evaluate expressions in any *order between* [sequence points](/wiki/Sequence_point \"Sequence point\") *(this allows the compiler to do some optimization). Sequence points are defined by:* * Statement ends *at semicolons.\n The*\n* sequencing operator*: a comma. However, commas that delimit function arguments are not sequence points.\n The*\n* short\\-circuit operators*: logical* and *({{code\\|\\&\\&}}, which can be read* and then*) and logical* or *(`||`, which can be read* or else*).\n The*\n* [ternary operator](/wiki/%3F:) *({{code\\|?:}}): This operator evaluates its first sub\\-expression first, and then its second or third (never both of them) based on the value of the first.\n Entry to and exit from a*\n* function call *(but not between evaluations of the arguments).*", "Expressions before a sequence point are always evaluated before those after a sequence point. In the case of short\\-circuit evaluation, the second expression may not be evaluated depending on the result of the first expression. For example, in the expression {{C\\-lang\\|(a() {{!}}{{!}} b())}}, if the first argument evaluates to nonzero (true), the result of the entire expression cannot be anything else than true, so {{code\\|b()}} is not evaluated. Similarly, in the expression {{C\\-lang\\|(a() \\&\\& b())}}, if the first argument evaluates to zero (false), the result of the entire expression cannot be anything else than false, so {{code\\|b()}} is not evaluated.\nThe arguments to a function call may be evaluated in any order, as long as they are all evaluated by the time the function is entered. The following expression, for example, has undefined behavior:", "```\nprintf(\"%s %s\\n\", argv[i = 0], argv[++i]);", "```", "### Undefined behavior", "{{main\\|Undefined behavior}}\n{{unreferenced section\\|date\\=November 2011}}\nAn aspect of the C standard (not unique to C) is that the behavior of certain code is said to be \"undefined\". In practice, this means that the program produced from this code can do anything, from working as the programmer intended, to crashing every time it is run.\nFor example, the following code produces undefined behavior, because the variable b *is modified more than once with no intervening sequence point:*", "\\#include \\<stdio.h\\>\nint main(void)\n{", "```\n int b = 1;\n int a = b++ + b++;\n printf(\"%d\\n\", a);", "```\n}", "Because there is no sequence point between the modifications of b *in \"*b*\\+\\+ \\+* b''\\+\\+\", it is possible to perform the evaluation steps in more than one order, resulting in an ambiguous statement. This can be fixed by rewriting the code to insert a sequence point in order to enforce an unambiguous behavior, for example:", "", "a \\= b\\+\\+;\na \\+\\= b\\+\\+;", "", "" ]
### Primitive data types The C programming language represents numbers in three forms: *[integral](/wiki/Integer_%28computer_science%29 "Integer (computer science)")*, *[real](/wiki/Real_data_type "Real data type")* and *[complex](/wiki/Complex_data_type "Complex data type")*. This distinction reflects similar distinctions in the [instruction set](/wiki/Instruction_set "Instruction set") architecture of most [central processing units](/wiki/Central_processing_unit "Central processing unit"). *Integral* data types store numbers in the set of [integers](/wiki/Integer "Integer"), while *real* and *complex* numbers represent numbers (or pair of numbers) in the set of [real numbers](/wiki/Real_number "Real number") in [floating\-point](/wiki/Floating-point_arithmetic "Floating-point arithmetic") form. All C integer types have {{code\|signed}} and {{code\|unsigned}} variants. If {{code\|signed}} or {{code\|unsigned}} is not specified explicitly, in most circumstances, {{code\|signed}} is assumed. However, for historic reasons, plain {{code\|char}} is a type distinct from both {{code\|signed char}} and {{code\|unsigned char}}. It may be a signed type or an unsigned type, depending on the compiler and the character set (C guarantees that members of the C basic character set have positive values). Also, [bit field](/wiki/Bit_field "Bit field") types specified as plain {{code\|int}} may be signed or unsigned, depending on the compiler. #### Integer types C's integer types come in different fixed sizes, capable of representing various ranges of numbers. The type {{code\|char}} occupies exactly one [byte](/wiki/Byte "Byte") (the smallest addressable storage unit), which is typically 8 bits wide. (Although {{code\|char}} can represent any of C's "basic" characters, a wider type may be required for international character sets.) Most integer types have both [signed and unsigned](/wiki/Signedness "Signedness") varieties, designated by the {{code\|signed}} and {{code\|unsigned}} keywords. Signed integer types always use the [two's complement](/wiki/Two%27s_complement "Two's complement") [representation](/wiki/Signed_number_representations "Signed number representations"), since [C23](/wiki/C23_%28C_standard_revision%29 "C23 (C standard revision)"){{cite web \|title\=WG14\-N2412: Two's complement sign representation \|url\=https://www.open\-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n2412\.pdf \|website\=open\-std.org \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227174224/https://www.open\-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n2412\.pdf \|archive\-date\=December 27, 2022 \|date\=August 11, 2019 \|url\-status\=live}} (and in practive before; in older C versions before C23 the representation might alternatively have been [ones' complement](/wiki/Ones%27_complement "Ones' complement"), or [sign\-and\-magnitude](/wiki/Sign-and-magnitude "Sign-and-magnitude"), but in practice that has not been the case for decades on modern nardware). In many cases, there are multiple equivalent ways to designate the type; for example, {{code\|signed short int}} and {{code\|short}} are synonymous. The representation of some types may include unused "padding" bits, which occupy storage but are not included in the width. The following table provides a complete list of the standard integer types and their *minimum* allowed widths (including any sign bit). | \+ Specifications for standard integer types | | --- | | Shortest form of specifier | Minimum width (bits) | | {{code\|\_Bool}} | 1 | | {{code\|char}} | 8 | | {{code\|signed char}} | 8 | | {{code\|unsigned char}} | 8 | | {{code\|short}} | 16 | | {{code\|unsigned short}} | 16 | | {{code\|int}} | 16 | | {{code\|unsigned int}} | 16 | | {{code\|long}} | 32 | | {{code\|unsigned long}} | 32 | | {{code\|long long}}The {{code\|long long}} modifier was introduced in the [C99](/wiki/C99 "C99") standard. | 64 | | {{code\|unsigned long long}} | 64 | The {{code\|char}} type is distinct from both {{code\|signed char}} and {{code\|unsigned char}}, but is guaranteed to have the same representation as one of them. The {{code\|\_Bool}} and {{code\|long long}} types are standardized since 1999, and may not be supported by older C compilers. Type {{code\|\_Bool}} is usually accessed via the `[typedef](/wiki/Typedef "Typedef")` name {{code\|bool}} defined by the standard header `[stdbool.h](/wiki/Stdbool.h "Stdbool.h")`. In general, the widths and representation scheme implemented for any given platform are chosen based on the machine architecture, with some consideration given to the ease of importing source code developed for other platforms. The width of the {{code\|int}} type varies especially widely among C implementations; it often corresponds to the most "natural" word size for the specific platform. The standard header [limits.h](/wiki/Limits.h "Limits.h") defines macros for the minimum and maximum representable values of the standard integer types as implemented on any specific platform. In addition to the standard integer types, there may be other "extended" integer types, which can be used for {{code\|typedef}}s in standard headers. For more precise specification of width, programmers can and should use {{code\|typedef}}s from the standard header [stdint.h](/wiki/Stdint.h "Stdint.h"). Integer constants may be specified in source code in several ways. Numeric values can be specified as [decimal](/wiki/Decimal "Decimal") (example: {{code\|1022}}), [octal](/wiki/Octal "Octal") with zero ({{code\|0}}) as a prefix ({{code\|01776}}), or [hexadecimal](/wiki/Hexadecimal "Hexadecimal") with {{code\|0x}} (zero x) as a prefix ({{code\|0x3FE}}). A character in single quotes (example: {{code\|'R'}}), called a "character constant," represents the value of that character in the execution character set, with type {{code\|int}}. Except for character constants, the type of an integer constant is determined by the width required to represent the specified value, but is always at least as wide as {{code\|int}}. This can be overridden by appending an explicit length and/or signedness modifier; for example, {{code\|12lu}} has type {{code\|unsigned long}}. There are no negative integer constants, but the same effect can often be obtained by using a unary negation operator "{{code\|\-}}". #### Enumerated type The [enumerated type](/wiki/Enumerated_type "Enumerated type") in C, specified with the {{code\|enum}} keyword, and often just called an "enum" (usually pronounced {{IPAc\-en\|'\|i:\|n\|V\|m}} {{respell\|EE\|num}} or {{IPAc\-en\|'\|i:\|n\|u:\|m}} {{respell\|EE\|noom}}), is a type designed to represent values across a series of named constants. Each of the enumerated constants has type {{code\|int}}. Each {{code\|enum}} type itself is compatible with {{code\|char}} or a signed or unsigned integer type, but each implementation defines its own rules for choosing a type. Some compilers warn if an object with enumerated type is assigned a value that is not one of its constants. However, such an object can be assigned any values in the range of their compatible type, and {{code\|enum}} constants can be used anywhere an integer is expected. For this reason, {{code\|enum}} values are often used in place of preprocessor {{code\|\#define}} directives to create named constants. Such constants are generally safer to use than macros, since they reside within a specific identifier namespace. An enumerated type is declared with the {{code\|enum}} specifier and an optional name (or *tag*) for the enum, followed by a list of one or more constants contained within curly braces and separated by commas, and an optional list of variable names. Subsequent references to a specific enumerated type use the {{code\|enum}} keyword and the name of the enum. By default, the first constant in an enumeration is assigned the value zero, and each subsequent value is incremented by one over the previous constant. Specific values may also be assigned to constants in the declaration, and any subsequent constants without specific values will be given incremented values from that point onward. For example, consider the following declaration: enum colors { RED, GREEN, BLUE \= 5, YELLOW } paint\_color; This declares the {{code\|enum colors}} type; the {{code\|int}} constants {{code\|RED}} (whose value is 0\), {{code\|GREEN}} (whose value is one greater than {{code\|RED}}, 1\), {{code\|BLUE}} (whose value is the given value, 5\), and {{code\|YELLOW}} (whose value is one greater than {{code\|BLUE}}, 6\); and the {{code\|enum colors}} variable {{code\|paint\_color}}. The constants may be used outside of the context of the {{code\|enum}} (where any integer value is allowed), and values other than the constants may be assigned to {{code\|paint\_color}}, or any other variable of type {{code\|enum colors}}. #### Floating\-point types A floating\-point form is used to represent numbers with a fractional component. They do not, however, represent most rational numbers exactly; they are instead a close approximation. There are three standard types of real values, denoted by their specifiers (and since [C23](/wiki/C23_%28C_standard_revision%29 "C23 (C standard revision)") three more decimal types): single precision ({{code\|float}}), double precision ({{code\|double}}), and double extended precision ({{code\|long double}}). Each of these may represent values in a different form, often one of the [IEEE floating\-point](/wiki/IEEE_floating-point "IEEE floating-point") formats. | \+ Floating\-point types | | --- | | Type specifiers | Precision (decimal digits) | | Exponent range | | | Minimum | IEEE 754 | Minimum | IEEE 754 | | {{code\|float}} | 6 | 7\.2 (24 bits) | ±37 | ±38 (8 bits) | | {{code\|double}} | 10 | 15\.9 (53 bits) | ±37 | ±307 (11 bits) | | {{code\|long double}} | 10 | 34\.0 (113 bits) | ±37 | ±4931 (15 bits) | Floating\-point constants may be written in [decimal notation](/wiki/Decimal_notation "Decimal notation"), e.g. {{code\|1\.23}}. [Decimal scientific notation](/wiki/Decimal_scientific_notation "Decimal scientific notation") may be used by adding {{code\|e}} or {{code\|E}} followed by a decimal exponent, also known as [E notation](/wiki/E_notation "E notation"), e.g. {{code\|1\.23e2}} (which has the value 1\.23 × 102 \= 123\.0\). Either a decimal point or an exponent is required (otherwise, the number is parsed as an integer constant). [Hexadecimal floating\-point constants](/wiki/Hexadecimal_floating-point_constant "Hexadecimal floating-point constant") follow similar rules, except that they must be prefixed by {{code\|0x}} and use {{code\|p}} or {{code\|P}} to specify a binary exponent, e.g. {{code\|0xAp\-2}} (which has the value 2\.5, since Ah × 2−2 \= 10 × 2−2 \= 10 ÷ 4\). Both decimal and hexadecimal floating\-point constants may be suffixed by {{code\|f}} or {{code\|F}} to indicate a constant of type {{code\|float}}, by {{code\|l}} (letter {{code\|l}}) or {{code\|L}} to indicate type {{code\|long double}}, or left unsuffixed for a {{code\|double}} constant. The standard header file [{{code\|float.h}}](/wiki/Float.h "Float.h") defines the minimum and maximum values of the implementation's floating\-point types {{code\|float}}, {{code\|double}}, and {{code\|long double}}. It also defines other limits that are relevant to the processing of floating\-point numbers. [C23](/wiki/C23_%28C_standard_revision%29 "C23 (C standard revision)") introduces three additional *decimal* (as opposed to binary) real floating\-point types: \_Decimal32, \_Decimal64, and \_Decimal128\. NOTE C does not specify a radix for **float**, **double**, and **long double**. An implementation can choose the representation of **float**, **double**, and **long double** to be the same as the decimal floating types.{{cite web \|title\=WG14\-N2341: ISO/IEC TS 18661\-2 \- Floating\-point extensions for C \- Part 2: Decimal floating\-point arithmetic \|url\=https://www.open\-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n2341\.pdf \|website\=open\-std.org \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221121122559/https://open\-std.org/JTC1/SC22/WG14/www/docs/n2341\.pdf \|archive\-date\=November 21, 2022 \|date\=February 26, 2019 \|url\-status\=live}} Despite that, the radix has historically been binary (base 2\), meaning numbers like 1/2 or 1/4 are exact, but not 1/10, 1/100 or 1/3\. With decimal floating point all the same numbers are exact plus numbers like 1/10 and 1/100, but still not e.g. 1/3\. No known implementation does opt into the decimal radix for the previously known to be binary types. Since most computers do not even have the hardware for the decimal types, and those few that do (e.g. IBM mainframes since [IBM System z10](/wiki/IBM_System_z10 "IBM System z10")), can use the explicitly decimal types. #### Storage class specifiers Every object has a storage class. This specifies most basically the storage *duration,* which may be static (default for global), automatic (default for local), or dynamic (allocated), together with other features (linkage and register hint). | \+ Storage classes | | --- | | Specifiers | Lifetime | Scope | Default initializer | | {{code\|auto}} | Block (stack) | Block | Uninitialized | | {{code\|register}} | Block (stack or CPU register) | Block | Uninitialized | | {{code\|static}} | Program | Block or compilation unit | Zero | | {{code\|extern}} | Program | Global (entire program) | Zero | | {{code\|\_Thread\_local}} | Thread | | | | *(none)*1 | Dynamic (heap) | | Uninitialized (initialized to {{code\|0}} if using {{code\|calloc()}}) | 1 Allocated and deallocated using the {{code\|malloc()}} and {{code\|free()}} library functions. Variables declared within a [block](/wiki/Block_%28programming%29 "Block (programming)") by default have automatic storage, as do those explicitly declared with the [{{code\|auto}}](/wiki/Automatic_variable "Automatic variable")The meaning of auto is a type specifier rather than a storage class specifier in C\+\+0x or [{{code\|register}}](/wiki/Register_%28keyword%29 "Register (keyword)") storage class specifiers. The {{code\|auto}} and {{code\|register}} specifiers may only be used within functions and function argument declarations; as such, the {{code\|auto}} specifier is always redundant. Objects declared outside of all blocks and those explicitly declared with the [{{code\|static}}](/wiki/Static_variable "Static variable") storage class specifier have static storage duration. Static variables are initialized to zero by default by the [compiler](/wiki/Compiler "Compiler"). Objects with automatic storage are local to the block in which they were declared and are discarded when the block is exited. Additionally, objects declared with the {{code\|register}} storage class may be given higher priority by the compiler for access to [registers](/wiki/Register_%28computing%29 "Register (computing)"); although the compiler may choose not to actually store any of them in a register. Objects with this storage class may not be used with the address\-of ({{code\|\&}}) unary operator. Objects with static storage persist for the program's entire duration. In this way, the same object can be accessed by a function across multiple calls. Objects with allocated storage duration are created and destroyed explicitly with [{{code\|malloc}}](/wiki/Malloc "Malloc"), {{code\|free}}, and related functions. The [{{code\|extern}}](/wiki/External_variable "External variable") storage class specifier indicates that the storage for an object has been defined elsewhere. When used inside a block, it indicates that the storage has been defined by a declaration outside of that block. When used outside of all blocks, it indicates that the storage has been defined outside of the compilation unit. The {{code\|extern}} storage class specifier is redundant when used on a function declaration. It indicates that the declared function has been defined outside of the compilation unit. The [{{code\|\_Thread\_local}}](/wiki/Thread-local_storage "Thread-local storage") (`thread_local` in [C\+\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B "C++"), and in C since [C23](/wiki/C23_%28C_standard_revision%29 "C23 (C standard revision)"), and in earlier versions of C if the header `<threads.h>` is included) storage class specifier, introduced in [C11](/wiki/C11_%28C_standard_revision%29 "C11 (C standard revision)"), is used to declare a thread\-local variable. It can be combined with {{code\|static}} or {{code\|extern}} to determine linkage. Note that storage specifiers apply only to functions and objects; other things such as type and enum declarations are private to the compilation unit in which they appear. Types, on the other hand, have qualifiers (see below). #### Type qualifiers {{main\|Type qualifier}} Types can be qualified to indicate special properties of their data. The type qualifier `[const](/wiki/Const_%28computer_programming%29 "Const (computer programming)")` indicates that a value does not change once it has been initialized. Attempting to modify a `const` qualified value yields undefined behavior, so some C compilers store them in [rodata](/wiki/Rodata "Rodata") or (for embedded systems) in [read\-only memory](/wiki/Read-only_memory "Read-only memory") (ROM). The type qualifier `[volatile](/wiki/Volatile_%28computer_programming%29 "Volatile (computer programming)")` indicates to an [optimizing compiler](/wiki/Optimizing_compiler "Optimizing compiler") that it may not remove apparently redundant reads or writes, as the value may change even if it was not modified by any expression or statement, or multiple writes may be necessary, such as for [memory\-mapped I/O](/wiki/Memory-mapped_I/O "Memory-mapped I/O").
[ "### Primitive data types", "The C programming language represents numbers in three forms: *[integral](/wiki/Integer_%28computer_science%29 \"Integer (computer science)\")*, *[real](/wiki/Real_data_type \"Real data type\")* and *[complex](/wiki/Complex_data_type \"Complex data type\")*. This distinction reflects similar distinctions in the [instruction set](/wiki/Instruction_set \"Instruction set\") architecture of most [central processing units](/wiki/Central_processing_unit \"Central processing unit\"). *Integral* data types store numbers in the set of [integers](/wiki/Integer \"Integer\"), while *real* and *complex* numbers represent numbers (or pair of numbers) in the set of [real numbers](/wiki/Real_number \"Real number\") in [floating\\-point](/wiki/Floating-point_arithmetic \"Floating-point arithmetic\") form.", "All C integer types have {{code\\|signed}} and {{code\\|unsigned}} variants. If {{code\\|signed}} or {{code\\|unsigned}} is not specified explicitly, in most circumstances, {{code\\|signed}} is assumed. However, for historic reasons, plain {{code\\|char}} is a type distinct from both {{code\\|signed char}} and {{code\\|unsigned char}}. It may be a signed type or an unsigned type, depending on the compiler and the character set (C guarantees that members of the C basic character set have positive values). Also, [bit field](/wiki/Bit_field \"Bit field\") types specified as plain {{code\\|int}} may be signed or unsigned, depending on the compiler.", "#### Integer types", "C's integer types come in different fixed sizes, capable of representing various ranges of numbers. The type {{code\\|char}} occupies exactly one [byte](/wiki/Byte \"Byte\") (the smallest addressable storage unit), which is typically 8 bits wide. (Although {{code\\|char}} can represent any of C's \"basic\" characters, a wider type may be required for international character sets.) Most integer types have both [signed and unsigned](/wiki/Signedness \"Signedness\") varieties, designated by the {{code\\|signed}} and {{code\\|unsigned}} keywords. Signed integer types always use the [two's complement](/wiki/Two%27s_complement \"Two's complement\") [representation](/wiki/Signed_number_representations \"Signed number representations\"), since [C23](/wiki/C23_%28C_standard_revision%29 \"C23 (C standard revision)\"){{cite web \\|title\\=WG14\\-N2412: Two's complement sign representation \\|url\\=https://www.open\\-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n2412\\.pdf \\|website\\=open\\-std.org \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227174224/https://www.open\\-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n2412\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=December 27, 2022 \\|date\\=August 11, 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} (and in practive before; in older C versions before C23 the representation might alternatively have been [ones' complement](/wiki/Ones%27_complement \"Ones' complement\"), or [sign\\-and\\-magnitude](/wiki/Sign-and-magnitude \"Sign-and-magnitude\"), but in practice that has not been the case for decades on modern nardware). In many cases, there are multiple equivalent ways to designate the type; for example, {{code\\|signed short int}} and {{code\\|short}} are synonymous.", "The representation of some types may include unused \"padding\" bits, which occupy storage but are not included in the width. The following table provides a complete list of the standard integer types and their *minimum* allowed widths (including any sign bit).", "", "| \\+ Specifications for standard integer types |\n| --- |\n| Shortest form of specifier | Minimum width (bits) |\n| {{code\\|\\_Bool}} | 1 |\n| {{code\\|char}} | 8 |\n| {{code\\|signed char}} | 8 |\n| {{code\\|unsigned char}} | 8 |\n| {{code\\|short}} | 16 |\n| {{code\\|unsigned short}} | 16 |\n| {{code\\|int}} | 16 |\n| {{code\\|unsigned int}} | 16 |\n| {{code\\|long}} | 32 |\n| {{code\\|unsigned long}} | 32 |\n| {{code\\|long long}}The {{code\\|long long}} modifier was introduced in the [C99](/wiki/C99 \"C99\") standard. | 64 |\n| {{code\\|unsigned long long}} | 64 |", "The {{code\\|char}} type is distinct from both {{code\\|signed char}} and {{code\\|unsigned char}}, but is guaranteed to have the same representation as one of them. The {{code\\|\\_Bool}} and {{code\\|long long}} types are standardized since 1999, and may not be supported by older C compilers. Type {{code\\|\\_Bool}} is usually accessed via the `[typedef](/wiki/Typedef \"Typedef\")` name {{code\\|bool}} defined by the standard header `[stdbool.h](/wiki/Stdbool.h \"Stdbool.h\")`.", "In general, the widths and representation scheme implemented for any given platform are chosen based on the machine architecture, with some consideration given to the ease of importing source code developed for other platforms. The width of the {{code\\|int}} type varies especially widely among C implementations; it often corresponds to the most \"natural\" word size for the specific platform. The standard header [limits.h](/wiki/Limits.h \"Limits.h\") defines macros for the minimum and maximum representable values of the standard integer types as implemented on any specific platform.", "In addition to the standard integer types, there may be other \"extended\" integer types, which can be used for {{code\\|typedef}}s in standard headers. For more precise specification of width, programmers can and should use {{code\\|typedef}}s from the standard header [stdint.h](/wiki/Stdint.h \"Stdint.h\").", "Integer constants may be specified in source code in several ways. Numeric values can be specified as [decimal](/wiki/Decimal \"Decimal\") (example: {{code\\|1022}}), [octal](/wiki/Octal \"Octal\") with zero ({{code\\|0}}) as a prefix ({{code\\|01776}}), or [hexadecimal](/wiki/Hexadecimal \"Hexadecimal\") with {{code\\|0x}} (zero x) as a prefix ({{code\\|0x3FE}}). A character in single quotes (example: {{code\\|'R'}}), called a \"character constant,\" represents the value of that character in the execution character set, with type {{code\\|int}}. Except for character constants, the type of an integer constant is determined by the width required to represent the specified value, but is always at least as wide as {{code\\|int}}. This can be overridden by appending an explicit length and/or signedness modifier; for example, {{code\\|12lu}} has type {{code\\|unsigned long}}. There are no negative integer constants, but the same effect can often be obtained by using a unary negation operator \"{{code\\|\\-}}\".", "#### Enumerated type", "The [enumerated type](/wiki/Enumerated_type \"Enumerated type\") in C, specified with the {{code\\|enum}} keyword, and often just called an \"enum\" (usually pronounced {{IPAc\\-en\\|'\\|i:\\|n\\|V\\|m}} {{respell\\|EE\\|num}} or {{IPAc\\-en\\|'\\|i:\\|n\\|u:\\|m}} {{respell\\|EE\\|noom}}), is a type designed to represent values across a series of named constants. Each of the enumerated constants has type {{code\\|int}}. Each {{code\\|enum}} type itself is compatible with {{code\\|char}} or a signed or unsigned integer type, but each implementation defines its own rules for choosing a type.", "Some compilers warn if an object with enumerated type is assigned a value that is not one of its constants. However, such an object can be assigned any values in the range of their compatible type, and {{code\\|enum}} constants can be used anywhere an integer is expected. For this reason, {{code\\|enum}} values are often used in place of preprocessor {{code\\|\\#define}} directives to create named constants. Such constants are generally safer to use than macros, since they reside within a specific identifier namespace.", "An enumerated type is declared with the {{code\\|enum}} specifier and an optional name (or *tag*) for the enum, followed by a list of one or more constants contained within curly braces and separated by commas, and an optional list of variable names. Subsequent references to a specific enumerated type use the {{code\\|enum}} keyword and the name of the enum. By default, the first constant in an enumeration is assigned the value zero, and each subsequent value is incremented by one over the previous constant. Specific values may also be assigned to constants in the declaration, and any subsequent constants without specific values will be given incremented values from that point onward.\nFor example, consider the following declaration:", "enum colors { RED, GREEN, BLUE \\= 5, YELLOW } paint\\_color;", "This declares the {{code\\|enum colors}} type; the {{code\\|int}} constants {{code\\|RED}} (whose value is 0\\), {{code\\|GREEN}} (whose value is one greater than {{code\\|RED}}, 1\\), {{code\\|BLUE}} (whose value is the given value, 5\\), and {{code\\|YELLOW}} (whose value is one greater than {{code\\|BLUE}}, 6\\); and the {{code\\|enum colors}} variable {{code\\|paint\\_color}}. The constants may be used outside of the context of the {{code\\|enum}} (where any integer value is allowed), and values other than the constants may be assigned to {{code\\|paint\\_color}}, or any other variable of type {{code\\|enum colors}}.", "#### Floating\\-point types", "A floating\\-point form is used to represent numbers with a fractional component. They do not, however, represent most rational numbers exactly; they are instead a close approximation. There are three standard types of real values, denoted by their specifiers (and since [C23](/wiki/C23_%28C_standard_revision%29 \"C23 (C standard revision)\") three more decimal types): single precision ({{code\\|float}}), double precision ({{code\\|double}}), and double extended precision ({{code\\|long double}}). Each of these may represent values in a different form, often one of the [IEEE floating\\-point](/wiki/IEEE_floating-point \"IEEE floating-point\") formats.", "", "| \\+ Floating\\-point types |\n| --- |\n| Type specifiers | Precision (decimal digits) | | Exponent range | |\n| Minimum | IEEE 754 | Minimum | IEEE 754 |\n| {{code\\|float}} | 6 | 7\\.2 (24 bits) | ±37 | ±38 (8 bits) |\n| {{code\\|double}} | 10 | 15\\.9 (53 bits) | ±37 | ±307 (11 bits) |\n| {{code\\|long double}} | 10 | 34\\.0 (113 bits) | ±37 | ±4931 (15 bits) |", "Floating\\-point constants may be written in [decimal notation](/wiki/Decimal_notation \"Decimal notation\"), e.g. {{code\\|1\\.23}}. [Decimal scientific notation](/wiki/Decimal_scientific_notation \"Decimal scientific notation\") may be used by adding {{code\\|e}} or {{code\\|E}} followed by a decimal exponent, also known as [E notation](/wiki/E_notation \"E notation\"), e.g. {{code\\|1\\.23e2}} (which has the value 1\\.23 × 102 \\= 123\\.0\\). Either a decimal point or an exponent is required (otherwise, the number is parsed as an integer constant). [Hexadecimal floating\\-point constants](/wiki/Hexadecimal_floating-point_constant \"Hexadecimal floating-point constant\") follow similar rules, except that they must be prefixed by {{code\\|0x}} and use {{code\\|p}} or {{code\\|P}} to specify a binary exponent, e.g. {{code\\|0xAp\\-2}} (which has the value 2\\.5, since Ah × 2−2 \\= 10 × 2−2 \\= 10 ÷ 4\\). Both decimal and hexadecimal floating\\-point constants may be suffixed by {{code\\|f}} or {{code\\|F}} to indicate a constant of type {{code\\|float}}, by {{code\\|l}} (letter {{code\\|l}}) or {{code\\|L}} to indicate type {{code\\|long double}}, or left unsuffixed for a {{code\\|double}} constant.", "The standard header file [{{code\\|float.h}}](/wiki/Float.h \"Float.h\") defines the minimum and maximum values of the implementation's floating\\-point types {{code\\|float}}, {{code\\|double}}, and {{code\\|long double}}. It also defines other limits that are relevant to the processing of floating\\-point numbers.", "[C23](/wiki/C23_%28C_standard_revision%29 \"C23 (C standard revision)\") introduces three additional *decimal* (as opposed to binary) real floating\\-point types: \\_Decimal32, \\_Decimal64, and \\_Decimal128\\.", "NOTE C does not specify a radix for **float**, **double**, and **long double**. An implementation can choose the representation of **float**, **double**, and **long double** to be the same as the decimal floating types.{{cite web \\|title\\=WG14\\-N2341: ISO/IEC TS 18661\\-2 \\- Floating\\-point extensions for C \\- Part 2: Decimal floating\\-point arithmetic \\|url\\=https://www.open\\-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n2341\\.pdf \\|website\\=open\\-std.org \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221121122559/https://open\\-std.org/JTC1/SC22/WG14/www/docs/n2341\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=November 21, 2022 \\|date\\=February 26, 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}\nDespite that, the radix has historically been binary (base 2\\), meaning numbers like 1/2 or 1/4 are exact, but not 1/10, 1/100 or 1/3\\. With decimal floating point all the same numbers are exact plus numbers like 1/10 and 1/100, but still not e.g. 1/3\\. No known implementation does opt into the decimal radix for the previously known to be binary types. Since most computers do not even have the hardware for the decimal types, and those few that do (e.g. IBM mainframes since [IBM System z10](/wiki/IBM_System_z10 \"IBM System z10\")), can use the explicitly decimal types.", "", "#### Storage class specifiers", "Every object has a storage class. This specifies most basically the storage *duration,* which may be static (default for global), automatic (default for local), or dynamic (allocated), together with other features (linkage and register hint).", "", "| \\+ Storage classes |\n| --- |\n| Specifiers | Lifetime | Scope | Default initializer |\n| {{code\\|auto}} | Block (stack) | Block | Uninitialized |\n| {{code\\|register}} | Block (stack or CPU register) | Block | Uninitialized |\n| {{code\\|static}} | Program | Block or compilation unit | Zero |\n| {{code\\|extern}} | Program | Global (entire program) | Zero |\n| {{code\\|\\_Thread\\_local}} | Thread | | |\n| *(none)*1 | Dynamic (heap) | | Uninitialized (initialized to {{code\\|0}} if using {{code\\|calloc()}}) |", "1 Allocated and deallocated using the {{code\\|malloc()}} and {{code\\|free()}} library functions.\nVariables declared within a [block](/wiki/Block_%28programming%29 \"Block (programming)\") by default have automatic storage, as do those explicitly declared with the [{{code\\|auto}}](/wiki/Automatic_variable \"Automatic variable\")The meaning of auto is a type specifier rather than a storage class specifier in C\\+\\+0x or [{{code\\|register}}](/wiki/Register_%28keyword%29 \"Register (keyword)\") storage class specifiers. The {{code\\|auto}} and {{code\\|register}} specifiers may only be used within functions and function argument declarations; as such, the {{code\\|auto}} specifier is always redundant. Objects declared outside of all blocks and those explicitly declared with the [{{code\\|static}}](/wiki/Static_variable \"Static variable\") storage class specifier have static storage duration. Static variables are initialized to zero by default by the [compiler](/wiki/Compiler \"Compiler\").", "Objects with automatic storage are local to the block in which they were declared and are discarded when the block is exited. Additionally, objects declared with the {{code\\|register}} storage class may be given higher priority by the compiler for access to [registers](/wiki/Register_%28computing%29 \"Register (computing)\"); although the compiler may choose not to actually store any of them in a register. Objects with this storage class may not be used with the address\\-of ({{code\\|\\&}}) unary operator. Objects with static storage persist for the program's entire duration. In this way, the same object can be accessed by a function across multiple calls. Objects with allocated storage duration are created and destroyed explicitly with [{{code\\|malloc}}](/wiki/Malloc \"Malloc\"), {{code\\|free}}, and related functions.", "The [{{code\\|extern}}](/wiki/External_variable \"External variable\") storage class specifier indicates that the storage for an object has been defined elsewhere. When used inside a block, it indicates that the storage has been defined by a declaration outside of that block. When used outside of all blocks, it indicates that the storage has been defined outside of the compilation unit. The {{code\\|extern}} storage class specifier is redundant when used on a function declaration. It indicates that the declared function has been defined outside of the compilation unit.", "The [{{code\\|\\_Thread\\_local}}](/wiki/Thread-local_storage \"Thread-local storage\") (`thread_local` in [C\\+\\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B \"C++\"), and in C since [C23](/wiki/C23_%28C_standard_revision%29 \"C23 (C standard revision)\"), and in earlier versions of C if the header `<threads.h>` is included) storage class specifier, introduced in [C11](/wiki/C11_%28C_standard_revision%29 \"C11 (C standard revision)\"), is used to declare a thread\\-local variable. It can be combined with {{code\\|static}} or {{code\\|extern}} to determine linkage.", "Note that storage specifiers apply only to functions and objects; other things such as type and enum declarations are private to the compilation unit in which they appear. Types, on the other hand, have qualifiers (see below).", "#### Type qualifiers", "{{main\\|Type qualifier}}\nTypes can be qualified to indicate special properties of their data. The type qualifier `[const](/wiki/Const_%28computer_programming%29 \"Const (computer programming)\")` indicates that a value does not change once it has been initialized. Attempting to modify a `const` qualified value yields undefined behavior, so some C compilers store them in [rodata](/wiki/Rodata \"Rodata\") or (for embedded systems) in [read\\-only memory](/wiki/Read-only_memory \"Read-only memory\") (ROM). The type qualifier `[volatile](/wiki/Volatile_%28computer_programming%29 \"Volatile (computer programming)\")` indicates to an [optimizing compiler](/wiki/Optimizing_compiler \"Optimizing compiler\") that it may not remove apparently redundant reads or writes, as the value may change even if it was not modified by any expression or statement, or multiple writes may be necessary, such as for [memory\\-mapped I/O](/wiki/Memory-mapped_I/O \"Memory-mapped I/O\").", "" ]
#### Integer types C's integer types come in different fixed sizes, capable of representing various ranges of numbers. The type {{code\|char}} occupies exactly one [byte](/wiki/Byte "Byte") (the smallest addressable storage unit), which is typically 8 bits wide. (Although {{code\|char}} can represent any of C's "basic" characters, a wider type may be required for international character sets.) Most integer types have both [signed and unsigned](/wiki/Signedness "Signedness") varieties, designated by the {{code\|signed}} and {{code\|unsigned}} keywords. Signed integer types always use the [two's complement](/wiki/Two%27s_complement "Two's complement") [representation](/wiki/Signed_number_representations "Signed number representations"), since [C23](/wiki/C23_%28C_standard_revision%29 "C23 (C standard revision)"){{cite web \|title\=WG14\-N2412: Two's complement sign representation \|url\=https://www.open\-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n2412\.pdf \|website\=open\-std.org \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227174224/https://www.open\-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n2412\.pdf \|archive\-date\=December 27, 2022 \|date\=August 11, 2019 \|url\-status\=live}} (and in practive before; in older C versions before C23 the representation might alternatively have been [ones' complement](/wiki/Ones%27_complement "Ones' complement"), or [sign\-and\-magnitude](/wiki/Sign-and-magnitude "Sign-and-magnitude"), but in practice that has not been the case for decades on modern nardware). In many cases, there are multiple equivalent ways to designate the type; for example, {{code\|signed short int}} and {{code\|short}} are synonymous. The representation of some types may include unused "padding" bits, which occupy storage but are not included in the width. The following table provides a complete list of the standard integer types and their *minimum* allowed widths (including any sign bit). | \+ Specifications for standard integer types | | --- | | Shortest form of specifier | Minimum width (bits) | | {{code\|\_Bool}} | 1 | | {{code\|char}} | 8 | | {{code\|signed char}} | 8 | | {{code\|unsigned char}} | 8 | | {{code\|short}} | 16 | | {{code\|unsigned short}} | 16 | | {{code\|int}} | 16 | | {{code\|unsigned int}} | 16 | | {{code\|long}} | 32 | | {{code\|unsigned long}} | 32 | | {{code\|long long}}The {{code\|long long}} modifier was introduced in the [C99](/wiki/C99 "C99") standard. | 64 | | {{code\|unsigned long long}} | 64 | The {{code\|char}} type is distinct from both {{code\|signed char}} and {{code\|unsigned char}}, but is guaranteed to have the same representation as one of them. The {{code\|\_Bool}} and {{code\|long long}} types are standardized since 1999, and may not be supported by older C compilers. Type {{code\|\_Bool}} is usually accessed via the `[typedef](/wiki/Typedef "Typedef")` name {{code\|bool}} defined by the standard header `[stdbool.h](/wiki/Stdbool.h "Stdbool.h")`. In general, the widths and representation scheme implemented for any given platform are chosen based on the machine architecture, with some consideration given to the ease of importing source code developed for other platforms. The width of the {{code\|int}} type varies especially widely among C implementations; it often corresponds to the most "natural" word size for the specific platform. The standard header [limits.h](/wiki/Limits.h "Limits.h") defines macros for the minimum and maximum representable values of the standard integer types as implemented on any specific platform. In addition to the standard integer types, there may be other "extended" integer types, which can be used for {{code\|typedef}}s in standard headers. For more precise specification of width, programmers can and should use {{code\|typedef}}s from the standard header [stdint.h](/wiki/Stdint.h "Stdint.h"). Integer constants may be specified in source code in several ways. Numeric values can be specified as [decimal](/wiki/Decimal "Decimal") (example: {{code\|1022}}), [octal](/wiki/Octal "Octal") with zero ({{code\|0}}) as a prefix ({{code\|01776}}), or [hexadecimal](/wiki/Hexadecimal "Hexadecimal") with {{code\|0x}} (zero x) as a prefix ({{code\|0x3FE}}). A character in single quotes (example: {{code\|'R'}}), called a "character constant," represents the value of that character in the execution character set, with type {{code\|int}}. Except for character constants, the type of an integer constant is determined by the width required to represent the specified value, but is always at least as wide as {{code\|int}}. This can be overridden by appending an explicit length and/or signedness modifier; for example, {{code\|12lu}} has type {{code\|unsigned long}}. There are no negative integer constants, but the same effect can often be obtained by using a unary negation operator "{{code\|\-}}".
[ "#### Integer types", "C's integer types come in different fixed sizes, capable of representing various ranges of numbers. The type {{code\\|char}} occupies exactly one [byte](/wiki/Byte \"Byte\") (the smallest addressable storage unit), which is typically 8 bits wide. (Although {{code\\|char}} can represent any of C's \"basic\" characters, a wider type may be required for international character sets.) Most integer types have both [signed and unsigned](/wiki/Signedness \"Signedness\") varieties, designated by the {{code\\|signed}} and {{code\\|unsigned}} keywords. Signed integer types always use the [two's complement](/wiki/Two%27s_complement \"Two's complement\") [representation](/wiki/Signed_number_representations \"Signed number representations\"), since [C23](/wiki/C23_%28C_standard_revision%29 \"C23 (C standard revision)\"){{cite web \\|title\\=WG14\\-N2412: Two's complement sign representation \\|url\\=https://www.open\\-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n2412\\.pdf \\|website\\=open\\-std.org \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227174224/https://www.open\\-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n2412\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=December 27, 2022 \\|date\\=August 11, 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} (and in practive before; in older C versions before C23 the representation might alternatively have been [ones' complement](/wiki/Ones%27_complement \"Ones' complement\"), or [sign\\-and\\-magnitude](/wiki/Sign-and-magnitude \"Sign-and-magnitude\"), but in practice that has not been the case for decades on modern nardware). In many cases, there are multiple equivalent ways to designate the type; for example, {{code\\|signed short int}} and {{code\\|short}} are synonymous.", "The representation of some types may include unused \"padding\" bits, which occupy storage but are not included in the width. The following table provides a complete list of the standard integer types and their *minimum* allowed widths (including any sign bit).", "", "| \\+ Specifications for standard integer types |\n| --- |\n| Shortest form of specifier | Minimum width (bits) |\n| {{code\\|\\_Bool}} | 1 |\n| {{code\\|char}} | 8 |\n| {{code\\|signed char}} | 8 |\n| {{code\\|unsigned char}} | 8 |\n| {{code\\|short}} | 16 |\n| {{code\\|unsigned short}} | 16 |\n| {{code\\|int}} | 16 |\n| {{code\\|unsigned int}} | 16 |\n| {{code\\|long}} | 32 |\n| {{code\\|unsigned long}} | 32 |\n| {{code\\|long long}}The {{code\\|long long}} modifier was introduced in the [C99](/wiki/C99 \"C99\") standard. | 64 |\n| {{code\\|unsigned long long}} | 64 |", "The {{code\\|char}} type is distinct from both {{code\\|signed char}} and {{code\\|unsigned char}}, but is guaranteed to have the same representation as one of them. The {{code\\|\\_Bool}} and {{code\\|long long}} types are standardized since 1999, and may not be supported by older C compilers. Type {{code\\|\\_Bool}} is usually accessed via the `[typedef](/wiki/Typedef \"Typedef\")` name {{code\\|bool}} defined by the standard header `[stdbool.h](/wiki/Stdbool.h \"Stdbool.h\")`.", "In general, the widths and representation scheme implemented for any given platform are chosen based on the machine architecture, with some consideration given to the ease of importing source code developed for other platforms. The width of the {{code\\|int}} type varies especially widely among C implementations; it often corresponds to the most \"natural\" word size for the specific platform. The standard header [limits.h](/wiki/Limits.h \"Limits.h\") defines macros for the minimum and maximum representable values of the standard integer types as implemented on any specific platform.", "In addition to the standard integer types, there may be other \"extended\" integer types, which can be used for {{code\\|typedef}}s in standard headers. For more precise specification of width, programmers can and should use {{code\\|typedef}}s from the standard header [stdint.h](/wiki/Stdint.h \"Stdint.h\").", "Integer constants may be specified in source code in several ways. Numeric values can be specified as [decimal](/wiki/Decimal \"Decimal\") (example: {{code\\|1022}}), [octal](/wiki/Octal \"Octal\") with zero ({{code\\|0}}) as a prefix ({{code\\|01776}}), or [hexadecimal](/wiki/Hexadecimal \"Hexadecimal\") with {{code\\|0x}} (zero x) as a prefix ({{code\\|0x3FE}}). A character in single quotes (example: {{code\\|'R'}}), called a \"character constant,\" represents the value of that character in the execution character set, with type {{code\\|int}}. Except for character constants, the type of an integer constant is determined by the width required to represent the specified value, but is always at least as wide as {{code\\|int}}. This can be overridden by appending an explicit length and/or signedness modifier; for example, {{code\\|12lu}} has type {{code\\|unsigned long}}. There are no negative integer constants, but the same effect can often be obtained by using a unary negation operator \"{{code\\|\\-}}\".", "" ]
#### Storage class specifiers Every object has a storage class. This specifies most basically the storage *duration,* which may be static (default for global), automatic (default for local), or dynamic (allocated), together with other features (linkage and register hint). | \+ Storage classes | | --- | | Specifiers | Lifetime | Scope | Default initializer | | {{code\|auto}} | Block (stack) | Block | Uninitialized | | {{code\|register}} | Block (stack or CPU register) | Block | Uninitialized | | {{code\|static}} | Program | Block or compilation unit | Zero | | {{code\|extern}} | Program | Global (entire program) | Zero | | {{code\|\_Thread\_local}} | Thread | | | | *(none)*1 | Dynamic (heap) | | Uninitialized (initialized to {{code\|0}} if using {{code\|calloc()}}) | 1 Allocated and deallocated using the {{code\|malloc()}} and {{code\|free()}} library functions. Variables declared within a [block](/wiki/Block_%28programming%29 "Block (programming)") by default have automatic storage, as do those explicitly declared with the [{{code\|auto}}](/wiki/Automatic_variable "Automatic variable")The meaning of auto is a type specifier rather than a storage class specifier in C\+\+0x or [{{code\|register}}](/wiki/Register_%28keyword%29 "Register (keyword)") storage class specifiers. The {{code\|auto}} and {{code\|register}} specifiers may only be used within functions and function argument declarations; as such, the {{code\|auto}} specifier is always redundant. Objects declared outside of all blocks and those explicitly declared with the [{{code\|static}}](/wiki/Static_variable "Static variable") storage class specifier have static storage duration. Static variables are initialized to zero by default by the [compiler](/wiki/Compiler "Compiler"). Objects with automatic storage are local to the block in which they were declared and are discarded when the block is exited. Additionally, objects declared with the {{code\|register}} storage class may be given higher priority by the compiler for access to [registers](/wiki/Register_%28computing%29 "Register (computing)"); although the compiler may choose not to actually store any of them in a register. Objects with this storage class may not be used with the address\-of ({{code\|\&}}) unary operator. Objects with static storage persist for the program's entire duration. In this way, the same object can be accessed by a function across multiple calls. Objects with allocated storage duration are created and destroyed explicitly with [{{code\|malloc}}](/wiki/Malloc "Malloc"), {{code\|free}}, and related functions. The [{{code\|extern}}](/wiki/External_variable "External variable") storage class specifier indicates that the storage for an object has been defined elsewhere. When used inside a block, it indicates that the storage has been defined by a declaration outside of that block. When used outside of all blocks, it indicates that the storage has been defined outside of the compilation unit. The {{code\|extern}} storage class specifier is redundant when used on a function declaration. It indicates that the declared function has been defined outside of the compilation unit. The [{{code\|\_Thread\_local}}](/wiki/Thread-local_storage "Thread-local storage") (`thread_local` in [C\+\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B "C++"), and in C since [C23](/wiki/C23_%28C_standard_revision%29 "C23 (C standard revision)"), and in earlier versions of C if the header `<threads.h>` is included) storage class specifier, introduced in [C11](/wiki/C11_%28C_standard_revision%29 "C11 (C standard revision)"), is used to declare a thread\-local variable. It can be combined with {{code\|static}} or {{code\|extern}} to determine linkage. Note that storage specifiers apply only to functions and objects; other things such as type and enum declarations are private to the compilation unit in which they appear. Types, on the other hand, have qualifiers (see below).
