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Types and use cases ------------------- The diameter of the ear canals can be from 3 to 14 mm. They can be round, elliptical, and even slit\-like. The ear canals may be straight, but more often curved to varying degrees. The shape and size of the right and left ear canals for the same worker **can** vary significantly.{{cite book \|last1\=Sataloff \|first1\=Joseph \|last2\=Michael \|first2\=Paul L. \|last3\=Vassalio \|first3\=Lawrence A. \|editor1\-last\=Sataloff \|editor1\-first\=Robert Thayer \|editor2\-last\=Sataloff \|editor2\-first\=Joseph \|title\=Occupational Hearing Loss \|date\=1993 \|publisher\=Marcel Dekker, Inc \|location\=New York, Basel, Hong Kong \|isbn\=0\-8247\-8814\-1 \|page\=418 \|edition\=2nd, revised and expanded \|url\=https://archive.org/details/occupationalhear0000sata \|access\-date\=11 August 2023 \|chapter\=14\. Hearing Protectoors (Ear Canals and Earplugs)}} Installing the earplugs neatly and tightly (without gaps) can be a difficult task. Since the [fitting of the earplugs](/wiki/Hearing_protection_fit-testing "Hearing protection fit-testing") greatly affects their noise attenuation, various designs of these personal protective equipment have been developed. ### Simple earplugs [thumb\|left\|Disposable foam earplugs: with coins for scale (top) and inserted into the wearer's ear.Basic](/wiki/File:Disposable_foam_earplugs.jpg "Disposable foam earplugs.jpg") foam style earplug protection is often worn by industrial workers who work within hearing distance of [loud machinery](/wiki/Industrial_noise "Industrial noise") for long periods of time, and is used by the British [Ministry of Defence](/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)") (MoD) for [soldiers](/wiki/Soldier "Soldier") to use when firing weapons. Earplugs are rated for their ability to reduce noise; see {{section link\|\|Rating}}. [thumb\|Earplugs with instructions for use](/wiki/File:Earplugs_instructions2.jpg "Earplugs instructions2.jpg") [thumb\|Flanged earplugs made from silicone rubber. The hole in the left plug is the input port and extends as far as the central flange where the attenuation occurs\|alt\=](/wiki/File:Musicians_orange_plugs.jpg "Musicians orange plugs.jpg") Most disposable earplugs are elastic ones made of [memory foam](/wiki/Memory_foam "Memory foam"), that is typically rolled into a tightly compressed cylinder (without creases) by the user's fingers and then inserted in the ear canal. Once released, the earplug expands until it seals the canal, blocking the sound vibrations that could reach the [eardrum](/wiki/Eardrum "Eardrum"). Other disposable plugs simply push into the ear canal without being rolled first. Sometimes earplugs are connected with a cord to keep them together when not in use. Other common material bases for disposable earplugs are viscous [wax](/wiki/Wax "Wax") or [silicone](/wiki/Silicone "Silicone"). Other devices that provide hearing protection include electronic devices worn around and/or in the ear, and are designed to cancel out the loud noise of a gunshot, while possibly amplifying quieter sounds to normal levels. While rich in features, these electronic devices are more expensive, compared to their foam counterparts. In other activities, hobby [motorcyclists](/wiki/Motorcyclist "Motorcyclist") and [skiers](/wiki/Skier "Skier") may also choose to use decibel reduction earplugs, to compensate for the ongoing noise of the wind against their head or helmet. ### Musicians' earplugs [thumb\|Musicians' earplugs. The grey end caps contain an acoustic transmission line with a damper (attenuator) at the end while the domed flanges form a seal in the ear canal. The output port can just be seen as a small hole at the near end of the left plug](/wiki/File:Musicians_earplugs.jpg "Musicians earplugs.jpg") Musicians are exposed to potentially harmful levels of sound, which can lead to [hearing loss](/wiki/Hearing_loss "Hearing loss"), tinnitus, and other auditory symptoms. Because of this, musicians may choose to use earplugs. Musician's earplugs (also called Hi\-Fi or Lossless earplugs{{CN\|date\=November 2023}}) are designed to [attenuate](/wiki/Attenuate "Attenuate") sounds evenly across all frequencies (pitches) which helps maintain the ear's natural frequency response and thus minimizes the effect on the user's perception of [timbre](/wiki/Timbre "Timbre") (frequency spectrum, f.ex. [bass](/wiki/Bass_%28sound%29 "Bass (sound)") and [treble](/wiki/Treble_%28sound%29 "Treble (sound)") levels). These are commonly used by musicians and technicians, both in the studio and in concert, to avoid overexposure to high volume levels. Musician's earplugs generally achieve a more natural frequency response by incorporating a small [diaphragm](/wiki/Diaphragm_%28acoustics%29 "Diaphragm (acoustics)") or membrane together with acoustic channels and damping materials.{{Cite web\|date\=2019\-11\-19\|title\=Musicians and Music Industry\|url\=https://www.audiology.org/publications/guidelines\-and\-standards/musicians\-and\-music\-industry\|access\-date\=2020\-10\-18\|website\=Audiology\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=2020\-10\-22\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022185035/https://www.audiology.org/publications/guidelines\-and\-standards/musicians\-and\-music\-industry\|url\-status\=dead}} Simpler variants with only a small hole introduce a low frequency leak, and will not achieve a flat frequency response. Examples of manufacturers of membrane\-based earplugs are ACS, Etymotic and [Minuendo](/wiki/Minuendo "Minuendo"). Preformed earplugs, such as the ER\-20 earplug are universal (non\-custom) earplugs with a noise reduction rating (NRR) of about 12 dB. A selection of musician's earplugs have been reviewed by the National Acoustic Laboratories and The HEARing CRC in conjunction with [Choice](/wiki/Choice_%28Australian_consumer_organisation%29 "Choice (Australian consumer organisation)").[National Acoustic Laboratories](https://www.nal.gov.au)[The HEARing CRC](https://www.hearingcrc.org) The review results (which include attenuation measures and user ratings of comfort, fit and sound quality) are available at What Plug?.[What Plug?](https://hearsmart.org/earplugs/what_plug/) A more expensive option is the [custom molded](/wiki/%23Custom_molds "#Custom molds") musician's earplug, which is custom\-made for the individual listener. These earplugs are typically made out of silicone or vinyl materials and come with a vent and a variety of filters that can change the amount of attenuation provided. Common static filter attenuation levels are 9, 15, and 25 dB.{{Cite book\|title\=Hearing conservation in occupational, recreational, educational, and home settings\|last\=Vishakha\|first\=Rawool\|publisher\=Thieme\|year\=2012\|isbn\=9781604062564\|location\=New York\|pages\=201–219}} This type of plug is quite popular among [audio engineers](/wiki/Audio_engineer "Audio engineer") who can safely listen to loud mixes for extended periods of time. However, they can be quite costly, being intended for constant re\-use unlike simple earplugs which are disposable. [thumb\|Custom earplugs worn by professional musicians](/wiki/File:Elacin_%28R%29_ER-25_-_musician_Earplug_worn.JPG "Elacin (R) ER-25 - musician Earplug worn.JPG") [thumb\|Lead singer of the metal band [Sepultura](/wiki/Sepultura "Sepultura") [Derrick Green](/wiki/Derrick_Green "Derrick Green") wearing a custom earplug](/wiki/File:Metalmania_2007_-_Sepultura_-_Derrick_Green_01.jpg "Metalmania 2007 - Sepultura - Derrick Green 01.jpg") Alternately, musicians may use [in\-ear monitors](/wiki/In-ear_monitors "In-ear monitors"), which are essentially [headphones](/wiki/Headphone "Headphone") that also serve as earplugs by attenuating surrounding sound. In order for in\-ear monitors to double up as hearing protection, custom earpieces should be used. The process for having custom earpieces made is similar to that of the custom musician's earplug and, similarly, the earpiece will be made of silicone or vinyl. While using an in\-ear monitor can help protect hearing, the amount of protection provided by the monitor depends on the listening level that the musician chooses. Because of this, if the musician sets the monitor to a high level, the monitor may attenuate surrounding sound while still providing a potentially harmful level of sound directly to the musician's ear and therefore no longer serve a protective function. Several earplugs on the market claim to be for musicians, but are not in fact by definition a musician's earplug. By having a thin acoustical bypass channel, they allow for a slightly better frequency response and lower attenuation than simple earplugs, but far from the level of fidelity that membrane\-based earplugs provide. These types of earplugs do not provide the flat attenuation that is characteristic of a musician's plug, but may still be useful for some, due to their lower price points. ### Custom molds Earplugs can be molded to fit an individual's ear canal. This costs more, but can improve fit for the few percent that have an ear anatomy outside the norm.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/custom\-molded\-earplugs\-myths\-truths\-tom\-alexander\-trones/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702124130/https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/custom\-molded\-earplugs\-myths\-truths\-tom\-alexander\-trones/\|archive\-date\=2019\-07\-02\|title\=Custom Molded Earplugs \- The Myths and Truths\|date\=2019\-07\-02\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-02}} Custom molded earplugs fall into two categories: Laboratory made and Formed in Place. Laboratory made requires an impression to be made by a professional of the ear canal and outer ear. The impression is sent to a laboratory to be checked and made into a hearing protector. Formed in place uses the same process to make an impression of the ear canal and outer ear and then turns that impression into the protector. Both types of custom molded earplugs are non\-disposable with the laboratory made typically lasting for 3 – 5 years and the formed in place lasting for 1 – 2 years. For the best attenuation and proper fit, the impressions for custom molds must meet a desired criteria by the manufacturer of the mold. Before an impression can be taken for the custom mold the ear canal is checked for any wax or physical abnormalities. This is important in making sure there is a proper seal with the impression material and also not to push any wax deep into the canal. The otoblock (made with foam or cotton) will be inserted deep in the canal to prevent the impression material from going too far. The impression material (either silicone or powder/liquid) will be placed into the ear canal. This will need to be fully made, making sure there are no gaps or creases in the impression. If there are, then the mold made from the impression will not adequately seal the ear canal. Once the custom mold is made, it will need to be inspected by the Audiologist for proper fit on the patient. Hearing protection should also be verified using real\-ear methods to ensure proper attenuation. Real\-ear attentuation at threshold (REAT) measurements test how narrowband noises of varying frequency are attenuated with and without the custom mold in place. Testing for low\-frequency attenuation can help to verify the earmold fit while testing high\-frequency attenuation can verify the properties of the filter used. For best results they are molded in the ear while in the position that they will be used. For instance, if they are to be used for sleeping then they should be molded in the ear while lying down, as different positioning of the jaws causes significant changes to the form of the ear canal, mostly a reduction of the diameter, risking the sleep earplug to be made too large otherwise. It is also important that during the impression process that a music performer use their [embouchure](/wiki/Embouchure "Embouchure") or move the jaw to mimic singing in order to account for ear canal changes during performance. Therefore, if the impression is not properly constructed, then it will need to be redone. These changes can be felt by feeling with a finger just at the entrance to the ear canal while moving the jaws sideways, up and down or [anterior and posterior](/wiki/Anterior_and_posterior "Anterior and posterior"). Most molded earplugs are made from silicone but other materials may be used, including thermoplastics,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.zenplugs.com/molded\-earplugs \|title\=ZenPlugs Custom Moulded Earplugs \|publisher\=Zenplugs.com \|access\-date\=2013\-06\-22}} plastic, nylon {{cite web\|url\=https://www.phonak\-communications.com/en/products/hearing\-protection/serenity\-sp \|title\=Phonak Serenity SP Custom Molded Earplugs \|publisher\=Phonak.com \|access\-date\=2019\-04\-18}} and even 3\-D printed earplugs. ### Electronic earplugs The noise reduction of passive earplugs varies with frequency but is largely independent of level (soft noises are reduced as much as loud noises). As a result, while loud noises are reduced in level, protecting hearing, it can be difficult to hear low level noises. Active electronic earplugs exist, where loud noises are reduced more than soft noises, and soft sounds may even be amplified, providing [dynamic range compression](/wiki/Dynamic_range_compression "Dynamic range compression"). This is done by having a standard passive earplug, together with a microphone/speaker pair (microphone on outside, speaker on inside; formally a pair of [transducers](/wiki/Transducer "Transducer")), so sound can be transmitted without being attenuated by the earplug. When external sounds exceed an established threshold (typically 82 dBA SPL), the amplification of the electronic circuit is reduced. At very high levels, the amplification is turned off automatically and you receive the full attenuation of the earplug just as if it were turned off and seated in the ear canal. This protects hearing, but allows one to hear normally when sounds are in safe ranges – for example, have a normal conversation in a low\-noise situation, but be protected from sudden loud noises, for example at a construction site or a while hunting. ### Nonlinear earplugs Nonlinear earplugs provide similar advantages to electronic earplugs but do not require electricity. They are designed with a thin diaphragm which allows the amount of noise reduction to increase in proportion to the sound level to which the wearer is exposed.{{cite web \|title\=\#234 Hearing Protection for Impulse Noise \|url\=https://multimedia.3m.com/mws/media/1087488O/hearing\-protection\-for\-impulse\-noise\-technical\-bulletin.pdf \|website\=multimedia.3m.com \|publisher\=3M Personal Safety Division}} This makes them useful for applications where situational awareness is required but noise protection is also necessary, such as the military or police. ### Sleep Earplugs for sleeping are made to be as comfortable as possible while blocking external sounds that may prevent or disrupt sleep. Specialized earplugs for such noises as a partner's [snoring](/wiki/Snoring "Snoring") may have sound\-dampening enhancements that enable the user to still hear other noises, such as an alarm clock.[Alpine](http://www.alpine.nl/EN/consumer_sleeping.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724143539/http://www.alpine.nl/EN/consumer\_sleeping.htm \|date\=2011\-07\-24 }} \- Sleepsoft earplugs To determine the comfort of earplugs used for sleeping, it is important to try them on while actually lying down. The pressure on the ear between the head and pillow may cause significant discomfort. Furthermore, just tilting the head back or to the side causes significant anatomical changes in the ear canal, mostly a reduction of the ear canal diameter, which may reduce comfort if the earplug is too large. Earplugs for sleeping may enhance recovery after major surgery. {{cite journal\| title \= Earplugs during the first night after cardiothoracic surgery may improve a fast\-track protocol.\| author \= Menger J.\|author2\= Urbanek B. \|author3\= Skhirtladze\-Dworschak K.\| doi \= 10\.23736/S0375\-9393\.17\.11758\-X\| pmid \= 28726359\| journal \= Minerva Anestesiologica\| year \= 2018\| volume \=84\| issue \= 1\| pages \=49–57}} ### Protection from water Some earplugs are primarily designed to keep water out of the ear canal, especially during swimming and water sports. This type of earplug may be made of wax or moldable silicone which is custom\-fitted to the ear canal by the wearer. Exostosis, or [surfer's ear](/wiki/Surfer%27s_ear "Surfer's ear"), is a condition which affects people who spend large amounts of time in water in cold climates. In addition, wind may increase the prevalence of the amount of exostosis seen in one ear versus the other dependent on the direction it originates from and the orientation of the individual to the wind.{{cite journal\|last\=King\|first\=John F.\|year\=2010\|title\=Laterality of Exostosis in Surfers Due to Evaporative Cooling Effect\|journal\=Otology \& Neurotology\|volume\=31\|issue\=2\|pages\=345–351\|doi\=10\.1097/MAO.0b013e3181be6b2d\|pmid\=19806064\|s2cid\=205754007\|display\-authors\=etal}} Custom\-fitted surfer's earplugs help reduce the amount of cold water and wind that is allowed to enter the external ear canal and, thus, help slow the progression of exostosis. Another condition is [otitis externa](/wiki/Otitis_externa "Otitis externa"), which is an infection of the outer ear canal. This form of infection differs from those commonly occurring in children behind the eardrum, which is otitis media, or a middle ear infection. This infection's symptoms include: itchiness, redness, swelling, pain upon tugging of the pinna, or drainage. To protect from this form of infection, it is important to thoroughly dry the ears after exposing them to water with a towel. To protect the ears during exposure, the individual can use a head cap, ear plugs, or custom\-fitted swim molds.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/swimming/swimmers/rwi/ear\-infections.html\|title\=Ear Infections {{!}} Healthy Swimming {{!}} Healthy Water {{!}} CDC\|date\=2017\-06\-19\|website\=www.cdc.gov\|language\=en\-us\|access\-date\=2018\-03\-09}} A 2003 study published in *Clinical Otolaryngology* found that a cotton ball saturated with petroleum jelly was more effective at keeping water out of the ear, was easier to use, and was more comfortable than wax plugs, foam plugs, EarGuard, or Aquafit.{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1111/j.1365\-2273\.2004\.00795\.x \|title\=An objective evaluation of the waterproofing qualities, ease of insertion and comfort of commonly available earplugs \|year\=2004 \|last1\=Chisholm \|first1\=E.J. \|last2\=Kuchai \|first2\=R. \|last3\=McPartlin \|first3\=D. \|journal\=Clinical Otolaryngology and Allied Sciences \|volume\=29 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=128–32 \|pmid\=15113295}} [Jacques\-Yves Cousteau](/wiki/Jacques-Yves_Cousteau "Jacques-Yves Cousteau")*[The Silent World](/wiki/The_Silent_World:A_Story_of_Undersea_Discovery_and_Adventure "A Story of Undersea Discovery and Adventure")* (New York:1953, Harper, pp. 5\-6\) warned that earplugs are harmful to divers, especially [scuba divers](/wiki/Scuba_diving "Scuba diving"). Scuba divers breathe compressed [air](/wiki/Air "Air") or other gas mixtures at a pressure matching the water pressure. This pressure is also inside the ear, but not between the eardrum and the earplug, so the pressure behind the eardrum will often burst the eardrum. Skin divers have less pressure inside the ears, but they also have only atmospheric pressure in the outer ear canal. The PADI (Professional Association of Diving Instructors) advises in the "Open Water Diver Manual" that only vented earplugs designed for diving should be used in diving. ### Flight ear protection Earplugs are also available which help to protect ears from the pain caused by airplane cabin pressure changes. Some products contain a porous ceramic insert which reportedly aids equalization of air pressure between the middle and outer ear thereby preventing pain during landings and take\-offs. Some airlines distribute regular foam earplugs as part of their amenity kits for passengers to aid their comfort during landings and takeoffs as well as to reduce exposure to the aircraft's noise during the flight. These can help passengers get to sleep during the flight if desired.
[ "Types and use cases\n-------------------", "The diameter of the ear canals can be from 3 to 14 mm. They can be round, elliptical, and even slit\\-like. The ear canals may be straight, but more often curved to varying degrees. The shape and size of the right and left ear canals for the same worker **can** vary significantly.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Sataloff \\|first1\\=Joseph \\|last2\\=Michael \\|first2\\=Paul L. \\|last3\\=Vassalio \\|first3\\=Lawrence A. \\|editor1\\-last\\=Sataloff \\|editor1\\-first\\=Robert Thayer \\|editor2\\-last\\=Sataloff \\|editor2\\-first\\=Joseph \\|title\\=Occupational Hearing Loss \\|date\\=1993 \\|publisher\\=Marcel Dekker, Inc \\|location\\=New York, Basel, Hong Kong \\|isbn\\=0\\-8247\\-8814\\-1 \\|page\\=418 \\|edition\\=2nd, revised and expanded \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/occupationalhear0000sata \\|access\\-date\\=11 August 2023 \\|chapter\\=14\\. Hearing Protectoors (Ear Canals and Earplugs)}} Installing the earplugs neatly and tightly (without gaps) can be a difficult task.", "Since the [fitting of the earplugs](/wiki/Hearing_protection_fit-testing \"Hearing protection fit-testing\") greatly affects their noise attenuation, various designs of these personal protective equipment have been developed.", "### Simple earplugs", "[thumb\\|left\\|Disposable foam earplugs: with coins for scale (top) and inserted into the wearer's ear.Basic](/wiki/File:Disposable_foam_earplugs.jpg \"Disposable foam earplugs.jpg\") foam style earplug protection is often worn by industrial workers who work within hearing distance of [loud machinery](/wiki/Industrial_noise \"Industrial noise\") for long periods of time, and is used by the British [Ministry of Defence](/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)\") (MoD) for [soldiers](/wiki/Soldier \"Soldier\") to use when firing weapons. Earplugs are rated for their ability to reduce noise; see {{section link\\|\\|Rating}}.", "[thumb\\|Earplugs with instructions for use](/wiki/File:Earplugs_instructions2.jpg \"Earplugs instructions2.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Flanged earplugs made from silicone rubber. The hole in the left plug is the input port and extends as far as the central flange where the attenuation occurs\\|alt\\=](/wiki/File:Musicians_orange_plugs.jpg \"Musicians orange plugs.jpg\")", "Most disposable earplugs are elastic ones made of [memory foam](/wiki/Memory_foam \"Memory foam\"), that is typically rolled into a tightly compressed cylinder (without creases) by the user's fingers and then inserted in the ear canal. Once released, the earplug expands until it seals the canal, blocking the sound vibrations that could reach the [eardrum](/wiki/Eardrum \"Eardrum\"). Other disposable plugs simply push into the ear canal without being rolled first. Sometimes earplugs are connected with a cord to keep them together when not in use. Other common material bases for disposable earplugs are viscous [wax](/wiki/Wax \"Wax\") or [silicone](/wiki/Silicone \"Silicone\").", "Other devices that provide hearing protection include electronic devices worn around and/or in the ear, and are designed to cancel out the loud noise of a gunshot, while possibly amplifying quieter sounds to normal levels. While rich in features, these electronic devices are more expensive, compared to their foam counterparts.", "In other activities, hobby [motorcyclists](/wiki/Motorcyclist \"Motorcyclist\") and [skiers](/wiki/Skier \"Skier\") may also choose to use decibel reduction earplugs, to compensate for the ongoing noise of the wind against their head or helmet.", "### Musicians' earplugs", "[thumb\\|Musicians' earplugs. The grey end caps contain an acoustic transmission line with a damper (attenuator) at the end while the domed flanges form a seal in the ear canal. The output port can just be seen as a small hole at the near end of the left plug](/wiki/File:Musicians_earplugs.jpg \"Musicians earplugs.jpg\")", "Musicians are exposed to potentially harmful levels of sound, which can lead to [hearing loss](/wiki/Hearing_loss \"Hearing loss\"), tinnitus, and other auditory symptoms. Because of this, musicians may choose to use earplugs.", "Musician's earplugs (also called Hi\\-Fi or Lossless earplugs{{CN\\|date\\=November 2023}}) are designed to [attenuate](/wiki/Attenuate \"Attenuate\") sounds evenly across all frequencies (pitches) which helps maintain the ear's natural frequency response and thus minimizes the effect on the user's perception of [timbre](/wiki/Timbre \"Timbre\") (frequency spectrum, f.ex. [bass](/wiki/Bass_%28sound%29 \"Bass (sound)\") and [treble](/wiki/Treble_%28sound%29 \"Treble (sound)\") levels). These are commonly used by musicians and technicians, both in the studio and in concert, to avoid overexposure to high volume levels. Musician's earplugs generally achieve a more natural frequency response by incorporating a small [diaphragm](/wiki/Diaphragm_%28acoustics%29 \"Diaphragm (acoustics)\") or membrane together with acoustic channels and damping materials.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2019\\-11\\-19\\|title\\=Musicians and Music Industry\\|url\\=https://www.audiology.org/publications/guidelines\\-and\\-standards/musicians\\-and\\-music\\-industry\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-18\\|website\\=Audiology\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-22\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022185035/https://www.audiology.org/publications/guidelines\\-and\\-standards/musicians\\-and\\-music\\-industry\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Simpler variants with only a small hole introduce a low frequency leak, and will not achieve a flat frequency response. Examples of manufacturers of membrane\\-based earplugs are ACS, Etymotic and [Minuendo](/wiki/Minuendo \"Minuendo\").", "Preformed earplugs, such as the ER\\-20 earplug are universal (non\\-custom) earplugs with a noise reduction rating (NRR) of about 12 dB. A selection of musician's earplugs have been reviewed by the National Acoustic Laboratories and The HEARing CRC in conjunction with [Choice](/wiki/Choice_%28Australian_consumer_organisation%29 \"Choice (Australian consumer organisation)\").[National Acoustic Laboratories](https://www.nal.gov.au)[The HEARing CRC](https://www.hearingcrc.org) The review results (which include attenuation measures and user ratings of comfort, fit and sound quality) are available at What Plug?.[What Plug?](https://hearsmart.org/earplugs/what_plug/)", "A more expensive option is the [custom molded](/wiki/%23Custom_molds \"#Custom molds\") musician's earplug, which is custom\\-made for the individual listener. These earplugs are typically made out of silicone or vinyl materials and come with a vent and a variety of filters that can change the amount of attenuation provided. Common static filter attenuation levels are 9, 15, and 25 dB.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Hearing conservation in occupational, recreational, educational, and home settings\\|last\\=Vishakha\\|first\\=Rawool\\|publisher\\=Thieme\\|year\\=2012\\|isbn\\=9781604062564\\|location\\=New York\\|pages\\=201–219}} This type of plug is quite popular among [audio engineers](/wiki/Audio_engineer \"Audio engineer\") who can safely listen to loud mixes for extended periods of time. However, they can be quite costly, being intended for constant re\\-use unlike simple earplugs which are disposable.", "[thumb\\|Custom earplugs worn by professional musicians](/wiki/File:Elacin_%28R%29_ER-25_-_musician_Earplug_worn.JPG \"Elacin (R) ER-25 - musician Earplug worn.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|Lead singer of the metal band [Sepultura](/wiki/Sepultura \"Sepultura\") [Derrick Green](/wiki/Derrick_Green \"Derrick Green\") wearing a custom earplug](/wiki/File:Metalmania_2007_-_Sepultura_-_Derrick_Green_01.jpg \"Metalmania 2007 - Sepultura - Derrick Green 01.jpg\")", "Alternately, musicians may use [in\\-ear monitors](/wiki/In-ear_monitors \"In-ear monitors\"), which are essentially [headphones](/wiki/Headphone \"Headphone\") that also serve as earplugs by attenuating surrounding sound. In order for in\\-ear monitors to double up as hearing protection, custom earpieces should be used. The process for having custom earpieces made is similar to that of the custom musician's earplug and, similarly, the earpiece will be made of silicone or vinyl. While using an in\\-ear monitor can help protect hearing, the amount of protection provided by the monitor depends on the listening level that the musician chooses. Because of this, if the musician sets the monitor to a high level, the monitor may attenuate surrounding sound while still providing a potentially harmful level of sound directly to the musician's ear and therefore no longer serve a protective function.", "Several earplugs on the market claim to be for musicians, but are not in fact by definition a musician's earplug. By having a thin acoustical bypass channel, they allow for a slightly better frequency response and lower attenuation than simple earplugs, but far from the level of fidelity that membrane\\-based earplugs provide. These types of earplugs do not provide the flat attenuation that is characteristic of a musician's plug, but may still be useful for some, due to their lower price points.", "### Custom molds", "Earplugs can be molded to fit an individual's ear canal. This costs more, but can improve fit for the few percent that have an ear anatomy outside the norm.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/custom\\-molded\\-earplugs\\-myths\\-truths\\-tom\\-alexander\\-trones/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702124130/https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/custom\\-molded\\-earplugs\\-myths\\-truths\\-tom\\-alexander\\-trones/\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-02\\|title\\=Custom Molded Earplugs \\- The Myths and Truths\\|date\\=2019\\-07\\-02\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-02}}", "Custom molded earplugs fall into two categories: Laboratory made and Formed in Place. Laboratory made requires an impression to be made by a professional of the ear canal and outer ear. The impression is sent to a laboratory to be checked and made into a hearing protector. Formed in place uses the same process to make an impression of the ear canal and outer ear and then turns that impression into the protector. Both types of custom molded earplugs are non\\-disposable with the laboratory made typically lasting for 3 – 5 years and the formed in place lasting for 1 – 2 years.", "For the best attenuation and proper fit, the impressions for custom molds must meet a desired criteria by the manufacturer of the mold. Before an impression can be taken for the custom mold the ear canal is checked for any wax or physical abnormalities. This is important in making sure there is a proper seal with the impression material and also not to push any wax deep into the canal. The otoblock (made with foam or cotton) will be inserted deep in the canal to prevent the impression material from going too far. The impression material (either silicone or powder/liquid) will be placed into the ear canal. This will need to be fully made, making sure there are no gaps or creases in the impression. If there are, then the mold made from the impression will not adequately seal the ear canal. Once the custom mold is made, it will need to be inspected by the Audiologist for proper fit on the patient. Hearing protection should also be verified using real\\-ear methods to ensure proper attenuation. Real\\-ear attentuation at threshold (REAT) measurements test how narrowband noises of varying frequency are attenuated with and without the custom mold in place. Testing for low\\-frequency attenuation can help to verify the earmold fit while testing high\\-frequency attenuation can verify the properties of the filter used.", "For best results they are molded in the ear while in the position that they will be used. For instance, if they are to be used for sleeping then they should be molded in the ear while lying down, as different positioning of the jaws causes significant changes to the form of the ear canal, mostly a reduction of the diameter, risking the sleep earplug to be made too large otherwise. It is also important that during the impression process that a music performer use their [embouchure](/wiki/Embouchure \"Embouchure\") or move the jaw to mimic singing in order to account for ear canal changes during performance. Therefore, if the impression is not properly constructed, then it will need to be redone. These changes can be felt by feeling with a finger just at the entrance to the ear canal while moving the jaws sideways, up and down or [anterior and posterior](/wiki/Anterior_and_posterior \"Anterior and posterior\").", "Most molded earplugs are made from silicone but other materials may be used, including thermoplastics,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.zenplugs.com/molded\\-earplugs \\|title\\=ZenPlugs Custom Moulded Earplugs \\|publisher\\=Zenplugs.com \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-06\\-22}} plastic, nylon {{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.phonak\\-communications.com/en/products/hearing\\-protection/serenity\\-sp \\|title\\=Phonak Serenity SP Custom Molded Earplugs \\|publisher\\=Phonak.com \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-04\\-18}} and even 3\\-D printed earplugs.", "### Electronic earplugs", "The noise reduction of passive earplugs varies with frequency but is largely independent of level (soft noises are reduced as much as loud noises). As a result, while loud noises are reduced in level, protecting hearing, it can be difficult to hear low level noises. Active electronic earplugs exist, where loud noises are reduced more than soft noises, and soft sounds may even be amplified, providing [dynamic range compression](/wiki/Dynamic_range_compression \"Dynamic range compression\"). This is done by having a standard passive earplug, together with a microphone/speaker pair (microphone on outside, speaker on inside; formally a pair of [transducers](/wiki/Transducer \"Transducer\")), so sound can be transmitted without being attenuated by the earplug. When external sounds exceed an established threshold (typically 82 dBA SPL), the amplification of the electronic circuit is reduced. At very high levels, the amplification is turned off automatically and you receive the full attenuation of the earplug just as if it were turned off and seated in the ear canal. This protects hearing, but allows one to hear normally when sounds are in safe ranges – for example, have a normal conversation in a low\\-noise situation, but be protected from sudden loud noises, for example at a construction site or a while hunting.", "### Nonlinear earplugs", "Nonlinear earplugs provide similar advantages to electronic earplugs but do not require electricity. They are designed with a thin diaphragm which allows the amount of noise reduction to increase in proportion to the sound level to which the wearer is exposed.{{cite web \\|title\\=\\#234 Hearing Protection for Impulse Noise \\|url\\=https://multimedia.3m.com/mws/media/1087488O/hearing\\-protection\\-for\\-impulse\\-noise\\-technical\\-bulletin.pdf \\|website\\=multimedia.3m.com \\|publisher\\=3M Personal Safety Division}} This makes them useful for applications where situational awareness is required but noise protection is also necessary, such as the military or police.", "### Sleep", "Earplugs for sleeping are made to be as comfortable as possible while blocking external sounds that may prevent or disrupt sleep. Specialized earplugs for such noises as a partner's [snoring](/wiki/Snoring \"Snoring\") may have sound\\-dampening enhancements that enable the user to still hear other noises, such as an alarm clock.[Alpine](http://www.alpine.nl/EN/consumer_sleeping.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724143539/http://www.alpine.nl/EN/consumer\\_sleeping.htm \\|date\\=2011\\-07\\-24 }} \\- Sleepsoft earplugs", "To determine the comfort of earplugs used for sleeping, it is important to try them on while actually lying down. The pressure on the ear between the head and pillow may cause significant discomfort. Furthermore, just tilting the head back or to the side causes significant anatomical changes in the ear canal, mostly a reduction of the ear canal diameter, which may reduce comfort if the earplug is too large. Earplugs for sleeping may enhance recovery after major surgery. \n{{cite journal\\| title \\= Earplugs during the first night after cardiothoracic surgery may improve a fast\\-track protocol.\\| author \\= Menger J.\\|author2\\= Urbanek B. \\|author3\\= Skhirtladze\\-Dworschak K.\\| doi \\= 10\\.23736/S0375\\-9393\\.17\\.11758\\-X\\| pmid \\= 28726359\\| journal \\= Minerva Anestesiologica\\| year \\= 2018\\| volume \\=84\\| issue \\= 1\\| pages \\=49–57}}", "### Protection from water", "Some earplugs are primarily designed to keep water out of the ear canal, especially during swimming and water sports. This type of earplug may be made of wax or moldable silicone which is custom\\-fitted to the ear canal by the wearer.", "Exostosis, or [surfer's ear](/wiki/Surfer%27s_ear \"Surfer's ear\"), is a condition which affects people who spend large amounts of time in water in cold climates. In addition, wind may increase the prevalence of the amount of exostosis seen in one ear versus the other dependent on the direction it originates from and the orientation of the individual to the wind.{{cite journal\\|last\\=King\\|first\\=John F.\\|year\\=2010\\|title\\=Laterality of Exostosis in Surfers Due to Evaporative Cooling Effect\\|journal\\=Otology \\& Neurotology\\|volume\\=31\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=345–351\\|doi\\=10\\.1097/MAO.0b013e3181be6b2d\\|pmid\\=19806064\\|s2cid\\=205754007\\|display\\-authors\\=etal}} Custom\\-fitted surfer's earplugs help reduce the amount of cold water and wind that is allowed to enter the external ear canal and, thus, help slow the progression of exostosis.", "Another condition is [otitis externa](/wiki/Otitis_externa \"Otitis externa\"), which is an infection of the outer ear canal. This form of infection differs from those commonly occurring in children behind the eardrum, which is otitis media, or a middle ear infection. This infection's symptoms include: itchiness, redness, swelling, pain upon tugging of the pinna, or drainage. To protect from this form of infection, it is important to thoroughly dry the ears after exposing them to water with a towel. To protect the ears during exposure, the individual can use a head cap, ear plugs, or custom\\-fitted swim molds.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/swimming/swimmers/rwi/ear\\-infections.html\\|title\\=Ear Infections {{!}} Healthy Swimming {{!}} Healthy Water {{!}} CDC\\|date\\=2017\\-06\\-19\\|website\\=www.cdc.gov\\|language\\=en\\-us\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-03\\-09}}", "A 2003 study published in *Clinical Otolaryngology* found that a cotton ball saturated with petroleum jelly was more effective at keeping water out of the ear, was easier to use, and was more comfortable than wax plugs, foam plugs, EarGuard, or Aquafit.{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1365\\-2273\\.2004\\.00795\\.x \\|title\\=An objective evaluation of the waterproofing qualities, ease of insertion and comfort of commonly available earplugs \\|year\\=2004 \\|last1\\=Chisholm \\|first1\\=E.J. \\|last2\\=Kuchai \\|first2\\=R. \\|last3\\=McPartlin \\|first3\\=D. \\|journal\\=Clinical Otolaryngology and Allied Sciences \\|volume\\=29 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=128–32 \\|pmid\\=15113295}}", "[Jacques\\-Yves Cousteau](/wiki/Jacques-Yves_Cousteau \"Jacques-Yves Cousteau\")*[The Silent World](/wiki/The_Silent_World:A_Story_of_Undersea_Discovery_and_Adventure \"A Story of Undersea Discovery and Adventure\")* (New York:1953, Harper, pp. 5\\-6\\) warned that earplugs are harmful to divers, especially [scuba divers](/wiki/Scuba_diving \"Scuba diving\"). Scuba divers breathe compressed [air](/wiki/Air \"Air\") or other gas mixtures at a pressure matching the water pressure. This pressure is also inside the ear, but not between the eardrum and the earplug, so the pressure behind the eardrum will often burst the eardrum. Skin divers have less pressure inside the ears, but they also have only atmospheric pressure in the outer ear canal. The PADI (Professional Association of Diving Instructors) advises in the \"Open Water Diver Manual\" that only vented earplugs designed for diving should be used in diving.", "### Flight ear protection", "Earplugs are also available which help to protect ears from the pain caused by airplane cabin pressure changes. Some products contain a porous ceramic insert which reportedly aids equalization of air pressure between the middle and outer ear thereby preventing pain during landings and take\\-offs. Some airlines distribute regular foam earplugs as part of their amenity kits for passengers to aid their comfort during landings and takeoffs as well as to reduce exposure to the aircraft's noise during the flight. These can help passengers get to sleep during the flight if desired.", "" ]
### Musicians' earplugs [thumb\|Musicians' earplugs. The grey end caps contain an acoustic transmission line with a damper (attenuator) at the end while the domed flanges form a seal in the ear canal. The output port can just be seen as a small hole at the near end of the left plug](/wiki/File:Musicians_earplugs.jpg "Musicians earplugs.jpg") Musicians are exposed to potentially harmful levels of sound, which can lead to [hearing loss](/wiki/Hearing_loss "Hearing loss"), tinnitus, and other auditory symptoms. Because of this, musicians may choose to use earplugs. Musician's earplugs (also called Hi\-Fi or Lossless earplugs{{CN\|date\=November 2023}}) are designed to [attenuate](/wiki/Attenuate "Attenuate") sounds evenly across all frequencies (pitches) which helps maintain the ear's natural frequency response and thus minimizes the effect on the user's perception of [timbre](/wiki/Timbre "Timbre") (frequency spectrum, f.ex. [bass](/wiki/Bass_%28sound%29 "Bass (sound)") and [treble](/wiki/Treble_%28sound%29 "Treble (sound)") levels). These are commonly used by musicians and technicians, both in the studio and in concert, to avoid overexposure to high volume levels. Musician's earplugs generally achieve a more natural frequency response by incorporating a small [diaphragm](/wiki/Diaphragm_%28acoustics%29 "Diaphragm (acoustics)") or membrane together with acoustic channels and damping materials.{{Cite web\|date\=2019\-11\-19\|title\=Musicians and Music Industry\|url\=https://www.audiology.org/publications/guidelines\-and\-standards/musicians\-and\-music\-industry\|access\-date\=2020\-10\-18\|website\=Audiology\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=2020\-10\-22\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022185035/https://www.audiology.org/publications/guidelines\-and\-standards/musicians\-and\-music\-industry\|url\-status\=dead}} Simpler variants with only a small hole introduce a low frequency leak, and will not achieve a flat frequency response. Examples of manufacturers of membrane\-based earplugs are ACS, Etymotic and [Minuendo](/wiki/Minuendo "Minuendo"). Preformed earplugs, such as the ER\-20 earplug are universal (non\-custom) earplugs with a noise reduction rating (NRR) of about 12 dB. A selection of musician's earplugs have been reviewed by the National Acoustic Laboratories and The HEARing CRC in conjunction with [Choice](/wiki/Choice_%28Australian_consumer_organisation%29 "Choice (Australian consumer organisation)").[National Acoustic Laboratories](https://www.nal.gov.au)[The HEARing CRC](https://www.hearingcrc.org) The review results (which include attenuation measures and user ratings of comfort, fit and sound quality) are available at What Plug?.[What Plug?](https://hearsmart.org/earplugs/what_plug/) A more expensive option is the [custom molded](/wiki/%23Custom_molds "#Custom molds") musician's earplug, which is custom\-made for the individual listener. These earplugs are typically made out of silicone or vinyl materials and come with a vent and a variety of filters that can change the amount of attenuation provided. Common static filter attenuation levels are 9, 15, and 25 dB.{{Cite book\|title\=Hearing conservation in occupational, recreational, educational, and home settings\|last\=Vishakha\|first\=Rawool\|publisher\=Thieme\|year\=2012\|isbn\=9781604062564\|location\=New York\|pages\=201–219}} This type of plug is quite popular among [audio engineers](/wiki/Audio_engineer "Audio engineer") who can safely listen to loud mixes for extended periods of time. However, they can be quite costly, being intended for constant re\-use unlike simple earplugs which are disposable. [thumb\|Custom earplugs worn by professional musicians](/wiki/File:Elacin_%28R%29_ER-25_-_musician_Earplug_worn.JPG "Elacin (R) ER-25 - musician Earplug worn.JPG") [thumb\|Lead singer of the metal band [Sepultura](/wiki/Sepultura "Sepultura") [Derrick Green](/wiki/Derrick_Green "Derrick Green") wearing a custom earplug](/wiki/File:Metalmania_2007_-_Sepultura_-_Derrick_Green_01.jpg "Metalmania 2007 - Sepultura - Derrick Green 01.jpg") Alternately, musicians may use [in\-ear monitors](/wiki/In-ear_monitors "In-ear monitors"), which are essentially [headphones](/wiki/Headphone "Headphone") that also serve as earplugs by attenuating surrounding sound. In order for in\-ear monitors to double up as hearing protection, custom earpieces should be used. The process for having custom earpieces made is similar to that of the custom musician's earplug and, similarly, the earpiece will be made of silicone or vinyl. While using an in\-ear monitor can help protect hearing, the amount of protection provided by the monitor depends on the listening level that the musician chooses. Because of this, if the musician sets the monitor to a high level, the monitor may attenuate surrounding sound while still providing a potentially harmful level of sound directly to the musician's ear and therefore no longer serve a protective function. Several earplugs on the market claim to be for musicians, but are not in fact by definition a musician's earplug. By having a thin acoustical bypass channel, they allow for a slightly better frequency response and lower attenuation than simple earplugs, but far from the level of fidelity that membrane\-based earplugs provide. These types of earplugs do not provide the flat attenuation that is characteristic of a musician's plug, but may still be useful for some, due to their lower price points.
[ "### Musicians' earplugs", "[thumb\\|Musicians' earplugs. The grey end caps contain an acoustic transmission line with a damper (attenuator) at the end while the domed flanges form a seal in the ear canal. The output port can just be seen as a small hole at the near end of the left plug](/wiki/File:Musicians_earplugs.jpg \"Musicians earplugs.jpg\")", "Musicians are exposed to potentially harmful levels of sound, which can lead to [hearing loss](/wiki/Hearing_loss \"Hearing loss\"), tinnitus, and other auditory symptoms. Because of this, musicians may choose to use earplugs.", "Musician's earplugs (also called Hi\\-Fi or Lossless earplugs{{CN\\|date\\=November 2023}}) are designed to [attenuate](/wiki/Attenuate \"Attenuate\") sounds evenly across all frequencies (pitches) which helps maintain the ear's natural frequency response and thus minimizes the effect on the user's perception of [timbre](/wiki/Timbre \"Timbre\") (frequency spectrum, f.ex. [bass](/wiki/Bass_%28sound%29 \"Bass (sound)\") and [treble](/wiki/Treble_%28sound%29 \"Treble (sound)\") levels). These are commonly used by musicians and technicians, both in the studio and in concert, to avoid overexposure to high volume levels. Musician's earplugs generally achieve a more natural frequency response by incorporating a small [diaphragm](/wiki/Diaphragm_%28acoustics%29 \"Diaphragm (acoustics)\") or membrane together with acoustic channels and damping materials.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2019\\-11\\-19\\|title\\=Musicians and Music Industry\\|url\\=https://www.audiology.org/publications/guidelines\\-and\\-standards/musicians\\-and\\-music\\-industry\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-18\\|website\\=Audiology\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-22\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022185035/https://www.audiology.org/publications/guidelines\\-and\\-standards/musicians\\-and\\-music\\-industry\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Simpler variants with only a small hole introduce a low frequency leak, and will not achieve a flat frequency response. Examples of manufacturers of membrane\\-based earplugs are ACS, Etymotic and [Minuendo](/wiki/Minuendo \"Minuendo\").", "Preformed earplugs, such as the ER\\-20 earplug are universal (non\\-custom) earplugs with a noise reduction rating (NRR) of about 12 dB. A selection of musician's earplugs have been reviewed by the National Acoustic Laboratories and The HEARing CRC in conjunction with [Choice](/wiki/Choice_%28Australian_consumer_organisation%29 \"Choice (Australian consumer organisation)\").[National Acoustic Laboratories](https://www.nal.gov.au)[The HEARing CRC](https://www.hearingcrc.org) The review results (which include attenuation measures and user ratings of comfort, fit and sound quality) are available at What Plug?.[What Plug?](https://hearsmart.org/earplugs/what_plug/)", "A more expensive option is the [custom molded](/wiki/%23Custom_molds \"#Custom molds\") musician's earplug, which is custom\\-made for the individual listener. These earplugs are typically made out of silicone or vinyl materials and come with a vent and a variety of filters that can change the amount of attenuation provided. Common static filter attenuation levels are 9, 15, and 25 dB.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Hearing conservation in occupational, recreational, educational, and home settings\\|last\\=Vishakha\\|first\\=Rawool\\|publisher\\=Thieme\\|year\\=2012\\|isbn\\=9781604062564\\|location\\=New York\\|pages\\=201–219}} This type of plug is quite popular among [audio engineers](/wiki/Audio_engineer \"Audio engineer\") who can safely listen to loud mixes for extended periods of time. However, they can be quite costly, being intended for constant re\\-use unlike simple earplugs which are disposable.", "[thumb\\|Custom earplugs worn by professional musicians](/wiki/File:Elacin_%28R%29_ER-25_-_musician_Earplug_worn.JPG \"Elacin (R) ER-25 - musician Earplug worn.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|Lead singer of the metal band [Sepultura](/wiki/Sepultura \"Sepultura\") [Derrick Green](/wiki/Derrick_Green \"Derrick Green\") wearing a custom earplug](/wiki/File:Metalmania_2007_-_Sepultura_-_Derrick_Green_01.jpg \"Metalmania 2007 - Sepultura - Derrick Green 01.jpg\")", "Alternately, musicians may use [in\\-ear monitors](/wiki/In-ear_monitors \"In-ear monitors\"), which are essentially [headphones](/wiki/Headphone \"Headphone\") that also serve as earplugs by attenuating surrounding sound. In order for in\\-ear monitors to double up as hearing protection, custom earpieces should be used. The process for having custom earpieces made is similar to that of the custom musician's earplug and, similarly, the earpiece will be made of silicone or vinyl. While using an in\\-ear monitor can help protect hearing, the amount of protection provided by the monitor depends on the listening level that the musician chooses. Because of this, if the musician sets the monitor to a high level, the monitor may attenuate surrounding sound while still providing a potentially harmful level of sound directly to the musician's ear and therefore no longer serve a protective function.", "Several earplugs on the market claim to be for musicians, but are not in fact by definition a musician's earplug. By having a thin acoustical bypass channel, they allow for a slightly better frequency response and lower attenuation than simple earplugs, but far from the level of fidelity that membrane\\-based earplugs provide. These types of earplugs do not provide the flat attenuation that is characteristic of a musician's plug, but may still be useful for some, due to their lower price points.", "" ]
Noise attenuation, labeled (NRR, SNR, HML, SLC80\) and real\-world ------------------------------------------------------------------ In the past, experts believed that HPDs noise attenuation in laboratories and workplaces were similar. Therefore, they developed different methods for predicting noise attenuation at the workplaces using lab data. Later, derating methods were developed. Many of these methods have been preserved in various regulatory documents and older standards. Unfortunately, all these methods and derating do not take into account at all and are not able to take into account the strong individual variability in noise attenuation in principle, for example, plus or minus 20 decibels.{{cite book \|last1\=Behar \|first1\=Alberto \|last2\=E.H. Berger, I.B. Bhunnoo \|title\=Z94\.2\-14\. Hearing protection devices — Performance, selection, care and use \|date\=2014 \|publisher\=Canadian Standards Association (CSA Group) \|location\=Toronto, Ontario, Canada \|isbn\=978\-1\-77139\-417\-8 \|pages\=9 \|edition\=7th \|url\=https://www.csagroup.org/store/product/2701515/ \|access\-date\=25 October 2023 \|language\=en \|chapter\=Preface}} [thumb\|right\|360px\|Noise attenuation, earplugs EP100\. The difference between laboratory predictions (top) and real\-world data{{cite journal \|last1\=Edwards R.G.\|last2\= Hauser W.P., Moiseev N.A., Broderson A.B. \& Green W.W.\|title\=Effectiveness of Earplugs as Worn in the Workplace \|journal\=Sound and Vibration \|date\=1978 \|volume\=12 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=12–22 \|publisher\=Tech Science Press \|location\=Henderson, USA \|language\=en \|issn\=1541\-0161}} (bottom)](/wiki/File:HML%2BSNR%2BNRR_hearing_protection_attenuation.jpg "HML+SNR+NRR hearing protection attenuation.jpg") New standards have been developed that better correspond to the current level of science.{{cite book \|last1\=Technical Committee CEN/TC 159 “Hearing protectors” \|title\=EN 17479\-2021\. Hearing protectors \- Guidance on selection of individual fit testing methods \|date\=17 November 2021 \|publisher\=European Committee for Standardization \|location\=Brussels \|isbn\=978\-0\-539\-04746\-2 \|pages\=46 \|language\=en}} [link](https://www.en-standard.eu/bs-en-17479-2021-hearing-protectors-guidance-on-selection-of-individual-fit-testing-methods/){{cite book \|last1\=Accredited Standards Committee S12, Noise \|title\=ANSI/ASA S12\.71\-2018\. Performance Criteria for Systems that Estimate the Attenuation of Passive Hearing Protectors for Individual Users \|date\=2018 \|publisher\=Acoustical Society of America \|location\=Melville, New York \|pages\=54 \|url\=https://webstore.ansi.org/standards/asa/ansiasas12712018 \|access\-date\=25 October 2023 \|language\=en}} ### Rating {{main\|Hearing protection fit\-testing}} The [United States Environmental Protection Agency](/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency "United States Environmental Protection Agency") (EPA) mandates that hearing protection is rated and labeled. To be rated, hearing protection is tested under ANSI S3\.19\-1974 to provide a range of attenuation values at each frequency that can then be used to calculate a Noise Reduction Rating (NRR). Under this standard a panel of ten subjects are tested three times each in a laboratory to determine the attenuation over a range of 9 frequencies. In the European Union, hearing protectors are required to be tested according to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) acoustical testing standard, ISO 4869 Part 1 and the Single Number Rating (SNR) or High/Middle/Low (HML) ratings are calculated according to ISO 4869 Part 2\. In Brazil, hearing protectors are tested according to the American National Standards Institute ANSI S12\.6\-1997 and are rated using the Noise Reduction Rating Subject Fit NRR(SF). Australia and New Zealand have different standards for protector ratings yielding a quantity SLC80 (Sound Level Class for the 80th percentile). Canada implements a class system for rating the performance of protectors. Gauger and Berger have reviewed the merits of several different rating methods and developed a rating system that is the basis of a new American National Standard, ANSI S12\.68\-2007 The various methods have slightly different interpretations, but each method has a percentile associated with the rating. That percent of the users should be able to achieve the rated attenuation. For instance, the NRR is determined by the mean attenuation minus two standard deviations. Thus, it translates to a 98% statistic. That is, at least 98 percent of users should be able to achieve that level of attenuation. The SNR and HML are a mean minus one standard deviation statistic. Therefore, approximately 86% of the users should be able to achieve that level of protection. Similarly, the NRR (SF) is a mean minus one standard deviation and represents an 86% of users should achieve that level of protection. The difference between the ratings lies in how the protectors are tested. NRR is tested with an experimenter\-fit protocol. SNR/HML are tested with an experienced subject\-fit protocol. NRR (SF) is tested with a naive subject\-fit protocol. According to Murphy, et al. (2004\), these three protocols will yield different amounts of attenuation with the NRR being the greatest and NRR (SF) being the least. The experimenter\-fit NRR should be adjusted per the guidelines of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health as the required NRR ratings differ greatly from lab tests to field tests. The NRR(SF) used in Brazil, Australia, and New Zealand does not require derating as it resembles the manner in which the typical user will wear hearing protection. #### Noise Reduction Rating (NRR) [Hearing protectors](/wiki/Hearing_protection_device "Hearing protection device") sold in the US are required by the EPA to have a noise reduction rating (NRR),{{cite web\|url\=http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text\-idx?c\=ecfr;rgn\=div5;view\=text;node\=40%3A24\.0\.1\.2\.14;idno\=40;sid\=19269b8f1aa80c731d6cc056ae8f850c;cc\=ecfr\#40:24\.0\.1\.2\.14\.2\.17\.14 \|title\=EPA Standard, Title 20, Part 211 \|publisher\=Ecfr.gpoaccess.gov \|date\=2012\-10\-09 \|access\-date\=2013\-06\-22}} which is an estimate of noise reduction at the ear when protectors are worn properly. Real\-ear attenuation at threshold (REAT) measurements are performed multiple times with 10 to 20 subjects to determine the NRR. Using the collected data, an average group attenuation is reported along with a standard deviation for attenuation on the hearing protector package. Due to the discrepancy between how protectors are fit in the testing laboratory and how users wear protectors in the real world, the [Occupational Safety and Health Administration](/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration "Occupational Safety and Health Administration") (OSHA) and the [National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health](/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health "National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health") (NIOSH) have developed derating formulas to reduce the effective NRR. While the NRR and the SNR (Single Number Rating) are designed to be used with [C\-weighted](/wiki/A-weighting "A-weighting") noise, which means that the lower frequencies are not de\-emphasized, other ratings (NRR(SF) and NRSA) are determined for use with A\-weighted noise levels, which have lower frequencies de\-emphasized. NIOSH recommended and the U.S. EPA mandated that 7\-dB compensation between C and A weighting be applied when the NRR is used with A\-weighted noise levels. The OSHA training manual for inspectors says the adequacy of hearing protection for use in a hazardous noise environment should be derated to account for how workers typically wear protection relative to how manufacturers test the protector's attenuation in the laboratory.Occupational Health and Safety Administration, January, 1999\. The OSHA Technical Manual, OSHA Publication, [Section IV, Appendix IV: C.](http://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/noise/hcp/attenuation_estimation.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061009005341/http://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/noise/hcp/attenuation\_estimation.html \|date\=2006\-10\-09 }} For all types of hearing protection, OSHA's derating factor is 50%. If used with C\-weighted noise, the derated NRR will become NRR/2\. If used with A\-weighted noise, OSHA applies the 7\-dB adjustment for C\-A weighting first then derates the remainder. For example, a protector with 33\-dB attenuation would have this derating: Derated NRR \= (33 – 7\)/2 NIOSH has proposed a different method for derating based upon the type of protector.Linda Rosenstock et al. {{cite book \|title\=Criteria for a Recommended Standard: Occupational Noise Exposure], NIOSH Publication, No. 98\-126 \|date\=June 1998 \|location\=Cincinnati, Ohio \|page\=7 \|url\=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/98\-126/default.html \|access\-date\=10 August 2022 \|language\=en \|edition\= 2nd\|chapter\=1\.6\.4 Confirmation Audiogram, Significant Threshold Shift, and Follow\-up Action \|quote\=When a significant threshold shift has been validated, the employer shall take appropriate action to protect the worker from additional hearing loss due to occupational noise exposure. Examples of appropriate action include explanation of the effects of hearing loss, reinstruction and refitting of hearing protectors, additional training of the worker in hearing loss prevention, and reassignment of the worker to a quieter work area.\|doi\=10\.26616/NIOSHPUB98126}} For [earmuffs](/wiki/Earmuffs "Earmuffs"), the NRR should be derated by 25%, for slow\-recovery foam earplugs the derating is 50% for all other protection, the derating is 70%. NIOSH applies the C\-A spectral compensation differently than OSHA. Where OSHA subtracts the 7\-dB factor first and derates the result, NIOSH derates the NRR first and then compensates for the C\-A difference. For example, to find the derated NRR for an earmuff by using the NIOSH derating system, the following equation would be used: Derated NRR \= (Original NRR x (1\-.25\)) – 7 Painful discomfort occurs at approximately 120 to 125 dB(A),{{in lang\|de\|en}} [Schalldämpfer \= Gehörschützer für Jäger, data collected on noise levels](http://www.lima-wiederladetechnik.de/Schalldaempfer/Schalldaempfer.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090328141932/http://www.lima\-wiederladetechnik.de/Schalldaempfer/Schalldaempfer.htm \|date\=2009\-03\-28 }} with some references claiming 133 dB(A) for the threshold of pain.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.earplugstore.com/morabshootea.html\#\|title\=More About: Shooting/Hunting Hearing Protection\|website\=www.earplugstore.com\|access\-date\=2017\-03\-03}} Active [ear muffs](/wiki/Ear_muffs "Ear muffs") are available with electronic noise cancellation that can reduce direct path ear canal noise by approximately 17–33 dB, depending on the low, medium, or high frequency at which attenuation is measured.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.3m.com/3M/en\_US/company\-us/search/?Ntt\=active\+ear\+muffs\+with\+electronic\+noise\+cancellation \|title\=Search results for "active ear muffs with electronic noise cancellation" \|website\=\[\[3M]]}}{{rs\|date\=October 2022\|reason\=primary corporate advertising source}} Passive earplugs vary in their measured attenuation, ranging from 20 dB to 30 dB, depending on the fit of the earplugs, whether the employee can and knows how to insert the earplugs into the ear canal correctly, and whether they are used correctly{{cite book \|last1\=Berger \|first1\=Elliott H.\|last2\= Voix \|first2\= Jérémie \|editor\=D.K. Meinke \|editor2\=E.H. Berger \|editor3\=R. Neitzel \|editor4\=D.P. Driscoll \|editor5\=K. Bright \|title\=The Noise Manual \|date\=2018 \|publisher\=American Industrial Hygiene Association \|location\=Falls Church, Virginia \|pages\=255–308 \|edition\=6th \|url\=https://online\-ams.aiha.org/amsssa/ecssashop.show\_product\_detail?p\_mode\=detail\&p\_product\_serno\=2719 \|access\-date\=10 August 2022 \|language\=en \|chapter\=Chapter 11: Hearing Protection Devices}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Toivonen \|first1\=Markku \|last2\=Pääkkönen \|first2\=Rauno \|last3\=Savolainen \|first3\=Seppo \|last4\=Lehtomäki \|first4\=Kyösti \|title\=Noise Attenuation and Proper Insertion of Earplugs into Ear Canals \|journal\=The Annals of Occupational Hygiene \|date\=2002\-08\-01 \|volume\=46 \|issue\=6 \|pages\=527–530 \|doi\=10\.1093/annhyg/mef065 \|pmid\=12176767 \|url\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11210051 \|access\-date\=27 October 2023 \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|location\=Oxford, UK \|language\=en \|issn\=2398\-7308\|doi\-access\=free }} and if low pass mechanical filters are also being used. #### Double protection The Canadian standard requires the use of two passive protective measures simultaneously at noise levels above 105 dBA. But the noise reduction does not increase very much. It is recommended to estimate the attenuation by adding 5 dB to the highest attenuation of one of the two HPDs. This recommendation does not take into account individual differences at all, and may lead to error.{{cite book \|last1\=Behar \|first1\=Alberto \|last2\=E.H. Berger, I.B. Bhunnoo \|title\=Z94\.2\-14\. Hearing protection devices — Performance, selection, care and use \|date\=2014 \|publisher\=Canadian Standards Association (CSA Group) \|location\=Toronto, Ontario, Canada \|isbn\=978\-1\-77139\-417\-8 \|pages\=27–28 \|edition\=7th \|url\=https://www.csagroup.org/store/product/2701515/ \|access\-date\=25 October 2023 \|language\=en \|chapter\=9\.7 Double protection}} Using both ear muffs (whether passive or active) and earplugs simultaneously results in maximum protection, but the efficacy of such combined protection relative to preventing permanent ear damage is inconclusive, with evidence indicating that a combined noise reduction ratio (NRR) of only 36 dB (C\-weighted) is the maximum possible using ear muffs and earplugs simultaneously, equating to only a 36 \- 7 \= 29 dB(A) protection. Some high\-end, passive, custom\-molded earplugs also have a mechanical filter inserted into the center of the earmolded plug, with a small opening facing to the outside; this design permits being able to hear range commands at a gun range, for example, while still having full rating impulse noise protection. Such custom molded earplugs with low pass filter and mechanical valve typically have a \+85 dB(A) mechanical clamp, in addition to having a [lowpass filter](/wiki/Low-pass_filter "Low-pass filter") response, thereby providing typically 30\-31 dB attenuation to loud impulse noises, with only a 21 dB reduction under low noise conditions across the human voice audible frequency range (300–4000 Hz) (thereby providing low attenuation between shots being fired), to permit hearing range commands. Similar functions are also available in standardized earplugs that are not custom molded.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.earplugstore.com/health\-enterprises\-acu\-life\-shooters\-impact\-ear\-plugs.html\|title\=Health Enterprises ACU\-LIFE Shooter's Ear Plugs (Sonic Valve II)\|website\=www.earplugstore.com\|access\-date\=2017\-03\-03}}{{failed verification\|date\=June 2022}} #### Derating in several countries | Country, organization | Roll\-down foam earplugs | Pre\-molded earplugs | Earmuffs | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | USA, OSHA | 2 times reduction | 2 times | 2 times | USA, NIOSH | 2 times | 3\.3 times | 1\.33 times | Italy | 2 times | 3\.3 times | 1\.33 times | UK | 4 dB reduction | 4 dB | 4 dB | France | 10 dB | 10 dB | 5\-7 dB | Germany | 9 dB | 5 dB | 5 dB | The wide variation in recommendations may be due in part to the very large inter\-individual variability in results that cannot be predicted; but can be taken into account by [individual measurements](/wiki/Hearing_protection_fit-testing "Hearing protection fit-testing"). #### Expected updates In 2007, the [American National Standards Institute](/wiki/American_National_Standards_Institute "American National Standards Institute") published a new standard for noise reduction ratings for hearing protectors, ANSI S12\.68\-2007\. Using the real ear attenuation at threshold data collected by a laboratory test prescribed in ANSI S12\.6\-2008, the noise reduction statistic for A\-weighted noise (NRSA) is computed using a set of 100 noises listed in the standard.ANSI S12\.68 (2007\). American National Standard Methods of Estimating Effective A\-Weighted Sound Pressure Levels When Hearing Protectors, are Worn, American National Standards Institute, New York. The noise reduction rating, rather than be computed for a single noise spectrum the NRSA incorporates variability of both subject and spectral effects. ANSI S12\.68 also defines a method to estimate the performance of a protector in an atypical noise environment. Building upon work from the [U.S. Air Force](/wiki/U.S._Air_Force "U.S. Air Force") and the ISO 4869\-2 standard,ISO 4869\-2 (1994\). *Acoustics—Hearing Protectors Part 2: Estimation of effective A\-weighted sound pressure levels when hearing protectors are worn,* International Organization for Standardization, Geneva. the protector's attenuation as a function of the difference in C and A\-weighted noise level is used to predict typical performance in that noise environment. The derating may be quite severe (10 to 15 decibels) for protectors that have significant differences between low and high frequency attenuation. For "flat" attenuation protectors, the effect of C\-A is less. This new system eliminates the need for calculators, relies on graphs and databases of empirical data, and is believed to be a more accurate system for determining NRRs. ### Personal attenuation rating (PAR) [thumb\|400px\|left\|Fit testing (MIRE){{cite journal \|author\=Kah Heng Lee \|author2\=Geza Benke \|author3\=Dean Mckenzie \|title\=The efficacy of earplugs at a major hazard facility \|journal\=Physical and Engineering Sciences in Medicine \|date\=2022 \|volume\=45 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=107–114 \|doi\=10\.1007/s13246\-021\-01087\-y \|pmid\=35023076 \|url\=https://www.researchsquare.com/article/rs\-807643/v1 \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-10 \|publisher\=Springler \|s2cid\=221812245 \|language\=en \|issn\=2662\-4729}}](/wiki/File:%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D1%8D%D1%84%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%98%D0%97_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0.jpg "Система производственного контроля эффективности СИЗ органа слуха.jpg") Similar to a noise reduction rating (NRR) required on hearing protection devices in the United States, a personal attenuation rating (PAR) can be obtained through a [hearing protection fit\-testing system](/wiki/Hearing_protection_fit-testing "Hearing protection fit-testing").{{cite book \|last1\= Voix\|first1\=Jérémie \|last2\=Smith \|first2\= Pegeen \|last3\= Berger\|first3\=Elliott H. \|editor\=D.K. Meinke \|editor2\=E.H. Berger \|editor3\=R. Neitzel \|editor4\=D.P. Driscoll \|editor5\=K. Bright \|title\=The Noise Manual \|date\=2018 \|publisher\=American Industrial Hygiene Association \|location\=Falls Church, Virginia \|pages\=309–329 \|edition\=6th \|url\=https://online\-ams.aiha.org/amsssa/ecssashop.show\_product\_detail?p\_mode\=detail\&p\_product\_serno\=2720 \|access\-date\=10 August 2022 \|language\=en \|chapter\=Chapter 12: Field Fit\-Testing and Attenuation\-Estimation Procedures}} The PAR is subtracted from the measured noise exposure to estimate the total noise exposure an individual is receiving when wearing hearing protection. The PAR is regarded as more accurate than the NRR because it is calculated per individual and per hearing protection device, while NRR is a generalized estimate of potential sound reduction based on the protection provided to a small population of people.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.caohc.org/updatearticles/winter2013\.pdf?version\=012914\|title\=Comparing personal attenuation ratings for hearing protector fit\-test systems\|last\=Murphy\|first\=William\|date\=2013\|website\=Council for Accreditation in Occupational Hearing Conservation\|access\-date\=2018\-12\-28}} A similar trend has emerged in the European Union.
[ "Noise attenuation, labeled (NRR, SNR, HML, SLC80\\) and real\\-world\n------------------------------------------------------------------", "In the past, experts believed that HPDs noise attenuation in laboratories and workplaces were similar. Therefore, they developed different methods for predicting noise attenuation at the workplaces using lab data. Later, derating methods were developed. Many of these methods have been preserved in various regulatory documents and older standards.", "Unfortunately, all these methods and derating do not take into account at all and are not able to take into account the strong individual variability in noise attenuation in principle, for example, plus or minus 20 decibels.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Behar \\|first1\\=Alberto \\|last2\\=E.H. Berger, I.B. Bhunnoo \\|title\\=Z94\\.2\\-14\\. Hearing protection devices — Performance, selection, care and use \\|date\\=2014 \\|publisher\\=Canadian Standards Association (CSA Group) \\|location\\=Toronto, Ontario, Canada \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-77139\\-417\\-8 \\|pages\\=9 \\|edition\\=7th \\|url\\=https://www.csagroup.org/store/product/2701515/ \\|access\\-date\\=25 October 2023 \\|language\\=en \\|chapter\\=Preface}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|360px\\|Noise attenuation, earplugs EP100\\. The difference between laboratory predictions (top) and real\\-world data{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Edwards R.G.\\|last2\\= Hauser W.P., Moiseev N.A., Broderson A.B. \\& Green W.W.\\|title\\=Effectiveness of Earplugs as Worn in the Workplace \\|journal\\=Sound and Vibration \\|date\\=1978 \\|volume\\=12 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=12–22 \\|publisher\\=Tech Science Press \\|location\\=Henderson, USA \\|language\\=en \\|issn\\=1541\\-0161}} (bottom)](/wiki/File:HML%2BSNR%2BNRR_hearing_protection_attenuation.jpg \"HML+SNR+NRR hearing protection attenuation.jpg\")\nNew standards have been developed that better correspond to the current level of science.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Technical Committee CEN/TC 159 “Hearing protectors” \\|title\\=EN 17479\\-2021\\. Hearing protectors \\- Guidance on selection of individual fit testing methods \\|date\\=17 November 2021 \\|publisher\\=European Committee for Standardization \\|location\\=Brussels \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-539\\-04746\\-2 \\|pages\\=46 \\|language\\=en}} [link](https://www.en-standard.eu/bs-en-17479-2021-hearing-protectors-guidance-on-selection-of-individual-fit-testing-methods/){{cite book \\|last1\\=Accredited Standards Committee S12, Noise \\|title\\=ANSI/ASA S12\\.71\\-2018\\. Performance Criteria for Systems that Estimate the Attenuation of Passive Hearing Protectors for Individual Users \\|date\\=2018 \\|publisher\\=Acoustical Society of America \\|location\\=Melville, New York \\|pages\\=54 \\|url\\=https://webstore.ansi.org/standards/asa/ansiasas12712018 \\|access\\-date\\=25 October 2023 \\|language\\=en}}", "### Rating", "{{main\\|Hearing protection fit\\-testing}}\nThe [United States Environmental Protection Agency](/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency \"United States Environmental Protection Agency\") (EPA) mandates that hearing protection is rated and labeled. To be rated, hearing protection is tested under ANSI S3\\.19\\-1974 to provide a range of attenuation values at each frequency that can then be used to calculate a Noise Reduction Rating (NRR). Under this standard a panel of ten subjects are tested three times each in a laboratory to determine the attenuation over a range of 9 frequencies.", "In the European Union, hearing protectors are required to be tested according to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) acoustical testing standard, ISO 4869 Part 1 and the Single Number Rating (SNR) or High/Middle/Low (HML) ratings are calculated according to ISO 4869 Part 2\\. In Brazil, hearing protectors are tested according to the American National Standards Institute ANSI S12\\.6\\-1997 and are rated using the Noise Reduction Rating Subject Fit NRR(SF). Australia and New Zealand have different standards for protector ratings yielding a quantity SLC80 (Sound Level Class for the 80th percentile). Canada implements a class system for rating the performance of protectors. Gauger and Berger have reviewed the merits of several different rating methods and developed a rating system that is the basis of a new American National Standard, ANSI S12\\.68\\-2007", "The various methods have slightly different interpretations, but each method has a percentile associated with the rating. That percent of the users should be able to achieve the rated attenuation. For instance, the NRR is determined by the mean attenuation minus two standard deviations. Thus, it translates to a 98% statistic. That is, at least 98 percent of users should be able to achieve that level of attenuation. The SNR and HML are a mean minus one standard deviation statistic. Therefore, approximately 86% of the users should be able to achieve that level of protection. Similarly, the NRR (SF) is a mean minus one standard deviation and represents an 86% of users should achieve that level of protection. The difference between the ratings lies in how the protectors are tested. NRR is tested with an experimenter\\-fit protocol. SNR/HML are tested with an experienced subject\\-fit protocol. NRR (SF) is tested with a naive subject\\-fit protocol. According to Murphy, et al. (2004\\), these three protocols will yield different amounts of attenuation with the NRR being the greatest and NRR (SF) being the least.", "The experimenter\\-fit NRR should be adjusted per the guidelines of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health as the required NRR ratings differ greatly from lab tests to field tests.", "The NRR(SF) used in Brazil, Australia, and New Zealand does not require derating as it resembles the manner in which the typical user will wear hearing protection.", "#### Noise Reduction Rating (NRR)", "[Hearing protectors](/wiki/Hearing_protection_device \"Hearing protection device\") sold in the US are required by the EPA to have a noise reduction rating (NRR),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text\\-idx?c\\=ecfr;rgn\\=div5;view\\=text;node\\=40%3A24\\.0\\.1\\.2\\.14;idno\\=40;sid\\=19269b8f1aa80c731d6cc056ae8f850c;cc\\=ecfr\\#40:24\\.0\\.1\\.2\\.14\\.2\\.17\\.14 \\|title\\=EPA Standard, Title 20, Part 211 \\|publisher\\=Ecfr.gpoaccess.gov \\|date\\=2012\\-10\\-09 \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-06\\-22}} which is an estimate of noise reduction at the ear when protectors are worn properly.", "Real\\-ear attenuation at threshold (REAT) measurements are performed multiple times with 10 to 20 subjects to determine the NRR. Using the collected data, an average group attenuation is reported along with a standard deviation for attenuation on the hearing protector package.", "Due to the discrepancy between how protectors are fit in the testing laboratory and how users wear protectors in the real world, the [Occupational Safety and Health Administration](/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration \"Occupational Safety and Health Administration\") (OSHA) and the [National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health](/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health \"National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health\") (NIOSH) have developed derating formulas to reduce the effective NRR.", "While the NRR and the SNR (Single Number Rating) are designed to be used with [C\\-weighted](/wiki/A-weighting \"A-weighting\") noise, which means that the lower frequencies are not de\\-emphasized, other ratings (NRR(SF) and NRSA) are determined for use with A\\-weighted noise levels, which have lower frequencies de\\-emphasized. NIOSH recommended and the U.S. EPA mandated that 7\\-dB compensation between C and A weighting be applied when the NRR is used with A\\-weighted noise levels.", "The OSHA training manual for inspectors says the adequacy of hearing protection for use in a hazardous noise environment should be derated to account for how workers typically wear protection relative to how manufacturers test the protector's attenuation in the laboratory.Occupational Health and Safety Administration, January, 1999\\. The OSHA Technical Manual, OSHA Publication, [Section IV, Appendix IV: C.](http://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/noise/hcp/attenuation_estimation.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061009005341/http://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/noise/hcp/attenuation\\_estimation.html \\|date\\=2006\\-10\\-09 }} For all types of hearing protection, OSHA's derating factor is 50%. If used with C\\-weighted noise, the derated NRR will become NRR/2\\. If used with A\\-weighted noise, OSHA applies the 7\\-dB adjustment for C\\-A weighting first then derates the remainder. For example, a protector with 33\\-dB attenuation would have this derating:", "Derated NRR \\= (33 – 7\\)/2\nNIOSH has proposed a different method for derating based upon the type of protector.Linda Rosenstock et al. {{cite book \\|title\\=Criteria for a Recommended Standard: Occupational Noise Exposure], NIOSH Publication, No. 98\\-126 \\|date\\=June 1998 \\|location\\=Cincinnati, Ohio \\|page\\=7 \\|url\\=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/98\\-126/default.html \\|access\\-date\\=10 August 2022 \\|language\\=en \\|edition\\= 2nd\\|chapter\\=1\\.6\\.4 Confirmation Audiogram, Significant Threshold Shift, and Follow\\-up Action \\|quote\\=When a significant threshold shift has been validated, the employer shall take appropriate action to protect the worker from additional hearing loss due to occupational noise exposure. Examples of appropriate action include explanation of the effects of hearing loss, reinstruction and refitting of hearing protectors, additional training of the worker in hearing loss prevention, and reassignment of the worker to a quieter work area.\\|doi\\=10\\.26616/NIOSHPUB98126}} For [earmuffs](/wiki/Earmuffs \"Earmuffs\"), the NRR should be derated by 25%, for slow\\-recovery foam earplugs the derating is 50% for all other protection, the derating is 70%. NIOSH applies the C\\-A spectral compensation differently than OSHA. Where OSHA subtracts the 7\\-dB factor first and derates the result, NIOSH derates the NRR first and then compensates for the C\\-A difference. For example, to find the derated NRR for an earmuff by using the NIOSH derating system, the following equation would be used:", "Derated NRR \\= (Original NRR x (1\\-.25\\)) – 7\nPainful discomfort occurs at approximately 120 to 125 dB(A),{{in lang\\|de\\|en}} [Schalldämpfer \\= Gehörschützer für Jäger, data collected on noise levels](http://www.lima-wiederladetechnik.de/Schalldaempfer/Schalldaempfer.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090328141932/http://www.lima\\-wiederladetechnik.de/Schalldaempfer/Schalldaempfer.htm \\|date\\=2009\\-03\\-28 }} with some references claiming 133 dB(A) for the threshold of pain.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.earplugstore.com/morabshootea.html\\#\\|title\\=More About: Shooting/Hunting Hearing Protection\\|website\\=www.earplugstore.com\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-03}} Active [ear muffs](/wiki/Ear_muffs \"Ear muffs\") are available with electronic noise cancellation that can reduce direct path ear canal noise by approximately 17–33 dB, depending on the low, medium, or high frequency at which attenuation is measured.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.3m.com/3M/en\\_US/company\\-us/search/?Ntt\\=active\\+ear\\+muffs\\+with\\+electronic\\+noise\\+cancellation \\|title\\=Search results for \"active ear muffs with electronic noise cancellation\" \\|website\\=\\[\\[3M]]}}{{rs\\|date\\=October 2022\\|reason\\=primary corporate advertising source}} Passive earplugs vary in their measured attenuation, ranging from 20 dB to 30 dB, depending on the fit of the earplugs, whether the employee can and knows how to insert the earplugs into the ear canal correctly, and whether they are used correctly{{cite book \\|last1\\=Berger \\|first1\\=Elliott H.\\|last2\\= Voix \\|first2\\= Jérémie \\|editor\\=D.K. Meinke \\|editor2\\=E.H. Berger \\|editor3\\=R. Neitzel \\|editor4\\=D.P. Driscoll \\|editor5\\=K. Bright \\|title\\=The Noise Manual \\|date\\=2018 \\|publisher\\=American Industrial Hygiene Association \\|location\\=Falls Church, Virginia \\|pages\\=255–308 \\|edition\\=6th \\|url\\=https://online\\-ams.aiha.org/amsssa/ecssashop.show\\_product\\_detail?p\\_mode\\=detail\\&p\\_product\\_serno\\=2719 \\|access\\-date\\=10 August 2022 \\|language\\=en \\|chapter\\=Chapter 11: Hearing Protection Devices}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Toivonen \\|first1\\=Markku \\|last2\\=Pääkkönen \\|first2\\=Rauno \\|last3\\=Savolainen \\|first3\\=Seppo \\|last4\\=Lehtomäki \\|first4\\=Kyösti \\|title\\=Noise Attenuation and Proper Insertion of Earplugs into Ear Canals \\|journal\\=The Annals of Occupational Hygiene \\|date\\=2002\\-08\\-01 \\|volume\\=46 \\|issue\\=6 \\|pages\\=527–530 \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/annhyg/mef065 \\|pmid\\=12176767 \\|url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11210051 \\|access\\-date\\=27 October 2023 \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|location\\=Oxford, UK \\|language\\=en \\|issn\\=2398\\-7308\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} and if low pass mechanical filters are also being used.", "#### Double protection", "The Canadian standard requires the use of two passive protective measures simultaneously at noise levels above 105 dBA. But the noise reduction does not increase very much. It is recommended to estimate the attenuation by adding 5 dB to the highest attenuation of one of the two HPDs. This recommendation does not take into account individual differences at all, and may lead to error.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Behar \\|first1\\=Alberto \\|last2\\=E.H. Berger, I.B. Bhunnoo \\|title\\=Z94\\.2\\-14\\. Hearing protection devices — Performance, selection, care and use \\|date\\=2014 \\|publisher\\=Canadian Standards Association (CSA Group) \\|location\\=Toronto, Ontario, Canada \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-77139\\-417\\-8 \\|pages\\=27–28 \\|edition\\=7th \\|url\\=https://www.csagroup.org/store/product/2701515/ \\|access\\-date\\=25 October 2023 \\|language\\=en \\|chapter\\=9\\.7 Double protection}}", "Using both ear muffs (whether passive or active) and earplugs simultaneously results in maximum protection, but the efficacy of such combined protection relative to preventing permanent ear damage is inconclusive, with evidence indicating that a combined noise reduction ratio (NRR) of only 36 dB (C\\-weighted) is the maximum possible using ear muffs and earplugs simultaneously, equating to only a 36 \\- 7 \\= 29 dB(A) protection. Some high\\-end, passive, custom\\-molded earplugs also have a mechanical filter inserted into the center of the earmolded plug, with a small opening facing to the outside; this design permits being able to hear range commands at a gun range, for example, while still having full rating impulse noise protection.", "Such custom molded earplugs with low pass filter and mechanical valve typically have a \\+85 dB(A) mechanical clamp, in addition to having a [lowpass filter](/wiki/Low-pass_filter \"Low-pass filter\") response, thereby providing typically 30\\-31 dB attenuation to loud impulse noises, with only a 21 dB reduction under low noise conditions across the human voice audible frequency range (300–4000 Hz) (thereby providing low attenuation between shots being fired), to permit hearing range commands. Similar functions are also available in standardized earplugs that are not custom molded.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.earplugstore.com/health\\-enterprises\\-acu\\-life\\-shooters\\-impact\\-ear\\-plugs.html\\|title\\=Health Enterprises ACU\\-LIFE Shooter's Ear Plugs (Sonic Valve II)\\|website\\=www.earplugstore.com\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-03}}{{failed verification\\|date\\=June 2022}}", "#### Derating in several countries", "", "| Country, organization | Roll\\-down foam earplugs | Pre\\-molded earplugs | Earmuffs |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| USA, OSHA | 2 times reduction | 2 times | 2 times |", "USA, NIOSH | 2 times | 3\\.3 times | 1\\.33 times |\n Italy | 2 times | 3\\.3 times | 1\\.33 times |\n UK | 4 dB reduction | 4 dB | 4 dB |\n France | 10 dB | 10 dB | 5\\-7 dB |\n Germany | 9 dB | 5 dB | 5 dB |", "The wide variation in recommendations may be due in part to the very large inter\\-individual variability in results that cannot be predicted; but can be taken into account by [individual measurements](/wiki/Hearing_protection_fit-testing \"Hearing protection fit-testing\").", "#### Expected updates", "In 2007, the [American National Standards Institute](/wiki/American_National_Standards_Institute \"American National Standards Institute\") published a new standard for noise reduction ratings for hearing protectors, ANSI S12\\.68\\-2007\\. Using the real ear attenuation at threshold data collected by a laboratory test prescribed in ANSI S12\\.6\\-2008, the noise reduction statistic for A\\-weighted noise (NRSA) is computed using a set of 100 noises listed in the standard.ANSI S12\\.68 (2007\\). American National Standard Methods of Estimating Effective A\\-Weighted Sound Pressure Levels When Hearing Protectors, are Worn, American National Standards Institute, New York. The noise reduction rating, rather than be computed for a single noise spectrum the NRSA incorporates variability of both subject and spectral effects. ANSI S12\\.68 also defines a method to estimate the performance of a protector in an atypical noise environment.", "Building upon work from the [U.S. Air Force](/wiki/U.S._Air_Force \"U.S. Air Force\") and the ISO 4869\\-2 standard,ISO 4869\\-2 (1994\\). *Acoustics—Hearing Protectors Part 2: Estimation of effective A\\-weighted sound pressure levels when hearing protectors are worn,* International Organization for Standardization, Geneva. the protector's attenuation as a function of the difference in C and A\\-weighted noise level is used to predict typical performance in that noise environment. The derating may be quite severe (10 to 15 decibels) for protectors that have significant differences between low and high frequency attenuation. For \"flat\" attenuation protectors, the effect of C\\-A is less. This new system eliminates the need for calculators, relies on graphs and databases of empirical data, and is believed to be a more accurate system for determining NRRs.", "### Personal attenuation rating (PAR)", "[thumb\\|400px\\|left\\|Fit testing (MIRE){{cite journal \\|author\\=Kah Heng Lee \\|author2\\=Geza Benke \\|author3\\=Dean Mckenzie \\|title\\=The efficacy of earplugs at a major hazard facility \\|journal\\=Physical and Engineering Sciences in Medicine \\|date\\=2022 \\|volume\\=45 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=107–114 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s13246\\-021\\-01087\\-y \\|pmid\\=35023076 \\|url\\=https://www.researchsquare.com/article/rs\\-807643/v1 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-10 \\|publisher\\=Springler \\|s2cid\\=221812245 \\|language\\=en \\|issn\\=2662\\-4729}}](/wiki/File:%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D1%8D%D1%84%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%98%D0%97_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0.jpg \"Система производственного контроля эффективности СИЗ органа слуха.jpg\")\nSimilar to a noise reduction rating (NRR) required on hearing protection devices in the United States, a personal attenuation rating (PAR) can be obtained through a [hearing protection fit\\-testing system](/wiki/Hearing_protection_fit-testing \"Hearing protection fit-testing\").{{cite book \\|last1\\= Voix\\|first1\\=Jérémie \\|last2\\=Smith \\|first2\\= Pegeen \\|last3\\= Berger\\|first3\\=Elliott H. \\|editor\\=D.K. Meinke \\|editor2\\=E.H. Berger \\|editor3\\=R. Neitzel \\|editor4\\=D.P. Driscoll \\|editor5\\=K. Bright \\|title\\=The Noise Manual \\|date\\=2018 \\|publisher\\=American Industrial Hygiene Association \\|location\\=Falls Church, Virginia \\|pages\\=309–329 \\|edition\\=6th \\|url\\=https://online\\-ams.aiha.org/amsssa/ecssashop.show\\_product\\_detail?p\\_mode\\=detail\\&p\\_product\\_serno\\=2720 \\|access\\-date\\=10 August 2022 \\|language\\=en \\|chapter\\=Chapter 12: Field Fit\\-Testing and Attenuation\\-Estimation Procedures}} The PAR is subtracted from the measured noise exposure to estimate the total noise exposure an individual is receiving when wearing hearing protection. The PAR is regarded as more accurate than the NRR because it is calculated per individual and per hearing protection device, while NRR is a generalized estimate of potential sound reduction based on the protection provided to a small population of people.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.caohc.org/updatearticles/winter2013\\.pdf?version\\=012914\\|title\\=Comparing personal attenuation ratings for hearing protector fit\\-test systems\\|last\\=Murphy\\|first\\=William\\|date\\=2013\\|website\\=Council for Accreditation in Occupational Hearing Conservation\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-12\\-28}}", "A similar trend has emerged in the European Union.", "" ]
### Rating {{main\|Hearing protection fit\-testing}} The [United States Environmental Protection Agency](/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency "United States Environmental Protection Agency") (EPA) mandates that hearing protection is rated and labeled. To be rated, hearing protection is tested under ANSI S3\.19\-1974 to provide a range of attenuation values at each frequency that can then be used to calculate a Noise Reduction Rating (NRR). Under this standard a panel of ten subjects are tested three times each in a laboratory to determine the attenuation over a range of 9 frequencies. In the European Union, hearing protectors are required to be tested according to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) acoustical testing standard, ISO 4869 Part 1 and the Single Number Rating (SNR) or High/Middle/Low (HML) ratings are calculated according to ISO 4869 Part 2\. In Brazil, hearing protectors are tested according to the American National Standards Institute ANSI S12\.6\-1997 and are rated using the Noise Reduction Rating Subject Fit NRR(SF). Australia and New Zealand have different standards for protector ratings yielding a quantity SLC80 (Sound Level Class for the 80th percentile). Canada implements a class system for rating the performance of protectors. Gauger and Berger have reviewed the merits of several different rating methods and developed a rating system that is the basis of a new American National Standard, ANSI S12\.68\-2007 The various methods have slightly different interpretations, but each method has a percentile associated with the rating. That percent of the users should be able to achieve the rated attenuation. For instance, the NRR is determined by the mean attenuation minus two standard deviations. Thus, it translates to a 98% statistic. That is, at least 98 percent of users should be able to achieve that level of attenuation. The SNR and HML are a mean minus one standard deviation statistic. Therefore, approximately 86% of the users should be able to achieve that level of protection. Similarly, the NRR (SF) is a mean minus one standard deviation and represents an 86% of users should achieve that level of protection. The difference between the ratings lies in how the protectors are tested. NRR is tested with an experimenter\-fit protocol. SNR/HML are tested with an experienced subject\-fit protocol. NRR (SF) is tested with a naive subject\-fit protocol. According to Murphy, et al. (2004\), these three protocols will yield different amounts of attenuation with the NRR being the greatest and NRR (SF) being the least. The experimenter\-fit NRR should be adjusted per the guidelines of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health as the required NRR ratings differ greatly from lab tests to field tests. The NRR(SF) used in Brazil, Australia, and New Zealand does not require derating as it resembles the manner in which the typical user will wear hearing protection. #### Noise Reduction Rating (NRR) [Hearing protectors](/wiki/Hearing_protection_device "Hearing protection device") sold in the US are required by the EPA to have a noise reduction rating (NRR),{{cite web\|url\=http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text\-idx?c\=ecfr;rgn\=div5;view\=text;node\=40%3A24\.0\.1\.2\.14;idno\=40;sid\=19269b8f1aa80c731d6cc056ae8f850c;cc\=ecfr\#40:24\.0\.1\.2\.14\.2\.17\.14 \|title\=EPA Standard, Title 20, Part 211 \|publisher\=Ecfr.gpoaccess.gov \|date\=2012\-10\-09 \|access\-date\=2013\-06\-22}} which is an estimate of noise reduction at the ear when protectors are worn properly. Real\-ear attenuation at threshold (REAT) measurements are performed multiple times with 10 to 20 subjects to determine the NRR. Using the collected data, an average group attenuation is reported along with a standard deviation for attenuation on the hearing protector package. Due to the discrepancy between how protectors are fit in the testing laboratory and how users wear protectors in the real world, the [Occupational Safety and Health Administration](/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration "Occupational Safety and Health Administration") (OSHA) and the [National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health](/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health "National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health") (NIOSH) have developed derating formulas to reduce the effective NRR. While the NRR and the SNR (Single Number Rating) are designed to be used with [C\-weighted](/wiki/A-weighting "A-weighting") noise, which means that the lower frequencies are not de\-emphasized, other ratings (NRR(SF) and NRSA) are determined for use with A\-weighted noise levels, which have lower frequencies de\-emphasized. NIOSH recommended and the U.S. EPA mandated that 7\-dB compensation between C and A weighting be applied when the NRR is used with A\-weighted noise levels. The OSHA training manual for inspectors says the adequacy of hearing protection for use in a hazardous noise environment should be derated to account for how workers typically wear protection relative to how manufacturers test the protector's attenuation in the laboratory.Occupational Health and Safety Administration, January, 1999\. The OSHA Technical Manual, OSHA Publication, [Section IV, Appendix IV: C.](http://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/noise/hcp/attenuation_estimation.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061009005341/http://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/noise/hcp/attenuation\_estimation.html \|date\=2006\-10\-09 }} For all types of hearing protection, OSHA's derating factor is 50%. If used with C\-weighted noise, the derated NRR will become NRR/2\. If used with A\-weighted noise, OSHA applies the 7\-dB adjustment for C\-A weighting first then derates the remainder. For example, a protector with 33\-dB attenuation would have this derating: Derated NRR \= (33 – 7\)/2 NIOSH has proposed a different method for derating based upon the type of protector.Linda Rosenstock et al. {{cite book \|title\=Criteria for a Recommended Standard: Occupational Noise Exposure], NIOSH Publication, No. 98\-126 \|date\=June 1998 \|location\=Cincinnati, Ohio \|page\=7 \|url\=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/98\-126/default.html \|access\-date\=10 August 2022 \|language\=en \|edition\= 2nd\|chapter\=1\.6\.4 Confirmation Audiogram, Significant Threshold Shift, and Follow\-up Action \|quote\=When a significant threshold shift has been validated, the employer shall take appropriate action to protect the worker from additional hearing loss due to occupational noise exposure. Examples of appropriate action include explanation of the effects of hearing loss, reinstruction and refitting of hearing protectors, additional training of the worker in hearing loss prevention, and reassignment of the worker to a quieter work area.\|doi\=10\.26616/NIOSHPUB98126}} For [earmuffs](/wiki/Earmuffs "Earmuffs"), the NRR should be derated by 25%, for slow\-recovery foam earplugs the derating is 50% for all other protection, the derating is 70%. NIOSH applies the C\-A spectral compensation differently than OSHA. Where OSHA subtracts the 7\-dB factor first and derates the result, NIOSH derates the NRR first and then compensates for the C\-A difference. For example, to find the derated NRR for an earmuff by using the NIOSH derating system, the following equation would be used: Derated NRR \= (Original NRR x (1\-.25\)) – 7 Painful discomfort occurs at approximately 120 to 125 dB(A),{{in lang\|de\|en}} [Schalldämpfer \= Gehörschützer für Jäger, data collected on noise levels](http://www.lima-wiederladetechnik.de/Schalldaempfer/Schalldaempfer.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090328141932/http://www.lima\-wiederladetechnik.de/Schalldaempfer/Schalldaempfer.htm \|date\=2009\-03\-28 }} with some references claiming 133 dB(A) for the threshold of pain.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.earplugstore.com/morabshootea.html\#\|title\=More About: Shooting/Hunting Hearing Protection\|website\=www.earplugstore.com\|access\-date\=2017\-03\-03}} Active [ear muffs](/wiki/Ear_muffs "Ear muffs") are available with electronic noise cancellation that can reduce direct path ear canal noise by approximately 17–33 dB, depending on the low, medium, or high frequency at which attenuation is measured.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.3m.com/3M/en\_US/company\-us/search/?Ntt\=active\+ear\+muffs\+with\+electronic\+noise\+cancellation \|title\=Search results for "active ear muffs with electronic noise cancellation" \|website\=\[\[3M]]}}{{rs\|date\=October 2022\|reason\=primary corporate advertising source}} Passive earplugs vary in their measured attenuation, ranging from 20 dB to 30 dB, depending on the fit of the earplugs, whether the employee can and knows how to insert the earplugs into the ear canal correctly, and whether they are used correctly{{cite book \|last1\=Berger \|first1\=Elliott H.\|last2\= Voix \|first2\= Jérémie \|editor\=D.K. Meinke \|editor2\=E.H. Berger \|editor3\=R. Neitzel \|editor4\=D.P. Driscoll \|editor5\=K. Bright \|title\=The Noise Manual \|date\=2018 \|publisher\=American Industrial Hygiene Association \|location\=Falls Church, Virginia \|pages\=255–308 \|edition\=6th \|url\=https://online\-ams.aiha.org/amsssa/ecssashop.show\_product\_detail?p\_mode\=detail\&p\_product\_serno\=2719 \|access\-date\=10 August 2022 \|language\=en \|chapter\=Chapter 11: Hearing Protection Devices}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Toivonen \|first1\=Markku \|last2\=Pääkkönen \|first2\=Rauno \|last3\=Savolainen \|first3\=Seppo \|last4\=Lehtomäki \|first4\=Kyösti \|title\=Noise Attenuation and Proper Insertion of Earplugs into Ear Canals \|journal\=The Annals of Occupational Hygiene \|date\=2002\-08\-01 \|volume\=46 \|issue\=6 \|pages\=527–530 \|doi\=10\.1093/annhyg/mef065 \|pmid\=12176767 \|url\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11210051 \|access\-date\=27 October 2023 \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|location\=Oxford, UK \|language\=en \|issn\=2398\-7308\|doi\-access\=free }} and if low pass mechanical filters are also being used. #### Double protection The Canadian standard requires the use of two passive protective measures simultaneously at noise levels above 105 dBA. But the noise reduction does not increase very much. It is recommended to estimate the attenuation by adding 5 dB to the highest attenuation of one of the two HPDs. This recommendation does not take into account individual differences at all, and may lead to error.{{cite book \|last1\=Behar \|first1\=Alberto \|last2\=E.H. Berger, I.B. Bhunnoo \|title\=Z94\.2\-14\. Hearing protection devices — Performance, selection, care and use \|date\=2014 \|publisher\=Canadian Standards Association (CSA Group) \|location\=Toronto, Ontario, Canada \|isbn\=978\-1\-77139\-417\-8 \|pages\=27–28 \|edition\=7th \|url\=https://www.csagroup.org/store/product/2701515/ \|access\-date\=25 October 2023 \|language\=en \|chapter\=9\.7 Double protection}} Using both ear muffs (whether passive or active) and earplugs simultaneously results in maximum protection, but the efficacy of such combined protection relative to preventing permanent ear damage is inconclusive, with evidence indicating that a combined noise reduction ratio (NRR) of only 36 dB (C\-weighted) is the maximum possible using ear muffs and earplugs simultaneously, equating to only a 36 \- 7 \= 29 dB(A) protection. Some high\-end, passive, custom\-molded earplugs also have a mechanical filter inserted into the center of the earmolded plug, with a small opening facing to the outside; this design permits being able to hear range commands at a gun range, for example, while still having full rating impulse noise protection. Such custom molded earplugs with low pass filter and mechanical valve typically have a \+85 dB(A) mechanical clamp, in addition to having a [lowpass filter](/wiki/Low-pass_filter "Low-pass filter") response, thereby providing typically 30\-31 dB attenuation to loud impulse noises, with only a 21 dB reduction under low noise conditions across the human voice audible frequency range (300–4000 Hz) (thereby providing low attenuation between shots being fired), to permit hearing range commands. Similar functions are also available in standardized earplugs that are not custom molded.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.earplugstore.com/health\-enterprises\-acu\-life\-shooters\-impact\-ear\-plugs.html\|title\=Health Enterprises ACU\-LIFE Shooter's Ear Plugs (Sonic Valve II)\|website\=www.earplugstore.com\|access\-date\=2017\-03\-03}}{{failed verification\|date\=June 2022}} #### Derating in several countries | Country, organization | Roll\-down foam earplugs | Pre\-molded earplugs | Earmuffs | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | USA, OSHA | 2 times reduction | 2 times | 2 times | USA, NIOSH | 2 times | 3\.3 times | 1\.33 times | Italy | 2 times | 3\.3 times | 1\.33 times | UK | 4 dB reduction | 4 dB | 4 dB | France | 10 dB | 10 dB | 5\-7 dB | Germany | 9 dB | 5 dB | 5 dB | The wide variation in recommendations may be due in part to the very large inter\-individual variability in results that cannot be predicted; but can be taken into account by [individual measurements](/wiki/Hearing_protection_fit-testing "Hearing protection fit-testing"). #### Expected updates In 2007, the [American National Standards Institute](/wiki/American_National_Standards_Institute "American National Standards Institute") published a new standard for noise reduction ratings for hearing protectors, ANSI S12\.68\-2007\. Using the real ear attenuation at threshold data collected by a laboratory test prescribed in ANSI S12\.6\-2008, the noise reduction statistic for A\-weighted noise (NRSA) is computed using a set of 100 noises listed in the standard.ANSI S12\.68 (2007\). American National Standard Methods of Estimating Effective A\-Weighted Sound Pressure Levels When Hearing Protectors, are Worn, American National Standards Institute, New York. The noise reduction rating, rather than be computed for a single noise spectrum the NRSA incorporates variability of both subject and spectral effects. ANSI S12\.68 also defines a method to estimate the performance of a protector in an atypical noise environment. Building upon work from the [U.S. Air Force](/wiki/U.S._Air_Force "U.S. Air Force") and the ISO 4869\-2 standard,ISO 4869\-2 (1994\). *Acoustics—Hearing Protectors Part 2: Estimation of effective A\-weighted sound pressure levels when hearing protectors are worn,* International Organization for Standardization, Geneva. the protector's attenuation as a function of the difference in C and A\-weighted noise level is used to predict typical performance in that noise environment. The derating may be quite severe (10 to 15 decibels) for protectors that have significant differences between low and high frequency attenuation. For "flat" attenuation protectors, the effect of C\-A is less. This new system eliminates the need for calculators, relies on graphs and databases of empirical data, and is believed to be a more accurate system for determining NRRs.
[ "### Rating", "{{main\\|Hearing protection fit\\-testing}}\nThe [United States Environmental Protection Agency](/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency \"United States Environmental Protection Agency\") (EPA) mandates that hearing protection is rated and labeled. To be rated, hearing protection is tested under ANSI S3\\.19\\-1974 to provide a range of attenuation values at each frequency that can then be used to calculate a Noise Reduction Rating (NRR). Under this standard a panel of ten subjects are tested three times each in a laboratory to determine the attenuation over a range of 9 frequencies.", "In the European Union, hearing protectors are required to be tested according to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) acoustical testing standard, ISO 4869 Part 1 and the Single Number Rating (SNR) or High/Middle/Low (HML) ratings are calculated according to ISO 4869 Part 2\\. In Brazil, hearing protectors are tested according to the American National Standards Institute ANSI S12\\.6\\-1997 and are rated using the Noise Reduction Rating Subject Fit NRR(SF). Australia and New Zealand have different standards for protector ratings yielding a quantity SLC80 (Sound Level Class for the 80th percentile). Canada implements a class system for rating the performance of protectors. Gauger and Berger have reviewed the merits of several different rating methods and developed a rating system that is the basis of a new American National Standard, ANSI S12\\.68\\-2007", "The various methods have slightly different interpretations, but each method has a percentile associated with the rating. That percent of the users should be able to achieve the rated attenuation. For instance, the NRR is determined by the mean attenuation minus two standard deviations. Thus, it translates to a 98% statistic. That is, at least 98 percent of users should be able to achieve that level of attenuation. The SNR and HML are a mean minus one standard deviation statistic. Therefore, approximately 86% of the users should be able to achieve that level of protection. Similarly, the NRR (SF) is a mean minus one standard deviation and represents an 86% of users should achieve that level of protection. The difference between the ratings lies in how the protectors are tested. NRR is tested with an experimenter\\-fit protocol. SNR/HML are tested with an experienced subject\\-fit protocol. NRR (SF) is tested with a naive subject\\-fit protocol. According to Murphy, et al. (2004\\), these three protocols will yield different amounts of attenuation with the NRR being the greatest and NRR (SF) being the least.", "The experimenter\\-fit NRR should be adjusted per the guidelines of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health as the required NRR ratings differ greatly from lab tests to field tests.", "The NRR(SF) used in Brazil, Australia, and New Zealand does not require derating as it resembles the manner in which the typical user will wear hearing protection.", "#### Noise Reduction Rating (NRR)", "[Hearing protectors](/wiki/Hearing_protection_device \"Hearing protection device\") sold in the US are required by the EPA to have a noise reduction rating (NRR),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text\\-idx?c\\=ecfr;rgn\\=div5;view\\=text;node\\=40%3A24\\.0\\.1\\.2\\.14;idno\\=40;sid\\=19269b8f1aa80c731d6cc056ae8f850c;cc\\=ecfr\\#40:24\\.0\\.1\\.2\\.14\\.2\\.17\\.14 \\|title\\=EPA Standard, Title 20, Part 211 \\|publisher\\=Ecfr.gpoaccess.gov \\|date\\=2012\\-10\\-09 \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-06\\-22}} which is an estimate of noise reduction at the ear when protectors are worn properly.", "Real\\-ear attenuation at threshold (REAT) measurements are performed multiple times with 10 to 20 subjects to determine the NRR. Using the collected data, an average group attenuation is reported along with a standard deviation for attenuation on the hearing protector package.", "Due to the discrepancy between how protectors are fit in the testing laboratory and how users wear protectors in the real world, the [Occupational Safety and Health Administration](/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration \"Occupational Safety and Health Administration\") (OSHA) and the [National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health](/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health \"National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health\") (NIOSH) have developed derating formulas to reduce the effective NRR.", "While the NRR and the SNR (Single Number Rating) are designed to be used with [C\\-weighted](/wiki/A-weighting \"A-weighting\") noise, which means that the lower frequencies are not de\\-emphasized, other ratings (NRR(SF) and NRSA) are determined for use with A\\-weighted noise levels, which have lower frequencies de\\-emphasized. NIOSH recommended and the U.S. EPA mandated that 7\\-dB compensation between C and A weighting be applied when the NRR is used with A\\-weighted noise levels.", "The OSHA training manual for inspectors says the adequacy of hearing protection for use in a hazardous noise environment should be derated to account for how workers typically wear protection relative to how manufacturers test the protector's attenuation in the laboratory.Occupational Health and Safety Administration, January, 1999\\. The OSHA Technical Manual, OSHA Publication, [Section IV, Appendix IV: C.](http://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/noise/hcp/attenuation_estimation.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061009005341/http://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/noise/hcp/attenuation\\_estimation.html \\|date\\=2006\\-10\\-09 }} For all types of hearing protection, OSHA's derating factor is 50%. If used with C\\-weighted noise, the derated NRR will become NRR/2\\. If used with A\\-weighted noise, OSHA applies the 7\\-dB adjustment for C\\-A weighting first then derates the remainder. For example, a protector with 33\\-dB attenuation would have this derating:", "Derated NRR \\= (33 – 7\\)/2\nNIOSH has proposed a different method for derating based upon the type of protector.Linda Rosenstock et al. {{cite book \\|title\\=Criteria for a Recommended Standard: Occupational Noise Exposure], NIOSH Publication, No. 98\\-126 \\|date\\=June 1998 \\|location\\=Cincinnati, Ohio \\|page\\=7 \\|url\\=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/98\\-126/default.html \\|access\\-date\\=10 August 2022 \\|language\\=en \\|edition\\= 2nd\\|chapter\\=1\\.6\\.4 Confirmation Audiogram, Significant Threshold Shift, and Follow\\-up Action \\|quote\\=When a significant threshold shift has been validated, the employer shall take appropriate action to protect the worker from additional hearing loss due to occupational noise exposure. Examples of appropriate action include explanation of the effects of hearing loss, reinstruction and refitting of hearing protectors, additional training of the worker in hearing loss prevention, and reassignment of the worker to a quieter work area.\\|doi\\=10\\.26616/NIOSHPUB98126}} For [earmuffs](/wiki/Earmuffs \"Earmuffs\"), the NRR should be derated by 25%, for slow\\-recovery foam earplugs the derating is 50% for all other protection, the derating is 70%. NIOSH applies the C\\-A spectral compensation differently than OSHA. Where OSHA subtracts the 7\\-dB factor first and derates the result, NIOSH derates the NRR first and then compensates for the C\\-A difference. For example, to find the derated NRR for an earmuff by using the NIOSH derating system, the following equation would be used:", "Derated NRR \\= (Original NRR x (1\\-.25\\)) – 7\nPainful discomfort occurs at approximately 120 to 125 dB(A),{{in lang\\|de\\|en}} [Schalldämpfer \\= Gehörschützer für Jäger, data collected on noise levels](http://www.lima-wiederladetechnik.de/Schalldaempfer/Schalldaempfer.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090328141932/http://www.lima\\-wiederladetechnik.de/Schalldaempfer/Schalldaempfer.htm \\|date\\=2009\\-03\\-28 }} with some references claiming 133 dB(A) for the threshold of pain.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.earplugstore.com/morabshootea.html\\#\\|title\\=More About: Shooting/Hunting Hearing Protection\\|website\\=www.earplugstore.com\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-03}} Active [ear muffs](/wiki/Ear_muffs \"Ear muffs\") are available with electronic noise cancellation that can reduce direct path ear canal noise by approximately 17–33 dB, depending on the low, medium, or high frequency at which attenuation is measured.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.3m.com/3M/en\\_US/company\\-us/search/?Ntt\\=active\\+ear\\+muffs\\+with\\+electronic\\+noise\\+cancellation \\|title\\=Search results for \"active ear muffs with electronic noise cancellation\" \\|website\\=\\[\\[3M]]}}{{rs\\|date\\=October 2022\\|reason\\=primary corporate advertising source}} Passive earplugs vary in their measured attenuation, ranging from 20 dB to 30 dB, depending on the fit of the earplugs, whether the employee can and knows how to insert the earplugs into the ear canal correctly, and whether they are used correctly{{cite book \\|last1\\=Berger \\|first1\\=Elliott H.\\|last2\\= Voix \\|first2\\= Jérémie \\|editor\\=D.K. Meinke \\|editor2\\=E.H. Berger \\|editor3\\=R. Neitzel \\|editor4\\=D.P. Driscoll \\|editor5\\=K. Bright \\|title\\=The Noise Manual \\|date\\=2018 \\|publisher\\=American Industrial Hygiene Association \\|location\\=Falls Church, Virginia \\|pages\\=255–308 \\|edition\\=6th \\|url\\=https://online\\-ams.aiha.org/amsssa/ecssashop.show\\_product\\_detail?p\\_mode\\=detail\\&p\\_product\\_serno\\=2719 \\|access\\-date\\=10 August 2022 \\|language\\=en \\|chapter\\=Chapter 11: Hearing Protection Devices}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Toivonen \\|first1\\=Markku \\|last2\\=Pääkkönen \\|first2\\=Rauno \\|last3\\=Savolainen \\|first3\\=Seppo \\|last4\\=Lehtomäki \\|first4\\=Kyösti \\|title\\=Noise Attenuation and Proper Insertion of Earplugs into Ear Canals \\|journal\\=The Annals of Occupational Hygiene \\|date\\=2002\\-08\\-01 \\|volume\\=46 \\|issue\\=6 \\|pages\\=527–530 \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/annhyg/mef065 \\|pmid\\=12176767 \\|url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11210051 \\|access\\-date\\=27 October 2023 \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|location\\=Oxford, UK \\|language\\=en \\|issn\\=2398\\-7308\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} and if low pass mechanical filters are also being used.", "#### Double protection", "The Canadian standard requires the use of two passive protective measures simultaneously at noise levels above 105 dBA. But the noise reduction does not increase very much. It is recommended to estimate the attenuation by adding 5 dB to the highest attenuation of one of the two HPDs. This recommendation does not take into account individual differences at all, and may lead to error.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Behar \\|first1\\=Alberto \\|last2\\=E.H. Berger, I.B. Bhunnoo \\|title\\=Z94\\.2\\-14\\. Hearing protection devices — Performance, selection, care and use \\|date\\=2014 \\|publisher\\=Canadian Standards Association (CSA Group) \\|location\\=Toronto, Ontario, Canada \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-77139\\-417\\-8 \\|pages\\=27–28 \\|edition\\=7th \\|url\\=https://www.csagroup.org/store/product/2701515/ \\|access\\-date\\=25 October 2023 \\|language\\=en \\|chapter\\=9\\.7 Double protection}}", "Using both ear muffs (whether passive or active) and earplugs simultaneously results in maximum protection, but the efficacy of such combined protection relative to preventing permanent ear damage is inconclusive, with evidence indicating that a combined noise reduction ratio (NRR) of only 36 dB (C\\-weighted) is the maximum possible using ear muffs and earplugs simultaneously, equating to only a 36 \\- 7 \\= 29 dB(A) protection. Some high\\-end, passive, custom\\-molded earplugs also have a mechanical filter inserted into the center of the earmolded plug, with a small opening facing to the outside; this design permits being able to hear range commands at a gun range, for example, while still having full rating impulse noise protection.", "Such custom molded earplugs with low pass filter and mechanical valve typically have a \\+85 dB(A) mechanical clamp, in addition to having a [lowpass filter](/wiki/Low-pass_filter \"Low-pass filter\") response, thereby providing typically 30\\-31 dB attenuation to loud impulse noises, with only a 21 dB reduction under low noise conditions across the human voice audible frequency range (300–4000 Hz) (thereby providing low attenuation between shots being fired), to permit hearing range commands. Similar functions are also available in standardized earplugs that are not custom molded.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.earplugstore.com/health\\-enterprises\\-acu\\-life\\-shooters\\-impact\\-ear\\-plugs.html\\|title\\=Health Enterprises ACU\\-LIFE Shooter's Ear Plugs (Sonic Valve II)\\|website\\=www.earplugstore.com\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-03}}{{failed verification\\|date\\=June 2022}}", "#### Derating in several countries", "", "| Country, organization | Roll\\-down foam earplugs | Pre\\-molded earplugs | Earmuffs |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| USA, OSHA | 2 times reduction | 2 times | 2 times |", "USA, NIOSH | 2 times | 3\\.3 times | 1\\.33 times |\n Italy | 2 times | 3\\.3 times | 1\\.33 times |\n UK | 4 dB reduction | 4 dB | 4 dB |\n France | 10 dB | 10 dB | 5\\-7 dB |\n Germany | 9 dB | 5 dB | 5 dB |", "The wide variation in recommendations may be due in part to the very large inter\\-individual variability in results that cannot be predicted; but can be taken into account by [individual measurements](/wiki/Hearing_protection_fit-testing \"Hearing protection fit-testing\").", "#### Expected updates", "In 2007, the [American National Standards Institute](/wiki/American_National_Standards_Institute \"American National Standards Institute\") published a new standard for noise reduction ratings for hearing protectors, ANSI S12\\.68\\-2007\\. Using the real ear attenuation at threshold data collected by a laboratory test prescribed in ANSI S12\\.6\\-2008, the noise reduction statistic for A\\-weighted noise (NRSA) is computed using a set of 100 noises listed in the standard.ANSI S12\\.68 (2007\\). American National Standard Methods of Estimating Effective A\\-Weighted Sound Pressure Levels When Hearing Protectors, are Worn, American National Standards Institute, New York. The noise reduction rating, rather than be computed for a single noise spectrum the NRSA incorporates variability of both subject and spectral effects. ANSI S12\\.68 also defines a method to estimate the performance of a protector in an atypical noise environment.", "Building upon work from the [U.S. Air Force](/wiki/U.S._Air_Force \"U.S. Air Force\") and the ISO 4869\\-2 standard,ISO 4869\\-2 (1994\\). *Acoustics—Hearing Protectors Part 2: Estimation of effective A\\-weighted sound pressure levels when hearing protectors are worn,* International Organization for Standardization, Geneva. the protector's attenuation as a function of the difference in C and A\\-weighted noise level is used to predict typical performance in that noise environment. The derating may be quite severe (10 to 15 decibels) for protectors that have significant differences between low and high frequency attenuation. For \"flat\" attenuation protectors, the effect of C\\-A is less. This new system eliminates the need for calculators, relies on graphs and databases of empirical data, and is believed to be a more accurate system for determining NRRs.", "" ]
Biography --------- In 1863, he entered [Saint Petersburg University](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_University "Saint Petersburg University"), where he studied history and [philology](/wiki/Philology "Philology").{{ВТ\-ЭСБЕ\|Прахов, Адриан Викторович\|том\=XXIVa\|страницы\=956—957}} After graduating in 1867, he was sent abroad for further studies, in preparation for employment with the department of art history. In Munich, he attended the lectures of several scientists, including [Heinrich Brunn](/wiki/Heinrich_Brunn "Heinrich Brunn"), and studied the examples of [Ancient Greek art](/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art "Ancient Greek art") in the collection of the [Glyptothek](/wiki/Glyptothek "Glyptothek"). This was followed by similar studies in Paris, London, Berlin, Vienna and Italy, where he became a member of the [German Archaeological Institute](/wiki/German_Archaeological_Institute "German Archaeological Institute") of Rome.[Biographical notes](http://bioslovhist.history.spbu.ru/component/fabrik/details/1/1277.html) by E.P. Potekhina @ Биографика СПбГУ/ Upon returning in 1873, he was awarded a master's degree for his thesis, "On the restoration of the eastern group of pediments at the temple to [Aegina](/wiki/Aegina_%28mythology%29 "Aegina (mythology)") in Athens". Shortly after, he was chosen to be a lecturer. From 1875 to 1878, he edited an illustrated magazine called *{{ill\|Пчела (журнал)\|ru\|lt\=Пчела}}* (The Bee) and, from the same year to 1887, he taught the history and theory of fine art at the [Imperial Academy of Arts](/wiki/Imperial_Academy_of_Arts "Imperial Academy of Arts"). He received his doctoral degree in 1879 for his dissertation, "The Architecture of Ancient Egypt". After that, he turned to [Ancient Russian](/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rus "Culture of ancient Rus") art of the early Christian period, researching and sketching the mosaics and murals at [Saint Sophia's Cathedral](/wiki/Saint_Sophia%27s_Cathedral%2C_Kyiv "Saint Sophia's Cathedral, Kyiv") and [St. Cyril's Monastery](/wiki/St._Cyril%27s_Monastery_%28Kyiv%29 "St. Cyril's Monastery (Kyiv)") in Kyiv. From 1881 to 1882 he traveled throughout Greece, Turkey, and the Middle East. In 1886, he studied the Assumption Cathedral and several other structures in [Volodymyr\-Volynskyi](/wiki/Volodymyr-Volynskyi "Volodymyr-Volynskyi"). The following year, he copied the unique frescoes at [St. Michael's Monastery](/wiki/St._Michael%27s_Golden-Domed_Monastery "St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery"). The originals were lost in 1934, when the Soviet government demolished the monastery. That same year (1887\), Prakhov moved from the University of Saint Petersburg to the [University of Kyiv](/wiki/Taras_Shevchenko_National_University_of_Kyiv "Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv"), where he taught until 1897\. While there, he was in charge of managing interior decoration for [St Volodymyr's Cathedral](/wiki/St_Volodymyr%27s_Cathedral "St Volodymyr's Cathedral"), including marble and bronze works, frescoes and furniture. He made two trips to Greece to study [Byzantine](/wiki/Byzantine_art "Byzantine art") decorative styles and oversaw a large group of well\-known Russian and Ukrainian painters, including [Victor Vasnetsov](/wiki/Victor_Vasnetsov "Victor Vasnetsov") and [Mikhail Nesterov](/wiki/Mikhail_Nesterov "Mikhail Nesterov"). In 1897, he returned to his former chair in Saint Petersburg and remained there until his death. After 1901, he and [Alexandre Benois](/wiki/Alexandre_Benois "Alexandre Benois") edited *Художественные сокровища России* (Russian Art Treasures), the monthly journal of the [Imperial Society for the Encouragement of the Arts](/wiki/Imperial_Society_for_the_Encouragement_of_the_Arts "Imperial Society for the Encouragement of the Arts"). His wife, {{ill\|Emilia Lestel\|ru\|Прахова, Эмилия Львовна}}, was a concert pianist who had studied with [Franz Liszt](/wiki/Franz_Liszt "Franz Liszt") and also posed as a model for the painter, [Mikhail Vrubel](/wiki/Mikhail_Vrubel "Mikhail Vrubel"). His son, {{ill\|Прахов, Николай Адрианович\|ru\|lt\=Nikolai}}, was a painter and art historian. His daughter, {{ill\|Прахова, Елена Адриановна\|ru\|lt\=Elena}}, was an amateur artist, and worked as a model for [Mikhail Nesterov](/wiki/Mikhail_Nesterov "Mikhail Nesterov"), to whom she was briefly engaged.
[ "Biography\n---------", "In 1863, he entered [Saint Petersburg University](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_University \"Saint Petersburg University\"), where he studied history and [philology](/wiki/Philology \"Philology\").{{ВТ\\-ЭСБЕ\\|Прахов, Адриан Викторович\\|том\\=XXIVa\\|страницы\\=956—957}} After graduating in 1867, he was sent abroad for further studies, in preparation for employment with the department of art history.", "In Munich, he attended the lectures of several scientists, including [Heinrich Brunn](/wiki/Heinrich_Brunn \"Heinrich Brunn\"), and studied the examples of [Ancient Greek art](/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art \"Ancient Greek art\") in the collection of the [Glyptothek](/wiki/Glyptothek \"Glyptothek\"). This was followed by similar studies in Paris, London, Berlin, Vienna and Italy, where he became a member of the [German Archaeological Institute](/wiki/German_Archaeological_Institute \"German Archaeological Institute\") of Rome.[Biographical notes](http://bioslovhist.history.spbu.ru/component/fabrik/details/1/1277.html) by E.P. Potekhina @ Биографика СПбГУ/ Upon returning in 1873, he was awarded a master's degree for his thesis, \"On the restoration of the eastern group of pediments at the temple to [Aegina](/wiki/Aegina_%28mythology%29 \"Aegina (mythology)\") in Athens\". Shortly after, he was chosen to be a lecturer.", "From 1875 to 1878, he edited an illustrated magazine called *{{ill\\|Пчела (журнал)\\|ru\\|lt\\=Пчела}}* (The Bee) and, from the same year to 1887, he taught the history and theory of fine art at the [Imperial Academy of Arts](/wiki/Imperial_Academy_of_Arts \"Imperial Academy of Arts\"). He received his doctoral degree in 1879 for his dissertation, \"The Architecture of Ancient Egypt\".\nAfter that, he turned to [Ancient Russian](/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rus \"Culture of ancient Rus\") art of the early Christian period, researching and sketching the mosaics and murals at [Saint Sophia's Cathedral](/wiki/Saint_Sophia%27s_Cathedral%2C_Kyiv \"Saint Sophia's Cathedral, Kyiv\") and [St. Cyril's Monastery](/wiki/St._Cyril%27s_Monastery_%28Kyiv%29 \"St. Cyril's Monastery (Kyiv)\") in Kyiv. From 1881 to 1882 he traveled throughout Greece, Turkey, and the Middle East. In 1886, he studied the Assumption Cathedral and several other structures in [Volodymyr\\-Volynskyi](/wiki/Volodymyr-Volynskyi \"Volodymyr-Volynskyi\").", "The following year, he copied the unique frescoes at [St. Michael's Monastery](/wiki/St._Michael%27s_Golden-Domed_Monastery \"St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery\"). The originals were lost in 1934, when the Soviet government demolished the monastery. That same year (1887\\), Prakhov moved from the University of Saint Petersburg to the [University of Kyiv](/wiki/Taras_Shevchenko_National_University_of_Kyiv \"Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv\"), where he taught until 1897\\.", "While there, he was in charge of managing interior decoration for [St Volodymyr's Cathedral](/wiki/St_Volodymyr%27s_Cathedral \"St Volodymyr's Cathedral\"), including marble and bronze works, frescoes and furniture. He made two trips to Greece to study [Byzantine](/wiki/Byzantine_art \"Byzantine art\") decorative styles and oversaw a large group of well\\-known Russian and Ukrainian painters, including [Victor Vasnetsov](/wiki/Victor_Vasnetsov \"Victor Vasnetsov\") and [Mikhail Nesterov](/wiki/Mikhail_Nesterov \"Mikhail Nesterov\"). In 1897, he returned to his former chair in Saint Petersburg and remained there until his death. After 1901, he and [Alexandre Benois](/wiki/Alexandre_Benois \"Alexandre Benois\") edited *Художественные сокровища России* (Russian Art Treasures), the monthly journal of the [Imperial Society for the Encouragement of the Arts](/wiki/Imperial_Society_for_the_Encouragement_of_the_Arts \"Imperial Society for the Encouragement of the Arts\").", "His wife, {{ill\\|Emilia Lestel\\|ru\\|Прахова, Эмилия Львовна}}, was a concert pianist who had studied with [Franz Liszt](/wiki/Franz_Liszt \"Franz Liszt\") and also posed as a model for the painter, [Mikhail Vrubel](/wiki/Mikhail_Vrubel \"Mikhail Vrubel\"). His son, {{ill\\|Прахов, Николай Адрианович\\|ru\\|lt\\=Nikolai}}, was a painter and art historian. His daughter, {{ill\\|Прахова, Елена Адриановна\\|ru\\|lt\\=Elena}}, was an amateur artist, and worked as a model for [Mikhail Nesterov](/wiki/Mikhail_Nesterov \"Mikhail Nesterov\"), to whom she was briefly engaged.", "" ]
Methods ------- ### Earthwork surveys Earthwork surveys are the search for manmade modifications to the environment or ground such as [trenches](/wiki/Trench_warfare "Trench warfare") or holes. Depending on the time period of the battlefield being studied, earthwork surveys will exhibit varying degrees of success. Before modern history such as medieval history, open battlefields were the primary battlegrounds. Within the last two centuries, trench warfare has become increasingly popular allowing earthwork surveys to become far more useful. These time dependent characteristics on battlefields can typologically identify and date earthworks. This will help remove any confusion such as placing trench warfare with Egyptian warfare tactics. ### Geophysical surveys Battlefield archaeologists utilize a variety of geophysical instruments. These instruments have the ability to identify the irregularity (artifact, bone, wall) and omit any other background material such as dirt or naturally occurring elements. #### Metal detector The [metal detector](/wiki/Metal_detector "Metal detector") is the most common instrument used within battlefield archaeology. The location of fragments on metal are located by using an induced [magnetic field](/wiki/Magnetic_field "Magnetic field") within a certain proximity to the head of the detector. The quality of the instrument varies allowing for a range of depth quality. A metal detector generally works to a maximum depth of between 20–30cm deep for smaller objects. Battlefield archaeologists are most successful with metal detectors when using them in large groups. Novice users of metal detectors can easily miss or record misleading data. #### Fluxgate gradiometer A [fluxgate gradiometer](/wiki/Magnetometer "Magnetometer") records anomalies in the Earth’s magnetic field across a specific area. These detectors are especially useful when detecting ferrous items. They detect [ferrous](/wiki/Ferrous "Ferrous") spikes when a piece of ferrous metal is close to the instrument. These instruments are most useful the more recent the site’s artifacts have existed. Since iron has a natural tendency to change over time, fluxgate gradiometers have a tendency to fail in identifying locations where iron is present. These devices are very successful when locating mass graves on battlefields. Depending on the strength of the magnetic anomaly, a fluxgate gradiometer can have various degrees of success. They generally work at a depth of around 50cm. #### Electrical earth resistance meter An electrical earth resistance meter records differences in the [electrical conductivity](/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity "Electrical resistivity and conductivity") or [water content](/wiki/Water_content "Water content") within soil. These instruments are very effective at depths of less than 50cm deep. Electrical Earth resistance meters are very successful at located recent graves because recent grave fills often exhibit different moisture content compared to surroundings. #### Ground\-penetrating radar (GPR) [Ground\-penetrating radar](/wiki/Ground-penetrating_radar "Ground-penetrating radar") sends out electromagnetic radiation pulses to detect and then reflect signals from subsurface structures. The electromagnetic conductivity can drastically affect the limit of the device although they are usually effective up to several meters deep. In order to be effective, the anomaly being investigated needs to be distinct from the background material. ### Field walking [Field walking](/wiki/Survey_%28archaeology%29 "Survey (archaeology)") surveys are done by walking across a field looking for artifacts on the surface. A grid system is employed so as to mark the specific location an artifact was found and to map out the remaining artifacts in relation to each other. This process requires little expertise and minimal equipment as long as grid mapping is very effective and accurate. Depending on the circumstances, the artifacts are either collected or analyzed on site so their historical context is placid. ### Desktop assessments Desk\-top assessments are performed by searching through text based documents pertaining to the site in question. These can include maps, photographs, [primary sources](/wiki/Primary_source "Primary source"), and [secondary sources](/wiki/Secondary_source "Secondary source"). The issue with desk\-top assessments is that depending on the historical context, certain international conflicts can vary in accuracy.