[ "#### Storage class specifiers", "Every object has a storage class. This specifies most basically the storage *duration,* which may be static (default for global), automatic (default for local), or dynamic (allocated), together with other features (linkage and register hint).", "", "| \\+ Storage classes |\n| --- |\n| Specifiers | Lifetime | Scope | Default initializer |\n| {{code\\|auto}} | Block (stack) | Block | Uninitialized |\n| {{code\\|register}} | Block (stack or CPU register) | Block | Uninitialized |\n| {{code\\|static}} | Program | Block or compilation unit | Zero |\n| {{code\\|extern}} | Program | Global (entire program) | Zero |\n| {{code\\|\\_Thread\\_local}} | Thread | | |\n| *(none)*1 | Dynamic (heap) | | Uninitialized (initialized to {{code\\|0}} if using {{code\\|calloc()}}) |", "1 Allocated and deallocated using the {{code\\|malloc()}} and {{code\\|free()}} library functions.\nVariables declared within a [block](/wiki/Block_%28programming%29 \"Block (programming)\") by default have automatic storage, as do those explicitly declared with the [{{code\\|auto}}](/wiki/Automatic_variable \"Automatic variable\")The meaning of auto is a type specifier rather than a storage class specifier in C\\+\\+0x or [{{code\\|register}}](/wiki/Register_%28keyword%29 \"Register (keyword)\") storage class specifiers. The {{code\\|auto}} and {{code\\|register}} specifiers may only be used within functions and function argument declarations; as such, the {{code\\|auto}} specifier is always redundant. Objects declared outside of all blocks and those explicitly declared with the [{{code\\|static}}](/wiki/Static_variable \"Static variable\") storage class specifier have static storage duration. Static variables are initialized to zero by default by the [compiler](/wiki/Compiler \"Compiler\").", "Objects with automatic storage are local to the block in which they were declared and are discarded when the block is exited. Additionally, objects declared with the {{code\\|register}} storage class may be given higher priority by the compiler for access to [registers](/wiki/Register_%28computing%29 \"Register (computing)\"); although the compiler may choose not to actually store any of them in a register. Objects with this storage class may not be used with the address\\-of ({{code\\|\\&}}) unary operator. Objects with static storage persist for the program's entire duration. In this way, the same object can be accessed by a function across multiple calls. Objects with allocated storage duration are created and destroyed explicitly with [{{code\\|malloc}}](/wiki/Malloc \"Malloc\"), {{code\\|free}}, and related functions.", "The [{{code\\|extern}}](/wiki/External_variable \"External variable\") storage class specifier indicates that the storage for an object has been defined elsewhere. When used inside a block, it indicates that the storage has been defined by a declaration outside of that block. When used outside of all blocks, it indicates that the storage has been defined outside of the compilation unit. The {{code\\|extern}} storage class specifier is redundant when used on a function declaration. It indicates that the declared function has been defined outside of the compilation unit.", "The [{{code\\|\\_Thread\\_local}}](/wiki/Thread-local_storage \"Thread-local storage\") (`thread_local` in [C\\+\\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B \"C++\"), and in C since [C23](/wiki/C23_%28C_standard_revision%29 \"C23 (C standard revision)\"), and in earlier versions of C if the header `<threads.h>` is included) storage class specifier, introduced in [C11](/wiki/C11_%28C_standard_revision%29 \"C11 (C standard revision)\"), is used to declare a thread\\-local variable. It can be combined with {{code\\|static}} or {{code\\|extern}} to determine linkage.", "Note that storage specifiers apply only to functions and objects; other things such as type and enum declarations are private to the compilation unit in which they appear. Types, on the other hand, have qualifiers (see below).", "" ]
### Arrays #### Array definition Arrays are used in C to represent structures of consecutive elements of the same type. The definition of a (fixed\-size) array has the following syntax: int array\[100]; which defines an array named *array* to hold 100 values of the primitive type {{code\|int}}. If declared within a function, the array dimension may also be a non\-constant expression, in which case memory for the specified number of elements will be allocated. In most contexts in later use, a mention of the variable *array* is converted to a pointer to the first item in the array. The [{{code\|sizeof}}](/wiki/Sizeof "Sizeof") operator is an exception: {{code\|sizeof array}} yields the size of the entire array (that is, 100 times the size of an {{code\|int}}, and {{code\|sizeof(array) / sizeof(int)}} will return 100\). Another exception is the \& (address\-of) operator, which yields a pointer to the entire array, for example int (\*ptr\_to\_array)\[100] \= \&array; #### Accessing elements The primary facility for accessing the values of the elements of an array is the array subscript operator. To access the *i*\-indexed element of *array*, the syntax would be {{code\|array\[i]}}, which refers to the value stored in that array element. Array subscript numbering begins at 0 (see [Zero\-based indexing](/wiki/Zero-based_indexing "Zero-based indexing")). The largest allowed array subscript is therefore equal to the number of elements in the array minus 1\. To illustrate this, consider an array *a* declared as having 10 elements; the first element would be {{code\|a\[0]}} and the last element would be {{code\|a\[9]}}. C provides no facility for automatic [bounds checking](/wiki/Bounds_checking "Bounds checking") for array usage. Though logically the last subscript in an array of 10 elements would be 9, subscripts 10, 11, and so forth could accidentally be specified, with undefined results. Due to arrays and pointers being interchangeable, the addresses of each of the array elements can be expressed in equivalent [pointer arithmetic](/wiki/Pointer_arithmetic "Pointer arithmetic"). The following table illustrates both methods for the existing array: | \+ Array subscripts vs. pointer arithmetic | Element | First | Second | Third | *n*th | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Array subscript | {{C\-lang\|array\[0]}} | {{C\-lang\|array\[1]}} | {{C\-lang\|array\[2]}} | {{C\-lang\|array\[n \- 1]}} | | Dereferenced pointer | {{C\-lang\|\*array}} | {{C\-lang\|\*(array \+ 1\)}} | {{C\-lang\|\*(array \+ 2\)}} | {{C\-lang\|\*(array \+ n \- 1\)}} | Since the expression {{code\|a\[i]}} is semantically equivalent to {{code\|\*(a\+i)}}, which in turn is equivalent to {{code\|\*(i\+a)}}, the expression can also be written as {{code\|i\[a]}}, although this form is rarely used. #### Variable\-length arrays [C99](/wiki/C99 "C99") standardised [variable\-length arrays](/wiki/Variable-length_array "Variable-length array") (VLAs) within block scope. Such array variables are allocated based on the value of an integer value at runtime upon entry to a block, and are deallocated at the end of the block. As of [C11](/wiki/C11_%28C_standard_revision%29 "C11 (C standard revision)") this feature is no longer required to be implemented by the compiler. int n \= ...; int a\[n]; a\[3] \= 10; This syntax produces an array whose size is fixed until the end of the block. #### Dynamic arrays {{main\|C dynamic memory allocation}} Arrays that can be resized dynamically can be produced with the help of the [C standard library](/wiki/C_standard_library "C standard library"). The `[malloc](/wiki/Malloc "Malloc")` function provides a simple method for allocating memory. It takes one parameter: the amount of memory to allocate in bytes. Upon successful allocation, {{code\|malloc}} returns a generic ({{code\|void}}) pointer value, pointing to the beginning of the allocated space. The pointer value returned is converted to an appropriate type implicitly by assignment. If the allocation could not be completed, {{code\|malloc}} returns a [null pointer](/wiki/Null_pointer "Null pointer"). The following segment is therefore similar in function to the above desired declaration: \#include \<stdlib.h\> /\* declares malloc \*/ ... int \*a \= malloc(n \* sizeof \*a); a\[3] \= 10; The result is a "pointer to {{code\|int}}" variable (*a*) that points to the first of *n* contiguous {{code\|int}} objects; due to array–pointer equivalence this can be used in place of an actual array name, as shown in the last line. The advantage in using this [dynamic allocation](/wiki/Dynamic_allocation "Dynamic allocation") is that the amount of memory that is allocated to it can be limited to what is actually needed at run time, and this can be changed as needed (using the standard library function [{{code\|realloc}}](/wiki/Realloc "Realloc")). When the dynamically allocated memory is no longer needed, it should be released back to the run\-time system. This is done with a call to the {{code\|free}} function. It takes a single parameter: a pointer to previously allocated memory. This is the value that was returned by a previous call to {{code\|malloc}}. As a security measure, some programmers {{who\|date\=August 2020}} then set the pointer variable to {{code\|NULL}}: free(a); a \= NULL; This ensures that further attempts to dereference the pointer, on most systems, will crash the program. If this is not done, the variable becomes a [dangling pointer](/wiki/Dangling_pointer "Dangling pointer") which can lead to a use\-after\-free bug. However, if the pointer is a local variable, setting it to {{code\|NULL}} does not prevent the program from using other copies of the pointer. Local use\-after\-free bugs are usually easy for [static analyzers](/wiki/Static_analyzer "Static analyzer") to recognize. Therefore, this approach is less useful for local pointers and it is more often used with pointers stored in long\-living structs. In general though, setting pointers to {{code\|NULL}} is good practice {{according to whom\|date\=August 2020}} as it allows a programmer to {{code\|NULL}}\-check pointers prior to dereferencing, thus helping prevent crashes. Recalling the array example, one could also create a fixed\-size array through dynamic allocation: int (\*a)\[100] \= malloc(sizeof \*a); ...Which yields a pointer\-to\-array. Accessing the pointer\-to\-array can be done in two ways: (\*a)\[index]; index\[\*a]; Iterating can also be done in two ways: for (int i \= 0; i \< 100; i\+\+) ``` (*a)[i]; ``` for (int \*i \= a\[0]; i \< a\[1]; i\+\+) ``` *i; ``` The benefit to using the second example is that the numeric limit of the first example isn't required, which means that the pointer\-to\-array could be of any size and the second example can execute without any modifications. #### Multidimensional arrays In addition, C supports arrays of multiple dimensions, which are stored in [row\-major order](/wiki/Row-major_order "Row-major order"). Technically, C multidimensional arrays are just one\-dimensional arrays whose elements are arrays. The syntax for declaring multidimensional arrays is as follows: int array2d\[ROWS]\[COLUMNS]; where *ROWS* and *COLUMNS* are constants. This defines a two\-dimensional array. Reading the subscripts from left to right, *array2d* is an array of length *ROWS*, each element of which is an array of *COLUMNS* integers. To access an integer element in this multidimensional array, one would use array2d\[4]\[3] Again, reading from left to right, this accesses the 5th row, and the 4th element in that row. The expression {{code\|array2d\[4]}} is an array, which we are then subscripting with \[3] to access the fourth integer. | \+ Array subscripts vs. pointer arithmetic{{cite book\|last\=Balagurusamy\|first\=E\|title\=Programming in ANSI C\|publisher\=Tata McGraw Hill\|pages\=366}} | Element | First | Second row, second column | *i*th row, *j*th column | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Array subscript | {{C\-lang\|array\[0]\[0]}} | {{C\-lang\|array\[1]\[1]}} | {{C\-lang\|array\[i \- 1]\[j \- 1]}} | | Dereferenced pointer | {{C\-lang\|\*(\*(array \+ 0\) \+ 0\)}} | {{C\-lang\|\*(\*(array \+ 1\) \+ 1\)}} | {{C\-lang\|\*(\*(array \+ i \- 1\) \+ j \- 1\)}} | Higher\-dimensional arrays can be declared in a similar manner. A multidimensional array should not be confused with an array of pointers to arrays (also known as an [Iliffe vector](/wiki/Iliffe_vector "Iliffe vector") or sometimes an *array of arrays*). The former is always rectangular (all subarrays must be the same size), and occupies a contiguous region of memory. The latter is a one\-dimensional array of pointers, each of which may point to the first element of a subarray in a different place in memory, and the sub\-arrays do not have to be the same size. The latter can be created by multiple uses of {{code\|malloc}}.
[ "### Arrays", "#### Array definition", "Arrays are used in C to represent structures of consecutive elements of the same type. The definition of a (fixed\\-size) array has the following syntax:", "int array\\[100];", "which defines an array named *array* to hold 100 values of the primitive type {{code\\|int}}. If declared within a function, the array dimension may also be a non\\-constant expression, in which case memory for the specified number of elements will be allocated. In most contexts in later use, a mention of the variable *array* is converted to a pointer to the first item in the array. The [{{code\\|sizeof}}](/wiki/Sizeof \"Sizeof\") operator is an exception: {{code\\|sizeof array}} yields the size of the entire array (that is, 100 times the size of an {{code\\|int}}, and {{code\\|sizeof(array) / sizeof(int)}} will return 100\\). Another exception is the \\& (address\\-of) operator, which yields a pointer to the entire array, for example", "int (\\*ptr\\_to\\_array)\\[100] \\= \\&array;", "#### Accessing elements", "The primary facility for accessing the values of the elements of an array is the array subscript operator. To access the *i*\\-indexed element of *array*, the syntax would be {{code\\|array\\[i]}}, which refers to the value stored in that array element.", "Array subscript numbering begins at 0 (see [Zero\\-based indexing](/wiki/Zero-based_indexing \"Zero-based indexing\")). The largest allowed array subscript is therefore equal to the number of elements in the array minus 1\\. To illustrate this, consider an array *a* declared as having 10 elements; the first element would be {{code\\|a\\[0]}} and the last element would be {{code\\|a\\[9]}}.", "C provides no facility for automatic [bounds checking](/wiki/Bounds_checking \"Bounds checking\") for array usage. Though logically the last subscript in an array of 10 elements would be 9, subscripts 10, 11, and so forth could accidentally be specified, with undefined results.", "Due to arrays and pointers being interchangeable, the addresses of each of the array elements can be expressed in equivalent [pointer arithmetic](/wiki/Pointer_arithmetic \"Pointer arithmetic\"). The following table illustrates both methods for the existing array:", "", "| \\+ Array subscripts vs. pointer arithmetic | Element | First | Second | Third | *n*th |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Array subscript | {{C\\-lang\\|array\\[0]}} | {{C\\-lang\\|array\\[1]}} | {{C\\-lang\\|array\\[2]}} | {{C\\-lang\\|array\\[n \\- 1]}} |\n| Dereferenced pointer | {{C\\-lang\\|\\*array}} | {{C\\-lang\\|\\*(array \\+ 1\\)}} | {{C\\-lang\\|\\*(array \\+ 2\\)}} | {{C\\-lang\\|\\*(array \\+ n \\- 1\\)}} |", "Since the expression {{code\\|a\\[i]}} is semantically equivalent to {{code\\|\\*(a\\+i)}}, which in turn is equivalent to {{code\\|\\*(i\\+a)}}, the expression can also be written as {{code\\|i\\[a]}}, although this form is rarely used.", "#### Variable\\-length arrays", "[C99](/wiki/C99 \"C99\") standardised [variable\\-length arrays](/wiki/Variable-length_array \"Variable-length array\") (VLAs) within block scope. Such array variables are allocated based on the value of an integer value at runtime upon entry to a block, and are deallocated at the end of the block. As of [C11](/wiki/C11_%28C_standard_revision%29 \"C11 (C standard revision)\") this feature is no longer required to be implemented by the compiler.", "", "int n \\= ...;\nint a\\[n];\na\\[3] \\= 10;", "", "This syntax produces an array whose size is fixed until the end of the block.", "#### Dynamic arrays", "{{main\\|C dynamic memory allocation}}\nArrays that can be resized dynamically can be produced with the help of the [C standard library](/wiki/C_standard_library \"C standard library\"). The `[malloc](/wiki/Malloc \"Malloc\")` function provides a simple method for allocating memory. It takes one parameter: the amount of memory to allocate in bytes. Upon successful allocation, {{code\\|malloc}} returns a generic ({{code\\|void}}) pointer value, pointing to the beginning of the allocated space. The pointer value returned is converted to an appropriate type implicitly by assignment. If the allocation could not be completed, {{code\\|malloc}} returns a [null pointer](/wiki/Null_pointer \"Null pointer\"). The following segment is therefore similar in function to the above desired declaration:", "", "\\#include \\<stdlib.h\\> /\\* declares malloc \\*/\n...\nint \\*a \\= malloc(n \\* sizeof \\*a);\na\\[3] \\= 10;", "", "The result is a \"pointer to {{code\\|int}}\" variable (*a*) that points to the first of *n* contiguous {{code\\|int}} objects; due to array–pointer equivalence this can be used in place of an actual array name, as shown in the last line. The advantage in using this [dynamic allocation](/wiki/Dynamic_allocation \"Dynamic allocation\") is that the amount of memory that is allocated to it can be limited to what is actually needed at run time, and this can be changed as needed (using the standard library function [{{code\\|realloc}}](/wiki/Realloc \"Realloc\")).", "When the dynamically allocated memory is no longer needed, it should be released back to the run\\-time system. This is done with a call to the {{code\\|free}} function. It takes a single parameter: a pointer to previously allocated memory. This is the value that was returned by a previous call to {{code\\|malloc}}.", "As a security measure, some programmers {{who\\|date\\=August 2020}} then set the pointer variable to {{code\\|NULL}}:", "", "free(a);\na \\= NULL;", "", "This ensures that further attempts to dereference the pointer, on most systems, will crash the program. If this is not done, the variable becomes a [dangling pointer](/wiki/Dangling_pointer \"Dangling pointer\") which can lead to a use\\-after\\-free bug. However, if the pointer is a local variable, setting it to {{code\\|NULL}} does not prevent the program from using other copies of the pointer. Local use\\-after\\-free bugs are usually easy for [static analyzers](/wiki/Static_analyzer \"Static analyzer\") to recognize. Therefore, this approach is less useful for local pointers and it is more often used with pointers stored in long\\-living structs. In general though, setting pointers to {{code\\|NULL}} is good practice {{according to whom\\|date\\=August 2020}} as it allows a programmer to {{code\\|NULL}}\\-check pointers prior to dereferencing, thus helping prevent crashes.", "Recalling the array example, one could also create a fixed\\-size array through dynamic allocation:", "", "int (\\*a)\\[100] \\= malloc(sizeof \\*a);", "", "...Which yields a pointer\\-to\\-array.", "Accessing the pointer\\-to\\-array can be done in two ways:", "(\\*a)\\[index];", "index\\[\\*a];", "Iterating can also be done in two ways:", "for (int i \\= 0; i \\< 100; i\\+\\+)", "```\n (*a)[i];", "```", "for (int \\*i \\= a\\[0]; i \\< a\\[1]; i\\+\\+)", "```\n *i;", "```", "", "The benefit to using the second example is that the numeric limit of the first example isn't required, which means that the pointer\\-to\\-array could be of any size and the second example can execute without any modifications.", "#### Multidimensional arrays", "In addition, C supports arrays of multiple dimensions, which are stored in [row\\-major order](/wiki/Row-major_order \"Row-major order\"). Technically, C multidimensional arrays are just one\\-dimensional arrays whose elements are arrays. The syntax for declaring multidimensional arrays is as follows:\n int array2d\\[ROWS]\\[COLUMNS];", "where *ROWS* and *COLUMNS* are constants. This defines a two\\-dimensional array. Reading the subscripts from left to right, *array2d* is an array of length *ROWS*, each element of which is an array of *COLUMNS* integers.", "To access an integer element in this multidimensional array, one would use\n array2d\\[4]\\[3]", "Again, reading from left to right, this accesses the 5th row, and the 4th element in that row. The expression {{code\\|array2d\\[4]}} is an array, which we are then subscripting with \\[3] to access the fourth integer.", "", "| \\+ Array subscripts vs. pointer arithmetic{{cite book\\|last\\=Balagurusamy\\|first\\=E\\|title\\=Programming in ANSI C\\|publisher\\=Tata McGraw Hill\\|pages\\=366}} | Element | First | Second row, second column | *i*th row, *j*th column |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Array subscript | {{C\\-lang\\|array\\[0]\\[0]}} | {{C\\-lang\\|array\\[1]\\[1]}} | {{C\\-lang\\|array\\[i \\- 1]\\[j \\- 1]}} |\n| Dereferenced pointer | {{C\\-lang\\|\\*(\\*(array \\+ 0\\) \\+ 0\\)}} | {{C\\-lang\\|\\*(\\*(array \\+ 1\\) \\+ 1\\)}} | {{C\\-lang\\|\\*(\\*(array \\+ i \\- 1\\) \\+ j \\- 1\\)}} |", "Higher\\-dimensional arrays can be declared in a similar manner.", "A multidimensional array should not be confused with an array of pointers to arrays (also known as an [Iliffe vector](/wiki/Iliffe_vector \"Iliffe vector\") or sometimes an *array of arrays*). The former is always rectangular (all subarrays must be the same size), and occupies a contiguous region of memory. The latter is a one\\-dimensional array of pointers, each of which may point to the first element of a subarray in a different place in memory, and the sub\\-arrays do not have to be the same size. The latter can be created by multiple uses of {{code\\|malloc}}.", "" ]
### Strings {{main \| C string handling}} In C, string literals are surrounded by double quotes ({{code\|"}}) (e.g., {{code\|"Hello world!"}}) and are compiled to an array of the specified {{code\|char}} values with an additional [null terminating character](/wiki/Null_terminating_character "Null terminating character") (0\-valued) code to mark the end of the string. [String literals](/wiki/String_literal "String literal") may not contain embedded newlines; this proscription somewhat simplifies parsing of the language. To include a newline in a string, the [backslash escape](/wiki/%23Backslash_escapes "#Backslash escapes") {{code\|\\n}} may be used, as below. There are several standard library functions for operating with string data (not necessarily constant) organized as array of {{code\|char}} using this null\-terminated format; see [below](/wiki/%23Library_functions "#Library functions"). C's string\-literal syntax has been very influential, and has made its way into many other languages, such as C\+\+, Objective\-C, Perl, Python, PHP, Java, JavaScript, C\#, and Ruby. Nowadays, almost all new languages adopt or build upon C\-style string syntax. Languages that lack this syntax tend to precede C. #### Backslash escapes {{main\|Escape sequences in C}} Because certain characters cannot be part of a literal string expression directly, they are instead identified by an escape sequence starting with a backslash ({{code\|\\}}). For example, the backslashes in {{code\|"This string contains \\"double quotes\\"."}} indicate (to the compiler) that the inner pair of quotes are intended as an actual part of the string, rather than the default reading as a delimiter (endpoint) of the string itself. Backslashes may be used to enter various control characters, etc., into a string: | Escape | Meaning | | --- | --- | | {{code\|\\\\}} | Literal backslash | | {{code\|\\"}} | Double quote | | {{code\|\\'}} | Single quote | | {{code\|\\n}} | Newline (line feed) | | {{code\|\\r}} | Carriage return | | {{code\|\\b}} | Backspace | | {{code\|\\t}} | Horizontal tab | | {{code\|\\f}} | Form feed | | {{code\|\\a}} | Alert (bell) | | {{code\|\\v}} | Vertical tab | | {{code\|\\?}} | Question mark (used to escape [trigraphs](/wiki/C_trigraph "C trigraph"), obsolete features dropped in C23\) | | {{code\|%%}} | Percentage mark, [printf format strings](/wiki/Printf_format_string "Printf format string") only (Note \\% is non standard and is not always recognised) | | `\OOO` | Character with octal value *OOO* (where *OOO* is 1\-3 octal digits, '0'\-'7') | | `\xHH` | Character with hexadecimal value *HH* (where *HH* is 1 or more hex digits, '0'\-'9','A'\-'F','a'\-'f') | The use of other backslash escapes is not defined by the C standard, although compiler vendors often provide additional escape codes as language extensions. One of these is the escape sequence `\e` for the [escape character](/wiki/Escape_character "Escape character") with ASCII hex value 1B which was not added to the C standard due to lacking representation in other [character sets](/wiki/Character_set "Character set") (such as [EBCDIC](/wiki/EBCDIC "EBCDIC")). It is available in [GCC](/wiki/GNU_Compiler_Collection "GNU Compiler Collection"), [clang](/wiki/Clang "Clang") and [tcc](/wiki/Tiny_C_Compiler "Tiny C Compiler"). #### String literal concatenation C has [string literal concatenation](/wiki/String_literal_concatenation "String literal concatenation"), meaning that adjacent string literals are concatenated at compile time; this allows long strings to be split over multiple lines, and also allows string literals resulting from [C preprocessor](/wiki/C_preprocessor "C preprocessor") defines and macros to be appended to strings at compile time: ``` printf(__FILE__ ": %d: Hello " "world\n", __LINE__); ``` will expand to ``` printf("helloworld.c" ": %d: Hello " "world\n", 10); ``` which is syntactically equivalent to ``` printf("helloworld.c: %d: Hello world\n", 10); ``` #### Character constants Individual character constants are single\-quoted, e.g. {{code\|'A'}}, and have type {{code\|int}} (in C\+\+, {{code\|char}}). The difference is that {{code\|"A"}} represents a null\-terminated array of two characters, 'A' and '\\0', whereas {{code\|'A'}} directly represents the character value (65 if ASCII is used). The same backslash\-escapes are supported as for strings, except that (of course) {{code\|"}} can validly be used as a character without being escaped, whereas {{code\|'}} must now be escaped. A character constant cannot be empty (i.e. {{code\|*}} is invalid syntax), although a string may be (it still has the null terminating character). Multi\-character constants (e.g. {{code\|'xy'}}) are valid, although rarely useful — they let one store several characters in an integer (e.g. 4 ASCII characters can fit in a 32\-bit integer, 8 in a 64\-bit one). Since the order in which the characters are packed into an {{code\|int}} is not specified (left to the implementation to define), portable use of multi\-character constants is difficult.* Nevertheless, in situations limited to a specific platform and the compiler implementation, multicharacter constants do find their use in specifying signatures. One common use case is the [OSType](/wiki/OSType "OSType"), where the combination of Classic Mac OS compilers and its inherent big\-endianness means that bytes in the integer appear in the exact order of characters defined in the literal. The definition by popular "implementations" are in fact consistent: in GCC, Clang, and [Visual C\+\+](/wiki/Visual_C%2B%2B "Visual C++"), {{code\|'1234'}} yields `0x31323334` under ASCII.{{cite web \|title\=The C Preprocessor: Implementation\-defined behavior \|url\=https://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/cpp/Implementation\-defined\-behavior.html \|website\=gcc.gnu.org}}{{cite web \|title\=String and character literals (C\+\+) \|url\=https://docs.microsoft.com/en\-us/cpp/cpp/string\-and\-character\-literals\-cpp?view\=vs\-2019\#code\-try\-2 \|website\=Visual C\+\+ 19 Documentation \|access\-date\=20 November 2019 \|language\=en\-us}} Like string literals, character constants can also be modified by prefixes, for example {{code\|L'A'}} has type {{code\|wchar\_t}} and represents the character value of "A" in the wide character encoding. #### Wide character strings Since type {{code\|char}} is 1 byte wide, a single {{code\|char}} value typically can represent at most 255 distinct character codes, not nearly enough for all the characters in use worldwide. To provide better support for international characters, the first C standard (C89\) introduced [wide characters](/wiki/Wide_character "Wide character") (encoded in type {{code\|wchar\_t}}) and wide character strings, which are written as {{code\|L"Hello world!"}} Wide characters are most commonly either 2 bytes (using a 2\-byte encoding such as [UTF\-16](/wiki/UTF-16 "UTF-16")) or 4 bytes (usually [UTF\-32](/wiki/UTF-32 "UTF-32")), but Standard C does not specify the width for {{code\|wchar\_t}}, leaving the choice to the implementor. [Microsoft Windows](/wiki/Microsoft_Windows "Microsoft Windows") generally uses UTF\-16, thus the above string would be 26 bytes long for a Microsoft compiler; the [Unix](/wiki/Unix "Unix") world prefers UTF\-32, thus compilers such as GCC would generate a 52\-byte string. A 2\-byte wide {{code\|wchar\_t}} suffers the same limitation as {{code\|char}}, in that certain characters (those outside the [BMP](/wiki/Basic_Multilingual_Plane "Basic Multilingual Plane")) cannot be represented in a single {{code\|wchar\_t}}; but must be represented using [surrogate pairs](/wiki/Surrogate_pair "Surrogate pair"). The original C standard specified only minimal functions for operating with wide character strings; in 1995 the standard was modified to include much more extensive support, comparable to that for {{code\|char}} strings. The relevant functions are mostly named after their {{code\|char}} equivalents, with the addition of a "w" or the replacement of "str" with "wcs"; they are specified in {{code\|}}, with {{code\|}} containing wide\-character classification and mapping functions. The now generally recommended methodsee [UTF\-8](/wiki/UTF-8 "UTF-8") first section for references of supporting international characters is through [UTF\-8](/wiki/UTF-8 "UTF-8"), which is stored in {{code\|char}} arrays, and can be written directly in the source code if using a UTF\-8 editor, because UTF\-8 is a direct [ASCII extension](/wiki/Extended_ASCII "Extended ASCII"). #### Variable width strings A common alternative to {{code\|wchar\_t}} is to use a [variable\-width encoding](/wiki/Variable-width_encoding "Variable-width encoding"), whereby a logical character may extend over multiple positions of the string. Variable\-width strings may be encoded into literals verbatim, at the risk of confusing the compiler, or using numerical backslash escapes (e.g. {{code\|"\\xc3\\xa9"}} for "é" in UTF\-8\). The [UTF\-8](/wiki/UTF-8 "UTF-8") encoding was specifically designed (under [Plan 9](/wiki/Plan_9_from_Bell_Labs "Plan 9 from Bell Labs")) for compatibility with the standard library string functions; supporting features of the encoding include a lack of embedded nulls, no valid interpretations for subsequences, and trivial resynchronisation. Encodings lacking these features are likely to prove incompatible with the standard library functions; encoding\-aware string functions are often used in such cases. #### Library functions [Strings](/wiki/String_%28computer_science%29 "String (computer science)"), both constant and variable, can be manipulated without using the [standard library](/wiki/Standard_library "Standard library"). However, the library contains many [useful functions](/wiki/C_string_handling "C string handling") for working with null\-terminated strings. ### Structures and unions #### Structures Structures and [unions](/wiki/Union_type "Union type") in C are defined as data containers consisting of a sequence of named members of various types. They are similar to records in other programming languages. The members of a structure are stored in consecutive locations in memory, although the compiler is allowed to insert padding between or after members (but not before the first member) for efficiency or as padding required for proper [alignment](/wiki/Data_structure_alignment "Data structure alignment") by the target architecture. The size of a structure is equal to the sum of the sizes of its members, plus the size of the padding. #### Unions Unions in C are related to structures and are defined as objects that may hold (at different times) objects of different types and sizes. They are analogous to variant records in other programming languages. Unlike structures, the components of a union all refer to the same location in memory. In this way, a union can be used at various times to hold different types of objects, without the need to create a separate object for each new type. The size of a union is equal to the size of its largest component type. #### Declaration Structures are declared with the [{{code\|struct}}](/wiki/Struct_%28C_programming_language%29 "Struct (C programming language)") keyword and unions are declared with the {{code\|union}} keyword. The specifier keyword is followed by an optional identifier name, which is used to identify the form of the structure or union. The identifier is followed by the declaration of the structure or union's body: a list of member declarations, contained within curly braces, with each declaration terminated by a semicolon. Finally, the declaration concludes with an optional list of identifier names, which are declared as instances of the structure or union. For example, the following statement declares a structure named {{code\|s}} that contains three members; it will also declare an instance of the structure known as {{code\|tee}}: struct s { ``` int x; float y; char *z; ``` } tee; And the following statement will declare a similar union named {{code\|u}} and an instance of it named {{code\|n}}: union u { ``` int x; float y; char *z; ``` } n; Members of structures and unions cannot have an incomplete or function type. Thus members cannot be an instance of the structure or union being declared (because it is incomplete at that point) but can be pointers to the type being declared. Once a structure or union body has been declared and given a name, it can be considered a new data type using the specifier {{code\|struct}} or {{code\|union}}, as appropriate, and the name. For example, the following statement, given the above structure declaration, declares a new instance of the structure {{code\|s}} named {{code\|r}}: struct s r; It is also common to use the `[typedef](/wiki/Typedef "Typedef")` specifier to eliminate the need for the {{code\|struct}} or {{code\|union}} keyword in later references to the structure. The first identifier after the body of the structure is taken as the new name for the structure type (structure instances may not be declared in this context). For example, the following statement will declare a new type known as s\_type *that will contain some structure:* typedef struct {...} s\_type; Future statements can then use the specifier s\_type *(instead of the expanded {{code\|struct}} ... specifier) to refer to the structure.* #### Accessing members Members are accessed using the name of the instance of a structure or union, a period ({{code\|.}}), and the name of the member. For example, given the declaration of tee *from above, the member known as* y *(of type {{code\|float}}) can be accessed using the following syntax:* tee.y Structures are commonly accessed through pointers. Consider the following example that defines a pointer to tee*, known as* ptr\_to\_tee*:* struct s \*ptr\_to\_tee \= \&tee; Member y *of* tee *can then be accessed by dereferencing* ptr\_to\_tee *and using the result as the left operand:* (\*ptr\_to\_tee).y Which is identical to the simpler {{code\|tee.y}} above as long as ptr\_to\_tee *points to* tee*. Due to [operator precedence](/wiki/Operators_in_C_and_C%2B%2B%23Operator_precedence "Operators in C and C++#Operator precedence") ("." being higher than "\*"), the shorter `*ptr_to_tee.y` is incorrect for this purpose, instead being parsed as `*(ptr_to_tee.y)` and thus the parentheses are necessary. Because this operation is common, C provides an [abbreviated syntax](/wiki/Syntactic_sugar "Syntactic sugar") for accessing a member directly from a pointer. With this syntax, the name of the instance is replaced with the name of the pointer and the period is replaced with the character sequence {{code\|\-\>}}. Thus, the following method of accessing* y *is identical to the previous two:* ptr\_to\_tee\-\>y Members of unions are accessed in the same way. This can be chained; for example, in a linked list, one may refer to `n->next->next` for the second following node (assuming that `n->next` is not null). #### Assignment Assigning values to individual members of structures and unions is syntactically identical to assigning values to any other object. The only difference is that the lvalue *of the assignment is the name of the member, as accessed by the syntax mentioned above.* A structure can also be assigned as a unit to another structure of the same type. Structures (and pointers to structures) may also be used as function parameter and return types. For example, the following statement assigns the value of 74 (the ASCII code point for the letter 't') to the member named x *in the structure* tee*, from above:* tee.x \= 74; And the same assignment, using ptr\_to\_tee *in place of* tee*, would look like:* ptr\_to\_tee\-\>x \= 74; Assignment with members of unions is identical. #### Other operations According to the C standard, the only legal operations that can be performed on a structure are copying it, assigning to it as a unit (or initializing it), taking its address with the address\-of ({{code\|\&}}) unary operator, and accessing its members. Unions have the same restrictions. One of the operations implicitly forbidden is comparison: structures and unions cannot be compared using C's standard comparison facilities ({{code\|1\=\=\=}}, {{code\|\>}}, {{code\|\<}}, etc.). #### Bit fields C also provides a special type of member known as a [bit field](/wiki/Bit_field "Bit field"), which is an integer with an explicitly specified number of bits. A bit field is declared as a structure (or union) member of type {{code\|int}}, {{code\|signed int}}, {{code\|unsigned int}}, or {{code\|\_Bool}},Other implementation\-defined types are also allowed. C\+\+ allows using all integral and enumerated types and a lot of C compilers do the same. following the member name by a colon ({{code\|:}}) and the number of bits it should occupy. The total number of bits in a single bit field must not exceed the total number of bits in its declared type (this is allowed in C\+\+ however, where the extra bits are used for padding). As a special exception to the usual C syntax rules, it is implementation\-defined whether a bit field declared as type {{code\|int}}, without specifying {{code\|signed}} or {{code\|unsigned}}, is signed or unsigned. Thus, it is recommended to explicitly specify {{code\|signed}} or {{code\|unsigned}} on all structure members for portability. Unnamed fields consisting of just a colon followed by a number of bits are also allowed; these indicate [padding](/wiki/Data_padding "Data padding"). Specifying a width of zero for an unnamed field is used to force [alignment](/wiki/Data_structure_alignment "Data structure alignment") to a new word.Kernighan \& Richie Since all members of a union occupy the same memory, unnamed bit\-fields of width zero do nothing in unions, however unnamed bit\-fields of non zero width can change the size of the union since they have to fit in it. The members of bit fields do not have addresses, and as such cannot be used with the address\-of ({{code\|\&}}) unary operator. The {{code\|sizeof}} operator may not be applied to bit fields. The following declaration declares a new structure type known as {{code\|f}} and an instance of it known as {{code\|g}}. Comments provide a description of each of the members: struct f { ``` unsigned int flag : 1; /* a bit flag: can either be on (1) or off (0) */ signed int num : 4; /* a signed 4-bit field; range -7...7 or -8...7 */ signed int : 3; /* 3 bits of padding to round out to 8 bits */ ``` } g; ### Initialization Default initialization depends on the [storage class specifier](/wiki/%23Storage_class_specifiers "#Storage class specifiers"), described above. Because of the language's grammar, a scalar initializer may be enclosed in any number of curly brace pairs. Most compilers issue a warning if there is more than one such pair, though. int x \= 12; int y \= { 23 }; //Legal, no warning int z \= { { 34 } }; //Legal, expect a warning Structures, unions and arrays can be initialized in their declarations using an initializer list. Unless designators are used, the components of an initializer correspond with the elements in the order they are defined and stored, thus all preceding values must be provided before any particular element's value. Any unspecified elements are set to zero (except for unions). Mentioning too many initialization values yields an error. The following statement will initialize a new instance of the structure s *known as* pi*: struct s { ``` int x; float y; char *z; ``` };* struct s pi \= { 3, 3\.1415, "Pi" }; #### Designated initializers Designated initializers allow members to be initialized by name, in any order, and without explicitly providing the preceding values. The following initialization is equivalent to the previous one: struct s pi \= { .z \= "Pi", .x \= 3, .y \= 3\.1415 }; Using a designator in an initializer moves the initialization "cursor". In the example below, if `MAX` is greater than 10, there will be some zero\-valued elements in the middle of `a`; if it is less than 10, some of the values provided by the first five initializers will be overridden by the second five (if `MAX` is less than 5, there will be a compilation error): int a\[MAX] \= { 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, \[MAX\-5] \= 8, 6, 4, 2, 0 }; In [C89](/wiki/C89_%28C_version%29 "C89 (C version)"), a union was initialized with a single value applied to its first member. That is, the union u *defined above could only have its* int x *member initialized: union u value \= { 3 };* Using a designated initializer, the member to be initialized does not have to be the first member: union u value \= { .y \= 3\.1415 }; If an array has unknown size (i.e. the array was an [incomplete type](/wiki/%23Incomplete_types "#Incomplete types")), the number of initializers determines the size of the array and its type becomes complete: int x\[] \= { 0, 1, 2 } ; Compound designators can be used to provide explicit initialization when unadorned initializer lists might be misunderstood. In the example below, `w` is declared as an array of structures, each structure consisting of a member `a` (an array of 3 `int`) and a member `b` (an `int`). The initializer sets the size of `w` to 2 and sets the values of the first element of each `a`: struct { int a\[3], b; } w\[] \= { \[0].a \= {1}, \[1].a\[0] \= 2 }; This is equivalent to:struct { int a\[3], b; } w\[] \= { ``` { { 1, 0, 0 }, 0 }, { { 2, 0, 0 }, 0 } ``` }; There is no way to specify repetition of an initializer in standard C. #### Compound literals It is possible to borrow the initialization methodology to generate compound structure and array literals: // pointer created from array literal. int \*ptr \= (int\[]){ 10, 20, 30, 40 }; // pointer to array. float (\*foo)\[3] \= \&(float\[]){ 0\.5f, 1\.f, \-0\.5f }; struct s pi \= (struct s){ 3, 3\.1415, "Pi" }; Compound literals are often combined with designated initializers to make the declaration more readable: pi \= (struct s){ .z \= "Pi", .x \= 3, .y \= 3\.1415 }; Operators --------- {{main\|Operators in C and C\+\+}} Control structures ------------------ C is a [free\-form language](/wiki/Free-form_language "Free-form language"). [Bracing style](/wiki/Indentation_style "Indentation style") varies from [programmer](/wiki/Computer_programming "Computer programming") to programmer and can be the subject of debate. See [Indentation style](/wiki/Indentation_style "Indentation style") for more details. ### Compound statements In the items in this section, any \<statement\> can be replaced with a **compound statement**. Compound statements have the form: { ``` <optional-declaration-list> <optional-statement-list> ``` } and are used as the body of a function or anywhere that a single statement is expected. The declaration\-list declares variables to be used in that [scope](/wiki/Scope_%28programming%29 "Scope (programming)"), and the statement\-list are the actions to be performed. Brackets define their own scope, and variables defined inside those brackets will be automatically deallocated at the closing bracket. Declarations and statements can be freely intermixed within a compound statement (as in [C\+\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B "C++")). ### Selection statements C has two types of [selection statements](/wiki/Selection_statement "Selection statement"): the [{{code\|if}} statement](/wiki/If_statement "If statement") and the [{{code\|switch}} statement](/wiki/Switch_statement "Switch statement"). The {{code\|if}} statement is in the form: if (\<expression\>) ``` <statement1> ``` else ``` <statement2> ``` In the {{code\|if}} statement, if the {{code\|}} in parentheses is nonzero (true), control passes to {{code\|}}. If the {{code\|else}} clause is present and the {{code\|}} is zero (false), control will pass to {{code\|}}. The {{code\|else }} part is optional and, if absent, a false {{code\|}} will simply result in skipping over the {{code\|}}. An {{code\|else}} always matches the nearest previous unmatched {{code\|if}}; braces may be used to override this when necessary, or for clarity. The {{code\|switch}} statement causes control to be transferred to one of several statements depending on the value of an [expression](/wiki/Expression_%28mathematics%29 "Expression (mathematics)"), which must have [integral type](/wiki/Integral_type "Integral type"). The substatement controlled by a switch is typically compound. Any statement within the substatement may be labeled with one or more {{code\|case}} labels, which consist of the keyword {{code\|case}} followed by a constant expression and then a colon (:). The syntax is as follows: switch (\<expression\>) { ``` case <label1> : <statements 1> case <label2> : <statements 2> break; default : <statements 3> ``` } No two of the case constants associated with the same switch may have the same value. There may be at most one {{code\|default}} label associated with a switch. If none of the case labels are equal to the expression in the parentheses following {{code\|switch}}, control passes to the {{code\|default}} label or, if there is no {{code\|default}} label, execution resumes just beyond the entire construct. Switches may be nested; a {{code\|case}} or {{code\|default}} label is associated with the innermost {{code\|switch}} that contains it. Switch statements can "fall through", that is, when one case section has completed its execution, statements will continue to be executed downward until a {{code\|break;}} statement is encountered. Fall\-through is useful in some circumstances, but is usually not desired. In the preceding example, if {{code\|}} is reached, the statements {{code\|}} are executed and nothing more inside the braces. However, if {{code\|}} is reached, both {{code\|}} and {{code\|}} are executed since there is no {{code\|break}} to separate the two case statements. It is possible, although unusual, to insert the {{code\|switch}} labels into the sub\-blocks of other control structures. Examples of this include [Duff's device](/wiki/Duff%27s_device "Duff's device") and [Simon Tatham](/wiki/Simon_Tatham "Simon Tatham")'s implementation of [coroutines](/wiki/Coroutine "Coroutine") in [Putty](/wiki/Putty_%28SSH%29 "Putty (SSH)").{{cite web \| first\=Simon \| last\=Tatham \| author\-link\=Simon Tatham \| date\=2000 \| url\=https://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/\~sgtatham/coroutines.html \| title \= Coroutines in C\| access\-date\=2017\-04\-30}} ### Iteration statements C has three forms of [iteration](/wiki/Iteration "Iteration") statement: do ``` <statement> ``` while ( \<expression\> ) ; while ( \<expression\> ) ``` <statement> ``` for ( \<expression\> ; \<expression\> ; \<expression\> ) ``` <statement> ``` In the [{{code\|while}}](/wiki/While_loop "While loop") and {{code\|do}} statements, the sub\-statement is executed repeatedly so long as the value of the {{code\|expression}} remains non\-zero (equivalent to true). With {{code\|while}}, the test, including all side effects from {{code\|}}, occurs before each iteration (execution of {{code\|}}); with {{code\|do}}, the test occurs after each iteration. Thus, a {{code\|do}} statement always executes its sub\-statement at least once, whereas {{code\|while}} may not execute the sub\-statement at all. The statement: for (e1; e2; e3\) ``` s; ``` is equivalent to: e1; while (e2\) { ``` s; ``` cont: ``` e3; ``` } except for the behaviour of a {{code\|continue;}} statement (which in the {{code\|for}} loop jumps to {{code\|e3}} instead of {{code\|e2}}). If {{code\|e2}} is blank, it would have to be replaced with a {{code\|1}}. Any of the three expressions in the {{code\|for}} loop may be omitted. A missing second expression makes the {{code\|while}} test always non\-zero, creating a potentially infinite loop. Since [C99](/wiki/C99 "C99"), the first expression may take the form of a declaration, typically including an initializer, such as: for (int i \= 0; i \< limit; \+\+i) { ``` // ... ``` } The declaration's scope is limited to the extent of the {{code\|for}} loop. ### Jump statements Jump statements transfer control unconditionally. There are four types of [jump statements](/wiki/Branch_%28computer_science%29 "Branch (computer science)") in C: [{{code\|goto}}](/wiki/GOTO "GOTO"), {{code\|continue}}, {{code\|break}}, and [{{code\|return}}](/wiki/Return_statement "Return statement"). The {{code\|goto}} statement looks like this: goto \<identifier\> ; The [identifier](/wiki/Identifier "Identifier") must be a [label](/wiki/Label_%28programming_language%29 "Label (programming language)") (followed by a colon) located in the current function. Control transfers to the labeled statement. A {{code\|continue}} statement may appear only within an [iteration statement](/wiki/C_syntax%23Iteration_statements "C syntax#Iteration statements") and causes control to pass to the loop\-continuation portion of the innermost enclosing iteration statement. That is, within each of the statements while (expression) { ``` /* ... */ cont: ; ``` } do { ``` /* ... */ cont: ; ``` } while (expression); for (expr1; expr2; expr3\) { ``` /* ... */ cont: ; ``` } a {{code\|continue}} not contained within a nested iteration statement is the same as {{code\|goto cont}}. The {{code\|break}} statement is used to end a {{code\|for}} loop, {{code\|while}} loop, {{code\|do}} loop, or {{code\|switch}} statement. Control passes to the statement following the terminated statement. A function returns to its caller by the {{code\|return}} statement. When {{code\|return}} is followed by an expression, the value is returned to the caller as the value of the function. Encountering the end of the function is equivalent to a {{code\|return}} with no expression. In that case, if the function is declared as returning a value and the caller tries to use the returned value, the result is undefined. #### Storing the address of a label [GCC](/wiki/GNU_Compiler_Collection "GNU Compiler Collection") extends the C language with a unary {{code\|\&\&}} operator that returns the address of a label. This address can be stored in a {{code\|void\*}} variable type and may be used later in a {{code\|goto}} instruction. For example, the following prints {{code\|"hi "}} in an infinite loop: ``` void *ptr = &&J1; ``` J1: printf("hi "); ``` goto *ptr; ``` This feature can be used to implement a [jump table](/wiki/Jump_table "Jump table"). Functions --------- ### Syntax A C function definition consists of a [return type](/wiki/Return_type "Return type") ({{code\|void}} if no value is returned), a unique name, a list of parameters in parentheses, and various statements: \<return\-type\> functionName( \<parameter\-list\> ) { ``` <statements> return <expression of type return-type>; ``` } A function with non\-{{code\|void}} return type should include at least one {{code\|return}} statement. The parameters are given by the {{code\|}}, a comma\-separated list of parameter declarations, each item in the list being a data type followed by an identifier: {{code\| , , ...}}. The return type cannot be an array type or function type. int f()\[3]; // Error: function returning an array int (\*g())\[3]; // OK: function returning a pointer to an array. void h()(); // Error: function returning a function void (\*k())(); // OK: function returning a function pointer If there are no parameters, the {{code\|}} may be left empty or optionally be specified with the single word {{code\|void}}. It is possible to define a function as taking a variable number of parameters by providing the {{code\|...}} keyword as the last parameter instead of a data type ad variable identifier. A commonly used function that does this is the standard library function {{code\|printf}}, which has the declaration: int printf (const char\*, ...); Manipulation of these parameters can be done by using the routines in the standard library header [{{code\|}}](/wiki/Stdarg.h "Stdarg.h"). #### Function Pointers A pointer to a function can be declared as follows: \<return\-type\> (\*\<function\-name\>)(\<parameter\-list\>); The following program shows use of a [function pointer](/wiki/Function_pointer "Function pointer") for selecting between addition and subtraction: \#include \<stdio.h\> int (\*operation)(int x, int y); int add(int x, int y) { ``` return x + y; ``` } int subtract(int x, int y) { ``` return x - y; ``` } int main(int argc, char\* args\[]) { ``` int foo = 1, bar = 1; ``` ``` operation = add; printf("%d + %d = %d\n", foo, bar, operation(foo, bar)); operation = subtract; printf("%d - %d = %d\n", foo, bar, operation(foo, bar)); return 0; ``` } ### Global structure After preprocessing, at the highest level a [C](/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29 "C (programming language)") [program](/wiki/Computer_program "Computer program") consists of a sequence of declarations at file scope. These may be partitioned into several separate source files, which may be compiled separately; the resulting object modules are then [linked](/wiki/Linker_%28computing%29 "Linker (computing)") along with implementation\-provided run\-time support modules to produce an executable image. The declarations introduce [functions](/wiki/Function_%28programming%29 "Function (programming)"), [variables](/wiki/Variable_%28programming%29 "Variable (programming)") and [types](/wiki/Data_type "Data type"). C functions are akin to the subroutines of [Fortran](/wiki/Fortran "Fortran") or the procedures of [Pascal](/wiki/Pascal_%28programming_language%29 "Pascal (programming language)"). A definition *is a special type of declaration. A variable definition sets aside storage and possibly initializes it, a function definition provides its body.* An implementation of C providing all of the standard library functions is called a hosted implementation*. Programs written for hosted implementations are required to define a special function called [{{code\|main}}](/wiki/Entry_point "Entry point"), which is the first function called when a program begins executing.* Hosted implementations start program execution by invoking the {{code\|main}} function, which must be defined following one of these prototypes (using different parameter names or spelling the types differently is allowed): int main() {...} int main(void) {...} int main(int argc, char \*argv\[]) {...} int main(int argc, char \*\*argv) {...} // char \*argv\[] and char \*\*argv have the same type as function parameters The first two definitions are equivalent (and both are compatible with C\+\+). It is probably up to individual preference which one is used (the current C standard contains two examples of {{code\|main()}} and two of {{code\|main(void)}}, but the draft C\+\+ standard uses {{code\|main()}}). The return value of {{code\|main}} (which should be {{code\|int}}) serves as termination status *returned to the host environment.* The C standard defines return values {{code\|0}} and {{code\|EXIT\_SUCCESS}} as indicating success and {{code\|EXIT\_FAILURE}} as indicating failure. ({{code\|EXIT\_SUCCESS}} and {{code\|EXIT\_FAILURE}} are defined in [{{code\|}}](/wiki/Stdlib.h "Stdlib.h")). Other return values have implementation\-defined meanings; for example, under [Linux](/wiki/Linux "Linux") a program killed by a [signal](/wiki/Signal_%28computing%29 "Signal (computing)") yields a return code of the numerical value of the signal plus 128\. A minimal correct C program consists of an empty {{code\|main}} routine, taking no arguments and doing nothing: int main(void){} Because no `return` statement is present, `main` returns 0 on exit. (This is a special\-case feature introduced in [C99](/wiki/C99 "C99") that applies only to `main`.) The {{code\|main}} function will usually call other functions to help it perform its job. Some implementations are not hosted, usually because they are not intended to be used with an [operating system](/wiki/Operating_system "Operating system"). Such implementations are called free\-standing *in the C standard. A free\-standing implementation is free to specify how it handles program startup; in particular it need not require a program to define a {{code\|main}} function.* Functions may be written by the programmer or provided by existing libraries. Interfaces for the latter are usually declared by including header files—with the {{code\|\#include}} [preprocessing directive](/wiki/Preprocessing_directive "Preprocessing directive")—and the library objects are linked into the final executable image. Certain library functions, such as [{{code\|printf}}](/wiki/Printf "Printf"), are defined by the C standard; these are referred to as the [standard library](/wiki/ISO_C_standard_library "ISO C standard library") functions. A function may return a value to caller (usually another C function, or the hosting environment for the function {{code\|main}}). The {{code\|printf}} function mentioned above returns how many characters were printed, but this value is often ignored. ### Argument passing In C, arguments are passed to functions [by value](/wiki/Pass_by_value "Pass by value") while other languages may pass variables [by reference](/wiki/Pass_by_reference "Pass by reference"). This means that the receiving function gets copies of the values and has no direct way of altering the original variables. For a function to alter a variable passed from another function, the caller must pass its address *(a* pointer *to it), which can then be dereferenced in the receiving function. See [Pointers](/wiki/C_syntax%23Pointers "C syntax#Pointers") for more information.* void incInt(int \*y) { ``` (*y)++; // Increase the value of 'x', in 'main' below, by one ``` } int main(void) { ``` int x = 0; incInt(&x); // pass a reference to the var 'x' return 0; ``` } The function [scanf](/wiki/Scanf "Scanf") works the same way: int x; scanf("%d", \&x); In order to pass an editable pointer to a function (such as for the purpose of returning an allocated array to the calling code) you have to pass a pointer to that *pointer: its address.* \#include \<stdio.h\> \#include \<stdlib.h\> void allocate\_array(int \*\* const a\_p, const int A) { /\* ``` allocate array of A ints assigning to *a_p alters the 'a' in main() ``` \*/ ``` *a_p = malloc(sizeof(int) * A); ``` } int main(void) { ``` int * a; /* create a pointer to one or more ints, this will be the array */ ``` ``` /* pass the address of 'a' */ allocate_array(&a, 42); ``` /\* 'a' is now an array of length 42 and can be manipulated and freed here \*/ ``` free(a); return 0; ``` } The parameter {{code\|int \*\*a\_p}} is a pointer to a pointer to an {{code\|int}}, which is the address of the pointer {{code\|p}} defined in the main *function in this case.* #### Array parameters Function parameters of array type may at first glance appear to be an exception to C's pass\-by\-value rule. The following program will print 2, not 1: \#include \<stdio.h\> void setArray(int array\[], int index, int value) { ``` array[index] = value; ``` } int main(void) { ``` int a[1] = {1}; setArray(a, 0, 2); printf ("a[0]=%d\n", a[0]); return 0; ``` } However, there is a different reason for this behavior. In fact, a function parameter declared with an array type is treated like one declared to be a pointer. That is, the preceding declaration of {{code\|setArray}} is equivalent to the following: void setArray(int \*array, int index, int value) At the same time, C rules for the use of arrays in expressions cause the value of {{code\|a}} in the call to {{code\|setArray}} to be converted to a pointer to the first element of array {{code\|a}}. Thus, in fact this is still an example of pass\-by\-value, with the caveat that it is the address of the first element of the array being passed by value, not the contents of the array. Since C99, the programmer can specify that a function takes an array of a certain size by using the keyword {{code\|static}}. In `void setArray(int array[static 4], int index, int value)` the first parameter must be a pointer to the first element of an array of length at least 4\. It is also possible to add qualifiers (`const`, `volatile` and `restrict`) to the pointer type that the array is converted to by putting them between the brackets. ### Anonymous functions {{Excerpt\|Anonymous function\|C (non\-standard extension)}} Miscellaneous ------------- ### Reserved keywords The following words are [reserved](/wiki/Reserved_word "Reserved word"), and may not be used as identifiers: {{col\-begin}} {{col\-break\|width\=20%}} {{mono\|\_Alignas}} {{mono\|\_Alignof}} {{mono\|\_Atomic}} {{mono\|auto}} {{mono\|\_Bool}} {{mono\|break}} {{mono\|case}} {{mono\|char}} {{mono\|\_Complex}} {{mono\|const}} {{mono\|continue}} {{mono\|default}} {{mono\|do}} {{col\-break\|width\=20%}} {{mono\|double}} {{mono\|else}} {{mono\|enum}} {{mono\|extern}} {{mono\|float}} {{mono\|for}} {{mono\|\_Generic}} {{mono\|goto}} {{mono\|if}} {{mono\|\_Imaginary}} {{mono\|inline}} {{col\-break\|width\=20%}} {{mono\|int}} {{mono\|long}} {{mono\|\_Noreturn}} {{mono\|register}} {{mono\|restrict}} {{mono\|return}} {{mono\|short}} {{mono\|signed}} {{mono\|sizeof}} {{mono\|static}} {{mono\|struct}} {{col\-break}} {{mono\|switch}} {{mono\|\_Thread\_local}} {{mono\|typedef}} {{mono\|union}} {{mono\|unsigned}} {{mono\|void}} {{mono\|volatile}} {{mono\|while}} {{col\-end}} Implementations may reserve other keywords, such as {{code\|asm}}, although implementations typically provide non\-standard keywords that begin with one or two underscores. ### Case sensitivity C identifiers are case sensitive (e.g., {{code\|foo}}, {{code\|FOO}}, and {{code\|Foo}} are the names of different objects). Some linkers may map external identifiers to a single case, although this is uncommon in most modern linkers. ### Comments Text starting with the [token](/wiki/Lexical_analysis%23Token "Lexical analysis#Token") {{code\|/\*}} is treated as a [comment](/wiki/Comment_%28computer_programming%29 "Comment (computer programming)") and ignored. The comment ends at the next {{code\|\*/}}; it can occur within expressions, and can span multiple lines. Accidental omission of the comment terminator is problematic in that the next comment's properly constructed comment terminator will be used to terminate the initial comment, and all code in between the comments will be considered as a comment. C\-style comments do not nest; that is, accidentally placing a comment within a comment has unintended results: /\* This line will be ignored. /\* A compiler warning may be produced here. These lines will also be ignored. The comment opening token above did not start a new comment, and the comment closing token below will close the comment begun on line 1\. \*/ This line and the line below it will not be ignored. Both will likely produce compile errors. \*/ [C\+\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B "C++") style line comments start with {{code\|//}} and extend to the end of the line. This style of comment originated in [BCPL](/wiki/BCPL "BCPL") and became valid C syntax in [C99](/wiki/C99 "C99"); it is not available in the original K\&R C nor in [ANSI C](/wiki/ANSI_C "ANSI C"): // this line will be ignored by the compiler /\* these lines ``` will be ignored by the compiler */ ``` x \= \*p/\*q; /\* this comment starts after the 'p' \*/ ### Command\-line arguments The [parameters](/wiki/Parameter "Parameter") given on a [command line](/wiki/Command_line "Command line") are passed to a C program with two predefined variables \- the count of the command\-line arguments in {{code\|argc}} and the individual [arguments](/wiki/Parameter "Parameter") as [character strings](/wiki/Character_string "Character string") in the pointer array {{code\|argv}}. So the command: ``` myFilt p1 p2 p3 ``` results in something like: | m | y | F | i | l | t |\\0 p | 1 |\\0 p | 2 |\\0 p | 3 |\\0 |argv\[0]argv\[1]argv\[2]argv\[3] While individual strings are arrays of contiguous characters, there is no guarantee that the strings are stored as a contiguous group. The name of the program, {{code\|argv\[0]}}, may be useful when printing diagnostic messages or for making one binary serve multiple purposes. The individual values of the parameters may be accessed with {{code\|argv\[1]}}, {{code\|argv\[2]}}, and {{code\|argv\[3]}}, as shown in the following program: \#include \<stdio.h\> int main(int argc, char \*argv\[]) { ``` printf("argc\t= %d\n", argc); for (int i = 0; i < argc; i++) printf("argv[%i]\t= %s\n", i, argv[i]); ``` } ### Evaluation order In any reasonably complex expression, there arises a choice as to the order in which to evaluate the parts of the expression: {{C\-lang\|(1\+1\)\+(3\+3\)}} may be evaluated in the order {{C\-lang\|(1\+1\)\+(3\+3\)}}, {{C\-lang\|(2\)\+(3\+3\)}}, {{C\-lang\|(2\)\+(6\)}}, {{C\-lang\|(8\)}}, or in the order {{C\-lang\|(1\+1\)\+(3\+3\)}}, {{C\-lang\|(1\+1\)\+(6\)}}, {{C\-lang\|(2\)\+(6\)}}, {{C\-lang\|(8\)}}. Formally, a conforming C compiler may evaluate expressions in any *order between* [sequence points](/wiki/Sequence_point "Sequence point") *(this allows the compiler to do some optimization). Sequence points are defined by:* * Statement ends *at semicolons. The* * sequencing operator*: a comma. However, commas that delimit function arguments are not sequence points. The* * short\-circuit operators*: logical* and *({{code\|\&\&}}, which can be read* and then*) and logical* or *(`||`, which can be read* or else*). The* * [ternary operator](/wiki/%3F:) *({{code\|?:}}): This operator evaluates its first sub\-expression first, and then its second or third (never both of them) based on the value of the first. Entry to and exit from a* * function call *(but not between evaluations of the arguments).* Expressions before a sequence point are always evaluated before those after a sequence point. In the case of short\-circuit evaluation, the second expression may not be evaluated depending on the result of the first expression. For example, in the expression {{C\-lang\|(a() {{!}}{{!}} b())}}, if the first argument evaluates to nonzero (true), the result of the entire expression cannot be anything else than true, so {{code\|b()}} is not evaluated. Similarly, in the expression {{C\-lang\|(a() \&\& b())}}, if the first argument evaluates to zero (false), the result of the entire expression cannot be anything else than false, so {{code\|b()}} is not evaluated. The arguments to a function call may be evaluated in any order, as long as they are all evaluated by the time the function is entered. The following expression, for example, has undefined behavior: ``` printf("%s %s\n", argv[i = 0], argv[++i]); ``` ### Undefined behavior {{main\|Undefined behavior}} {{unreferenced section\|date\=November 2011}} An aspect of the C standard (not unique to C) is that the behavior of certain code is said to be "undefined". In practice, this means that the program produced from this code can do anything, from working as the programmer intended, to crashing every time it is run. For example, the following code produces undefined behavior, because the variable b *is modified more than once with no intervening sequence point:* \#include \<stdio.h\> int main(void) { ``` int b = 1; int a = b++ + b++; printf("%d\n", a); ``` } Because there is no sequence point between the modifications of b *in "*b*\+\+ \+* b''\+\+", it is possible to perform the evaluation steps in more than one order, resulting in an ambiguous statement. This can be fixed by rewriting the code to insert a sequence point in order to enforce an unambiguous behavior, for example: a \= b\+\+; a \+\= b\+\+;
[ "### Strings", "{{main \\| C string handling}}", "In C, string literals are surrounded by double quotes ({{code\\|\"}}) (e.g., {{code\\|\"Hello world!\"}}) and are compiled to an array of the specified {{code\\|char}} values with an additional [null terminating character](/wiki/Null_terminating_character \"Null terminating character\") (0\\-valued) code to mark the end of the string.", "[String literals](/wiki/String_literal \"String literal\") may not contain embedded newlines; this proscription somewhat simplifies parsing of the language. To include a newline in a string, the [backslash escape](/wiki/%23Backslash_escapes \"#Backslash escapes\") {{code\\|\\\\n}} may be used, as below.", "There are several standard library functions for operating with string data (not necessarily constant) organized as array of {{code\\|char}} using this null\\-terminated format; see [below](/wiki/%23Library_functions \"#Library functions\").", "C's string\\-literal syntax has been very influential, and has made its way into many other languages, such as C\\+\\+, Objective\\-C, Perl, Python, PHP, Java, JavaScript, C\\#, and Ruby. Nowadays, almost all new languages adopt or build upon C\\-style string syntax. Languages that lack this syntax tend to precede C.", "#### Backslash escapes", "{{main\\|Escape sequences in C}}\nBecause certain characters cannot be part of a literal string expression directly, they are instead identified by an escape sequence starting with a backslash ({{code\\|\\\\}}). For example, the backslashes in {{code\\|\"This string contains \\\\\"double quotes\\\\\".\"}} indicate (to the compiler) that the inner pair of quotes are intended as an actual part of the string, rather than the default reading as a delimiter (endpoint) of the string itself.", "Backslashes may be used to enter various control characters, etc., into a string:", "| Escape | Meaning |\n| --- | --- |\n| {{code\\|\\\\\\\\}} | Literal backslash |\n| {{code\\|\\\\\"}} | Double quote |\n| {{code\\|\\\\'}} | Single quote |\n| {{code\\|\\\\n}} | Newline (line feed) |\n| {{code\\|\\\\r}} | Carriage return |\n| {{code\\|\\\\b}} | Backspace |\n| {{code\\|\\\\t}} | Horizontal tab |\n| {{code\\|\\\\f}} | Form feed |\n| {{code\\|\\\\a}} | Alert (bell) |\n| {{code\\|\\\\v}} | Vertical tab |\n| {{code\\|\\\\?}} | Question mark (used to escape [trigraphs](/wiki/C_trigraph \"C trigraph\"), obsolete features dropped in C23\\) |\n| {{code\\|%%}} | Percentage mark, [printf format strings](/wiki/Printf_format_string \"Printf format string\") only (Note \\\\% is non standard and is not always recognised) |\n| `\\OOO` | Character with octal value *OOO* (where *OOO* is 1\\-3 octal digits, '0'\\-'7') |\n| `\\xHH` | Character with hexadecimal value *HH* (where *HH* is 1 or more hex digits, '0'\\-'9','A'\\-'F','a'\\-'f') |", "", "The use of other backslash escapes is not defined by the C standard, although compiler vendors often provide additional escape codes as language extensions. One of these is the escape sequence `\\e` for the [escape character](/wiki/Escape_character \"Escape character\") with ASCII hex value 1B which was not added to the C standard due to lacking representation in other [character sets](/wiki/Character_set \"Character set\") (such as [EBCDIC](/wiki/EBCDIC \"EBCDIC\")). It is available in [GCC](/wiki/GNU_Compiler_Collection \"GNU Compiler Collection\"), [clang](/wiki/Clang \"Clang\") and [tcc](/wiki/Tiny_C_Compiler \"Tiny C Compiler\").", "#### String literal concatenation", "C has [string literal concatenation](/wiki/String_literal_concatenation \"String literal concatenation\"), meaning that adjacent string literals are concatenated at compile time; this allows long strings to be split over multiple lines, and also allows string literals resulting from [C preprocessor](/wiki/C_preprocessor \"C preprocessor\") defines and macros to be appended to strings at compile time:", "```\n printf(__FILE__ \": %d: Hello \"\n \"world\\n\", __LINE__);", "```", "will expand to", "```\n printf(\"helloworld.c\" \": %d: Hello \"\n \"world\\n\", 10);", "```", "which is syntactically equivalent to", "```\n printf(\"helloworld.c: %d: Hello world\\n\", 10);", "```", "", "#### Character constants", "Individual character constants are single\\-quoted, e.g. {{code\\|'A'}}, and have type {{code\\|int}} (in C\\+\\+, {{code\\|char}}). The difference is that {{code\\|\"A\"}} represents a null\\-terminated array of two characters, 'A' and '\\\\0', whereas {{code\\|'A'}} directly represents the character value (65 if ASCII is used). The same backslash\\-escapes are supported as for strings, except that (of course) {{code\\|\"}} can validly be used as a character without being escaped, whereas {{code\\|'}} must now be escaped.", "A character constant cannot be empty (i.e. {{code\\|*}} is invalid syntax), although a string may be (it still has the null terminating character). Multi\\-character constants (e.g. {{code\\|'xy'}}) are valid, although rarely useful — they let one store several characters in an integer (e.g. 4 ASCII characters can fit in a 32\\-bit integer, 8 in a 64\\-bit one). Since the order in which the characters are packed into an {{code\\|int}} is not specified (left to the implementation to define), portable use of multi\\-character constants is difficult.*", "Nevertheless, in situations limited to a specific platform and the compiler implementation, multicharacter constants do find their use in specifying signatures. One common use case is the [OSType](/wiki/OSType \"OSType\"), where the combination of Classic Mac OS compilers and its inherent big\\-endianness means that bytes in the integer appear in the exact order of characters defined in the literal. The definition by popular \"implementations\" are in fact consistent: in GCC, Clang, and [Visual C\\+\\+](/wiki/Visual_C%2B%2B \"Visual C++\"), {{code\\|'1234'}} yields `0x31323334` under ASCII.{{cite web \\|title\\=The C Preprocessor: Implementation\\-defined behavior \\|url\\=https://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/cpp/Implementation\\-defined\\-behavior.html \\|website\\=gcc.gnu.org}}{{cite web \\|title\\=String and character literals (C\\+\\+) \\|url\\=https://docs.microsoft.com/en\\-us/cpp/cpp/string\\-and\\-character\\-literals\\-cpp?view\\=vs\\-2019\\#code\\-try\\-2 \\|website\\=Visual C\\+\\+ 19 Documentation \\|access\\-date\\=20 November 2019 \\|language\\=en\\-us}}\nLike string literals, character constants can also be modified by prefixes, for example {{code\\|L'A'}} has type {{code\\|wchar\\_t}} and represents the character value of \"A\" in the wide character encoding.\n#### Wide character strings", "Since type {{code\\|char}} is 1 byte wide, a single {{code\\|char}} value typically can represent at most 255 distinct character codes, not nearly enough for all the characters in use worldwide. To provide better support for international characters, the first C standard (C89\\) introduced [wide characters](/wiki/Wide_character \"Wide character\") (encoded in type {{code\\|wchar\\_t}}) and wide character strings, which are written as {{code\\|L\"Hello world!\"}}\nWide characters are most commonly either 2 bytes (using a 2\\-byte encoding such as [UTF\\-16](/wiki/UTF-16 \"UTF-16\")) or 4 bytes (usually [UTF\\-32](/wiki/UTF-32 \"UTF-32\")), but Standard C does not specify the width for {{code\\|wchar\\_t}}, leaving the choice to the implementor. [Microsoft Windows](/wiki/Microsoft_Windows \"Microsoft Windows\") generally uses UTF\\-16, thus the above string would be 26 bytes long for a Microsoft compiler; the [Unix](/wiki/Unix \"Unix\") world prefers UTF\\-32, thus compilers such as GCC would generate a 52\\-byte string. A 2\\-byte wide {{code\\|wchar\\_t}} suffers the same limitation as {{code\\|char}}, in that certain characters (those outside the [BMP](/wiki/Basic_Multilingual_Plane \"Basic Multilingual Plane\")) cannot be represented in a single {{code\\|wchar\\_t}}; but must be represented using [surrogate pairs](/wiki/Surrogate_pair \"Surrogate pair\").\nThe original C standard specified only minimal functions for operating with wide character strings; in 1995 the standard was modified to include much more extensive support, comparable to that for {{code\\|char}} strings. The relevant functions are mostly named after their {{code\\|char}} equivalents, with the addition of a \"w\" or the replacement of \"str\" with \"wcs\"; they are specified in {{code\\|}}, with {{code\\|}} containing wide\\-character classification and mapping functions.\nThe now generally recommended methodsee [UTF\\-8](/wiki/UTF-8 \"UTF-8\") first section for references of supporting international characters is through [UTF\\-8](/wiki/UTF-8 \"UTF-8\"), which is stored in {{code\\|char}} arrays, and can be written directly in the source code if using a UTF\\-8 editor, because UTF\\-8 is a direct [ASCII extension](/wiki/Extended_ASCII \"Extended ASCII\").\n#### Variable width strings", "A common alternative to {{code\\|wchar\\_t}} is to use a [variable\\-width encoding](/wiki/Variable-width_encoding \"Variable-width encoding\"), whereby a logical character may extend over multiple positions of the string. Variable\\-width strings may be encoded into literals verbatim, at the risk of confusing the compiler, or using numerical backslash escapes (e.g. {{code\\|\"\\\\xc3\\\\xa9\"}} for \"é\" in UTF\\-8\\). The [UTF\\-8](/wiki/UTF-8 \"UTF-8\") encoding was specifically designed (under [Plan 9](/wiki/Plan_9_from_Bell_Labs \"Plan 9 from Bell Labs\")) for compatibility with the standard library string functions; supporting features of the encoding include a lack of embedded nulls, no valid interpretations for subsequences, and trivial resynchronisation. Encodings lacking these features are likely to prove incompatible with the standard library functions; encoding\\-aware string functions are often used in such cases.\n#### Library functions", "[Strings](/wiki/String_%28computer_science%29 \"String (computer science)\"), both constant and variable, can be manipulated without using the [standard library](/wiki/Standard_library \"Standard library\"). However, the library contains many [useful functions](/wiki/C_string_handling \"C string handling\") for working with null\\-terminated strings.\n### Structures and unions", "#### Structures", "Structures and [unions](/wiki/Union_type \"Union type\") in C are defined as data containers consisting of a sequence of named members of various types. They are similar to records in other programming languages. The members of a structure are stored in consecutive locations in memory, although the compiler is allowed to insert padding between or after members (but not before the first member) for efficiency or as padding required for proper [alignment](/wiki/Data_structure_alignment \"Data structure alignment\") by the target architecture. The size of a structure is equal to the sum of the sizes of its members, plus the size of the padding.\n#### Unions", "Unions in C are related to structures and are defined as objects that may hold (at different times) objects of different types and sizes. They are analogous to variant records in other programming languages. Unlike structures, the components of a union all refer to the same location in memory. In this way, a union can be used at various times to hold different types of objects, without the need to create a separate object for each new type. The size of a union is equal to the size of its largest component type.\n#### Declaration", "Structures are declared with the [{{code\\|struct}}](/wiki/Struct_%28C_programming_language%29 \"Struct (C programming language)\") keyword and unions are declared with the {{code\\|union}} keyword. The specifier keyword is followed by an optional identifier name, which is used to identify the form of the structure or union. The identifier is followed by the declaration of the structure or union's body: a list of member declarations, contained within curly braces, with each declaration terminated by a semicolon. Finally, the declaration concludes with an optional list of identifier names, which are declared as instances of the structure or union.\nFor example, the following statement declares a structure named {{code\\|s}} that contains three members; it will also declare an instance of the structure known as {{code\\|tee}}:", "struct s {", "```\n int x;\n float y;\n char *z;", "```\n} tee;", "And the following statement will declare a similar union named {{code\\|u}} and an instance of it named {{code\\|n}}:", "union u {", "```\n int x;\n float y;\n char *z;", "```\n} n;", "Members of structures and unions cannot have an incomplete or function type. Thus members cannot be an instance of the structure or union being declared (because it is incomplete at that point) but can be pointers to the type being declared.\nOnce a structure or union body has been declared and given a name, it can be considered a new data type using the specifier {{code\\|struct}} or {{code\\|union}}, as appropriate, and the name. For example, the following statement, given the above structure declaration, declares a new instance of the structure {{code\\|s}} named {{code\\|r}}:\nstruct s r;\nIt is also common to use the `[typedef](/wiki/Typedef \"Typedef\")` specifier to eliminate the need for the {{code\\|struct}} or {{code\\|union}} keyword in later references to the structure. The first identifier after the body of the structure is taken as the new name for the structure type (structure instances may not be declared in this context). For example, the following statement will declare a new type known as s\\_type *that will contain some structure:*", "typedef struct {...} s\\_type;\nFuture statements can then use the specifier s\\_type *(instead of the expanded {{code\\|struct}} ... specifier) to refer to the structure.*", "#### Accessing members", "Members are accessed using the name of the instance of a structure or union, a period ({{code\\|.}}), and the name of the member. For example, given the declaration of tee *from above, the member known as* y *(of type {{code\\|float}}) can be accessed using the following syntax:*", "tee.y\nStructures are commonly accessed through pointers. Consider the following example that defines a pointer to tee*, known as* ptr\\_to\\_tee*:*", "struct s \\*ptr\\_to\\_tee \\= \\&tee;\nMember y *of* tee *can then be accessed by dereferencing* ptr\\_to\\_tee *and using the result as the left operand:*", "(\\*ptr\\_to\\_tee).y\nWhich is identical to the simpler {{code\\|tee.y}} above as long as ptr\\_to\\_tee *points to* tee*. Due to [operator precedence](/wiki/Operators_in_C_and_C%2B%2B%23Operator_precedence \"Operators in C and C++#Operator precedence\") (\".\" being higher than \"\\*\"), the shorter `*ptr_to_tee.y` is incorrect for this purpose, instead being parsed as `*(ptr_to_tee.y)` and thus the parentheses are necessary. Because this operation is common, C provides an [abbreviated syntax](/wiki/Syntactic_sugar \"Syntactic sugar\") for accessing a member directly from a pointer. With this syntax, the name of the instance is replaced with the name of the pointer and the period is replaced with the character sequence {{code\\|\\-\\>}}. Thus, the following method of accessing* y *is identical to the previous two:*", "ptr\\_to\\_tee\\-\\>y\nMembers of unions are accessed in the same way.\nThis can be chained; for example, in a linked list, one may refer to `n->next->next` for the second following node (assuming that `n->next` is not null).\n#### Assignment", "Assigning values to individual members of structures and unions is syntactically identical to assigning values to any other object. The only difference is that the lvalue *of the assignment is the name of the member, as accessed by the syntax mentioned above.*", "A structure can also be assigned as a unit to another structure of the same type. Structures (and pointers to structures) may also be used as function parameter and return types.\nFor example, the following statement assigns the value of 74 (the ASCII code point for the letter 't') to the member named x *in the structure* tee*, from above:*", "tee.x \\= 74;\nAnd the same assignment, using ptr\\_to\\_tee *in place of* tee*, would look like:*", "ptr\\_to\\_tee\\-\\>x \\= 74;\nAssignment with members of unions is identical.\n#### Other operations", "According to the C standard, the only legal operations that can be performed on a structure are copying it, assigning to it as a unit (or initializing it), taking its address with the address\\-of ({{code\\|\\&}}) unary operator, and accessing its members. Unions have the same restrictions. One of the operations implicitly forbidden is comparison: structures and unions cannot be compared using C's standard comparison facilities ({{code\\|1\\=\\=\\=}}, {{code\\|\\>}}, {{code\\|\\<}}, etc.).\n#### Bit fields", "C also provides a special type of member known as a [bit field](/wiki/Bit_field \"Bit field\"), which is an integer with an explicitly specified number of bits. A bit field is declared as a structure (or union) member of type {{code\\|int}}, {{code\\|signed int}}, {{code\\|unsigned int}}, or {{code\\|\\_Bool}},Other implementation\\-defined types are also allowed. C\\+\\+ allows using all integral and enumerated types and a lot of C compilers do the same. following the member name by a colon ({{code\\|:}}) and the number of bits it should occupy. The total number of bits in a single bit field must not exceed the total number of bits in its declared type (this is allowed in C\\+\\+ however, where the extra bits are used for padding).\nAs a special exception to the usual C syntax rules, it is implementation\\-defined whether a bit field declared as type {{code\\|int}}, without specifying {{code\\|signed}} or {{code\\|unsigned}}, is signed or unsigned. Thus, it is recommended to explicitly specify {{code\\|signed}} or {{code\\|unsigned}} on all structure members for portability.\nUnnamed fields consisting of just a colon followed by a number of bits are also allowed; these indicate [padding](/wiki/Data_padding \"Data padding\"). Specifying a width of zero for an unnamed field is used to force [alignment](/wiki/Data_structure_alignment \"Data structure alignment\") to a new word.Kernighan \\& Richie Since all members of a union occupy the same memory, unnamed bit\\-fields of width zero do nothing in unions, however unnamed bit\\-fields of non zero width can change the size of the union since they have to fit in it.\nThe members of bit fields do not have addresses, and as such cannot be used with the address\\-of ({{code\\|\\&}}) unary operator. The {{code\\|sizeof}} operator may not be applied to bit fields.\nThe following declaration declares a new structure type known as {{code\\|f}} and an instance of it known as {{code\\|g}}. Comments provide a description of each of the members:", "struct f {", "```\n unsigned int flag : 1; /* a bit flag: can either be on (1) or off (0) */\n signed int num : 4; /* a signed 4-bit field; range -7...7 or -8...7 */\n signed int : 3; /* 3 bits of padding to round out to 8 bits */", "```\n} g;", "### Initialization", "Default initialization depends on the [storage class specifier](/wiki/%23Storage_class_specifiers \"#Storage class specifiers\"), described above.\nBecause of the language's grammar, a scalar initializer may be enclosed in any number of curly brace pairs. Most compilers issue a warning if there is more than one such pair, though.\nint x \\= 12;\nint y \\= { 23 }; //Legal, no warning\nint z \\= { { 34 } }; //Legal, expect a warning\nStructures, unions and arrays can be initialized in their declarations using an initializer list. Unless designators are used, the components of an initializer correspond with the elements in the order they are defined and stored, thus all preceding values must be provided before any particular element's value. Any unspecified elements are set to zero (except for unions). Mentioning too many initialization values yields an error.\nThe following statement will initialize a new instance of the structure s *known as* pi*:\nstruct s {", "```\n int x;\n float y;\n char *z;", "```\n};*", "struct s pi \\= { 3, 3\\.1415, \"Pi\" };\n#### Designated initializers", "Designated initializers allow members to be initialized by name, in any order, and without explicitly providing the preceding values. The following initialization is equivalent to the previous one:\nstruct s pi \\= { .z \\= \"Pi\", .x \\= 3, .y \\= 3\\.1415 };\nUsing a designator in an initializer moves the initialization \"cursor\". In the example below, if `MAX` is greater than 10, there will be some zero\\-valued elements in the middle of `a`; if it is less than 10, some of the values provided by the first five initializers will be overridden by the second five (if `MAX` is less than 5, there will be a compilation error):\nint a\\[MAX] \\= { 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, \\[MAX\\-5] \\= 8, 6, 4, 2, 0 };\nIn [C89](/wiki/C89_%28C_version%29 \"C89 (C version)\"), a union was initialized with a single value applied to its first member. That is, the union u *defined above could only have its* int x *member initialized:\nunion u value \\= { 3 };*", "Using a designated initializer, the member to be initialized does not have to be the first member:\nunion u value \\= { .y \\= 3\\.1415 }; \nIf an array has unknown size (i.e. the array was an [incomplete type](/wiki/%23Incomplete_types \"#Incomplete types\")), the number of initializers determines the size of the array and its type becomes complete:", "int x\\[] \\= { 0, 1, 2 } ;\nCompound designators can be used to provide explicit initialization when unadorned initializer lists\nmight be misunderstood. In the example below, `w` is declared as an array of structures, each structure consisting of a member `a` (an array of 3 `int`) and a member `b` (an `int`). The initializer sets the size of `w` to 2 and sets the values of the first element of each `a`:\nstruct { int a\\[3], b; } w\\[] \\= { \\[0].a \\= {1}, \\[1].a\\[0] \\= 2 };\nThis is equivalent to:struct { int a\\[3], b; } w\\[] \\=\n{", "```\n { { 1, 0, 0 }, 0 },\n { { 2, 0, 0 }, 0 }", "```\n};\nThere is no way to specify repetition of an initializer in standard C.\n#### Compound literals", "It is possible to borrow the initialization methodology to generate compound structure and array literals:", "// pointer created from array literal.\nint \\*ptr \\= (int\\[]){ 10, 20, 30, 40 };\n// pointer to array.\nfloat (\\*foo)\\[3] \\= \\&(float\\[]){ 0\\.5f, 1\\.f, \\-0\\.5f };\nstruct s pi \\= (struct s){ 3, 3\\.1415, \"Pi\" };", "Compound literals are often combined with designated initializers to make the declaration more readable:\npi \\= (struct s){ .z \\= \"Pi\", .x \\= 3, .y \\= 3\\.1415 };\nOperators\n---------", "{{main\\|Operators in C and C\\+\\+}}\nControl structures\n------------------", "C is a [free\\-form language](/wiki/Free-form_language \"Free-form language\").\n[Bracing style](/wiki/Indentation_style \"Indentation style\") varies from [programmer](/wiki/Computer_programming \"Computer programming\") to programmer and can be the subject of debate. See [Indentation style](/wiki/Indentation_style \"Indentation style\") for more details.\n### Compound statements", "In the items in this section, any \\<statement\\> can be replaced with a **compound statement**. Compound statements have the form:", "{", "```\n <optional-declaration-list>\n <optional-statement-list>", "```\n}", "and are used as the body of a function or anywhere that a single statement is expected. The declaration\\-list declares variables to be used in that [scope](/wiki/Scope_%28programming%29 \"Scope (programming)\"), and the statement\\-list are the actions to be performed. Brackets define their own scope, and variables defined inside those brackets will be automatically\ndeallocated at the closing bracket. Declarations and statements can be freely intermixed within a compound statement (as in [C\\+\\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B \"C++\")).\n### Selection statements", "C has two types of [selection statements](/wiki/Selection_statement \"Selection statement\"): the [{{code\\|if}} statement](/wiki/If_statement \"If statement\") and the [{{code\\|switch}} statement](/wiki/Switch_statement \"Switch statement\").\nThe {{code\\|if}} statement is in the form:", "if (\\<expression\\>)", "```\n <statement1>", "```\nelse", "```\n <statement2>", "```", "In the {{code\\|if}} statement, if the {{code\\|}} in parentheses is nonzero (true), control passes to {{code\\|}}. If the {{code\\|else}} clause is present and the {{code\\|}} is zero (false), control will pass to {{code\\|}}. The {{code\\|else }} part is optional and, if absent, a false {{code\\|}} will simply result in skipping over the {{code\\|}}. An {{code\\|else}} always matches the nearest previous unmatched {{code\\|if}}; braces may be used to override this when necessary, or for clarity.\nThe {{code\\|switch}} statement causes control to be transferred to one of several statements depending on the value of an [expression](/wiki/Expression_%28mathematics%29 \"Expression (mathematics)\"), which must have [integral type](/wiki/Integral_type \"Integral type\"). The substatement controlled by a switch is typically compound. Any statement within the substatement may be labeled with one or more {{code\\|case}} labels, which consist of the keyword {{code\\|case}} followed by a constant expression and then a colon (:). The syntax is as follows:", "switch (\\<expression\\>)\n{", "```\n case <label1> :\n <statements 1>\n case <label2> :\n <statements 2>\n break;\n default :\n <statements 3>", "```\n}", "No two of the case constants associated with the same switch may have the same value. There may be at most one {{code\\|default}} label associated with a switch. If none of the case labels are equal to the expression in the parentheses following {{code\\|switch}}, control passes to the {{code\\|default}} label or, if there is no {{code\\|default}} label, execution resumes just beyond the entire construct.