[ "Methods\n-------", "### Earthwork surveys", "Earthwork surveys are the search for manmade modifications to the environment or ground such as [trenches](/wiki/Trench_warfare \"Trench warfare\") or holes. Depending on the time period of the battlefield being studied, earthwork surveys will exhibit varying degrees of success. Before modern history such as medieval history, open battlefields were the primary battlegrounds. Within the last two centuries, trench warfare has become increasingly popular allowing earthwork surveys to become far more useful. These time dependent characteristics on battlefields can typologically identify and date earthworks. This will help remove any confusion such as placing trench warfare with Egyptian warfare tactics.", "### Geophysical surveys", "Battlefield archaeologists utilize a variety of geophysical instruments. These instruments have the ability to identify the irregularity (artifact, bone, wall) and omit any other background material such as dirt or naturally occurring elements.", "#### Metal detector", "The [metal detector](/wiki/Metal_detector \"Metal detector\") is the most common instrument used within battlefield archaeology. The location of fragments on metal are located by using an induced [magnetic field](/wiki/Magnetic_field \"Magnetic field\") within a certain proximity to the head of the detector. The quality of the instrument varies allowing for a range of depth quality. A metal detector generally works to a maximum depth of between 20–30cm deep for smaller objects. Battlefield archaeologists are most successful with metal detectors when using them in large groups. Novice users of metal detectors can easily miss or record misleading data.", "#### Fluxgate gradiometer", "A [fluxgate gradiometer](/wiki/Magnetometer \"Magnetometer\") records anomalies in the Earth’s magnetic field across a specific area. These detectors are especially useful when detecting ferrous items. They detect [ferrous](/wiki/Ferrous \"Ferrous\") spikes when a piece of ferrous metal is close to the instrument. These instruments are most useful the more recent the site’s artifacts have existed. Since iron has a natural tendency to change over time, fluxgate gradiometers have a tendency to fail in identifying locations where iron is present. These devices are very successful when locating mass graves on battlefields. Depending on the strength of the magnetic anomaly, a fluxgate gradiometer can have various degrees of success. They generally work at a depth of around 50cm.", "#### Electrical earth resistance meter", "An electrical earth resistance meter records differences in the [electrical conductivity](/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity \"Electrical resistivity and conductivity\") or [water content](/wiki/Water_content \"Water content\") within soil. These instruments are very effective at depths of less than 50cm deep. Electrical Earth resistance meters are very successful at located recent graves because recent grave fills often exhibit different moisture content compared to surroundings.", "#### Ground\\-penetrating radar (GPR)", "[Ground\\-penetrating radar](/wiki/Ground-penetrating_radar \"Ground-penetrating radar\") sends out electromagnetic radiation pulses to detect and then reflect signals from subsurface structures. The electromagnetic conductivity can drastically affect the limit of the device although they are usually effective up to several meters deep. In order to be effective, the anomaly being investigated needs to be distinct from the background material.", "### Field walking", "[Field walking](/wiki/Survey_%28archaeology%29 \"Survey (archaeology)\") surveys are done by walking across a field looking for artifacts on the surface. A grid system is employed so as to mark the specific location an artifact was found and to map out the remaining artifacts in relation to each other. This process requires little expertise and minimal equipment as long as grid mapping is very effective and accurate. Depending on the circumstances, the artifacts are either collected or analyzed on site so their historical context is placid.", "### Desktop assessments", "Desk\\-top assessments are performed by searching through text based documents pertaining to the site in question. These can include maps, photographs, [primary sources](/wiki/Primary_source \"Primary source\"), and [secondary sources](/wiki/Secondary_source \"Secondary source\"). The issue with desk\\-top assessments is that depending on the historical context, certain international conflicts can vary in accuracy.", "" ]
World War I archaeology ----------------------- The First World War exhibited a conflict that mobilised large numbers of soldiers and a sophisticated and diverse array of material culture.Saunders, N.J. (2002\) Pg. 22 Battlefield Archaeology in this arena has dealt with the battlefields of conflict, where human action and technology shaped the landscape into recognisable and extensive features. It also concerns the study of material culture associated with individuals: including 'trench art', such as engraved shells and the personal belongings of private soldiers, officers and civilian staff. Excavations and survey work have also been conducted in southern [Jordan](/wiki/Jordan "Jordan"),Faulkner, N, [Saunders, N](/wiki/Nicholas_J._Saunders "Nicholas J. Saunders"), and Thope, D (2006\) The archaeology of Lawrence of Arabia’s war: a report on the Great Arab Revolt Project’s first field season in November 2006\. Current World Archaeology **23**, June/July 2007 known for the conflict during World War I between Ottoman forces, Bedouin tribes\-people and British forces commanded by [T.E. Lawrence](/wiki/T.E._Lawrence "T.E. Lawrence") (the '[Great Arab Revolt](/wiki/Great_Arab_Revolt "Great Arab Revolt")'). The project looked for the militarised footprint of the conflict, basing its conclusions on trench systems, army camps and the refuse of forces (small\-finds including coins, bullets and other military gear). ### Hazards Excavations on the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 "Western Front (World War I)") often occur for humanitarian reasons, namely the recovery and identification of human remains and the disposal of [unexploded ordnance](/wiki/Unexploded_ordnance "Unexploded ordnance"). The unique conditions of Western Front excavations often pose a threat for archaeological excavations. For example, during the first five hours of the Kaiserschlacht ('[German spring offensive](/wiki/German_spring_offensive "German spring offensive")'), over one million [shells](/wiki/Shell_%28projectile%29 "Shell (projectile)") were fired by the Germans into the [Allies](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I "Allies of World War I")' lines across the entire 150\-mile front.Rickard, J. "Second Battle of the Somme, 21 March\-4 April 1918\." History of War.org. August 27, 2007\.Accessed December, 05, 2018\. <http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/battles_sommeII.html> The million shells fired during the beginning of the Spring Offensive are only a small sample of the total used during the war. Most of the shell casings were dumped on the battlefields and a considerable number of shells did not detonate upon impact. Archaeologists conducting excavations at World War I sites are often at risk not just from the unexploded ordnance but from the environmental pollution caused by the deterioration of ordnance, shell and bullet casings, and various other forms of battlefield debris. A study conducted at the [Ypres battlefield](/wiki/Ypres_Salient "Ypres Salient") in 2008 concluded that the highest level of [copper](/wiki/Copper "Copper") contamination of the soil was over 200mg/kg, which was higher than the background threshold of 17mg/kg.Heiderscheidt, Jason Andrew. "The Impact of World War one on the Forests and Soils of Europe." Ursidae: The Undergraduate Research Journal at the University of Northern Colorado 7, no. 3 (2018\): 6 The large area in France, where the levels of [heavy metals](/wiki/Heavy_metals "Heavy metals") from battlefield debris can negatively impact the health of flora and fauna is labeled by the French government as *[Zone Rouge](/wiki/Zone_Rouge "Zone Rouge")* (Red Zone). The French Government created *Département du Déminage* for the purpose of collecting and detonating unexploded ordnance in the Red Zone. The majority of artillery shells recovered during archaeological excavations or by [demining](/wiki/Demining "Demining") operations are from World War I. This is due to a revolution in shell design that occurred between the First and Second World Wars. In World War I, artillery shells were designed to detonate upon impact. Many times, the [detonator](/wiki/Detonator "Detonator") would not activate, resulting in the large number of [duds](/wiki/Dud "Dud").National Museum of the United States Army. “U.S. and German Field Artillery in World War II: A Comparison.” The Campaign for the National Museum of the United States Army, The Campaign for the National Museum of the United States Army, July 2018, [https://Armyhistory.org/Wp\-Content/Uploads/2017/01/arty\_1\-Left\-1024x786\.Jpg](https://Armyhistory.org/Wp-Content/Uploads/2017/01/arty_1-Left-1024x786.Jpg), 24 armyhistory.org/u\-s\-and\-german\-field\-artillery\-in\-world\-war\-ii\-a\-comparison/. By the time of the Second World War, the detonator for artillery shells was hooked up to a timer. The intention was for the shell to explode over the enemy, raining [shrapnel](/wiki/Shrapnel_%28fragment%29 "Shrapnel (fragment)") on them.National Museum of the United States Army. “U.S. and German Field Artillery in World War II: A Comparison.” The Campaign for the National Museum of the United States Army, The Campaign for the National Museum of the United States Army, July 2018, [https://Armyhistory.org/Wp\-](https://Armyhistory.org/Wp-) Content/Uploads/2017/01/arty\_1\-Left\-1024x786\.Jpg, 24 armyhistory.org/u\-s\-and\-german\-field\-artillery\-in\-world\-war\-ii\-a\-comparison/. ### Bombturbation Archaeological excavations on the Western Front (World War I) have also helped to identify a unique soil condition that is only found in the context of battlefield archaeology. This unique soil condition is known as [bombturbation](/wiki/Bombturbation "Bombturbation"). Intense [artillery barrages](/wiki/Artillery_barrage "Artillery barrage"), and [airstrikes](/wiki/Airstrike "Airstrike") cause large amounts of [deforestation](/wiki/Deforestation "Deforestation"). Additionally, [bombardment](/wiki/Bombardment "Bombardment") creates large craters and mixes the soil layers together in unique ways.Heiderscheidt, Jason Andrew. "The Impact of World War one on the Forests and Soils of Europe." Ursidae: The Undergraduate Research Journal at the University of Northern Colorado 7, no. 3 (2018\):8 As a result, methods of stratigraphic analysis must take into account this unique phenomenon when analyzing a site related to [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"). ### Mass graves Mass graves resulting from former conflicts are relatively rare. Famous examples can be found at; the [Battle of Visby](/wiki/Battle_of_Visby "Battle of Visby") (AD1361\) on [Gotland](/wiki/Gotland "Gotland"), [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden "Sweden"): The [Battle of Towton](/wiki/Battle_of_Towton "Battle of Towton") (AD1461\) [Towton](/wiki/Towton "Towton") near [Tadcaster](/wiki/Tadcaster "Tadcaster"), Yorkshire, England: The [Battle of Mohács](/wiki/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs "Battle of Mohács") (AD1526\), [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary "Hungary"). A noteworthy [burial](/wiki/Burial "Burial") site contains the remains of thirty\-one [British](/wiki/British_people "British people") soldiers at [Le Pont de Jure](/wiki/Le_Pont_de_Jure "Le Pont de Jure"). It is thought that these soldiers died in April 1917 during successful British assaults on the German trenches in the area.Saunders, Nicholas J. Killing Time : Archaeology and the First World War. Stroud: Sutton, 2007: 110\-111 The burials for the soldiers were carefully prepared. The distance between each body was roughly equal, showing that time was taken to carefully measure the locations of each. The bodies were buried with their arms placed across their chests. Two bodies show evidence of having been victims of artillery or other high explosives, with only one arm, one leg, and half a skull between the two of them. The two victims were also buried alongside two pairs of empty boots. When these soldiers died, these may have been the only recognizable body parts lefts to bury.Saunders, Nicholas J. Killing Time: Archaeology and the First World War. Stroud: Sutton, 2007: 110\-111 [Mass grave](/wiki/Mass_grave "Mass grave") sites sometimes reuses preexisting trenches or artillery craters. One example would be the German mass burials at [Gavrelle](/wiki/Gavrelle "Gavrelle"). It contained twelve [German](/wiki/Germans "Germans") soldiers of the 152nd Infantry Regiment of the 48th division.Saunders, Nicholas J. Killing Time: Archaeology and the First World War. Stroud: Sutton, 2007: 108\-109
[ "World War I archaeology\n-----------------------", "The First World War exhibited a conflict that mobilised large numbers of soldiers and a sophisticated and diverse array of material culture.Saunders, N.J. (2002\\) Pg. 22 Battlefield Archaeology in this arena has dealt with the battlefields of conflict, where human action and technology shaped the landscape into recognisable and extensive features. It also concerns the study of material culture associated with individuals: including 'trench art', such as engraved shells and the personal belongings of private soldiers, officers and civilian staff.", "Excavations and survey work have also been conducted in southern [Jordan](/wiki/Jordan \"Jordan\"),Faulkner, N, [Saunders, N](/wiki/Nicholas_J._Saunders \"Nicholas J. Saunders\"), and Thope, D (2006\\) The archaeology of Lawrence of Arabia’s war: a report on the Great Arab Revolt Project’s first field season in November 2006\\. Current World Archaeology **23**, June/July 2007 known for the conflict during World War I between Ottoman forces, Bedouin tribes\\-people and British forces commanded by [T.E. Lawrence](/wiki/T.E._Lawrence \"T.E. Lawrence\") (the '[Great Arab Revolt](/wiki/Great_Arab_Revolt \"Great Arab Revolt\")'). The project looked for the militarised footprint of the conflict, basing its conclusions on trench systems, army camps and the refuse of forces (small\\-finds including coins, bullets and other military gear).", "### Hazards", "Excavations on the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 \"Western Front (World War I)\") often occur for humanitarian reasons, namely the recovery and identification of human remains and the disposal of [unexploded ordnance](/wiki/Unexploded_ordnance \"Unexploded ordnance\"). The unique conditions of Western Front excavations often pose a threat for archaeological excavations. For example, during the first five hours of the Kaiserschlacht ('[German spring offensive](/wiki/German_spring_offensive \"German spring offensive\")'), over one million [shells](/wiki/Shell_%28projectile%29 \"Shell (projectile)\") were fired by the Germans into the [Allies](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I \"Allies of World War I\")' lines across the entire 150\\-mile front.Rickard, J. \"Second Battle of the Somme, 21 March\\-4 April 1918\\.\" History of War.org. August 27, 2007\\.Accessed December, 05, 2018\\. <http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/battles_sommeII.html> The million shells fired during the beginning of the Spring Offensive are only a small sample of the total used during the war. Most of the shell casings were dumped on the battlefields and a considerable number of shells did not detonate upon impact. Archaeologists conducting excavations at World War I sites are often at risk not just from the unexploded ordnance but from the environmental pollution caused by the deterioration of ordnance, shell and bullet casings, and various other forms of battlefield debris. A study conducted at the [Ypres battlefield](/wiki/Ypres_Salient \"Ypres Salient\") in 2008 concluded that the highest level of [copper](/wiki/Copper \"Copper\") contamination of the soil was over 200mg/kg, which was higher than the background threshold of 17mg/kg.Heiderscheidt, Jason Andrew. \"The Impact of World War one on the Forests and Soils of Europe.\" Ursidae: The Undergraduate Research Journal at the University of Northern Colorado 7, no. 3 (2018\\): 6 The large area in France, where the levels of [heavy metals](/wiki/Heavy_metals \"Heavy metals\") from battlefield debris can negatively impact the health of flora and fauna is labeled by the French government as *[Zone Rouge](/wiki/Zone_Rouge \"Zone Rouge\")* (Red Zone). The French Government created *Département du Déminage* for the purpose of collecting and detonating unexploded ordnance in the Red Zone.", "The majority of artillery shells recovered during archaeological excavations or by [demining](/wiki/Demining \"Demining\") operations are from World War I. This is due to a revolution in shell design that occurred between the First and Second World Wars. In World War I, artillery shells were designed to detonate upon impact. Many times, the [detonator](/wiki/Detonator \"Detonator\") would not activate, resulting in the large number of [duds](/wiki/Dud \"Dud\").National Museum of the United States Army. “U.S. and German Field Artillery in World War II: A Comparison.” The Campaign for the National Museum of the United States Army, The Campaign for the National Museum of the United States Army, July 2018, [https://Armyhistory.org/Wp\\-Content/Uploads/2017/01/arty\\_1\\-Left\\-1024x786\\.Jpg](https://Armyhistory.org/Wp-Content/Uploads/2017/01/arty_1-Left-1024x786.Jpg), 24 armyhistory.org/u\\-s\\-and\\-german\\-field\\-artillery\\-in\\-world\\-war\\-ii\\-a\\-comparison/. By the time of the Second World War, the detonator for artillery shells was hooked up to a timer. The intention was for the shell to explode over the enemy, raining [shrapnel](/wiki/Shrapnel_%28fragment%29 \"Shrapnel (fragment)\") on them.National Museum of the United States Army. “U.S. and German Field Artillery in World War II: A Comparison.” The Campaign for the National Museum of the United States Army, The Campaign for the National Museum of the United States Army, July 2018, [https://Armyhistory.org/Wp\\-](https://Armyhistory.org/Wp-) Content/Uploads/2017/01/arty\\_1\\-Left\\-1024x786\\.Jpg, 24 armyhistory.org/u\\-s\\-and\\-german\\-field\\-artillery\\-in\\-world\\-war\\-ii\\-a\\-comparison/.", "### Bombturbation", "Archaeological excavations on the Western Front (World War I) have also helped to identify a unique soil condition that is only found in the context of battlefield archaeology. This unique soil condition is known as [bombturbation](/wiki/Bombturbation \"Bombturbation\"). Intense [artillery barrages](/wiki/Artillery_barrage \"Artillery barrage\"), and [airstrikes](/wiki/Airstrike \"Airstrike\") cause large amounts of [deforestation](/wiki/Deforestation \"Deforestation\"). Additionally, [bombardment](/wiki/Bombardment \"Bombardment\") creates large craters and mixes the soil layers together in unique ways.Heiderscheidt, Jason Andrew. \"The Impact of World War one on the Forests and Soils of Europe.\" Ursidae: The Undergraduate Research Journal at the University of Northern Colorado 7, no. 3 (2018\\):8 As a result, methods of stratigraphic analysis must take into account this unique phenomenon when analyzing a site related to [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\").", "### Mass graves", "Mass graves resulting from former conflicts are relatively rare. Famous examples can be found at; the [Battle of Visby](/wiki/Battle_of_Visby \"Battle of Visby\") (AD1361\\) on [Gotland](/wiki/Gotland \"Gotland\"), [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden \"Sweden\"): The [Battle of Towton](/wiki/Battle_of_Towton \"Battle of Towton\") (AD1461\\) [Towton](/wiki/Towton \"Towton\") near [Tadcaster](/wiki/Tadcaster \"Tadcaster\"), Yorkshire, England: The [Battle of Mohács](/wiki/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs \"Battle of Mohács\") (AD1526\\), [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary \"Hungary\").\nA noteworthy [burial](/wiki/Burial \"Burial\") site contains the remains of thirty\\-one [British](/wiki/British_people \"British people\") soldiers at [Le Pont de Jure](/wiki/Le_Pont_de_Jure \"Le Pont de Jure\"). It is thought that these soldiers died in April 1917 during successful British assaults on the German trenches in the area.Saunders, Nicholas J. Killing Time : Archaeology and the First World War. Stroud: Sutton, 2007: 110\\-111 The burials for the soldiers were carefully prepared. The distance between each body was roughly equal, showing that time was taken to carefully measure the locations of each. The bodies were buried with their arms placed across their chests. Two bodies show evidence of having been victims of artillery or other high explosives, with only one arm, one leg, and half a skull between the two of them. The two victims were also buried alongside two pairs of empty boots. When these soldiers died, these may have been the only recognizable body parts lefts to bury.Saunders, Nicholas J. Killing Time: Archaeology and the First World War. Stroud: Sutton, 2007: 110\\-111", "[Mass grave](/wiki/Mass_grave \"Mass grave\") sites sometimes reuses preexisting trenches or artillery craters. One example would be the German mass burials at [Gavrelle](/wiki/Gavrelle \"Gavrelle\"). It contained twelve [German](/wiki/Germans \"Germans\") soldiers of the 152nd Infantry Regiment of the 48th division.Saunders, Nicholas J. Killing Time: Archaeology and the First World War. Stroud: Sutton, 2007: 108\\-109", "" ]
Diplomatic career ----------------- Patricio Aylwin recalled, regarding his appointment as Chile's ambassador to the United Nations, that "President González Videla, who had just assumed his government, had the happy intuition to entrust him with such a delicate and important task, which with the rank of Ambassador he carried out throughout that presidential period, until November 1952\." Aylwin added that "years later, in June 1967, President Frei Montalva appointed him Ambassador and Permanent Representative of Chile to the United Nations and other international organizations based in Geneva and Rome, a mission he maintained under the government of President Salvador Allende, until September 11, 1973\." Thus, there were a total of 12 years that Hernán Santa Cruz represented Chile before the UN. The late Christian Democratic president recounted in detail the importance that the Chilean diplomat had in the International Forum: “In the first of those two periods, Santa Cruz was not only an active and effective representative of our country in the World Forum, but he also chaired its Economic and Social Council and was a member of the Security Council, but he was also a member of the Drafting Committee of the Declaration of Human Rights and was the author of such transcendental initiatives, such as the creation of the Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLAC), which he proposed in July of 1947, and whose approval was achieved, after intense debate, in February 1949\." In his honor, since 2008 the ECLAC library has been named after him. When Hernán Santa Cruz was appointed Chile's first ambassador to the United Nations in 1946, the Organization had only 51 member states, of which 20 were from Latin America. Santa Cruz's proactivity, experience and youth allowed him to play a very prominent role in the United Nations with the support of his colleagues in the region. Regarding the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Hernán Santa Cruz was a strong promoter of enshrining economic, social and cultural rights (Human Rights Yearbook of the U. of Chile 2021\). In the words of the former Executive Secretary of ECLAC and current Foreign Minister of Mexico, Alicia Bárcena, “As noted by Mary Anne Glendon\[1], professor at Harvard Law School, who defined Hernán Santa Cruz as one of the most influential drafters of the Universal Declaration and as "the most zealous promoter of the new social, economic and cultural rights\[2]. She described the author as “Hernán Santa Cruz, from Chile, a passionate left\-wing man who helped ensure that social and economic rights had the prominent place in the Declaration they deserve alongside traditional political and civil liberties" \[3]. " Due to this, in 2020 the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights launched the Hernán Santa Cruz Dialogues on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, confirming that he had been its main promoter (https://www.ohchr.org/ es/human\-rights/economic\-social\-cultural\-rights/hernan\-santa\-cruz\-dialogues). \[1] Mary Anne Glendon "A World Made New – Eleanor Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Random House, 2001\. She was later appointed president of the Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences and ambassador of the United States to the Holy See. \[2] Id. Page 185 \[3] Id. page xx "and Chile's Hernán Santa Cruz, an impassioned man of the Left who helped assure that social and economic rights would have pride of place in the Declaration along with traditional political and civil liberties." Aylwin added that Santa Cruz also "proposed the institutionalization of a Technical Assistance Program for Economic Development, which the General Assembly approved in December 1948, and which marked the first beginning of the current United Nations Development Program." Always in the field of economic development, he was the promoter and head of the Chilean delegation, with the rank of Minister of State, to the Third United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD III) in Santiago, Chile in 1972\. Furthermore, he played a crucial role in the first commissions that studied the problem of racial discrimination and human rights violations in South Africa and Namibia, being the first Human Rights Rapporteur for the racial situation in South Africa and president of the respective commission (1953–1955\). This was the first time that the United Nations intervened in the problem of Apartheid. He also "was a member of the Subcommission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities. He was re\-elected six times between 1954 and 1974 and held the presidency of said Subcommittee on two occasions, in 1964 and 1965\. (Deputy Edgardo Riveros in Tribute of the Chamber of Deputies https://www.bcn.cl/laborparlamentaria/documento?id\=666487\#akn666487\-ds23\-ds24\). His role was not limited to human rights, economic development and combating racial discrimination, but in the field of Food and Agriculture “he chaired, in 1966, the first World Conference on Agrarian Reform and, of course, he was one of the main people responsible for the first World Campaign against Hunger" (I. Allende)\[1]. In addition, he was Deputy Director General and Regional Representative for Latin America of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) between 1959 and 1967 and chaired the World Conference on Agrarian Reform and Rural Development (1979\). The auditorium of the FAO regional headquarters for Latin America and the Caribbean in Santiago, Chile is named after him. In 1973 he resigned as Ambassador, but continued to be linked to international politics, participating in international bodies and in his native Chile. Thus, he remained in Europe and served as the president of the International Center for Development, based in Paris, and he later assumed the presidency of the International Studies Circle of the Academy of Christian Humanism, and as a full member of the Academy of Social, Political, and Moral Sciences at the Institute of Chile since 1986\. In 1996, President Eduardo Frei Ruiz\-Tagle conferred on him the highest national honor, the Decoration for Meritorious Services to the Republic, for services rendered to the country. Hernán Santa Cruz captured his international experience in the three volumes of his memoirs, titled "Cooperate or Perish, the Dilemma of the World Community." \[1] {{JSTOR\|20855916}}
[ "Diplomatic career\n-----------------", "Patricio Aylwin recalled, regarding his appointment as Chile's ambassador to the United Nations, that \"President González Videla, who had just assumed his government, had the happy intuition to entrust him with such a delicate and important task, which with the rank of Ambassador he carried out throughout that presidential period, until November 1952\\.\" Aylwin added that \"years later, in June 1967, President Frei Montalva appointed him Ambassador and Permanent Representative of Chile to the United Nations and other international organizations based in Geneva and Rome, a mission he maintained under the government of President Salvador Allende, until September 11, 1973\\.\"", "Thus, there were a total of 12 years that Hernán Santa Cruz represented Chile before the UN. The late Christian Democratic president recounted in detail the importance that the Chilean diplomat had in the International Forum: “In the first of those two periods, Santa Cruz was not only an active and effective representative of our country in the World Forum, but he also chaired its Economic and Social Council and was a member of the Security Council, but he was also a member of the Drafting Committee of the Declaration of Human Rights and was the author of such transcendental initiatives, such as the creation of the Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLAC), which he proposed in July of 1947, and whose approval was achieved, after intense debate, in February 1949\\.\" In his honor, since 2008 the ECLAC library has been named after him.", "When Hernán Santa Cruz was appointed Chile's first ambassador to the United Nations in 1946, the Organization had only 51 member states, of which 20 were from Latin America. Santa Cruz's proactivity, experience and youth allowed him to play a very prominent role in the United Nations with the support of his colleagues in the region.", "Regarding the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Hernán Santa Cruz was a strong promoter of enshrining economic, social and cultural rights (Human Rights Yearbook of the U. of Chile 2021\\). In the words of the former Executive Secretary of ECLAC and current Foreign Minister of Mexico, Alicia Bárcena, “As noted by Mary Anne Glendon\\[1], professor at Harvard Law School, who defined Hernán Santa Cruz as one of the most influential drafters of the Universal Declaration and as \"the most zealous promoter of the new social, economic and cultural rights\\[2]. She described the author as “Hernán Santa Cruz, from Chile, a passionate left\\-wing man who helped ensure that social and economic rights had the prominent place in the Declaration they deserve alongside traditional political and civil liberties\" \\[3]. \" Due to this, in 2020 the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights launched the Hernán Santa Cruz Dialogues on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, confirming that he had been its main promoter (https://www.ohchr.org/ es/human\\-rights/economic\\-social\\-cultural\\-rights/hernan\\-santa\\-cruz\\-dialogues).", "\\[1] Mary Anne Glendon \"A World Made New – Eleanor Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Random House, 2001\\. She was later appointed president of the Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences and ambassador of the United States to the Holy See.", "\\[2] Id. Page 185", "\\[3] Id. page xx \"and Chile's Hernán Santa Cruz, an impassioned man of the Left who helped assure that social and economic rights would have pride of place in the Declaration along with traditional political and civil liberties.\"", "Aylwin added that Santa Cruz also \"proposed the institutionalization of a Technical Assistance Program for Economic Development, which the General Assembly approved in December 1948, and which marked the first beginning of the current United Nations Development Program.\" Always in the field of economic development, he was the promoter and head of the Chilean delegation, with the rank of Minister of State, to the Third United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD III) in Santiago, Chile in 1972\\.", "Furthermore, he played a crucial role in the first commissions that studied the problem of racial discrimination and human rights violations in South Africa and Namibia, being the first Human Rights Rapporteur for the racial situation in South Africa and president of the respective commission (1953–1955\\). This was the first time that the United Nations intervened in the problem of Apartheid. He also \"was a member of the Subcommission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities. He was re\\-elected six times between 1954 and 1974 and held the presidency of said Subcommittee on two occasions, in 1964 and 1965\\. (Deputy Edgardo Riveros in Tribute of the Chamber of Deputies", "https://www.bcn.cl/laborparlamentaria/documento?id\\=666487\\#akn666487\\-ds23\\-ds24\\).", "His role was not limited to human rights, economic development and combating racial discrimination, but in the field of Food and Agriculture “he chaired, in 1966, the first World Conference on Agrarian Reform and, of course, he was one of the main people responsible for the first World Campaign against Hunger\" (I. Allende)\\[1]. In addition, he was Deputy Director General and Regional Representative for Latin America of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) between 1959 and 1967 and chaired the World Conference on Agrarian Reform and Rural Development (1979\\). The auditorium of the FAO regional headquarters for Latin America and the Caribbean in Santiago, Chile is named after him.", "In 1973 he resigned as Ambassador, but continued to be linked to international politics, participating in international bodies and in his native Chile. Thus, he remained in Europe and served as the president of the International Center for Development, based in Paris, and he later assumed the presidency of the International Studies Circle of the Academy of Christian Humanism, and as a full member of the Academy of Social, Political, and Moral Sciences at the Institute of Chile since 1986\\. In 1996, President Eduardo Frei Ruiz\\-Tagle conferred on him the highest national honor, the Decoration for Meritorious Services to the Republic, for services rendered to the country.", "Hernán Santa Cruz captured his international experience in the three volumes of his memoirs, titled \"Cooperate or Perish, the Dilemma of the World Community.\"", "\\[1] {{JSTOR\\|20855916}}", "" ]
Career ------ Jim Wynorski grew up in Long Island. He flunked out of film school and went to work at the fiction department of [DoubleDay Publishing](/wiki/Doubleday_%28publisher%29 "Doubleday (publisher)") from 1972 to 1977\. Wynorski relocated to Los Angeles to pursue a career in the movie industry. He got a job as location manager on the TV show *Breaking Away*, but was fired during production. Flying back to Los Angeles, he met a fellow passenger who knew [Roger Corman](/wiki/Roger_Corman "Roger Corman") and arranged an introduction. Wynorski then went to work for Corman. He did publicity and began writing screenplays.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=qFxzCwAAQBAJ\&q\=%22scream\+queen\+hot\+tub\+party%22\+wynorski\&pg\=PT115\|title\=The Sleaze Merchants: Adventures in Exploitation Filmmaking from the '50s to the '90s\|first\=John\|last\= McCarty\|publisher\=Crossroad Press\|date\=2016}} Wynorski 's first produced screenplay was *[Forbidden World](/wiki/Forbidden_World "Forbidden World")* (1982\). He also wrote *Sorceress* for $1,000 and wrote and produced *Screwballs* (1983\), a *Porky's\-*style comedy. ### Directorial debut and Roger Corman Wynorski made his directing debut with *[The Lost Empire](/wiki/The_Lost_Empire_%281984_film%29 "The Lost Empire (1984 film)")*. His second film, *[Chopping Mall](/wiki/Chopping_Mall "Chopping Mall")* (1986\), was made for [Julie Corman](/wiki/Julie_Corman "Julie Corman"), which Wynorski also produced and co\-wrote.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.filmmonthly.com/exclusives/interviews/interview\-with\-director\-jim\-wynorski\|website\=Film Monthly\|title\=Interview with director Jim Wynorski\|date\=15 October 2014}} Julie's husband Corman liked it, and hired Wynorski to make *[Deathstalker 2](/wiki/Deathstalker_2 "Deathstalker 2")* in Argentina, then *[Big Bad Mama II](/wiki/Big_Bad_Mama_II "Big Bad Mama II")* (1987\) with [Angie Dickinson](/wiki/Angie_Dickinson "Angie Dickinson"), and a remake of *[Not of this Earth](/wiki/Not_of_This_Earth_%281988_film%29 "Not of This Earth (1988 film)")* (1988\) with [Traci Lords](/wiki/Traci_Lords "Traci Lords"). He was creative consultant on *[Purple People Eater](/wiki/Purple_People_Eater_%28film%29 "Purple People Eater (film)")* (1988\). Wynorski was given a $7 million budget to make *[The Return of Swamp Thing](/wiki/The_Return_of_Swamp_Thing "The Return of Swamp Thing")* (1989\) with [Louis Jourdan](/wiki/Louis_Jourdan "Louis Jourdan"). He then made *[Transylvania Twist](/wiki/Transylvania_Twist "Transylvania Twist")* and *[The Haunting of Morella](/wiki/The_Haunting_of_Morella "The Haunting of Morella")* back to back for Roger Corman. He also made *[Sorority House Massacre II](/wiki/Sorority_House_Massacre_II "Sorority House Massacre II")* (1990\) for Julie Corman, on sets left over from existing films. Roger Corman was impressed and got Wynorski to remake it as *[Sorority House Massacre III: Hard to Die](/wiki/Sorority_House_Massacre_III:Hard_to_Die "Hard to Die")*. Corman "taught me all the lessons on how to make a film and how to make it look expensive when you don't have a lot of money," Wynorski says.<https://search.proquest.com/docview/293189960> {{dead link\|date\=October 2017}} He worked on the scripts for *[Beastmaster 2: Through the Portal of Time](/wiki/Beastmaster_2:Through_the_Portal_of_Time "Through the Portal of Time")* (1991\), *[House IV](/wiki/House_IV "House IV")* (1992\) and *[Final Embrace](/wiki/Final_Embrace_%28film%29 "Final Embrace (film)")* (1992\) but did not direct them. He directed *[976\-Evil II](/wiki/976-Evil_II "976-Evil II")* (1992\), which was produced by [Paul Hertzberg](/wiki/Paul_Hertzberg "Paul Hertzberg"), with whom Wynorski would frequently collaborate. ### Fred Olen Ray With his friend [Fred Olen Ray](/wiki/Fred_Olen_Ray "Fred Olen Ray") he directed, wrote and produced *[Scream Queen Hot Tub Party](/wiki/Scream_Queen_Hot_Tub_Party "Scream Queen Hot Tub Party")* (1991\), shot in one day. The two friends later collaborated on *[Dinosaur Island](/wiki/Dinosaur_Island_%281994_film%29 "Dinosaur Island (1994 film)")* (1994\) and co\-executive produced *[Dark Universe](/wiki/Dark_Universe_%28film%29 "Dark Universe (film)")* (1993\) and *[Biohazard: The Alien Force](/wiki/Biohazard:The_Alien_Force "The Alien Force")* (1994\) together. Ray produced *[Sorceress](/wiki/Sorceress_%281995_film%29 "Sorceress (1995 film)")* (1995\) which Wynorski directed, and Wynorski helped produce *[Bikini Drive\-In](/wiki/Bikini_Drive-In "Bikini Drive-In")* (1995\), *[Fugitive Rage](/wiki/Fugitive_Rage "Fugitive Rage")* (1996\), *[Friend of the Family II](/wiki/Friend_of_the_Family_II "Friend of the Family II")* (1996\) and *[Hybrid](/wiki/Hybrid_%281997_film%29 "Hybrid (1997 film)")* (1997\) which Ray directed. ### Family films Wynorski made *[Munchie](/wiki/Munchie "Munchie")* (1992\), marking the film debut of [Jennifer Love Hewitt](/wiki/Jennifer_Love_Hewitt "Jennifer Love Hewitt"); and its sequel, *[Munchie Strikes Back](/wiki/Munchie_Strikes_Back "Munchie Strikes Back")* (1993\). Hewitt was not part of the cast in the sequel, but he later directed *[Little Miss Millions](/wiki/Little_Miss_Millions "Little Miss Millions")* (1993\), which starred her. He also executive produced *The Skateboard Kid 2*. ### Erotic thrillers In the early 1990s he specialised in erotic thrillers, starting with *[Sins of Desire](/wiki/Sins_of_Desire "Sins of Desire")* (1993\). "I was good and I was fast,” Wynorski said. “They knew the product would be solid... They were easy to make. It didn’t require any action. You could get them done well in 12 days. The trick was making them for low money. There was plenty of competition, so you had to be good and you had to get those big stars naked. Shannon Tweed, Andrew Stevens, Shannon Whirry, Tanya Roberts all started working double time.”{{cite magazine\|magazine\=Vanity Fair\|title\="The Sexpendables": How Basic Instinct Birthed a Schlocky, Sexy Cottage Industry\|first\=Donald\|last\=Liebenson\|date\=20 March 2017}} Wynorski 's other erotic thrillers included *[Point of Seduction: Body Chemistry III](/wiki/Point_of_Seduction:Body_Chemistry_III "Body Chemistry III")* (1994\), *[Victim of Desire](/wiki/Victim_of_Desire "Victim of Desire")* (1995\), *[Body Chemistry IV: Full Exposure](/wiki/Body_Chemistry_IV:Full_Exposure "Full Exposure")* (1995\) and *[Virtual Desire](/wiki/Virtual_Desire "Virtual Desire")* (1995\). He later directed *[The Escort III](/wiki/The_Escort_III "The Escort III")* (1999\). In 1998 Wynorski appeared in a documentary *[Some Nudity Required](/wiki/Some_Nudity_Required "Some Nudity Required")* where he said he got into film "for the money and the chicks" and said "breasts are the cheapest special effect in the business".<https://search.proquest.com/docview/421353138> {{dead link\|date\=October 2017}} ### *Roger Corman Presents* Wynorski made two films for Corman's Showtime series, *[Roger Corman Presents](/wiki/Roger_Corman_Presents "Roger Corman Presents")*: a remake of *[The Wasp Woman](/wiki/The_Wasp_Woman_%281995_film%29 "The Wasp Woman (1995 film)")* (1995\) and *[Vampirella](/wiki/Vampirella_%28film%29 "Vampirella (film)")* (1996\). *Vampirella* was an unhappy experience for him \- in 2013 he said that film and *[Victim of Desire](/wiki/Victim_of_Desire "Victim of Desire")* were the only films he regretted making in his career.{{cite podcast\|url\=http://www.blogtalkradio.com/rex\-sikes/2013/05/22/rex\-sikes\-movie\-beat\-chats\-w\-director\-jim\-wynorski\|title\=Rex Sikes Movie Beat chats with director Jim Wynorski\|date\=2013\|website\=Blogtalkradio.com}}{{Dead link\|date\=September 2023 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} ### Sunset Films Wynorski established his own production company, Sunset Films, which he ran with [Andrew Stevens](/wiki/Andrew_Stevens "Andrew Stevens"). It was a division of [Cinetel Films](/wiki/Cinetel_Films "Cinetel Films").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mondo\-digital.com/stevemitchelltalk.html\|website\=Mondo Digital\|title\=Bring on the Killbots: An Interview with Steve Mitchell}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.hollywoodnetwork.com/AFM/sunset.html\|title\= Sunset Films International\|website\=Hollywood Network}} Sunset's films included *[Midnight Tease](/wiki/Midnight_Tease "Midnight Tease")* and its sequel; *[Vice Girls](/wiki/Vice_Girls "Vice Girls")* (1997\); *[Sorceress II: The Temptress](/wiki/Sorceress_II:The_Temptress "The Temptress")* (1997\). He directed some of Sunset's films including *[Hard Bounty](/wiki/Hard_Bounty "Hard Bounty")* (1995\), *[Demolition High](/wiki/Demolition_High "Demolition High")* (1996\), *[Against the Law](/wiki/Against_the_Law_%281997_film%29 "Against the Law (1997 film)")* (1997\), *[Storm Trooper](/wiki/Storm_Trooper_%28film%29 "Storm Trooper (film)")* (1998\), *[Desert Thunder](/wiki/Desert_Thunder "Desert Thunder")* (1999\). He did not direct the sequel to *Demolition High*, *Demolition University* (1997\), but produced and co\-wrote it. ### Action movies These were action movies, as were *[The Pandora Project](/wiki/The_Pandora_Project "The Pandora Project")* (1998\), *Stealth Fighter* (1999\), *[Final Voyage](/wiki/Final_Voyage "Final Voyage")* (1999\), *Militia* (2000\), *[Rangers](/wiki/Rangers_%28film%29 "Rangers (film)")* (2000\), *Extreme Limits* (2000\) and *[Ablaze](/wiki/Ablaze_%282001_film%29 "Ablaze (2001 film)")* (2001\). He produced some films he did not direct such as *[Fugitive Mind](/wiki/Fugitive_Mind "Fugitive Mind")* (1999\); *[Sonic Impact](/wiki/Sonic_Impact "Sonic Impact")* (2000\); *[Active Stealth](/wiki/Active_Stealth "Active Stealth")* (2000\), *[Submerged](/wiki/Submerged_%282000_film%29 "Submerged (2000 film)")* (2000\), *Kept* (2001\), *[Air Rage](/wiki/Air_Rage_%28film%29 "Air Rage (film)")* (2001\), *[Critical Mass](/wiki/Critical_Mass_%28film%29 "Critical Mass (film)")* (2001\), *[Venomous](/wiki/Venomous_%28film%29 "Venomous (film)")* (2001\), all directed by Ray; *[Storm Catcher](/wiki/Storm_Catcher "Storm Catcher")* (2000\); *[Jill Rips](/wiki/Jill_Rips "Jill Rips")* (2000\) with [Dolph Lundgren](/wiki/Dolph_Lundgren "Dolph Lundgren"); *[Intrepid](/wiki/Intrepid_%28film%29 "Intrepid (film)")* (2000\), with [James Coburn](/wiki/James_Coburn "James Coburn"). He often worked with producer and actor [Andrew Stevens](/wiki/Andrew_Stevens "Andrew Stevens"), who called in Wynorski to shoot additional scenes for *[Agent Red](/wiki/Agent_Red "Agent Red")* (2000\). *[Thy Neighbor's Wife](/wiki/Thy_Neighbor%27s_Wife_%282001_film%29 "Thy Neighbor's Wife (2001 film)")* (2001\) was a thriller. *Gale Force* (2002\), *[Lost Treasure](/wiki/Lost_Treasure_%28film%29 "Lost Treasure (film)")* (2003, with [Stephen Baldwin](/wiki/Stephen_Baldwin "Stephen Baldwin")) and *[Treasure Hunt](/wiki/Treasure_Hunt_%282003_film%29 "Treasure Hunt (2003 film)")* (2003\) were action films. *[Bad Bizness](/wiki/Bad_Bizness "Bad Bizness")* (2003\) was Wynorski 's first film with a predominantly black cast. Later action films he helped produce included *[Blue Demon](/wiki/Blue_Demon_%28film%29 "Blue Demon (film)")* (2004\) and *[Sub Zero](/wiki/Sub_Zero_%28film%29 "Sub Zero (film)")*. ### *The Bare Wench Project* and parody films In 2000 Wynorski made *The Bare Wench Project*, a sex parody of *[The Blair Witch Project](/wiki/The_Blair_Witch_Project "The Blair Witch Project")*. It was popular and led to several sequels. Wynorski made several other erotic parody movies, including *[Busty Cops](/wiki/Busty_Cops "Busty Cops")* (2004\) and its several sequels, *[The Witches of Breastwick](/wiki/The_Witches_of_Breastwick "The Witches of Breastwick")* (2005\) and its sequel, *[Alabama Jones and the Busty Crusade](/wiki/Alabama_Jones_and_the_Busty_Crusade "Alabama Jones and the Busty Crusade")* (2005\), *The Da Vinci Coed* (2007\), *The Breastford Wives* (2007\), *House on Hooter Hill* (2007\), *[The Devil Wears Nada](/wiki/The_Devil_Wears_Nada_%28film%29 "The Devil Wears Nada (film)")* (2009\), *Cleavagefield* (2009\), *Para\-Knockers Activity* (2009\), and *[The Hills Have Thighs](/wiki/The_Hills_Have_Thighs "The Hills Have Thighs")* (2010\). ### Creature films In 2001 Wynorski returned to Roger Corman with *[Raptor](/wiki/Raptor_%28film%29 "Raptor (film)")* (2001\). He later made a series of "creature" films. For Corman he did some uncredited work on *[Wolfhound](/wiki/Wolfhound_%282002_film%29 "Wolfhound (2002 film)")* (2002\). He made *[Project Viper](/wiki/Project_Viper "Project Viper")* (2002\) for the [Sci Fi Channel](/wiki/Syfy "Syfy"). He later made *[Curse of the Komodo](/wiki/Curse_of_the_Komodo "Curse of the Komodo")* (2004\) and its sequel, *[Komodo vs. Cobra](/wiki/Komodo_vs._Cobra "Komodo vs. Cobra")* (2005\), *[Gargoyle: Wings of Darkness](/wiki/Gargoyle:Wings_of_Darkness "Wings of Darkness")* (2004\), *[Cry of the Winged Serpent](/wiki/Cry_of_the_Winged_Serpent "Cry of the Winged Serpent")* (2007\), *[Dinocroc vs. Supergator](/wiki/Dinocroc_vs._Supergator "Dinocroc vs. Supergator")* (2010\), *[Camel Spiders](/wiki/Camel_Spiders "Camel Spiders")* (2010\), and *CobraGator* (2016\). ### Horror films He returned to slasher movies with *[Cheerleader Massacre](/wiki/Cheerleader_Massacre "Cheerleader Massacre")* (2003\). *[The Thing Below](/wiki/The_Thing_Below "The Thing Below")* (2003\) was horror. *[Lust Connection](/wiki/Lust_Connection "Lust Connection")* (2005\) was a return to erotic thrillers. ### Return to family films In recent years, Wynorski has returned to the family film genre, making *[Nessie \& Me](/wiki/Nessie_%26_Me "Nessie & Me")* (2016\), which is in a [shared universe](/wiki/Shared_universe "Shared universe") with *[DinoCroc](/wiki/DinoCroc "DinoCroc")*, *[Supergator](/wiki/Supergator "Supergator")*, *[Dinocroc vs. Supergator](/wiki/Dinocroc_vs._Supergator "Dinocroc vs. Supergator")*, and *[Piranhaconda](/wiki/Piranhaconda "Piranhaconda")*, due to the lead character referencing said films' title monsters, and *Monster Cruise*, from which many characters returned for *Nessie \& Me*. He also directed *[A Doggone Christmas](/wiki/A_Doggone_Christmas "A Doggone Christmas")* (2016\), which spawned a sequel *[A Doggone Hollywood](/wiki/A_Doggone_Hollywood "A Doggone Hollywood")* (2017\).
[ "Career\n------", "Jim Wynorski grew up in Long Island. He flunked out of film school and went to work at the fiction department of [DoubleDay Publishing](/wiki/Doubleday_%28publisher%29 \"Doubleday (publisher)\") from 1972 to 1977\\. Wynorski relocated to Los Angeles to pursue a career in the movie industry. He got a job as location manager on the TV show *Breaking Away*, but was fired during production. Flying back to Los Angeles, he met a fellow passenger who knew [Roger Corman](/wiki/Roger_Corman \"Roger Corman\") and arranged an introduction. Wynorski then went to work for Corman. He did publicity and began writing screenplays.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=qFxzCwAAQBAJ\\&q\\=%22scream\\+queen\\+hot\\+tub\\+party%22\\+wynorski\\&pg\\=PT115\\|title\\=The Sleaze Merchants: Adventures in Exploitation Filmmaking from the '50s to the '90s\\|first\\=John\\|last\\= McCarty\\|publisher\\=Crossroad Press\\|date\\=2016}}", "Wynorski 's first produced screenplay was *[Forbidden World](/wiki/Forbidden_World \"Forbidden World\")* (1982\\). He also wrote *Sorceress* for $1,000 and wrote and produced *Screwballs* (1983\\), a *Porky's\\-*style comedy.", "### Directorial debut and Roger Corman", "Wynorski made his directing debut with *[The Lost Empire](/wiki/The_Lost_Empire_%281984_film%29 \"The Lost Empire (1984 film)\")*.", "His second film, *[Chopping Mall](/wiki/Chopping_Mall \"Chopping Mall\")* (1986\\), was made for [Julie Corman](/wiki/Julie_Corman \"Julie Corman\"), which Wynorski also produced and co\\-wrote.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.filmmonthly.com/exclusives/interviews/interview\\-with\\-director\\-jim\\-wynorski\\|website\\=Film Monthly\\|title\\=Interview with director Jim Wynorski\\|date\\=15 October 2014}} Julie's husband Corman liked it, and hired Wynorski to make *[Deathstalker 2](/wiki/Deathstalker_2 \"Deathstalker 2\")* in Argentina, then *[Big Bad Mama II](/wiki/Big_Bad_Mama_II \"Big Bad Mama II\")* (1987\\) with [Angie Dickinson](/wiki/Angie_Dickinson \"Angie Dickinson\"), and a remake of *[Not of this Earth](/wiki/Not_of_This_Earth_%281988_film%29 \"Not of This Earth (1988 film)\")* (1988\\) with [Traci Lords](/wiki/Traci_Lords \"Traci Lords\"). He was creative consultant on *[Purple People Eater](/wiki/Purple_People_Eater_%28film%29 \"Purple People Eater (film)\")* (1988\\).", "Wynorski was given a $7 million budget to make *[The Return of Swamp Thing](/wiki/The_Return_of_Swamp_Thing \"The Return of Swamp Thing\")* (1989\\) with [Louis Jourdan](/wiki/Louis_Jourdan \"Louis Jourdan\"). He then made *[Transylvania Twist](/wiki/Transylvania_Twist \"Transylvania Twist\")* and *[The Haunting of Morella](/wiki/The_Haunting_of_Morella \"The Haunting of Morella\")* back to back for Roger Corman.", "He also made *[Sorority House Massacre II](/wiki/Sorority_House_Massacre_II \"Sorority House Massacre II\")* (1990\\) for Julie Corman, on sets left over from existing films. Roger Corman was impressed and got Wynorski to remake it as *[Sorority House Massacre III: Hard to Die](/wiki/Sorority_House_Massacre_III:Hard_to_Die \"Hard to Die\")*. Corman \"taught me all the lessons on how to make a film and how to make it look expensive when you don't have a lot of money,\" Wynorski says.<https://search.proquest.com/docview/293189960> {{dead link\\|date\\=October 2017}}", "He worked on the scripts for *[Beastmaster 2: Through the Portal of Time](/wiki/Beastmaster_2:Through_the_Portal_of_Time \"Through the Portal of Time\")* (1991\\), *[House IV](/wiki/House_IV \"House IV\")* (1992\\) and *[Final Embrace](/wiki/Final_Embrace_%28film%29 \"Final Embrace (film)\")* (1992\\) but did not direct them.", "He directed *[976\\-Evil II](/wiki/976-Evil_II \"976-Evil II\")* (1992\\), which was produced by [Paul Hertzberg](/wiki/Paul_Hertzberg \"Paul Hertzberg\"), with whom Wynorski would frequently collaborate.", "### Fred Olen Ray", "With his friend [Fred Olen Ray](/wiki/Fred_Olen_Ray \"Fred Olen Ray\") he directed, wrote and produced *[Scream Queen Hot Tub Party](/wiki/Scream_Queen_Hot_Tub_Party \"Scream Queen Hot Tub Party\")* (1991\\), shot in one day. The two friends later collaborated on *[Dinosaur Island](/wiki/Dinosaur_Island_%281994_film%29 \"Dinosaur Island (1994 film)\")* (1994\\) and co\\-executive produced *[Dark Universe](/wiki/Dark_Universe_%28film%29 \"Dark Universe (film)\")* (1993\\) and *[Biohazard: The Alien Force](/wiki/Biohazard:The_Alien_Force \"The Alien Force\")* (1994\\) together. Ray produced *[Sorceress](/wiki/Sorceress_%281995_film%29 \"Sorceress (1995 film)\")* (1995\\) which Wynorski directed, and Wynorski helped produce *[Bikini Drive\\-In](/wiki/Bikini_Drive-In \"Bikini Drive-In\")* (1995\\), *[Fugitive Rage](/wiki/Fugitive_Rage \"Fugitive Rage\")* (1996\\), *[Friend of the Family II](/wiki/Friend_of_the_Family_II \"Friend of the Family II\")* (1996\\) and *[Hybrid](/wiki/Hybrid_%281997_film%29 \"Hybrid (1997 film)\")* (1997\\) which Ray directed.", "### Family films", "Wynorski made *[Munchie](/wiki/Munchie \"Munchie\")* (1992\\), marking the film debut of [Jennifer Love Hewitt](/wiki/Jennifer_Love_Hewitt \"Jennifer Love Hewitt\"); and its sequel, *[Munchie Strikes Back](/wiki/Munchie_Strikes_Back \"Munchie Strikes Back\")* (1993\\). Hewitt was not part of the cast in the sequel, but he later directed *[Little Miss Millions](/wiki/Little_Miss_Millions \"Little Miss Millions\")* (1993\\), which starred her. He also executive produced *The Skateboard Kid 2*.", "### Erotic thrillers", "In the early 1990s he specialised in erotic thrillers, starting with *[Sins of Desire](/wiki/Sins_of_Desire \"Sins of Desire\")* (1993\\). \"I was good and I was fast,” Wynorski said. “They knew the product would be solid... They were easy to make. It didn’t require any action. You could get them done well in 12 days. The trick was making them for low money. There was plenty of competition, so you had to be good and you had to get those big stars naked. Shannon Tweed, Andrew Stevens, Shannon Whirry, Tanya Roberts all started working double time.”{{cite magazine\\|magazine\\=Vanity Fair\\|title\\=\"The Sexpendables\": How Basic Instinct Birthed a Schlocky, Sexy Cottage Industry\\|first\\=Donald\\|last\\=Liebenson\\|date\\=20 March 2017}}", "Wynorski 's other erotic thrillers included *[Point of Seduction: Body Chemistry III](/wiki/Point_of_Seduction:Body_Chemistry_III \"Body Chemistry III\")* (1994\\), *[Victim of Desire](/wiki/Victim_of_Desire \"Victim of Desire\")* (1995\\), *[Body Chemistry IV: Full Exposure](/wiki/Body_Chemistry_IV:Full_Exposure \"Full Exposure\")* (1995\\) and *[Virtual Desire](/wiki/Virtual_Desire \"Virtual Desire\")* (1995\\). He later directed *[The Escort III](/wiki/The_Escort_III \"The Escort III\")* (1999\\).", "In 1998 Wynorski appeared in a documentary *[Some Nudity Required](/wiki/Some_Nudity_Required \"Some Nudity Required\")* where he said he got into film \"for the money and the chicks\" and said \"breasts are the cheapest special effect in the business\".<https://search.proquest.com/docview/421353138> {{dead link\\|date\\=October 2017}}", "### *Roger Corman Presents*", "Wynorski made two films for Corman's Showtime series, *[Roger Corman Presents](/wiki/Roger_Corman_Presents \"Roger Corman Presents\")*: a remake of *[The Wasp Woman](/wiki/The_Wasp_Woman_%281995_film%29 \"The Wasp Woman (1995 film)\")* (1995\\) and *[Vampirella](/wiki/Vampirella_%28film%29 \"Vampirella (film)\")* (1996\\). *Vampirella* was an unhappy experience for him \\- in 2013 he said that film and *[Victim of Desire](/wiki/Victim_of_Desire \"Victim of Desire\")* were the only films he regretted making in his career.{{cite podcast\\|url\\=http://www.blogtalkradio.com/rex\\-sikes/2013/05/22/rex\\-sikes\\-movie\\-beat\\-chats\\-w\\-director\\-jim\\-wynorski\\|title\\=Rex Sikes Movie Beat chats with director Jim Wynorski\\|date\\=2013\\|website\\=Blogtalkradio.com}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=September 2023 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}", "### Sunset Films", "Wynorski established his own production company, Sunset Films, which he ran with [Andrew Stevens](/wiki/Andrew_Stevens \"Andrew Stevens\"). It was a division of [Cinetel Films](/wiki/Cinetel_Films \"Cinetel Films\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mondo\\-digital.com/stevemitchelltalk.html\\|website\\=Mondo Digital\\|title\\=Bring on the Killbots: An Interview with Steve Mitchell}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.hollywoodnetwork.com/AFM/sunset.html\\|title\\= Sunset Films International\\|website\\=Hollywood Network}} Sunset's films included *[Midnight Tease](/wiki/Midnight_Tease \"Midnight Tease\")* and its sequel; *[Vice Girls](/wiki/Vice_Girls \"Vice Girls\")* (1997\\); *[Sorceress II: The Temptress](/wiki/Sorceress_II:The_Temptress \"The Temptress\")* (1997\\).", "He directed some of Sunset's films including *[Hard Bounty](/wiki/Hard_Bounty \"Hard Bounty\")* (1995\\), *[Demolition High](/wiki/Demolition_High \"Demolition High\")* (1996\\), *[Against the Law](/wiki/Against_the_Law_%281997_film%29 \"Against the Law (1997 film)\")* (1997\\), *[Storm Trooper](/wiki/Storm_Trooper_%28film%29 \"Storm Trooper (film)\")* (1998\\), *[Desert Thunder](/wiki/Desert_Thunder \"Desert Thunder\")* (1999\\).", "He did not direct the sequel to *Demolition High*, *Demolition University* (1997\\), but produced and co\\-wrote it.", "### Action movies", "These were action movies, as were *[The Pandora Project](/wiki/The_Pandora_Project \"The Pandora Project\")* (1998\\), *Stealth Fighter* (1999\\), *[Final Voyage](/wiki/Final_Voyage \"Final Voyage\")* (1999\\), *Militia* (2000\\), *[Rangers](/wiki/Rangers_%28film%29 \"Rangers (film)\")* (2000\\), *Extreme Limits* (2000\\) and *[Ablaze](/wiki/Ablaze_%282001_film%29 \"Ablaze (2001 film)\")* (2001\\).", "He produced some films he did not direct such as *[Fugitive Mind](/wiki/Fugitive_Mind \"Fugitive Mind\")* (1999\\); *[Sonic Impact](/wiki/Sonic_Impact \"Sonic Impact\")* (2000\\); *[Active Stealth](/wiki/Active_Stealth \"Active Stealth\")* (2000\\), *[Submerged](/wiki/Submerged_%282000_film%29 \"Submerged (2000 film)\")* (2000\\), *Kept* (2001\\), *[Air Rage](/wiki/Air_Rage_%28film%29 \"Air Rage (film)\")* (2001\\), *[Critical Mass](/wiki/Critical_Mass_%28film%29 \"Critical Mass (film)\")* (2001\\), *[Venomous](/wiki/Venomous_%28film%29 \"Venomous (film)\")* (2001\\), all directed by Ray; *[Storm Catcher](/wiki/Storm_Catcher \"Storm Catcher\")* (2000\\); *[Jill Rips](/wiki/Jill_Rips \"Jill Rips\")* (2000\\) with [Dolph Lundgren](/wiki/Dolph_Lundgren \"Dolph Lundgren\"); *[Intrepid](/wiki/Intrepid_%28film%29 \"Intrepid (film)\")* (2000\\), with [James Coburn](/wiki/James_Coburn \"James Coburn\").", "He often worked with producer and actor [Andrew Stevens](/wiki/Andrew_Stevens \"Andrew Stevens\"), who called in Wynorski to shoot additional scenes for *[Agent Red](/wiki/Agent_Red \"Agent Red\")* (2000\\).", "*[Thy Neighbor's Wife](/wiki/Thy_Neighbor%27s_Wife_%282001_film%29 \"Thy Neighbor's Wife (2001 film)\")* (2001\\) was a thriller. *Gale Force* (2002\\), *[Lost Treasure](/wiki/Lost_Treasure_%28film%29 \"Lost Treasure (film)\")* (2003, with [Stephen Baldwin](/wiki/Stephen_Baldwin \"Stephen Baldwin\")) and *[Treasure Hunt](/wiki/Treasure_Hunt_%282003_film%29 \"Treasure Hunt (2003 film)\")* (2003\\) were action films. *[Bad Bizness](/wiki/Bad_Bizness \"Bad Bizness\")* (2003\\) was Wynorski 's first film with a predominantly black cast.", "Later action films he helped produce included *[Blue Demon](/wiki/Blue_Demon_%28film%29 \"Blue Demon (film)\")* (2004\\) and *[Sub Zero](/wiki/Sub_Zero_%28film%29 \"Sub Zero (film)\")*.", "### *The Bare Wench Project* and parody films", "In 2000 Wynorski made *The Bare Wench Project*, a sex parody of *[The Blair Witch Project](/wiki/The_Blair_Witch_Project \"The Blair Witch Project\")*. It was popular and led to several sequels. Wynorski made several other erotic parody movies, including *[Busty Cops](/wiki/Busty_Cops \"Busty Cops\")* (2004\\) and its several sequels, *[The Witches of Breastwick](/wiki/The_Witches_of_Breastwick \"The Witches of Breastwick\")* (2005\\) and its sequel, *[Alabama Jones and the Busty Crusade](/wiki/Alabama_Jones_and_the_Busty_Crusade \"Alabama Jones and the Busty Crusade\")* (2005\\), *The Da Vinci Coed* (2007\\), *The Breastford Wives* (2007\\), *House on Hooter Hill* (2007\\), *[The Devil Wears Nada](/wiki/The_Devil_Wears_Nada_%28film%29 \"The Devil Wears Nada (film)\")* (2009\\), *Cleavagefield* (2009\\), *Para\\-Knockers Activity* (2009\\), and *[The Hills Have Thighs](/wiki/The_Hills_Have_Thighs \"The Hills Have Thighs\")* (2010\\).", "### Creature films", "In 2001 Wynorski returned to Roger Corman with *[Raptor](/wiki/Raptor_%28film%29 \"Raptor (film)\")* (2001\\). He later made a series of \"creature\" films. For Corman he did some uncredited work on *[Wolfhound](/wiki/Wolfhound_%282002_film%29 \"Wolfhound (2002 film)\")* (2002\\). He made *[Project Viper](/wiki/Project_Viper \"Project Viper\")* (2002\\) for the [Sci Fi Channel](/wiki/Syfy \"Syfy\").", "He later made *[Curse of the Komodo](/wiki/Curse_of_the_Komodo \"Curse of the Komodo\")* (2004\\) and its sequel, *[Komodo vs. Cobra](/wiki/Komodo_vs._Cobra \"Komodo vs. Cobra\")* (2005\\), *[Gargoyle: Wings of Darkness](/wiki/Gargoyle:Wings_of_Darkness \"Wings of Darkness\")* (2004\\), *[Cry of the Winged Serpent](/wiki/Cry_of_the_Winged_Serpent \"Cry of the Winged Serpent\")* (2007\\), *[Dinocroc vs. Supergator](/wiki/Dinocroc_vs._Supergator \"Dinocroc vs. Supergator\")* (2010\\), *[Camel Spiders](/wiki/Camel_Spiders \"Camel Spiders\")* (2010\\), and *CobraGator* (2016\\).", "### Horror films", "He returned to slasher movies with *[Cheerleader Massacre](/wiki/Cheerleader_Massacre \"Cheerleader Massacre\")* (2003\\). *[The Thing Below](/wiki/The_Thing_Below \"The Thing Below\")* (2003\\) was horror.", "*[Lust Connection](/wiki/Lust_Connection \"Lust Connection\")* (2005\\) was a return to erotic thrillers.", "### Return to family films", "In recent years, Wynorski has returned to the family film genre, making *[Nessie \\& Me](/wiki/Nessie_%26_Me \"Nessie & Me\")* (2016\\), which is in a [shared universe](/wiki/Shared_universe \"Shared universe\") with *[DinoCroc](/wiki/DinoCroc \"DinoCroc\")*, *[Supergator](/wiki/Supergator \"Supergator\")*, *[Dinocroc vs. Supergator](/wiki/Dinocroc_vs._Supergator \"Dinocroc vs. Supergator\")*, and *[Piranhaconda](/wiki/Piranhaconda \"Piranhaconda\")*, due to the lead character referencing said films' title monsters, and *Monster Cruise*, from which many characters returned for *Nessie \\& Me*. He also directed *[A Doggone Christmas](/wiki/A_Doggone_Christmas \"A Doggone Christmas\")* (2016\\), which spawned a sequel *[A Doggone Hollywood](/wiki/A_Doggone_Hollywood \"A Doggone Hollywood\")* (2017\\).", "" ]
### Directorial debut and Roger Corman Wynorski made his directing debut with *[The Lost Empire](/wiki/The_Lost_Empire_%281984_film%29 "The Lost Empire (1984 film)")*. His second film, *[Chopping Mall](/wiki/Chopping_Mall "Chopping Mall")* (1986\), was made for [Julie Corman](/wiki/Julie_Corman "Julie Corman"), which Wynorski also produced and co\-wrote.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.filmmonthly.com/exclusives/interviews/interview\-with\-director\-jim\-wynorski\|website\=Film Monthly\|title\=Interview with director Jim Wynorski\|date\=15 October 2014}} Julie's husband Corman liked it, and hired Wynorski to make *[Deathstalker 2](/wiki/Deathstalker_2 "Deathstalker 2")* in Argentina, then *[Big Bad Mama II](/wiki/Big_Bad_Mama_II "Big Bad Mama II")* (1987\) with [Angie Dickinson](/wiki/Angie_Dickinson "Angie Dickinson"), and a remake of *[Not of this Earth](/wiki/Not_of_This_Earth_%281988_film%29 "Not of This Earth (1988 film)")* (1988\) with [Traci Lords](/wiki/Traci_Lords "Traci Lords"). He was creative consultant on *[Purple People Eater](/wiki/Purple_People_Eater_%28film%29 "Purple People Eater (film)")* (1988\). Wynorski was given a $7 million budget to make *[The Return of Swamp Thing](/wiki/The_Return_of_Swamp_Thing "The Return of Swamp Thing")* (1989\) with [Louis Jourdan](/wiki/Louis_Jourdan "Louis Jourdan"). He then made *[Transylvania Twist](/wiki/Transylvania_Twist "Transylvania Twist")* and *[The Haunting of Morella](/wiki/The_Haunting_of_Morella "The Haunting of Morella")* back to back for Roger Corman. He also made *[Sorority House Massacre II](/wiki/Sorority_House_Massacre_II "Sorority House Massacre II")* (1990\) for Julie Corman, on sets left over from existing films. Roger Corman was impressed and got Wynorski to remake it as *[Sorority House Massacre III: Hard to Die](/wiki/Sorority_House_Massacre_III:Hard_to_Die "Hard to Die")*. Corman "taught me all the lessons on how to make a film and how to make it look expensive when you don't have a lot of money," Wynorski says.<https://search.proquest.com/docview/293189960> {{dead link\|date\=October 2017}} He worked on the scripts for *[Beastmaster 2: Through the Portal of Time](/wiki/Beastmaster_2:Through_the_Portal_of_Time "Through the Portal of Time")* (1991\), *[House IV](/wiki/House_IV "House IV")* (1992\) and *[Final Embrace](/wiki/Final_Embrace_%28film%29 "Final Embrace (film)")* (1992\) but did not direct them. He directed *[976\-Evil II](/wiki/976-Evil_II "976-Evil II")* (1992\), which was produced by [Paul Hertzberg](/wiki/Paul_Hertzberg "Paul Hertzberg"), with whom Wynorski would frequently collaborate.
[ "### Directorial debut and Roger Corman", "Wynorski made his directing debut with *[The Lost Empire](/wiki/The_Lost_Empire_%281984_film%29 \"The Lost Empire (1984 film)\")*.", "His second film, *[Chopping Mall](/wiki/Chopping_Mall \"Chopping Mall\")* (1986\\), was made for [Julie Corman](/wiki/Julie_Corman \"Julie Corman\"), which Wynorski also produced and co\\-wrote.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.filmmonthly.com/exclusives/interviews/interview\\-with\\-director\\-jim\\-wynorski\\|website\\=Film Monthly\\|title\\=Interview with director Jim Wynorski\\|date\\=15 October 2014}} Julie's husband Corman liked it, and hired Wynorski to make *[Deathstalker 2](/wiki/Deathstalker_2 \"Deathstalker 2\")* in Argentina, then *[Big Bad Mama II](/wiki/Big_Bad_Mama_II \"Big Bad Mama II\")* (1987\\) with [Angie Dickinson](/wiki/Angie_Dickinson \"Angie Dickinson\"), and a remake of *[Not of this Earth](/wiki/Not_of_This_Earth_%281988_film%29 \"Not of This Earth (1988 film)\")* (1988\\) with [Traci Lords](/wiki/Traci_Lords \"Traci Lords\"). He was creative consultant on *[Purple People Eater](/wiki/Purple_People_Eater_%28film%29 \"Purple People Eater (film)\")* (1988\\).", "Wynorski was given a $7 million budget to make *[The Return of Swamp Thing](/wiki/The_Return_of_Swamp_Thing \"The Return of Swamp Thing\")* (1989\\) with [Louis Jourdan](/wiki/Louis_Jourdan \"Louis Jourdan\"). He then made *[Transylvania Twist](/wiki/Transylvania_Twist \"Transylvania Twist\")* and *[The Haunting of Morella](/wiki/The_Haunting_of_Morella \"The Haunting of Morella\")* back to back for Roger Corman.", "He also made *[Sorority House Massacre II](/wiki/Sorority_House_Massacre_II \"Sorority House Massacre II\")* (1990\\) for Julie Corman, on sets left over from existing films. Roger Corman was impressed and got Wynorski to remake it as *[Sorority House Massacre III: Hard to Die](/wiki/Sorority_House_Massacre_III:Hard_to_Die \"Hard to Die\")*. Corman \"taught me all the lessons on how to make a film and how to make it look expensive when you don't have a lot of money,\" Wynorski says.<https://search.proquest.com/docview/293189960> {{dead link\\|date\\=October 2017}}", "He worked on the scripts for *[Beastmaster 2: Through the Portal of Time](/wiki/Beastmaster_2:Through_the_Portal_of_Time \"Through the Portal of Time\")* (1991\\), *[House IV](/wiki/House_IV \"House IV\")* (1992\\) and *[Final Embrace](/wiki/Final_Embrace_%28film%29 \"Final Embrace (film)\")* (1992\\) but did not direct them.", "He directed *[976\\-Evil II](/wiki/976-Evil_II \"976-Evil II\")* (1992\\), which was produced by [Paul Hertzberg](/wiki/Paul_Hertzberg \"Paul Hertzberg\"), with whom Wynorski would frequently collaborate.", "" ]
Alignment methods ----------------- The method to use differs depending on whether the alignment is taking place in daylight or at night. Furthermore, the method differs if the alignment is done in the [Northern Hemisphere](/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere "Northern Hemisphere") or [Southern Hemisphere](/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere "Southern Hemisphere"). The purpose of the alignment also must be considered; for example, the value of accuracy is much more significant in [astrophotography](/wiki/Astrophotography "Astrophotography") than in casual stargazing. ### Aiming at the pole stars In the Northern Hemisphere, sighting [Polaris](/wiki/Polaris "Polaris") the [North Star](/wiki/North_Star "North Star") is the usual procedure for aligning a telescope mount's polar axis parallel to the Earth's [axis](/wiki/Axial_tilt "Axial tilt").{{Cite book \|last\=Covington \|first\=Michael A. \|title\=Astrophotography for the amateur \|date\=1999 \|publisher\=Cambridge Univ. Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-62740\-5 \|edition\=2nd \|location\=Cambridge}} Polaris is approximately three\-quarters of a degree from the North Celestial Pole, and is easily seen by the naked eye. [σ Octantis](/wiki/Sigma_Octantis "Sigma Octantis"), sometimes known as the [South Star](/wiki/South_Star "South Star"), can be sighted in the Southern hemisphere to perform a polar alignment. At magnitude \+5\.6, it is difficult for inexperienced observers to locate in the sky. Its declination of \-88° 57′ 23″ places it 1° 2′ 37" from the South Celestial Pole. An even closer star [BQ Octantis](/wiki/BQ_Octantis "BQ Octantis") of magnitude \+6\.9 lies 10' from the South Pole as of 2016\. Although not visible to the naked eye, it is easily visible in most polar 'scopes. (It will lie its closest to the South Pole, namely 9', in the year 2027\. [thumb\|Location of σ Octantis in the southern sky, with dashed lines as guides to the approximate location.](/wiki/File:Pole01-eng.svg "Pole01-eng.svg") [thumb\|Celestial South Pole around 2016 and bright stars around it. [Right ascension](/wiki/Right_ascension "Right ascension") 0h is up and each circle is 1 degree of declination from the pole. The trapezoid top right is just visible to the naked eye.](/wiki/File:Celestial_Southpole_2016.png "Celestial Southpole 2016.png") ### Rough alignment method In the Northern Hemisphere, rough alignment can be done by visually aligning the axis of the telescope mount with [Polaris](/wiki/Polaris "Polaris"). In the Southern hemisphere or places where Polaris is not visible, a rough alignment can be performed by ensuring the mount is level, adjusting the latitude adjustment pointer to match the observer's [latitude](/wiki/Latitude "Latitude"), and aligning the axis of the mount with [true south or north](/wiki/True_north "True north") by means of a [magnetic compass](/wiki/Magnetic_compass "Magnetic compass"). (This requires taking the local [magnetic declination](/wiki/Magnetic_declination "Magnetic declination") into account). This method can sometimes be adequate for general observing through the [eyepiece](/wiki/Eyepiece "Eyepiece") or for very wide angle [astro\-imaging](/wiki/Astrophotography "Astrophotography") with a tripod\-mounted camera; it is often used, with an equatorially\-mounted telescope, as a starting point in [amateur astronomy](/wiki/Amateur_astronomy "Amateur astronomy"). There are ways to improve the accuracy of this method. For example, instead of reading the latitude scale directly, a calibrated precision [inclinometer](/wiki/Inclinometer "Inclinometer") can be used to measure the altitude of the polar axis of the mount. If the [setting circles](/wiki/Setting_circles "Setting circles") of the mount are then used to find a bright object of known coordinates, the object should mismatch only as to azimuth, so that centering the object by adjusting the azimuth of the mount should complete the polar alignment process. Typically, this provides enough accuracy to allow tracked (i.e. motorized) telephoto images of the sky. For astro\-imaging through a lens or telescope of significant magnification, a more accurate alignment method is necessary to refine the rough alignment, using one of the following approaches. ### Polarscope method An alignment suitable for visual observation and short exposure imaging (up to a few minutes) can be achieved with a polar scope. This is a low\-magnification telescope mounted co\-axially with the mount (and adjusted to maximize the accuracy of this alignment). A special reticle is used to align the mount with Polaris (or a group of stars near the polar region) in the Southern Hemisphere. While primitive polariscopes originally needed the careful adjustment of the mount to match the time of year and day, this process can be simplified using computer apps that calculate the correct position of the reticle. A new\-style northern\-hemisphere reticle uses a 'clock\-face' style with 72 divisions (representing 20\-minute intervals) and circles to compensate for the drift of Polaris over around thirty years. Use of this reticle can allow alignment to within an arc minute or two.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.stubmandrel.co.uk/astronomy/123\-new\-style\-reticle\-for\-polarfinder\|title\=New Style Reticle for PolarFinder\|website\=www.stubmandrel.co.uk}} ### Drift alignment method Drift alignment is a method to refine the polar alignment after a rough alignment is done. The method is based on attempting to track stars in the sky using the [clock drive](/wiki/Clock_drive "Clock drive"); any error in the polar alignment will show up as the drift of the stars in the eyepiece/sensor. Adjustments are then made to reduce the drift, and the process is repeated until the tracking is satisfactory. For the polar axis altitude adjustment, one can attempt to track a star low in the east or west. For the azimuth adjustment, one typically attempts to track a star close to the meridian, with declination about 20° from the equator, in the hemisphere opposite of the observing location. ### Astrometric (plate) solving For telescopes combined with an imaging camera connected to a computer, it is possible to achieve very accurate polar alignment (within 0\.1 minutes of arc). An initial rough alignment is first performed using the polar scope. An image can then be captured and a star database is used to identify the exact field of view when aimed at stars near the pole \- 'plate solving'. The telescope is then rotated ninety degrees around its right ascension axis and a new 'plate solve' is carried out. The error in the point around which the images rotate compared to the true pole is calculated automatically and the operator can be given simple instructions to adjust the mount for a more accurate polar alignment.{{Cite web \|title\=Polar Alignment – SharpCap – Lunar, Planetary, Solar and Deep Sky Imaging. EAA and Live Stacking. \|url\=https://www.sharpcap.co.uk/sharpcap/features/polar\-alignment \|access\-date\= \|language\=en\-US}} ### Mathematical, two\-star polar alignment The polar error in elevation and azimuth can be calculated by pointing the telescope to two stars or taking two astrometric solves of two positions and the measured error in right ascension and declination.{{Cite web \|last\=Pass \|first\=Ralph \|date\=October 7, 2003 \|title\=Two star polar alignment \|url\=https://rppass.com/align.pdf \|archive\-url\=}} From the difference between the right ascension and declination of the telescope encoder and the second's star position, the elevation and azimuth error of the polar alignment can be calculated. The basic formulas are as follows: {\\displaystyle \\Delta\\alpha\=\\Delta e\\cdot \\tan{(\\delta)}\\cdot \\sin(h)\+\\Delta a\\cdot\\left(\\sin(\\Phi)\-\\cos(\\Phi)\\cdot\\tan(\\delta)\\cdot\\cos(h)\\right)}\\Delta\\delta\=\\Delta e\\cdot\\cos(h)\+\\Delta a\\cdot\\cos(\\Phi)\\cdot\\sin(h) where \\alpha is Right ascension \\delta is Declination \\Phi is Site latitude h is the hour angle of the reference point equals (\\alpha \- [Local sidereal time](/wiki/Sidereal_time "Sidereal time")) \\Delta\\alpha is Error in Right Ascension \\Delta\\delta is Error in Declination \\Delta e is Polar error in elevation (altitude) \\Delta a is Polar error in azimuth The inverse can be calculated if the above formula is written in matrix notation. So the polar error expressed in Δe and Δa can be calculated from the Δα and Δδ between the telescope encoder and the second reference star. ### Polar Alignment with Excel Polar Alignment with [Excel](/wiki/Microsoft_Excel "Microsoft Excel"){{Cite web \|title\=Polar Alignment with Camera and Spreadsheet: Digital photography and a computer spreadsheet offers a new twist for precision polar alignment of equatorial telescopes. \- Free Online Library \|url\=https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Polar\+Alignment\+with\+Camera\+and\+Spreadsheet:\+Digital\+photography\+and...\-a0550168859 \|access\-date\= \|website\=www.thefreelibrary.com}}{{Cite web \|title\=Polar alignment with Excel {{!}} \|url\=https://www.sternwarte\-nms.de/artikel/polar\-alignment\-with\-excel/ \|access\-date\= \|website\=www.sternwarte\-nms.de}} is a method for polar alignment of equatorial mountings for astronomical telescopes, using a digital camera and a computer. #### Photography [thumb\|Star trail image of the north polar region](/wiki/File:Polstrichspur_4149.jpg "Polstrichspur 4149.jpg") A digital camera with a standard lens is mounted on the telescope and pointed at the celestial pole. Exposure is set at „B“ (Bulb) and an image is taken while the camera is slowly turned around the polar axis.{{Cite journal \|last\=Luethen \|first\=Hartwig \|date\=2008 \|title\=Scheinern war gestern \|journal\=Sternkieker (Magazine of GvA Hamburg) \|issue\=43 \|pages\=109–110}} This yields a kind of star\-trail image. The beginning and the end of the star trails must be clearly marked with a few seconds of static exposure. Due to the rotation, the information about the current direction of the axis is hidden in the image. Alternatively, two static images can be taken, which differ by a rotation around the polar axis. #### Evaluation [thumb\|Interactive area of the Excel spreadsheet](/wiki/File:Polar_align_56_example.jpg "Polar align 56 example.jpg") For the evaluation of the images, a special Excel spreadsheet has been developed. For three stars, the rectangular X\-Y\-coordinates are measured at both ends of their trails or on both static images. In addition, we need the current [right ascension](/wiki/Right_ascension "Right ascension") and [declination](/wiki/Declination "Declination") of the 3 stars, the longitude and latitude of the observatory, and the date and time the images were taken. The spreadsheet then outputs the necessary corrections of the azimuth and the pole height in degrees and, in an auxiliary field, the corresponding number of turns of the adjustment screws, thus allowing a direct approach to the correct alignment. The Excel spreadsheet and detailed instructions for use are available for free download at the website of the vhs\-observatory Neumuenster.{{Cite web \|title\=Polar alignment with Excel {{!}} \|url\=https://www.sternwarte\-nms.de/ext\-links/downloads/ \|access\-date\= \|website\=www.sternwarte\-nms.de}}
[ "Alignment methods\n-----------------", "The method to use differs depending on whether the alignment is taking place in daylight or at night. Furthermore, the method differs if the alignment is done in the [Northern Hemisphere](/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere \"Northern Hemisphere\") or [Southern Hemisphere](/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere \"Southern Hemisphere\"). The purpose of the alignment also must be considered; for example, the value of accuracy is much more significant in [astrophotography](/wiki/Astrophotography \"Astrophotography\") than in casual stargazing.", "### Aiming at the pole stars", "In the Northern Hemisphere, sighting [Polaris](/wiki/Polaris \"Polaris\") the [North Star](/wiki/North_Star \"North Star\") is the usual procedure for aligning a telescope mount's polar axis parallel to the Earth's [axis](/wiki/Axial_tilt \"Axial tilt\").{{Cite book \\|last\\=Covington \\|first\\=Michael A. \\|title\\=Astrophotography for the amateur \\|date\\=1999 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge Univ. Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-62740\\-5 \\|edition\\=2nd \\|location\\=Cambridge}} Polaris is approximately three\\-quarters of a degree from the North Celestial Pole, and is easily seen by the naked eye.", "[σ Octantis](/wiki/Sigma_Octantis \"Sigma Octantis\"), sometimes known as the [South Star](/wiki/South_Star \"South Star\"), can be sighted in the Southern hemisphere to perform a polar alignment. At magnitude \\+5\\.6, it is difficult for inexperienced observers to locate in the sky. Its declination of \\-88° 57′ 23″ places it 1° 2′ 37\" from the South Celestial Pole. An even closer star [BQ Octantis](/wiki/BQ_Octantis \"BQ Octantis\") of magnitude \\+6\\.9 lies 10' from the South Pole as of 2016\\. Although not visible to the naked eye, it is easily visible in most polar 'scopes. (It will lie its closest to the South Pole, namely 9', in the year 2027\\.", "[thumb\\|Location of σ Octantis in the southern sky, with dashed lines as guides to the approximate location.](/wiki/File:Pole01-eng.svg \"Pole01-eng.svg\")\n[thumb\\|Celestial South Pole around 2016 and bright stars around it. [Right ascension](/wiki/Right_ascension \"Right ascension\") 0h is up and each circle is 1 degree of declination from the pole. The trapezoid top right is just visible to the naked eye.](/wiki/File:Celestial_Southpole_2016.png \"Celestial Southpole 2016.png\")", "### Rough alignment method", "In the Northern Hemisphere, rough alignment can be done by visually aligning the axis of the telescope mount with [Polaris](/wiki/Polaris \"Polaris\"). In the Southern hemisphere or places where Polaris is not visible, a rough alignment can be performed by ensuring the mount is level, adjusting the latitude adjustment pointer to match the observer's [latitude](/wiki/Latitude \"Latitude\"), and aligning the axis of the mount with [true south or north](/wiki/True_north \"True north\") by means of a [magnetic compass](/wiki/Magnetic_compass \"Magnetic compass\"). (This requires taking the local [magnetic declination](/wiki/Magnetic_declination \"Magnetic declination\") into account). This method can sometimes be adequate for general observing through the [eyepiece](/wiki/Eyepiece \"Eyepiece\") or for very wide angle [astro\\-imaging](/wiki/Astrophotography \"Astrophotography\") with a tripod\\-mounted camera; it is often used, with an equatorially\\-mounted telescope, as a starting point in [amateur astronomy](/wiki/Amateur_astronomy \"Amateur astronomy\").", "There are ways to improve the accuracy of this method. For example, instead of reading the latitude scale directly, a calibrated precision [inclinometer](/wiki/Inclinometer \"Inclinometer\") can be used to measure the altitude of the polar axis of the mount. If the [setting circles](/wiki/Setting_circles \"Setting circles\") of the mount are then used to find a bright object of known coordinates, the object should mismatch only as to azimuth, so that centering the object by adjusting the azimuth of the mount should complete the polar alignment process. Typically, this provides enough accuracy to allow tracked (i.e. motorized) telephoto images of the sky.", "For astro\\-imaging through a lens or telescope of significant magnification, a more accurate alignment method is necessary to refine the rough alignment, using one of the following approaches.", "### Polarscope method", "An alignment suitable for visual observation and short exposure imaging (up to a few minutes) can be achieved with a polar scope. This is a low\\-magnification telescope mounted co\\-axially with the mount (and adjusted to maximize the accuracy of this alignment). A special reticle is used to align the mount with Polaris (or a group of stars near the polar region) in the Southern Hemisphere. While primitive polariscopes originally needed the careful adjustment of the mount to match the time of year and day, this process can be simplified using computer apps that calculate the correct position of the reticle. A new\\-style northern\\-hemisphere reticle uses a 'clock\\-face' style with 72 divisions (representing 20\\-minute intervals) and circles to compensate for the drift of Polaris over around thirty years. Use of this reticle can allow alignment to within an arc minute or two.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.stubmandrel.co.uk/astronomy/123\\-new\\-style\\-reticle\\-for\\-polarfinder\\|title\\=New Style Reticle for PolarFinder\\|website\\=www.stubmandrel.co.uk}}", "### Drift alignment method", "Drift alignment is a method to refine the polar alignment after a rough alignment is done. The method is based on attempting to track stars in the sky using the [clock drive](/wiki/Clock_drive \"Clock drive\"); any error in the polar alignment will show up as the drift of the stars in the eyepiece/sensor. Adjustments are then made to reduce the drift, and the process is repeated until the tracking is satisfactory. For the polar axis altitude adjustment, one can attempt to track a star low in the east or west. For the azimuth adjustment, one typically attempts to track a star close to the meridian, with declination about 20° from the equator, in the hemisphere opposite of the observing location.", "### Astrometric (plate) solving", "For telescopes combined with an imaging camera connected to a computer, it is possible to achieve very accurate polar alignment (within 0\\.1 minutes of arc). An initial rough alignment is first performed using the polar scope. An image can then be captured and a star database is used to identify the exact field of view when aimed at stars near the pole \\- 'plate solving'. The telescope is then rotated ninety degrees around its right ascension axis and a new 'plate solve' is carried out. The error in the point around which the images rotate compared to the true pole is calculated automatically and the operator can be given simple instructions to adjust the mount for a more accurate polar alignment.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Polar Alignment – SharpCap – Lunar, Planetary, Solar and Deep Sky Imaging. EAA and Live Stacking. \\|url\\=https://www.sharpcap.co.uk/sharpcap/features/polar\\-alignment \\|access\\-date\\= \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "### Mathematical, two\\-star polar alignment", "The polar error in elevation and azimuth can be calculated by pointing the telescope to two stars or taking two astrometric solves of two positions and the measured error in right ascension and declination.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Pass \\|first\\=Ralph \\|date\\=October 7, 2003 \\|title\\=Two star polar alignment \\|url\\=https://rppass.com/align.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=}} From the difference between the right ascension and declination of the telescope encoder and the second's star position, the elevation and azimuth error of the polar alignment can be calculated. The basic formulas are as follows:", "{\\\\displaystyle \\\\Delta\\\\alpha\\=\\\\Delta e\\\\cdot \\\\tan{(\\\\delta)}\\\\cdot \\\\sin(h)\\+\\\\Delta a\\\\cdot\\\\left(\\\\sin(\\\\Phi)\\-\\\\cos(\\\\Phi)\\\\cdot\\\\tan(\\\\delta)\\\\cdot\\\\cos(h)\\\\right)}\\\\Delta\\\\delta\\=\\\\Delta e\\\\cdot\\\\cos(h)\\+\\\\Delta a\\\\cdot\\\\cos(\\\\Phi)\\\\cdot\\\\sin(h)", "where", "\\\\alpha is Right ascension", "\\\\delta is Declination", "\\\\Phi is Site latitude", "h is the hour angle of the reference point equals (\\\\alpha \\- [Local sidereal time](/wiki/Sidereal_time \"Sidereal time\"))", "\\\\Delta\\\\alpha is Error in Right Ascension", "\\\\Delta\\\\delta is Error in Declination", "\\\\Delta e is Polar error in elevation (altitude)", "\\\\Delta a is Polar error in azimuth", "The inverse can be calculated if the above formula is written in matrix notation. So the polar error expressed in Δe and Δa can be calculated from the Δα and Δδ between the telescope encoder and the second reference star.\n### Polar Alignment with Excel", "", "Polar Alignment with [Excel](/wiki/Microsoft_Excel \"Microsoft Excel\"){{Cite web \\|title\\=Polar Alignment with Camera and Spreadsheet: Digital photography and a computer spreadsheet offers a new twist for precision polar alignment of equatorial telescopes. \\- Free Online Library \\|url\\=https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Polar\\+Alignment\\+with\\+Camera\\+and\\+Spreadsheet:\\+Digital\\+photography\\+and...\\-a0550168859 \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=www.thefreelibrary.com}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Polar alignment with Excel {{!}} \\|url\\=https://www.sternwarte\\-nms.de/artikel/polar\\-alignment\\-with\\-excel/ \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=www.sternwarte\\-nms.de}} is a method for polar alignment of equatorial mountings for astronomical telescopes, using a digital camera and a computer.", "#### Photography", "[thumb\\|Star trail image of the north polar region](/wiki/File:Polstrichspur_4149.jpg \"Polstrichspur 4149.jpg\")\nA digital camera with a standard lens is mounted on the telescope and pointed at the celestial pole. Exposure is set at „B“ (Bulb) and an image is taken while the camera is slowly turned around the polar axis.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Luethen \\|first\\=Hartwig \\|date\\=2008 \\|title\\=Scheinern war gestern \\|journal\\=Sternkieker (Magazine of GvA Hamburg) \\|issue\\=43 \\|pages\\=109–110}} This yields a kind of star\\-trail image. The beginning and the end of the star trails must be clearly marked with a few seconds of static exposure. Due to the rotation, the information about the current direction of the axis is hidden in the image. Alternatively, two static images can be taken, which differ by a rotation around the polar axis.", "#### Evaluation", "[thumb\\|Interactive area of the Excel spreadsheet](/wiki/File:Polar_align_56_example.jpg \"Polar align 56 example.jpg\")\nFor the evaluation of the images, a special Excel spreadsheet has been developed. For three stars, the rectangular X\\-Y\\-coordinates are measured at both ends of their trails or on both static images. In addition, we need the current [right ascension](/wiki/Right_ascension \"Right ascension\") and [declination](/wiki/Declination \"Declination\") of the 3 stars, the longitude and latitude of the observatory, and the date and time the images were taken. The spreadsheet then outputs the necessary corrections of the azimuth and the pole height in degrees and, in an auxiliary field, the corresponding number of turns of the adjustment screws, thus allowing a direct approach to the correct alignment.", "The Excel spreadsheet and detailed instructions for use are available for free download at the website of the vhs\\-observatory Neumuenster.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Polar alignment with Excel {{!}} \\|url\\=https://www.sternwarte\\-nms.de/ext\\-links/downloads/ \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=www.sternwarte\\-nms.de}}", "" ]
Life ---- {{More citations needed section\|date\=January 2023}} Franco Burgersdijk was born on 3 May 1590, in [De Lier](/wiki/De_Lier "De Lier"). Burgersdijk spent much of his childhood on a farm, and attended the Latin Schools at both [Amersfoort](/wiki/Amersfoort "Amersfoort") (1604{{Mdash}}1606\) and Delft Gymnasium (1606{{Mdash}}1610\). Shortly after, he decided to study theology at the University of Leiden. His growing interest in [debate](/wiki/Debate "Debate") led him to become a mentee of [Gisbertus Voetius](/wiki/Gisbertus_Voetius "Gisbertus Voetius"), the vice principal of Staten Collegie. After finishing his education in Leiden, he further pursued his studies at the [University of Saumur](/wiki/Academy_of_Saumur "Academy of Saumur") where he became a professor of philosophy in 1614\. After the [Arminian](/wiki/Arminianism "Arminianism") "purification" of universities of the [Dutch Republic](/wiki/Dutch_Republic "Dutch Republic"), Burgersdijk relocated back to Holland{{When\|date\=January 2024}} and became a professor of logic at the University of Leiden. He was later appointed as the chair of ethics and then exchanged it for the chair of philosophy.{{Cite book \|url\=https://link.springer.com/book/10\.1007/978\-3\-030\-30833\-9 \|title\=De sphaera of Johannes de Sacrobosco in the Early Modern Period \|year\=2020 \|language\=en \|doi\=10\.1007/978\-3\-030\-30833\-9\|isbn\=978\-3\-030\-30832\-2 \|s2cid\=212924313 \|editor\-last1\=Valleriani \|editor\-first1\=Matteo }} He died in [Leiden](/wiki/Leiden "Leiden"). The reason for Burgersdijk's popularity stems from his first book, *Idea Philosophiae Naturalis*, which became the model for his later writings. His treatment of his subjects is clear, logical, concise and well organized. The method of orderly study he employed was designed to instill "sound scholarship". Starting from his method of definition and classification, he examined the whole of natural philosophy in 26 disputations, each of which presented a set of theses that could be further examined by consulting the listed pros and cons instances. Another collection of disputations took place in the Collegium physicum. Burgersdijk's reputation in the 17th century rested on his systematic manuals. They received their pedagogical importance from the efficient adaptation of the Corpus Aristotelicum to the standards of the humanistic method. Burgersdijk's [neo\-Aristotelianism](/wiki/Neo-Aristotelianism_%28philosophy%29 "Neo-Aristotelianism (philosophy)") is related to the [Contra\-Remonstrant](/wiki/Contra-remonstrant "Contra-remonstrant") movement in the Dutch Republic. ### Religious troubles and their effect on Burgersdijk's Academic Career During the truce between the Dutch and Spanish armies in 1609, followers of theology professor Jacob Arminius requested the States of [Holland](/wiki/Holland "Holland") to review certain religious issues. These issues consisted of a series of conflicts between [Arminians](/wiki/Arminianism "Arminianism"), followers of [Jacob Arminius](/wiki/Jacobus_Arminius "Jacobus Arminius"), and [Gomarists](/wiki/Gomarists "Gomarists"), followers of [Fransicus Gomarus](/wiki/Franciscus_Gomarus "Franciscus Gomarus"). These conflicts arose due to different interpretations of the holy scripture. Their debate was deeply entangled in Dutch politics for years. In 1608, conflicts escalated when the Staats General (general assembly) of the Federal Dutch state requested a synod; this was opposed by the Province of Holland, which supported the Arminians. In response, the Province of Holland used its military power to restore order. However, this brought them into conflict with the Stadtholder [Maurice, Prince of Orange](/wiki/Maurice%2C_Prince_of_Orange "Maurice, Prince of Orange"), who staged a coup and gained control of the entire country, thus ending the political skirmish. The religious conflict shortly ended after the international [Synod of Dort](/wiki/Synod_of_Dort "Synod of Dort") ruled in favor of Gomarists on May 9, 1619\. Due to the ruling, all Arminianism was effectively removed from the Republic. The removal brought about openings at the University of [Leiden](/wiki/Leiden "Leiden"). Burgersdijk saw this as an opportunity to go back to Holland. He was appointed a professor of logic and was later promoted to the chair of ethics. His studies of theological education were completed in 1623\. In 1626, Burgersdijk was tasked with editing [Johannes de Sacrobosco’s *De sphaera*](/wiki/De_sphaera_mundi "De sphaera mundi") to rid the book of its Latin. ### Interest in Philosophy Burgersdijk participated in two disputes in 1623 and 1627 which involved the Aristotelian knowledge corpus on natural knowledge. His former professor and the chair of philosophy at the University of [Leiden](/wiki/Leiden "Leiden"), [Jacchaeus](/wiki/Gilbert_Jack "Gilbert Jack") (Gilbert Jack), quarreled with Burgersdijk because he believed that Burgersdijk was exceeding the remit of his department.{{Cite book \|last\=Dibon \|first\=Paul \|url\=http://worldcat.org/oclc/768983468 \|title\=La philosophie néerlandaise au siècle d'or \|date\=1954 \|publisher\=Elsevier \|oclc\=768983468}} After Jacchaeus's death in 1628, Burgersdijk exchanged his chair of ethics for the chair of philosophy. Although Burgersdijk was known to believe in Aristotelian principles, he also believed in the birth of new stars and the supernatural effects of the heavens on the terrestrial world. ### Career He received his first appointment at the Protestant [Academy of Saumur](/wiki/Academy_of_Saumur "Academy of Saumur"), where he was professor of philosophy from 1616 to 1619\. He returned to [Leiden](/wiki/Leiden "Leiden") as a professor of logic and ethics and gave his inaugural lecture "De fructu et utilitate logices" in 1620\. Appointed to the chair of philosophy in 1628, Burgersdijk became a leading figure at the university, serving as rector (1629, 1630, 1634\) and writing influential textbooks on natural philosophy, metaphysics, logic, ethics, and politics. ### Accomplishments In 1625 new regulations were issued. Some ethics, physics, and geography could be taught in the final year, and Burgersdijk was asked to elevate the medieval 'barbaric' Latin of Johannes de Sacrobosco's *De sphaera* to humanistic standards by making 'astronomy' clear and easy to understand. This textbook, commissioned by the Dutch States, should not be taken as an illustration of Burgersdijk's conservatism. The aim was to familiarize the students with the "basics" of the subject, which, as stated in the introduction to the compendium, would have to be deepened at the university. In 1628, after the death of Jacchaeus, Burgersdijk exchanged moral philosophy for physics, but long before that he lectured on physics. In 1624 a first series of fifteen disputations dealing with the Aristotelian corpus of natural philosophy was held, and in 1627 the next series was organized. Although his orator [Petrus Cunaeus](/wiki/Petrus_Cunaeus "Petrus Cunaeus") noted that several friends of the deceased were astonished at this move, for "the moral philosophy transmitted from heaven to earth by Socrates is the most outstanding part of philosophy", he remarked Burgersdijk's humanistic ambition to that hidden in nature Truth, that a clear light may shine out of the darkness." He therefore clarified the Aristotelian philosophy taught "by public authority" in the schools and removed "its obscurities', which were later intensified "scholastic 'Commentators such as Thomas Aquinas and John Duns Scotus.' Thus, Burgersdijk's key terms are *method* and *system*, with *order* being a necessary condition of a science.
[ "Life\n----", "{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=January 2023}}\nFranco Burgersdijk was born on 3 May 1590, in [De Lier](/wiki/De_Lier \"De Lier\"). Burgersdijk spent much of his childhood on a farm, and attended the Latin Schools at both [Amersfoort](/wiki/Amersfoort \"Amersfoort\") (1604{{Mdash}}1606\\) and Delft Gymnasium (1606{{Mdash}}1610\\). Shortly after, he decided to study theology at the University of Leiden. His growing interest in [debate](/wiki/Debate \"Debate\") led him to become a mentee of [Gisbertus Voetius](/wiki/Gisbertus_Voetius \"Gisbertus Voetius\"), the vice principal of Staten Collegie. After finishing his education in Leiden, he further pursued his studies at the [University of Saumur](/wiki/Academy_of_Saumur \"Academy of Saumur\") where he became a professor of philosophy in 1614\\. After the [Arminian](/wiki/Arminianism \"Arminianism\") \"purification\" of universities of the [Dutch Republic](/wiki/Dutch_Republic \"Dutch Republic\"), Burgersdijk relocated back to Holland{{When\\|date\\=January 2024}} and became a professor of logic at the University of Leiden. He was later appointed as the chair of ethics and then exchanged it for the chair of philosophy.{{Cite book \\|url\\=https://link.springer.com/book/10\\.1007/978\\-3\\-030\\-30833\\-9 \\|title\\=De sphaera of Johannes de Sacrobosco in the Early Modern Period \\|year\\=2020 \\|language\\=en \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/978\\-3\\-030\\-30833\\-9\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-030\\-30832\\-2 \\|s2cid\\=212924313 \\|editor\\-last1\\=Valleriani \\|editor\\-first1\\=Matteo }} He died in [Leiden](/wiki/Leiden \"Leiden\").", "The reason for Burgersdijk's popularity stems from his first book, *Idea Philosophiae Naturalis*, which became the model for his later writings. His treatment of his subjects is clear, logical, concise and well organized. The method of orderly study he employed was designed to instill \"sound scholarship\". Starting from his method of definition and classification, he examined the whole of natural philosophy in 26 disputations, each of which presented a set of theses that could be further examined by consulting the listed pros and cons instances. Another collection of disputations took place in the Collegium physicum. Burgersdijk's reputation in the 17th century rested on his systematic manuals. They received their pedagogical importance from the efficient adaptation of the Corpus Aristotelicum to the standards of the humanistic method. Burgersdijk's [neo\\-Aristotelianism](/wiki/Neo-Aristotelianism_%28philosophy%29 \"Neo-Aristotelianism (philosophy)\") is related to the [Contra\\-Remonstrant](/wiki/Contra-remonstrant \"Contra-remonstrant\") movement in the Dutch Republic.", "### Religious troubles and their effect on Burgersdijk's Academic Career", "During the truce between the Dutch and Spanish armies in 1609, followers of theology professor Jacob Arminius requested the States of [Holland](/wiki/Holland \"Holland\") to review certain religious issues. These issues consisted of a series of conflicts between [Arminians](/wiki/Arminianism \"Arminianism\"), followers of [Jacob Arminius](/wiki/Jacobus_Arminius \"Jacobus Arminius\"), and [Gomarists](/wiki/Gomarists \"Gomarists\"), followers of [Fransicus Gomarus](/wiki/Franciscus_Gomarus \"Franciscus Gomarus\"). These conflicts arose due to different interpretations of the holy scripture.", "Their debate was deeply entangled in Dutch politics for years. In 1608, conflicts escalated when the Staats General (general assembly) of the Federal Dutch state requested a synod; this was opposed by the Province of Holland, which supported the Arminians. In response, the Province of Holland used its military power to restore order. However, this brought them into conflict with the Stadtholder [Maurice, Prince of Orange](/wiki/Maurice%2C_Prince_of_Orange \"Maurice, Prince of Orange\"), who staged a coup and gained control of the entire country, thus ending the political skirmish. The religious conflict shortly ended after the international [Synod of Dort](/wiki/Synod_of_Dort \"Synod of Dort\") ruled in favor of Gomarists on May 9, 1619\\.", "Due to the ruling, all Arminianism was effectively removed from the Republic. The removal brought about openings at the University of [Leiden](/wiki/Leiden \"Leiden\"). Burgersdijk saw this as an opportunity to go back to Holland. He was appointed a professor of logic and was later promoted to the chair of ethics. His studies of theological education were completed in 1623\\.", "In 1626, Burgersdijk was tasked with editing [Johannes de Sacrobosco’s *De sphaera*](/wiki/De_sphaera_mundi \"De sphaera mundi\") to rid the book of its Latin.", "### Interest in Philosophy", "Burgersdijk participated in two disputes in 1623 and 1627 which involved the Aristotelian knowledge corpus on natural knowledge. His former professor and the chair of philosophy at the University of [Leiden](/wiki/Leiden \"Leiden\"), [Jacchaeus](/wiki/Gilbert_Jack \"Gilbert Jack\") (Gilbert Jack), quarreled with Burgersdijk because he believed that Burgersdijk was exceeding the remit of his department.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Dibon \\|first\\=Paul \\|url\\=http://worldcat.org/oclc/768983468 \\|title\\=La philosophie néerlandaise au siècle d'or \\|date\\=1954 \\|publisher\\=Elsevier \\|oclc\\=768983468}} After Jacchaeus's death in 1628, Burgersdijk exchanged his chair of ethics for the chair of philosophy.", "Although Burgersdijk was known to believe in Aristotelian principles, he also believed in the birth of new stars and the supernatural effects of the heavens on the terrestrial world.", "### Career", "He received his first appointment at the Protestant [Academy of Saumur](/wiki/Academy_of_Saumur \"Academy of Saumur\"), where he was professor of philosophy from 1616 to 1619\\. He returned to [Leiden](/wiki/Leiden \"Leiden\") as a professor of logic and ethics and gave his inaugural lecture \"De fructu et utilitate logices\" in 1620\\. Appointed to the chair of philosophy in 1628, Burgersdijk became a leading figure at the university, serving as rector (1629, 1630, 1634\\) and writing influential textbooks on natural philosophy, metaphysics, logic, ethics, and politics.", "### Accomplishments", "In 1625 new regulations were issued. Some ethics, physics, and geography could be taught in the final year, and Burgersdijk was asked to elevate the medieval 'barbaric' Latin of Johannes de Sacrobosco's *De sphaera* to humanistic standards by making 'astronomy' clear and easy to understand. This textbook, commissioned by the Dutch States, should not be taken as an illustration of Burgersdijk's conservatism. The aim was to familiarize the students with the \"basics\" of the subject, which, as stated in the introduction to the compendium, would have to be deepened at the university. In 1628, after the death of Jacchaeus, Burgersdijk exchanged moral philosophy for physics, but long before that he lectured on physics. In 1624 a first series of fifteen disputations dealing with the Aristotelian corpus of natural philosophy was held, and in 1627 the next series was organized. Although his orator [Petrus Cunaeus](/wiki/Petrus_Cunaeus \"Petrus Cunaeus\") noted that several friends of the deceased were astonished at this move, for \"the moral philosophy transmitted from heaven to earth by Socrates is the most outstanding part of philosophy\", he remarked Burgersdijk's humanistic ambition to that hidden in nature Truth, that a clear light may shine out of the darkness.\" He therefore clarified the Aristotelian philosophy taught \"by public authority\" in the schools and removed \"its obscurities', which were later intensified \"scholastic 'Commentators such as Thomas Aquinas and John Duns Scotus.' Thus, Burgersdijk's key terms are *method* and *system*, with *order* being a necessary condition of a science.", "" ]
Regulation ---------- Within the cell cycle, there is a stringent set of regulations known as the [cell cycle control system](/wiki/Cell_cycle "Cell cycle") that controls the timing and coordination of the phases to ensure a correct order of events. Biochemical triggers known as [cyclin\-dependent kinases](/wiki/Cyclin-dependent_kinases "Cyclin-dependent kinases") (Cdks) switch on cell cycles events at the corrected time and in the correct order to prevent any mistakes. There are three checkpoints in the cell cycle: the **G1/S Checkpoint** or the **Start checkpoint** in yeast; the [G2/M checkpoint](/wiki/G2_phase "G2 phase"); and the [spindle checkpoint](/wiki/Spindle_checkpoint "Spindle checkpoint"). ### Biochemical regulators {{Main\|Cyclin E1}} During G1 phase, the G1/S cyclin activity rises significantly near the end of the G1 phase. Complexes of cyclin that are active during other phases of the cell cycle are kept inactivated to prevent any cell\-cycle events from occurring out of order. Three methods of preventing Cdk activity are found in G1 phase: [pRB](/wiki/Retinoblastoma_protein "Retinoblastoma protein") binding to [E2F](/wiki/E2F "E2F") family transcription factors downregulate [expression](/wiki/Gene_expression "Gene expression") of S phase cyclin genes; [anaphase\-promoting complex](/wiki/Anaphase-promoting_complex "Anaphase-promoting complex") (APC) is activated, which targets and degrades S and M cyclins (but not G1/S cyclins); and a high concentration of Cdk inhibitors is found during G1 phase. ### Restriction point {{Main\|Restriction point}} The [restriction point](/wiki/Restriction_point "Restriction point") (**R**) in the G1 phase is different from a checkpoint because it does not determine whether cell conditions are ideal to move on to the next phase, but it changes the course of the cell. After a vertebrate cell has been in the G1 phase for about three hours, the cell enters a restriction point in which it is decided whether the cell will move forward with the G1 phase or move into the dormant G0 phase.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Foster DA, Yellen P, Xu L, Saqcena M \| title \= Regulation of G1 Cell Cycle Progression: Distinguishing the Restriction Point from a Nutrient\-Sensing Cell Growth Checkpoint(s) \| journal \= Genes \& Cancer \| volume \= 1 \| issue \= 11 \| pages \= 1124–31 \| date \= November 2010 \| pmid \= 21779436 \| pmc \= 3092273 \| doi \= 10\.1177/1947601910392989 }} This point also separates two halves of the G1 phase; the post\-mitotic and pre\-mitotic phases. Between the beginning of the G1 phase (which is also after mitosis has occurred) and R, the cell is known as being in the G1\-pm subphase, or the post\-mitotic phase. After R and before S, the cell is known as being in G1\-ps, or the pre S phase interval of the G1 phase.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Zetterberg A, Larsson O, Wiman KG \| title \= What is the restriction point? \| journal \= Current Opinion in Cell Biology \| volume \= 7 \| issue \= 6 \| pages \= 835–42 \| date \= December 1995 \| pmid \= 8608014 \| doi \= 10\.1016/0955\-0674(95\)80067\-0 }} In order for the cell to continue through the G1\-pm, there must be a high amount of growth factors and a steady rate of protein synthesis, otherwise the cell will move into G0 phase. #### Conflicting research Some authors will say that the restriction point and the G1/S checkpoint are one and the same, but more recent studies have argued that there are two different points in the G1 phase that check the progression of the cell. The first restriction point is growth\-factor dependent and determines whether the cell moves into the G0 phase, while the second checkpoint is nutritionally\-dependent and determines whether the cell moves into the S phase. ### The G1/S checkpoint {{Main\|Cell cycle checkpoint}} The **G1/S checkpoint** is the point between G1 phase and the S phase in which the cell is cleared for progression into the S phase. Reasons the cell would not move into the S phase include insufficient cell growth, damaged DNA, or other preparations have not been completed. At the G1/S checkpoint, formation of the G1/S cyclin with Cdk to form a complex commits the cell to a new division cycle. These complexes then activate S\-Cdk complexes that move forward with [DNA replication](/wiki/DNA_replication "DNA replication") in the S phase. Concurrently, [anaphase\-promoting complex](/wiki/Anaphase-promoting_complex "Anaphase-promoting complex") (APC) activity decreases significantly, allowing S and M cyclins to become activated. If a cell does not clear to pass through to the S phase, it enters the dormant G0 phase in which there is no cellular growth or division.
[ "Regulation\n----------", "Within the cell cycle, there is a stringent set of regulations known as the [cell cycle control system](/wiki/Cell_cycle \"Cell cycle\") that controls the timing and coordination of the phases to ensure a correct order of events. Biochemical triggers known as [cyclin\\-dependent kinases](/wiki/Cyclin-dependent_kinases \"Cyclin-dependent kinases\") (Cdks) switch on cell cycles events at the corrected time and in the correct order to prevent any mistakes.", "There are three checkpoints in the cell cycle: the **G1/S Checkpoint** or the **Start checkpoint** in yeast; the [G2/M checkpoint](/wiki/G2_phase \"G2 phase\"); and the [spindle checkpoint](/wiki/Spindle_checkpoint \"Spindle checkpoint\").", "### Biochemical regulators", "{{Main\\|Cyclin E1}}", "During G1 phase, the G1/S cyclin activity rises significantly near the end of the G1 phase.", "Complexes of cyclin that are active during other phases of the cell cycle are kept inactivated to prevent any cell\\-cycle events from occurring out of order. Three methods of preventing Cdk activity are found in G1 phase: [pRB](/wiki/Retinoblastoma_protein \"Retinoblastoma protein\") binding to [E2F](/wiki/E2F \"E2F\") family transcription factors downregulate [expression](/wiki/Gene_expression \"Gene expression\") of S phase cyclin genes; [anaphase\\-promoting complex](/wiki/Anaphase-promoting_complex \"Anaphase-promoting complex\") (APC) is activated, which targets and degrades S and M cyclins (but not G1/S cyclins); and a high concentration of Cdk inhibitors is found during G1 phase.", "### Restriction point", "{{Main\\|Restriction point}}", "The [restriction point](/wiki/Restriction_point \"Restriction point\") (**R**) in the G1 phase is different from a checkpoint because it does not determine whether cell conditions are ideal to move on to the next phase, but it changes the course of the cell. After a vertebrate cell has been in the G1 phase for about three hours, the cell enters a restriction point in which it is decided whether the cell will move forward with the G1 phase or move into the dormant G0 phase.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Foster DA, Yellen P, Xu L, Saqcena M \\| title \\= Regulation of G1 Cell Cycle Progression: Distinguishing the Restriction Point from a Nutrient\\-Sensing Cell Growth Checkpoint(s) \\| journal \\= Genes \\& Cancer \\| volume \\= 1 \\| issue \\= 11 \\| pages \\= 1124–31 \\| date \\= November 2010 \\| pmid \\= 21779436 \\| pmc \\= 3092273 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1177/1947601910392989 }}", "This point also separates two halves of the G1 phase; the post\\-mitotic and pre\\-mitotic phases. Between the beginning of the G1 phase (which is also after mitosis has occurred) and R, the cell is known as being in the G1\\-pm subphase, or the post\\-mitotic phase. After R and before S, the cell is known as being in G1\\-ps, or the pre S phase interval of the G1 phase.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Zetterberg A, Larsson O, Wiman KG \\| title \\= What is the restriction point? \\| journal \\= Current Opinion in Cell Biology \\| volume \\= 7 \\| issue \\= 6 \\| pages \\= 835–42 \\| date \\= December 1995 \\| pmid \\= 8608014 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/0955\\-0674(95\\)80067\\-0 }}", "In order for the cell to continue through the G1\\-pm, there must be a high amount of growth factors and a steady rate of protein synthesis, otherwise the cell will move into G0 phase.", "#### Conflicting research", "Some authors will say that the restriction point and the G1/S checkpoint are one and the same, but more recent studies have argued that there are two different points in the G1 phase that check the progression of the cell. The first restriction point is growth\\-factor dependent and determines whether the cell moves into the G0 phase, while the second checkpoint is nutritionally\\-dependent and determines whether the cell moves into the S phase.", "### The G1/S checkpoint", "{{Main\\|Cell cycle checkpoint}}", "The **G1/S checkpoint** is the point between G1 phase and the S phase in which the cell is cleared for progression into the S phase. Reasons the cell would not move into the S phase include insufficient cell growth, damaged DNA, or other preparations have not been completed.", "At the G1/S checkpoint, formation of the G1/S cyclin with Cdk to form a complex commits the cell to a new division cycle. These complexes then activate S\\-Cdk complexes that move forward with [DNA replication](/wiki/DNA_replication \"DNA replication\") in the S phase. Concurrently, [anaphase\\-promoting complex](/wiki/Anaphase-promoting_complex \"Anaphase-promoting complex\") (APC) activity decreases significantly, allowing S and M cyclins to become activated.", "If a cell does not clear to pass through to the S phase, it enters the dormant G0 phase in which there is no cellular growth or division.", "" ]
Fictional character biography ----------------------------- ### Earth\-A Beacon Born in 1943, Son of German Priests Julie Gardener discovered the crystal after it fell to Earth. By holding it in her hand. Julie could summon up whatever powers she desired. She realized that with the crystal, she could be invincible or even immortal. When she met The Beacon on Earth\-B during the **Criss\-Cross Crisis**, the two drew the energy from similar stars to bridge the void between the two Earths to prevent them from colliding. In 1989, the Roundtable of America disbanded, with Cyclone / Overdrive crippled, the [Knight Watchman](/wiki/Knight_Watchman "Knight Watchman") retired and The Blitz missing in action. The Hall of Heroes became a museum, and Julie Gardener moved from Gateway City to Capitol City to become its curator. In *Big Bang* \#4 (1994\), an enemy of the Atomic Sub known as The Sub\-Human returned to exterminate the Roundtable after a humiliating defeat by The Sub many years ago. In the process, he shattered The Beacon's crystal, causing her to die soon after. ### Earth\-B Beacon Geologist Scott Martin discovered fragments of alien crystals in a cave that housed a massive underground city. The city itself was powered by the massive Ko\-Dan crystal. Scott defeated the city's ruler Tyrnos in a battle of wills to gain control over a shard of the crystal, Scott won and the crystal embedded itself in his hardhat's lamp holder, and he later became The Beacon.
[ "Fictional character biography\n-----------------------------", "### Earth\\-A Beacon", "Born in 1943, Son of German Priests Julie Gardener discovered the crystal after it fell to Earth. By holding it in her hand. Julie could summon up whatever powers she desired. She realized that with the crystal, she could be invincible or even immortal.", "When she met The Beacon on Earth\\-B during the **Criss\\-Cross Crisis**, the two drew the energy from similar stars to bridge the void between the two Earths to prevent them from colliding.", "In 1989, the Roundtable of America disbanded, with Cyclone / Overdrive crippled, the [Knight Watchman](/wiki/Knight_Watchman \"Knight Watchman\") retired and The Blitz missing in action. The Hall of Heroes became a museum, and Julie Gardener moved from Gateway City to Capitol City to become its curator.", "In *Big Bang* \\#4 (1994\\), an enemy of the Atomic Sub known as The Sub\\-Human returned to exterminate the Roundtable after a humiliating defeat by The Sub many years ago. In the process, he shattered The Beacon's crystal, causing her to die soon after.", "### Earth\\-B Beacon", "Geologist Scott Martin discovered fragments of alien crystals in a cave that housed a massive underground city. The city itself was powered by the massive Ko\\-Dan crystal. Scott defeated the city's ruler Tyrnos in a battle of wills to gain control over a shard of the crystal, Scott won and the crystal embedded itself in his hardhat's lamp holder, and he later became The Beacon.", "" ]
Acting career ------------- Babatundé has said a breakthrough role was gaining a part in a 1976 touring company of *[Guys and Dolls](/wiki/Guys_and_Dolls "Guys and Dolls")*, starring [Leslie Uggams](/wiki/Leslie_Uggams "Leslie Uggams") and [Richard Roundtree](/wiki/Richard_Roundtree "Richard Roundtree"). Since then he has performed in many other stage productions. His first Broadway performance was in *[Timbuktu!](/wiki/Timbuktu%21 "Timbuktu!")* in 1978\. He performed with Liza Minnelli in the documentary film “Liza In New Orleans” in 1980\. He is known for starring as the original C.C. White in *[Dreamgirls](/wiki/Dreamgirls "Dreamgirls")*, for which he was nominated for a 1982 Tony Award as Best Featured Actor in a Musical. After performing on Broadway in this role, he also toured for two years with the company.["Obba Babatunde"](https://www.ibdb.com/broadway-cast-staff/obba-babatund-78919/#broadway), Broadway Productions, Internet Broadway Database, 2001–2019 He gradually moved into film and television work, and has had numerous roles in both genres. ### Film His feature film appearances include *[Life](/wiki/Life_%281999_film%29 "Life (1999 film)")* as Willie, [*The Celestine Prophecy*](/wiki/The_Celestine_Prophecy_%28film%29 "The Celestine Prophecy (film)"), *[Material Girls](/wiki/Material_Girls "Material Girls")*, *[After the Sunset](/wiki/After_the_Sunset "After the Sunset")*, [*The Manchurian Candidate*](/wiki/The_Manchurian_Candidate_%282004_film%29 "The Manchurian Candidate (2004 film)"), *[The Notebook](/wiki/The_Notebook "The Notebook")*, a SWAT captain in [*John Q*](/wiki/John_Q. "John Q."), an attorney in [*Philadelphia*](/wiki/Philadelphia_%28film%29 "Philadelphia (film)") (1993\), *The Last Fall*, *If I Tell You I Have to Kill You*, *The Fallen Faithful*, [*Trapped*](/wiki/Trapped:Haitian_Nights "Haitian Nights"), *Tension*, and *[Kinky](/wiki/Kinky_%28film%29 "Kinky (film)")*. He also played Dean Cain in the film *[How High](/wiki/How_High "How High")*, as well as the role of Willie Long in *[Life](/wiki/Life_%281999_film%29 "Life (1999 film)")*, Lamar in *[That Thing You Do!](/wiki/That_Thing_You_Do%21 "That Thing You Do!"),* and Mayor Denny in *[Santa Paws 2: The Santa Pups](/wiki/Santa_Paws_2:The_Santa_Pups "The Santa Pups").* ### Television Babatundé has appeared in three prime\-time series: [CBS](/wiki/CBS "CBS")' [*Madam Secretary*](/wiki/Madam_Secretary_%28TV_series%29 "Madam Secretary (TV series)"), as Barton Royce in the [Showtime](/wiki/Showtime_%28TV_network%29 "Showtime (TV network)")'s *[I'm Dying Up Here](/wiki/I%27m_Dying_Up_Here "I'm Dying Up Here")* (2017\), and as Dean Fairbanks in [Netflix's](/wiki/Netflix_Original_Series "Netflix Original Series") [*Dear White People*](/wiki/Dear_White_People_%28TV_series%29 "Dear White People (TV series)") (2017–2018\). Babatundé appeared in a recurring role on *[Kingdom](/wiki/Kingdom_%282014_TV_series%29 "Kingdom (2014 TV series)")* and [Amazon's](/wiki/Amazon.com "Amazon.com") [*Hand of God*](/wiki/Hand_of_God_%28TV_series%29 "Hand of God (TV series)"), as Bishop Bruce Congdon. He also appeared in *[Half \& Half](/wiki/Half_%26_Half "Half & Half")*, as well as appearances on *[The Bold and the Beautiful](/wiki/The_Bold_and_the_Beautiful "The Bold and the Beautiful")*, *[Boston Legal](/wiki/Boston_Legal "Boston Legal")*, *[Grey's Anatomy](/wiki/Grey%27s_Anatomy "Grey's Anatomy")*, [*NCIS*](/wiki/NCIS_%28TV_series%29 "NCIS (TV series)"), *[Cold Case](/wiki/Cold_Case "Cold Case")*, *[Strong Medicine](/wiki/Strong_Medicine "Strong Medicine")*, *[The Fresh Prince of Bel\-Air](/wiki/The_Fresh_Prince_of_Bel-Air "The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air")*, *[Touched by an Angel](/wiki/Touched_by_an_Angel "Touched by an Angel")*, *[Chicago Hope](/wiki/Chicago_Hope "Chicago Hope")*, *[Any Day Now](/wiki/Any_Day_Now_%28TV_series%29 "Any Day Now (TV series)"), [Karen Sisco](/wiki/Karen_Sisco "Karen Sisco"), [Dawson's Creek](/wiki/Dawson%27s_Creek "Dawson's Creek")*, and *[Friends](/wiki/Friends "Friends").* In the 1998 miniseries, *[The Temptations](/wiki/The_Temptations_%28miniseries%29 "The Temptations (miniseries)")*, he played [Berry Gordy](/wiki/Berry_Gordy "Berry Gordy"), the founder of [Motown Records](/wiki/Motown_Records "Motown Records"). Babatundé appeared as Daniel Harrelson Sr., the father of [Shemar Moore](/wiki/Shemar_Moore "Shemar Moore")'s character in the 2017 series *[S.W.A.T.](/wiki/S.W.A.T._%282017_TV_series%29 "S.W.A.T. (2017 TV series)")*.
[ "Acting career\n-------------", "Babatundé has said a breakthrough role was gaining a part in a 1976 touring company of *[Guys and Dolls](/wiki/Guys_and_Dolls \"Guys and Dolls\")*, starring [Leslie Uggams](/wiki/Leslie_Uggams \"Leslie Uggams\") and [Richard Roundtree](/wiki/Richard_Roundtree \"Richard Roundtree\"). Since then he has performed in many other stage productions.", "His first Broadway performance was in *[Timbuktu!](/wiki/Timbuktu%21 \"Timbuktu!\")* in 1978\\. \nHe performed with Liza Minnelli in the documentary film “Liza In New Orleans” in 1980\\. He is known for starring as the original C.C. White in *[Dreamgirls](/wiki/Dreamgirls \"Dreamgirls\")*, for which he was nominated for a 1982 Tony Award as Best Featured Actor in a Musical. After performing on Broadway in this role, he also toured for two years with the company.[\"Obba Babatunde\"](https://www.ibdb.com/broadway-cast-staff/obba-babatund-78919/#broadway), Broadway Productions, Internet Broadway Database, 2001–2019 He gradually moved into film and television work, and has had numerous roles in both genres.", "### Film", "His feature film appearances include *[Life](/wiki/Life_%281999_film%29 \"Life (1999 film)\")* as Willie, [*The Celestine Prophecy*](/wiki/The_Celestine_Prophecy_%28film%29 \"The Celestine Prophecy (film)\"), *[Material Girls](/wiki/Material_Girls \"Material Girls\")*, *[After the Sunset](/wiki/After_the_Sunset \"After the Sunset\")*, [*The Manchurian Candidate*](/wiki/The_Manchurian_Candidate_%282004_film%29 \"The Manchurian Candidate (2004 film)\"), *[The Notebook](/wiki/The_Notebook \"The Notebook\")*, a SWAT captain in [*John Q*](/wiki/John_Q. \"John Q.\"), an attorney in [*Philadelphia*](/wiki/Philadelphia_%28film%29 \"Philadelphia (film)\") (1993\\), *The Last Fall*, *If I Tell You I Have to Kill You*, *The Fallen Faithful*, [*Trapped*](/wiki/Trapped:Haitian_Nights \"Haitian Nights\"), *Tension*, and *[Kinky](/wiki/Kinky_%28film%29 \"Kinky (film)\")*.", "He also played Dean Cain in the film *[How High](/wiki/How_High \"How High\")*, as well as the role of Willie Long in *[Life](/wiki/Life_%281999_film%29 \"Life (1999 film)\")*, Lamar in *[That Thing You Do!](/wiki/That_Thing_You_Do%21 \"That Thing You Do!\"),* and Mayor Denny in *[Santa Paws 2: The Santa Pups](/wiki/Santa_Paws_2:The_Santa_Pups \"The Santa Pups\").*", "### Television", "Babatundé has appeared in three prime\\-time series: [CBS](/wiki/CBS \"CBS\")' [*Madam Secretary*](/wiki/Madam_Secretary_%28TV_series%29 \"Madam Secretary (TV series)\"), as Barton Royce in the [Showtime](/wiki/Showtime_%28TV_network%29 \"Showtime (TV network)\")'s *[I'm Dying Up Here](/wiki/I%27m_Dying_Up_Here \"I'm Dying Up Here\")* (2017\\), and as Dean Fairbanks in [Netflix's](/wiki/Netflix_Original_Series \"Netflix Original Series\") [*Dear White People*](/wiki/Dear_White_People_%28TV_series%29 \"Dear White People (TV series)\") (2017–2018\\).", "Babatundé appeared in a recurring role on *[Kingdom](/wiki/Kingdom_%282014_TV_series%29 \"Kingdom (2014 TV series)\")* and [Amazon's](/wiki/Amazon.com \"Amazon.com\") [*Hand of God*](/wiki/Hand_of_God_%28TV_series%29 \"Hand of God (TV series)\"), as Bishop Bruce Congdon. He also appeared in *[Half \\& Half](/wiki/Half_%26_Half \"Half & Half\")*, as well as appearances on *[The Bold and the Beautiful](/wiki/The_Bold_and_the_Beautiful \"The Bold and the Beautiful\")*, *[Boston Legal](/wiki/Boston_Legal \"Boston Legal\")*, *[Grey's Anatomy](/wiki/Grey%27s_Anatomy \"Grey's Anatomy\")*, [*NCIS*](/wiki/NCIS_%28TV_series%29 \"NCIS (TV series)\"), *[Cold Case](/wiki/Cold_Case \"Cold Case\")*, *[Strong Medicine](/wiki/Strong_Medicine \"Strong Medicine\")*, *[The Fresh Prince of Bel\\-Air](/wiki/The_Fresh_Prince_of_Bel-Air \"The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air\")*, *[Touched by an Angel](/wiki/Touched_by_an_Angel \"Touched by an Angel\")*, *[Chicago Hope](/wiki/Chicago_Hope \"Chicago Hope\")*, *[Any Day Now](/wiki/Any_Day_Now_%28TV_series%29 \"Any Day Now (TV series)\"), [Karen Sisco](/wiki/Karen_Sisco \"Karen Sisco\"), [Dawson's Creek](/wiki/Dawson%27s_Creek \"Dawson's Creek\")*, and *[Friends](/wiki/Friends \"Friends\").* In the 1998 miniseries, *[The Temptations](/wiki/The_Temptations_%28miniseries%29 \"The Temptations (miniseries)\")*, he played [Berry Gordy](/wiki/Berry_Gordy \"Berry Gordy\"), the founder of [Motown Records](/wiki/Motown_Records \"Motown Records\").", "Babatundé appeared as Daniel Harrelson Sr., the father of [Shemar Moore](/wiki/Shemar_Moore \"Shemar Moore\")'s character in the 2017 series *[S.W.A.T.](/wiki/S.W.A.T._%282017_TV_series%29 \"S.W.A.T. (2017 TV series)\")*.", "" ]
Other ventures -------------- ### Voice acting Babatundé's voice acting roles in animated films and games include [Lando Calrissian](/wiki/Lando_Calrissian "Lando Calrissian") in *[Star Wars: Galactic Battlegrounds](/wiki/Star_Wars:Galactic_Battlegrounds "Galactic Battlegrounds")*, *[Star Wars: Rogue Squadron II: Rogue Leader](/wiki/Star_Wars:Rogue_Squadron_II:_Rogue_Leader "Rogue Squadron II: Rogue Leader")*, *[Star Wars: Rogue Squadron III: Rebel Strike](/wiki/Star_Wars:Rogue_Squadron_III:_Rebel_Strike "Rogue Squadron III: Rebel Strike")*, and *[Disney Infinity 3\.0](/wiki/Disney_Infinity_3.0 "Disney Infinity 3.0")* as well as Conroy in *[Rocket Power](/wiki/Rocket_Power "Rocket Power").*{{Cite video game\|title\=\[\[Disney Infinity 3\.0]]\|developer\=\[\[Avalanche Software]]\|scene\=Closing credits, 5:39 in, Featuring the Voice Talents of\|year\=2015}} In the animated feature *[The Wild Thornberrys Movie](/wiki/The_Wild_Thornberrys_Movie "The Wild Thornberrys Movie")*, Babatundé voiced the character of Boko, and in the 2016 Air Bud Entertainment film *Pup Star*, he played the soul\-singing Basset Hound, Big Ears. ### Producer and director Babatundé was co\-producer and director of *Oscar's Black Odyssey*, co\-producer of *Dorothy Dandridge: An American Beauty*, and co\-producer of *TV in Black: The First 50 Years*. He is associate producer of the horror film *Voodoo Dolls* and executive producer of *Journey*. Most recently, Babatundé directed and co\-stars with [Katt Williams](/wiki/Katt_Williams "Katt Williams") in the [Lionsgate Home Entertainment](/wiki/Lionsgate_Home_Entertainment "Lionsgate Home Entertainment") feature film *American Bad Boy*, and he produced and directed the short film *Clarissa's Gift*. Babatundé also directed a version of the Broadway musical *Dreamgirls*. He co\-authored, directed, and produced *In the Blink of an Eye*. ### Singing Some of his recorded works include singing the title track on the [Onaje Allan Gumbs](/wiki/Onaje_Allan_Gumbs "Onaje Allan Gumbs")'s album *Sack Full of Dreams*, and "The Gal That Got Away" on *Over The Rainbow*, the [Harold Arlen](/wiki/Harold_Arlen "Harold Arlen") soundtrack. In 1982 Babatunde starred as Zodzetrick in the [Houston Grand Opera](/wiki/Houston_Grand_Opera "Houston Grand Opera")'s second production of [Scott Joplin](/wiki/Scott_Joplin "Scott Joplin")'s opera *[Treemonisha](/wiki/Treemonisha "Treemonisha")*. They had produced it first in 1976\. After the opera was rediscovered, the world premiere was produced in 1972 by the [Atlanta Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/Atlanta_Symphony_Orchestra "Atlanta Symphony Orchestra") and [Morehouse College](/wiki/Morehouse_College "Morehouse College") chorus.