\nSwitches may be nested; a {{code\\|case}} or {{code\\|default}} label is associated with the innermost {{code\\|switch}} that contains it. Switch statements can \"fall through\", that is, when one case section has completed its execution, statements will continue to be executed downward until a {{code\\|break;}} statement is encountered. Fall\\-through is useful in some circumstances, but is usually not desired.\nIn the preceding example, if {{code\\|}} is reached, the statements {{code\\|}} are executed and nothing more inside the braces. However, if {{code\\|}} is reached, both {{code\\|}} and {{code\\|}} are executed since there is no {{code\\|break}} to separate the two case statements.\nIt is possible, although unusual, to insert the {{code\\|switch}} labels into the sub\\-blocks of other control structures. Examples of this include [Duff's device](/wiki/Duff%27s_device \"Duff's device\") and [Simon Tatham](/wiki/Simon_Tatham \"Simon Tatham\")'s implementation of [coroutines](/wiki/Coroutine \"Coroutine\") in [Putty](/wiki/Putty_%28SSH%29 \"Putty (SSH)\").{{cite web \\| first\\=Simon \\| last\\=Tatham \\| author\\-link\\=Simon Tatham \\| date\\=2000 \\| url\\=https://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/\\~sgtatham/coroutines.html \\| title \\= Coroutines in C\\| access\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-30}}\n### Iteration statements", "C has three forms of [iteration](/wiki/Iteration \"Iteration\") statement:", "do", "```\n <statement>", "```\nwhile ( \\<expression\\> ) ;\nwhile ( \\<expression\\> )", "```\n <statement>", "```", "for ( \\<expression\\> ; \\<expression\\> ; \\<expression\\> )", "```\n <statement>", "```", "In the [{{code\\|while}}](/wiki/While_loop \"While loop\") and {{code\\|do}} statements, the sub\\-statement is executed repeatedly so long as the value of the {{code\\|expression}} remains non\\-zero (equivalent to true). With {{code\\|while}}, the test, including all side effects from {{code\\|}}, occurs before each iteration (execution of {{code\\|}}); with {{code\\|do}}, the test occurs after each iteration. Thus, a {{code\\|do}} statement always executes its sub\\-statement at least once, whereas {{code\\|while}} may not execute the sub\\-statement at all.\nThe statement:", "for (e1; e2; e3\\)", "```\n s;", "```", "is equivalent to:", "e1;\nwhile (e2\\)\n{", "```\n s;", "```\ncont:", "```\n e3;", "```\n}", "except for the behaviour of a {{code\\|continue;}} statement (which in the {{code\\|for}} loop jumps to {{code\\|e3}} instead of {{code\\|e2}}). If {{code\\|e2}} is blank, it would have to be replaced with a {{code\\|1}}.\nAny of the three expressions in the {{code\\|for}} loop may be omitted. A missing second expression makes the {{code\\|while}} test always non\\-zero, creating a potentially infinite loop.\nSince [C99](/wiki/C99 \"C99\"), the first expression may take the form of a declaration, typically including an initializer, such as:", "for (int i \\= 0; i \\< limit; \\+\\+i) {", "```\n // ...", "```\n}", "The declaration's scope is limited to the extent of the {{code\\|for}} loop.\n### Jump statements", "Jump statements transfer control unconditionally. There are four types of [jump statements](/wiki/Branch_%28computer_science%29 \"Branch (computer science)\") in C: [{{code\\|goto}}](/wiki/GOTO \"GOTO\"), {{code\\|continue}}, {{code\\|break}}, and [{{code\\|return}}](/wiki/Return_statement \"Return statement\").\nThe {{code\\|goto}} statement looks like this:", "goto \\<identifier\\> ;", "The [identifier](/wiki/Identifier \"Identifier\") must be a [label](/wiki/Label_%28programming_language%29 \"Label (programming language)\") (followed by a colon) located in the current function. Control transfers to the labeled statement.\nA {{code\\|continue}} statement may appear only within an [iteration statement](/wiki/C_syntax%23Iteration_statements \"C syntax#Iteration statements\") and causes control to pass to the loop\\-continuation portion of the innermost enclosing iteration statement. That is, within each of the statements", "while (expression)\n{", "```\n /* ... */\n cont: ;", "```\n}\ndo\n{", "```\n /* ... */\n cont: ;", "```\n} while (expression);\nfor (expr1; expr2; expr3\\) {", "```\n /* ... */\n cont: ;", "```\n}", "a {{code\\|continue}} not contained within a nested iteration statement is the same as {{code\\|goto cont}}.\nThe {{code\\|break}} statement is used to end a {{code\\|for}} loop, {{code\\|while}} loop, {{code\\|do}} loop, or {{code\\|switch}} statement. Control passes to the statement following the terminated statement.\nA function returns to its caller by the {{code\\|return}} statement. When {{code\\|return}} is followed by an expression, the value is returned to the caller as the value of the function. Encountering the end of the function is equivalent to a {{code\\|return}} with no expression. In that case, if the function is declared as returning a value and the caller tries to use the returned value, the result is undefined.\n#### Storing the address of a label", "[GCC](/wiki/GNU_Compiler_Collection \"GNU Compiler Collection\") extends the C language with a unary {{code\\|\\&\\&}} operator that returns the address of a label. This address can be stored in a {{code\\|void\\*}} variable type and may be used later in a {{code\\|goto}} instruction. For example, the following prints {{code\\|\"hi \"}} in an infinite loop:", "```\n void *ptr = &&J1;", "```", "J1: printf(\"hi \");", "```\n goto *ptr;", "```", "This feature can be used to implement a [jump table](/wiki/Jump_table \"Jump table\").\nFunctions\n---------", "### Syntax", "A C function definition consists of a [return type](/wiki/Return_type \"Return type\") ({{code\\|void}} if no value is returned), a unique name, a list of parameters in parentheses, and various statements:", "\\<return\\-type\\> functionName( \\<parameter\\-list\\> )\n{", "```\n <statements>\n return <expression of type return-type>;", "```\n}", "A function with non\\-{{code\\|void}} return type should include at least one {{code\\|return}} statement. The parameters are given by the {{code\\|}}, a comma\\-separated list of parameter declarations, each item in the list being a data type followed by an identifier: {{code\\| , , ...}}.\nThe return type cannot be an array type or function type.", "int f()\\[3]; // Error: function returning an array\nint (\\*g())\\[3]; // OK: function returning a pointer to an array.\nvoid h()(); // Error: function returning a function\nvoid (\\*k())(); // OK: function returning a function pointer", "If there are no parameters, the {{code\\|}} may be left empty or optionally be specified with the single word {{code\\|void}}.\nIt is possible to define a function as taking a variable number of parameters by providing the {{code\\|...}} keyword as the last parameter instead of a data type ad variable identifier. A commonly used function that does this is the standard library function {{code\\|printf}}, which has the declaration:", "int printf (const char\\*, ...);", "Manipulation of these parameters can be done by using the routines in the standard library header [{{code\\|}}](/wiki/Stdarg.h \"Stdarg.h\").\n#### Function Pointers", "A pointer to a function can be declared as follows:", "\\<return\\-type\\> (\\*\\<function\\-name\\>)(\\<parameter\\-list\\>);", "The following program shows use of a [function pointer](/wiki/Function_pointer \"Function pointer\") for selecting between addition and subtraction:", "\\#include \\<stdio.h\\>\nint (\\*operation)(int x, int y);\nint add(int x, int y)\n{", "```\n return x + y;", "```\n}\nint subtract(int x, int y)\n{", "```\n return x - y;", "```\n}\nint main(int argc, char\\* args\\[])\n{", "```\n int foo = 1, bar = 1;", "```", "```\n operation = add;\n printf(\"%d + %d = %d\\n\", foo, bar, operation(foo, bar));\n operation = subtract;\n printf(\"%d - %d = %d\\n\", foo, bar, operation(foo, bar));\n return 0;", "```\n}", "### Global structure", "After preprocessing, at the highest level a [C](/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29 \"C (programming language)\") [program](/wiki/Computer_program \"Computer program\") consists of a sequence of declarations at file scope. These may be partitioned into several separate source files, which may be compiled separately; the resulting object modules are then [linked](/wiki/Linker_%28computing%29 \"Linker (computing)\") along with implementation\\-provided run\\-time support modules to produce an executable image.\nThe declarations introduce [functions](/wiki/Function_%28programming%29 \"Function (programming)\"), [variables](/wiki/Variable_%28programming%29 \"Variable (programming)\") and [types](/wiki/Data_type \"Data type\"). C functions are akin to the subroutines of [Fortran](/wiki/Fortran \"Fortran\") or the procedures of [Pascal](/wiki/Pascal_%28programming_language%29 \"Pascal (programming language)\").\nA definition *is a special type of declaration. A variable definition sets aside storage and possibly initializes it, a function definition provides its body.*", "An implementation of C providing all of the standard library functions is called a hosted implementation*. Programs written for hosted implementations are required to define a special function called [{{code\\|main}}](/wiki/Entry_point \"Entry point\"), which is the first function called when a program begins executing.*", "Hosted implementations start program execution by invoking the {{code\\|main}} function, which must be defined following one of these prototypes (using different parameter names or spelling the types differently is allowed):", "int main() {...}\nint main(void) {...}\nint main(int argc, char \\*argv\\[]) {...}\nint main(int argc, char \\*\\*argv) {...} // char \\*argv\\[] and char \\*\\*argv have the same type as function parameters", "The first two definitions are equivalent (and both are compatible with C\\+\\+). It is probably up to individual preference which one is used (the current C standard contains two examples of {{code\\|main()}} and two of {{code\\|main(void)}}, but the draft C\\+\\+ standard uses {{code\\|main()}}). The return value of {{code\\|main}} (which should be {{code\\|int}}) serves as termination status *returned to the host environment.*", "The C standard defines return values {{code\\|0}} and {{code\\|EXIT\\_SUCCESS}} as indicating success and {{code\\|EXIT\\_FAILURE}} as indicating failure. ({{code\\|EXIT\\_SUCCESS}} and {{code\\|EXIT\\_FAILURE}} are defined in [{{code\\|}}](/wiki/Stdlib.h \"Stdlib.h\")). Other return values have implementation\\-defined meanings; for example, under [Linux](/wiki/Linux \"Linux\") a program killed by a [signal](/wiki/Signal_%28computing%29 \"Signal (computing)\") yields a return code of the numerical value of the signal plus 128\\.\nA minimal correct C program consists of an empty {{code\\|main}} routine, taking no arguments and doing nothing:", "int main(void){}", "Because no `return` statement is present, `main` returns 0 on exit. (This is a special\\-case feature introduced in [C99](/wiki/C99 \"C99\") that applies only to `main`.)\nThe {{code\\|main}} function will usually call other functions to help it perform its job.\nSome implementations are not hosted, usually because they are not intended to be used with an [operating system](/wiki/Operating_system \"Operating system\"). Such implementations are called free\\-standing *in the C standard. A free\\-standing implementation is free to specify how it handles program startup; in particular it need not require a program to define a {{code\\|main}} function.*", "Functions may be written by the programmer or provided by existing libraries. Interfaces for the latter are usually declared by including header files—with the {{code\\|\\#include}} [preprocessing directive](/wiki/Preprocessing_directive \"Preprocessing directive\")—and the library objects are linked into the final executable image. Certain library functions, such as [{{code\\|printf}}](/wiki/Printf \"Printf\"), are defined by the C standard; these are referred to as the [standard library](/wiki/ISO_C_standard_library \"ISO C standard library\") functions.\nA function may return a value to caller (usually another C function, or the hosting environment for the function {{code\\|main}}). The {{code\\|printf}} function mentioned above returns how many characters were printed, but this value is often ignored.\n### Argument passing", "In C, arguments are passed to functions [by value](/wiki/Pass_by_value \"Pass by value\") while other languages may pass variables [by reference](/wiki/Pass_by_reference \"Pass by reference\"). This means that the receiving function gets copies of the values and has no direct way of altering the original variables. For a function to alter a variable passed from another function, the caller must pass its address *(a* pointer *to it), which can then be dereferenced in the receiving function. See [Pointers](/wiki/C_syntax%23Pointers \"C syntax#Pointers\") for more information.*", "void incInt(int \\*y)\n{", "```\n (*y)++; // Increase the value of 'x', in 'main' below, by one", "```\n}\nint main(void)\n{", "```\n int x = 0;\n incInt(&x); // pass a reference to the var 'x'\n return 0;", "```\n}", "The function [scanf](/wiki/Scanf \"Scanf\") works the same way:", "int x;\nscanf(\"%d\", \\&x);", "In order to pass an editable pointer to a function (such as for the purpose of returning an allocated array to the calling code) you have to pass a pointer to that *pointer: its address.*", "\\#include \\<stdio.h\\>\n\\#include \\<stdlib.h\\>\nvoid allocate\\_array(int \\*\\* const a\\_p, const int A) {\n/\\*", "```\nallocate array of A ints\nassigning to *a_p alters the 'a' in main()", "```\n\\*/", "```\n *a_p = malloc(sizeof(int) * A);", "```\n}\nint main(void) {", "```\n int * a; /* create a pointer to one or more ints, this will be the array */", "```", "```\n/* pass the address of 'a' */\n allocate_array(&a, 42);", "```", "/\\* 'a' is now an array of length 42 and can be manipulated and freed here \\*/", "```\n free(a);\n return 0;", "```\n}", "The parameter {{code\\|int \\*\\*a\\_p}} is a pointer to a pointer to an {{code\\|int}}, which is the address of the pointer {{code\\|p}} defined in the main *function in this case.*", "#### Array parameters", "Function parameters of array type may at first glance appear to be an exception to C's pass\\-by\\-value rule. The following program will print 2, not 1:", "\\#include \\<stdio.h\\>\nvoid setArray(int array\\[], int index, int value)\n{", "```\n array[index] = value;", "```\n}\nint main(void)\n{", "```\n int a[1] = {1};\n setArray(a, 0, 2);\n printf (\"a[0]=%d\\n\", a[0]);\n return 0;", "```\n}", "However, there is a different reason for this behavior. In fact, a function parameter declared with an array type is treated like one declared to be a pointer. That is, the preceding declaration of {{code\\|setArray}} is equivalent to the following:", "void setArray(int \\*array, int index, int value)", "At the same time, C rules for the use of arrays in expressions cause the value of {{code\\|a}} in the call to {{code\\|setArray}} to be converted to a pointer to the first element of array {{code\\|a}}. Thus, in fact this is still an example of pass\\-by\\-value, with the caveat that it is the address of the first element of the array being passed by value, not the contents of the array.\nSince C99, the programmer can specify that a function takes an array of a certain size by using the keyword {{code\\|static}}. In `void setArray(int array[static 4], int index, int value)` the first parameter must be a pointer to the first element of an array of length at least 4\\. It is also possible to add qualifiers (`const`, `volatile` and `restrict`) to the pointer type that the array is converted to by putting them between the brackets.\n### Anonymous functions", "{{Excerpt\\|Anonymous function\\|C (non\\-standard extension)}}\nMiscellaneous\n-------------", "### Reserved keywords", "The following words are [reserved](/wiki/Reserved_word \"Reserved word\"), and may not be used as identifiers:\n{{col\\-begin}}\n{{col\\-break\\|width\\=20%}}\n{{mono\\|\\_Alignas}}\n{{mono\\|\\_Alignof}}\n{{mono\\|\\_Atomic}}\n{{mono\\|auto}}\n{{mono\\|\\_Bool}}\n{{mono\\|break}}\n{{mono\\|case}}\n{{mono\\|char}}\n{{mono\\|\\_Complex}}\n{{mono\\|const}}\n{{mono\\|continue}}\n{{mono\\|default}}\n{{mono\\|do}}\n{{col\\-break\\|width\\=20%}}\n{{mono\\|double}}\n{{mono\\|else}}\n{{mono\\|enum}}\n{{mono\\|extern}}\n{{mono\\|float}}\n{{mono\\|for}}\n{{mono\\|\\_Generic}}\n{{mono\\|goto}}\n{{mono\\|if}}\n{{mono\\|\\_Imaginary}}\n{{mono\\|inline}}\n{{col\\-break\\|width\\=20%}}\n{{mono\\|int}}\n{{mono\\|long}}\n{{mono\\|\\_Noreturn}}\n{{mono\\|register}}\n{{mono\\|restrict}}\n{{mono\\|return}}\n{{mono\\|short}}\n{{mono\\|signed}}\n{{mono\\|sizeof}}\n{{mono\\|static}}\n{{mono\\|struct}}\n{{col\\-break}}\n{{mono\\|switch}}\n{{mono\\|\\_Thread\\_local}} \n{{mono\\|typedef}}\n{{mono\\|union}}\n{{mono\\|unsigned}}\n{{mono\\|void}}\n{{mono\\|volatile}}\n{{mono\\|while}}\n{{col\\-end}}\nImplementations may reserve other keywords, such as {{code\\|asm}}, although implementations typically provide non\\-standard keywords that begin with one or two underscores.\n### Case sensitivity", "C identifiers are case sensitive (e.g., {{code\\|foo}}, {{code\\|FOO}}, and {{code\\|Foo}} are the names of different objects). Some linkers may map external identifiers to a single case, although this is uncommon in most modern linkers.\n### Comments", "Text starting with the [token](/wiki/Lexical_analysis%23Token \"Lexical analysis#Token\") {{code\\|/\\*}} is treated as a [comment](/wiki/Comment_%28computer_programming%29 \"Comment (computer programming)\") and ignored. The comment ends at the next {{code\\|\\*/}}; it can occur within expressions, and can span multiple lines. Accidental omission of the comment terminator is problematic in that the next comment's properly constructed comment terminator will be used to terminate the initial comment, and all code in between the comments will be considered as a comment. C\\-style comments do not nest; that is, accidentally placing a comment within a comment has unintended results:", "/\\*\nThis line will be ignored.\n/\\*\nA compiler warning may be produced here. These lines will also be ignored.\nThe comment opening token above did not start a new comment,\nand the comment closing token below will close the comment begun on line 1\\.\n\\*/\nThis line and the line below it will not be ignored. Both will likely produce compile errors.\n\\*/", "[C\\+\\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B \"C++\") style line comments start with {{code\\|//}} and extend to the end of the line. This style of comment originated in [BCPL](/wiki/BCPL \"BCPL\") and became valid C syntax in [C99](/wiki/C99 \"C99\"); it is not available in the original K\\&R C nor in [ANSI C](/wiki/ANSI_C \"ANSI C\"):", "// this line will be ignored by the compiler\n/\\* these lines", "```\n will be ignored\n by the compiler */", "```", "x \\= \\*p/\\*q; /\\* this comment starts after the 'p' \\*/", "### Command\\-line arguments", "The [parameters](/wiki/Parameter \"Parameter\") given on a [command line](/wiki/Command_line \"Command line\") are passed to a C program with two predefined variables \\- the count of the command\\-line arguments in {{code\\|argc}} and the individual [arguments](/wiki/Parameter \"Parameter\") as [character strings](/wiki/Character_string \"Character string\") in the pointer array {{code\\|argv}}. So the command:", "```\nmyFilt p1 p2 p3", "```", "results in something like:", "| m | y | F | i | l | t |\\\\0 p | 1 |\\\\0 p | 2 |\\\\0 p | 3 |\\\\0", "|argv\\[0]argv\\[1]argv\\[2]argv\\[3]", "While individual strings are arrays of contiguous characters, there is no guarantee that the strings are stored as a contiguous group.\nThe name of the program, {{code\\|argv\\[0]}}, may be useful when printing diagnostic messages or for making one binary serve multiple purposes. The individual values of the parameters may be accessed with {{code\\|argv\\[1]}}, {{code\\|argv\\[2]}}, and {{code\\|argv\\[3]}}, as shown in the following program:", "\\#include \\<stdio.h\\>\nint main(int argc, char \\*argv\\[])\n{", "```\n printf(\"argc\\t= %d\\n\", argc);\n for (int i = 0; i < argc; i++)\n printf(\"argv[%i]\\t= %s\\n\", i, argv[i]);", "```\n}", "### Evaluation order", "In any reasonably complex expression, there arises a choice as to the order in which to evaluate the parts of the expression: {{C\\-lang\\|(1\\+1\\)\\+(3\\+3\\)}} may be evaluated in the order {{C\\-lang\\|(1\\+1\\)\\+(3\\+3\\)}}, {{C\\-lang\\|(2\\)\\+(3\\+3\\)}}, {{C\\-lang\\|(2\\)\\+(6\\)}}, {{C\\-lang\\|(8\\)}}, or in the order {{C\\-lang\\|(1\\+1\\)\\+(3\\+3\\)}}, {{C\\-lang\\|(1\\+1\\)\\+(6\\)}}, {{C\\-lang\\|(2\\)\\+(6\\)}}, {{C\\-lang\\|(8\\)}}. Formally, a conforming C compiler may evaluate expressions in any *order between* [sequence points](/wiki/Sequence_point \"Sequence point\") *(this allows the compiler to do some optimization). Sequence points are defined by:* * Statement ends *at semicolons.\n The*\n* sequencing operator*: a comma. However, commas that delimit function arguments are not sequence points.\n The*\n* short\\-circuit operators*: logical* and *({{code\\|\\&\\&}}, which can be read* and then*) and logical* or *(`||`, which can be read* or else*).\n The*\n* [ternary operator](/wiki/%3F:) *({{code\\|?:}}): This operator evaluates its first sub\\-expression first, and then its second or third (never both of them) based on the value of the first.\n Entry to and exit from a*\n* function call *(but not between evaluations of the arguments).*", "Expressions before a sequence point are always evaluated before those after a sequence point. In the case of short\\-circuit evaluation, the second expression may not be evaluated depending on the result of the first expression. For example, in the expression {{C\\-lang\\|(a() {{!}}{{!}} b())}}, if the first argument evaluates to nonzero (true), the result of the entire expression cannot be anything else than true, so {{code\\|b()}} is not evaluated. Similarly, in the expression {{C\\-lang\\|(a() \\&\\& b())}}, if the first argument evaluates to zero (false), the result of the entire expression cannot be anything else than false, so {{code\\|b()}} is not evaluated.\nThe arguments to a function call may be evaluated in any order, as long as they are all evaluated by the time the function is entered. The following expression, for example, has undefined behavior:", "```\nprintf(\"%s %s\\n\", argv[i = 0], argv[++i]);", "```", "### Undefined behavior", "{{main\\|Undefined behavior}}\n{{unreferenced section\\|date\\=November 2011}}\nAn aspect of the C standard (not unique to C) is that the behavior of certain code is said to be \"undefined\". In practice, this means that the program produced from this code can do anything, from working as the programmer intended, to crashing every time it is run.\nFor example, the following code produces undefined behavior, because the variable b *is modified more than once with no intervening sequence point:*", "\\#include \\<stdio.h\\>\nint main(void)\n{", "```\n int b = 1;\n int a = b++ + b++;\n printf(\"%d\\n\", a);", "```\n}", "Because there is no sequence point between the modifications of b *in \"*b*\\+\\+ \\+* b''\\+\\+\", it is possible to perform the evaluation steps in more than one order, resulting in an ambiguous statement. This can be fixed by rewriting the code to insert a sequence point in order to enforce an unambiguous behavior, for example:", "", "a \\= b\\+\\+;\na \\+\\= b\\+\\+;", "", "" ]
Plot ---- The film begins with Inba Sekar shooting Michael “Mike” Vasanth on his bike, resulting in him falling off the [Napier Bridge](/wiki/Napier_Bridge "Napier Bridge") into the water below which is witnessed by Arjun Balakrishnan. The flashback of the characters before the incident then unveils. Inbasekar grew up to be a goon as his brother Gunasekaran had left him to fend for himself, and he had no option of earning. He loves, marries, and abuses his wife Sashi. He gets into a contract under Guna's recommendation to run errands and work as a [hitman](/wiki/Hitman "Hitman") for Selvanayagam, a politician. Michael is an influential student leader who wants politicians like Selvanayagam to keep away from college elections. Michael is in love with his neighbour Geetha, who lives with her uncle and aunt. Selvanayagam is worried when he hears news of students standing in the election. He uses every possible tactic to get them out of politics. Firstly, he provides a scholarship to study at a prestigious foreign university to Michael. When Michael refuses the bribe, Inba takes control under Guna's orders. Inba beats some students but faces very strong retaliation from Michael and other students. Inba and his thug friend Dilli meet Michael face\-to\-face and fall into a tussle after Inba threatens the latter to leave politics. Arjun Balakrishnan is the carefree and spoiled son of an IAS officer. He wants to relocate to the US for a better future. He falls in love with Meera, whom he just met. One day, Arjun proposes to Meera on the road, and she gets into an auto while telling him to prove it, playfully. Arjun hitches a ride from Michael, who is riding in the same direction, to catch up with Meera. Suddenly, Michael is shot with three rounds fired by Inba, but Arjun saves him. Critically injured, Michael is rushed to the hospital by Meera and Arjun. Inba finds out that Michael is recovering from his injuries and this is witnessed by Arjun, who follows him to apprehend him, only for Inba to beat him up badly and leave him with a broken arm. After staying by his side until his recovery, Arjun changes his mind and joins hands with Michael to contest in elections. Inba later kills Guna when he finds out that he had been instructed by Selvanayagam to take him out due to Inba leaving an eyewitness, Arjun, behind the bridge incident. He confronts Selvanayagam, who brainwashes him to work for him and orders him to kidnap Arjun, Suchi, and Trilok. However, they escape with the help of Dilli, who has a change of heart after realising that their profession was interfering with their personal lives, causing Sashi to leave Inba for her hometown. He convinces Inba, however to no avail, and is killed by him when he aids Arjun's escape. While running, Arjun calls Michael for help, but Inba easily catches up and thrashes him. Michael arrives in the nick of time to rescue Arjun at the Napier Bridge. A fight ensues between the three men, where Inba is overpowered by Michael, who spares him and leaves him for the police. Inba is handed over to the police and jailed. Michael, Arjun, Suchi, and Trilok win the four seats they had contested for and thus enter into politics.
[ "Plot\n----", "The film begins with Inba Sekar shooting Michael “Mike” Vasanth on his bike, resulting in him falling off the [Napier Bridge](/wiki/Napier_Bridge \"Napier Bridge\") into the water below which is witnessed by Arjun Balakrishnan. The flashback of the characters before the incident then unveils.", "Inbasekar grew up to be a goon as his brother Gunasekaran had left him to fend for himself, and he had no option of earning. He loves, marries, and abuses his wife Sashi. He gets into a contract under Guna's recommendation to run errands and work as a [hitman](/wiki/Hitman \"Hitman\") for Selvanayagam, a politician.", "Michael is an influential student leader who wants politicians like Selvanayagam to keep away from college elections. Michael is in love with his neighbour Geetha, who lives with her uncle and aunt. Selvanayagam is worried when he hears news of students standing in the election. He uses every possible tactic to get them out of politics. Firstly, he provides a scholarship to study at a prestigious foreign university to Michael. When Michael refuses the bribe, Inba takes control under Guna's orders. Inba beats some students but faces very strong retaliation from Michael and other students. Inba and his thug friend Dilli meet Michael face\\-to\\-face and fall into a tussle after Inba threatens the latter to leave politics.", "Arjun Balakrishnan is the carefree and spoiled son of an IAS officer. He wants to relocate to the US for a better future. He falls in love with Meera, whom he just met. One day, Arjun proposes to Meera on the road, and she gets into an auto while telling him to prove it, playfully. Arjun hitches a ride from Michael, who is riding in the same direction, to catch up with Meera. Suddenly, Michael is shot with three rounds fired by Inba, but Arjun saves him. Critically injured, Michael is rushed to the hospital by Meera and Arjun.", "Inba finds out that Michael is recovering from his injuries and this is witnessed by Arjun, who follows him to apprehend him, only for Inba to beat him up badly and leave him with a broken arm. After staying by his side until his recovery, Arjun changes his mind and joins hands with Michael to contest in elections. Inba later kills Guna when he finds out that he had been instructed by Selvanayagam to take him out due to Inba leaving an eyewitness, Arjun, behind the bridge incident. He confronts Selvanayagam, who brainwashes him to work for him and orders him to kidnap Arjun, Suchi, and Trilok. However, they escape with the help of Dilli, who has a change of heart after realising that their profession was interfering with their personal lives, causing Sashi to leave Inba for her hometown. He convinces Inba, however to no avail, and is killed by him when he aids Arjun's escape.", "While running, Arjun calls Michael for help, but Inba easily catches up and thrashes him. Michael arrives in the nick of time to rescue Arjun at the Napier Bridge. A fight ensues between the three men, where Inba is overpowered by Michael, who spares him and leaves him for the police. Inba is handed over to the police and jailed. Michael, Arjun, Suchi, and Trilok win the four seats they had contested for and thus enter into politics.", "" ]
Roadside billboards ------------------- [thumb\|alt\=A set of 6 white\-on\-red signs with white block text along the side of a road, reading in order "BIG MISTAKE", "MANY MAKE", "RELY ON HORN", "INSTEAD OF BRAKE", and, stylized, "Burma\-Shave".\|Preserved set of [U.S. Route 66](/wiki/U.S._Route_66 "U.S. Route 66") signs promoting Burma\-Shave](/wiki/Image:BurmaShaveSigns_Route66.jpg "BurmaShaveSigns Route66.jpg") Burma\-Shave sign series first appeared on U.S. Highway 65 near [Lakeville, Minnesota](/wiki/Lakeville%2C_Minnesota "Lakeville, Minnesota"), in 1926, and remained a major advertising component until 1963 in most of the contiguous United States. The first series read: *Cheer up, face – the war is over! Burma\-Shave*.{{cite magazine \|title\=News Behind the Ads {{!}} The story behind... Burma\-Shave \|date\=October 1959 \|volume\=13 \|issue\=10 \|page\=20 \|magazine\=Kiplinger's Personal Finance \|publisher\=Kiplinger Washington Editors, Inc. \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=awAEAAAAMBAJ\&pg\=PA20 \|issn\=1528\-9729}} The exceptions were [Nevada](/wiki/Nevada "Nevada") (deemed to have insufficient road traffic), and [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts "Massachusetts") (eliminated due to that state's high land rentals and roadside foliage). Typically, six consecutive small signs would be posted along the edge of highways, spaced for sequential reading by passing motorists. The last sign was almost always the name of the product. The signs were originally produced in two color combinations: red\-and\-white and orange\-and\-black, though the latter was eliminated after a few years. A special white\-on\-blue set of signs was developed for [South Dakota](/wiki/South_Dakota "South Dakota"), which restricted the color [red](/wiki/Red "Red") on roadside signs to official warning notices. This use of a series of small signs, each of which bore part of a commercial message, was a successful approach to highway advertising during the early years of highway travel, drawing the attention of passing motorists who were curious to learn the [punchline](/wiki/Punch_line "Punch line").{{cite book \|last1\=Cross \|first1\=Mary \|title\=A Century of American Icons: 100 Products and Slogans from the 20th\-Century Consumer Culture \|date\=2002 \|publisher\=Greenwood Press \|isbn\=978\-0313314810 \|access\-date\=4 September 2020 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/centuryofamerica00cros/page/48/ \|pages\=48–50}} As the [Interstate](/wiki/Interstate_Highway_System "Interstate Highway System") system expanded in the late 1950s and vehicle speeds increased, it became more difficult to attract motorists' attention with small signs. When the company was acquired by [Philip Morris](/wiki/Altria_Group "Altria Group"), the signs were discontinued on advice of counsel.{{Cite journal \| last \= Rowsome Jr. \| first \= Frank \|date\=Fall 1972 \| title \= Frank Rowsome remembers those verses by the side of the road \| journal \= \[\[Automobile Quarterly]] \| volume \= 10 \| issue \= 3 \| page \= 315 \| lccn \= 62004005 \| issn \= 0005\-1438 }} Some of the signs featured safety messages about speeding instead of advertisements. Examples of Burma\-Shave advertisements are at [The House on the Rock](/wiki/The_House_on_the_Rock "The House on the Rock") in [Spring Green, Wisconsin](/wiki/Spring_Green%2C_Wisconsin "Spring Green, Wisconsin"). Re\-creations of Burma\-Shave sign sets also appear on [Arizona State Highway 66](/wiki/Arizona_State_Highway_66 "Arizona State Highway 66"), part of the original [U.S. Route 66](/wiki/U.S._Route_66 "U.S. Route 66"), between Ash Fork, Arizona, and [Kingman, Arizona](/wiki/Kingman%2C_Arizona "Kingman, Arizona") (though they were not installed there by Burma\-Shave during its original campaigns), and on Old U.S. Highway 30 near Ogden, Iowa. Other examples are displayed at [The Henry Ford](/wiki/The_Henry_Ford "The Henry Ford") in [Dearborn, Michigan](/wiki/Dearborn%2C_Michigan "Dearborn, Michigan"), the [Interstate 44 in Missouri](/wiki/Interstate_44_in_Missouri "Interstate 44 in Missouri") rest area between Rolla and Springfield (which has [old Route 66](/wiki/U.S._Route_66_in_Missouri "U.S. Route 66 in Missouri") building picnic structures), the [Forney Transportation Museum](/wiki/Forney_Transportation_Museum "Forney Transportation Museum") in [Denver](/wiki/Denver "Denver"), Colorado and the [Virginia Museum of Transportation](/wiki/Virginia_Museum_of_Transportation "Virginia Museum of Transportation") in [Roanoke, Virginia](/wiki/Roanoke%2C_Virginia "Roanoke, Virginia"). ### Examples The complete list of the 600 or so known sets of signs is listed in *Sunday Drives*{{cite book \|last1\=Larson \|first1\=Michael \|last2\=Sundberg \|first2\=Jill Larson \|title\=Sunday Drives: Nostalgic Reminiscing with The Best of Burma\-Shave \|date\=2006 \|isbn\=978\-0595393244 \|pages\=118\|publisher\=iUniverse }} and in the last part of *The Verse by the Side of the Road*.{{Cite book \|first1\=Frank \|last1\=Rowsome \|first2\=Carl \|last2\=Rose \|title\=The Verse by the Side of the Road: The Story of the Burma\-Shave Signs and Jingles \|url\=https://archive.org/details/versebysideofroa00rows \|url\-access\=registration \|location\=\[\[Brattleboro, Vermont]] \|publisher\=Stephen Greene Press \|year\=1965 \|oclc\=656940}}{{Page needed\|date\=August 2010}} The content of the earliest signs is lost, but it is believed that the first recorded signs, for 1927 and soon after, are close to the originals. The first ones were prosaic advertisements. Generally the signs were printed with all capital letters. The style shown below is for readability: * Shave the modern way / No brush / No lather / No rub\-in / Big tube 35 cents – Drug stores / Burma\-Shave As early as 1928, the writers were displaying a puckish sense of humor: * Takes the "H" out of shave / Makes it save / Saves complexion / Saves time and money / No brush – no lather / Burma\-Shave In 1929, the prosaic ads began to be replaced by actual verses on four signs, with the fifth sign merely a filler for the sixth: * Every shaver / Now can snore / Six more minutes / Than before / By using / Burma\-Shave * Your shaving brush / Has had its day / So why not / Shave the modern way / With / Burma\-Shave Previously there were only two to four sets of signs per year. 1930 saw major growth in the company, and 19 sets of signs were produced. The writers recycled a previous joke. They continued to ridicule the "old" style of shaving. And they began to appeal to the wives as well: * Cheer up face / The war is past / The "H" is out / Of shave / At last / Burma\-Shave * Shaving brushes / You'll soon see 'em / On the shelf / In some / Museum / Burma\-Shave * Does your husband / Misbehave / Grunt and grumble / Rant and rave / Shoot the brute some / Burma\-Shave * No matter / How you slice it / It's still your face / Be humane / Use / Burma\-Shave In 1932, the company recognized the popularity of the signs with a self\-referencing gimmick: * Free / Illustrated / Jingle book / In every / Package / Burma\-Shave * A shave / That's real / No cuts to heal / A soothing / Velvet after\-feel / Burma\-Shave In 1935, the first known appearance of a road safety message appeared, combined with a punning sales pitch: * Train approaching / Whistle squealing / Stop / Avoid that run\-down feeling / Burma\-Shave * Keep well / To the right / Of the oncoming car / Get your close shaves / From the half pound jar / Burma\-Shave Safety messages began to increase in 1939, as these examples show. (The first of the four is a parody of "[Paul Revere's Ride](/wiki/Paul_Revere%27s_Ride_%28poem%29 "Paul Revere's Ride (poem)")" by [Henry Wadsworth Longfellow](/wiki/Henry_Wadsworth_Longfellow "Henry Wadsworth Longfellow").) * Hardly a driver / Is now alive / Who passed / On hills / At 75 / Burma\-Shave * Past / Schoolhouses / Take it slow / Let the little / Shavers grow / Burma\-Shave * If you dislike / Big traffic fines / Slow down / Till you / Can read these signs / Burma\-Shave * Don't take / a curve / at 60 per. / We hate to lose / a customer / Burma\-Shave{{cite book \|last\=Bryson \|first\=Bill \|title\=Mother Tongue: English \& How It Got That Way \|isbn\=0688078958 \|lccn\=2010655007 \|publisher\=Penguin Books \|page\=230}} In 1939 and subsequent years, demise of the signs was foreshadowed, as busy roadways approaching larger cities featured shortened versions of the slogans on one, two, or three signs – the exact count is not recorded. The puns include a play on the [Maxwell House](/wiki/Maxwell_House "Maxwell House") Coffee slogan, standard puns, and yet another reference to the "H" joke: * Good to the last strop * Covers a multitude of chins * Takes the "H" out of shaving The war years found the company recycling a lot of their old signs, with new ones mostly focusing on [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") propaganda: * Let's make [Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler") / And [Hirohito](/wiki/Hirohito "Hirohito") / Feel as bad / as Old [Benito](/wiki/Benito_Mussolini "Benito Mussolini") / Buy [War Bonds](/wiki/War_bond "War bond") / Burma\-Shave * Slap / [The Jap](/wiki/Jap "Jap") / With / [Iron / Scrap](/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II "United States home front during World War II") / Burma\-Shave A 1944 advertisement in *Life* magazine ran: TOUGH\-WHISKERED YANKS / IN HEAVY [TANKS](/wiki/Tank "Tank") HAVE JAWS AS SMOOTH / AS GUYS IN BANKS{{refn\|1\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=\-VYEAAAAMBAJ\&pg\=PA98\#v\=onepage\&q\&f\=false}} 1963 was the last year for the signs, most of which were repeats, including the final slogan, which had first appeared in 1953: * Our fortune / Is your / Shaven face / It's our best / Advertising space / Burma\-Shave ### Special promotional messages * Free offer! Free offer! / Rip a [fender](/wiki/Fender_%28vehicle%29 "Fender (vehicle)") off your car / mail it in / for a half\-pound jar / Burma\-Shave A large number of fenders were received by the company, which made good on its promise.{{Cite book\|first1\=Frank \|last1\=Rowsome \|first2\=Carl \|last2\=Rose \|title\=The Verse by the Side of the Road: The Story of the Burma\-Shave Signs and Jingles \|url\=https://archive.org/details/versebysideofroa00rows \|url\-access\=registration \|location\=\[\[Brattleboro, Vermont]] \|publisher\=Stephen Greene Press \|year\=1965 \|oclc\=656940 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/versebysideofroa00rows/page/56 56]}} * Free – free / a trip to Mars / for 900 / empty jars / Burma\-Shave Arlyss French, owner of a [Red Owl](/wiki/Red_Owl_%28retail_chain%29 "Red Owl (retail chain)") grocery store, did submit 900 empty jars; the company at first replied: "If a trip to Mars / you earn / remember, friend / there's no return." Then Burma\-Shave, on the recommendation of Red Owl's publicity team, withdrew the one\-way offer and instead sent Mr. and Mrs. French on vacation to the town of [Moers](/wiki/Moers "Moers") (often pronounced "Mars" by foreigners) near [Duisburg](/wiki/Duisburg "Duisburg"), [North Rhine\-Westphalia](/wiki/North_Rhine-Westphalia "North Rhine-Westphalia"), Germany.{{cite news\|author\=Steve Harvey \|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1997\-jul\-19\-me\-17878\-story.html \|title\=Close Shave for a Space Mission \|newspaper\=\[\[Los Angeles Times]] \|date\=19 July 1997 \|access\-date\=2 April 2013}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.snopes.com/business/market/mars.asp \|title\=The Read Planet \|work\=\[\[Snopes.com]] \|first\= David \|last\=Mikkelson \|date\=10 May 2011\|access\-date\=2 April 2013}} ### Cultural impact A number of films and television shows set between the 1920s and 1950s have used the Burma\-Shave roadside billboards to help set the scene. Examples include *[Bonnie and Clyde](/wiki/Bonnie_and_Clyde_%28film%29 "Bonnie and Clyde (film)")*, *[A River Runs Through It](/wiki/A_River_Runs_Through_It_%28film%29 "A River Runs Through It (film)")*, *[The World's Fastest Indian](/wiki/The_World%27s_Fastest_Indian "The World's Fastest Indian")*, *[Stand By Me](/wiki/Stand_by_Me_%28film%29 "Stand by Me (film)")*, *[Tom and Jerry](/wiki/Sleepy-Time_Tom "Sleepy-Time Tom")*, *[Rat Race](/wiki/Rat_Race_%28film%29 "Rat Race (film)")*, *[M\*A\*S\*H](/wiki/M%2AA%2AS%2AH "M*A*S*H")* and the pilot episode ("[Genesis](/wiki/Quantum_Leap_%28season_1%29%23ep1 "Quantum Leap (season 1)#ep1")") of *[Quantum Leap](/wiki/Quantum_Leap_%281989_TV_series%29 "Quantum Leap (1989 TV series)")*. The long\-running series *[Hee Haw](/wiki/Hee_Haw "Hee Haw")* borrowed the style for program [bumpers](/wiki/Commercial_bumper "Commercial bumper"), transitioning from one show segment to the next or to commercials. The Flintstones episode "Divided We Sail" has Barney Rubble reading messages on a series of buoys that say, "If You're Queasy riding on the wave, just open your mouth. Shout Terra Firma Shave." The final episode of the popular television series *[M\*A\*S\*H](/wiki/M%2AA%2AS%2AH_%28TV_series%29 "M*A*S*H (TV series)")* featured a series of road signs in Korea *"Hawk was gone, now he's here. Dance til dawn, give a cheer. Burma\-Shave"*. [Roger Miller](/wiki/Roger_Miller "Roger Miller")'s song "Burma Shave" (the B\-side to his 1961 single "Fair Swiss Maiden") has the singer musing that he's "seen a million rows of them little red poetic signs up and down the line", while reciting rhymes in the manner of the ads. [Tom Waits](/wiki/Tom_Waits "Tom Waits")' song "Burma\-Shave" (from his 1977 album *[Foreign Affairs](/wiki/Foreign_Affairs_%28Tom_Waits_album%29 "Foreign Affairs (Tom Waits album)")*) uses the signs as an allegory for an unknown destination. ("*I guess I'm headed that\-a\-way, Just as long as it's paved, I guess you'd say I'm on my way to Burma\-Shave*") [Chuck Suchy](/wiki/Chuck_Suchy "Chuck Suchy")'s song "Burma Shave Boogie" (from his 2008 album *Unraveling Heart*) incorporates several of the Burma Shave rhymes into its lyrics. The pedestrian passageway between the {{stn\|42nd Street–Port Authority Bus Terminal}} and {{stn\|Times Square–42nd Street}} stations in the [New York City Subway](/wiki/New_York_City_Subway "New York City Subway") system contains a piece of public art inspired by the Burma\-Shave ads; Norman B. Colp's *The Commuter's Lament, or A Close Shave* consists of a series of signs attached to the roof of the passageway, displaying the following text:{{cite web\| title \= Artwork: "The Commuter's Lament/A Close Shave", Norman B. Colp (1991\) \| url \= http://www.nycsubway.org/perl/artwork\_show?185 \| access\-date \= 22 October 2008}} Overslept, / So tired. / If late, / Get fired. / Why bother? / Why the pain? / Just go home / Do it again. Several highway departments in the United States use signs in the same style to dispense travel safety advice to motorists. Several writers of doggerel and humorously bad poetry (such as [David Burge](/wiki/David_Burge "David Burge")) often use "Burma Shave" as the last line of their poems to indicate their non\-serious nature. The word burma\-shave was used Apr 2011 in [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada"), "enlisted the help of an old friend to burmashave near the corner of Pembina," to describe a gathering of people holding a sign or signs and waving to traffic by the side of the road (a common sight during election campaigns).{{cite news \|url\= https://www.winnipegfreepress.com/breakingnews/2011/04/29/yes\-thats\-glen\-murray\-waving\-at\-traffic\-today \|title\=Yes, that was Glen Murray waving at traffic today \|newspaper\=\[\[Winnipeg Free Press]] \|date\=29 April 2011}} The term Burmashaving may specifically describe rural American highway signage in the form of ***a series of 5 rhyming stationary signs*** (a take\-off of Burma\-Vita ad campaigns beginning 1926\+). Turned political, the expression burma\-shaving is several signs of rhyming prose for political messaging of a jokey or scornful nature, e.g., refer to McCain's campaign against Obama, to catch the attention of passing motorists for political campaigning. \[{{cite web \|url\=https://mikechasar.blogspot.com/2008/10/burma\-shave\-politics.html \|last\=Chasar \|first\=Mike \|title\= Burma\-Shave Politics \|website\=Poetry and Popular Culture \|date\=27 October 2008}} {{cite web\|url\=https://theonion.com/mccain\-blasts\-obama\-as\-out\-of\-touch\-in\-burma\-shave\-styl\-1819570288/ \|title\=McCain Blasts Obama As Out Of Touch In Burma\-Shave\-Style Billboard Campaign \|work\=\[\[theonion.com]] \|date\=22 October 2008\| access\-date\=29 September 2024}} During the Apollo 8 mission, a parody of ['*Twas the Night Before Christmas*](/wiki/A_Visit_from_St._Nicholas "A Visit from St. Nicholas") written by Ken Young was transmitted to the mission, which referenced "A Burma\-Shave sign saying '[Kilroy was here](/wiki/Kilroy_was_here "Kilroy was here")'."*Go, Flight! The Unsung Heroes of Mission Control*. p. 133\.
[ "Roadside billboards\n-------------------", "[thumb\\|alt\\=A set of 6 white\\-on\\-red signs with white block text along the side of a road, reading in order \"BIG MISTAKE\", \"MANY MAKE\", \"RELY ON HORN\", \"INSTEAD OF BRAKE\", and, stylized, \"Burma\\-Shave\".\\|Preserved set of [U.S. Route 66](/wiki/U.S._Route_66 \"U.S. Route 66\") signs promoting Burma\\-Shave](/wiki/Image:BurmaShaveSigns_Route66.jpg \"BurmaShaveSigns Route66.jpg\")\nBurma\\-Shave sign series first appeared on U.S. Highway 65 near [Lakeville, Minnesota](/wiki/Lakeville%2C_Minnesota \"Lakeville, Minnesota\"), in 1926, and remained a major advertising component until 1963 in most of the contiguous United States. The first series read: *Cheer up, face – the war is over! Burma\\-Shave*.{{cite magazine \\|title\\=News Behind the Ads {{!}} The story behind... Burma\\-Shave \\|date\\=October 1959 \\|volume\\=13 \\|issue\\=10 \\|page\\=20 \\|magazine\\=Kiplinger's Personal Finance \\|publisher\\=Kiplinger Washington Editors, Inc. \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=awAEAAAAMBAJ\\&pg\\=PA20 \\|issn\\=1528\\-9729}} The exceptions were [Nevada](/wiki/Nevada \"Nevada\") (deemed to have insufficient road traffic), and [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts \"Massachusetts\") (eliminated due to that state's high land rentals and roadside foliage). Typically, six consecutive small signs would be posted along the edge of highways, spaced for sequential reading by passing motorists. The last sign was almost always the name of the product. The signs were originally produced in two color combinations: red\\-and\\-white and orange\\-and\\-black, though the latter was eliminated after a few years. A special white\\-on\\-blue set of signs was developed for [South Dakota](/wiki/South_Dakota \"South Dakota\"), which restricted the color [red](/wiki/Red \"Red\") on roadside signs to official warning notices.", "This use of a series of small signs, each of which bore part of a commercial message, was a successful approach to highway advertising during the early years of highway travel, drawing the attention of passing motorists who were curious to learn the [punchline](/wiki/Punch_line \"Punch line\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=Cross \\|first1\\=Mary \\|title\\=A Century of American Icons: 100 Products and Slogans from the 20th\\-Century Consumer Culture \\|date\\=2002 \\|publisher\\=Greenwood Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0313314810 \\|access\\-date\\=4 September 2020 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/centuryofamerica00cros/page/48/ \\|pages\\=48–50}} As the [Interstate](/wiki/Interstate_Highway_System \"Interstate Highway System\") system expanded in the late 1950s and vehicle speeds increased, it became more difficult to attract motorists' attention with small signs. When the company was acquired by [Philip Morris](/wiki/Altria_Group \"Altria Group\"), the signs were discontinued on advice of counsel.{{Cite journal\n \\| last \\= Rowsome Jr.\n \\| first \\= Frank \n \\|date\\=Fall 1972\n \\| title \\= Frank Rowsome remembers those verses by the side of the road\n \\| journal \\= \\[\\[Automobile Quarterly]]\n \\| volume \\= 10\n \\| issue \\= 3\n \\| page \\= 315\n \\| lccn \\= 62004005\n \\| issn \\= 0005\\-1438\n }}", "Some of the signs featured safety messages about speeding instead of advertisements.", "Examples of Burma\\-Shave advertisements are at [The House on the Rock](/wiki/The_House_on_the_Rock \"The House on the Rock\") in [Spring Green, Wisconsin](/wiki/Spring_Green%2C_Wisconsin \"Spring Green, Wisconsin\"). Re\\-creations of Burma\\-Shave sign sets also appear on [Arizona State Highway 66](/wiki/Arizona_State_Highway_66 \"Arizona State Highway 66\"), part of the original [U.S. Route 66](/wiki/U.S._Route_66 \"U.S. Route 66\"), between Ash Fork, Arizona, and [Kingman, Arizona](/wiki/Kingman%2C_Arizona \"Kingman, Arizona\") (though they were not installed there by Burma\\-Shave during its original campaigns), and on Old U.S. Highway 30 near Ogden, Iowa. Other examples are displayed at [The Henry Ford](/wiki/The_Henry_Ford \"The Henry Ford\") in [Dearborn, Michigan](/wiki/Dearborn%2C_Michigan \"Dearborn, Michigan\"), the [Interstate 44 in Missouri](/wiki/Interstate_44_in_Missouri \"Interstate 44 in Missouri\") rest area between Rolla and Springfield (which has [old Route 66](/wiki/U.S._Route_66_in_Missouri \"U.S. Route 66 in Missouri\") building picnic structures), the [Forney Transportation Museum](/wiki/Forney_Transportation_Museum \"Forney Transportation Museum\") in [Denver](/wiki/Denver \"Denver\"), Colorado and the [Virginia Museum of Transportation](/wiki/Virginia_Museum_of_Transportation \"Virginia Museum of Transportation\") in [Roanoke, Virginia](/wiki/Roanoke%2C_Virginia \"Roanoke, Virginia\").", "### Examples", "The complete list of the 600 or so known sets of signs is listed in\n*Sunday Drives*{{cite book \\|last1\\=Larson \\|first1\\=Michael \\|last2\\=Sundberg \\|first2\\=Jill Larson \\|title\\=Sunday Drives: Nostalgic Reminiscing with The Best of Burma\\-Shave \\|date\\=2006 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0595393244 \\|pages\\=118\\|publisher\\=iUniverse }}\nand in the last part of\n*The Verse by the Side of the Road*.{{Cite book \\|first1\\=Frank \\|last1\\=Rowsome \\|first2\\=Carl \\|last2\\=Rose \\|title\\=The Verse by the Side of the Road: The Story of the Burma\\-Shave Signs and Jingles \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/versebysideofroa00rows \\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|location\\=\\[\\[Brattleboro, Vermont]] \\|publisher\\=Stephen Greene Press \\|year\\=1965 \\|oclc\\=656940}}{{Page needed\\|date\\=August 2010}}\nThe content of the earliest signs is lost, but it is believed that the first recorded signs, for 1927 and soon after, are close to the originals. The first ones were prosaic advertisements. Generally the signs were printed with all capital letters. The style shown below is for readability:\n* Shave the modern way / No brush / No lather / No rub\\-in / Big tube 35 cents – Drug stores / Burma\\-Shave", "As early as 1928, the writers were displaying a puckish sense of humor:\n* Takes the \"H\" out of shave / Makes it save / Saves complexion / Saves time and money / No brush – no lather / Burma\\-Shave", "In 1929, the prosaic ads began to be replaced by actual verses on four signs, with the fifth sign merely a filler for the sixth:\n* Every shaver / Now can snore / Six more minutes / Than before / By using / Burma\\-Shave\n* Your shaving brush / Has had its day / So why not / Shave the modern way / With / Burma\\-Shave", "Previously there were only two to four sets of signs per year. 1930 saw major growth in the company, and 19 sets of signs were produced. The writers recycled a previous joke. They continued to ridicule the \"old\" style of shaving. And they began to appeal to the wives as well:\n* Cheer up face / The war is past / The \"H\" is out / Of shave / At last / Burma\\-Shave\n* Shaving brushes / You'll soon see 'em / On the shelf / In some / Museum / Burma\\-Shave\n* Does your husband / Misbehave / Grunt and grumble / Rant and rave / Shoot the brute some / Burma\\-Shave\n* No matter / How you slice it / It's still your face / Be humane / Use / Burma\\-Shave", "In 1932, the company recognized the popularity of the signs with a self\\-referencing gimmick:\n* Free / Illustrated / Jingle book / In every / Package / Burma\\-Shave\n* A shave / That's real / No cuts to heal / A soothing / Velvet after\\-feel / Burma\\-Shave", "In 1935, the first known appearance of a road safety message appeared, combined with a punning sales pitch:\n* Train approaching / Whistle squealing / Stop / Avoid that run\\-down feeling / Burma\\-Shave\n* Keep well / To the right / Of the oncoming car / Get your close shaves / From the half pound jar / Burma\\-Shave", "Safety messages began to increase in 1939, as these examples show. (The first of the four is a parody of \"[Paul Revere's Ride](/wiki/Paul_Revere%27s_Ride_%28poem%29 \"Paul Revere's Ride (poem)\")\" by [Henry Wadsworth Longfellow](/wiki/Henry_Wadsworth_Longfellow \"Henry Wadsworth Longfellow\").)\n* Hardly a driver / Is now alive / Who passed / On hills / At 75 / Burma\\-Shave\n* Past / Schoolhouses / Take it slow / Let the little / Shavers grow / Burma\\-Shave\n* If you dislike / Big traffic fines / Slow down / Till you / Can read these signs / Burma\\-Shave\n* Don't take / a curve / at 60 per. / We hate to lose / a customer / Burma\\-Shave{{cite book \\|last\\=Bryson \\|first\\=Bill \\|title\\=Mother Tongue: English \\& How It Got That Way \\|isbn\\=0688078958 \\|lccn\\=2010655007 \\|publisher\\=Penguin Books \\|page\\=230}}", "In 1939 and subsequent years, demise of the signs was foreshadowed, as busy roadways approaching larger cities featured shortened versions of the slogans on one, two, or three signs – the exact count is not recorded. The puns include a play on the [Maxwell House](/wiki/Maxwell_House \"Maxwell House\") Coffee slogan, standard puns, and yet another reference to the \"H\" joke:\n* Good to the last strop\n* Covers a multitude of chins\n* Takes the \"H\" out of shaving", "The war years found the company recycling a lot of their old signs, with new ones mostly focusing on [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") propaganda:\n* Let's make [Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler \"Adolf Hitler\") / And [Hirohito](/wiki/Hirohito \"Hirohito\") / Feel as bad / as Old [Benito](/wiki/Benito_Mussolini \"Benito Mussolini\") / Buy [War Bonds](/wiki/War_bond \"War bond\") / Burma\\-Shave\n* Slap / [The Jap](/wiki/Jap \"Jap\") / With / [Iron / Scrap](/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II \"United States home front during World War II\") / Burma\\-Shave", "A 1944 advertisement in *Life* magazine ran:\nTOUGH\\-WHISKERED YANKS / IN HEAVY [TANKS](/wiki/Tank \"Tank\")\nHAVE JAWS AS SMOOTH / AS GUYS IN BANKS{{refn\\|1\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\-VYEAAAAMBAJ\\&pg\\=PA98\\#v\\=onepage\\&q\\&f\\=false}}", "1963 was the last year for the signs, most of which were repeats, including the final slogan, which had first appeared in 1953:\n* Our fortune / Is your / Shaven face / It's our best / Advertising space / Burma\\-Shave", "### Special promotional messages", "* Free offer! Free offer! / Rip a [fender](/wiki/Fender_%28vehicle%29 \"Fender (vehicle)\") off your car / mail it in / for a half\\-pound jar / Burma\\-Shave", "A large number of fenders were received by the company, which made good on its promise.{{Cite book\\|first1\\=Frank \\|last1\\=Rowsome \\|first2\\=Carl \\|last2\\=Rose \\|title\\=The Verse by the Side of the Road: The Story of the Burma\\-Shave Signs and Jingles \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/versebysideofroa00rows \\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|location\\=\\[\\[Brattleboro, Vermont]] \\|publisher\\=Stephen Greene Press \\|year\\=1965 \\|oclc\\=656940 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/versebysideofroa00rows/page/56 56]}}\n* Free – free / a trip to Mars / for 900 / empty jars / Burma\\-Shave", "Arlyss French, owner of a [Red Owl](/wiki/Red_Owl_%28retail_chain%29 \"Red Owl (retail chain)\") grocery store, did submit 900 empty jars; the company at first replied: \"If a trip to Mars / you earn / remember, friend / there's no return.\" Then Burma\\-Shave, on the recommendation of Red Owl's publicity team, withdrew the one\\-way offer and instead sent Mr. and Mrs. French on vacation to the town of [Moers](/wiki/Moers \"Moers\") (often pronounced \"Mars\" by foreigners) near [Duisburg](/wiki/Duisburg \"Duisburg\"), [North Rhine\\-Westphalia](/wiki/North_Rhine-Westphalia \"North Rhine-Westphalia\"), Germany.{{cite news\\|author\\=Steve Harvey \\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1997\\-jul\\-19\\-me\\-17878\\-story.html \\|title\\=Close Shave for a Space Mission \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles Times]] \\|date\\=19 July 1997 \\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2013}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.snopes.com/business/market/mars.asp \\|title\\=The Read Planet \\|work\\=\\[\\[Snopes.com]] \\|first\\= David \\|last\\=Mikkelson \\|date\\=10 May 2011\\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2013}}\n### Cultural impact", "A number of films and television shows set between the 1920s and 1950s have used the Burma\\-Shave roadside billboards to help set the scene. Examples include *[Bonnie and Clyde](/wiki/Bonnie_and_Clyde_%28film%29 \"Bonnie and Clyde (film)\")*, *[A River Runs Through It](/wiki/A_River_Runs_Through_It_%28film%29 \"A River Runs Through It (film)\")*, *[The World's Fastest Indian](/wiki/The_World%27s_Fastest_Indian \"The World's Fastest Indian\")*, *[Stand By Me](/wiki/Stand_by_Me_%28film%29 \"Stand by Me (film)\")*, *[Tom and Jerry](/wiki/Sleepy-Time_Tom \"Sleepy-Time Tom\")*, *[Rat Race](/wiki/Rat_Race_%28film%29 \"Rat Race (film)\")*, *[M\\*A\\*S\\*H](/wiki/M%2AA%2AS%2AH \"M*A*S*H\")* and the pilot episode (\"[Genesis](/wiki/Quantum_Leap_%28season_1%29%23ep1 \"Quantum Leap (season 1)#ep1\")\") of *[Quantum Leap](/wiki/Quantum_Leap_%281989_TV_series%29 \"Quantum Leap (1989 TV series)\")*. The long\\-running series *[Hee Haw](/wiki/Hee_Haw \"Hee Haw\")* borrowed the style for program [bumpers](/wiki/Commercial_bumper \"Commercial bumper\"), transitioning from one show segment to the next or to commercials.", "The Flintstones episode \"Divided We Sail\" has Barney Rubble reading messages on a series of buoys that say, \"If You're Queasy riding on the wave, just open your mouth. Shout Terra Firma Shave.\"", "The final episode of the popular television series *[M\\*A\\*S\\*H](/wiki/M%2AA%2AS%2AH_%28TV_series%29 \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\")* featured a series of road signs in Korea *\"Hawk was gone, now he's here. Dance til dawn, give a cheer. Burma\\-Shave\"*.", "[Roger Miller](/wiki/Roger_Miller \"Roger Miller\")'s song \"Burma Shave\" (the B\\-side to his 1961 single \"Fair Swiss Maiden\") has the singer musing that he's \"seen a million rows of them little red poetic signs up and down the line\", while reciting rhymes in the manner of the ads. [Tom Waits](/wiki/Tom_Waits \"Tom Waits\")' song \"Burma\\-Shave\" (from his 1977 album *[Foreign Affairs](/wiki/Foreign_Affairs_%28Tom_Waits_album%29 \"Foreign Affairs (Tom Waits album)\")*) uses the signs as an allegory for an unknown destination. (\"*I guess I'm headed that\\-a\\-way, Just as long as it's paved, I guess you'd say I'm on my way to Burma\\-Shave*\") [Chuck Suchy](/wiki/Chuck_Suchy \"Chuck Suchy\")'s song \"Burma Shave Boogie\" (from his 2008 album *Unraveling Heart*) incorporates several of the Burma Shave rhymes into its lyrics.", "The pedestrian passageway between the {{stn\\|42nd Street–Port Authority Bus Terminal}} and {{stn\\|Times Square–42nd Street}} stations in the [New York City Subway](/wiki/New_York_City_Subway \"New York City Subway\") system contains a piece of public art inspired by the Burma\\-Shave ads; Norman B. Colp's *The Commuter's Lament, or A Close Shave* consists of a series of signs attached to the roof of the passageway, displaying the following text:{{cite web\\| title \\= Artwork: \"The Commuter's Lament/A Close Shave\", Norman B. Colp (1991\\) \\| url \\= http://www.nycsubway.org/perl/artwork\\_show?185 \\| access\\-date \\= 22 October 2008}}\nOverslept, / So tired. / If late, / Get fired. / Why bother? / Why the pain? / Just go home / Do it again.", "Several highway departments in the United States use signs in the same style to dispense travel safety advice to motorists.", "Several writers of doggerel and humorously bad poetry (such as [David Burge](/wiki/David_Burge \"David Burge\")) often use \"Burma Shave\" as the last line of their poems to indicate their non\\-serious nature.", "The word burma\\-shave was used Apr 2011 in [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\"), \"enlisted the help of an old friend to burmashave near the corner of Pembina,\" to describe a gathering of people holding a sign or signs and waving to traffic by the side of the road (a common sight during election campaigns).{{cite news \\|url\\= https://www.winnipegfreepress.com/breakingnews/2011/04/29/yes\\-thats\\-glen\\-murray\\-waving\\-at\\-traffic\\-today \\|title\\=Yes, that was Glen Murray waving at traffic today \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Winnipeg Free Press]] \\|date\\=29 April 2011}} The term Burmashaving may specifically describe rural American highway signage in the form of ***a series of 5 rhyming stationary signs*** (a take\\-off of Burma\\-Vita ad campaigns beginning 1926\\+). Turned political, the expression burma\\-shaving is several signs of rhyming prose for political messaging of a jokey or scornful nature, e.g., refer to McCain's campaign against Obama, to catch the attention of passing motorists for political campaigning. \n\\[{{cite web \\|url\\=https://mikechasar.blogspot.com/2008/10/burma\\-shave\\-politics.html \\|last\\=Chasar \\|first\\=Mike \\|title\\= Burma\\-Shave Politics \\|website\\=Poetry and Popular Culture \\|date\\=27 October 2008}} {{cite web\\|url\\=https://theonion.com/mccain\\-blasts\\-obama\\-as\\-out\\-of\\-touch\\-in\\-burma\\-shave\\-styl\\-1819570288/ \\|title\\=McCain Blasts Obama As Out Of Touch In Burma\\-Shave\\-Style Billboard Campaign \\|work\\=\\[\\[theonion.com]] \\|date\\=22 October 2008\\| access\\-date\\=29 September 2024}}", "During the Apollo 8 mission, a parody of ['*Twas the Night Before Christmas*](/wiki/A_Visit_from_St._Nicholas \"A Visit from St. Nicholas\") written by Ken Young was transmitted to the mission, which referenced \"A Burma\\-Shave sign saying '[Kilroy was here](/wiki/Kilroy_was_here \"Kilroy was here\")'.\"*Go, Flight! The Unsung Heroes of Mission Control*. p. 133\\.", "" ]
### Cultural impact A number of films and television shows set between the 1920s and 1950s have used the Burma\-Shave roadside billboards to help set the scene. Examples include *[Bonnie and Clyde](/wiki/Bonnie_and_Clyde_%28film%29 "Bonnie and Clyde (film)")*, *[A River Runs Through It](/wiki/A_River_Runs_Through_It_%28film%29 "A River Runs Through It (film)")*, *[The World's Fastest Indian](/wiki/The_World%27s_Fastest_Indian "The World's Fastest Indian")*, *[Stand By Me](/wiki/Stand_by_Me_%28film%29 "Stand by Me (film)")*, *[Tom and Jerry](/wiki/Sleepy-Time_Tom "Sleepy-Time Tom")*, *[Rat Race](/wiki/Rat_Race_%28film%29 "Rat Race (film)")*, *[M\*A\*S\*H](/wiki/M%2AA%2AS%2AH "M*A*S*H")* and the pilot episode ("[Genesis](/wiki/Quantum_Leap_%28season_1%29%23ep1 "Quantum Leap (season 1)#ep1")") of *[Quantum Leap](/wiki/Quantum_Leap_%281989_TV_series%29 "Quantum Leap (1989 TV series)")*. The long\-running series *[Hee Haw](/wiki/Hee_Haw "Hee Haw")* borrowed the style for program [bumpers](/wiki/Commercial_bumper "Commercial bumper"), transitioning from one show segment to the next or to commercials. The Flintstones episode "Divided We Sail" has Barney Rubble reading messages on a series of buoys that say, "If You're Queasy riding on the wave, just open your mouth. Shout Terra Firma Shave." The final episode of the popular television series *[M\*A\*S\*H](/wiki/M%2AA%2AS%2AH_%28TV_series%29 "M*A*S*H (TV series)")* featured a series of road signs in Korea *"Hawk was gone, now he's here. Dance til dawn, give a cheer. Burma\-Shave"*. [Roger Miller](/wiki/Roger_Miller "Roger Miller")'s song "Burma Shave" (the B\-side to his 1961 single "Fair Swiss Maiden") has the singer musing that he's "seen a million rows of them little red poetic signs up and down the line", while reciting rhymes in the manner of the ads. [Tom Waits](/wiki/Tom_Waits "Tom Waits")' song "Burma\-Shave" (from his 1977 album *[Foreign Affairs](/wiki/Foreign_Affairs_%28Tom_Waits_album%29 "Foreign Affairs (Tom Waits album)")*) uses the signs as an allegory for an unknown destination. ("*I guess I'm headed that\-a\-way, Just as long as it's paved, I guess you'd say I'm on my way to Burma\-Shave*") [Chuck Suchy](/wiki/Chuck_Suchy "Chuck Suchy")'s song "Burma Shave Boogie" (from his 2008 album *Unraveling Heart*) incorporates several of the Burma Shave rhymes into its lyrics. The pedestrian passageway between the {{stn\|42nd Street–Port Authority Bus Terminal}} and {{stn\|Times Square–42nd Street}} stations in the [New York City Subway](/wiki/New_York_City_Subway "New York City Subway") system contains a piece of public art inspired by the Burma\-Shave ads; Norman B. Colp's *The Commuter's Lament, or A Close Shave* consists of a series of signs attached to the roof of the passageway, displaying the following text:{{cite web\| title \= Artwork: "The Commuter's Lament/A Close Shave", Norman B. Colp (1991\) \| url \= http://www.nycsubway.org/perl/artwork\_show?185 \| access\-date \= 22 October 2008}} Overslept, / So tired. / If late, / Get fired. / Why bother? / Why the pain? / Just go home / Do it again. Several highway departments in the United States use signs in the same style to dispense travel safety advice to motorists. Several writers of doggerel and humorously bad poetry (such as [David Burge](/wiki/David_Burge "David Burge")) often use "Burma Shave" as the last line of their poems to indicate their non\-serious nature. The word burma\-shave was used Apr 2011 in [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada"), "enlisted the help of an old friend to burmashave near the corner of Pembina," to describe a gathering of people holding a sign or signs and waving to traffic by the side of the road (a common sight during election campaigns).{{cite news \|url\= https://www.winnipegfreepress.com/breakingnews/2011/04/29/yes\-thats\-glen\-murray\-waving\-at\-traffic\-today \|title\=Yes, that was Glen Murray waving at traffic today \|newspaper\=\[\[Winnipeg Free Press]] \|date\=29 April 2011}} The term Burmashaving may specifically describe rural American highway signage in the form of ***a series of 5 rhyming stationary signs*** (a take\-off of Burma\-Vita ad campaigns beginning 1926\+). Turned political, the expression burma\-shaving is several signs of rhyming prose for political messaging of a jokey or scornful nature, e.g., refer to McCain's campaign against Obama, to catch the attention of passing motorists for political campaigning. \[{{cite web \|url\=https://mikechasar.blogspot.com/2008/10/burma\-shave\-politics.html \|last\=Chasar \|first\=Mike \|title\= Burma\-Shave Politics \|website\=Poetry and Popular Culture \|date\=27 October 2008}} {{cite web\|url\=https://theonion.com/mccain\-blasts\-obama\-as\-out\-of\-touch\-in\-burma\-shave\-styl\-1819570288/ \|title\=McCain Blasts Obama As Out Of Touch In Burma\-Shave\-Style Billboard Campaign \|work\=\[\[theonion.com]] \|date\=22 October 2008\| access\-date\=29 September 2024}} During the Apollo 8 mission, a parody of ['*Twas the Night Before Christmas*](/wiki/A_Visit_from_St._Nicholas "A Visit from St. Nicholas") written by Ken Young was transmitted to the mission, which referenced "A Burma\-Shave sign saying '[Kilroy was here](/wiki/Kilroy_was_here "Kilroy was here")'."*Go, Flight! The Unsung Heroes of Mission Control*. p. 133\.
[ "### Cultural impact", "A number of films and television shows set between the 1920s and 1950s have used the Burma\\-Shave roadside billboards to help set the scene. Examples include *[Bonnie and Clyde](/wiki/Bonnie_and_Clyde_%28film%29 \"Bonnie and Clyde (film)\")*, *[A River Runs Through It](/wiki/A_River_Runs_Through_It_%28film%29 \"A River Runs Through It (film)\")*, *[The World's Fastest Indian](/wiki/The_World%27s_Fastest_Indian \"The World's Fastest Indian\")*, *[Stand By Me](/wiki/Stand_by_Me_%28film%29 \"Stand by Me (film)\")*, *[Tom and Jerry](/wiki/Sleepy-Time_Tom \"Sleepy-Time Tom\")*, *[Rat Race](/wiki/Rat_Race_%28film%29 \"Rat Race (film)\")*, *[M\\*A\\*S\\*H](/wiki/M%2AA%2AS%2AH \"M*A*S*H\")* and the pilot episode (\"[Genesis](/wiki/Quantum_Leap_%28season_1%29%23ep1 \"Quantum Leap (season 1)#ep1\")\") of *[Quantum Leap](/wiki/Quantum_Leap_%281989_TV_series%29 \"Quantum Leap (1989 TV series)\")*. The long\\-running series *[Hee Haw](/wiki/Hee_Haw \"Hee Haw\")* borrowed the style for program [bumpers](/wiki/Commercial_bumper \"Commercial bumper\"), transitioning from one show segment to the next or to commercials.", "The Flintstones episode \"Divided We Sail\" has Barney Rubble reading messages on a series of buoys that say, \"If You're Queasy riding on the wave, just open your mouth. Shout Terra Firma Shave.\"", "The final episode of the popular television series *[M\\*A\\*S\\*H](/wiki/M%2AA%2AS%2AH_%28TV_series%29 \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\")* featured a series of road signs in Korea *\"Hawk was gone, now he's here. Dance til dawn, give a cheer. Burma\\-Shave\"*.", "[Roger Miller](/wiki/Roger_Miller \"Roger Miller\")'s song \"Burma Shave\" (the B\\-side to his 1961 single \"Fair Swiss Maiden\") has the singer musing that he's \"seen a million rows of them little red poetic signs up and down the line\", while reciting rhymes in the manner of the ads. [Tom Waits](/wiki/Tom_Waits \"Tom Waits\")' song \"Burma\\-Shave\" (from his 1977 album *[Foreign Affairs](/wiki/Foreign_Affairs_%28Tom_Waits_album%29 \"Foreign Affairs (Tom Waits album)\")*) uses the signs as an allegory for an unknown destination. (\"*I guess I'm headed that\\-a\\-way, Just as long as it's paved, I guess you'd say I'm on my way to Burma\\-Shave*\") [Chuck Suchy](/wiki/Chuck_Suchy \"Chuck Suchy\")'s song \"Burma Shave Boogie\" (from his 2008 album *Unraveling Heart*) incorporates several of the Burma Shave rhymes into its lyrics.", "The pedestrian passageway between the {{stn\\|42nd Street–Port Authority Bus Terminal}} and {{stn\\|Times Square–42nd Street}} stations in the [New York City Subway](/wiki/New_York_City_Subway \"New York City Subway\") system contains a piece of public art inspired by the Burma\\-Shave ads; Norman B. Colp's *The Commuter's Lament, or A Close Shave* consists of a series of signs attached to the roof of the passageway, displaying the following text:{{cite web\\| title \\= Artwork: \"The Commuter's Lament/A Close Shave\", Norman B. Colp (1991\\) \\| url \\= http://www.nycsubway.org/perl/artwork\\_show?185 \\| access\\-date \\= 22 October 2008}}\nOverslept, / So tired. / If late, / Get fired. / Why bother? / Why the pain? / Just go home / Do it again.", "Several highway departments in the United States use signs in the same style to dispense travel safety advice to motorists.", "Several writers of doggerel and humorously bad poetry (such as [David Burge](/wiki/David_Burge \"David Burge\")) often use \"Burma Shave\" as the last line of their poems to indicate their non\\-serious nature.", "The word burma\\-shave was used Apr 2011 in [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\"), \"enlisted the help of an old friend to burmashave near the corner of Pembina,\" to describe a gathering of people holding a sign or signs and waving to traffic by the side of the road (a common sight during election campaigns).{{cite news \\|url\\= https://www.winnipegfreepress.com/breakingnews/2011/04/29/yes\\-thats\\-glen\\-murray\\-waving\\-at\\-traffic\\-today \\|title\\=Yes, that was Glen Murray waving at traffic today \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Winnipeg Free Press]] \\|date\\=29 April 2011}} The term Burmashaving may specifically describe rural American highway signage in the form of ***a series of 5 rhyming stationary signs*** (a take\\-off of Burma\\-Vita ad campaigns beginning 1926\\+). Turned political, the expression burma\\-shaving is several signs of rhyming prose for political messaging of a jokey or scornful nature, e.g., refer to McCain's campaign against Obama, to catch the attention of passing motorists for political campaigning. \n\\[{{cite web \\|url\\=https://mikechasar.blogspot.com/2008/10/burma\\-shave\\-politics.html \\|last\\=Chasar \\|first\\=Mike \\|title\\= Burma\\-Shave Politics \\|website\\=Poetry and Popular Culture \\|date\\=27 October 2008}} {{cite web\\|url\\=https://theonion.com/mccain\\-blasts\\-obama\\-as\\-out\\-of\\-touch\\-in\\-burma\\-shave\\-styl\\-1819570288/ \\|title\\=McCain Blasts Obama As Out Of Touch In Burma\\-Shave\\-Style Billboard Campaign \\|work\\=\\[\\[theonion.com]] \\|date\\=22 October 2008\\| access\\-date\\=29 September 2024}}", "During the Apollo 8 mission, a parody of ['*Twas the Night Before Christmas*](/wiki/A_Visit_from_St._Nicholas \"A Visit from St. Nicholas\") written by Ken Young was transmitted to the mission, which referenced \"A Burma\\-Shave sign saying '[Kilroy was here](/wiki/Kilroy_was_here \"Kilroy was here\")'.\"*Go, Flight! The Unsung Heroes of Mission Control*. p. 133\\.", "" ]
History ------- ### Planning At the [Christian Reformed](/wiki/Christian_Reformed_Church_in_North_America "Christian Reformed Church in North America") [Synod](/wiki/Synod "Synod") of 1928, a committee was appointed to investigate the possibilities for radio missions. The committee presented a report for Synod of 1930 detailing plans for broadcasting sermons, but because of financial difficulties created by the [stock market crash](/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929 "Wall Street Crash of 1929") of 1929 the plan was shelved.David DeGroot, *Worlds Beyond: The story of The Back To God Hour* (Palos Heights: The Back to God Hour, 1979\), 3\-6 In 1938, Synod received a request from Classis Pella (a regional assembly in Iowa) to develop a denominational broadcast modeled after [The Lutheran Hour](/wiki/The_Lutheran_Hour "The Lutheran Hour"). Synod then appointed the first permanent Radio Committee. ### The Back to God Hour On Sunday, December 17, 1939, the first broadcast was aired over [WJJD](/wiki/WYLL "WYLL"), a 20,000\-watt station in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago").Robert Swierenga, [*Dutch Chicago: a history of Hollanders in the Windy City*](https://books.google.com/books?id=x5x4sey4g6sC&pg=PA447) (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Pub. Co., 2002\), 746 [Calvin College](/wiki/Calvin_College "Calvin College") Professor [Henry Schultze](/wiki/Henry_Schultze "Henry Schultze") served as the first speaker.Scott Hoezee, *Grace Through Every Generation* (Grand Rapids: Faith Alive Christian Resources, 2006\), 31\)Henry Stob, *Summoning Up Remembrance* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1995\) During the first three seasons, the program was not produced during the summer; beginning in the 1943\-44 season, the program was aired every Sunday, year\-round. At this time Dr. Peter Eldersveld joined the organization, first as an introductory announcer and later as a regular host. In 1946 the Church appointed him as a full\-time radio minister.{{cite book\|author1\=Scott Hoezee\|author2\=Christopher H. Meehan\|title\=Flourishing in the Land: A Hundred\-Year History of Christian Reformed Missions in North America\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=gKfjAAAAMAAJ\|year\=1996\|publisher\=Christian Reformed Home Missions\|isbn\=978\-0\-8028\-3795\-0\|page\=82}} In 1950 he launched *The Family Altar* (later renamed the *Today* daily devotional), a booklet with daily devotional messages which was promoted through the radio program. In 1956 the Back to God Hour was syndicated on [HCJB](/wiki/HCJB "HCJB"), a short\-wave broadcasting station in Ecuador, its first continuous international broadcast. In 1958, 13 episodes of the *Back to God Hour* were filmed for television.{{cite book\|author\=Nielsen Business Media, Inc.\|title\=Billboard\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=bCAEAAAAMBAJ\&pg\=PA12\|date\=16 March 1957\|publisher\=Nielsen Business Media, Inc.\|pages\=12–\|issn\=0006\-2510}} In 1958, the *Back to God Hour* began broadcasting in the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East "Middle East"), with Rev. Bassam Madany as Arabic minister.[Radio Pierces Arab Barriers To Christianity"](https://www.orlandosentinel.com/1988/09/10/radio-pierces-arab-barriers-to-christianity/). *Orlando Sentinel*, September 10, 1988 By Laurie Goering The *Back to God Hour* expanded in 1959 to [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia") and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand "New Zealand"). In 1961, Rev. Juan Boonstra began translating programming into Spanish, and in 1965 he moved to Chicago to record programs for Latin American audiences as the Spanish language minister,["Obituaries: Rev. Juan S. Boonstra, voice of 'Back to God Hour'."](https://web.archive.org/web/20121107031039/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/8012494.html?dids=8012494:8012494&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Mar+25,+1995&author=Heise,+Kenan&pub=Chicago+Tribune&desc=Obituaries:++R) Chicago Tribune, March 25, 1995, p. 115\. . ### Expansion After Eldersveld's death in 1965,["Peter Eldersveld"](http://reformedperspectives.org/search.asp/au/pet_eldersveld/scat//kw//st//). *Reformed Perspectives*["Radio Pastor Dies at Age 54\."](https://web.archive.org/web/20121107030907/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/baltsun/access/1720576832.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI&type=historic&date=Oct+15,+1965&author=&pub=The+Sun+(1837-1985)&desc=RADIO+PASTOR+DIES+AT+AGE+54&pqatl=google) The Baltimore Sun, October 15, 1965, sec. A13\. Dr. Joel Nederhood was appointed as his replacement.["Local Minister Leaves to Take National Church Post."](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=f1xuXVtw34IC&dat=19600108&printsec=frontpage&hl=en.) The Washington Reporter, January 8, 1966, sec. 8\. Over the next few years, the organization expanded its broadcasts into more languages, including [Indonesian](/wiki/Indonesian_language "Indonesian language"), [French](/wiki/French_language "French language"), and Portuguese. Many of the broadcasts were sent out through [Trans World Radio](/wiki/Trans_World_Radio "Trans World Radio") (TWR), a Christian radio broadcasting organization with transmitting stations around the world. In 1974, [Chinese](/wiki/Chinese_language "Chinese language")["Rev. Isaac I. Jen."](http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=CSTB&p_theme=cstb&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EB36DDDE08A4CD6&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_) Chicago Sun\-Times, June 11, 1988, p. 43\. and [Japanese](/wiki/Japanese_language "Japanese language") ministries were set up.["Six speakers slated for mission meeting."](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=hiFlAAAAIBAJ&sjid=JogNAAAAIBAJ&pg=4653,2917307&hl=en) Edmonton Journal, October 9, 1971, p. 37\. In 1976, Back to God built a new International Communications Center in Palos Heights, Illinois, with office space as well as radio and television production facilities.VandenBosch, James. "Back to God Hour moves to new headquarters." The Banner, May 21, 1976, 6\-7\. In 1977, Back to God began producing television programs: documentaries, holiday specials, and *Faith 20*, a 30\-minute video version of *The Back to God Hour* radio program which aired daily across the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States")."CRC\-TV production unit formed." The Banner, April 15, 1977, 3\. In 1980, Russian language broadcasts began under the leadership of [Mikhail Morgulis](/wiki/Mikhail_Morgulis "Mikhail Morgulis").[Szymczak, P. D. "Ukrainian tries to build a bridge to his homeland."](https://archive.today/20140415085257/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/24402899.html?dids=24402899:24402899&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=May+01,+1992&author=P.+Davis+Szymczak.&pub=Chicago+Tribune+(pre-1997+Fu) Chicago Tribune, May 1, 1992, p. 6\.Hirsley, Michael. ["Russia says U.S. too pushy with religion."](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Cm4fAAAAIBAJ&sjid=KfEDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6401,6534490&hl=en) The Spokesman\-Review, July 30, 1993, p. E3\. In 1981, [WGN America](/wiki/WGN_America "WGN America") offered a daily morning time slot for *Faith 20*. Telephone counseling centers were set up in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago"), [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles"), [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"), and [Toronto](/wiki/Toronto "Toronto")."Back to God Hour airs on WGN\-TV." The Banner, June 15, 1981, 22\. In Brazil, Rev. Ferreira created *Disquepaz*, a short Portuguese language devotional program delivered by telephone. In 1982, the French language ministry was moved from [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") to Chicago. By 1990, Dr. Nederhood's duties as Director had expanded, and a separate minister, Rev. David Feddes, took over as host of the English language version of *The* *Back to God Hour*. Rev. Feddes left Back to God Ministries in 2008 and became the provost of [Christian Leaders Institute](/wiki/Christian_Leaders_Institute "Christian Leaders Institute").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.christianleadersinstitute.org/bible\-school/dr\-david\-feddes\|title\=Dr. David Feddes \- Free Ministry Training \- Ordination\|date\=2015\-06\-05\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-15}} In January 1996, Nederhood retired and Dr. Calvin Bremer was appointed to replace him as Director of Ministries. Over the next few years, Several other ministers retired and were replaced by younger preachers. Back to God also opened new offices in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow") in 1995 (relocated to [St. Petersburg](/wiki/St._Petersburg "St. Petersburg") in 2004,) and in [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong") in 2005\. In 1997, *Faith 20* was discontinued."Faith 20 finishes its run." The Banner, June 30, 1997, 11\. Bremer began a new program, entitled *Primary Focus* in 1999\.Postma, Gayla R. "Back to God Hour launches new TV program." The Banner, July 5, 1999, 28\. In 2000, Back to God debuted a children's radio program called *Kids Corner*. *Primary Focus* ran for 6 years, and was nominated for two local Chicago Emmy Awards. In 2005, Back to God ended *Primary Focus* as part of its move toward a more Internet\-based ministry.["Church will switch off Primary Focus TV program"](https://web.archive.org/web/20121107113655/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/thestar/access/947867111.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Dec+24,+2005&author=&pub=Waterloo+Region+Record&desc=Church+will+switch+off+Primary+Focus+TV+program&pqatl=google). Dec 24, 2005\. *Toronto Daily Star* archives. (subscription required) In 2005 Bremer resigned as Director of Ministries after admitting to behaving with poor judgement in a conflict of interest situation,["Two Sad Resignations"](http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2005/augustweb-only/31.0.html). *Christianity Today*, and Rev. Robert Heerspink replaced him as the organization's leader.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.wfn.org/2006/02/msg00375\.html \|title\="CRC NEWS: CRC Appoints Director for Media Ministry" \|access\-date\=2011\-06\-14 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724160905/http://www.wfn.org/2006/02/msg00375\.html \|archive\-date\=2008\-07\-24 \|url\-status\=dead }} In 2006, Back to God reorganized the English language ministry, bringing the *Today* devotional, *Back to God Hour*, and *Kids Corner* under the leadership of Rev. Steven Koster. Back to God also entered a partnership with Words of Hope and FEBA to produce a [Specialized English](/wiki/Specialized_English "Specialized English") broadcast called *Spotlight*.{{Cite web\|title \= Noteworthy\|url \= http://www.thebanner.org/news/2011/01/noteworthy\-1\|accessdate \= 2015\-09\-12}}{{Cite web\|title \= BTGH expands english language ministry\|url \= http://www.thebanner.org/together/2011/01/btgh\-expands\-english\-language\-ministry\|accessdate \= 2015\-09\-12}} ### Back to God Ministries International In 2008, the organization changed its name from "The Back to God Hour" to "Back to God Ministries International*"* because its activities had extended beyond overseeing the radio program of the same name.["CRC NEWS: 'Back to God' Name Goes International](https://archive.today/20140415085305/http://www.wfn.org/2008/06/msg00100.html)["Worshippers strong on faith, but not church"](http://www.mysanantonio.com/news/local_news/article/Worshippers-strong-on-faith-but-not-church-780462.php). *My San Antonio*. by Roy Bragg August 2, 2010 Also in 2008, A new daily radio program called *Walk the Way*, with an associated [videoblog](/wiki/Videoblog "Videoblog"), began to air, a new radio program called *Under the Radar* was launched, and the [blog](/wiki/Blog "Blog") *Think Christian* was acquired from [Gospel Communications International](/wiki/Gospel_Communications_International "Gospel Communications International").["Gospel Communications online sold"](http://blog.mlive.com/chronicle/2008/10/gospel_communications_online_s.html). Clayton Hardiman \| *Muskegon Chronicle* In 2009, the English ministry was reorganized as ReFrame Media, unifying all domestic programming into a single ministry.{{Cite web\|title \= Finding God Outside Church\|url \= http://www.thebanner.org/together/2011/01/finding\-god\-outside\-church\|accessdate \= 2015\-09\-12}} In 2010, the long\-running *Back to God Hour* celebrated its 75th anniversary and was replaced by a new program called *Groundwork*, which was produced in partnership with Words of Hope.{{Cite web\|title \= CRC, RCA Launch 'Groundwork'\|url \= http://www.thebanner.org/together/2011/01/crc\-rca\-launch\-groundwork\|accessdate \= 2015\-09\-12}} 2010 also saw the launch of *Family Fire* a family encouragement ministry.{{Cite web\|title \= Families on Fire\|url \= http://www.thebanner.org/together/2011/11/families\-on\-fire\|accessdate \= 2015\-09\-12}} After Heerspink's death in 2011,["Obituaries Today: The Rev. Robert Heerspink, 57, of Back to God Ministries International"](http://www.mlive.com/news/grand-rapids/index.ssf/2011/10/obituaries_today_the_rev_rober.html). *Mlive*.["In Memoriam: Rev. Robert Heerspink"](http://www.thebanner.org/news/2011/11/in-memoriam-rev-robert-heerspink) by Louis M. Tamminga, *The Banner*, November 18, 2011 Rev. Kurt Selles, formerly a missionary in China and Taiwan, became the organization's Director in 2012\.["Selles Nominated as Director of Back to God Ministries"](http://www.thebanner.org/news/2012/05/selles-nominated-as-director-of-back-to-god-ministries). *The Banner*, by Gayla R. Postma May 11, 2012 In 2015, the Christian Reformed Church Synod announced plans to combine the governing boards of Back to God Ministries International with two other missionary organizations within the church, Christian Reformed World Missions and Christian Reformed Home Missions.["CRC Synod Approves Changes To Governance"](http://kiwaradio.com/local-news/crc-synod-approves-changes-to-governance/). *KIWA Radio*. June 19, 2015 In December 2017, the property at 6555 West College Drive in [Palos Heights, Illinois](/wiki/Palos_Heights%2C_Illinois "Palos Heights, Illinois"), where Back to God Ministries International was based for more than 40 years, was sold to adjacent [Trinity Christian College](/wiki/Trinity_Christian_College "Trinity Christian College"). The sale marked the relocation of Back to God Ministries International to Grand Rapids, Michigan.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.thebanner.org/news/2018/01/back\-to\-god\-on\-the\-move\-building\-sold\-to\-trinity\-christian\-college\|title\=Back to God on the Move, Building Sold to Trinity Christian College\|website\=The Banner\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-01\-03}} In 2021, the ministry changed names to ReFrame Ministries, building on the recognition of the English Ministry's name and unifying the branding between the English and non\-English programs.{{Cite web\|title\=A New Name for Back to God Ministries {{!}} Christian Reformed Church\|url\=https://www.crcna.org/news\-and\-events/news/new\-name\-back\-god\-ministries\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-15\|website\=www.crcna.org\|language\=en}} ### English ministries The English language ministry of ReFrame Ministries is under the co\-directorship of Robin Basselin and Justin Sterenberg after Rev. Steven Koster stepped down in July 2019\.{{Cite web\|title\=ReFrame Media Director Stepping Down {{!}} Christian Reformed Church\|url\=https://www.crcna.org/news\-and\-events/news/reframe\-media\-director\-stepping\-down\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-15\|website\=www.crcna.org\|language\=en}} Some of its current projects are: * Today daily devotional \- A daily devotional in print and email. *Today* booklets are published bi\-monthly, and is written by pastors in the [Christian Reformed Church](/wiki/Christian_Reformed_Church_in_North_America "Christian Reformed Church in North America"). * Think Christian \- A faith and culture [blog](/wiki/Blog "Blog") (acquired from [Gospel Communications International](/wiki/Gospel_Communications_International "Gospel Communications International") in 2008\). * Family Fire \- A marriage and family ministry providing encouragement to Christian households. * *Kid's Corner* \- A 25\-minute weekly children's radio drama starring lizard characters. * *Groundwork* \- A 25\-minute weekly radio conversational Bible study broadcast. * Church Juice \- A service for congregations on church communications, [public relations](/wiki/Public_relations "Public relations"), marketing, and website development. Some of its former projects include * *Under the Radar* \- A 60\-minute weekly radio program that plays "undiscovered" and "under\-appreciated" music. Was spun off as an independent ministry in 2014, then relaunched again in 2017 as UTR Media.{{Cite web\|title\=About UTR Media \|url\=https://utrmedia.org/about\-utr\-media/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-30 \|website\=www.utrmedia.org\|language\=en }} * *Walk the Way* \- A weekly 5\-minute [videoblog](/wiki/Videoblog "Videoblog") hosted by Rev. Jeff Klein. Was transferred to QPlace in 2014\. * *Spotlight* \- A weekly 15\-minute radio program recorded in [Specialized English](/wiki/Specialized_English "Specialized English"), produced in association with Words of Hope and [HCJB Global](/wiki/HCJB_Global "HCJB Global"). ReFrame withdrew from the project in 2014\. * *Primary Focus* \- a 30\-minute TV broadcast of encouraging and inspirational faith stories. Was spun off as the independent "Life Focus" in 2005\. * *Faith20* \- A TV devotional program, discontinued in 1997\. * *The Family Altar* \- the original name of the *Today* devotional, beginning in 1950\. * *The Back to God Hour* \- The original preaching program ran from 1939\-2010, and was renamed *Groundwork*. ### French Led by Rev. Paul Mpindi from 1999\-2014\. Its projects include: * Perspective Réformées \- ("Reformed Perspective") Daily 15\-minute radio program designed to reach those who wish to become Christians. * Perspective Réformées pour la femme Chretienne \- ("Reformed Perspective for the Christian Woman") \- Weekly 15\-minute radio program aimed at women. * Pain de Vie \- ("Bread of Life") The French version of the daily devotional booklet *Today* * Cours Bibliques Par Correspondances \- ("Bible Correspondence Courses'") ### Spanish Rev. Huascar de la Cruz has been the director of the Spanish language Ministry since 2019\. His group provides free technical training for radio station personnel in Latin America in exchange for airtime. Back to God's Spanish projects include: * La Hora de la Reforma \- ("The Hour of Reformation") A 15\-minute weekly radio introduction to biblical teachings. * El Club del Arca \- ("'The Ark Clubhouse") A 52 episodes bible\-oriented children's television show with puppet characters. * Reflexión \- ("Reflections") a 5\-minute daily radio commentary with a Christian perspective. * Comunicadores Online \- ("Online Communications") a website which offers follow\-up resources and communication for station managers and media technicians who attend Back to God Ministries International training workshops. * La Vida Ahora ("Life Today") a weekly [news magazine](/wiki/News_magazine "News magazine") video broadcast, DVD and podcast concerned with applying biblical principles to daily life situations. ### Other languages ReFrame Ministries has supported broadcasts in Chinese since 1990, Russian since 1996, Japanese since 1998, Portuguese since 2006, Hindi since 2014, and Arabic and Indonesia both since 2019\.