[ "Other ventures\n--------------", "### Voice acting", "Babatundé's voice acting roles in animated films and games include [Lando Calrissian](/wiki/Lando_Calrissian \"Lando Calrissian\") in *[Star Wars: Galactic Battlegrounds](/wiki/Star_Wars:Galactic_Battlegrounds \"Galactic Battlegrounds\")*, *[Star Wars: Rogue Squadron II: Rogue Leader](/wiki/Star_Wars:Rogue_Squadron_II:_Rogue_Leader \"Rogue Squadron II: Rogue Leader\")*, *[Star Wars: Rogue Squadron III: Rebel Strike](/wiki/Star_Wars:Rogue_Squadron_III:_Rebel_Strike \"Rogue Squadron III: Rebel Strike\")*, and *[Disney Infinity 3\\.0](/wiki/Disney_Infinity_3.0 \"Disney Infinity 3.0\")* as well as Conroy in *[Rocket Power](/wiki/Rocket_Power \"Rocket Power\").*{{Cite video game\\|title\\=\\[\\[Disney Infinity 3\\.0]]\\|developer\\=\\[\\[Avalanche Software]]\\|scene\\=Closing credits, 5:39 in, Featuring the Voice Talents of\\|year\\=2015}} In the animated feature *[The Wild Thornberrys Movie](/wiki/The_Wild_Thornberrys_Movie \"The Wild Thornberrys Movie\")*, Babatundé voiced the character of Boko, and in the 2016 Air Bud Entertainment film *Pup Star*, he played the soul\\-singing Basset Hound, Big Ears.", "### Producer and director", "Babatundé was co\\-producer and director of *Oscar's Black Odyssey*, co\\-producer of *Dorothy Dandridge: An American Beauty*, and co\\-producer of *TV in Black: The First 50 Years*. He is associate producer of the horror film *Voodoo Dolls* and executive producer of *Journey*. Most recently, Babatundé directed and co\\-stars with [Katt Williams](/wiki/Katt_Williams \"Katt Williams\") in the [Lionsgate Home Entertainment](/wiki/Lionsgate_Home_Entertainment \"Lionsgate Home Entertainment\") feature film *American Bad Boy*, and he produced and directed the short film *Clarissa's Gift*.", "Babatundé also directed a version of the Broadway musical *Dreamgirls*. He co\\-authored, directed, and produced *In the Blink of an Eye*.", "### Singing", "Some of his recorded works include singing the title track on the [Onaje Allan Gumbs](/wiki/Onaje_Allan_Gumbs \"Onaje Allan Gumbs\")'s album *Sack Full of Dreams*, and \"The Gal That Got Away\" on *Over The Rainbow*, the [Harold Arlen](/wiki/Harold_Arlen \"Harold Arlen\") soundtrack.", "In 1982 Babatunde starred as Zodzetrick in the [Houston Grand Opera](/wiki/Houston_Grand_Opera \"Houston Grand Opera\")'s second production of [Scott Joplin](/wiki/Scott_Joplin \"Scott Joplin\")'s opera *[Treemonisha](/wiki/Treemonisha \"Treemonisha\")*. They had produced it first in 1976\\. After the opera was rediscovered, the world premiere was produced in 1972 by the [Atlanta Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/Atlanta_Symphony_Orchestra \"Atlanta Symphony Orchestra\") and [Morehouse College](/wiki/Morehouse_College \"Morehouse College\") chorus.", "" ]
Biography --------- ### Birth and adolescence [thumb\|left\|Morro do Livramento. The arrow in the top right corner shows the house where Machado was probably born and spent his childhood.](/wiki/File:Morro_do_Livramento%2C_onde_Machado_nasceu.jpg "Morro do Livramento, onde Machado nasceu.jpg") Joaquim Maria Machado de Assis was born on 21 June 1839 in [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro "Rio de Janeiro"), then capital of the [Empire of Brazil](/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil "Empire of Brazil").Scarano, p. 766\.Vainfas, p. 504\.*Enciclopédia Barsa*, p. 267\. His parents were Francisco José de Assis, a wall painter, the son of [freed slaves](/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil "Slavery in Brazil"),{{Cite web \|title\=Biografia de Machado de Assis \|trans\-title\=Machado de Assis’ biography \|url\=https://www.livrariapublica.com.br/p/biografia\-de\-machado\-de\-assis.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191012015528/https://livrariapublica.com.br/p/biografia\-de\-machado\-de\-assis.html \|archive\-date\=October 12, 2019 \|website\=Livraria Pública \|language\=pt\-BR}} and Maria Leopoldina da Câmara Machado, a Portuguese washerwoman from the [Azores](/wiki/Azores "Azores").Scarano, p. 765\. He was born in Livramento country house, owned by *Dona* Maria José de Mendonça Barroso Pereira, widow of senator Bento Barroso Pereira, who protected his parents and allowed them to live with her. *Dona* Maria José became Joaquim's godmother; her brother\-in\-law, commendator Joaquim Alberto de Sousa da Silveira, was his godfather, and both were paid homage by giving their names to the baby. Machado had a sister who died young. Joaquim studied in a public school, but was not a good student. While helping to serve masses, he met Father Silveira Sarmento, who became his Latin teacher and also a good friend. When Joaquim was ten years old, his mother died, and his father took him along as he moved to [São Cristóvão](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Crist%C3%B3v%C3%A3o "São Cristóvão"). Francisco de Assis met Maria Inês da Silva, and they married in 1854\. Joaquim had classes in a school for girls only, thanks to his stepmother who worked there making candies. At night he learned French with an immigrant baker. In his adolescence, he met Francisco de Paulo Brito, who owned a bookstore, a newspaper and typography. On 12 January 1855, Francisco de Paula published the poem *Ela* ("Her") written by Joaquim, then 15 years old, in the newspaper *Marmota Fluminense*. In the following year, he was hired as typographer's apprentice in the *Imprensa Oficial* (the Official Press, charged with the publication of Government measures), where he was encouraged as a writer by [Manuel Antônio de Almeida](/wiki/Manuel_Ant%C3%B4nio_de_Almeida "Manuel Antônio de Almeida"), the newspaper's director and also a novelist. There he also met [Francisco Otaviano](/wiki/Francisco_Otaviano "Francisco Otaviano"), journalist and later liberal senator, and [Quintino Bocaiuva](/wiki/Quintino_Bocaiuva "Quintino Bocaiuva"), who decades later would become known for his role as a republican orator.Scarano, p. 767\. ### Early career and education [thumb\|left\|National Press, c. 1880, where Machado de Assis began his services as typographer and proofreader.](/wiki/File:Imprensa_Nacional_onde_trabalhou_como_tip%C3%B3grafo%2C_por_Marc_Ferrez.jpg "Imprensa Nacional onde trabalhou como tipógrafo, por Marc Ferrez.jpg") Francisco Otaviano hired Machado to work on the newspaper *Correio Mercantil* as a proofreader in 1858\. He continued to write for the *Marmota Fluminense* and also for several other newspapers, but he did not earn much and had a humble life. As he did not live with his father anymore, it was common for him to eat only once a day for lack of money. Around this time, he became a friend of the writer and liberal politician [José de Alencar](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Alencar "José de Alencar"), who taught him English. From [English literature](/wiki/English_literature "English literature"), he was influenced by [Laurence Sterne](/wiki/Laurence_Sterne "Laurence Sterne"), [William Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare "William Shakespeare"), [Lord Byron](/wiki/George_Gordon_Byron%2C_6th_Baron_Byron "George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron") and [Jonathan Swift](/wiki/Jonathan_Swift "Jonathan Swift"). He learned German years later and in his old age, [Greek](/wiki/Greek_language "Greek language"). He was invited by Bocaiúva to work at his newspaper *Diário do Rio de Janeiro* in 1860\.Scarano, p. 769\. Machado had a passion for theater and wrote several plays for a short time; his friend Bocaiúva concluded: "Your works are meant to be read and not played." He gained some notability and began to sign his writings as J. M. Machado de Assis, the way he would be known for posterity: Machado de Assis. He established himself in advanced Liberal Party circles by taking stands in defense of religious freedom and [Ernest Renan](/wiki/Ernest_Renan "Ernest Renan")'s controversial *Life of Jesus* while attacking the venality of the clergy.{{cite journal \|last1\=Borges \|first1\=Dain \|title\=Mockery and Piety in Eça de Queirós and Machado de Assis \|journal\=Revista de Estudos Literários \|date\=2016 \|volume\=6 \|page\=97}} [thumb\|right\|Machado de Assis when he was 25 years old, 1864\.](/wiki/File:Machado_de_Assis_25_anos.jpg "Machado de Assis 25 anos.jpg") His father Francisco de Assis died in 1864\. Machado learned of his father's death through acquaintances. He dedicated his compilation of poems called "*Crisálidas*" to his father: "To the Memory of Francisco José de Assis and Maria Leopoldina Machado de Assis, my Parents."Scarano, p. 770\. With the Liberal Party's ascension to power about that time, Machado thought he might receive a patronage position that would help him improve his life. To his surprise, aid came from the Emperor [Dom Pedro II](/wiki/Pedro_II_of_Brazil "Pedro II of Brazil"), who hired him as director\-assistant in the *Diário Oficial* in 1867, and knighted him as an honor. In 1888 Machado was made an officer of the [Order of the Rose](/wiki/Order_of_the_Rose "Order of the Rose"). ### Marriage and family In 1868 Machado met the Portuguese Carolina Augusta Xavier de Novais, five years older than he was. She was the sister of his colleague Faustino Xavier de Novais, for whom he worked on the magazine *O Futuro*. Machado had a stammer and was extremely shy, short and lean. He was also very intelligent and well learned. He married Carolina on 12 November 1869; although her parents, Miguel and Adelaide, and her siblings disapproved because Machado was of African descent and she was a white woman. They had no children.Scarano, p. 780\. ### Literature [thumb\|Stamp depicting Machado de Assis](/wiki/File:Brazil_1958_Machado_de_Assis.jpg "Brazil 1958 Machado de Assis.jpg") Machado managed to rise in his bureaucratic career, first in the Agriculture Department. Three years later, he became the head of a section in it.Scarano, p. 773\. He published two poetry books: *Falenas*, in 1870, and *Americanas*, in 1875\. Their weak reception made him explore other literary genres. He wrote five [romantic](/wiki/Romanticism "Romanticism") novels: *[Ressurreição](/wiki/Ressurrei%C3%A7%C3%A3o "Ressurreição")*, *[A Mão e a Luva](/wiki/A_M%C3%A3o_e_a_Luva "A Mão e a Luva")*, *[Helena](/wiki/Helena_%28Machado_de_Assis_novel%29 "Helena (Machado de Assis novel)")* and *Iaiá Garcia*. The books were a success with the public, but literary critics considered them mediocre. Machado suffered repeated attacks of [epilepsy](/wiki/Epilepsy "Epilepsy"), apparently related to hearing of the death of his old friend José de Alencar. He was left [melancholic](/wiki/Depression_%28mood%29 "Depression (mood)"), pessimistic and fixed on death.Scarano, pp. 774–774\. His next book, marked by "a skeptical and [realistic](/wiki/Literary_realism "Literary realism") tone": *[Memórias Póstumas de Brás Cubas](/wiki/Mem%C3%B3rias_P%C3%B3stumas_de_Br%C3%A1s_Cubas "Memórias Póstumas de Brás Cubas")* (Posthumous Memoirs of Brás Cubas, also translated as *Epitaph of a Small Winner*), is widely considered a masterpiece.Scarano, p. 774\. By the end of the 1880s, Machado had gained wide renown as a writer. Although he was opposed to slavery, he never spoke against it in public.Daniel, pp. 61–152\. He avoided discussing politics. He was criticized by the [abolitionist](/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil "Slavery in Brazil") [José do Patrocínio](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_do_Patroc%C3%ADnio "José do Patrocínio") and by the writer [Lima Barreto](/wiki/Lima_Barreto "Lima Barreto") for staying away from politics, especially the cause of abolition. He was also criticized by them for having married a white woman. Machado was caught by surprise with the monarchy overthrown on 15 November 1889\. Machado had no sympathy towards [republicanism](/wiki/Republicanism "Republicanism"), as he considered himself a liberal [monarchist](/wiki/Monarchism "Monarchism")Bueno, p. 310\. and venerated Pedro II, whom he perceived as "a humble, honest, well\-learned and patriotic man, who knew how to make of a throne a chair \[for his simplicity], without diminishing its greatness and respect."Vainfas, p. 201: "Machado de Assis, porém, soube definí\-lo em rápidos traços: um homem lhano, probo, instruído, patriota, que soube fazer do sólio uma poltrona, sem lhe diminuir a grandeza e a consideração." When a commission went to the public office where he worked to remove the picture of the former emperor, the shy Machado defied them: "The picture got in here by an order and it shall leave only by another order." The birth of the Brazilian republic made Machado become more critical and an observer of the Brazilian society of his time.Bueno, p. 311\. From then on, he wrote "not only the greatest novels of his time, but the greatest of all time of Brazilian literature." Works such as *[Quincas Borba](/wiki/Quincas_Borba "Quincas Borba")* *(Philosopher or Dog?)* (1891\), *[Dom Casmurro](/wiki/Dom_Casmurro "Dom Casmurro")* (1899\), *Esaú e Jacó* (1904\) and *Memorial de Aires* (1908\), considered masterpieces, were successes with both critics and the public.Scarano, p. 777\. In 1893 he published "A Missa do Galo" ("Midnight Mass"), considered his greatest short story.Scarano, p. 775\. ### Later years [thumb\|Students and friends, among them Euclides da Cunha, leave the Academy carrying the coffin of Machado de Assis to the Cemetery St. John the Baptist, 1908\.](/wiki/File:Enterro_de_Machado_de_Assis_2_%281908%29.jpg "Enterro de Machado de Assis 2 (1908).jpg") Machado de Assis, along with fellow [monarchists](/wiki/Monarchist "Monarchist") such as [Joaquim Nabuco](/wiki/Joaquim_Nabuco "Joaquim Nabuco"), [Manuel de Oliveira Lima](/wiki/Manuel_de_Oliveira_Lima "Manuel de Oliveira Lima"), [Afonso Celso, Viscount of Ouro Preto](/wiki/Afonso_Celso%2C_Viscount_of_Ouro_Preto "Afonso Celso, Viscount of Ouro Preto") and [Alfredo d'Escragnolle Taunay](/wiki/Alfredo_d%27Escragnolle_Taunay "Alfredo d'Escragnolle Taunay"), and other writers and intellectuals, founded the [Brazilian Academy of Letters](/wiki/Brazilian_Academy_of_Letters "Brazilian Academy of Letters"). He was its first president, from 1897 to 1908, when he died. For many years, he requested that the government grant a proper headquarters to the Academy, which he managed to obtain in 1905\.Scarano, p. 778\. In 1902 he was transferred to the accountancy's directing board of the [Ministry of Industry](/wiki/Brazilian_Ministry_of_Industry "Brazilian Ministry of Industry"). His wife Carolina Novais died on 20 October 1904, after 35 years of a "perfect married life".*Enciclopédia Barsa*, p. 267: "vida conjugal perfeita". Feeling depressed and lonely, Machado died on 29 September 1908\.
[ "Biography\n---------", "### Birth and adolescence", "[thumb\\|left\\|Morro do Livramento. The arrow in the top right corner shows the house where Machado was probably born and spent his childhood.](/wiki/File:Morro_do_Livramento%2C_onde_Machado_nasceu.jpg \"Morro do Livramento, onde Machado nasceu.jpg\")\nJoaquim Maria Machado de Assis was born on 21 June 1839 in [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro \"Rio de Janeiro\"), then capital of the [Empire of Brazil](/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil \"Empire of Brazil\").Scarano, p. 766\\.Vainfas, p. 504\\.*Enciclopédia Barsa*, p. 267\\. His parents were Francisco José de Assis, a wall painter, the son of [freed slaves](/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil \"Slavery in Brazil\"),{{Cite web \\|title\\=Biografia de Machado de Assis \\|trans\\-title\\=Machado de Assis’ biography \\|url\\=https://www.livrariapublica.com.br/p/biografia\\-de\\-machado\\-de\\-assis.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191012015528/https://livrariapublica.com.br/p/biografia\\-de\\-machado\\-de\\-assis.html \\|archive\\-date\\=October 12, 2019 \\|website\\=Livraria Pública \\|language\\=pt\\-BR}} and Maria Leopoldina da Câmara Machado, a Portuguese washerwoman from the [Azores](/wiki/Azores \"Azores\").Scarano, p. 765\\. He was born in Livramento country house, owned by *Dona* Maria José de Mendonça Barroso Pereira, widow of senator Bento Barroso Pereira, who protected his parents and allowed them to live with her. *Dona* Maria José became Joaquim's godmother; her brother\\-in\\-law, commendator Joaquim Alberto de Sousa da Silveira, was his godfather, and both were paid homage by giving their names to the baby. Machado had a sister who died young. Joaquim studied in a public school, but was not a good student. While helping to serve masses, he met Father Silveira Sarmento, who became his Latin teacher and also a good friend.", "When Joaquim was ten years old, his mother died, and his father took him along as he moved to [São Cristóvão](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Crist%C3%B3v%C3%A3o \"São Cristóvão\"). Francisco de Assis met Maria Inês da Silva, and they married in 1854\\. Joaquim had classes in a school for girls only, thanks to his stepmother who worked there making candies. At night he learned French with an immigrant baker. In his adolescence, he met Francisco de Paulo Brito, who owned a bookstore, a newspaper and typography. On 12 January 1855, Francisco de Paula published the poem *Ela* (\"Her\") written by Joaquim, then 15 years old, in the newspaper *Marmota Fluminense*. In the following year, he was hired as typographer's apprentice in the *Imprensa Oficial* (the Official Press, charged with the publication of Government measures), where he was encouraged as a writer by [Manuel Antônio de Almeida](/wiki/Manuel_Ant%C3%B4nio_de_Almeida \"Manuel Antônio de Almeida\"), the newspaper's director and also a novelist. There he also met [Francisco Otaviano](/wiki/Francisco_Otaviano \"Francisco Otaviano\"), journalist and later liberal senator, and [Quintino Bocaiuva](/wiki/Quintino_Bocaiuva \"Quintino Bocaiuva\"), who decades later would become known for his role as a republican orator.Scarano, p. 767\\.", "### Early career and education", "[thumb\\|left\\|National Press, c. 1880, where Machado de Assis began his services as typographer and proofreader.](/wiki/File:Imprensa_Nacional_onde_trabalhou_como_tip%C3%B3grafo%2C_por_Marc_Ferrez.jpg \"Imprensa Nacional onde trabalhou como tipógrafo, por Marc Ferrez.jpg\")\nFrancisco Otaviano hired Machado to work on the newspaper *Correio Mercantil* as a proofreader in 1858\\. He continued to write for the *Marmota Fluminense* and also for several other newspapers, but he did not earn much and had a humble life. As he did not live with his father anymore, it was common for him to eat only once a day for lack of money.", "Around this time, he became a friend of the writer and liberal politician [José de Alencar](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Alencar \"José de Alencar\"), who taught him English. From [English literature](/wiki/English_literature \"English literature\"), he was influenced by [Laurence Sterne](/wiki/Laurence_Sterne \"Laurence Sterne\"), [William Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare \"William Shakespeare\"), [Lord Byron](/wiki/George_Gordon_Byron%2C_6th_Baron_Byron \"George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron\") and [Jonathan Swift](/wiki/Jonathan_Swift \"Jonathan Swift\"). He learned German years later and in his old age, [Greek](/wiki/Greek_language \"Greek language\"). He was invited by Bocaiúva to work at his newspaper *Diário do Rio de Janeiro* in 1860\\.Scarano, p. 769\\. Machado had a passion for theater and wrote several plays for a short time; his friend Bocaiúva concluded: \"Your works are meant to be read and not played.\" He gained some notability and began to sign his writings as J. M. Machado de Assis, the way he would be known for posterity: Machado de Assis. He established himself in advanced Liberal Party circles by taking stands in defense of religious freedom and [Ernest Renan](/wiki/Ernest_Renan \"Ernest Renan\")'s controversial *Life of Jesus* while attacking the venality of the clergy.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Borges \\|first1\\=Dain \\|title\\=Mockery and Piety in Eça de Queirós and Machado de Assis \\|journal\\=Revista de Estudos Literários \\|date\\=2016 \\|volume\\=6 \\|page\\=97}}", "[thumb\\|right\\|Machado de Assis when he was 25 years old, 1864\\.](/wiki/File:Machado_de_Assis_25_anos.jpg \"Machado de Assis 25 anos.jpg\")", "His father Francisco de Assis died in 1864\\. Machado learned of his father's death through acquaintances. He dedicated his compilation of poems called \"*Crisálidas*\" to his father: \"To the Memory of Francisco José de Assis and Maria Leopoldina Machado de Assis, my Parents.\"Scarano, p. 770\\. With the Liberal Party's ascension to power about that time, Machado thought he might receive a patronage position that would help him improve his life. To his surprise, aid came from the Emperor [Dom Pedro II](/wiki/Pedro_II_of_Brazil \"Pedro II of Brazil\"), who hired him as director\\-assistant in the *Diário Oficial* in 1867, and knighted him as an honor. In 1888 Machado was made an officer of the [Order of the Rose](/wiki/Order_of_the_Rose \"Order of the Rose\").", "### Marriage and family", "In 1868 Machado met the Portuguese Carolina Augusta Xavier de Novais, five years older than he was. She was the sister of his colleague Faustino Xavier de Novais, for whom he worked on the magazine *O Futuro*. Machado had a stammer and was extremely shy, short and lean. He was also very intelligent and well learned. He married Carolina on 12 November 1869; although her parents, Miguel and Adelaide, and her siblings disapproved because Machado was of African descent and she was a white woman. They had no children.Scarano, p. 780\\.", "### Literature", "[thumb\\|Stamp depicting Machado de Assis](/wiki/File:Brazil_1958_Machado_de_Assis.jpg \"Brazil 1958 Machado de Assis.jpg\")\nMachado managed to rise in his bureaucratic career, first in the Agriculture Department. Three years later, he became the head of a section in it.Scarano, p. 773\\. He published two poetry books: *Falenas*, in 1870, and *Americanas*, in 1875\\. Their weak reception made him explore other literary genres.", "He wrote five [romantic](/wiki/Romanticism \"Romanticism\") novels: *[Ressurreição](/wiki/Ressurrei%C3%A7%C3%A3o \"Ressurreição\")*, *[A Mão e a Luva](/wiki/A_M%C3%A3o_e_a_Luva \"A Mão e a Luva\")*, *[Helena](/wiki/Helena_%28Machado_de_Assis_novel%29 \"Helena (Machado de Assis novel)\")* and *Iaiá Garcia*. The books were a success with the public, but literary critics considered them mediocre. Machado suffered repeated attacks of [epilepsy](/wiki/Epilepsy \"Epilepsy\"), apparently related to hearing of the death of his old friend José de Alencar. He was left [melancholic](/wiki/Depression_%28mood%29 \"Depression (mood)\"), pessimistic and fixed on death.Scarano, pp. 774–774\\. His next book, marked by \"a skeptical and [realistic](/wiki/Literary_realism \"Literary realism\") tone\": *[Memórias Póstumas de Brás Cubas](/wiki/Mem%C3%B3rias_P%C3%B3stumas_de_Br%C3%A1s_Cubas \"Memórias Póstumas de Brás Cubas\")* (Posthumous Memoirs of Brás Cubas, also translated as *Epitaph of a Small Winner*), is widely considered a masterpiece.Scarano, p. 774\\. By the end of the 1880s, Machado had gained wide renown as a writer.", "Although he was opposed to slavery, he never spoke against it in public.Daniel, pp. 61–152\\. He avoided discussing politics. He was criticized by the [abolitionist](/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil \"Slavery in Brazil\") [José do Patrocínio](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_do_Patroc%C3%ADnio \"José do Patrocínio\") and by the writer [Lima Barreto](/wiki/Lima_Barreto \"Lima Barreto\") for staying away from politics, especially the cause of abolition. He was also criticized by them for having married a white woman. Machado was caught by surprise with the monarchy overthrown on 15 November 1889\\. Machado had no sympathy towards [republicanism](/wiki/Republicanism \"Republicanism\"), as he considered himself a liberal [monarchist](/wiki/Monarchism \"Monarchism\")Bueno, p. 310\\. and venerated Pedro II, whom he perceived as \"a humble, honest, well\\-learned and patriotic man, who knew how to make of a throne a chair \\[for his simplicity], without diminishing its greatness and respect.\"Vainfas, p. 201: \"Machado de Assis, porém, soube definí\\-lo em rápidos traços: um homem lhano, probo, instruído, patriota, que soube fazer do sólio uma poltrona, sem lhe diminuir a grandeza e a consideração.\" When a commission went to the public office where he worked to remove the picture of the former emperor, the shy Machado defied them: \"The picture got in here by an order and it shall leave only by another order.\"", "The birth of the Brazilian republic made Machado become more critical and an observer of the Brazilian society of his time.Bueno, p. 311\\. From then on, he wrote \"not only the greatest novels of his time, but the greatest of all time of Brazilian literature.\" Works such as *[Quincas Borba](/wiki/Quincas_Borba \"Quincas Borba\")* *(Philosopher or Dog?)* (1891\\), *[Dom Casmurro](/wiki/Dom_Casmurro \"Dom Casmurro\")* (1899\\), *Esaú e Jacó* (1904\\) and *Memorial de Aires* (1908\\), considered masterpieces, were successes with both critics and the public.Scarano, p. 777\\. In 1893 he published \"A Missa do Galo\" (\"Midnight Mass\"), considered his greatest short story.Scarano, p. 775\\.", "### Later years", "[thumb\\|Students and friends, among them Euclides da Cunha, leave the Academy carrying the coffin of Machado de Assis to the Cemetery St. John the Baptist, 1908\\.](/wiki/File:Enterro_de_Machado_de_Assis_2_%281908%29.jpg \"Enterro de Machado de Assis 2 (1908).jpg\")\nMachado de Assis, along with fellow [monarchists](/wiki/Monarchist \"Monarchist\") such as [Joaquim Nabuco](/wiki/Joaquim_Nabuco \"Joaquim Nabuco\"), [Manuel de Oliveira Lima](/wiki/Manuel_de_Oliveira_Lima \"Manuel de Oliveira Lima\"), [Afonso Celso, Viscount of Ouro Preto](/wiki/Afonso_Celso%2C_Viscount_of_Ouro_Preto \"Afonso Celso, Viscount of Ouro Preto\") and [Alfredo d'Escragnolle Taunay](/wiki/Alfredo_d%27Escragnolle_Taunay \"Alfredo d'Escragnolle Taunay\"), and other writers and intellectuals, founded the [Brazilian Academy of Letters](/wiki/Brazilian_Academy_of_Letters \"Brazilian Academy of Letters\"). He was its first president, from 1897 to 1908, when he died. For many years, he requested that the government grant a proper headquarters to the Academy, which he managed to obtain in 1905\\.Scarano, p. 778\\. In 1902 he was transferred to the accountancy's directing board of the [Ministry of Industry](/wiki/Brazilian_Ministry_of_Industry \"Brazilian Ministry of Industry\").", "His wife Carolina Novais died on 20 October 1904, after 35 years of a \"perfect married life\".*Enciclopédia Barsa*, p. 267: \"vida conjugal perfeita\". Feeling depressed and lonely, Machado died on 29 September 1908\\.", "" ]
History ------- ### Militia In 1803 every state had a [militia](/wiki/Militia_%28United_States%29 "Militia (United States)"), so when Ohio was first formed as a state a militia for the state was created. This Ohio Militia was an important factor in the state's early history. The militia helped to subdue the Native American population in the state and aid in the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 "War of 1812"). After this, the militia experienced a decline and lost funding. This became a large problem at the onset of the [Civil War](/wiki/Civil_war "Civil war") seeing as Ohio's militia was extremely underdeveloped and the Governor had to ask communities to supply units. Once more the Ohio Militia experienced a decline after the Civil War.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Ohio\_National\_Guard\|title\=Ohio National Guard \- Ohio History Central\|website\=www.ohiohistorycentral.org\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2018\-10\-24}} ### The Dick Act In 1903 the federal government enacted the [Dick Act](/wiki/Dick_Act "Dick Act"). The Dick Act is responsible for creating the National Guard. The law was enacted mainly because of the poor condition of state militias and allowed the federal government to nationalize the National Guard and send them overseas or elsewhere in the country to assist with the Active Military.{{Cite book\|url\=https://archive.org/details/jstor\-25119439\|title\=The Militia Act of 1903\|last\=Parker\|first\=James\|date\=1903\-08\-01\|publisher\=The North American Review\|others\=JSTOR}} ### World War I [thumb\|Soldiers of the 37th Infantry Division days before the start of the Meuse\-Argonne Offensive.](/wiki/File:Ohio_National_Guard_%2844853497975%29.jpg "Ohio National Guard (44853497975).jpg") In 1917 the draft was instituted in each state because of the [Selective Services Act](/wiki/Selective_Service_Act_of_1917 "Selective Service Act of 1917"). The enactment of this law greatly expanded the Ohio National Guard and gave rise to the [37th Division](/wiki/37th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 "37th Infantry Division (United States)"). Dubbed the "Buckeye Division," they were sent to France as a part of the American Expeditionary Force. The 37th gained a reputation as a "crack unit" by displaying great combat effectiveness during multiple battles, including the [Meuse\-Argonne Offensive](/wiki/Meuse-Argonne_Offensive "Meuse-Argonne Offensive") and the [St. Mihiel Salient](/wiki/Battle_of_Saint-Mihiel "Battle of Saint-Mihiel"). This led to the unit being rated as one of the best six American Divisions by the German General Staff. ### World War II Following the attack on [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor "Pearl Harbor") the United States entered the Second World War. During this time the [192nd Tank Battalion](/wiki/192nd_Tank_Battalion "192nd Tank Battalion") that included Company C formerly the 37th Tank Company was stationed in the Philippines. This unit became a large part of the "Battling Bastards of Bataan," which attempted to stem the invasion of Japanese forces in the Philippines. The 192nd was put into POW camps when the Japanese took the islands in 1942, along with the remainder of the US forces there. The "Buckeye Division" served during the battle of Guadalcanal, New Guinea, and when the Philippines were re\-taken. Despite suffering thousands of casualties throughout the war, the "Buckeye Division" had seven soldiers who were awarded the Medal Of Honor for their heroic actions. ### Korea During the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War "Korean War"), there were no major units within the Ohio National Guard that were deployed to the conflict. Instead, the "Buckeye" Division was mobilized as a [training division](/wiki/Training_division "Training division") in [Fort Polk, Louisiana](/wiki/Fort_Polk%2C_Louisiana "Fort Polk, Louisiana"). It was also during this time that the Air Force broke off from the Active Duty Army which subsequently created the Air National Guard. ### Vietnam The Vietnam War saw many Ohio Army and Air National Guard units deployed in South Vietnam. During this time the Guard also helped local authorities back in the United States. This led to the Guard helping quell a rebellion at the Ohio Penitentiary, and help stop violence during the trucker's strike in 1970, and eventually the Kent State Shootings. ### Kent State Shootings On May 1, 1970, a protest of the Vietnam War was held on the campus of [Kent State University](/wiki/Kent_State_University "Kent State University"). This protest led to reports of students lighting bonfires in the streets and throwing bottles at police cars. There were also reports of violence between police and students. This led to reinforcements being called for from neighboring towns and the Governor by the mayor of Kent, [Leroy Satrum](/wiki/LeRoy_Satrom "LeRoy Satrom"). This led to the Ohio National Guard being sent to Kent State on the night of May 2, 1970\. These Guardsmen stationed themselves at the then burned down ROTC adjacent to the commons of the university. On May 4, 1970 a protest took place on the commons of the university. The National Guard and police asked the protesters to disperse and when they refused the Guardsmen, armed with [M1 Garands](/wiki/M1_Garand "M1 Garand"), pushed the group towards a football practice field. The protesters then threw rocks at the Guardsmen, who following that retreated up to the top of a hill where they began to fire shots. Some Guardsmen fired in the air while others fired directly into the crowd of unarmed protesters, [killing four and wounding nine others](/wiki/Kent_State_shootings "Kent State shootings").{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.history.com/topics/vietnam\-war/kent\-state\-shooting\|title\=Kent State Shooting\|work\=HISTORY\|access\-date\=2018\-10\-24\|language\=en}} ### Operation Desert Storm During [Operation Desert Storm](/wiki/Operation_Desert_storm "Operation Desert storm") the Ohio National Guard mainly supported the larger military force. The Guard sent small units and provided transportation and supplies to the war front. Following Desert Storm, Ohio National Guard units were mobilized to continue the military presence in the region. ### Post 9\-11 Following the events of [September 11th, 2001](/wiki/September_11_attacks "September 11 attacks") the [US Military](/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces "United States Armed Forces") was sent to the Middle East. The Ohio National Guard also took part in these operations, sending individuals and small units to assist the larger military force there. In the fall of 2011 though, the Ohio National Guard sent the 37th infantry division (the 'Buckeye' Division) in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. This was the largest overseas mobilization since World War II for the Guard. The Ohio National Guard has also assisted in more domestic tragedies, having sent assistance during [Hurricane Katrina](/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina "Hurricane Katrina"), [Hurricane Harvey](/wiki/Hurricane_Harvey "Hurricane Harvey"), and [Hurricane Irma](/wiki/Hurricane_Irma "Hurricane Irma").{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nbc4i.com/weather/tropics/ohio\-sending\-3500\-national\-guard\-soldiers\-to\-florida/1064952428\|title\=Ohio sending up to 3,500 National Guard soldiers to Florida\|last\=Rotuno\-Johnson\|first\=Michelle\|date\=2017\-09\-09\|work\=WCMH\|access\-date\=2018\-10\-26\|language\=en\-US}} Assistance was also sent to Puerto Rico following the disaster caused by [Hurricane Maria](/wiki/Hurricane_Maria "Hurricane Maria").{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.dispatch.com/news/20171004/ohio\-national\-guard\-members\-head\-to\-puerto\-rico\|title\=Ohio National Guard members head to Puerto Rico\|last\=Zachariah\|first\=Holly\|work\=The Columbus Dispatch\|access\-date\=2018\-10\-26\|language\=en}} In fall of 2019 legislation creating the Ohio Cyber Reserve was passed.{{cite web \|last1\=Bischoff \|first1\=Laura \|title\=Ohio lawmakers vote to set up a cyber reserve to fight, prevent attacks \|url\=https://www.daytondailynews.com/news/local/ohio\-lawmakers\-vote\-set\-cyber\-reserve\-fight\-prevent\-attacks/Jrkj318mtfi9NeLRMijETJ/ \|website\=daytondailynews \|access\-date\=24 November 2019 \|language\=en}}{{cite web \|title\=DeWine Signs Law Enhancing Ohio Efforts Against Cyberattacks \|url\=https://radio.wosu.org/post/dewine\-signs\-law\-enhancing\-ohio\-efforts\-against\-cyberattacks\#stream/0 \|website\=radio.wosu.org \|date\=25 October 2019 \|access\-date\=24 November 2019 \|language\=en}}
[ "History\n-------", "### Militia", "In 1803 every state had a [militia](/wiki/Militia_%28United_States%29 \"Militia (United States)\"), so when Ohio was first formed as a state a militia for the state was created. This Ohio Militia was an important factor in the state's early history. The militia helped to subdue the Native American population in the state and aid in the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 \"War of 1812\"). After this, the militia experienced a decline and lost funding. This became a large problem at the onset of the [Civil War](/wiki/Civil_war \"Civil war\") seeing as Ohio's militia was extremely underdeveloped and the Governor had to ask communities to supply units. Once more the Ohio Militia experienced a decline after the Civil War.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Ohio\\_National\\_Guard\\|title\\=Ohio National Guard \\- Ohio History Central\\|website\\=www.ohiohistorycentral.org\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-10\\-24}}", "### The Dick Act", "In 1903 the federal government enacted the [Dick Act](/wiki/Dick_Act \"Dick Act\"). The Dick Act is responsible for creating the National Guard. The law was enacted mainly because of the poor condition of state militias and allowed the federal government to nationalize the National Guard and send them overseas or elsewhere in the country to assist with the Active Military.{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/jstor\\-25119439\\|title\\=The Militia Act of 1903\\|last\\=Parker\\|first\\=James\\|date\\=1903\\-08\\-01\\|publisher\\=The North American Review\\|others\\=JSTOR}}", "### World War I", "[thumb\\|Soldiers of the 37th Infantry Division days before the start of the Meuse\\-Argonne Offensive.](/wiki/File:Ohio_National_Guard_%2844853497975%29.jpg \"Ohio National Guard (44853497975).jpg\")", "In 1917 the draft was instituted in each state because of the [Selective Services Act](/wiki/Selective_Service_Act_of_1917 \"Selective Service Act of 1917\"). The enactment of this law greatly expanded the Ohio National Guard and gave rise to the [37th Division](/wiki/37th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 \"37th Infantry Division (United States)\"). Dubbed the \"Buckeye Division,\" they were sent to France as a part of the American Expeditionary Force. The 37th gained a reputation as a \"crack unit\" by displaying great combat effectiveness during multiple battles, including the [Meuse\\-Argonne Offensive](/wiki/Meuse-Argonne_Offensive \"Meuse-Argonne Offensive\") and the [St. Mihiel Salient](/wiki/Battle_of_Saint-Mihiel \"Battle of Saint-Mihiel\"). This led to the unit being rated as one of the best six American Divisions by the German General Staff.", "### World War II", "Following the attack on [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\") the United States entered the Second World War. During this time the [192nd Tank Battalion](/wiki/192nd_Tank_Battalion \"192nd Tank Battalion\") that included Company C formerly the 37th Tank Company was stationed in the Philippines. This unit became a large part of the \"Battling Bastards of Bataan,\" which attempted to stem the invasion of Japanese forces in the Philippines. The 192nd was put into POW camps when the Japanese took the islands in 1942, along with the remainder of the US forces there.", "The \"Buckeye Division\" served during the battle of Guadalcanal, New Guinea, and when the Philippines were re\\-taken. Despite suffering thousands of casualties throughout the war, the \"Buckeye Division\" had seven soldiers who were awarded the Medal Of Honor for their heroic actions.", "### Korea", "During the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\"), there were no major units within the Ohio National Guard that were deployed to the conflict. Instead, the \"Buckeye\" Division was mobilized as a [training division](/wiki/Training_division \"Training division\") in [Fort Polk, Louisiana](/wiki/Fort_Polk%2C_Louisiana \"Fort Polk, Louisiana\"). It was also during this time that the Air Force broke off from the Active Duty Army which subsequently created the Air National Guard.", "### Vietnam", "The Vietnam War saw many Ohio Army and Air National Guard units deployed in South Vietnam. During this time the Guard also helped local authorities back in the United States. This led to the Guard helping quell a rebellion at the Ohio Penitentiary, and help stop violence during the trucker's strike in 1970, and eventually the Kent State Shootings.", "### Kent State Shootings", "On May 1, 1970, a protest of the Vietnam War was held on the campus of [Kent State University](/wiki/Kent_State_University \"Kent State University\"). This protest led to reports of students lighting bonfires in the streets and throwing bottles at police cars. There were also reports of violence between police and students. This led to reinforcements being called for from neighboring towns and the Governor by the mayor of Kent, [Leroy Satrum](/wiki/LeRoy_Satrom \"LeRoy Satrom\"). This led to the Ohio National Guard being sent to Kent State on the night of May 2, 1970\\. These Guardsmen stationed themselves at the then burned down ROTC adjacent to the commons of the university. On May 4, 1970 a protest took place on the commons of the university. The National Guard and police asked the protesters to disperse and when they refused the Guardsmen, armed with [M1 Garands](/wiki/M1_Garand \"M1 Garand\"), pushed the group towards a football practice field. The protesters then threw rocks at the Guardsmen, who following that retreated up to the top of a hill where they began to fire shots. Some Guardsmen fired in the air while others fired directly into the crowd of unarmed protesters, [killing four and wounding nine others](/wiki/Kent_State_shootings \"Kent State shootings\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.history.com/topics/vietnam\\-war/kent\\-state\\-shooting\\|title\\=Kent State Shooting\\|work\\=HISTORY\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-10\\-24\\|language\\=en}}", "### Operation Desert Storm", "During [Operation Desert Storm](/wiki/Operation_Desert_storm \"Operation Desert storm\") the Ohio National Guard mainly supported the larger military force. The Guard sent small units and provided transportation and supplies to the war front. Following Desert Storm, Ohio National Guard units were mobilized to continue the military presence in the region.", "### Post 9\\-11", "Following the events of [September 11th, 2001](/wiki/September_11_attacks \"September 11 attacks\") the [US Military](/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces \"United States Armed Forces\") was sent to the Middle East. The Ohio National Guard also took part in these operations, sending individuals and small units to assist the larger military force there. In the fall of 2011 though, the Ohio National Guard sent the 37th infantry division (the 'Buckeye' Division) in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. This was the largest overseas mobilization since World War II for the Guard. The Ohio National Guard has also assisted in more domestic tragedies, having sent assistance during [Hurricane Katrina](/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina \"Hurricane Katrina\"), [Hurricane Harvey](/wiki/Hurricane_Harvey \"Hurricane Harvey\"), and [Hurricane Irma](/wiki/Hurricane_Irma \"Hurricane Irma\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nbc4i.com/weather/tropics/ohio\\-sending\\-3500\\-national\\-guard\\-soldiers\\-to\\-florida/1064952428\\|title\\=Ohio sending up to 3,500 National Guard soldiers to Florida\\|last\\=Rotuno\\-Johnson\\|first\\=Michelle\\|date\\=2017\\-09\\-09\\|work\\=WCMH\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-10\\-26\\|language\\=en\\-US}} Assistance was also sent to Puerto Rico following the disaster caused by [Hurricane Maria](/wiki/Hurricane_Maria \"Hurricane Maria\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.dispatch.com/news/20171004/ohio\\-national\\-guard\\-members\\-head\\-to\\-puerto\\-rico\\|title\\=Ohio National Guard members head to Puerto Rico\\|last\\=Zachariah\\|first\\=Holly\\|work\\=The Columbus Dispatch\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-10\\-26\\|language\\=en}} In fall of 2019 legislation creating the Ohio Cyber Reserve was passed.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Bischoff \\|first1\\=Laura \\|title\\=Ohio lawmakers vote to set up a cyber reserve to fight, prevent attacks \\|url\\=https://www.daytondailynews.com/news/local/ohio\\-lawmakers\\-vote\\-set\\-cyber\\-reserve\\-fight\\-prevent\\-attacks/Jrkj318mtfi9NeLRMijETJ/ \\|website\\=daytondailynews \\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2019 \\|language\\=en}}{{cite web \\|title\\=DeWine Signs Law Enhancing Ohio Efforts Against Cyberattacks \\|url\\=https://radio.wosu.org/post/dewine\\-signs\\-law\\-enhancing\\-ohio\\-efforts\\-against\\-cyberattacks\\#stream/0 \\|website\\=radio.wosu.org \\|date\\=25 October 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2019 \\|language\\=en}}", "" ]
Himalayan exploration --------------------- During the surveys in the Himalayas he ascended heights previously believed to be inaccessible, and penetrated into [Tibet](/wiki/Tibet "Tibet") as far as the frontier [pickets](/wiki/Picket_%28military%29 "Picket (military)") of Chinese would allow. Our earliest notions of the geological structure and remains of the Himalayan ranges come from his work. In 1817–18 Gerard, setting out from [Sabathu](/wiki/Sabathu "Sabathu"), explored the [Sutlej](/wiki/Sutlej "Sutlej") valley in the Himalayas with Dr. George Govan (1787–1865\). In 1818 he and his brother James, in a two\-month journey, crossed the Sutlej and followed the [Spiti Valley](/wiki/Spiti_Valley "Spiti Valley") to [Shipki La](/wiki/Shipki_La "Shipki La"). In 1821 he performed the most important of his Himalayan journeys. Leaving Sabathu, he ascended the Himalayan upper ranges, carefully noting the places inhabited by the way, establishing height above sea level with a barometer, checked by trigonometrical measurements wherever practicable, and noting temperatures, natural productions, and character of the people in places previously supposed to be uninhabited and uninhabitable. Gerard and his company reached the Borendo pass, 15,121 feet above the sea\-level, on 15 June. The local guides refused to proceed further, and Gerard had to shape his course to the source of the [Pabbar River](/wiki/Pabbar_River "Pabbar River") by another route. The Charang pass, at an altitude of 17,348 feet, was ascended on 9 July, half a mile of the slope being so slippery with gravel and half\-melted snow that Gerard had to crawl upwards on all fours, burying his arms deep in the snow to secure his hold. The company ascended the Keobarang pass, altitude 18,312 feet; also Mount Tahigung, where part of the ascent was at an angle of forty\-two degrees. The height ascended was 19,411 feet, and the total computed altitude of the mountain 22,000 feet. A small collection of geological specimens, made by Gerard in [Chinese Tartary](/wiki/Chinese_Tartary "Chinese Tartary") during this journey between latitude 31° 30′and 32° 30′ N. and longitude 77°–79° E., at altitude 19,000 feet, and resembling the fossils of the [oolite](/wiki/Oolite "Oolite") in Europe, was exhibited at the [Geological Society of London](/wiki/Geological_Society_of_London "Geological Society of London") after his death.
[ "Himalayan exploration\n---------------------", "During the surveys in the Himalayas he ascended heights previously believed to be inaccessible, and penetrated into [Tibet](/wiki/Tibet \"Tibet\") as far as the frontier [pickets](/wiki/Picket_%28military%29 \"Picket (military)\") of Chinese would allow. Our earliest notions of the geological structure and remains of the Himalayan ranges come from his work.", "In 1817–18 Gerard, setting out from [Sabathu](/wiki/Sabathu \"Sabathu\"), explored the [Sutlej](/wiki/Sutlej \"Sutlej\") valley in the Himalayas with Dr. George Govan (1787–1865\\). In 1818 he and his brother James, in a two\\-month journey, crossed the Sutlej and followed the [Spiti Valley](/wiki/Spiti_Valley \"Spiti Valley\") to [Shipki La](/wiki/Shipki_La \"Shipki La\").", "In 1821 he performed the most important of his Himalayan journeys. Leaving Sabathu, he ascended the Himalayan upper ranges, carefully noting the places inhabited by the way, establishing height above sea level with a barometer, checked by trigonometrical measurements wherever practicable, and noting temperatures, natural productions, and character of the people in places previously supposed to be uninhabited and uninhabitable.", "Gerard and his company reached the Borendo pass, 15,121 feet above the sea\\-level, on 15 June. The local guides refused to proceed further, and Gerard had to shape his course to the source of the [Pabbar River](/wiki/Pabbar_River \"Pabbar River\") by another route. The Charang pass, at an altitude of 17,348 feet, was ascended on 9 July, half a mile of the slope being so slippery with gravel and half\\-melted snow that Gerard had to crawl upwards on all fours, burying his arms deep in the snow to secure his hold.", "The company ascended the Keobarang pass, altitude 18,312 feet; also Mount Tahigung, where part of the ascent was at an angle of forty\\-two degrees. The height ascended was 19,411 feet, and the total computed altitude of the mountain 22,000 feet. A small collection of geological specimens, made by Gerard in [Chinese Tartary](/wiki/Chinese_Tartary \"Chinese Tartary\") during this journey between latitude 31° 30′and 32° 30′ N. and longitude 77°–79° E., at altitude 19,000 feet, and resembling the fossils of the [oolite](/wiki/Oolite \"Oolite\") in Europe, was exhibited at the [Geological Society of London](/wiki/Geological_Society_of_London \"Geological Society of London\") after his death.", "" ]
Career ------ [thumb\|180px\|left\|Roman, 1951](/wiki/File:Ruth_Roman_MS651.jpg "Ruth Roman MS651.jpg") Roman moved to Hollywood, where she obtained bit parts in several films such as *[Stage Door Canteen](/wiki/Stage_Door_Canteen_%28film%29 "Stage Door Canteen (film)")* (1943\), *[Ladies Courageous](/wiki/Ladies_Courageous "Ladies Courageous")* (1944\), *[Since You Went Away](/wiki/Since_You_Went_Away "Since You Went Away")* (1944\), *[Song of Nevada](/wiki/Song_of_Nevada "Song of Nevada")* (1944\), and *[Storm Over Lisbon](/wiki/Storm_Over_Lisbon "Storm Over Lisbon")* (1944\). She had a featured role in *[Harmony Trail](/wiki/Harmony_Trail "Harmony Trail")* (1944\), but continued to be mostly unbilled in films such as *[She Gets Her Man](/wiki/She_Gets_Her_Man_%281945_film%29 "She Gets Her Man (1945 film)")* (1945\). Roman was cast in the title role in the 13\-episode serial *[Jungle Queen](/wiki/Jungle_Queen_%28serial%29 "Jungle Queen (serial)")* (1945\).{{cite web\| url\=http://www.glamourgirlsofthesilverscreen.com/show/513/Ruth\+Roman/index.html\| title\=Ruth Roman\| website\=Glamour Girls\| access\-date\=March 29, 2015}} Her roles, though, remained small in such films as *[See My Lawyer](/wiki/See_My_Lawyer "See My Lawyer")* (1945\), *[The Affairs of Susan](/wiki/The_Affairs_of_Susan "The Affairs of Susan")* (1945\), *[You Came Along](/wiki/You_Came_Along "You Came Along")* (1945\), *[Incendiary Blonde](/wiki/Incendiary_Blonde "Incendiary Blonde")* (1945\), *[Gilda](/wiki/Gilda "Gilda")* (1946\), *[Without Reservations](/wiki/Without_Reservations "Without Reservations")* (1946\), *[A Night in Casablanca](/wiki/A_Night_in_Casablanca "A Night in Casablanca")* (1946\), and *[The Big Clock](/wiki/The_Big_Clock_%28film%29 "The Big Clock (film)")* (1948\). While waiting for an opportunity in movies, Roman wrote short stories based on her experiences living in a theatrical boarding house. She sold two of them: *The House of the Seven Garbos* and *The Whip Song.* Roman's career began to improve in the late 1940s when she was cast in a featured role in the 1948 release *[Good Sam](/wiki/Good_Sam_%281948_film%29 "Good Sam (1948 film)")*. The next year, she was chosen for the title role in *[Belle Starr's Daughter](/wiki/Belle_Starr%27s_Daughter "Belle Starr's Daughter")*, as a killer in the thriller *[The Window](/wiki/The_Window_%281949_film%29 "The Window (1949 film)")*, and as the wife of the central character in *[Champion](/wiki/Champion_%281949_film%29 "Champion (1949 film)")*, starring [Kirk Douglas](/wiki/Kirk_Douglas "Kirk Douglas"). ### Warner Bros. In recognition of Roman's rising status as an actress, [Warner Bros.](/wiki/Warner_Bros. "Warner Bros.") signed her to a long\-term contract in 1949, casting her first as a supporting player for [Bette Davis](/wiki/Bette_Davis "Bette Davis") in *[Beyond the Forest](/wiki/Beyond_the_Forest "Beyond the Forest")* and then for [Milton Berle](/wiki/Milton_Berle "Milton Berle") and [Virginia Mayo](/wiki/Virginia_Mayo "Virginia Mayo") in *[Always Leave Them Laughing](/wiki/Always_Leave_Them_Laughing "Always Leave Them Laughing")*. The studio in 1950 cast her as the female lead in *[Barricade](/wiki/Barricade_%281950_film%29 "Barricade (1950 film)")* with [Dane Clark](/wiki/Dane_Clark "Dane Clark") and *[Colt .45](/wiki/Colt_.45_%281950_film%29 "Colt .45 (1950 film)")* with [Randolph Scott](/wiki/Randolph_Scott "Randolph Scott"). Warners gave her a starring role in *[Three Secrets](/wiki/Three_Secrets "Three Secrets")* (1950\) with [Eleanor Parker](/wiki/Eleanor_Parker "Eleanor Parker") and [Patricia Neal](/wiki/Patricia_Neal "Patricia Neal"). She played a distraught mother waiting to learn whether or not her child survived an airplane crash. This was followed by *[Dallas](/wiki/Dallas_%28film%29 "Dallas (film)")* (1950\), where she was [Gary Cooper](/wiki/Gary_Cooper "Gary Cooper")'s leading lady. The May 1, 1950, issue of *[Life](/wiki/Life_%28magazine%29 "Life (magazine)")* magazine featured Roman in a cover story "The Rapid Rise of Ruth Roman".{{cite magazine\| title\=The Rapid Rise of Ruth Roman\| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=\-UwEAAAAMBAJ\&q\=%22Ruth\+Roman%22\&pg\=PA51\| access\-date\=November 30, 2016\| magazine\=Life\| date\=May 1, 1950\| pages\=51–52, 55–56}} [thumb\|[Trailer](/wiki/Trailer_%28promotion%29 "Trailer (promotion)") for *[Strangers on a Train](/wiki/Strangers_on_a_Train_%28film%29 "Strangers on a Train (film)")* (1951\)](/wiki/File:Ruth_Roman_in_Strangers_on_a_Train_trailer.jpg "Ruth Roman in Strangers on a Train trailer.jpg") Roman got top billing in *[Lightning Strikes Twice](/wiki/Lightning_Strikes_Twice_%281951_film%29 "Lightning Strikes Twice (1951 film)")* (1951\), directed by [King Vidor](/wiki/King_Vidor "King Vidor") with [Richard Todd](/wiki/Richard_Todd "Richard Todd"). She was [Farley Granger](/wiki/Farley_Granger "Farley Granger")'s love interest in *[Strangers on a Train](/wiki/Strangers_on_a_Train_%28film%29 "Strangers on a Train (film)")* (1951\), directed by [Alfred Hitchcock](/wiki/Alfred_Hitchcock "Alfred Hitchcock"). Roman was top\-billed as well in the 1951 thriller *[Tomorrow Is Another Day](/wiki/Tomorrow_Is_Another_Day_%281951_American_film%29 "Tomorrow Is Another Day (1951 American film)")*, co\-starring [Steve Cochran](/wiki/Steve_Cochran "Steve Cochran"). That year, she was also one of many Warners stars in *[Starlift](/wiki/Starlift "Starlift")*, the studio's musical tribute to United States military personnel fighting in the Korean War. She was loaned to MGM for *[Invitation](/wiki/Invitation_%281952_film%29 "Invitation (1952 film)")* (1952\), then co\-starred with [Errol Flynn](/wiki/Errol_Flynn "Errol Flynn") in *[Mara Maru](/wiki/Mara_Maru "Mara Maru")* (1952\). She went back to MGM to play [Glenn Ford](/wiki/Glenn_Ford "Glenn Ford")'s love interest in *[Young Man with Ideas](/wiki/Young_Man_with_Ideas "Young Man with Ideas")* (1952\) and was reunited with Cooper in *[Blowing Wild](/wiki/Blowing_Wild "Blowing Wild")* (1953\), only this time she was billed beneath [Barbara Stanwyck](/wiki/Barbara_Stanwyck "Barbara Stanwyck"). ### Post\-Warners [thumb\|left\|Trailer for *[The Far Country](/wiki/The_Far_Country_%28film%29 "The Far Country (film)")* (1955\)](/wiki/File:Ruth_Roman_in_The_Far_Country_trailer.jpg "Ruth Roman in The Far Country trailer.jpg") Roman went to Universal to play [Van Heflin](/wiki/Van_Heflin "Van Heflin")'s love interest in *[Tanganyika](/wiki/Tanganyika_%28film%29 "Tanganyika (film)")* (1954\). At Universal she was a love interest to [James Stewart](/wiki/James_Stewart "James Stewart") in the [Anthony Mann](/wiki/Anthony_Mann "Anthony Mann")\-directed Western *[The Far Country](/wiki/The_Far_Country_%28film%29 "The Far Country (film)")* (1955\) and at Republic was top billed in *[The Shanghai Story](/wiki/The_Shanghai_Story "The Shanghai Story")* (1954\) with [Edmond O'Brien](/wiki/Edmond_O%27Brien "Edmond O'Brien"). Roman made *[Down Three Dark Streets](/wiki/Down_Three_Dark_Streets "Down Three Dark Streets")* (1954\) with [Broderick Crawford](/wiki/Broderick_Crawford "Broderick Crawford"), and started appearing on TV in shows like *[Lux Video Theatre](/wiki/Lux_Video_Theatre "Lux Video Theatre")*, *[The Red Skelton Hour](/wiki/The_Red_Skelton_Hour "The Red Skelton Hour")*, *[Producers' Showcase](/wiki/Producers%27_Showcase "Producers' Showcase")*, *[Climax!](/wiki/Climax%21 "Climax!")*, *[General Electric Theatre](/wiki/General_Electric_Theatre "General Electric Theatre")*, *[Celebrity Playhouse](/wiki/Celebrity_Playhouse "Celebrity Playhouse")*, *[The Ford Television Theatre](/wiki/The_Ford_Television_Theatre "The Ford Television Theatre")* and *[Jane Wyman Presents The Fireside Theatre](/wiki/Jane_Wyman_Presents_The_Fireside_Theatre "Jane Wyman Presents The Fireside Theatre")*. Roman had a good part in England in *[Joe MacBeth](/wiki/Joe_MacBeth "Joe MacBeth")* (1955\) playing Lady MacBeth, and she was with [Van Johnson](/wiki/Van_Johnson "Van Johnson") in *[The Bottom of the Bottle](/wiki/The_Bottom_of_the_Bottle "The Bottom of the Bottle")* (1956\) and Mayo in *[Great Day in the Morning](/wiki/Great_Day_in_the_Morning "Great Day in the Morning")* (1956\). Roman appeared in the Western *[Rebel in Town](/wiki/Rebel_in_Town "Rebel in Town")* (1956\) and was top\-billed in *[5 Steps to Danger](/wiki/5_Steps_to_Danger "5 Steps to Danger")* (1957\). She was in *[Bitter Victory](/wiki/Bitter_Victory "Bitter Victory")* (1957\) and went to Italy to star in *[Desert Desperados](/wiki/Desert_Desperados "Desert Desperados")* (1959\). ### Continuing work in theatre In 1959, Roman won the [Sarah Siddons Award](/wiki/Sarah_Siddons_Award "Sarah Siddons Award") for her work in [Chicago theatre](/wiki/Chicago_theatre "Chicago theatre"). She was selected from among 47 nominees based on her performance in *[Two for the Seesaw](/wiki/Two_for_the_Seesaw_%28play%29 "Two for the Seesaw (play)")*.{{cite news\| title\=Ruth Roman Receives Sarah Siddon Award\| url\=http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1959/07/09/page/54/article/ruth\-roman\-receives\-sarah\-siddons\-award\| access\-date\=5 June 2015\| newspaper\=\[\[Chicago Tribune]]\| date\=July 9, 1959}} Back in Hollywood, she played [Paul Anka](/wiki/Paul_Anka "Paul Anka")'s mother in *[Look in Any Window](/wiki/Look_in_Any_Window "Look in Any Window")* (1961\). ### Television [thumb\|Trailer for *[Great Day in the Morning](/wiki/Great_Day_in_the_Morning "Great Day in the Morning")* (1956\)](/wiki/File:Ruth_Roman_in_the_trailer_for_the_film_Great_Day_in_the_Morning.jpg "Ruth Roman in the trailer for the film Great Day in the Morning.jpg") Roman worked regularly in films well up to the late 1950s. Then she began making appearances on television shows. These included recurring roles in NBC's 1965–1966 *[The Long, Hot Summer](/wiki/The_Long%2C_Hot_Summer_%28TV_series%29 "The Long, Hot Summer (TV series)")*, and toward the end of her career, recurring roles in the 1986 season of *[Knots Landing](/wiki/Knots_Landing "Knots Landing")* and several episodes of *[Murder, She Wrote](/wiki/Murder%2C_She_Wrote "Murder, She Wrote")*, both on CBS.{{Cite book \|last\=Sculthorpe \|first\=Derek \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=szN3EAAAQBAJ\&dq\=%22ruth\+roman%22\+%22knots\+landing%22\&pg\=PA165 \|title\=Ruth Roman: A Career Portrait \|date\=2022\-06\-22 \|publisher\=McFarland \|isbn\=978\-1\-4766\-4630\-5 \|pages\=145, 165 \|language\=en}} She guest\-starred in NBC's *[Bonanza](/wiki/Bonanza "Bonanza")* and *[Sam Benedict](/wiki/Sam_Benedict "Sam Benedict")*, ABC's *[The Bing Crosby Show](/wiki/The_Bing_Crosby_Show_%281964_TV_series%29 "The Bing Crosby Show (1964 TV series)")* [sitcom](/wiki/Sitcom "Sitcom") and its [circus](/wiki/Circus "Circus") [drama](/wiki/Drama "Drama") *[The Greatest Show on Earth](/wiki/The_Greatest_Show_on_Earth_%28TV_series%29 "The Greatest Show on Earth (TV series)")* starring [Jack Palance](/wiki/Jack_Palance "Jack Palance"), as well as *[Burke's Law](/wiki/Burke%27s_Law_%281963_TV_series%29 "Burke's Law (1963 TV series)")* starring [Gene Barry](/wiki/Gene_Barry "Gene Barry") and *[I Spy](/wiki/I_Spy_%281965_TV_series%29 "I Spy (1965 TV series)")* featuring [Robert Culp](/wiki/Robert_Culp "Robert Culp") and [Bill Cosby](/wiki/Bill_Cosby "Bill Cosby"). She also appeared as a fiery redhead in an episode of *[Gunsmoke](/wiki/Gunsmoke "Gunsmoke")*. She appeared in the early 1960s in the medical dramas *[The Eleventh Hour](/wiki/The_Eleventh_Hour_%281962_TV_series%29 "The Eleventh Hour (1962 TV series)")* and {{clarify\|date\=January 2011}} *[Breaking Point](/wiki/Breaking_Point_%281963_TV_series%29 "Breaking Point (1963 TV series)")*. She starred in a season 3 episode of *[Mission: Impossible](/wiki/Mission:Impossible_%281966_TV_series%29 "Impossible (1966 TV series)")* (1968\) titled "The Elixir" as Riva Santel as well as a Season 2 episode of *[Naked City](/wiki/Naked_City_%28TV_series%29 "Naked City (TV series)")*. Many other series featured guest appearances by Roman, including *[Route 66](/wiki/Route_66_%28TV_series%29 "Route 66 (TV series)"), [The Untouchables (1959 TV series)](/wiki/The_Untouchables_%281959_TV_series%29 "The Untouchables (1959 TV series)")*, *[Mannix](/wiki/Mannix "Mannix")*, *[Cannon (TV series)](/wiki/Cannon_%28TV_series%29 "Cannon (TV series)")*, *[Marcus Welby, M.D.](/wiki/Marcus_Welby%2C_M.D. "Marcus Welby, M.D.")*, *[The Mod Squad](/wiki/The_Mod_Squad_%28TV_series%29 "The Mod Squad (TV series)")*, *[The FBI](/wiki/The_FBI_%28TV_series%29 "The FBI (TV series)")*, *[Tarzan](/wiki/Tarzan_%281966_TV_series%29 "Tarzan (1966 TV series)")*, and *[The Outer Limits \- episode Moonstone \- 1964](/wiki/The_Outer_Limits_%281963_TV_series%29 "The Outer Limits (1963 TV series)")* In 1971 Roman appeared as Marjorie Worth on "The Men from Shiloh" (rebranded name for the [TV Western](/wiki/Westerns_on_television "Westerns on television") *[The Virginian](/wiki/The_Virginian_%28TV_series%29 "The Virginian (TV series)")*) in the episode titled "The Angus Killer." In 1960, Roman was honoured with a star on the [Hollywood Walk of Fame](/wiki/Hollywood_Walk_of_Fame "Hollywood Walk of Fame") at 6672 Hollywood Boulevard for her contribution to television.{{cite web\| url\=http://www.walkoffame.com/ruth\-roman\| title\=Ruth Roman\| website\=Walk of Fame\| access\-date\=November 22, 2015}}
[ "Career\n------", "[thumb\\|180px\\|left\\|Roman, 1951](/wiki/File:Ruth_Roman_MS651.jpg \"Ruth Roman MS651.jpg\")\nRoman moved to Hollywood, where she obtained bit parts in several films such as *[Stage Door Canteen](/wiki/Stage_Door_Canteen_%28film%29 \"Stage Door Canteen (film)\")* (1943\\), *[Ladies Courageous](/wiki/Ladies_Courageous \"Ladies Courageous\")* (1944\\), *[Since You Went Away](/wiki/Since_You_Went_Away \"Since You Went Away\")* (1944\\), *[Song of Nevada](/wiki/Song_of_Nevada \"Song of Nevada\")* (1944\\), and *[Storm Over Lisbon](/wiki/Storm_Over_Lisbon \"Storm Over Lisbon\")* (1944\\). She had a featured role in *[Harmony Trail](/wiki/Harmony_Trail \"Harmony Trail\")* (1944\\), but continued to be mostly unbilled in films such as *[She Gets Her Man](/wiki/She_Gets_Her_Man_%281945_film%29 \"She Gets Her Man (1945 film)\")* (1945\\).", "Roman was cast in the title role in the 13\\-episode serial *[Jungle Queen](/wiki/Jungle_Queen_%28serial%29 \"Jungle Queen (serial)\")* (1945\\).{{cite web\\| url\\=http://www.glamourgirlsofthesilverscreen.com/show/513/Ruth\\+Roman/index.html\\| title\\=Ruth Roman\\| website\\=Glamour Girls\\| access\\-date\\=March 29, 2015}} Her roles, though, remained small in such films as *[See My Lawyer](/wiki/See_My_Lawyer \"See My Lawyer\")* (1945\\), *[The Affairs of Susan](/wiki/The_Affairs_of_Susan \"The Affairs of Susan\")* (1945\\), *[You Came Along](/wiki/You_Came_Along \"You Came Along\")* (1945\\), *[Incendiary Blonde](/wiki/Incendiary_Blonde \"Incendiary Blonde\")* (1945\\), *[Gilda](/wiki/Gilda \"Gilda\")* (1946\\), *[Without Reservations](/wiki/Without_Reservations \"Without Reservations\")* (1946\\), *[A Night in Casablanca](/wiki/A_Night_in_Casablanca \"A Night in Casablanca\")* (1946\\), and *[The Big Clock](/wiki/The_Big_Clock_%28film%29 \"The Big Clock (film)\")* (1948\\). While waiting for an opportunity in movies, Roman wrote short stories based on her experiences living in a theatrical boarding house. She sold two of them: *The House of the Seven Garbos* and *The Whip Song.*", "Roman's career began to improve in the late 1940s when she was cast in a featured role in the 1948 release *[Good Sam](/wiki/Good_Sam_%281948_film%29 \"Good Sam (1948 film)\")*. The next year, she was chosen for the title role in *[Belle Starr's Daughter](/wiki/Belle_Starr%27s_Daughter \"Belle Starr's Daughter\")*, as a killer in the thriller *[The Window](/wiki/The_Window_%281949_film%29 \"The Window (1949 film)\")*, and as the wife of the central character in *[Champion](/wiki/Champion_%281949_film%29 \"Champion (1949 film)\")*, starring [Kirk Douglas](/wiki/Kirk_Douglas \"Kirk Douglas\").", "### Warner Bros.", "In recognition of Roman's rising status as an actress, [Warner Bros.](/wiki/Warner_Bros. \"Warner Bros.\") signed her to a long\\-term contract in 1949, casting her first as a supporting player for [Bette Davis](/wiki/Bette_Davis \"Bette Davis\") in *[Beyond the Forest](/wiki/Beyond_the_Forest \"Beyond the Forest\")* and then for [Milton Berle](/wiki/Milton_Berle \"Milton Berle\") and [Virginia Mayo](/wiki/Virginia_Mayo \"Virginia Mayo\") in *[Always Leave Them Laughing](/wiki/Always_Leave_Them_Laughing \"Always Leave Them Laughing\")*. The studio in 1950 cast her as the female lead in *[Barricade](/wiki/Barricade_%281950_film%29 \"Barricade (1950 film)\")* with [Dane Clark](/wiki/Dane_Clark \"Dane Clark\") and *[Colt .45](/wiki/Colt_.45_%281950_film%29 \"Colt .45 (1950 film)\")* with [Randolph Scott](/wiki/Randolph_Scott \"Randolph Scott\").", "Warners gave her a starring role in *[Three Secrets](/wiki/Three_Secrets \"Three Secrets\")* (1950\\) with [Eleanor Parker](/wiki/Eleanor_Parker \"Eleanor Parker\") and [Patricia Neal](/wiki/Patricia_Neal \"Patricia Neal\"). She played a distraught mother waiting to learn whether or not her child survived an airplane crash. This was followed by *[Dallas](/wiki/Dallas_%28film%29 \"Dallas (film)\")* (1950\\), where she was [Gary Cooper](/wiki/Gary_Cooper \"Gary Cooper\")'s leading lady. The May 1, 1950, issue of *[Life](/wiki/Life_%28magazine%29 \"Life (magazine)\")* magazine featured Roman in a cover story \"The Rapid Rise of Ruth Roman\".{{cite magazine\\| title\\=The Rapid Rise of Ruth Roman\\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\-UwEAAAAMBAJ\\&q\\=%22Ruth\\+Roman%22\\&pg\\=PA51\\| access\\-date\\=November 30, 2016\\| magazine\\=Life\\| date\\=May 1, 1950\\| pages\\=51–52, 55–56}}\n[thumb\\|[Trailer](/wiki/Trailer_%28promotion%29 \"Trailer (promotion)\") for *[Strangers on a Train](/wiki/Strangers_on_a_Train_%28film%29 \"Strangers on a Train (film)\")* (1951\\)](/wiki/File:Ruth_Roman_in_Strangers_on_a_Train_trailer.jpg \"Ruth Roman in Strangers on a Train trailer.jpg\")\nRoman got top billing in *[Lightning Strikes Twice](/wiki/Lightning_Strikes_Twice_%281951_film%29 \"Lightning Strikes Twice (1951 film)\")* (1951\\), directed by [King Vidor](/wiki/King_Vidor \"King Vidor\") with [Richard Todd](/wiki/Richard_Todd \"Richard Todd\"). She was [Farley Granger](/wiki/Farley_Granger \"Farley Granger\")'s love interest in *[Strangers on a Train](/wiki/Strangers_on_a_Train_%28film%29 \"Strangers on a Train (film)\")* (1951\\), directed by [Alfred Hitchcock](/wiki/Alfred_Hitchcock \"Alfred Hitchcock\"). Roman was top\\-billed as well in the 1951 thriller *[Tomorrow Is Another Day](/wiki/Tomorrow_Is_Another_Day_%281951_American_film%29 \"Tomorrow Is Another Day (1951 American film)\")*, co\\-starring [Steve Cochran](/wiki/Steve_Cochran \"Steve Cochran\"). That year, she was also one of many Warners stars in *[Starlift](/wiki/Starlift \"Starlift\")*, the studio's musical tribute to United States military personnel fighting in the Korean War.", "She was loaned to MGM for *[Invitation](/wiki/Invitation_%281952_film%29 \"Invitation (1952 film)\")* (1952\\), then co\\-starred with [Errol Flynn](/wiki/Errol_Flynn \"Errol Flynn\") in *[Mara Maru](/wiki/Mara_Maru \"Mara Maru\")* (1952\\). She went back to MGM to play [Glenn Ford](/wiki/Glenn_Ford \"Glenn Ford\")'s love interest in *[Young Man with Ideas](/wiki/Young_Man_with_Ideas \"Young Man with Ideas\")* (1952\\) and was reunited with Cooper in *[Blowing Wild](/wiki/Blowing_Wild \"Blowing Wild\")* (1953\\), only this time she was billed beneath [Barbara Stanwyck](/wiki/Barbara_Stanwyck \"Barbara Stanwyck\").", "### Post\\-Warners", "[thumb\\|left\\|Trailer for *[The Far Country](/wiki/The_Far_Country_%28film%29 \"The Far Country (film)\")* (1955\\)](/wiki/File:Ruth_Roman_in_The_Far_Country_trailer.jpg \"Ruth Roman in The Far Country trailer.jpg\") \nRoman went to Universal to play [Van Heflin](/wiki/Van_Heflin \"Van Heflin\")'s love interest in *[Tanganyika](/wiki/Tanganyika_%28film%29 \"Tanganyika (film)\")* (1954\\). At Universal she was a love interest to [James Stewart](/wiki/James_Stewart \"James Stewart\") in the [Anthony Mann](/wiki/Anthony_Mann \"Anthony Mann\")\\-directed Western *[The Far Country](/wiki/The_Far_Country_%28film%29 \"The Far Country (film)\")* (1955\\) and at Republic was top billed in *[The Shanghai Story](/wiki/The_Shanghai_Story \"The Shanghai Story\")* (1954\\) with [Edmond O'Brien](/wiki/Edmond_O%27Brien \"Edmond O'Brien\").", "Roman made *[Down Three Dark Streets](/wiki/Down_Three_Dark_Streets \"Down Three Dark Streets\")* (1954\\) with [Broderick Crawford](/wiki/Broderick_Crawford \"Broderick Crawford\"), and started appearing on TV in shows like *[Lux Video Theatre](/wiki/Lux_Video_Theatre \"Lux Video Theatre\")*, *[The Red Skelton Hour](/wiki/The_Red_Skelton_Hour \"The Red Skelton Hour\")*, *[Producers' Showcase](/wiki/Producers%27_Showcase \"Producers' Showcase\")*, *[Climax!](/wiki/Climax%21 \"Climax!\")*, *[General Electric Theatre](/wiki/General_Electric_Theatre \"General Electric Theatre\")*, *[Celebrity Playhouse](/wiki/Celebrity_Playhouse \"Celebrity Playhouse\")*, *[The Ford Television Theatre](/wiki/The_Ford_Television_Theatre \"The Ford Television Theatre\")* and *[Jane Wyman Presents The Fireside Theatre](/wiki/Jane_Wyman_Presents_The_Fireside_Theatre \"Jane Wyman Presents The Fireside Theatre\")*.", "Roman had a good part in England in *[Joe MacBeth](/wiki/Joe_MacBeth \"Joe MacBeth\")* (1955\\) playing Lady MacBeth, and she was with [Van Johnson](/wiki/Van_Johnson \"Van Johnson\") in *[The Bottom of the Bottle](/wiki/The_Bottom_of_the_Bottle \"The Bottom of the Bottle\")* (1956\\) and Mayo in *[Great Day in the Morning](/wiki/Great_Day_in_the_Morning \"Great Day in the Morning\")* (1956\\).", "Roman appeared in the Western *[Rebel in Town](/wiki/Rebel_in_Town \"Rebel in Town\")* (1956\\) and was top\\-billed in *[5 Steps to Danger](/wiki/5_Steps_to_Danger \"5 Steps to Danger\")* (1957\\). She was in *[Bitter Victory](/wiki/Bitter_Victory \"Bitter Victory\")* (1957\\) and went to Italy to star in *[Desert Desperados](/wiki/Desert_Desperados \"Desert Desperados\")* (1959\\).", "### Continuing work in theatre", "In 1959, Roman won the [Sarah Siddons Award](/wiki/Sarah_Siddons_Award \"Sarah Siddons Award\") for her work in [Chicago theatre](/wiki/Chicago_theatre \"Chicago theatre\"). She was selected from among 47 nominees based on her performance in *[Two for the Seesaw](/wiki/Two_for_the_Seesaw_%28play%29 \"Two for the Seesaw (play)\")*.{{cite news\\| title\\=Ruth Roman Receives Sarah Siddon Award\\| url\\=http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1959/07/09/page/54/article/ruth\\-roman\\-receives\\-sarah\\-siddons\\-award\\| access\\-date\\=5 June 2015\\| newspaper\\=\\[\\[Chicago Tribune]]\\| date\\=July 9, 1959}}", "Back in Hollywood, she played [Paul Anka](/wiki/Paul_Anka \"Paul Anka\")'s mother in *[Look in Any Window](/wiki/Look_in_Any_Window \"Look in Any Window\")* (1961\\).", "### Television", "[thumb\\|Trailer for *[Great Day in the Morning](/wiki/Great_Day_in_the_Morning \"Great Day in the Morning\")* (1956\\)](/wiki/File:Ruth_Roman_in_the_trailer_for_the_film_Great_Day_in_the_Morning.jpg \"Ruth Roman in the trailer for the film Great Day in the Morning.jpg\") \nRoman worked regularly in films well up to the late 1950s. Then she began making appearances on television shows. These included recurring roles in NBC's 1965–1966 *[The Long, Hot Summer](/wiki/The_Long%2C_Hot_Summer_%28TV_series%29 \"The Long, Hot Summer (TV series)\")*, and toward the end of her career, recurring roles in the 1986 season of *[Knots Landing](/wiki/Knots_Landing \"Knots Landing\")* and several episodes of *[Murder, She Wrote](/wiki/Murder%2C_She_Wrote \"Murder, She Wrote\")*, both on CBS.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Sculthorpe \\|first\\=Derek \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=szN3EAAAQBAJ\\&dq\\=%22ruth\\+roman%22\\+%22knots\\+landing%22\\&pg\\=PA165 \\|title\\=Ruth Roman: A Career Portrait \\|date\\=2022\\-06\\-22 \\|publisher\\=McFarland \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4766\\-4630\\-5 \\|pages\\=145, 165 \\|language\\=en}}", "She guest\\-starred in NBC's *[Bonanza](/wiki/Bonanza \"Bonanza\")* and *[Sam Benedict](/wiki/Sam_Benedict \"Sam Benedict\")*, ABC's *[The Bing Crosby Show](/wiki/The_Bing_Crosby_Show_%281964_TV_series%29 \"The Bing Crosby Show (1964 TV series)\")* [sitcom](/wiki/Sitcom \"Sitcom\") and its [circus](/wiki/Circus \"Circus\") [drama](/wiki/Drama \"Drama\") *[The Greatest Show on Earth](/wiki/The_Greatest_Show_on_Earth_%28TV_series%29 \"The Greatest Show on Earth (TV series)\")* starring [Jack Palance](/wiki/Jack_Palance \"Jack Palance\"), as well as *[Burke's Law](/wiki/Burke%27s_Law_%281963_TV_series%29 \"Burke's Law (1963 TV series)\")* starring [Gene Barry](/wiki/Gene_Barry \"Gene Barry\") and *[I Spy](/wiki/I_Spy_%281965_TV_series%29 \"I Spy (1965 TV series)\")* featuring [Robert Culp](/wiki/Robert_Culp \"Robert Culp\") and [Bill Cosby](/wiki/Bill_Cosby \"Bill Cosby\"). She also appeared as a fiery redhead in an episode of *[Gunsmoke](/wiki/Gunsmoke \"Gunsmoke\")*.", "She appeared in the early 1960s in the medical dramas *[The Eleventh Hour](/wiki/The_Eleventh_Hour_%281962_TV_series%29 \"The Eleventh Hour (1962 TV series)\")* and {{clarify\\|date\\=January 2011}} *[Breaking Point](/wiki/Breaking_Point_%281963_TV_series%29 \"Breaking Point (1963 TV series)\")*. She starred in a season 3 episode of *[Mission: Impossible](/wiki/Mission:Impossible_%281966_TV_series%29 \"Impossible (1966 TV series)\")* (1968\\) titled \"The Elixir\" as Riva Santel as well as a Season 2 episode of *[Naked City](/wiki/Naked_City_%28TV_series%29 \"Naked City (TV series)\")*. Many other series featured guest appearances by Roman, including *[Route 66](/wiki/Route_66_%28TV_series%29 \"Route 66 (TV series)\"), [The Untouchables (1959 TV series)](/wiki/The_Untouchables_%281959_TV_series%29 \"The Untouchables (1959 TV series)\")*, *[Mannix](/wiki/Mannix \"Mannix\")*, *[Cannon (TV series)](/wiki/Cannon_%28TV_series%29 \"Cannon (TV series)\")*, *[Marcus Welby, M.D.](/wiki/Marcus_Welby%2C_M.D. \"Marcus Welby, M.D.\")*, *[The Mod Squad](/wiki/The_Mod_Squad_%28TV_series%29 \"The Mod Squad (TV series)\")*, *[The FBI](/wiki/The_FBI_%28TV_series%29 \"The FBI (TV series)\")*, *[Tarzan](/wiki/Tarzan_%281966_TV_series%29 \"Tarzan (1966 TV series)\")*, and *[The Outer Limits \\- episode Moonstone \\- 1964](/wiki/The_Outer_Limits_%281963_TV_series%29 \"The Outer Limits (1963 TV series)\")*", "In 1971 Roman appeared as Marjorie Worth on \"The Men from Shiloh\" (rebranded name for the [TV Western](/wiki/Westerns_on_television \"Westerns on television\") *[The Virginian](/wiki/The_Virginian_%28TV_series%29 \"The Virginian (TV series)\")*) in the episode titled \"The Angus Killer.\"", "In 1960, Roman was honoured with a star on the [Hollywood Walk of Fame](/wiki/Hollywood_Walk_of_Fame \"Hollywood Walk of Fame\") at 6672 Hollywood Boulevard for her contribution to television.{{cite web\\| url\\=http://www.walkoffame.com/ruth\\-roman\\| title\\=Ruth Roman\\| website\\=Walk of Fame\\| access\\-date\\=November 22, 2015}}", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|1920\= 469 \|1930\= 1050 \|1940\= 1471 \|1950\= 5600 \|1960\= 37618 \|1970\= 52273 \|1980\= 73892 \|1990\= 88693 \|2000\= 94869 \|2010\= 99478 \|2020\= 106215 \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|access\-date\=June 4, 2015 }} }} ### 2022 {{As of\|2022\|pre\=the}} [American Community Survey](/wiki/American_Community_Survey "American Community Survey") estimates, there were {{formatnum:104417}} people and {{formatnum:33580}} households.{{cite web\|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDP1Y2022\.DP02?g\=160XX00US0621712 \| title\= 2022 American Community Survey 1 Year Estimate: Selected Social Characteristics in the United States for El Cajon city, CA \| access\-date \= 2024\-06\-20 \| publisher \= \[\[United States Census Bureau]]}}{{cite web\|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDP1Y2022\.DP05?g\=160XX00US0621712 \| title\= 2022 American Community Survey 1 Year Estimate: Demographic and Housing Estimates for El Cajon city, CA \| access\-date \= 2024\-06\-20 \| publisher \= \[\[United States Census Bureau]]}} The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|7196\.2\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were {{formatnum:34370}} housing units at an average density of {{convert\|2368\.7\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}.To calculate density we use the land area figure from the places file in {{cite web\| url\=https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference\-files/time\-series/geo/gazetteer\-files.html \| title \= The 2023 U.S. Gazetteer Files}}{{cite web\|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2022\.B25001?g\=160XX00US0621712 \| title\= 2022 American Community Survey 1 Year Estimate: Housing Units for El Cajon city, CA \| access\-date \= 2024\-06\-20 \| publisher \= \[\[United States Census Bureau]]}} The racial makeup of the city was 50\.6% White, 15\.0% some other race, 5\.6% Black or African American, 3\.4% Asian, 1\.3% Native American or Alaskan Native, and 1\.3% Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, with 22\.8% from two or more races. [Hispanic or Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans "Hispanic and Latino Americans") residents of any race were 36\.6% of the population. Of the {{formatnum:33580}} households, 34\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 32\.9% had seniors 65 years or older living with them, 52\.4% were married couples living together, 4\.8% were couples cohabitating, 16\.8% had a male householder with no partner present, and 26\.0% had a female householder with no partner present. The median household size was {{formatnum:3\.00}} and the median family size was {{formatnum:3\.53}}. The age distribution was 25\.9% under 18, 8\.1% from 18 to 24, 25\.2% from 25 to 44, 25\.6% from 45 to 64, and 15\.3% who were 65 or older. The median age was {{formatnum:37\.4}} years.{{cite web\|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST1Y2022\.S0101?g\=160XX00US0621712 \| title\= 2022 American Community Survey 1 Year Estimate: Age and Sex for El Cajon city, CA \| access\-date \= 2024\-06\-20 \| publisher \= \[\[United States Census Bureau]]}} For every 100 females, there were {{formatnum:88\.1}} males. The median income for a household was ${{formatnum:66045}}, with family households having a median income of ${{formatnum:72704}} and non\-family households ${{formatnum:43584}}. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") was ${{formatnum:28221}}.{{cite web\|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST1Y2022\.S1901?g\=160XX00US0621712 \| title\= 2022 American Community Survey 1 Year Estimate: Income in the Past 12 Months (in 2022 Inflation\-Adjusted Dollars) for El Cajon city, CA \| access\-date \= 2024\-06\-20 \| publisher \= \[\[United States Census Bureau]]}}{{cite web\|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST1Y2022\.S1902?g\=160XX00US0621712 \| title\= 2022 American Community Survey 1 Year Estimate: Mean Income in the Past 12 Months (in 2022 Inflation\-Adjusted Dollars) for El Cajon city, CA \| access\-date \= 2024\-06\-20 \| publisher \= \[\[United States Census Bureau]]}} Out of the {{formatnum:102390}} people with a determined poverty status, 22\.7% were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"). Further, 31\.4% of minors and 17\.3% of seniors were below the poverty line.{{cite web\|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST1Y2022\.S1701?g\=160XX00US0621712 \| title\= 2022 American Community Survey 1 Year Estimate: Poverty Status in the Past 12 Months for El Cajon city, CA \| access\-date \= 2024\-06\-20 \| publisher \= \[\[United States Census Bureau]]}} In the survey, residents self\-identified with various ethnic ancestries. People of [Arab](/wiki/Arab_American "Arab American") descent made up 10\.3% of the population of the town, followed by [German](/wiki/German_American "German American") at 6\.7%, [English](/wiki/English_American "English American") at 5\.8%, [Irish](/wiki/Irish_American "Irish American") at 4\.3%, [Italian](/wiki/Italian_American "Italian American") at 3\.0%, [American](/wiki/American_ancestry "American ancestry") at 2\.4%, [Sub\-Saharan African](/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa "Sub-Saharan Africa") at 1\.9%, [Polish](/wiki/Polish_American "Polish American") at 1\.7%, [Norwegian](/wiki/Norwegian_American "Norwegian American") at 1\.4%, [Swedish](/wiki/Swedish_American "Swedish American") at 1\.0%, [French](/wiki/French_American "French American") at 0\.9%, [Dutch](/wiki/Dutch_American "Dutch American") at 0\.8%, [Hungarian](/wiki/Hungarian_American "Hungarian American") at 0\.8%, [Scottish](/wiki/Scottish_American "Scottish American") at 0\.6%, [Greek](/wiki/Greek_American "Greek American") at 0\.5%, [Portuguese](/wiki/Portuguese_American "Portuguese American") at 0\.5%, and [Czech](/wiki/Czech_American "Czech American") at 0\.5%. ### 2020 census | \+**El Cajon city, California – Racial and ethnic composition**{{nobold\|''Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos may be of any race.''}} | Race / Ethnicity (*NH \= Non\-Hispanic*) | Pop 2000{{Cite web\|title\=P004: Hispanic or Latino, and Not Hispanic or Latino by Race – 2000: DEC Summary File 1 – El Cajon city, California \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table?g\=160XX00US0621712\&tid\=DECENNIALSF12000\.P004\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]] \|access\-date\= }} | Pop 2010{{Cite web\|title\=P2: Hispanic or Latino, and Not Hispanic or Latino by Race – 2010: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94\-171\) – El Cajon city, California \|url\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q\=p2\&g\=160XX00US0621712\&tid\=DECENNIALPL2010\.P2\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]] \|access\-date\= }} | {{partial\|Pop 2020}}{{Cite web\|title\=P2: Hispanic or Latino, and Not Hispanic or Latino by Race – 2020: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94\-171\) – El Cajon city, California \|url\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q\=p2\&g\=160XX00US0621712\&tid\=DECENNIALPL2020\.P2\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]] \|access\-date\= }} | % 2000 | % 2010 | {{partial\|% 2020}} | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | [White](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_or_Latino_whites "Non-Hispanic or Latino whites") alone (NH) | 61,188 | 56,462 |56,116 64\.50% | 56\.76% | 52\.83% | [Black or African American](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_or_Latino_African_Americans "Non-Hispanic or Latino African Americans") alone (NH) | 4,828 | 5,939 |6,664 5\.09% | 5\.97% | 6\.27% | [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States "Native Americans in the United States") or [Alaska Native](/wiki/Alaska_Native "Alaska Native") alone (NH) | 661 | 455 |328 0\.70% | 0\.46% | 0\.31% | [Asian](/wiki/Asian_Americans "Asian Americans") alone (NH) | 2,511 | 3,375 |5,006 2\.65% | 3\.39% | 4\.71% | [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_Americans "Pacific Islander Americans") alone (NH) | 331 | 440 |418 0\.35% | 0\.44% | 0\.39% | [Other Race](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census "Race and ethnicity in the United States census") alone (NH) | 181 | 261 |613 0\.19% | 0\.26% | 0\.58% | [Mixed race or Multiracial](/wiki/Multiracial_Americans "Multiracial Americans") (NH) | 3,856 | 4,510 |5,799 4\.06% | 4\.53% | 5\.46% | [Hispanic or Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans "Hispanic and Latino Americans") (any race) | 21,313 | 28,036 |31,271 22\.47% | 28\.18% | 29\.44% | **Total** | **94,869** | **99,478** |**106,215** **100\.00%** | **100\.00%** | **100\.00%** ### 2010 The [2010 United States Census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census "2010 United States Census") reported that El Cajon had a population of 99,478\. The [racial makeup](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)") of El Cajon was 43,746 (41\.6%) White, 6,306 (6\.3%) African American, 835 (0\.8%) Native American, 3,561 (3\.6%) Asian (1\.7% Filipino, 0\.5% Chinese, 0\.4% Vietnamese, 0\.2% Japanese, 0\.1% Indian, 0\.1% Korean, 0\.6% other), 495 (0\.5%) Pacific Islander, 26,498 (26\.6%) from other races, and 6,832 (6\.9%) from two or more races. There were 31,542 Hispanic or Latino residents of any race (30\.4%).{{USCensus2010CA}} About one\-third of El Cajon residents were foreign\-born. In particular, the city has a large Iraqi immigrant population, consisting of both [Arabs](/wiki/Arab_American "Arab American") and [Chaldean Catholics](/wiki/Chaldean_Catholics "Chaldean Catholics"); both groups are among the largest such communities in the country.{{cite web\|date\=September 28, 2010\|title\=El Cajon Sees Rise In Iraqi Refugee Population\|url\=http://www.10news.com/news/el\-cajon\-sees\-rise\-in\-iraqi\-refugee\-population\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722053007/http://www.10news.com/news/el\-cajon\-sees\-rise\-in\-iraqi\-refugee\-population\|archive\-date\=July 22, 2013\|access\-date\=May 4, 2021\|website\=\[\[ABC10 News]]}} According to the [U.S. Census Bureau](/wiki/U.S._Census_Bureau "U.S. Census Bureau") 2008\-2010 Estimate, 7,537 residents self identify as Arabs (7\.6%; mainly Iraqi), and 6,409 (6\.4%) are Chaldean Catholic [Assyrians](/wiki/Assyrian_People "Assyrian People"). In 2017, a spokesperson for the city of El Cajon estimated that 15,000 to 20,000 Chaldo\-Assyrians live in the city.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sd\-me\-readersrepnb\-0528\-story.html\|title\=Number of immigrants didn't seem correct for El Cajon \- The San Diego Union\-Tribune\|last\=Vore\|first\=Adrian\|date\=May 28, 2017\|work\=San Diego Union\-Tribune\|access\-date\=November 25, 2017}} In 2010, El Cajon had the highest poverty rate in San Diego County among adults, 29\.7%, and for children, 36\.5%. ### 2000 As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov \|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]] \|access\-date\=January 31, 2008 \|title\=U.S. Census website }} of 2000, 94,869 people, 34,199 households, and 23,152 families were residing in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|6510\.6\|PD/sqmi}}. There were 35,190 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|2415\.0\|/sqmi}}. The racial makeup of the city was 42\.9% White, 5\.4% African American, 1\.0% Native American, 2\.8% Asian, 0\.4% Pacific Islander, 24\.1% from other races], and 6\.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino residents of any race were 29\.2% of the population. Of the 34,199 households, 37\.0% had children under 18 living with them, 46\.0% were married couples living together, 16\.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32\.3% were not families. About 24\.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 2\.70, and the average family size was 3\.21\. In the city, the age distribution was 27\.9% under 18, 11\.2% from 18 to 24, 31\.3% from 25 to 44, 18\.3% from 45 to 64, and 11\.3% who were 65 or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 95\.2 males. For every 100 females 18 and over, there were 91\.4 males. The median income for a household in the city was $35,566, and for a family was $40,045\. Males had a median income of $32,498 versus $25,320 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $16,698\. About 13\.5% of families and 16\.7% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 23\.1% of those under age 18 and 9\.0% of those age 65 or over. ### Household income According to estimates by the [San Diego Association of Governments](/wiki/San_Diego_Association_of_Governments "San Diego Association of Governments"), the [median household income](/wiki/Median_household_income "Median household income") of El Cajon in 2005 was $47,885 (not adjusted for [inflation](/wiki/Inflation "Inflation")). When adjusted for inflation (1999 dollars; comparable to Census data above), the median household income was $38,884\. ### Ethnic groups {{As of\|2012}}, it had an estimated 40,000 [Iraqi Americans](/wiki/Iraqi_Americans "Iraqi Americans").{{cite magazine\|author\=Burleigh, Nina\|url\=http://ideas.time.com/2012/04/10/shaima\-alawadis\-murder\-a\-hate\-crime\-against\-women/\|title\=Shaima Alawadi's Murder: A Hate Crime Against Women?\|magazine\=\[\[Time (magazine)\|Time]]\|date\=April 10, 2012\|access\-date\=December 22, 2019}} Included are members of different [religious and ethnic groups originating from Iraq](/wiki/Demographics_of_Iraq "Demographics of Iraq"). The [Iran\-Iraq War](/wiki/Iran-Iraq_War "Iran-Iraq War") prompted the first immigration, and it continued due to the [Persian Gulf War](/wiki/Persian_Gulf_War "Persian Gulf War") and then the [U.S. Invasion of Iraq](/wiki/U.S._Invasion_of_Iraq "U.S. Invasion of Iraq") and the resulting conflict.{{cite web\|author\=Gupta, Arun\|url\=http://www.salon.com/2012/04/07/shaima\_alawadis\_murder\_hate\_crime\_or\_honor\_killing/\|title\=Shaima Alawadi's murder: Hate crime or honor killing? \|work\=\[\[Salon (magazine)\|Salon]]\|date\=April 7, 2012\|access\-date\=December 22, 2019}}
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|1920\\= 469\n\\|1930\\= 1050\n\\|1940\\= 1471\n\\|1950\\= 5600\n\\|1960\\= 37618\n\\|1970\\= 52273\n\\|1980\\= 73892\n\\|1990\\= 88693\n\\|2000\\= 94869\n\\|2010\\= 99478\n\\|2020\\= 106215\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2015 }}\n}}", "### 2022", "{{As of\\|2022\\|pre\\=the}} [American Community Survey](/wiki/American_Community_Survey \"American Community Survey\") estimates, there were {{formatnum:104417}} people and {{formatnum:33580}} households.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDP1Y2022\\.DP02?g\\=160XX00US0621712 \\| title\\= 2022 American Community Survey 1 Year Estimate: Selected Social Characteristics in the United States for El Cajon city, CA \\| access\\-date \\= 2024\\-06\\-20 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDP1Y2022\\.DP05?g\\=160XX00US0621712 \\| title\\= 2022 American Community Survey 1 Year Estimate: Demographic and Housing Estimates for El Cajon city, CA \\| access\\-date \\= 2024\\-06\\-20 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]}} The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|7196\\.2\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were {{formatnum:34370}} housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|2368\\.7\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}.To calculate density we use the land area figure from the places file in {{cite web\\| url\\=https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference\\-files/time\\-series/geo/gazetteer\\-files.html \\| title \\= The 2023 U.S. Gazetteer Files}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2022\\.B25001?g\\=160XX00US0621712 \\| title\\= 2022 American Community Survey 1 Year Estimate: Housing Units for El Cajon city, CA \\| access\\-date \\= 2024\\-06\\-20 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]}} The racial makeup of the city was 50\\.6% White, 15\\.0% some other race, 5\\.6% Black or African American, 3\\.4% Asian, 1\\.3% Native American or Alaskan Native, and 1\\.3% Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, with 22\\.8% from two or more races. [Hispanic or Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans \"Hispanic and Latino Americans\") residents of any race were 36\\.6% of the population.", "Of the {{formatnum:33580}} households, 34\\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 32\\.9% had seniors 65 years or older living with them, 52\\.4% were married couples living together, 4\\.8% were couples cohabitating, 16\\.8% had a male householder with no partner present, and 26\\.0% had a female householder with no partner present. The median household size was {{formatnum:3\\.00}} and the median family size was {{formatnum:3\\.53}}.", "The age distribution was 25\\.9% under 18, 8\\.1% from 18 to 24, 25\\.2% from 25 to 44, 25\\.6% from 45 to 64, and 15\\.3% who were 65 or older. The median age was {{formatnum:37\\.4}} years.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST1Y2022\\.S0101?g\\=160XX00US0621712 \\| title\\= 2022 American Community Survey 1 Year Estimate: Age and Sex for El Cajon city, CA \\| access\\-date \\= 2024\\-06\\-20 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]}} For every 100 females, there were {{formatnum:88\\.1}} males.", "The median income for a household was ${{formatnum:66045}}, with family households having a median income of ${{formatnum:72704}} and non\\-family households ${{formatnum:43584}}. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") was ${{formatnum:28221}}.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST1Y2022\\.S1901?g\\=160XX00US0621712 \\| title\\= 2022 American Community Survey 1 Year Estimate: Income in the Past 12 Months (in 2022 Inflation\\-Adjusted Dollars) for El Cajon city, CA \\| access\\-date \\= 2024\\-06\\-20 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST1Y2022\\.S1902?g\\=160XX00US0621712 \\| title\\= 2022 American Community Survey 1 Year Estimate: Mean Income in the Past 12 Months (in 2022 Inflation\\-Adjusted Dollars) for El Cajon city, CA \\| access\\-date \\= 2024\\-06\\-20 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]}} Out of the {{formatnum:102390}} people with a determined poverty status, 22\\.7% were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"). Further, 31\\.4% of minors and 17\\.3% of seniors were below the poverty line.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST1Y2022\\.S1701?g\\=160XX00US0621712 \\| title\\= 2022 American Community Survey 1 Year Estimate: Poverty Status in the Past 12 Months for El Cajon city, CA \\| access\\-date \\= 2024\\-06\\-20 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]}}", "In the survey, residents self\\-identified with various ethnic ancestries. People of [Arab](/wiki/Arab_American \"Arab American\") descent made up 10\\.3% of the population of the town, followed by [German](/wiki/German_American \"German American\") at 6\\.7%, [English](/wiki/English_American \"English American\") at 5\\.8%, [Irish](/wiki/Irish_American \"Irish American\") at 4\\.3%, [Italian](/wiki/Italian_American \"Italian American\") at 3\\.0%, [American](/wiki/American_ancestry \"American ancestry\") at 2\\.4%, [Sub\\-Saharan African](/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa \"Sub-Saharan Africa\") at 1\\.9%, [Polish](/wiki/Polish_American \"Polish American\") at 1\\.7%, [Norwegian](/wiki/Norwegian_American \"Norwegian American\") at 1\\.4%, [Swedish](/wiki/Swedish_American \"Swedish American\") at 1\\.0%, [French](/wiki/French_American \"French American\") at 0\\.9%, [Dutch](/wiki/Dutch_American \"Dutch American\") at 0\\.8%, [Hungarian](/wiki/Hungarian_American \"Hungarian American\") at 0\\.8%, [Scottish](/wiki/Scottish_American \"Scottish American\") at 0\\.6%, [Greek](/wiki/Greek_American \"Greek American\") at 0\\.5%, [Portuguese](/wiki/Portuguese_American \"Portuguese American\") at 0\\.5%, and [Czech](/wiki/Czech_American \"Czech American\") at 0\\.5%.", "### 2020 census", "", "| \\+**El Cajon city, California – Racial and ethnic composition**{{nobold\\|''Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos may be of any race.''}} | Race / Ethnicity (*NH \\= Non\\-Hispanic*) | Pop 2000{{Cite web\\|title\\=P004: Hispanic or Latino, and Not Hispanic or Latino by Race – 2000: DEC Summary File 1 – El Cajon city, California \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table?g\\=160XX00US0621712\\&tid\\=DECENNIALSF12000\\.P004\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]] \\|access\\-date\\= }} | Pop 2010{{Cite web\\|title\\=P2: Hispanic or Latino, and Not Hispanic or Latino by Race – 2010: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94\\-171\\) – El Cajon city, California \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q\\=p2\\&g\\=160XX00US0621712\\&tid\\=DECENNIALPL2010\\.P2\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]] \\|access\\-date\\= }} | {{partial\\|Pop 2020}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=P2: Hispanic or Latino, and Not Hispanic or Latino by Race – 2020: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94\\-171\\) – El Cajon city, California \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q\\=p2\\&g\\=160XX00US0621712\\&tid\\=DECENNIALPL2020\\.P2\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]] \\|access\\-date\\= }} | % 2000 | % 2010 | {{partial\\|% 2020}} |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [White](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_or_Latino_whites \"Non-Hispanic or Latino whites\") alone (NH) | 61,188 | 56,462 |56,116", "64\\.50% |\n 56\\.76% |\n52\\.83%", "| [Black or African American](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_or_Latino_African_Americans \"Non-Hispanic or Latino African Americans\") alone (NH) | 4,828 | 5,939 |6,664", "5\\.09% |\n 5\\.97% |\n6\\.27%", "| [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States \"Native Americans in the United States\") or [Alaska Native](/wiki/Alaska_Native \"Alaska Native\") alone (NH) | 661 | 455 |328", "0\\.70% |\n 0\\.46% |\n0\\.31%", "| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_Americans \"Asian Americans\") alone (NH) | 2,511 | 3,375 |5,006", "2\\.65% |\n 3\\.39% |\n4\\.71%", "| [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_Americans \"Pacific Islander Americans\") alone (NH) | 331 | 440 |418", "0\\.35% |\n 0\\.44% |\n0\\.39%", "| [Other Race](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census \"Race and ethnicity in the United States census\") alone (NH) | 181 | 261 |613", "0\\.19% |\n 0\\.26% |\n0\\.58%", "| [Mixed race or Multiracial](/wiki/Multiracial_Americans \"Multiracial Americans\") (NH) | 3,856 | 4,510 |5,799", "4\\.06% |\n 4\\.53% |\n5\\.46%", "| [Hispanic or Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans \"Hispanic and Latino Americans\") (any race) | 21,313 | 28,036 |31,271", "22\\.47% |\n 28\\.18% |\n29\\.44%", "| **Total** | **94,869** | **99,478** |**106,215**", "**100\\.00%** |\n **100\\.00%** |\n**100\\.00%**", "", "### 2010", "The [2010 United States Census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census \"2010 United States Census\") reported that El Cajon had a population of 99,478\\. The [racial makeup](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") of El Cajon was 43,746 (41\\.6%) White, 6,306 (6\\.3%) African American, 835 (0\\.8%) Native American, 3,561 (3\\.6%) Asian (1\\.7% Filipino, 0\\.5% Chinese, 0\\.4% Vietnamese, 0\\.2% Japanese, 0\\.1% Indian, 0\\.1% Korean, 0\\.6% other), 495 (0\\.5%) Pacific Islander, 26,498 (26\\.6%) from other races, and 6,832 (6\\.9%) from two or more races. There were 31,542 Hispanic or Latino residents of any race (30\\.4%).{{USCensus2010CA}}", "About one\\-third of El Cajon residents were foreign\\-born. In particular, the city has a large Iraqi immigrant population, consisting of both [Arabs](/wiki/Arab_American \"Arab American\") and [Chaldean Catholics](/wiki/Chaldean_Catholics \"Chaldean Catholics\"); both groups are among the largest such communities in the country.{{cite web\\|date\\=September 28, 2010\\|title\\=El Cajon Sees Rise In Iraqi Refugee Population\\|url\\=http://www.10news.com/news/el\\-cajon\\-sees\\-rise\\-in\\-iraqi\\-refugee\\-population\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722053007/http://www.10news.com/news/el\\-cajon\\-sees\\-rise\\-in\\-iraqi\\-refugee\\-population\\|archive\\-date\\=July 22, 2013\\|access\\-date\\=May 4, 2021\\|website\\=\\[\\[ABC10 News]]}}\nAccording to the [U.S. Census Bureau](/wiki/U.S._Census_Bureau \"U.S. Census Bureau\") 2008\\-2010 Estimate, 7,537 residents self identify as Arabs (7\\.6%; mainly Iraqi), and 6,409 (6\\.4%) are Chaldean Catholic [Assyrians](/wiki/Assyrian_People \"Assyrian People\"). In 2017, a spokesperson for the city of El Cajon estimated that 15,000 to 20,000 Chaldo\\-Assyrians live in the city.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sd\\-me\\-readersrepnb\\-0528\\-story.html\\|title\\=Number of immigrants didn't seem correct for El Cajon \\- The San Diego Union\\-Tribune\\|last\\=Vore\\|first\\=Adrian\\|date\\=May 28, 2017\\|work\\=San Diego Union\\-Tribune\\|access\\-date\\=November 25, 2017}}", "In 2010, El Cajon had the highest poverty rate in San Diego County among adults, 29\\.7%, and for children, 36\\.5%.", "### 2000", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]] \\|access\\-date\\=January 31, 2008 \\|title\\=U.S. Census website }} of 2000, 94,869 people, 34,199 households, and 23,152 families were residing in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|6510\\.6\\|PD/sqmi}}. There were 35,190 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|2415\\.0\\|/sqmi}}. The racial makeup of the city was 42\\.9% White, 5\\.4% African American, 1\\.0% Native American, 2\\.8% Asian, 0\\.4% Pacific Islander, 24\\.1% from other races], and 6\\.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino residents of any race were 29\\.2% of the population.", "Of the 34,199 households, 37\\.0% had children under 18 living with them, 46\\.0% were married couples living together, 16\\.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32\\.3% were not families. About 24\\.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8\\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 2\\.70, and the average family size was 3\\.21\\.", "In the city, the age distribution was 27\\.9% under 18, 11\\.2% from 18 to 24, 31\\.3% from 25 to 44, 18\\.3% from 45 to 64, and 11\\.3% who were 65 or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 95\\.2 males. For every 100 females 18 and over, there were 91\\.4 males.", "The median income for a household in the city was $35,566, and for a family was $40,045\\. Males had a median income of $32,498 versus $25,320 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $16,698\\. About 13\\.5% of families and 16\\.7% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 23\\.1% of those under age 18 and 9\\.0% of those age 65 or over.", "### Household income", "According to estimates by the [San Diego Association of Governments](/wiki/San_Diego_Association_of_Governments \"San Diego Association of Governments\"), the [median household income](/wiki/Median_household_income \"Median household income\") of El Cajon in 2005 was $47,885 (not adjusted for [inflation](/wiki/Inflation \"Inflation\")). When adjusted for inflation (1999 dollars; comparable to Census data above), the median household income was $38,884\\.", "### Ethnic groups", "{{As of\\|2012}}, it had an estimated 40,000 [Iraqi Americans](/wiki/Iraqi_Americans \"Iraqi Americans\").{{cite magazine\\|author\\=Burleigh, Nina\\|url\\=http://ideas.time.com/2012/04/10/shaima\\-alawadis\\-murder\\-a\\-hate\\-crime\\-against\\-women/\\|title\\=Shaima Alawadi's Murder: A Hate Crime Against Women?\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Time (magazine)\\|Time]]\\|date\\=April 10, 2012\\|access\\-date\\=December 22, 2019}} Included are members of different [religious and ethnic groups originating from Iraq](/wiki/Demographics_of_Iraq \"Demographics of Iraq\"). The [Iran\\-Iraq War](/wiki/Iran-Iraq_War \"Iran-Iraq War\") prompted the first immigration, and it continued due to the [Persian Gulf War](/wiki/Persian_Gulf_War \"Persian Gulf War\") and then the [U.S. Invasion of Iraq](/wiki/U.S._Invasion_of_Iraq \"U.S. Invasion of Iraq\") and the resulting conflict.{{cite web\\|author\\=Gupta, Arun\\|url\\=http://www.salon.com/2012/04/07/shaima\\_alawadis\\_murder\\_hate\\_crime\\_or\\_honor\\_killing/\\|title\\=Shaima Alawadi's murder: Hate crime or honor killing? \\|work\\=\\[\\[Salon (magazine)\\|Salon]]\\|date\\=April 7, 2012\\|access\\-date\\=December 22, 2019}}", "" ]
Design and equipment -------------------- The Opirus' styling — described variously as conservative,{{cite web \|title \= 2005 Kia Amanti Road Test \|publisher \= Driving \|author \= Paul Williams \|date \= August 10, 2011 \|url \= https://driving.ca/kia/amanti/reviews/road\-test/road\-test\-2004\-kia\-amanti\-2}} neo\-classic, restrained, unoriginal and derivative — drew cues from disparate sources, notably the [Mercedes\-Benz E\-class](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_E-Class_%28W211%29 "Mercedes-Benz E-Class (W211)"), [Lincoln Town Car](/wiki/Lincoln_Town_Car "Lincoln Town Car"), [Jaguar S\-Type](/wiki/Jaguar_S-Type_%281999%29 "Jaguar S-Type (1999)"), [Lexus GS](/wiki/Lexus_GS%23Second_generation_%28S160%3B_1997%29 "Lexus GS#Second generation (S160; 1997)"), [Chrysler 300C](/wiki/Chrysler_300%23First_generation_%282005%E2%80%932010%29 "Chrysler 300#First generation (2005–2010)"), and [Lancia Thesis](/wiki/Lancia_Thesis "Lancia Thesis").{{cite web \|title \= 2004 KIA AMANTI PREVIEW \|date \= 19 May 2003 \|publisher \= Auto123\.com \|quote \= The Kia also pulls styling cues from a wide variety of premium products, the Mercedes\-Benz E\-Class and Europe's Lancia Thesis being the most obvious. But all said it combines them into a unique design, focusing in on its distinctive grille. \|url \= https://www.auto123\.com/en/news/2004\-kia\-amanti\-preview/43625/?page\=2}} In the Korean Domestic Market, interior features included available heated and reclining rear seats,{{cite web \|title \= 2004 Kia Amanti Road Test \|publisher \= Car and Driver \|author \= AARON ROBINSON \|date \= March 1, 2004 \|url \= https://www.wsj.com/public/article\_print/SB110194232087888545\.html}} high\-intensity\-discharge headlights, navigation system, electro\-luminescent gauges, ignition immobilizer, reverse parking sensors and electronically adjustable suspension settings. In North America, the sedan was marketed to value\-sensitive 40\-to\-60\-year\-old professionals with standard equipment at introduction including manually tilting leather\-wrapped, four\-spoke steering wheel with faux woodgrain inserts and remote audio and cruise controls; faux wood grain dash, console and door accents (lighter prior to the 2007 facelift, darker thereafter); power locks and windows; CD player with six speakers; electronic driver\- and passenger\-adjustable climate control; front, curtain and side airbags; dual zone automatic climate control; keyless entry; herring bone cloth interior; glove\-box only key; elongated LED turn\-signals; rain\-sensing windshield wipers; analog clock; foot\-operated parking brake (releasable by a dash\-mounted pull\-handle); power moonroof; 16" alloy wheels; full\-size spare on an alloy wheel; and an eight\-way powered driver's bucket seat and four\-way passenger bucket seat with door\-mounted adjustment controls using a "mock\-seat" ergonomic design. The interior received heavy acoustic insulation,{{cite web \|title \= Road test: 2005 Kia Amanti \|publisher \= Topspeed \|author \= Paul Williams \|date \= August 10, 2011 \|url \= https://www.topspeed.com/cars/kia/2006\-kia\-amanti\-opirus\-ar4148\.html}} and later models included heated rear seats, and electro\-luminescent instrument lighting. European models include two [ISOFIX](/wiki/ISOFIX "ISOFIX") anchorage points. Options included leather interior, 270\-watt Infinity stereo with subwoofer and six\-disc changer,{{cite web \|title \= Kia Amanti Episode 2334 \|publisher \= Motorweek \|url \= https://www.motorweek.org/reviews/road\_tests/2004\_kia\_amanti\_program\_2334}} dashboard LCD screen, trip computer with 4" LCD screen, heated seats, Adjustable pedals, auto\-dimming rearview mirror, and pearl coat paint. Safety equipment included eight airbags, and obstruction\-sensing, anti\-pinch power windows. The Opirus offered a passenger volume of 105\.6 cubic feet{{cite web \|title \= 2006 Kia Amanti (Opirus) \|date \= 29 March 2006 \|publisher \= Topspeed \|url \= https://www.topspeed.com/cars/kia/2006\-kia\-amanti\-opirus\-ar4148\.html}} and a 15\.5 cubic foot cargo volume — the trunk equipped with a gas strut\-assisted lid and luggage restraining net. In North America, [J.D. Power and Associates](/wiki/J.D._Power_and_Associates "J.D. Power and Associates") recognized the Amanti as the "Most Appealing Premium Midsize Car" in its 2005 Automotive Performance, Execution and Layout Study.
[ "Design and equipment\n--------------------", "The Opirus' styling — described variously as conservative,{{cite web\n \\|title \\= 2005 Kia Amanti Road Test\n \\|publisher \\= Driving\n \\|author \\= Paul Williams\n \\|date \\= August 10, 2011\n \\|url \\= https://driving.ca/kia/amanti/reviews/road\\-test/road\\-test\\-2004\\-kia\\-amanti\\-2}} neo\\-classic, restrained, unoriginal and derivative — drew cues from disparate sources, notably the [Mercedes\\-Benz E\\-class](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_E-Class_%28W211%29 \"Mercedes-Benz E-Class (W211)\"), [Lincoln Town Car](/wiki/Lincoln_Town_Car \"Lincoln Town Car\"), [Jaguar S\\-Type](/wiki/Jaguar_S-Type_%281999%29 \"Jaguar S-Type (1999)\"), [Lexus GS](/wiki/Lexus_GS%23Second_generation_%28S160%3B_1997%29 \"Lexus GS#Second generation (S160; 1997)\"), [Chrysler 300C](/wiki/Chrysler_300%23First_generation_%282005%E2%80%932010%29 \"Chrysler 300#First generation (2005–2010)\"), and [Lancia Thesis](/wiki/Lancia_Thesis \"Lancia Thesis\").{{cite web\n \\|title \\= 2004 KIA AMANTI PREVIEW\n \\|date \\= 19 May 2003\n \\|publisher \\= Auto123\\.com\n \\|quote \\= The Kia also pulls styling cues from a wide variety of premium products, the Mercedes\\-Benz E\\-Class and Europe's Lancia Thesis being the most obvious. But all said it combines them into a unique design, focusing in on its distinctive grille.\n \\|url \\= https://www.auto123\\.com/en/news/2004\\-kia\\-amanti\\-preview/43625/?page\\=2}}", "In the Korean Domestic Market, interior features included available heated and reclining rear seats,{{cite web\n \\|title \\= 2004 Kia Amanti Road Test\n \\|publisher \\= Car and Driver\n \\|author \\= AARON ROBINSON\n \\|date \\= March 1, 2004\n \\|url \\= https://www.wsj.com/public/article\\_print/SB110194232087888545\\.html}} high\\-intensity\\-discharge headlights, navigation system, electro\\-luminescent gauges, ignition immobilizer, reverse parking sensors and electronically adjustable suspension settings.", "In North America, the sedan was marketed to value\\-sensitive 40\\-to\\-60\\-year\\-old professionals with standard equipment at introduction including manually tilting leather\\-wrapped, four\\-spoke steering wheel with faux woodgrain inserts and remote audio and cruise controls; faux wood grain dash, console and door accents (lighter prior to the 2007 facelift, darker thereafter); power locks and windows; CD player with six speakers; electronic driver\\- and passenger\\-adjustable climate control; front, curtain and side airbags; dual zone automatic climate control; keyless entry; herring bone cloth interior; glove\\-box only key; elongated LED turn\\-signals; rain\\-sensing windshield wipers; analog clock; foot\\-operated parking brake (releasable by a dash\\-mounted pull\\-handle); power moonroof; 16\" alloy wheels; full\\-size spare on an alloy wheel; and an eight\\-way powered driver's bucket seat and four\\-way passenger bucket seat with door\\-mounted adjustment controls using a \"mock\\-seat\" ergonomic design. The interior received heavy acoustic insulation,{{cite web\n \\|title \\= Road test: 2005 Kia Amanti\n \\|publisher \\= Topspeed\n \\|author \\= Paul Williams\n \\|date \\= August 10, 2011\n \\|url \\= https://www.topspeed.com/cars/kia/2006\\-kia\\-amanti\\-opirus\\-ar4148\\.html}} and later models included heated rear seats, and electro\\-luminescent instrument lighting. European models include two [ISOFIX](/wiki/ISOFIX \"ISOFIX\") anchorage points.", "Options included leather interior, 270\\-watt Infinity stereo with subwoofer and six\\-disc changer,{{cite web\n \\|title \\= Kia Amanti Episode 2334\n \\|publisher \\= Motorweek\n \\|url \\= https://www.motorweek.org/reviews/road\\_tests/2004\\_kia\\_amanti\\_program\\_2334}} dashboard LCD screen, trip computer with 4\" LCD screen, heated seats, Adjustable pedals, auto\\-dimming rearview mirror, and pearl coat paint. Safety equipment included eight airbags, and obstruction\\-sensing, anti\\-pinch power windows.", "The Opirus offered a passenger volume of 105\\.6 cubic feet{{cite web\n \\|title \\= 2006 Kia Amanti (Opirus) \n \\|date \\= 29 March 2006\n \\|publisher \\= Topspeed\n \\|url \\= https://www.topspeed.com/cars/kia/2006\\-kia\\-amanti\\-opirus\\-ar4148\\.html}} and a 15\\.5 cubic foot cargo volume — the trunk equipped with a gas strut\\-assisted lid and luggage restraining net.", "In North America, [J.D. Power and Associates](/wiki/J.D._Power_and_Associates \"J.D. Power and Associates\") recognized the Amanti as the \"Most Appealing Premium Midsize Car\" in its 2005 Automotive Performance, Execution and Layout Study.", "" ]
History ------- The club can trace its roots back to the final years of the 19th century in which two pre\-existing rival clubs amalgamated to form the Tamil Union Cricket and Athletic Club. The club's embryonic years benefited from its stewardship by some of the country's most eminent Tamil Lawyers, Politicians and Civil Servants (see below). The first of these clubs was known as the Lanka Sports Club, which was established in 1895 had its base in Price Park.The Sunday observer URL\=[http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2006/08/06/spo05\.asp](https://archives.sundayobserver.lk/2006/08/06/spo05.asp) In 1898, the first available mention of office bearers lists D. Muthuswamy (president), G. N. C. Ponnambalam (secretary), future [Speaker of the Parliament of Sri Lanka](/wiki/Speaker_of_the_Parliament_of_Sri_Lanka "Speaker of the Parliament of Sri Lanka") Sir [Waithilingam Duraiswamy](/wiki/Waithilingam_Duraiswamy "Waithilingam Duraiswamy") (club Captain) as the club committee. Duraiswamy would later hold the position of President (1937–48\) while G.N.C Ponnambalam that of Captain (1905\) in the amalgamated Tamil Union and Athletic Club.Tamil Union Cricket and Athletic Club Records, url\= [http://www.tamilunioncricket.com/index.php/2013\-03\-01\-05\-03\-10](http://www.tamilunioncricket.com/index.php/2013-03-01-05-03-10) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625193834/http://www.tamilunioncricket.com/index.php/2013\-03\-01\-05\-03\-10 \|date\=25 June 2020 }} A second Tamil sports club was established in March 1899, in a meeting that was called with the objective of organising a second Tamil Sports Club in Colombo. This meeting was duly held at the City College Hall and presided over by the Hon. [P. Coomaraswamy](/wiki/P._Coomaraswamy "P. Coomaraswamy"), former Member of the [Legislative Council of Ceylon](/wiki/Legislative_Council_of_Ceylon "Legislative Council of Ceylon") (forerunner of the [Parliament of Sri Lanka](/wiki/Parliament_of_Sri_Lanka "Parliament of Sri Lanka")). During the meeting the club elected its governing committee, which included Sir [Ponnambalam Arunachalam](/wiki/Ponnambalam_Arunachalam "Ponnambalam Arunachalam") member of the [Legislative Council of Ceylon](/wiki/Legislative_Council_of_Ceylon "Legislative Council of Ceylon"), Mr T Muttu Coomaraswamy, Mr A. E. Strong and Mr E. Sellayah."Around the Town (Tatler)", *Times of Ceylon*, 5 February 1940 Sir Ponnambalam's elder brother Sir [Ponnambalam Ramanathan](/wiki/Ponnambalam_Ramanathan "Ponnambalam Ramanathan"), former [Solicitor General of Sri Lanka](/wiki/Solicitor_General_of_Sri_Lanka "Solicitor General of Sri Lanka") later became President of the amalgamated Tamil Union Cricket and Athletic Club and was followed by Dr. E. V. Ratnam 1931–1937 while Mr E. Sellayah's eldest son (W.M.) Sri Lanka's first full\-time Registrar of Companies, later became Honorary General Secretary, while another son (L.W.) went on to captain the Tamil Union Cricket and Athletic Club and All\-Ceylon teams in hockey and later served as a national administrator.The Sunday Observer/ url\=[http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2014/09/28/spo10\.asp](https://archives.sundayobserver.lk/2014/09/28/spo10.asp) *Times of Ceylon*, Feb 1937{{full citation needed\|date\=October 2018}} By the end of 1899, the two rival Tamil clubs were persuaded to join forces, which resulted in the creation of the Tamil Union Cricket and Athletic Club, with T. Thirunavakarasu and Dr [John Rockwood](/wiki/John_Rockwood "John Rockwood"), the son of the eminent surgeon and member of the [Legislative Council of Ceylon](/wiki/Legislative_Council_of_Ceylon "Legislative Council of Ceylon"), Dr [W. G. Rockwood](/wiki/W._G._Rockwood "W. G. Rockwood") serving as the first President and Honorary General Secretary, respectively. The sports grounds were based at Campbell Park in [Borella](/wiki/Borella "Borella") wherein many sports were played including [hockey](/wiki/Field_hockey "Field hockey"), [cricket](/wiki/Cricket "Cricket"), and [athletics](/wiki/Sport_of_athletics "Sport of athletics"). In fact, for several decades between the 1930s and 1960s the Tamil Union Cricket and Athletic Club were one of the premier hockey clubs in the country and won many National tournaments including the Andriesz Shield and Pioneer Cup. This coincided with a time in which Sri Lankan hockey could compete ably with the best teams in the world.{{Cite web \|url\=https://archives.sundayobserver.lk/2014/09/28/spo10\.asp \|title\=Sri Lanka hockey humiliated at Asian Games \|access\-date\=28 September 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929054213/http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2014/09/28/spo10\.asp \|archive\-date\=29 September 2015 \|url\-status\=live }} Since then, however, the hockey fortunes of both the club and National team have declined considerably, possibly due to the increasing popularity and financial resources aimed at the country's cricketing success. [Krishna Raja Wadiyar IV](/wiki/Krishna_Raja_Wadiyar_IV "Krishna Raja Wadiyar IV"), the [Maharaja](/wiki/Maharaja "Maharaja") of [Mysore Kingdom](/wiki/Mysore_Kingdom "Mysore Kingdom") in India was the first patron of the Tamil Union and served between 1923 and his death in 1940\.{{Cite web \|title\=Krishna Raja Wadiyar \- Patron of Tamil Union \|url\=https://x.com/dp\_satish/status/1268386215121707008?lang\=en}} In 1935, the club celebrated its 35th anniversary in grand style with a carnival and sports meet that culminated in a garden party at Campbell Park. This was one of the last major events held by the Club on these grounds before relocation. The occasion was a great success and well attended by patrons, politicians, sportsmen and businessmen.Ceylon Daily News 1935 In 1937, the club acquired its new grounds and pavilion named the Colombo Oval, later renamed the [Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu Stadium](/wiki/Paikiasothy_Saravanamuttu_Stadium "Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu Stadium") in honour of its Club stalwart for his tireless efforts in convince the Government to donate the grounds to the club. His Excellency Sir [Reginald Edward Stubbs](/wiki/Reginald_Edward_Stubbs "Reginald Edward Stubbs"), the Governor of Ceylon officially opened the Colombo Oval on 27 January 1940\.Times of Ceylon 28 January 1940 In the intervening years, [Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu](/wiki/Paikiasothy_Saravanamuttu "Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu") was instrumental in preparing the grounds to the standard of first class cricket, cultivating a superb playing area out of land that resembled a marshy swamp, with the kind assistance of the Minister of Agriculture and Lands, Mr [D.S. Senanayake](/wiki/D.S._Senanayake "D.S. Senanayake") (later the first [Prime Minister of Sri Lanka](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Sri_Lanka "Prime Minister of Sri Lanka")). For his efforts, Mr Senanayake was named an honorary member of the Tamil Union.psara Beginning in the 1960s, under the leadership of Somasunderam Skandakumar and Selva Perumal the club began to expand its base of cricketing talent by looking further afield than Colombo. This strategy paid dividends as the club soon began to nurture several young talents (many from extremely humble backgrounds) into international cricketers, including [Upul Chandana](/wiki/Upul_Chandana "Upul Chandana"). Perhaps the most illustrious international cricketer the club has produced is the leading wicket taker in international cricket history, [Muttiah Muralitharan](/wiki/Muttiah_Muralitharan "Muttiah Muralitharan") who amassed 800 Test wickets in 133 matches for Sri Lanka.Cricinfo profile url\=[http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/49636\.html](http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/49636.html) Other notable players include former Sri Lankan Captain [Tillakaratne Dilshan](/wiki/Tillakaratne_Dilshan "Tillakaratne Dilshan") one of the all\-time greats of Sri Lankan cricket, [Mahadevan Sathasivam](/wiki/Mahadevan_Sathasivam "Mahadevan Sathasivam") who captained the Tamil Union when it was first granted [First\-class cricket](/wiki/First-class_cricket "First-class cricket") status and lead All\-Ceylon in the 1940s before emigrating to Singapore to Captain its National Cricket Team, and [Rangana Herath](/wiki/First-class_matches "First-class matches") a world\-class [Spin bowler](/wiki/Spin_bowler "Spin bowler"). Current Club captain is [Chanaka Welegedara](/wiki/Chanaka_Welegedara "Chanaka Welegedara") who has played 21 Test matches for Sri Lanka. In 1981, Sri Lanka gained full member status of the [International Cricket Council](/wiki/International_Cricket_Council "International Cricket Council") (ICC) and shortly thereafter played its first Test match at the headquarters of the Tamil Union, by this time renamed [Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu Stadium](/wiki/Paikiasothy_Saravanamuttu_Stadium "Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu Stadium"). Mr T. Murugaser and [Mr C. T. A. Schaffter](/wiki/Chandra_Schaffter "Chandra Schaffter") were highly praised for their efforts in ensuring the occasion was a resounding success. Tragedy was to strike barely two years later, however, when the Oval was burned down during the 1983 riots during [Black July](/wiki/Black_July "Black July"). In spite of this the club was still able to host regular international cricket, including Sri Lanka's first ever Test match triumph over India in 1985\. From the mid\-1990s the P. Saravanamuttu Oval saw a hiatus of International cricket due to expansive renovations and improvements in facilities at the ground. The new developments include a state of the art media centre, gym, pool, players dressing area, bar and lounge as well as new two\- tiered stands named for prominent members of the club, Dr Ranjan Chanmugam, M.Sathasivam and [Sathi Coomaraswamy](/wiki/Sathi_Coomaraswamy "Sathi Coomaraswamy"), an All\-Ceylon cricketer and son of [C. Coomaraswamy](/wiki/C._Coomaraswamy "C. Coomaraswamy"), [Sri Lankan High Commissioner to India](/wiki/Sri_Lankan_High_Commissioner_to_India "Sri Lankan High Commissioner to India"). These facilities and the club's history, together with the successes of its cricket team (regularly winning BCCSL national tournaments) in recent years maintain the club's status as one of the foremost sports clubs in the country. Since its inception, the Tamil Union Cricket and Athletic club would go on to have strong ties with the various governing bodies of national sport. For instance, Dr John Rockwood, the first honorary general secretary of the club also became the first president of the Ceylon Cricket Association. [Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu](/wiki/Paikiasothy_Saravanamuttu "Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu"), club president (1948–51\) whose family were instrumental to the club's successes for several decades, was president of both the Ceylon Cricket Association and its successor the Board of Control for Cricket (1948–1950\). W.M. Sellayah, honorary general secretary of the club (1932–36\) also held the same position with the Ceylon Hockey Association and Ceylon Cricket Association. CTA Schafter a club captain and double international (played hockey and cricket) went on to be manager of the Sri Lankan Cricket team in the new millennium. In the 1980s, T. Murugaser, club president (1980–81\) also held the vice presidency of the Board of Control for Cricket. Thus, the club has contributed a great deal to the administration of sport in Sri Lanka over the years.