[ "History\n-------", "### Planning", "At the [Christian Reformed](/wiki/Christian_Reformed_Church_in_North_America \"Christian Reformed Church in North America\") [Synod](/wiki/Synod \"Synod\") of 1928, a committee was appointed to investigate the possibilities for radio missions. The committee presented a report for Synod of 1930 detailing plans for broadcasting sermons, but because of financial difficulties created by the [stock market crash](/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929 \"Wall Street Crash of 1929\") of 1929 the plan was shelved.David DeGroot, *Worlds Beyond: The story of The Back To God Hour* (Palos Heights: The Back to God Hour, 1979\\), 3\\-6", "In 1938, Synod received a request from Classis Pella (a regional assembly in Iowa) to develop a denominational broadcast modeled after [The Lutheran Hour](/wiki/The_Lutheran_Hour \"The Lutheran Hour\"). Synod then appointed the first permanent Radio Committee.", "### The Back to God Hour", "On Sunday, December 17, 1939, the first broadcast was aired over [WJJD](/wiki/WYLL \"WYLL\"), a 20,000\\-watt station in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\").Robert Swierenga, [*Dutch Chicago: a history of Hollanders in the Windy City*](https://books.google.com/books?id=x5x4sey4g6sC&pg=PA447) (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Pub. Co., 2002\\), 746 [Calvin College](/wiki/Calvin_College \"Calvin College\") Professor [Henry Schultze](/wiki/Henry_Schultze \"Henry Schultze\") served as the first speaker.Scott Hoezee, *Grace Through Every Generation* (Grand Rapids: Faith Alive Christian Resources, 2006\\), 31\\)Henry Stob, *Summoning Up Remembrance* (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1995\\) During the first three seasons, the program was not produced during the summer; beginning in the 1943\\-44 season, the program was aired every Sunday, year\\-round.", "At this time Dr. Peter Eldersveld joined the organization, first as an introductory announcer and later as a regular host. In 1946 the Church appointed him as a full\\-time radio minister.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Scott Hoezee\\|author2\\=Christopher H. Meehan\\|title\\=Flourishing in the Land: A Hundred\\-Year History of Christian Reformed Missions in North America\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=gKfjAAAAMAAJ\\|year\\=1996\\|publisher\\=Christian Reformed Home Missions\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8028\\-3795\\-0\\|page\\=82}} In 1950 he launched *The Family Altar* (later renamed the *Today* daily devotional), a booklet with daily devotional messages which was promoted through the radio program.", "In 1956 the Back to God Hour was syndicated on [HCJB](/wiki/HCJB \"HCJB\"), a short\\-wave broadcasting station in Ecuador, its first continuous international broadcast. In 1958, 13 episodes of the *Back to God Hour* were filmed for television.{{cite book\\|author\\=Nielsen Business Media, Inc.\\|title\\=Billboard\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=bCAEAAAAMBAJ\\&pg\\=PA12\\|date\\=16 March 1957\\|publisher\\=Nielsen Business Media, Inc.\\|pages\\=12–\\|issn\\=0006\\-2510}}", "In 1958, the *Back to God Hour* began broadcasting in the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East \"Middle East\"), with Rev. Bassam Madany as Arabic minister.[Radio Pierces Arab Barriers To Christianity\"](https://www.orlandosentinel.com/1988/09/10/radio-pierces-arab-barriers-to-christianity/). *Orlando Sentinel*, September 10, 1988 By Laurie Goering The *Back to God Hour* expanded in 1959 to [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand \"New Zealand\"). In 1961, Rev. Juan Boonstra began translating programming into Spanish, and in 1965 he moved to Chicago to record programs for Latin American audiences as the Spanish language minister,[\"Obituaries: Rev. Juan S. Boonstra, voice of 'Back to God Hour'.\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20121107031039/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/8012494.html?dids=8012494:8012494&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Mar+25,+1995&author=Heise,+Kenan&pub=Chicago+Tribune&desc=Obituaries:++R) Chicago Tribune, March 25, 1995, p. 115\\. .", "### Expansion", "After Eldersveld's death in 1965,[\"Peter Eldersveld\"](http://reformedperspectives.org/search.asp/au/pet_eldersveld/scat//kw//st//). *Reformed Perspectives*[\"Radio Pastor Dies at Age 54\\.\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20121107030907/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/baltsun/access/1720576832.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI&type=historic&date=Oct+15,+1965&author=&pub=The+Sun+(1837-1985)&desc=RADIO+PASTOR+DIES+AT+AGE+54&pqatl=google) The Baltimore Sun, October 15, 1965, sec. A13\\. Dr. Joel Nederhood was appointed as his replacement.[\"Local Minister Leaves to Take National Church Post.\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=f1xuXVtw34IC&dat=19600108&printsec=frontpage&hl=en.) The Washington Reporter, January 8, 1966, sec. 8\\. Over the next few years, the organization expanded its broadcasts into more languages, including [Indonesian](/wiki/Indonesian_language \"Indonesian language\"), [French](/wiki/French_language \"French language\"), and Portuguese. Many of the broadcasts were sent out through [Trans World Radio](/wiki/Trans_World_Radio \"Trans World Radio\") (TWR), a Christian radio broadcasting organization with transmitting stations around the world.", "In 1974, [Chinese](/wiki/Chinese_language \"Chinese language\")[\"Rev. Isaac I. Jen.\"](http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=CSTB&p_theme=cstb&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EB36DDDE08A4CD6&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_) Chicago Sun\\-Times, June 11, 1988, p. 43\\. and [Japanese](/wiki/Japanese_language \"Japanese language\") ministries were set up.[\"Six speakers slated for mission meeting.\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=hiFlAAAAIBAJ&sjid=JogNAAAAIBAJ&pg=4653,2917307&hl=en) Edmonton Journal, October 9, 1971, p. 37\\. In 1976, Back to God built a new International Communications Center in Palos Heights, Illinois, with office space as well as radio and television production facilities.VandenBosch, James. \"Back to God Hour moves to new headquarters.\" The Banner, May 21, 1976, 6\\-7\\. In 1977, Back to God began producing television programs: documentaries, holiday specials, and *Faith 20*, a 30\\-minute video version of *The Back to God Hour* radio program which aired daily across the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\").\"CRC\\-TV production unit formed.\" The Banner, April 15, 1977, 3\\.", "In 1980, Russian language broadcasts began under the leadership of [Mikhail Morgulis](/wiki/Mikhail_Morgulis \"Mikhail Morgulis\").[Szymczak, P. D. \"Ukrainian tries to build a bridge to his homeland.\"](https://archive.today/20140415085257/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/24402899.html?dids=24402899:24402899&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=May+01,+1992&author=P.+Davis+Szymczak.&pub=Chicago+Tribune+(pre-1997+Fu) Chicago Tribune, May 1, 1992, p. 6\\.Hirsley, Michael. [\"Russia says U.S. too pushy with religion.\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Cm4fAAAAIBAJ&sjid=KfEDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6401,6534490&hl=en) The Spokesman\\-Review, July 30, 1993, p. E3\\. In 1981, [WGN America](/wiki/WGN_America \"WGN America\") offered a daily morning time slot for *Faith 20*. Telephone counseling centers were set up in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\"), [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\"), [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), and [Toronto](/wiki/Toronto \"Toronto\").\"Back to God Hour airs on WGN\\-TV.\" The Banner, June 15, 1981, 22\\. In Brazil, Rev. Ferreira created *Disquepaz*, a short Portuguese language devotional program delivered by telephone. In 1982, the French language ministry was moved from [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") to Chicago.", "By 1990, Dr. Nederhood's duties as Director had expanded, and a separate minister, Rev. David Feddes, took over as host of the English language version of *The* *Back to God Hour*. Rev. Feddes left Back to God Ministries in 2008 and became the provost of [Christian Leaders Institute](/wiki/Christian_Leaders_Institute \"Christian Leaders Institute\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.christianleadersinstitute.org/bible\\-school/dr\\-david\\-feddes\\|title\\=Dr. David Feddes \\- Free Ministry Training \\- Ordination\\|date\\=2015\\-06\\-05\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-15}}", "In January 1996, Nederhood retired and Dr. Calvin Bremer was appointed to replace him as Director of Ministries. Over the next few years, Several other ministers retired and were replaced by younger preachers. Back to God also opened new offices in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\") in 1995 (relocated to [St. Petersburg](/wiki/St._Petersburg \"St. Petersburg\") in 2004,) and in [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\") in 2005\\.", "In 1997, *Faith 20* was discontinued.\"Faith 20 finishes its run.\" The Banner, June 30, 1997, 11\\. Bremer began a new program, entitled *Primary Focus* in 1999\\.Postma, Gayla R. \"Back to God Hour launches new TV program.\" The Banner, July 5, 1999, 28\\. In 2000, Back to God debuted a children's radio program called *Kids Corner*. *Primary Focus* ran for 6 years, and was nominated for two local Chicago Emmy Awards. In 2005, Back to God ended *Primary Focus* as part of its move toward a more Internet\\-based ministry.[\"Church will switch off Primary Focus TV program\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20121107113655/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/thestar/access/947867111.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Dec+24,+2005&author=&pub=Waterloo+Region+Record&desc=Church+will+switch+off+Primary+Focus+TV+program&pqatl=google). Dec 24, 2005\\. *Toronto Daily Star* archives. (subscription required)", "In 2005 Bremer resigned as Director of Ministries after admitting to behaving with poor judgement in a conflict of interest situation,[\"Two Sad Resignations\"](http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2005/augustweb-only/31.0.html). *Christianity Today*, and Rev. Robert Heerspink replaced him as the organization's leader.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.wfn.org/2006/02/msg00375\\.html \\|title\\=\"CRC NEWS: CRC Appoints Director for Media Ministry\" \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-06\\-14 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724160905/http://www.wfn.org/2006/02/msg00375\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-07\\-24 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} In 2006, Back to God reorganized the English language ministry, bringing the *Today* devotional, *Back to God Hour*, and *Kids Corner* under the leadership of Rev. Steven Koster. Back to God also entered a partnership with Words of Hope and FEBA to produce a [Specialized English](/wiki/Specialized_English \"Specialized English\") broadcast called *Spotlight*.{{Cite web\\|title \\= Noteworthy\\|url \\= http://www.thebanner.org/news/2011/01/noteworthy\\-1\\|accessdate \\= 2015\\-09\\-12}}{{Cite web\\|title \\= BTGH expands english language ministry\\|url \\= http://www.thebanner.org/together/2011/01/btgh\\-expands\\-english\\-language\\-ministry\\|accessdate \\= 2015\\-09\\-12}}", "### Back to God Ministries International", "In 2008, the organization changed its name from \"The Back to God Hour\" to \"Back to God Ministries International*\"* because its activities had extended beyond overseeing the radio program of the same name.[\"CRC NEWS: 'Back to God' Name Goes International](https://archive.today/20140415085305/http://www.wfn.org/2008/06/msg00100.html)[\"Worshippers strong on faith, but not church\"](http://www.mysanantonio.com/news/local_news/article/Worshippers-strong-on-faith-but-not-church-780462.php). *My San Antonio*. by Roy Bragg August 2, 2010 Also in 2008, A new daily radio program called *Walk the Way*, with an associated [videoblog](/wiki/Videoblog \"Videoblog\"), began to air, a new radio program called *Under the Radar* was launched, and the [blog](/wiki/Blog \"Blog\") *Think Christian* was acquired from [Gospel Communications International](/wiki/Gospel_Communications_International \"Gospel Communications International\").[\"Gospel Communications online sold\"](http://blog.mlive.com/chronicle/2008/10/gospel_communications_online_s.html). Clayton Hardiman \\| *Muskegon Chronicle*", "In 2009, the English ministry was reorganized as ReFrame Media, unifying all domestic programming into a single ministry.{{Cite web\\|title \\= Finding God Outside Church\\|url \\= http://www.thebanner.org/together/2011/01/finding\\-god\\-outside\\-church\\|accessdate \\= 2015\\-09\\-12}} In 2010, the long\\-running *Back to God Hour* celebrated its 75th anniversary and was replaced by a new program called *Groundwork*, which was produced in partnership with Words of Hope.{{Cite web\\|title \\= CRC, RCA Launch 'Groundwork'\\|url \\= http://www.thebanner.org/together/2011/01/crc\\-rca\\-launch\\-groundwork\\|accessdate \\= 2015\\-09\\-12}} 2010 also saw the launch of *Family Fire* a family encouragement ministry.{{Cite web\\|title \\= Families on Fire\\|url \\= http://www.thebanner.org/together/2011/11/families\\-on\\-fire\\|accessdate \\= 2015\\-09\\-12}}", "After Heerspink's death in 2011,[\"Obituaries Today: The Rev. Robert Heerspink, 57, of Back to God Ministries International\"](http://www.mlive.com/news/grand-rapids/index.ssf/2011/10/obituaries_today_the_rev_rober.html). *Mlive*.[\"In Memoriam: Rev. Robert Heerspink\"](http://www.thebanner.org/news/2011/11/in-memoriam-rev-robert-heerspink) by Louis M. Tamminga, *The Banner*, November 18, 2011 Rev. Kurt Selles, formerly a missionary in China and Taiwan, became the organization's Director in 2012\\.[\"Selles Nominated as Director of Back to God Ministries\"](http://www.thebanner.org/news/2012/05/selles-nominated-as-director-of-back-to-god-ministries). *The Banner*, by Gayla R. Postma May 11, 2012", "In 2015, the Christian Reformed Church Synod announced plans to combine the governing boards of Back to God Ministries International with two other missionary organizations within the church, Christian Reformed World Missions and Christian Reformed Home Missions.[\"CRC Synod Approves Changes To Governance\"](http://kiwaradio.com/local-news/crc-synod-approves-changes-to-governance/). *KIWA Radio*. June 19, 2015", "In December 2017, the property at 6555 West College Drive in [Palos Heights, Illinois](/wiki/Palos_Heights%2C_Illinois \"Palos Heights, Illinois\"), where Back to God Ministries International was based for more than 40 years, was sold to adjacent [Trinity Christian College](/wiki/Trinity_Christian_College \"Trinity Christian College\"). The sale marked the relocation of Back to God Ministries International to Grand Rapids, Michigan.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.thebanner.org/news/2018/01/back\\-to\\-god\\-on\\-the\\-move\\-building\\-sold\\-to\\-trinity\\-christian\\-college\\|title\\=Back to God on the Move, Building Sold to Trinity Christian College\\|website\\=The Banner\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-03}}", "In 2021, the ministry changed names to ReFrame Ministries, building on the recognition of the English Ministry's name and unifying the branding between the English and non\\-English programs.{{Cite web\\|title\\=A New Name for Back to God Ministries {{!}} Christian Reformed Church\\|url\\=https://www.crcna.org/news\\-and\\-events/news/new\\-name\\-back\\-god\\-ministries\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-15\\|website\\=www.crcna.org\\|language\\=en}}", "### English ministries", "The English language ministry of ReFrame Ministries is under the co\\-directorship of Robin Basselin and Justin Sterenberg after Rev. Steven Koster stepped down in July 2019\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=ReFrame Media Director Stepping Down {{!}} Christian Reformed Church\\|url\\=https://www.crcna.org/news\\-and\\-events/news/reframe\\-media\\-director\\-stepping\\-down\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-15\\|website\\=www.crcna.org\\|language\\=en}} Some of its current projects are:", "* Today daily devotional \\- A daily devotional in print and email. *Today* booklets are published bi\\-monthly, and is written by pastors in the [Christian Reformed Church](/wiki/Christian_Reformed_Church_in_North_America \"Christian Reformed Church in North America\").\n* Think Christian \\- A faith and culture [blog](/wiki/Blog \"Blog\") (acquired from [Gospel Communications International](/wiki/Gospel_Communications_International \"Gospel Communications International\") in 2008\\).\n* Family Fire \\- A marriage and family ministry providing encouragement to Christian households.\n* *Kid's Corner* \\- A 25\\-minute weekly children's radio drama starring lizard characters.\n* *Groundwork* \\- A 25\\-minute weekly radio conversational Bible study broadcast.\n* Church Juice \\- A service for congregations on church communications, [public relations](/wiki/Public_relations \"Public relations\"), marketing, and website development.\nSome of its former projects include\n* *Under the Radar* \\- A 60\\-minute weekly radio program that plays \"undiscovered\" and \"under\\-appreciated\" music. Was spun off as an independent ministry in 2014, then relaunched again in 2017 as UTR Media.{{Cite web\\|title\\=About UTR Media \\|url\\=https://utrmedia.org/about\\-utr\\-media/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-30 \\|website\\=www.utrmedia.org\\|language\\=en }}\n* *Walk the Way* \\- A weekly 5\\-minute [videoblog](/wiki/Videoblog \"Videoblog\") hosted by Rev. Jeff Klein. Was transferred to QPlace in 2014\\.\n* *Spotlight* \\- A weekly 15\\-minute radio program recorded in [Specialized English](/wiki/Specialized_English \"Specialized English\"), produced in association with Words of Hope and [HCJB Global](/wiki/HCJB_Global \"HCJB Global\"). ReFrame withdrew from the project in 2014\\.\n* *Primary Focus* \\- a 30\\-minute TV broadcast of encouraging and inspirational faith stories. Was spun off as the independent \"Life Focus\" in 2005\\.\n* *Faith20* \\- A TV devotional program, discontinued in 1997\\.\n* *The Family Altar* \\- the original name of the *Today* devotional, beginning in 1950\\.\n* *The Back to God Hour* \\- The original preaching program ran from 1939\\-2010, and was renamed *Groundwork*.", "### French", "Led by Rev. Paul Mpindi from 1999\\-2014\\. Its projects include:\n* Perspective Réformées \\- (\"Reformed Perspective\") Daily 15\\-minute radio program designed to reach those who wish to become Christians.\n* Perspective Réformées pour la femme Chretienne \\- (\"Reformed Perspective for the Christian Woman\") \\- Weekly 15\\-minute radio program aimed at women.\n* Pain de Vie \\- (\"Bread of Life\") The French version of the daily devotional booklet *Today*\n* Cours Bibliques Par Correspondances \\- (\"Bible Correspondence Courses'\")", "### Spanish", "Rev. Huascar de la Cruz has been the director of the Spanish language Ministry since 2019\\. His group provides free technical training for radio station personnel in Latin America in exchange for airtime. Back to God's Spanish projects include:\n* La Hora de la Reforma \\- (\"The Hour of Reformation\") A 15\\-minute weekly radio introduction to biblical teachings.\n* El Club del Arca \\- (\"'The Ark Clubhouse\") A 52 episodes bible\\-oriented children's television show with puppet characters.\n* Reflexión \\- (\"Reflections\") a 5\\-minute daily radio commentary with a Christian perspective.\n* Comunicadores Online \\- (\"Online Communications\") a website which offers follow\\-up resources and communication for station managers and media technicians who attend Back to God Ministries International training workshops.\n* La Vida Ahora (\"Life Today\") a weekly [news magazine](/wiki/News_magazine \"News magazine\") video broadcast, DVD and podcast concerned with applying biblical principles to daily life situations.", "### Other languages", "ReFrame Ministries has supported broadcasts in Chinese since 1990, Russian since 1996, Japanese since 1998, Portuguese since 2006, Hindi since 2014, and Arabic and Indonesia both since 2019\\.", "" ]
Cast ---- ### Hosts [thumb\|left\|Logo used for seasons 1–6\.](/wiki/File:DWTS_GR_logo.png "DWTS GR logo.png") Since its premiere in 2010, the show was hosted by [Zeta Makripoulia](/wiki/Zeta_Makripoulia "Zeta Makripoulia"). In the fourth season Makripoulia was replaced by [Doukissa Nomikou](/wiki/Doukissa_Nomikou "Doukissa Nomikou"). The sixth season was hosted by [Evangelia Aravani](/wiki/Evangelia_Aravani "Evangelia Aravani"). There was also a different co\-host in each season for the backstage room, also known as Green Room. The co\-hosts included Eleni Karpontini (first season) and Mary Sinatsaki (second season). Argiris Aggelou, the winner of the second season, co\-hosted the third season, [Doretta Papadimitriou](/wiki/Doretta_Papadimitriou "Doretta Papadimitriou"), the winner of the third season, co\-hosted the fourth season and [Kostas Martakis](/wiki/Kostas_Martakis "Kostas Martakis"), the runner\-up of the second season, co\-hosted the fifth season. Savvas Poumpouras co\-hosted the sixth season. On April 15, 2021 it was announced that model [Vicky Kaya](/wiki/Vicky_Kaya "Vicky Kaya"), will be hosting the seventh season of the show, which began airing on Star Channel in the television season 2021–2022\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.tvnea.com/2021/04/dancing\-with\-stars.html?m\=1\|title\=Επίσημο! Η Βίκυ Καγιά θα είναι η παρουσιάστρια του Dancing With The Stars. Εκτός Gntm\|website\=tvnea.com\|date\=15 April 2021\|language\=Greek}} Lambros Fisfis was the co\-host for the backstage room.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.star.gr/lifestyle/celebrities/557023/dancing\-with\-the\-stars\-o\-fisfhs\-symparoysiasths\-ths\-kagia\|title\=Dancing with the Stars: Η Βίκυ Καγιά, ο Λάμπρος Φισφής \& η κριτική επιτροπή\|website\=www.star.gr\|date\=16 September 2021\|language\=Greek}} | Presenter | Season | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | | [Zeta Makripoulia](/wiki/Zeta_Makripoulia "Zeta Makripoulia") | colspan\="3" {{cMain}} | colspan\="4" {{n/a\|}} | | [Doukissa Nomikou](/wiki/Doukissa_Nomikou "Doukissa Nomikou") | colspan\="3" {{n/a\|}} | colspan\="2" {{cMain}} | colspan\="2" {{n/a\|}} | | [Evangelia Aravani](/wiki/Evangelia_Aravani "Evangelia Aravani") | colspan\="3" {{n/a\|}} | {{cRecurring\|Contestant}} | {{n/a\|}} | {{cMain}} | {{n/a\|}} | | [Vicky Kaya](/wiki/Vicky_Kaya "Vicky Kaya") | colspan\="6" {{n/a\|}} | {{cMain}} | | Co\-host | Season | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | | Eleni Karpontini | {{cMain}} | colspan\="6" {{n/a\|}} | | Mary Sinatsaki | {{n/a\|}} | {{cMain}} | {{n/a\|}} | {{cRecurring\|Contestant}} | colspan\="3" {{n/a\|}} | | Argiris Aggelou | {{n/a\|}} | {{cRecurring\|Contestant}} | {{cMain}} | colspan\="4" {{n/a\|}} | | [Ntoretta Papadimitriou](/wiki/Doretta_Papadimitriou "Doretta Papadimitriou") | colspan\="2" {{n/a\|}} | {{cRecurring\|Contestant}} | {{cMain}} | colspan\="3" {{n/a\|}} | | [Kostas Martakis](/wiki/Kostas_Martakis "Kostas Martakis") | {{n/a\|}} | {{cRecurring\|Contestant}} | colspan\="2" {{n/a\|}} | {{cMain}} | colspan\="2" {{n/a\|}} | | Savvas Poumpouras | {{cRecurring\|Contestant}} | colspan\="4" {{n/a\|}} | {{cMain}} | {{n/a\|}} | | Lambros Fisfis | colspan\="6" {{n/a\|}} | {{cMain}} | ### Judges Giannis Latsios, Fokas Evaggelinos, Galena Velikova\-Chaina and Alexis Kostalas were the judges of the first season. In the second season, [Errica Prezerakou](/wiki/Errica_Prezerakou "Errica Prezerakou"), the winner of the first season, replaced Velikova\-Chaina. In the third season, Prezerakou was replaced by [Katia Dandoulaki](/wiki/Katia_Dandoulaki "Katia Dandoulaki") and Velikova\-Chaina returned. In the fourth season, all the judges from season 3 returned except for Evaggelinos, while Giorgos Liagkas,{{Cite web \|url\=http://cosmo.gr/articles/pop\_culture/Tileorasi/dwts\_4/dwts\-4\-o\-giwrgos\-liagkas\-guest\-kriths\-kai\-to\-peteinari\-apoxwrhsh\-ths\-elenhs\-xatzidoy.2508378\.html \|title\="DWTS 4": Ο Γιώργος Λιάγκας guest κριτής και το "πετεινάρι \- αποχώρηση" της Ελένης Χατζίδου \|access\-date\=18 November 2013 \|work\=cosmo.gr \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131119122345/http://cosmo.gr/articles/pop\_culture/Tileorasi/dwts\_4/dwts\-4\-o\-giwrgos\-liagkas\-guest\-kriths\-kai\-to\-peteinari\-apoxwrhsh\-ths\-elenhs\-xatzidoy.2508378\.html \|archive\-date\=19 November 2013 }} [Eugenia Manolidou](/wiki/Eugenia_Manolidou "Eugenia Manolidou"){{Cite web\|url \= http://www.newsit.gr/default.php?pname\=MelasBlog\&art\_id\=257154\&catid\=12\|title \= Ευγενία Μανωλίδου στο Newsit: "Θα είμαι αμείλικτη στο 'Dancing'"!\|publisher \= newsIT\|date \= December 12, 2013\|last \= Melas\|first \= Grigoris\|access\-date \= December 12, 2013\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20140226194509/http://www.newsit.gr/default.php?pname\=MelasBlog\&art\_id\=257154\&catid\=12\|archive\-date \= February 26, 2014\|url\-status \= dead}} and [Themos Anastasiadis](/wiki/Themos_Anastasiadis "Themos Anastasiadis"){{cite web\|url\=http://www.gossip\-tv.gr/Media/story/294263/themos\-anastasiadis\-gkest\-kritis\-sto\-9o\-live\-toy\-dancing\-with\-the\-stars\-4deite\-tin\-anatreptiki\-toy\-eisodo\-sto\-plato\|title\=Θέμος Αναστασιάδης: Γκεστ κριτής στο 9o live του "Dancing with the stars 4".Δείτε την ανατρεπτική του είσοδο στο πλατό\|access\-date\=22 December 2013\|work\=Gossip TV}} were guest judges for the 4th, 8th and 9th week respectively. In the fifth season all the judges from season 4 returned. Lakis Gavalas is the fifth judge in fifth season. In the sixth season Kostalas and Velikova returned as judges, while Giorgos Liagas and, former contestant, Eleonora Meleti joined the judging panel. Throughout the season, various guest judges appeared as the fifth judge in the judging panel for one episode. The four new judges in the seventh season, that aired on Star Channel, were Stefanos Dimoulas, Marina Lampropoulou, Elena Lizardou and Jason Roditis. | Judge | Season | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | | Alexis Kostalas | colspan\="6" {{cMain}} | {{n/a\|}} | | Giannis Latsios | colspan\="5" {{cMain}} | colspan\="2" {{n/a\|}} | | [Fokas Evagelinos](/wiki/Fokas_Evangelinos "Fokas Evangelinos") | colspan\="3" {{cMain}} | colspan\="4" {{n/a\|}} | | Galena Velikova | {{cMain}} | {{n/a\|}} | colspan\="4" {{cMain}} | {{n/a\|}} | | [Errika Prezerakou](/wiki/Errika_Prezerakou "Errika Prezerakou") | {{cRecurring\|Contestant}} | {{cMain}} | colspan\="5" {{n/a\|}} | | [Katia Dandoulaki](/wiki/Katia_Dandoulaki "Katia Dandoulaki") | colspan\="2" {{n/a\|}} | colspan\="3" {{cMain}} | colspan\="2" {{n/a\|}} | | Lakis Gavalas | colspan\="3" {{n/a\|}} | {{cRecurring\|Contestant}} | {{cMain}} | colspan\="2" {{n/a\|}} | | Giorgos Liagkas | colspan\="3" {{n/a\|}} | {{cGuest}} | {{n/a\|}} | {{cMain}} | {{n/a\|}} | | [Eleonora Meleti](/wiki/Eleonora_Meleti "Eleonora Meleti") | {{n/a\|}} | {{cRecurring\|Contestant}} | colspan\="3" {{n/a\|}} | {{cMain}} | {{n/a\|}} | | Stefanos Dimoulas | colspan\="6" {{n/a\|}} | {{cMain}} | | Marina Lampropoulou | colspan\="6" {{n/a\|}} | {{cMain}} | | Elena Lizardou | colspan\="6" {{n/a\|}} | {{cMain}} | | Jason Roditis | colspan\="6" {{n/a\|}} | {{cMain}} | | [Eugenia Manolidou](/wiki/Eugenia_Manolidou "Eugenia Manolidou") | {{cRecurring\|Contestant}} | colspan\="2" {{n/a\|}} | {{cGuest}} | colspan\="3" {{n/a\|}} | | [Themos Anastasiadis](/wiki/Themos_Anastasiadis "Themos Anastasiadis") | colspan\="3" {{n/a\|}} | {{cGuest}} | colspan\="3" {{n/a\|}} | | [Natalia Germanou](/wiki/Natalia_Germanou "Natalia Germanou") | colspan\="5" {{n/a\|}} | {{cGuest}} | {{n/a\|}} | | [Vicky Hadjivassiliou](/wiki/Vicky_Hadjivassiliou "Vicky Hadjivassiliou") | colspan\="5" {{n/a\|}} | {{cGuest}} | {{n/a\|}} | | [Maria Solomou](/wiki/Maria_Solomou "Maria Solomou") | colspan\="5" {{n/a\|}} | {{cGuest}} | {{n/a\|}} | | [Tatiana Stefanidou](/wiki/Tatiana_Stefanidou "Tatiana Stefanidou") | colspan\="5" {{n/a\|}} | {{cGuest}} | {{n/a\|}} | | Katerina Gagaki | colspan\="5" {{n/a\|}} | {{cGuest}} | {{n/a\|}} | | Nadia Boule | {{n/a\|}} | {{cRecurring\|Contestant}} | colspan\="3" {{n/a\|}} | {{cGuest}} | {{n/a\|}} | | [Ntoretta Papadimitriou](/wiki/Doretta_Papadimitriou "Doretta Papadimitriou") | colspan\="2" {{n/a\|}} | {{cRecurring\|Contestant}} | colspan\="2" {{n/a\|}} | {{cGuest}} | {{n/a\|}} | | Isaias Matiamba | colspan\="3" {{n/a\|}} | {{cRecurring\|Contestant}} | {{n/a\|}} | {{cGuest}} | {{n/a\|}} | | Charis Christopoulos | colspan\="5" {{n/a\|}} | {{cGuest}} | {{n/a\|}} | | Nikos Koklonis | colspan\="6" {{n/a\|}} | {{cGuest}} | ### Couples A total of 100 celebrities have appeared during the 7 seasons of the series. Twelve celebrities participated in the first season, 14 in the second, third, fourth and fifth season and 16 in the sixth, seventh season. Also, a total of 49 professional partners have appeared alongside celebrities, some for only one season. #### Professional partners Bold font indicates that the dancer is a participant in the present season. **Color key**: {{Color box\|gold\|border\=silver}} Winner {{Color box\|lightblue\|border\=silver}} Runner\-up {{Color box\|Tan\|border\=silver}} 3rd place | Professional dancer | Seasons | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | | Alexander Bachariev | | | | | | | Georgia Georgiou | | Alexandros Papadopoulos | Patritsia Peristeri | | | | | Christina Lampiri | | | Maggie Charalampidou | | Anastasia Draka | | | [Nikos Anadiotis](/wiki/Nikos_Anadiotis "Nikos Anadiotis") | Lakis Gavalas | Theocharis Ioannidis | | | | Anastasis Kanaridis | | | | | | Maria Kalavria | | | Anna Polyzou | [Michalis Zambidis](/wiki/Mike_Zambidis "Mike Zambidis") | [Nasos Galakteros](/wiki/Nasos_Galakteros "Nasos Galakteros") | Kostas Krommidas | [Michalis Mouroutsos](/wiki/Michalis_Mouroutsos "Michalis Mouroutsos") | | Alberto Eskenazi | | Argyris Argyropoulos | | | | | | | Christina Vrachali | Athina Palaiologou | Tasos Palatzidis | | Claudia\-Anna Stoyia | | [Tryfonas Samaras](/wiki/Tryphon_Samaras "Tryphon Samaras") | Elias Vrettos | Alex Kavdas | [Thanos Petrelis](/wiki/Thanos_Petrelis "Thanos Petrelis") | Michalis Seitis | | | Christina Novakivska | | | | | | | Lefteris Mitsopoulos | Danai Avloniti | Dimitris Kokonidis | | Dimitris Fokas | | | Vasia Trifylli | | | | | | Dimitris Kranias | [Fotini Pipili](/wiki/Fotini_Pipili "Fotini Pipili") | [Niki Xanthou](/wiki/Niki_Xanthou "Niki Xanthou") | | | | | | | Dionisis Klampanis | | | | | Niki Kartsona | | | | Dionisis Valmis | | | [Marianta Pieridi](/wiki/Mariada_Pieridi "Mariada Pieridi") | Konstantina | | | | | Efi Chormova | | | | | | | [Ioannis Drymonakos](/wiki/Ioannis_Drymonakos "Ioannis Drymonakos") | Efi Giannaraki | Stamatis Gardelis | | | | | | | | Elias Boutsis | Vicky Koulianou | [Aggeliki Iliadi](/wiki/Aggeliki_Iliadi "Aggeliki Iliadi") | Elena Papavasileiou | [Katerina Stikoudi](/wiki/Katerina_Stikoudi "Katerina Stikoudi") | | Maria Korinthiou | | | Elias Ladas | [Eugenia Manolidou](/wiki/Eugenia_Manolidou "Eugenia Manolidou") | [Eleonora Meleti](/wiki/Eleonora_Meleti "Eleonora Meleti") | | | Elisavet Spanou | Pinelopi Anastasopoulou | | Elina Pini | | | | | | [Antonis Vlontakis](/wiki/Antonios_Vlontakis "Antonios Vlontakis") | | Elisavet Madani | | | | | | | Edward Stergiou | Emily Matthaiakaki | Savvas Poumpouras | Argiris Aggelou | [Giorgos Tsalikis](/wiki/Giorgos_Tsalikis "Giorgos Tsalikis") | | | | | | Eutuxia Marketaki | | | Giannis Aivazis | | Evi Semprou | | | | | Thanasis Viskadourakis | | | | Fotini Papastavrou | | Giorgos Gerolimatos | | Thanos Kallioras | Triantafyllos | Dionisis Alertas | | | Gaetano Parisi | | | | | Christina Aloupi | | | | Gerasimos Moshopoulos | | | | | | | Reggina Makedou | Giannis Tserkinis | | | Laura Narjes | | | | | | Giorgos Ketseridis | | | | Eleni Chatzidou | | Vicky Kavoura | | | [Olga Piliaki](/wiki/Olga-Afroditi_Pilaki "Olga-Afroditi Pilaki") | | Irene Linardou | | | | | | | Dominic Stars | | Konstantinos Papazoglou | | | | |Eirini Papadopoulou | | | Maria Adimisari | Dimitris Vlachos | [Kostas Martakis](/wiki/Kostas_Martakis "Kostas Martakis") | Spyros Soulis | Isaias Matiamba | Christos Spanos | | Maria Kamenidi | | | | | | | Stavros Varthalitis | | Maria Tsitou | | | | | | [Kostas Tsouros](/wiki/Konstantinos_Tsoupros "Konstantinos Tsoupros") | | | Marili Kourtesi | | | | | | | Panos Giannakopoulos | Maxim Stadnik | [Vasiliki Millousi](/wiki/Vasiliki_Millousi "Vasiliki Millousi") | | Nikoletta Mauridi | | | | Sakis Arseniou | | Vangelis Kakouriotis | | | Panagiotis Grammatikos | [Hrysopiyi Devetzi](/wiki/Hrysopiyi_Devetzi "Hrysopiyi Devetzi") | | | | | | | | Panos Xylas | | [Maria Tsouri](/wiki/Maria_Tsouri "Maria Tsouri") | | | | | | | Paulos Manogiannakis | | | [Ntoretta Papadimitriou](/wiki/Doretta_Papadimitriou "Doretta Papadimitriou") | [Klelia Pantazi](/wiki/Charikleia_Pantazi "Charikleia Pantazi") | Maria Iliaki | Evridiki Valavani | | | Richard Szilagyi | Matthildi Maggira | | | |Morfoula Ntona Annie Pantazi | | Spyros Pavlidis | | | | | | | Marianna Georgadi | Tasos Roussos | | | | | | Myriella Kourenti | | | Thanos Pisanidis | | Nadia Boule | | | | | | | Thodoris Panagakos | [Errika Prezerakou](/wiki/Errika_Prezerakou "Errika Prezerakou") | [Marietta Chrousala](/wiki/Marietta_Chrousala "Marietta Chrousala") | Vana Mparmpa | Gogo Mastrokosta | Nikoletta Karra | | | | Tilemaxos Fatsis | | | | | | | [Victoria Hislop](/wiki/Victoria_Hislop "Victoria Hislop") | Tzeni Nikolentzou | [Kostas Sommer](/wiki/Kostas_Sommer "Kostas Sommer") | Giorgos Chraniotis | | | Fanis Lampropoulos | [Anthimos Ananiadis](/wiki/Anthimos_Ananiadis "Anthimos Ananiadis") | | | Vaggelis Holevas | | Natassa Kalogridi | [Kelly Kellekidou](/wiki/Kelly_Kelekidou "Kelly Kelekidou") | [Chrispa](/wiki/Chrispa "Chrispa") | | | | | Vladimir Morotsko | | | | [Evagelia Aravani](/wiki/Evangelia_Aravani "Evangelia Aravani") | Thalia Prokopiou | Dorothea Merkouri | [Elena Tsagrinou](/wiki/Elena_Tsagrinou "Elena Tsagrinou") | | Yuri Dimitrov | | Natalia Dragoumi | Nikoleta Ralli | Mary Synatsaki | | | [Bessy Argyraki](/wiki/Bessy_Argyraki "Bessy Argyraki") | ### List of dance | Dance | Seasons performed | | --- | --- | | [Argentine tango](/wiki/Argentine_tango "Argentine tango") | 2\-6 | [Bachata](/wiki/Bachata_%28dance%29 "Bachata (dance)") | 4\-6 | [Bollywood](/wiki/Bollywood "Bollywood") | 5\- | [Cha\-cha\-cha](/wiki/Cha-cha-cha_%28dance%29 "Cha-cha-cha (dance)") | 1\-6 | Christmas Rock 'n Roll Marathon | 4 | | Christmas Swing Marathon | 5 | [Contemporary](/wiki/Contemporary_dance "Contemporary dance") | 5\-6 | Dance Boogie Marathon | 3 | Dance Fusion | 4 | [Disco](/wiki/Disco "Disco") | 3, 5\-6 | [European tango](/wiki/Tango "Tango") | 5\-6 | [Foxtrot](/wiki/Foxtrot "Foxtrot") | 1\-6 | | [Freestyle](/wiki/Street_dance "Street dance") | | [HipHop](/wiki/Hip_hop "Hip hop") | 6 | Instant Cha\-cha\-cha | 3 | | [Jive](/wiki/Jive_%28dance%29 "Jive (dance)") | 1\-6 | [Lambada](/wiki/Lambada "Lambada") | 5 | [Mambo](/wiki/Mambo_%28dance%29 "Mambo (dance)") | 1\-6 | [Merengue](/wiki/Merengue_%28dance%29 "Merengue (dance)") | 5 | [Paso Doble](/wiki/Paso_Doble "Paso Doble") | 1\-6 | [Pole dance](/wiki/Pole_dance "Pole dance") | 6 | [Quickstep](/wiki/Quickstep "Quickstep") | 1\-6 | [Rock 'n Roll](/wiki/Rock_%27n_Roll "Rock 'n Roll") | 1\-2 | Rock 'n Roll Marathon | 2 | | [Rumba](/wiki/Rhumba "Rhumba") | 1\-6 | [Salsa](/wiki/Salsa_%28dance%29 "Salsa (dance)") | 4\-6 | Solo Dance |4, 6 | [Samba](/wiki/Samba "Samba") | 1\-6 | | [Tango](/wiki/Tango "Tango") | | Team Dances |2, 4, 6 | Trio Challenge |3\-6 | [Viennese Waltz](/wiki/Viennese_Waltz "Viennese Waltz") | 1\-6 | [Waltz](/wiki/Waltz "Waltz") | 1\-2, 4\-6
[ "Cast\n----", "### Hosts", "[thumb\\|left\\|Logo used for seasons 1–6\\.](/wiki/File:DWTS_GR_logo.png \"DWTS GR logo.png\")\nSince its premiere in 2010, the show was hosted by [Zeta Makripoulia](/wiki/Zeta_Makripoulia \"Zeta Makripoulia\"). In the fourth season Makripoulia was replaced by [Doukissa Nomikou](/wiki/Doukissa_Nomikou \"Doukissa Nomikou\"). The sixth season was hosted by [Evangelia Aravani](/wiki/Evangelia_Aravani \"Evangelia Aravani\"). There was also a different co\\-host in each season for the backstage room, also known as Green Room. The co\\-hosts included Eleni Karpontini (first season) and Mary Sinatsaki (second season). Argiris Aggelou, the winner of the second season, co\\-hosted the third season, [Doretta Papadimitriou](/wiki/Doretta_Papadimitriou \"Doretta Papadimitriou\"), the winner of the third season, co\\-hosted the fourth season and [Kostas Martakis](/wiki/Kostas_Martakis \"Kostas Martakis\"), the runner\\-up of the second season, co\\-hosted the fifth season. Savvas Poumpouras co\\-hosted the sixth season.", "On April 15, 2021 it was announced that model [Vicky Kaya](/wiki/Vicky_Kaya \"Vicky Kaya\"), will be hosting the seventh season of the show, which began airing on Star Channel in the television season 2021–2022\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.tvnea.com/2021/04/dancing\\-with\\-stars.html?m\\=1\\|title\\=Επίσημο! Η Βίκυ Καγιά θα είναι η παρουσιάστρια του Dancing With The Stars. Εκτός Gntm\\|website\\=tvnea.com\\|date\\=15 April 2021\\|language\\=Greek}} Lambros Fisfis was the co\\-host for the backstage room.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.star.gr/lifestyle/celebrities/557023/dancing\\-with\\-the\\-stars\\-o\\-fisfhs\\-symparoysiasths\\-ths\\-kagia\\|title\\=Dancing with the Stars: Η Βίκυ Καγιά, ο Λάμπρος Φισφής \\& η κριτική επιτροπή\\|website\\=www.star.gr\\|date\\=16 September 2021\\|language\\=Greek}}", "", "| Presenter | Season | | | | | | | | | | | | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |\n| [Zeta Makripoulia](/wiki/Zeta_Makripoulia \"Zeta Makripoulia\") | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cMain}} | colspan\\=\"4\" {{n/a\\|}} |\n| [Doukissa Nomikou](/wiki/Doukissa_Nomikou \"Doukissa Nomikou\") | colspan\\=\"3\" {{n/a\\|}} | colspan\\=\"2\" {{cMain}} | colspan\\=\"2\" {{n/a\\|}} |\n| [Evangelia Aravani](/wiki/Evangelia_Aravani \"Evangelia Aravani\") | colspan\\=\"3\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cRecurring\\|Contestant}} | {{n/a\\|}} | {{cMain}} | {{n/a\\|}} |\n| [Vicky Kaya](/wiki/Vicky_Kaya \"Vicky Kaya\") | colspan\\=\"6\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cMain}} |", "", "| Co\\-host | Season | | | | | | | | | | | | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |\n| Eleni Karpontini | {{cMain}} | colspan\\=\"6\" {{n/a\\|}} |\n| Mary Sinatsaki | {{n/a\\|}} | {{cMain}} | {{n/a\\|}} | {{cRecurring\\|Contestant}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{n/a\\|}} |\n| Argiris Aggelou | {{n/a\\|}} | {{cRecurring\\|Contestant}} | {{cMain}} | colspan\\=\"4\" {{n/a\\|}} |\n| [Ntoretta Papadimitriou](/wiki/Doretta_Papadimitriou \"Doretta Papadimitriou\") | colspan\\=\"2\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cRecurring\\|Contestant}} | {{cMain}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{n/a\\|}} |\n| [Kostas Martakis](/wiki/Kostas_Martakis \"Kostas Martakis\") | {{n/a\\|}} | {{cRecurring\\|Contestant}} | colspan\\=\"2\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cMain}} | colspan\\=\"2\" {{n/a\\|}} |\n| Savvas Poumpouras | {{cRecurring\\|Contestant}} | colspan\\=\"4\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cMain}} | {{n/a\\|}} |\n| Lambros Fisfis | colspan\\=\"6\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cMain}} |", "### Judges", "Giannis Latsios, Fokas Evaggelinos, Galena Velikova\\-Chaina and Alexis Kostalas were the judges of the first season. In the second season, [Errica Prezerakou](/wiki/Errica_Prezerakou \"Errica Prezerakou\"), the winner of the first season, replaced Velikova\\-Chaina. In the third season, Prezerakou was replaced by [Katia Dandoulaki](/wiki/Katia_Dandoulaki \"Katia Dandoulaki\") and Velikova\\-Chaina returned.", "In the fourth season, all the judges from season 3 returned except for Evaggelinos, while Giorgos Liagkas,{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://cosmo.gr/articles/pop\\_culture/Tileorasi/dwts\\_4/dwts\\-4\\-o\\-giwrgos\\-liagkas\\-guest\\-kriths\\-kai\\-to\\-peteinari\\-apoxwrhsh\\-ths\\-elenhs\\-xatzidoy.2508378\\.html \\|title\\=\"DWTS 4\": Ο Γιώργος Λιάγκας guest κριτής και το \"πετεινάρι \\- αποχώρηση\" της Ελένης Χατζίδου \\|access\\-date\\=18 November 2013 \\|work\\=cosmo.gr \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131119122345/http://cosmo.gr/articles/pop\\_culture/Tileorasi/dwts\\_4/dwts\\-4\\-o\\-giwrgos\\-liagkas\\-guest\\-kriths\\-kai\\-to\\-peteinari\\-apoxwrhsh\\-ths\\-elenhs\\-xatzidoy.2508378\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=19 November 2013 }} [Eugenia Manolidou](/wiki/Eugenia_Manolidou \"Eugenia Manolidou\"){{Cite web\\|url \\= http://www.newsit.gr/default.php?pname\\=MelasBlog\\&art\\_id\\=257154\\&catid\\=12\\|title \\= Ευγενία Μανωλίδου στο Newsit: \"Θα είμαι αμείλικτη στο 'Dancing'\"!\\|publisher \\= newsIT\\|date \\= December 12, 2013\\|last \\= Melas\\|first \\= Grigoris\\|access\\-date \\= December 12, 2013\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140226194509/http://www.newsit.gr/default.php?pname\\=MelasBlog\\&art\\_id\\=257154\\&catid\\=12\\|archive\\-date \\= February 26, 2014\\|url\\-status \\= dead}} and [Themos Anastasiadis](/wiki/Themos_Anastasiadis \"Themos Anastasiadis\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.gossip\\-tv.gr/Media/story/294263/themos\\-anastasiadis\\-gkest\\-kritis\\-sto\\-9o\\-live\\-toy\\-dancing\\-with\\-the\\-stars\\-4deite\\-tin\\-anatreptiki\\-toy\\-eisodo\\-sto\\-plato\\|title\\=Θέμος Αναστασιάδης: Γκεστ κριτής στο 9o live του \"Dancing with the stars 4\".Δείτε την ανατρεπτική του είσοδο στο πλατό\\|access\\-date\\=22 December 2013\\|work\\=Gossip TV}} were guest judges for the 4th, 8th and 9th week respectively. In the fifth season all the judges from season 4 returned. Lakis Gavalas is the fifth judge in fifth season.", "In the sixth season Kostalas and Velikova returned as judges, while Giorgos Liagas and, former contestant, Eleonora Meleti joined the judging panel. Throughout the season, various guest judges appeared as the fifth judge in the judging panel for one episode.", "The four new judges in the seventh season, that aired on Star Channel, were Stefanos Dimoulas, Marina Lampropoulou, Elena Lizardou and Jason Roditis.", "", "| Judge | Season | | | | | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |\n| Alexis Kostalas | colspan\\=\"6\" {{cMain}} | {{n/a\\|}} |\n| Giannis Latsios | colspan\\=\"5\" {{cMain}} | colspan\\=\"2\" {{n/a\\|}} |\n| [Fokas Evagelinos](/wiki/Fokas_Evangelinos \"Fokas Evangelinos\") | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cMain}} | colspan\\=\"4\" {{n/a\\|}} |\n| Galena Velikova | {{cMain}} | {{n/a\\|}} | colspan\\=\"4\" {{cMain}} | {{n/a\\|}} |\n| [Errika Prezerakou](/wiki/Errika_Prezerakou \"Errika Prezerakou\") | {{cRecurring\\|Contestant}} | {{cMain}} | colspan\\=\"5\" {{n/a\\|}} |\n| [Katia Dandoulaki](/wiki/Katia_Dandoulaki \"Katia Dandoulaki\") | colspan\\=\"2\" {{n/a\\|}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cMain}} | colspan\\=\"2\" {{n/a\\|}} |\n| Lakis Gavalas | colspan\\=\"3\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cRecurring\\|Contestant}} | {{cMain}} | colspan\\=\"2\" {{n/a\\|}} |\n| Giorgos Liagkas | colspan\\=\"3\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cGuest}} | {{n/a\\|}} | {{cMain}} | {{n/a\\|}} |\n| [Eleonora Meleti](/wiki/Eleonora_Meleti \"Eleonora Meleti\") | {{n/a\\|}} | {{cRecurring\\|Contestant}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cMain}} | {{n/a\\|}} |\n| Stefanos Dimoulas | colspan\\=\"6\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cMain}} |\n| Marina Lampropoulou | colspan\\=\"6\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cMain}} |\n| Elena Lizardou | colspan\\=\"6\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cMain}} |\n| Jason Roditis | colspan\\=\"6\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cMain}} |\n| [Eugenia Manolidou](/wiki/Eugenia_Manolidou \"Eugenia Manolidou\") | {{cRecurring\\|Contestant}} | colspan\\=\"2\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cGuest}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{n/a\\|}} |\n| [Themos Anastasiadis](/wiki/Themos_Anastasiadis \"Themos Anastasiadis\") | colspan\\=\"3\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cGuest}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{n/a\\|}} |\n| [Natalia Germanou](/wiki/Natalia_Germanou \"Natalia Germanou\") | colspan\\=\"5\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cGuest}} | {{n/a\\|}} |\n| [Vicky Hadjivassiliou](/wiki/Vicky_Hadjivassiliou \"Vicky Hadjivassiliou\") | colspan\\=\"5\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cGuest}} | {{n/a\\|}} |\n| [Maria Solomou](/wiki/Maria_Solomou \"Maria Solomou\") | colspan\\=\"5\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cGuest}} | {{n/a\\|}} |\n| [Tatiana Stefanidou](/wiki/Tatiana_Stefanidou \"Tatiana Stefanidou\") | colspan\\=\"5\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cGuest}} | {{n/a\\|}} |\n| Katerina Gagaki | colspan\\=\"5\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cGuest}} | {{n/a\\|}} |\n| Nadia Boule | {{n/a\\|}} | {{cRecurring\\|Contestant}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cGuest}} | {{n/a\\|}} |\n| [Ntoretta Papadimitriou](/wiki/Doretta_Papadimitriou \"Doretta Papadimitriou\") | colspan\\=\"2\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cRecurring\\|Contestant}} | colspan\\=\"2\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cGuest}} | {{n/a\\|}} |\n| Isaias Matiamba | colspan\\=\"3\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cRecurring\\|Contestant}} | {{n/a\\|}} | {{cGuest}} | {{n/a\\|}} |\n| Charis Christopoulos | colspan\\=\"5\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cGuest}} | {{n/a\\|}} |\n| Nikos Koklonis | colspan\\=\"6\" {{n/a\\|}} | {{cGuest}} |", "### Couples", "A total of 100 celebrities have appeared during the 7 seasons of the series. Twelve celebrities participated in the first season, 14 in the second, third, fourth and fifth season and 16 in the sixth, seventh season. Also, a total of 49 professional partners have appeared alongside celebrities, some for only one season.", "#### Professional partners", "Bold font indicates that the dancer is a participant in the present season.", "**Color key**:\n{{Color box\\|gold\\|border\\=silver}} Winner\n{{Color box\\|lightblue\\|border\\=silver}} Runner\\-up\n{{Color box\\|Tan\\|border\\=silver}} 3rd place", "", "| Professional dancer | Seasons | | | | | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |\n| Alexander Bachariev | | | | | | | Georgia Georgiou |\n| Alexandros Papadopoulos | Patritsia Peristeri | | | | | Christina Lampiri | |\n| Maggie Charalampidou |\n| Anastasia Draka | | | [Nikos Anadiotis](/wiki/Nikos_Anadiotis \"Nikos Anadiotis\") | Lakis Gavalas | Theocharis Ioannidis | | |\n| Anastasis Kanaridis | | | | | | Maria Kalavria | |\n| Anna Polyzou | [Michalis Zambidis](/wiki/Mike_Zambidis \"Mike Zambidis\") | [Nasos Galakteros](/wiki/Nasos_Galakteros \"Nasos Galakteros\") | Kostas Krommidas | [Michalis Mouroutsos](/wiki/Michalis_Mouroutsos \"Michalis Mouroutsos\") | | Alberto Eskenazi |\n| Argyris Argyropoulos | | | | | | | Christina Vrachali", "| Athina Palaiologou | Tasos Palatzidis |\n| Claudia\\-Anna Stoyia | | [Tryfonas Samaras](/wiki/Tryphon_Samaras \"Tryphon Samaras\") | Elias Vrettos | Alex Kavdas | [Thanos Petrelis](/wiki/Thanos_Petrelis \"Thanos Petrelis\") | Michalis Seitis | |\n| Christina Novakivska | | | | | | | Lefteris Mitsopoulos", "| Danai Avloniti | Dimitris Kokonidis |\n| Dimitris Fokas | | | Vasia Trifylli | | | | |\n| Dimitris Kranias | [Fotini Pipili](/wiki/Fotini_Pipili \"Fotini Pipili\") | [Niki Xanthou](/wiki/Niki_Xanthou \"Niki Xanthou\") | | | | | |\n| Dionisis Klampanis | | | | | Niki Kartsona | | |\n| Dionisis Valmis | | | [Marianta Pieridi](/wiki/Mariada_Pieridi \"Mariada Pieridi\") | Konstantina | | | |\n| Efi Chormova | | | | | | | [Ioannis Drymonakos](/wiki/Ioannis_Drymonakos \"Ioannis Drymonakos\")", "| Efi Giannaraki | Stamatis Gardelis | | | | | | |\n| Elias Boutsis | Vicky Koulianou | [Aggeliki Iliadi](/wiki/Aggeliki_Iliadi \"Aggeliki Iliadi\") | Elena Papavasileiou | [Katerina Stikoudi](/wiki/Katerina_Stikoudi \"Katerina Stikoudi\") | | Maria Korinthiou | |\n| Elias Ladas | [Eugenia Manolidou](/wiki/Eugenia_Manolidou \"Eugenia Manolidou\") | [Eleonora Meleti](/wiki/Eleonora_Meleti \"Eleonora Meleti\") | | | Elisavet Spanou | Pinelopi Anastasopoulou |\n| Elina Pini | | | | | | [Antonis Vlontakis](/wiki/Antonios_Vlontakis \"Antonios Vlontakis\") |\n| Elisavet Madani | | | | | | | Edward Stergiou", "| Emily Matthaiakaki | Savvas Poumpouras | Argiris Aggelou | [Giorgos Tsalikis](/wiki/Giorgos_Tsalikis \"Giorgos Tsalikis\") | | | | |\n| Eutuxia Marketaki | | | Giannis Aivazis |\n| Evi Semprou | | | | | Thanasis Viskadourakis | | |\n| Fotini Papastavrou | | Giorgos Gerolimatos | | Thanos Kallioras | Triantafyllos | Dionisis Alertas | |\n| Gaetano Parisi | | | | | Christina Aloupi | | |\n| Gerasimos Moshopoulos | | | | | | | Reggina Makedou", "| Giannis Tserkinis | | | Laura Narjes | | | | |\n| Giorgos Ketseridis | | | | Eleni Chatzidou | | Vicky Kavoura | |\n| [Olga Piliaki](/wiki/Olga-Afroditi_Pilaki \"Olga-Afroditi Pilaki\") |\n| Irene Linardou | | | | | | | Dominic Stars |\n| Konstantinos Papazoglou | | | | |Eirini Papadopoulou | |\n| Maria Adimisari | Dimitris Vlachos | [Kostas Martakis](/wiki/Kostas_Martakis \"Kostas Martakis\") | Spyros Soulis | Isaias Matiamba | Christos Spanos |\n| Maria Kamenidi | | | | | | | Stavros Varthalitis |\n| Maria Tsitou | | | | | | [Kostas Tsouros](/wiki/Konstantinos_Tsoupros \"Konstantinos Tsoupros\") | |\n| Marili Kourtesi | | | | | | | Panos Giannakopoulos", "| Maxim Stadnik | [Vasiliki Millousi](/wiki/Vasiliki_Millousi \"Vasiliki Millousi\") |\n| Nikoletta Mauridi | | | | Sakis Arseniou | | Vangelis Kakouriotis | |\n| Panagiotis Grammatikos | [Hrysopiyi Devetzi](/wiki/Hrysopiyi_Devetzi \"Hrysopiyi Devetzi\") | | | | | | |\n| Panos Xylas | | [Maria Tsouri](/wiki/Maria_Tsouri \"Maria Tsouri\") | | | | | |\n| Paulos Manogiannakis | | | [Ntoretta Papadimitriou](/wiki/Doretta_Papadimitriou \"Doretta Papadimitriou\") | [Klelia Pantazi](/wiki/Charikleia_Pantazi \"Charikleia Pantazi\") | Maria Iliaki | Evridiki Valavani | |\n| Richard Szilagyi | Matthildi Maggira | | | |Morfoula Ntona Annie Pantazi |\n| Spyros Pavlidis | | | | | | | Marianna Georgadi", "| Tasos Roussos | | | | | | Myriella Kourenti | |\n| Thanos Pisanidis | | Nadia Boule | | | | | |\n| Thodoris Panagakos | [Errika Prezerakou](/wiki/Errika_Prezerakou \"Errika Prezerakou\") | [Marietta Chrousala](/wiki/Marietta_Chrousala \"Marietta Chrousala\") | Vana Mparmpa | Gogo Mastrokosta | Nikoletta Karra | | |\n| Tilemaxos Fatsis | | | | | | | [Victoria Hislop](/wiki/Victoria_Hislop \"Victoria Hislop\")", "| Tzeni Nikolentzou | [Kostas Sommer](/wiki/Kostas_Sommer \"Kostas Sommer\") | Giorgos Chraniotis | | | Fanis Lampropoulos | [Anthimos Ananiadis](/wiki/Anthimos_Ananiadis \"Anthimos Ananiadis\") | |\n| Vaggelis Holevas | | Natassa Kalogridi | [Kelly Kellekidou](/wiki/Kelly_Kelekidou \"Kelly Kelekidou\") | [Chrispa](/wiki/Chrispa \"Chrispa\") | | | |\n| Vladimir Morotsko | | | | [Evagelia Aravani](/wiki/Evangelia_Aravani \"Evangelia Aravani\") | Thalia Prokopiou | Dorothea Merkouri | [Elena Tsagrinou](/wiki/Elena_Tsagrinou \"Elena Tsagrinou\") |\n| Yuri Dimitrov | | Natalia Dragoumi | Nikoleta Ralli | Mary Synatsaki | | | [Bessy Argyraki](/wiki/Bessy_Argyraki \"Bessy Argyraki\") |", "### List of dance", "", "| Dance | Seasons performed |\n| --- | --- |\n| [Argentine tango](/wiki/Argentine_tango \"Argentine tango\") | 2\\-6", "| [Bachata](/wiki/Bachata_%28dance%29 \"Bachata (dance)\") | 4\\-6", "| [Bollywood](/wiki/Bollywood \"Bollywood\") | 5\\-", "| [Cha\\-cha\\-cha](/wiki/Cha-cha-cha_%28dance%29 \"Cha-cha-cha (dance)\") | 1\\-6", "| Christmas Rock 'n Roll Marathon | 4 |\n| Christmas Swing Marathon | 5", "| [Contemporary](/wiki/Contemporary_dance \"Contemporary dance\") | 5\\-6", "| Dance Boogie Marathon | 3", "| Dance Fusion | 4", "| [Disco](/wiki/Disco \"Disco\") | 3, 5\\-6", "| [European tango](/wiki/Tango \"Tango\") | 5\\-6", "| [Foxtrot](/wiki/Foxtrot \"Foxtrot\") | 1\\-6 |\n| [Freestyle](/wiki/Street_dance \"Street dance\") |\n| [HipHop](/wiki/Hip_hop \"Hip hop\") | 6", "| Instant Cha\\-cha\\-cha | 3 |\n| [Jive](/wiki/Jive_%28dance%29 \"Jive (dance)\") | 1\\-6", "| [Lambada](/wiki/Lambada \"Lambada\") | 5", "| [Mambo](/wiki/Mambo_%28dance%29 \"Mambo (dance)\") | 1\\-6", "| [Merengue](/wiki/Merengue_%28dance%29 \"Merengue (dance)\") | 5", "| [Paso Doble](/wiki/Paso_Doble \"Paso Doble\") | 1\\-6", "| [Pole dance](/wiki/Pole_dance \"Pole dance\") | 6", "| [Quickstep](/wiki/Quickstep \"Quickstep\") | 1\\-6", "| [Rock 'n Roll](/wiki/Rock_%27n_Roll \"Rock 'n Roll\") | 1\\-2", "| Rock 'n Roll Marathon | 2 |\n| [Rumba](/wiki/Rhumba \"Rhumba\") | 1\\-6", "| [Salsa](/wiki/Salsa_%28dance%29 \"Salsa (dance)\") | 4\\-6", "| Solo Dance |4, 6", "| [Samba](/wiki/Samba \"Samba\") | 1\\-6 |\n| [Tango](/wiki/Tango \"Tango\") |\n| Team Dances |2, 4, 6", "| Trio Challenge |3\\-6", "| [Viennese Waltz](/wiki/Viennese_Waltz \"Viennese Waltz\") | 1\\-6", "| [Waltz](/wiki/Waltz \"Waltz\") | 1\\-2, 4\\-6", "" ]