[ "History\n-------", "The club can trace its roots back to the final years of the 19th century in which two pre\\-existing rival clubs amalgamated to form the Tamil Union Cricket and Athletic Club. The club's embryonic years benefited from its stewardship by some of the country's most eminent Tamil Lawyers, Politicians and Civil Servants (see below). The first of these clubs was known as the Lanka Sports Club, which was established in 1895 had its base in Price Park.The Sunday observer URL\\=[http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2006/08/06/spo05\\.asp](https://archives.sundayobserver.lk/2006/08/06/spo05.asp) In 1898, the first available mention of office bearers lists D. Muthuswamy (president), G. N. C. Ponnambalam (secretary), future [Speaker of the Parliament of Sri Lanka](/wiki/Speaker_of_the_Parliament_of_Sri_Lanka \"Speaker of the Parliament of Sri Lanka\") Sir [Waithilingam Duraiswamy](/wiki/Waithilingam_Duraiswamy \"Waithilingam Duraiswamy\") (club Captain) as the club committee. Duraiswamy would later hold the position of President (1937–48\\) while G.N.C Ponnambalam that of Captain (1905\\) in the amalgamated Tamil Union and Athletic Club.Tamil Union Cricket and Athletic Club Records, url\\= [http://www.tamilunioncricket.com/index.php/2013\\-03\\-01\\-05\\-03\\-10](http://www.tamilunioncricket.com/index.php/2013-03-01-05-03-10) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625193834/http://www.tamilunioncricket.com/index.php/2013\\-03\\-01\\-05\\-03\\-10 \\|date\\=25 June 2020 }} A second Tamil sports club was established in March 1899, in a meeting that was called with the objective of organising a second Tamil Sports Club in Colombo. This meeting was duly held at the City College Hall and presided over by the Hon. [P. Coomaraswamy](/wiki/P._Coomaraswamy \"P. Coomaraswamy\"), former Member of the [Legislative Council of Ceylon](/wiki/Legislative_Council_of_Ceylon \"Legislative Council of Ceylon\") (forerunner of the [Parliament of Sri Lanka](/wiki/Parliament_of_Sri_Lanka \"Parliament of Sri Lanka\")). During the meeting the club elected its governing committee, which included Sir [Ponnambalam Arunachalam](/wiki/Ponnambalam_Arunachalam \"Ponnambalam Arunachalam\") member of the [Legislative Council of Ceylon](/wiki/Legislative_Council_of_Ceylon \"Legislative Council of Ceylon\"), Mr T Muttu Coomaraswamy, Mr A. E. Strong and Mr E. Sellayah.\"Around the Town (Tatler)\", *Times of Ceylon*, 5 February 1940 Sir Ponnambalam's elder brother Sir [Ponnambalam Ramanathan](/wiki/Ponnambalam_Ramanathan \"Ponnambalam Ramanathan\"), former [Solicitor General of Sri Lanka](/wiki/Solicitor_General_of_Sri_Lanka \"Solicitor General of Sri Lanka\") later became President of the amalgamated Tamil Union Cricket and Athletic Club and was followed by Dr. E. V. Ratnam 1931–1937 while Mr E. Sellayah's eldest son (W.M.) Sri Lanka's first full\\-time Registrar of Companies, later became Honorary General Secretary, while another son (L.W.) went on to captain the Tamil Union Cricket and Athletic Club and All\\-Ceylon teams in hockey and later served as a national administrator.The Sunday Observer/ url\\=[http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2014/09/28/spo10\\.asp](https://archives.sundayobserver.lk/2014/09/28/spo10.asp) *Times of Ceylon*, Feb 1937{{full citation needed\\|date\\=October 2018}}", "By the end of 1899, the two rival Tamil clubs were persuaded to join forces, which resulted in the creation of the Tamil Union Cricket and Athletic Club, with T. Thirunavakarasu and Dr [John Rockwood](/wiki/John_Rockwood \"John Rockwood\"), the son of the eminent surgeon and member of the [Legislative Council of Ceylon](/wiki/Legislative_Council_of_Ceylon \"Legislative Council of Ceylon\"), Dr [W. G. Rockwood](/wiki/W._G._Rockwood \"W. G. Rockwood\") serving as the first President and Honorary General Secretary, respectively. The sports grounds were based at Campbell Park in [Borella](/wiki/Borella \"Borella\") wherein many sports were played including [hockey](/wiki/Field_hockey \"Field hockey\"), [cricket](/wiki/Cricket \"Cricket\"), and [athletics](/wiki/Sport_of_athletics \"Sport of athletics\"). In fact, for several decades between the 1930s and 1960s the Tamil Union Cricket and Athletic Club were one of the premier hockey clubs in the country and won many National tournaments including the Andriesz Shield and Pioneer Cup. This coincided with a time in which Sri Lankan hockey could compete ably with the best teams in the world.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://archives.sundayobserver.lk/2014/09/28/spo10\\.asp \\|title\\=Sri Lanka hockey humiliated at Asian Games \\|access\\-date\\=28 September 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929054213/http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2014/09/28/spo10\\.asp \\|archive\\-date\\=29 September 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Since then, however, the hockey fortunes of both the club and National team have declined considerably, possibly due to the increasing popularity and financial resources aimed at the country's cricketing success.", "[Krishna Raja Wadiyar IV](/wiki/Krishna_Raja_Wadiyar_IV \"Krishna Raja Wadiyar IV\"), the [Maharaja](/wiki/Maharaja \"Maharaja\") of [Mysore Kingdom](/wiki/Mysore_Kingdom \"Mysore Kingdom\") in India was the first patron of the Tamil Union and served between 1923 and his death in 1940\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Krishna Raja Wadiyar \\- Patron of Tamil Union \\|url\\=https://x.com/dp\\_satish/status/1268386215121707008?lang\\=en}}", "In 1935, the club celebrated its 35th anniversary in grand style with a carnival and sports meet that culminated in a garden party at Campbell Park. This was one of the last major events held by the Club on these grounds before relocation. The occasion was a great success and well attended by patrons, politicians, sportsmen and businessmen.Ceylon Daily News 1935 In 1937, the club acquired its new grounds and pavilion named the Colombo Oval, later renamed the [Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu Stadium](/wiki/Paikiasothy_Saravanamuttu_Stadium \"Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu Stadium\") in honour of its Club stalwart for his tireless efforts in convince the Government to donate the grounds to the club. His Excellency Sir [Reginald Edward Stubbs](/wiki/Reginald_Edward_Stubbs \"Reginald Edward Stubbs\"), the Governor of Ceylon officially opened the Colombo Oval on 27 January 1940\\.Times of Ceylon 28 January 1940 In the intervening years, [Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu](/wiki/Paikiasothy_Saravanamuttu \"Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu\") was instrumental in preparing the grounds to the standard of first class cricket, cultivating a superb playing area out of land that resembled a marshy swamp, with the kind assistance of the Minister of Agriculture and Lands, Mr [D.S. Senanayake](/wiki/D.S._Senanayake \"D.S. Senanayake\") (later the first [Prime Minister of Sri Lanka](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Sri_Lanka \"Prime Minister of Sri Lanka\")). For his efforts, Mr Senanayake was named an honorary member of the Tamil Union.psara", "Beginning in the 1960s, under the leadership of Somasunderam Skandakumar and Selva Perumal the club began to expand its base of cricketing talent by looking further afield than Colombo. This strategy paid dividends as the club soon began to nurture several young talents (many from extremely humble backgrounds) into international cricketers, including [Upul Chandana](/wiki/Upul_Chandana \"Upul Chandana\"). Perhaps the most illustrious international cricketer the club has produced is the leading wicket taker in international cricket history, [Muttiah Muralitharan](/wiki/Muttiah_Muralitharan \"Muttiah Muralitharan\") who amassed 800 Test wickets in 133 matches for Sri Lanka.Cricinfo profile url\\=[http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/49636\\.html](http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/49636.html) Other notable players include former Sri Lankan Captain [Tillakaratne Dilshan](/wiki/Tillakaratne_Dilshan \"Tillakaratne Dilshan\") one of the all\\-time greats of Sri Lankan cricket, [Mahadevan Sathasivam](/wiki/Mahadevan_Sathasivam \"Mahadevan Sathasivam\") who captained the Tamil Union when it was first granted [First\\-class cricket](/wiki/First-class_cricket \"First-class cricket\") status and lead All\\-Ceylon in the 1940s before emigrating to Singapore to Captain its National Cricket Team, and [Rangana Herath](/wiki/First-class_matches \"First-class matches\") a world\\-class [Spin bowler](/wiki/Spin_bowler \"Spin bowler\"). Current Club captain is [Chanaka Welegedara](/wiki/Chanaka_Welegedara \"Chanaka Welegedara\") who has played 21 Test matches for Sri Lanka.", "In 1981, Sri Lanka gained full member status of the [International Cricket Council](/wiki/International_Cricket_Council \"International Cricket Council\") (ICC) and shortly thereafter played its first Test match at the headquarters of the Tamil Union, by this time renamed [Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu Stadium](/wiki/Paikiasothy_Saravanamuttu_Stadium \"Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu Stadium\"). Mr T. Murugaser and [Mr C. T. A. Schaffter](/wiki/Chandra_Schaffter \"Chandra Schaffter\") were highly praised for their efforts in ensuring the occasion was a resounding success. Tragedy was to strike barely two years later, however, when the Oval was burned down during the 1983 riots during [Black July](/wiki/Black_July \"Black July\"). In spite of this the club was still able to host regular international cricket, including Sri Lanka's first ever Test match triumph over India in 1985\\.", "From the mid\\-1990s the P. Saravanamuttu Oval saw a hiatus of International cricket due to expansive renovations and improvements in facilities at the ground. The new developments include a state of the art media centre, gym, pool, players dressing area, bar and lounge as well as new two\\- tiered stands named for prominent members of the club, Dr Ranjan Chanmugam, M.Sathasivam and [Sathi Coomaraswamy](/wiki/Sathi_Coomaraswamy \"Sathi Coomaraswamy\"), an All\\-Ceylon cricketer and son of [C. Coomaraswamy](/wiki/C._Coomaraswamy \"C. Coomaraswamy\"), [Sri Lankan High Commissioner to India](/wiki/Sri_Lankan_High_Commissioner_to_India \"Sri Lankan High Commissioner to India\"). These facilities and the club's history, together with the successes of its cricket team (regularly winning BCCSL national tournaments) in recent years maintain the club's status as one of the foremost sports clubs in the country.", "Since its inception, the Tamil Union Cricket and Athletic club would go on to have strong ties with the various governing bodies of national sport. For instance, Dr John Rockwood, the first honorary general secretary of the club also became the first president of the Ceylon Cricket Association. [Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu](/wiki/Paikiasothy_Saravanamuttu \"Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu\"), club president (1948–51\\) whose family were instrumental to the club's successes for several decades, was president of both the Ceylon Cricket Association and its successor the Board of Control for Cricket (1948–1950\\). W.M. Sellayah, honorary general secretary of the club (1932–36\\) also held the same position with the Ceylon Hockey Association and Ceylon Cricket Association. CTA Schafter a club captain and double international (played hockey and cricket) went on to be manager of the Sri Lankan Cricket team in the new millennium. In the 1980s, T. Murugaser, club president (1980–81\\) also held the vice presidency of the Board of Control for Cricket. Thus, the club has contributed a great deal to the administration of sport in Sri Lanka over the years.", "" ]
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms --------------------------------------- {{main article\|Section 7 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms}} Since the *Canadian Bill of Rights* was an ordinary statute, it was not until 1982 when the term fundamental justice was first constitutionalized. The phrase was included in section 7 of the new *Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms*, which asserted that "Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of the person and the right not to be deprived thereof except in accordance with the principles of fundamental justice." To limit the rights to life, liberty and security of the person, the authors of the Charter specifically chose the term "fundamental justice" over "due process" because they believed the term "fundamental justice" would still be interpreted to mean conventional "[natural justice](/wiki/Natural_justice "Natural justice")". "Due process" was rejected because in the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"), use of that term in the constitution led to judges expanding its meaning (*see [Lochner era](/wiki/Lochner_era "Lochner era")*) in ways the Canadian government felt would be undesirable. As constitutional scholar [Peter Hogg](/wiki/Peter_Hogg "Peter Hogg") points out in his book *Constitutional Law of Canada*, the new wording of section 7 removed the context of the "fair hearing" found in the *Canadian Bill of Rights*, which meant the definition of fundamental justice was now ambiguous and could still be further developed by Canadian courts. This is indeed what happened; since the 1985 Supreme Court decision *[Re B.C. Motor Vehicle Act](/wiki/Re_B.C._Motor_Vehicle_Act "Re B.C. Motor Vehicle Act")*, the meaning of the words "fundamental justice" in section 7 has been greatly expanded and encompasses much more than mere procedural rights. ### Section 24 The term fundamental justice might have some meaning in Charter case law even outside section 7\. In the 2003 Charter case *[Doucet\-Boudreau](/wiki/Doucet-Boudreau_v._Nova_Scotia_%28Minister_of_Education%29 "Doucet-Boudreau v. Nova Scotia (Minister of Education)")*, some Supreme Court justices wished to narrow the scope of the remedial [section 24](/wiki/Section_Twenty-four_of_the_Canadian_Charter_of_Rights_and_Freedoms "Section Twenty-four of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms") by citing *fundamental justice*. In this case, a lower\-court judge, after having found the claimants' [section 23](/wiki/Section_Twenty-three_of_the_Canadian_Charter_of_Rights_and_Freedoms "Section Twenty-three of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms") rights were violated, used section 24 to demand that the government, while working to repair the infringement of the right, continue to report to him *after* his ruling. Some Supreme Court justices felt this was an unconstitutional breach of fundamental justice because the judicial order was not clear enough to the government. However, these justices formed the minority of the panel, and the earlier decision was upheld. Section 24\.(1\) reads: "*Anyone whose rights or freedoms, as guaranteed by this Charter, have been infringed or denied may apply to a court of competent jurisdiction to obtain such remedy as the court considers appropriate and just in the circumstances*." A judicial dilemma arises, however, when courts acting under the rule of law fail to guarantee *access to justice* to applicants seeking review of erroneous lower court decisions. The principles of fundamental justice of which s. 7 \[of the Charter] speaks, though not identical to the duty of fairness elucidated in Baker infra, are the same principles underlying that duty. As Professor Hogg has said, "The common law rules \[of procedural fairness] are in fact basic tenets of the legal system, and they have evolved in response to the same values and objectives as s. 7\."See P. W. Hogg, *Constitutional Law of Canada* (loose\-leaf), Vol. 2, at para. 44\.20\. In *[Singh v. Minister of Employment and Immigration](/wiki/Singh_v._Minister_of_Employment_and_Immigration "Singh v. Minister of Employment and Immigration")*, \[1985] 1 S.C.R. 177, at pp. 212–13, Wilson J. recognized that the principles of fundamental justice demand, at a minimum, compliance with the common law requirements of procedural fairness. Section 7 protects substantive as well as procedural rights: Re B.C. Motor Vehicle Act, supra. Insofar as procedural rights are concerned, the common law doctrine summarized in Baker infra, properly recognizes the ingredients of fundamental justice. \[ Suresh v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), \[2002] 1 S.C.R. 3, para. 113; see also: Baker v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), \[1999] 2 S.C.R. 817 ]. Access to justice is therefore a democratic safeguard guaranteed by various Charter prerogatives in line with principles of Fundamental Justice which the courts cannot deny for reasons involving *budgetary concerns*. In Singh supra, at p. 218, Wilson J. speaking for the three members of the Court who addressed the Charter ...doubted that utilitarian consideration\[s] ... \[could] constitute a justification for a limitation on the rights set out in the Charter (emphasis added). The reason behind Wilson J.'s scepticism was that the guarantees of the Charter would be illusory if they could be ignored because it was administratively convenient to do so. \[ Ref re Remuneration of Judges of the Prov. Court of P.E.I.; Ref re Independence and Impartiality of Judges of the Prov. Court of P.E.I., \[1997] 3 S.C.R. 3, para. 281 ].
[ "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms\n---------------------------------------", "{{main article\\|Section 7 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms}}\nSince the *Canadian Bill of Rights* was an ordinary statute, it was not until 1982 when the term fundamental justice was first constitutionalized. The phrase was included in section 7 of the new *Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms*, which asserted that \"Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of the person and the right not to be deprived thereof except in accordance with the principles of fundamental justice.\"", "To limit the rights to life, liberty and security of the person, the authors of the Charter specifically chose the term \"fundamental justice\" over \"due process\" because they believed the term \"fundamental justice\" would still be interpreted to mean conventional \"[natural justice](/wiki/Natural_justice \"Natural justice\")\". \"Due process\" was rejected because in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), use of that term in the constitution led to judges expanding its meaning (*see [Lochner era](/wiki/Lochner_era \"Lochner era\")*) in ways the Canadian government felt would be undesirable. As constitutional scholar [Peter Hogg](/wiki/Peter_Hogg \"Peter Hogg\") points out in his book *Constitutional Law of Canada*, the new wording of section 7 removed the context of the \"fair hearing\" found in the *Canadian Bill of Rights*, which meant the definition of fundamental justice was now ambiguous and could still be further developed by Canadian courts. This is indeed what happened; since the 1985 Supreme Court decision *[Re B.C. Motor Vehicle Act](/wiki/Re_B.C._Motor_Vehicle_Act \"Re B.C. Motor Vehicle Act\")*, the meaning of the words \"fundamental justice\" in section 7 has been greatly expanded and encompasses much more than mere procedural rights.", "### Section 24", "The term fundamental justice might have some meaning in Charter case law even outside section 7\\. In the 2003 Charter case *[Doucet\\-Boudreau](/wiki/Doucet-Boudreau_v._Nova_Scotia_%28Minister_of_Education%29 \"Doucet-Boudreau v. Nova Scotia (Minister of Education)\")*, some Supreme Court justices wished to narrow the scope of the remedial [section 24](/wiki/Section_Twenty-four_of_the_Canadian_Charter_of_Rights_and_Freedoms \"Section Twenty-four of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms\") by citing *fundamental justice*. In this case, a lower\\-court judge, after having found the claimants' [section 23](/wiki/Section_Twenty-three_of_the_Canadian_Charter_of_Rights_and_Freedoms \"Section Twenty-three of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms\") rights were violated, used section 24 to demand that the government, while working to repair the infringement of the right, continue to report to him *after* his ruling. Some Supreme Court justices felt this was an unconstitutional breach of fundamental justice because the judicial order was not clear enough to the government. However, these justices formed the minority of the panel, and the earlier decision was upheld.", "Section 24\\.(1\\) reads: \"*Anyone whose rights or freedoms, as guaranteed by this Charter, have been infringed or denied may apply to a court of competent jurisdiction to obtain such remedy as the court considers appropriate and just in the circumstances*.\" A judicial dilemma arises, however, when courts acting under the rule of law fail to guarantee *access to justice* to applicants seeking review of erroneous lower court decisions.", "The principles of fundamental justice of which s. 7 \\[of the Charter] speaks, though not identical to the duty of fairness elucidated in Baker infra, are the same principles underlying that duty. As Professor Hogg has said, \"The common law rules \\[of procedural fairness] are in fact basic tenets of the legal system, and they have evolved in response to the same values and objectives as s. 7\\.\"See P. W. Hogg, *Constitutional Law of Canada* (loose\\-leaf), Vol. 2, at para. 44\\.20\\.", "In *[Singh v. Minister of Employment and Immigration](/wiki/Singh_v._Minister_of_Employment_and_Immigration \"Singh v. Minister of Employment and Immigration\")*, \\[1985] 1 S.C.R. 177, at pp. 212–13, Wilson J. recognized that the principles of fundamental justice demand, at a minimum, compliance with the common law requirements of procedural fairness. Section 7 protects substantive as well as procedural rights: Re B.C. Motor Vehicle Act, supra. Insofar as procedural rights are concerned, the common law doctrine summarized in Baker infra, properly recognizes the ingredients of fundamental justice. \\[ Suresh v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), \\[2002] 1 S.C.R. 3, para. 113; see also: Baker v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), \\[1999] 2 S.C.R. 817 ].", "Access to justice is therefore a democratic safeguard guaranteed by various Charter prerogatives in line with principles of Fundamental Justice which the courts cannot deny for reasons involving *budgetary concerns*. In Singh supra, at p. 218, Wilson J. speaking for the three members of the Court who addressed the Charter ...doubted that utilitarian consideration\\[s] ... \\[could] constitute a justification for a limitation on the rights set out in the Charter (emphasis added). The reason behind Wilson J.'s scepticism was that the guarantees of the Charter would be illusory if they could be ignored because it was administratively convenient to do so. \\[ Ref re Remuneration of Judges of the Prov. Court of P.E.I.; Ref re Independence and Impartiality of Judges of the Prov. Court of P.E.I., \\[1997] 3 S.C.R. 3, para. 281 ].", "" ]
### Section 24 The term fundamental justice might have some meaning in Charter case law even outside section 7\. In the 2003 Charter case *[Doucet\-Boudreau](/wiki/Doucet-Boudreau_v._Nova_Scotia_%28Minister_of_Education%29 "Doucet-Boudreau v. Nova Scotia (Minister of Education)")*, some Supreme Court justices wished to narrow the scope of the remedial [section 24](/wiki/Section_Twenty-four_of_the_Canadian_Charter_of_Rights_and_Freedoms "Section Twenty-four of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms") by citing *fundamental justice*. In this case, a lower\-court judge, after having found the claimants' [section 23](/wiki/Section_Twenty-three_of_the_Canadian_Charter_of_Rights_and_Freedoms "Section Twenty-three of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms") rights were violated, used section 24 to demand that the government, while working to repair the infringement of the right, continue to report to him *after* his ruling. Some Supreme Court justices felt this was an unconstitutional breach of fundamental justice because the judicial order was not clear enough to the government. However, these justices formed the minority of the panel, and the earlier decision was upheld. Section 24\.(1\) reads: "*Anyone whose rights or freedoms, as guaranteed by this Charter, have been infringed or denied may apply to a court of competent jurisdiction to obtain such remedy as the court considers appropriate and just in the circumstances*." A judicial dilemma arises, however, when courts acting under the rule of law fail to guarantee *access to justice* to applicants seeking review of erroneous lower court decisions. The principles of fundamental justice of which s. 7 \[of the Charter] speaks, though not identical to the duty of fairness elucidated in Baker infra, are the same principles underlying that duty. As Professor Hogg has said, "The common law rules \[of procedural fairness] are in fact basic tenets of the legal system, and they have evolved in response to the same values and objectives as s. 7\."See P. W. Hogg, *Constitutional Law of Canada* (loose\-leaf), Vol. 2, at para. 44\.20\. In *[Singh v. Minister of Employment and Immigration](/wiki/Singh_v._Minister_of_Employment_and_Immigration "Singh v. Minister of Employment and Immigration")*, \[1985] 1 S.C.R. 177, at pp. 212–13, Wilson J. recognized that the principles of fundamental justice demand, at a minimum, compliance with the common law requirements of procedural fairness. Section 7 protects substantive as well as procedural rights: Re B.C. Motor Vehicle Act, supra. Insofar as procedural rights are concerned, the common law doctrine summarized in Baker infra, properly recognizes the ingredients of fundamental justice. \[ Suresh v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), \[2002] 1 S.C.R. 3, para. 113; see also: Baker v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), \[1999] 2 S.C.R. 817 ]. Access to justice is therefore a democratic safeguard guaranteed by various Charter prerogatives in line with principles of Fundamental Justice which the courts cannot deny for reasons involving *budgetary concerns*. In Singh supra, at p. 218, Wilson J. speaking for the three members of the Court who addressed the Charter ...doubted that utilitarian consideration\[s] ... \[could] constitute a justification for a limitation on the rights set out in the Charter (emphasis added). The reason behind Wilson J.'s scepticism was that the guarantees of the Charter would be illusory if they could be ignored because it was administratively convenient to do so. \[ Ref re Remuneration of Judges of the Prov. Court of P.E.I.; Ref re Independence and Impartiality of Judges of the Prov. Court of P.E.I., \[1997] 3 S.C.R. 3, para. 281 ].
[ "### Section 24", "The term fundamental justice might have some meaning in Charter case law even outside section 7\\. In the 2003 Charter case *[Doucet\\-Boudreau](/wiki/Doucet-Boudreau_v._Nova_Scotia_%28Minister_of_Education%29 \"Doucet-Boudreau v. Nova Scotia (Minister of Education)\")*, some Supreme Court justices wished to narrow the scope of the remedial [section 24](/wiki/Section_Twenty-four_of_the_Canadian_Charter_of_Rights_and_Freedoms \"Section Twenty-four of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms\") by citing *fundamental justice*. In this case, a lower\\-court judge, after having found the claimants' [section 23](/wiki/Section_Twenty-three_of_the_Canadian_Charter_of_Rights_and_Freedoms \"Section Twenty-three of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms\") rights were violated, used section 24 to demand that the government, while working to repair the infringement of the right, continue to report to him *after* his ruling. Some Supreme Court justices felt this was an unconstitutional breach of fundamental justice because the judicial order was not clear enough to the government. However, these justices formed the minority of the panel, and the earlier decision was upheld.", "Section 24\\.(1\\) reads: \"*Anyone whose rights or freedoms, as guaranteed by this Charter, have been infringed or denied may apply to a court of competent jurisdiction to obtain such remedy as the court considers appropriate and just in the circumstances*.\" A judicial dilemma arises, however, when courts acting under the rule of law fail to guarantee *access to justice* to applicants seeking review of erroneous lower court decisions.", "The principles of fundamental justice of which s. 7 \\[of the Charter] speaks, though not identical to the duty of fairness elucidated in Baker infra, are the same principles underlying that duty. As Professor Hogg has said, \"The common law rules \\[of procedural fairness] are in fact basic tenets of the legal system, and they have evolved in response to the same values and objectives as s. 7\\.\"See P. W. Hogg, *Constitutional Law of Canada* (loose\\-leaf), Vol. 2, at para. 44\\.20\\.", "In *[Singh v. Minister of Employment and Immigration](/wiki/Singh_v._Minister_of_Employment_and_Immigration \"Singh v. Minister of Employment and Immigration\")*, \\[1985] 1 S.C.R. 177, at pp. 212–13, Wilson J. recognized that the principles of fundamental justice demand, at a minimum, compliance with the common law requirements of procedural fairness. Section 7 protects substantive as well as procedural rights: Re B.C. Motor Vehicle Act, supra. Insofar as procedural rights are concerned, the common law doctrine summarized in Baker infra, properly recognizes the ingredients of fundamental justice. \\[ Suresh v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), \\[2002] 1 S.C.R. 3, para. 113; see also: Baker v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), \\[1999] 2 S.C.R. 817 ].", "Access to justice is therefore a democratic safeguard guaranteed by various Charter prerogatives in line with principles of Fundamental Justice which the courts cannot deny for reasons involving *budgetary concerns*. In Singh supra, at p. 218, Wilson J. speaking for the three members of the Court who addressed the Charter ...doubted that utilitarian consideration\\[s] ... \\[could] constitute a justification for a limitation on the rights set out in the Charter (emphasis added). The reason behind Wilson J.'s scepticism was that the guarantees of the Charter would be illusory if they could be ignored because it was administratively convenient to do so. \\[ Ref re Remuneration of Judges of the Prov. Court of P.E.I.; Ref re Independence and Impartiality of Judges of the Prov. Court of P.E.I., \\[1997] 3 S.C.R. 3, para. 281 ].", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|1890\= 490 \|1900\= 722 \|1910\= 664 \|1920\= 876 \|1930\= 802 \|1940\= 875 \|1950\= 835 \|1960\= 883 \|1970\= 875 \|1980\= 897 \|1990\= 714 \|2000\= 707 \|2010\= 649 \|2020\= 629 \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|accessdate\=June 4, 2015}} }} ### 2020 census As of the [census](/wiki/United_States_census "United States census") of 2020,{{cite web \|title\=2020 Census \|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census/decade/2020/2020\-census\-main.html \|publisher\=United States Census Bureau}} there were 629 people, 302 households, and 154 families residing in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was 740\.4 inhabitants per square mile (285\.9/km2). There were 345 housing units at an average density of 406\.1 per square mile (156\.8/km2). The [racial](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census "Race and ethnicity in the United States census") makeup of the city was 97\.1% [White](/wiki/White_Americans "White Americans"), 0\.5% [Black or African American](/wiki/African_Americans "African Americans"), 0\.0% [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States "Native Americans in the United States"), 0\.0% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_Americans "Asian Americans"), 0\.0% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_Americans "Pacific Islander Americans"), 0\.6% from other races and 1\.7% from two or more races. [Hispanic or Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans "Hispanic and Latino Americans") of any race comprised 1\.1% of the population. Of the 302 households, 16\.2% of which had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40\.7% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 11\.9% were cohabitating couples, 24\.5% had a female householder with no spouse or partner present and 22\.8% had a male householder with no spouse or partner present. 49\.0% of all households were non\-families. 39\.7% of all household were made up of individuals, 22\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years old or older. The median age in the city was 53\.1 years. 18\.0% of the residents were under the age of 20; 2\.9% were between the ages of 20 and 24; 21\.0% were from 25 and 44; 26\.6% were from 45 and 64; and 31\.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50\.2% male and 49\.8% female. ### 2010 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=2012\-05\-11}} of 2010, there were 649 people, 293 households, and 176 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|746\.0\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 353 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|405\.7\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 98\.8% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.2% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.6% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), and 0\.5% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 0\.6% of the population. There were 293 households, of which 22\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48\.8% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 6\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 5\.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 39\.9% were non\-families. 36\.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.11 and the average family size was 2\.68\. The median age in the city was 50\.4 years. 19\.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 4\.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 19\.1% were from 25 to 44; 31\.4% were from 45 to 64; and 25\.9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49\.2% male and 50\.8% female. ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=2008\-01\-31\|title\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 707 people, 315 households, and 200 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\|810\.2\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 348 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|398\.8\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 98\.44% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.14% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.71% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.28% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 0\.42% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 0\.42% of the population. There were 315 households, out of which 22\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52\.4% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 7\.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36\.5% were non\-families. 33\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 21\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.15 and the average family size was 2\.71\. In the city, the population was spread out, with 20\.2% under the age of 18, 5\.7% from 18 to 24, 20\.5% from 25 to 44, 22\.5% from 45 to 64, and 31\.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 47 years. For every 100 females, there were 87\.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82\.5 males. The median income for a household in the city was $31,985, and the median income for a family was $39,250\. Males had a median income of $30,000 versus $19,432 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $16,345\. About 2\.0% of families and 3\.9% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 1\.6% of those under age 18 and 3\.8% of those age 65 or over.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|1890\\= 490\n\\|1900\\= 722\n\\|1910\\= 664\n\\|1920\\= 876\n\\|1930\\= 802\n\\|1940\\= 875\n\\|1950\\= 835\n\\|1960\\= 883\n\\|1970\\= 875\n\\|1980\\= 897\n\\|1990\\= 714\n\\|2000\\= 707\n\\|2010\\= 649\n\\|2020\\= 629\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|accessdate\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}", "### 2020 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/United_States_census \"United States census\") of 2020,{{cite web \\|title\\=2020 Census \\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census/decade/2020/2020\\-census\\-main.html \\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau}} there were 629 people, 302 households, and 154 families residing in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was 740\\.4 inhabitants per square mile (285\\.9/km2). There were 345 housing units at an average density of 406\\.1 per square mile (156\\.8/km2). The [racial](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census \"Race and ethnicity in the United States census\") makeup of the city was 97\\.1% [White](/wiki/White_Americans \"White Americans\"), 0\\.5% [Black or African American](/wiki/African_Americans \"African Americans\"), 0\\.0% [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States \"Native Americans in the United States\"), 0\\.0% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_Americans \"Asian Americans\"), 0\\.0% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_Americans \"Pacific Islander Americans\"), 0\\.6% from other races and 1\\.7% from two or more races. [Hispanic or Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans \"Hispanic and Latino Americans\") of any race comprised 1\\.1% of the population.", "Of the 302 households, 16\\.2% of which had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40\\.7% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 11\\.9% were cohabitating couples, 24\\.5% had a female householder with no spouse or partner present and 22\\.8% had a male householder with no spouse or partner present. 49\\.0% of all households were non\\-families. 39\\.7% of all household were made up of individuals, 22\\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years old or older.", "The median age in the city was 53\\.1 years. 18\\.0% of the residents were under the age of 20; 2\\.9% were between the ages of 20 and 24; 21\\.0% were from 25 and 44; 26\\.6% were from 45 and 64; and 31\\.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50\\.2% male and 49\\.8% female.", "### 2010 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=2012\\-05\\-11}} of 2010, there were 649 people, 293 households, and 176 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|746\\.0\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 353 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|405\\.7\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 98\\.8% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.2% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.6% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), and 0\\.5% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 0\\.6% of the population.", "There were 293 households, of which 22\\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48\\.8% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 6\\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 5\\.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 39\\.9% were non\\-families. 36\\.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15\\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.11 and the average family size was 2\\.68\\.", "The median age in the city was 50\\.4 years. 19\\.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 4\\.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 19\\.1% were from 25 to 44; 31\\.4% were from 45 to 64; and 25\\.9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49\\.2% male and 50\\.8% female.", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-01\\-31\\|title\\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 707 people, 315 households, and 200 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|810\\.2\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 348 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|398\\.8\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 98\\.44% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.14% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.71% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.28% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 0\\.42% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 0\\.42% of the population.", "There were 315 households, out of which 22\\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52\\.4% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 7\\.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36\\.5% were non\\-families. 33\\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 21\\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.15 and the average family size was 2\\.71\\.", "In the city, the population was spread out, with 20\\.2% under the age of 18, 5\\.7% from 18 to 24, 20\\.5% from 25 to 44, 22\\.5% from 45 to 64, and 31\\.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 47 years. For every 100 females, there were 87\\.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82\\.5 males.", "The median income for a household in the city was $31,985, and the median income for a family was $39,250\\. Males had a median income of $30,000 versus $19,432 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $16,345\\. About 2\\.0% of families and 3\\.9% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 1\\.6% of those under age 18 and 3\\.8% of those age 65 or over.", "" ]
Club career ----------- Akgün Göktepe is {{height\|m\=1\.81}} tall at {{cvt\|70\|kg}}. In the beginning of her career, she played in the left wing position. With her transfer to Yenimahalle Bld. SK, she started to play as a pivot. ### Muratpaşa Bld. SK Akgün started her handball career at her hometown club [Muratpaşa Bld. SK](/wiki/Muratpa%C5%9Fa_Bld._SK_%28women%27s_handball%29 "Muratpaşa Bld. SK (women's handball)"), playing in the 2010–11 season. She experienced her team's third\-place finish in the league in the 2010–11 season, champions title in the 2011–12, 2012–13 and 2013–14 seasons as well as the runner\-up position in the 2014–15 season. She took part in the [Women's EHF European Cup](/wiki/Women%27s_EHF_European_Cup "Women's EHF European Cup") in [2010–1](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Women%27s_EHF_Challenge_Cup "2010–11 Women's EHF Challenge Cup"), and [2011–12](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_Women%27s_EHF_Challenge_Cup "2011–12 Women's EHF Challenge Cup"), in the [Women's EHF Cup Winners' Cup](/wiki/Women%27s_EHF_Cup_Winners%27_Cup "Women's EHF Cup Winners' Cup") in [2012/13](/wiki/EHF_Women%27s_Cup_Winners%27_Cup_2012/13 "EHF Women's Cup Winners' Cup 2012/13"), and [2013/14](/wiki/EHF_Women%27s_Cup_Winners%27_Cup_2013/14 "EHF Women's Cup Winners' Cup 2013/14"), in the [Women's EHF Champions League qualification tournament](/wiki/Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League "Women's EHF Champions League") in [2012–13](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_EHF_Women%27s_Champions_League%23Qualification_tournament "2012–13 EHF Women's Champions League#Qualification tournament"), and [2013–14](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_EHF_Women%27s_Champions_League%23Qualification_tournament "2013–14 EHF Women's Champions League#Qualification tournament"), as well as in the [Women's EHF Cup](/wiki/Women%27s_EHF_European_League "Women's EHF European League") in [2014–15](/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_Women%27s_EHF_Cup "2014–15 Women's EHF Cup"). ### Yenimahalle Bld. SK In the 2015–16 season, she moved to [Ankara](/wiki/Ankara "Ankara") to join [Yenimahalle Bld. SK](/wiki/Yenimahalle_Bld._SK_%28women%27s_handball%29 "Yenimahalle Bld. SK (women's handball)"). She played ın Yenimahalle Bld. SK including the 2020–21 season. She scored in total 62 goals in 22 matches played in the 2020–21 season. She participated in the [Women's EHF Cup Winners' Cup](/wiki/Women%27s_EHF_Cup_Winners%27_Cup "Women's EHF Cup Winners' Cup") in [2015/16](/wiki/EHF_Women%27s_Cup_Winners%27_Cup_2015/16 "EHF Women's Cup Winners' Cup 2015/16"), in the [Women's EHF Champions League qualifying](/wiki/Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League "Women's EHF Champions League") in [2015–16](/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League_qualifying%23Qualification_tournament "2015–16 Women's EHF Champions League qualifying#Qualification tournament"), [2016–17](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League_qualifying "2016–17 Women's EHF Champions League qualifying"), and [2017–18](/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_Women%27s_EHF_Cup%23Qualification_stage "2017–18 Women's EHF Cup#Qualification stage"), the [Women's EHF Cup](/wiki/Women%27s_EHF_European_League "Women's EHF European League") in [2016–17](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_Women%27s_EHF_Cup "2016–17 Women's EHF Cup"), as well as in the [Women's EHF European Cup](/wiki/Women%27s_EHF_European_Cup "Women's EHF European Cup") in [2018–19](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Women%27s_EHF_Challenge_Cup "2018–19 Women's EHF Challenge Cup"), and [2019–20](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_Women%27s_EHF_Challenge_Cup "2019–20 Women's EHF Challenge Cup"). ### A.B.B. EGO SK In May 2021, she transferred to the newly formed club Ankara Büyükşehir Belediyesi EGO SK. She appeared in only three matches of her new club in September of the 2021–22 Super League season. ### Kastamonu Bld. GSK In October 2021, Akgün Göktepe moved to [Kastamonu Bld. GSK](/wiki/Kastamonu_Bld._GSK_%28women%27s_handball%29 "Kastamonu Bld. GSK (women's handball)") to play in the remaining 2021–22 season. She played two seasons there until the 2022–23 season. Her team was the runner\-up in the 2022–23 Women's Handball Turkish Cup ("2022–23 Kadınlar Hentbol Türkiye Kupası"). She took part in the [Women's EHF Champions League](/wiki/Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League "Women's EHF Champions League") in [2021–22](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League "2021–22 Women's EHF Champions League"), and [2022–23](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League "2022–23 Women's EHF Champions League"). She won the 2022–23 Turkeish Super League with her team. ### Yenimahalle Bld. SK In April 2023, she signed a deal with her former club Yenimahalle Bld. SK for the 2023–24 Super League season.
[ "Club career\n-----------", "Akgün Göktepe is {{height\\|m\\=1\\.81}} tall at {{cvt\\|70\\|kg}}. In the beginning of her career, she played in the left wing position. With her transfer to Yenimahalle Bld. SK, she started to play as a pivot.", "### Muratpaşa Bld. SK", "Akgün started her handball career at her hometown club [Muratpaşa Bld. SK](/wiki/Muratpa%C5%9Fa_Bld._SK_%28women%27s_handball%29 \"Muratpaşa Bld. SK (women's handball)\"), playing in the 2010–11 season. She experienced her team's third\\-place finish in the league in the 2010–11 season, champions title in the 2011–12, 2012–13 and 2013–14 seasons as well as the runner\\-up position in the 2014–15 season.", "She took part in the [Women's EHF European Cup](/wiki/Women%27s_EHF_European_Cup \"Women's EHF European Cup\") in [2010–1](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Women%27s_EHF_Challenge_Cup \"2010–11 Women's EHF Challenge Cup\"), and [2011–12](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_Women%27s_EHF_Challenge_Cup \"2011–12 Women's EHF Challenge Cup\"), in the [Women's EHF Cup Winners' Cup](/wiki/Women%27s_EHF_Cup_Winners%27_Cup \"Women's EHF Cup Winners' Cup\") in [2012/13](/wiki/EHF_Women%27s_Cup_Winners%27_Cup_2012/13 \"EHF Women's Cup Winners' Cup 2012/13\"), and [2013/14](/wiki/EHF_Women%27s_Cup_Winners%27_Cup_2013/14 \"EHF Women's Cup Winners' Cup 2013/14\"), in the [Women's EHF Champions League qualification tournament](/wiki/Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League \"Women's EHF Champions League\") in [2012–13](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_EHF_Women%27s_Champions_League%23Qualification_tournament \"2012–13 EHF Women's Champions League#Qualification tournament\"), and [2013–14](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_EHF_Women%27s_Champions_League%23Qualification_tournament \"2013–14 EHF Women's Champions League#Qualification tournament\"), as well as in the\n[Women's EHF Cup](/wiki/Women%27s_EHF_European_League \"Women's EHF European League\") in [2014–15](/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_Women%27s_EHF_Cup \"2014–15 Women's EHF Cup\").", "### Yenimahalle Bld. SK", "In the 2015–16 season, she moved to [Ankara](/wiki/Ankara \"Ankara\") to join [Yenimahalle Bld. SK](/wiki/Yenimahalle_Bld._SK_%28women%27s_handball%29 \"Yenimahalle Bld. SK (women's handball)\"). She played ın Yenimahalle Bld. SK including the 2020–21 season. She scored in total 62 goals in 22 matches played in the 2020–21 season.", "She participated in the [Women's EHF Cup Winners' Cup](/wiki/Women%27s_EHF_Cup_Winners%27_Cup \"Women's EHF Cup Winners' Cup\") in [2015/16](/wiki/EHF_Women%27s_Cup_Winners%27_Cup_2015/16 \"EHF Women's Cup Winners' Cup 2015/16\"), in the [Women's EHF Champions League qualifying](/wiki/Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League \"Women's EHF Champions League\") in [2015–16](/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League_qualifying%23Qualification_tournament \"2015–16 Women's EHF Champions League qualifying#Qualification tournament\"), [2016–17](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League_qualifying \"2016–17 Women's EHF Champions League qualifying\"), and [2017–18](/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_Women%27s_EHF_Cup%23Qualification_stage \"2017–18 Women's EHF Cup#Qualification stage\"), the [Women's EHF Cup](/wiki/Women%27s_EHF_European_League \"Women's EHF European League\") in [2016–17](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_Women%27s_EHF_Cup \"2016–17 Women's EHF Cup\"), as well as in the [Women's EHF European Cup](/wiki/Women%27s_EHF_European_Cup \"Women's EHF European Cup\") in [2018–19](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Women%27s_EHF_Challenge_Cup \"2018–19 Women's EHF Challenge Cup\"), and [2019–20](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_Women%27s_EHF_Challenge_Cup \"2019–20 Women's EHF Challenge Cup\").", "### A.B.B. EGO SK", "In May 2021, she transferred to the newly formed club Ankara Büyükşehir Belediyesi EGO SK. She appeared in only three matches of her new club in September of the 2021–22 Super League season.", "### Kastamonu Bld. GSK", "In October 2021, Akgün Göktepe moved to [Kastamonu Bld. GSK](/wiki/Kastamonu_Bld._GSK_%28women%27s_handball%29 \"Kastamonu Bld. GSK (women's handball)\") to play in the remaining 2021–22 season. She played two seasons there until the 2022–23 season. \nHer team was the runner\\-up in the 2022–23 Women's Handball Turkish Cup (\"2022–23 Kadınlar Hentbol Türkiye Kupası\").", "She took part in the [Women's EHF Champions League](/wiki/Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League \"Women's EHF Champions League\") in [2021–22](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League \"2021–22 Women's EHF Champions League\"), and [2022–23](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League \"2022–23 Women's EHF Champions League\"). She won the 2022–23 Turkeish Super League with her team.", "### Yenimahalle Bld. SK", "In April 2023, she signed a deal with her former club Yenimahalle Bld. SK for the 2023–24 Super League season.", "" ]
Playing career -------------- Bacashihua was selected in the first round of the [2001 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/2001_NHL_Entry_Draft "2001 NHL Entry Draft") by the [Dallas Stars](/wiki/Dallas_Stars "Dallas Stars"), 26th overall. He spent two seasons with the Stars' [AHL](/wiki/American_Hockey_League "American Hockey League") affiliate [Utah Grizzlies](/wiki/Utah_Grizzlies_%281995%E2%80%932005%29 "Utah Grizzlies (1995–2005)") before he was traded on June 25, 2004, to the [St. Louis Blues](/wiki/St._Louis_Blues "St. Louis Blues") for [Shawn Belle](/wiki/Shawn_Belle "Shawn Belle").{{cite web\|url\=http://nbcsports.msnbc.com/id/5300451/\|title\=Blues get Bacashihua\|publisher\=\[\[NBC Sports]]\|date\=2004\-06\-24\|accessdate\=2008\-11\-23\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120902212642/http://nbcsports.msnbc.com/id/5300451/\|archive\-date\=2012\-09\-02\|url\-status\=dead}} Jason played for the Blues AHL affiliates, the [Worcester IceCats](/wiki/Worcester_IceCats "Worcester IceCats") and the [Peoria Rivermen](/wiki/Peoria_Rivermen_%28AHL%29 "Peoria Rivermen (AHL)"), before being called up to the main Blues roster and making his NHL debut in the [2005–06](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_NHL_season "2005–06 NHL season") season. After failing to make the team out of training camp, Bacashihua was assigned to Peoria prior to the [2007–08](/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_NHL_season "2007–08 NHL season") season. On November 8, 2007, Bacashihua was traded by the Blues to the [Colorado Avalanche](/wiki/Colorado_Avalanche "Colorado Avalanche") for future considerations, and was assigned to the Avalanche's affiliate, the [Lake Erie Monsters](/wiki/Lake_Erie_Monsters "Lake Erie Monsters").{{cite web\|url\=http://blues.nhl.com/team/app?articleid\=342661\&page\=NewsPage\&service\=page\|title\=Blues trade Bacashihua to Colorado for future considerations\|publisher\=\[\[St. Louis Blues]]\|date\=2007\-11\-08\|accessdate\=2008\-11\-23}}{{dead link\|date\=September 2017 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} The Monsters are the same Grizzlies franchise, renamed and relocated, with whom Bacashihua started his AHL career. Bacashihua spent the next season and a half with the Monsters rotating the starting position with [Tyler Weiman](/wiki/Tyler_Weiman "Tyler Weiman"). During the [2008–09](/wiki/2008-09_AHL_season "2008-09 AHL season") season between February and March, Bacashihua won a franchise\-best eight straight games. He was selected as the AHL Player of the Week (February 23 – March 1\), to mark the first time in franchise history a Monsters player had received the award.{{cite web\| url \= http://avalanche.nhl.com/club/news.htm?id\=427069 \| title \= Lake Erie enjoys success in year two \| publisher \= \[\[Colorado Avalanche]] \| date \= 2009\-04\-14 \| accessdate \= 2009\-04\-14}} On July 31, 2009, Bacashihua signed a one\-year contract with the Hershey Bears of the AHL for the [2009–10](/wiki/2009-10_AHL_season "2009-10 AHL season") season.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.theahl.com/headlines/index.html?article\_id\=10352\|title\=Bears bag Bacashihua for 2009\-10 \| publisher \=\[\[American Hockey League\|AHL]] \| date \= 2009\-07\-31 \| accessdate \= 2009\-08\-01}} {{Dead link\|date\=October 2010\|bot\=H3llBot}} He appeared in pre\-season games for the Washington Capitals before being reassigned to Hershey. In 22 regular season games he won an impressive 17 however he was demoted to third choice goalie behind Capitals prospects and failed to make a playoff appearance for the [Calder Cup](/wiki/Calder_Cup "Calder Cup") winning Bears. On July 2, 2010, Bacashihua returned to the Colorado Avalanche organization, signing a one\-year contract as a free agent for the [2010–11](/wiki/2010-11_AHL_season "2010-11 AHL season") season.{{cite web\| url \= http://avalanche.nhl.com/club/news.htm?id\=533714 \| title \= Avalanche signs Quincey, Winnik and six others \| publisher \= \[\[Colorado Avalanche]] \| date \= 2010\-07\-02 \| accessdate \= 2010\-07\-04}} Assigned to reacquaint with the Lake Erie Monsters, Bacashihua split the season with former NHL goaltender [John Grahame](/wiki/John_Grahame "John Grahame") to form one of the best performing tandems in the AHL. He was recalled by the Avalanche on one occasion to serve as backup in place of the injured [Craig Anderson](/wiki/Craig_Anderson_%28ice_hockey%29 "Craig Anderson (ice hockey)"), however failed to make his Avalanche debut.{{cite web\| url \= http://avalanche.nhl.com/club/news.htm?id\=541685 \| title \= Anderson injured prior to Vancouver game \| publisher \= \[\[Colorado Avalanche]] \| date \= 2010\-10\-25 \| accessdate \= 2010\-10\-25}} Returning to the Monsters to set a career professional best in goals against average, Bacashihua appeared in 42 games for 23 wins to help guide the Monsters to their first post\-season berth. On July 19, 2011, Bacashihua signed a one\-year contract with the [Philadelphia Flyers](/wiki/Philadelphia_Flyers "Philadelphia Flyers").{{cite web\|title\=Flyers Sign Three\|url\=http://flyers.nhl.com/club/news.htm?id\=569662\|publisher\=\[\[Philadelphia Flyers]]\|date\=2011\-07\-19\|accessdate\=2011\-07\-19}} Used primarily as a veteran backup within the Flyers organization, he spent the majority of the year with AHL affiliate, the [Adirondack Phantoms](/wiki/Adirondack_Phantoms "Adirondack Phantoms"). He was recalled twice to Philadelphia to dress and serve as a backup, however again was unable to mark a return to the NHL since 2007\. On July 22, 2012, Bacashihua was signed to his first professional European contract on a one\-year deal to become a number one starter with [German](/wiki/Germany "Germany") club, [Straubing Tigers](/wiki/Straubing_Tigers "Straubing Tigers") of the DEL.{{cite web \| url \= http://www.tigershockey.de/page/news/article.php?article\_file\=1342976204\.txt \| title \= New number one Tiger is clear: AHL goalie Jason Bacashihua comes \| publisher \= \[\[Straubing Tigers]] \| date \= 2012\-07\-22 \| accessdate \= 2012\-07\-22 \| language \= German \| archive\-date \= 2015\-05\-18 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20150518103053/http://www.tigershockey.de/page/news/article.php?article\_file\=1342976204\.txt \| url\-status \= dead }} In making his DEL debut during the [2012–13](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_Deutsche_Eishockey_Liga_season "2012–13 Deutsche Eishockey Liga season") season, Bacashihua responded with the strong start with the Tigers to earn a one\-year extension on December 28, 2012\. He appeared in every game with the Tigers as their starting goalie to help gain a playoff position through qualification before losing in the first round. In the two following seasons with the Tigers, Bacashihua was unable to prevent the club from missing the playoffs. With a decline statistically in his third season, Bacashihua was not offered a new contract at season's end with Straubing on March 3, 2015\.{{cite web \| url \= http://www.straubing\-tigers.de/aktuelles/article/zeit\-fuer\-einen\-umbruch.html \| title \= Time for a break: Eight leave Tigers \| publisher \= \[\[Straubing Tigers]] \| date \= 2015\-03\-03 \| accessdate \= 2015\-03\-03 \| language \= German \| url\-status \= dead \| archiveurl \= https://web.archive.org/web/20150307030035/http://www.straubing\-tigers.de/aktuelles/article/zeit\-fuer\-einen\-umbruch.html \| archivedate \= 2015\-03\-07 }} After not receiving a new contract, he moved to the [Slovak Extraliga](/wiki/Slovak_Extraliga "Slovak Extraliga"), where he played two seasons with [HC 05 Banská Bystrica](/wiki/HC_05_Bansk%C3%A1_Bystrica "HC 05 Banská Bystrica"), leading the league in his second season with a 2\.05 goals against average and helping Bystrica claim the Championship. For the 2017–18 season, he moved to [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea "South Korea") and played with [High1](/wiki/High1 "High1") in [Asia League Ice Hockey](/wiki/Asia_League_Ice_Hockey "Asia League Ice Hockey"). At the start of the 2018–19 season, he continued his journeyman career in moving to [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland") to play for [Cracovia](/wiki/KS_Cracovia_%28ice_hockey%29 "KS Cracovia (ice hockey)") on September 28, 2018\.{{cite web\| url \= https://cracovia.pl/hokej/news/wiadomosci/jason\_bacashihua\_wzmacnia\_comarch\_cracovie \| title \= Jason Bacashihua agrees to terms to play in PHL! \| publisher \= \[\[KS Cracovia (ice hockey)\|KS Cracovia]] \| date \= 2018\-09\-28 \| accessdate \= 2018\-09\-28 \| language \= Polish}} After spells with [WSV Sterzing Broncos](/wiki/WSV_Sterzing_Broncos "WSV Sterzing Broncos") and [Dunaújvárosi Acélbikák](/wiki/Duna%C3%BAjv%C3%A1rosi_Ac%C3%A9lbik%C3%A1k "Dunaújvárosi Acélbikák"), Bacashihua signed for UK [EIHL](/wiki/EIHL "EIHL") side [Manchester Storm](/wiki/Manchester_Storm_%282015-%29 "Manchester Storm (2015-)") in November 2021, following an injury to the Storm's starting goaltender Matt Ginn.
[ "Playing career\n--------------", "Bacashihua was selected in the first round of the [2001 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/2001_NHL_Entry_Draft \"2001 NHL Entry Draft\") by the [Dallas Stars](/wiki/Dallas_Stars \"Dallas Stars\"), 26th overall. He spent two seasons with the Stars' [AHL](/wiki/American_Hockey_League \"American Hockey League\") affiliate [Utah Grizzlies](/wiki/Utah_Grizzlies_%281995%E2%80%932005%29 \"Utah Grizzlies (1995–2005)\") before he was traded on June 25, 2004, to the [St. Louis Blues](/wiki/St._Louis_Blues \"St. Louis Blues\") for [Shawn Belle](/wiki/Shawn_Belle \"Shawn Belle\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://nbcsports.msnbc.com/id/5300451/\\|title\\=Blues get Bacashihua\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NBC Sports]]\\|date\\=2004\\-06\\-24\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-11\\-23\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120902212642/http://nbcsports.msnbc.com/id/5300451/\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-02\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "Jason played for the Blues AHL affiliates, the [Worcester IceCats](/wiki/Worcester_IceCats \"Worcester IceCats\") and the [Peoria Rivermen](/wiki/Peoria_Rivermen_%28AHL%29 \"Peoria Rivermen (AHL)\"), before being called up to the main Blues roster and making his NHL debut in the [2005–06](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_NHL_season \"2005–06 NHL season\") season. After failing to make the team out of training camp, Bacashihua was assigned to Peoria prior to the [2007–08](/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_NHL_season \"2007–08 NHL season\") season.", "On November 8, 2007, Bacashihua was traded by the Blues to the [Colorado Avalanche](/wiki/Colorado_Avalanche \"Colorado Avalanche\") for future considerations, and was assigned to the Avalanche's affiliate, the [Lake Erie Monsters](/wiki/Lake_Erie_Monsters \"Lake Erie Monsters\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://blues.nhl.com/team/app?articleid\\=342661\\&page\\=NewsPage\\&service\\=page\\|title\\=Blues trade Bacashihua to Colorado for future considerations\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[St. Louis Blues]]\\|date\\=2007\\-11\\-08\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-11\\-23}}{{dead link\\|date\\=September 2017 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} The Monsters are the same Grizzlies franchise, renamed and relocated, with whom Bacashihua started his AHL career. Bacashihua spent the next season and a half with the Monsters rotating the starting position with [Tyler Weiman](/wiki/Tyler_Weiman \"Tyler Weiman\"). During the [2008–09](/wiki/2008-09_AHL_season \"2008-09 AHL season\") season between February and March, Bacashihua won a franchise\\-best eight straight games. He was selected as the AHL Player of the Week (February 23 – March 1\\), to mark the first time in franchise history a Monsters player had received the award.{{cite web\\| url \\= http://avalanche.nhl.com/club/news.htm?id\\=427069 \\| title \\= Lake Erie enjoys success in year two \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Colorado Avalanche]] \\| date \\= 2009\\-04\\-14 \\| accessdate \\= 2009\\-04\\-14}}", "On July 31, 2009, Bacashihua signed a one\\-year contract with the Hershey Bears of the AHL for the [2009–10](/wiki/2009-10_AHL_season \"2009-10 AHL season\") season.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.theahl.com/headlines/index.html?article\\_id\\=10352\\|title\\=Bears bag Bacashihua for 2009\\-10 \\| publisher \\=\\[\\[American Hockey League\\|AHL]] \\| date \\= 2009\\-07\\-31 \\| accessdate \\= 2009\\-08\\-01}} {{Dead link\\|date\\=October 2010\\|bot\\=H3llBot}} He appeared in pre\\-season games for the Washington Capitals before being reassigned to Hershey. In 22 regular season games he won an impressive 17 however he was demoted to third choice goalie behind Capitals prospects and failed to make a playoff appearance for the [Calder Cup](/wiki/Calder_Cup \"Calder Cup\") winning Bears.", "On July 2, 2010, Bacashihua returned to the Colorado Avalanche organization, signing a one\\-year contract as a free agent for the [2010–11](/wiki/2010-11_AHL_season \"2010-11 AHL season\") season.{{cite web\\| url \\= http://avalanche.nhl.com/club/news.htm?id\\=533714 \\| title \\= Avalanche signs Quincey, Winnik and six others \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Colorado Avalanche]] \\| date \\= 2010\\-07\\-02 \\| accessdate \\= 2010\\-07\\-04}} Assigned to reacquaint with the Lake Erie Monsters, Bacashihua split the season with former NHL goaltender [John Grahame](/wiki/John_Grahame \"John Grahame\") to form one of the best performing tandems in the AHL. He was recalled by the Avalanche on one occasion to serve as backup in place of the injured [Craig Anderson](/wiki/Craig_Anderson_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Craig Anderson (ice hockey)\"), however failed to make his Avalanche debut.{{cite web\\| url \\= http://avalanche.nhl.com/club/news.htm?id\\=541685 \\| title \\= Anderson injured prior to Vancouver game \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Colorado Avalanche]] \\| date \\= 2010\\-10\\-25 \\| accessdate \\= 2010\\-10\\-25}} Returning to the Monsters to set a career professional best in goals against average, Bacashihua appeared in 42 games for 23 wins to help guide the Monsters to their first post\\-season berth.", "On July 19, 2011, Bacashihua signed a one\\-year contract with the [Philadelphia Flyers](/wiki/Philadelphia_Flyers \"Philadelphia Flyers\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Flyers Sign Three\\|url\\=http://flyers.nhl.com/club/news.htm?id\\=569662\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Philadelphia Flyers]]\\|date\\=2011\\-07\\-19\\|accessdate\\=2011\\-07\\-19}} Used primarily as a veteran backup within the Flyers organization, he spent the majority of the year with AHL affiliate, the [Adirondack Phantoms](/wiki/Adirondack_Phantoms \"Adirondack Phantoms\"). He was recalled twice to Philadelphia to dress and serve as a backup, however again was unable to mark a return to the NHL since 2007\\.", "On July 22, 2012, Bacashihua was signed to his first professional European contract on a one\\-year deal to become a number one starter with [German](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") club, [Straubing Tigers](/wiki/Straubing_Tigers \"Straubing Tigers\") of the DEL.{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.tigershockey.de/page/news/article.php?article\\_file\\=1342976204\\.txt \\| title \\= New number one Tiger is clear: AHL goalie Jason Bacashihua comes \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Straubing Tigers]] \\| date \\= 2012\\-07\\-22 \\| accessdate \\= 2012\\-07\\-22 \\| language \\= German \\| archive\\-date \\= 2015\\-05\\-18 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20150518103053/http://www.tigershockey.de/page/news/article.php?article\\_file\\=1342976204\\.txt \\| url\\-status \\= dead }} In making his DEL debut during the [2012–13](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_Deutsche_Eishockey_Liga_season \"2012–13 Deutsche Eishockey Liga season\") season, Bacashihua responded with the strong start with the Tigers to earn a one\\-year extension on December 28, 2012\\. He appeared in every game with the Tigers as their starting goalie to help gain a playoff position through qualification before losing in the first round.", "In the two following seasons with the Tigers, Bacashihua was unable to prevent the club from missing the playoffs. With a decline statistically in his third season, Bacashihua was not offered a new contract at season's end with Straubing on March 3, 2015\\.{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.straubing\\-tigers.de/aktuelles/article/zeit\\-fuer\\-einen\\-umbruch.html \\| title \\= Time for a break: Eight leave Tigers \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Straubing Tigers]] \\| date \\= 2015\\-03\\-03 \\| accessdate \\= 2015\\-03\\-03 \\| language \\= German \\| url\\-status \\= dead \\| archiveurl \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20150307030035/http://www.straubing\\-tigers.de/aktuelles/article/zeit\\-fuer\\-einen\\-umbruch.html \\| archivedate \\= 2015\\-03\\-07 }}", "After not receiving a new contract, he moved to the [Slovak Extraliga](/wiki/Slovak_Extraliga \"Slovak Extraliga\"), where he played two seasons with [HC 05 Banská Bystrica](/wiki/HC_05_Bansk%C3%A1_Bystrica \"HC 05 Banská Bystrica\"), leading the league in his second season with a 2\\.05 goals against average and helping Bystrica claim the Championship. For the 2017–18 season, he moved to [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea \"South Korea\") and played with [High1](/wiki/High1 \"High1\") in [Asia League Ice Hockey](/wiki/Asia_League_Ice_Hockey \"Asia League Ice Hockey\").", "At the start of the 2018–19 season, he continued his journeyman career in moving to [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\") to play for [Cracovia](/wiki/KS_Cracovia_%28ice_hockey%29 \"KS Cracovia (ice hockey)\") on September 28, 2018\\.{{cite web\\| url \\= https://cracovia.pl/hokej/news/wiadomosci/jason\\_bacashihua\\_wzmacnia\\_comarch\\_cracovie \\| title \\= Jason Bacashihua agrees to terms to play in PHL! \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[KS Cracovia (ice hockey)\\|KS Cracovia]] \\| date \\= 2018\\-09\\-28 \\| accessdate \\= 2018\\-09\\-28 \\| language \\= Polish}}", "After spells with [WSV Sterzing Broncos](/wiki/WSV_Sterzing_Broncos \"WSV Sterzing Broncos\") and [Dunaújvárosi Acélbikák](/wiki/Duna%C3%BAjv%C3%A1rosi_Ac%C3%A9lbik%C3%A1k \"Dunaújvárosi Acélbikák\"), Bacashihua signed for UK [EIHL](/wiki/EIHL \"EIHL\") side [Manchester Storm](/wiki/Manchester_Storm_%282015-%29 \"Manchester Storm (2015-)\") in November 2021, following an injury to the Storm's starting goaltender Matt Ginn.", "" ]
Baseball front offices ---------------------- In 1933 he was named as traveling secretary for the [Cincinnati Reds](/wiki/Cincinnati_Reds "Cincinnati Reds"), while continuing to spend his offseasons as an official. After later spending one season as general manager of the team's [Durham, North Carolina](/wiki/Durham%2C_North_Carolina "Durham, North Carolina") minor league club, Lane was elevated to assistant general manager for the Reds under [Warren Giles](/wiki/Warren_Giles "Warren Giles") on November 17, 1936\. After the U.S. entered World War II, Lane joined the [Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy") and spent the next four years in the service before returning in [1946](/wiki/1946_in_baseball "1946 in baseball") as general manager of the [Kansas City Blues](/wiki/Kansas_City_Blues_%28American_Association%29 "Kansas City Blues (American Association)"), a top [farm club](/wiki/Minor_league_baseball "Minor league baseball") of the [New York Yankees](/wiki/New_York_Yankees "New York Yankees"). One year in that position led to a two\-year stretch as president of the minor league [American Association](/wiki/American_Association_%2820th_century%29 "American Association (20th century)"). ### Chicago White Sox Lane then resigned that post in [1948](/wiki/1948_in_baseball "1948 in baseball") to become general manager of the White Sox. Over the next seven years, he shaped the team into a contender after more than two decades of mediocrity, acquiring [Baseball Hall of Famers](/wiki/Baseball_Hall_of_Fame "Baseball Hall of Fame") [Nellie Fox](/wiki/Nellie_Fox "Nellie Fox") and [Minnie Miñoso](/wiki/Minnie_Mi%C3%B1oso "Minnie Miñoso"), and [All\-Stars](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball_All-Star_Game "Major League Baseball All-Star Game") [Chico Carrasquel](/wiki/Chico_Carrasquel "Chico Carrasquel"), [Sherm Lollar](/wiki/Sherm_Lollar "Sherm Lollar") and [Billy Pierce](/wiki/Billy_Pierce "Billy Pierce"), among many others. Fox, a future 15\-time All\-Star and {{mlby\|1959}} [American League MVP](/wiki/American_League_Most_Valuable_Player_Award "American League Most Valuable Player Award"), was acquired from the [Philadelphia Athletics](/wiki/Philadelphia_Athletics "Philadelphia Athletics") at age 21, straight\-up for backup [catcher](/wiki/Catcher "Catcher") [Joe Tipton](/wiki/Joe_Tipton "Joe Tipton"); the price of the [Detroit Tigers](/wiki/Detroit_Tigers "Detroit Tigers")' Pierce (also 21\), a future seven\-time AL All\-Star who would win 186 games in a White Sox uniform, was another catcher, 33\-year\-old [Aaron Robinson](/wiki/Aaron_Robinson_%28baseball%29 "Aaron Robinson (baseball)"), who had only three major\-league seasons left in his tank. In his seven years in Chicago, Lane made 241 trades.*Roger Maris: Baseball's Reluctant Hero*, p.93, Tom Clavin and Danny Peary, Touchstone Books, Published by Simon \& Schuster, New York, 2010, {{ISBN\|978\-1\-4165\-8928\-0}} The ChiSox made their league's [first division](/wiki/First_division_%28baseball%29 "First division (baseball)") in 1951, and topped the one\-million mark in attendance each year for the remainder of Lane's tenure. ### St. Louis Cardinals After resigning in September [1955](/wiki/1955_in_baseball "1955 in baseball"), Lane quickly found work again in St. Louis, signing a three\-year contract as general manager of the Cardinals on October 6\.{{cite web \|url\= https://tht.fangraphs.com/nothing\-sacred/ \|title\=Nothing Sacred \|last\=Jackson \|first\=Frank \|date\=2 November 2012 \|website\=The Hardball Times \|publisher\=Fangraphs \|access\-date\=13 September 2021 \|quote\=}} His first controversial move was to introduce new home and away uniforms of which the pair of redbirds on a bat was removed in favor of only the name "Cardinals" in red script edged with navy blue.["'Cardinals' to Be Lettered Across Road Uniforms," *St. Louis Post\-Dispatch*, Sunday, March 4, 1956\.](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/15982105/1956-frank-lane-explains-new-uniform/) Retrieved April 14, 2020 In what he subsequently referred to as "the worst trade \[he] ever made,"[Richman, Milton. "Bill Virdon is shaping up real fine," *United Press International* (UPI), Monday, September 23, 1974\.](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1734&dat=19740923&id=Qn4cAAAAIBAJ&sjid=21EEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7033,2179911) Retrieved February 26, 2016 Lane sent [Bill Virdon](/wiki/Bill_Virdon "Bill Virdon"), recipient of the previous season's [National League Rookie of the Year Award](/wiki/National_League_Rookie_of_the_Year_Award "National League Rookie of the Year Award"), to the Pirates for [Bobby Del Greco](/wiki/Bobby_Del_Greco "Bobby Del Greco") and [Dick Littlefield](/wiki/Dick_Littlefield "Dick Littlefield") on May 17, 1956\.[Singer, Tom. "Pirates' all\-time Top 5 in\-season trades," MLB.com, Thursday, July 18, 2013\.](https://www.mlb.com/pirates/news/pirates-all-time-top-5-in-season-trades/c-53969440) Retrieved April 14, 2020 When Lane tried to trade superstar hitter [Stan Musial](/wiki/Stan_Musial "Stan Musial") to the [Philadelphia Phillies](/wiki/Philadelphia_Phillies "Philadelphia Phillies") for pitcher [Robin Roberts](/wiki/Robin_Roberts_%28baseball%29 "Robin Roberts (baseball)")—both future Hall of Famers—news of the proposed transaction was leaked to the radio and Cardinals' owner [August A. Busch Jr.](/wiki/August_A._Busch_Jr. "August A. Busch Jr.") stopped the deal.*Charlie Finley: The Outrageous Story of Baseball's Super Showman*, p.39, G. Michael Green and Roger D. Launius. Walker Publishing Company, New York, 2010, {{ISBN\|978\-0\-8027\-1745\-0}} ### Cleveland Indians The Cardinals finished second in their league in {{mlby\|1957}}, eight games out, but Lane moved on to Cleveland in November to take the reins of the Indians' front office. There he [gained infamy](/wiki/Curse_of_Rocky_Colavito "Curse of Rocky Colavito") in April 1960 by trading popular star slugger [Rocky Colavito](/wiki/Rocky_Colavito "Rocky Colavito"), who co\-led the Junior Circuit in home runs in 1959, to the Detroit Tigers for [Harvey Kuenn](/wiki/Harvey_Kuenn "Harvey Kuenn"), the defending American League batting champion, whom Lane would trade to the [San Francisco Giants](/wiki/San_Francisco_Giants "San Francisco Giants") on December 3 for [John Antonelli](/wiki/Johnny_Antonelli "Johnny Antonelli") and [Willie Kirkland](/wiki/Willie_Kirkland "Willie Kirkland"); this was the final trade for Lane as GM of the Indians.{{cite web \| url\=https://sabr.org/journal/article/the\-rocky\-colavito\-harvey\-kuenn\-trade/ \| title\=The Rocky Colavito–Harvey Kuenn Trade – Society for American Baseball Research }} ### Kansas City Athletics Lane left Cleveland in January [1961](/wiki/1961_in_baseball "1961 in baseball") to become general manager of the Kansas City Athletics, but the combination of Lane and volatile owner [Charlie Finley](/wiki/Charlie_Finley "Charlie Finley") led to an early end to Lane's employment just eight months later, and a lawsuit ensued. Due to his uncertain contract status, Lane was forced out of baseball during this period, but found employment in early 1962 as general manager of the [National Basketball Association](/wiki/National_Basketball_Association "National Basketball Association")'s [Chicago Packers](/wiki/Washington_Wizards "Washington Wizards"). He did not join the team when they moved to Baltimore after the 1963 season. The following year, the lawsuit finally went to trial.{{cite web \| url\=https://sabr.org/bioproj/person/frank\-lane\-2/ \| title\=Frank Lane – Society for American Baseball Research }} On January 8, 1965, Lane settled his lawsuit with Finley, accepting $113,000 plus the freedom to take another baseball front\-office position. Early reports of his being part of an ownership group to buy the [Boston Red Sox](/wiki/Boston_Red_Sox "Boston Red Sox"), as well as potentially serving as president of the [Texas League](/wiki/Texas_League "Texas League"), proved to be unfounded. Instead, he was appointed as a special assistant to the president with the [Baltimore Orioles](/wiki/Baltimore_Orioles "Baltimore Orioles") two months later on March 6, handling the duties of a [scout](/wiki/Scout_%28sport%29 "Scout (sport)"), field representative and traveling ambassador.["Lane Gets Post With Orioles as Special Aide to MacPhail, Club President," *United Press International* (UPI), Saturday, March 6, 1965\.](https://www.nytimes.com/1965/03/07/archives/lane-gets-post-with-orioles-as-special-aide-to-macphail-club.html) Retrieved December 26, 2022\. He served in that capacity for nearly six years. ### Milwaukee Brewers Shortly before his 76th birthday, Lane was hired as director of player personnel with the [Milwaukee Brewers](/wiki/Milwaukee_Brewers "Milwaukee Brewers") on January 23, 1971\.["Lane Gets Brewers' Post," *United Press International* (UPI), Sunday, January 24, 1971\.](https://www.nytimes.com/1971/01/25/archives/lane-gets-brewers-post.html) Retrieved December 26, 2022\. He took advantage of the rain postponement of Game 2 of the [1971 World Series](/wiki/1971_World_Series "1971 World Series") on October 10 to acquire [George Scott](/wiki/George_Scott_%28first_baseman%29 "George Scott (first baseman)"), [Jim Lonborg](/wiki/Jim_Lonborg "Jim Lonborg"), [Ken Brett](/wiki/Ken_Brett "Ken Brett"), [Billy Conigliaro](/wiki/Billy_Conigliaro "Billy Conigliaro"), [Joe Lahoud](/wiki/Joe_Lahoud "Joe Lahoud") and [Don Pavletich](/wiki/Don_Pavletich "Don Pavletich") in a ten\-player blockbuster that also sent [Tommy Harper](/wiki/Tommy_Harper "Tommy Harper"), [Marty Pattin](/wiki/Marty_Pattin "Marty Pattin"), [Lew Krausse Jr.](/wiki/Lew_Krausse_Jr. "Lew Krausse Jr.") and minor\-league outfielder Pat Skrable to the Red Sox.["Bosox\-Brewers In Ten\-Man Swap," *United Press International* (UPI), Sunday, October 10, 1971\.](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=da8iAAAAIBAJ&sjid=ALMFAAAAIBAJ&pg=3895,2552887&dq=joe-lahoud&hl=en) Retrieved September 22, 2018 Lane ended his career as a scout for both the [California Angels](/wiki/California_Angels "California Angels") and [Texas Rangers](/wiki/Texas_Rangers_%28baseball%29 "Texas Rangers (baseball)").
[ "Baseball front offices\n----------------------", "In 1933 he was named as traveling secretary for the [Cincinnati Reds](/wiki/Cincinnati_Reds \"Cincinnati Reds\"), while continuing to spend his offseasons as an official. After later spending one season as general manager of the team's [Durham, North Carolina](/wiki/Durham%2C_North_Carolina \"Durham, North Carolina\") minor league club, Lane was elevated to assistant general manager for the Reds under [Warren Giles](/wiki/Warren_Giles \"Warren Giles\") on November 17, 1936\\.", "After the U.S. entered World War II, Lane joined the [Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\") and spent the next four years in the service before returning in [1946](/wiki/1946_in_baseball \"1946 in baseball\") as general manager of the [Kansas City Blues](/wiki/Kansas_City_Blues_%28American_Association%29 \"Kansas City Blues (American Association)\"), a top [farm club](/wiki/Minor_league_baseball \"Minor league baseball\") of the [New York Yankees](/wiki/New_York_Yankees \"New York Yankees\"). One year in that position led to a two\\-year stretch as president of the minor league [American Association](/wiki/American_Association_%2820th_century%29 \"American Association (20th century)\").", "### Chicago White Sox", "Lane then resigned that post in [1948](/wiki/1948_in_baseball \"1948 in baseball\") to become general manager of the White Sox. Over the next seven years, he shaped the team into a contender after more than two decades of mediocrity, acquiring [Baseball Hall of Famers](/wiki/Baseball_Hall_of_Fame \"Baseball Hall of Fame\") [Nellie Fox](/wiki/Nellie_Fox \"Nellie Fox\") and [Minnie Miñoso](/wiki/Minnie_Mi%C3%B1oso \"Minnie Miñoso\"), and [All\\-Stars](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball_All-Star_Game \"Major League Baseball All-Star Game\") [Chico Carrasquel](/wiki/Chico_Carrasquel \"Chico Carrasquel\"), [Sherm Lollar](/wiki/Sherm_Lollar \"Sherm Lollar\") and [Billy Pierce](/wiki/Billy_Pierce \"Billy Pierce\"), among many others. Fox, a future 15\\-time All\\-Star and {{mlby\\|1959}} [American League MVP](/wiki/American_League_Most_Valuable_Player_Award \"American League Most Valuable Player Award\"), was acquired from the [Philadelphia Athletics](/wiki/Philadelphia_Athletics \"Philadelphia Athletics\") at age 21, straight\\-up for backup [catcher](/wiki/Catcher \"Catcher\") [Joe Tipton](/wiki/Joe_Tipton \"Joe Tipton\"); the price of the [Detroit Tigers](/wiki/Detroit_Tigers \"Detroit Tigers\")' Pierce (also 21\\), a future seven\\-time AL All\\-Star who would win 186 games in a White Sox uniform, was another catcher, 33\\-year\\-old [Aaron Robinson](/wiki/Aaron_Robinson_%28baseball%29 \"Aaron Robinson (baseball)\"), who had only three major\\-league seasons left in his tank. In his seven years in Chicago, Lane made 241 trades.*Roger Maris: Baseball's Reluctant Hero*, p.93, Tom Clavin and Danny Peary, Touchstone Books, Published by Simon \\& Schuster, New York, 2010, {{ISBN\\|978\\-1\\-4165\\-8928\\-0}} The ChiSox made their league's [first division](/wiki/First_division_%28baseball%29 \"First division (baseball)\") in 1951, and topped the one\\-million mark in attendance each year for the remainder of Lane's tenure.", "### St. Louis Cardinals", "After resigning in September [1955](/wiki/1955_in_baseball \"1955 in baseball\"), Lane quickly found work again in St. Louis, signing a three\\-year contract as general manager of the Cardinals on October 6\\.{{cite web \\|url\\= https://tht.fangraphs.com/nothing\\-sacred/ \\|title\\=Nothing Sacred \\|last\\=Jackson \\|first\\=Frank \\|date\\=2 November 2012 \\|website\\=The Hardball Times \\|publisher\\=Fangraphs \\|access\\-date\\=13 September 2021 \\|quote\\=}} His first controversial move was to introduce new home and away uniforms of which the pair of redbirds on a bat was removed in favor of only the name \"Cardinals\" in red script edged with navy blue.[\"'Cardinals' to Be Lettered Across Road Uniforms,\" *St. Louis Post\\-Dispatch*, Sunday, March 4, 1956\\.](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/15982105/1956-frank-lane-explains-new-uniform/) Retrieved April 14, 2020 In what he subsequently referred to as \"the worst trade \\[he] ever made,\"[Richman, Milton. \"Bill Virdon is shaping up real fine,\" *United Press International* (UPI), Monday, September 23, 1974\\.](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1734&dat=19740923&id=Qn4cAAAAIBAJ&sjid=21EEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7033,2179911) Retrieved February 26, 2016 Lane sent [Bill Virdon](/wiki/Bill_Virdon \"Bill Virdon\"), recipient of the previous season's [National League Rookie of the Year Award](/wiki/National_League_Rookie_of_the_Year_Award \"National League Rookie of the Year Award\"), to the Pirates for [Bobby Del Greco](/wiki/Bobby_Del_Greco \"Bobby Del Greco\") and [Dick Littlefield](/wiki/Dick_Littlefield \"Dick Littlefield\") on May 17, 1956\\.[Singer, Tom. \"Pirates' all\\-time Top 5 in\\-season trades,\" MLB.com, Thursday, July 18, 2013\\.](https://www.mlb.com/pirates/news/pirates-all-time-top-5-in-season-trades/c-53969440) Retrieved April 14, 2020 When Lane tried to trade superstar hitter [Stan Musial](/wiki/Stan_Musial \"Stan Musial\") to the [Philadelphia Phillies](/wiki/Philadelphia_Phillies \"Philadelphia Phillies\") for pitcher [Robin Roberts](/wiki/Robin_Roberts_%28baseball%29 \"Robin Roberts (baseball)\")—both future Hall of Famers—news of the proposed transaction was leaked to the radio and Cardinals' owner [August A. Busch Jr.](/wiki/August_A._Busch_Jr. \"August A. Busch Jr.\") stopped the deal.*Charlie Finley: The Outrageous Story of Baseball's Super Showman*, p.39, G. Michael Green and Roger D. Launius. Walker Publishing Company, New York, 2010, {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-8027\\-1745\\-0}}", "### Cleveland Indians", "The Cardinals finished second in their league in {{mlby\\|1957}}, eight games out, but Lane moved on to Cleveland in November to take the reins of the Indians' front office. There he [gained infamy](/wiki/Curse_of_Rocky_Colavito \"Curse of Rocky Colavito\") in April 1960 by trading popular star slugger [Rocky Colavito](/wiki/Rocky_Colavito \"Rocky Colavito\"), who co\\-led the Junior Circuit in home runs in 1959, to the Detroit Tigers for [Harvey Kuenn](/wiki/Harvey_Kuenn \"Harvey Kuenn\"), the defending American League batting champion, whom Lane would trade to the [San Francisco Giants](/wiki/San_Francisco_Giants \"San Francisco Giants\") on December 3 for [John Antonelli](/wiki/Johnny_Antonelli \"Johnny Antonelli\") and [Willie Kirkland](/wiki/Willie_Kirkland \"Willie Kirkland\"); this was the final trade for Lane as GM of the Indians.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://sabr.org/journal/article/the\\-rocky\\-colavito\\-harvey\\-kuenn\\-trade/ \\| title\\=The Rocky Colavito–Harvey Kuenn Trade – Society for American Baseball Research }}", "### Kansas City Athletics", "Lane left Cleveland in January [1961](/wiki/1961_in_baseball \"1961 in baseball\") to become general manager of the Kansas City Athletics, but the combination of Lane and volatile owner [Charlie Finley](/wiki/Charlie_Finley \"Charlie Finley\") led to an early end to Lane's employment just eight months later, and a lawsuit ensued. Due to his uncertain contract status, Lane was forced out of baseball during this period, but found employment in early 1962 as general manager of the [National Basketball Association](/wiki/National_Basketball_Association \"National Basketball Association\")'s [Chicago Packers](/wiki/Washington_Wizards \"Washington Wizards\"). He did not join the team when they moved to Baltimore after the 1963 season. The following year, the lawsuit finally went to trial.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://sabr.org/bioproj/person/frank\\-lane\\-2/ \\| title\\=Frank Lane – Society for American Baseball Research }}", "On January 8, 1965, Lane settled his lawsuit with Finley, accepting $113,000 plus the freedom to take another baseball front\\-office position. Early reports of his being part of an ownership group to buy the [Boston Red Sox](/wiki/Boston_Red_Sox \"Boston Red Sox\"), as well as potentially serving as president of the [Texas League](/wiki/Texas_League \"Texas League\"), proved to be unfounded. Instead, he was appointed as a special assistant to the president with the [Baltimore Orioles](/wiki/Baltimore_Orioles \"Baltimore Orioles\") two months later on March 6, handling the duties of a [scout](/wiki/Scout_%28sport%29 \"Scout (sport)\"), field representative and traveling ambassador.[\"Lane Gets Post With Orioles as Special Aide to MacPhail, Club President,\" *United Press International* (UPI), Saturday, March 6, 1965\\.](https://www.nytimes.com/1965/03/07/archives/lane-gets-post-with-orioles-as-special-aide-to-macphail-club.html) Retrieved December 26, 2022\\. He served in that capacity for nearly six years.", "### Milwaukee Brewers", "Shortly before his 76th birthday, Lane was hired as director of player personnel with the [Milwaukee Brewers](/wiki/Milwaukee_Brewers \"Milwaukee Brewers\") on January 23, 1971\\.[\"Lane Gets Brewers' Post,\" *United Press International* (UPI), Sunday, January 24, 1971\\.](https://www.nytimes.com/1971/01/25/archives/lane-gets-brewers-post.html) Retrieved December 26, 2022\\. He took advantage of the rain postponement of Game 2 of the [1971 World Series](/wiki/1971_World_Series \"1971 World Series\") on October 10 to acquire [George Scott](/wiki/George_Scott_%28first_baseman%29 \"George Scott (first baseman)\"), [Jim Lonborg](/wiki/Jim_Lonborg \"Jim Lonborg\"), [Ken Brett](/wiki/Ken_Brett \"Ken Brett\"), [Billy Conigliaro](/wiki/Billy_Conigliaro \"Billy Conigliaro\"), [Joe Lahoud](/wiki/Joe_Lahoud \"Joe Lahoud\") and [Don Pavletich](/wiki/Don_Pavletich \"Don Pavletich\") in a ten\\-player blockbuster that also sent [Tommy Harper](/wiki/Tommy_Harper \"Tommy Harper\"), [Marty Pattin](/wiki/Marty_Pattin \"Marty Pattin\"), [Lew Krausse Jr.](/wiki/Lew_Krausse_Jr. \"Lew Krausse Jr.\") and minor\\-league outfielder Pat Skrable to the Red Sox.[\"Bosox\\-Brewers In Ten\\-Man Swap,\" *United Press International* (UPI), Sunday, October 10, 1971\\.](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=da8iAAAAIBAJ&sjid=ALMFAAAAIBAJ&pg=3895,2552887&dq=joe-lahoud&hl=en) Retrieved September 22, 2018 Lane ended his career as a scout for both the [California Angels](/wiki/California_Angels \"California Angels\") and [Texas Rangers](/wiki/Texas_Rangers_%28baseball%29 \"Texas Rangers (baseball)\").", "" ]
Notable people -------------- Notable historic year\-round or summer residents of Cooperstown included: * [Kenneth Bainbridge](/wiki/Kenneth_Bainbridge "Kenneth Bainbridge") — physicist, contributor to the [Manhattan Project](/wiki/Manhattan_Project "Manhattan Project") * [Erastus Flavel Beadle](/wiki/Erastus_Flavel_Beadle "Erastus Flavel Beadle") — pioneer in publishing pulp fiction, in particular creating the [dime novel](/wiki/Dime_novel "Dime novel") * [F. Ambrose Clark](/wiki/F._Ambrose_Clark "F. Ambrose Clark") — equine sportsman, philanthropist, art collector * [Robert Sterling Clark](/wiki/Robert_Sterling_Clark "Robert Sterling Clark") — philanthropist, racehorse owner, art collector * [Stephen Carlton Clark](/wiki/Stephen_Carlton_Clark "Stephen Carlton Clark") — philanthropist, art collector * [James Fenimore Cooper](/wiki/James_Fenimore_Cooper "James Fenimore Cooper") — grew up here and lived here as an adult, novelist of the New York frontier * [William Cooper](/wiki/William_Cooper_%28judge%29 "William Cooper (judge)") — founder and politician * [Michaela Dietz](/wiki/Michaela_Dietz "Michaela Dietz") — actress * [John A. Dix](/wiki/John_Adams_Dix "John Adams Dix") — [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") general and political leader * [Abner Doubleday](/wiki/Abner_Doubleday "Abner Doubleday") — Civil War officer and supposed inventor of baseball * [Bud Fowler](/wiki/Bud_Fowler "Bud Fowler") — baseball player and member of the National Baseball Hall of Fame * [Lauren Groff](/wiki/Lauren_Groff "Lauren Groff") — writer and novelist * [Kevin Guilfoile](/wiki/Kevin_Guilfoile "Kevin Guilfoile") — author of *[Cast of Shadows](/wiki/Cast_of_Shadows "Cast of Shadows")* and *The Thousand* * [Samuel F. B. Morse](/wiki/Samuel_F._B._Morse "Samuel F. B. Morse") — inventor, painter * [Samuel Nelson](/wiki/Samuel_Nelson "Samuel Nelson") — Associate Justice of the [U.S. Supreme Court](/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court "U.S. Supreme Court") * [Thurlow Weed](/wiki/Thurlow_Weed "Thurlow Weed") — newspaper publisher and [Whig](/wiki/Whig_Party_%28United_States%29 "Whig Party (United States)") and [Republican Party](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "Republican Party (United States)") politician ### Cooperstown writers Aside from James Fenimore Cooper, noted Cooperstown authors include his daughter [Susan Fenimore Cooper](/wiki/Susan_Fenimore_Cooper "Susan Fenimore Cooper"), the author of *Rural Hours*, and his great\-great\-grandson [Paul Fenimore Cooper](/wiki/Paul_Fenimore_Cooper "Paul Fenimore Cooper"), author of *[Tal: His Marvelous Adventures with Noom\-Zor\-Noom](/wiki/Tal:His_Marvelous_Adventures_with_Noom-Zor-Noom "His Marvelous Adventures with Noom-Zor-Noom")* (1929, 1957, 2001\). Other writers include modern author [Lauren Groff](/wiki/Lauren_Groff "Lauren Groff"), who has written extensively about her hometown, notably in *[The Monsters of Templeton](/wiki/The_Monsters_of_Templeton "The Monsters of Templeton")*, a story that brings several Cooperstown legends to life. The work of Cooperstown\-based novelist and poet [Marly Youmans](/wiki/Marly_Youmans "Marly Youmans") has referred to the area, notably in her epic poem *Thaliad* (2012\), in which a group of child survivors of an apocalypse travel north and make their new home in an abandoned village on the shore of Glimmerglass Lake.Youmans, Marly. *Thaliad* (Montreal: Phoenecia Publishing, 2012\) {{ISBN\|978\-0\-9866909\-3\-8}}'[Linda McCullough Moore, *Books and Culture,* May 2012](http://www.booksandculture.com/articles/webexclusives/2012/may/whitecamellia.html)[Greg Langley, *The Advocate*, 30 January 2013](http://theadvocate.com/utility/homepagestories/4857392-129/poets-invite-readers-to-share) ### The Clark family [thumb\|right\|225px\|The Clark Estates building, originally the Otsego County Bank, was built in 1831 in the [Greek Revival style](/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture "Greek Revival architecture")](/wiki/File:Otsego_County_Bank_Building_19_Main_Street_Cooperstown.jpg "Otsego County Bank Building 19 Main Street Cooperstown.jpg") The Clark family, whose fortune originated with a half\-ownership of the patent for [Singer Sewing Machine](/wiki/Singer_Corporation "Singer Corporation"), have lived in Cooperstown since the mid\-19th century. The family's holdings include interests assembled over a century and a half, which are now held through trusts and foundations. Their dominance is reflected in Clark ownership of more than {{convert\|10000\|acre\|km2}} of largely undeveloped land in and around greater Cooperstown. In the village, the Otesaga, the Cooper Inn, Clark Estates, and the Clara Welch Thanksgiving Home are all Clark properties. In addition, the Clarks were founding partners of, and retain an interest in, the Baseball Hall of Fame and the Mary Imogene Bassett Hospital. Cooperstown still receives support from the Clark Foundation, which has donated to a variety of causes including various scholarships, non\-profit organizations, and village services. The family has also donated land for the Cooperstown Central School District's new high school location − formerly horse stables − as well as for parks such as Fairy Springs and Council Rock, and recently, for a new [Little League](/wiki/Little_League "Little League") baseball field. [Jane Forbes Clark](/wiki/Jane_Forbes_Clark "Jane Forbes Clark"),["James Forbes Clark a powerhouse behind the baseball"](http://www.palmbeachpost.com/news/sports/baseball/jane-forbes-clark-a-powerhouse-behind-the-baseball/nL8cq/), *Palm Beach Post* the primary family heir today, has continued this commitment. She has purchased strategic land to ensure the preservation of village entry points, as well as overseeing the expansion of the various Clark holdings. In late November 2013, Clark discussed her family's continued support for the community during a meeting of The Women's Club of Cooperstown.["Clark presents foundation's visions for the village"](http://www.coopercrier.com/localnews/x537113980/Clark-presents-foundations-visions-for-village), *Cooper Crier* The Clark Foundation supports a variety of Cooperstown and Otsego County organizations and causes with donations of $7\.5 million to charitable organizations every year. The family's Scriven Foundation, formed in 1975, donates to only Otsego County nonprofit organizations, such as the Cooperstown Village Library. The Scriven Foundation donates $1\.5 million every year. According to Clark's presentation, the family's businesses employ 4,198 people, with 3,100 of those positions being full\-time jobs.
[ "Notable people\n--------------", "Notable historic year\\-round or summer residents of Cooperstown included:", "* [Kenneth Bainbridge](/wiki/Kenneth_Bainbridge \"Kenneth Bainbridge\") — physicist, contributor to the [Manhattan Project](/wiki/Manhattan_Project \"Manhattan Project\")\n* [Erastus Flavel Beadle](/wiki/Erastus_Flavel_Beadle \"Erastus Flavel Beadle\") — pioneer in publishing pulp fiction, in particular creating the [dime novel](/wiki/Dime_novel \"Dime novel\")\n* [F. Ambrose Clark](/wiki/F._Ambrose_Clark \"F. Ambrose Clark\") — equine sportsman, philanthropist, art collector\n* [Robert Sterling Clark](/wiki/Robert_Sterling_Clark \"Robert Sterling Clark\") — philanthropist, racehorse owner, art collector\n* [Stephen Carlton Clark](/wiki/Stephen_Carlton_Clark \"Stephen Carlton Clark\") — philanthropist, art collector\n* [James Fenimore Cooper](/wiki/James_Fenimore_Cooper \"James Fenimore Cooper\") — grew up here and lived here as an adult, novelist of the New York frontier\n* [William Cooper](/wiki/William_Cooper_%28judge%29 \"William Cooper (judge)\") — founder and politician\n* [Michaela Dietz](/wiki/Michaela_Dietz \"Michaela Dietz\") — actress\n* [John A. Dix](/wiki/John_Adams_Dix \"John Adams Dix\") — [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") general and political leader\n* [Abner Doubleday](/wiki/Abner_Doubleday \"Abner Doubleday\") — Civil War officer and supposed inventor of baseball\n* [Bud Fowler](/wiki/Bud_Fowler \"Bud Fowler\") — baseball player and member of the National Baseball Hall of Fame\n* [Lauren Groff](/wiki/Lauren_Groff \"Lauren Groff\") — writer and novelist\n* [Kevin Guilfoile](/wiki/Kevin_Guilfoile \"Kevin Guilfoile\") — author of *[Cast of Shadows](/wiki/Cast_of_Shadows \"Cast of Shadows\")* and *The Thousand*\n* [Samuel F. B. Morse](/wiki/Samuel_F._B._Morse \"Samuel F. B. Morse\") — inventor, painter\n* [Samuel Nelson](/wiki/Samuel_Nelson \"Samuel Nelson\") — Associate Justice of the [U.S. Supreme Court](/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court \"U.S. Supreme Court\")\n* [Thurlow Weed](/wiki/Thurlow_Weed \"Thurlow Weed\") — newspaper publisher and [Whig](/wiki/Whig_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Whig Party (United States)\") and [Republican Party](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\") politician", "### Cooperstown writers", "Aside from James Fenimore Cooper, noted Cooperstown authors include his daughter [Susan Fenimore Cooper](/wiki/Susan_Fenimore_Cooper \"Susan Fenimore Cooper\"), the author of *Rural Hours*, and his great\\-great\\-grandson [Paul Fenimore Cooper](/wiki/Paul_Fenimore_Cooper \"Paul Fenimore Cooper\"), author of *[Tal: His Marvelous Adventures with Noom\\-Zor\\-Noom](/wiki/Tal:His_Marvelous_Adventures_with_Noom-Zor-Noom \"His Marvelous Adventures with Noom-Zor-Noom\")* (1929, 1957, 2001\\).", "Other writers include modern author [Lauren Groff](/wiki/Lauren_Groff \"Lauren Groff\"), who has written extensively about her hometown, notably in *[The Monsters of Templeton](/wiki/The_Monsters_of_Templeton \"The Monsters of Templeton\")*, a story that brings several Cooperstown legends to life.", "The work of Cooperstown\\-based novelist and poet [Marly Youmans](/wiki/Marly_Youmans \"Marly Youmans\") has referred to the area, notably in her epic poem *Thaliad* (2012\\), in which a group of child survivors of an apocalypse travel north and make their new home in an abandoned village on the shore of Glimmerglass Lake.Youmans, Marly. *Thaliad* (Montreal: Phoenecia Publishing, 2012\\) {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-9866909\\-3\\-8}}'[Linda McCullough Moore, *Books and Culture,* May 2012](http://www.booksandculture.com/articles/webexclusives/2012/may/whitecamellia.html)[Greg Langley, *The Advocate*, 30 January 2013](http://theadvocate.com/utility/homepagestories/4857392-129/poets-invite-readers-to-share)", "### The Clark family", "[thumb\\|right\\|225px\\|The Clark Estates building, originally the Otsego County Bank, was built in 1831 in the [Greek Revival style](/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture \"Greek Revival architecture\")](/wiki/File:Otsego_County_Bank_Building_19_Main_Street_Cooperstown.jpg \"Otsego County Bank Building 19 Main Street Cooperstown.jpg\")", "The Clark family, whose fortune originated with a half\\-ownership of the patent for [Singer Sewing Machine](/wiki/Singer_Corporation \"Singer Corporation\"), have lived in Cooperstown since the mid\\-19th century. The family's holdings include interests assembled over a century and a half, which are now held through trusts and foundations. Their dominance is reflected in Clark ownership of more than {{convert\\|10000\\|acre\\|km2}} of largely undeveloped land in and around greater Cooperstown.", "In the village, the Otesaga, the Cooper Inn, Clark Estates, and the Clara Welch Thanksgiving Home are all Clark properties. In addition, the Clarks were founding partners of, and retain an interest in, the Baseball Hall of Fame and the Mary Imogene Bassett Hospital.", "Cooperstown still receives support from the Clark Foundation, which has donated to a variety of causes including various scholarships, non\\-profit organizations, and village services. The family has also donated land for the Cooperstown Central School District's new high school location − formerly horse stables − as well as for parks such as Fairy Springs and Council Rock, and recently, for a new [Little League](/wiki/Little_League \"Little League\") baseball field.", "[Jane Forbes Clark](/wiki/Jane_Forbes_Clark \"Jane Forbes Clark\"),[\"James Forbes Clark a powerhouse behind the baseball\"](http://www.palmbeachpost.com/news/sports/baseball/jane-forbes-clark-a-powerhouse-behind-the-baseball/nL8cq/), *Palm Beach Post* the primary family heir today, has continued this commitment. She has purchased strategic land to ensure the preservation of village entry points, as well as overseeing the expansion of the various Clark holdings.", "In late November 2013, Clark discussed her family's continued support for the community during a meeting of The Women's Club of Cooperstown.[\"Clark presents foundation's visions for the village\"](http://www.coopercrier.com/localnews/x537113980/Clark-presents-foundations-visions-for-village), *Cooper Crier* The Clark Foundation supports a variety of Cooperstown and Otsego County organizations and causes with donations of $7\\.5 million to charitable organizations every year. The family's Scriven Foundation, formed in 1975, donates to only Otsego County nonprofit organizations, such as the Cooperstown Village Library. The Scriven Foundation donates $1\\.5 million every year. According to Clark's presentation, the family's businesses employ 4,198 people, with 3,100 of those positions being full\\-time jobs.", "" ]
Architecture ------------ [thumb\|left\|300px\|[Otsego Hall](/wiki/Otsego_Hall "Otsego Hall")](/wiki/File:Appletons%27_Cooper_James_Fenimore_Otsego_Hall.jpg "Appletons' Cooper James Fenimore Otsego Hall.jpg") There are, and were, significant residential, commercial, and religious structures in Cooperstown. Original residences related to the founding Cooper family, such as Edgewater and Heathcote, are still standing. [Otsego Hall](/wiki/Otsego_Hall "Otsego Hall"), James Fenimore Cooper's residence which once stood in what is now Cooper Park, has been lost, along with his chalet. Byberry, the cottage built for his daughter, remains on River Street, albeit in altered form.{{cite web \| url \= http://external.oneonta.edu/cooper/articles/suny/2001suny\-carso.html \| title \= The Old Dwelling Transmogrified: James Fenimore Cooper's Otsego Hall \| date \= 2003 \| website \= oneonta.edu \| access\-date \= September 2, 2017 \| quote \= data \| archive\-date \= December 3, 2016 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20161203235506/http://external.oneonta.edu/cooper/articles/suny/2001suny\-carso.html \| url\-status \= dead }}{{Cite Appletons'\|wstitle\=Cooper, James Fenimore\|year\=1900}} "Fynmere", a grand stone manor from the early 20th century, erected by Cooper heirs on the eastern edge of town, was designed by noted architect [Charles A. Platt](/wiki/Charles_A._Platt "Charles A. Platt"). Later donated to the Presbyterian Church as a retirement home, the property was razed in 1979\. Both its grounds and those of neighboring property Heathcote (extant today), built for Katherine Guy Cooper (1895–1988\), daughter\-in\-law of James Fenimore Cooper III, were laid out by noted landscape architect [Ellen Biddle Shipman](/wiki/Ellen_Biddle_Shipman "Ellen Biddle Shipman").{{cite web \| url \= https://jfcoopersociety.org/cooperstownbooks/legends.html\#notep17 \| title \= The Legends and Traditions of a Northern County \| date \= 1921 \| website \= jfcoopersociety.org \| access\-date \= June 20, 2019 \| quote \= data \| archive\-date \= August 17, 2018 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20180817193750/https://jfcoopersociety.org/cooperstownbooks/legends.html\#notep17 \| url\-status \= dead }} Residences, business, and properties related to the Clark family abound within the village. From the original family seat of "Fernleigh" to the 1928 [Georgian](/wiki/Georgian_Revival_architecture "Georgian Revival architecture") manor of "West Hill", the properties are exceptionally well cared for. Fernleigh is a [Second Empire](/wiki/Second_Empire_architecture "Second Empire architecture") stone mansion designed by New Jersey architect [James Van Dyke](/wiki/James_Van_Dyke "James Van Dyke") and built in 1869\. The original garden at Fernleigh, located to the south of the mansion, included a servants' house and Turkish bath; both details have since been lost. In 1923, Stephen C. Clark, Sr. commissioned [Marcus T. Reynolds](/wiki/Marcus_T._Reynolds "Marcus T. Reynolds") and [Bryant Fleming](/wiki/Bryant_Fleming "Bryant Fleming"), a landscape design professor at [Cornell University](/wiki/Cornell_University "Cornell University"), to design new gardens for Fernleigh.[Fernleigh 1996–1998](http://siris-archives.si.edu/ipac20/ipac.jsp?uri=full=3100001~!226329!0#focus) The manor home of [Robert Sterling Clark](/wiki/Robert_Sterling_Clark "Robert Sterling Clark"), Red Creek Farm, remains on the outskirts of the Village. His brother [F. Ambrose Clark](/wiki/F._Ambrose_Clark "F. Ambrose Clark")'s "Iroquois Farm" manor house was razed in the early 1980s. Also razed in 1979 was the Mohican Farms manor house, owned by the Clark Estates, in Springfield Center, New York. It was formerly the summer home of the Spaulding sporting good family from Buffalo. [Edward Severin Clark](/wiki/Edward_Severin_Clark "Edward Severin Clark") built a farm complex at Fenimore Farm in 1918, which has been adapted as the [Farmers Museum](/wiki/Farmers_Museum "Farmers Museum"). His stone manor, built in 1931, was bequeathed to the [New York State Historical Association](/wiki/New_York_State_Historical_Association "New York State Historical Association") and today serves as the [Fenimore Art Museum](/wiki/Fenimore_Art_Museum "Fenimore Art Museum"). Other structures, such as the [Baseball Hall of Fame](/wiki/Baseball_Hall_of_Fame "Baseball Hall of Fame"), [The Otesaga Hotel](/wiki/The_Otesaga_Hotel "The Otesaga Hotel"), Clark Estate Office, [Kingfisher Tower](/wiki/Kingfisher_Tower "Kingfisher Tower"), which lies on the east side of Otsego Lake, [Bassett Hospital](/wiki/Mary_Imogene_Bassett_Hospital "Mary Imogene Bassett Hospital"), and The Clara Welch Thanksgiving Home, exemplify Cooperstown's architectural wealth. [325px\|thumb\|right\|The White House Inn](/wiki/File:The_White_House_Inn.jpg "The White House Inn.jpg") The Bowers family "[Lakelands](/wiki/Lakelands_%28Cooperstown%2C_New_York%29 "Lakelands (Cooperstown, New York)")" manor, neighboring "[Mohican Lodge](/wiki/Mohican_Lodge "Mohican Lodge")", and their former estate of "[Willowbrook](/wiki/Willowbrook_%28Cooperstown%2C_New_York%29 "Willowbrook (Cooperstown, New York)")" (1818; presently the Cooper Inn) serve as further examples of grand homes erected by affluent residents. The Bowers family received the land patent extending from current\-day [Bowerstown](/wiki/Bowerstown%2C_New_York "Bowerstown, New York") to very near [Cherry Valley, New York](/wiki/Cherry_Valley%2C_New_York "Cherry Valley, New York"), upon which Congressman [John Myer Bowers](/wiki/John_Myer_Bowers "John Myer Bowers") built Lakelands in 1804\. [Woodside Hall](/wiki/Woodside_Hall "Woodside Hall"), on the eastern edge of the village proper, was built c. 1829 by Eben B. Morehouse and was subsequently owned by several prominent individuals, including, in 1895, financier Walter C. Stokes of New York City. Prior to the Stokes' ownership, the home was visited by [Martin Van Buren](/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren "Martin Van Buren"), the eighth President of the United States. The village offices and Cooperstown Art Association are housed in a neo\-classical building designed by [Ernest Flagg](/wiki/Ernest_Flagg "Ernest Flagg"). He is famed for Manhattan's 47\-story [Singer Building](/wiki/Singer_Tower "Singer Tower") and the [Boldt Castle](/wiki/Boldt_Castle "Boldt Castle") on the [St. Lawrence River](/wiki/St._Lawrence_River "St. Lawrence River"). The Cooperstown building was originally commissioned by Elizabeth Scriven Clark in 1898 as a [YMCA](/wiki/YMCA "YMCA"). Her son [Robert Sterling Clark](/wiki/Robert_Sterling_Clark "Robert Sterling Clark") gave it to the village in 1932 during the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"). Several prominent buildings in town were designed or updated by noted architect [Frank P. Whiting](/wiki/Frank_P._Whiting "Frank P. Whiting"), who originally worked under [Ernest Flagg](/wiki/Ernest_Flagg "Ernest Flagg"). A resident of New York City and Cooperstown, Whiting was also a noted artist. He designed the [Farmers Museum](/wiki/Farmers_Museum "Farmers Museum") farm buildings{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.farmersmuseum.org/farmers/about\_us/mission\_history \|title\=The Farmers' Museum \- About Us \- Mission \& History \|access\-date\=December 2, 2007 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110529111035/http://www.farmersmuseum.org/farmers/about\_us/mission\_history \|archive\-date\=May 29, 2011 \|url\-status\=dead }} and the shingle\-style manor at "Leatherstocking Falls Farm", the residence of Dorothy Stokes Bostwick Smith Campbell, the landscaping for which was done by the all\-female firm of Wodell \& Cottrell in the 1930s.[Campbell Garden 1930–1950](http://siris-archives.si.edu/ipac20/ipac.jsp?uri=full=3100001~!249000!0#focus) Whiting also designed 56 Lake Street. In 1932 Whiting designed and built his residence, "Westerly", on a half\-acre lot at the north end of Nelson Avenue. The home is in the Colonial style and today retains many interior and exterior features of the original home. In June 1923 Whiting wrote a featured monograph "Cooperstown in The Times of Our Forefathers" for volume IX of the [White Pine Series of Architectural Monographs](/wiki/White_Pine_Series_of_Architectural_Monographs "White Pine Series of Architectural Monographs") containing several sketches and measured drawings of homes in Cooperstown. In 1916, financier William T. Hyde acquired "Glimmerglen", a lakeside property north of Fenimore Farm, from the Constable family.{{cite news\| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1912/06/16/archives/cooperstown\-many\-additions\-from\-new\-york\-to\-the\-cottage\-colony.html \| work\=The New York Times \| title\=COOPERSTOWN.; Many Additions from New York to the Cottage Colony \| date\=June 16, 1912 \| access\-date\=April 30, 2010}} The house burned to the ground shortly thereafter and was rebuilt by society architect [Alfred Hopkins](/wiki/Alfred_Hopkins "Alfred Hopkins"), who also designed a new farm complex, gate house, and assorted dependencies. The estate was featured in a multipage advertisement in *[Country Life](/wiki/Country_Life_%28magazine%29 "Country Life (magazine)")* magazine in late 1922 when the property was put up for sale. The manor and greenhouses were razed in the late 1960s after their acquisition by the Clark family. The stone gatehouse, featured in the *[Architectural Record](/wiki/Architectural_Record "Architectural Record")* is extant today and owned by the Clark Foundation, as is the boathouse and the distinctive cottage known as "Winter House".
[ "Architecture\n------------", "[thumb\\|left\\|300px\\|[Otsego Hall](/wiki/Otsego_Hall \"Otsego Hall\")](/wiki/File:Appletons%27_Cooper_James_Fenimore_Otsego_Hall.jpg \"Appletons' Cooper James Fenimore Otsego Hall.jpg\")", "There are, and were, significant residential, commercial, and religious structures in Cooperstown. Original residences related to the founding Cooper family, such as Edgewater and Heathcote, are still standing. [Otsego Hall](/wiki/Otsego_Hall \"Otsego Hall\"), James Fenimore Cooper's residence which once stood in what is now Cooper Park, has been lost, along with his chalet. Byberry, the cottage built for his daughter, remains on River Street, albeit in altered form.{{cite web\n \\| url \\= http://external.oneonta.edu/cooper/articles/suny/2001suny\\-carso.html\n \\| title \\= The Old Dwelling Transmogrified: James Fenimore Cooper's Otsego Hall\n \\| date \\= 2003\n \\| website \\= oneonta.edu\n \\| access\\-date \\= September 2, 2017\n\\| quote \\= data\n \\| archive\\-date \\= December 3, 2016\n\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20161203235506/http://external.oneonta.edu/cooper/articles/suny/2001suny\\-carso.html\n \\| url\\-status \\= dead\n }}{{Cite Appletons'\\|wstitle\\=Cooper, James Fenimore\\|year\\=1900}}", "\"Fynmere\", a grand stone manor from the early 20th century, erected by Cooper heirs on the eastern edge of town, was designed by noted architect [Charles A. Platt](/wiki/Charles_A._Platt \"Charles A. Platt\"). Later donated to the Presbyterian Church as a retirement home, the property was razed in 1979\\. Both its grounds and those of neighboring property Heathcote (extant today), built for Katherine Guy Cooper (1895–1988\\), daughter\\-in\\-law of James Fenimore Cooper III, were laid out by noted landscape architect [Ellen Biddle Shipman](/wiki/Ellen_Biddle_Shipman \"Ellen Biddle Shipman\").{{cite web\n \\| url \\= https://jfcoopersociety.org/cooperstownbooks/legends.html\\#notep17\n \\| title \\= The Legends and Traditions of a Northern County\n \\| date \\= 1921\n \\| website \\= jfcoopersociety.org\n \\| access\\-date \\= June 20, 2019\n\\| quote \\= data\n \\| archive\\-date \\= August 17, 2018\n\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20180817193750/https://jfcoopersociety.org/cooperstownbooks/legends.html\\#notep17\n \\| url\\-status \\= dead\n }}", "Residences, business, and properties related to the Clark family abound within the village. From the original family seat of \"Fernleigh\" to the 1928 [Georgian](/wiki/Georgian_Revival_architecture \"Georgian Revival architecture\") manor of \"West Hill\", the properties are exceptionally well cared for. Fernleigh is a [Second Empire](/wiki/Second_Empire_architecture \"Second Empire architecture\") stone mansion designed by New Jersey architect [James Van Dyke](/wiki/James_Van_Dyke \"James Van Dyke\") and built in 1869\\. The original garden at Fernleigh, located to the south of the mansion, included a servants' house and Turkish bath; both details have since been lost. In 1923, Stephen C. Clark, Sr. commissioned [Marcus T. Reynolds](/wiki/Marcus_T._Reynolds \"Marcus T. Reynolds\") and [Bryant Fleming](/wiki/Bryant_Fleming \"Bryant Fleming\"), a landscape design professor at [Cornell University](/wiki/Cornell_University \"Cornell University\"), to design new gardens for Fernleigh.[Fernleigh 1996–1998](http://siris-archives.si.edu/ipac20/ipac.jsp?uri=full=3100001~!226329!0#focus)", "The manor home of [Robert Sterling Clark](/wiki/Robert_Sterling_Clark \"Robert Sterling Clark\"), Red Creek Farm, remains on the outskirts of the Village. His brother [F. Ambrose Clark](/wiki/F._Ambrose_Clark \"F. Ambrose Clark\")'s \"Iroquois Farm\" manor house was razed in the early 1980s. Also razed in 1979 was the Mohican Farms manor house, owned by the Clark Estates, in Springfield Center, New York. It was formerly the summer home of the Spaulding sporting good family from Buffalo.", "[Edward Severin Clark](/wiki/Edward_Severin_Clark \"Edward Severin Clark\") built a farm complex at Fenimore Farm in 1918, which has been adapted as the [Farmers Museum](/wiki/Farmers_Museum \"Farmers Museum\"). His stone manor, built in 1931, was bequeathed to the [New York State Historical Association](/wiki/New_York_State_Historical_Association \"New York State Historical Association\") and today serves as the [Fenimore Art Museum](/wiki/Fenimore_Art_Museum \"Fenimore Art Museum\").", "Other structures, such as the [Baseball Hall of Fame](/wiki/Baseball_Hall_of_Fame \"Baseball Hall of Fame\"), [The Otesaga Hotel](/wiki/The_Otesaga_Hotel \"The Otesaga Hotel\"), Clark Estate Office, [Kingfisher Tower](/wiki/Kingfisher_Tower \"Kingfisher Tower\"), which lies on the east side of Otsego Lake, [Bassett Hospital](/wiki/Mary_Imogene_Bassett_Hospital \"Mary Imogene Bassett Hospital\"), and The Clara Welch Thanksgiving Home, exemplify Cooperstown's architectural wealth.", "[325px\\|thumb\\|right\\|The White House Inn](/wiki/File:The_White_House_Inn.jpg \"The White House Inn.jpg\")", "The Bowers family \"[Lakelands](/wiki/Lakelands_%28Cooperstown%2C_New_York%29 \"Lakelands (Cooperstown, New York)\")\" manor, neighboring \"[Mohican Lodge](/wiki/Mohican_Lodge \"Mohican Lodge\")\", and their former estate of \"[Willowbrook](/wiki/Willowbrook_%28Cooperstown%2C_New_York%29 \"Willowbrook (Cooperstown, New York)\")\" (1818; presently the Cooper Inn) serve as further examples of grand homes erected by affluent residents. The Bowers family received the land patent extending from current\\-day [Bowerstown](/wiki/Bowerstown%2C_New_York \"Bowerstown, New York\") to very near [Cherry Valley, New York](/wiki/Cherry_Valley%2C_New_York \"Cherry Valley, New York\"), upon which Congressman [John Myer Bowers](/wiki/John_Myer_Bowers \"John Myer Bowers\") built Lakelands in 1804\\. [Woodside Hall](/wiki/Woodside_Hall \"Woodside Hall\"), on the eastern edge of the village proper, was built c. 1829 by Eben B. Morehouse and was subsequently owned by several prominent individuals, including, in 1895, financier Walter C. Stokes of New York City. Prior to the Stokes' ownership, the home was visited by [Martin Van Buren](/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren \"Martin Van Buren\"), the eighth President of the United States.", "The village offices and Cooperstown Art Association are housed in a neo\\-classical building designed by [Ernest Flagg](/wiki/Ernest_Flagg \"Ernest Flagg\"). He is famed for Manhattan's 47\\-story [Singer Building](/wiki/Singer_Tower \"Singer Tower\") and the [Boldt Castle](/wiki/Boldt_Castle \"Boldt Castle\") on the [St. Lawrence River](/wiki/St._Lawrence_River \"St. Lawrence River\"). The Cooperstown building was originally commissioned by Elizabeth Scriven Clark in 1898 as a [YMCA](/wiki/YMCA \"YMCA\"). Her son [Robert Sterling Clark](/wiki/Robert_Sterling_Clark \"Robert Sterling Clark\") gave it to the village in 1932 during the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\").", "Several prominent buildings in town were designed or updated by noted architect [Frank P. Whiting](/wiki/Frank_P._Whiting \"Frank P. Whiting\"), who originally worked under [Ernest Flagg](/wiki/Ernest_Flagg \"Ernest Flagg\"). A resident of New York City and Cooperstown, Whiting was also a noted artist. He designed the [Farmers Museum](/wiki/Farmers_Museum \"Farmers Museum\") farm buildings{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.farmersmuseum.org/farmers/about\\_us/mission\\_history \\|title\\=The Farmers' Museum \\- About Us \\- Mission \\& History \\|access\\-date\\=December 2, 2007 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110529111035/http://www.farmersmuseum.org/farmers/about\\_us/mission\\_history \\|archive\\-date\\=May 29, 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} and the shingle\\-style manor at \"Leatherstocking Falls Farm\", the residence of Dorothy Stokes Bostwick Smith Campbell, the landscaping for which was done by the all\\-female firm of Wodell \\& Cottrell in the 1930s.[Campbell Garden 1930–1950](http://siris-archives.si.edu/ipac20/ipac.jsp?uri=full=3100001~!249000!0#focus) Whiting also designed 56 Lake Street. In 1932 Whiting designed and built his residence, \"Westerly\", on a half\\-acre lot at the north end of Nelson Avenue. The home is in the Colonial style and today retains many interior and exterior features of the original home. In June 1923 Whiting wrote a featured monograph \"Cooperstown in The Times of Our Forefathers\" for volume IX of the [White Pine Series of Architectural Monographs](/wiki/White_Pine_Series_of_Architectural_Monographs \"White Pine Series of Architectural Monographs\") containing several sketches and measured drawings of homes in Cooperstown.", "In 1916, financier William T. Hyde acquired \"Glimmerglen\", a lakeside property north of Fenimore Farm, from the Constable family.{{cite news\\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1912/06/16/archives/cooperstown\\-many\\-additions\\-from\\-new\\-york\\-to\\-the\\-cottage\\-colony.html \\| work\\=The New York Times \\| title\\=COOPERSTOWN.; Many Additions from New York to the Cottage Colony \\| date\\=June 16, 1912 \\| access\\-date\\=April 30, 2010}} The house burned to the ground shortly thereafter and was rebuilt by society architect [Alfred Hopkins](/wiki/Alfred_Hopkins \"Alfred Hopkins\"), who also designed a new farm complex, gate house, and assorted dependencies. The estate was featured in a multipage advertisement in *[Country Life](/wiki/Country_Life_%28magazine%29 \"Country Life (magazine)\")* magazine in late 1922 when the property was put up for sale. The manor and greenhouses were razed in the late 1960s after their acquisition by the Clark family. The stone gatehouse, featured in the *[Architectural Record](/wiki/Architectural_Record \"Architectural Record\")* is extant today and owned by the Clark Foundation, as is the boathouse and the distinctive cottage known as \"Winter House\".", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|1880\= 144 \|1990\= 1094 \|2000\= 1864 \|2010\= 1597 \|2020\= 1543 \|align\-fn\=center \|footnote\=\[https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html U.S. Decennial Census] }} New Market first appeared on the 1880 U.S. Census as an unincorporated community of 144 residents. It did not appear again on the census for 110 years until 1990, when it was classified as a census\-designated place (CDP). ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=January 31, 2008\|title\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 1,864 people, 692 households, and 534 families residing in the CDP. The population density was {{convert\|108\.4\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 787 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|45\.8\|/mi2\|/km2\|disp\=preunit\|units \|units\|}}. The racial makeup of the CDP was 87\.18% [White](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 6\.28% [Black](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)") or [African American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 2\.25% [Native American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 0\.16% [Asian](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 1\.34% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 2\.79% from two or more races. 3\.54% of the population were [Hispanic](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)") of any race. There were 692 households, out of which 38\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61\.7% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 10\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22\.8% were non\-families. 19\.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.67 and the average family size was 3\.05\. In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 26\.1% under the age of 18, 8\.3% from 18 to 24, 35\.2% from 25 to 44, 19\.5% from 45 to 64, and 10\.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 101\.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101\.3 males. The median income for a household in the CDP was $42,985, and the median income for a family was $46,696\. Males had a median income of $36,204 versus $18,188 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the CDP was $18,799\. About 7\.5% of families and 11\.2% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 14\.7% of those under age 18 and 7\.8% of those age 65 or over. ### 2010 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=August 2, 2015\|title\=U.S. Census website}} of 2010, there were 1,597 people, 632 households, and 454 families residing in the CDP. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|91\|/mi2\|/km2\|disp\=preunit\|people \|people\|}}. There were 714 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|40\.8\|/mi2\|/km2\|disp\=preunit\|units \|units\|}}. The racial makeup of the CDP was 88\.5% [White](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 6\.7% [Black](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)") or [African American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 1\.4% [Native American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 0\.2% [Asian](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 1\.9% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 1\.3% from two or more races. 4\.4% of the population were [Hispanic](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)") of any race. There were 632 households, out of which 28\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56\.3% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 10\.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28\.2% were non\-families. 23\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7\.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.53 and the average family size was 3\.00\. In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 22\.9% under the age of 18, 9\.3% from 18 to 24, 24\.3% from 25 to 44, 31\.3% from 45 to 64, and 12\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41\.1 years. For every 100 females, there were 101\.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 106\.4 males. The median income for a household in the CDP was $42,857, and the median income for a family was $51,250\. Males had a median income of $36,250 versus $27,068 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the CDP was $22,043\. About 11\.9% of families and 14\.6% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 35\.3% of those under age 18 and 21\.1% of those age 65 or over. ### 2020 census | \+New Market racial composition{{Cite web\|title\=Explore Census Data\|url\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\=1600000US0154312\&tid\=DECENNIALPL2020\.P2\|access\-date\=December 17, 2021\|website\=data.census.gov}} | Race | Num. | Perc. | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)") (non\-Hispanic) | 1,209 | 78\.35% | | [Black or African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)") (non\-Hispanic) | 89 | 5\.77% | | [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)") | 29 | 1\.88% | | [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)") | 11 | 0\.71% | | [Other/Mixed](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)") | 116 | 7\.52% | | [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") | 89 | 5\.77% | As of the [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census "2020 United States census"), there were 1,543 people, 475 households, and 369 families residing in the CDP.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|1880\\= 144\n\\|1990\\= 1094\n\\|2000\\= 1864\n\\|2010\\= 1597\n\\|2020\\= 1543\n\\|align\\-fn\\=center\n\\|footnote\\=\\[https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html U.S. Decennial Census]\n}}\nNew Market first appeared on the 1880 U.S. Census as an unincorporated community of 144 residents. It did not appear again on the census for 110 years until 1990, when it was classified as a census\\-designated place (CDP).", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=January 31, 2008\\|title\\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 1,864 people, 692 households, and 534 families residing in the CDP. The population density was {{convert\\|108\\.4\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 787 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|45\\.8\\|/mi2\\|/km2\\|disp\\=preunit\\|units \\|units\\|}}. The racial makeup of the CDP was 87\\.18% [White](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 6\\.28% [Black](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") or [African American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 2\\.25% [Native American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 0\\.16% [Asian](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 1\\.34% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 2\\.79% from two or more races. 3\\.54% of the population were [Hispanic](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") of any race.", "There were 692 households, out of which 38\\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61\\.7% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 10\\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22\\.8% were non\\-families. 19\\.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6\\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.67 and the average family size was 3\\.05\\.", "In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 26\\.1% under the age of 18, 8\\.3% from 18 to 24, 35\\.2% from 25 to 44, 19\\.5% from 45 to 64, and 10\\.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 101\\.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101\\.3 males.", "The median income for a household in the CDP was $42,985, and the median income for a family was $46,696\\. Males had a median income of $36,204 versus $18,188 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the CDP was $18,799\\. About 7\\.5% of families and 11\\.2% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 14\\.7% of those under age 18 and 7\\.8% of those age 65 or over.", "### 2010 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=August 2, 2015\\|title\\=U.S. Census website}} of 2010, there were 1,597 people, 632 households, and 454 families residing in the CDP. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|91\\|/mi2\\|/km2\\|disp\\=preunit\\|people \\|people\\|}}. There were 714 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|40\\.8\\|/mi2\\|/km2\\|disp\\=preunit\\|units \\|units\\|}}. The racial makeup of the CDP was 88\\.5% [White](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 6\\.7% [Black](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") or [African American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 1\\.4% [Native American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 0\\.2% [Asian](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 1\\.9% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 1\\.3% from two or more races. 4\\.4% of the population were [Hispanic](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") of any race.", "There were 632 households, out of which 28\\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56\\.3% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 10\\.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28\\.2% were non\\-families. 23\\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7\\.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.53 and the average family size was 3\\.00\\.", "In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 22\\.9% under the age of 18, 9\\.3% from 18 to 24, 24\\.3% from 25 to 44, 31\\.3% from 45 to 64, and 12\\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41\\.1 years. For every 100 females, there were 101\\.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 106\\.4 males.", "The median income for a household in the CDP was $42,857, and the median income for a family was $51,250\\. Males had a median income of $36,250 versus $27,068 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the CDP was $22,043\\. About 11\\.9% of families and 14\\.6% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 35\\.3% of those under age 18 and 21\\.1% of those age 65 or over.", "### 2020 census", "", "| \\+New Market racial composition{{Cite web\\|title\\=Explore Census Data\\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\\=1600000US0154312\\&tid\\=DECENNIALPL2020\\.P2\\|access\\-date\\=December 17, 2021\\|website\\=data.census.gov}} | Race | Num. | Perc. |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\") (non\\-Hispanic) | 1,209 | 78\\.35% |\n| [Black or African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\") (non\\-Hispanic) | 89 | 5\\.77% |\n| [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\") | 29 | 1\\.88% |\n| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\") | 11 | 0\\.71% |\n| [Other/Mixed](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") | 116 | 7\\.52% |\n| [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") | 89 | 5\\.77% |", "As of the [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census \"2020 United States census\"), there were 1,543 people, 475 households, and 369 families residing in the CDP.", "" ]
Life ---- ### Youth Karolina was born in Brzeg as the first child of her parents. They gave her an unusual first name, which had never been given to another member of the [Piast dynasty](/wiki/Piast_dynasty "Piast dynasty") (and never was after her death). She was baptized on 1 January 1653\. Her godfather was a senior member of the family, Duke [George Rudolf of Liegnitz](/wiki/George_Rudolf_of_Liegnitz "George Rudolf of Liegnitz"), but he was seriously ill at the time of her birth. He died thirteen days later on 14 January, so he was replaced during the ceremony by her paternal uncle, [Louis IV of Legnica](/wiki/Louis_IV_of_Legnica "Louis IV of Legnica"). During her early years, Karolina, as an only child, witnessed the rule of her father. In 1653 after the death of Duke George Rudolf, her uncles [George III](/wiki/George_III_of_Brieg "George III of Brieg") and Louis IV, and her father Christian, together inherited Legnica and Brzeg, for one year as co\-rulers, until they decided to divide their domains in 1654\. In the division, Christian received the poorest parts of the Duchy, Wołów and Oława. However, in 1664, after the death of his only surviving brother, George III, Karolina's father united the whole Duchy of Legnica\-Brzeg under his rule. Christian and his wife raised their daughter as a [Calvinist](/wiki/Calvinism "Calvinism"). On 29 September 1660, Duchess Louise gave birth to a son and heir, [George William](/wiki/George_William%2C_Duke_of_Liegnitz "George William, Duke of Liegnitz"). Of the four children born to Karolina's parents, only she and George William survived infancy. ### Marriage Duke Christian died on 28 February 1672 and was succeeded by his only surviving son, George William, who was placed under the regency of his mother. A few months later, Karolina married [Frederick, Duke of Schleswig\-Holstein\-Sonderburg\-Wiesenburg](/wiki/Frederick%2C_Duke_of_Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Wiesenburg "Frederick, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Wiesenburg"). He was a great\-great\-grandson of [King Christian III](/wiki/Christian_III_of_Denmark "Christian III of Denmark") under the paternal line. The groom was from a [Catholic](/wiki/Catholic "Catholic") family and served in the Imperial army as a Colonel [Cuirassier](/wiki/Cuirassier "Cuirassier"). Karolina probably met him through a [Jesuit](/wiki/Jesuit "Jesuit") close to her mother. Motivated by love rather than for dynastic reasons, she adopted the Catholic faith. On 14 July 1672 Karolina and Frederick married secretly and almost one year later, on 3 May 1673, the official wedding took place. On 12 January 1674 their only child, [Leopold](/wiki/Leopold%2C_Duke_of_Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Wiesenburg "Leopold, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Wiesenburg"), was born. However, the marriage proved unsuccessful and with the consent of [Emperor Leopold I](/wiki/Emperor_Leopold_I "Emperor Leopold I") in August 1680 they became formally separated. In accordance with the legal arrangement of the separation, their son remained under the custody of the father. ### George William's death and last years On 21 November 1675, Karolina's brother George William, the last Piast ruler of Legnica\-Brzeg, died underage and without male heirs. The Princess explored the possibility of succeeding him in his domains. However, the Emperor Leopold I, despite the fact that he was a Catholic, objected to her plans. Only by an Imperial decree, dated 14 September 1680, did she receive an annual salary of 6,000 [talers](/wiki/Thaler "Thaler") during her lifetime (later, the sum was reduced to 4,000 talers). Karolina settled her residence in [Wrocław](/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw "Wrocław"), the old city of her ancestors. She lived there alone, leading a devout life and giving to charitable activities. ### Death [thumb\|225px\|right\|Tombstone of Karolina in [Trzebnica](/wiki/Trzebnica "Trzebnica") Abbey](/wiki/Image:Karolina_Piast%C3%B3wna.JPG "Karolina Piastówna.JPG") Karolina died on 24 December 1707 in Wrocław. Her heart was placed in a silver urn in the local church of St. Klara (in the chapel of St. Hedwig), and her body was buried in the monastery of [Trzebnica](/wiki/Trzebnica "Trzebnica"). This happened against her mother's wishes, who before her own death in 1680 had prepared her place in the mausoleum of the Dukes of Legnica, called *Piasteum*. In the place which was supposedly to contain Karolina's remains, only an empty place was left. ### Legacy Leopold of Schleswig\-Holstein\-Sonderburg\-Wiesenburg, Karolina's only child, succeeded his father as duke when he died in 1724\. He had five daughters from his marriage with Marie Elisabeth, daughter of [Hans\-Adam I, Prince of Liechtenstein](/wiki/Hans-Adam_I%2C_Prince_of_Liechtenstein "Hans-Adam I, Prince of Liechtenstein"): 1. *Theresia* (1713–1745\), who married Johann Aloys I, Prince of [Oettingen\-Oettingen\-Spielberg](/wiki/Oettingen-Spielberg "Oettingen-Spielberg") (1707–1780\): 1. *Marie Leopoldine* (1741–1795\), who married Ernst Christoph, Prince of Kaunitz (1737–1797\). Her only child, Countess Eleonore of [Kaunitz](/wiki/Kaunitz "Kaunitz")\-[Rietberg](/wiki/Rietberg "Rietberg"), was the first wife of [Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich](/wiki/Klemens_Wenzel%2C_Prince_von_Metternich "Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich"). 2. *Marie Charlotte* (b. and d. 1743\) 3. *[Maria Eleonore](/wiki/Eleonore_of_Liechtenstein "Eleonore of Liechtenstein")* (1745–1812\), who married [Prince Karl Borromäus of Liechtenstein](/wiki/Prince_Karl_Borrom%C3%A4us_of_Liechtenstein "Prince Karl Borromäus of Liechtenstein"). 2. *Eleonora*, who married [Giuseppe Gonzaga](/wiki/Giuseppe_Gonzaga "Giuseppe Gonzaga"), the last Duke of [Guastalla](/wiki/Guastalla "Guastalla"). 3. *Gabriela*, who married Karl Frederick of [Fürstenberg\-Möskirch](/wiki/F%C3%BCrstenberg-Messkirch "Fürstenberg-Messkirch"). 4. *Charlotte*, who married [Charles Thomas, Prince of Löwenstein\-Wertheim\-Rochefort](/wiki/Charles_Thomas%2C_Prince_of_L%C3%B6wenstein-Wertheim-Rochefort "Charles Thomas, Prince of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rochefort"). Her only daughter, Leopoldine, married [Charles Albert II, Prince of Hohenlohe\-Waldenburg\-Schillingsfürst](/wiki/Charles_Albert_II%2C_Prince_of_Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsf%C3%BCrst "Charles Albert II, Prince of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst"). 5. *Antonia*, who died aged fourteen.
[ "Life\n----", "### Youth", "Karolina was born in Brzeg as the first child of her parents. They gave her an unusual first name, which had never been given to another member of the [Piast dynasty](/wiki/Piast_dynasty \"Piast dynasty\") (and never was after her death). She was baptized on 1 January 1653\\. Her godfather was a senior member of the family, Duke [George Rudolf of Liegnitz](/wiki/George_Rudolf_of_Liegnitz \"George Rudolf of Liegnitz\"), but he was seriously ill at the time of her birth. He died thirteen days later on 14 January, so he was replaced during the ceremony by her paternal uncle, [Louis IV of Legnica](/wiki/Louis_IV_of_Legnica \"Louis IV of Legnica\").", "During her early years, Karolina, as an only child, witnessed the rule of her father. In 1653 after the death of Duke George Rudolf, her uncles [George III](/wiki/George_III_of_Brieg \"George III of Brieg\") and Louis IV, and her father Christian, together inherited Legnica and Brzeg, for one year as co\\-rulers, until they decided to divide their domains in 1654\\. In the division, Christian received the poorest parts of the Duchy, Wołów and Oława. However, in 1664, after the death of his only surviving brother, George III, Karolina's father united the whole Duchy of Legnica\\-Brzeg under his rule.", "Christian and his wife raised their daughter as a [Calvinist](/wiki/Calvinism \"Calvinism\"). On 29 September 1660, Duchess Louise gave birth to a son and heir, [George William](/wiki/George_William%2C_Duke_of_Liegnitz \"George William, Duke of Liegnitz\"). Of the four children born to Karolina's parents, only she and George William survived infancy.", "### Marriage", "Duke Christian died on 28 February 1672 and was succeeded by his only surviving son, George William, who was placed under the regency of his mother. A few months later, Karolina married [Frederick, Duke of Schleswig\\-Holstein\\-Sonderburg\\-Wiesenburg](/wiki/Frederick%2C_Duke_of_Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Wiesenburg \"Frederick, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Wiesenburg\"). He was a great\\-great\\-grandson of [King Christian III](/wiki/Christian_III_of_Denmark \"Christian III of Denmark\") under the paternal line. The groom was from a [Catholic](/wiki/Catholic \"Catholic\") family and served in the Imperial army as a Colonel [Cuirassier](/wiki/Cuirassier \"Cuirassier\"). Karolina probably met him through a [Jesuit](/wiki/Jesuit \"Jesuit\") close to her mother. Motivated by love rather than for dynastic reasons, she adopted the Catholic faith. On 14 July 1672 Karolina and Frederick married secretly and almost one year later, on 3 May 1673, the official wedding took place. On 12 January 1674 their only child, [Leopold](/wiki/Leopold%2C_Duke_of_Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Wiesenburg \"Leopold, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Wiesenburg\"), was born. However, the marriage proved unsuccessful and with the consent of [Emperor Leopold I](/wiki/Emperor_Leopold_I \"Emperor Leopold I\") in August 1680 they became formally separated. In accordance with the legal arrangement of the separation, their son remained under the custody of the father.", "### George William's death and last years", "On 21 November 1675, Karolina's brother George William, the last Piast ruler of Legnica\\-Brzeg, died underage and without male heirs. The Princess explored the possibility of succeeding him in his domains. However, the Emperor Leopold I, despite the fact that he was a Catholic, objected to her plans. Only by an Imperial decree, dated 14 September 1680, did she receive an annual salary of 6,000 [talers](/wiki/Thaler \"Thaler\") during her lifetime (later, the sum was reduced to 4,000 talers). Karolina settled her residence in [Wrocław](/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw \"Wrocław\"), the old city of her ancestors. She lived there alone, leading a devout life and giving to charitable activities.", "### Death", "[thumb\\|225px\\|right\\|Tombstone of Karolina in [Trzebnica](/wiki/Trzebnica \"Trzebnica\") Abbey](/wiki/Image:Karolina_Piast%C3%B3wna.JPG \"Karolina Piastówna.JPG\")\nKarolina died on 24 December 1707 in Wrocław. Her heart was placed in a silver urn in the local church of St. Klara (in the chapel of St. Hedwig), and her body was buried in the monastery of [Trzebnica](/wiki/Trzebnica \"Trzebnica\"). This happened against her mother's wishes, who before her own death in 1680 had prepared her place in the mausoleum of the Dukes of Legnica, called *Piasteum*. In the place which was supposedly to contain Karolina's remains, only an empty place was left.", "### Legacy", "Leopold of Schleswig\\-Holstein\\-Sonderburg\\-Wiesenburg, Karolina's only child, succeeded his father as duke when he died in 1724\\. He had five daughters from his marriage with Marie Elisabeth, daughter of [Hans\\-Adam I, Prince of Liechtenstein](/wiki/Hans-Adam_I%2C_Prince_of_Liechtenstein \"Hans-Adam I, Prince of Liechtenstein\"):\n1. *Theresia* (1713–1745\\), who married Johann Aloys I, Prince of [Oettingen\\-Oettingen\\-Spielberg](/wiki/Oettingen-Spielberg \"Oettingen-Spielberg\") (1707–1780\\):\n\t1. *Marie Leopoldine* (1741–1795\\), who married Ernst Christoph, Prince of Kaunitz (1737–1797\\). Her only child, Countess Eleonore of [Kaunitz](/wiki/Kaunitz \"Kaunitz\")\\-[Rietberg](/wiki/Rietberg \"Rietberg\"), was the first wife of [Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich](/wiki/Klemens_Wenzel%2C_Prince_von_Metternich \"Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich\").\n\t2. *Marie Charlotte* (b. and d. 1743\\)\n\t3. *[Maria Eleonore](/wiki/Eleonore_of_Liechtenstein \"Eleonore of Liechtenstein\")* (1745–1812\\), who married [Prince Karl Borromäus of Liechtenstein](/wiki/Prince_Karl_Borrom%C3%A4us_of_Liechtenstein \"Prince Karl Borromäus of Liechtenstein\").\n2. *Eleonora*, who married [Giuseppe Gonzaga](/wiki/Giuseppe_Gonzaga \"Giuseppe Gonzaga\"), the last Duke of [Guastalla](/wiki/Guastalla \"Guastalla\").\n3. *Gabriela*, who married Karl Frederick of [Fürstenberg\\-Möskirch](/wiki/F%C3%BCrstenberg-Messkirch \"Fürstenberg-Messkirch\").\n4. *Charlotte*, who married [Charles Thomas, Prince of Löwenstein\\-Wertheim\\-Rochefort](/wiki/Charles_Thomas%2C_Prince_of_L%C3%B6wenstein-Wertheim-Rochefort \"Charles Thomas, Prince of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rochefort\"). Her only daughter, Leopoldine, married [Charles Albert II, Prince of Hohenlohe\\-Waldenburg\\-Schillingsfürst](/wiki/Charles_Albert_II%2C_Prince_of_Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsf%C3%BCrst \"Charles Albert II, Prince of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst\").\n5. *Antonia*, who died aged fourteen.", "" ]
Biography --------- Charles Allen Prosser was born the son of a steel worker on September 20, 1871, in [New Albany, Indiana](/wiki/New_Albany%2C_Indiana "New Albany, Indiana"). He attended [DePauw University](/wiki/DePauw_University "DePauw University") in 1897 and 1906, where he received his [B.A.](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts "Bachelor of Arts") and [M.A.](/wiki/Master_of_Arts "Master of Arts") degrees. He also attended the [University of Louisville](/wiki/University_of_Louisville "University of Louisville") where he received a L.L.B. degree. His [Ph.D.](/wiki/Ph.D. "Ph.D.") was from [Columbia University](/wiki/Columbia_University "Columbia University"). Prosser also received many honorary degrees from several other universities in the United States. Charles Allen Prosser taught [physics](/wiki/Physics "Physics") and [history](/wiki/History "History") at the old [New Albany High School](/wiki/New_Albany_High_School_%28Indiana%29 "New Albany High School (Indiana)"). He later served as Superintendent of the local school district from 1900 until 1908\. During this time he improved the old instruction system by streamlining many regular activities, he upgraded the required teacher qualifications, under his administration he built the then new high school located at E. 6th and Spring Streets, he assisted the city in obtaining the present library, and also instituted the city's first [night school](/wiki/wikt:Night_school "Night school") program. Prosser was president of the [Indiana Teachers Association](/wiki/Indiana_Teachers_Association "Indiana Teachers Association") for several years while living in [Indiana](/wiki/Indiana "Indiana"). For several years Prosser also served as a Juvenile Judge in [Floyd County](/wiki/Floyd_County%2C_Indiana "Floyd County, Indiana") adjudicating cases involving minors and [juvenile delinquents](/wiki/Juvenile_delinquent "Juvenile delinquent"). This helped Prosser form his opinions on the needs of youth. While superintendent, Prosser met many boys who were most interested in working with their hands to make things and only wanted to learn a trade. Prosser began to think that schools should help train boys for trades with the help of a [Ph.D.](/wiki/Ph.D. "Ph.D.") He would not return to the superintendency at New Albany. Dr. Prosser later began to work with other organizations including employment as the superintendent of the Children's Aid Society in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") where evening industrial instruction classes were offered to the public. He later became Deputy Commissioner of Industrial Education for [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts "Massachusetts") from 1910 to 1912, and then Secretary of the [National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education](/wiki/National_Society_for_the_Promotion_of_Industrial_Education "National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education") again in New York City from 1912 to 1915\. While Prosser was Secretary of the National Society, he traveled widely forming and enthusing many individuals and groups. Prosser suggested programs and standards that helped to pass legislation that showed the entire Nation the possibilities of public vocational education. He also served as the first executive director of the [Federal Board for Vocational Education](/wiki/Federal_Board_for_Vocational_Education "Federal Board for Vocational Education") from 1917 to 1919\. Prosser also reported to congress numerous times with his mentor David Snedden. On February 23, 1917, President Wilson signed the Smith\-Hughes Act into law, and federal funding for vocational education was established. Prosser finally moved to [Minneapolis](/wiki/Minneapolis "Minneapolis"), where from 1915 to 1945 he headed the pioneering [Dunwoody Industrial Institute](/wiki/Dunwoody_Industrial_Institute "Dunwoody Industrial Institute") (now [Dunwoody College of Technology](/wiki/Dunwoody_College_of_Technology "Dunwoody College of Technology")), where many of today's vocational training concepts were created. Prosser died in 1952\.
[ "Biography\n---------", "Charles Allen Prosser was born the son of a steel worker on September 20, 1871, in [New Albany, Indiana](/wiki/New_Albany%2C_Indiana \"New Albany, Indiana\").", "He attended [DePauw University](/wiki/DePauw_University \"DePauw University\") in 1897 and 1906, where he received his [B.A.](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts \"Bachelor of Arts\") and [M.A.](/wiki/Master_of_Arts \"Master of Arts\") degrees. He also attended the [University of Louisville](/wiki/University_of_Louisville \"University of Louisville\") where he received a L.L.B. degree. His [Ph.D.](/wiki/Ph.D. \"Ph.D.\") was from [Columbia University](/wiki/Columbia_University \"Columbia University\"). Prosser also received many honorary degrees from several other universities in the United States.", "Charles Allen Prosser taught [physics](/wiki/Physics \"Physics\") and [history](/wiki/History \"History\") at the old [New Albany High School](/wiki/New_Albany_High_School_%28Indiana%29 \"New Albany High School (Indiana)\"). He later served as Superintendent of the local school district from 1900 until 1908\\. During this time he improved the old instruction system by streamlining many regular activities, he upgraded the required teacher qualifications, under his administration he built the then new high school located at E. 6th and Spring Streets, he assisted the city in obtaining the present library, and also instituted the city's first [night school](/wiki/wikt:Night_school \"Night school\") program. Prosser was president of the [Indiana Teachers Association](/wiki/Indiana_Teachers_Association \"Indiana Teachers Association\") for several years while living in [Indiana](/wiki/Indiana \"Indiana\").", "For several years Prosser also served as a Juvenile Judge in [Floyd County](/wiki/Floyd_County%2C_Indiana \"Floyd County, Indiana\") adjudicating cases involving minors and [juvenile delinquents](/wiki/Juvenile_delinquent \"Juvenile delinquent\"). This helped Prosser form his opinions on the needs of youth.", "While superintendent, Prosser met many boys who were most interested in working with their hands to make things and only wanted to learn a trade. Prosser began to think that schools should help train boys for trades with the help of a [Ph.D.](/wiki/Ph.D. \"Ph.D.\") He would not return to the superintendency at New Albany.", "Dr. Prosser later began to work with other organizations including employment as the superintendent of the Children's Aid Society in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") where evening industrial instruction classes were offered to the public. He later became Deputy Commissioner of Industrial Education for [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts \"Massachusetts\") from 1910 to 1912, and then Secretary of the [National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education](/wiki/National_Society_for_the_Promotion_of_Industrial_Education \"National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education\") again in New York City from 1912 to 1915\\.", "While Prosser was Secretary of the National Society, he traveled widely forming and enthusing many individuals and groups. Prosser suggested programs and standards that helped to pass legislation that showed the entire Nation the possibilities of public vocational education. He also served as the first executive director of the [Federal Board for Vocational Education](/wiki/Federal_Board_for_Vocational_Education \"Federal Board for Vocational Education\") from 1917 to 1919\\. Prosser also reported to congress numerous times with his mentor David Snedden. On February 23, 1917, President Wilson signed the Smith\\-Hughes Act into law, and federal funding for vocational education was established.", "Prosser finally moved to [Minneapolis](/wiki/Minneapolis \"Minneapolis\"), where from 1915 to 1945 he headed the pioneering [Dunwoody Industrial Institute](/wiki/Dunwoody_Industrial_Institute \"Dunwoody Industrial Institute\") (now [Dunwoody College of Technology](/wiki/Dunwoody_College_of_Technology \"Dunwoody College of Technology\")), where many of today's vocational training concepts were created.", "Prosser died in 1952\\.", "" ]
Characters ---------- ### Lonestarr Government appointed leader of Team Tejas. Lonestarr's true identity is that of Jonathan Gonzales, assistant mayor of [Dallas, Texas](/wiki/Dallas%2C_Texas "Dallas, Texas") and son of Senator Enrique Gonzales. Lonestarr has no superpowers, as all appointed leaders are intended to be normal humans, but wears a suit designed by Gonzales Industries granting him the ability to form a manipulative energy field and the ability to fly. Jonathan takes pride in the success of Team Tejas, but the government's ties to the group as well as the burden of leadership is slowly wearing on him. #### Fictional character history Jonathan Gonzales is the son of Senator Enrique Gonzales and assistant\-mayor of [Dallas, Texas](/wiki/Dallas%2C_Texas "Dallas, Texas") making him the perfect candidate for the [Hero Agency's](/wiki/Hero_Agency "Hero Agency") newly formed superhero group of South Texas. Jonathan, being supplied a suit from [Gonzales Industries](/wiki/Gonzales_Industries "Gonzales Industries"), must lead four meta\-humans in the fight against crime and rogue mutant terrorists. Despite taking pride in the efforts of the team, the burden of leadership is slowly beginning to wear on him.[Lonestarr of Team Tejas](http://www.internationalhero.co.uk/l/lonstar2.htm) #### Skills, abilities, and gadgets Since all government\-appointed leaders of superhero teams are normal humans, Lonestarr has no special powers of his own. He instead relies on his accumulative knowledge and access to advanced technology to accomplish his goals. #### Costume Lonestarr's suit was designed and constructed by [Gonzales Industries](/wiki/Gonzales_Industries "Gonzales Industries") specifically for his use. The suit gives him the ability to form a manipulative energy field which he can use to form barriers or fire concussive blasts. The suit grants him the power of flight as well. ### Reata Vanessa Castillo was born with the ability to [teleport](/wiki/Teleportation "Teleportation") herself anywhere within a five\-hundred\-mile radius, along with people or objects weighing up to one [ton](/wiki/Ton "Ton"). Vanessa and her brother Abel were tested at early ages for the "*Hero Gene*". Testing positive, both were promptly abducted by the INS and place in to the Hero Program. After thirteen years, both were allowed to reintegrate in to normal society, and were made members of Team Tejas. Donning the name of Reata, Vanessa proves herself to be a vital member of the team, but will often place herself in danger without considering the consequences. #### Fictional character history Discovered to have the "*Hero gene*" at the young age of six, Vanessa was abducted by the Hero Agency, an active branch of the government, and placed in to the Hero Program. After thirteen years of training by the Agency, Vanessa and her brother were allowed to return to regular society, on the condition that they both become members of Team Tejas. Both brother and sister accept their roles in the group, with Vanessa becoming a successful fashion designer. Vanessa proves herself a vital member of the group but often places herself in dangerous situations. ### Calibre Calibre's powers include [super\-strength](/wiki/Super-strength "Super-strength") and the ability to grow twenty feet tall, increasing his strength as he does so. Calibre is in fact Abel Castillo, a college student at Dallas University and defensive end for the football team. He, along with his older sister Vanessa, were taken in to the Hero Program at a young age to be released a few years later to fight crime with Team Tejas. Abel is characterized as a gentle giant, never quick to anger, but able to release a fury that only his sister can calm. #### Fictional character history Discovered at a young age to have the "*Hero Gene*" both Abel and his sister Vanessa were forcefully removed from their household and placed in the United States Government Hero Agency. After thirteen years of extensive training in the Hero Program, both brother and sister were allowed to return to regular society and stationed with Team Tejas. Donning the name Calibre, Abel and his team\-mates are the first line of defense against terrorist meta\-human attacks. Outside of his Team Tejas, Abel currently attends Dallas University and is a promising defensive end for the football team. ### Plainsman Daniel Brightfeather joined the Hero Program when he was eight years old, being forced from his [reservation](/wiki/Indian_reservation "Indian reservation") by the government. Although he surpassed the program's expectations, Daniel never forgot what they had done to him, and has a deep hatred for the government. Adopting the alternate identity of the Plainsman, Daniel is stationed with Team Tejas. The Plainsman has the unique ability to control "magical" artifacts or weapons of great power, one including the Tomahawk Crow which can turn in to a fireball when thrown and return to the Plainsman. Despite his dislike of the government, Daniel has a deep respect for his teammates, seeing them as forced in to the group as he himself was. The Hero Agency is worried that The Plainsman's outspoken views may affect Lonestarr, and take special care to monitor both heroes. #### Character history Daniel Brightfeather was found to have the ability to control and manipulate reputed magical objects at the early age of eight. The [INS](/wiki/Immigration_and_Naturalization_Service "Immigration and Naturalization Service") quickly abducted the young boy and placed him in the Hero Program. Despite consistently surpassing the Agency's own expectations, Daniel has a deep hatred for the government. Despite his dislike of the government, Daniel has a deep respect for his teammates, seeing them as forced into the group as he himself was. The Hero Agency is worried that The Plainsman's outspoken views may affect the team's leader [Lonestarr](/wiki/Lonestarr "Lonestarr"), and take special care to monitor both heroes.[Plainsman](http://www.internationalhero.co.uk/p/plainsma.htm) ### Trinity Born Zhang Xianhua, Trinity is an immigrant from China who was "traded" to the United States Hero Agency, and sent to live with a trainer in [Ouray, Colorado](/wiki/Ouray%2C_Colorado "Ouray, Colorado") until she was of appropriate age to enter the Hero Program. Trinity has the power to create up to three clones of herself, each stronger and faster than herself, and can act independently for up to fifty\-miles from Zhang. Her unique ability does come with side effects, as each clone has a part of her personality multiplied by one hundred percent. Zhang attends college with Abel but has no ambitions of her own. Often moody and defiant, Trinity has become hard to control and harder to predict. Despite being an annoyance to Lonestarr, Plainsman often acts as her [mentor](/wiki/Mentor "Mentor") and father\-figure. #### Fictional character history Zhang was discovered by the Chinese government to have the reputed "*Hero Gene*" at an early age and was quickly apprehended to be "traded" in to the United States Hero Agency for some undisclosed item.[Trinity](http://www.internationalhero.co.uk/t/trinity.htm) Due to her young age, the girl was placed in the care of a "trainer" in [Ouray, Colorado](/wiki/Ouray%2C_Colorado "Ouray, Colorado"), until appropriate testing could begin. Despite failing to pass any of the Hero Program's rigorous testings, Zhang is currently stationed with Team Tejas and is a college student attending Dallas University. A rather defiant character, Trinity easily annoys her teammates, except for [Plainsman](/wiki/Plainsman_%28comics%29 "Plainsman (comics)") who acts as her [mentor](/wiki/Mentor "Mentor"). #### Powers and abilities Trinity has superhuman strength and the ability to self\-duplicate up to three clones. Each clone has double her original strength and are able to act independently from up to fifty\-miles away from each other. Her unique ability is not without its side\-effects, as each clone retains a certain part of her personality multiplied by 100%.
[ "Characters\n----------", "### Lonestarr", "Government appointed leader of Team Tejas. Lonestarr's true identity is that of Jonathan Gonzales, assistant mayor of [Dallas, Texas](/wiki/Dallas%2C_Texas \"Dallas, Texas\") and son of Senator Enrique Gonzales. Lonestarr has no superpowers, as all appointed leaders are intended to be normal humans, but wears a suit designed by Gonzales Industries granting him the ability to form a manipulative energy field and the ability to fly. Jonathan takes pride in the success of Team Tejas, but the government's ties to the group as well as the burden of leadership is slowly wearing on him.", "#### Fictional character history", "Jonathan Gonzales is the son of Senator Enrique Gonzales and assistant\\-mayor of [Dallas, Texas](/wiki/Dallas%2C_Texas \"Dallas, Texas\") making him the perfect candidate for the [Hero Agency's](/wiki/Hero_Agency \"Hero Agency\") newly formed superhero group of South Texas. Jonathan, being supplied a suit from [Gonzales Industries](/wiki/Gonzales_Industries \"Gonzales Industries\"), must lead four meta\\-humans in the fight against crime and rogue mutant terrorists. Despite taking pride in the efforts of the team, the burden of leadership is slowly beginning to wear on him.[Lonestarr of Team Tejas](http://www.internationalhero.co.uk/l/lonstar2.htm)", "#### Skills, abilities, and gadgets", "Since all government\\-appointed leaders of superhero teams are normal humans, Lonestarr has no special powers of his own. He instead relies on his accumulative knowledge and access to advanced technology to accomplish his goals.", "#### Costume", "Lonestarr's suit was designed and constructed by [Gonzales Industries](/wiki/Gonzales_Industries \"Gonzales Industries\") specifically for his use. The suit gives him the ability to form a manipulative energy field which he can use to form barriers or fire concussive blasts. The suit grants him the power of flight as well.", "### Reata", "Vanessa Castillo was born with the ability to [teleport](/wiki/Teleportation \"Teleportation\") herself anywhere within a five\\-hundred\\-mile radius, along with people or objects weighing up to one [ton](/wiki/Ton \"Ton\"). Vanessa and her brother Abel were tested at early ages for the \"*Hero Gene*\". Testing positive, both were promptly abducted by the INS and place in to the Hero Program. After thirteen years, both were allowed to reintegrate in to normal society, and were made members of Team Tejas. Donning the name of Reata, Vanessa proves herself to be a vital member of the team, but will often place herself in danger without considering the consequences.", "#### Fictional character history", "Discovered to have the \"*Hero gene*\" at the young age of six, Vanessa was abducted by the Hero Agency, an active branch of the government, and placed in to the Hero Program. After thirteen years of training by the Agency, Vanessa and her brother were allowed to return to regular society, on the condition that they both become members of Team Tejas. Both brother and sister accept their roles in the group, with Vanessa becoming a successful fashion designer. Vanessa proves herself a vital member of the group but often places herself in dangerous situations.", "### Calibre", "Calibre's powers include [super\\-strength](/wiki/Super-strength \"Super-strength\") and the ability to grow twenty feet tall, increasing his strength as he does so. Calibre is in fact Abel Castillo, a college student at Dallas University and defensive end for the football team. He, along with his older sister Vanessa, were taken in to the Hero Program at a young age to be released a few years later to fight crime with Team Tejas. Abel is characterized as a gentle giant, never quick to anger, but able to release a fury that only his sister can calm.", "#### Fictional character history", "Discovered at a young age to have the \"*Hero Gene*\" both Abel and his sister Vanessa were forcefully removed from their household and placed in the United States Government Hero Agency. After thirteen years of extensive training in the Hero Program, both brother and sister were allowed to return to regular society and stationed with Team Tejas. Donning the name Calibre, Abel and his team\\-mates are the first line of defense against terrorist meta\\-human attacks. Outside of his Team Tejas, Abel currently attends Dallas University and is a promising defensive end for the football team.", "### Plainsman", "Daniel Brightfeather joined the Hero Program when he was eight years old, being forced from his [reservation](/wiki/Indian_reservation \"Indian reservation\") by the government. Although he surpassed the program's expectations, Daniel never forgot what they had done to him, and has a deep hatred for the government. Adopting the alternate identity of the Plainsman, Daniel is stationed with Team Tejas. The Plainsman has the unique ability to control \"magical\" artifacts or weapons of great power, one including the Tomahawk Crow which can turn in to a fireball when thrown and return to the Plainsman. Despite his dislike of the government, Daniel has a deep respect for his teammates, seeing them as forced in to the group as he himself was. The Hero Agency is worried that The Plainsman's outspoken views may affect Lonestarr, and take special care to monitor both heroes.", "#### Character history", "Daniel Brightfeather was found to have the ability to control and manipulate reputed magical objects at the early age of eight. The [INS](/wiki/Immigration_and_Naturalization_Service \"Immigration and Naturalization Service\") quickly abducted the young boy and placed him in the Hero Program. Despite consistently surpassing the Agency's own expectations, Daniel has a deep hatred for the government. Despite his dislike of the government, Daniel has a deep respect for his teammates, seeing them as forced into the group as he himself was. The Hero Agency is worried that The Plainsman's outspoken views may affect the team's leader [Lonestarr](/wiki/Lonestarr \"Lonestarr\"), and take special care to monitor both heroes.[Plainsman](http://www.internationalhero.co.uk/p/plainsma.htm)", "### Trinity", "Born Zhang Xianhua, Trinity is an immigrant from China who was \"traded\" to the United States Hero Agency, and sent to live with a trainer in [Ouray, Colorado](/wiki/Ouray%2C_Colorado \"Ouray, Colorado\") until she was of appropriate age to enter the Hero Program. Trinity has the power to create up to three clones of herself, each stronger and faster than herself, and can act independently for up to fifty\\-miles from Zhang. Her unique ability does come with side effects, as each clone has a part of her personality multiplied by one hundred percent. Zhang attends college with Abel but has no ambitions of her own. Often moody and defiant, Trinity has become hard to control and harder to predict. Despite being an annoyance to Lonestarr, Plainsman often acts as her [mentor](/wiki/Mentor \"Mentor\") and father\\-figure.", "#### Fictional character history", "Zhang was discovered by the Chinese government to have the reputed \"*Hero Gene*\" at an early age and was quickly apprehended to be \"traded\" in to the United States Hero Agency for some undisclosed item.[Trinity](http://www.internationalhero.co.uk/t/trinity.htm) Due to her young age, the girl was placed in the care of a \"trainer\" in [Ouray, Colorado](/wiki/Ouray%2C_Colorado \"Ouray, Colorado\"), until appropriate testing could begin. Despite failing to pass any of the Hero Program's rigorous testings, Zhang is currently stationed with Team Tejas and is a college student attending Dallas University. A rather defiant character, Trinity easily annoys her teammates, except for [Plainsman](/wiki/Plainsman_%28comics%29 \"Plainsman (comics)\") who acts as her [mentor](/wiki/Mentor \"Mentor\").", "#### Powers and abilities", "Trinity has superhuman strength and the ability to self\\-duplicate up to three clones. Each clone has double her original strength and are able to act independently from up to fifty\\-miles away from each other. Her unique ability is not without its side\\-effects, as each clone retains a certain part of her personality multiplied by 100%.", "" ]
History ------- Regular scheduled air links to the Faroes had been in operation with [Icelandair](/wiki/Icelandair "Icelandair") from 1963, between the islands, [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark"), [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland "Scotland") and [Iceland](/wiki/Iceland "Iceland").{{Cite web \|last\=Jósefsdóttir \|first\=Kristján Már Unnarsson,Sólrún Dögg \|date\=2024\-01\-05 \|title\=Icelandair flýgur til Færeyja að nýju \- Vísir \|url\=https://www.visir.is/g/20242564706d/icelandair\-flygur\-til\-faer\-eyja\-ad\-nyju \|access\-date\=2024\-10\-16 \|website\=visir.is \|language\=is}} Although the airport at Vágar had been constructed by the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army "British Army") during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), air traffic to the islands was limited in the 1960s. In 1971, more regular services to [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen "Copenhagen") began with [Maersk Air](/wiki/Maersk_Air "Maersk Air"). Calls for the creation of a Faroese airline company began in the early 1980s. Passenger numbers were steadily increasing and Danish carrier Maersk Air enjoyed the monopoly as the sole airline to serve the Faroe Islands. [thumb\|right\|Atlantic Airways Avro RJ aircraft at [Vágar Airport](/wiki/V%C3%A1gar_Airport "Vágar Airport")](/wiki/Image:Avro_at_Vagar_Airport.JPG "Avro at Vagar Airport.JPG") As a result, Atlantic Airways was established in 1987, initially between the [Faroese government](/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_Faroe_Islands "Cabinet of the Faroe Islands") (51%) and Danish airline [Cimber Air](/wiki/Cimber_Air "Cimber Air") (49%), though the Faroese government would assume full ownership in 1989\. Flights commenced between [Vágar](/wiki/V%C3%A1gar_Airport "Vágar Airport") and [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen_Airport "Copenhagen Airport") on 28 March 1988 using a [British Aerospace 146](/wiki/British_Aerospace_146 "British Aerospace 146"). A [hangar](/wiki/Hangar "Hangar") was built at Vágar by the Faroese government in order to secure Atlantic Airways' home base in the Faroes, ensuring [maintenance](/wiki/Aircraft_maintenance "Aircraft maintenance") facilities were available on the islands. The aim of the new airline company was to build up a Faroese aviation industry on a commercial basis and to ensure the Faroe Islands an air connection with the outside world. Flight crews and management were Faroese. Though load factors were high and the new service was popular, Atlantic Airways had a turbulent beginning economically. The Faroe Islands suffered a severe [economic depression](/wiki/Economic_depression "Economic depression") in the early 1990s, and at its nadir in 1992, the Faroese government delivered 75 m [DKK](/wiki/Danish_krone "Danish krone") in aid to the struggling carrier. Atlantic Airways would not become profitable until 1995\. [thumb\|right\|Avro RJ85 at [Narsarsuaq Airport](/wiki/Narsarsuaq_Airport "Narsarsuaq Airport"), Greenland](/wiki/File:Narsarsuaq-airport-atlantic-airways-avro-rj85-oyrce.jpg "Narsarsuaq-airport-atlantic-airways-avro-rj85-oyrce.jpg") Flights were launched to [Reykjavík](/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk "Reykjavík") in 1995 in co\-operation with [Icelandair](/wiki/Icelandair "Icelandair"), and also to [Narsarsuaq](/wiki/Narsarsuaq "Narsarsuaq") in Greenland in the summer months, in co\-operation with [Icelandair](/wiki/Icelandair "Icelandair"). The latter half of the 1990s saw [Billund](/wiki/Billund%2C_Denmark "Billund, Denmark") in Denmark and [Aberdeen](/wiki/Aberdeen "Aberdeen") in the UK added to Atlantic Airways' flight schedule. In 2004, Icelandair ceased operating their own flights to Vágar, albeit retaining their partnership with Atlantic Airways.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Heiðarsson \|first1\=Jón Þorvaldur \|last2\=Hjalti \|first2\=Jóhannesson \|date\=July 2004 \|title\=FLUG OG SJÓFLUTNINGAR Á VESTURNORÐURLÖNDUM GREINING OG FRAMTÍÐARSPÁ \|url\=https://www.rha.is/static/files/Rannsoknir/2004/VestNorden\_samgongur\_loka\-isl.pdf \|journal\=Rannsóknastofnun Háskólans Á Akureyri}} Maersk Air also ceased flights to Vágar in 2004, leaving Atlantic Airways as the only regularly scheduled operator to the Faroe Islands.{{Cite web \|title\=Faroe Island\-based Atlantic Airways has excelled in mastering unaccommodating operational challenges \|url\=https://centreforaviation.com/analysis/reports/faroe\-island\-based\-atlantic\-airways\-has\-excelled\-in\-mastering\-unaccommodating\-operational\-challenges\-83953 \|access\-date\=2024\-10\-16 \|website\=CAPA \- Centre for Aviation \|language\=en}} The growing list of destinations and increasing passenger numbers, together with the stabilisation of the airline's finances, saw a second [BAe 146](/wiki/BAe_146 "BAe 146") added to the fleet in 2000\. This new aircraft meant services to [London Stansted](/wiki/Stansted_Airport "Stansted Airport") in England and the Norwegian capital [Oslo](/wiki/Oslo "Oslo") added to the network. Growth in tourism on the islands has also enabled flights to [Aalborg](/wiki/Aalborg "Aalborg"), [Stavanger](/wiki/Stavanger "Stavanger"), [Stord](/wiki/Stord "Stord") and [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh "Edinburgh"). However, for the 2006 season services to Stord have been discontinued, and Edinburgh replaced by the [Shetland](/wiki/Shetland "Shetland") Islands. Atlantic Airways also entered the UK domestic market in 2006, becoming the only carrier to offer a direct service between Shetland and London, which it did on a twice weekly basis. The UK domestic operation ceased in 2008\. Atlantic Airways also operates a domestic service by [helicopter](/wiki/Helicopter "Helicopter"), in many instances a vital connection to many of the islands, which otherwise can only be reached by sea. The helicopter has proved a vital tool on the islands since the 1960s, when helicopters from Danish [coast guard](/wiki/Coast_guard "Coast guard") vessels patrolling the Faroes undertook a variety of tasks, including ferrying equipment and supplies between the islands. The government hired a helicopter in 1978 for these tasks, but in the 1980s a commercial public helicopter service was launched linking each of the islands using two [Bell 222](/wiki/Bell_222 "Bell 222") helicopters. [thumb\|[Airbus A319](/wiki/Airbus_A319 "Airbus A319") landing at [Barcelona–El Prat Airport](/wiki/Barcelona%E2%80%93El_Prat_Airport "Barcelona–El Prat Airport"), Spain](/wiki/File:Airbus_A319-115_Atlantic_Airways_OY-RCG.jpg "Airbus A319-115 Atlantic Airways OY-RCG.jpg") Initially, the helicopter service was a standalone company, SL Helicopters, but the decision to concentrate Faroese aviation into one firm led to the helicopter department becoming part of Atlantic Airways in 1994\. The helicopters provide a round trip 'hopper' service to each of the islands, which is also ideal for tourists looking for aerial views. The company is required to have at least one helicopter operational and ready for [search and rescue](/wiki/Search_and_rescue "Search and rescue") duties. From approximately 2002 to 2007, Atlantic Airways has produced profits of between 8 and 13 million [DKK](/wiki/Danish_krone "Danish krone"). The company has increased its turnover from 120 million in 1998 to 520 million DKK in 2006\. Atlantic Airways employed 177 people at January 2007\. Atlantic Airways was listed at the [Iceland Stock Exchange](/wiki/Iceland_Stock_Exchange "Iceland Stock Exchange") on 10 December 2007\. The Faroese government has decided on a privatisation process and has sold off 33% of the company in the first bidding round. The first day of trading was 10 December 2007\. The government was planning to sell off 33% more in 2008, but this was cancelled due to the [financial crisis](/wiki/Great_Recession "Great Recession").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.atlantic.fo/Default.asp?sida%3D3097 \|title\=Atlantic Airways \|access\-date\=5 December 2007 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213032626/http://www.atlantic.fo/Default.asp?sida\=3097 \|archive\-date\=13 December 2007 }}{{Cite web \|date\=2007\-12\-13 \|title\=Atlantic Airways \|url\=http://www.atlantic.fo/Default.asp?sida\=3097 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213032626/http://www.atlantic.fo/Default.asp?sida\=3097 \|archive\-date\=2007\-12\-13 \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-07 }} The first [Airbus A319](/wiki/Airbus_A319 "Airbus A319") for Atlantic Airways, registered OY\-RCG, entered service in March 2012, with a modified livery. The runway at Vágar required an extension to properly accommodate this aircraft. The second and third Airbus 319s (OY\-RCH and OY\-RCI) entered service in May and October 2013 respectively. As the lease of these ran out by the end of 2016, only one was renewed while a brand new [Airbus A320](/wiki/Airbus_A320 "Airbus A320") was delivered. On 3 June 2015, [Jóhanna á Bergi](/wiki/J%C3%B3hanna_%C3%A1_Bergi "Jóhanna á Bergi") became CEO of the company.{{cite web\|url\=http://kvf.fo/greinar/2015/06/02/johanna\-bergi\-nyggjur\-stjori\-i\-atlantic\-airways \|title\=Jóhanna á Bergi nýggjur stjóri í Atlantic Airways \| Kringvarp Føroya \|language\=fo \|website\=Kvf.fo \|date\=7 March 2014}} She is the first woman to become CEO of a Nordic airline.{{cite web\|last\=Baumgarten \|first\=Henrik \|url\=http://www.standby.dk/kvinde\-i\-spidsen\-for\-atlantic\-airways/ \|title\=Kvinde i spidsen for Atlantic Airways \| Stand By \- Morgennyheder til rejse\-, hotel\- og turistbranchen \|website\=Standby.dk \|date\=3 June 2015 \|access\-date\=17 September 2016}} In December 2018, the airline submitted an application for commercial services to the United States.{{cite news \| author \= Nick Wenzel \| title \= Atlantic Airways applies for Faroe\-US flights \= International Flight Network \| date \= 15 December 2018 \| url \= https://ifn.news/posts/atlantic\-airways\-applies\-for\-faroe\-us\-flights/}} As Atlantic Airways transitioned their fleet from Airbus A319s to A320s, they moved their Iceland flights from to [Keflavík International Airport](/wiki/Keflav%C3%ADk_International_Airport "Keflavík International Airport") in 2018, due to aircraft size restrictions at [Reykjavík Airport](/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk_Airport "Reykjavík Airport").{{Cite web \|last\=Unnarsson \|first\=Kristján Már \|date\=2018\-10\-26 \|title\=Síðasta flug til Færeyja frá Reykjavíkurflugvelli \- Vísir \|url\=https://www.visir.is/g/2018181029107 \|access\-date\=2024\-10\-16 \|website\=visir.is \|language\=is}} On 13 March 2020, Atlantic Airways announced the suspension of all routes until 13 April 2020 except the route to [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen "Copenhagen") due to the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic").{{cite web\|title\=''Flogferðslan munandi skerd''\|url\=http://kvf.fo/greinar/2020/03/13/flogferdslan\-munandi\-skerd\|publisher\=Kringvarp Føroya\|access\-date\=2020\-03\-15}} On 22 August 2023, Atlantic Airways started to operate seven\-hour flight weekly scheduled nonstop service between the U.S. and the Faroe Islands with service to the Faroe Islands on Wednesdays and flights to [Stewart International Airport](/wiki/Stewart_International_Airport "Stewart International Airport") on Tuesdays.{{Cite web \|title\=Atlantic Airways is launching nonstop U.S.\-Faroe Islands service \|url\=https://www.travelweekly.com/Travel\-News/Airline\-News/US\-Faroe\-Islands\-nonstop\-Atlantic\-Airways \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-19 \|website\=www.travelweekly.com \|language\=en}} The carrier, which operates the route with [Airbus A320neo](/wiki/Airbus_A320neo_family "Airbus A320neo family"), is the only one to use the aircraft type on transatlantic flights.{{Cite web \|last\=Miguens \|first\=Agustín \|date\=2023\-05\-18 \|title\=Atlantic Airways is now marketing its flights between the Faroe Islands and New York \|url\=https://www.aviacionline.com/2023/05/atlantic\-airways\-is\-now\-marketing\-its\-flights\-between\-the\-faroe\-islands\-and\-new\-york/ \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-19 \|website\=Aviacionline.com \|language\=es}} [thumb\|right\|upright\|Former US President [Bill Clinton](/wiki/Bill_Clinton "Bill Clinton") and former Atlantic Airways President Magni Arge at [Vágar Airport](/wiki/V%C3%A1gar_Airport "Vágar Airport"), before flying to [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen "Copenhagen")](/wiki/File:Bill_Clinton_and_Magni_Arge.jpg "Bill Clinton and Magni Arge.jpg")
[ "History\n-------", "Regular scheduled air links to the Faroes had been in operation with [Icelandair](/wiki/Icelandair \"Icelandair\") from 1963, between the islands, [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\"), [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\") and [Iceland](/wiki/Iceland \"Iceland\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Jósefsdóttir \\|first\\=Kristján Már Unnarsson,Sólrún Dögg \\|date\\=2024\\-01\\-05 \\|title\\=Icelandair flýgur til Færeyja að nýju \\- Vísir \\|url\\=https://www.visir.is/g/20242564706d/icelandair\\-flygur\\-til\\-faer\\-eyja\\-ad\\-nyju \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-10\\-16 \\|website\\=visir.is \\|language\\=is}} Although the airport at Vágar had been constructed by the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army \"British Army\") during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), air traffic to the islands was limited in the 1960s. In 1971, more regular services to [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen \"Copenhagen\") began with [Maersk Air](/wiki/Maersk_Air \"Maersk Air\"). Calls for the creation of a Faroese airline company began in the early 1980s. Passenger numbers were steadily increasing and Danish carrier Maersk Air enjoyed the monopoly as the sole airline to serve the Faroe Islands.", "[thumb\\|right\\|Atlantic Airways Avro RJ aircraft at [Vágar Airport](/wiki/V%C3%A1gar_Airport \"Vágar Airport\")](/wiki/Image:Avro_at_Vagar_Airport.JPG \"Avro at Vagar Airport.JPG\")\nAs a result, Atlantic Airways was established in 1987, initially between the [Faroese government](/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_Faroe_Islands \"Cabinet of the Faroe Islands\") (51%) and Danish airline [Cimber Air](/wiki/Cimber_Air \"Cimber Air\") (49%), though the Faroese government would assume full ownership in 1989\\. Flights commenced between [Vágar](/wiki/V%C3%A1gar_Airport \"Vágar Airport\") and [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen_Airport \"Copenhagen Airport\") on 28 March 1988 using a [British Aerospace 146](/wiki/British_Aerospace_146 \"British Aerospace 146\"). A [hangar](/wiki/Hangar \"Hangar\") was built at Vágar by the Faroese government in order to secure Atlantic Airways' home base in the Faroes, ensuring [maintenance](/wiki/Aircraft_maintenance \"Aircraft maintenance\") facilities were available on the islands.", "The aim of the new airline company was to build up a Faroese aviation industry on a commercial basis and to ensure the Faroe Islands an air connection with the outside world. Flight crews and management were Faroese.", "Though load factors were high and the new service was popular, Atlantic Airways had a turbulent beginning economically. The Faroe Islands suffered a severe [economic depression](/wiki/Economic_depression \"Economic depression\") in the early 1990s, and at its nadir in 1992, the Faroese government delivered 75 m [DKK](/wiki/Danish_krone \"Danish krone\") in aid to the struggling carrier. Atlantic Airways would not become profitable until 1995\\.", "[thumb\\|right\\|Avro RJ85 at [Narsarsuaq Airport](/wiki/Narsarsuaq_Airport \"Narsarsuaq Airport\"), Greenland](/wiki/File:Narsarsuaq-airport-atlantic-airways-avro-rj85-oyrce.jpg \"Narsarsuaq-airport-atlantic-airways-avro-rj85-oyrce.jpg\")\nFlights were launched to [Reykjavík](/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk \"Reykjavík\") in 1995 in co\\-operation with [Icelandair](/wiki/Icelandair \"Icelandair\"), and also to [Narsarsuaq](/wiki/Narsarsuaq \"Narsarsuaq\") in Greenland in the summer months, in co\\-operation with [Icelandair](/wiki/Icelandair \"Icelandair\"). The latter half of the 1990s saw [Billund](/wiki/Billund%2C_Denmark \"Billund, Denmark\") in Denmark and [Aberdeen](/wiki/Aberdeen \"Aberdeen\") in the UK added to Atlantic Airways' flight schedule. In 2004, Icelandair ceased operating their own flights to Vágar, albeit retaining their partnership with Atlantic Airways.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Heiðarsson \\|first1\\=Jón Þorvaldur \\|last2\\=Hjalti \\|first2\\=Jóhannesson \\|date\\=July 2004 \\|title\\=FLUG OG SJÓFLUTNINGAR Á VESTURNORÐURLÖNDUM GREINING OG FRAMTÍÐARSPÁ \\|url\\=https://www.rha.is/static/files/Rannsoknir/2004/VestNorden\\_samgongur\\_loka\\-isl.pdf \\|journal\\=Rannsóknastofnun Háskólans Á Akureyri}} Maersk Air also ceased flights to Vágar in 2004, leaving Atlantic Airways as the only regularly scheduled operator to the Faroe Islands.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Faroe Island\\-based Atlantic Airways has excelled in mastering unaccommodating operational challenges \\|url\\=https://centreforaviation.com/analysis/reports/faroe\\-island\\-based\\-atlantic\\-airways\\-has\\-excelled\\-in\\-mastering\\-unaccommodating\\-operational\\-challenges\\-83953 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-10\\-16 \\|website\\=CAPA \\- Centre for Aviation \\|language\\=en}}", "The growing list of destinations and increasing passenger numbers, together with the stabilisation of the airline's finances, saw a second [BAe 146](/wiki/BAe_146 \"BAe 146\") added to the fleet in 2000\\. This new aircraft meant services to [London Stansted](/wiki/Stansted_Airport \"Stansted Airport\") in England and the Norwegian capital [Oslo](/wiki/Oslo \"Oslo\") added to the network. Growth in tourism on the islands has also enabled flights to [Aalborg](/wiki/Aalborg \"Aalborg\"), [Stavanger](/wiki/Stavanger \"Stavanger\"), [Stord](/wiki/Stord \"Stord\") and [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh \"Edinburgh\"). However, for the 2006 season services to Stord have been discontinued, and Edinburgh replaced by the [Shetland](/wiki/Shetland \"Shetland\") Islands. Atlantic Airways also entered the UK domestic market in 2006, becoming the only carrier to offer a direct service between Shetland and London, which it did on a twice weekly basis. The UK domestic operation ceased in 2008\\.", "Atlantic Airways also operates a domestic service by [helicopter](/wiki/Helicopter \"Helicopter\"), in many instances a vital connection to many of the islands, which otherwise can only be reached by sea. The helicopter has proved a vital tool on the islands since the 1960s, when helicopters from Danish [coast guard](/wiki/Coast_guard \"Coast guard\") vessels patrolling the Faroes undertook a variety of tasks, including ferrying equipment and supplies between the islands. The government hired a helicopter in 1978 for these tasks, but in the 1980s a commercial public helicopter service was launched linking each of the islands using two [Bell 222](/wiki/Bell_222 \"Bell 222\") helicopters.", "[thumb\\|[Airbus A319](/wiki/Airbus_A319 \"Airbus A319\") landing at [Barcelona–El Prat Airport](/wiki/Barcelona%E2%80%93El_Prat_Airport \"Barcelona–El Prat Airport\"), Spain](/wiki/File:Airbus_A319-115_Atlantic_Airways_OY-RCG.jpg \"Airbus A319-115 Atlantic Airways OY-RCG.jpg\")\nInitially, the helicopter service was a standalone company, SL Helicopters, but the decision to concentrate Faroese aviation into one firm led to the helicopter department becoming part of Atlantic Airways in 1994\\. The helicopters provide a round trip 'hopper' service to each of the islands, which is also ideal for tourists looking for aerial views. The company is required to have at least one helicopter operational and ready for [search and rescue](/wiki/Search_and_rescue \"Search and rescue\") duties.", "From approximately 2002 to 2007, Atlantic Airways has produced profits of between 8 and 13 million [DKK](/wiki/Danish_krone \"Danish krone\"). The company has increased its turnover from 120 million in 1998 to 520 million DKK in 2006\\. Atlantic Airways employed 177 people at January 2007\\. Atlantic Airways was listed at the [Iceland Stock Exchange](/wiki/Iceland_Stock_Exchange \"Iceland Stock Exchange\") on 10 December 2007\\.", "The Faroese government has decided on a privatisation process and has sold off 33% of the company in the first bidding round. The first day of trading was 10 December 2007\\.", "The government was planning to sell off 33% more in 2008, but this was cancelled due to the [financial crisis](/wiki/Great_Recession \"Great Recession\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.atlantic.fo/Default.asp?sida%3D3097 \\|title\\=Atlantic Airways \\|access\\-date\\=5 December 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213032626/http://www.atlantic.fo/Default.asp?sida\\=3097 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 December 2007 }}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2007\\-12\\-13 \\|title\\=Atlantic Airways \\|url\\=http://www.atlantic.fo/Default.asp?sida\\=3097 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213032626/http://www.atlantic.fo/Default.asp?sida\\=3097 \\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-12\\-13 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-07 }}", "The first [Airbus A319](/wiki/Airbus_A319 \"Airbus A319\") for Atlantic Airways, registered OY\\-RCG, entered service in March 2012, with a modified livery. The runway at Vágar required an extension to properly accommodate this aircraft. The second and third Airbus 319s (OY\\-RCH and OY\\-RCI) entered service in May and October 2013 respectively. As the lease of these ran out by the end of 2016, only one was renewed while a brand new [Airbus A320](/wiki/Airbus_A320 \"Airbus A320\") was delivered.", "On 3 June 2015, [Jóhanna á Bergi](/wiki/J%C3%B3hanna_%C3%A1_Bergi \"Jóhanna á Bergi\") became CEO of the company.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://kvf.fo/greinar/2015/06/02/johanna\\-bergi\\-nyggjur\\-stjori\\-i\\-atlantic\\-airways \\|title\\=Jóhanna á Bergi nýggjur stjóri í Atlantic Airways \\| Kringvarp Føroya \\|language\\=fo \\|website\\=Kvf.fo \\|date\\=7 March 2014}} She is the first woman to become CEO of a Nordic airline.{{cite web\\|last\\=Baumgarten \\|first\\=Henrik \\|url\\=http://www.standby.dk/kvinde\\-i\\-spidsen\\-for\\-atlantic\\-airways/ \\|title\\=Kvinde i spidsen for Atlantic Airways \\| Stand By \\- Morgennyheder til rejse\\-, hotel\\- og turistbranchen \\|website\\=Standby.dk \\|date\\=3 June 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=17 September 2016}}", "In December 2018, the airline submitted an application for commercial services to the United States.{{cite news \\| author \\= Nick Wenzel \\| title \\= Atlantic Airways applies for Faroe\\-US flights \\= International Flight Network \\| date \\= 15 December 2018 \\| url \\= https://ifn.news/posts/atlantic\\-airways\\-applies\\-for\\-faroe\\-us\\-flights/}} As Atlantic Airways transitioned their fleet from Airbus A319s to A320s, they moved their Iceland flights from to [Keflavík International Airport](/wiki/Keflav%C3%ADk_International_Airport \"Keflavík International Airport\") in 2018, due to aircraft size restrictions at [Reykjavík Airport](/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk_Airport \"Reykjavík Airport\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Unnarsson \\|first\\=Kristján Már \\|date\\=2018\\-10\\-26 \\|title\\=Síðasta flug til Færeyja frá Reykjavíkurflugvelli \\- Vísir \\|url\\=https://www.visir.is/g/2018181029107 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-10\\-16 \\|website\\=visir.is \\|language\\=is}}", "On 13 March 2020, Atlantic Airways announced the suspension of all routes until 13 April 2020 except the route to [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen \"Copenhagen\") due to the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\").{{cite web\\|title\\=''Flogferðslan munandi skerd''\\|url\\=http://kvf.fo/greinar/2020/03/13/flogferdslan\\-munandi\\-skerd\\|publisher\\=Kringvarp Føroya\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-03\\-15}}", "On 22 August 2023, Atlantic Airways started to operate seven\\-hour flight weekly scheduled nonstop service between the U.S. and the Faroe Islands with service to the Faroe Islands on Wednesdays and flights to [Stewart International Airport](/wiki/Stewart_International_Airport \"Stewart International Airport\") on Tuesdays.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Atlantic Airways is launching nonstop U.S.\\-Faroe Islands service \\|url\\=https://www.travelweekly.com/Travel\\-News/Airline\\-News/US\\-Faroe\\-Islands\\-nonstop\\-Atlantic\\-Airways \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-19 \\|website\\=www.travelweekly.com \\|language\\=en}} The carrier, which operates the route with [Airbus A320neo](/wiki/Airbus_A320neo_family \"Airbus A320neo family\"), is the only one to use the aircraft type on transatlantic flights.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Miguens \\|first\\=Agustín \\|date\\=2023\\-05\\-18 \\|title\\=Atlantic Airways is now marketing its flights between the Faroe Islands and New York \\|url\\=https://www.aviacionline.com/2023/05/atlantic\\-airways\\-is\\-now\\-marketing\\-its\\-flights\\-between\\-the\\-faroe\\-islands\\-and\\-new\\-york/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-19 \\|website\\=Aviacionline.com \\|language\\=es}}", "[thumb\\|right\\|upright\\|Former US President [Bill Clinton](/wiki/Bill_Clinton \"Bill Clinton\") and former Atlantic Airways President Magni Arge at [Vágar Airport](/wiki/V%C3%A1gar_Airport \"Vágar Airport\"), before flying to [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen \"Copenhagen\")](/wiki/File:Bill_Clinton_and_Magni_Arge.jpg \"Bill Clinton and Magni Arge.jpg\")", "" ]
Unit Organization ----------------- ### Division An Egyptian Army Division organization may differ between Armored and Infantry. * Mechanized Infantry division usually consists of two Mechanized brigades, one Armored brigade (96 Tanks), one Field/SP Artillery brigade (36 guns) (maybe both depending on the size and objective of the division), Air Defense Regiment, Anti\-Tank Regiment and smaller support battalions and companies. The number of tanks in a Mechanized division varies between 150 and 180 tanks. It also has around/over 13,000 troops in total during peace and war times. * Armored division has the same structure but with more tanks (240\-300 tanks) and the existence of two Armored brigades and one Mechanized brigade instead and only one Anti\-Tank battalion for the Mechanized brigade. It also has around/over 12,000 troops. ### Armored Brigades Armored brigades consists of 3 tank battalions (96\-126 tanks), 1 Mechanized battalion, 1 SP Artillery battalion (12 guns), 1 Air Defense company, Armored Recon. company, Engineer company, Signal company, Logistical Support company, Maintenance company and Medical platoon and Chemical Warfare platoon. * + - An Armored battalion consists of 31\-42 tanks (depending on the brigade's size and what kind of unit is it a part of). Where it compromises (3\-4 tank companies, anti\-tank company and HQ platoon) - Mechanized battalions in Armored units consists of 576 troops organized in 4 companies. ### Mechanized Brigades Mechanized brigade in a mechanized division is larger than mechanized brigade in armored divisions. This kind of brigades in general consists of 3 mechanized battalions, 1 tank battalion (31\-41 tanks) and support units as 1 field artillery battalion (12 guns), 1 Air defense battalion, 1 Anti\-Tank battalion, Signal company, Military Police company, Recon battalion, Medical company, Engineer company, Chemical Warfare company, Supply company and Transport company. Mechanized brigades has a total of 3500 troops. * + - A Mechanized battalion of mechanized units consists of 500 to 610 troops organized in 4\-5 companies. ### Infantry Brigade An Infantry Brigade consists of 2 Infantry Battalions, 2 Mechanized Battalions (armed with lightly protected vehicles), Tank Battalion and Support Units. * Infantry Battalions has a total of 700 troops. Infantry brigades contain more than 1000 troops but initially, under the law of Military Limitations. Major General Mujid made it 2051 troops limitation. ### Artillery brigade An Artillery brigade in the Egyptian Army differs between armored artillery and mechanized artillery brigades. By which, artillery brigades in mechanized divisions consists of two [Field](/wiki/Field_artillery "Field artillery")/[Self\-Propelled](/wiki/Self-propelled_artillery "Self-propelled artillery") (SP) Artillery battalions (for mechanized brigades), one Rocket Artillery battalion (for the armored brigade), and one command battalion (total 36 guns and 108 trucks) artillery brigades compromises around 1500 troops. While artillery brigades inside armored divisions consists of two rocket artillery battalions, one SP Artillery battalion and one command battalion (with the same number of equipment). * Artillery battalions whether SP, Field or Rocket units all has the same structure, where an artillery battalion consists of 500 troops, 12 guns and 36 trucks. They are organized into 4 batteries. ### Support Units All support battalions compromise 400 troops except for companies that have only 100 troops.
[ "Unit Organization\n-----------------", "### Division", "An Egyptian Army Division organization may differ between Armored and Infantry.", "* Mechanized Infantry division usually consists of two Mechanized brigades, one Armored brigade (96 Tanks), one Field/SP Artillery brigade (36 guns) (maybe both depending on the size and objective of the division), Air Defense Regiment, Anti\\-Tank Regiment and smaller support battalions and companies. The number of tanks in a Mechanized division varies between 150 and 180 tanks. It also has around/over 13,000 troops in total during peace and war times.\n* Armored division has the same structure but with more tanks (240\\-300 tanks) and the existence of two Armored brigades and one Mechanized brigade instead and only one Anti\\-Tank battalion for the Mechanized brigade. It also has around/over 12,000 troops.", "### Armored Brigades", "Armored brigades consists of 3 tank battalions (96\\-126 tanks), 1 Mechanized battalion, 1 SP Artillery battalion (12 guns), 1 Air Defense company, Armored Recon. company, Engineer company, Signal company, Logistical Support company, Maintenance company and Medical platoon and Chemical Warfare platoon.\n* + - An Armored battalion consists of 31\\-42 tanks (depending on the brigade's size and what kind of unit is it a part of). Where it compromises (3\\-4 tank companies, anti\\-tank company and HQ platoon)\n\t\t- Mechanized battalions in Armored units consists of 576 troops organized in 4 companies.", "### Mechanized Brigades", "Mechanized brigade in a mechanized division is larger than mechanized brigade in armored divisions. This kind of brigades in general consists of 3 mechanized battalions, 1 tank battalion (31\\-41 tanks) and support units as 1 field artillery battalion (12 guns), 1 Air defense battalion, 1 Anti\\-Tank battalion, Signal company, Military Police company, Recon battalion, Medical company, Engineer company, Chemical Warfare company, Supply company and Transport company. Mechanized brigades has a total of 3500 troops.\n* + - A Mechanized battalion of mechanized units consists of 500 to 610 troops organized in 4\\-5 companies.", "### Infantry Brigade", "An Infantry Brigade consists of 2 Infantry Battalions, 2 Mechanized Battalions (armed with lightly protected vehicles), Tank Battalion and Support Units.", "* Infantry Battalions has a total of 700 troops. Infantry brigades contain more than 1000 troops but initially, under the law of Military Limitations. Major General Mujid made it 2051 troops limitation.", "### Artillery brigade", "An Artillery brigade in the Egyptian Army differs between armored artillery and mechanized artillery brigades. By which, artillery brigades in mechanized divisions consists of two [Field](/wiki/Field_artillery \"Field artillery\")/[Self\\-Propelled](/wiki/Self-propelled_artillery \"Self-propelled artillery\") (SP) Artillery battalions (for mechanized brigades), one Rocket Artillery battalion (for the armored brigade), and one command battalion (total 36 guns and 108 trucks) artillery brigades compromises around 1500 troops.", "While artillery brigades inside armored divisions consists of two rocket artillery battalions, one SP Artillery battalion and one command battalion (with the same number of equipment).", "* Artillery battalions whether SP, Field or Rocket units all has the same structure, where an artillery battalion consists of 500 troops, 12 guns and 36 trucks. They are organized into 4 batteries.", "### Support Units", "All support battalions compromise 400 troops except for companies that have only 100 troops.", "" ]
History ------- ### Early years The station debuted on April 5, 1958 as WNOB; it was started by Northern Ohio Broadcasting, whose principals were several people from [WNEW](/wiki/WBBR "WBBR") in New York. When the companion AM license was not granted, the station found itself in a precarious position, because standalone FM stations in the 1950s did not make money. In 1961, the station filed for [bankruptcy](/wiki/Bankruptcy "Bankruptcy"). A machine operator, Phillip Kerwin, purchased WNOB for $16,000\. In 1963, WNOB became one of the first FM stations in the US to broadcast in [stereo](/wiki/Stereo "Stereo"). In 1968, the signal was upgraded; the station purchased a new transmitter and antenna system. Two years later, in 1970, Multicom Inc. (owner of [WELW](/wiki/WINT_%28AM%29 "WINT (AM)") AM 1330 in [Willoughby, Ohio](/wiki/Willoughby%2C_Ohio "Willoughby, Ohio")) purchased the station for $330,000\. The call letters were then changed to WELW\-FM. WELW played a [top 40](/wiki/Top_40 "Top 40") [Drake](/wiki/Bill_Drake "Bill Drake") type format for almost two years, then switched to [country music](/wiki/Country_music "Country music"). ### Disco 108 WDMT/FM 108 WDMT Your Power Station In 1975, [Beasley Broadcast Group](/wiki/Beasley_Broadcast_Group "Beasley Broadcast Group") purchased the station from Multicom for $550,000, and changed the call letters to WDMT (which is short for "We're DynoMite!", "Dynomite!" being a well\-known catchphrase by comic and actor [Jimmie "Kid Dynomite" Walker](/wiki/Jimmie_Walker "Jimmie Walker") on the popular TV sitcom *[Good Times](/wiki/Good_Times "Good Times")*). The next year, the station switched to the then\-popular [Disco](/wiki/Disco "Disco") format and took the moniker "Disco 108 WDMT." By 1978, WDMT evolved to a hybrid [CHR](/wiki/Contemporary_Hit_Radio "Contemporary Hit Radio")/[Urban Contemporary](/wiki/Urban_Contemporary "Urban Contemporary") format, also known as "CHUrban" (which would be the forerunner to what is now known as [Rhythmic contemporary](/wiki/Rhythmic_contemporary "Rhythmic contemporary")), as "FM 108 WDMT Your Power Station". WDMT was Cleveland's first\-ever CHUrban radio station. During the WDMT era the station aired "The WDMT's Club Style", where street DJs from Cleveland received opportunities to mix live on the air. Caroline Ford, Freddie James, Steve Szabo, Brenda \& Michael Love, Matthew Morgan, Lady Skill, Hot Rod See, with Dean Rufus, and the legendary Ronnie "The Ghoul" Sweed were popular WDMT DJs during this period. In 1985, the entire WDMT air staff appeared with [Arsenio Hall](/wiki/Arsenio_Hall "Arsenio Hall") on the first 'Urban Music Awards' show. ### Power 108 FM [173px\|thumb\|left\|Power 108 logo](/wiki/File:Power_108.png "Power 108.png") On April 9, 1987, the station changed call letters to WPHR, shifted to a [Top 40](/wiki/Mainstream_Top_40 "Mainstream Top 40")/[CHR](/wiki/Contemporary_Hit_Radio "Contemporary Hit Radio") format, and rebranded as "Power 108 FM".Debbi Snook, "Fox premiere mixes laughs, sneers," *The Plain Dealer*, April 4, 1987\.Debbi Snook, "Rumors of Channel 8 sale bring cautionary reply by boss," *The Plain Dealer*, April 9, 1987\.{{Cite web \|title\=RR\-1987\-04\-10 \|url\=http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-RandR/1980s/1987/RR\-1987\-04\-10\.pdf \|website\=americanradiohistory.com}} In 1988, the station was sold to Ardman Broadcasting for $2\.8 million. "Power Jocks" during this period included Program Director and DJ Big Steve "Kelly" Szabo, Calvin Hicks, Jimmy Bosh, Maria Farina, Elizabeth "Liz" Luke, [John Records Landecker](/wiki/John_Landecker "John Landecker"), [Gina St. John](/wiki/Gina_St._John "Gina St. John"), Cat Thomas, Rick Michaels, Cathy Cruise, Scotty James, Mark Allen, Edward "Downtown Eddie" Brown, with James "Jammin' Jimmy" Hart, and Sonny Joe Fox among others. WPHR moved its studios to [Playhouse Square](/wiki/Playhouse_Square "Playhouse Square") in late 1988\. {{Clearleft}} ### 107\.9 The End [156px\|thumb\|107\.9 The End logo](/wiki/File:107.9_The_END_logo.png "107.9 The END logo.png") On May 12, 1992, the station changed its callsign to WENZ and flipped its format to [alternative rock](/wiki/Modern_rock "Modern rock"), branding itself as "107\.9 The End".Roberto Santiago, "Today is beginning of The End in radio," *The Plain Dealer*, May 12, 1992\.{{Cite web \|title\=RR\-1992\-05\-15 \|url\=http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-RandR/1990s/1992/RR\-1992\-05\-15\.pdf \|website\=americanradiohistory.com}} Both the branding and callsign reflected the station's position on the FM dial. In March 1996, Ardman would sell the station to [Clear Channel Communications](/wiki/IHeartMedia "IHeartMedia"). Both the inception and the demise of The End were [stunted](/wiki/Stunting_%28broadcasting%29 "Stunting (broadcasting)"): with both format changes, the station broadcast a 24\-hour loop of [R.E.M.](/wiki/R.E.M. "R.E.M.")'s song "[It's the End of the World as We Know It (And I Feel Fine)](/wiki/It%27s_the_End_of_the_World_as_We_Know_It_%28And_I_Feel_Fine%29 "It's the End of the World as We Know It (And I Feel Fine)")". A documentary film made about The End, entitled *The End of the World As We Knew It*, was released in 2009 and featured many of the former staffers and jocks.{{Citation\|title\=The End of the World as We Knew It\|date\=14 June 2008\|url\=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1384803/\|access\-date\=2020\-01\-02}} On February 25, 2020, "The End" was re\-launched as an internet radio station under the management of former station producer, Dan Binder.{{Cite web \|title\=107\.9 the End Relaunches as an Internet Radio Station \|url\=https://www.clevescene.com/scene\-and\-heard/archives/2020/02/25/1079\-the\-end\-relaunches\-as\-an\-internet\-radio\-station \|website\=clevescene.com}} {{Clearleft}} ### Z 107\.9 Hip\-Hop As part of divestitures required by federal agencies to approve Clear Channel's purchase of [Jacor](/wiki/Jacor "Jacor"), WENZ was purchased by [Radio One](/wiki/Urban_One "Urban One") on January 15, 1999\. Radio One's station portfolio and programming philosophy targeted [African American](/wiki/African_American "African American") communities. As a result, WENZ dropped their modern rock format for [mainstream urban](/wiki/Mainstream_urban "Mainstream urban") featuring [hip\-hop](/wiki/Hip_hop_music "Hip hop music") and [R\&B](/wiki/R%26B "R&B") on May 14, 1999, taking the "KISS 107\.9" brand.{{Cite web \|title\=RR\-1999\-05\-21 \|url\=http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-RandR/1990s/1999/RR\-1999\-05\-21\.pdf \|website\=americanradiohistory.com}}{{Cite news \|last\=Feran \|first\=Tom \|date\=May 19, 1999 \|title\=WJMO gives up soul for gospel \|page\=2E \|work\=\[\[The Plain Dealer]] \|location\=Cleveland, Ohio \|url\=https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/openurl?ctx\_ver\=z39\.88\-2004\&rft\_id\=info%3Asid/infoweb.newsbank.com\&svc\_dat\=NewsBank\&req\_dat\=1082885C71926A79\&rft\_val\_format\=info%3Aofi/fmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Actx\&rft\_dat\=document\_id%3Anews%252F0F80D3C45AEBAAFF \|url\-status\=live \|url\-access\=subscription \|access\-date\=March 27, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329015022/https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/document\-view?p\=NewsBank\&docref\=news/0F80D3C45AEBAAFF\&f\=basic \|archive\-date\=March 29, 2022 \|via\=NewsBank}} One week later, [Lorain](/wiki/Lorain%2C_Ohio "Lorain, Ohio")–licensed [WZLE ({{Frequency\|104\.9\|FM}})](/wiki/WCPN%23WAKS "WCPN#WAKS"), itself now under Clear Channel ownership, switched formats from [Contemporary Christian](/wiki/Contemporary_Christian_music "Contemporary Christian music") to CHR as "Kiss 104\.9",{{Cite news \|last\=O'Connor \|first\=Clint \|date\=May 22, 1999 \|title\=Different tunes found on familiar radio dials \|page\=5B \|work\=\[\[The Plain Dealer]] \|location\=Cleveland, Ohio \|url\=https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/openurl?ctx\_ver\=z39\.88\-2004\&rft\_id\=info%3Asid/infoweb.newsbank.com\&svc\_dat\=NewsBank\&req\_dat\=1082885C71926A79\&rft\_val\_format\=info%3Aofi/fmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Actx\&rft\_dat\=document\_id%3Anews%252F0F80D3D5DD6E4150 \|url\-status\=live \|url\-access\=subscription \|access\-date\=March 27, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329015022/https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/document\-view?p\=NewsBank\&docref\=news/0F80D3D5DD6E4150\&f\=basic \|archive\-date\=March 29, 2022 \|via\=NewsBank}} then filed a [cease and desist](/wiki/Cease_and_desist "Cease and desist") order against Radio One for usage of the ["KISS\-FM" brand](/wiki/KISS-FM_%28brand%29 "KISS-FM (brand)"), which Clear Channel claimed ownership of in the state of Ohio.{{cite news \|author\=Feran \|first\=Tom \|date\=May 26, 1999 \|title\=One station may have to kiss name goodbye \|page\=1E \|newspaper\=\[\[The Plain Dealer]] \|location\=Cleveland, Ohio \|url\=https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/openurl?ctx\_ver\=z39\.88\-2004\&rft\_id\=info%3Asid/infoweb.newsbank.com\&svc\_dat\=NewsBank\&req\_dat\=1082885C71926A79\&rft\_val\_format\=info%3Aofi/fmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Actx\&rft\_dat\=document\_id%3Anews%252F0F80D3F05A747711 \|url\-status\=live \|url\-access\=subscription \|access\-date\=March 27, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329015024/https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/document\-view?p\=NewsBank\&docref\=news/0F80D3F05A747711\&f\=basic \|archive\-date\=March 29, 2022 \|via\=NewsBank}} WENZ rebranded to "Z 107\.9" on September 1, 1999, resolving the dispute.{{cite news \|author\=Feran \|first\=Tom \|date\=September 25, 1999 \|title\=Swoboda backs to news as anchor on TV\-5 at 11 \|page\=6E \|newspaper\=\[\[The Plain Dealer]] \|location\=Cleveland, Ohio \|url\=https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/openurl?ctx\_ver\=z39\.88\-2004\&rft\_id\=info%3Asid/infoweb.newsbank.com\&svc\_dat\=NewsBank\&req\_dat\=1082885C71926A79\&rft\_val\_format\=info%3Aofi/fmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Actx\&rft\_dat\=document\_id%3Anews%252F0F34546C21CE32E4 \|url\-status\=live \|url\-access\=subscription \|access\-date\=March 27, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329015023/https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/document\-view?p\=NewsBank\&docref\=news/0F34546C21CE32E4\&f\=basic \|archive\-date\=March 29, 2022 \|via\=NewsBank}} Radio One was renamed Urban One in May 2018\.
[ "History\n-------", "### Early years", "The station debuted on April 5, 1958 as WNOB; it was started by Northern Ohio Broadcasting, whose principals were several people from [WNEW](/wiki/WBBR \"WBBR\") in New York. When the companion AM license was not granted, the station found itself in a precarious position, because standalone FM stations in the 1950s did not make money.", "In 1961, the station filed for [bankruptcy](/wiki/Bankruptcy \"Bankruptcy\"). A machine operator, Phillip Kerwin, purchased WNOB for $16,000\\. In 1963, WNOB became one of the first FM stations in the US to broadcast in [stereo](/wiki/Stereo \"Stereo\"). In 1968, the signal was upgraded; the station purchased a new transmitter and antenna system. Two years later, in 1970, Multicom Inc. (owner of [WELW](/wiki/WINT_%28AM%29 \"WINT (AM)\") AM 1330 in [Willoughby, Ohio](/wiki/Willoughby%2C_Ohio \"Willoughby, Ohio\")) purchased the station for $330,000\\. The call letters were then changed to WELW\\-FM. WELW played a [top 40](/wiki/Top_40 \"Top 40\") [Drake](/wiki/Bill_Drake \"Bill Drake\") type format for almost two years, then switched to [country music](/wiki/Country_music \"Country music\").", "### Disco 108 WDMT/FM 108 WDMT Your Power Station", "In 1975, [Beasley Broadcast Group](/wiki/Beasley_Broadcast_Group \"Beasley Broadcast Group\") purchased the station from Multicom for $550,000, and changed the call letters to WDMT (which is short for \"We're DynoMite!\", \"Dynomite!\" being a well\\-known catchphrase by comic and actor [Jimmie \"Kid Dynomite\" Walker](/wiki/Jimmie_Walker \"Jimmie Walker\") on the popular TV sitcom *[Good Times](/wiki/Good_Times \"Good Times\")*). The next year, the station switched to the then\\-popular [Disco](/wiki/Disco \"Disco\") format and took the moniker \"Disco 108 WDMT.\" By 1978, WDMT evolved to a hybrid [CHR](/wiki/Contemporary_Hit_Radio \"Contemporary Hit Radio\")/[Urban Contemporary](/wiki/Urban_Contemporary \"Urban Contemporary\") format, also known as \"CHUrban\" (which would be the forerunner to what is now known as [Rhythmic contemporary](/wiki/Rhythmic_contemporary \"Rhythmic contemporary\")), as \"FM 108 WDMT Your Power Station\". WDMT was Cleveland's first\\-ever CHUrban radio station.", "During the WDMT era the station aired \"The WDMT's Club Style\", where street DJs from Cleveland received opportunities to mix live on the air. Caroline Ford, Freddie James, Steve Szabo, Brenda \\& Michael Love, Matthew Morgan, Lady Skill, Hot Rod See, with Dean Rufus, and the legendary Ronnie \"The Ghoul\" Sweed were popular WDMT DJs during this period. In 1985, the entire WDMT air staff appeared with [Arsenio Hall](/wiki/Arsenio_Hall \"Arsenio Hall\") on the first 'Urban Music Awards' show.", "### Power 108 FM", "[173px\\|thumb\\|left\\|Power 108 logo](/wiki/File:Power_108.png \"Power 108.png\")\nOn April 9, 1987, the station changed call letters to WPHR, shifted to a [Top 40](/wiki/Mainstream_Top_40 \"Mainstream Top 40\")/[CHR](/wiki/Contemporary_Hit_Radio \"Contemporary Hit Radio\") format, and rebranded as \"Power 108 FM\".Debbi Snook, \"Fox premiere mixes laughs, sneers,\" *The Plain Dealer*, April 4, 1987\\.Debbi Snook, \"Rumors of Channel 8 sale bring cautionary reply by boss,\" *The Plain Dealer*, April 9, 1987\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=RR\\-1987\\-04\\-10 \\|url\\=http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-RandR/1980s/1987/RR\\-1987\\-04\\-10\\.pdf \\|website\\=americanradiohistory.com}} In 1988, the station was sold to Ardman Broadcasting for $2\\.8 million. \"Power Jocks\" during this period included Program Director and DJ Big Steve \"Kelly\" Szabo, Calvin Hicks, Jimmy Bosh, Maria Farina, Elizabeth \"Liz\" Luke, [John Records Landecker](/wiki/John_Landecker \"John Landecker\"), [Gina St. John](/wiki/Gina_St._John \"Gina St. John\"), Cat Thomas, Rick Michaels, Cathy Cruise, Scotty James, Mark Allen, Edward \"Downtown Eddie\" Brown, with James \"Jammin' Jimmy\" Hart, and Sonny Joe Fox among others. WPHR moved its studios to [Playhouse Square](/wiki/Playhouse_Square \"Playhouse Square\") in late 1988\\.\n{{Clearleft}}", "### 107\\.9 The End", "[156px\\|thumb\\|107\\.9 The End logo](/wiki/File:107.9_The_END_logo.png \"107.9 The END logo.png\")\nOn May 12, 1992, the station changed its callsign to WENZ and flipped its format to [alternative rock](/wiki/Modern_rock \"Modern rock\"), branding itself as \"107\\.9 The End\".Roberto Santiago, \"Today is beginning of The End in radio,\" *The Plain Dealer*, May 12, 1992\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=RR\\-1992\\-05\\-15 \\|url\\=http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-RandR/1990s/1992/RR\\-1992\\-05\\-15\\.pdf \\|website\\=americanradiohistory.com}} Both the branding and callsign reflected the station's position on the FM dial. In March 1996, Ardman would sell the station to [Clear Channel Communications](/wiki/IHeartMedia \"IHeartMedia\"). Both the inception and the demise of The End were [stunted](/wiki/Stunting_%28broadcasting%29 \"Stunting (broadcasting)\"): with both format changes, the station broadcast a 24\\-hour loop of [R.E.M.](/wiki/R.E.M. \"R.E.M.\")'s song \"[It's the End of the World as We Know It (And I Feel Fine)](/wiki/It%27s_the_End_of_the_World_as_We_Know_It_%28And_I_Feel_Fine%29 \"It's the End of the World as We Know It (And I Feel Fine)\")\". A documentary film made about The End, entitled *The End of the World As We Knew It*, was released in 2009 and featured many of the former staffers and jocks.{{Citation\\|title\\=The End of the World as We Knew It\\|date\\=14 June 2008\\|url\\=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1384803/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-02}} On February 25, 2020, \"The End\" was re\\-launched as an internet radio station under the management of former station producer, Dan Binder.{{Cite web \\|title\\=107\\.9 the End Relaunches as an Internet Radio Station \\|url\\=https://www.clevescene.com/scene\\-and\\-heard/archives/2020/02/25/1079\\-the\\-end\\-relaunches\\-as\\-an\\-internet\\-radio\\-station \\|website\\=clevescene.com}}\n{{Clearleft}}", "### Z 107\\.9 Hip\\-Hop", "As part of divestitures required by federal agencies to approve Clear Channel's purchase of [Jacor](/wiki/Jacor \"Jacor\"), WENZ was purchased by [Radio One](/wiki/Urban_One \"Urban One\") on January 15, 1999\\. Radio One's station portfolio and programming philosophy targeted [African American](/wiki/African_American \"African American\") communities. As a result, WENZ dropped their modern rock format for [mainstream urban](/wiki/Mainstream_urban \"Mainstream urban\") featuring [hip\\-hop](/wiki/Hip_hop_music \"Hip hop music\") and [R\\&B](/wiki/R%26B \"R&B\") on May 14, 1999, taking the \"KISS 107\\.9\" brand.{{Cite web \\|title\\=RR\\-1999\\-05\\-21 \\|url\\=http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-RandR/1990s/1999/RR\\-1999\\-05\\-21\\.pdf \\|website\\=americanradiohistory.com}}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Feran \\|first\\=Tom \\|date\\=May 19, 1999 \\|title\\=WJMO gives up soul for gospel \\|page\\=2E \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Plain Dealer]] \\|location\\=Cleveland, Ohio \\|url\\=https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/openurl?ctx\\_ver\\=z39\\.88\\-2004\\&rft\\_id\\=info%3Asid/infoweb.newsbank.com\\&svc\\_dat\\=NewsBank\\&req\\_dat\\=1082885C71926A79\\&rft\\_val\\_format\\=info%3Aofi/fmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Actx\\&rft\\_dat\\=document\\_id%3Anews%252F0F80D3C45AEBAAFF \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|access\\-date\\=March 27, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329015022/https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/document\\-view?p\\=NewsBank\\&docref\\=news/0F80D3C45AEBAAFF\\&f\\=basic \\|archive\\-date\\=March 29, 2022 \\|via\\=NewsBank}} One week later, [Lorain](/wiki/Lorain%2C_Ohio \"Lorain, Ohio\")–licensed [WZLE ({{Frequency\\|104\\.9\\|FM}})](/wiki/WCPN%23WAKS \"WCPN#WAKS\"), itself now under Clear Channel ownership, switched formats from [Contemporary Christian](/wiki/Contemporary_Christian_music \"Contemporary Christian music\") to CHR as \"Kiss 104\\.9\",{{Cite news \\|last\\=O'Connor \\|first\\=Clint \\|date\\=May 22, 1999 \\|title\\=Different tunes found on familiar radio dials \\|page\\=5B \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Plain Dealer]] \\|location\\=Cleveland, Ohio \\|url\\=https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/openurl?ctx\\_ver\\=z39\\.88\\-2004\\&rft\\_id\\=info%3Asid/infoweb.newsbank.com\\&svc\\_dat\\=NewsBank\\&req\\_dat\\=1082885C71926A79\\&rft\\_val\\_format\\=info%3Aofi/fmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Actx\\&rft\\_dat\\=document\\_id%3Anews%252F0F80D3D5DD6E4150 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|access\\-date\\=March 27, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329015022/https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/document\\-view?p\\=NewsBank\\&docref\\=news/0F80D3D5DD6E4150\\&f\\=basic \\|archive\\-date\\=March 29, 2022 \\|via\\=NewsBank}} then filed a [cease and desist](/wiki/Cease_and_desist \"Cease and desist\") order against Radio One for usage of the [\"KISS\\-FM\" brand](/wiki/KISS-FM_%28brand%29 \"KISS-FM (brand)\"), which Clear Channel claimed ownership of in the state of Ohio.{{cite news \\|author\\=Feran \\|first\\=Tom \\|date\\=May 26, 1999 \\|title\\=One station may have to kiss name goodbye \\|page\\=1E \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Plain Dealer]] \\|location\\=Cleveland, Ohio \\|url\\=https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/openurl?ctx\\_ver\\=z39\\.88\\-2004\\&rft\\_id\\=info%3Asid/infoweb.newsbank.com\\&svc\\_dat\\=NewsBank\\&req\\_dat\\=1082885C71926A79\\&rft\\_val\\_format\\=info%3Aofi/fmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Actx\\&rft\\_dat\\=document\\_id%3Anews%252F0F80D3F05A747711 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|access\\-date\\=March 27, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329015024/https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/document\\-view?p\\=NewsBank\\&docref\\=news/0F80D3F05A747711\\&f\\=basic \\|archive\\-date\\=March 29, 2022 \\|via\\=NewsBank}} WENZ rebranded to \"Z 107\\.9\" on September 1, 1999, resolving the dispute.{{cite news \\|author\\=Feran \\|first\\=Tom \\|date\\=September 25, 1999 \\|title\\=Swoboda backs to news as anchor on TV\\-5 at 11 \\|page\\=6E \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Plain Dealer]] \\|location\\=Cleveland, Ohio \\|url\\=https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/openurl?ctx\\_ver\\=z39\\.88\\-2004\\&rft\\_id\\=info%3Asid/infoweb.newsbank.com\\&svc\\_dat\\=NewsBank\\&req\\_dat\\=1082885C71926A79\\&rft\\_val\\_format\\=info%3Aofi/fmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Actx\\&rft\\_dat\\=document\\_id%3Anews%252F0F34546C21CE32E4 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|access\\-date\\=March 27, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329015023/https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/document\\-view?p\\=NewsBank\\&docref\\=news/0F34546C21CE32E4\\&f\\=basic \\|archive\\-date\\=March 29, 2022 \\|via\\=NewsBank}} Radio One was renamed Urban One in May 2018\\.", "" ]
Versions -------- There are potentially five versions for models 81 through 87\. The features for each version in models 81, 82, 84 and 85 are consistent between models (i.e., the 81FS, 82FS, 84FS and 85FS all have similar features). This is not the case with models 83, 86, 87 and 89, which were not made in all versions. ### Base versions (no letter suffix) Base versions of models 81 through 87 are noted for having a rounded trigger guard and generally fewer safety features than subsequent versions. The safety lever is ambidextrous and frame mounted. The frame is alloy, the slide is blued steel and the standard grips are wood. Also, the guide rods and recoil springs are thinner than subsequent versions. The backs of the guide rods are flat, whereas the backs of the guide rods for later versions have a small "nub" or bump. ### B versions Introduced in 1980, the B versions of models 81, 82, 84, and 85 introduced an automatic firing pin safety, a shorter extractor and grooved front and back straps. The "B" designation means "Brevettato", meaning "patent", referring to a new alteration on the design. ### BB versions Introduced in 1982, the BB versions of models 81, 82, 84 and 85 have more serrations on the slide as well as white dot and post sights. The guide rod and recoil spring are slightly wider than in previous iterations, and the guide rod has a small "nub" or bump on the back. The "BB" designation means "Brevettato Brevettato", meaning that it is the second alteration to the design. ### F versions Introduced around 1988, the F versions of models 81, 82, 84 and 85 introduced the "combat" trigger guard with a squared\-off front that allows for a finger hold, plastic grips, a proprietary "Bruniton" finish, a chrome\-plated barrel and chamber, and a combination safety and decocker lever. Because the F version incorporates Bruniton, a chromed barrel and a squared trigger guard, much like the [Beretta 92F](/wiki/Beretta_92F "Beretta 92F"), which had been released around the same time, Beretta added the similar F designation to the 84\. The "F" means "Federale", or "Federal" in Italian, which was added to the 92 to denote its entry into United States federal government testing. ### FS versions Introduced around 1990, Beretta improved the decocker mechanism in models 81, 82, 84 and 85 to avoid the levers getting stuck in a "half" position. (The "F" versions could still be fired if the decocker levers were in the "half" position, and the frame area near the levers could be chipped.) Also, the 81FS, 84FS, and 85FS were occasionally available in nickel finishes. The "FS" designation signifies either "Scivolo" (meaning "slide") or "Sicurezza" (meaning "patent" or safe") in Italian, due to the design's improved safety mechanism. ### X versions (currently only the 80X) The 80X uses a captive recoil guide rod assembly, a larger beavertail on the back of the frame (to protect against "slide bite"), and a Vertec (straight back) grip. Beretta has sold factory\-painted Bronze and Olive Drab Green models of the 80X in addition to the standard blued model. The "X" suffix is added to the model number to signify its use of the Xtreme\-S trigger system, much like the 92X. Beretta has also released a Tactical Urban model with a threaded barrel for suppressor use and an extended 15 round magazine.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.beretta.com/en/technology/products/xtreme\-s \| title\=Xtreme\-S }}
[ "Versions\n--------", "There are potentially five versions for models 81 through 87\\. The features for each version in models 81, 82, 84 and 85 are consistent between models (i.e., the 81FS, 82FS, 84FS and 85FS all have similar features). This is not the case with models 83, 86, 87 and 89, which were not made in all versions.", "### Base versions (no letter suffix)", "Base versions of models 81 through 87 are noted for having a rounded trigger guard and generally fewer safety features than subsequent versions. The safety lever is ambidextrous and frame mounted. The frame is alloy, the slide is blued steel and the standard grips are wood. Also, the guide rods and recoil springs are thinner than subsequent versions. The backs of the guide rods are flat, whereas the backs of the guide rods for later versions have a small \"nub\" or bump.", "### B versions", "Introduced in 1980, the B versions of models 81, 82, 84, and 85 introduced an automatic firing pin safety, a shorter extractor and grooved front and back straps. The \"B\" designation means \"Brevettato\", meaning \"patent\", referring to a new alteration on the design.", "### BB versions", "Introduced in 1982, the BB versions of models 81, 82, 84 and 85 have more serrations on the slide as well as white dot and post sights. The guide rod and recoil spring are slightly wider than in previous iterations, and the guide rod has a small \"nub\" or bump on the back. The \"BB\" designation means \"Brevettato Brevettato\", meaning that it is the second alteration to the design.", "### F versions", "Introduced around 1988, the F versions of models 81, 82, 84 and 85 introduced the \"combat\" trigger guard with a squared\\-off front that allows for a finger hold, plastic grips, a proprietary \"Bruniton\" finish, a chrome\\-plated barrel and chamber, and a combination safety and decocker lever. Because the F version incorporates Bruniton, a chromed barrel and a squared trigger guard, much like the [Beretta 92F](/wiki/Beretta_92F \"Beretta 92F\"), which had been released around the same time, Beretta added the similar F designation to the 84\\. The \"F\" means \"Federale\", or \"Federal\" in Italian, which was added to the 92 to denote its entry into United States federal government testing.", "### FS versions", "Introduced around 1990, Beretta improved the decocker mechanism in models 81, 82, 84 and 85 to avoid the levers getting stuck in a \"half\" position. (The \"F\" versions could still be fired if the decocker levers were in the \"half\" position, and the frame area near the levers could be chipped.) Also, the 81FS, 84FS, and 85FS were occasionally available in nickel finishes. The \"FS\" designation signifies either \"Scivolo\" (meaning \"slide\") or \"Sicurezza\" (meaning \"patent\" or safe\") in Italian, due to the design's improved safety mechanism.", "### X versions (currently only the 80X)", "The 80X uses a captive recoil guide rod assembly, a larger beavertail on the back of the frame (to protect against \"slide bite\"), and a Vertec (straight back) grip.", "Beretta has sold factory\\-painted Bronze and Olive Drab Green models of the 80X in addition to the standard blued model. The \"X\" suffix is added to the model number to signify its use of the Xtreme\\-S trigger system, much like the 92X. Beretta has also released a Tactical Urban model with a threaded barrel for suppressor use and an extended 15 round magazine.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.beretta.com/en/technology/products/xtreme\\-s \\| title\\=Xtreme\\-S }}", "" ]
Plot ---- On a desolate planet named the End of Nothing at the edge of the [galaxy](/wiki/Galaxy "Galaxy"), a group of robots and their human assistants form the religious institution called Vatican 17\. This group is engaged in a secret project to create the ultimate infallible Pope, a supercomputer robot containing all knowledge that can be gathered from this universe and other [dimensions](/wiki/Dimensions "Dimensions"). Some of this information comes from human [psychics](/wiki/Psychics "Psychics") called Listeners who can travel mentally to other planets and dimensions. Their experiences are recorded on "knowledge cubes" and eventually fed into the Pope. Based on the Pope's interpretation of all knowledge both material and spiritual the robots hope to establish a truly universal religion. A religious crisis occurs when one of their listeners called Mary claims to have found [heaven](/wiki/Heaven "Heaven"). The "theological faction" of robots petition to have Mary [canonized](/wiki/Canonized "Canonized"). But another robot faction doubts the authenticity of Mary's heaven. The Vatican fears an end to the search program. Mary is taken ill and cared for by the newcomer Dr. Jason Tennyson. When he arrives on the planet he quickly befriends Jill Roberts, a reporter who wants to write a formal history of the [Colony](/wiki/Colony "Colony"). While exploring the new planet Tennyson meets Thomas Decker, who is usually accompanied by Whisperer. Whisperer is a member of a species who were native to the planet. He has the ability to speak to Decker and soon finds out that he can communicate [telepathically](/wiki/Telepathically "Telepathically") more easily with Tennyson than with Decker. Decker tells Tennyson that he thinks he knows where Mary's heaven is. Meanwhile, Decker is murdered by one of the theological faction robots in order to keep its location secret. Tennyson, Jill and Whisperer discover the location of Mary’s heaven from the equation people, aliens from another dimension. They met several unique and strange aliens, including a triad of aliens consisting of a haystack with 13 eyes, a bubble named Smokey and an octopus\-like creature in constant motion nicknamed Plopper. To their surprise, they also meet Decker or rather a duplicate of him. Mary's heaven turns out to be a type of center for galactic studies that collects physical samples of life forms from all over the galaxy. Tennyson and the others struggle to get back to Vatican with proof that Mary’s heaven is this galactic library, not the real heaven. The group is transported back to the End of Nothing, including the triad of aliens, thus providing proof that Mary's heaven is not the real heaven. The [Cardinals](/wiki/Cardinal_%28Catholic_Church%29 "Cardinal (Catholic Church)") in the Vatican accept this evidence and the Search Program is restored.Ewald, Robert J. (2006\). *When the Fires Burn High and The Wind Is From the North: The Pastoral Science Fiction of Clifford D. Simak*. Wildside Press LLC.
[ "Plot\n----", "On a desolate planet named the End of Nothing at the edge of the [galaxy](/wiki/Galaxy \"Galaxy\"), a group of robots and their human assistants form the religious institution called Vatican 17\\. This group is engaged in a secret project to create the ultimate infallible Pope, a supercomputer robot containing all knowledge that can be gathered from this universe and other [dimensions](/wiki/Dimensions \"Dimensions\").", "Some of this information comes from human [psychics](/wiki/Psychics \"Psychics\") called Listeners who can travel mentally to other planets and dimensions. Their experiences are recorded on \"knowledge cubes\" and eventually fed into the Pope. Based on the Pope's interpretation of all knowledge both material and spiritual the robots hope to establish a truly universal religion.", "A religious crisis occurs when one of their listeners called Mary claims to have found [heaven](/wiki/Heaven \"Heaven\"). The \"theological faction\" of robots petition to have Mary [canonized](/wiki/Canonized \"Canonized\"). But another robot faction doubts the authenticity of Mary's heaven. The Vatican fears an end to the search program. Mary is taken ill and cared for by the newcomer Dr. Jason Tennyson. When he arrives on the planet he quickly befriends Jill Roberts, a reporter who wants to write a formal history of the [Colony](/wiki/Colony \"Colony\").", "While exploring the new planet Tennyson meets Thomas Decker, who is usually accompanied by Whisperer. Whisperer is a member of a species who were native to the planet. He has the ability to speak to Decker and soon finds out that he can communicate [telepathically](/wiki/Telepathically \"Telepathically\") more easily with Tennyson than with Decker.", "Decker tells Tennyson that he thinks he knows where Mary's heaven is. Meanwhile, Decker is murdered by one of the theological faction robots in order to keep its location secret. Tennyson, Jill and Whisperer discover the location of Mary’s heaven from the equation people, aliens from another dimension. They met several unique and strange aliens, including a triad of aliens consisting of a haystack with 13 eyes, a bubble named Smokey and an octopus\\-like creature in constant motion nicknamed Plopper. To their surprise, they also meet Decker or rather a duplicate of him. Mary's heaven turns out to be a type of center for galactic studies that collects physical samples of life forms from all over the galaxy. Tennyson and the others struggle to get back to Vatican with proof that Mary’s heaven is this galactic library, not the real heaven.", "The group is transported back to the End of Nothing, including the triad of aliens, thus providing proof that Mary's heaven is not the real heaven. The [Cardinals](/wiki/Cardinal_%28Catholic_Church%29 \"Cardinal (Catholic Church)\") in the Vatican accept this evidence and the Search Program is restored.Ewald, Robert J. (2006\\). *When the Fires Burn High and The Wind Is From the North: The Pastoral Science Fiction of Clifford D. Simak*. Wildside Press LLC.", "" ]
Plot ---- Jenny Richardson and her husband, Geoff, have a peaceful family with a son, Michael, and a daughter. After being delayed with a flat tyre, she drops her kids at school and goes to work at the Eastern Suburbs Welfare Centre. Her job is to listen to her clients, communicate with them, and try to solve their troubles. This brings her lots of weird stories. Jenny receives a phone call while she is working from her ex\-husband, Howard, they have been divorced for nine years and he has been in a mental institution. He claims he has re\-established himself in his old work. He tries to get her to meet him but she refuses. A series of scenes show Jenny carrying on with her day from the perspective of an unknown watcher peering behind bushes and through windows. Jenny seems paranoid she is being watched. Howard continues to call Jenny at work and eventually convinces her to have lunch. Their lunch meeting is tense and uncomfortable. He claims that his mental issues have been cured with medication, two tablets a day. However, he still seems neurotic and scares Jenny a few times. Geoff is also in the park where they had lunch and when he asks later who she was with, she lies. From then on, Jenny has nightmares about her past with Howard and her childhood. This includes her as a child seeing a body hanging from a tree. One day, Jenny's parents are visiting and the family are all playing at the beach behind the Richardson home. Jenny's mother sees someone at the house but when Jenny goes to investigate she can't find anyone. She does reminisce about her and Howard however. Jenny runs into Howard at an art gallery event. Howard offers to buy her a drink either there or later but she refuses. When she tries to show her friend that he's here he appears to have disappeared. As she leaves he approaches her and they kiss briefly before Jenny reconsiders it. However, he continues to reappear in her life and write her letters, and they rekindle their relationship. Jenny becomes increasingly conflicted about the affair resulting in fights with Geoff and her continued mental decline. On one of their meetings, Howard says that had he gotten out of the mental institution in the first few years he would have killed her. Yet he claims he has gotten over it. When he invites her over to his new home he has recreated it to look like their old home. Jenny confides in her friend, Adele when she comes to visit for dinner. She says she wants to end her affair with Howard. Adele encourages this and as a psychologist, offers her services free of charge to Jenny. When Jenny goes to work, her client's son and daughter\-in\-law are there to talk about the client. They want to commit her to a mental institution but given her regrets about doing the same to Howard she refuses. She has a breakdown in the office because of this, Jenny goes to see Adele in her office. The two work through the problem. She talks about why she originally fell in love with Howard. When Adele asks about what Howard was diagnosed with Jenny lists off schizophrenia, paranoia, and psychosis. But she describes how his mood would turn dark when they were together. Jenny also recounts the incident where Howard hospitalised her and which led her and her father to commit Howard to a mental institution. Adele tells her that the sleeping pills that Jenny's doctor gave her may cause waking dreams as a side effect. Ultimately, Jenny writes a letter to Howard, ending the relationship. Geoff confronts Jenny about her strange behaviour. Jenny confesses about the dreams but doesn't tell him about Howard. She says she needs a break from the city so they retreat to Jenny's parents' vacation home in the country. Throughout the trip Jenny sees Howard and is unsure whether he is really there or a waking dream. Jenny revisits the tree from her nightmares. That night, Jenny's parents recall their grievances with Howard. Jenny has nightmares again and when she wakes she thinks she sees Howard at the window but it's just a possum. Jenny's father and Geoff talk about a man who hung himself when Jenny was 7, he says that this was the source of her nightmares as a child. The next day, Jenny looks for evidence that Howard was at the window but then Adele calls. She has looked into Howard's medical history and apparently, Howard was not released from the mental institution but escaped instead. This terrifies Jenny. Jenny looks for Howard at the small, abandoned house that she saw him in the day before. She finds him trying to climb up into the roof. Jenny begs him to leave her alone. Geoff approaches and Jenny tells Howard to hide. Geoff asks who she was talking to and she lies again saying she was just talking to herself. Geoff's friend and co\-worker Barbara arrives which angers Jenny. She goes to the abandoned house again but doesn't find Howard however there is a dead dove. When Barbara discusses the case she's brought Geoff to look at, Jenny is angered that they are defending developers who she dislikes due to their treatment of her clients. Later, she gets upset that no one is talking to her and her father tries to comfort her but she runs away to the house again. Suddenly, she sees Howard hanging from a tree like from when she was a child. She screams and calls Geoff and her father to take a look. But when they come, no one is there. Jenny's mother gives her a pill to help her sleep. They think Jenny has gone insane and consider committing her to a mental hospital. In the middle of the night, Howard comes to Jenny's house and breaks open the window. He tells her that her family are planning to commit her and asks her to run away with him. Jenny's mind is clouded by the medication and she follows Howard deep into the woods. Jenny realises that if what she saw was real, Howard should be dead. She accuses him of gaslighting her. Jenny's father has discovered that Jenny is missing and comes to the woods with a gun. He shoots Howard but misses. Howard beats Jenny's father with a machete. Jenny finds her father's dropped gun and shoots Howard again killing him this time. In the final scene, Jenny's perfect life is restored.
[ "Plot\n----", "Jenny Richardson and her husband, Geoff, have a peaceful family with a son, Michael, and a daughter. After being delayed with a flat tyre, she drops her kids at school and goes to work at the Eastern Suburbs Welfare Centre. Her job is to listen to her clients, communicate with them, and try to solve their troubles. This brings her lots of weird stories.", "Jenny receives a phone call while she is working from her ex\\-husband, Howard, they have been divorced for nine years and he has been in a mental institution. He claims he has re\\-established himself in his old work. He tries to get her to meet him but she refuses.", "A series of scenes show Jenny carrying on with her day from the perspective of an unknown watcher peering behind bushes and through windows. Jenny seems paranoid she is being watched.", "Howard continues to call Jenny at work and eventually convinces her to have lunch. Their lunch meeting is tense and uncomfortable. He claims that his mental issues have been cured with medication, two tablets a day. However, he still seems neurotic and scares Jenny a few times. Geoff is also in the park where they had lunch and when he asks later who she was with, she lies.", "From then on, Jenny has nightmares about her past with Howard and her childhood. This includes her as a child seeing a body hanging from a tree.", "One day, Jenny's parents are visiting and the family are all playing at the beach behind the Richardson home. Jenny's mother sees someone at the house but when Jenny goes to investigate she can't find anyone. She does reminisce about her and Howard however.", "Jenny runs into Howard at an art gallery event. Howard offers to buy her a drink either there or later but she refuses. When she tries to show her friend that he's here he appears to have disappeared. As she leaves he approaches her and they kiss briefly before Jenny reconsiders it. However, he continues to reappear in her life and write her letters, and they rekindle their relationship.", "Jenny becomes increasingly conflicted about the affair resulting in fights with Geoff and her continued mental decline. On one of their meetings, Howard says that had he gotten out of the mental institution in the first few years he would have killed her. Yet he claims he has gotten over it. When he invites her over to his new home he has recreated it to look like their old home.", "Jenny confides in her friend, Adele when she comes to visit for dinner. She says she wants to end her affair with Howard. Adele encourages this and as a psychologist, offers her services free of charge to Jenny.", "When Jenny goes to work, her client's son and daughter\\-in\\-law are there to talk about the client. They want to commit her to a mental institution but given her regrets about doing the same to Howard she refuses. She has a breakdown in the office because of this,", "Jenny goes to see Adele in her office. The two work through the problem. She talks about why she originally fell in love with Howard. When Adele asks about what Howard was diagnosed with Jenny lists off schizophrenia, paranoia, and psychosis. But she describes how his mood would turn dark when they were together. Jenny also recounts the incident where Howard hospitalised her and which led her and her father to commit Howard to a mental institution. Adele tells her that the sleeping pills that Jenny's doctor gave her may cause waking dreams as a side effect. Ultimately, Jenny writes a letter to Howard, ending the relationship.", "Geoff confronts Jenny about her strange behaviour. Jenny confesses about the dreams but doesn't tell him about Howard. She says she needs a break from the city so they retreat to Jenny's parents' vacation home in the country. Throughout the trip Jenny sees Howard and is unsure whether he is really there or a waking dream. Jenny revisits the tree from her nightmares. That night, Jenny's parents recall their grievances with Howard.", "Jenny has nightmares again and when she wakes she thinks she sees Howard at the window but it's just a possum. Jenny's father and Geoff talk about a man who hung himself when Jenny was 7, he says that this was the source of her nightmares as a child.", "The next day, Jenny looks for evidence that Howard was at the window but then Adele calls. She has looked into Howard's medical history and apparently, Howard was not released from the mental institution but escaped instead. This terrifies Jenny.", "Jenny looks for Howard at the small, abandoned house that she saw him in the day before. She finds him trying to climb up into the roof. Jenny begs him to leave her alone. Geoff approaches and Jenny tells Howard to hide. Geoff asks who she was talking to and she lies again saying she was just talking to herself.", "Geoff's friend and co\\-worker Barbara arrives which angers Jenny. She goes to the abandoned house again but doesn't find Howard however there is a dead dove. When Barbara discusses the case she's brought Geoff to look at, Jenny is angered that they are defending developers who she dislikes due to their treatment of her clients. Later, she gets upset that no one is talking to her and her father tries to comfort her but she runs away to the house again.", "Suddenly, she sees Howard hanging from a tree like from when she was a child. She screams and calls Geoff and her father to take a look. But when they come, no one is there. Jenny's mother gives her a pill to help her sleep. They think Jenny has gone insane and consider committing her to a mental hospital.", "In the middle of the night, Howard comes to Jenny's house and breaks open the window. He tells her that her family are planning to commit her and asks her to run away with him. Jenny's mind is clouded by the medication and she follows Howard deep into the woods.", "Jenny realises that if what she saw was real, Howard should be dead. She accuses him of gaslighting her. Jenny's father has discovered that Jenny is missing and comes to the woods with a gun. He shoots Howard but misses. Howard beats Jenny's father with a machete. Jenny finds her father's dropped gun and shoots Howard again killing him this time.", "In the final scene, Jenny's perfect life is restored.", "" ]
The teleprinter --------------- Working in the company’s office in Iquique, Chile, he became tired of using hand\-operated Morse keys and Wheatstone tape punches, and came up with the idea of a typewriter\-style machine that would allow the operator to punch Morse code signals onto paper tape simply by pressing the appropriate character key. Creed quit his job and moved to [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow "Glasgow"), Scotland, where he began work in an old shed. Using an old typewriter bought from the [Sauchiehall Street](/wiki/Sauchiehall_Street "Sauchiehall Street") market, he created his first keyboard perforator, which used compressed air to punch the holes. He also created a reperforator (receiving perforator) and a printer. The reperforator punched incoming Morse signals onto paper tape and the printer decoded this tape to produce alphanumeric characters on plain paper. This was the origin of the Creed High Speed Automatic Printing System. Although told by [Lord Kelvin](/wiki/Lord_Kelvin "Lord Kelvin") that "there is no future in that idea", Creed managed to secure an order for 12 machines from the British [General Post Office](/wiki/General_Post_Office "General Post Office") in 1902\. He opened a small factory in Glasgow in 1904\. Two years later the *[Glasgow Herald](/wiki/The_Herald_%28Glasgow%29 "The Herald (Glasgow)")* adopted the Creed system, claiming that it was three times faster than the rival Morse apparatus.Procter 2004 [thumb\|right\|Creed's home at 20, Outram Road, [Addiscombe](/wiki/Addiscombe "Addiscombe"), where he lived in later life, marked with a [blue plaque](/wiki/Blue_plaque "Blue plaque")](/wiki/File:Creed_house.JPG "Creed house.JPG") In 1909, in order to be closer to the Post Office headquarters in London, Creed moved along with 6 of his mechanics to [Croydon](/wiki/Croydon "Croydon"). Working with Danish telegraph engineer Harald Bille, he established Creed, Bille \& Company Ltd. in 1912, with Bille as managing director. After Bille's death in a railway accident in 1916, his name was dropped from the company's title and it became simply [Creed \& Company](/wiki/Creed_%26_Company "Creed & Company"). Creed's system received a major boost that same year when the *[Daily Mail](/wiki/Daily_Mail "Daily Mail")* newspaper adopted it for daily transmission of the entire contents of its newspaper from London to Manchester. In 1913, the first experiments were made in high\-speed telegraphy by radio transmission between the Croydon factory and Creed's home about {{convert\|5\|km\|mi}} away. However, the outbreak of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") in 1914 diverted the company's activities to military equipment. In 1915, with production continually expanding, the company found its original premises inadequate and moved to [East Croydon](/wiki/Croydon "Croydon"). It spent most of World War I producing high\-quality instruments, manufacturing facilities for which were very limited in the UK. Among the items produced were amplifiers, [spark\-gap transmitters](/wiki/Spark-gap_transmitter "Spark-gap transmitter"), aircraft compasses, high\-voltage generators, bomb release apparatus, and [fuzes](/wiki/Fuze "Fuze") for [artillery shells](/wiki/Shell_%28projectile%29 "Shell (projectile)") and [bombs](/wiki/Bomb "Bomb"). Following the War, in 1920 the [Press Association](/wiki/Press_Association "Press Association") set up a private news network using several hundred Creed teleprinters to serve practically every daily morning newspaper in the UK and for many years was the world's largest private teleprinter network. Other companies followed suit in Australia, Denmark, India, South Africa, and Sweden. In 1924 Creed entered the teleprinter field with their Model 1P, which was soon superseded by the improved Model 2P. In 1925 Creed acquired the patents for Donald Murray's [Murray code](/wiki/Baudot_code%23Murray_code "Baudot code#Murray code"), a rationalised Baudot code, and it was used for their new Model 3 Tape Teleprinter of 1927\. This machine printed received messages directly onto [gummed paper tape](/wiki/Adhesive_tape%23Water_activated_tape "Adhesive tape#Water activated tape") at a rate of 65 words per minute and was the first combined start\-stop transmitter\-receiver teleprinter from Creed to enter mass production.
[ "The teleprinter\n---------------", "Working in the company’s office in Iquique, Chile, he became tired of using hand\\-operated Morse keys and Wheatstone tape punches, and came up with the idea of a typewriter\\-style machine that would allow the operator to punch Morse code signals onto paper tape simply by pressing the appropriate character key.", "Creed quit his job and moved to [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow \"Glasgow\"), Scotland, where he began work in an old shed. Using an old typewriter bought from the [Sauchiehall Street](/wiki/Sauchiehall_Street \"Sauchiehall Street\") market, he created his first keyboard perforator, which used compressed air to punch the holes. He also created a reperforator (receiving perforator) and a printer. The reperforator punched incoming Morse signals onto paper tape and the printer decoded this tape to produce alphanumeric characters on plain paper. This was the origin of the Creed High Speed Automatic Printing System.", "Although told by [Lord Kelvin](/wiki/Lord_Kelvin \"Lord Kelvin\") that \"there is no future in that idea\", Creed managed to secure an order for 12 machines from the British [General Post Office](/wiki/General_Post_Office \"General Post Office\") in 1902\\. He opened a small factory in Glasgow in 1904\\. Two years later the *[Glasgow Herald](/wiki/The_Herald_%28Glasgow%29 \"The Herald (Glasgow)\")* adopted the Creed system, claiming that it was three times faster than the rival Morse apparatus.Procter 2004", "[thumb\\|right\\|Creed's home at 20, Outram Road, [Addiscombe](/wiki/Addiscombe \"Addiscombe\"), where he lived in later life, marked with a [blue plaque](/wiki/Blue_plaque \"Blue plaque\")](/wiki/File:Creed_house.JPG \"Creed house.JPG\")\nIn 1909, in order to be closer to the Post Office headquarters in London, Creed moved along with 6 of his mechanics to [Croydon](/wiki/Croydon \"Croydon\"). Working with Danish telegraph engineer Harald Bille, he established Creed, Bille \\& Company Ltd. in 1912, with Bille as managing director. After Bille's death in a railway accident in 1916, his name was dropped from the company's title and it became simply [Creed \\& Company](/wiki/Creed_%26_Company \"Creed & Company\").", "Creed's system received a major boost that same year when the *[Daily Mail](/wiki/Daily_Mail \"Daily Mail\")* newspaper adopted it for daily transmission of the entire contents of its newspaper from London to Manchester. In 1913, the first experiments were made in high\\-speed telegraphy by radio transmission between the Croydon factory and Creed's home about {{convert\\|5\\|km\\|mi}} away. However, the outbreak of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") in 1914 diverted the company's activities to military equipment.", "In 1915, with production continually expanding, the company found its original premises inadequate and moved to [East Croydon](/wiki/Croydon \"Croydon\"). It spent most of World War I producing high\\-quality instruments, manufacturing facilities for which were very limited in the UK. Among the items produced were amplifiers, [spark\\-gap transmitters](/wiki/Spark-gap_transmitter \"Spark-gap transmitter\"), aircraft compasses, high\\-voltage generators, bomb release apparatus, and [fuzes](/wiki/Fuze \"Fuze\") for [artillery shells](/wiki/Shell_%28projectile%29 \"Shell (projectile)\") and [bombs](/wiki/Bomb \"Bomb\").", "Following the War, in 1920 the [Press Association](/wiki/Press_Association \"Press Association\") set up a private news network using several hundred Creed teleprinters to serve practically every daily morning newspaper in the UK and for many years was the world's largest private teleprinter network. Other companies followed suit in Australia, Denmark, India, South Africa, and Sweden.", "In 1924 Creed entered the teleprinter field with their Model 1P, which was soon superseded by the improved Model 2P. In 1925 Creed acquired the patents for Donald Murray's [Murray code](/wiki/Baudot_code%23Murray_code \"Baudot code#Murray code\"), a rationalised Baudot code, and it was used for their new Model 3 Tape Teleprinter of 1927\\. This machine printed received messages directly onto [gummed paper tape](/wiki/Adhesive_tape%23Water_activated_tape \"Adhesive tape#Water activated tape\") at a rate of 65 words per minute and was the first combined start\\-stop transmitter\\-receiver teleprinter from Creed to enter mass production.", "" ]
Biography --------- She was born Aleksandra Bystroń in 1927 in [Brzeszcze](/wiki/Brzeszcze "Brzeszcze"), Poland, near the city of [Oświęcim](/wiki/O%C5%9Bwi%C4%99cim "Oświęcim") (called *Auschwitz* by the German invaders). Her father worked as a surveyor in the mining industry. In April 1940, following the [invasion of Poland](/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland "Invasion of Poland"), the Nazis imprisoned her father in the concentration camp system. Together with her friends, she contacted the prisoners in the camp, and arranged to provide them with supplies. In 1941, she joined the Home Army, then known as the [Union of Armed Struggle](/wiki/Union_of_Armed_Struggle "Union of Armed Struggle"), with the title of liaison officer.{{Cite web \|last\=Herzog \|first\=Amy \|date\=2024\-03\-01 \|title\=Proximities of Violence: The Zone of Interest \|url\=https://filmquarterly.org/2024/03/01/proximities\-of\-violence\-the\-zone\-of\-interest/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-12 \|website\=Film Quarterly \|language\=en\-US}} Working with them, she helped pass messages to and from the prisoners. From 1943, she was forced by the Nazis to work in the [Brzeszcze\-Jawischowitz mine](/wiki/Brzeszcze-Jawischowitz_mine "Brzeszcze-Jawischowitz mine"). During the time, she continued to aid prisoners by any means she could. She remained in her home town after the war. Her career prospects were limited by the new Communist government, because of her involvement in the Home Army.