Structure and contents ---------------------- The fourteen\-page bibliography is followed by an introduction explaining Bloch's approach and outlining the difficulties encountered, particularly with regard to sources. The body of the work is then divided into three books of very unequal lengths. The first book, "Les origines" (Origins), comprises two chapters, and shows how the thaumaturgical powers of the kings of France and England came into being. The second book, *Grandeur et vicissitudes des royautés thaumaturgiques* (Greatness and vicissitudes of thaumaturgical kingdoms), the most extensive with six chapters, analyzes the [rites](/wiki/Ritual "Ritual") surrounding these powers and presents these elements in chronological sequence, illustrating their evolution until they disappeared. The final book, *L'interprétation critique du miracle royal* (Critical Interpretation of the Royal Miracle), contains a single chapter outlining attempts to explain miracles rationally, and showing how people came to believe in them. Marc Bloch, a profound rationalist, concludes that it was a collective error. Five appendices follow: "The royal miracle in French and English accounting books", "An iconographic dossier", "The beginnings of royal anointing and coronations", "Analysis and excerpts from *Traité du sacre* by {{Interlanguage link\|Jean Golein\|fr}}" and "The French kings' pilgrimage to [Corbeny](/wiki/Corbeny "Corbeny") after the coronation and the transport of saint [Marculf](/wiki/Marculf "Marculf")'s shrine to [Reims](/wiki/Reims "Reims")", plus six pages of additions and corrections. This is an analysis of the royal figure in the Middle Ages, of all the symbols, values and ideal and material expressions of power that princes used not only to give prestige to the monarch's image, but also to provide a kind of justification for their temporal power. Giving the king a sacred character was a means of consolidating monarchical power over the people, in a feudal system where God's grace was (in theory) the fundamental requirement for ascending the throne. Unlike the Roman pontiff or the Byzantine emperor, heirs to the Church of Christ, directors of spirituality and spokesmen of the Creator's own will, temporal princes had to constantly "reinvent" the concept of their sacred, i.e. God\-given, right to rule Christian kingdoms. Over time, people came to think of the sovereign as a man of exceptional nobility, above the "simple folk", a man touched by divine grace. As such, he manifests the abilities and powers that, in the collective imagination, appear as a true sign of divine benevolence. Marc Bloch cites more than just the power to cure plague and scrofula. In the introduction to his essay, he recalls [Edward III of England](/wiki/Edward_III_of_England "Edward III of England")'s message to [Philip VI of France](/wiki/Philip_VI_of_France "Philip VI of France"), in which he orders him to abdicate the throne as unworthy of the title, since he is not directly descended from the legitimate line and is therefore not worthy of being consecrated to reign; if he wished to avoid a war (the one that came to be known as the [Hundred Years' War](/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War "Hundred Years' War")), he would have to show the qualities proper to a sovereign: fight the other suitor in a fair duel, where God would judge who deserved the throne, or expose himself to hungry lions inside a cage, because the lion, a proud and noble animal, would never attack a legitimate sovereign. Here, then, is the idea of the king situated above other men manifesting itself once again, in a different form. Temporal and spiritual power found in these manifestations of supernatural ability and quality a common cement to unite the two powers. Indeed, it was customary for princes to attend the sick during a solemn mass, celebrated by France's highest ecclesiastical dignitaries (the bishops of Chartres, Reims or Le Puy) ; since under the eyes of God and his ministers, in the sacred mystery of [communion under both kinds](/wiki/Communion_under_both_kinds "Communion under both kinds"), the healing powers of princes acquired a real form and manifested themselves as true emanations of the divine will, assuming a totally sacred connotation, free from any suspicion of paganism or heresy. These consecrations nonetheless concealed the fierce struggles between the emerging [Gallican](/wiki/Gallicanism "Gallicanism") Church, which sought above all to recognize the King of France as its true protector, and the Pope of Rome, who wished to prevent any form of autocephaly of the Churches within Christendom and to assert his own exclusive privilege to perform such prodigies and govern Christians according to the will of the Redeemer. *Les Rois thaumaturges* thus analyzes another aspect of the so\-called [Investiture Controversy](/wiki/Investiture_Controversy "Investiture Controversy"), a profound crisis arising from the antagonism between the various institutions over the legitimacy of their power on Earth and the possibility of directing the life of the Christian people (which often translated into the right to choose bishops and other power\-holders in the Church alone, something which, thanks to the administration of state property, guaranteed great opportunities for enrichment). The origin of this alliance between ruler and bishop was the conversion and consecration of the first great Catholic king of the Franks: [Clovis I](/wiki/Clovis_I "Clovis I"), of the [Merovingian](/wiki/Merovingian "Merovingian") dynasty, baptized with [holy oil](/wiki/Chrism "Chrism") given by the Holy Spirit to [Saint Remigius](/wiki/Saint_Remigius "Saint Remigius"), and proclaimed king by the will of God. It was in this episode that the rulers of France (whose titles included that of "Most Christian King") saw the source of their miraculous powers, an illustration of the constant renewal of the covenant between Christ's Church and the Crown. In this book, the jurist {{Interlanguage link\|Jacques Bonaud de Sauzet\|fr}} is considered one of the earliest apologists for the [Valois](/wiki/House_of_Valois "House of Valois"), as he refutes the canonist [Felino Maria Sandeo](/wiki/Felino_Maria_Sandeo "Felino Maria Sandeo"), who refused to recognize the thaumaturgical privilege of the kings of France as miraculous.Benoît Soubeyran, Un juriste nîmois du XVIe siècle formé à Montpellier, Jacques Bonaud de Sauzet, 2010, p. 38 [thumb\|Henri IV touchant les écrouelles](/wiki/File:Henri_IV_touche_les_escrouelles.jpg "Henri IV touche les escrouelles.jpg") ### Summary In book I Chapter I, the author sets out to establish when the royal power to cure appeared: with [Robert II of France](/wiki/Robert_II_of_France "Robert II of France") (c. 972 – 1031\), according [Helgaud](/wiki/Helgaud "Helgaud"), and [Henry I of England](/wiki/Henry_I_of_England "Henry I of England") (c. 1068 – 1135\). In Chapter II, he looks for the origins of this power in the sacred nature of kings, already found in the old Germanic kingdoms. The sacred nature of the king was affirmed by the practice of anointing: first for [Pepin the Short](/wiki/Pepin_the_Short "Pepin the Short"), then for his successors; then for the English kings from the [Council of Chelsea](/wiki/Council_of_Chelsea "Council of Chelsea") (787\) onwards; and finally for the whole of Western Europe. This practice took place as part of the ceremony known as the "coronation" or "sacre" in French. Bloch believes that Robert II, called the Pious needed to strengthen his legitimacy, which he was able to do by claiming thaumaturgical virtues and suggests that Henry I then imitated him. Book II offers a history of the touching of scrofula until the end of the 16th century. First the king touched the affected areas, and later (Robert II) added the sign of the cross. Later English kings added a blessing. In both countries, the poor were then given alms. The number of beneficiaries in England ranged from several hundred to over a thousand, depending on the year. No figures are available for France. They were of several nationalities. Many travelled several hundred hundreds of kilometres to reach the king. The [Gregorian Reforms](/wiki/Gregorian_Reform "Gregorian Reform") were "a vigorous effort to destroy the ancient confusion of the temporal with the spiritual". Gregory VII "denies temporal sovereigns even the most pious, the gift of the miracle" (Letter to bishop {{Interlanguage link\|Hermann de Metz\|fr}}, March 15, 1081\). However, France and England were scarcely touched by these ideas, until "the apologists of the French monarchy appealed, for the first time, ... to the royal miracle" \- starting with [Guillaume de Nogaret](/wiki/Guillaume_de_Nogaret "Guillaume de Nogaret") and {{Interlanguage link\|Guillaume de Plaisians\|fr}}, followed by Fra [Tolomeo](/wiki/Bartholomew_of_Lucca "Bartholomew of Lucca") in Italy and [William of Ockham](/wiki/William_of_Ockham "William of Ockham") in England (*Octo questiones* V cap vii\-ix). [Charles V of France](/wiki/Charles_V_of_France "Charles V of France") presented himself as a miracle worker. This thaumaturgical power became a theme of loyalist propaganda. In other countries, attempts to invoke a thaumaturgical power remained very limited. Bloch devotes a whole chapter of *[Thaumaturgic Kings](/wiki/Thaumaturgic_Kings "Thaumaturgic Kings")* to a description and history of cramp\-rings that gave English kings the power to work cures.\<ref\>*Les Rois thaumaturges. Étude sur le caractère supernaturel attribué à la puissance royale particulièrement en France et en Angleterre (Book II, chapter ii)\</ref\>* [thumb\|*The Royal Gift of Healing* (Charles II of England touching for scrofula)'A burin etching by [Robert White](/wiki/Robert_White_%28engraver%29 "Robert White (engraver)"), the frontispiece to [John Browne](/wiki/John_Browne_%28anatomist%29 "John Browne (anatomist)")'s *Charisma Basilikon, or the Royal Gift of Healing Strumaes, \&c., by Contact or Imposition of the Sacred Hands of our Kings of England and of France* (Part 3 of *Adenochoiradelogia*), 1684, tt describes the method pursued by Charles II in touching for the "king's evil", with which as the king's surgeon Browne was officially concerned](/wiki/File:Charles_II_touching_a_patient_for_the_king%27s_evil_%28scrofula%29_Wellcome_L0031546.jpg "Charles II touching a patient for the king's evil (scrofula) Wellcome L0031546.jpg") Chapter III is about the sacerdotal quality of kings and the opposition between kings and the Church: the latter attempted to deny or minimize the significance of the coronation ceremony, while the other camp insisted that anointing made kings more than laymen. During the 13th century, the number of sacraments was reduced to seven, and royal anointing was excluded. Kings, however persisted in their desire to match the heads of the Church, and the monarchical ritual was modelled on the consecration of bishops, including the use of chrism in the anointing during the coronation of French and British monarchs. When the Church saw that it would be impossible to deny that the king was sacred, it imagined giving him the rank of deacon, or sub\-deacon. Another quasi\-sacerdotal privilege enjoyed for a long time by English and French kings was that of [communion under both kinds](/wiki/Communion_under_both_kinds "Communion under both kinds"). They also retained certain monastic dignities (droit de régale or [Jura regalia](/wiki/Jura_regalia "Jura regalia")). All this could be put forward as "proof of their ecclesiastical ecclesiastical character and, consequently, their right to dominate the clergy in their states" (214\). [Anointing](/wiki/Anointing "Anointing") is a concept that can be perceived in two distinct lights: either as a divine seal, or as a bestowed characteristic administered by the hand of a priest. [Frederick Barbarossa](/wiki/Frederick_Barbarossa "Frederick Barbarossa") propagated the belief that during his coronation, the basilica was sealed off from all members of the clergy. This narrative implied that the anointing he received was purely of divine origin: a symbol that kingship transcends mere human convention, deriving its legitimacy solely from either hereditary succession or election (1270s). This notion underscored the idea that one assumes kingship immediately upon the demise of their predecessor, even if the importance of the coronation ceremony remained deeply ingrained in popular perception. Moreover, regarding the perceived power of healing, Golein asserted that it was a privilege reserved exclusively for those of sacred lineage once they had undergone the sacred anointing ritual. Bloch proceeds to delve into various legends, notably focusing on the narrative surrounding the [Holy Ampulla](/wiki/Holy_Ampulla "Holy Ampulla") (which belonged to the [archbishops of Reims](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Reims "Archdiocese of Reims"), endowing them with the authority to make sovereigns). Subsequently, he explores the miraculous tale of the fleurs\-de\-lis and the [oriflamme](/wiki/Oriflamme "Oriflamme"), both also believed to have descended from the heavens, like the power of healing, and all augmenting the aura of prestige surrounding the monarchy. As for England, Bloch shows how the oil utilized for anointing ceremonies was purportedly bestowed upon [Thomas Becket](/wiki/Thomas_Becket "Thomas Becket") by the Virgin Mary herself. The adoption of this oil in coronation rituals was inaugurated with the crowning of [Henry IV of England](/wiki/Henry_IV_of_England "Henry IV of England"). Bloch finally expands his examination to encompass non\-Christian miraculous elements. In Chapter IV, Bloch examines the links between Saint [Marcoul](/wiki/Marculf "Marculf") and the belief in the royal miracle in France. After a series disasters, the monks of the priory of [Corbeny](/wiki/Corbeny "Corbeny"), which housed the remains of the saint, sent his relics on tour, but it wasn't until the end of the 13th century that the saint began to cure scrofula \- by virtue of an approximate pun (Mar/mal: evil; coul/cou : neck), but the saint's popularity as a healer came later (16th\-17th centuries) as did the pilgrimages to Corbeny, where he was invoked to cure scrofula. [John II of France](/wiki/John_II_of_France "John II of France") was probably the first king to make a pilgrimage to Corbeny. Then, in 1484, the king cured scrofula in Corbeny before leaving again. From Louis XIV onwards, it was the reliquary that was carried from Corbeny to Reims on the occasion of coronations. The king went to meet the scrofula sufferers in the park of the [Basilica of Saint\-Remi](/wiki/Basilica_of_Saint-Remi "Basilica of Saint-Remi") in Reims. The idea was born that it was the saint who granted the king his healing powers. Bloch concludes with a few pages on the belief that seventh\-born sons (without interruption of daughters) were healers, like the king. Belief in the royal miracle reached its peak between 1500 and the period of religious unrest. From the time of Mary Tudor onwards the alms [coin](/wiki/Touch_piece "Touch piece") (an [angel](/wiki/Angel_%28coin%29 "Angel (coin)")) became a talisman and was as much in demand as cramp rings. [Michael Servetus](/wiki/Michael_Servetus "Michael Servetus"), [Lucilio Vanini](/wiki/Lucilio_Vanini "Lucilio Vanini") and others tried to deny the existence of a healing miracle, to no avail. Religious reformers began to speak out against what they saw as idolatrous practices. There was a controversy between [Nicholas Ridley](/wiki/Nicholas_Ridley_%28martyr%29 "Nicholas Ridley (martyr)") and Bishop [Stephen Gardiner](/wiki/Stephen_Gardiner "Stephen Gardiner"). Under Elizabeth I, the cramp ring ceremony ceased, but the Queen continued to treat scrofula sufferers. Scepticism grew, and the miraculous power of kings had to be defended : [William Tooker](/wiki/William_Tooker "William Tooker"), A Treatise on Charisma sive Donum Sanationis *(1597\). Propaganda in favour of healing power also emerged in France: [André du Laurens](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_du_Laurens "André du Laurens") (*Discours des escrouelles divise en deux livres*) and an engraving by {{Interlanguage link\|Pierre Firens\|fr}},* Henri IV of France touching for scrofula*.* Chapter V : The sacred and almost priestly character of kings remained a truism in modern times. For [Bossuet](/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet "Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet") and others, the king was a mortal deity. Many still believed in the healing miracle, but the best authors avoided mentioning it, as if out of shame. A new and successful story was invented by {{Interlanguage link\|Étienne Forcadel\|fr}} (De Gallorum Imperio et Philosophia *: Treaty of the Empire, 1579\) according to which the cure of scrofula dated back to [Clovis I](/wiki/Clovis_I "Clovis I").* Scrofula sufferers, of various nationalities, continued to flock to the King, even during the [English Civil War](/wiki/English_Civil_War "English Civil War"). After the king was executed, handkerchiefs soaked in his blood were said to have healing powers. [Charles II](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England "Charles II of England"), in exile, took over. On May 30, 1660 there was a grand healing ceremony. The angel was permanently replaced by a special medal. Charles II cured tens of thousands of scrofula sufferers over a fifteen\-year period. Chapter VI : Among the reasons why this healing practice disappeared, it is worth mentioning the existence of other people with powers, apart from seventh\-born sons: the Bailleul or [Balliol](/wiki/House_of_Balliol "House of Balliol") family, the elders of the [House of Aumont](/wiki/House_of_Aumont "House of Aumont"), Irish faith healer [Valentine Greatrakes](/wiki/Valentine_Greatrakes "Valentine Greatrakes"), and descendants of a number of saints, in particular Saint [Hubertus](/wiki/Hubertus "Hubertus"). Georges Hubert touched Louis XIII and Louis XIV. Added to this were the advances of rationalism, the fact that many philosophers denied kings were "of divine right". Others denied the healing power of English *kings: from there, doubt eventually spread to French kings. William of Orange refused to touch. [Queen Anne](/wiki/Anne%2C_Queen_of_Great_Britain "Anne, Queen of Great Britain") was the last sovereign to practice healing, until April 27, 1714\. [George I](/wiki/George_I_of_Great_Britain "George I of Great Britain"), as a member of the House of Hanover, was not a legitimate heir of the sacred race. Descendants of the exiled Stuarts continued to touch until* [Henry IX](/wiki/Henry_Benedict_Stuart "Henry Benedict Stuart")'*s death in 1807\.* In France in 1722, Louis XV treated more than 2000 scrofula sufferers. Louis XVI had 2,400 the day after his coronation. It is not known when he touched for the last time. Many intellectuals had been jeering. On May 31, 1825, Charles X treated a little over a hundred patients, this was the last time in Europe. Book III : Early explanations did not deny the king's healing power as such, but only its supernatural origin, and replaced it with sometimes preposterous explanations. Some said cures were due to a "nervous jolt" \- a kind of psychotherapy. Bloch concludes by saying that it may well be no king ever cured anyone... This final chapter is followed by 60 pages of appendices: 1\. the royal miracle in French and English account books; 2\. The iconographic dossier; 3\. The beginnings of the royal anointing and coronation (Bloch goes back to the Visigothic kingdom of Spain, to Celtic countries, to the Byzantine Empire, etc.); 4\. Analysis and excerpts from Jean Golein's Traité du sacre *(*Treaty of the Coronation ceremony*) ; 5\. The French kings' pilgrimage to Corbeny.* ### Assessment [Gérard Noiriel](/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Noiriel "Gérard Noiriel") notes while only 1000 copies of the work were initially printed and the book went virtually unnoticed, it is today considered the inaugural masterpiece of the history of mentalities and of the French current of historical anthropology of the medieval West. From December 12 to 14, 2024, a major symposium will be held in Lyon, the city where Marc Bloch was shot by the Gestapo, to celebrate the work's centenary.France Culture (in French) : [https://www.radiofrance.fr/franceculture/podcasts/le\-pourquoi\-du\-comment\-histoire/pourquoi\-marc\-bloch\-a\-t\-il\-ecrit\-un\-livre\-sur\-les\-rois\-guerisseurs\-2577508](https://www.radiofrance.fr/franceculture/podcasts/le-pourquoi-du-comment-histoire/pourquoi-marc-bloch-a-t-il-ecrit-un-livre-sur-les-rois-guerisseurs-2577508) ### Links [Review of the book](http://www.marcbloch.fr/lesrois2.html) by Étienne Bloch and [Jacques Le Goff](/wiki/Jacques_Le_Goff "Jacques Le Goff") on the site of the [Association Marc Bloch](http://www.marcbloch.fr/asso.html). [Marc Bloch bibliography](/wiki/Marc_Bloch_bibliography "Marc Bloch bibliography"). ### Bibliography {{Interlanguage link\|Freddy Raphaël\|fr}}, « * + - Les Rois Thaumaturges *de Marc Bloch et la fondation de l'anthropologie politique et religieuse à Strasbourg »,* [Revue des Sciences Sociales](/wiki/Revue_des_Sciences_Sociales "Revue des Sciences Sociales")*, 2008, {{numéro\|40}}, {{p.\|104\-113}}, [read on line, in French](http://www.revue-des-sciences-sociales.com/pdf/rss40-raphael.pdf). [Jacques Le Goff](/wiki/Jacques_Le_Goff "Jacques Le Goff"), Préface aux « Rois Thaumaturges », p.1121\-1154, dans* * Héros du Moyen Âge, le Saint et le Roi*, Éditions Gallimard (collection* Quarto*), Paris, 2004 {{ISBN\|978\-2\-07\-076844\-8}} ; p.1344 Benoît Soubeyran,* * Un juriste nîmois du XVIe siècle formé à Montpellier, Jacques Bonaud de Sauzet'' (A 16th century jurist from Nîmes trained in [Montpellier](/wiki/Montpellier "Montpellier")), dissertation in medieval history defended in Septembre 2010 at [Université Paul\-Valéry Montpellier III](/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_Paul-Val%C3%A9ry_Montpellier_III "Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier III") and reworked in 2015\.Soubeyran, *Un juriste nîmois du XVIe siècle formé à Montpellier* :<https://www.academia.edu/32518829/Un_juriste_nîmois_du_XVIe_siècle_formé_à_Montpellier_Jacques_Bonaud_de_Sauzet>
[ "Structure and contents\n----------------------", "The fourteen\\-page bibliography is followed by an introduction explaining Bloch's approach and outlining the difficulties encountered, particularly with regard to sources. The body of the work is then divided into three books of very unequal lengths. The first book, \"Les origines\" (Origins), comprises two chapters, and shows how the thaumaturgical powers of the kings of France and England came into being. The second book, *Grandeur et vicissitudes des royautés thaumaturgiques* (Greatness and vicissitudes of thaumaturgical kingdoms), the most extensive with six chapters, analyzes the [rites](/wiki/Ritual \"Ritual\") surrounding these powers and presents these elements in chronological sequence, illustrating their evolution until they disappeared. The final book, *L'interprétation critique du miracle royal* (Critical Interpretation of the Royal Miracle), contains a single chapter outlining attempts to explain miracles rationally, and showing how people came to believe in them. Marc Bloch, a profound rationalist, concludes that it was a collective error.", "Five appendices follow: \"The royal miracle in French and English accounting books\", \"An iconographic dossier\", \"The beginnings of royal anointing and coronations\", \"Analysis and excerpts from *Traité du sacre* by {{Interlanguage link\\|Jean Golein\\|fr}}\" and \"The French kings' pilgrimage to [Corbeny](/wiki/Corbeny \"Corbeny\") after the coronation and the transport of saint [Marculf](/wiki/Marculf \"Marculf\")'s shrine to [Reims](/wiki/Reims \"Reims\")\", plus six pages of additions and corrections.", "This is an analysis of the royal figure in the Middle Ages, of all the symbols, values and ideal and material expressions of power that princes used not only to give prestige to the monarch's image, but also to provide a kind of justification for their temporal power. Giving the king a sacred character was a means of consolidating monarchical power over the people, in a feudal system where God's grace was (in theory) the fundamental requirement for ascending the throne. Unlike the Roman pontiff or the Byzantine emperor, heirs to the Church of Christ, directors of spirituality and spokesmen of the Creator's own will, temporal princes had to constantly \"reinvent\" the concept of their sacred, i.e. God\\-given, right to rule Christian kingdoms.", "Over time, people came to think of the sovereign as a man of exceptional nobility, above the \"simple folk\", a man touched by divine grace. As such, he manifests the abilities and powers that, in the collective imagination, appear as a true sign of divine benevolence.", "Marc Bloch cites more than just the power to cure plague and scrofula. In the introduction to his essay, he recalls [Edward III of England](/wiki/Edward_III_of_England \"Edward III of England\")'s message to [Philip VI of France](/wiki/Philip_VI_of_France \"Philip VI of France\"), in which he orders him to abdicate the throne as unworthy of the title, since he is not directly descended from the legitimate line and is therefore not worthy of being consecrated to reign; if he wished to avoid a war (the one that came to be known as the [Hundred Years' War](/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War \"Hundred Years' War\")), he would have to show the qualities proper to a sovereign: fight the other suitor in a fair duel, where God would judge who deserved the throne, or expose himself to hungry lions inside a cage, because the lion, a proud and noble animal, would never attack a legitimate sovereign. Here, then, is the idea of the king situated above other men manifesting itself once again, in a different form.", "Temporal and spiritual power found in these manifestations of supernatural ability and quality a common cement to unite the two powers. Indeed, it was customary for princes to attend the sick during a solemn mass, celebrated by France's highest ecclesiastical dignitaries (the bishops of Chartres, Reims or Le Puy) ; since under the eyes of God and his ministers, in the sacred mystery of [communion under both kinds](/wiki/Communion_under_both_kinds \"Communion under both kinds\"), the healing powers of princes acquired a real form and manifested themselves as true emanations of the divine will, assuming a totally sacred connotation, free from any suspicion of paganism or heresy.", "These consecrations nonetheless concealed the fierce struggles between the emerging [Gallican](/wiki/Gallicanism \"Gallicanism\") Church, which sought above all to recognize the King of France as its true protector, and the Pope of Rome, who wished to prevent any form of autocephaly of the Churches within Christendom and to assert his own exclusive privilege to perform such prodigies and govern Christians according to the will of the Redeemer. *Les Rois thaumaturges* thus analyzes another aspect of the so\\-called [Investiture Controversy](/wiki/Investiture_Controversy \"Investiture Controversy\"), a profound crisis arising from the antagonism between the various institutions over the legitimacy of their power on Earth and the possibility of directing the life of the Christian people (which often translated into the right to choose bishops and other power\\-holders in the Church alone, something which, thanks to the administration of state property, guaranteed great opportunities for enrichment).", "The origin of this alliance between ruler and bishop was the conversion and consecration of the first great Catholic king of the Franks: [Clovis I](/wiki/Clovis_I \"Clovis I\"), of the [Merovingian](/wiki/Merovingian \"Merovingian\") dynasty, baptized with [holy oil](/wiki/Chrism \"Chrism\") given by the Holy Spirit to [Saint Remigius](/wiki/Saint_Remigius \"Saint Remigius\"), and proclaimed king by the will of God. It was in this episode that the rulers of France (whose titles included that of \"Most Christian King\") saw the source of their miraculous powers, an illustration of the constant renewal of the covenant between Christ's Church and the Crown.", "In this book, the jurist {{Interlanguage link\\|Jacques Bonaud de Sauzet\\|fr}} is considered one of the earliest apologists for the [Valois](/wiki/House_of_Valois \"House of Valois\"), as he refutes the canonist [Felino Maria Sandeo](/wiki/Felino_Maria_Sandeo \"Felino Maria Sandeo\"), who refused to recognize the thaumaturgical privilege of the kings of France as miraculous.Benoît Soubeyran, Un juriste nîmois du XVIe siècle formé à Montpellier, Jacques Bonaud de Sauzet, 2010, p. 38", "[thumb\\|Henri IV touchant les écrouelles](/wiki/File:Henri_IV_touche_les_escrouelles.jpg \"Henri IV touche les escrouelles.jpg\")", "### Summary", "In book I Chapter I, the author sets out to establish when the royal power to cure appeared: with [Robert II of France](/wiki/Robert_II_of_France \"Robert II of France\") (c. 972 – 1031\\), according [Helgaud](/wiki/Helgaud \"Helgaud\"), and [Henry I of England](/wiki/Henry_I_of_England \"Henry I of England\") (c. 1068 – 1135\\).\nIn Chapter II, he looks for the origins of this power in the sacred nature of kings, already found in the old Germanic kingdoms.\nThe sacred nature of the king was affirmed by the practice of anointing: first for [Pepin the Short](/wiki/Pepin_the_Short \"Pepin the Short\"), then for his successors; then for the English kings from the [Council of Chelsea](/wiki/Council_of_Chelsea \"Council of Chelsea\") (787\\) onwards; and finally for the whole of Western Europe. This practice took place as part of the ceremony known as the \"coronation\" or \"sacre\" in French. Bloch believes that Robert II, called the Pious needed to strengthen his legitimacy, which he was able to do by claiming thaumaturgical virtues and suggests that Henry I then imitated him.", "Book II offers a history of the touching of scrofula until the end of the 16th century. First the king touched the affected areas, and later (Robert II) added the sign of the cross. Later English kings added a blessing. In both countries, the poor were then given alms.\nThe number of beneficiaries in England ranged from several hundred to over a thousand, depending on the year. No figures are available for France. They were of several nationalities. Many travelled several hundred hundreds of kilometres to reach the king.", "The [Gregorian Reforms](/wiki/Gregorian_Reform \"Gregorian Reform\") were \"a vigorous effort to destroy the ancient confusion of the temporal with the spiritual\". Gregory VII \"denies temporal sovereigns even the most pious, the gift of the miracle\" (Letter to bishop {{Interlanguage link\\|Hermann de Metz\\|fr}}, March 15, 1081\\). However, France and England were scarcely touched by these ideas, until \"the apologists of the French monarchy appealed, for the first time, ... to the royal miracle\" \\- starting with [Guillaume de Nogaret](/wiki/Guillaume_de_Nogaret \"Guillaume de Nogaret\") and {{Interlanguage link\\|Guillaume de Plaisians\\|fr}}, followed by Fra [Tolomeo](/wiki/Bartholomew_of_Lucca \"Bartholomew of Lucca\") in Italy and [William of Ockham](/wiki/William_of_Ockham \"William of Ockham\") in England (*Octo questiones* V cap vii\\-ix). [Charles V of France](/wiki/Charles_V_of_France \"Charles V of France\") presented himself as a miracle worker. This thaumaturgical power became a theme of loyalist propaganda. \nIn other countries, attempts to invoke a thaumaturgical power remained very limited.", "Bloch devotes a whole chapter of *[Thaumaturgic Kings](/wiki/Thaumaturgic_Kings \"Thaumaturgic Kings\")* to a description and history of cramp\\-rings that gave English kings the power to work cures.\\<ref\\>*Les Rois thaumaturges. Étude sur le caractère supernaturel attribué à la puissance royale particulièrement en France et en Angleterre (Book II, chapter ii)\\</ref\\>*", "[thumb\\|*The Royal Gift of Healing* (Charles II of England touching for scrofula)'A burin etching by [Robert White](/wiki/Robert_White_%28engraver%29 \"Robert White (engraver)\"), the frontispiece to [John Browne](/wiki/John_Browne_%28anatomist%29 \"John Browne (anatomist)\")'s *Charisma Basilikon, or the Royal Gift of Healing Strumaes, \\&c., by Contact or Imposition of the Sacred Hands of our Kings of England and of France* (Part 3 of *Adenochoiradelogia*), 1684, tt describes the method pursued by Charles II in touching for the \"king's evil\", with which as the king's surgeon Browne was officially concerned](/wiki/File:Charles_II_touching_a_patient_for_the_king%27s_evil_%28scrofula%29_Wellcome_L0031546.jpg \"Charles II touching a patient for the king's evil (scrofula) Wellcome L0031546.jpg\")\nChapter III is about the sacerdotal quality of kings and the opposition between kings and the Church: the latter attempted to deny or minimize the significance of the coronation ceremony, while the other camp insisted that anointing made kings more than laymen. During the 13th century, the number of sacraments was reduced to seven, and royal anointing was excluded. Kings, however persisted in their desire to match the heads of the Church, and the monarchical ritual was modelled on the consecration of bishops, including the use of chrism in the anointing during the coronation of French and British monarchs. When the Church saw that it would be impossible to deny that the king was sacred, it imagined giving him the rank of deacon, or sub\\-deacon. \nAnother quasi\\-sacerdotal privilege enjoyed for a long time by English and French kings was that of [communion under both kinds](/wiki/Communion_under_both_kinds \"Communion under both kinds\"). They also retained certain monastic dignities (droit de régale or [Jura regalia](/wiki/Jura_regalia \"Jura regalia\")). All this could be put forward as \"proof of their ecclesiastical ecclesiastical character and, consequently, their right to dominate the clergy in their states\" (214\\).\n[Anointing](/wiki/Anointing \"Anointing\") is a concept that can be perceived in two distinct lights: either as a divine seal, or as a bestowed characteristic administered by the hand of a priest. [Frederick Barbarossa](/wiki/Frederick_Barbarossa \"Frederick Barbarossa\") propagated the belief that during his coronation, the basilica was sealed off from all members of the clergy. This narrative implied that the anointing he received was purely of divine origin: a symbol that kingship transcends mere human convention, deriving its legitimacy solely from either hereditary succession or election (1270s). This notion underscored the idea that one assumes kingship immediately upon the demise of their predecessor, even if the importance of the coronation ceremony remained deeply ingrained in popular perception. Moreover, regarding the perceived power of healing, Golein asserted that it was a privilege reserved exclusively for those of sacred lineage once they had undergone the sacred anointing ritual.\nBloch proceeds to delve into various legends, notably focusing on the narrative surrounding the [Holy Ampulla](/wiki/Holy_Ampulla \"Holy Ampulla\") (which belonged to the [archbishops of Reims](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Reims \"Archdiocese of Reims\"), endowing them with the authority to make sovereigns). Subsequently, he explores the miraculous tale of the fleurs\\-de\\-lis and the [oriflamme](/wiki/Oriflamme \"Oriflamme\"), both also believed to have descended from the heavens, like the power of healing, and all augmenting the aura of prestige surrounding the monarchy.\nAs for England, Bloch shows how the oil utilized for anointing ceremonies was purportedly bestowed upon [Thomas Becket](/wiki/Thomas_Becket \"Thomas Becket\") by the Virgin Mary herself. The adoption of this oil in coronation rituals was inaugurated with the crowning of [Henry IV of England](/wiki/Henry_IV_of_England \"Henry IV of England\").\nBloch finally expands his examination to encompass non\\-Christian miraculous elements.\nIn Chapter IV, Bloch examines the links between Saint [Marcoul](/wiki/Marculf \"Marculf\") and the belief in the royal miracle in France. After a series disasters, the monks of the priory of [Corbeny](/wiki/Corbeny \"Corbeny\"), which housed the remains of the saint, sent his relics on tour, but it wasn't until the end of the 13th century that the saint began to cure scrofula \\- by virtue of an approximate pun (Mar/mal: evil; coul/cou : neck), but the saint's popularity as a healer came later (16th\\-17th centuries) as did the pilgrimages to Corbeny, where he was invoked to cure scrofula.\n[John II of France](/wiki/John_II_of_France \"John II of France\") was probably the first king to make a pilgrimage to Corbeny. Then, in 1484, the king cured scrofula in Corbeny before leaving again. From Louis XIV onwards, it was the reliquary that was carried from Corbeny to Reims on the occasion of coronations. The king went to meet the scrofula sufferers in the park of the [Basilica of Saint\\-Remi](/wiki/Basilica_of_Saint-Remi \"Basilica of Saint-Remi\") in Reims. The idea was born that it was the saint who granted the king his healing powers. Bloch concludes with a few pages on the belief that seventh\\-born sons (without interruption of daughters) were healers, like the king. \nBelief in the royal miracle reached its peak between 1500 and the period of religious unrest. From the time of Mary Tudor onwards the alms [coin](/wiki/Touch_piece \"Touch piece\") (an [angel](/wiki/Angel_%28coin%29 \"Angel (coin)\")) became a talisman and was as much in demand as cramp rings. [Michael Servetus](/wiki/Michael_Servetus \"Michael Servetus\"), [Lucilio Vanini](/wiki/Lucilio_Vanini \"Lucilio Vanini\") and others tried to deny the existence of a healing miracle, to no avail. Religious reformers began to speak out against what they saw as idolatrous practices. There was a controversy between [Nicholas Ridley](/wiki/Nicholas_Ridley_%28martyr%29 \"Nicholas Ridley (martyr)\") and Bishop [Stephen Gardiner](/wiki/Stephen_Gardiner \"Stephen Gardiner\"). Under Elizabeth I, the cramp ring ceremony ceased, but the Queen continued to treat scrofula sufferers. Scepticism grew, and the miraculous power of kings had to be defended : [William Tooker](/wiki/William_Tooker \"William Tooker\"), A Treatise on Charisma sive Donum Sanationis *(1597\\). Propaganda in favour of healing power also emerged in France: [André du Laurens](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_du_Laurens \"André du Laurens\") (*Discours des escrouelles divise en deux livres*) and an engraving by {{Interlanguage link\\|Pierre Firens\\|fr}},* Henri IV of France touching for scrofula*.*", "Chapter V : The sacred and almost priestly character of kings remained a truism in modern times. For [Bossuet](/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet \"Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet\") and others, the king was a mortal deity. Many still believed in the healing miracle, but the best authors avoided mentioning it, as if out of shame. A new and successful story was invented by {{Interlanguage link\\|Étienne Forcadel\\|fr}} (De Gallorum Imperio et Philosophia *: Treaty of the Empire, 1579\\) according to which the cure of scrofula dated back to [Clovis I](/wiki/Clovis_I \"Clovis I\").*", "Scrofula sufferers, of various nationalities, continued to flock to the King, even during the [English Civil War](/wiki/English_Civil_War \"English Civil War\"). After the king was executed, handkerchiefs soaked in his blood were said to have healing powers. [Charles II](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England \"Charles II of England\"), in exile, took over. On May 30, 1660 there was a grand healing ceremony. The angel was permanently replaced by a special medal. Charles II cured tens of thousands of scrofula sufferers over a fifteen\\-year period.\nChapter VI : Among the reasons why this healing practice disappeared, it is worth mentioning the existence of other people with powers, apart from seventh\\-born sons: the Bailleul or [Balliol](/wiki/House_of_Balliol \"House of Balliol\") family, the elders of the [House of Aumont](/wiki/House_of_Aumont \"House of Aumont\"), Irish faith healer [Valentine Greatrakes](/wiki/Valentine_Greatrakes \"Valentine Greatrakes\"), and descendants of a number of saints, in particular Saint [Hubertus](/wiki/Hubertus \"Hubertus\"). Georges Hubert touched Louis XIII and Louis XIV. Added to this were the advances of rationalism, the fact that many philosophers denied kings were \"of divine right\". Others denied the healing power of English *kings: from there, doubt eventually spread to French kings. William of Orange refused to touch. [Queen Anne](/wiki/Anne%2C_Queen_of_Great_Britain \"Anne, Queen of Great Britain\") was the last sovereign to practice healing, until April 27, 1714\\. [George I](/wiki/George_I_of_Great_Britain \"George I of Great Britain\"), as a member of the House of Hanover, was not a legitimate heir of the sacred race. Descendants of the exiled Stuarts continued to touch until* [Henry IX](/wiki/Henry_Benedict_Stuart \"Henry Benedict Stuart\")'*s death in 1807\\.*", "In France in 1722, Louis XV treated more than 2000 scrofula sufferers. Louis XVI had 2,400 the day after his coronation. It is not known when he touched for the last time. Many intellectuals had been jeering. On May 31, 1825, Charles X treated a little over a hundred patients, this was the last time in Europe.\nBook III : Early explanations did not deny the king's healing power as such, but only its supernatural origin, and replaced it with sometimes preposterous explanations. Some said cures were due to a \"nervous jolt\" \\- a kind of psychotherapy. Bloch concludes by saying that it may well be no king ever cured anyone...\nThis final chapter is followed by 60 pages of appendices: 1\\. the royal miracle in French and English account books; 2\\. The iconographic dossier; 3\\. The beginnings of the royal anointing and coronation (Bloch goes back to the Visigothic kingdom of Spain, to Celtic countries, to the Byzantine Empire, etc.); 4\\. Analysis and excerpts from Jean Golein's Traité du sacre *(*Treaty of the Coronation ceremony*) ; 5\\. The French kings' pilgrimage to Corbeny.*", "### Assessment", "[Gérard Noiriel](/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Noiriel \"Gérard Noiriel\") notes while only 1000 copies of the work were initially printed and the book went virtually unnoticed, it is today considered the inaugural masterpiece of the history of mentalities and of the French current of historical anthropology of the medieval West. \nFrom December 12 to 14, 2024, a major symposium will be held in Lyon, the city where Marc Bloch was shot by the Gestapo, to celebrate the work's centenary.France Culture (in French) : [https://www.radiofrance.fr/franceculture/podcasts/le\\-pourquoi\\-du\\-comment\\-histoire/pourquoi\\-marc\\-bloch\\-a\\-t\\-il\\-ecrit\\-un\\-livre\\-sur\\-les\\-rois\\-guerisseurs\\-2577508](https://www.radiofrance.fr/franceculture/podcasts/le-pourquoi-du-comment-histoire/pourquoi-marc-bloch-a-t-il-ecrit-un-livre-sur-les-rois-guerisseurs-2577508)\n### Links", "[Review of the book](http://www.marcbloch.fr/lesrois2.html) by Étienne Bloch and [Jacques Le Goff](/wiki/Jacques_Le_Goff \"Jacques Le Goff\") on the site of the [Association Marc Bloch](http://www.marcbloch.fr/asso.html).\n [Marc Bloch bibliography](/wiki/Marc_Bloch_bibliography \"Marc Bloch bibliography\").\n### Bibliography", "{{Interlanguage link\\|Freddy Raphaël\\|fr}}, « * + - Les Rois Thaumaturges *de Marc Bloch et la fondation de l'anthropologie politique et religieuse à Strasbourg »,* [Revue des Sciences Sociales](/wiki/Revue_des_Sciences_Sociales \"Revue des Sciences Sociales\")*, 2008, {{numéro\\|40}}, {{p.\\|104\\-113}}, [read on line, in French](http://www.revue-des-sciences-sociales.com/pdf/rss40-raphael.pdf).\n\t\t [Jacques Le Goff](/wiki/Jacques_Le_Goff \"Jacques Le Goff\"), Préface aux « Rois Thaumaturges », p.1121\\-1154, dans*\n* Héros du Moyen Âge, le Saint et le Roi*, Éditions Gallimard (collection* Quarto*), Paris, 2004 {{ISBN\\|978\\-2\\-07\\-076844\\-8}} ; p.1344\n Benoît Soubeyran,*\n* Un juriste nîmois du XVIe siècle formé à Montpellier, Jacques Bonaud de Sauzet'' (A 16th century jurist from Nîmes trained in [Montpellier](/wiki/Montpellier \"Montpellier\")), dissertation in medieval history defended in Septembre 2010 at [Université Paul\\-Valéry Montpellier III](/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_Paul-Val%C3%A9ry_Montpellier_III \"Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier III\") and reworked in 2015\\.Soubeyran, *Un juriste nîmois du XVIe siècle formé à Montpellier* :<https://www.academia.edu/32518829/Un_juriste_nîmois_du_XVIe_siècle_formé_à_Montpellier_Jacques_Bonaud_de_Sauzet>" ]
Current career -------------- But later on he moved to ABS\-CBN's rival network [GMA 7](/wiki/GMA_Network "GMA Network") in 2003, joining the sitcom [Kool Ka Lang](/wiki/Kool_Ka_Lang "Kool Ka Lang"). After the show was cancelled the same year, he joined the replacement sitcom [Lagot Ka, Isusumbong Kita](/wiki/Lagot_Ka%2C_Isusumbong_Kita "Lagot Ka, Isusumbong Kita") and the fantasy drama series [Mulawin](/wiki/Mulawin "Mulawin") in 2004\. He was later on relaunched by GMA Network when he was given his own TV show with Benjie Paras, "NAKS!" which lasted for a year. He also appeared as sidekick in romantic movies like [Let the Love Begin](/wiki/Let_the_Love_Begin_%28film%29 "Let the Love Begin (film)"), [I Will Always Love You](/wiki/I_Will_Always_Love_You_%28film%29 "I Will Always Love You (film)") and *Say That You Love Me*. He was later launched in [Hari ng Sablay](/wiki/Hari_ng_Sablay:Isang_Tama%2C_Sampung_Mali "Isang Tama, Sampung Mali") in 2006 which became a box\-office success. When his showbiz career eventually slowed down, Bearwin turned his attention to magic and is now a professional magician. In 2011, Bearwin moved to [TV5](/wiki/TV5_%28Philippines%29 "TV5 (Philippines)"). In 2014, Bearwin returned to ABS\-CBN 2 for his current sitcom, *[Home Sweetie Home](/wiki/Home_Sweetie_Home "Home Sweetie Home")*. On March 23, 2015, Bearwin was part of the "Lucky Stars" of *[Kapamilya, Deal or No Deal](/wiki/Kapamilya%2C_Deal_or_No_Deal "Kapamilya, Deal or No Deal")* and won P1,000,000, making Bearwin as first millionaire of the season five. In 2019, Bearwin returned to GMA 7 with his two programs, a drama anthology, "Tadhana", and a comedy anthology, "Dear Uge". In 2020, Bearwin also guested "Mars Pa More" as a cooking guy on the set and aired also on Kapuso Network GMA 7\.