[ "Biography\n---------", "She was born Aleksandra Bystroń in 1927 in [Brzeszcze](/wiki/Brzeszcze \"Brzeszcze\"), Poland, near the city of [Oświęcim](/wiki/O%C5%9Bwi%C4%99cim \"Oświęcim\") (called *Auschwitz* by the German invaders). Her father worked as a surveyor in the mining industry.", "In April 1940, following the [invasion of Poland](/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland \"Invasion of Poland\"), the Nazis imprisoned her father in the concentration camp system. Together with her friends, she contacted the prisoners in the camp, and arranged to provide them with supplies.", "In 1941, she joined the Home Army, then known as the [Union of Armed Struggle](/wiki/Union_of_Armed_Struggle \"Union of Armed Struggle\"), with the title of liaison officer.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Herzog \\|first\\=Amy \\|date\\=2024\\-03\\-01 \\|title\\=Proximities of Violence: The Zone of Interest \\|url\\=https://filmquarterly.org/2024/03/01/proximities\\-of\\-violence\\-the\\-zone\\-of\\-interest/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-12 \\|website\\=Film Quarterly \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Working with them, she helped pass messages to and from the prisoners.", "From 1943, she was forced by the Nazis to work in the [Brzeszcze\\-Jawischowitz mine](/wiki/Brzeszcze-Jawischowitz_mine \"Brzeszcze-Jawischowitz mine\"). During the time, she continued to aid prisoners by any means she could.", "She remained in her home town after the war. Her career prospects were limited by the new Communist government, because of her involvement in the Home Army.", "" ]
Background ---------- {{Unreferenced section\|date\=May 2013}} In the 18 months following the [1999 election](/wiki/1999_New_South_Wales_state_election "1999 New South Wales state election") politics was swamped by the Olympics. The only problem in this period was an administrative disaster in organising the ballot to purchase tickets. Games organisers were trying to hold back tickets originally promised at a lower price to the public in an attempt to deal with the financial viability of the Olympics. Chikarovski remained as Liberal leader after the 1999 election, partly because no\-one wanted the job before the Olympics, but also because there was no clear alternative. A challenge finally occurred in March 2002, and Pittwater MP John Brogden, after six years in Parliament, was elected to the leadership on his 33rd birthday. After the Olympics, the Government faced two major problems. The first was the police. The Government had appointed an outsider, Englishman Peter Ryan, as new Commissioner to implement the reforms proposed by the Police Royal Commission. By 2001, police issues had moved on from corruption and returned to law and order, with the Government in particular under pressure over so\-called "ethnic" crime in Western Sydney. Both Police Minister Paul Whelan and Commissioner Ryan were pushed into retiring, and new Minister Michael Costa was brought in to control the issue in the run\-up to the 2003 election. The second problem was the rail system. In a bid to create efficiencies, the Government had split the rail system into distinct organisations covering track, rolling stock, freight and passengers. Following a spate of accidents, including fatalities at Springwood in December 1999, a commission of inquiry was appointed. Its findings were that the accidents stemmed from confusion in the new structure of the rail system, and also a failure by the railway organisation to view safety as an operational goal. Another accident at Waterfall a month before the official start of the election campaign looked set to make rail safety a critical election issue, but the cause turned out to be the demise of the driver at the controls. Events after the election were to reveal major problems in the rail system, but they were not to become major issues in the campaign. The 2003 election was almost a repeat of the [1999 result](/wiki/1999_New_South_Wales_state_election "1999 New South Wales state election"). The Liberal Party regained South Coast but lost the outer Sydney seat of Camden. The National Party regained Clarence with the retirement of [Harry Woods](/wiki/Harry_Woods_%28Australian_politician%29 "Harry Woods (Australian politician)"), but lost Monaro to the Labor Party. Worse for the National Party, both Tamworth and Port Macquarie were lost to Independents: Tamworth after having been regained at a 2001 by\-election, Port Macquarie after the decision of the National MP to leave the Party. On the surface the result looked a repeat of [1999](/wiki/1999_New_South_Wales_state_election "1999 New South Wales state election"), but on closer analysis, Labor had increased its hold on Government. Despite a statewide two\-party swing of just 0\.2% to Labor, the party increased its margins in key seats. The seats clustered around the bottom of the electoral pendulum ahead of the [1999 election](/wiki/1999_New_South_Wales_state_election "1999 New South Wales state election") were now all safe seats for the Government. With another redistribution due before the next election in [2007 election](/wiki/2007_New_South_Wales_state_election "2007 New South Wales state election"), Labor appeared to have entrenched itself in power. The election was the second to be fought by Carr as the incumbent Premier and became the first incumbent Premier to fight back to back elections since Neville Wran. To date Carr is also the last Premier to fight a second consecutive election. In his concession speech Brogden promised that he will be back for the 2007 election but it was a promise that was not kept as he resigned as Liberal leader and then from Parliament in 2005\.
[ "Background\n----------", "{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=May 2013}}\nIn the 18 months following the [1999 election](/wiki/1999_New_South_Wales_state_election \"1999 New South Wales state election\") politics was swamped by the Olympics. The only problem in this period was an administrative disaster in organising the ballot to purchase tickets. Games organisers were trying to hold back tickets originally promised at a lower price to the public in an attempt to deal with the financial viability of the Olympics. Chikarovski remained as Liberal leader after the 1999 election, partly because no\\-one wanted the job before the Olympics, but also because there was no clear alternative. A challenge finally occurred in March 2002, and Pittwater MP John Brogden, after six years in Parliament, was elected to the leadership on his 33rd birthday.", "After the Olympics, the Government faced two major problems. The first was the police. The Government had appointed an\noutsider, Englishman Peter Ryan, as new Commissioner to implement the reforms proposed by the Police Royal Commission. By 2001, police issues had moved on from corruption and returned to law and order, with the Government in particular under pressure over so\\-called \"ethnic\" crime in Western Sydney. Both Police Minister Paul Whelan and Commissioner Ryan were pushed into retiring, and new Minister Michael Costa was brought in to control the issue in the run\\-up to the 2003 election.", "The second problem was the rail system. In a bid to create efficiencies, the Government had split the rail system into distinct organisations covering track, rolling stock, freight and passengers. Following a spate of accidents, including fatalities at Springwood in December 1999, a commission of inquiry was appointed. Its findings were that the accidents stemmed from confusion in the new structure of the rail system, and also a failure by the railway organisation to view safety as an operational goal. Another accident at Waterfall a month before the official start of the election campaign looked set to make rail safety a critical election issue, but the cause turned out to be the demise of the driver at the controls. Events after the election were to reveal major problems in the rail system, but they were not to become major issues in the campaign.", "The 2003 election was almost a repeat of the [1999 result](/wiki/1999_New_South_Wales_state_election \"1999 New South Wales state election\"). The Liberal Party regained South Coast but lost the outer Sydney seat of Camden. The National Party regained Clarence with the retirement of [Harry Woods](/wiki/Harry_Woods_%28Australian_politician%29 \"Harry Woods (Australian politician)\"), but lost Monaro to the Labor Party. Worse for the National Party, both Tamworth and Port Macquarie were lost to Independents: Tamworth after having been regained at a 2001 by\\-election, Port Macquarie after the decision of the National MP to leave the Party.", "On the surface the result looked a repeat of [1999](/wiki/1999_New_South_Wales_state_election \"1999 New South Wales state election\"), but on closer analysis, Labor had increased its hold on Government. Despite a statewide two\\-party swing of just 0\\.2% to Labor, the party increased its margins in key seats. The seats clustered around the bottom of the electoral pendulum ahead of the [1999 election](/wiki/1999_New_South_Wales_state_election \"1999 New South Wales state election\") were now all safe seats for the Government. With another redistribution due before the next election in [2007 election](/wiki/2007_New_South_Wales_state_election \"2007 New South Wales state election\"), Labor appeared to have entrenched itself in power.", "The election was the second to be fought by Carr as the incumbent Premier and became the first incumbent Premier to fight back to back elections since Neville Wran. To date Carr is also the last Premier to fight a second consecutive election.", "In his concession speech Brogden promised that he will be back for the 2007 election but it was a promise that was not kept as he resigned as Liberal leader and then from Parliament in 2005\\.", "" ]
History ------- ### Foundation [thumb\|left\|View of Rabeneck Castle from the circular walk](/wiki/File:Burg_Rabeneck_in_einer_aktuellen_Ansicht.JPG "Burg Rabeneck in einer aktuellen Ansicht.JPG") [thumb\|upright\|Coat of arms of the [Rabensteins](/wiki/House_of_Rabenstein "House of Rabenstein") above the castle gate](/wiki/File:Wappen_Rabeneck.JPG "Wappen Rabeneck.JPG") The family name, Rabeneck, first surfaces in 1217 in a list of fiefs of Tegernsee Abbey in conjunction with [Ebertshausen Castle](/wiki/Ebertshausen_Castle "Ebertshausen Castle"); then, in 1242, with Ulrich, a citizen of Munich; and subsequently in a 1257 document which mentioned the witnesses *Siboto de Rabeneck* and *Chunrad de Rabenekke*. A *Nentwich of Rabenekke*, presumably clergy, appeared in 1261 and 1296 in a document; and a Henry of Rabeneck (*Heinrich von Rabenec*) in 1276\. The Ravenecks of Babenberg probably come from the family of the lords of Rabenstein, as the word *Raben* ("raven") in both Rabenstein and Rabeneck and the close proximity of the two castles suggests. The suffix *Eck* ("corner") also indicates that the castle may have been built later that those whose names end in *Stein* ("stone"). In addition, both names suggest a connection with capital punishment. The Rabenstein with a site of a gallows, and Rabeneck with an executioner's sword. A branch of the Rabensteins built Rabeneck before 1200 as an [allodial](/wiki/Allod "Allod") castle, and named a cadet line of the family after it. Unlike Rabenstein, Rabeneck Castle was did not belong to the Barony of Waischenfeld, which the [barons](/wiki/Edelherr "Edelherr") of [Schlüsselberg](/wiki/House_of_Schl%C3%BCsselberg "House of Schlüsselberg") occupied at that time, nevertheless they still had stakes in the castle. How they came to own these shares is not known. After [Conrad of Schlüsselberg](/wiki/Conrad_II_of_Schl%C3%BCsselberg "Conrad II of Schlüsselberg") had been killed defending [Neideck Castle](/wiki/Neideck_Castle "Neideck Castle") in 1347, his brother\-in\-law, Count Günter of [Schwarzburg](/wiki/House_of_Schwarzburg "House of Schwarzburg"), his wife, Reichza, and her sister, Agnes, the wife of Henry of [Plauen](/wiki/House_of_Plauen "House of Plauen"), sold the portion in 1348 "to which he had rights in the castle at Rebeneck" to the [Bishopric of Bamberg](/wiki/Bishopric_of_Bamberg "Bishopric of Bamberg"). This agreement was confirmed in 1376 once more by Count John of Schwarzburg and his son, Günther. In 1360 Countess Sophia of [Zollern](/wiki/Hohenzollern "Hohenzollern"), née von Schlüsselberg, petitioned in vain for the return of the family's part of the castle ### Different owners [thumb\|left\|The 1412 [castle chapel](/wiki/Castle_chapel "Castle chapel") of St. Bartholomew on the rock spur](/wiki/File:Rabeneck-Burgkapelle.JPG "Rabeneck-Burgkapelle.JPG") [thumb\|upright\|Interior of the castle chapel of St. Bartholomew](/wiki/File:Burgkapelle_Bartholomaeus_Burg_Rabeneck.JPG "Burgkapelle Bartholomaeus Burg Rabeneck.JPG") In 1353 the castle was wholly owned by the Rabensteins, so they had probably snapped up the part of the castle belonging to the Bishopric of Bamberg that was presumably in financial difficulties as a result of the purchase of the remaining Schlüsselberg estates. From 1360 Rabeneck was no longer mentioned as part of the Bamberg estate. In 1353, the Rabensteins granted access rights (*[Öffnungsrecht](/wiki/%C3%96ffnungsrecht "Öffnungsrecht")*) to their allodial castle to the [Burgraviate of Nuremberg](/wiki/Burgraviate_of_Nuremberg "Burgraviate of Nuremberg") for 12 years. In 1388 Rabeneck Castle was an allodial possession of the lords of [Stiebar](/wiki/House_of_Stiebar "House of Stiebar"), after Conrad Stiebar, [Hofmeister](/wiki/Hofmeister_%28office%29 "Hofmeister (office)") of the Bishop of Bamberg, had presumably purchased it. They, too, granted the burgraves access rights for 700 [guilders](/wiki/Guilder "Guilder"). In the same year Rabeneck was captured by the Bamberg knight, Ulrich of [Aufseß](/wiki/House_of_Aufse%C3%9F "House of Aufseß") and Hans Stiebar in the [war of the cities](/wiki/War_of_the_cities_1387%E2%80%931389 "War of the cities 1387–1389"), the reason was probably the access rights for the city of Nuremberg. [Cathedral dean](/wiki/Cathedral_dean "Cathedral dean"), Friedrich Stiebar, instituted the castle chaplaincy in 1415, confirmed by Bishop [Albert](/wiki/Albert_of_Wertheim "Albert of Wertheim"). In the [Peasants' War](/wiki/German_Peasants%27_War "German Peasants' War") the castle fell victim in 1525 to rebellious peasants, who captured it and burned it out. Alexander Stiebar zu Rabeneck was given 485 guilders and Christoph Stiebar, who owned the other half of the castle, 554 guilders as recompense. Its rebuilding lasted until 1535\. Until 1530 Rabeneck remained in the hands of the Stiebars. On 28 January 1530 Alexander Stiebar turned his half of the castle into a [fief](/wiki/Fief "Fief") of the Bishopric of Bamberg. 29 years later, Christoph Stiebar's share of the castle had also become a Bamberg fief, the bishopric now owning the whole castle. After the death of Christoph, who was in serious debt, his share went to his son, Endres, a *[Pfleger](/wiki/Pfleger "Pfleger")* at Pottenstein, who died in 1572, and via William of [Künsberg](/wiki/K%C3%BCnsberg "Künsberg"), who called himself Rabeneck in 1570, to Daniel Rabenstein. The latter was enfeoffed in 1577 with the purchased half. The second half of Rabeneck remained for longer in the possession of the Stiebars. After Daniel Stiebar, the last member of the zu Rabeneck line, had meanwhile become a cleric, his half went to the Stiebar line of [Buttenheim](/wiki/Buttenheim "Buttenheim") and Ermreuth. In 1603 the Stiebars sold their half to their brother\-in\-law, George Werner of Rabenstein. At that tie Rabenstein Castle was already being described as dilapidated. The Rabensteins sold the castle in 1620 after the death of George for 36,000 guilders to the Bishopric of Bamberg. As a result of renewed financial difficulties in the bishopric, Bishop [John Godfrey of Aschhausen](/wiki/John_Godfrey_I_of_Aschhausen "John Godfrey I of Aschhausen") had to advance the money on loan, the castle remained an inheritable possession until the bishopric could pay back the money. Rabeneck was still in the possession of the [Aschhausens](/wiki/House_of_Aschhausen "House of Aschhausen") until 1682\. The guilders that the Rabensteins were paid, were of low value, so that Hans Dietrich and Hans Christoph of Rabenstein began a law suit against the bishopric in the second quarter of the 17th century, because they complained they had been paid worthless money. Not until 2 March 1716 was there an agreement between Bishop [Lothair Francis of Schönborn](/wiki/Lothair_Francis_of_Sch%C3%B6nborn "Lothair Francis of Schönborn") and the Rabensteiners, with which the Rabensteins retrospectively became owners of the castle on 22 February. From Bishop Lothar they also received in 1717 a credit of 12,000 Reichs[talers](/wiki/Thaler "Thaler"), which was raised in 1719 to 20,000 guilders, in order to repair the ruined castle. They certainly renewed the inner bailey; the outer bailey remained abandoned. ### Rabeneck under the lords of Schönborn With the death of Peter John Albert of Rabenstein on 19 May 1742 the last Rabenstein at Rabeneck, the family died out and the Barony of Rabeneck reverted to the Bishopric of Bamberg. On 10 December 1742 Count Francis Rudolph Erwein of [Schönborn](/wiki/House_of_Sch%C3%B6nborn "House of Schönborn"), the brother of Bishop [Frederick Charles of Schönborn](/wiki/Frederick_Charles_of_Sch%C3%B6nborn "Frederick Charles of Schönborn") was enfeoffed with Rabeneck Castle. However, after the death of Bishop Frederick on 26 July 1746 the [cathedral chapter](/wiki/Cathedral_chapter "Cathedral chapter") refused to recognise the enfeoffment to the Schönborns, and so a lengthy and costly court case was brought before the *[Reichshofrat](/wiki/Reichshofrat "Reichshofrat")*. The *Reichshofrat* decided in favour of the Count of Schönborn, and on 1 October 1778 Bishop [Adam Frederick of Seinsheim](/wiki/Adam_Frederick_of_Seinsheim "Adam Frederick of Seinsheim") had to allow the counts to have possession again. ### Today In 1975 the castle was sold to its present occupant, Norman Schiller. The castle may currently be visited and overnight stays are possible. Festivals may also be organised by prior arrangement.
[ "History\n-------", "### Foundation", "[thumb\\|left\\|View of Rabeneck Castle from the circular walk](/wiki/File:Burg_Rabeneck_in_einer_aktuellen_Ansicht.JPG \"Burg Rabeneck in einer aktuellen Ansicht.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Coat of arms of the [Rabensteins](/wiki/House_of_Rabenstein \"House of Rabenstein\") above the castle gate](/wiki/File:Wappen_Rabeneck.JPG \"Wappen Rabeneck.JPG\")\nThe family name, Rabeneck, first surfaces in 1217 in a list of fiefs of Tegernsee Abbey in conjunction with [Ebertshausen Castle](/wiki/Ebertshausen_Castle \"Ebertshausen Castle\"); then, in 1242, with Ulrich, a citizen of Munich; and subsequently in a 1257 document which mentioned the witnesses *Siboto de Rabeneck* and *Chunrad de Rabenekke*.\nA *Nentwich of Rabenekke*, presumably clergy, appeared in 1261 and 1296 in a document; and a Henry of Rabeneck (*Heinrich von Rabenec*) in 1276\\.", "The Ravenecks of Babenberg probably come from the family of the lords of Rabenstein, as the word *Raben* (\"raven\") in both Rabenstein and Rabeneck and the close proximity of the two castles suggests.\nThe suffix *Eck* (\"corner\") also indicates that the castle may have been built later that those whose names end in *Stein* (\"stone\"). In addition, both names suggest a connection with capital punishment. The Rabenstein with a site of a gallows, and Rabeneck with an executioner's sword.", "A branch of the Rabensteins built Rabeneck before 1200 as an [allodial](/wiki/Allod \"Allod\") castle, and named a cadet line of the family after it. Unlike Rabenstein, Rabeneck Castle was did not belong to the Barony of Waischenfeld, which the [barons](/wiki/Edelherr \"Edelherr\") of [Schlüsselberg](/wiki/House_of_Schl%C3%BCsselberg \"House of Schlüsselberg\") occupied at that time, nevertheless they still had stakes in the castle. How they came to own these shares is not known.", "After [Conrad of Schlüsselberg](/wiki/Conrad_II_of_Schl%C3%BCsselberg \"Conrad II of Schlüsselberg\") had been killed defending [Neideck Castle](/wiki/Neideck_Castle \"Neideck Castle\") in 1347, his brother\\-in\\-law, Count Günter of [Schwarzburg](/wiki/House_of_Schwarzburg \"House of Schwarzburg\"), his wife, Reichza, and her sister, Agnes, the wife of Henry of [Plauen](/wiki/House_of_Plauen \"House of Plauen\"), sold the portion in 1348 \"to which he had rights in the castle at Rebeneck\" to the [Bishopric of Bamberg](/wiki/Bishopric_of_Bamberg \"Bishopric of Bamberg\"). This agreement was confirmed in 1376 once more by Count John of Schwarzburg and his son, Günther. In 1360 Countess Sophia of [Zollern](/wiki/Hohenzollern \"Hohenzollern\"), née von Schlüsselberg, petitioned in vain for the return of the family's part of the castle", "### Different owners", "[thumb\\|left\\|The 1412 [castle chapel](/wiki/Castle_chapel \"Castle chapel\") of St. Bartholomew on the rock spur](/wiki/File:Rabeneck-Burgkapelle.JPG \"Rabeneck-Burgkapelle.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Interior of the castle chapel of St. Bartholomew](/wiki/File:Burgkapelle_Bartholomaeus_Burg_Rabeneck.JPG \"Burgkapelle Bartholomaeus Burg Rabeneck.JPG\")", "In 1353 the castle was wholly owned by the Rabensteins, so they had probably snapped up the part of the castle belonging to the Bishopric of Bamberg that was presumably in financial difficulties as a result of the purchase of the remaining Schlüsselberg estates. From 1360 Rabeneck was no longer mentioned as part of the Bamberg estate. In 1353, the Rabensteins granted access rights (*[Öffnungsrecht](/wiki/%C3%96ffnungsrecht \"Öffnungsrecht\")*) to their allodial castle to the [Burgraviate of Nuremberg](/wiki/Burgraviate_of_Nuremberg \"Burgraviate of Nuremberg\") for 12 years.", "In 1388 Rabeneck Castle was an allodial possession of the lords of [Stiebar](/wiki/House_of_Stiebar \"House of Stiebar\"), after Conrad Stiebar, [Hofmeister](/wiki/Hofmeister_%28office%29 \"Hofmeister (office)\") of the Bishop of Bamberg, had presumably purchased it. \nThey, too, granted the burgraves access rights for 700 [guilders](/wiki/Guilder \"Guilder\"). In the same year Rabeneck was captured by the Bamberg knight, Ulrich of [Aufseß](/wiki/House_of_Aufse%C3%9F \"House of Aufseß\") and Hans Stiebar in the [war of the cities](/wiki/War_of_the_cities_1387%E2%80%931389 \"War of the cities 1387–1389\"), the reason was probably the access rights for the city of Nuremberg.", "[Cathedral dean](/wiki/Cathedral_dean \"Cathedral dean\"), Friedrich Stiebar, instituted the castle chaplaincy in 1415, confirmed by Bishop [Albert](/wiki/Albert_of_Wertheim \"Albert of Wertheim\").", "In the [Peasants' War](/wiki/German_Peasants%27_War \"German Peasants' War\") the castle fell victim in 1525 to rebellious peasants, who captured it and burned it out. Alexander Stiebar zu Rabeneck was given 485 guilders and Christoph Stiebar, who owned the other half of the castle, 554 guilders as recompense. Its rebuilding lasted until 1535\\.", "Until 1530 Rabeneck remained in the hands of the Stiebars. On 28 January 1530 Alexander Stiebar turned his half of the castle into a [fief](/wiki/Fief \"Fief\") of the Bishopric of Bamberg. 29 years later, Christoph Stiebar's share of the castle had also become a Bamberg fief, the bishopric now owning the whole castle. After the death of Christoph, who was in serious debt, his share went to his son, Endres, a *[Pfleger](/wiki/Pfleger \"Pfleger\")* at Pottenstein, who died in 1572, and via William of [Künsberg](/wiki/K%C3%BCnsberg \"Künsberg\"), who called himself Rabeneck in 1570, to Daniel Rabenstein. The latter was enfeoffed in 1577 with the purchased half. The second half of Rabeneck remained for longer in the possession of the Stiebars. After Daniel Stiebar, the last member of the zu Rabeneck line, had meanwhile become a cleric, his half went to the Stiebar line of [Buttenheim](/wiki/Buttenheim \"Buttenheim\") and Ermreuth.\nIn 1603 the Stiebars sold their half to their brother\\-in\\-law, George Werner of Rabenstein.\nAt that tie Rabenstein Castle was already being described as dilapidated.\nThe Rabensteins sold the castle in 1620 after the death of George for 36,000 guilders to the Bishopric of Bamberg. As a result of renewed financial difficulties in the bishopric, Bishop [John Godfrey of Aschhausen](/wiki/John_Godfrey_I_of_Aschhausen \"John Godfrey I of Aschhausen\") had to advance the money on loan, the castle remained an inheritable possession until the bishopric could pay back the money. Rabeneck was still in the possession of the [Aschhausens](/wiki/House_of_Aschhausen \"House of Aschhausen\") until 1682\\.", "The guilders that the Rabensteins were paid, were of low value, so that Hans Dietrich and Hans Christoph of Rabenstein began a law suit against the bishopric in the second quarter of the 17th century, because they complained they had been paid worthless money.\nNot until 2 March 1716 was there an agreement between Bishop [Lothair Francis of Schönborn](/wiki/Lothair_Francis_of_Sch%C3%B6nborn \"Lothair Francis of Schönborn\") and the Rabensteiners, with which the Rabensteins retrospectively became owners of the castle on 22 February. From Bishop Lothar they also received in 1717 a credit of 12,000 Reichs[talers](/wiki/Thaler \"Thaler\"), which was raised in 1719 to 20,000 guilders, in order to repair the ruined castle. They certainly renewed the inner bailey; the outer bailey remained abandoned.", "### Rabeneck under the lords of Schönborn", "With the death of Peter John Albert of Rabenstein on 19 May 1742 the last Rabenstein at Rabeneck, the family died out and the Barony of Rabeneck reverted to the Bishopric of Bamberg.\nOn 10 December 1742 Count Francis Rudolph Erwein of [Schönborn](/wiki/House_of_Sch%C3%B6nborn \"House of Schönborn\"), the brother of Bishop [Frederick Charles of Schönborn](/wiki/Frederick_Charles_of_Sch%C3%B6nborn \"Frederick Charles of Schönborn\") was enfeoffed with Rabeneck Castle.\nHowever, after the death of Bishop Frederick on 26 July 1746 the [cathedral chapter](/wiki/Cathedral_chapter \"Cathedral chapter\") refused to recognise the enfeoffment to the Schönborns, and so a lengthy and costly court case was brought before the *[Reichshofrat](/wiki/Reichshofrat \"Reichshofrat\")*. The *Reichshofrat* decided in favour of the Count of Schönborn, and on 1 October 1778 Bishop [Adam Frederick of Seinsheim](/wiki/Adam_Frederick_of_Seinsheim \"Adam Frederick of Seinsheim\") had to allow the counts to have possession again.", "### Today", "In 1975 the castle was sold to its present occupant, Norman Schiller. The castle may currently be visited and overnight stays are possible. Festivals may also be organised by prior arrangement.", "" ]
### Different owners [thumb\|left\|The 1412 [castle chapel](/wiki/Castle_chapel "Castle chapel") of St. Bartholomew on the rock spur](/wiki/File:Rabeneck-Burgkapelle.JPG "Rabeneck-Burgkapelle.JPG") [thumb\|upright\|Interior of the castle chapel of St. Bartholomew](/wiki/File:Burgkapelle_Bartholomaeus_Burg_Rabeneck.JPG "Burgkapelle Bartholomaeus Burg Rabeneck.JPG") In 1353 the castle was wholly owned by the Rabensteins, so they had probably snapped up the part of the castle belonging to the Bishopric of Bamberg that was presumably in financial difficulties as a result of the purchase of the remaining Schlüsselberg estates. From 1360 Rabeneck was no longer mentioned as part of the Bamberg estate. In 1353, the Rabensteins granted access rights (*[Öffnungsrecht](/wiki/%C3%96ffnungsrecht "Öffnungsrecht")*) to their allodial castle to the [Burgraviate of Nuremberg](/wiki/Burgraviate_of_Nuremberg "Burgraviate of Nuremberg") for 12 years. In 1388 Rabeneck Castle was an allodial possession of the lords of [Stiebar](/wiki/House_of_Stiebar "House of Stiebar"), after Conrad Stiebar, [Hofmeister](/wiki/Hofmeister_%28office%29 "Hofmeister (office)") of the Bishop of Bamberg, had presumably purchased it. They, too, granted the burgraves access rights for 700 [guilders](/wiki/Guilder "Guilder"). In the same year Rabeneck was captured by the Bamberg knight, Ulrich of [Aufseß](/wiki/House_of_Aufse%C3%9F "House of Aufseß") and Hans Stiebar in the [war of the cities](/wiki/War_of_the_cities_1387%E2%80%931389 "War of the cities 1387–1389"), the reason was probably the access rights for the city of Nuremberg. [Cathedral dean](/wiki/Cathedral_dean "Cathedral dean"), Friedrich Stiebar, instituted the castle chaplaincy in 1415, confirmed by Bishop [Albert](/wiki/Albert_of_Wertheim "Albert of Wertheim"). In the [Peasants' War](/wiki/German_Peasants%27_War "German Peasants' War") the castle fell victim in 1525 to rebellious peasants, who captured it and burned it out. Alexander Stiebar zu Rabeneck was given 485 guilders and Christoph Stiebar, who owned the other half of the castle, 554 guilders as recompense. Its rebuilding lasted until 1535\. Until 1530 Rabeneck remained in the hands of the Stiebars. On 28 January 1530 Alexander Stiebar turned his half of the castle into a [fief](/wiki/Fief "Fief") of the Bishopric of Bamberg. 29 years later, Christoph Stiebar's share of the castle had also become a Bamberg fief, the bishopric now owning the whole castle. After the death of Christoph, who was in serious debt, his share went to his son, Endres, a *[Pfleger](/wiki/Pfleger "Pfleger")* at Pottenstein, who died in 1572, and via William of [Künsberg](/wiki/K%C3%BCnsberg "Künsberg"), who called himself Rabeneck in 1570, to Daniel Rabenstein. The latter was enfeoffed in 1577 with the purchased half. The second half of Rabeneck remained for longer in the possession of the Stiebars. After Daniel Stiebar, the last member of the zu Rabeneck line, had meanwhile become a cleric, his half went to the Stiebar line of [Buttenheim](/wiki/Buttenheim "Buttenheim") and Ermreuth. In 1603 the Stiebars sold their half to their brother\-in\-law, George Werner of Rabenstein. At that tie Rabenstein Castle was already being described as dilapidated. The Rabensteins sold the castle in 1620 after the death of George for 36,000 guilders to the Bishopric of Bamberg. As a result of renewed financial difficulties in the bishopric, Bishop [John Godfrey of Aschhausen](/wiki/John_Godfrey_I_of_Aschhausen "John Godfrey I of Aschhausen") had to advance the money on loan, the castle remained an inheritable possession until the bishopric could pay back the money. Rabeneck was still in the possession of the [Aschhausens](/wiki/House_of_Aschhausen "House of Aschhausen") until 1682\. The guilders that the Rabensteins were paid, were of low value, so that Hans Dietrich and Hans Christoph of Rabenstein began a law suit against the bishopric in the second quarter of the 17th century, because they complained they had been paid worthless money. Not until 2 March 1716 was there an agreement between Bishop [Lothair Francis of Schönborn](/wiki/Lothair_Francis_of_Sch%C3%B6nborn "Lothair Francis of Schönborn") and the Rabensteiners, with which the Rabensteins retrospectively became owners of the castle on 22 February. From Bishop Lothar they also received in 1717 a credit of 12,000 Reichs[talers](/wiki/Thaler "Thaler"), which was raised in 1719 to 20,000 guilders, in order to repair the ruined castle. They certainly renewed the inner bailey; the outer bailey remained abandoned.
[ "### Different owners", "[thumb\\|left\\|The 1412 [castle chapel](/wiki/Castle_chapel \"Castle chapel\") of St. Bartholomew on the rock spur](/wiki/File:Rabeneck-Burgkapelle.JPG \"Rabeneck-Burgkapelle.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Interior of the castle chapel of St. Bartholomew](/wiki/File:Burgkapelle_Bartholomaeus_Burg_Rabeneck.JPG \"Burgkapelle Bartholomaeus Burg Rabeneck.JPG\")", "In 1353 the castle was wholly owned by the Rabensteins, so they had probably snapped up the part of the castle belonging to the Bishopric of Bamberg that was presumably in financial difficulties as a result of the purchase of the remaining Schlüsselberg estates. From 1360 Rabeneck was no longer mentioned as part of the Bamberg estate. In 1353, the Rabensteins granted access rights (*[Öffnungsrecht](/wiki/%C3%96ffnungsrecht \"Öffnungsrecht\")*) to their allodial castle to the [Burgraviate of Nuremberg](/wiki/Burgraviate_of_Nuremberg \"Burgraviate of Nuremberg\") for 12 years.", "In 1388 Rabeneck Castle was an allodial possession of the lords of [Stiebar](/wiki/House_of_Stiebar \"House of Stiebar\"), after Conrad Stiebar, [Hofmeister](/wiki/Hofmeister_%28office%29 \"Hofmeister (office)\") of the Bishop of Bamberg, had presumably purchased it. \nThey, too, granted the burgraves access rights for 700 [guilders](/wiki/Guilder \"Guilder\"). In the same year Rabeneck was captured by the Bamberg knight, Ulrich of [Aufseß](/wiki/House_of_Aufse%C3%9F \"House of Aufseß\") and Hans Stiebar in the [war of the cities](/wiki/War_of_the_cities_1387%E2%80%931389 \"War of the cities 1387–1389\"), the reason was probably the access rights for the city of Nuremberg.", "[Cathedral dean](/wiki/Cathedral_dean \"Cathedral dean\"), Friedrich Stiebar, instituted the castle chaplaincy in 1415, confirmed by Bishop [Albert](/wiki/Albert_of_Wertheim \"Albert of Wertheim\").", "In the [Peasants' War](/wiki/German_Peasants%27_War \"German Peasants' War\") the castle fell victim in 1525 to rebellious peasants, who captured it and burned it out. Alexander Stiebar zu Rabeneck was given 485 guilders and Christoph Stiebar, who owned the other half of the castle, 554 guilders as recompense. Its rebuilding lasted until 1535\\.", "Until 1530 Rabeneck remained in the hands of the Stiebars. On 28 January 1530 Alexander Stiebar turned his half of the castle into a [fief](/wiki/Fief \"Fief\") of the Bishopric of Bamberg. 29 years later, Christoph Stiebar's share of the castle had also become a Bamberg fief, the bishopric now owning the whole castle. After the death of Christoph, who was in serious debt, his share went to his son, Endres, a *[Pfleger](/wiki/Pfleger \"Pfleger\")* at Pottenstein, who died in 1572, and via William of [Künsberg](/wiki/K%C3%BCnsberg \"Künsberg\"), who called himself Rabeneck in 1570, to Daniel Rabenstein. The latter was enfeoffed in 1577 with the purchased half. The second half of Rabeneck remained for longer in the possession of the Stiebars. After Daniel Stiebar, the last member of the zu Rabeneck line, had meanwhile become a cleric, his half went to the Stiebar line of [Buttenheim](/wiki/Buttenheim \"Buttenheim\") and Ermreuth.\nIn 1603 the Stiebars sold their half to their brother\\-in\\-law, George Werner of Rabenstein.\nAt that tie Rabenstein Castle was already being described as dilapidated.\nThe Rabensteins sold the castle in 1620 after the death of George for 36,000 guilders to the Bishopric of Bamberg. As a result of renewed financial difficulties in the bishopric, Bishop [John Godfrey of Aschhausen](/wiki/John_Godfrey_I_of_Aschhausen \"John Godfrey I of Aschhausen\") had to advance the money on loan, the castle remained an inheritable possession until the bishopric could pay back the money. Rabeneck was still in the possession of the [Aschhausens](/wiki/House_of_Aschhausen \"House of Aschhausen\") until 1682\\.", "The guilders that the Rabensteins were paid, were of low value, so that Hans Dietrich and Hans Christoph of Rabenstein began a law suit against the bishopric in the second quarter of the 17th century, because they complained they had been paid worthless money.\nNot until 2 March 1716 was there an agreement between Bishop [Lothair Francis of Schönborn](/wiki/Lothair_Francis_of_Sch%C3%B6nborn \"Lothair Francis of Schönborn\") and the Rabensteiners, with which the Rabensteins retrospectively became owners of the castle on 22 February. From Bishop Lothar they also received in 1717 a credit of 12,000 Reichs[talers](/wiki/Thaler \"Thaler\"), which was raised in 1719 to 20,000 guilders, in order to repair the ruined castle. They certainly renewed the inner bailey; the outer bailey remained abandoned.", "" ]
History ------- Prior to the establishment of ISSP, the Fletcher School was already offering courses in security studies, with also a significant number of master and PhD theses exploring the political\-military and security\-related topics. In 1971 ISSP was established with the financial support of the Scaife Family Charitable Trust. With it came a more formalized program and expanded course offering. {{Blockquote \|quote \= The Fletcher School has until now had no coordinated and defined program of studies enabling a candidate for a graduate degree to concentrate on security affairs, and we know of no school which offers such a program.(...) International Security Affairs \[as a concentration field, would focus on] the study of the evolution and impact of the threat or use of organized force in subnational, national, and international affairs, including concerns and efforts for the limitation, termination, or elimination of the use of such force. \|source \= Application for Support to Establish a New Field of Graduate Specialization in International Security Affairs, February 15, 1971 }} The program was founded during the tenure of Dean [Edmund A. Gullion](/wiki/Edmund_A._Gullion "Edmund A. Gullion") (a former diplomat in Vietnam, and deputy director of the [U.S. Disarmament Administration](/wiki/Arms_Control_and_Disarmament_Agency "Arms Control and Disarmament Agency")). Professor [Uri Ra'anan](/wiki/Uri_Ra%27anan "Uri Ra'anan"), faculty member at the Fletcher School since 1968, become the first chairman of ISSP. In the creation of the program, he was assisted by his colleague Robert Pfaltzgraff. Upon Ra'anan's departure from the school in 1987 to join Boston University, Pfaltzgraff succeeded him, taking the title of director. He was succeeded by [Richard Shultz](/wiki/Richard_H._Shultz "Richard H. Shultz") in 1989\. ISSP followed its contemporary developments, in its first 20 years focusing on issues like the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War"), [nuclear proliferation](/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation "Nuclear proliferation"), European security, [crisis management](/wiki/Crisis_management "Crisis management"), [low intensity conflict](/wiki/Low_intensity_conflict "Low intensity conflict") and intelligence. Shortly after the end of the Cold War, in 1991, the ISSP in cooperation with Columbia University's International Security Policy Program, and the National Strategy Information Center, conducted an extensive curriculum review. This joint effort resulted in the publication of two books: *Security Studies for the 1990s* (1993\) followed by an updated *Security Studies for the 21st Century* (1997\). In them, security specialists were asked to review the curriculum of their subfields in light of the dramatic changes in global politics, with each author providing a syllabus for a graduate course along with analysis essays, and brief critiques. The books advocated for a broadened scope of the field, that had previously over\-emphasized deterrence (in the Western alliance and the post\-1945\), to also include peace missions, non\-military instruments of power and the influence of culture and values. In 2005 the *Jebsen Center for Counter\-Terrorism Studies* was established within ISSP. Its purpose was increasing the understanding and competency of counter\-terrorism professionals. Two main areas of research were predicting, preventing and preempting terrorist activity, and the role of women and business in the campaign against terrorism. Its activities included the creation of a database that collected historical data on the life paths of hundreds of terrorists and analyzed their letters, wills, and interviews. This information, based on open\-source data, was used to identify the factors that tend to predict terrorist acts. [Russell D. Howard](/wiki/Russell_D._Howard "Russell D. Howard"), a retired U.S. Army general and Founding Director of the Combating Terrorism Center at West Point, was appointed as the director of the center. The center was funded by Jan Henrik Jebsen, a Norwegian businessman and philanthropist, with a three\-year grant of $1\.5 million. The center closed in 2008, after three years of activity.
[ "History\n-------", "Prior to the establishment of ISSP, the Fletcher School was already offering courses in security studies, with also a significant number of master and PhD theses exploring the political\\-military and security\\-related topics.", "In 1971 ISSP was established with the financial support of the Scaife Family Charitable Trust. With it came a more formalized program and expanded course offering.", "{{Blockquote\n \\|quote \\= The Fletcher School has until now had no coordinated and defined program of studies enabling a candidate for a graduate degree to concentrate on security affairs, and we know of no school which offers such a program.(...) International Security Affairs \\[as a concentration field, would focus on] the study of the evolution and impact of the threat or use of organized force in subnational, national, and international affairs, including concerns and efforts for the limitation, termination, or elimination of the use of such force.\n \\|source \\= Application for Support to Establish a New Field of Graduate Specialization in International Security Affairs, February 15, 1971\n}}", "The program was founded during the tenure of Dean [Edmund A. Gullion](/wiki/Edmund_A._Gullion \"Edmund A. Gullion\") (a former diplomat in Vietnam, and deputy director of the [U.S. Disarmament Administration](/wiki/Arms_Control_and_Disarmament_Agency \"Arms Control and Disarmament Agency\")). Professor [Uri Ra'anan](/wiki/Uri_Ra%27anan \"Uri Ra'anan\"), faculty member at the Fletcher School since 1968, become the first chairman of ISSP. In the creation of the program, he was assisted by his colleague Robert Pfaltzgraff. Upon Ra'anan's departure from the school in 1987 to join Boston University, Pfaltzgraff succeeded him, taking the title of director. He was succeeded by [Richard Shultz](/wiki/Richard_H._Shultz \"Richard H. Shultz\") in 1989\\.", "ISSP followed its contemporary developments, in its first 20 years focusing on issues like the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\"), [nuclear proliferation](/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation \"Nuclear proliferation\"), European security, [crisis management](/wiki/Crisis_management \"Crisis management\"), [low intensity conflict](/wiki/Low_intensity_conflict \"Low intensity conflict\") and intelligence. Shortly after the end of the Cold War, in 1991, the ISSP in cooperation with Columbia University's International Security Policy Program, and the National Strategy Information Center, conducted an extensive curriculum review. This joint effort resulted in the publication of two books: *Security Studies for the 1990s* (1993\\) followed by an updated *Security Studies for the 21st Century* (1997\\). In them, security specialists were asked to review the curriculum of their subfields in light of the dramatic changes in global politics, with each author providing a syllabus for a graduate course along with analysis essays, and brief critiques. The books advocated for a broadened scope of the field, that had previously over\\-emphasized deterrence (in the Western alliance and the post\\-1945\\), to also include peace missions, non\\-military instruments of power and the influence of culture and values.", "In 2005 the *Jebsen Center for Counter\\-Terrorism Studies* was established within ISSP. Its purpose was increasing the understanding and competency of counter\\-terrorism professionals. Two main areas of research were predicting, preventing and preempting terrorist activity, and the role of women and business in the campaign against terrorism. Its activities included the creation of a database that collected historical data on the life paths of hundreds of terrorists and analyzed their letters, wills, and interviews. This information, based on open\\-source data, was used to identify the factors that tend to predict terrorist acts. [Russell D. Howard](/wiki/Russell_D._Howard \"Russell D. Howard\"), a retired U.S. Army general and Founding Director of the Combating Terrorism Center at West Point, was appointed as the director of the center. The center was funded by Jan Henrik Jebsen, a Norwegian businessman and philanthropist, with a three\\-year grant of $1\\.5 million. The center closed in 2008, after three years of activity.", "" ]
Activities ---------- ### Simulex Since 1974 ISSP has conducted annually an international crisis simulation, called *Simulex*, that spans over two days. The simulation puts real countries in hypothetical but realistic crisis situations. Students are teamed into the civil and military leadership of each country involved, need to react to sudden and mounting crises, make decisions, and report those to the Control Team, who oversees and manages the evolution of the entire scenario. These decisions can be of economic, military or diplomatic nature. Organizers and participants in the simulation also include members of the U.S. Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force, from multiple institutions including the continuing involvement of the [United States Army War College](/wiki/United_States_Army_War_College "United States Army War College"). Since the inception of Simulex, Professor Robert Pfaltzgraff has designed the scenarios, which typically reflect contemporary tensions and developments. Notably, Simulex 1989 scenario envisioned the fall of the [Berlin Wall](/wiki/Berlin_Wall "Berlin Wall"), which was played one week before the actual event. ### Annual security conference and guest speakers [thumb\|150px\|Front cover of "Naval expeditionary forces and power projection : into the 21st century", published in 1992 by the Marine Corps University, stemming from a 1991 conference conducted by ISSP](/wiki/File:Naval_expeditionary_forces_and_power_projection_-_into_the_21st_century_%28Marine_Corps_University%2C_1992%29%2C_front_cover.png "Naval expeditionary forces and power projection - into the 21st century (Marine Corps University, 1992), front cover.png") ISSP jointly with the *Institute for Foreign Policy Analysis* (IFPA) hold an annual security conference since 1972, focusing on topical issues of contemporary relevance. These conferences have had cosponsors including the U.S. Army, Air Force, the [Office of Net Assessment](/wiki/Office_of_Net_Assessment "Office of Net Assessment"), and the [Marine Corps University](/wiki/Marine_Corps_University "Marine Corps University"). Attendance include participants from the U.S. Congress, the military, and academia, as well as other civilians from the U.S. and abroad. ISSP and IFPA have published a book, briefing, or report after each annual conference, outlining the contributions of the participants. In 2013, ISSP and IFPA held their 40th annual security conference, in cooperation with [U.S. Special Operations Command](/wiki/United_States_Special_Operations_Command "United States Special Operations Command") (USSOCOM). The conference, titled "Positioning Special Operations Forces for Global Challenges", was attended, among other speakers, by Adm. [William H. McRaven](/wiki/William_H._McRaven "William H. McRaven") (USN, commander, USSOCOM), Congressman [Buck McKeon](/wiki/Buck_McKeon "Buck McKeon") (chairman, House Armed Services Committee), Ambassador [Thomas R. Pickering](/wiki/Thomas_R._Pickering "Thomas R. Pickering"), and Deputy Secretary of Defense [Ashton Carter](/wiki/Ashton_Carter "Ashton Carter"). ISSP also holds individual speaker series, with civilian policymakers and military commanders invited as guest speakers talking on diverse issues such as the North Korea nuclear program, Nicaraguan insurgency, or the role of the U.S. Air Force in the Gulf War. Some notable speakers have been Gen. [David Petraeus](/wiki/David_Petraeus "David Petraeus"), Gen. [Stanley A. McChrystal](/wiki/Stanley_A._McChrystal "Stanley A. McChrystal"), Gen. [Carter Ham](/wiki/Carter_Ham "Carter Ham"), [Jamie Morin](/wiki/Jamie_M._Morin "Jamie M. Morin") (Acting Undersecretary of the US Air Force), [David Sanger](/wiki/David_E._Sanger "David E. Sanger"), (Chief Washington Correspondent for The New York Times), [Javier Solana](/wiki/Javier_Solana "Javier Solana") (Secretary\-General of the Council of the European Union).
[ "Activities\n----------", "### Simulex", "Since 1974 ISSP has conducted annually an international crisis simulation, called *Simulex*, that spans over two days. The simulation puts real countries in hypothetical but realistic crisis situations. Students are teamed into the civil and military leadership of each country involved, need to react to sudden and mounting crises, make decisions, and report those to the Control Team, who oversees and manages the evolution of the entire scenario. These decisions can be of economic, military or diplomatic nature. Organizers and participants in the simulation also include members of the U.S. Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force, from multiple institutions including the continuing involvement of the [United States Army War College](/wiki/United_States_Army_War_College \"United States Army War College\").", "Since the inception of Simulex, Professor Robert Pfaltzgraff has designed the scenarios, which typically reflect contemporary tensions and developments. Notably, Simulex 1989 scenario envisioned the fall of the [Berlin Wall](/wiki/Berlin_Wall \"Berlin Wall\"), which was played one week before the actual event.", "### Annual security conference and guest speakers", "[thumb\\|150px\\|Front cover of \"Naval expeditionary forces and power projection : into the 21st century\", published in 1992 by the Marine Corps University, stemming from a 1991 conference conducted by ISSP](/wiki/File:Naval_expeditionary_forces_and_power_projection_-_into_the_21st_century_%28Marine_Corps_University%2C_1992%29%2C_front_cover.png \"Naval expeditionary forces and power projection - into the 21st century (Marine Corps University, 1992), front cover.png\")", "ISSP jointly with the *Institute for Foreign Policy Analysis* (IFPA) hold an annual security conference since 1972, focusing on topical issues of contemporary relevance. These conferences have had cosponsors including the U.S. Army, Air Force, the [Office of Net Assessment](/wiki/Office_of_Net_Assessment \"Office of Net Assessment\"), and the [Marine Corps University](/wiki/Marine_Corps_University \"Marine Corps University\"). Attendance include participants from the U.S. Congress, the military, and academia, as well as other civilians from the U.S. and abroad. ISSP and IFPA have published a book, briefing, or report after each annual conference, outlining the contributions of the participants.", "In 2013, ISSP and IFPA held their 40th annual security conference, in cooperation with [U.S. Special Operations Command](/wiki/United_States_Special_Operations_Command \"United States Special Operations Command\") (USSOCOM). The conference, titled \"Positioning Special Operations Forces for Global Challenges\", was attended, among other speakers, by Adm. [William H. McRaven](/wiki/William_H._McRaven \"William H. McRaven\") (USN, commander, USSOCOM), Congressman [Buck McKeon](/wiki/Buck_McKeon \"Buck McKeon\") (chairman, House Armed Services Committee), Ambassador [Thomas R. Pickering](/wiki/Thomas_R._Pickering \"Thomas R. Pickering\"), and Deputy Secretary of Defense [Ashton Carter](/wiki/Ashton_Carter \"Ashton Carter\").", "ISSP also holds individual speaker series, with civilian policymakers and military commanders invited as guest speakers talking on diverse issues such as the North Korea nuclear program, Nicaraguan insurgency, or the role of the U.S. Air Force in the Gulf War. Some notable speakers have been Gen. [David Petraeus](/wiki/David_Petraeus \"David Petraeus\"), Gen. [Stanley A. McChrystal](/wiki/Stanley_A._McChrystal \"Stanley A. McChrystal\"), Gen. [Carter Ham](/wiki/Carter_Ham \"Carter Ham\"), [Jamie Morin](/wiki/Jamie_M._Morin \"Jamie M. Morin\") (Acting Undersecretary of the US Air Force), [David Sanger](/wiki/David_E._Sanger \"David E. Sanger\"), (Chief Washington Correspondent for The New York Times), [Javier Solana](/wiki/Javier_Solana \"Javier Solana\") (Secretary\\-General of the Council of the European Union).", "" ]
Career ------ ### Parma Elia began his career on youth side for [Parma F.C.](/wiki/Parma_F.C. "Parma F.C.") and won with the team the Cup of the Alps, an international Youth Tournament and was named as MVP of the Tournament.[Der italienische Verein Parma FC gewann das Internationale Juniorenturnier um den CUP OF THE ALPS](https://web.archive.org/web/20110706224316/http://www.cupofthealps.ch/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=117&Itemid=73){{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}} However the reserve team failed to enter the playoffs round (round of 16\) of 2008–09 [Campionato Nazionale Primavera](/wiki/Campionato_Nazionale_Primavera "Campionato Nazionale Primavera") – the reserve league. In July 2009 Elia left [Parma F.C.](/wiki/Parma_F.C. "Parma F.C.") on loan to [A.C. Bellaria Igea Marina](/wiki/A.C._Bellaria_Igea_Marina "A.C. Bellaria Igea Marina") who earned his first professional caps. ### Bologna On 1 February 2010 [Bologna F.C.](/wiki/Bologna_F.C. "Bologna F.C.") yielded in co\-ownership to [Parma](/wiki/Parma_F.C. "Parma F.C.") the half property of the forward and [Parma F.C.](/wiki/Parma_F.C. "Parma F.C.") saved in return of the deal the rights on [Bologna](/wiki/Bologna_F.C. "Bologna F.C.")'s offensive midfielder [Riccardo Pasi](/wiki/Riccardo_Pasi "Riccardo Pasi").[Scambio di compartecipazioni col Parma](https://archive.today/20100204030506/http://www.bolognafc.it/it/news/pagine/8179/Scambio-di-compartecipazioni-col-Parma.html) Half of the registration rights both tagged for an aggressive price of €1 million.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.bolognafc.it/files/cms/363540786nota\-integrativa\-parte\-1\.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429005312/http://www.bolognafc.it/files/cms/363540786nota\-integrativa\-parte\-1\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=29 April 2011 \|title\=Bilancio intermedio al 31 dicembre 2010: Nota integrativa: parte 1 \|date\=4 April 2011 \|accessdate\=14 June 2011 \|work\=Bologna FC 1909 \|language\=Italian \|df\=dmy\-all }}{{cite news \|url\=http://www.bolognafc.it/files/cms/356689597nota\-integrativa\-parte\-2\.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110428184954/http://www.bolognafc.it/files/cms/356689597nota\-integrativa\-parte\-2\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=28 April 2011 \|title\=Bilancio intermedio al 31 dicembre 2010: Nota integrativa: parte 2 \|date\=4 April 2011 \|accessdate\=14 June 2011 \|work\=Bologna FC 1909 \|language\=Italian \|df\=dmy\-all }} Both clubs also received a paper profit on selling players for nearly €2 million (but counter\-weight by VAT), in terms of contract value of the new signing (€2M; Elia for Bologna and Pasi for Parma). Elia returned to [Bellaria – Igea Marina](/wiki/Bellaria_%E2%80%93_Igea_Marina "Bellaria – Igea Marina") in for the rest of [2009–10 Lega Pro Seconda Divisione](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_Lega_Pro_Seconda_Divisione "2009–10 Lega Pro Seconda Divisione"). Elia became a financial burden of Bologna in [2010–11 Serie A](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Serie_A "2010–11 Serie A") season. He failed to play any game but the club had to book about €450,000 in 2010–11 season as amortization for the transfer fee. (€2 million over contract length 4 years and 5 months) as worse as wage. ### Return to Parma On 24 June 2011, he was bought back by Parma; co\-currently Pasi returned to Bologna.{{cite news\|url\=http://fcparma.com/stagione/archivio\-news/8974\-movimenti\-di\-mercato\-e\-compartecipazioni.html \|accessdate\=24 June 2011 \|date\=24 June 2011 \|title\=Movimenti di mercato e compartecipazioni \|trans\-title\=Market movements and co\-ownerships \|publisher\=fcparma.com \|work\=Parma F.C. \|url\-status\=usurped \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203012001/http://fcparma.com/stagione/archivio\-news/8974\-movimenti\-di\-mercato\-e\-compartecipazioni.html \|archivedate\=3 December 2013 \|df\=dmy }} Elia was valued an aggressive price of €1\.5 million {{\#tag:ref\|It made Parma received a financial income of €500,000 as its retained half was increased to €1\.5 million but co\-currently a financial cost for Bologna as it cannot capture the €500,000 profit.\|group\="nb"\|name\="Elia"}} While Pasi's 50% rights was valued an aggressive price of €1\.6 million {{\#tag:ref\|It made Parma a financial cost of €600,000 and financial income to Bologna\|group\="nb"\|name\="Pasi"}}. In June Parma also bought [Francesco Valiani](/wiki/Francesco_Valiani "Francesco Valiani") outright for €2\.8 million and co\-currently sold [Andrea Pisanu](/wiki/Andrea_Pisanu "Andrea Pisanu") outright for €2\.5 million. The four deals made Bologna received €200,000 in net.Bologna FC 1909 Report and Accounts on 30 June 2011 {{in lang\|it}}Parma FC Report and Accounts on 30 June 2011 {{in lang\|it}} The swap deal made Bologna had a selling profit of about €1\.6 million for Elia and about €1\.7 million for Pasi in 2010–11 financial year, but majority in terms of increase in [intangible asset](/wiki/Intangible_asset "Intangible asset") (New value of Pasi and Elia in accounting, €3\.2M and €3M respectively) Yet Elia became a financial burden of Parma. Elia signed a 3\-year contract with Parma and Parma had to book €1 million in 2011–12 season (and next 2 seasons) as amortization, increased from Pasi's \~€450,000\. In July 2011 Elia left for [Viareggio](/wiki/F.C._Esperia_Viareggio "F.C. Esperia Viareggio") (of third division) in temporary deal and on 31 January 2012 left for fourth division club [Arzanese](/wiki/U.S._Arzanese "U.S. Arzanese").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.usarzanese.it/NewsApri.aspx?idAnnuncio\=68 \|title\=Arzanese, presi due giovani attaccanti \|date\=31 January 2012 \|accessdate\=12 June 2012 \|publisher\=US Arzanese \|language\=Italian \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120612063608/http://www.usarzanese.it/NewsApri.aspx?idAnnuncio\=68 \|archivedate\=12 June 2012 \|df\=dmy }} On 26 July 2012 the temporary deal was renewed.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.usarzanese.it/public/Comunicati/12\_comunicato%20n%207\.pdf \|title\=Comunicato N°7 (2012–13\) \|date\=26 July 2012 \|accessdate\=8 July 2013 \|language\=Italian \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413145615/http://www.usarzanese.it/public/Comunicati/12\_comunicato%20n%207\.pdf \|archivedate\=13 April 2014 \|df\=dmy }} On 2 September 2013 he was signed by [Chieti](/wiki/S.S._Chieti_Calcio "S.S. Chieti Calcio"). However, he only played once. On 2 January 2014 he played a friendly for [Cuneo](/wiki/A.C._Cuneo_1905 "A.C. Cuneo 1905").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.cuneocalcio.it/news/cuneo\-calcio/1502\-juventus\-cuneo.html\|title\= Juventus – Cuneo: un buon test amichevole\|date\=2 January 2014\|accessdate\=29 January 2014\|publisher\=AC Cuneo 1905\|language\=Italian}} Chieti announced the left of Elia on 10 January.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.chieticalcio.com/nuovosito/index.php/archivio\-news/1386\-calciomercatoufficiale\-tesserati\-quacquarelli\-e\-endrew\-fanini.html \|title\=Calciomercato/ufficiale: tesserati Quacquarelli e il giovane portiere Endrew Fanini \|date\=10 January 2014 \|accessdate\=22 February 2014 \|publisher\=Chieti Calcio \|language\=Italian \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225181805/http://www.chieticalcio.com/nuovosito/index.php/archivio\-news/1386\-calciomercatoufficiale\-tesserati\-quacquarelli\-e\-endrew\-fanini.html \|archivedate\=25 February 2014 \|df\=dmy }} The paper work of his return to Parma from Chieti was completed on 17 January. However Elia did not completed his move to Cuneo.
[ "Career\n------", "### Parma", "Elia began his career on youth side for [Parma F.C.](/wiki/Parma_F.C. \"Parma F.C.\") and won with the team the Cup of the Alps, an international Youth Tournament and was named as MVP of the Tournament.[Der italienische Verein Parma FC gewann das Internationale Juniorenturnier um den CUP OF THE ALPS](https://web.archive.org/web/20110706224316/http://www.cupofthealps.ch/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=117&Itemid=73){{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}} However the reserve team failed to enter the playoffs round (round of 16\\) of 2008–09 [Campionato Nazionale Primavera](/wiki/Campionato_Nazionale_Primavera \"Campionato Nazionale Primavera\") – the reserve league.", "In July 2009 Elia left [Parma F.C.](/wiki/Parma_F.C. \"Parma F.C.\") on loan to [A.C. Bellaria Igea Marina](/wiki/A.C._Bellaria_Igea_Marina \"A.C. Bellaria Igea Marina\") who earned his first professional caps.", "### Bologna", "On 1 February 2010 [Bologna F.C.](/wiki/Bologna_F.C. \"Bologna F.C.\") yielded in co\\-ownership to [Parma](/wiki/Parma_F.C. \"Parma F.C.\") the half property of the forward and [Parma F.C.](/wiki/Parma_F.C. \"Parma F.C.\") saved in return of the deal the rights on [Bologna](/wiki/Bologna_F.C. \"Bologna F.C.\")'s offensive midfielder [Riccardo Pasi](/wiki/Riccardo_Pasi \"Riccardo Pasi\").[Scambio di compartecipazioni col Parma](https://archive.today/20100204030506/http://www.bolognafc.it/it/news/pagine/8179/Scambio-di-compartecipazioni-col-Parma.html) Half of the registration rights both tagged for an aggressive price of €1 million.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.bolognafc.it/files/cms/363540786nota\\-integrativa\\-parte\\-1\\.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429005312/http://www.bolognafc.it/files/cms/363540786nota\\-integrativa\\-parte\\-1\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=29 April 2011 \\|title\\=Bilancio intermedio al 31 dicembre 2010: Nota integrativa: parte 1 \\|date\\=4 April 2011 \\|accessdate\\=14 June 2011 \\|work\\=Bologna FC 1909 \\|language\\=Italian \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.bolognafc.it/files/cms/356689597nota\\-integrativa\\-parte\\-2\\.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110428184954/http://www.bolognafc.it/files/cms/356689597nota\\-integrativa\\-parte\\-2\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=28 April 2011 \\|title\\=Bilancio intermedio al 31 dicembre 2010: Nota integrativa: parte 2 \\|date\\=4 April 2011 \\|accessdate\\=14 June 2011 \\|work\\=Bologna FC 1909 \\|language\\=Italian \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }} Both clubs also received a paper profit on selling players for nearly €2 million (but counter\\-weight by VAT), in terms of contract value of the new signing (€2M; Elia for Bologna and Pasi for Parma). Elia returned to [Bellaria – Igea Marina](/wiki/Bellaria_%E2%80%93_Igea_Marina \"Bellaria – Igea Marina\") in for the rest of [2009–10 Lega Pro Seconda Divisione](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_Lega_Pro_Seconda_Divisione \"2009–10 Lega Pro Seconda Divisione\").", "Elia became a financial burden of Bologna in [2010–11 Serie A](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Serie_A \"2010–11 Serie A\") season. He failed to play any game but the club had to book about €450,000 in 2010–11 season as amortization for the transfer fee. (€2 million over contract length 4 years and 5 months) as worse as wage.", "### Return to Parma", "On 24 June 2011, he was bought back by Parma; co\\-currently Pasi returned to Bologna.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://fcparma.com/stagione/archivio\\-news/8974\\-movimenti\\-di\\-mercato\\-e\\-compartecipazioni.html \\|accessdate\\=24 June 2011 \\|date\\=24 June 2011 \\|title\\=Movimenti di mercato e compartecipazioni \\|trans\\-title\\=Market movements and co\\-ownerships \\|publisher\\=fcparma.com \\|work\\=Parma F.C. \\|url\\-status\\=usurped \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203012001/http://fcparma.com/stagione/archivio\\-news/8974\\-movimenti\\-di\\-mercato\\-e\\-compartecipazioni.html \\|archivedate\\=3 December 2013 \\|df\\=dmy }} Elia was valued an aggressive price of €1\\.5 million {{\\#tag:ref\\|It made Parma received a financial income of €500,000 as its retained half was increased to €1\\.5 million but co\\-currently a financial cost for Bologna as it cannot capture the €500,000 profit.\\|group\\=\"nb\"\\|name\\=\"Elia\"}} While Pasi's 50% rights was valued an aggressive price of €1\\.6 million {{\\#tag:ref\\|It made Parma a financial cost of €600,000 and financial income to Bologna\\|group\\=\"nb\"\\|name\\=\"Pasi\"}}. In June Parma also bought [Francesco Valiani](/wiki/Francesco_Valiani \"Francesco Valiani\") outright for €2\\.8 million and co\\-currently sold [Andrea Pisanu](/wiki/Andrea_Pisanu \"Andrea Pisanu\") outright for €2\\.5 million. The four deals made Bologna received €200,000 in net.Bologna FC 1909 Report and Accounts on 30 June 2011 {{in lang\\|it}}Parma FC Report and Accounts on 30 June 2011 {{in lang\\|it}} The swap deal made Bologna had a selling profit of about €1\\.6 million for Elia and about €1\\.7 million for Pasi in 2010–11 financial year, but majority in terms of increase in [intangible asset](/wiki/Intangible_asset \"Intangible asset\") (New value of Pasi and Elia in accounting, €3\\.2M and €3M respectively) Yet Elia became a financial burden of Parma. Elia signed a 3\\-year contract with Parma and Parma had to book €1 million in 2011–12 season (and next 2 seasons) as amortization, increased from Pasi's \\~€450,000\\. In July 2011 Elia left for [Viareggio](/wiki/F.C._Esperia_Viareggio \"F.C. Esperia Viareggio\") (of third division) in temporary deal and on 31 January 2012 left for fourth division club [Arzanese](/wiki/U.S._Arzanese \"U.S. Arzanese\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.usarzanese.it/NewsApri.aspx?idAnnuncio\\=68 \\|title\\=Arzanese, presi due giovani attaccanti \\|date\\=31 January 2012 \\|accessdate\\=12 June 2012 \\|publisher\\=US Arzanese \\|language\\=Italian \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120612063608/http://www.usarzanese.it/NewsApri.aspx?idAnnuncio\\=68 \\|archivedate\\=12 June 2012 \\|df\\=dmy }} On 26 July 2012 the temporary deal was renewed.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.usarzanese.it/public/Comunicati/12\\_comunicato%20n%207\\.pdf \\|title\\=Comunicato N°7 (2012–13\\) \\|date\\=26 July 2012 \\|accessdate\\=8 July 2013 \\|language\\=Italian \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413145615/http://www.usarzanese.it/public/Comunicati/12\\_comunicato%20n%207\\.pdf \\|archivedate\\=13 April 2014 \\|df\\=dmy }}", "On 2 September 2013 he was signed by [Chieti](/wiki/S.S._Chieti_Calcio \"S.S. Chieti Calcio\"). However, he only played once. On 2 January 2014 he played a friendly for [Cuneo](/wiki/A.C._Cuneo_1905 \"A.C. Cuneo 1905\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.cuneocalcio.it/news/cuneo\\-calcio/1502\\-juventus\\-cuneo.html\\|title\\= Juventus – Cuneo: un buon test amichevole\\|date\\=2 January 2014\\|accessdate\\=29 January 2014\\|publisher\\=AC Cuneo 1905\\|language\\=Italian}} Chieti announced the left of Elia on 10 January.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.chieticalcio.com/nuovosito/index.php/archivio\\-news/1386\\-calciomercatoufficiale\\-tesserati\\-quacquarelli\\-e\\-endrew\\-fanini.html \\|title\\=Calciomercato/ufficiale: tesserati Quacquarelli e il giovane portiere Endrew Fanini \\|date\\=10 January 2014 \\|accessdate\\=22 February 2014 \\|publisher\\=Chieti Calcio \\|language\\=Italian \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225181805/http://www.chieticalcio.com/nuovosito/index.php/archivio\\-news/1386\\-calciomercatoufficiale\\-tesserati\\-quacquarelli\\-e\\-endrew\\-fanini.html \\|archivedate\\=25 February 2014 \\|df\\=dmy }} The paper work of his return to Parma from Chieti was completed on 17 January. However Elia did not completed his move to Cuneo.", "" ]
Career ------ ### Early years: 1910s–1940s Hunter began her singing career in a [bordello](/wiki/Bordello "Bordello") and soon moved to clubs that appealed to men, black and white alike. By 1914 she was receiving lessons from a prominent jazz pianist, [Tony Jackson](/wiki/Tony_Jackson_%28pianist%29 "Tony Jackson (pianist)"), who helped her to expand her repertoire and compose her own songs. She was still in her early teens when she settled in Chicago.{{cite web\|title\=Alberta Hunter (1895–1984\)\|url\=http://www.redhotjazz.com/hunter.html\|work\=The Red Hot Jazz Archive: A History of Jazz Before 1930\|publisher\=Redhotjazz.com\|access\-date\=July 7, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080507145110/http://www.redhotjazz.com/hunter.html\|archive\-date\=May 7, 2008\|url\-status\=dead}} Part of her early career was spent singing at [Dago Frank](/wiki/Frank_Cirofici "Frank Cirofici")'s, a brothel. She then sang at Hugh Hoskin's saloon and, eventually, in many Chicago bars. One of her first notable experiences as an artist was at the Panama Club, a white\-owned club with a white\-only clientele that had a chain in Chicago, New York and other large cities. Hunter's first act was in an upstairs room, far from the main event; thus, she began developing as an artist in front of a [cabaret](/wiki/Cabaret "Cabaret") crowd. "The crowd wouldn't stay downstairs. They'd go upstairs to hear us sing the blues. That's where I would stand and make up verses and sing as I go along." Many claim her appeal was based on her gift for improvising lyrics to satisfy the audience.{{Cite book\|title\=Harlem Renaissance Lives\|last\=Gates\|first\=Henry\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|year\=2009\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-538795\-7\|location\=New York\|page\=277\|display\-authors\=etal}} Her big break came when she was booked at Dreamland Cafe, singing with [King Oliver](/wiki/King_Oliver "King Oliver") and his band.{{cite book\|last1\=Larkin\|first1\=Colin\|title\=The Virgin Encyclopedia of Jazz\|date\=2004\|publisher\=Virgin in association with Muze UK\|location\=London\|isbn\=978\-1\-852\-27183\-1\|page\=431\|edition\=rev. updated\|oclc\=859068143}} In early 1923, she suggested that [Columbia Records](/wiki/Columbia_Records "Columbia Records") should record Oliver's band, but when she was not available to record with them, Columbia refused.{{Cite book\|last\=Brothers\|first\=Thomas\|title\=Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism\|publisher\=W.W. Norton \& Company\|year\=2014\|isbn\=978\-0\-393\-06582\-4\|location\=New York, NY\|pages\=60}} She peeled potatoes by day and hounded club owners by night, determined to land a singing job. Her persistence paid off, and Hunter began a climb from some of the city's lowest dives to a headlining job at its most prestigious venue for black entertainers, the Dreamland ballroom. She had a five\-year association with the Dreamland, beginning in 1917, and her salary rose to $35 a week.{{cite book\|last1\=Barlow\|first1\=William\|title\=Looking Up at Down: The Emergence of Blues Culture\|url\=https://archive.org/details/lookingupatdowne0000barl\|url\-access\=registration\|date\=1989\|publisher\=Temple University Press\|location\=Philadelphia\|isbn\=978\-0\-877\-22583\-6\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/lookingupatdowne0000barl/page/134 134–135]\|oclc\=17981033}} She first toured [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe") in 1917, performing in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") and [London](/wiki/London "London"). The Europeans treated her as an artist, showing her respect and even reverence, which made a great impression on her. {{Listen \| filename \= Downhearted Blues \- Alberta Hunter.ogg \| title \= Downhearted Blues (1922\) \| description \= The "\[\[Downhearted Blues]]" performed by Alberta Hunter \| pos \= right }} Her career as singer and songwriter flourished in the 1920s and 1930s, and she appeared in clubs and on stage in musicals in both [New York](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") and London. The songs she wrote include the critically acclaimed "[Downhearted Blues](/wiki/Downhearted_Blues "Downhearted Blues")" (1922\).{{cite news\|title\=After 20 Years of Silence, Alberta Hunter Sings 'Remember My Name'—and Memphis Gives Her the Key to the City\|url\=http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20072183,00\.html\|access\-date\=July 7, 2015\|work\=\[\[People (magazine)\|People]]\|issue\=20\|date\=November 13, 1978\|volume\=10}} She recorded several records with [Perry Bradford](/wiki/Perry_Bradford "Perry Bradford") from 1922 to 1927\. Hunter recorded prolifically during the 1920s, starting with sessions for [Black Swan](/wiki/Black_Swan_Records "Black Swan Records") in 1921,{{cite book\|first\=Tony\|last\=Russell\|year\=1997\|title\=The Blues: From Robert Johnson to Robert Cray\|publisher\=Carlton Books\|location\=Dubai\|page\=12\|isbn\=1\-85868\-255\-X}} [Paramount](/wiki/Paramount_Records "Paramount Records") in 1922–1924, [Gennett](/wiki/Gennett_Records "Gennett Records") in 1924, [OKeh](/wiki/OKeh_Records "OKeh Records") in 1925–1926, [Victor](/wiki/Victor_Records "Victor Records") in 1927 and Columbia in 1929\. While still working for Paramount, she also recorded for Harmograph Records under the pseudonym May Alix.{{Cite book\|title\=Harlem Renaissance Lives\|last\=Gates\|first\=Henry\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|year\=2009\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-538795\-7\|location\=New York\|page\=278\|display\-authors\=etal}} Hunter wrote "[Downhearted Blues](/wiki/Downhearted_Blues "Downhearted Blues")" with [Lovie Austin](/wiki/Lovie_Austin "Lovie Austin") and recorded the track for [Ink Williams](/wiki/J._Mayo_Williams "J. Mayo Williams") at [Paramount Records](/wiki/Paramount_Records "Paramount Records"). She received only $368 in [royalties](/wiki/Royalty_payment "Royalty payment"). Williams had secretly sold the recording rights to Columbia Records in a deal in which all royalties were paid to him. The song became a big hit for Columbia, with [Bessie Smith](/wiki/Bessie_Smith "Bessie Smith") as the vocalist. This record sold almost 1 million copies. Hunter learned what Williams had done and stopped recording for him. {{Listen \| filename \= \| title \= Chirpin' the Blues (1930\) \| description \= "Chirpin' the Blues" performed by Alberta Hunter and \[\[Fats Waller]] \| pos \= right }} In 1928, Hunter played Queenie opposite [Paul Robeson](/wiki/Paul_Robeson "Paul Robeson") in the first London production of *[Show Boat](/wiki/Show_Boat "Show Boat")* at [Drury Lane](/wiki/Drury_Lane "Drury Lane"). She subsequently performed in [nightclubs](/wiki/Nightclub "Nightclub") throughout Europe and appeared for the 1934 winter season with [Jack Jackson](/wiki/Jack_Jackson_%28radio_personality%29 "Jack Jackson (radio personality)")'s society [orchestra](/wiki/Orchestra "Orchestra") at [the Dorchester](/wiki/The_Dorchester "The Dorchester"), in London. One of her recordings with Jackson is "[Miss Otis Regrets](/wiki/Miss_Otis_Regrets "Miss Otis Regrets")".{{cite book\|last1\=Russell\|first1\=Tony\|title\=The Blues: From Robert Johnson to Robert Cray\|date\=1996\|publisher\=Carlton Books\|location\=Dubai\|isbn\=978\-1\-858\-68255\-6\|pages\=120–21\|oclc\=222232351}} While at [the Dorchester](/wiki/The_Dorchester "The Dorchester"), she made several [HMV](/wiki/HMV "HMV") [recordings](/wiki/Sound_recording_and_reproduction "Sound recording and reproduction") with the orchestra and appeared in *[Radio Parade of 1935](/wiki/Radio_Parade_of_1935 "Radio Parade of 1935")* (1934\), the first British theatrical [film](/wiki/Film "Film") to feature the short\-lived [Dufaycolor](/wiki/Dufaycolor "Dufaycolor"), but Hunter's segment was one of only two in color. She spent the late 1930s fulfilling engagements on both sides of the [Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean "Atlantic Ocean") and the early 1940s performing at home. Hunter eventually moved to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"). She performed with [Bricktop](/wiki/Ada_%22Bricktop%22_Smith "Ada ") and recorded with [Louis Armstrong](/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong") and [Sidney Bechet](/wiki/Sidney_Bechet "Sidney Bechet"). With a vocal duet chorus between Clarence Todd and herself, "Cake Walking Babies (From Home)," featuring Bechet and Armstrong, was another one of Hunter's hits recorded in December 1924 during her time in New York City.{{Cite book\|last\=Brothers\|first\=Thomas\|title\=Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism\|publisher\=W.W. Norton \& Company\|year\=2014\|isbn\=978\-0\-393\-06582\-4\|location\=New York, NY\|pages\=158}} She continued to perform on both sides of the Atlantic, and as the head of the [U.S.O.](/wiki/United_Service_Organizations "United Service Organizations")'s first black show, until her mother's death. In 1944, she took a U.S.O. troupe to [Casablanca](/wiki/Casablanca "Casablanca") and continued entertaining troops in both theatres of war for the duration of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") and into the early postwar period. In the 1950s, she led U.S.O. troupes in [Korea](/wiki/Korea "Korea"), but her mother's death in 1957 led her to seek a radical career change. ### Retirement: late 1950s–1970s Hunter said that when her mother died in 1957, because they had been partners and were so close, the appeal of performing ended for her.{{cite news\|last1\=Treaster\|first1\=Joseph B.\|title\=Belting Out the Blues at 83\|work\=Quest/78\|date\=September 1978\|pages\=23–28}} She reduced her age, "invented" a [high school diploma](/wiki/High_school_diploma "High school diploma"), and enrolled in [nursing school](/wiki/Nursing_school "Nursing school"), embarking on a career in [health care](/wiki/Health_care "Health care"), in which she worked for 20 years at [Roosevelt Island](/wiki/Roosevelt_Island "Roosevelt Island")'s [Goldwater Memorial Hospital](/wiki/Coler_Specialty_Hospital "Coler Specialty Hospital").{{cite book\|title\=\[\[Encyclopedia of Popular Music\|The Guinness Who's Who of Blues]]\|editor\=\[\[Colin Larkin (writer)\|Colin Larkin]]\|publisher\=\[\[Guinness Publishing]]\|date\=1995\|edition\=Second\|isbn\=0\-85112\-673\-1\|pages\=189/190}} The hospital forced Hunter to retire because it believed she was 70 years old. Hunter—who was actually 82 years old—decided to return to singing. She had already made a brief return by performing on two albums in the early 1960s, but now she had a regular engagement at a Greenwich Village club, becoming an attraction there until her death, in October 1984\. ### Comeback: 1970s–1980s Hunter was still working at Goldwater Memorial Hospital in 1961 when she was persuaded to participate in two recording sessions. In 1971 she was videotaped for a segment of a [Danish](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark") television program, and she taped an interview for the [Smithsonian Institution](/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution "Smithsonian Institution").{{Cite book\|title\=Notable Black American Women\|last\=Smith\|first\=Jessie Carney\|publisher\=Gale Research\|year\=1992\|isbn\=0\-8103\-4749\-0\|location\=Detroit, Michigan\|page\=528\|url\=https://archive.org/details/notableblackamer00jess\_0}} In the summer of 1976, Hunter attended a party for her long\-time friend [Mabel Mercer](/wiki/Mabel_Mercer "Mabel Mercer"), hosted by [Bobby Short](/wiki/Bobby_Short "Bobby Short"); music public relations agent Charles Bourgeois asked Hunter to sing and connected her with the owner of [Cafe Society](/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_Society "Café Society"), [Barney Josephson](/wiki/Barney_Josephson "Barney Josephson").{{cite news\|title\=Remembering Charles Bourgeois: An Arbiter of Good Taste in Music, Cuisine, Fashion and People: Long\-time Festival Public Relations Director\|url\=http://www.harlemonestop.com/news/221/remembering\-charles\-bourgeois\-an\-arbiter\-of\-good\-taste\-in\-music\-cuisine\-fashion\-and\-people\-long\-time\-festival\-public\-relations\-director\|access\-date\=July 7, 2015\|work\=Harlem One Stop News\|date\= February 18, 2014}} Josephson offered Hunter a limited engagement at his [Greenwich Village](/wiki/Greenwich_Village "Greenwich Village") club, The Cookery. Her two\-week appearance there was a huge success, turning into a six\-year engagement and a revival of her career in music. Impressed with the attention paid her by the press, [John Hammond](/wiki/John_Hammond_%28producer%29 "John Hammond (producer)") signed Hunter to [Columbia Records](/wiki/Columbia_Records "Columbia Records"). He had not previously shown interest in Hunter, but he had been a close associate of Barney Josephson decades earlier, when the latter ran the Café Society Uptown and Downtown clubs. Her Columbia albums, *The Glory of Alberta Hunter*, *[Amtrak Blues](/wiki/Amtrak_Blues "Amtrak Blues")* (on which she sang the jazz classic "[Darktown Strutters' Ball](/wiki/Darktown_Strutters%27_Ball "Darktown Strutters' Ball")"), and *Look For the Silver Lining*, did not sell as well as expected, but sales were nevertheless healthy. There were also numerous appearances on television programs, including *[To Tell the Truth](/wiki/To_Tell_the_Truth "To Tell the Truth")* (in which panelist [Kitty Carlisle](/wiki/Kitty_Carlisle "Kitty Carlisle") had to recuse herself, the two having known each other in Hunter's heyday). She also had a walk\-on role in *[Remember My Name](/wiki/Remember_My_Name_%28film%29 "Remember My Name (film)")*, a 1978 film by [Alan Rudolph](/wiki/Alan_Rudolph "Alan Rudolph"), for which [producer](/wiki/Film_producer "Film producer") [Robert Altman](/wiki/Robert_Altman "Robert Altman") commissioned her to write and to perform the [soundtrack](/wiki/Soundtrack "Soundtrack") music.
[ "Career\n------", "### Early years: 1910s–1940s", "Hunter began her singing career in a [bordello](/wiki/Bordello \"Bordello\") and soon moved to clubs that appealed to men, black and white alike. By 1914 she was receiving lessons from a prominent jazz pianist, [Tony Jackson](/wiki/Tony_Jackson_%28pianist%29 \"Tony Jackson (pianist)\"), who helped her to expand her repertoire and compose her own songs.", "She was still in her early teens when she settled in Chicago.{{cite web\\|title\\=Alberta Hunter (1895–1984\\)\\|url\\=http://www.redhotjazz.com/hunter.html\\|work\\=The Red Hot Jazz Archive: A History of Jazz Before 1930\\|publisher\\=Redhotjazz.com\\|access\\-date\\=July 7, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080507145110/http://www.redhotjazz.com/hunter.html\\|archive\\-date\\=May 7, 2008\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Part of her early career was spent singing at [Dago Frank](/wiki/Frank_Cirofici \"Frank Cirofici\")'s, a brothel. She then sang at Hugh Hoskin's saloon and, eventually, in many Chicago bars.", "One of her first notable experiences as an artist was at the Panama Club, a white\\-owned club with a white\\-only clientele that had a chain in Chicago, New York and other large cities. Hunter's first act was in an upstairs room, far from the main event; thus, she began developing as an artist in front of a [cabaret](/wiki/Cabaret \"Cabaret\") crowd. \"The crowd wouldn't stay downstairs. They'd go upstairs to hear us sing the blues. That's where I would stand and make up verses and sing as I go along.\" Many claim her appeal was based on her gift for improvising lyrics to satisfy the audience.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Harlem Renaissance Lives\\|last\\=Gates\\|first\\=Henry\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|year\\=2009\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-538795\\-7\\|location\\=New York\\|page\\=277\\|display\\-authors\\=etal}} Her big break came when she was booked at Dreamland Cafe, singing with [King Oliver](/wiki/King_Oliver \"King Oliver\") and his band.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Larkin\\|first1\\=Colin\\|title\\=The Virgin Encyclopedia of Jazz\\|date\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Virgin in association with Muze UK\\|location\\=London\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-852\\-27183\\-1\\|page\\=431\\|edition\\=rev. updated\\|oclc\\=859068143}} In early 1923, she suggested that [Columbia Records](/wiki/Columbia_Records \"Columbia Records\") should record Oliver's band, but when she was not available to record with them, Columbia refused.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Brothers\\|first\\=Thomas\\|title\\=Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism\\|publisher\\=W.W. Norton \\& Company\\|year\\=2014\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-393\\-06582\\-4\\|location\\=New York, NY\\|pages\\=60}}", "She peeled potatoes by day and hounded club owners by night, determined to land a singing job. Her persistence paid off, and Hunter began a climb from some of the city's lowest dives to a headlining job at its most prestigious venue for black entertainers, the Dreamland ballroom. She had a five\\-year association with the Dreamland, beginning in 1917, and her salary rose to $35 a week.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Barlow\\|first1\\=William\\|title\\=Looking Up at Down: The Emergence of Blues Culture\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/lookingupatdowne0000barl\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|date\\=1989\\|publisher\\=Temple University Press\\|location\\=Philadelphia\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-877\\-22583\\-6\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/lookingupatdowne0000barl/page/134 134–135]\\|oclc\\=17981033}}", "She first toured [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") in 1917, performing in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") and [London](/wiki/London \"London\"). The Europeans treated her as an artist, showing her respect and even reverence, which made a great impression on her.\n{{Listen\n\\| filename \\= Downhearted Blues \\- Alberta Hunter.ogg\n\\| title \\= Downhearted Blues (1922\\)\n\\| description \\= The \"\\[\\[Downhearted Blues]]\" performed by Alberta Hunter\n\\| pos \\= right\n}}\nHer career as singer and songwriter flourished in the 1920s and 1930s, and she appeared in clubs and on stage in musicals in both [New York](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") and London. The songs she wrote include the critically acclaimed \"[Downhearted Blues](/wiki/Downhearted_Blues \"Downhearted Blues\")\" (1922\\).{{cite news\\|title\\=After 20 Years of Silence, Alberta Hunter Sings 'Remember My Name'—and Memphis Gives Her the Key to the City\\|url\\=http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20072183,00\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=July 7, 2015\\|work\\=\\[\\[People (magazine)\\|People]]\\|issue\\=20\\|date\\=November 13, 1978\\|volume\\=10}}", "She recorded several records with [Perry Bradford](/wiki/Perry_Bradford \"Perry Bradford\") from 1922 to 1927\\.", "Hunter recorded prolifically during the 1920s, starting with sessions for [Black Swan](/wiki/Black_Swan_Records \"Black Swan Records\") in 1921,{{cite book\\|first\\=Tony\\|last\\=Russell\\|year\\=1997\\|title\\=The Blues: From Robert Johnson to Robert Cray\\|publisher\\=Carlton Books\\|location\\=Dubai\\|page\\=12\\|isbn\\=1\\-85868\\-255\\-X}} [Paramount](/wiki/Paramount_Records \"Paramount Records\") in 1922–1924, [Gennett](/wiki/Gennett_Records \"Gennett Records\") in 1924, [OKeh](/wiki/OKeh_Records \"OKeh Records\") in 1925–1926, [Victor](/wiki/Victor_Records \"Victor Records\") in 1927 and Columbia in 1929\\. While still working for Paramount, she also recorded for Harmograph Records under the pseudonym May Alix.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Harlem Renaissance Lives\\|last\\=Gates\\|first\\=Henry\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|year\\=2009\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-538795\\-7\\|location\\=New York\\|page\\=278\\|display\\-authors\\=etal}}", "Hunter wrote \"[Downhearted Blues](/wiki/Downhearted_Blues \"Downhearted Blues\")\" with [Lovie Austin](/wiki/Lovie_Austin \"Lovie Austin\") and recorded the track for [Ink Williams](/wiki/J._Mayo_Williams \"J. Mayo Williams\") at [Paramount Records](/wiki/Paramount_Records \"Paramount Records\"). She received only $368 in [royalties](/wiki/Royalty_payment \"Royalty payment\"). Williams had secretly sold the recording rights to Columbia Records in a deal in which all royalties were paid to him. The song became a big hit for Columbia, with [Bessie Smith](/wiki/Bessie_Smith \"Bessie Smith\") as the vocalist. This record sold almost 1 million copies. Hunter learned what Williams had done and stopped recording for him.", "{{Listen\n\\| filename \\=\n\\| title \\= Chirpin' the Blues (1930\\)\n\\| description \\= \"Chirpin' the Blues\" performed by Alberta Hunter and \\[\\[Fats Waller]]\n\\| pos \\= right\n}}\nIn 1928, Hunter played Queenie opposite [Paul Robeson](/wiki/Paul_Robeson \"Paul Robeson\") in the first London production of *[Show Boat](/wiki/Show_Boat \"Show Boat\")* at [Drury Lane](/wiki/Drury_Lane \"Drury Lane\"). She subsequently performed in [nightclubs](/wiki/Nightclub \"Nightclub\") throughout Europe and appeared for the 1934 winter season with [Jack Jackson](/wiki/Jack_Jackson_%28radio_personality%29 \"Jack Jackson (radio personality)\")'s society [orchestra](/wiki/Orchestra \"Orchestra\") at [the Dorchester](/wiki/The_Dorchester \"The Dorchester\"), in London. One of her recordings with Jackson is \"[Miss Otis Regrets](/wiki/Miss_Otis_Regrets \"Miss Otis Regrets\")\".{{cite book\\|last1\\=Russell\\|first1\\=Tony\\|title\\=The Blues: From Robert Johnson to Robert Cray\\|date\\=1996\\|publisher\\=Carlton Books\\|location\\=Dubai\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-858\\-68255\\-6\\|pages\\=120–21\\|oclc\\=222232351}}", "While at [the Dorchester](/wiki/The_Dorchester \"The Dorchester\"), she made several [HMV](/wiki/HMV \"HMV\") [recordings](/wiki/Sound_recording_and_reproduction \"Sound recording and reproduction\") with the orchestra and appeared in *[Radio Parade of 1935](/wiki/Radio_Parade_of_1935 \"Radio Parade of 1935\")* (1934\\), the first British theatrical [film](/wiki/Film \"Film\") to feature the short\\-lived [Dufaycolor](/wiki/Dufaycolor \"Dufaycolor\"), but Hunter's segment was one of only two in color. She spent the late 1930s fulfilling engagements on both sides of the [Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean \"Atlantic Ocean\") and the early 1940s performing at home.", "Hunter eventually moved to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"). She performed with [Bricktop](/wiki/Ada_%22Bricktop%22_Smith \"Ada \") and recorded with [Louis Armstrong](/wiki/Louis_Armstrong \"Louis Armstrong\") and [Sidney Bechet](/wiki/Sidney_Bechet \"Sidney Bechet\"). With a vocal duet chorus between Clarence Todd and herself, \"Cake Walking Babies (From Home),\" featuring Bechet and Armstrong, was another one of Hunter's hits recorded in December 1924 during her time in New York City.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Brothers\\|first\\=Thomas\\|title\\=Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism\\|publisher\\=W.W. Norton \\& Company\\|year\\=2014\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-393\\-06582\\-4\\|location\\=New York, NY\\|pages\\=158}} She continued to perform on both sides of the Atlantic, and as the head of the [U.S.O.](/wiki/United_Service_Organizations \"United Service Organizations\")'s first black show, until her mother's death.", "In 1944, she took a U.S.O. troupe to [Casablanca](/wiki/Casablanca \"Casablanca\") and continued entertaining troops in both theatres of war for the duration of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") and into the early postwar period. In the 1950s, she led U.S.O. troupes in [Korea](/wiki/Korea \"Korea\"), but her mother's death in 1957 led her to seek a radical career change.", "### Retirement: late 1950s–1970s", "Hunter said that when her mother died in 1957, because they had been partners and were so close, the appeal of performing ended for her.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Treaster\\|first1\\=Joseph B.\\|title\\=Belting Out the Blues at 83\\|work\\=Quest/78\\|date\\=September 1978\\|pages\\=23–28}} She reduced her age, \"invented\" a [high school diploma](/wiki/High_school_diploma \"High school diploma\"), and enrolled in [nursing school](/wiki/Nursing_school \"Nursing school\"), embarking on a career in [health care](/wiki/Health_care \"Health care\"), in which she worked for 20 years at [Roosevelt Island](/wiki/Roosevelt_Island \"Roosevelt Island\")'s [Goldwater Memorial Hospital](/wiki/Coler_Specialty_Hospital \"Coler Specialty Hospital\").{{cite book\\|title\\=\\[\\[Encyclopedia of Popular Music\\|The Guinness Who's Who of Blues]]\\|editor\\=\\[\\[Colin Larkin (writer)\\|Colin Larkin]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Guinness Publishing]]\\|date\\=1995\\|edition\\=Second\\|isbn\\=0\\-85112\\-673\\-1\\|pages\\=189/190}}", "The hospital forced Hunter to retire because it believed she was 70 years old. Hunter—who was actually 82 years old—decided to return to singing. She had already made a brief return by performing on two albums in the early 1960s, but now she had a regular engagement at a Greenwich Village club, becoming an attraction there until her death, in October 1984\\.", "### Comeback: 1970s–1980s", "Hunter was still working at Goldwater Memorial Hospital in 1961 when she was persuaded to participate in two recording sessions. In 1971 she was videotaped for a segment of a [Danish](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\") television program, and she taped an interview for the [Smithsonian Institution](/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution \"Smithsonian Institution\").{{Cite book\\|title\\=Notable Black American Women\\|last\\=Smith\\|first\\=Jessie Carney\\|publisher\\=Gale Research\\|year\\=1992\\|isbn\\=0\\-8103\\-4749\\-0\\|location\\=Detroit, Michigan\\|page\\=528\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/notableblackamer00jess\\_0}}", "In the summer of 1976, Hunter attended a party for her long\\-time friend [Mabel Mercer](/wiki/Mabel_Mercer \"Mabel Mercer\"), hosted by [Bobby Short](/wiki/Bobby_Short \"Bobby Short\"); music public relations agent Charles Bourgeois asked Hunter to sing and connected her with the owner of [Cafe Society](/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_Society \"Café Society\"), [Barney Josephson](/wiki/Barney_Josephson \"Barney Josephson\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Remembering Charles Bourgeois: An Arbiter of Good Taste in Music, Cuisine, Fashion and People: Long\\-time Festival Public Relations Director\\|url\\=http://www.harlemonestop.com/news/221/remembering\\-charles\\-bourgeois\\-an\\-arbiter\\-of\\-good\\-taste\\-in\\-music\\-cuisine\\-fashion\\-and\\-people\\-long\\-time\\-festival\\-public\\-relations\\-director\\|access\\-date\\=July 7, 2015\\|work\\=Harlem One Stop News\\|date\\= February 18, 2014}} Josephson offered Hunter a limited engagement at his [Greenwich Village](/wiki/Greenwich_Village \"Greenwich Village\") club, The Cookery. Her two\\-week appearance there was a huge success, turning into a six\\-year engagement and a revival of her career in music.", "Impressed with the attention paid her by the press, [John Hammond](/wiki/John_Hammond_%28producer%29 \"John Hammond (producer)\") signed Hunter to [Columbia Records](/wiki/Columbia_Records \"Columbia Records\"). He had not previously shown interest in Hunter, but he had been a close associate of Barney Josephson decades earlier, when the latter ran the Café Society Uptown and Downtown clubs. Her Columbia albums, *The Glory of Alberta Hunter*, *[Amtrak Blues](/wiki/Amtrak_Blues \"Amtrak Blues\")* (on which she sang the jazz classic \"[Darktown Strutters' Ball](/wiki/Darktown_Strutters%27_Ball \"Darktown Strutters' Ball\")\"), and *Look For the Silver Lining*, did not sell as well as expected, but sales were nevertheless healthy. There were also numerous appearances on television programs, including *[To Tell the Truth](/wiki/To_Tell_the_Truth \"To Tell the Truth\")* (in which panelist [Kitty Carlisle](/wiki/Kitty_Carlisle \"Kitty Carlisle\") had to recuse herself, the two having known each other in Hunter's heyday). She also had a walk\\-on role in *[Remember My Name](/wiki/Remember_My_Name_%28film%29 \"Remember My Name (film)\")*, a 1978 film by [Alan Rudolph](/wiki/Alan_Rudolph \"Alan Rudolph\"), for which [producer](/wiki/Film_producer \"Film producer\") [Robert Altman](/wiki/Robert_Altman \"Robert Altman\") commissioned her to write and to perform the [soundtrack](/wiki/Soundtrack \"Soundtrack\") music.", "" ]
### Early years: 1910s–1940s Hunter began her singing career in a [bordello](/wiki/Bordello "Bordello") and soon moved to clubs that appealed to men, black and white alike. By 1914 she was receiving lessons from a prominent jazz pianist, [Tony Jackson](/wiki/Tony_Jackson_%28pianist%29 "Tony Jackson (pianist)"), who helped her to expand her repertoire and compose her own songs. She was still in her early teens when she settled in Chicago.{{cite web\|title\=Alberta Hunter (1895–1984\)\|url\=http://www.redhotjazz.com/hunter.html\|work\=The Red Hot Jazz Archive: A History of Jazz Before 1930\|publisher\=Redhotjazz.com\|access\-date\=July 7, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080507145110/http://www.redhotjazz.com/hunter.html\|archive\-date\=May 7, 2008\|url\-status\=dead}} Part of her early career was spent singing at [Dago Frank](/wiki/Frank_Cirofici "Frank Cirofici")'s, a brothel. She then sang at Hugh Hoskin's saloon and, eventually, in many Chicago bars. One of her first notable experiences as an artist was at the Panama Club, a white\-owned club with a white\-only clientele that had a chain in Chicago, New York and other large cities. Hunter's first act was in an upstairs room, far from the main event; thus, she began developing as an artist in front of a [cabaret](/wiki/Cabaret "Cabaret") crowd. "The crowd wouldn't stay downstairs. They'd go upstairs to hear us sing the blues. That's where I would stand and make up verses and sing as I go along." Many claim her appeal was based on her gift for improvising lyrics to satisfy the audience.{{Cite book\|title\=Harlem Renaissance Lives\|last\=Gates\|first\=Henry\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|year\=2009\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-538795\-7\|location\=New York\|page\=277\|display\-authors\=etal}} Her big break came when she was booked at Dreamland Cafe, singing with [King Oliver](/wiki/King_Oliver "King Oliver") and his band.{{cite book\|last1\=Larkin\|first1\=Colin\|title\=The Virgin Encyclopedia of Jazz\|date\=2004\|publisher\=Virgin in association with Muze UK\|location\=London\|isbn\=978\-1\-852\-27183\-1\|page\=431\|edition\=rev. updated\|oclc\=859068143}} In early 1923, she suggested that [Columbia Records](/wiki/Columbia_Records "Columbia Records") should record Oliver's band, but when she was not available to record with them, Columbia refused.{{Cite book\|last\=Brothers\|first\=Thomas\|title\=Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism\|publisher\=W.W. Norton \& Company\|year\=2014\|isbn\=978\-0\-393\-06582\-4\|location\=New York, NY\|pages\=60}} She peeled potatoes by day and hounded club owners by night, determined to land a singing job. Her persistence paid off, and Hunter began a climb from some of the city's lowest dives to a headlining job at its most prestigious venue for black entertainers, the Dreamland ballroom. She had a five\-year association with the Dreamland, beginning in 1917, and her salary rose to $35 a week.{{cite book\|last1\=Barlow\|first1\=William\|title\=Looking Up at Down: The Emergence of Blues Culture\|url\=https://archive.org/details/lookingupatdowne0000barl\|url\-access\=registration\|date\=1989\|publisher\=Temple University Press\|location\=Philadelphia\|isbn\=978\-0\-877\-22583\-6\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/lookingupatdowne0000barl/page/134 134–135]\|oclc\=17981033}} She first toured [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe") in 1917, performing in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") and [London](/wiki/London "London"). The Europeans treated her as an artist, showing her respect and even reverence, which made a great impression on her. {{Listen \| filename \= Downhearted Blues \- Alberta Hunter.ogg \| title \= Downhearted Blues (1922\) \| description \= The "\[\[Downhearted Blues]]" performed by Alberta Hunter \| pos \= right }} Her career as singer and songwriter flourished in the 1920s and 1930s, and she appeared in clubs and on stage in musicals in both [New York](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") and London. The songs she wrote include the critically acclaimed "[Downhearted Blues](/wiki/Downhearted_Blues "Downhearted Blues")" (1922\).{{cite news\|title\=After 20 Years of Silence, Alberta Hunter Sings 'Remember My Name'—and Memphis Gives Her the Key to the City\|url\=http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20072183,00\.html\|access\-date\=July 7, 2015\|work\=\[\[People (magazine)\|People]]\|issue\=20\|date\=November 13, 1978\|volume\=10}} She recorded several records with [Perry Bradford](/wiki/Perry_Bradford "Perry Bradford") from 1922 to 1927\. Hunter recorded prolifically during the 1920s, starting with sessions for [Black Swan](/wiki/Black_Swan_Records "Black Swan Records") in 1921,{{cite book\|first\=Tony\|last\=Russell\|year\=1997\|title\=The Blues: From Robert Johnson to Robert Cray\|publisher\=Carlton Books\|location\=Dubai\|page\=12\|isbn\=1\-85868\-255\-X}} [Paramount](/wiki/Paramount_Records "Paramount Records") in 1922–1924, [Gennett](/wiki/Gennett_Records "Gennett Records") in 1924, [OKeh](/wiki/OKeh_Records "OKeh Records") in 1925–1926, [Victor](/wiki/Victor_Records "Victor Records") in 1927 and Columbia in 1929\. While still working for Paramount, she also recorded for Harmograph Records under the pseudonym May Alix.{{Cite book\|title\=Harlem Renaissance Lives\|last\=Gates\|first\=Henry\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|year\=2009\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-538795\-7\|location\=New York\|page\=278\|display\-authors\=etal}} Hunter wrote "[Downhearted Blues](/wiki/Downhearted_Blues "Downhearted Blues")" with [Lovie Austin](/wiki/Lovie_Austin "Lovie Austin") and recorded the track for [Ink Williams](/wiki/J._Mayo_Williams "J. Mayo Williams") at [Paramount Records](/wiki/Paramount_Records "Paramount Records"). She received only $368 in [royalties](/wiki/Royalty_payment "Royalty payment"). Williams had secretly sold the recording rights to Columbia Records in a deal in which all royalties were paid to him. The song became a big hit for Columbia, with [Bessie Smith](/wiki/Bessie_Smith "Bessie Smith") as the vocalist. This record sold almost 1 million copies. Hunter learned what Williams had done and stopped recording for him. {{Listen \| filename \= \| title \= Chirpin' the Blues (1930\) \| description \= "Chirpin' the Blues" performed by Alberta Hunter and \[\[Fats Waller]] \| pos \= right }} In 1928, Hunter played Queenie opposite [Paul Robeson](/wiki/Paul_Robeson "Paul Robeson") in the first London production of *[Show Boat](/wiki/Show_Boat "Show Boat")* at [Drury Lane](/wiki/Drury_Lane "Drury Lane"). She subsequently performed in [nightclubs](/wiki/Nightclub "Nightclub") throughout Europe and appeared for the 1934 winter season with [Jack Jackson](/wiki/Jack_Jackson_%28radio_personality%29 "Jack Jackson (radio personality)")'s society [orchestra](/wiki/Orchestra "Orchestra") at [the Dorchester](/wiki/The_Dorchester "The Dorchester"), in London. One of her recordings with Jackson is "[Miss Otis Regrets](/wiki/Miss_Otis_Regrets "Miss Otis Regrets")".{{cite book\|last1\=Russell\|first1\=Tony\|title\=The Blues: From Robert Johnson to Robert Cray\|date\=1996\|publisher\=Carlton Books\|location\=Dubai\|isbn\=978\-1\-858\-68255\-6\|pages\=120–21\|oclc\=222232351}} While at [the Dorchester](/wiki/The_Dorchester "The Dorchester"), she made several [HMV](/wiki/HMV "HMV") [recordings](/wiki/Sound_recording_and_reproduction "Sound recording and reproduction") with the orchestra and appeared in *[Radio Parade of 1935](/wiki/Radio_Parade_of_1935 "Radio Parade of 1935")* (1934\), the first British theatrical [film](/wiki/Film "Film") to feature the short\-lived [Dufaycolor](/wiki/Dufaycolor "Dufaycolor"), but Hunter's segment was one of only two in color. She spent the late 1930s fulfilling engagements on both sides of the [Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean "Atlantic Ocean") and the early 1940s performing at home. Hunter eventually moved to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"). She performed with [Bricktop](/wiki/Ada_%22Bricktop%22_Smith "Ada ") and recorded with [Louis Armstrong](/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong") and [Sidney Bechet](/wiki/Sidney_Bechet "Sidney Bechet"). With a vocal duet chorus between Clarence Todd and herself, "Cake Walking Babies (From Home)," featuring Bechet and Armstrong, was another one of Hunter's hits recorded in December 1924 during her time in New York City.{{Cite book\|last\=Brothers\|first\=Thomas\|title\=Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism\|publisher\=W.W. Norton \& Company\|year\=2014\|isbn\=978\-0\-393\-06582\-4\|location\=New York, NY\|pages\=158}} She continued to perform on both sides of the Atlantic, and as the head of the [U.S.O.](/wiki/United_Service_Organizations "United Service Organizations")'s first black show, until her mother's death. In 1944, she took a U.S.O. troupe to [Casablanca](/wiki/Casablanca "Casablanca") and continued entertaining troops in both theatres of war for the duration of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") and into the early postwar period. In the 1950s, she led U.S.O. troupes in [Korea](/wiki/Korea "Korea"), but her mother's death in 1957 led her to seek a radical career change.
[ "### Early years: 1910s–1940s", "Hunter began her singing career in a [bordello](/wiki/Bordello \"Bordello\") and soon moved to clubs that appealed to men, black and white alike. By 1914 she was receiving lessons from a prominent jazz pianist, [Tony Jackson](/wiki/Tony_Jackson_%28pianist%29 \"Tony Jackson (pianist)\"), who helped her to expand her repertoire and compose her own songs.", "She was still in her early teens when she settled in Chicago.{{cite web\\|title\\=Alberta Hunter (1895–1984\\)\\|url\\=http://www.redhotjazz.com/hunter.html\\|work\\=The Red Hot Jazz Archive: A History of Jazz Before 1930\\|publisher\\=Redhotjazz.com\\|access\\-date\\=July 7, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080507145110/http://www.redhotjazz.com/hunter.html\\|archive\\-date\\=May 7, 2008\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Part of her early career was spent singing at [Dago Frank](/wiki/Frank_Cirofici \"Frank Cirofici\")'s, a brothel. She then sang at Hugh Hoskin's saloon and, eventually, in many Chicago bars.", "One of her first notable experiences as an artist was at the Panama Club, a white\\-owned club with a white\\-only clientele that had a chain in Chicago, New York and other large cities. Hunter's first act was in an upstairs room, far from the main event; thus, she began developing as an artist in front of a [cabaret](/wiki/Cabaret \"Cabaret\") crowd. \"The crowd wouldn't stay downstairs. They'd go upstairs to hear us sing the blues. That's where I would stand and make up verses and sing as I go along.\" Many claim her appeal was based on her gift for improvising lyrics to satisfy the audience.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Harlem Renaissance Lives\\|last\\=Gates\\|first\\=Henry\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|year\\=2009\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-538795\\-7\\|location\\=New York\\|page\\=277\\|display\\-authors\\=etal}} Her big break came when she was booked at Dreamland Cafe, singing with [King Oliver](/wiki/King_Oliver \"King Oliver\") and his band.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Larkin\\|first1\\=Colin\\|title\\=The Virgin Encyclopedia of Jazz\\|date\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Virgin in association with Muze UK\\|location\\=London\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-852\\-27183\\-1\\|page\\=431\\|edition\\=rev. updated\\|oclc\\=859068143}} In early 1923, she suggested that [Columbia Records](/wiki/Columbia_Records \"Columbia Records\") should record Oliver's band, but when she was not available to record with them, Columbia refused.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Brothers\\|first\\=Thomas\\|title\\=Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism\\|publisher\\=W.W. Norton \\& Company\\|year\\=2014\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-393\\-06582\\-4\\|location\\=New York, NY\\|pages\\=60}}", "She peeled potatoes by day and hounded club owners by night, determined to land a singing job. Her persistence paid off, and Hunter began a climb from some of the city's lowest dives to a headlining job at its most prestigious venue for black entertainers, the Dreamland ballroom. She had a five\\-year association with the Dreamland, beginning in 1917, and her salary rose to $35 a week.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Barlow\\|first1\\=William\\|title\\=Looking Up at Down: The Emergence of Blues Culture\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/lookingupatdowne0000barl\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|date\\=1989\\|publisher\\=Temple University Press\\|location\\=Philadelphia\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-877\\-22583\\-6\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/lookingupatdowne0000barl/page/134 134–135]\\|oclc\\=17981033}}", "She first toured [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") in 1917, performing in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") and [London](/wiki/London \"London\"). The Europeans treated her as an artist, showing her respect and even reverence, which made a great impression on her.\n{{Listen\n\\| filename \\= Downhearted Blues \\- Alberta Hunter.ogg\n\\| title \\= Downhearted Blues (1922\\)\n\\| description \\= The \"\\[\\[Downhearted Blues]]\" performed by Alberta Hunter\n\\| pos \\= right\n}}\nHer career as singer and songwriter flourished in the 1920s and 1930s, and she appeared in clubs and on stage in musicals in both [New York](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") and London. The songs she wrote include the critically acclaimed \"[Downhearted Blues](/wiki/Downhearted_Blues \"Downhearted Blues\")\" (1922\\).{{cite news\\|title\\=After 20 Years of Silence, Alberta Hunter Sings 'Remember My Name'—and Memphis Gives Her the Key to the City\\|url\\=http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20072183,00\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=July 7, 2015\\|work\\=\\[\\[People (magazine)\\|People]]\\|issue\\=20\\|date\\=November 13, 1978\\|volume\\=10}}", "She recorded several records with [Perry Bradford](/wiki/Perry_Bradford \"Perry Bradford\") from 1922 to 1927\\.", "Hunter recorded prolifically during the 1920s, starting with sessions for [Black Swan](/wiki/Black_Swan_Records \"Black Swan Records\") in 1921,{{cite book\\|first\\=Tony\\|last\\=Russell\\|year\\=1997\\|title\\=The Blues: From Robert Johnson to Robert Cray\\|publisher\\=Carlton Books\\|location\\=Dubai\\|page\\=12\\|isbn\\=1\\-85868\\-255\\-X}} [Paramount](/wiki/Paramount_Records \"Paramount Records\") in 1922–1924, [Gennett](/wiki/Gennett_Records \"Gennett Records\") in 1924, [OKeh](/wiki/OKeh_Records \"OKeh Records\") in 1925–1926, [Victor](/wiki/Victor_Records \"Victor Records\") in 1927 and Columbia in 1929\\. While still working for Paramount, she also recorded for Harmograph Records under the pseudonym May Alix.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Harlem Renaissance Lives\\|last\\=Gates\\|first\\=Henry\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|year\\=2009\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-538795\\-7\\|location\\=New York\\|page\\=278\\|display\\-authors\\=etal}}", "Hunter wrote \"[Downhearted Blues](/wiki/Downhearted_Blues \"Downhearted Blues\")\" with [Lovie Austin](/wiki/Lovie_Austin \"Lovie Austin\") and recorded the track for [Ink Williams](/wiki/J._Mayo_Williams \"J. Mayo Williams\") at [Paramount Records](/wiki/Paramount_Records \"Paramount Records\"). She received only $368 in [royalties](/wiki/Royalty_payment \"Royalty payment\"). Williams had secretly sold the recording rights to Columbia Records in a deal in which all royalties were paid to him. The song became a big hit for Columbia, with [Bessie Smith](/wiki/Bessie_Smith \"Bessie Smith\") as the vocalist. This record sold almost 1 million copies. Hunter learned what Williams had done and stopped recording for him.", "{{Listen\n\\| filename \\=\n\\| title \\= Chirpin' the Blues (1930\\)\n\\| description \\= \"Chirpin' the Blues\" performed by Alberta Hunter and \\[\\[Fats Waller]]\n\\| pos \\= right\n}}\nIn 1928, Hunter played Queenie opposite [Paul Robeson](/wiki/Paul_Robeson \"Paul Robeson\") in the first London production of *[Show Boat](/wiki/Show_Boat \"Show Boat\")* at [Drury Lane](/wiki/Drury_Lane \"Drury Lane\"). She subsequently performed in [nightclubs](/wiki/Nightclub \"Nightclub\") throughout Europe and appeared for the 1934 winter season with [Jack Jackson](/wiki/Jack_Jackson_%28radio_personality%29 \"Jack Jackson (radio personality)\")'s society [orchestra](/wiki/Orchestra \"Orchestra\") at [the Dorchester](/wiki/The_Dorchester \"The Dorchester\"), in London. One of her recordings with Jackson is \"[Miss Otis Regrets](/wiki/Miss_Otis_Regrets \"Miss Otis Regrets\")\".{{cite book\\|last1\\=Russell\\|first1\\=Tony\\|title\\=The Blues: From Robert Johnson to Robert Cray\\|date\\=1996\\|publisher\\=Carlton Books\\|location\\=Dubai\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-858\\-68255\\-6\\|pages\\=120–21\\|oclc\\=222232351}}", "While at [the Dorchester](/wiki/The_Dorchester \"The Dorchester\"), she made several [HMV](/wiki/HMV \"HMV\") [recordings](/wiki/Sound_recording_and_reproduction \"Sound recording and reproduction\") with the orchestra and appeared in *[Radio Parade of 1935](/wiki/Radio_Parade_of_1935 \"Radio Parade of 1935\")* (1934\\), the first British theatrical [film](/wiki/Film \"Film\") to feature the short\\-lived [Dufaycolor](/wiki/Dufaycolor \"Dufaycolor\"), but Hunter's segment was one of only two in color. She spent the late 1930s fulfilling engagements on both sides of the [Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean \"Atlantic Ocean\") and the early 1940s performing at home.", "Hunter eventually moved to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"). She performed with [Bricktop](/wiki/Ada_%22Bricktop%22_Smith \"Ada \") and recorded with [Louis Armstrong](/wiki/Louis_Armstrong \"Louis Armstrong\") and [Sidney Bechet](/wiki/Sidney_Bechet \"Sidney Bechet\"). With a vocal duet chorus between Clarence Todd and herself, \"Cake Walking Babies (From Home),\" featuring Bechet and Armstrong, was another one of Hunter's hits recorded in December 1924 during her time in New York City.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Brothers\\|first\\=Thomas\\|title\\=Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism\\|publisher\\=W.W. Norton \\& Company\\|year\\=2014\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-393\\-06582\\-4\\|location\\=New York, NY\\|pages\\=158}} She continued to perform on both sides of the Atlantic, and as the head of the [U.S.O.](/wiki/United_Service_Organizations \"United Service Organizations\")'s first black show, until her mother's death.", "In 1944, she took a U.S.O. troupe to [Casablanca](/wiki/Casablanca \"Casablanca\") and continued entertaining troops in both theatres of war for the duration of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") and into the early postwar period. In the 1950s, she led U.S.O. troupes in [Korea](/wiki/Korea \"Korea\"), but her mother's death in 1957 led her to seek a radical career change.", "" ]
History ------- ### Origins {{NFL Cardinals history}} The [Boston Yanks](/wiki/Boston_Yanks "Boston Yanks") joined the NFL in 1944, while the [Cleveland Rams](/wiki/Cleveland_Rams "Cleveland Rams"), who had been unable to field a team in 1943, re\-joined the league. This resulted in an 11\-team league, and the NFL was unable to devise a schedule that was amenable to all registered teams. NFL commissioner [Elmer Layden](/wiki/Elmer_Layden "Elmer Layden") contacted [Art Rooney](/wiki/Art_Rooney "Art Rooney") and [Bert Bell](/wiki/Bert_Bell "Bert Bell") of the Steelers to request that their team again merge as a potential solution for the scheduling issue. Rooney agreed, on the condition that at least half of the team's home games would be played at [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh "Pittsburgh")'s [Forbes Field](/wiki/Forbes_Field "Forbes Field"). The choice of a merger partner for the Steelers proved to be a challenging task. Rumors prior to the NFL's annual April meeting indicated that either Cleveland or the [Brooklyn Tigers](/wiki/Brooklyn_Tigers "Brooklyn Tigers") would be the selected partner. Cleveland was considered a logical choice based solely on geographic location, but Layden felt it unfair to ask the Steelers to merge with a team that had been defunct a year earlier. Rooney rejected a proposal to merge with Brooklyn, and was hesitant to merge with the new Boston Yanks. He eventually agreed to combine his Steelers with the Cardinals, who had gone winless in 1943 along with having lost 16 straight games since their last win on October 18, 1942\. The merged team would compete in the tougher Western Division, which included the [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/Green_Bay_Packers "Green Bay Packers") and [Chicago Bears](/wiki/Chicago_Bears "Chicago Bears"). ### Pre\-season Training camp for the merged team began in [Waukesha, Wisconsin](/wiki/Waukesha%2C_Wisconsin "Waukesha, Wisconsin") on August 15, 1944, under the direction of co\-coaches [Walt Kiesling](/wiki/Walt_Kiesling "Walt Kiesling") of Pittsburgh and [Phil Handler](/wiki/Phil_Handler "Phil Handler") of Chicago. The coaching staff decided before the start of camp to implement a [T formation](/wiki/T_formation "T formation") offense. Some of the Steelers' players had been exposed to the 'T' with playing alongside Philadelphia Eagles players the previous year, but the Cardinals had used it very little. Card\-Pitt lacked a dependable [quarterback](/wiki/Quarterback "Quarterback"), but the team began the season with optimism. During the team's first game, an exhibition at [Shibe Park](/wiki/Shibe_Park "Shibe Park") against the Philadelphia Eagles, that was attended by [Babe Ruth](/wiki/Babe_Ruth "Babe Ruth"), the Eagles scored three first\-quarter touchdowns on their way to a 22–0 victory. Card\-Pitt regained its footing the following week, but lost 3–0 to a [Washington Redskins](/wiki/Washington_Redskins "Washington Redskins") team that had been predicted to win the game by three touchdowns. ### 1944 season Card\-Pitt opened the regular season portion of its schedule in front of 21,000 spectators at Forbes Field on September 24, 1944, against a Cleveland Rams team led by former Steelers head coach [Aldo Donelli](/wiki/Aldo_Donelli "Aldo Donelli"). Card\-Pitt came back from a 16–0 deficit to take the lead, but a bad punt late in the fourth quarter allowed Cleveland to score the winning touchdown for a final score of 28–23\. The team won an exhibition game the next week at Forbes Field, 17–16 over the [New York Giants](/wiki/New_York_Giants "New York Giants"). {{Quote box\|quote\= "Why don't they call themselves the Car\-Pits? I think it's very appropriate as every team in the league walks over them."\|source\='''Irate fan letter to the ''\[\[Pittsburgh Post\-Gazette]]'''''\|width\=33%}} Quarterback [Coley McDonough](/wiki/List_of_Pittsburgh_Steelers_starting_quarterbacks "List of Pittsburgh Steelers starting quarterbacks") was drafted into the [U.S. Army](/wiki/United_States_Army "United States Army") two days before the team's second regular season game, a contest against Green Bay.Kiss Em Goodbye: An ESPN Treasury of failed, forgotten, and departed teams, pp.67–68, Dennis Purdy, Ballantine Books, New York, 2010, {{ISBN\|978\-0\-345\-52012\-8}} The *[Pittsburgh Press](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Press "Pittsburgh Press")* gave the team little chance to defeat the Packers, who would go on to win that game 34–7\. However, [John McCarthy](/wiki/John_McCarthy_%28American_football%29 "John McCarthy (American football)"), a rookie out of [Saint Francis University](/wiki/Saint_Francis_University_%28Pennsylvania%29 "Saint Francis University (Pennsylvania)") in [Loretto, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Loretto%2C_Pennsylvania "Loretto, Pennsylvania"), performed well as McDonough's replacement.2005 Saint Francis University, Loretto, Pennsylvania Alumni Directory page 307 Class of 1942 Card\-Pitt then met the [Chicago Bears](/wiki/Chicago_Bears "Chicago Bears"), a team missing [MVP](/wiki/Most_Valuable_Player "Most Valuable Player") quarterback [Sid Luckman](/wiki/Sid_Luckman "Sid Luckman") and coach [George Halas](/wiki/George_Halas "George Halas") among a roster that had been depleted by the war and injuries, in the third game of the season. The *[Pittsburgh Post\-Gazette](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Post-Gazette "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette")* called Card\-Pitt's effort against the Bears "pitiful", and the coaching staff became so irate that they fined [Johnny Butler](/wiki/John_Butler_%28running_back%29 "John Butler (running back)"), [John Grigas](/wiki/John_Grigas "John Grigas") and [Eberle Schultz](/wiki/Elbie_Schultz "Elbie Schultz") $200 apiece for "indifferent play". Upset with the coaches' strict, dictatorial style, the team refused to practice until the fined players received a fair hearing.Algeo, Matthew, "Last Team Standing: How the Steelers and the Eagles\-\-'The Steagles'\-\-Saved Pro Football during World War II." Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2006, p. 207–208\. The players then met with Rooney, and Grigas and Schultz agreed to pay their fines and return to practice. Butler was suspended indefinitely, before being placed on [waivers](/wiki/Waivers_%28American_football%29 "Waivers (American football)") and later claimed by Brooklyn. Rooney eventually rescinded the fines, except for Butler's. *Pittsburgh Post\-Gazette* sports editor [Al Abrams](/wiki/Al_Abrams "Al Abrams") then quoted a disgusted fan as having written, "Why don't they call themselves the Car\-Pits? I think it's very appropriate as every team in the league walks over them."{{cite news\|last\=Abrams\|first\=Al\|newspaper\=Pittsburgh Post\-Gazette\|date\=October 20, 1944\|page\=15\|title\=Sidelights on Sports\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=3ZBRAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=0mkDAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=1524%2C4458510}} The team lost a rematch against the Giants. Midway through their next game against the Washington Redskins, a brawl between the two teams erupted and had to be broken up by police. Coaches Kiesling and Handler were in the middle of the fight, while Rooney, a former [boxer](/wiki/Boxing "Boxing"), ran to join his team, until he realized that it would be a breach of protocol for an NFL owner to get into a fight with opposing players. The Redskins would go on to win the game, 42–20\. Card\-Pitt's Cliff Duggan was fined $200 for his role in the fight, however, Rooney paid his fine. Losses then ensued against the Rams, Packers and Lions, and Grigas left the team to return home to [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts "Massachusetts"). He had twice won the league rushing title, but had grown tired of losing and retired. Despite his sudden departure, he was named to the *[New York Daily News](/wiki/New_York_Daily_News "New York Daily News")* [All\-Pro](/wiki/All-Pro "All-Pro") team, and finished the season with 610 yards rushing, an average of 3\.3 yards per carry. His departure was followed by a 49–7 loss to the Bears. The team's 0–10 season tied the [Brooklyn Tigers](/wiki/Brooklyn_Dodgers_%28NFL%29 "Brooklyn Dodgers (NFL)") for the league's worst record. The merger of the Chicago Cardinals and the Pittsburgh Steelers was dissolved the day after the season ended. Only five teams since 1944 have [gone winless in the NFL for an entire season](/wiki/Imperfect_season "Imperfect season"): the [1960 Dallas Cowboys (0–11–1\)](/wiki/1960_Dallas_Cowboys_season "1960 Dallas Cowboys season"), the [1976 Tampa Bay Buccaneers (0–14\)](/wiki/1976_Tampa_Bay_Buccaneers_season "1976 Tampa Bay Buccaneers season"), the ([strike shortened](/wiki/National_Football_League_Players_Association%231982_strike "National Football League Players Association#1982 strike")) [1982 Baltimore Colts (0–8–1\)](/wiki/1982_Baltimore_Colts_season "1982 Baltimore Colts season"), the [2008 Detroit Lions (0–16\)](/wiki/2008_Detroit_Lions_season "2008 Detroit Lions season") and the [2017 Cleveland Browns (0\-16\)](/wiki/2017_Cleveland_Browns_season "2017 Cleveland Browns season").