[ "Current career\n--------------", "But later on he moved to ABS\\-CBN's rival network [GMA 7](/wiki/GMA_Network \"GMA Network\") in 2003, joining the sitcom [Kool Ka Lang](/wiki/Kool_Ka_Lang \"Kool Ka Lang\"). After the show was cancelled the same year, he joined the replacement sitcom [Lagot Ka, Isusumbong Kita](/wiki/Lagot_Ka%2C_Isusumbong_Kita \"Lagot Ka, Isusumbong Kita\") and the fantasy drama series [Mulawin](/wiki/Mulawin \"Mulawin\") in 2004\\. He was later on relaunched by GMA Network when he was given his own TV show with Benjie Paras, \"NAKS!\" which lasted for a year. He also appeared as sidekick in romantic movies like [Let the Love Begin](/wiki/Let_the_Love_Begin_%28film%29 \"Let the Love Begin (film)\"), [I Will Always Love You](/wiki/I_Will_Always_Love_You_%28film%29 \"I Will Always Love You (film)\") and *Say That You Love Me*. He was later launched in [Hari ng Sablay](/wiki/Hari_ng_Sablay:Isang_Tama%2C_Sampung_Mali \"Isang Tama, Sampung Mali\") in 2006 which became a box\\-office success. When his showbiz career eventually slowed down, Bearwin turned his attention to magic and is now a professional magician.", "In 2011, Bearwin moved to [TV5](/wiki/TV5_%28Philippines%29 \"TV5 (Philippines)\").", "In 2014, Bearwin returned to ABS\\-CBN 2 for his current sitcom, *[Home Sweetie Home](/wiki/Home_Sweetie_Home \"Home Sweetie Home\")*.", "On March 23, 2015, Bearwin was part of the \"Lucky Stars\" of *[Kapamilya, Deal or No Deal](/wiki/Kapamilya%2C_Deal_or_No_Deal \"Kapamilya, Deal or No Deal\")* and won P1,000,000, making Bearwin as first millionaire of the season five.", "In 2019, Bearwin returned to GMA 7 with his two programs, a drama anthology, \"Tadhana\", and a comedy anthology, \"Dear Uge\".", "In 2020, Bearwin also guested \"Mars Pa More\" as a cooking guy on the set and aired also on Kapuso Network GMA 7\\.", "" ]
History ------- ### Founding [thumb\|Georges Nagelmackers, founder of the CIWL](/wiki/File:Georges_Nagelmackers_par_Nadar.jpg "Georges Nagelmackers par Nadar.jpg") [thumb\|Bond of the Comp. Internationale des Wagon\-Lits et des Grands Express Européens S.A., issued 1\. October 1919](/wiki/File:Wagons-Lits_1919.jpg "Wagons-Lits 1919.jpg") During his trip to the United States in 1867–1868 the 23\-year\-old [Belgian](/wiki/Belgium "Belgium") [Georges Nagelmackers](/wiki/Georges_Nagelmackers "Georges Nagelmackers") was impressed by the [Pullman](/wiki/Pullman_%28car_or_coach%29 "Pullman (car or coach)") night trains. Upon his return home, he decided to establish a network of such trains in Europe. He envisioned that such trains should be luxurious and travel across borders.For a short history of the company, see Behrend, Georges, "The History of the Wagons\-Lit, 1876\-1955", Modern Transport Publishing Co., 1959\. In 1872, Nagelmackers founded the *Compagnie Internationale des Wagons\-Lits* and the *et des Grands Express Européens* addition became part of the name in 1893\.{{cite web\|url\=https://travelanguist.com/Reflections.php?Year\=2020\&MusNo\=8\.00\|access\-date\=25 April 2024\|title\=Nagelmackers \& Wagons\-Lits \- Nord\-Express \- Sud\-Express – Northeastern Europe}} By 1886 his company had become the main organiser for most European heads of state. The symbol "WL" held by two lions became a well\-known [trade mark](/wiki/Trade_mark "Trade mark"). [thumb\|300px\|Historic Wagons\-Lits restaurant car in Austria in 2003\.](/wiki/File:Wagons-Lits_dining_car_in_Austria_in_2003.jpg "Wagons-Lits dining car in Austria in 2003.jpg") The company ran either complete trains of *Wagon\-Lits* cars or individual sleeping and dining cars coupled onto services operated by the state railways of the European countries through which the *Wagon\-Lits* cars passed. These cars were always drawn by locomotives of the various state railways, as *Wagon\-Lits* did not operate its own fleet of locomotives. Prior to [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), CIWL held a monopoly being the only group catering to the needs of the international railroad traveller. The company introduced famous services, such as the *[Orient Express](/wiki/Orient_Express "Orient Express")*, the *[Nord Express](/wiki/Nord_Express "Nord Express")*, and the *[Sud Express](/wiki/Sud_Express "Sud Express")* and expanded to markets outside Europe with involvement in the *[Trans\-Siberian Railway](/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway "Trans-Siberian Railway")* across Russia. The Company's trains also reached Manchuria (*[Trans\-Manchurian Express](/wiki/Chinese_Eastern_Railway "Chinese Eastern Railway")*), China (Peking, Shanghai, and Nanking), and Cairo.Behrends, supra, at pp. 13\-14\. #### Hotels [thumb\|right\|300px\|The {{ill\|Grand Hôtel des Wagons\-Lits\|de\|Grand Hotel des Wagons\-Lits}}, also known as the Six Nations Hotel, in [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing "Beijing") before 1949\.](/wiki/File:The_Grand_Hotel_of_Peking.jpg "The Grand Hotel of Peking.jpg") In 1894, [Compagnie Internationale des Grands Hotels](/wiki/Compagnie_Internationale_des_Grands_Hotels "Compagnie Internationale des Grands Hotels") was founded as a subsidiary and began operating a chain of luxury hotels in major cities.{{cite book\|title\=The Escape Industry: How Iconic and Innovative Brands Built the Travel Business\|author\=Mark Tungate\|publisher\=Kogan Page Publishers\|date\=2017\|isbn\=9780749473518\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ACA3DwAAQBAJ}} Among these were the *Hôtel Terminus* in [Bordeaux](/wiki/Bordeaux "Bordeaux") and [Marseille](/wiki/Marseille "Marseille"), the *Hôtel Pera Palace* in [Istanbul](/wiki/Istanbul "Istanbul"), the *Hôtel de la Plage* in [Ostend](/wiki/Ostend "Ostend"), and the *Grand Hôtel des Wagons\-Lits* in [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing "Beijing") (Peking). ### Competition with Mitropa With the start of World War I CIWL's coaches were confiscated for military use. In Germany and [Austro\-Hungary](/wiki/Austro-Hungary "Austro-Hungary") [Mitropa](/wiki/Mitropa "Mitropa") was founded to take over the property and services of CIWL. In 1919, the communists in Russia expropriated CIWL's local rolling stock and hotels.{{cite news \|author\= \|title\=Foreign News in a few lines \|url\=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000681/19190721/062/0003 \|newspaper\=Daily Herald \|location\=England \|date\=21 July 1919 \|access\-date\=5 November 2017 \|via\=British Newspaper Archive \|url\-access\=subscription }} After the conclusion of World War I CIWL demanded to have its central European service routes restored. It regained these for Austria, [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland"), and [Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Czechoslovakia "Czechoslovakia"); however, in Germany the [Reichsbahn](/wiki/Reichsbahn "Reichsbahn") and Mitropa sabotaged this process. On April 23, 1925, CIWL and Mitropa agreed to separate spheres of influence. CIWL received transit routes through Germany and routes between Germany and Belgium, France, Italy, [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland"), [Latvia](/wiki/Latvia "Latvia"), [Lithuania](/wiki/Lithuania "Lithuania") and [Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Czechoslovakia "Czechoslovakia"). Mitropa took over the routes between Germany and the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands") and [Scandinavia](/wiki/Scandinavia "Scandinavia"), as well as trains within Germany, and to [Gdańsk](/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk "Gdańsk"). Trains between Germany and Austria were served by both companies. In the [interwar period](/wiki/Interwar_period "Interwar period"), CIWL flourished again. The company's blue and gold [livery](/wiki/Livery "Livery") was introduced. In 1925, Wagon\-Lits opened its first *Travel Palace* in Paris. Services extended to the Middle Eastern cities of [Aleppo](/wiki/Aleppo "Aleppo"), [Baghdad](/wiki/Baghdad "Baghdad"), [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo "Cairo"), and [Tehran](/wiki/Tehran "Tehran"). Metal coaches, replacing older wooden ones constructed of [teak](/wiki/Teak "Teak"), became available in 1926\. In 1931 the fleet reached its maximum of 2268 vehicles. This period can be considered the zenith of luxury rail travel. CIWL's carriages were decorated by such renowned artists as Réné Prou, [René Lalique](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Lalique "René Lalique") and Morrison. CIWL also commissioned renowned artists such as [Adolphe Mouron Cassandre](/wiki/Adolphe_Mouron_Cassandre "Adolphe Mouron Cassandre") to design posters advertising its services. ### Decline With [Anschluss](/wiki/Anschluss "Anschluss") in 1938, the Austrian market was lost to Mitropa (it was recovered after 1945\). Because of World War II and the subsequent communist expansion, CIWL lost more markets in central and eastern Europe. After World War II, CIWL increasingly focused on the travel agency and management business. Accordingly, it was renamed *Compagnie Internationale des Wagons\-Lits et du Tourisme* (CIWLT) in 1967\.{{cite web\|url\=https://recherche\-anmt.culture.gouv.fr/archives/archives/fonds/FRANMT\_IR\_2022\_9/view:31365\|access\-date\=25 April 2024\|title\=Compagnie internationale des wagons\-lits et du tourisme (CIWLT)}} By 1971, the rolling stock of CIWL had become aged and outdated, and the renovation and replacement needed were beyond the company. It sold or leased its coaches to the [SNCF](/wiki/SNCF "SNCF"), [FS](/wiki/Ferrovie_dello_Stato_Italiane "Ferrovie dello Stato Italiane"), [SBB](/wiki/Swiss_Federal_Railways "Swiss Federal Railways"), [DB](/wiki/Deutsche_Bundesbahn "Deutsche Bundesbahn"), [ÖBB](/wiki/%C3%96BB "ÖBB"), [NMBS/SNCB](/wiki/National_Railway_Company_of_Belgium "National Railway Company of Belgium"), [NS](/wiki/Nederlandse_Spoorwegen "Nederlandse Spoorwegen"), [DSB](/wiki/DSB_%28railway_company%29 "DSB (railway company)") and [Renfe](/wiki/Renfe "Renfe"). An international sleeping car pool named TEN (Trans Euro Night) was founded at that time and took over and managed (until 1995\) many of the carriages of CIWL and of the Mitropa\-successor [DSG](/wiki/German_Sleeper_and_Dining_Car_Company "German Sleeper and Dining Car Company"). ### Today Wagons\-Lits is headquartered in Paris. Currently CIWL provides service on night trains in Austria, Italy and meal and catering services in daytime trains of France, Italy, Portugal and on [Eurostar](/wiki/Eurostar "Eurostar") services to the United Kingdom. A number of sleeping\-cars on the European continent are owned by CIWL. The cars are maintained by the sister company [Rail Service International](/wiki/Rail_Service_International "Rail Service International") (RSI) in the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands") and leased to train operating companies.{{citation needed\|date\=January 2024}}
[ "History\n-------", "### Founding", "[thumb\\|Georges Nagelmackers, founder of the CIWL](/wiki/File:Georges_Nagelmackers_par_Nadar.jpg \"Georges Nagelmackers par Nadar.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Bond of the Comp. Internationale des Wagon\\-Lits et des Grands Express Européens S.A., issued 1\\. October 1919](/wiki/File:Wagons-Lits_1919.jpg \"Wagons-Lits 1919.jpg\")", "During his trip to the United States in 1867–1868 the 23\\-year\\-old [Belgian](/wiki/Belgium \"Belgium\") [Georges Nagelmackers](/wiki/Georges_Nagelmackers \"Georges Nagelmackers\") was impressed by the [Pullman](/wiki/Pullman_%28car_or_coach%29 \"Pullman (car or coach)\") night trains. Upon his return home, he decided to establish a network of such trains in Europe. He envisioned that such trains should be luxurious and travel across borders.For a short history of the company, see Behrend, Georges, \"The History of the Wagons\\-Lit, 1876\\-1955\", Modern Transport Publishing Co., 1959\\.", "In 1872, Nagelmackers founded the *Compagnie Internationale des Wagons\\-Lits* and the *et des Grands Express Européens* addition became part of the name in 1893\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://travelanguist.com/Reflections.php?Year\\=2020\\&MusNo\\=8\\.00\\|access\\-date\\=25 April 2024\\|title\\=Nagelmackers \\& Wagons\\-Lits \\- Nord\\-Express \\- Sud\\-Express – Northeastern Europe}} By 1886 his company had become the main organiser for most European heads of state. The symbol \"WL\" held by two lions became a well\\-known [trade mark](/wiki/Trade_mark \"Trade mark\").\n[thumb\\|300px\\|Historic Wagons\\-Lits restaurant car in Austria in 2003\\.](/wiki/File:Wagons-Lits_dining_car_in_Austria_in_2003.jpg \"Wagons-Lits dining car in Austria in 2003.jpg\")\nThe company ran either complete trains of *Wagon\\-Lits* cars or individual sleeping and dining cars coupled onto services operated by the state railways of the European countries through which the *Wagon\\-Lits* cars passed. These cars were always drawn by locomotives of the various state railways, as *Wagon\\-Lits* did not operate its own fleet of locomotives.", "Prior to [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), CIWL held a monopoly being the only group catering to the needs of the international railroad traveller. The company introduced famous services, such as the *[Orient Express](/wiki/Orient_Express \"Orient Express\")*, the *[Nord Express](/wiki/Nord_Express \"Nord Express\")*, and the *[Sud Express](/wiki/Sud_Express \"Sud Express\")* and expanded to markets outside Europe with involvement in the *[Trans\\-Siberian Railway](/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway \"Trans-Siberian Railway\")* across Russia. The Company's trains also reached Manchuria (*[Trans\\-Manchurian Express](/wiki/Chinese_Eastern_Railway \"Chinese Eastern Railway\")*), China (Peking, Shanghai, and Nanking), and Cairo.Behrends, supra, at pp. 13\\-14\\.", "#### Hotels", "[thumb\\|right\\|300px\\|The {{ill\\|Grand Hôtel des Wagons\\-Lits\\|de\\|Grand Hotel des Wagons\\-Lits}}, also known as the Six Nations Hotel, in [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\") before 1949\\.](/wiki/File:The_Grand_Hotel_of_Peking.jpg \"The Grand Hotel of Peking.jpg\")\nIn 1894, [Compagnie Internationale des Grands Hotels](/wiki/Compagnie_Internationale_des_Grands_Hotels \"Compagnie Internationale des Grands Hotels\") was founded as a subsidiary and began operating a chain of luxury hotels in major cities.{{cite book\\|title\\=The Escape Industry: How Iconic and Innovative Brands Built the Travel Business\\|author\\=Mark Tungate\\|publisher\\=Kogan Page Publishers\\|date\\=2017\\|isbn\\=9780749473518\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ACA3DwAAQBAJ}} Among these were the *Hôtel Terminus* in [Bordeaux](/wiki/Bordeaux \"Bordeaux\") and [Marseille](/wiki/Marseille \"Marseille\"), the *Hôtel Pera Palace* in [Istanbul](/wiki/Istanbul \"Istanbul\"), the *Hôtel de la Plage* in [Ostend](/wiki/Ostend \"Ostend\"), and the *Grand Hôtel des Wagons\\-Lits* in [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\") (Peking).", "### Competition with Mitropa", "With the start of World War I CIWL's coaches were confiscated for military use. In Germany and [Austro\\-Hungary](/wiki/Austro-Hungary \"Austro-Hungary\") [Mitropa](/wiki/Mitropa \"Mitropa\") was founded to take over the property and services of CIWL. In 1919, the communists in Russia expropriated CIWL's local rolling stock and hotels.{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|title\\=Foreign News in a few lines \\|url\\=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000681/19190721/062/0003 \\|newspaper\\=Daily Herald \\|location\\=England \\|date\\=21 July 1919 \\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2017 \\|via\\=British Newspaper Archive \\|url\\-access\\=subscription }} After the conclusion of World War I CIWL demanded to have its central European service routes restored. It regained these for Austria, [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\"), and [Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Czechoslovakia \"Czechoslovakia\"); however, in Germany the [Reichsbahn](/wiki/Reichsbahn \"Reichsbahn\") and Mitropa sabotaged this process. On April 23, 1925, CIWL and Mitropa agreed to separate spheres of influence. CIWL received transit routes through Germany and routes between Germany and Belgium, France, Italy, [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\"), [Latvia](/wiki/Latvia \"Latvia\"), [Lithuania](/wiki/Lithuania \"Lithuania\") and [Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Czechoslovakia \"Czechoslovakia\"). Mitropa took over the routes between Germany and the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\") and [Scandinavia](/wiki/Scandinavia \"Scandinavia\"), as well as trains within Germany, and to [Gdańsk](/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk \"Gdańsk\"). Trains between Germany and Austria were served by both companies.", "In the [interwar period](/wiki/Interwar_period \"Interwar period\"), CIWL flourished again. The company's blue and gold [livery](/wiki/Livery \"Livery\") was introduced. In 1925, Wagon\\-Lits opened its first *Travel Palace* in Paris. Services extended to the Middle Eastern cities of [Aleppo](/wiki/Aleppo \"Aleppo\"), [Baghdad](/wiki/Baghdad \"Baghdad\"), [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo \"Cairo\"), and [Tehran](/wiki/Tehran \"Tehran\"). Metal coaches, replacing older wooden ones constructed of [teak](/wiki/Teak \"Teak\"), became available in 1926\\. In 1931 the fleet reached its maximum of 2268 vehicles. This period can be considered the zenith of luxury rail travel. CIWL's carriages were decorated by such renowned artists as Réné Prou, [René Lalique](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Lalique \"René Lalique\") and Morrison. CIWL also commissioned renowned artists such as [Adolphe Mouron Cassandre](/wiki/Adolphe_Mouron_Cassandre \"Adolphe Mouron Cassandre\") to design posters advertising its services.", "### Decline", "With [Anschluss](/wiki/Anschluss \"Anschluss\") in 1938, the Austrian market was lost to Mitropa (it was recovered after 1945\\). Because of World War II and the subsequent communist expansion, CIWL lost more markets in central and eastern Europe.", "After World War II, CIWL increasingly focused on the travel agency and management business. Accordingly, it was renamed *Compagnie Internationale des Wagons\\-Lits et du Tourisme* (CIWLT) in 1967\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://recherche\\-anmt.culture.gouv.fr/archives/archives/fonds/FRANMT\\_IR\\_2022\\_9/view:31365\\|access\\-date\\=25 April 2024\\|title\\=Compagnie internationale des wagons\\-lits et du tourisme (CIWLT)}}", "By 1971, the rolling stock of CIWL had become aged and outdated, and the renovation and replacement needed were beyond the company. It sold or leased its coaches to the [SNCF](/wiki/SNCF \"SNCF\"), [FS](/wiki/Ferrovie_dello_Stato_Italiane \"Ferrovie dello Stato Italiane\"), [SBB](/wiki/Swiss_Federal_Railways \"Swiss Federal Railways\"), [DB](/wiki/Deutsche_Bundesbahn \"Deutsche Bundesbahn\"), [ÖBB](/wiki/%C3%96BB \"ÖBB\"), [NMBS/SNCB](/wiki/National_Railway_Company_of_Belgium \"National Railway Company of Belgium\"), [NS](/wiki/Nederlandse_Spoorwegen \"Nederlandse Spoorwegen\"), [DSB](/wiki/DSB_%28railway_company%29 \"DSB (railway company)\") and [Renfe](/wiki/Renfe \"Renfe\"). An international sleeping car pool named TEN (Trans Euro Night) was founded at that time and took over and managed (until 1995\\) many of the carriages of CIWL and of the Mitropa\\-successor [DSG](/wiki/German_Sleeper_and_Dining_Car_Company \"German Sleeper and Dining Car Company\").", "### Today", "Wagons\\-Lits is headquartered in Paris. Currently CIWL provides service on night trains in Austria, Italy and meal and catering services in daytime trains of France, Italy, Portugal and on [Eurostar](/wiki/Eurostar \"Eurostar\") services to the United Kingdom.", "A number of sleeping\\-cars on the European continent are owned by CIWL. The cars are maintained by the sister company [Rail Service International](/wiki/Rail_Service_International \"Rail Service International\") (RSI) in the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\") and leased to train operating companies.{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2024}}", "" ]
Ownership --------- [thumb\|Building at 69, [boulevard Haussmann](/wiki/Boulevard_Haussmann "Boulevard Haussmann") in Paris, head office of CIWL until 1988](/wiki/File:Haussmann69.jpg "Haussmann69.jpg") ### Thomas Cook In 1927, [Thomas Cook](/wiki/Thomas_Cook_%26_Son "Thomas Cook & Son") was sold to CIWL after poor financial results; CIWL took a back\-role in the running of the subsidiary.*[Time](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 "Time (magazine)")*, Commonwealth Edition, ["Wagon\-Cooks"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080220090239/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,731611,00.html). 28 February 1928\. ### Accor In 1991, *Wagons\-Lits* became part of the French multi\-national [Accor](/wiki/Accor "Accor") Hotel and Leisure Group. At the time, CIWL included the hotel brands Altea, Arcade, [Etap](/wiki/Ibis_Budget "Ibis Budget"), PLM and Pullman. Catering organisation [Eurest](/wiki/Eurest "Eurest") and, in the automobile world, Wagons\-Lits included [Europcar](/wiki/Europcar "Europcar") rental and motorway break specialists Relais Autoroute.Accor Hospitality North America, [Accor History](http://www.accor-na.com/history.asp) {{webarchive\|url\=https://archive.today/20120721193051/http://www.accor\-na.com/history.asp \|date\=2012\-07\-21 }}. Following the 1992 purchase, the Pullman hotels were gradually rebranded to [Sofitel](/wiki/Sofitel "Sofitel"), allowing the Pullman name to be reused in 2007 for a new class of conference hotel. Sixty\-eight existing Accor hotels will be transferred over, including some Sofitel that were originally Pullman hotels.Caterer Search (Reed Business Information), [Accor revives Pullman brand](http://www.caterersearch.com/Articles/2007/08/31/315840/accor-revives-pullman-brand.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090428174657/http://www.caterersearch.com/Articles/2007/08/31/315840/accor\-revives\-pullman\-brand.html \|date\=2009\-04\-28 }}, 2007\-08\-31\. In May 2011, Accor announced plans to auction residual historic assets of Wagons\-Lits, including posters and tableware.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.railwaygazette.com/nc/news/single\-view/view/wagons\-lits\-under\-the\-hammer.html\|access\-date\=2011\-05\-15\|title\=Wagons\-Lits under the hammer}} In 2018, Accor began renovation work on 17 CIWL carriages from the defunct *Nostalgie Istanbul Orient Express*, which date back to the 1920s and 1930s, to create their own *[Orient Express](/wiki/Orient_Express_%28Accor%29 "Orient Express (Accor)")*.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.travelandleisure.com/trip\-ideas/bus\-train/original\-orient\-express\-returns\-to\-europe\-2024\|title\=The Original Orient Express Is Returning to Europe in 2024 — With 17 Beautifully Refurbished Carriages \|website\=Travel \+ Leisure\|author\=Dobrina Zhekova \| date\=29 June 2022}}{{cite news \|url\=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart\-news/the\-orient\-express\-is\-making\-a\-comeback\-180981216/\|title\=You Could Soon Ride in Historic Carriages From the Orient Express \|website\=\[\[Smithsonian (magazine)\|Smithsonian]]\|author\=Sarah Kuta \| date\=1 December 2022}} ### Wagons\-Lits Diffusion In 1996, all copyrights and trademarks concerning the use of historical brands and archive photographs were transferred to Wagons\-Lits Diffusion in Paris. Wagons\-Lits Diffusion manages the historic brands and logos derived from Compagnie des Wagons\-Lits past activities. ### Newrest In 2010, the rail catering operations of Wagons\-Lits were transferred from Accor to the [catering company](/wiki/Catering_company "Catering company") *Newrest*, since then operating under the name *Newrest Wagons\-Lits*.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.newrest.eu/our\-activities/rail\-catering/compagnie\-des\-wagons\-lits/\|title\=Compagnie des Wagons\-Lits: a company laden with history\|accessdate\=25 April 2024}} ### Carlson Wagonlit Travel {{main article\|CWT (company)}} In 1997, the Europe business travel and leisure retail arm of Wagons\-Lits (Wagonlit Travel) was merged on an equal basis with that of Carlson Travel Network (operating in the United States).{{cite journal\|journal\=Commission of the European Communities\|publisher\=European Union\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060628213448/http://ec.europa.eu/comm/competition/mergers/cases/decisions/m867\_en.pdf\|issue\=Case No IV/M.867\|title\=Wagons\-Lits / Carlson}} The result was a new company called "Carlson Wagonlit Travel" jointly owned by Accor and Carlson Holdings Inc., the former parent companies of the merged entities.{{cite web\|publisher\=Carlson Wagonlit Travel\|work\=History\|url\=http://www.carlsonwagonlit.com/en/global/our\_company/history/\|title\=More than a century of milestones\|access\-date\=2008\-01\-05\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016194314/http://www.carlsonwagonlit.com/en/global/our\_company/history/\|archive\-date\=2007\-10\-16\|url\-status\=dead}} The Carlson side of the merger had grown from a travel agency founded by Ward Forster in the United States in 1888\. Originally called "Ask Mr. Foster Travel Agency", the chain was renamed to "Carlson Travel Network" following an earlier purchase by the Carlson Group and later to [CWT](/wiki/CWT_%28company%29 "CWT (company)"). Accor sold its 50% of [Carlson Wagonlit Travel](/wiki/CWT_%28company%29 "CWT (company)") in 2006 for €500m to [Carlson](/wiki/Carlson_%28company%29 "Carlson (company)") and [One Equity Partners](/wiki/One_Equity_Partners "One Equity Partners").{{cite news\|work\=\[\[Financial Times]]\|url\=http://us.ft.com/ftgateway/superpage.ft?news\_id\=fto090620060400316235\&page\=2\|title\=Accor to return cash as sell\-off intensifies\|date\=2006\-09\-06\|access\-date\=2008\-01\-06\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219223653/http://us.ft.com/ftgateway/superpage.ft?news\_id\=fto090620060400316235\&page\=2\|archive\-date\=2008\-02\-19\|url\-status\=dead}} However, Accor maintains its interest in the railway service sector of Wagon Lits.
[ "Ownership\n---------", "[thumb\\|Building at 69, [boulevard Haussmann](/wiki/Boulevard_Haussmann \"Boulevard Haussmann\") in Paris, head office of CIWL until 1988](/wiki/File:Haussmann69.jpg \"Haussmann69.jpg\")", "### Thomas Cook", "In 1927, [Thomas Cook](/wiki/Thomas_Cook_%26_Son \"Thomas Cook & Son\") was sold to CIWL after poor financial results; CIWL took a back\\-role in the running of the subsidiary.*[Time](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 \"Time (magazine)\")*, Commonwealth Edition, [\"Wagon\\-Cooks\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080220090239/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,731611,00.html). 28 February 1928\\.", "### Accor", "In 1991, *Wagons\\-Lits* became part of the French multi\\-national [Accor](/wiki/Accor \"Accor\") Hotel and Leisure Group.", "At the time, CIWL included the hotel brands Altea, Arcade, [Etap](/wiki/Ibis_Budget \"Ibis Budget\"), PLM and Pullman. Catering organisation [Eurest](/wiki/Eurest \"Eurest\") and, in the automobile world, Wagons\\-Lits included [Europcar](/wiki/Europcar \"Europcar\") rental and motorway break specialists Relais Autoroute.Accor Hospitality North America, [Accor History](http://www.accor-na.com/history.asp) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://archive.today/20120721193051/http://www.accor\\-na.com/history.asp \\|date\\=2012\\-07\\-21 }}.", "Following the 1992 purchase, the Pullman hotels were gradually rebranded to [Sofitel](/wiki/Sofitel \"Sofitel\"), allowing the Pullman name to be reused in 2007 for a new class of conference hotel. Sixty\\-eight existing Accor hotels will be transferred over, including some Sofitel that were originally Pullman hotels.Caterer Search (Reed Business Information), [Accor revives Pullman brand](http://www.caterersearch.com/Articles/2007/08/31/315840/accor-revives-pullman-brand.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090428174657/http://www.caterersearch.com/Articles/2007/08/31/315840/accor\\-revives\\-pullman\\-brand.html \\|date\\=2009\\-04\\-28 }}, 2007\\-08\\-31\\.", "In May 2011, Accor announced plans to auction residual historic assets of Wagons\\-Lits, including posters and tableware.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.railwaygazette.com/nc/news/single\\-view/view/wagons\\-lits\\-under\\-the\\-hammer.html\\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-05\\-15\\|title\\=Wagons\\-Lits under the hammer}}", "In 2018, Accor began renovation work on 17 CIWL carriages from the defunct *Nostalgie Istanbul Orient Express*, which date back to the 1920s and 1930s, to create their own *[Orient Express](/wiki/Orient_Express_%28Accor%29 \"Orient Express (Accor)\")*.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.travelandleisure.com/trip\\-ideas/bus\\-train/original\\-orient\\-express\\-returns\\-to\\-europe\\-2024\\|title\\=The Original Orient Express Is Returning to Europe in 2024 — With 17 Beautifully Refurbished Carriages \\|website\\=Travel \\+ Leisure\\|author\\=Dobrina Zhekova \\| date\\=29 June 2022}}{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart\\-news/the\\-orient\\-express\\-is\\-making\\-a\\-comeback\\-180981216/\\|title\\=You Could Soon Ride in Historic Carriages From the Orient Express \\|website\\=\\[\\[Smithsonian (magazine)\\|Smithsonian]]\\|author\\=Sarah Kuta \\| date\\=1 December 2022}}", "### Wagons\\-Lits Diffusion", "In 1996, all copyrights and trademarks concerning the use of historical brands and archive photographs were transferred to Wagons\\-Lits Diffusion in Paris. Wagons\\-Lits Diffusion manages the historic brands and logos derived from Compagnie des Wagons\\-Lits past activities.", "### Newrest", "In 2010, the rail catering operations of Wagons\\-Lits were transferred from Accor to the [catering company](/wiki/Catering_company \"Catering company\") *Newrest*, since then operating under the name *Newrest Wagons\\-Lits*.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.newrest.eu/our\\-activities/rail\\-catering/compagnie\\-des\\-wagons\\-lits/\\|title\\=Compagnie des Wagons\\-Lits: a company laden with history\\|accessdate\\=25 April 2024}}", "### Carlson Wagonlit Travel", "{{main article\\|CWT (company)}}\nIn 1997, the Europe business travel and leisure retail arm of Wagons\\-Lits (Wagonlit Travel) was merged on an equal basis with that of Carlson Travel Network (operating in the United States).{{cite journal\\|journal\\=Commission of the European Communities\\|publisher\\=European Union\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060628213448/http://ec.europa.eu/comm/competition/mergers/cases/decisions/m867\\_en.pdf\\|issue\\=Case No IV/M.867\\|title\\=Wagons\\-Lits / Carlson}} The result was a new company called \"Carlson Wagonlit Travel\" jointly owned by Accor and Carlson Holdings Inc., the former parent companies of the merged entities.{{cite web\\|publisher\\=Carlson Wagonlit Travel\\|work\\=History\\|url\\=http://www.carlsonwagonlit.com/en/global/our\\_company/history/\\|title\\=More than a century of milestones\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-01\\-05\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016194314/http://www.carlsonwagonlit.com/en/global/our\\_company/history/\\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-10\\-16\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "The Carlson side of the merger had grown from a travel agency founded by Ward Forster in the United States in 1888\\. Originally called \"Ask Mr. Foster Travel Agency\", the chain was renamed to \"Carlson Travel Network\" following an earlier purchase by the Carlson Group and later to [CWT](/wiki/CWT_%28company%29 \"CWT (company)\").", "Accor sold its 50% of [Carlson Wagonlit Travel](/wiki/CWT_%28company%29 \"CWT (company)\") in 2006 for €500m to [Carlson](/wiki/Carlson_%28company%29 \"Carlson (company)\") and [One Equity Partners](/wiki/One_Equity_Partners \"One Equity Partners\").{{cite news\\|work\\=\\[\\[Financial Times]]\\|url\\=http://us.ft.com/ftgateway/superpage.ft?news\\_id\\=fto090620060400316235\\&page\\=2\\|title\\=Accor to return cash as sell\\-off intensifies\\|date\\=2006\\-09\\-06\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-01\\-06\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219223653/http://us.ft.com/ftgateway/superpage.ft?news\\_id\\=fto090620060400316235\\&page\\=2\\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-02\\-19\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} However, Accor maintains its interest in the railway service sector of Wagon Lits.", "" ]