[ "History\n-------", "### Origins", "{{NFL Cardinals history}}\nThe [Boston Yanks](/wiki/Boston_Yanks \"Boston Yanks\") joined the NFL in 1944, while the [Cleveland Rams](/wiki/Cleveland_Rams \"Cleveland Rams\"), who had been unable to field a team in 1943, re\\-joined the league. This resulted in an 11\\-team league, and the NFL was unable to devise a schedule that was amenable to all registered teams. NFL commissioner [Elmer Layden](/wiki/Elmer_Layden \"Elmer Layden\") contacted [Art Rooney](/wiki/Art_Rooney \"Art Rooney\") and [Bert Bell](/wiki/Bert_Bell \"Bert Bell\") of the Steelers to request that their team again merge as a potential solution for the scheduling issue. Rooney agreed, on the condition that at least half of the team's home games would be played at [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh \"Pittsburgh\")'s [Forbes Field](/wiki/Forbes_Field \"Forbes Field\").", "The choice of a merger partner for the Steelers proved to be a challenging task. Rumors prior to the NFL's annual April meeting indicated that either Cleveland or the [Brooklyn Tigers](/wiki/Brooklyn_Tigers \"Brooklyn Tigers\") would be the selected partner. Cleveland was considered a logical choice based solely on geographic location, but Layden felt it unfair to ask the Steelers to merge with a team that had been defunct a year earlier. Rooney rejected a proposal to merge with Brooklyn, and was hesitant to merge with the new Boston Yanks. He eventually agreed to combine his Steelers with the Cardinals, who had gone winless in 1943 along with having lost 16 straight games since their last win on October 18, 1942\\. The merged team would compete in the tougher Western Division, which included the [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/Green_Bay_Packers \"Green Bay Packers\") and [Chicago Bears](/wiki/Chicago_Bears \"Chicago Bears\").", "### Pre\\-season", "Training camp for the merged team began in [Waukesha, Wisconsin](/wiki/Waukesha%2C_Wisconsin \"Waukesha, Wisconsin\") on August 15, 1944, under the direction of co\\-coaches [Walt Kiesling](/wiki/Walt_Kiesling \"Walt Kiesling\") of Pittsburgh and [Phil Handler](/wiki/Phil_Handler \"Phil Handler\") of Chicago. The coaching staff decided before the start of camp to implement a [T formation](/wiki/T_formation \"T formation\") offense. Some of the Steelers' players had been exposed to the 'T' with playing alongside Philadelphia Eagles players the previous year, but the Cardinals had used it very little. Card\\-Pitt lacked a dependable [quarterback](/wiki/Quarterback \"Quarterback\"), but the team began the season with optimism.", "During the team's first game, an exhibition at [Shibe Park](/wiki/Shibe_Park \"Shibe Park\") against the Philadelphia Eagles, that was attended by [Babe Ruth](/wiki/Babe_Ruth \"Babe Ruth\"), the Eagles scored three first\\-quarter touchdowns on their way to a 22–0 victory. Card\\-Pitt regained its footing the following week, but lost 3–0 to a [Washington Redskins](/wiki/Washington_Redskins \"Washington Redskins\") team that had been predicted to win the game by three touchdowns.", "### 1944 season", "Card\\-Pitt opened the regular season portion of its schedule in front of 21,000 spectators at Forbes Field on September 24, 1944, against a Cleveland Rams team led by former Steelers head coach [Aldo Donelli](/wiki/Aldo_Donelli \"Aldo Donelli\"). Card\\-Pitt came back from a 16–0 deficit to take the lead, but a bad punt late in the fourth quarter allowed Cleveland to score the winning touchdown for a final score of 28–23\\. The team won an exhibition game the next week at Forbes Field, 17–16 over the [New York Giants](/wiki/New_York_Giants \"New York Giants\").", "{{Quote box\\|quote\\= \"Why don't they call themselves the Car\\-Pits? I think it's very appropriate as every team in the league walks over them.\"\\|source\\='''Irate fan letter to the ''\\[\\[Pittsburgh Post\\-Gazette]]'''''\\|width\\=33%}}\nQuarterback [Coley McDonough](/wiki/List_of_Pittsburgh_Steelers_starting_quarterbacks \"List of Pittsburgh Steelers starting quarterbacks\") was drafted into the [U.S. Army](/wiki/United_States_Army \"United States Army\") two days before the team's second regular season game, a contest against Green Bay.Kiss Em Goodbye: An ESPN Treasury of failed, forgotten, and departed teams, pp.67–68, Dennis Purdy, Ballantine Books, New York, 2010, {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-345\\-52012\\-8}} The *[Pittsburgh Press](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Press \"Pittsburgh Press\")* gave the team little chance to defeat the Packers, who would go on to win that game 34–7\\. However, [John McCarthy](/wiki/John_McCarthy_%28American_football%29 \"John McCarthy (American football)\"), a rookie out of [Saint Francis University](/wiki/Saint_Francis_University_%28Pennsylvania%29 \"Saint Francis University (Pennsylvania)\") in [Loretto, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Loretto%2C_Pennsylvania \"Loretto, Pennsylvania\"), performed well as McDonough's replacement.2005 Saint Francis University, Loretto, Pennsylvania Alumni Directory page 307 Class of 1942", "Card\\-Pitt then met the [Chicago Bears](/wiki/Chicago_Bears \"Chicago Bears\"), a team missing [MVP](/wiki/Most_Valuable_Player \"Most Valuable Player\") quarterback [Sid Luckman](/wiki/Sid_Luckman \"Sid Luckman\") and coach [George Halas](/wiki/George_Halas \"George Halas\") among a roster that had been depleted by the war and injuries, in the third game of the season. The *[Pittsburgh Post\\-Gazette](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Post-Gazette \"Pittsburgh Post-Gazette\")* called Card\\-Pitt's effort against the Bears \"pitiful\", and the coaching staff became so irate that they fined [Johnny Butler](/wiki/John_Butler_%28running_back%29 \"John Butler (running back)\"), [John Grigas](/wiki/John_Grigas \"John Grigas\") and [Eberle Schultz](/wiki/Elbie_Schultz \"Elbie Schultz\") $200 apiece for \"indifferent play\". Upset with the coaches' strict, dictatorial style, the team refused to practice until the fined players received a fair hearing.Algeo, Matthew, \"Last Team Standing: How the Steelers and the Eagles\\-\\-'The Steagles'\\-\\-Saved Pro Football during World War II.\" Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2006, p. 207–208\\. The players then met with Rooney, and Grigas and Schultz agreed to pay their fines and return to practice. Butler was suspended indefinitely, before being placed on [waivers](/wiki/Waivers_%28American_football%29 \"Waivers (American football)\") and later claimed by Brooklyn. Rooney eventually rescinded the fines, except for Butler's.", "*Pittsburgh Post\\-Gazette* sports editor [Al Abrams](/wiki/Al_Abrams \"Al Abrams\") then quoted a disgusted fan as having written, \"Why don't they call themselves the Car\\-Pits? I think it's very appropriate as every team in the league walks over them.\"{{cite news\\|last\\=Abrams\\|first\\=Al\\|newspaper\\=Pittsburgh Post\\-Gazette\\|date\\=October 20, 1944\\|page\\=15\\|title\\=Sidelights on Sports\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=3ZBRAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=0mkDAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=1524%2C4458510}} The team lost a rematch against the Giants. Midway through their next game against the Washington Redskins, a brawl between the two teams erupted and had to be broken up by police. Coaches Kiesling and Handler were in the middle of the fight, while Rooney, a former [boxer](/wiki/Boxing \"Boxing\"), ran to join his team, until he realized that it would be a breach of protocol for an NFL owner to get into a fight with opposing players. The Redskins would go on to win the game, 42–20\\. Card\\-Pitt's Cliff Duggan was fined $200 for his role in the fight, however, Rooney paid his fine.", "Losses then ensued against the Rams, Packers and Lions, and Grigas left the team to return home to [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts \"Massachusetts\"). He had twice won the league rushing title, but had grown tired of losing and retired. Despite his sudden departure, he was named to the *[New York Daily News](/wiki/New_York_Daily_News \"New York Daily News\")* [All\\-Pro](/wiki/All-Pro \"All-Pro\") team, and finished the season with 610 yards rushing, an average of 3\\.3 yards per carry. His departure was followed by a 49–7 loss to the Bears. The team's 0–10 season tied the [Brooklyn Tigers](/wiki/Brooklyn_Dodgers_%28NFL%29 \"Brooklyn Dodgers (NFL)\") for the league's worst record. The merger of the Chicago Cardinals and the Pittsburgh Steelers was dissolved the day after the season ended. Only five teams since 1944 have [gone winless in the NFL for an entire season](/wiki/Imperfect_season \"Imperfect season\"): the [1960 Dallas Cowboys (0–11–1\\)](/wiki/1960_Dallas_Cowboys_season \"1960 Dallas Cowboys season\"), the [1976 Tampa Bay Buccaneers (0–14\\)](/wiki/1976_Tampa_Bay_Buccaneers_season \"1976 Tampa Bay Buccaneers season\"), the ([strike shortened](/wiki/National_Football_League_Players_Association%231982_strike \"National Football League Players Association#1982 strike\")) [1982 Baltimore Colts (0–8–1\\)](/wiki/1982_Baltimore_Colts_season \"1982 Baltimore Colts season\"), the [2008 Detroit Lions (0–16\\)](/wiki/2008_Detroit_Lions_season \"2008 Detroit Lions season\") and the [2017 Cleveland Browns (0\\-16\\)](/wiki/2017_Cleveland_Browns_season \"2017 Cleveland Browns season\").", "" ]
Aftermath --------- {{Quote box\|quote\="The season couldn't have turned out any worse than this one."\|source\='''\[\[Bert Bell]]''', co\-owner of the Pittsburgh Steelers, reflecting on the 1944 season\|width\=33%}} The Card\-Pitt punters averaged 32\.7 yards per attempt,Kiss Em Goodbye: An ESPN Treasury of failed, forgotten, and departed teams, p.69, Dennis Purdy, Ballantine Books, New York, 2010, {{ISBN\|978\-0\-345\-52012\-8}} which, {{as of\|2021\|lc\=y}}, is still the worst mark in NFL history. The team was 0–2 in field goal attempts, while [Conway Baker](/wiki/Conway_Baker "Conway Baker") missed four of his 15 extra point tries. Card\-Pitt passers had a 31% completion rate, and threw for just eight touchdowns; their total of 41 interceptions is still the third highest number in NFL history, even more remarkable given the season was incrementally lengthened to 12, 14, 16, and currently 17 games (the 1944 season had 10\). McCarthy threw 13 interceptions, had no touchdown passes, and finished with a [quarterback rating](/wiki/Quarterback_rating "Quarterback rating") of 3\.0\. Card\-Pitt also had the worst run defense in the league, and were outscored 328–108 by opponents. {{Quote box\|quote\="The worst team in NFL history."\|source\='''\[\[Art Rooney]]''', founder of the Pittsburgh Steelers\|width\=33%}} Eberle Schultz went from a winless 1944 season to an [NFL Championship](/wiki/1945_Cleveland_Rams_season "1945 Cleveland Rams season") with Cleveland the following year. John Grigas returned to the NFL for three final seasons with the Boston Yanks, and led the team in rushing in 1946\. [Don Currivan](/wiki/Don_Currivan "Don Currivan") played alongside Grigas for those three seasons, and ranked third in the league in receiving in 1947, and Currivan also saw played with the [Los Angeles Rams](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Rams "Los Angeles Rams"), being part of the team that lost to Philadelphia in the [1949 NFL Championship Game](/wiki/NFL_Championship_Game%2C_1949 "NFL Championship Game, 1949"). Tackle [Chet Bulger](/wiki/Chet_Bulger "Chet Bulger") and center [Vince Banonis](/wiki/Vince_Banonis "Vince Banonis") would be a part of the [1947 Chicago Cardinals Championship team](/wiki/1947_Chicago_Cardinals_season "1947 Chicago Cardinals season"), while Banonis also played for the Detroit Lions, winning League Championships in [1952](/wiki/1952_Detroit_Lions_season "1952 Detroit Lions season") and [1953](/wiki/1953_Detroit_Lions_season "1953 Detroit Lions season") (on teams coached by Card\-Pitt assistant coach [Buddy Parker](/wiki/Buddy_Parker "Buddy Parker")). The Cardinals did not win a game again until October 14, 1945 (nearly three years to the day of their last win), when they beat the [Chicago Bears](/wiki/Chicago_Bears "Chicago Bears") 23\-14: while it was the Cardinals' only win of the 1945 season, this also ended a 29\-game losing streak (an NFL record as of 2021\). The Steelers, who had won their last game on November 28, 1943, ended a 14\-game losing streak on October 21, 1945, beating the [New York Giants](/wiki/New_York_Giants "New York Giants") 21–7\. In 1947, both teams rose to the top of the league: the Cardinals finished 9–3, beating the Bears in their last game to win the Western Division \- their first title since 1925 \- while the Steelers finished tied with the Eagles for the Eastern Division. The Steelers lost a one\-game playoff to the Eagles 21–0 in driving snow and rain, and the following week, the [Championship Game](/wiki/1947_NFL_Championship_Game "1947 NFL Championship Game") saw the Cardinals beat the Eagles 28–21 to win their second NFL Championship (and most recent as of 2021\). In 2009, 65 years after merging for a season, the Steelers and the Cardinals (by then based in [Glendale](/wiki/Glendale%2C_Arizona "Glendale, Arizona"), [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona "Arizona")) played each other in [Super Bowl XLIII](/wiki/Super_Bowl_XLIII "Super Bowl XLIII"). The last remaining active member of Card\-Pitt was [Vince Banonis](/wiki/Vince_Banonis "Vince Banonis"), who played his final NFL game in the [1953 season](/wiki/1953_NFL_season "1953 NFL season"), where he won the championship as a member of the [Detroit Lions](/wiki/1953_Detroit_Lions_season "1953 Detroit Lions season"), although he missed the [1943](/wiki/1943_NFL_season "1943 NFL season") and [1945 seasons](/wiki/1945_NFL_season "1945 NFL season").
[ "Aftermath\n---------", "{{Quote box\\|quote\\=\"The season couldn't have turned out any worse than this one.\"\\|source\\='''\\[\\[Bert Bell]]''', co\\-owner of the Pittsburgh Steelers, reflecting on the 1944 season\\|width\\=33%}}\nThe Card\\-Pitt punters averaged 32\\.7 yards per attempt,Kiss Em Goodbye: An ESPN Treasury of failed, forgotten, and departed teams, p.69, Dennis Purdy, Ballantine Books, New York, 2010, {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-345\\-52012\\-8}} which, {{as of\\|2021\\|lc\\=y}}, is still the worst mark in NFL history. The team was 0–2 in field goal attempts, while [Conway Baker](/wiki/Conway_Baker \"Conway Baker\") missed four of his 15 extra point tries.", "Card\\-Pitt passers had a 31% completion rate, and threw for just eight touchdowns; their total of 41 interceptions is still the third highest number in NFL history, even more remarkable given the season was incrementally lengthened to 12, 14, 16, and currently 17 games (the 1944 season had 10\\). McCarthy threw 13 interceptions, had no touchdown passes, and finished with a [quarterback rating](/wiki/Quarterback_rating \"Quarterback rating\") of 3\\.0\\.", "Card\\-Pitt also had the worst run defense in the league, and were outscored 328–108 by opponents.\n{{Quote box\\|quote\\=\"The worst team in NFL history.\"\\|source\\='''\\[\\[Art Rooney]]''', founder of the Pittsburgh Steelers\\|width\\=33%}}", "Eberle Schultz went from a winless 1944 season to an [NFL Championship](/wiki/1945_Cleveland_Rams_season \"1945 Cleveland Rams season\") with Cleveland the following year. John Grigas returned to the NFL for three final seasons with the Boston Yanks, and led the team in rushing in 1946\\. [Don Currivan](/wiki/Don_Currivan \"Don Currivan\") played alongside Grigas for those three seasons, and ranked third in the league in receiving in 1947, and Currivan also saw played with the [Los Angeles Rams](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Rams \"Los Angeles Rams\"), being part of the team that lost to Philadelphia in the [1949 NFL Championship Game](/wiki/NFL_Championship_Game%2C_1949 \"NFL Championship Game, 1949\").", "Tackle [Chet Bulger](/wiki/Chet_Bulger \"Chet Bulger\") and center [Vince Banonis](/wiki/Vince_Banonis \"Vince Banonis\") would be a part of the [1947 Chicago Cardinals Championship team](/wiki/1947_Chicago_Cardinals_season \"1947 Chicago Cardinals season\"), while Banonis also played for the Detroit Lions, winning League Championships in [1952](/wiki/1952_Detroit_Lions_season \"1952 Detroit Lions season\") and [1953](/wiki/1953_Detroit_Lions_season \"1953 Detroit Lions season\") (on teams coached by Card\\-Pitt assistant coach [Buddy Parker](/wiki/Buddy_Parker \"Buddy Parker\")).", "The Cardinals did not win a game again until October 14, 1945 (nearly three years to the day of their last win), when they beat the [Chicago Bears](/wiki/Chicago_Bears \"Chicago Bears\") 23\\-14: while it was the Cardinals' only win of the 1945 season, this also ended a 29\\-game losing streak (an NFL record as of 2021\\). The Steelers, who had won their last game on November 28, 1943, ended a 14\\-game losing streak on October 21, 1945, beating the [New York Giants](/wiki/New_York_Giants \"New York Giants\") 21–7\\.", "In 1947, both teams rose to the top of the league: the Cardinals finished 9–3, beating the Bears in their last game to win the Western Division \\- their first title since 1925 \\- while the Steelers finished tied with the Eagles for the Eastern Division.", "The Steelers lost a one\\-game playoff to the Eagles 21–0 in driving snow and rain, and the following week, the [Championship Game](/wiki/1947_NFL_Championship_Game \"1947 NFL Championship Game\") saw the Cardinals beat the Eagles 28–21 to win their second NFL Championship (and most recent as of 2021\\).", "In 2009, 65 years after merging for a season, the Steelers and the Cardinals (by then based in [Glendale](/wiki/Glendale%2C_Arizona \"Glendale, Arizona\"), [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona \"Arizona\")) played each other in [Super Bowl XLIII](/wiki/Super_Bowl_XLIII \"Super Bowl XLIII\").", "The last remaining active member of Card\\-Pitt was [Vince Banonis](/wiki/Vince_Banonis \"Vince Banonis\"), who played his final NFL game in the [1953 season](/wiki/1953_NFL_season \"1953 NFL season\"), where he won the championship as a member of the [Detroit Lions](/wiki/1953_Detroit_Lions_season \"1953 Detroit Lions season\"), although he missed the [1943](/wiki/1943_NFL_season \"1943 NFL season\") and [1945 seasons](/wiki/1945_NFL_season \"1945 NFL season\").", "" ]
Plot ---- In the late [Victorian period](/wiki/Victorian_era "Victorian era"), two cousins, nine\-year\-old Richard and seven\-year\-old Emmeline Lestrange, and galley cook Paddy Button, are shipwrecked on a lush tropical island in the South Pacific. Paddy cares for the children and forbids them "by law" from going to the other side of the island, where he finds an altar with bloody remains from human sacrifices. He also warns them against eating any deadly scarlet berries. He dies after a drunken [binge](/wiki/Binge_drinking "Binge drinking"), and the children rebuild their home on a different part of the island. Having reached [puberty](/wiki/Puberty "Puberty"), the two go [skinny dipping](/wiki/Nude_swimming "Nude swimming") in the ocean, but Emmeline is uncomfortable with her sexual attraction to Richard and declines to share her "funny" thoughts with him. She is frightened by her first [menstrual period](/wiki/Menstrual_cycle "Menstrual cycle") and refuses to allow Richard to inspect her for what he imagines is a wound. Eventually, Richard recognizes his attraction to Emmeline. She ventures to the forbidden side of the island and sees the altar. Associating the blood with Christ's crucifixion, she concludes that the altar is God and tries to persuade Richard to go to the other side of the island to pray with her. Richard is shocked at the idea of breaking the law and they argue. When Richard tries to initiate sexual contact with Emmeline, she rebuffs him. He hides from her and [masturbates](/wiki/Masturbation "Masturbation"). When a ship appears for the first time in years, Emmeline does not light the signal fire and the ship passes by without noticing them. When Richard confronts Emmeline about her failure, she asserts to his angry disbelief that the island is now their home and that they should remain there. Emmeline also reveals that she knows about Richard's masturbation and threatens to tell her Uncle Arthur about this. They fight and she throws a coconut at him, hitting him in the head by chance. Richard angrily slaps her and kicks her out of their shelter. Emmeline steps on a venomous [stonefish](/wiki/Stonefish "Stonefish"). Weak from the poison, she pleads with Richard to "take \[her] to God". Richard carries her across the island and places her on the altar. Emmeline recovers and they swim naked in the lagoon. Noticing their bodies' reactions, they discover [sexual intercourse](/wiki/Sexual_intercourse "Sexual intercourse") and become lovers. Neither recognizes what is happening when Emmeline becomes [pregnant](/wiki/Pregnancy "Pregnancy"), and they are stunned to feel the baby move inside her abdomen, assuming her stomach is causing the movements. Months later, Richard observes indigenous people performing a [human sacrifice](/wiki/Human_sacrifice "Human sacrifice") in front of the statue. He becomes frightened and runs away to find Emmeline, whom he finds in labor. Emmeline [gives birth](/wiki/Childbirth "Childbirth") to a baby boy, whom they name Paddy. A ship led by Richard's father, Arthur, approaches the island and sees the family playing on the shore. Content with their lives, Richard and Emmeline walk away instead of signaling for help. Arthur assumes the mud\-covered couple are not Richard and Emmeline. Visiting their original homesite, Richard searches for bananas while Paddy, unnoticed, brings a branch of the scarlet berries into the boat with Emmeline. Paddy tosses an oar out of the boat as it drifts from the shore. Richard swims after them followed closely by a shark. Emmeline throws the other oar at the shark, striking it and giving Richard time to get into the boat. The boat drifts oarless out to sea. After drifting for days, Richard and Emmeline wake up to find Paddy eating the scarlet berries. Hopeless, Richard and Emmeline eat the berries as well, and lie down to await death. Some hours later, Arthur's ship finds them. Arthur asks, "Are they dead?" The officer assures him, "No, sir. They're asleep."
[ "Plot\n----", "In the late [Victorian period](/wiki/Victorian_era \"Victorian era\"), two cousins, nine\\-year\\-old Richard and seven\\-year\\-old Emmeline Lestrange, and galley cook Paddy Button, are shipwrecked on a lush tropical island in the South Pacific. Paddy cares for the children and forbids them \"by law\" from going to the other side of the island, where he finds an altar with bloody remains from human sacrifices. He also warns them against eating any deadly scarlet berries. He dies after a drunken [binge](/wiki/Binge_drinking \"Binge drinking\"), and the children rebuild their home on a different part of the island.", "Having reached [puberty](/wiki/Puberty \"Puberty\"), the two go [skinny dipping](/wiki/Nude_swimming \"Nude swimming\") in the ocean, but Emmeline is uncomfortable with her sexual attraction to Richard and declines to share her \"funny\" thoughts with him. She is frightened by her first [menstrual period](/wiki/Menstrual_cycle \"Menstrual cycle\") and refuses to allow Richard to inspect her for what he imagines is a wound.", "Eventually, Richard recognizes his attraction to Emmeline. She ventures to the forbidden side of the island and sees the altar. Associating the blood with Christ's crucifixion, she concludes that the altar is God and tries to persuade Richard to go to the other side of the island to pray with her. Richard is shocked at the idea of breaking the law and they argue. When Richard tries to initiate sexual contact with Emmeline, she rebuffs him. He hides from her and [masturbates](/wiki/Masturbation \"Masturbation\").", "When a ship appears for the first time in years, Emmeline does not light the signal fire and the ship passes by without noticing them. When Richard confronts Emmeline about her failure, she asserts to his angry disbelief that the island is now their home and that they should remain there. Emmeline also reveals that she knows about Richard's masturbation and threatens to tell her Uncle Arthur about this. They fight and she throws a coconut at him, hitting him in the head by chance. Richard angrily slaps her and kicks her out of their shelter.", "Emmeline steps on a venomous [stonefish](/wiki/Stonefish \"Stonefish\"). Weak from the poison, she pleads with Richard to \"take \\[her] to God\". Richard carries her across the island and places her on the altar. Emmeline recovers and they swim naked in the lagoon. Noticing their bodies' reactions, they discover [sexual intercourse](/wiki/Sexual_intercourse \"Sexual intercourse\") and become lovers. Neither recognizes what is happening when Emmeline becomes [pregnant](/wiki/Pregnancy \"Pregnancy\"), and they are stunned to feel the baby move inside her abdomen, assuming her stomach is causing the movements.", "Months later, Richard observes indigenous people performing a [human sacrifice](/wiki/Human_sacrifice \"Human sacrifice\") in front of the statue. He becomes frightened and runs away to find Emmeline, whom he finds in labor. Emmeline [gives birth](/wiki/Childbirth \"Childbirth\") to a baby boy, whom they name Paddy.", "A ship led by Richard's father, Arthur, approaches the island and sees the family playing on the shore. Content with their lives, Richard and Emmeline walk away instead of signaling for help. Arthur assumes the mud\\-covered couple are not Richard and Emmeline.", "Visiting their original homesite, Richard searches for bananas while Paddy, unnoticed, brings a branch of the scarlet berries into the boat with Emmeline. Paddy tosses an oar out of the boat as it drifts from the shore. Richard swims after them followed closely by a shark. Emmeline throws the other oar at the shark, striking it and giving Richard time to get into the boat. The boat drifts oarless out to sea.", "After drifting for days, Richard and Emmeline wake up to find Paddy eating the scarlet berries. Hopeless, Richard and Emmeline eat the berries as well, and lie down to await death. Some hours later, Arthur's ship finds them. Arthur asks, \"Are they dead?\" The officer assures him, \"No, sir. They're asleep.\"", "" ]
Radio history ------------- ### Early career Ferrall attended [Mount Lebanon High School](/wiki/Mount_Lebanon_High_School "Mount Lebanon High School"){{cite news \|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1129\&dat\=19990721\&id\=SiQxAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=F3ADAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=5983,139220 \|first\=Chuck \|last\=Finder \|newspaper\=Pittsburgh Post\-Gazette \|publication\-date\=June 21, 1999 \|page\=Sports D\-1 \|title\=Penguins Voice Changing His Tune}} and went to [Indiana University](/wiki/Indiana_University_Bloomington "Indiana University Bloomington").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.pittsburghsportsreport.com/psr\-PressRoom2008\.php?subaction\=showfull\&id\=1212237689\&archive\=\&start\_from\=\&ucat\=14\& \|title\=Up Close with the Pittsburgh Sports Report: Scott Ferrall \|work\=Pittsburgh Sports Report \|date\=May 31, 2008 \|accessdate\=January 3, 2014}} His career began as a standard sports news reader on all\-news [KQV](/wiki/KQV "KQV") radio in his home town of [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh "Pittsburgh"). When he left KQV, he drifted to Florida and found part\-time radio work in the Tampa area. After a short stint with the Sports Entertainment Network (now [SB Nation Radio](/wiki/SB_Nation_Radio "SB Nation Radio")), he became a sports host on [Infinity Broadcasting](/wiki/Infinity_Broadcasting "Infinity Broadcasting") sports talker [WFAN](/wiki/WFAN_%28AM%29 "WFAN (AM)") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"), and numerous other stations, including [KLSX](/wiki/KNX-FM "KNX-FM") in [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles"), [KNBR](/wiki/KNBR_%28AM%29 "KNBR (AM)") in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco") and [WCNN](/wiki/WCNN "WCNN") in Atlanta. Ferrall got a break on [WNEW\-FM](/wiki/WNEW-FM "WNEW-FM") by befriending [Opie and Anthony](/wiki/Opie_and_Anthony "Opie and Anthony") and ended up taking over *The Sports Guys* talk show on WNEW\-FM mornings where it became *Sports in the Morning with Ferrall*. He was then fired from WNEW for supporting [Opie](/wiki/Gregg_Hughes "Gregg Hughes") and [Anthony](/wiki/Anthony_Cumia "Anthony Cumia") when they were pulled from the airwaves for their "Sex for Sam 3" bit. Following WNEW, Ferrall went to [Miami](/wiki/Miami "Miami") and did mornings on Beasley Broadcasting sports station [WQAM](/wiki/WQAM "WQAM") (home of [Neil Rogers](/wiki/Neil_Rogers "Neil Rogers")), where his show got the station fined [$](/wiki/United_States_dollar "United States dollar")55,000 by the [Federal Communications Commission](/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission "Federal Communications Commission") (FCC). Following his exit at WQAM, Ferrall took the midday slot at the newly created Real Radio WMAX\-FM (now [WRDG](/wiki/WRDG "WRDG")) 105\.3 Atlanta in January 2004\. His stint at "Atlanta's only FM talk station" only lasted until September 2004 when the station flipped to a Latin format. ### 2006–2012: Howard 101 For a time before moving to Sirius, Ferrall did radio shows on weekends for [Fox Sports Radio](/wiki/Fox_Sports_Radio "Fox Sports Radio"). On February 9, 2006, [Howard Stern](/wiki/Howard_Stern "Howard Stern") announced that Ferrall had joined [Howard 101](/wiki/Howard_101 "Howard 101") on Sirius. Stern said that he originally hired Ferrall because he felt he was a great radio talent that had been treated poorly by the industry.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2016}} Scott's joining Howard 101 led to a feud with former friends [Opie and Anthony](/wiki/Opie_and_Anthony "Opie and Anthony"), after Ferrall badmouthed them on his website. This bad blood resulted in Opie and Anthony's fans, 'The Pests' successfully hijacking Scott's radio show with prank calls for nearly two weeks. Ferrall's show aired weekdays from 8:00 pm to midnight [Eastern](/wiki/Eastern_Time_Zone "Eastern Time Zone"). On October 1, 2012, Ferrall announced that he would be starting on the CBS Sports Radio Network{{cite web\|first\=Rocco \|last\=Pendola \|url\=http://www.thestreet.com/story/11727563/2/jim\-rome\-scott\-ferrall\-to\-cbs\-can\-sports\-radio\-drive\-revenue.html \|title\=Jim Rome, Scott Ferrall to CBS: Can Sports Radio Drive Revenue? \- Pg.2 \|publisher\=TheStreet \|date\= 4 October 2012\|accessdate\=2014\-06\-27}} on January 2, 2013\. The next day, Stern played some "best\-of" clips of Ferrall and said he "would be missed" and was a "great guy".{{citation needed\|date\=March 2016}} ### 2013–2020: *Ferrall on the Bench* Ferrall was featured in the 10p.m.\-2a.m. weekday slot at [CBS Sports Radio](/wiki/CBS_Sports_Radio "CBS Sports Radio") since the network went to full 24/7 broadcasting in 2013\. His radio program *Ferrall on the Bench,* featured his entertaining style combining the sports news of the day with his outspoken opinions. His last broadcast at CBS was January 7, 2020\. ### 2020\-Present: SportsGrid A few days after leaving CBS Sports Radio, Ferrall announced he was joining SportsGrid, a sports betting video streaming service, to do two weekday shows, beginning January 29, 2020\. *Scott Ferrall: Coast to Coast* (4\-6pm ET) features live pre\-game wagering odds, moneylines and statistics \- along with Ferrall's betting strategies. *In\-Game Live* (7\-9pm) features in\-game betting action.{{Cite web\|url\=https://radioinsight.com/headlines/183473/scott\-ferrall\-exits\-cbs\-sports\-radio\-for\-sportsgrid\-video\-gambling\-shows/\|title\=Scott Ferrall Exits CBS Sports Radio For SportsGrid Video Gambling Shows\|date\=2020\-01\-17\|website\=RadioInsight\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2020\-01\-20}} Ferrall's programs are also simulcast on [SportsMap](/wiki/SportsMap "SportsMap") Radio Network.
[ "Radio history\n-------------", "### Early career", "Ferrall attended [Mount Lebanon High School](/wiki/Mount_Lebanon_High_School \"Mount Lebanon High School\"){{cite news \\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1129\\&dat\\=19990721\\&id\\=SiQxAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=F3ADAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=5983,139220 \\|first\\=Chuck \\|last\\=Finder \\|newspaper\\=Pittsburgh Post\\-Gazette \\|publication\\-date\\=June 21, 1999 \\|page\\=Sports D\\-1 \\|title\\=Penguins Voice Changing His Tune}} and went to [Indiana University](/wiki/Indiana_University_Bloomington \"Indiana University Bloomington\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.pittsburghsportsreport.com/psr\\-PressRoom2008\\.php?subaction\\=showfull\\&id\\=1212237689\\&archive\\=\\&start\\_from\\=\\&ucat\\=14\\& \\|title\\=Up Close with the Pittsburgh Sports Report: Scott Ferrall \\|work\\=Pittsburgh Sports Report \\|date\\=May 31, 2008 \\|accessdate\\=January 3, 2014}}", "His career began as a standard sports news reader on all\\-news [KQV](/wiki/KQV \"KQV\") radio in his home town of [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh \"Pittsburgh\"). When he left KQV, he drifted to Florida and found part\\-time radio work in the Tampa area. After a short stint with the Sports Entertainment Network (now [SB Nation Radio](/wiki/SB_Nation_Radio \"SB Nation Radio\")), he became a sports host on [Infinity Broadcasting](/wiki/Infinity_Broadcasting \"Infinity Broadcasting\") sports talker [WFAN](/wiki/WFAN_%28AM%29 \"WFAN (AM)\") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), and numerous other stations, including [KLSX](/wiki/KNX-FM \"KNX-FM\") in [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\"), [KNBR](/wiki/KNBR_%28AM%29 \"KNBR (AM)\") in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\") and [WCNN](/wiki/WCNN \"WCNN\") in Atlanta.", "Ferrall got a break on [WNEW\\-FM](/wiki/WNEW-FM \"WNEW-FM\") by befriending [Opie and Anthony](/wiki/Opie_and_Anthony \"Opie and Anthony\") and ended up taking over *The Sports Guys* talk show on WNEW\\-FM mornings where it became *Sports in the Morning with Ferrall*. He was then fired from WNEW for supporting [Opie](/wiki/Gregg_Hughes \"Gregg Hughes\") and [Anthony](/wiki/Anthony_Cumia \"Anthony Cumia\") when they were pulled from the airwaves for their \"Sex for Sam 3\" bit. Following WNEW, Ferrall went to [Miami](/wiki/Miami \"Miami\") and did mornings on Beasley Broadcasting sports station [WQAM](/wiki/WQAM \"WQAM\") (home of [Neil Rogers](/wiki/Neil_Rogers \"Neil Rogers\")), where his show got the station fined [$](/wiki/United_States_dollar \"United States dollar\")55,000 by the [Federal Communications Commission](/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission \"Federal Communications Commission\") (FCC).", "Following his exit at WQAM, Ferrall took the midday slot at the newly created Real Radio WMAX\\-FM (now [WRDG](/wiki/WRDG \"WRDG\")) 105\\.3 Atlanta in January 2004\\. His stint at \"Atlanta's only FM talk station\" only lasted until September 2004 when the station flipped to a Latin format.", "### 2006–2012: Howard 101", "For a time before moving to Sirius, Ferrall did radio shows on weekends for [Fox Sports Radio](/wiki/Fox_Sports_Radio \"Fox Sports Radio\"). On February 9, 2006, [Howard Stern](/wiki/Howard_Stern \"Howard Stern\") announced that Ferrall had joined [Howard 101](/wiki/Howard_101 \"Howard 101\") on Sirius. Stern said that he originally hired Ferrall because he felt he was a great radio talent that had been treated poorly by the industry.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2016}} Scott's joining Howard 101 led to a feud with former friends [Opie and Anthony](/wiki/Opie_and_Anthony \"Opie and Anthony\"), after Ferrall badmouthed them on his website. This bad blood resulted in Opie and Anthony's fans, 'The Pests' successfully hijacking Scott's radio show with prank calls for nearly two weeks. Ferrall's show aired weekdays from 8:00 pm to midnight [Eastern](/wiki/Eastern_Time_Zone \"Eastern Time Zone\"). On October 1, 2012, Ferrall announced that he would be starting on the CBS Sports Radio Network{{cite web\\|first\\=Rocco \\|last\\=Pendola \\|url\\=http://www.thestreet.com/story/11727563/2/jim\\-rome\\-scott\\-ferrall\\-to\\-cbs\\-can\\-sports\\-radio\\-drive\\-revenue.html \\|title\\=Jim Rome, Scott Ferrall to CBS: Can Sports Radio Drive Revenue? \\- Pg.2 \\|publisher\\=TheStreet \\|date\\= 4 October 2012\\|accessdate\\=2014\\-06\\-27}} on January 2, 2013\\. The next day, Stern played some \"best\\-of\" clips of Ferrall and said he \"would be missed\" and was a \"great guy\".{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2016}}", "### 2013–2020: *Ferrall on the Bench*", "Ferrall was featured in the 10p.m.\\-2a.m. weekday slot at [CBS Sports Radio](/wiki/CBS_Sports_Radio \"CBS Sports Radio\") since the network went to full 24/7 broadcasting in 2013\\. His radio program *Ferrall on the Bench,* featured his entertaining style combining the sports news of the day with his outspoken opinions. His last broadcast at CBS was January 7, 2020\\.", "### 2020\\-Present: SportsGrid", "A few days after leaving CBS Sports Radio, Ferrall announced he was joining SportsGrid, a sports betting video streaming service, to do two weekday shows, beginning January 29, 2020\\. *Scott Ferrall: Coast to Coast* (4\\-6pm ET) features live pre\\-game wagering odds, moneylines and statistics \\- along with Ferrall's betting strategies. *In\\-Game Live* (7\\-9pm) features in\\-game betting action.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://radioinsight.com/headlines/183473/scott\\-ferrall\\-exits\\-cbs\\-sports\\-radio\\-for\\-sportsgrid\\-video\\-gambling\\-shows/\\|title\\=Scott Ferrall Exits CBS Sports Radio For SportsGrid Video Gambling Shows\\|date\\=2020\\-01\\-17\\|website\\=RadioInsight\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-20}} Ferrall's programs are also simulcast on [SportsMap](/wiki/SportsMap \"SportsMap\") Radio Network.", "" ]
Terminological history ---------------------- The first reference to a slide instrument was probably *trompette des ménestrels*, first found in Burgundy in the 1420s and later in other regions of Europe. The name distinguished the instrument from the *trompettes de guerre* (war trumpets), which were of fixed length.Herbert, Trevor (2006\). *The Trombone*, p. 57\. London: Yale University Press. {{ISBN\|0\-300\-10095\-7}}. [thumb\|"Busaun" (trombone) and various trumpets by different names, from the 1511 [treatise](/wiki/Treatise "Treatise") by [Sebastian Virdung](/wiki/Sebastian_Virdung "Sebastian Virdung").](/wiki/File:Virdung_1511_musica_getutscht.png "Virdung 1511 musica getutscht.png") The next word to appear in the 15th century that implied a slide was the *sackbutt* group of words. There are two theories for the sources: it is either derived from the [Middle French](/wiki/Middle_French "Middle French") *sacquer* (to pull) and *bouter* (to push) or from the Spanish *sacar* (to draw or pull) and *bucha* (a tube or pipe). The term survives in numerous English spelling variations including sacbutt, sackbutte, sagbut, shagbolt, sacabushe, shakbusse{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.collectorsweekly.com/musical\-instruments/trombones \|title\=Vintage Trombones \|website\=Collectors Weekly \|access\-date\=22 April 2021}} and shakbusshe. Closely related to *sackbutt* was the name used in France: *sacqueboute* and in Spain, where it was *sacabuche*. These terms were used in England and France until the 18th century. In Scotland in 1538 the slide instrument is referred to as *draucht trumpet* (drawn trumpet) as opposed to a *weir trumpet* (war trumpet), which had a fixed length.Herbert (2006\), p. 58\. In Germany, the original word was *Posaune*, appearing about 1450 and is still used today. This (as well as *bason*) derives from *[busine](/wiki/Buisine "Buisine"),* which is Latinate and meant straight trumpet.Herbert (2006\), p. 56\. In Italy it was (and remains) *trombone*, which derived from trumpet in the Latin *tromba* or *drompten*, used in the Low Countries. The first records of it being used are around 1440, but it is not clear whether this was just a nickname for a trumpet player. In 1487 a writer links the words *trompone* and *sacqueboute* and mentions the instrument as playing the [contratenor](/wiki/Countertenor "Countertenor") part in a danceband.Herbert (2006\), p. 59\.
[ "Terminological history\n----------------------", "The first reference to a slide instrument was probably *trompette des ménestrels*, first found in Burgundy in the 1420s and later in other regions of Europe. The name distinguished the instrument from the *trompettes de guerre* (war trumpets), which were of fixed length.Herbert, Trevor (2006\\). *The Trombone*, p. 57\\. London: Yale University Press. {{ISBN\\|0\\-300\\-10095\\-7}}.", "[thumb\\|\"Busaun\" (trombone) and various trumpets by different names, from the 1511 [treatise](/wiki/Treatise \"Treatise\") by [Sebastian Virdung](/wiki/Sebastian_Virdung \"Sebastian Virdung\").](/wiki/File:Virdung_1511_musica_getutscht.png \"Virdung 1511 musica getutscht.png\")", "The next word to appear in the 15th century that implied a slide was the *sackbutt* group of words. There are two theories for the sources: it is either derived from the [Middle French](/wiki/Middle_French \"Middle French\") *sacquer* (to pull) and *bouter* (to push) or from the Spanish *sacar* (to draw or pull) and *bucha* (a tube or pipe). The term survives in numerous English spelling variations including sacbutt, sackbutte, sagbut, shagbolt, sacabushe, shakbusse{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.collectorsweekly.com/musical\\-instruments/trombones \\|title\\=Vintage Trombones \\|website\\=Collectors Weekly \\|access\\-date\\=22 April 2021}} and shakbusshe.", "Closely related to *sackbutt* was the name used in France: *sacqueboute* and in Spain, where it was *sacabuche*. These terms were used in England and France until the 18th century.", "In Scotland in 1538 the slide instrument is referred to as *draucht trumpet* (drawn trumpet) as opposed to a *weir trumpet* (war trumpet), which had a fixed length.Herbert (2006\\), p. 58\\.", "In Germany, the original word was *Posaune*, appearing about 1450 and is still used today. This (as well as *bason*) derives from *[busine](/wiki/Buisine \"Buisine\"),* which is Latinate and meant straight trumpet.Herbert (2006\\), p. 56\\.", "In Italy it was (and remains) *trombone*, which derived from trumpet in the Latin *tromba* or *drompten*, used in the Low Countries. The first records of it being used are around 1440, but it is not clear whether this was just a nickname for a trumpet player. In 1487 a writer links the words *trompone* and *sacqueboute* and mentions the instrument as playing the [contratenor](/wiki/Countertenor \"Countertenor\") part in a danceband.Herbert (2006\\), p. 59\\.", "" ]
Construction ------------ The bore size of renaissance/baroque trombones is approximately {{convert\|10\|mm\|in\|abbr\=on}} and the bell rarely more than {{convert\|10\.5\|cm\|in\|abbr\=on}} in diameter.Fischer, Henry G. (1984\). *The Renaissance Sackbut and Its Use Today*, {{page needed\|date\=February 2011}}. New York, MAM. {{ISBN\|0\-87099\-412\-3}}. This compares with modern tenor trombones, which commonly have bores {{convert\|12\.7\|mm\|in\|abbr\=on}} to {{convert\|13\.9\|mm\|in\|abbr\=on}} and bells {{convert\|17\.8\|cm\|in\|abbr\=on}} to {{convert\|21\.6\|cm\|in\|abbr\=on}}. Modern reproductions of sackbuts sacrifice some authenticity to harness manufacturing techniques and inventions that make them more comfortable for modern players, while retaining much of the original character of the old instruments. [thumb\|150px\|[Marin Mersenne](/wiki/Marin_Mersenne "Marin Mersenne"), *L'Harmonie universelle* (1636\).](/wiki/File:Mersenne_harmonie_universelle_1636_trombone.png "Mersenne harmonie universelle 1636 trombone.png") Some original instruments could be disassembled into the constituent straight tubes, bowed tubes, bell flare, and stays, with ferrules at the joints. [Mersenne](/wiki/Marin_Mersenne "Marin Mersenne") has a diagram. (Little imagination is needed to see how it could be reassembled—with an extra tube—into something approaching a [natural trumpet](/wiki/Natural_trumpet "Natural trumpet").) There is a debate as to whether they used tight fittings, wax or another joining substance. Modern sackbut reproductions are usually soldered together. Some modern sackbut reproductions use glue as a compromise to give a loose fitting for high resonance without risk of falling apart. Tuning slides came in during the very late 18th century. Early trombonists adjusted pitch with the slide, and by adding variously shaped and sized [crooks](/wiki/Crook_%28music%29 "Crook (music)"). Modern reproductions often have a bell bow tuning slide or telescopic slide between the slide and bell sections. Crooks are still used, as are variously sized bell bow sections for larger changes.Herbert (2006\), p. 22\. The stays on period sackbuts are flat. While the bell stay remained flat, from about 1660 the slide stays became tubular. On many modern reproductions round slide stays are much more comfortable to play and easier to make. A loose connection between the bell stay and the bell is thought key to a resonant bell, and thus a better sackbut sound. Original instruments have a hinge joint (a looser connection helped imperfect slides slide{{cite web \|title\=The Sacbut \|url\=http://www.music.iastate.edu/antiqua/sacbut.htm \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504052436/http://www.music.iastate.edu/antiqua/sacbut.htm \|archive\-date\=2016\-05\-04 \|date\=4 May 2016}}). Modern copies with a tuning slide in the bell can need more support for operation of the slide, so either an extra stay by the tuning slide is provided or a joint without play in only one axis is employed. The original way to make the slide tubes was to roll a flat piece of metal around a solid cylinder mandrel, and the joining edges soldered together. Modern manufacturers now draw the tubes. They also tend to have stockings, which were only invented around 1850\. In addition, modern made slides are usually made of nickel silver with chrome plating, giving a smoother finish and quieter action than simply the brass that would have originally been used. The [water key](/wiki/Water_Key "Water Key") was added in the 19th century, but modern reproductions often have them.Herbert (2006\), p. 21\.
[ "Construction\n------------", "The bore size of renaissance/baroque trombones is approximately {{convert\\|10\\|mm\\|in\\|abbr\\=on}} and the bell rarely more than {{convert\\|10\\.5\\|cm\\|in\\|abbr\\=on}} in diameter.Fischer, Henry G. (1984\\). *The Renaissance Sackbut and Its Use Today*, {{page needed\\|date\\=February 2011}}. New York, MAM. {{ISBN\\|0\\-87099\\-412\\-3}}. This compares with modern tenor trombones, which commonly have bores {{convert\\|12\\.7\\|mm\\|in\\|abbr\\=on}} to {{convert\\|13\\.9\\|mm\\|in\\|abbr\\=on}} and bells {{convert\\|17\\.8\\|cm\\|in\\|abbr\\=on}} to {{convert\\|21\\.6\\|cm\\|in\\|abbr\\=on}}.", "Modern reproductions of sackbuts sacrifice some authenticity to harness manufacturing techniques and inventions that make them more comfortable for modern players, while retaining much of the original character of the old instruments.", "[thumb\\|150px\\|[Marin Mersenne](/wiki/Marin_Mersenne \"Marin Mersenne\"), *L'Harmonie universelle* (1636\\).](/wiki/File:Mersenne_harmonie_universelle_1636_trombone.png \"Mersenne harmonie universelle 1636 trombone.png\")", "Some original instruments could be disassembled into the constituent straight tubes, bowed tubes, bell flare, and stays, with ferrules at the joints. [Mersenne](/wiki/Marin_Mersenne \"Marin Mersenne\") has a diagram. (Little imagination is needed to see how it could be reassembled—with an extra tube—into something approaching a [natural trumpet](/wiki/Natural_trumpet \"Natural trumpet\").) There is a debate as to whether they used tight fittings, wax or another joining substance. Modern sackbut reproductions are usually soldered together. Some modern sackbut reproductions use glue as a compromise to give a loose fitting for high resonance without risk of falling apart.", "Tuning slides came in during the very late 18th century. Early trombonists adjusted pitch with the slide, and by adding variously shaped and sized [crooks](/wiki/Crook_%28music%29 \"Crook (music)\"). Modern reproductions often have a bell bow tuning slide or telescopic slide between the slide and bell sections. Crooks are still used, as are variously sized bell bow sections for larger changes.Herbert (2006\\), p. 22\\.", "The stays on period sackbuts are flat. While the bell stay remained flat, from about 1660 the slide stays became tubular. On many modern reproductions round slide stays are much more comfortable to play and easier to make.", "A loose connection between the bell stay and the bell is thought key to a resonant bell, and thus a better sackbut sound. Original instruments have a hinge joint (a looser connection helped imperfect slides slide{{cite web \\|title\\=The Sacbut \\|url\\=http://www.music.iastate.edu/antiqua/sacbut.htm \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504052436/http://www.music.iastate.edu/antiqua/sacbut.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-05\\-04 \\|date\\=4 May 2016}}). Modern copies with a tuning slide in the bell can need more support for operation of the slide, so either an extra stay by the tuning slide is provided or a joint without play in only one axis is employed.", "The original way to make the slide tubes was to roll a flat piece of metal around a solid cylinder mandrel, and the joining edges soldered together. Modern manufacturers now draw the tubes. They also tend to have stockings, which were only invented around 1850\\. In addition, modern made slides are usually made of nickel silver with chrome plating, giving a smoother finish and quieter action than simply the brass that would have originally been used.", "The [water key](/wiki/Water_Key \"Water Key\") was added in the 19th century, but modern reproductions often have them.Herbert (2006\\), p. 21\\.", "" ]
Performance practice -------------------- In musical traditions that continued into the [baroque](/wiki/Baroque_music "Baroque music") from earlier practice, musicians were expected to give expression to the written music by [ornamenting](/wiki/Ornament_%28music%29 "Ornament (music)") with a mixture of one\-note "graces" and whole passage "divisions" (also known as "diminutions"). The suggestions for producing effective ornaments without disrupting the line and harmony are discussed alongside countless examples in the 16th and early 17th century Italian division tutors. Graces such as the accento, portar della voce, tremolo, groppo, trillo, esclamationo and intonatio are all to be considered by performers of any music in this period. "Cornetts and trombones...play divisions that are neither scrappy, nor so wild and involved that they spoil the underlying melody and the composer's design: but are introduced at such moments and with such vivacity and charm that they give the music the greatest beauty and spirit" Bottrigari, Venice 1594Bottrigari, Il desiderio, overo de' concerti di varii strumenti musicali, Venice 1594 Along with the [improvisation](/wiki/Improvisation "Improvisation"), many of these tutors discuss [articulation](/wiki/Articulation_%28music%29 "Articulation (music)"). [Francesco Rognoni](/wiki/Francesco_Rognoni_Taeggio "Francesco Rognoni Taeggio") in 1620 describes the [tonguing](/wiki/Tonguing "Tonguing") as the most important part of producing "a good and beautiful effect in playing wind instruments, and principally the cornett"Francesco Rognoni Taeggio, {{IMSLP\|work\=Selva de varii passaggi (Rognoni Taeggio, Francesco)\|cname\=''Selva de varii passaggi''}} (Milan: Filippo Lomazzo, 1620\): {{Page needed\|date\=June 2017}} (which of course had a very similar role to the trombone).{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2015}} The treatises discuss the various strengths of [consonants](/wiki/Consonant "Consonant") from "le" through "de" to "te". But the focus of the text is for playing rapid notes "similar to the gorgia of the human voice" with "soft and smooth" double tonguing ("lingua riversa") using "le re le re". This is opposed to using "te che te che", which is described as "harsh, barbarous and displeasing". The natural 'pairing' of notes these articulations provide is similar to the instructions for string players who are instructed to slur ("lireggiar") pairs of eighth notes with one bow stroke per quarter beat. Another integral part of the early music sound\-world is the musical temperament. Music in the middle\-ages favours intervals of the fourth and fifth, which is why [Pythagorean tuning](/wiki/Pythagorean_tuning "Pythagorean tuning") was used. The interval of a third was used as a [clash](/wiki/Consonance_and_dissonance "Consonance and dissonance") until the Renaissance, when it became [consonant](/wiki/Consonance_and_dissonance "Consonance and dissonance") in compositions, which went hand\-in\-hand with the widespread use of [meantone](/wiki/Meantone "Meantone") temperament.{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2015}} During the 17th century, [Well temperament](/wiki/Well_temperament "Well temperament") began to become more and more popular as the range of keys increased. Temperament affects the [colour](/wiki/Timbre "Timbre") of a [composition](/wiki/Musical_composition "Musical composition"), and therefore modern performances, typically employing [equal temperament](/wiki/Equal_temperament "Equal temperament"), may not be true representations of the composers' intentions. {{see also\|Just intonation}} These old [tunings](/wiki/Musical_tuning "Musical tuning") are the result of the natural [harmonic series](/wiki/Harmonic_series_%28music%29 "Harmonic series (music)") of a brass instrument such as the sackbut. [thumb\|500px\|center\|Natural harmonic series on C, 1 to 32, showing the F slightly sharp by 16\.5 [cents](/wiki/Just_intonation%23Staff_notation "Just intonation#Staff notation") {{audio\|Harmonics to 32\.mid\|Play}}](/wiki/File:Harmonics_to_32.png "Harmonics to 32.png") As the bell is smaller than a modern trombone, the harmonic series is closer to a perfect harmonic series, which is the basis for just tuning. Without adjusting the slide, the first to second harmonic is a perfect octave, second to third harmonic is a fifth slightly wider than equal temperament and fourth to fifth harmonic is a major third slightly narrower than in equal temperament. These adjusted intervals make chords ring and are the basis of meantone.{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2015}} In fact, Daniel Speer says "Once you have found a good C (third position), this is also the place you will find your F{{music\|\#}}.”{{cite quote\|date\=July 2012}} Playing a sounding C and F{{music\|\#}} in exactly the same position on a modern [orchestra](/wiki/Orchestra "Orchestra") sounds out of tune, but it tunes perfectly well on in a sackbut choir if everyone plays natural harmonics. [thumb\|400px\|center\|Excerpt from a trombone part from a Picchi canzon (1625\). The [baritone clef](/wiki/Clef_%28music%29 "Clef (music)") seen here is very common for trombone parts of this era.](/wiki/File:Picchi_canzon_decima_terza_-_trombone.png "Picchi canzon decima terza - trombone.png") Plenty of musical understanding can be gathered from reading the original music print. Publishers such as SPES{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.spes\-editore.com/\|title\=StackPath\|website\=Spes\-editore.com\|access\-date\=22 April 2021}} and Arnaldo Forni Edition provide facsimile copies of plenty of music for trombone from this era. To read these it one needs to become familiar with the old [clefs](/wiki/Clef "Clef"), [time signatures](/wiki/Time_signature "Time signature"), [ligatures](/wiki/Ligature_%28music%29 "Ligature (music)") and notational conventions of the era.
[ "Performance practice\n--------------------", "In musical traditions that continued into the [baroque](/wiki/Baroque_music \"Baroque music\") from earlier practice, musicians were expected to give expression to the written music by [ornamenting](/wiki/Ornament_%28music%29 \"Ornament (music)\") with a mixture of one\\-note \"graces\" and whole passage \"divisions\" (also known as \"diminutions\"). The suggestions for producing effective ornaments without disrupting the line and harmony are discussed alongside countless examples in the 16th and early 17th century Italian division tutors. Graces such as the accento, portar della voce, tremolo, groppo, trillo, esclamationo and intonatio are all to be considered by performers of any music in this period.", "\"Cornetts and trombones...play divisions that are neither scrappy, nor so wild and involved that they spoil the underlying melody and the composer's design: but are introduced at such moments and with such vivacity and charm that they give the music the greatest beauty and spirit\"\nBottrigari, Venice 1594Bottrigari, Il desiderio, overo de' concerti di varii strumenti musicali, Venice 1594", "Along with the [improvisation](/wiki/Improvisation \"Improvisation\"), many of these tutors discuss [articulation](/wiki/Articulation_%28music%29 \"Articulation (music)\"). [Francesco Rognoni](/wiki/Francesco_Rognoni_Taeggio \"Francesco Rognoni Taeggio\") in 1620 describes the [tonguing](/wiki/Tonguing \"Tonguing\") as the most important part of producing \"a good and beautiful effect in playing wind instruments, and principally the cornett\"Francesco Rognoni Taeggio, {{IMSLP\\|work\\=Selva de varii passaggi (Rognoni Taeggio, Francesco)\\|cname\\=''Selva de varii passaggi''}} (Milan: Filippo Lomazzo, 1620\\): {{Page needed\\|date\\=June 2017}} (which of course had a very similar role to the trombone).{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2015}} The treatises discuss the various strengths of [consonants](/wiki/Consonant \"Consonant\") from \"le\" through \"de\" to \"te\". But the focus of the text is for playing rapid notes \"similar to the gorgia of the human voice\" with \"soft and smooth\" double tonguing (\"lingua riversa\") using \"le re le re\". This is opposed to using \"te che te che\", which is described as \"harsh, barbarous and displeasing\". The natural 'pairing' of notes these articulations provide is similar to the instructions for string players who are instructed to slur (\"lireggiar\") pairs of eighth notes with one bow stroke per quarter beat.", "Another integral part of the early music sound\\-world is the musical temperament. Music in the middle\\-ages favours intervals of the fourth and fifth, which is why [Pythagorean tuning](/wiki/Pythagorean_tuning \"Pythagorean tuning\") was used. The interval of a third was used as a [clash](/wiki/Consonance_and_dissonance \"Consonance and dissonance\") until the Renaissance, when it became [consonant](/wiki/Consonance_and_dissonance \"Consonance and dissonance\") in compositions, which went hand\\-in\\-hand with the widespread use of [meantone](/wiki/Meantone \"Meantone\") temperament.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2015}} During the 17th century, [Well temperament](/wiki/Well_temperament \"Well temperament\") began to become more and more popular as the range of keys increased. Temperament affects the [colour](/wiki/Timbre \"Timbre\") of a [composition](/wiki/Musical_composition \"Musical composition\"), and therefore modern performances, typically employing [equal temperament](/wiki/Equal_temperament \"Equal temperament\"), may not be true representations of the composers' intentions.", "{{see also\\|Just intonation}}\nThese old [tunings](/wiki/Musical_tuning \"Musical tuning\") are the result of the natural [harmonic series](/wiki/Harmonic_series_%28music%29 \"Harmonic series (music)\") of a brass instrument such as the sackbut. \n[thumb\\|500px\\|center\\|Natural harmonic series on C, 1 to 32, showing the F slightly sharp by 16\\.5 [cents](/wiki/Just_intonation%23Staff_notation \"Just intonation#Staff notation\") {{audio\\|Harmonics to 32\\.mid\\|Play}}](/wiki/File:Harmonics_to_32.png \"Harmonics to 32.png\")", "As the bell is smaller than a modern trombone, the harmonic series is closer to a perfect harmonic series, which is the basis for just tuning. Without adjusting the slide, the first to second harmonic is a perfect octave, second to third harmonic is a fifth slightly wider than equal temperament and fourth to fifth harmonic is a major third slightly narrower than in equal temperament. These adjusted intervals make chords ring and are the basis of meantone.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2015}} In fact, Daniel Speer says \"Once you have found a good C (third position), this is also the place you will find your F{{music\\|\\#}}.”{{cite quote\\|date\\=July 2012}} Playing a sounding C and F{{music\\|\\#}} in exactly the same position on a modern [orchestra](/wiki/Orchestra \"Orchestra\") sounds out of tune, but it tunes perfectly well on in a sackbut choir if everyone plays natural harmonics.", "[thumb\\|400px\\|center\\|Excerpt from a trombone part from a Picchi canzon (1625\\). The [baritone clef](/wiki/Clef_%28music%29 \"Clef (music)\") seen here is very common for trombone parts of this era.](/wiki/File:Picchi_canzon_decima_terza_-_trombone.png \"Picchi canzon decima terza - trombone.png\")", "Plenty of musical understanding can be gathered from reading the original music print. Publishers such as SPES{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.spes\\-editore.com/\\|title\\=StackPath\\|website\\=Spes\\-editore.com\\|access\\-date\\=22 April 2021}} and Arnaldo Forni Edition provide facsimile copies of plenty of music for trombone from this era. To read these it one needs to become familiar with the old [clefs](/wiki/Clef \"Clef\"), [time signatures](/wiki/Time_signature \"Time signature\"), [ligatures](/wiki/Ligature_%28music%29 \"Ligature (music)\") and notational conventions of the era.", "" ]
Repertoire ---------- ### Before 1600 The sackbut replaced the slide trumpet in the 15th century [alta capella](/wiki/Alta_capella "Alta capella") wind bands that were common in towns throughout [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe") playing [courtly dance](/wiki/Historical_dance "Historical dance") music. See [Waits](/wiki/Wait_%28musician%29 "Wait (musician)"). Another key use of the trombone was in ceremonies, in conjunction with the trumpet. In many towns in Germany and Northern Italy, '[piffari](/wiki/Piffari "Piffari")' bands were employed by local governments throughout the 16th century to give regular concerts in public squares and would lead processions for festivals. Piffari usually contained a mix of wind, brass and percussion instruments and sometimes viols.Selfridge\-Field, Eleanor (1975, rev. 1994\), *Venetian Instrumental Music*, {{page needed\|date\=February 2011}}. USA: Dover Publications. {{ISBN\|0\-486\-28151\-5}}. Venice's doge had his own piffari company and they gave an hour\-long concert in the Piazza each day, as well as sometimes performing for services in St. Mark's. Each of the six confraternities in Venice also had their own independent piffari groups too, which would all play at a lavish procession on the feast of Corpus Domini. These groups are in addition to the musicians employed by St. Mark's to play in the balconies with the choir (the piffari would play on the main level). It also was used in [church music](/wiki/Church_music "Church music") both for instrumental service music and as a doubling instrument for [choral music](/wiki/Choral_music "Choral music"). The treble and high alto parts were most often played by [cornetts](/wiki/Cornett "Cornett") or [shawms](/wiki/Shawm "Shawm"), with the [violin](/wiki/Violin "Violin") sometimes replacing the cornett in 17th century [Italian music](/wiki/Italian_classical_music "Italian classical music"). The first record of trombones being used in churches was in Innsbruck 1503\. Seville Cathedral's records show employment of trombonists in 1526, followed by several other Spanish cathedrals during the 16th century, used not only for ceremonial music and processionals, but also for accompaniment of the liturgical texts as well, doubling voices.Herbert (2006\), p. 101\. The sacred use of trombones was brought to a fine art by the [Andrea Gabrieli](/wiki/Andrea_Gabrieli "Andrea Gabrieli"), [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli "Giovanni Gabrieli") and their contemporaries c.1570\-1620 [Venice](/wiki/Venice "Venice") and there is also evidence of trombonists being employed in churches and cathedrals in Italy at times during the second half of the 16th century in Bologna, Rome, Padua, Mantua and Modena. Since ensembles had flexible instrumentation at this time, there is relatively little music before [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli "Giovanni Gabrieli")'s publication *Symphoniae sacrae* (1597\) that specifically mentions trombones. The only example currently known is the music by [Francesco Corteccia](/wiki/Francesco_Corteccia "Francesco Corteccia") for the Medici wedding 1539\.Herbert (2006\), p. 91 ### 1600–1700 [thumb\|250px\|Musicians from 'Procession in honour of Our Lady of Sablon in Brussels.' Early 17th\-century Flemish [alta cappella](/wiki/Alta_cappella "Alta cappella"). From left to right: bass [dulcian](/wiki/Dulcian "Dulcian"), alto [shawm](/wiki/Shawm "Shawm"), treble [cornett](/wiki/Cornett "Cornett"), soprano shawm, alto shawm, tenor sackbut.](/wiki/File:Musicians_from_%27Procession_in_honour_of_Our_Lady_of_Sablon_in_Brussels%27.jpg "Musicians from 'Procession in honour of Our Lady of Sablon in Brussels'.jpg") #### Solo The 17th century brings two pieces of real solo trombone repertoire. [Giovanni Martino Cesare](/wiki/Giovanni_Martino_Cesare "Giovanni Martino Cesare") wrote *La Hieronyma,* (Musikverlag Max Hieber, MH6012\) the earliest known piece for accompanied solo trombone. It comes from Cesare's collection *Musicali Melodie per voci et instrumenti a una, due, tre, quattro, cinque, e sei* published in Munich 1621 of 28 pieces for a mixture of violins, cornetts, trombone, vocal soloists and organ continuo. The collection also contains *La Bavara* for four trombones. The other solo trombone piece of the 17th century, *Sonata trombone \& basso* (modern edition by H Weiner, Ensemble Publications), was written around 1665\. This anonymous piece is also known as the 'St. Thomas Sonata' because it was kept in the library of the Saint Thomas Augustinian Monastery in Brno, Czech Republic. [Francesco Rognoni](/wiki/Francesco_Rognoni "Francesco Rognoni") was another composer who specified the trombone in a set of divisions (variations) on the well\-known song *Suzanne ung jour* (London Pro Musica, REP15\). Rognoni was a master violin and gamba player whose treatise *Selva di Varie passaggi secondo l'uso moderno* (Milan 1620 and facsimile reprint by Arnaldo Forni Editore 2001\) details improvisation of diminutions and Suzanne is given as one example. Although most diminutions are written for organ, string instruments or cornett, Suzanne is "per violone over Trombone alla bastarda". With virtuosic semiquaver passages across the range of the instrument, it reflects Praetorius' comments about the large range of the tenor and bass trombones, and good players of the Quartposaune (bass trombone in F) could play fast runs and leaps like a viola bastarda or cornetto. The term "bastarda" describes a technique that made variations on all the different voices of a part song, rather than just the melody or the bass: "considered illegitimate because it was not polyphonic".Selfridge\-Field (1994\), p. 309\. #### Chamber music In the 17th century, a considerable repertoire of [chamber music](/wiki/Chamber_music "Chamber music") using sackbut with various combinations of violins, cornetts and [dulcians](/wiki/Dulcian "Dulcian"), often with [continuo](/wiki/Basso_continuo "Basso continuo"), appeared. Composers included [Dario Castello](/wiki/Dario_Castello "Dario Castello"), [Giovanni Battista Fontana](/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Fontana_%28composer%29 "Giovanni Battista Fontana (composer)"), [Giovanni Paolo Cima](/wiki/Giovanni_Paolo_Cima "Giovanni Paolo Cima"), [Andrea Cima](/wiki/Andrea_Cima "Andrea Cima"), [Johann Heinrich Schmelzer](/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Schmelzer "Johann Heinrich Schmelzer") and [Matthias Weckmann](/wiki/Matthias_Weckmann "Matthias Weckmann"). [Antonio Bertali](/wiki/Antonio_Bertali "Antonio Bertali") wrote several trio sonatas for 2 violins, trombone and bass continuo in the mid\-17th century. One such *Sonata a 3* is freely available in facsimile form from the Düben Collection website hosted by [Uppsala universitet](/wiki/Uppsala_universitet "Uppsala universitet").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.musik.uu.se/duben/presentationSource.php?Select\_Dnr\=2075 \|title\=Bertali, Sonata a 3, Düben Collection \|access\-date\=10 December 2007 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080103214405/http://www.musik.uu.se/duben/presentationSource.php?Select\_Dnr\=2075 \|archive\-date\=3 January 2008 \|url\-status\=dead \|df\=dmy\-all }} A "Sonata a3 in C" is published by Musica Rara and attributed to Biber, although the authorship is unclear and it is more likely to have been written by Bertali.{{Cite AV media notes \|title\=Virtuoso in the Making – Biber \|first\=Kati \|last\=Debretzeni \|date\=2002 \|others\=Ricordo \|url\=http://www.linnrecords.com/recording\-virtuoso\-in\-the\-making\-\-\-biber\-hdcd.aspx \|type\=CD liner notes \|publisher\=\[\[Linn Records]] \|id\=CKD195 \|location\=Glasgow \|url\-status\=deviated \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224035423/http://www.linnrecords.com/recording\-virtuoso\-in\-the\-making\-\-\-biber\-hdcd.aspx \|archive\-date\=24 February 2007}} [Dario Castello](/wiki/Dario_Castello "Dario Castello"), a wind player at St. Mark's Venice in the early 17th century had two books of *Sonate Concertate* published in 1621 and 1629\. The sonatas of 1\-4 parts with bass continuo often specify trombones, as well as cornett, violin and bassoon. The numerous reprints during the 17th century affirm his popularity then, as perhaps now. [Giuseppe Scarani](/wiki/Giuseppe_Scarani "Giuseppe Scarani") joined St. Mark's Venice in 1629 as a singer and in the following year published *Sonate concertate*, a volume of works for 2 or 3 (unspecified) instruments (and b.c.). The title has been suggested was chosen to try and capture some of Castello's success. [Tiburtio Massaino](/wiki/Tiburtio_Massaino "Tiburtio Massaino") wrote a Canzona for eight trombones, published in Raverio's 1608 collection. [Johann Heinrich Schmelzer](/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Schmelzer "Johann Heinrich Schmelzer") wrote several sonatas that included trombones—such as his *Sonata à 7* for two cornetts, two trumpets, three trombones, and basso continuo. [Daniel Speer](/wiki/Daniel_Speer "Daniel Speer") published a four\-part sonata in *Neu\-gebachene Taffel\-Schnitz* (1685\). In 1687, Speer published the first written instruction in sackbut (and several other instruments) playing: *Grund\-richtiger/kurtz/leicht und noethiger Unterricht der Musicalischen Kunst*. The second edition in 1697 provides two three part sonatas for trombones. An English work of note from this period is [Matthew Locke](/wiki/Matthew_Locke_%28composer%29 "Matthew Locke (composer)")'s *Music for His Majestys Sagbutts and Cornetts*, a suite for Charles II's coronation 1661\.Herbert (2006\), p. 98\. #### Light music Non\-serious music, often based on dances for festive occasions, rarely had specified instrumentation. Often you find something like "per diversi musici". Indeed, the groups that would perform them would often be full of multi\-instrumentalists.Herbert (2006\), pp. 98–99\. [Johann Pezel](/wiki/Johann_Pezel "Johann Pezel") wrote for [Stadtpfeifer](/wiki/Alta_Capella "Alta Capella") with his *Hora decima musicorum* (1670\), containing sonatas, as well as *Fünff\-stimmigte blasende Music* (1685\) with five\-part intradas and dance pieces. Well known pieces from Germany includes [Samuel Scheidt](/wiki/Samuel_Scheidt "Samuel Scheidt")'s *Ludi Musici* (1621\) and [Johann Hermann Schein](/wiki/Johann_Hermann_Schein "Johann Hermann Schein")'s *Banchetto musicale* (1617\). The first English piece scored for trombone is [John Adson](/wiki/John_Adson "John Adson")'s *Courtly Masquing Ayres* (1611\). Another light collection suitable for including trombones is [Anthony Holborne](/wiki/Anthony_Holborne "Anthony Holborne")'s *Pavans, Galliards, Allmains, and other short Aeirs both Grave and Light in Five Parts for Viols, Violins or Other Musicall Winde Instruments* (1599\). #### Sacred music [thumb\|Musicians gallery from the funeral of Charles III, Duke of Lorraine. The gallery has a mix of instruments and musicians including singers, sackbuts, bass [shawms](/wiki/Shawm "Shawm"), [cornetts](/wiki/Cornett "Cornett"), [lutes](/wiki/Lute "Lute"), [viols](/wiki/Viol "Viol") (both bowed and plucked).](/wiki/File:Musicians_gallery_from_the_funeral_of_Charles_III%2C_Duke_of_Lorraine_%28sharpened_image%29.jpg "Musicians gallery from the funeral of Charles III, Duke of Lorraine (sharpened image).jpg") ##### Venice Trombonists were in the regular ensemble at St. Mark's Venice from its formation in 1568 until they left the payroll in 1732\.Selfridge\-Field (1994\), pp. 15–21\. The first two ensemble directors—*maestro di concerti*—[Girolamo Dalla Casa](/wiki/Girolamo_Dalla_Casa "Girolamo Dalla Casa") (1568–1601\) and [Giovanni Bassano](/wiki/Giovanni_Bassano "Giovanni Bassano") (1601–1617\)—were cornett players and the nucleus of the group was two cornetts and two trombones, although for the larger ceremonies many extra players were hired. During a mass attended by the Doge, evidence suggests they would have played a canzona in the Gradual after the Epistle and the Agnus Dei, a sonata in the Offertory as well as reinforcing vocal parts or substituting for absent singers.Selfridge\-Field (1994\), pp. 22–23\. This ensemble was used extensively by [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli "Giovanni Gabrieli") in pieces substantially for brass, voices and organ in Venice up until his death in 1612\. He was greatly influential in Venetian composers in other churches and confraternities, and his early baroque and cori spezzati style is seen in contemporaries like [Giovanni Picchi](/wiki/Giovanni_Picchi "Giovanni Picchi") and [Giovanni Battista Grillo](/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Grillo "Giovanni Battista Grillo"). It is suggested that [Monteverdi](/wiki/Monteverdi "Monteverdi") wrote his *[Vespro della Beata Vergine](/wiki/Vespro_della_Beata_Vergine "Vespro della Beata Vergine")* (1610\) as a pitch for employment at St. Mark's as successor to [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli "Giovanni Gabrieli"). In addition to the Magnificat, two movements specify trombones: the opening "Deus in adiutorium" is for six voices, two violins, two cornetts, three trombones, five viole da braccio and basso continuo; Sonata sopra "Sancta Maria, ora pro nobis" is for soprano, two violins, two cornetts, three trombones (one of which can be a [viola da braccio](/wiki/Viola_da_braccio_%28instrument%29 "Viola da braccio (instrument)")) and basso continuo. Monteverdi also leaves the option to use trombones as part of the "sex instrumentis" of the *Dixit Dominus* and in the instrumental *Ritornello a 5* between verses of *Ave maris stella*.Carter, T, "Monteverdi" Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Retrieved 2 January 2008\). From around 1617, when the *maestro de' concerti* at St. Marks changed to violinist [Francesco Bonfante](/wiki/Francesco_Bonfante "Francesco Bonfante") and correspondingly the ensemble changed from basically a brass ensemble to being more evenly mixed with brass, wind and string instruments. [Monteverdi](/wiki/Monteverdi "Monteverdi") arrived at St. Mark's in 1613 and it is unsurprising that he includes trombones and strings for several more sacred works during his time here, published in his *[Selva morale e spirituale](/wiki/Selva_morale_e_spirituale "Selva morale e spirituale")* 1641\. Of the c.40 items in this collection, six specify three or four trombones (or [viola da braccio](/wiki/Viola_da_braccio_%28instrument%29 "Viola da braccio (instrument)"), ad lib): SV268 Beatus vir I, SV263 Dixit Dominus I, SV263 Dixit Dominus II, SV261 Et iterum venturus est, SV258 Gloria in excelsis Deo, SV281 Magnificat I. Each is for 3\-8 voices with 3 violins (apart from SV261\), the trombones/violas and basso continuo. Monteverdi also specified trombones in two more sacred works: SV198 Laetatus sum (i) (1650\) for 6 voices, 2 violins, 2 trombones and bassoon and SV272 Laudate Dominum omnes gentes I (1641\) for 5 voices 'concertato', 4 voice chorus ad lib, 4 viola da braccio or trombones and basso continuo. ##### Germany/Austria A prolific composer for trombones in Germany in the 17th century was [Heinrich Schütz](/wiki/Heinrich_Sch%C3%BCtz "Heinrich Schütz"). His *Fili me, Absalon* (SWV 269\) and *Attendite, popule meus* (SWV 270\), are both scored for bass voice, four trombones (of which two are optionally violins) and basso continuo, are well known. They are part of his first *[Symphoniae Sacrae](/wiki/Symphoniae_sacrae_I "Symphoniae sacrae I")* collection dating from 1629 and commentators have noted that the style reflects his studies in Venice with [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli "Giovanni Gabrieli") 1609–1612\. Other pieces that specify trombones (according to Grove) are (grouped by the collection they were published in): Concert mit 11 Stimmen (1618\): SWV 21, in *[Psalmen Davids](/wiki/Psalmen_Davids "Psalmen Davids")* (Psalms of David) Op. 2 (1619\): SWV 38, 40–46, Symphoniae sacrae I Op.6 (1629\): SWV 259, 269–271, 274, Symphoniae sacrae II Op.10 (1647\): [SWV 344](/wiki/SWV_344 "SWV 344"), Symphoniae sacrae III Op. 12 (1650\): SWV 398a, Historia (1664\): SWV 435, 448, 449, 453, 461, 452, 466–470, 473, 474–476, [Schwanengesang](/wiki/Schwanengesang "Schwanengesang") Psalm 119 (1671\): SWV 500, although many others are suitable for trombones too.L. Hübsch\-Pfleger: "Schütz", Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Retrieved 10 December 2007\) [Johann Hermann Schein](/wiki/Johann_Hermann_Schein "Johann Hermann Schein") specified trombones in some of his sacred vocal works in the *Opella nova, ander Theil, geistlicher Concerten* collection (Leipzig, 1626\). For example, *Uns ist ein Kind geboren* is scored for violino, traversa, alto trombone, tenor voice, fagotto and basso continuo. *Mach dich auf, werde licht, Zion* uses Canto 1: violino, cornetto, flauto picciolo e voce, Canto 2: voce e traversa, Alto: Trombone e Voce, Tenore: Voce e Trombone, Basso: Fagotto Trombone e Voce and Basso Continuo, during which solos for each of the trombonists are specified. Of particular interest is *Maria, gegrüsset seist du, Holdselige,* which uses soprano and tenor voices, alto trombone, 2 tenor trombones and on the bass line "trombone grosso," which goes down to pedal A, and a couple of diatonic scale passages from bottom C.Bärenreiter scores, 1986 German composer [Johann Rudolf Ahle](/wiki/Johann_Rudolf_Ahle "Johann Rudolf Ahle") wrote some notable sacred pieces for voices and trombones. *Höre, Gott* uses five favoriti singers, two ripieno choirs (which double other parts at intense moments) and seven trombones, with basso continuo. And his most famous *Neu\-gepflanzte Thüringische Lust\-Garten..* (1657–65\) contains several sacred works with 3 or 4 trombones, including *Magnificat a 8* for SATB soloists, cornett, 3 trombones and continuo and *Herr nun lässestu deinen Diener a 5* for bass, 4 trombones and continuo.[Uwe Wolf](/wiki/Uwe_Wolf_%28musicologist%29 "Uwe Wolf (musicologist)"), Programme notes to BIS\-CD\-821, 1996 [Dieterich Buxtehude](/wiki/Dieterich_Buxtehude "Dieterich Buxtehude") specifies trombones in a few sacred concertos using style derived from polychoral Venetian works and one secular piece. For example, *Gott fähret auf mit Jauchzen* (BuxWV33 from CW v, 44\) is scored for SSB voices, 2 violins, 2 violas, trombones, 2 cornetts, 2 trumpets, bassoon and basso continuo.Grove—Buxtehude{{Full citation needed\|date\=August 2015}} (Retrieved 16 February 2008\) There are a few vocal works involving trombones in works by [Andreas Hammerschmidt](/wiki/Andreas_Hammerschmidt "Andreas Hammerschmidt"). These include *Lob\- und Danck Lied aus dem 84\. Psalm* for 9 voices, 5 trumpets, 3 trombones, 5 violas and basso continuo (Freiberg, 1652\). There is also *Hochzeitsgesang für Daniel Sartorius: Es ist nicht gut, dass der Mensch allein sei* for 5 voices, 2 violins, 2 trombones, bassoon and basso continuo.Grove—Hammerschmidt{{Full citation needed\|date\=August 2015}} (Retrieved 16 February 2008\) [Johann Schelle](/wiki/Johann_Schelle "Johann Schelle") has numerous sacred vocal works that use trombones. For instance *Vom Himmel kam der Engel Schar* is scored for soprano, tenor, SSATB choir, 2 violins, 2 violas, 2 cornetts, 3 trombones, 2 trumpets, timpani, basso continuo, and *Lobe den Herrn, meine Seele* is for two choirs of SSATB and similar instruments to the previous work.Grove—Schelle{{Full citation needed\|date\=August 2015}} (Retrieved 16 February 2008\) The lesser known Austrian composer [Christoph Strauss](/wiki/Christoph_Strauss "Christoph Strauss"), Kapellmeister to the Habsburg Emperor Mathias 1616–1620, wrote two important collections for trombones, cornetts and voices. His motets published in Nova ac diversimoda sacrarum cantionum composition, seu motettae (Vienna, 1613\) are in a similar tradition to Gabrieli's music. Of the sixteen motets in the collection, all are titled "concerto" apart from the "sonata" *Expectans Expectavi Dominum* for 6 trombones, cantus voice and tenor voice. In 1631 he published a number of masses, which were much more baroque, with basso continuo, rhetorical [word painting](/wiki/Word_painting "Word painting") and obligato usage of instruments.Dickey, Bruce: CD liner notes, Christoph Strauss, *Missa Maria concertata \& Motetten*, Harmonia Mundi 905243 Later in the 17th century, [Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber](/wiki/Heinrich_Ignaz_Franz_Biber "Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber") composed sacred works for voices and orchestra featuring trombones. His *Requiem* mass (1692\) uses an orchestra of strings, 3 trombones and basso continuo. A similar ensemble accompanies 8 vocal lines in his *Lux perpetua* (c1673\), and three more similar works in the 1690s.Grove—Biber{{Full citation needed\|date\=August 2015}} (Retrieved 16 February 2008\) #### Theatre [Monteverdi](/wiki/Monteverdi "Monteverdi") ushers sackbuts into the first great opera, '[L'Orfeo](/wiki/L%27Orfeo "L'Orfeo")' 1607\. The orchestra at the first performance, as shown in the first publication, the list of "stromenti" at the front of the score specifies four trombones, but at one point in Act 3, however, the score calls for five trombones. ### 1700–1750 There is relatively little repertoire for the trombone in the late baroque. [Johann Sebastian Bach](/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach "Johann Sebastian Bach") uses trombones in fourteen of his church cantatas—[BWV 2](/wiki/BWV_2 "BWV 2"), [3](/wiki/BWV_3 "BWV 3"), [4](/wiki/BWV_4 "BWV 4"), [21](/wiki/BWV_21 "BWV 21"), [23](/wiki/BWV_23 "BWV 23"), [25](/wiki/BWV_25 "BWV 25"), [28](/wiki/BWV_28 "BWV 28"), [38](/wiki/BWV_38 "BWV 38"), [64](/wiki/BWV_64 "BWV 64"), [68](/wiki/BWV_68 "BWV 68"), [96](/wiki/BWV_96 "BWV 96"), [101](/wiki/BWV_101 "BWV 101"), [121](/wiki/BWV_121 "BWV 121"), [135](/wiki/BWV_135 "BWV 135")—as well as motet [BWV 118](/wiki/BWV_118 "BWV 118"). He uses the trombone sound to reflect the (by now) archaic sounds of the Renaissance trombones doubling voices (with [cornett](/wiki/Cornett "Cornett") playing the soprano line), yet he also uses them independently, which John Eliot Gardiner says prepares the way for their use in [Beethoven](/wiki/Beethoven "Beethoven")'s Symphony No. 5\.[John Eliot Gardiner, liner notes to Bach cantatas CD SDG127](http://www.monteverdiproductions.co.uk/resources/sdg127_gb.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070123194408/http://www.monteverdiproductions.co.uk/resources/sdg127\_gb.pdf \|date\=23 January 2007 }} (Retrieved 10 December 2007\) The cantatas were either composed in Leipzig during 1723–1725, or (for BWV 4, 21 \& 23\) the trombone parts were added to the existing cantata during the same period. The cornett and trombone parts would have been played by the [Stadtpfeifer](/wiki/Stadtpfeifer "Stadtpfeifer").C. Wolff etc: "Bach", Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Retrieved 10 December 2007\) In England, [George Frideric Handel](/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel "George Frideric Handel") includes trombones in three of his oratorios: *Saul* (1738\), *Israel in Egypt* (1738\) and *Samson* (1741\). There are no other documented groups or performances with trombone players in England at this time, and it has been suggested that the premiers took place with a visiting group from Germany, as was the custom in Paris at this time. Vienna's Imperial court used trombones in church music: [Johann Joseph Fux](/wiki/Johann_Joseph_Fux "Johann Joseph Fux") was Hofkapellmeister in Vienna from 1715 until 1741\. Many of his masses use the choir strengthened by strings, cornetts and trombones, often with independent moments for the instrumentalists and sometimes. *Missa SS Trinitatis* uses two choirs, which again points to the traditions going back to Gabrieli. His highly successful Requiem is for five vocal parts, two cornetts, two trombones, strings and continuo. He also uses the trombone in smaller motets and antiphons, such as his setting of *Alma Redemptoris mater* for soprano, alto trombone, strings and continuo. Some of his chamber music involves trombones, as do many of his operas, used as an obbligato instrument.C. Wolff etc: "Fux", Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Retrieved 17 March 2008\) Also in the Vienna court was [Antonio Caldara](/wiki/Antonio_Caldara "Antonio Caldara"), vice\-kapellmeister 1717–1736\. Among his output are two Holy Week settings as Da Capo arias: *Deh sciogliete, o mesti lumi* for soprano, unison violins, bassoon, two trombones and organ and *Dio, qual sia* for soprano, trombone, bassoon and basso continuo.C. Wolff etc: "Caldara", Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Retrieved 17 March 2008\) ### 1750–1800 Again this period suffers from a lack of trombone players.{{Clarify\|date\=May 2016}} Most of these works derive from Vienna and Salzburg. [Joseph Haydn](/wiki/Joseph_Haydn "Joseph Haydn") uses trombones in *Il rotorno di Tobia*, *Die sieben letzten Worte*, *[The Creation](/wiki/The_Creation_%28Haydn%29 "The Creation (Haydn)")*, *[Die Jahreszeiten](/wiki/The_Seasons_%28Haydn%29 "The Seasons (Haydn)")*, *Der Sturm*, *Orfeo ed Euridice* and secular cantata choruses. [Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart](/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart") uses trombones in connection with death or the supernatural. This includes the [Requiem](/wiki/Requiem_%28Mozart%29 "Requiem (Mozart)") (K626, 1791\), [Great Mass in C minor](/wiki/Great_Mass_in_C_minor "Great Mass in C minor") (K423, 1783\), *Coronation Mass (C major)* (K317, 1779\), several other masses, *Vesperae Solennes de Confessore* (K339, 1780\), *Vesperae de Dominica*, his arrangement of [Handel](/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel "George Frideric Handel")'s *Messiah* plus two of his three great operas: *[Don Giovanni](/wiki/Don_Giovanni "Don Giovanni")* (K527, 1787\) and *[Die Zauberflöte](/wiki/The_Magic_Flute "The Magic Flute")* (K620, 1791\). Mozart's first use of the trombone was an obligato line in the oratorio *[Die Schuldigkeit des ersten Gebots](/wiki/Die_Schuldigkeit_des_ersten_Gebots "Die Schuldigkeit des ersten Gebots")* (K35, 1767\) [Christoph Willibald Gluck](/wiki/Christoph_Willibald_Gluck "Christoph Willibald Gluck") includes trombones in five of his operas: *Iphigénie en Aulide* (1774\), [Orfeo ed Euridice](/wiki/Orfeo_ed_Euridice "Orfeo ed Euridice") (1774\), *Alceste* (1776\), *[Iphigénie en Tauride](/wiki/Iphig%C3%A9nie_en_Tauride "Iphigénie en Tauride")* (1779\) and *Echo et Narcisse* (1779\), as well as ballet *Don Juan* (1761\).Brown, "B A: Gluck, Christoph Willibald, Ritter von", Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Retrieved 10 December 2007\) Some chamber music in this period includes trombone in an obligato role with voice, and also as a concerto instrument with string orchestra. Composers include the likes of [Leopold Mozart](/wiki/Leopold_Mozart "Leopold Mozart"), [Georg Christoph Wagenseil](/wiki/Georg_Christoph_Wagenseil "Georg Christoph Wagenseil"), [Johann Albrechtsberger](/wiki/Johann_Albrechtsberger "Johann Albrechtsberger"), [Michael Haydn](/wiki/Michael_Haydn "Michael Haydn") and [Johann Ernst Eberlin](/wiki/Johann_Ernst_Eberlin "Johann Ernst Eberlin"). For works for trombone post\-1800, please see [trombone](/wiki/Trombone "Trombone").
[ "Repertoire\n----------", "### Before 1600", "The sackbut replaced the slide trumpet in the 15th century [alta capella](/wiki/Alta_capella \"Alta capella\") wind bands that were common in towns throughout [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") playing [courtly dance](/wiki/Historical_dance \"Historical dance\") music. See [Waits](/wiki/Wait_%28musician%29 \"Wait (musician)\").", "Another key use of the trombone was in ceremonies, in conjunction with the trumpet. In many towns in Germany and Northern Italy, '[piffari](/wiki/Piffari \"Piffari\")' bands were employed by local governments throughout the 16th century to give regular concerts in public squares and would lead processions for festivals. Piffari usually contained a mix of wind, brass and percussion instruments and sometimes viols.Selfridge\\-Field, Eleanor (1975, rev. 1994\\), *Venetian Instrumental Music*, {{page needed\\|date\\=February 2011}}. USA: Dover Publications. {{ISBN\\|0\\-486\\-28151\\-5}}.", "Venice's doge had his own piffari company and they gave an hour\\-long concert in the Piazza each day, as well as sometimes performing for services in St. Mark's. Each of the six confraternities in Venice also had their own independent piffari groups too, which would all play at a lavish procession on the feast of Corpus Domini. These groups are in addition to the musicians employed by St. Mark's to play in the balconies with the choir (the piffari would play on the main level).", "It also was used in [church music](/wiki/Church_music \"Church music\") both for instrumental service music and as a doubling instrument for [choral music](/wiki/Choral_music \"Choral music\"). The treble and high alto parts were most often played by [cornetts](/wiki/Cornett \"Cornett\") or [shawms](/wiki/Shawm \"Shawm\"), with the [violin](/wiki/Violin \"Violin\") sometimes replacing the cornett in 17th century [Italian music](/wiki/Italian_classical_music \"Italian classical music\").", "The first record of trombones being used in churches was in Innsbruck 1503\\. Seville Cathedral's records show employment of trombonists in 1526, followed by several other Spanish cathedrals during the 16th century, used not only for ceremonial music and processionals, but also for accompaniment of the liturgical texts as well, doubling voices.Herbert (2006\\), p. 101\\.", "The sacred use of trombones was brought to a fine art by the [Andrea Gabrieli](/wiki/Andrea_Gabrieli \"Andrea Gabrieli\"), [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli \"Giovanni Gabrieli\") and their contemporaries c.1570\\-1620 [Venice](/wiki/Venice \"Venice\") and there is also evidence of trombonists being employed in churches and cathedrals in Italy at times during the second half of the 16th century in Bologna, Rome, Padua, Mantua and Modena.", "Since ensembles had flexible instrumentation at this time, there is relatively little music before [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli \"Giovanni Gabrieli\")'s publication *Symphoniae sacrae* (1597\\) that specifically mentions trombones. The only example currently known is the music by [Francesco Corteccia](/wiki/Francesco_Corteccia \"Francesco Corteccia\") for the Medici wedding 1539\\.Herbert (2006\\), p. 91", "### 1600–1700", "[thumb\\|250px\\|Musicians from 'Procession in honour of Our Lady of Sablon in Brussels.' Early 17th\\-century Flemish [alta cappella](/wiki/Alta_cappella \"Alta cappella\"). From left to right: bass [dulcian](/wiki/Dulcian \"Dulcian\"), alto [shawm](/wiki/Shawm \"Shawm\"), treble [cornett](/wiki/Cornett \"Cornett\"), soprano shawm, alto shawm, tenor sackbut.](/wiki/File:Musicians_from_%27Procession_in_honour_of_Our_Lady_of_Sablon_in_Brussels%27.jpg \"Musicians from 'Procession in honour of Our Lady of Sablon in Brussels'.jpg\")\n#### Solo", "The 17th century brings two pieces of real solo trombone repertoire.", "[Giovanni Martino Cesare](/wiki/Giovanni_Martino_Cesare \"Giovanni Martino Cesare\") wrote *La Hieronyma,* (Musikverlag Max Hieber, MH6012\\) the earliest known piece for accompanied solo trombone. It comes from Cesare's collection *Musicali Melodie per voci et instrumenti a una, due, tre, quattro, cinque, e sei* published in Munich 1621 of 28 pieces for a mixture of violins, cornetts, trombone, vocal soloists and organ continuo. The collection also contains *La Bavara* for four trombones.", "The other solo trombone piece of the 17th century, *Sonata trombone \\& basso* (modern edition by H Weiner, Ensemble Publications), was written around 1665\\. This anonymous piece is also known as the 'St. Thomas Sonata' because it was kept in the library of the Saint Thomas Augustinian Monastery in Brno, Czech Republic.", "[Francesco Rognoni](/wiki/Francesco_Rognoni \"Francesco Rognoni\") was another composer who specified the trombone in a set of divisions (variations) on the well\\-known song *Suzanne ung jour* (London Pro Musica, REP15\\). Rognoni was a master violin and gamba player whose treatise *Selva di Varie passaggi secondo l'uso moderno* (Milan 1620 and facsimile reprint by Arnaldo Forni Editore 2001\\) details improvisation of diminutions and Suzanne is given as one example. Although most diminutions are written for organ, string instruments or cornett, Suzanne is \"per violone over Trombone alla bastarda\". With virtuosic semiquaver passages across the range of the instrument, it reflects Praetorius' comments about the large range of the tenor and bass trombones, and good players of the Quartposaune (bass trombone in F) could play fast runs and leaps like a viola bastarda or cornetto. The term \"bastarda\" describes a technique that made variations on all the different voices of a part song, rather than just the melody or the bass: \"considered illegitimate because it was not polyphonic\".Selfridge\\-Field (1994\\), p. 309\\.", "#### Chamber music", "In the 17th century, a considerable repertoire of [chamber music](/wiki/Chamber_music \"Chamber music\") using sackbut with various combinations of violins, cornetts and [dulcians](/wiki/Dulcian \"Dulcian\"), often with [continuo](/wiki/Basso_continuo \"Basso continuo\"), appeared. Composers included [Dario Castello](/wiki/Dario_Castello \"Dario Castello\"), [Giovanni Battista Fontana](/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Fontana_%28composer%29 \"Giovanni Battista Fontana (composer)\"), [Giovanni Paolo Cima](/wiki/Giovanni_Paolo_Cima \"Giovanni Paolo Cima\"), [Andrea Cima](/wiki/Andrea_Cima \"Andrea Cima\"), [Johann Heinrich Schmelzer](/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Schmelzer \"Johann Heinrich Schmelzer\") and [Matthias Weckmann](/wiki/Matthias_Weckmann \"Matthias Weckmann\").", "[Antonio Bertali](/wiki/Antonio_Bertali \"Antonio Bertali\") wrote several trio sonatas for 2 violins, trombone and bass continuo in the mid\\-17th century. One such *Sonata a 3* is freely available in facsimile form from the Düben Collection website hosted by [Uppsala universitet](/wiki/Uppsala_universitet \"Uppsala universitet\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.musik.uu.se/duben/presentationSource.php?Select\\_Dnr\\=2075 \\|title\\=Bertali, Sonata a 3, Düben Collection \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2007 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080103214405/http://www.musik.uu.se/duben/presentationSource.php?Select\\_Dnr\\=2075 \\|archive\\-date\\=3 January 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }} A \"Sonata a3 in C\" is published by Musica Rara and attributed to Biber, although the authorship is unclear and it is more likely to have been written by Bertali.{{Cite AV media notes \\|title\\=Virtuoso in the Making – Biber \\|first\\=Kati \\|last\\=Debretzeni \\|date\\=2002 \\|others\\=Ricordo \\|url\\=http://www.linnrecords.com/recording\\-virtuoso\\-in\\-the\\-making\\-\\-\\-biber\\-hdcd.aspx \\|type\\=CD liner notes \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Linn Records]] \\|id\\=CKD195 \\|location\\=Glasgow \\|url\\-status\\=deviated \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224035423/http://www.linnrecords.com/recording\\-virtuoso\\-in\\-the\\-making\\-\\-\\-biber\\-hdcd.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=24 February 2007}}", "[Dario Castello](/wiki/Dario_Castello \"Dario Castello\"), a wind player at St. Mark's Venice in the early 17th century had two books of *Sonate Concertate* published in 1621 and 1629\\. The sonatas of 1\\-4 parts with bass continuo often specify trombones, as well as cornett, violin and bassoon. The numerous reprints during the 17th century affirm his popularity then, as perhaps now.", "[Giuseppe Scarani](/wiki/Giuseppe_Scarani \"Giuseppe Scarani\") joined St. Mark's Venice in 1629 as a singer and in the following year published *Sonate concertate*, a volume of works for 2 or 3 (unspecified) instruments (and b.c.). The title has been suggested was chosen to try and capture some of Castello's success.", "[Tiburtio Massaino](/wiki/Tiburtio_Massaino \"Tiburtio Massaino\") wrote a Canzona for eight trombones, published in Raverio's 1608 collection.", "[Johann Heinrich Schmelzer](/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Schmelzer \"Johann Heinrich Schmelzer\") wrote several sonatas that included trombones—such as his *Sonata à 7* for two cornetts, two trumpets, three trombones, and basso continuo.", "[Daniel Speer](/wiki/Daniel_Speer \"Daniel Speer\") published a four\\-part sonata in *Neu\\-gebachene Taffel\\-Schnitz* (1685\\). In 1687, Speer published the first written instruction in sackbut (and several other instruments) playing: *Grund\\-richtiger/kurtz/leicht und noethiger Unterricht der Musicalischen Kunst*. The second edition in 1697 provides two three part sonatas for trombones.", "An English work of note from this period is [Matthew Locke](/wiki/Matthew_Locke_%28composer%29 \"Matthew Locke (composer)\")'s *Music for His Majestys Sagbutts and Cornetts*, a suite for Charles II's coronation 1661\\.Herbert (2006\\), p. 98\\.", "#### Light music", "Non\\-serious music, often based on dances for festive occasions, rarely had specified instrumentation. Often you find something like \"per diversi musici\". Indeed, the groups that would perform them would often be full of multi\\-instrumentalists.Herbert (2006\\), pp. 98–99\\.", "[Johann Pezel](/wiki/Johann_Pezel \"Johann Pezel\") wrote for [Stadtpfeifer](/wiki/Alta_Capella \"Alta Capella\") with his *Hora decima musicorum* (1670\\), containing sonatas, as well as *Fünff\\-stimmigte blasende Music* (1685\\) with five\\-part intradas and dance pieces.", "Well known pieces from Germany includes [Samuel Scheidt](/wiki/Samuel_Scheidt \"Samuel Scheidt\")'s *Ludi Musici* (1621\\) and [Johann Hermann Schein](/wiki/Johann_Hermann_Schein \"Johann Hermann Schein\")'s *Banchetto musicale* (1617\\).", "The first English piece scored for trombone is [John Adson](/wiki/John_Adson \"John Adson\")'s *Courtly Masquing Ayres* (1611\\). Another light collection suitable for including trombones is [Anthony Holborne](/wiki/Anthony_Holborne \"Anthony Holborne\")'s *Pavans, Galliards, Allmains, and other short Aeirs both Grave and Light in Five Parts for Viols, Violins or Other Musicall Winde Instruments* (1599\\).", "#### Sacred music", "[thumb\\|Musicians gallery from the funeral of Charles III, Duke of Lorraine. The gallery has a mix of instruments and musicians including singers, sackbuts, bass [shawms](/wiki/Shawm \"Shawm\"), [cornetts](/wiki/Cornett \"Cornett\"), [lutes](/wiki/Lute \"Lute\"), [viols](/wiki/Viol \"Viol\") (both bowed and plucked).](/wiki/File:Musicians_gallery_from_the_funeral_of_Charles_III%2C_Duke_of_Lorraine_%28sharpened_image%29.jpg \"Musicians gallery from the funeral of Charles III, Duke of Lorraine (sharpened image).jpg\")", "##### Venice", "Trombonists were in the regular ensemble at St. Mark's Venice from its formation in 1568 until they left the payroll in 1732\\.Selfridge\\-Field (1994\\), pp. 15–21\\. The first two ensemble directors—*maestro di concerti*—[Girolamo Dalla Casa](/wiki/Girolamo_Dalla_Casa \"Girolamo Dalla Casa\") (1568–1601\\) and [Giovanni Bassano](/wiki/Giovanni_Bassano \"Giovanni Bassano\") (1601–1617\\)—were cornett players and the nucleus of the group was two cornetts and two trombones, although for the larger ceremonies many extra players were hired. During a mass attended by the Doge, evidence suggests they would have played a canzona in the Gradual after the Epistle and the Agnus Dei, a sonata in the Offertory as well as reinforcing vocal parts or substituting for absent singers.Selfridge\\-Field (1994\\), pp. 22–23\\.", "This ensemble was used extensively by [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli \"Giovanni Gabrieli\") in pieces substantially for brass, voices and organ in Venice up until his death in 1612\\. He was greatly influential in Venetian composers in other churches and confraternities, and his early baroque and cori spezzati style is seen in contemporaries like [Giovanni Picchi](/wiki/Giovanni_Picchi \"Giovanni Picchi\") and [Giovanni Battista Grillo](/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Grillo \"Giovanni Battista Grillo\").", "It is suggested that [Monteverdi](/wiki/Monteverdi \"Monteverdi\") wrote his *[Vespro della Beata Vergine](/wiki/Vespro_della_Beata_Vergine \"Vespro della Beata Vergine\")* (1610\\) as a pitch for employment at St. Mark's as successor to [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli \"Giovanni Gabrieli\"). In addition to the Magnificat, two movements specify trombones: the opening \"Deus in adiutorium\" is for six voices, two violins, two cornetts, three trombones, five viole da braccio and basso continuo; Sonata sopra \"Sancta Maria, ora pro nobis\" is for soprano, two violins, two cornetts, three trombones (one of which can be a [viola da braccio](/wiki/Viola_da_braccio_%28instrument%29 \"Viola da braccio (instrument)\")) and basso continuo. Monteverdi also leaves the option to use trombones as part of the \"sex instrumentis\" of the *Dixit Dominus* and in the instrumental *Ritornello a 5* between verses of *Ave maris stella*.Carter, T, \"Monteverdi\" Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Retrieved 2 January 2008\\).", "From around 1617, when the *maestro de' concerti* at St. Marks changed to violinist [Francesco Bonfante](/wiki/Francesco_Bonfante \"Francesco Bonfante\") and correspondingly the ensemble changed from basically a brass ensemble to being more evenly mixed with brass, wind and string instruments.", "[Monteverdi](/wiki/Monteverdi \"Monteverdi\") arrived at St. Mark's in 1613 and it is unsurprising that he includes trombones and strings for several more sacred works during his time here, published in his *[Selva morale e spirituale](/wiki/Selva_morale_e_spirituale \"Selva morale e spirituale\")* 1641\\. Of the c.40 items in this collection, six specify three or four trombones (or [viola da braccio](/wiki/Viola_da_braccio_%28instrument%29 \"Viola da braccio (instrument)\"), ad lib): SV268 Beatus vir I, SV263 Dixit Dominus I, SV263 Dixit Dominus II, SV261 Et iterum venturus est, SV258 Gloria in excelsis Deo, SV281 Magnificat I. Each is for 3\\-8 voices with 3 violins (apart from SV261\\), the trombones/violas and basso continuo. Monteverdi also specified trombones in two more sacred works: SV198 Laetatus sum (i) (1650\\) for 6 voices, 2 violins, 2 trombones and bassoon and SV272 Laudate Dominum omnes gentes I (1641\\) for 5 voices 'concertato', 4 voice chorus ad lib, 4 viola da braccio or trombones and basso continuo.", "##### Germany/Austria", "A prolific composer for trombones in Germany in the 17th century was [Heinrich Schütz](/wiki/Heinrich_Sch%C3%BCtz \"Heinrich Schütz\"). His *Fili me, Absalon* (SWV 269\\) and *Attendite, popule meus* (SWV 270\\), are both scored for bass voice, four trombones (of which two are optionally violins) and basso continuo, are well known. They are part of his first *[Symphoniae Sacrae](/wiki/Symphoniae_sacrae_I \"Symphoniae sacrae I\")* collection dating from 1629 and commentators have noted that the style reflects his studies in Venice with [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli \"Giovanni Gabrieli\") 1609–1612\\. Other pieces that specify trombones (according to Grove) are (grouped by the collection they were published in): Concert mit 11 Stimmen (1618\\): SWV 21, in *[Psalmen Davids](/wiki/Psalmen_Davids \"Psalmen Davids\")* (Psalms of David) Op. 2 (1619\\): SWV 38, 40–46, Symphoniae sacrae I Op.6 (1629\\): SWV 259, 269–271, 274, Symphoniae sacrae II Op.10 (1647\\): [SWV 344](/wiki/SWV_344 \"SWV 344\"), Symphoniae sacrae III Op. 12 (1650\\): SWV 398a, Historia (1664\\): SWV 435, 448, 449, 453, 461, 452, 466–470, 473, 474–476, [Schwanengesang](/wiki/Schwanengesang \"Schwanengesang\") Psalm 119 (1671\\): SWV 500, although many others are suitable for trombones too.L. Hübsch\\-Pfleger: \"Schütz\", Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Retrieved 10 December 2007\\)", "[Johann Hermann Schein](/wiki/Johann_Hermann_Schein \"Johann Hermann Schein\") specified trombones in some of his sacred vocal works in the *Opella nova, ander Theil, geistlicher Concerten* collection (Leipzig, 1626\\). For example, *Uns ist ein Kind geboren* is scored for violino, traversa, alto trombone, tenor voice, fagotto and basso continuo. *Mach dich auf, werde licht, Zion* uses Canto 1: violino, cornetto, flauto picciolo e voce, Canto 2: voce e traversa, Alto: Trombone e Voce, Tenore: Voce e Trombone, Basso: Fagotto Trombone e Voce and Basso Continuo, during which solos for each of the trombonists are specified. Of particular interest is *Maria, gegrüsset seist du, Holdselige,* which uses soprano and tenor voices, alto trombone, 2 tenor trombones and on the bass line \"trombone grosso,\" which goes down to pedal A, and a couple of diatonic scale passages from bottom C.Bärenreiter scores, 1986", "German composer [Johann Rudolf Ahle](/wiki/Johann_Rudolf_Ahle \"Johann Rudolf Ahle\") wrote some notable sacred pieces for voices and trombones. *Höre, Gott* uses five favoriti singers, two ripieno choirs (which double other parts at intense moments) and seven trombones, with basso continuo. And his most famous *Neu\\-gepflanzte Thüringische Lust\\-Garten..* (1657–65\\) contains several sacred works with 3 or 4 trombones, including *Magnificat a 8* for SATB soloists, cornett, 3 trombones and continuo and *Herr nun lässestu deinen Diener a 5* for bass, 4 trombones and continuo.[Uwe Wolf](/wiki/Uwe_Wolf_%28musicologist%29 \"Uwe Wolf (musicologist)\"), Programme notes to BIS\\-CD\\-821, 1996", "[Dieterich Buxtehude](/wiki/Dieterich_Buxtehude \"Dieterich Buxtehude\") specifies trombones in a few sacred concertos using style derived from polychoral Venetian works and one secular piece. For example, *Gott fähret auf mit Jauchzen* (BuxWV33 from CW v, 44\\) is scored for SSB voices, 2 violins, 2 violas, trombones, 2 cornetts, 2 trumpets, bassoon and basso continuo.Grove—Buxtehude{{Full citation needed\\|date\\=August 2015}} (Retrieved 16 February 2008\\)", "There are a few vocal works involving trombones in works by [Andreas Hammerschmidt](/wiki/Andreas_Hammerschmidt \"Andreas Hammerschmidt\"). These include *Lob\\- und Danck Lied aus dem 84\\. Psalm* for 9 voices, 5 trumpets, 3 trombones, 5 violas and basso continuo (Freiberg, 1652\\). There is also *Hochzeitsgesang für Daniel Sartorius: Es ist nicht gut, dass der Mensch allein sei* for 5 voices, 2 violins, 2 trombones, bassoon and basso continuo.Grove—Hammerschmidt{{Full citation needed\\|date\\=August 2015}} (Retrieved 16 February 2008\\)", "[Johann Schelle](/wiki/Johann_Schelle \"Johann Schelle\") has numerous sacred vocal works that use trombones. For instance *Vom Himmel kam der Engel Schar* is scored for soprano, tenor, SSATB choir, 2 violins, 2 violas, 2 cornetts, 3 trombones, 2 trumpets, timpani, basso continuo, and *Lobe den Herrn, meine Seele* is for two choirs of SSATB and similar instruments to the previous work.Grove—Schelle{{Full citation needed\\|date\\=August 2015}} (Retrieved 16 February 2008\\)", "The lesser known Austrian composer [Christoph Strauss](/wiki/Christoph_Strauss \"Christoph Strauss\"), Kapellmeister to the Habsburg Emperor Mathias 1616–1620, wrote two important collections for trombones, cornetts and voices. His motets published in Nova ac diversimoda sacrarum cantionum composition, seu motettae (Vienna, 1613\\) are in a similar tradition to Gabrieli's music. Of the sixteen motets in the collection, all are titled \"concerto\" apart from the \"sonata\" *Expectans Expectavi Dominum* for 6 trombones, cantus voice and tenor voice. In 1631 he published a number of masses, which were much more baroque, with basso continuo, rhetorical [word painting](/wiki/Word_painting \"Word painting\") and obligato usage of instruments.Dickey, Bruce: CD liner notes, Christoph Strauss, *Missa Maria concertata \\& Motetten*, Harmonia Mundi 905243", "Later in the 17th century, [Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber](/wiki/Heinrich_Ignaz_Franz_Biber \"Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber\") composed sacred works for voices and orchestra featuring trombones. His *Requiem* mass (1692\\) uses an orchestra of strings, 3 trombones and basso continuo. A similar ensemble accompanies 8 vocal lines in his *Lux perpetua* (c1673\\), and three more similar works in the 1690s.Grove—Biber{{Full citation needed\\|date\\=August 2015}} (Retrieved 16 February 2008\\)", "#### Theatre", "[Monteverdi](/wiki/Monteverdi \"Monteverdi\") ushers sackbuts into the first great opera, '[L'Orfeo](/wiki/L%27Orfeo \"L'Orfeo\")' 1607\\. The orchestra at the first performance, as shown in the first publication, the list of \"stromenti\" at the front of the score specifies four trombones, but at one point in Act 3, however, the score calls for five trombones.", "### 1700–1750", "There is relatively little repertoire for the trombone in the late baroque.", "[Johann Sebastian Bach](/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach \"Johann Sebastian Bach\") uses trombones in fourteen of his church cantatas—[BWV 2](/wiki/BWV_2 \"BWV 2\"), [3](/wiki/BWV_3 \"BWV 3\"), [4](/wiki/BWV_4 \"BWV 4\"), [21](/wiki/BWV_21 \"BWV 21\"), [23](/wiki/BWV_23 \"BWV 23\"), [25](/wiki/BWV_25 \"BWV 25\"), [28](/wiki/BWV_28 \"BWV 28\"), [38](/wiki/BWV_38 \"BWV 38\"), [64](/wiki/BWV_64 \"BWV 64\"), [68](/wiki/BWV_68 \"BWV 68\"), [96](/wiki/BWV_96 \"BWV 96\"), [101](/wiki/BWV_101 \"BWV 101\"), [121](/wiki/BWV_121 \"BWV 121\"), [135](/wiki/BWV_135 \"BWV 135\")—as well as motet [BWV 118](/wiki/BWV_118 \"BWV 118\"). He uses the trombone sound to reflect the (by now) archaic sounds of the Renaissance trombones doubling voices (with [cornett](/wiki/Cornett \"Cornett\") playing the soprano line), yet he also uses them independently, which John Eliot Gardiner says prepares the way for their use in [Beethoven](/wiki/Beethoven \"Beethoven\")'s Symphony No. 5\\.[John Eliot Gardiner, liner notes to Bach cantatas CD SDG127](http://www.monteverdiproductions.co.uk/resources/sdg127_gb.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070123194408/http://www.monteverdiproductions.co.uk/resources/sdg127\\_gb.pdf \\|date\\=23 January 2007 }} (Retrieved 10 December 2007\\) The cantatas were either composed in Leipzig during 1723–1725, or (for BWV 4, 21 \\& 23\\) the trombone parts were added to the existing cantata during the same period. The cornett and trombone parts would have been played by the [Stadtpfeifer](/wiki/Stadtpfeifer \"Stadtpfeifer\").C. Wolff etc: \"Bach\", Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Retrieved 10 December 2007\\)", "In England, [George Frideric Handel](/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel \"George Frideric Handel\") includes trombones in three of his oratorios: *Saul* (1738\\), *Israel in Egypt* (1738\\) and *Samson* (1741\\). There are no other documented groups or performances with trombone players in England at this time, and it has been suggested that the premiers took place with a visiting group from Germany, as was the custom in Paris at this time.", "Vienna's Imperial court used trombones in church music:", "[Johann Joseph Fux](/wiki/Johann_Joseph_Fux \"Johann Joseph Fux\") was Hofkapellmeister in Vienna from 1715 until 1741\\. Many of his masses use the choir strengthened by strings, cornetts and trombones, often with independent moments for the instrumentalists and sometimes. *Missa SS Trinitatis* uses two choirs, which again points to the traditions going back to Gabrieli. His highly successful Requiem is for five vocal parts, two cornetts, two trombones, strings and continuo. He also uses the trombone in smaller motets and antiphons, such as his setting of *Alma Redemptoris mater* for soprano, alto trombone, strings and continuo. Some of his chamber music involves trombones, as do many of his operas, used as an obbligato instrument.C. Wolff etc: \"Fux\", Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Retrieved 17 March 2008\\)", "Also in the Vienna court was [Antonio Caldara](/wiki/Antonio_Caldara \"Antonio Caldara\"), vice\\-kapellmeister 1717–1736\\. Among his output are two Holy Week settings as Da Capo arias: *Deh sciogliete, o mesti lumi* for soprano, unison violins, bassoon, two trombones and organ and *Dio, qual sia* for soprano, trombone, bassoon and basso continuo.C. Wolff etc: \"Caldara\", Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Retrieved 17 March 2008\\)", "### 1750–1800", "Again this period suffers from a lack of trombone players.{{Clarify\\|date\\=May 2016}} Most of these works derive from Vienna and Salzburg.", "[Joseph Haydn](/wiki/Joseph_Haydn \"Joseph Haydn\") uses trombones in *Il rotorno di Tobia*, *Die sieben letzten Worte*, *[The Creation](/wiki/The_Creation_%28Haydn%29 \"The Creation (Haydn)\")*, *[Die Jahreszeiten](/wiki/The_Seasons_%28Haydn%29 \"The Seasons (Haydn)\")*, *Der Sturm*, *Orfeo ed Euridice* and secular cantata choruses.", "[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart](/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart \"Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart\") uses trombones in connection with death or the supernatural. This includes the [Requiem](/wiki/Requiem_%28Mozart%29 \"Requiem (Mozart)\") (K626, 1791\\), [Great Mass in C minor](/wiki/Great_Mass_in_C_minor \"Great Mass in C minor\") (K423, 1783\\), *Coronation Mass (C major)* (K317, 1779\\), several other masses, *Vesperae Solennes de Confessore* (K339, 1780\\), *Vesperae de Dominica*, his arrangement of [Handel](/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel \"George Frideric Handel\")'s *Messiah* plus two of his three great operas: *[Don Giovanni](/wiki/Don_Giovanni \"Don Giovanni\")* (K527, 1787\\) and *[Die Zauberflöte](/wiki/The_Magic_Flute \"The Magic Flute\")* (K620, 1791\\). Mozart's first use of the trombone was an obligato line in the oratorio *[Die Schuldigkeit des ersten Gebots](/wiki/Die_Schuldigkeit_des_ersten_Gebots \"Die Schuldigkeit des ersten Gebots\")* (K35, 1767\\)", "[Christoph Willibald Gluck](/wiki/Christoph_Willibald_Gluck \"Christoph Willibald Gluck\") includes trombones in five of his operas: *Iphigénie en Aulide* (1774\\), [Orfeo ed Euridice](/wiki/Orfeo_ed_Euridice \"Orfeo ed Euridice\") (1774\\), *Alceste* (1776\\), *[Iphigénie en Tauride](/wiki/Iphig%C3%A9nie_en_Tauride \"Iphigénie en Tauride\")* (1779\\) and *Echo et Narcisse* (1779\\), as well as ballet *Don Juan* (1761\\).Brown, \"B A: Gluck, Christoph Willibald, Ritter von\", Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Retrieved 10 December 2007\\)", "Some chamber music in this period includes trombone in an obligato role with voice, and also as a concerto instrument with string orchestra. Composers include the likes of [Leopold Mozart](/wiki/Leopold_Mozart \"Leopold Mozart\"), [Georg Christoph Wagenseil](/wiki/Georg_Christoph_Wagenseil \"Georg Christoph Wagenseil\"), [Johann Albrechtsberger](/wiki/Johann_Albrechtsberger \"Johann Albrechtsberger\"), [Michael Haydn](/wiki/Michael_Haydn \"Michael Haydn\") and [Johann Ernst Eberlin](/wiki/Johann_Ernst_Eberlin \"Johann Ernst Eberlin\").", "For works for trombone post\\-1800, please see [trombone](/wiki/Trombone \"Trombone\").", "" ]
### Before 1600 The sackbut replaced the slide trumpet in the 15th century [alta capella](/wiki/Alta_capella "Alta capella") wind bands that were common in towns throughout [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe") playing [courtly dance](/wiki/Historical_dance "Historical dance") music. See [Waits](/wiki/Wait_%28musician%29 "Wait (musician)"). Another key use of the trombone was in ceremonies, in conjunction with the trumpet. In many towns in Germany and Northern Italy, '[piffari](/wiki/Piffari "Piffari")' bands were employed by local governments throughout the 16th century to give regular concerts in public squares and would lead processions for festivals. Piffari usually contained a mix of wind, brass and percussion instruments and sometimes viols.Selfridge\-Field, Eleanor (1975, rev. 1994\), *Venetian Instrumental Music*, {{page needed\|date\=February 2011}}. USA: Dover Publications. {{ISBN\|0\-486\-28151\-5}}. Venice's doge had his own piffari company and they gave an hour\-long concert in the Piazza each day, as well as sometimes performing for services in St. Mark's. Each of the six confraternities in Venice also had their own independent piffari groups too, which would all play at a lavish procession on the feast of Corpus Domini. These groups are in addition to the musicians employed by St. Mark's to play in the balconies with the choir (the piffari would play on the main level). It also was used in [church music](/wiki/Church_music "Church music") both for instrumental service music and as a doubling instrument for [choral music](/wiki/Choral_music "Choral music"). The treble and high alto parts were most often played by [cornetts](/wiki/Cornett "Cornett") or [shawms](/wiki/Shawm "Shawm"), with the [violin](/wiki/Violin "Violin") sometimes replacing the cornett in 17th century [Italian music](/wiki/Italian_classical_music "Italian classical music"). The first record of trombones being used in churches was in Innsbruck 1503\. Seville Cathedral's records show employment of trombonists in 1526, followed by several other Spanish cathedrals during the 16th century, used not only for ceremonial music and processionals, but also for accompaniment of the liturgical texts as well, doubling voices.Herbert (2006\), p. 101\. The sacred use of trombones was brought to a fine art by the [Andrea Gabrieli](/wiki/Andrea_Gabrieli "Andrea Gabrieli"), [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli "Giovanni Gabrieli") and their contemporaries c.1570\-1620 [Venice](/wiki/Venice "Venice") and there is also evidence of trombonists being employed in churches and cathedrals in Italy at times during the second half of the 16th century in Bologna, Rome, Padua, Mantua and Modena. Since ensembles had flexible instrumentation at this time, there is relatively little music before [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli "Giovanni Gabrieli")'s publication *Symphoniae sacrae* (1597\) that specifically mentions trombones. The only example currently known is the music by [Francesco Corteccia](/wiki/Francesco_Corteccia "Francesco Corteccia") for the Medici wedding 1539\.Herbert (2006\), p. 91
[ "### Before 1600", "The sackbut replaced the slide trumpet in the 15th century [alta capella](/wiki/Alta_capella \"Alta capella\") wind bands that were common in towns throughout [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") playing [courtly dance](/wiki/Historical_dance \"Historical dance\") music. See [Waits](/wiki/Wait_%28musician%29 \"Wait (musician)\").", "Another key use of the trombone was in ceremonies, in conjunction with the trumpet. In many towns in Germany and Northern Italy, '[piffari](/wiki/Piffari \"Piffari\")' bands were employed by local governments throughout the 16th century to give regular concerts in public squares and would lead processions for festivals. Piffari usually contained a mix of wind, brass and percussion instruments and sometimes viols.Selfridge\\-Field, Eleanor (1975, rev. 1994\\), *Venetian Instrumental Music*, {{page needed\\|date\\=February 2011}}. USA: Dover Publications. {{ISBN\\|0\\-486\\-28151\\-5}}.", "Venice's doge had his own piffari company and they gave an hour\\-long concert in the Piazza each day, as well as sometimes performing for services in St. Mark's. Each of the six confraternities in Venice also had their own independent piffari groups too, which would all play at a lavish procession on the feast of Corpus Domini. These groups are in addition to the musicians employed by St. Mark's to play in the balconies with the choir (the piffari would play on the main level).", "It also was used in [church music](/wiki/Church_music \"Church music\") both for instrumental service music and as a doubling instrument for [choral music](/wiki/Choral_music \"Choral music\"). The treble and high alto parts were most often played by [cornetts](/wiki/Cornett \"Cornett\") or [shawms](/wiki/Shawm \"Shawm\"), with the [violin](/wiki/Violin \"Violin\") sometimes replacing the cornett in 17th century [Italian music](/wiki/Italian_classical_music \"Italian classical music\").", "The first record of trombones being used in churches was in Innsbruck 1503\\. Seville Cathedral's records show employment of trombonists in 1526, followed by several other Spanish cathedrals during the 16th century, used not only for ceremonial music and processionals, but also for accompaniment of the liturgical texts as well, doubling voices.Herbert (2006\\), p. 101\\.", "The sacred use of trombones was brought to a fine art by the [Andrea Gabrieli](/wiki/Andrea_Gabrieli \"Andrea Gabrieli\"), [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli \"Giovanni Gabrieli\") and their contemporaries c.1570\\-1620 [Venice](/wiki/Venice \"Venice\") and there is also evidence of trombonists being employed in churches and cathedrals in Italy at times during the second half of the 16th century in Bologna, Rome, Padua, Mantua and Modena.", "Since ensembles had flexible instrumentation at this time, there is relatively little music before [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli \"Giovanni Gabrieli\")'s publication *Symphoniae sacrae* (1597\\) that specifically mentions trombones. The only example currently known is the music by [Francesco Corteccia](/wiki/Francesco_Corteccia \"Francesco Corteccia\") for the Medici wedding 1539\\.Herbert (2006\\), p. 91", "" ]
### 1600–1700 [thumb\|250px\|Musicians from 'Procession in honour of Our Lady of Sablon in Brussels.' Early 17th\-century Flemish [alta cappella](/wiki/Alta_cappella "Alta cappella"). From left to right: bass [dulcian](/wiki/Dulcian "Dulcian"), alto [shawm](/wiki/Shawm "Shawm"), treble [cornett](/wiki/Cornett "Cornett"), soprano shawm, alto shawm, tenor sackbut.](/wiki/File:Musicians_from_%27Procession_in_honour_of_Our_Lady_of_Sablon_in_Brussels%27.jpg "Musicians from 'Procession in honour of Our Lady of Sablon in Brussels'.jpg") #### Solo The 17th century brings two pieces of real solo trombone repertoire. [Giovanni Martino Cesare](/wiki/Giovanni_Martino_Cesare "Giovanni Martino Cesare") wrote *La Hieronyma,* (Musikverlag Max Hieber, MH6012\) the earliest known piece for accompanied solo trombone. It comes from Cesare's collection *Musicali Melodie per voci et instrumenti a una, due, tre, quattro, cinque, e sei* published in Munich 1621 of 28 pieces for a mixture of violins, cornetts, trombone, vocal soloists and organ continuo. The collection also contains *La Bavara* for four trombones. The other solo trombone piece of the 17th century, *Sonata trombone \& basso* (modern edition by H Weiner, Ensemble Publications), was written around 1665\. This anonymous piece is also known as the 'St. Thomas Sonata' because it was kept in the library of the Saint Thomas Augustinian Monastery in Brno, Czech Republic. [Francesco Rognoni](/wiki/Francesco_Rognoni "Francesco Rognoni") was another composer who specified the trombone in a set of divisions (variations) on the well\-known song *Suzanne ung jour* (London Pro Musica, REP15\). Rognoni was a master violin and gamba player whose treatise *Selva di Varie passaggi secondo l'uso moderno* (Milan 1620 and facsimile reprint by Arnaldo Forni Editore 2001\) details improvisation of diminutions and Suzanne is given as one example. Although most diminutions are written for organ, string instruments or cornett, Suzanne is "per violone over Trombone alla bastarda". With virtuosic semiquaver passages across the range of the instrument, it reflects Praetorius' comments about the large range of the tenor and bass trombones, and good players of the Quartposaune (bass trombone in F) could play fast runs and leaps like a viola bastarda or cornetto. The term "bastarda" describes a technique that made variations on all the different voices of a part song, rather than just the melody or the bass: "considered illegitimate because it was not polyphonic".Selfridge\-Field (1994\), p. 309\. #### Chamber music In the 17th century, a considerable repertoire of [chamber music](/wiki/Chamber_music "Chamber music") using sackbut with various combinations of violins, cornetts and [dulcians](/wiki/Dulcian "Dulcian"), often with [continuo](/wiki/Basso_continuo "Basso continuo"), appeared. Composers included [Dario Castello](/wiki/Dario_Castello "Dario Castello"), [Giovanni Battista Fontana](/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Fontana_%28composer%29 "Giovanni Battista Fontana (composer)"), [Giovanni Paolo Cima](/wiki/Giovanni_Paolo_Cima "Giovanni Paolo Cima"), [Andrea Cima](/wiki/Andrea_Cima "Andrea Cima"), [Johann Heinrich Schmelzer](/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Schmelzer "Johann Heinrich Schmelzer") and [Matthias Weckmann](/wiki/Matthias_Weckmann "Matthias Weckmann"). [Antonio Bertali](/wiki/Antonio_Bertali "Antonio Bertali") wrote several trio sonatas for 2 violins, trombone and bass continuo in the mid\-17th century. One such *Sonata a 3* is freely available in facsimile form from the Düben Collection website hosted by [Uppsala universitet](/wiki/Uppsala_universitet "Uppsala universitet").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.musik.uu.se/duben/presentationSource.php?Select\_Dnr\=2075 \|title\=Bertali, Sonata a 3, Düben Collection \|access\-date\=10 December 2007 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080103214405/http://www.musik.uu.se/duben/presentationSource.php?Select\_Dnr\=2075 \|archive\-date\=3 January 2008 \|url\-status\=dead \|df\=dmy\-all }} A "Sonata a3 in C" is published by Musica Rara and attributed to Biber, although the authorship is unclear and it is more likely to have been written by Bertali.{{Cite AV media notes \|title\=Virtuoso in the Making – Biber \|first\=Kati \|last\=Debretzeni \|date\=2002 \|others\=Ricordo \|url\=http://www.linnrecords.com/recording\-virtuoso\-in\-the\-making\-\-\-biber\-hdcd.aspx \|type\=CD liner notes \|publisher\=\[\[Linn Records]] \|id\=CKD195 \|location\=Glasgow \|url\-status\=deviated \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224035423/http://www.linnrecords.com/recording\-virtuoso\-in\-the\-making\-\-\-biber\-hdcd.aspx \|archive\-date\=24 February 2007}} [Dario Castello](/wiki/Dario_Castello "Dario Castello"), a wind player at St. Mark's Venice in the early 17th century had two books of *Sonate Concertate* published in 1621 and 1629\. The sonatas of 1\-4 parts with bass continuo often specify trombones, as well as cornett, violin and bassoon. The numerous reprints during the 17th century affirm his popularity then, as perhaps now. [Giuseppe Scarani](/wiki/Giuseppe_Scarani "Giuseppe Scarani") joined St. Mark's Venice in 1629 as a singer and in the following year published *Sonate concertate*, a volume of works for 2 or 3 (unspecified) instruments (and b.c.). The title has been suggested was chosen to try and capture some of Castello's success. [Tiburtio Massaino](/wiki/Tiburtio_Massaino "Tiburtio Massaino") wrote a Canzona for eight trombones, published in Raverio's 1608 collection. [Johann Heinrich Schmelzer](/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Schmelzer "Johann Heinrich Schmelzer") wrote several sonatas that included trombones—such as his *Sonata à 7* for two cornetts, two trumpets, three trombones, and basso continuo. [Daniel Speer](/wiki/Daniel_Speer "Daniel Speer") published a four\-part sonata in *Neu\-gebachene Taffel\-Schnitz* (1685\). In 1687, Speer published the first written instruction in sackbut (and several other instruments) playing: *Grund\-richtiger/kurtz/leicht und noethiger Unterricht der Musicalischen Kunst*. The second edition in 1697 provides two three part sonatas for trombones. An English work of note from this period is [Matthew Locke](/wiki/Matthew_Locke_%28composer%29 "Matthew Locke (composer)")'s *Music for His Majestys Sagbutts and Cornetts*, a suite for Charles II's coronation 1661\.Herbert (2006\), p. 98\. #### Light music Non\-serious music, often based on dances for festive occasions, rarely had specified instrumentation. Often you find something like "per diversi musici". Indeed, the groups that would perform them would often be full of multi\-instrumentalists.Herbert (2006\), pp. 98–99\. [Johann Pezel](/wiki/Johann_Pezel "Johann Pezel") wrote for [Stadtpfeifer](/wiki/Alta_Capella "Alta Capella") with his *Hora decima musicorum* (1670\), containing sonatas, as well as *Fünff\-stimmigte blasende Music* (1685\) with five\-part intradas and dance pieces. Well known pieces from Germany includes [Samuel Scheidt](/wiki/Samuel_Scheidt "Samuel Scheidt")'s *Ludi Musici* (1621\) and [Johann Hermann Schein](/wiki/Johann_Hermann_Schein "Johann Hermann Schein")'s *Banchetto musicale* (1617\). The first English piece scored for trombone is [John Adson](/wiki/John_Adson "John Adson")'s *Courtly Masquing Ayres* (1611\). Another light collection suitable for including trombones is [Anthony Holborne](/wiki/Anthony_Holborne "Anthony Holborne")'s *Pavans, Galliards, Allmains, and other short Aeirs both Grave and Light in Five Parts for Viols, Violins or Other Musicall Winde Instruments* (1599\). #### Sacred music [thumb\|Musicians gallery from the funeral of Charles III, Duke of Lorraine. The gallery has a mix of instruments and musicians including singers, sackbuts, bass [shawms](/wiki/Shawm "Shawm"), [cornetts](/wiki/Cornett "Cornett"), [lutes](/wiki/Lute "Lute"), [viols](/wiki/Viol "Viol") (both bowed and plucked).](/wiki/File:Musicians_gallery_from_the_funeral_of_Charles_III%2C_Duke_of_Lorraine_%28sharpened_image%29.jpg "Musicians gallery from the funeral of Charles III, Duke of Lorraine (sharpened image).jpg") ##### Venice Trombonists were in the regular ensemble at St. Mark's Venice from its formation in 1568 until they left the payroll in 1732\.Selfridge\-Field (1994\), pp. 15–21\. The first two ensemble directors—*maestro di concerti*—[Girolamo Dalla Casa](/wiki/Girolamo_Dalla_Casa "Girolamo Dalla Casa") (1568–1601\) and [Giovanni Bassano](/wiki/Giovanni_Bassano "Giovanni Bassano") (1601–1617\)—were cornett players and the nucleus of the group was two cornetts and two trombones, although for the larger ceremonies many extra players were hired. During a mass attended by the Doge, evidence suggests they would have played a canzona in the Gradual after the Epistle and the Agnus Dei, a sonata in the Offertory as well as reinforcing vocal parts or substituting for absent singers.Selfridge\-Field (1994\), pp. 22–23\. This ensemble was used extensively by [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli "Giovanni Gabrieli") in pieces substantially for brass, voices and organ in Venice up until his death in 1612\. He was greatly influential in Venetian composers in other churches and confraternities, and his early baroque and cori spezzati style is seen in contemporaries like [Giovanni Picchi](/wiki/Giovanni_Picchi "Giovanni Picchi") and [Giovanni Battista Grillo](/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Grillo "Giovanni Battista Grillo"). It is suggested that [Monteverdi](/wiki/Monteverdi "Monteverdi") wrote his *[Vespro della Beata Vergine](/wiki/Vespro_della_Beata_Vergine "Vespro della Beata Vergine")* (1610\) as a pitch for employment at St. Mark's as successor to [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli "Giovanni Gabrieli"). In addition to the Magnificat, two movements specify trombones: the opening "Deus in adiutorium" is for six voices, two violins, two cornetts, three trombones, five viole da braccio and basso continuo; Sonata sopra "Sancta Maria, ora pro nobis" is for soprano, two violins, two cornetts, three trombones (one of which can be a [viola da braccio](/wiki/Viola_da_braccio_%28instrument%29 "Viola da braccio (instrument)")) and basso continuo. Monteverdi also leaves the option to use trombones as part of the "sex instrumentis" of the *Dixit Dominus* and in the instrumental *Ritornello a 5* between verses of *Ave maris stella*.Carter, T, "Monteverdi" Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Retrieved 2 January 2008\). From around 1617, when the *maestro de' concerti* at St. Marks changed to violinist [Francesco Bonfante](/wiki/Francesco_Bonfante "Francesco Bonfante") and correspondingly the ensemble changed from basically a brass ensemble to being more evenly mixed with brass, wind and string instruments. [Monteverdi](/wiki/Monteverdi "Monteverdi") arrived at St. Mark's in 1613 and it is unsurprising that he includes trombones and strings for several more sacred works during his time here, published in his *[Selva morale e spirituale](/wiki/Selva_morale_e_spirituale "Selva morale e spirituale")* 1641\. Of the c.40 items in this collection, six specify three or four trombones (or [viola da braccio](/wiki/Viola_da_braccio_%28instrument%29 "Viola da braccio (instrument)"), ad lib): SV268 Beatus vir I, SV263 Dixit Dominus I, SV263 Dixit Dominus II, SV261 Et iterum venturus est, SV258 Gloria in excelsis Deo, SV281 Magnificat I. Each is for 3\-8 voices with 3 violins (apart from SV261\), the trombones/violas and basso continuo. Monteverdi also specified trombones in two more sacred works: SV198 Laetatus sum (i) (1650\) for 6 voices, 2 violins, 2 trombones and bassoon and SV272 Laudate Dominum omnes gentes I (1641\) for 5 voices 'concertato', 4 voice chorus ad lib, 4 viola da braccio or trombones and basso continuo. ##### Germany/Austria A prolific composer for trombones in Germany in the 17th century was [Heinrich Schütz](/wiki/Heinrich_Sch%C3%BCtz "Heinrich Schütz"). His *Fili me, Absalon* (SWV 269\) and *Attendite, popule meus* (SWV 270\), are both scored for bass voice, four trombones (of which two are optionally violins) and basso continuo, are well known. They are part of his first *[Symphoniae Sacrae](/wiki/Symphoniae_sacrae_I "Symphoniae sacrae I")* collection dating from 1629 and commentators have noted that the style reflects his studies in Venice with [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli "Giovanni Gabrieli") 1609–1612\. Other pieces that specify trombones (according to Grove) are (grouped by the collection they were published in): Concert mit 11 Stimmen (1618\): SWV 21, in *[Psalmen Davids](/wiki/Psalmen_Davids "Psalmen Davids")* (Psalms of David) Op. 2 (1619\): SWV 38, 40–46, Symphoniae sacrae I Op.6 (1629\): SWV 259, 269–271, 274, Symphoniae sacrae II Op.10 (1647\): [SWV 344](/wiki/SWV_344 "SWV 344"), Symphoniae sacrae III Op. 12 (1650\): SWV 398a, Historia (1664\): SWV 435, 448, 449, 453, 461, 452, 466–470, 473, 474–476, [Schwanengesang](/wiki/Schwanengesang "Schwanengesang") Psalm 119 (1671\): SWV 500, although many others are suitable for trombones too.L. Hübsch\-Pfleger: "Schütz", Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Retrieved 10 December 2007\) [Johann Hermann Schein](/wiki/Johann_Hermann_Schein "Johann Hermann Schein") specified trombones in some of his sacred vocal works in the *Opella nova, ander Theil, geistlicher Concerten* collection (Leipzig, 1626\). For example, *Uns ist ein Kind geboren* is scored for violino, traversa, alto trombone, tenor voice, fagotto and basso continuo. *Mach dich auf, werde licht, Zion* uses Canto 1: violino, cornetto, flauto picciolo e voce, Canto 2: voce e traversa, Alto: Trombone e Voce, Tenore: Voce e Trombone, Basso: Fagotto Trombone e Voce and Basso Continuo, during which solos for each of the trombonists are specified. Of particular interest is *Maria, gegrüsset seist du, Holdselige,* which uses soprano and tenor voices, alto trombone, 2 tenor trombones and on the bass line "trombone grosso," which goes down to pedal A, and a couple of diatonic scale passages from bottom C.Bärenreiter scores, 1986 German composer [Johann Rudolf Ahle](/wiki/Johann_Rudolf_Ahle "Johann Rudolf Ahle") wrote some notable sacred pieces for voices and trombones. *Höre, Gott* uses five favoriti singers, two ripieno choirs (which double other parts at intense moments) and seven trombones, with basso continuo. And his most famous *Neu\-gepflanzte Thüringische Lust\-Garten..* (1657–65\) contains several sacred works with 3 or 4 trombones, including *Magnificat a 8* for SATB soloists, cornett, 3 trombones and continuo and *Herr nun lässestu deinen Diener a 5* for bass, 4 trombones and continuo.[Uwe Wolf](/wiki/Uwe_Wolf_%28musicologist%29 "Uwe Wolf (musicologist)"), Programme notes to BIS\-CD\-821, 1996 [Dieterich Buxtehude](/wiki/Dieterich_Buxtehude "Dieterich Buxtehude") specifies trombones in a few sacred concertos using style derived from polychoral Venetian works and one secular piece. For example, *Gott fähret auf mit Jauchzen* (BuxWV33 from CW v, 44\) is scored for SSB voices, 2 violins, 2 violas, trombones, 2 cornetts, 2 trumpets, bassoon and basso continuo.Grove—Buxtehude{{Full citation needed\|date\=August 2015}} (Retrieved 16 February 2008\) There are a few vocal works involving trombones in works by [Andreas Hammerschmidt](/wiki/Andreas_Hammerschmidt "Andreas Hammerschmidt"). These include *Lob\- und Danck Lied aus dem 84\. Psalm* for 9 voices, 5 trumpets, 3 trombones, 5 violas and basso continuo (Freiberg, 1652\). There is also *Hochzeitsgesang für Daniel Sartorius: Es ist nicht gut, dass der Mensch allein sei* for 5 voices, 2 violins, 2 trombones, bassoon and basso continuo.Grove—Hammerschmidt{{Full citation needed\|date\=August 2015}} (Retrieved 16 February 2008\) [Johann Schelle](/wiki/Johann_Schelle "Johann Schelle") has numerous sacred vocal works that use trombones. For instance *Vom Himmel kam der Engel Schar* is scored for soprano, tenor, SSATB choir, 2 violins, 2 violas, 2 cornetts, 3 trombones, 2 trumpets, timpani, basso continuo, and *Lobe den Herrn, meine Seele* is for two choirs of SSATB and similar instruments to the previous work.Grove—Schelle{{Full citation needed\|date\=August 2015}} (Retrieved 16 February 2008\) The lesser known Austrian composer [Christoph Strauss](/wiki/Christoph_Strauss "Christoph Strauss"), Kapellmeister to the Habsburg Emperor Mathias 1616–1620, wrote two important collections for trombones, cornetts and voices. His motets published in Nova ac diversimoda sacrarum cantionum composition, seu motettae (Vienna, 1613\) are in a similar tradition to Gabrieli's music. Of the sixteen motets in the collection, all are titled "concerto" apart from the "sonata" *Expectans Expectavi Dominum* for 6 trombones, cantus voice and tenor voice. In 1631 he published a number of masses, which were much more baroque, with basso continuo, rhetorical [word painting](/wiki/Word_painting "Word painting") and obligato usage of instruments.Dickey, Bruce: CD liner notes, Christoph Strauss, *Missa Maria concertata \& Motetten*, Harmonia Mundi 905243 Later in the 17th century, [Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber](/wiki/Heinrich_Ignaz_Franz_Biber "Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber") composed sacred works for voices and orchestra featuring trombones. His *Requiem* mass (1692\) uses an orchestra of strings, 3 trombones and basso continuo. A similar ensemble accompanies 8 vocal lines in his *Lux perpetua* (c1673\), and three more similar works in the 1690s.Grove—Biber{{Full citation needed\|date\=August 2015}} (Retrieved 16 February 2008\) #### Theatre [Monteverdi](/wiki/Monteverdi "Monteverdi") ushers sackbuts into the first great opera, '[L'Orfeo](/wiki/L%27Orfeo "L'Orfeo")' 1607\. The orchestra at the first performance, as shown in the first publication, the list of "stromenti" at the front of the score specifies four trombones, but at one point in Act 3, however, the score calls for five trombones.
[ "### 1600–1700", "[thumb\\|250px\\|Musicians from 'Procession in honour of Our Lady of Sablon in Brussels.' Early 17th\\-century Flemish [alta cappella](/wiki/Alta_cappella \"Alta cappella\"). From left to right: bass [dulcian](/wiki/Dulcian \"Dulcian\"), alto [shawm](/wiki/Shawm \"Shawm\"), treble [cornett](/wiki/Cornett \"Cornett\"), soprano shawm, alto shawm, tenor sackbut.](/wiki/File:Musicians_from_%27Procession_in_honour_of_Our_Lady_of_Sablon_in_Brussels%27.jpg \"Musicians from 'Procession in honour of Our Lady of Sablon in Brussels'.jpg\")\n#### Solo", "The 17th century brings two pieces of real solo trombone repertoire.", "[Giovanni Martino Cesare](/wiki/Giovanni_Martino_Cesare \"Giovanni Martino Cesare\") wrote *La Hieronyma,* (Musikverlag Max Hieber, MH6012\\) the earliest known piece for accompanied solo trombone. It comes from Cesare's collection *Musicali Melodie per voci et instrumenti a una, due, tre, quattro, cinque, e sei* published in Munich 1621 of 28 pieces for a mixture of violins, cornetts, trombone, vocal soloists and organ continuo. The collection also contains *La Bavara* for four trombones.", "The other solo trombone piece of the 17th century, *Sonata trombone \\& basso* (modern edition by H Weiner, Ensemble Publications), was written around 1665\\. This anonymous piece is also known as the 'St. Thomas Sonata' because it was kept in the library of the Saint Thomas Augustinian Monastery in Brno, Czech Republic.", "[Francesco Rognoni](/wiki/Francesco_Rognoni \"Francesco Rognoni\") was another composer who specified the trombone in a set of divisions (variations) on the well\\-known song *Suzanne ung jour* (London Pro Musica, REP15\\). Rognoni was a master violin and gamba player whose treatise *Selva di Varie passaggi secondo l'uso moderno* (Milan 1620 and facsimile reprint by Arnaldo Forni Editore 2001\\) details improvisation of diminutions and Suzanne is given as one example. Although most diminutions are written for organ, string instruments or cornett, Suzanne is \"per violone over Trombone alla bastarda\". With virtuosic semiquaver passages across the range of the instrument, it reflects Praetorius' comments about the large range of the tenor and bass trombones, and good players of the Quartposaune (bass trombone in F) could play fast runs and leaps like a viola bastarda or cornetto. The term \"bastarda\" describes a technique that made variations on all the different voices of a part song, rather than just the melody or the bass: \"considered illegitimate because it was not polyphonic\".Selfridge\\-Field (1994\\), p. 309\\.", "#### Chamber music", "In the 17th century, a considerable repertoire of [chamber music](/wiki/Chamber_music \"Chamber music\") using sackbut with various combinations of violins, cornetts and [dulcians](/wiki/Dulcian \"Dulcian\"), often with [continuo](/wiki/Basso_continuo \"Basso continuo\"), appeared. Composers included [Dario Castello](/wiki/Dario_Castello \"Dario Castello\"), [Giovanni Battista Fontana](/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Fontana_%28composer%29 \"Giovanni Battista Fontana (composer)\"), [Giovanni Paolo Cima](/wiki/Giovanni_Paolo_Cima \"Giovanni Paolo Cima\"), [Andrea Cima](/wiki/Andrea_Cima \"Andrea Cima\"), [Johann Heinrich Schmelzer](/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Schmelzer \"Johann Heinrich Schmelzer\") and [Matthias Weckmann](/wiki/Matthias_Weckmann \"Matthias Weckmann\").", "[Antonio Bertali](/wiki/Antonio_Bertali \"Antonio Bertali\") wrote several trio sonatas for 2 violins, trombone and bass continuo in the mid\\-17th century. One such *Sonata a 3* is freely available in facsimile form from the Düben Collection website hosted by [Uppsala universitet](/wiki/Uppsala_universitet \"Uppsala universitet\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.musik.uu.se/duben/presentationSource.php?Select\\_Dnr\\=2075 \\|title\\=Bertali, Sonata a 3, Düben Collection \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2007 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080103214405/http://www.musik.uu.se/duben/presentationSource.php?Select\\_Dnr\\=2075 \\|archive\\-date\\=3 January 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }} A \"Sonata a3 in C\" is published by Musica Rara and attributed to Biber, although the authorship is unclear and it is more likely to have been written by Bertali.{{Cite AV media notes \\|title\\=Virtuoso in the Making – Biber \\|first\\=Kati \\|last\\=Debretzeni \\|date\\=2002 \\|others\\=Ricordo \\|url\\=http://www.linnrecords.com/recording\\-virtuoso\\-in\\-the\\-making\\-\\-\\-biber\\-hdcd.aspx \\|type\\=CD liner notes \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Linn Records]] \\|id\\=CKD195 \\|location\\=Glasgow \\|url\\-status\\=deviated \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224035423/http://www.linnrecords.com/recording\\-virtuoso\\-in\\-the\\-making\\-\\-\\-biber\\-hdcd.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=24 February 2007}}", "[Dario Castello](/wiki/Dario_Castello \"Dario Castello\"), a wind player at St. Mark's Venice in the early 17th century had two books of *Sonate Concertate* published in 1621 and 1629\\. The sonatas of 1\\-4 parts with bass continuo often specify trombones, as well as cornett, violin and bassoon. The numerous reprints during the 17th century affirm his popularity then, as perhaps now.", "[Giuseppe Scarani](/wiki/Giuseppe_Scarani \"Giuseppe Scarani\") joined St. Mark's Venice in 1629 as a singer and in the following year published *Sonate concertate*, a volume of works for 2 or 3 (unspecified) instruments (and b.c.). The title has been suggested was chosen to try and capture some of Castello's success.", "[Tiburtio Massaino](/wiki/Tiburtio_Massaino \"Tiburtio Massaino\") wrote a Canzona for eight trombones, published in Raverio's 1608 collection.", "[Johann Heinrich Schmelzer](/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Schmelzer \"Johann Heinrich Schmelzer\") wrote several sonatas that included trombones—such as his *Sonata à 7* for two cornetts, two trumpets, three trombones, and basso continuo.", "[Daniel Speer](/wiki/Daniel_Speer \"Daniel Speer\") published a four\\-part sonata in *Neu\\-gebachene Taffel\\-Schnitz* (1685\\). In 1687, Speer published the first written instruction in sackbut (and several other instruments) playing: *Grund\\-richtiger/kurtz/leicht und noethiger Unterricht der Musicalischen Kunst*. The second edition in 1697 provides two three part sonatas for trombones.", "An English work of note from this period is [Matthew Locke](/wiki/Matthew_Locke_%28composer%29 \"Matthew Locke (composer)\")'s *Music for His Majestys Sagbutts and Cornetts*, a suite for Charles II's coronation 1661\\.Herbert (2006\\), p. 98\\.", "#### Light music", "Non\\-serious music, often based on dances for festive occasions, rarely had specified instrumentation. Often you find something like \"per diversi musici\". Indeed, the groups that would perform them would often be full of multi\\-instrumentalists.Herbert (2006\\), pp. 98–99\\.", "[Johann Pezel](/wiki/Johann_Pezel \"Johann Pezel\") wrote for [Stadtpfeifer](/wiki/Alta_Capella \"Alta Capella\") with his *Hora decima musicorum* (1670\\), containing sonatas, as well as *Fünff\\-stimmigte blasende Music* (1685\\) with five\\-part intradas and dance pieces.", "Well known pieces from Germany includes [Samuel Scheidt](/wiki/Samuel_Scheidt \"Samuel Scheidt\")'s *Ludi Musici* (1621\\) and [Johann Hermann Schein](/wiki/Johann_Hermann_Schein \"Johann Hermann Schein\")'s *Banchetto musicale* (1617\\).", "The first English piece scored for trombone is [John Adson](/wiki/John_Adson \"John Adson\")'s *Courtly Masquing Ayres* (1611\\). Another light collection suitable for including trombones is [Anthony Holborne](/wiki/Anthony_Holborne \"Anthony Holborne\")'s *Pavans, Galliards, Allmains, and other short Aeirs both Grave and Light in Five Parts for Viols, Violins or Other Musicall Winde Instruments* (1599\\).", "#### Sacred music", "[thumb\\|Musicians gallery from the funeral of Charles III, Duke of Lorraine. The gallery has a mix of instruments and musicians including singers, sackbuts, bass [shawms](/wiki/Shawm \"Shawm\"), [cornetts](/wiki/Cornett \"Cornett\"), [lutes](/wiki/Lute \"Lute\"), [viols](/wiki/Viol \"Viol\") (both bowed and plucked).](/wiki/File:Musicians_gallery_from_the_funeral_of_Charles_III%2C_Duke_of_Lorraine_%28sharpened_image%29.jpg \"Musicians gallery from the funeral of Charles III, Duke of Lorraine (sharpened image).jpg\")", "##### Venice", "Trombonists were in the regular ensemble at St. Mark's Venice from its formation in 1568 until they left the payroll in 1732\\.Selfridge\\-Field (1994\\), pp. 15–21\\. The first two ensemble directors—*maestro di concerti*—[Girolamo Dalla Casa](/wiki/Girolamo_Dalla_Casa \"Girolamo Dalla Casa\") (1568–1601\\) and [Giovanni Bassano](/wiki/Giovanni_Bassano \"Giovanni Bassano\") (1601–1617\\)—were cornett players and the nucleus of the group was two cornetts and two trombones, although for the larger ceremonies many extra players were hired. During a mass attended by the Doge, evidence suggests they would have played a canzona in the Gradual after the Epistle and the Agnus Dei, a sonata in the Offertory as well as reinforcing vocal parts or substituting for absent singers.Selfridge\\-Field (1994\\), pp. 22–23\\.", "This ensemble was used extensively by [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli \"Giovanni Gabrieli\") in pieces substantially for brass, voices and organ in Venice up until his death in 1612\\. He was greatly influential in Venetian composers in other churches and confraternities, and his early baroque and cori spezzati style is seen in contemporaries like [Giovanni Picchi](/wiki/Giovanni_Picchi \"Giovanni Picchi\") and [Giovanni Battista Grillo](/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Grillo \"Giovanni Battista Grillo\").", "It is suggested that [Monteverdi](/wiki/Monteverdi \"Monteverdi\") wrote his *[Vespro della Beata Vergine](/wiki/Vespro_della_Beata_Vergine \"Vespro della Beata Vergine\")* (1610\\) as a pitch for employment at St. Mark's as successor to [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli \"Giovanni Gabrieli\"). In addition to the Magnificat, two movements specify trombones: the opening \"Deus in adiutorium\" is for six voices, two violins, two cornetts, three trombones, five viole da braccio and basso continuo; Sonata sopra \"Sancta Maria, ora pro nobis\" is for soprano, two violins, two cornetts, three trombones (one of which can be a [viola da braccio](/wiki/Viola_da_braccio_%28instrument%29 \"Viola da braccio (instrument)\")) and basso continuo. Monteverdi also leaves the option to use trombones as part of the \"sex instrumentis\" of the *Dixit Dominus* and in the instrumental *Ritornello a 5* between verses of *Ave maris stella*.Carter, T, \"Monteverdi\" Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Retrieved 2 January 2008\\).", "From around 1617, when the *maestro de' concerti* at St. Marks changed to violinist [Francesco Bonfante](/wiki/Francesco_Bonfante \"Francesco Bonfante\") and correspondingly the ensemble changed from basically a brass ensemble to being more evenly mixed with brass, wind and string instruments.", "[Monteverdi](/wiki/Monteverdi \"Monteverdi\") arrived at St. Mark's in 1613 and it is unsurprising that he includes trombones and strings for several more sacred works during his time here, published in his *[Selva morale e spirituale](/wiki/Selva_morale_e_spirituale \"Selva morale e spirituale\")* 1641\\. Of the c.40 items in this collection, six specify three or four trombones (or [viola da braccio](/wiki/Viola_da_braccio_%28instrument%29 \"Viola da braccio (instrument)\"), ad lib): SV268 Beatus vir I, SV263 Dixit Dominus I, SV263 Dixit Dominus II, SV261 Et iterum venturus est, SV258 Gloria in excelsis Deo, SV281 Magnificat I. Each is for 3\\-8 voices with 3 violins (apart from SV261\\), the trombones/violas and basso continuo. Monteverdi also specified trombones in two more sacred works: SV198 Laetatus sum (i) (1650\\) for 6 voices, 2 violins, 2 trombones and bassoon and SV272 Laudate Dominum omnes gentes I (1641\\) for 5 voices 'concertato', 4 voice chorus ad lib, 4 viola da braccio or trombones and basso continuo.", "##### Germany/Austria", "A prolific composer for trombones in Germany in the 17th century was [Heinrich Schütz](/wiki/Heinrich_Sch%C3%BCtz \"Heinrich Schütz\"). His *Fili me, Absalon* (SWV 269\\) and *Attendite, popule meus* (SWV 270\\), are both scored for bass voice, four trombones (of which two are optionally violins) and basso continuo, are well known. They are part of his first *[Symphoniae Sacrae](/wiki/Symphoniae_sacrae_I \"Symphoniae sacrae I\")* collection dating from 1629 and commentators have noted that the style reflects his studies in Venice with [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli \"Giovanni Gabrieli\") 1609–1612\\. Other pieces that specify trombones (according to Grove) are (grouped by the collection they were published in): Concert mit 11 Stimmen (1618\\): SWV 21, in *[Psalmen Davids](/wiki/Psalmen_Davids \"Psalmen Davids\")* (Psalms of David) Op. 2 (1619\\): SWV 38, 40–46, Symphoniae sacrae I Op.6 (1629\\): SWV 259, 269–271, 274, Symphoniae sacrae II Op.10 (1647\\): [SWV 344](/wiki/SWV_344 \"SWV 344\"), Symphoniae sacrae III Op. 12 (1650\\): SWV 398a, Historia (1664\\): SWV 435, 448, 449, 453, 461, 452, 466–470, 473, 474–476, [Schwanengesang](/wiki/Schwanengesang \"Schwanengesang\") Psalm 119 (1671\\): SWV 500, although many others are suitable for trombones too.L. Hübsch\\-Pfleger: \"Schütz\", Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Retrieved 10 December 2007\\)", "[Johann Hermann Schein](/wiki/Johann_Hermann_Schein \"Johann Hermann Schein\") specified trombones in some of his sacred vocal works in the *Opella nova, ander Theil, geistlicher Concerten* collection (Leipzig, 1626\\). For example, *Uns ist ein Kind geboren* is scored for violino, traversa, alto trombone, tenor voice, fagotto and basso continuo. *Mach dich auf, werde licht, Zion* uses Canto 1: violino, cornetto, flauto picciolo e voce, Canto 2: voce e traversa, Alto: Trombone e Voce, Tenore: Voce e Trombone, Basso: Fagotto Trombone e Voce and Basso Continuo, during which solos for each of the trombonists are specified. Of particular interest is *Maria, gegrüsset seist du, Holdselige,* which uses soprano and tenor voices, alto trombone, 2 tenor trombones and on the bass line \"trombone grosso,\" which goes down to pedal A, and a couple of diatonic scale passages from bottom C.Bärenreiter scores, 1986", "German composer [Johann Rudolf Ahle](/wiki/Johann_Rudolf_Ahle \"Johann Rudolf Ahle\") wrote some notable sacred pieces for voices and trombones. *Höre, Gott* uses five favoriti singers, two ripieno choirs (which double other parts at intense moments) and seven trombones, with basso continuo. And his most famous *Neu\\-gepflanzte Thüringische Lust\\-Garten..* (1657–65\\) contains several sacred works with 3 or 4 trombones, including *Magnificat a 8* for SATB soloists, cornett, 3 trombones and continuo and *Herr nun lässestu deinen Diener a 5* for bass, 4 trombones and continuo.[Uwe Wolf](/wiki/Uwe_Wolf_%28musicologist%29 \"Uwe Wolf (musicologist)\"), Programme notes to BIS\\-CD\\-821, 1996", "[Dieterich Buxtehude](/wiki/Dieterich_Buxtehude \"Dieterich Buxtehude\") specifies trombones in a few sacred concertos using style derived from polychoral Venetian works and one secular piece. For example, *Gott fähret auf mit Jauchzen* (BuxWV33 from CW v, 44\\) is scored for SSB voices, 2 violins, 2 violas, trombones, 2 cornetts, 2 trumpets, bassoon and basso continuo.Grove—Buxtehude{{Full citation needed\\|date\\=August 2015}} (Retrieved 16 February 2008\\)", "There are a few vocal works involving trombones in works by [Andreas Hammerschmidt](/wiki/Andreas_Hammerschmidt \"Andreas Hammerschmidt\"). These include *Lob\\- und Danck Lied aus dem 84\\. Psalm* for 9 voices, 5 trumpets, 3 trombones, 5 violas and basso continuo (Freiberg, 1652\\). There is also *Hochzeitsgesang für Daniel Sartorius: Es ist nicht gut, dass der Mensch allein sei* for 5 voices, 2 violins, 2 trombones, bassoon and basso continuo.Grove—Hammerschmidt{{Full citation needed\\|date\\=August 2015}} (Retrieved 16 February 2008\\)", "[Johann Schelle](/wiki/Johann_Schelle \"Johann Schelle\") has numerous sacred vocal works that use trombones. For instance *Vom Himmel kam der Engel Schar* is scored for soprano, tenor, SSATB choir, 2 violins, 2 violas, 2 cornetts, 3 trombones, 2 trumpets, timpani, basso continuo, and *Lobe den Herrn, meine Seele* is for two choirs of SSATB and similar instruments to the previous work.Grove—Schelle{{Full citation needed\\|date\\=August 2015}} (Retrieved 16 February 2008\\)", "The lesser known Austrian composer [Christoph Strauss](/wiki/Christoph_Strauss \"Christoph Strauss\"), Kapellmeister to the Habsburg Emperor Mathias 1616–1620, wrote two important collections for trombones, cornetts and voices. His motets published in Nova ac diversimoda sacrarum cantionum composition, seu motettae (Vienna, 1613\\) are in a similar tradition to Gabrieli's music. Of the sixteen motets in the collection, all are titled \"concerto\" apart from the \"sonata\" *Expectans Expectavi Dominum* for 6 trombones, cantus voice and tenor voice. In 1631 he published a number of masses, which were much more baroque, with basso continuo, rhetorical [word painting](/wiki/Word_painting \"Word painting\") and obligato usage of instruments.Dickey, Bruce: CD liner notes, Christoph Strauss, *Missa Maria concertata \\& Motetten*, Harmonia Mundi 905243", "Later in the 17th century, [Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber](/wiki/Heinrich_Ignaz_Franz_Biber \"Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber\") composed sacred works for voices and orchestra featuring trombones. His *Requiem* mass (1692\\) uses an orchestra of strings, 3 trombones and basso continuo. A similar ensemble accompanies 8 vocal lines in his *Lux perpetua* (c1673\\), and three more similar works in the 1690s.Grove—Biber{{Full citation needed\\|date\\=August 2015}} (Retrieved 16 February 2008\\)", "#### Theatre", "[Monteverdi](/wiki/Monteverdi \"Monteverdi\") ushers sackbuts into the first great opera, '[L'Orfeo](/wiki/L%27Orfeo \"L'Orfeo\")' 1607\\. The orchestra at the first performance, as shown in the first publication, the list of \"stromenti\" at the front of the score specifies four trombones, but at one point in Act 3, however, the score calls for five trombones.", "" ]
Plot ---- Joseph Rearden is a better\-than\-average crook from [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa") with a jail conviction on his record. In London, he is hired by a man known only as Mackintosh, assisted by his secretary Mrs Smith, to steal a consignmeent of diamonds. The theft is successful but Reardon is almost immediately arrested. At his trial, his refusal to name his accomplice or even to admit his guilt leads to a sentence of 20 years in prison. Reardon spends over a year in prison before hearing about an organisation named the 'Scarperers' who can arrange a prison break for those who can afford it. He requests their help and eventually is contacted, with the proviso that he assists another prisoner, Slade, serving 40 years for espionage. Reardon and Slade are sprung from prison and taken to an unknown location until the heat dies down. Slade is then taken away and Reardon is confronted by the Scaperers who accuse him of not being who he claims he is. It is then revealed that Reardon is really Owen Stannard, a semi\-retired British Intelligence agent, and Mackintosh is a senior member of British Intelligence. Mackintosh is anxious that Slade does not escape to his native Russia, and also wants to break the Scaperers' network. He recruits Stannard to carry out a genuine crime in order to place him in prison with Slade, hoping to have the Scarperers break them out, previous attempts at planting 'fake' criminals having been unsuccessful due to the Scarperers thorough vetting procedures. Stannard escapes from the Scarperers' confinement, a house in the west of Ireland, and attempts to contact Mackintosh. He speaks instead to Mrs Smith, who informs him that Mackintosh has been injured in a hit\-and\-run accident. She flies to Ireland and she and Stannard piece together the theory that behind the Scarperers is Sir Charles Wheelan, an Albanian\-born but naturalised UK citizen who is highly placed in the UK government. Wheelan plans to deliver Slade to the Chinese communist government, taking him to Albania in his private yacht. Stannard and Mrs Smith follow Wheeler's trail to Malta. During their journey she reveals that she is Mackintosh's daughter, Alison, and that she is a highly trained espionage agent. Stannard also realises that Mackintosh deliberately revealed details of the operation to Wheeler to force his hand, resulting in the attempt to kill him. He and Alison begin to get romantically involved. After an unsuccessful attempt to abduct Slade from Wheeler's yacht, Stannard and Alison decide instead to destroy the yacht, ramming it with a speedboat full of fireworks, igniting the yacht's fuel tanks. The plan succeeds, killing Slade and Wheeler, although Stannard is severely wounded. After the event, Stannard is visited in hospital by a senior civil servant who tells him that Mackintosh has died, leaving behind full details of the operation. Alison also visits him and rejects Stannard's proposal of marriage but agrees to take a vacation with him, leaving Stannard hopeful for the future.
[ "Plot\n----", "Joseph Rearden is a better\\-than\\-average crook from [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa \"South Africa\") with a jail conviction on his record. In London, he is hired by a man known only as Mackintosh, assisted by his secretary Mrs Smith, to steal a consignmeent of diamonds. The theft is successful but Reardon is almost immediately arrested. At his trial, his refusal to name his accomplice or even to admit his guilt leads to a sentence of 20 years in prison.", "Reardon spends over a year in prison before hearing about an organisation named the 'Scarperers' who can arrange a prison break for those who can afford it. He requests their help and eventually is contacted, with the proviso that he assists another prisoner, Slade, serving 40 years for espionage. Reardon and Slade are sprung from prison and taken to an unknown location until the heat dies down. Slade is then taken away and Reardon is confronted by the Scaperers who accuse him of not being who he claims he is.", "It is then revealed that Reardon is really Owen Stannard, a semi\\-retired British Intelligence agent, and Mackintosh is a senior member of British Intelligence. Mackintosh is anxious that Slade does not escape to his native Russia, and also wants to break the Scaperers' network. He recruits Stannard to carry out a genuine crime in order to place him in prison with Slade, hoping to have the Scarperers break them out, previous attempts at planting 'fake' criminals having been unsuccessful due to the Scarperers thorough vetting procedures.", "Stannard escapes from the Scarperers' confinement, a house in the west of Ireland, and attempts to contact Mackintosh. He speaks instead to Mrs Smith, who informs him that Mackintosh has been injured in a hit\\-and\\-run accident. She flies to Ireland and she and Stannard piece together the theory that behind the Scarperers is Sir Charles Wheelan, an Albanian\\-born but naturalised UK citizen who is highly placed in the UK government. Wheelan plans to deliver Slade to the Chinese communist government, taking him to Albania in his private yacht.", "Stannard and Mrs Smith follow Wheeler's trail to Malta. During their journey she reveals that she is Mackintosh's daughter, Alison, and that she is a highly trained espionage agent. Stannard also realises that Mackintosh deliberately revealed details of the operation to Wheeler to force his hand, resulting in the attempt to kill him. He and Alison begin to get romantically involved.", "After an unsuccessful attempt to abduct Slade from Wheeler's yacht, Stannard and Alison decide instead to destroy the yacht, ramming it with a speedboat full of fireworks, igniting the yacht's fuel tanks. The plan succeeds, killing Slade and Wheeler, although Stannard is severely wounded.", "After the event, Stannard is visited in hospital by a senior civil servant who tells him that Mackintosh has died, leaving behind full details of the operation. Alison also visits him and rejects Stannard's proposal of marriage but agrees to take a vacation with him, leaving Stannard hopeful for the future.", "" ]
Behaviour --------- ### Diet Both *Mandrillus* species are frugivores, consuming both plants and insects with a preference for fruits and nuts. *Mandrillus* species spend a large amount of their time foraging through the forest in search of food.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Nsi Akoue\|first1\=Gontran\|last2\=Mbading\-Mbading\|first2\=Wilfried\|last3\=Willaume\|first3\=Eric\|last4\=Souza\|first4\=Alain\|last5\=Mbatchi\|first5\=Bertrand\|last6\=Charpentier\|first6\=Marie J. E.\|date\=September 2017\|editor\-last\=Tregenza\|editor\-first\=T.\|title\=Seasonal and individual predictors of diet in a free\-ranging population of mandrills\|journal\=Ethology\|language\=en\|volume\=123\|issue\=9\|pages\=600–613\|doi\=10\.1111/eth.12633\|bibcode\=2017Ethol.123\..600N }} In a study conducted in Cameroon, approximately 84% of the faecal matter of mandrills consisted of fruit. Similarly, a study done on drills in southwest Cameroon showed that the mean weight of fruit and seed in faecal matter was equal to or greater than 80%.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Astaras\|first1\=C.\|last2\=Waltert\|first2\=M.\|date\=December 2010\|title\=What does seed handling by the drill tell us about the ecological services of terrestrial cercopithecines in African forests?: Terrestrial forest primates' role in forest dynamics\|journal\=Animal Conservation\|language\=en\|volume\=13\|issue\=6\|pages\=568–578\|doi\=10\.1111/j.1469\-1795\.2010\.00378\.x\|s2cid\=82430448 }} Seasonal changes can be seen within *Mandrillus* diet, during peak fruit season (September to March) their diet consisted mostly of fruit, pulp and seeds whilst during the fruit scarce season (June to August) there was a great increase in the consumption of insects, woody tissue and especially nuts.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Hongo\|first1\=Shun\|last2\=Nakashima\|first2\=Yoshihiro\|last3\=Akomo\-Okoue\|first3\=Etienne François\|last4\=Mindonga\-Nguelet\|first4\=Fred Loïque\|date\=February 2018\|title\=Seasonal change in diet and habitat use in wild mandrills (''Mandrillus sphinx'')\|journal\=International Journal of Primatology\|language\=en\|volume\=39\|issue\=1\|pages\=27–48\|doi\=10\.1007/s10764\-017\-0007\-5\|issn\=0164\-0291\|hdl\=2433/230380\|s2cid\=32935826\|hdl\-access\=free}} There was also an increase in the variation of the diet during the fruit\-scarce season.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Astaras\|first1\=Christos\|last2\=Mühlenberg\|first2\=Michael\|last3\=Waltert\|first3\=Matthias\|date\=March 2008\|title\=Note on drill (''Mandrillus leucophaeus'') ecology and conservation status in Korup National Park, Southwest Cameroon\|journal\=American Journal of Primatology\|language\=en\|volume\=70\|issue\=3\|pages\=306–310\|doi\=10\.1002/ajp.20489\|pmid\=17922527\|s2cid\=21284777}} Important fruit include but are not limited to, the fruit of the bush mango (*[Irvingia gabonensis](/wiki/Irvingia_gabonensis "Irvingia gabonensis")*), African Corkwood tree (*[Musanga cecropioides](/wiki/Musanga_cecropioides "Musanga cecropioides")*), *Grewia coriacea*, *Sacoglottis gabonensis* and *[Xylopia aethiopica](/wiki/Xylopia_aethiopica "Xylopia aethiopica")*. Invertebrates consumed include crickets, ants, caterpillars and termites. Rarely, *Mandrillus* monkeys will eat larger animals, such as rats and gazelles when presented with the opportunity. ### Social systems The species of the genus exhibit great similarities in their social systems. Both generally form smaller groups, however the size of these groups is unclear. A study done on drills in southwest Cameroon found a mean group size of 52\.3 while another more recent report stated a figure of 25–40 on these smaller groups.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Marty\|first1\=Jill S.\|last2\=Higham\|first2\=James P.\|last3\=Gadsby\|first3\=Elizabeth L.\|last4\=Ross\|first4\=Caroline\|date\=December 2009\|title\=Dominance, coloration, and social and sexual behavior in male drills ''Mandrillus leucophaeus''\|journal\=International Journal of Primatology\|language\=en\|volume\=30\|issue\=6\|pages\=807–823\|doi\=10\.1007/s10764\-009\-9382\-x\|s2cid\=38938846\|issn\=0164\-0291}} A study of mandrills done at Campo reserve in Cameroon found small groups contain 14 \- 95 individuals. These smaller groups, with stable social structures, often join to form larger "supergroups" of hundreds of individuals. Some of the largest mandrill "supergroups" reported contained up to 845 individuals whilst some of the largest drill "supergroups" reported contained 400 individuals. There have been reports of solitary male *Mandrillus* monkeys, however this occurs very rarely. The social structures and social hierarchy of *Mandrillus* "supergroups" and groups is highly contentious. There are multiple older (1970s\-1990s) sources referencing single male units, which contained a male and multiple female monkeys, as the smallest and most common stable social structure. However this has been disproved with the discovery of less colourful male *Mandrillus* and further observations of behaviour.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Bret\|first1\=Céline\|last2\=Sueur\|first2\=Cédric\|last3\=Ngoubangoye\|first3\=Barthélémy\|last4\=Verrier\|first4\=Delphine\|last5\=Deneubourg\|first5\=Jean\-Louis\|last6\=Petit\|first6\=Odile\|date\=2013\-12\-10\|editor\-last\=Engelhardt\|editor\-first\=Antje\|title\=Social structure of a semi\-free ranging group of mandrills (''Mandrillus sphinx''): a social network analysis\|journal\=PLOS ONE\|language\=en\|volume\=8\|issue\=12\|pages\=e83015\|doi\=10\.1371/journal.pone.0083015\|issn\=1932\-6203\|pmc\=3858359\|pmid\=24340074\|doi\-access\=free\|bibcode\=2013PLoSO...883015B }}{{Cite journal\|last\=Hongo\|first\=Shun\|date\=2014\-10\-01\|title\=New evidence from observations of progressions of mandrills (''Mandrillus sphinx''): a multilevel or non\-nested society?\|journal\=Primates\|language\=en\|volume\=55\|issue\=4\|pages\=473–481\|doi\=10\.1007/s10329\-014\-0438\-y\|pmid\=25091875\|issn\=1610\-7365\|hdl\=2433/200186\|s2cid\=15104161\|hdl\-access\=free}} *Mandrillus leucophaeus* social structures are unknown, due to low populations, and secluded habitats with dense forestry. On the other hand, *Mandrillus sphinx* has had a variety of studies on social structure done in largely captive and semi\-free ranging settings, with few studies on wild mandrills. The current studies on mandrills are inconclusive, and present different results. Various semi\-free ranging studies conducted report a matrilineal social structure with a stable infant and female mandrill "supergroup". Male *Mandrillus* monkeys would disperse from this group when old enough and join other groups only during mating season. Further studies, also done in semi\-free ranging settings, conclude that dominant females are central to group cohesion and connectivity (how close they remained). Conversely, a study on wild mandrills published in 2015 reported that a stable adult, male mandrill population of 5 \- 6 was present year round in "supergroups".{{Cite journal\|last1\=Brockmeyer\|first1\=Timo\|last2\=Kappeler\|first2\=Peter M.\|last3\=Willaume\|first3\=Eric\|last4\=Benoit\|first4\=Laure\|last5\=Mboumba\|first5\=Sylvère\|last6\=Charpentier\|first6\=Marie J.E.\|date\=October 2015\|title\=Social organization and space use of a wild mandrill ( Mandrillus sphinx ) group: Mandrill Social Organization and Space Use\|journal\=American Journal of Primatology\|language\=en\|volume\=77\|issue\=10\|pages\=1036–1048\|doi\=10\.1002/ajp.22439\|pmid\=26235675\|s2cid\=38327403}} This aligned with the social structures reported in other research papers done on wild mandrills, where stable multi\-male and multi\-female groups were found.{{Cite journal\|last\=Harrison\|first\=Michael J. S.\|date\=October 1988\|title\=The mandrill in Gabon's rain forest—ecology, distribution and status\|journal\=Oryx\|language\=en\|volume\=22\|issue\=4\|pages\=218–228\|doi\=10\.1017/S0030605300022365\|issn\=0030\-6053\|doi\-access\=free}} This difference in social structures between *Mandrillus* groups has been attributed to limitations in observing wild mandrills, differing habitats, and differing sample sizes. Male dominance and rank have been linked to the colouration and colour extension of the rumps, greater saturation and colour extension correlated to higher\-ranking males. Males of higher ranking are more likely to associate with females, especially those with sexual skin swelling, and more likely to successfully mount females. Dominant, adult males practice mate guarding on adult females during times of maximal skin swelling; with their high competitive ability they are more likely to successfully reproduce. Due to the tropical habitat, mating season coincides with the dry season (May to October) and birth season coincides with the wet season (November to April). ### Communication [thumb\|Mandrill displaying silent baring of teeth](/wiki/File:Mandrillus_sphinx_%28alpha_male%29.jpg "Mandrillus sphinx (alpha male).jpg") The *Mandrillus* genus uses both visual and vocal forms of communication, which are extremely similar or identical across both species. Both species have three identical long\-range vocal communications: two\-phase grunts, roars and "crowling". The two\-phased grunt is a low, two\-syllable continuous sound used exclusively by adult males during calm group progression and mate guarding.{{Cite journal\|last\=Kudo\|first\=Hiroko\|date\=July 1987\|title\=The study of vocal communication of wild mandrills in Cameroon in relation to their social structure\|journal\=Primates\|volume\=28\|issue\=3\|pages\=289–308\|doi\=10\.1007/bf02381013\|s2cid\=1507136\|issn\=0032\-8332}} Roars are single low, single syllable sounds used exclusively by males in the same context as two\-phase grunts. Crowling is used by infants and females during group movement or foraging to call together the dispersed group.{{Cite book\|last\=Astaras, Christos.\|title\=Ecology and status of the drill (''Mandrillus leucophaeus'') in Korup National Park, Southwest Cameroon : implications for conservation\|date\=2009\|publisher\=Optimus Mostafa\|isbn\=978\-3\-941274\-19\-8\|edition\=1\.\|location\=Göttingen\|oclc\=434519864}} They also use numerous short\-range vocal sounds for various purposes. The "yak" and grinding of teeth are used during tense situations. The grunt is used in aggressive situations and screams are used to escape or while experiencing fear. The growl is used to convey mild alarm, the K\-alarm is used to convey intense alarm and the "girney" is used for appeasement. Both species use various facial expressions to communicate with each other. The silent baring of teeth is a positive visual signal conveying peaceful intentions, and it is often combined with a shaking head.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Bout\|first1\=N.\|last2\=Thierry\|first2\=B.\|date\=December 2005\|title\=Peaceful Meaning for the Silent Bared\-Teeth Displays of Mandrills\|journal\=International Journal of Primatology\|language\=en\|volume\=26\|issue\=6\|pages\=1215–1228\|doi\=10\.1007/s10764\-005\-8850\-1\|s2cid\=31905432\|issn\=0164\-0291}} Staring open\-mouthed is a display of aggression, frowning with bare teeth is used to encourage submission, staring with bare teeth can communicate aggression or fear, pouting signals submission and a relaxed open mouth encourages playing.
[ "Behaviour\n---------", "### Diet", "Both *Mandrillus* species are frugivores, consuming both plants and insects with a preference for fruits and nuts. *Mandrillus* species spend a large amount of their time foraging through the forest in search of food.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Nsi Akoue\\|first1\\=Gontran\\|last2\\=Mbading\\-Mbading\\|first2\\=Wilfried\\|last3\\=Willaume\\|first3\\=Eric\\|last4\\=Souza\\|first4\\=Alain\\|last5\\=Mbatchi\\|first5\\=Bertrand\\|last6\\=Charpentier\\|first6\\=Marie J. E.\\|date\\=September 2017\\|editor\\-last\\=Tregenza\\|editor\\-first\\=T.\\|title\\=Seasonal and individual predictors of diet in a free\\-ranging population of mandrills\\|journal\\=Ethology\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=123\\|issue\\=9\\|pages\\=600–613\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/eth.12633\\|bibcode\\=2017Ethol.123\\..600N }} In a study conducted in Cameroon, approximately 84% of the faecal matter of mandrills consisted of fruit. Similarly, a study done on drills in southwest Cameroon showed that the mean weight of fruit and seed in faecal matter was equal to or greater than 80%.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Astaras\\|first1\\=C.\\|last2\\=Waltert\\|first2\\=M.\\|date\\=December 2010\\|title\\=What does seed handling by the drill tell us about the ecological services of terrestrial cercopithecines in African forests?: Terrestrial forest primates' role in forest dynamics\\|journal\\=Animal Conservation\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=13\\|issue\\=6\\|pages\\=568–578\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1469\\-1795\\.2010\\.00378\\.x\\|s2cid\\=82430448 }} Seasonal changes can be seen within *Mandrillus* diet, during peak fruit season (September to March) their diet consisted mostly of fruit, pulp and seeds whilst during the fruit scarce season (June to August) there was a great increase in the consumption of insects, woody tissue and especially nuts.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Hongo\\|first1\\=Shun\\|last2\\=Nakashima\\|first2\\=Yoshihiro\\|last3\\=Akomo\\-Okoue\\|first3\\=Etienne François\\|last4\\=Mindonga\\-Nguelet\\|first4\\=Fred Loïque\\|date\\=February 2018\\|title\\=Seasonal change in diet and habitat use in wild mandrills (''Mandrillus sphinx'')\\|journal\\=International Journal of Primatology\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=39\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=27–48\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s10764\\-017\\-0007\\-5\\|issn\\=0164\\-0291\\|hdl\\=2433/230380\\|s2cid\\=32935826\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}} There was also an increase in the variation of the diet during the fruit\\-scarce season.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Astaras\\|first1\\=Christos\\|last2\\=Mühlenberg\\|first2\\=Michael\\|last3\\=Waltert\\|first3\\=Matthias\\|date\\=March 2008\\|title\\=Note on drill (''Mandrillus leucophaeus'') ecology and conservation status in Korup National Park, Southwest Cameroon\\|journal\\=American Journal of Primatology\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=70\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=306–310\\|doi\\=10\\.1002/ajp.20489\\|pmid\\=17922527\\|s2cid\\=21284777}} Important fruit include but are not limited to, the fruit of the bush mango (*[Irvingia gabonensis](/wiki/Irvingia_gabonensis \"Irvingia gabonensis\")*), African Corkwood tree (*[Musanga cecropioides](/wiki/Musanga_cecropioides \"Musanga cecropioides\")*), *Grewia coriacea*, *Sacoglottis gabonensis* and *[Xylopia aethiopica](/wiki/Xylopia_aethiopica \"Xylopia aethiopica\")*. Invertebrates consumed include crickets, ants, caterpillars and termites. Rarely, *Mandrillus* monkeys will eat larger animals, such as rats and gazelles when presented with the opportunity.", "### Social systems", "The species of the genus exhibit great similarities in their social systems. Both generally form smaller groups, however the size of these groups is unclear. A study done on drills in southwest Cameroon found a mean group size of 52\\.3 while another more recent report stated a figure of 25–40 on these smaller groups.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Marty\\|first1\\=Jill S.\\|last2\\=Higham\\|first2\\=James P.\\|last3\\=Gadsby\\|first3\\=Elizabeth L.\\|last4\\=Ross\\|first4\\=Caroline\\|date\\=December 2009\\|title\\=Dominance, coloration, and social and sexual behavior in male drills ''Mandrillus leucophaeus''\\|journal\\=International Journal of Primatology\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=30\\|issue\\=6\\|pages\\=807–823\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s10764\\-009\\-9382\\-x\\|s2cid\\=38938846\\|issn\\=0164\\-0291}} A study of mandrills done at Campo reserve in Cameroon found small groups contain 14 \\- 95 individuals. These smaller groups, with stable social structures, often join to form larger \"supergroups\" of hundreds of individuals. Some of the largest mandrill \"supergroups\" reported contained up to 845 individuals whilst some of the largest drill \"supergroups\" reported contained 400 individuals. There have been reports of solitary male *Mandrillus* monkeys, however this occurs very rarely.", "The social structures and social hierarchy of *Mandrillus* \"supergroups\" and groups is highly contentious. There are multiple older (1970s\\-1990s) sources referencing single male units, which contained a male and multiple female monkeys, as the smallest and most common stable social structure. However this has been disproved with the discovery of less colourful male *Mandrillus* and further observations of behaviour.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Bret\\|first1\\=Céline\\|last2\\=Sueur\\|first2\\=Cédric\\|last3\\=Ngoubangoye\\|first3\\=Barthélémy\\|last4\\=Verrier\\|first4\\=Delphine\\|last5\\=Deneubourg\\|first5\\=Jean\\-Louis\\|last6\\=Petit\\|first6\\=Odile\\|date\\=2013\\-12\\-10\\|editor\\-last\\=Engelhardt\\|editor\\-first\\=Antje\\|title\\=Social structure of a semi\\-free ranging group of mandrills (''Mandrillus sphinx''): a social network analysis\\|journal\\=PLOS ONE\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=8\\|issue\\=12\\|pages\\=e83015\\|doi\\=10\\.1371/journal.pone.0083015\\|issn\\=1932\\-6203\\|pmc\\=3858359\\|pmid\\=24340074\\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|bibcode\\=2013PLoSO...883015B }}{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Hongo\\|first\\=Shun\\|date\\=2014\\-10\\-01\\|title\\=New evidence from observations of progressions of mandrills (''Mandrillus sphinx''): a multilevel or non\\-nested society?\\|journal\\=Primates\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=55\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=473–481\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s10329\\-014\\-0438\\-y\\|pmid\\=25091875\\|issn\\=1610\\-7365\\|hdl\\=2433/200186\\|s2cid\\=15104161\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}} *Mandrillus leucophaeus* social structures are unknown, due to low populations, and secluded habitats with dense forestry. On the other hand, *Mandrillus sphinx* has had a variety of studies on social structure done in largely captive and semi\\-free ranging settings, with few studies on wild mandrills. The current studies on mandrills are inconclusive, and present different results. Various semi\\-free ranging studies conducted report a matrilineal social structure with a stable infant and female mandrill \"supergroup\". Male *Mandrillus* monkeys would disperse from this group when old enough and join other groups only during mating season. Further studies, also done in semi\\-free ranging settings, conclude that dominant females are central to group cohesion and connectivity (how close they remained). Conversely, a study on wild mandrills published in 2015 reported that a stable adult, male mandrill population of 5 \\- 6 was present year round in \"supergroups\".{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Brockmeyer\\|first1\\=Timo\\|last2\\=Kappeler\\|first2\\=Peter M.\\|last3\\=Willaume\\|first3\\=Eric\\|last4\\=Benoit\\|first4\\=Laure\\|last5\\=Mboumba\\|first5\\=Sylvère\\|last6\\=Charpentier\\|first6\\=Marie J.E.\\|date\\=October 2015\\|title\\=Social organization and space use of a wild mandrill ( Mandrillus sphinx ) group: Mandrill Social Organization and Space Use\\|journal\\=American Journal of Primatology\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=77\\|issue\\=10\\|pages\\=1036–1048\\|doi\\=10\\.1002/ajp.22439\\|pmid\\=26235675\\|s2cid\\=38327403}} This aligned with the social structures reported in other research papers done on wild mandrills, where stable multi\\-male and multi\\-female groups were found.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Harrison\\|first\\=Michael J. S.\\|date\\=October 1988\\|title\\=The mandrill in Gabon's rain forest—ecology, distribution and status\\|journal\\=Oryx\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=22\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=218–228\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S0030605300022365\\|issn\\=0030\\-6053\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} This difference in social structures between *Mandrillus* groups has been attributed to limitations in observing wild mandrills, differing habitats, and differing sample sizes.", "Male dominance and rank have been linked to the colouration and colour extension of the rumps, greater saturation and colour extension correlated to higher\\-ranking males. Males of higher ranking are more likely to associate with females, especially those with sexual skin swelling, and more likely to successfully mount females. Dominant, adult males practice mate guarding on adult females during times of maximal skin swelling; with their high competitive ability they are more likely to successfully reproduce. Due to the tropical habitat, mating season coincides with the dry season (May to October) and birth season coincides with the wet season (November to April).", "### Communication", "[thumb\\|Mandrill displaying silent baring of teeth](/wiki/File:Mandrillus_sphinx_%28alpha_male%29.jpg \"Mandrillus sphinx (alpha male).jpg\")\nThe *Mandrillus* genus uses both visual and vocal forms of communication, which are extremely similar or identical across both species. Both species have three identical long\\-range vocal communications: two\\-phase grunts, roars and \"crowling\". The two\\-phased grunt is a low, two\\-syllable continuous sound used exclusively by adult males during calm group progression and mate guarding.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Kudo\\|first\\=Hiroko\\|date\\=July 1987\\|title\\=The study of vocal communication of wild mandrills in Cameroon in relation to their social structure\\|journal\\=Primates\\|volume\\=28\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=289–308\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/bf02381013\\|s2cid\\=1507136\\|issn\\=0032\\-8332}} Roars are single low, single syllable sounds used exclusively by males in the same context as two\\-phase grunts. Crowling is used by infants and females during group movement or foraging to call together the dispersed group.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Astaras, Christos.\\|title\\=Ecology and status of the drill (''Mandrillus leucophaeus'') in Korup National Park, Southwest Cameroon : implications for conservation\\|date\\=2009\\|publisher\\=Optimus Mostafa\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-941274\\-19\\-8\\|edition\\=1\\.\\|location\\=Göttingen\\|oclc\\=434519864}}", "They also use numerous short\\-range vocal sounds for various purposes. The \"yak\" and grinding of teeth are used during tense situations. The grunt is used in aggressive situations and screams are used to escape or while experiencing fear. The growl is used to convey mild alarm, the K\\-alarm is used to convey intense alarm and the \"girney\" is used for appeasement. Both species use various facial expressions to communicate with each other. The silent baring of teeth is a positive visual signal conveying peaceful intentions, and it is often combined with a shaking head.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Bout\\|first1\\=N.\\|last2\\=Thierry\\|first2\\=B.\\|date\\=December 2005\\|title\\=Peaceful Meaning for the Silent Bared\\-Teeth Displays of Mandrills\\|journal\\=International Journal of Primatology\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=26\\|issue\\=6\\|pages\\=1215–1228\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s10764\\-005\\-8850\\-1\\|s2cid\\=31905432\\|issn\\=0164\\-0291}} Staring open\\-mouthed is a display of aggression, frowning with bare teeth is used to encourage submission, staring with bare teeth can communicate aggression or fear, pouting signals submission and a relaxed open mouth encourages playing.", "" ]
Fauna and flora --------------- The varied habitats within the SSSI support a number of plant and insect species that are rare or local in North East England. One of the rarest is the red\-tipped clearwing, *[Synanthedon formicaeformis](/wiki/Synanthedon_formicaeformis "Synanthedon formicaeformis")*, which was recorded three times in July 2006; this inconspicuous and elusive moth had only been recorded 12 times before in County Durham, the last occasion being in 1948, also in the Waldridge Fell area.{{cite journal\|last\=Coult\|first\=Terry\|year\=2006\|title\=The 2006 status of County Durham clearwing moths\|journal\=The Vasculum\|volume\=91}} Other notable insects include two other moths, northern drab, *[Orthosia opima](/wiki/Orthosia_opima "Orthosia opima")*, and dingy shell, *[Euchoeca nebulata](/wiki/Euchoeca_nebulata "Euchoeca nebulata")*, and a butterfly, the green hairstreak, *[Callophrys rubi](/wiki/Callophrys_rubi "Callophrys rubi")*. Another butterfly, the small pearl\-bordered fritillary, *[Boloria selene](/wiki/Boloria_selene "Boloria selene")*, used to be common at Waldridge Fell but within County Durham is now confined to only four locations, all on heathland at around 300 metres above sea level. The most notable plant species are found in the alder woodland along the spring\-lines on the lower valley slopes. They include royal fern, *[Osmunda regalis](/wiki/Osmunda_regalis "Osmunda regalis")*, and narrow buckler fern, *[Dryopteris carthusiana](/wiki/Dryopteris_carthusiana "Dryopteris carthusiana")*, hemlock water dropwort, *[Oenanthe crocata](/wiki/Oenanthe_crocata "Oenanthe crocata")*, and smooth\-stalked sedge, *[Carex laevigata](/wiki/Carex_laevigata "Carex laevigata")*, all of which are rare or have a localised distribution in North East England. Rare plants that occur in Wanister Bog include devil's\-bit scabious, *[Succisa pratensis](/wiki/Succisa_pratensis "Succisa pratensis")*, and marsh violet, *[Viola palustris](/wiki/Viola_palustris "Viola palustris")*.{{cite news\|url\=http://content.durham.gov.uk/PDFRepository/Durham\_County\_News\_June\_Edition.pdf\|title\=A 'special' place\|date\=June 2009\|work\=Durham County News\|publisher\=Durham County Council\|access\-date\=16 July 2010\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813231604/http://content.durham.gov.uk/PDFRepository/Durham\_County\_News\_June\_Edition.pdf\#\|archive\-date\=2011\-08\-13\|url\-status\=dead}} The former is the food plant of the marsh fritillary, *[Euphydryas aurinia](/wiki/Euphydryas_aurinia "Euphydryas aurinia")*, and the narrow\-bordered bee hawk\-moth, *[Hemaris tityus](/wiki/Hemaris_tityus "Hemaris tityus")*, while the latter is the food plant of the pearl\-bordered fritillary, *[Boloria euphrosyne](/wiki/Boloria_euphrosyne "Boloria euphrosyne")*, and the small pearl\-bordered fritillary. The fell is believed to support a significant population of the slowworm, *[Anguis fragilis](/wiki/Anguis_fragilis "Anguis fragilis")*, a protected species in the UK.
[ "Fauna and flora\n---------------", "The varied habitats within the SSSI support a number of plant and insect species that are rare or local in North East England.", "One of the rarest is the red\\-tipped clearwing, *[Synanthedon formicaeformis](/wiki/Synanthedon_formicaeformis \"Synanthedon formicaeformis\")*, which was recorded three times in July 2006; this inconspicuous and elusive moth had only been recorded 12 times before in County Durham, the last occasion being in 1948, also in the Waldridge Fell area.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Coult\\|first\\=Terry\\|year\\=2006\\|title\\=The 2006 status of County Durham clearwing moths\\|journal\\=The Vasculum\\|volume\\=91}}", "Other notable insects include two other moths, northern drab, *[Orthosia opima](/wiki/Orthosia_opima \"Orthosia opima\")*, and dingy shell, *[Euchoeca nebulata](/wiki/Euchoeca_nebulata \"Euchoeca nebulata\")*, and a butterfly, the green hairstreak, *[Callophrys rubi](/wiki/Callophrys_rubi \"Callophrys rubi\")*. Another butterfly, the small pearl\\-bordered fritillary, *[Boloria selene](/wiki/Boloria_selene \"Boloria selene\")*, used to be common at Waldridge Fell but within County Durham is now confined to only four locations, all on heathland at around 300 metres above sea level.", "The most notable plant species are found in the alder woodland along the spring\\-lines on the lower valley slopes. They include royal fern, *[Osmunda regalis](/wiki/Osmunda_regalis \"Osmunda regalis\")*, and narrow buckler fern, *[Dryopteris carthusiana](/wiki/Dryopteris_carthusiana \"Dryopteris carthusiana\")*, hemlock water dropwort, *[Oenanthe crocata](/wiki/Oenanthe_crocata \"Oenanthe crocata\")*, and smooth\\-stalked sedge, *[Carex laevigata](/wiki/Carex_laevigata \"Carex laevigata\")*, all of which are rare or have a localised distribution in North East England.", "Rare plants that occur in Wanister Bog include devil's\\-bit scabious, *[Succisa pratensis](/wiki/Succisa_pratensis \"Succisa pratensis\")*, and marsh violet, *[Viola palustris](/wiki/Viola_palustris \"Viola palustris\")*.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://content.durham.gov.uk/PDFRepository/Durham\\_County\\_News\\_June\\_Edition.pdf\\|title\\=A 'special' place\\|date\\=June 2009\\|work\\=Durham County News\\|publisher\\=Durham County Council\\|access\\-date\\=16 July 2010\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813231604/http://content.durham.gov.uk/PDFRepository/Durham\\_County\\_News\\_June\\_Edition.pdf\\#\\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-08\\-13\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The former is the food plant of the marsh fritillary, *[Euphydryas aurinia](/wiki/Euphydryas_aurinia \"Euphydryas aurinia\")*, and the narrow\\-bordered bee hawk\\-moth, *[Hemaris tityus](/wiki/Hemaris_tityus \"Hemaris tityus\")*, while the latter is the food plant of the pearl\\-bordered fritillary, *[Boloria euphrosyne](/wiki/Boloria_euphrosyne \"Boloria euphrosyne\")*, and the small pearl\\-bordered fritillary.", "The fell is believed to support a significant population of the slowworm, *[Anguis fragilis](/wiki/Anguis_fragilis \"Anguis fragilis\")*, a protected species in the UK.", "" ]
Career ------ He began his professional career working at [MTV Animation](/wiki/MTV_Animation "MTV Animation") on such television shows as *[Daria](/wiki/Daria "Daria")*, *[Cartoon Sushi](/wiki/Cartoon_Sushi "Cartoon Sushi")* and *[Downtown](/wiki/Downtown_%281999_TV_series%29 "Downtown (1999 TV series)")*. In 1999, Augenblick founded [Augenblick Studios](/wiki/Augenblick_Studios "Augenblick Studios"), an animation production facility located in Brooklyn, NY. In addition to animation, Augenblick has written and illustrated the [Xeric Award](/wiki/Xeric_Award "Xeric Award")\-winning "Tales of the Great Unspoken". From 2004 to 2005, Augenblick was the animation director for two seasons of *[Wonder Showzen](/wiki/Wonder_Showzen "Wonder Showzen")*, a cult favorite for [MTV](/wiki/MTV "MTV"). Augenblick Studios garnered widespread notoriety for their spot\-on parodies of classic cartoons, leading to Augenblick being named as one of the rising stars of animation by *[Animation Magazine](/wiki/Animation_Magazine "Animation Magazine")*. In 2006, Augenblick wrote and directed *[Golden Age](/wiki/Golden_Age_%28internet_series%29 "Golden Age (internet series)")*, a faux\-documentary which examined the scandalous private lives of iconic cartoon characters from the past. The ten episodes series was originally created for Comedy Central's broadband channel Motherload and was later released as a 22\-minute short film. *Golden Age* was an official selection of the [Sundance Film Festival](/wiki/Sundance_Film_Festival "Sundance Film Festival") and played in numerous festivals worldwide. Augenblick Studios created the first season of *[Superjail!](/wiki/Superjail%21 "Superjail!")* in 2008, an animated series for [Adult Swim](/wiki/Adult_Swim "Adult Swim") on the [Cartoon Network](/wiki/Cartoon_Network "Cartoon Network"). Augenblick was the show's executive producer and animation director. From 2010 to 2012, Augenblick served as the supervising producer and animation director for Comedy Central's horror\-comedy series *[Ugly Americans](/wiki/Ugly_Americans_%28TV_series%29 "Ugly Americans (TV series)")*. The 2011 [Ottawa International Animation Festival](/wiki/Ottawa_International_Animation_Festival "Ottawa International Animation Festival") screened a retrospective of Augenblick's work. In 2015, he directed the animated shows "[Golan the Insatiable](/wiki/Golan_the_Insatiable "Golan the Insatiable")" for [Fox](/wiki/Fox_Broadcasting_Company "Fox Broadcasting Company") and "The Jellies" for [Golf Wang](/wiki/Golf_Wang "Golf Wang"). Augenblick served as an executive producer and director for Adult Swim's adaptation of *[The Jellies](/wiki/The_Jellies "The Jellies")* in 2017\.
[ "Career\n------", "He began his professional career working at [MTV Animation](/wiki/MTV_Animation \"MTV Animation\") on such television shows as *[Daria](/wiki/Daria \"Daria\")*, *[Cartoon Sushi](/wiki/Cartoon_Sushi \"Cartoon Sushi\")* and *[Downtown](/wiki/Downtown_%281999_TV_series%29 \"Downtown (1999 TV series)\")*. In 1999, Augenblick founded [Augenblick Studios](/wiki/Augenblick_Studios \"Augenblick Studios\"), an animation production facility located in Brooklyn, NY. In addition to animation, Augenblick has written and illustrated the [Xeric Award](/wiki/Xeric_Award \"Xeric Award\")\\-winning \"Tales of the Great Unspoken\".", "From 2004 to 2005, Augenblick was the animation director for two seasons of *[Wonder Showzen](/wiki/Wonder_Showzen \"Wonder Showzen\")*, a cult favorite for [MTV](/wiki/MTV \"MTV\"). Augenblick Studios garnered widespread notoriety for their spot\\-on parodies of classic cartoons, leading to Augenblick being named as one of the rising stars of animation by *[Animation Magazine](/wiki/Animation_Magazine \"Animation Magazine\")*.", "In 2006, Augenblick wrote and directed *[Golden Age](/wiki/Golden_Age_%28internet_series%29 \"Golden Age (internet series)\")*, a faux\\-documentary which examined the scandalous private lives of iconic cartoon characters from the past. The ten episodes series was originally created for Comedy Central's broadband channel Motherload and was later released as a 22\\-minute short film. *Golden Age* was an official selection of the [Sundance Film Festival](/wiki/Sundance_Film_Festival \"Sundance Film Festival\") and played in numerous festivals worldwide.", "Augenblick Studios created the first season of *[Superjail!](/wiki/Superjail%21 \"Superjail!\")* in 2008, an animated series for [Adult Swim](/wiki/Adult_Swim \"Adult Swim\") on the [Cartoon Network](/wiki/Cartoon_Network \"Cartoon Network\"). Augenblick was the show's executive producer and animation director.", "From 2010 to 2012, Augenblick served as the supervising producer and animation director for Comedy Central's horror\\-comedy series *[Ugly Americans](/wiki/Ugly_Americans_%28TV_series%29 \"Ugly Americans (TV series)\")*. The 2011 [Ottawa International Animation Festival](/wiki/Ottawa_International_Animation_Festival \"Ottawa International Animation Festival\") screened a retrospective of Augenblick's work. In 2015, he directed the animated shows \"[Golan the Insatiable](/wiki/Golan_the_Insatiable \"Golan the Insatiable\")\" for [Fox](/wiki/Fox_Broadcasting_Company \"Fox Broadcasting Company\") and \"The Jellies\" for [Golf Wang](/wiki/Golf_Wang \"Golf Wang\"). Augenblick served as an executive producer and director for Adult Swim's adaptation of *[The Jellies](/wiki/The_Jellies \"The Jellies\")* in 2017\\.", "" ]
Life and career --------------- After studying at [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal "Montreal")'s [Ahuntsic](/wiki/Ahuntsic "Ahuntsic") College in [social sciences](/wiki/Social_science "Social science"), Charbonneau attended the [Université de Montréal](/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_de_Montr%C3%A9al "Université de Montréal") in [criminology](/wiki/Criminology "Criminology") and obtained a [bachelor's degree](/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree "Bachelor's degree") in 1972\. He later had a lengthy journalistic career in which he worked for several media outlets in the Montreal region including radio stations [CKAC](/wiki/CKAC "CKAC") and [CKVL](/wiki/CINF_%28AM%29 "CINF (AM)"), [newspapers](/wiki/Newspaper "Newspaper") including *[Le Devoir](/wiki/Le_Devoir "Le Devoir")* and *[La Presse](/wiki/La_Presse_%28Canadian_newspaper%29 "La Presse (Canadian newspaper)")* and various [magazines](/wiki/Magazine "Magazine") and revues. He was mostly a journalist and specialist in crime news. He also published several books related to [organized crime](/wiki/Organized_crime "Organized crime") which earned him an award. On May 1, 1973, Antonio Mucci, a [Montreal Mafia](/wiki/Montreal_Mafia "Montreal Mafia") member, fired three times at him in the offices of *[Le Devoir](/wiki/Le_Devoir "Le Devoir")*. One shot hit him in the arm. He was back at work two months later. Charbonneau first entered politics in [1976](/wiki/1976_Quebec_general_election "1976 Quebec general election") when he was elected in Vercheres and the Parti Québécois, led by [René Lévesque](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_L%C3%A9vesque "René Lévesque") defeated [Robert Bourassa](/wiki/Robert_Bourassa "Robert Bourassa")'s [Liberals](/wiki/Quebec_Liberal_Party "Quebec Liberal Party") during that election. He was a prominent figure in attracting supporters of sovereignty during the [1980 referendum](/wiki/1980_Quebec_referendum "1980 Quebec referendum") which resulted in a victory for the No side. He was re\-elected in [1981](/wiki/1981_Quebec_general_election "1981 Quebec general election") and [1985](/wiki/1985_Quebec_general_election "1985 Quebec general election") before stepping down the first time in 1989 prior to a [humanitarian](/wiki/Humanitarian "Humanitarian") trip to [Africa](/wiki/Africa "Africa") organized by the [Université de Montréal](/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_de_Montr%C3%A9al "Université de Montréal") and the criminology [faculty](/wiki/Faculty_%28university%29 "Faculty (university)"). He was not named as a minister during his first 13 years but was the parliamentary secretary to Lévesque in 1983 and 1984 and headed several committees. He was also briefly an administration member of [Oxfam](/wiki/Oxfam "Oxfam")\-Quebec, an [NGO](/wiki/NGO "NGO") concentrating in [international development](/wiki/International_development "International development") and aid. He also taught [Tai chi](/wiki/Tai_chi "Tai chi") in his area for five years and returned to co\-host a radio show on [CHKL](/wiki/CHKL "CHKL"). While being away from politics he participated in [Belanger\-Campeau Committee](/wiki/Commission_on_the_Political_and_Constitutional_Future_of_Quebec "Commission on the Political and Constitutional Future of Quebec") which was launched by the Bourassa government in the fallout of the failure of the [Meech Lake Accord](/wiki/Meech_Lake_Accord "Meech Lake Accord") which would have accorded Quebec a distinct society mention. Charbonneau re\-entered politics in [1994](/wiki/1994_Quebec_general_election "1994 Quebec general election") where he was elected as an MNA for the [riding](/wiki/Riding_%28division%29 "Riding (division)") of Borduas when the Parti Québécois under the leadership of [Jacques Parizeau](/wiki/Jacques_Parizeau "Jacques Parizeau"), defeated the [Liberals](/wiki/Quebec_Liberal_Party "Quebec Liberal Party") led by [Daniel Johnson, Jr.](/wiki/Daniel_Johnson%2C_Jr. "Daniel Johnson, Jr.") He was re\-elected successfully in [1998](/wiki/1998_Quebec_general_election "1998 Quebec general election") and [2003](/wiki/2003_Quebec_general_election "2003 Quebec general election"). He was the speaker of the provincial legislative assembly of Quebec for six years, from 1996 to 2002, before being named the Deputy [Minister](/wiki/Minister_%28government%29 "Minister (government)") of Intergovernmental Affairs in the [Bernard Landry](/wiki/Bernard_Landry "Bernard Landry") cabinet, until the party's defeat to [Jean Charest](/wiki/Jean_Charest "Jean Charest")'s Liberals in the 2003 elections. He served as critic of the [opposition party](/wiki/Opposition_party "Opposition party") in [public safety](/wiki/Public_safety "Public safety") and [health](/wiki/Health "Health") until his second retirement on November 15, 2006\. At one time Charbonneau was the minister for reform of democratic institutions under the PQ government. He later became president of the [Mouvement démocratie nouvelle](/wiki/Mouvement_d%C3%A9mocratie_nouvelle "Mouvement démocratie nouvelle"), which advocates [proportional representation](/wiki/Proportional_representation "Proportional representation") in Quebec.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.journaldemontreal.com/2019/08/19/jean\-pierre\-charbonneau\-ne\-ferme\-plus\-la\-porte\-a\-un\-referendum\-pour\-un\-nouveau\-mode\-de\-scrutin\|title\=Jean\-Pierre Charbonneau ne ferme plus la porte à un référendum pour un nouveau mode de scrutin\|first\=Véronique Racine, Agence\|last\=QMI\|website\=\[\[Le Journal de Montréal]]}}
[ "Life and career\n---------------", "After studying at [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal \"Montreal\")'s [Ahuntsic](/wiki/Ahuntsic \"Ahuntsic\") College in [social sciences](/wiki/Social_science \"Social science\"), Charbonneau attended the [Université de Montréal](/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_de_Montr%C3%A9al \"Université de Montréal\") in [criminology](/wiki/Criminology \"Criminology\") and obtained a [bachelor's degree](/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree \"Bachelor's degree\") in 1972\\. He later had a lengthy journalistic career in which he worked for several media outlets in the Montreal region including radio stations [CKAC](/wiki/CKAC \"CKAC\") and [CKVL](/wiki/CINF_%28AM%29 \"CINF (AM)\"), [newspapers](/wiki/Newspaper \"Newspaper\") including *[Le Devoir](/wiki/Le_Devoir \"Le Devoir\")* and *[La Presse](/wiki/La_Presse_%28Canadian_newspaper%29 \"La Presse (Canadian newspaper)\")* and various [magazines](/wiki/Magazine \"Magazine\") and revues. He was mostly a journalist and specialist in crime news. He also published several books related to [organized crime](/wiki/Organized_crime \"Organized crime\") which earned him an award.", "On May 1, 1973, Antonio Mucci, a [Montreal Mafia](/wiki/Montreal_Mafia \"Montreal Mafia\") member, fired three times at him in the offices of *[Le Devoir](/wiki/Le_Devoir \"Le Devoir\")*. One shot hit him in the arm. He was back at work two months later.", "Charbonneau first entered politics in [1976](/wiki/1976_Quebec_general_election \"1976 Quebec general election\") when he was elected in Vercheres and the Parti Québécois, led by [René Lévesque](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_L%C3%A9vesque \"René Lévesque\") defeated [Robert Bourassa](/wiki/Robert_Bourassa \"Robert Bourassa\")'s [Liberals](/wiki/Quebec_Liberal_Party \"Quebec Liberal Party\") during that election. He was a prominent figure in attracting supporters of sovereignty during the [1980 referendum](/wiki/1980_Quebec_referendum \"1980 Quebec referendum\") which resulted in a victory for the No side.", "He was re\\-elected in [1981](/wiki/1981_Quebec_general_election \"1981 Quebec general election\") and [1985](/wiki/1985_Quebec_general_election \"1985 Quebec general election\") before stepping down the first time in 1989 prior to a [humanitarian](/wiki/Humanitarian \"Humanitarian\") trip to [Africa](/wiki/Africa \"Africa\") organized by the [Université de Montréal](/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_de_Montr%C3%A9al \"Université de Montréal\") and the criminology [faculty](/wiki/Faculty_%28university%29 \"Faculty (university)\"). He was not named as a minister during his first 13 years but was the parliamentary secretary to Lévesque in 1983 and 1984 and headed several committees.", "He was also briefly an administration member of [Oxfam](/wiki/Oxfam \"Oxfam\")\\-Quebec, an [NGO](/wiki/NGO \"NGO\") concentrating in [international development](/wiki/International_development \"International development\") and aid. He also taught [Tai chi](/wiki/Tai_chi \"Tai chi\") in his area for five years and returned to co\\-host a radio show on [CHKL](/wiki/CHKL \"CHKL\"). While being away from politics he participated in [Belanger\\-Campeau Committee](/wiki/Commission_on_the_Political_and_Constitutional_Future_of_Quebec \"Commission on the Political and Constitutional Future of Quebec\") which was launched by the Bourassa government in the fallout of the failure of the [Meech Lake Accord](/wiki/Meech_Lake_Accord \"Meech Lake Accord\") which would have accorded Quebec a distinct society mention.", "Charbonneau re\\-entered politics in [1994](/wiki/1994_Quebec_general_election \"1994 Quebec general election\") where he was elected as an MNA for the [riding](/wiki/Riding_%28division%29 \"Riding (division)\") of Borduas when the Parti Québécois under the leadership of [Jacques Parizeau](/wiki/Jacques_Parizeau \"Jacques Parizeau\"), defeated the [Liberals](/wiki/Quebec_Liberal_Party \"Quebec Liberal Party\") led by [Daniel Johnson, Jr.](/wiki/Daniel_Johnson%2C_Jr. \"Daniel Johnson, Jr.\") He was re\\-elected successfully in [1998](/wiki/1998_Quebec_general_election \"1998 Quebec general election\") and [2003](/wiki/2003_Quebec_general_election \"2003 Quebec general election\"). He was the speaker of the provincial legislative assembly of Quebec for six years, from 1996 to 2002, before being named the Deputy [Minister](/wiki/Minister_%28government%29 \"Minister (government)\") of Intergovernmental Affairs in the [Bernard Landry](/wiki/Bernard_Landry \"Bernard Landry\") cabinet, until the party's defeat to [Jean Charest](/wiki/Jean_Charest \"Jean Charest\")'s Liberals in the 2003 elections. He served as critic of the [opposition party](/wiki/Opposition_party \"Opposition party\") in [public safety](/wiki/Public_safety \"Public safety\") and [health](/wiki/Health \"Health\") until his second retirement on November 15, 2006\\.", "At one time Charbonneau was the minister for reform of democratic institutions under the PQ government. He later became president of the [Mouvement démocratie nouvelle](/wiki/Mouvement_d%C3%A9mocratie_nouvelle \"Mouvement démocratie nouvelle\"), which advocates [proportional representation](/wiki/Proportional_representation \"Proportional representation\") in Quebec.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.journaldemontreal.com/2019/08/19/jean\\-pierre\\-charbonneau\\-ne\\-ferme\\-plus\\-la\\-porte\\-a\\-un\\-referendum\\-pour\\-un\\-nouveau\\-mode\\-de\\-scrutin\\|title\\=Jean\\-Pierre Charbonneau ne ferme plus la porte à un référendum pour un nouveau mode de scrutin\\|first\\=Véronique Racine, Agence\\|last\\=QMI\\|website\\=\\[\\[Le Journal de Montréal]]}}", "" ]
Works ----- Art critics often see parallels to [Marcel Duchamp](/wiki/Marcel_Duchamp "Marcel Duchamp"), [Dieter Roth](/wiki/Dieter_Roth "Dieter Roth") or [Jean Tinguely](/wiki/Jean_Tinguely "Jean Tinguely") in Fischli and Weiss' parody bearing work.[Roberta Smith](/wiki/Roberta_Smith "Roberta Smith") (15 June 2007\), [Peter Fischli and David Weiss](https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9801EFDC153FF936A25755C0A9619C8B63) *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*. *Wurstserie* (1979\) was Fischli and Weiss' first collaborative project, setting the tone for their future work.[Fischli \& Weiss](http://www.guggenheim.org/new-york/collections/collection-online/show-full/bio/?artist_name=Peter%20Fischli%20%2F%20David%20Weiss&page=1&f=Name&cr=1) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910104215/http://www.guggenheim.org/new\-york/collections/collection\-online/show\-full/bio/?artist\_name\=Peter%20Fischli%20%2F%20David%20Weiss\&page\=1\&f\=Name\&cr\=1 \|date\=10 September 2012}} Guggenheim Collection. In the series, ordinary sausages and slices of sausages became the protagonists of scenarios, alluding to situations such as cars in a traffic accident in an urban setting, layers of carpets and other situations.[Fischli \& Weiss](https://www.ubs.com/microsites/art_collection/home/the-collection/a-z/informations/fischliweiss/london_british_airport.html) UBS Art Collection, Zürich. By the end of the 1980s, the duo had expanded their repertoire to embrace an iconography of the incidental, creating deadpan photographs of kitsch tourist attractions and airports around the world. For their contribution to the 1995 [Venice Biennale](/wiki/Venice_Biennale "Venice Biennale"), at which they represented Switzerland, Fischli and Weiss exhibited 96 hours of video on 12 monitors that documented what they called "concentrated daydreaming"—real\-time glimpses into daily life in Zürich: a mountain sunrise, a restaurant chef in his kitchen, sanitation workers, a bicycle race, and so on.[Fischli \& Weiss, *Untitled (Flowers)* (1997–98\)](http://www.guggenheim.org/new-york/collections/collection-online/artists/3893/Peter%20Fischli%20%20David%20Weiss) Guggenheim Collection. For the [Skulptur Projekte Münster](/wiki/Skulptur_Projekte_M%C3%BCnster "Skulptur Projekte Münster") (1997\), Fischli and Weiss planted a flower and vegetable garden conceived with an ecological point of view and documented its periodic growth through photographs.[Peter Fischli David Weiss, 6 February – 20 March 1999](http://www.matthewmarks.com/exhibitions/1999-02-06_peter-fischli-david-weiss/) [Matthew Marks Gallery](/wiki/Matthew_Marks_Gallery "Matthew Marks Gallery"), New York. ### *Suddenly This Overview* *Suddenly this Overview* (1981\) is a collection of unfired clay sculptures imaginatively recreating various events in human history.*Walls, Corners, Tubes*, 10 October – 10 November 2012, [Sprüth Magers](/wiki/Spr%C3%BCth_Magers "Sprüth Magers"), London. The figures range from those rendered in meticulous detail, to coarse, sketch\-like pieces. As is implied by "The World We Live In" – the title originally envisaged for the work – this panorama of interwoven happenings in the world arising out of the artists' subjective viewpoint, with its assembly of events both large and small, questions what it means to be alive. First unveiled in 1981 as an installation consisting of around 200 objects, a new version comprising about 90 was presented in 2006\.[Peter Fischli David Weiss, 18 September 2010 – 25 December 2010](http://www.kanazawa21.jp/data_list.php?g=78&d=54&lng=e) 21st Century Museum of Contemporary Art, Kanazawa. ### Rat and Bear The artists' first Rat and Bear film, *The Least Resistance* (1981\) was set in urban [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles"), where the artists were living at the time. *The Right Way* (1982–83\) was their second appearance and shows the two characters rambling through a mountainous landscape, of the kind that filled 19th\-century artists with thoughts of the sublime. A book called *Order and Cleanliness* (1981\), setting out the ideas of Rat and Bear, is crammed with charts and diagrams, each attempting to impose a crazed order on the world.[Fischli \& Weiss: Flowers \& Questions. A Retrospective, 11 October 2006 – 14 January 2007](http://www.tate.org.uk/modern/exhibitions/fischliandweiss/rooms/room11.shtm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121100540/http://www.tate.org.uk/modern/exhibitions/fischliandweiss/rooms/room11\.shtm \|date\=21 January 2012 }} [Tate Modern](/wiki/Tate_Modern "Tate Modern"), London. *Rat and Bear* (2004\) is a sculpture that incorporates the original costumes worn by the artists, presented in life\-size boxes out of dark, barely\-translucent Plexiglas, suspending the costumes inside.[Peter Fischli, David Weiss: Rat and Bear, Fotografias, 11 March – 22 April 2006](http://www.matthewmarks.com/exhibitions/2006-03-11_peter-fischli-david-weiss/) [Matthew Marks Gallery](/wiki/Matthew_Marks_Gallery "Matthew Marks Gallery"), New York. ### *Polyurethane Objects* and *Rubber Sculptures* In 1982, the artists began their ongoing series of hand\-carved and painted [polyurethane](/wiki/Polyurethane "Polyurethane") objects depicting ordinary items found in their studio. Each object is a replica, down to the strewn peanut shells and scatter of rainbow [M\&M's](/wiki/M%26M%27s "M&M's"), carved from dense, rigid foam and painted.Leah Ollman (13 February 2014\), [Review: Fischli and Weiss marry ingenuity and wisdom](http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/arts/culture/la-review-fischli-and-weiss-marry-ingenuity-and-wisdom-20140210,0,1301321.story) *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times")*. In a 2006 interview Peter Fischli remarked, "Unlike Pop art, which turns one particular object into an icon, they are a collection of replicas of worthless everyday objects."[Peter Fischli, David Weiss: Polyurethane Objects, 18 January – 12 April 2014](http://www.matthewmarks.com/los-angeles/exhibitions/2014-01-18_peter-fischli-david-weiss/) [Matthew Marks Gallery](/wiki/Matthew_Marks_Gallery "Matthew Marks Gallery"), Los Angeles. For a series of *Rubber Sculptures*, they cast ordinary objects, such as a desk drawer *Divider* (1987\), a *Vase* (1986/87\) and a *Dog Dish* (1987\) in a heavyweight black rubber.[Fischli \& Weiss: Rubber Sculptures, 9 September – 18 October 2008](http://www.skarstedt.com/exhibitions/2008-09-09_fischli-and-weiss/) Skarstedt Gallery, New York. ### *The Way Things Go* The *Equilibres* photographs (1984–1987\), a series of images of household objects and studio detritus arranged to form tenuously balanced assemblages, developed into the artists' celebrated film *[The Way Things Go](/wiki/The_Way_Things_Go "The Way Things Go")* (*Der Lauf Der Dinge*) (1986–1987\).[Peter Fischli, David Weiss: Equilibres, 27 April – 30 June 2007](http://www.matthewmarks.com/exhibitions/2007-04-27_peter-fischli-david-weiss/) [Matthew Marks Gallery](/wiki/Matthew_Marks_Gallery "Matthew Marks Gallery"), New York. The resulting film enlists an assortment of objects, including tyres and chairs, as components in a domino\-like chain reaction lasting thirty minutes. Using such common industrial objects, Fischli and Weiss created a continuous chain of actions and reactions involving balloons deflating, tires rolling, liquids draining, candles melting, balls dropping, fuses burning, wheels spinning, and much more. The film's humour lies in the deliberate misuse of these objects, as they are co\-opted into performing roles outside their normal function. Reminiscent of the physical comedy of silent films starring [Charlie Chaplin](/wiki/Charlie_Chaplin "Charlie Chaplin") or [Buster Keaton](/wiki/Buster_Keaton "Buster Keaton"), here the actors are steaming\-kettles mounted on roller\-skates, rotating dustbin bags, rickety stepladders set in motion, buckets, tyres, bottles and planks.[Fischli \& Weiss: Flowers \& Questions. A Retrospective, 11 October 2006 – 14 January 2007](http://www.tate.org.uk/modern/exhibitions/fischliandweiss/rooms/room6.shtm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121102003/http://www.tate.org.uk/modern/exhibitions/fischliandweiss/rooms/room6\.shtm \|date\=21 January 2012 }} [Tate Modern](/wiki/Tate_Modern "Tate Modern"), London. Well known in film circles, *The Way Things Go* won awards at the Berlin and Sydney film festivals and was described by *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* as a "masterpiece". For their retrospective at [Tate Modern](/wiki/Tate_Modern "Tate Modern") in 2006, Fischli/Weiss unveiled *Making Things Go* (1985/2006\), a documentary that gave a behind\-the\-scenes look of the many experiments, rehearsals, and failures behind the controlled catastrophes of *The Way Things Go.* It was shot over three days in 1985 by a friend, Swiss writer and publisher Patrick Frey, but went unreleased for 20 years. *The Way Things Go* became the inspiration for the even more famous [Honda](/wiki/Honda_of_the_UK_Manufacturing "Honda of the UK Manufacturing") advert *[Cog](/wiki/Cog_%28advertisement%29 "Cog (advertisement)")* (made by [Wieden\+Kennedy](/wiki/Wieden%2BKennedy "Wieden+Kennedy")), in which parts of a [Honda Accord](/wiki/Honda_Accord "Honda Accord") are used in the chain instead of fire and foam.Claire Cozens (27 May 2003\), [Acclaimed Honda ad in copycat row](https://www.theguardian.com/media/2003/may/27/advertising.uknews) *[The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian "The Guardian")* Fischli and Weiss had previously declined offers to use their film commercially, and briefly threatened legal action against Honda for use of their ideas, although in the end no lawsuit was filed.Jack Castle (26 October 2012\), [50 shades of black](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/9635332/50-shades-of-black.html#) *[The Daily Telegraph](/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph "The Daily Telegraph")* ### *Visible World* Originally made for [documenta X](/wiki/Documenta "Documenta") (1997\), *Sichtbare Welt (Visible World)* comprises three monitors each displaying an eight\-hour video made up of the artists' still photographs. The series includes much\-photographed views such as the New York skyline, Sydney Harbour and the Pyramids. Others are the kind of pictures taken by amateur photographers, conventionally composed, sharply focused, with appealing subject matter such as woodland glades and sunlit gardens.[Fischli \& Weiss: Flowers \& Questions. A Retrospective, 11 October 2006 – 14 January 2007](http://www.tate.org.uk/whats-on/tate-modern/exhibition/fischli-weiss/fischli-weiss-room-guide-room-1/fischli-weiss-0) [Tate Modern](/wiki/Tate_Modern "Tate Modern"), London. The images, taken in arbitrary locations around the world, slowly dissolve one into another and, as is also the case with their slide shows, there is no sound track. The work was shown on late night television in Germany every night for three months.[Peter Fischli, David Weiss, 6 February – 20 March 1999](http://www.matthewmarks.com/exhibitions/1999-02-06_peter-fischli-david-weiss/) [Matthew Marks Gallery](/wiki/Matthew_Marks_Gallery "Matthew Marks Gallery"), New York. *Visible World* exists in a number of other formats; as an artists' book and as an installation of fifteen light tables displaying a vast slide archive. A later version of *Visible World* (2003\) is a collection of 3,000 small\-format photographs displayed on a specially fabricated 90\-foot long light table. The encyclopedic collection of images – of cities, jungles, deserts, airports, stadiums, monuments, mountains, and tropical beaches, from all over the world – is composed of photographs taken by the artists over the course of fifteen years.[Peter Fischli David Weiss, 22 February – 20 April 2002](http://www.matthewmarks.com/exhibitions/2002-02-22_peter-fischli-david-weiss/) [Matthew Marks Gallery](/wiki/Matthew_Marks_Gallery "Matthew Marks Gallery"), New York. *An Unsettled Work* (2000–06\), originally titled *Freakshow; Monsters*, grew out of *Visible World* and consists of pictures rejected from the prior work. A marked aesthetic departure from their earlier pieces, this slide projection issues forth violent, sumptuous and otherworldly images.[Fischli \& Weiss](http://www.guggenheim.org/new-york/collections/collection-online/show-full/bio/?artist_name=Peter%20Fischli%20%2F%20David%20Weiss&page=1&f=Name&cr=1) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910104215/http://www.guggenheim.org/new\-york/collections/collection\-online/show\-full/bio/?artist\_name\=Peter%20Fischli%20%2F%20David%20Weiss\&page\=1\&f\=Name\&cr\=1 \|date\=10 September 2012 }} Guggenheim Collection. A later series is *Views of Airports*,[Frank Benson/Peter Fischli and David Weiss: Airports and Extrusions, 13 September – 27 October 2012](http://www.andrewkreps.com/exhibition_press.html?eid=194) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520134020/http://www.andrewkreps.com/exhibition\_press.html?eid\=194 \|date\=20 May 2013 }} Andrew Kreps Gallery, New York. a slide presentation of 469 photographs the artists took over a period of two decades. His Work *Schilf*, 2004, is by [Museo Cantonale d'Arte](/wiki/Museo_Cantonale_d%27Arte "Museo Cantonale d'Arte") of [Lugano](/wiki/Lugano "Lugano").[Museo Cantonale d'Arte, Lugano: Peter Fischli](http://www.e-mca.ti.ch/lugano/eMuseumPlus?service=direct/1/ResultListView/result.t2.artist_list.$TspTitleLink$0.link&sp=10&sp=Sartist&sp=SfilterDefinition&sp=0&sp=1&sp=3&sp=SsimpleList&sp=0&sp=Sdetail&sp=0&sp=F&sp=T&sp=9) ### *Questions* *Fragenprojektion* (*Questions*, 1981–2003\) is a three\-part, 15\-channel slide installation, consisting of 243 handwritten questions, with three questions projected at a time. Each set of questions slowly dissolves into the next. The questions range from the profound to the trivial. Examples include: "Can I restore my innocence?," "Why does the earth turn around once a day?," "Does a hidden tunnel lead directly to the kitchen?" and "Does a ghost drive my car around at night?" The installation was the culmination of a series of works composed of absurd questions, including a book called *Will Happiness Find Me?* (2002\).[Fischli \& Weiss: Flowers \& Questions. A Retrospective, 11 October 2006 – 14 January 2007](http://www.tate.org.uk/modern/exhibitions/fischliandweiss/rooms/room7.shtm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111170420/http://www.tate.org.uk/modern/exhibitions/fischliandweiss/rooms/room7\.shtm \|date\=11 January 2012 }} [Tate Modern](/wiki/Tate_Modern "Tate Modern"), London. In the later *Question Pot (Big)* (1986\), a large container molded from polyurethane, questions were written all over the inside of the pot in spiral formation. ### *Walls, Corners, Tubes* In *Walls, Corners, Tubes* (2012\), the artists present a series of objects with geometrical bodies which have the form of walls, corners, and tubes and are made alternately of black rubber and unfired clay placed on high, white pedestals. Both the shapes of the objects and their titles such as *Wand aus Ton* (*Wall of Clay*, 2012\) or *Röhre aus Gummi* (*Tube of Rubber*, 2012\) recall functional objects, such as those often found at building supplies stores. ### *Rock on Top of Another Rock* [thumb\|right\|A rock on top of another rock in [Kensington Gardens](/wiki/Kensington_Gardens "Kensington Gardens") outside the [Serpentine Gallery](/wiki/Serpentine_Gallery "Serpentine Gallery")](/wiki/File:Rock_on_Top_of_Another_Rock.jpg "Rock on Top of Another Rock.jpg") {{main\|Rock on Top of Another Rock}} This was a pair of installations – one on the [Valdresflye](/wiki/Valdresflye "Valdresflye") plateau in Norway and the other at the [Serpentine Gallery](/wiki/Serpentine_Gallery "Serpentine Gallery") in London in 2013\.{{citation \|url\=http://imageobjecttext.com/2013/09/07/visualising\-an\-idea\-2/ \| title\=Visualising an idea: Fischli/Weiss's Rock on Top of Another Rock \|date\=7 September 2013 \|author\=Ann Jones \|work\=Image Object Text}}{{citation \|title\=Rock on Top of Another Rock: Valdresflya \& Kensington Gardens \|author\=Peter Fischli, David Weiss \|publisher\=Press Forlaget \|date\=28 February 2014 \|isbn\=9788275475426}}{{citation \|url\=https://www.nasjonaleturistveger.no/en/routes/valdresflye?attraction\=Steinplassen \|publisher\=Norwegian Public Roads Administration \|title\=Steinplassen \|work\=Norwegian Scenic Routes}}
[ "Works\n-----", "Art critics often see parallels to [Marcel Duchamp](/wiki/Marcel_Duchamp \"Marcel Duchamp\"), [Dieter Roth](/wiki/Dieter_Roth \"Dieter Roth\") or [Jean Tinguely](/wiki/Jean_Tinguely \"Jean Tinguely\") in Fischli and Weiss' parody bearing work.[Roberta Smith](/wiki/Roberta_Smith \"Roberta Smith\") (15 June 2007\\), [Peter Fischli and David Weiss](https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9801EFDC153FF936A25755C0A9619C8B63) *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*.", "*Wurstserie* (1979\\) was Fischli and Weiss' first collaborative project, setting the tone for their future work.[Fischli \\& Weiss](http://www.guggenheim.org/new-york/collections/collection-online/show-full/bio/?artist_name=Peter%20Fischli%20%2F%20David%20Weiss&page=1&f=Name&cr=1) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910104215/http://www.guggenheim.org/new\\-york/collections/collection\\-online/show\\-full/bio/?artist\\_name\\=Peter%20Fischli%20%2F%20David%20Weiss\\&page\\=1\\&f\\=Name\\&cr\\=1 \\|date\\=10 September 2012}} Guggenheim Collection. In the series, ordinary sausages and slices of sausages became the protagonists of scenarios, alluding to situations such as cars in a traffic accident in an urban setting, layers of carpets and other situations.[Fischli \\& Weiss](https://www.ubs.com/microsites/art_collection/home/the-collection/a-z/informations/fischliweiss/london_british_airport.html) UBS Art Collection, Zürich.", "By the end of the 1980s, the duo had expanded their repertoire to embrace an iconography of the incidental, creating deadpan photographs of kitsch tourist attractions and airports around the world. For their contribution to the 1995 [Venice Biennale](/wiki/Venice_Biennale \"Venice Biennale\"), at which they represented Switzerland, Fischli and Weiss exhibited 96 hours of video on 12 monitors that documented what they called \"concentrated daydreaming\"—real\\-time glimpses into daily life in Zürich: a mountain sunrise, a restaurant chef in his kitchen, sanitation workers, a bicycle race, and so on.[Fischli \\& Weiss, *Untitled (Flowers)* (1997–98\\)](http://www.guggenheim.org/new-york/collections/collection-online/artists/3893/Peter%20Fischli%20%20David%20Weiss) Guggenheim Collection. For the [Skulptur Projekte Münster](/wiki/Skulptur_Projekte_M%C3%BCnster \"Skulptur Projekte Münster\") (1997\\), Fischli and Weiss planted a flower and vegetable garden conceived with an ecological point of view and documented its periodic growth through photographs.[Peter Fischli David Weiss, 6 February – 20 March 1999](http://www.matthewmarks.com/exhibitions/1999-02-06_peter-fischli-david-weiss/) [Matthew Marks Gallery](/wiki/Matthew_Marks_Gallery \"Matthew Marks Gallery\"), New York.", "### *Suddenly This Overview*", "*Suddenly this Overview* (1981\\) is a collection of unfired clay sculptures imaginatively recreating various events in human history.*Walls, Corners, Tubes*, 10 October – 10 November 2012, [Sprüth Magers](/wiki/Spr%C3%BCth_Magers \"Sprüth Magers\"), London. The figures range from those rendered in meticulous detail, to coarse, sketch\\-like pieces. As is implied by \"The World We Live In\" – the title originally envisaged for the work – this panorama of interwoven happenings in the world arising out of the artists' subjective viewpoint, with its assembly of events both large and small, questions what it means to be alive. First unveiled in 1981 as an installation consisting of around 200 objects, a new version comprising about 90 was presented in 2006\\.[Peter Fischli David Weiss, 18 September 2010 – 25 December 2010](http://www.kanazawa21.jp/data_list.php?g=78&d=54&lng=e) 21st Century Museum of Contemporary Art, Kanazawa.", "### Rat and Bear", "The artists' first Rat and Bear film, *The Least Resistance* (1981\\) was set in urban [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\"), where the artists were living at the time. *The Right Way* (1982–83\\) was their second appearance and shows the two characters rambling through a mountainous landscape, of the kind that filled 19th\\-century artists with thoughts of the sublime. A book called *Order and Cleanliness* (1981\\), setting out the ideas of Rat and Bear, is crammed with charts and diagrams, each attempting to impose a crazed order on the world.[Fischli \\& Weiss: Flowers \\& Questions. A Retrospective, 11 October 2006 – 14 January 2007](http://www.tate.org.uk/modern/exhibitions/fischliandweiss/rooms/room11.shtm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121100540/http://www.tate.org.uk/modern/exhibitions/fischliandweiss/rooms/room11\\.shtm \\|date\\=21 January 2012 }} [Tate Modern](/wiki/Tate_Modern \"Tate Modern\"), London. *Rat and Bear* (2004\\) is a sculpture that incorporates the original costumes worn by the artists, presented in life\\-size boxes out of dark, barely\\-translucent Plexiglas, suspending the costumes inside.[Peter Fischli, David Weiss: Rat and Bear, Fotografias, 11 March – 22 April 2006](http://www.matthewmarks.com/exhibitions/2006-03-11_peter-fischli-david-weiss/) [Matthew Marks Gallery](/wiki/Matthew_Marks_Gallery \"Matthew Marks Gallery\"), New York.", "### *Polyurethane Objects* and *Rubber Sculptures*", "In 1982, the artists began their ongoing series of hand\\-carved and painted [polyurethane](/wiki/Polyurethane \"Polyurethane\") objects depicting ordinary items found in their studio. Each object is a replica, down to the strewn peanut shells and scatter of rainbow [M\\&M's](/wiki/M%26M%27s \"M&M's\"), carved from dense, rigid foam and painted.Leah Ollman (13 February 2014\\), [Review: Fischli and Weiss marry ingenuity and wisdom](http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/arts/culture/la-review-fischli-and-weiss-marry-ingenuity-and-wisdom-20140210,0,1301321.story) *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\")*. In a 2006 interview Peter Fischli remarked, \"Unlike Pop art, which turns one particular object into an icon, they are a collection of replicas of worthless everyday objects.\"[Peter Fischli, David Weiss: Polyurethane Objects, 18 January – 12 April 2014](http://www.matthewmarks.com/los-angeles/exhibitions/2014-01-18_peter-fischli-david-weiss/) [Matthew Marks Gallery](/wiki/Matthew_Marks_Gallery \"Matthew Marks Gallery\"), Los Angeles. For a series of *Rubber Sculptures*, they cast ordinary objects, such as a desk drawer *Divider* (1987\\), a *Vase* (1986/87\\) and a *Dog Dish* (1987\\) in a heavyweight black rubber.[Fischli \\& Weiss: Rubber Sculptures, 9 September – 18 October 2008](http://www.skarstedt.com/exhibitions/2008-09-09_fischli-and-weiss/) Skarstedt Gallery, New York.", "### *The Way Things Go*", "The *Equilibres* photographs (1984–1987\\), a series of images of household objects and studio detritus arranged to form tenuously balanced assemblages, developed into the artists' celebrated film *[The Way Things Go](/wiki/The_Way_Things_Go \"The Way Things Go\")* (*Der Lauf Der Dinge*) (1986–1987\\).[Peter Fischli, David Weiss: Equilibres, 27 April – 30 June 2007](http://www.matthewmarks.com/exhibitions/2007-04-27_peter-fischli-david-weiss/) [Matthew Marks Gallery](/wiki/Matthew_Marks_Gallery \"Matthew Marks Gallery\"), New York. The resulting film enlists an assortment of objects, including tyres and chairs, as components in a domino\\-like chain reaction lasting thirty minutes. Using such common industrial objects, Fischli and Weiss created a continuous chain of actions and reactions involving balloons deflating, tires rolling, liquids draining, candles melting, balls dropping, fuses burning, wheels spinning, and much more. The film's humour lies in the deliberate misuse of these objects, as they are co\\-opted into performing roles outside their normal function. Reminiscent of the physical comedy of silent films starring [Charlie Chaplin](/wiki/Charlie_Chaplin \"Charlie Chaplin\") or [Buster Keaton](/wiki/Buster_Keaton \"Buster Keaton\"), here the actors are steaming\\-kettles mounted on roller\\-skates, rotating dustbin bags, rickety stepladders set in motion, buckets, tyres, bottles and planks.[Fischli \\& Weiss: Flowers \\& Questions. A Retrospective, 11 October 2006 – 14 January 2007](http://www.tate.org.uk/modern/exhibitions/fischliandweiss/rooms/room6.shtm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121102003/http://www.tate.org.uk/modern/exhibitions/fischliandweiss/rooms/room6\\.shtm \\|date\\=21 January 2012 }} [Tate Modern](/wiki/Tate_Modern \"Tate Modern\"), London.", "Well known in film circles, *The Way Things Go* won awards at the Berlin and Sydney film festivals and was described by *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* as a \"masterpiece\". For their retrospective at [Tate Modern](/wiki/Tate_Modern \"Tate Modern\") in 2006, Fischli/Weiss unveiled *Making Things Go* (1985/2006\\), a documentary that gave a behind\\-the\\-scenes look of the many experiments, rehearsals, and failures behind the controlled catastrophes of *The Way Things Go.* It was shot over three days in 1985 by a friend, Swiss writer and publisher Patrick Frey, but went unreleased for 20 years. *The Way Things Go* became the inspiration for the even more famous [Honda](/wiki/Honda_of_the_UK_Manufacturing \"Honda of the UK Manufacturing\") advert *[Cog](/wiki/Cog_%28advertisement%29 \"Cog (advertisement)\")* (made by [Wieden\\+Kennedy](/wiki/Wieden%2BKennedy \"Wieden+Kennedy\")), in which parts of a [Honda Accord](/wiki/Honda_Accord \"Honda Accord\") are used in the chain instead of fire and foam.Claire Cozens (27 May 2003\\), [Acclaimed Honda ad in copycat row](https://www.theguardian.com/media/2003/may/27/advertising.uknews) *[The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian \"The Guardian\")* Fischli and Weiss had previously declined offers to use their film commercially, and briefly threatened legal action against Honda for use of their ideas, although in the end no lawsuit was filed.Jack Castle (26 October 2012\\), [50 shades of black](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/9635332/50-shades-of-black.html#) *[The Daily Telegraph](/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph \"The Daily Telegraph\")*", "### *Visible World*", "Originally made for [documenta X](/wiki/Documenta \"Documenta\") (1997\\), *Sichtbare Welt (Visible World)* comprises three monitors each displaying an eight\\-hour video made up of the artists' still photographs. The series includes much\\-photographed views such as the New York skyline, Sydney Harbour and the Pyramids. Others are the kind of pictures taken by amateur photographers, conventionally composed, sharply focused, with appealing subject matter such as woodland glades and sunlit gardens.[Fischli \\& Weiss: Flowers \\& Questions. A Retrospective, 11 October 2006 – 14 January 2007](http://www.tate.org.uk/whats-on/tate-modern/exhibition/fischli-weiss/fischli-weiss-room-guide-room-1/fischli-weiss-0) [Tate Modern](/wiki/Tate_Modern \"Tate Modern\"), London. The images, taken in arbitrary locations around the world, slowly dissolve one into another and, as is also the case with their slide shows, there is no sound track. The work was shown on late night television in Germany every night for three months.[Peter Fischli, David Weiss, 6 February – 20 March 1999](http://www.matthewmarks.com/exhibitions/1999-02-06_peter-fischli-david-weiss/) [Matthew Marks Gallery](/wiki/Matthew_Marks_Gallery \"Matthew Marks Gallery\"), New York. *Visible World* exists in a number of other formats; as an artists' book and as an installation of fifteen light tables displaying a vast slide archive.", "A later version of *Visible World* (2003\\) is a collection of 3,000 small\\-format photographs displayed on a specially fabricated 90\\-foot long light table. The encyclopedic collection of images – of cities, jungles, deserts, airports, stadiums, monuments, mountains, and tropical beaches, from all over the world – is composed of photographs taken by the artists over the course of fifteen years.[Peter Fischli David Weiss, 22 February – 20 April 2002](http://www.matthewmarks.com/exhibitions/2002-02-22_peter-fischli-david-weiss/) [Matthew Marks Gallery](/wiki/Matthew_Marks_Gallery \"Matthew Marks Gallery\"), New York. *An Unsettled Work* (2000–06\\), originally titled *Freakshow; Monsters*, grew out of *Visible World* and consists of pictures rejected from the prior work. A marked aesthetic departure from their earlier pieces, this slide projection issues forth violent, sumptuous and otherworldly images.[Fischli \\& Weiss](http://www.guggenheim.org/new-york/collections/collection-online/show-full/bio/?artist_name=Peter%20Fischli%20%2F%20David%20Weiss&page=1&f=Name&cr=1) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910104215/http://www.guggenheim.org/new\\-york/collections/collection\\-online/show\\-full/bio/?artist\\_name\\=Peter%20Fischli%20%2F%20David%20Weiss\\&page\\=1\\&f\\=Name\\&cr\\=1 \\|date\\=10 September 2012 }} Guggenheim Collection. A later series is *Views of Airports*,[Frank Benson/Peter Fischli and David Weiss: Airports and Extrusions, 13 September – 27 October 2012](http://www.andrewkreps.com/exhibition_press.html?eid=194) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520134020/http://www.andrewkreps.com/exhibition\\_press.html?eid\\=194 \\|date\\=20 May 2013 }} Andrew Kreps Gallery, New York. a slide presentation of 469 photographs the artists took over a period of two decades. His Work *Schilf*, 2004, is by [Museo Cantonale d'Arte](/wiki/Museo_Cantonale_d%27Arte \"Museo Cantonale d'Arte\") of [Lugano](/wiki/Lugano \"Lugano\").[Museo Cantonale d'Arte, Lugano: Peter Fischli](http://www.e-mca.ti.ch/lugano/eMuseumPlus?service=direct/1/ResultListView/result.t2.artist_list.$TspTitleLink$0.link&sp=10&sp=Sartist&sp=SfilterDefinition&sp=0&sp=1&sp=3&sp=SsimpleList&sp=0&sp=Sdetail&sp=0&sp=F&sp=T&sp=9)", "### *Questions*", "*Fragenprojektion* (*Questions*, 1981–2003\\) is a three\\-part, 15\\-channel slide installation, consisting of 243 handwritten questions, with three questions projected at a time. Each set of questions slowly dissolves into the next. The questions range from the profound to the trivial. Examples include: \"Can I restore my innocence?,\" \"Why does the earth turn around once a day?,\" \"Does a hidden tunnel lead directly to the kitchen?\" and \"Does a ghost drive my car around at night?\" The installation was the culmination of a series of works composed of absurd questions, including a book called *Will Happiness Find Me?* (2002\\).[Fischli \\& Weiss: Flowers \\& Questions. A Retrospective, 11 October 2006 – 14 January 2007](http://www.tate.org.uk/modern/exhibitions/fischliandweiss/rooms/room7.shtm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111170420/http://www.tate.org.uk/modern/exhibitions/fischliandweiss/rooms/room7\\.shtm \\|date\\=11 January 2012 }} [Tate Modern](/wiki/Tate_Modern \"Tate Modern\"), London. In the later *Question Pot (Big)* (1986\\), a large container molded from polyurethane, questions were written all over the inside of the pot in spiral formation.", "### *Walls, Corners, Tubes*", "In *Walls, Corners, Tubes* (2012\\), the artists present a series of objects with geometrical bodies which have the form of walls, corners, and tubes and are made alternately of black rubber and unfired clay placed on high, white pedestals. Both the shapes of the objects and their titles such as *Wand aus Ton* (*Wall of Clay*, 2012\\) or *Röhre aus Gummi* (*Tube of Rubber*, 2012\\) recall functional objects, such as those often found at building supplies stores.", "### *Rock on Top of Another Rock*", "[thumb\\|right\\|A rock on top of another rock in [Kensington Gardens](/wiki/Kensington_Gardens \"Kensington Gardens\") outside the [Serpentine Gallery](/wiki/Serpentine_Gallery \"Serpentine Gallery\")](/wiki/File:Rock_on_Top_of_Another_Rock.jpg \"Rock on Top of Another Rock.jpg\")\n{{main\\|Rock on Top of Another Rock}}\nThis was a pair of installations – one on the [Valdresflye](/wiki/Valdresflye \"Valdresflye\") plateau in Norway and the other at the [Serpentine Gallery](/wiki/Serpentine_Gallery \"Serpentine Gallery\") in London in 2013\\.{{citation \\|url\\=http://imageobjecttext.com/2013/09/07/visualising\\-an\\-idea\\-2/ \\| title\\=Visualising an idea: Fischli/Weiss's Rock on Top of Another Rock \\|date\\=7 September 2013 \\|author\\=Ann Jones \\|work\\=Image Object Text}}{{citation \\|title\\=Rock on Top of Another Rock: Valdresflya \\& Kensington Gardens \\|author\\=Peter Fischli, David Weiss \\|publisher\\=Press Forlaget \\|date\\=28 February 2014 \\|isbn\\=9788275475426}}{{citation \\|url\\=https://www.nasjonaleturistveger.no/en/routes/valdresflye?attraction\\=Steinplassen \\|publisher\\=Norwegian Public Roads Administration \\|title\\=Steinplassen \\|work\\=Norwegian Scenic Routes}}", "" ]
History ------- ### Formation and early years (2006\) The Blue News was formed in 2006 taking its name from a [spoonerism](/wiki/Spoonerism "Spoonerism") of the words 'The New Blues'. Brent Orndorff founded the band after signing a recording contract for a record release deal with *Statue Records Hollywood* of Hollywood, California. He accomplished this by opening a studio in downtown Terre Haute called "Blame Records" where he recorded other artists to help pay for manufacturing and promoting his first solo album. The band's signature sound began with a few songs recorded that combined live instruments and vocals with samples and drum loops programmed with the [ReBirth RB\-338](/wiki/ReBirth_RB-338 "ReBirth RB-338") software. Orndorff self\-produced the band's debut LP, titled *Blue News* recording in a bedroom using a PC and the band began to tour, averaging two to three shows per week in several cities around the Midwest United States. After gaining momentum in the Midwest live music scene, the band was interviewed by both *Chicago Music Guide* and *Louisville Music Guide*, and made in\-studio live radio broadcasts as more people began to take notice.{{cite web\|url\=http://chicagomusicguide.com/interview\_blue\_news.htm \|title\=Interview with Blue News \|publisher\=Chicago Music Guide \|date\=May 1, 2006 \|accessdate\=November 28, 2012}} ### *The Signs* (2007\) In 2007, the recording contract with Statue Records was dissolved before the release of *The Signs* EP. The album was self\-released as *The Blue News Project* to reflect that the songs were the result of a collaboration with multiple musicians. During this period, however, the band primarily performed live as a duo, featuring drummer Kraig Kerins. Songs from *The Signs* EP were used in the band's first college [campus radio](/wiki/Campus_radio "Campus radio") campaign with Vigilant Promotions of [Minneapolis](/wiki/Minneapolis "Minneapolis"), Minnesota. The band's music aired on 75 stations across multiple states. The songs "Love's So Strong" and "Next Time" were both featured in the PBS documentary series *[Roadtrip Nation](/wiki/Roadtrip_Nation "Roadtrip Nation")*. At the time the songs aired, the band was regularly playing shows at live music clubs in several US cities. In between gigs, the band started recording their third LP, *Strange Light*. The LP was self\-produced and released by the band's Blame Records [indie label](/wiki/Indie_label "Indie label") after signing a distribution agreement with [INgrooves](/wiki/INgrooves "INgrooves") Digital Distribution in San Francisco, California (now part of [Universal Music Group](/wiki/Universal_Music_Group "Universal Music Group")). ### *Strange Light* (2008–2009\) By 2008, The Blue News was touring consistently while further developing their original style and recorded their third album *Strange Light*. The album was self\-released by Blame Records and found good reviews in the blues and rock communities. The LP was the first to include drummer Dustin Richardson who joined the band in early 2008\. The band produced their first HD music video featuring the song "Shelter". The HD music video was shot and directed by Chris Thornberry of "Green Sky Media" and "The Price of Admission" and aired regularly on Indy's Music Channel (IMC), an independent 24\-hour music television channel on cable station WDNI\-CD. Although there was no official radio campaign for the album, songs from *Strange Light* received radio airplay in many US areas and the music continues to be regularly licensed in various media. Multiple songs from "Strange Light" were placed in 2009 on the UCF TV cable channel at the University of Central Florida in [Orlando, Florida](/wiki/Orlando%2C_Florida "Orlando, Florida") and that same year the station's programming received a 2009 Suncoast Emmy Award.{{cite web\|url\=http://today.ucf.edu/watch\-emmy\-award\-winning\-gallery\-series/ \|title\=Watch Emmy Award\-Winning Gallery Series \|publisher\=University of Central Florida \|date\=June 3, 2010\|accessdate\=November 28, 2012}} ### *Good at Falling* (2010\) Partially recorded at Stable Studios near [Spencer, Indiana](/wiki/Spencer%2C_Indiana "Spencer, Indiana") and finished in the band's private studio, the EP "Good at Falling" has an [indie rock](/wiki/Indie_rock "Indie rock") sound that was a departure from the band's early blues\-influenced. In May 2010, the songs "So Easy" and "You've Got Someone" were released for the popular music video game *[Rock Band 2](/wiki/Rock_Band_2 "Rock Band 2")* on Xbox 360\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rockband.com/songs/artists/Blue\+News/ \|title\=Blue News Songs: Rock Band \|publisher\=Harmonix \|date\=May 5, 2010\|accessdate\=November 28, 2012}} Also in 2010, the band was invited to perform for a live 'one\-take' style video series called "Folked Up!". This resulted in two new HD music videos featuring stripped\-down acoustic versions of the songs "Be Yourself (And You'll Go Far)" and "Wasted Days". {{As of\|2012\|November\|df\=US}} the video for "Wasted Days" has over 35,000 views on the VISO Music Channel.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=9eHazBbsvTU \|title\=Blue News – Wasted Days (Acoustic) – Music Video \|publisher\=VISO Music \|date\=March 18, 2011\|accessdate\=November 28, 2012}} ### *Wartime Songs* (2011–2012\) In February 2011, Orndorff and Richardson recorded the fifth studio album by The Blue News, an EP titled *Wartime Songs* at Retrophonics Recording Studios in [St. Augustine, Florida](/wiki/St._Augustine%2C_Florida "St. Augustine, Florida"). Retrophonics is the private studio of producer [Jim Devito](/wiki/Jim_Devito "Jim Devito") who has recorded several famous bands including [Tom Petty](/wiki/Tom_Petty "Tom Petty") and the Heartbreakers, [Lynyrd Skynyrd](/wiki/Lynyrd_Skynyrd "Lynyrd Skynyrd"), Don Henley, Creed and [JJ Grey](/wiki/JJ_Grey "JJ Grey") \& Mofro.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.discogs.com/Creed\-Higher/release/1868636 \|title\=Creed – Higher (7' Vinyl) at Discogs \|publisher\=VISO Music \|date\=March 18, 1999\|accessdate\=November 28, 2012}} The band recorded to analog reel\-to\-reel tape and tracked all six songs during one session. The album features several vintage instruments and amplifiers from the 1950s–1970s. In addition, the album was mixed with producer [Sylvia Massy](/wiki/Sylvia_Massy "Sylvia Massy") at RadioStar Studios in [Weed, California](/wiki/Weed%2C_California "Weed, California"). The album was originally released on the band's Blame Records label on July 4, 2011\. The album received good reviews and two songs ("Hitman Blues" and "Just A Game") were placed in the video game *Rock Band 3* for both Xbox 360 and the PlayStation Network.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rockband.com/songs/artists/The\+Blue\+News \|title\=The Blue News – Songs – Rock Band \|publisher\=VISO Music \|date\=September 13, 2011\|accessdate\=November 28, 2012}} Another song from the album, *Two Lovers*, was selected by [Sublime with Rome](/wiki/Sublime_with_Rome "Sublime with Rome") to be included on Guitar Center's *Fresh Cuts Volume 7* and 50,000 CD copies were given away in stores nationwide. In October 2011, the band was awarded 2nd place for the Blues Foundation's 'Best Self\-Produced Blues CD' for the state of Indiana. The Blue News charted on both CMJ [Alternative Rock](/wiki/Alternative_Rock "Alternative Rock") and [Blues](/wiki/Blues "Blues") radio charts during a successful radio campaign with Tinderbox Music. In 2012, The Blue News signed a label partnership with Musik and Film Records in for limited digital distribution and the band's entire discography was re\-released through [The Orchard](/wiki/The_Orchard_%28company%29 "The Orchard (company)"), a New York City\-based digital distribution and entertainment services company. Among notable artists, The Orchard distributes many notable recording artists including the music of [Butch Walker](/wiki/Butch_Walker "Butch Walker") and [Sharon Jones \& The Dap\-Kings](/wiki/Sharon_Jones_%26_The_Dap-Kings "Sharon Jones & The Dap-Kings"). ### *Greatest Hits* (2017\) In September 2017, The Blue News released their sixth album *Greatest Hits*, which includes remastered songs from previous albums that have been the most popular among fans.
[ "History\n-------", "### Formation and early years (2006\\)", "The Blue News was formed in 2006 taking its name from a [spoonerism](/wiki/Spoonerism \"Spoonerism\") of the words 'The New Blues'. Brent Orndorff founded the band after signing a recording contract for a record release deal with *Statue Records Hollywood* of Hollywood, California. He accomplished this by opening a studio in downtown Terre Haute called \"Blame Records\" where he recorded other artists to help pay for manufacturing and promoting his first solo album. The band's signature sound began with a few songs recorded that combined live instruments and vocals with samples and drum loops programmed with the [ReBirth RB\\-338](/wiki/ReBirth_RB-338 \"ReBirth RB-338\") software. Orndorff self\\-produced the band's debut LP, titled *Blue News* recording in a bedroom using a PC and the band began to tour, averaging two to three shows per week in several cities around the Midwest United States. After gaining momentum in the Midwest live music scene, the band was interviewed by both *Chicago Music Guide* and *Louisville Music Guide*, and made in\\-studio live radio broadcasts as more people began to take notice.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://chicagomusicguide.com/interview\\_blue\\_news.htm \\|title\\=Interview with Blue News \\|publisher\\=Chicago Music Guide \\|date\\=May 1, 2006 \\|accessdate\\=November 28, 2012}}", "### *The Signs* (2007\\)", "In 2007, the recording contract with Statue Records was dissolved before the release of *The Signs* EP. The album was self\\-released as *The Blue News Project* to reflect that the songs were the result of a collaboration with multiple musicians. During this period, however, the band primarily performed live as a duo, featuring drummer Kraig Kerins. Songs from *The Signs* EP were used in the band's first college [campus radio](/wiki/Campus_radio \"Campus radio\") campaign with Vigilant Promotions of [Minneapolis](/wiki/Minneapolis \"Minneapolis\"), Minnesota. The band's music aired on 75 stations across multiple states.", "The songs \"Love's So Strong\" and \"Next Time\" were both featured in the PBS documentary series *[Roadtrip Nation](/wiki/Roadtrip_Nation \"Roadtrip Nation\")*. At the time the songs aired, the band was regularly playing shows at live music clubs in several US cities. In between gigs, the band started recording their third LP, *Strange Light*. The LP was self\\-produced and released by the band's Blame Records [indie label](/wiki/Indie_label \"Indie label\") after signing a distribution agreement with [INgrooves](/wiki/INgrooves \"INgrooves\") Digital Distribution in San Francisco, California (now part of [Universal Music Group](/wiki/Universal_Music_Group \"Universal Music Group\")).", "### *Strange Light* (2008–2009\\)", "By 2008, The Blue News was touring consistently while further developing their original style and recorded their third album *Strange Light*. The album was self\\-released by Blame Records and found good reviews in the blues and rock communities. The LP was the first to include drummer Dustin Richardson who joined the band in early 2008\\. The band produced their first HD music video featuring the song \"Shelter\". The HD music video was shot and directed by Chris Thornberry of \"Green Sky Media\" and \"The Price of Admission\" and aired regularly on Indy's Music Channel (IMC), an independent 24\\-hour music television channel on cable station WDNI\\-CD. Although there was no official radio campaign for the album, songs from *Strange Light* received radio airplay in many US areas and the music continues to be regularly licensed in various media. Multiple songs from \"Strange Light\" were placed in 2009 on the UCF TV cable channel at the University of Central Florida in [Orlando, Florida](/wiki/Orlando%2C_Florida \"Orlando, Florida\") and that same year the station's programming received a 2009 Suncoast Emmy Award.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://today.ucf.edu/watch\\-emmy\\-award\\-winning\\-gallery\\-series/ \\|title\\=Watch Emmy Award\\-Winning Gallery Series \\|publisher\\=University of Central Florida \\|date\\=June 3, 2010\\|accessdate\\=November 28, 2012}}", "### *Good at Falling* (2010\\)", "Partially recorded at Stable Studios near [Spencer, Indiana](/wiki/Spencer%2C_Indiana \"Spencer, Indiana\") and finished in the band's private studio, the EP \"Good at Falling\" has an [indie rock](/wiki/Indie_rock \"Indie rock\") sound that was a departure from the band's early blues\\-influenced. In May 2010, the songs \"So Easy\" and \"You've Got Someone\" were released for the popular music video game *[Rock Band 2](/wiki/Rock_Band_2 \"Rock Band 2\")* on Xbox 360\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rockband.com/songs/artists/Blue\\+News/ \\|title\\=Blue News Songs: Rock Band \\|publisher\\=Harmonix \\|date\\=May 5, 2010\\|accessdate\\=November 28, 2012}} Also in 2010, the band was invited to perform for a live 'one\\-take' style video series called \"Folked Up!\". This resulted in two new HD music videos featuring stripped\\-down acoustic versions of the songs \"Be Yourself (And You'll Go Far)\" and \"Wasted Days\". {{As of\\|2012\\|November\\|df\\=US}} the video for \"Wasted Days\" has over 35,000 views on the VISO Music Channel.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=9eHazBbsvTU \\|title\\=Blue News – Wasted Days (Acoustic) – Music Video \\|publisher\\=VISO Music \\|date\\=March 18, 2011\\|accessdate\\=November 28, 2012}}", "### *Wartime Songs* (2011–2012\\)", "In February 2011, Orndorff and Richardson recorded the fifth studio album by The Blue News, an EP titled *Wartime Songs* at Retrophonics Recording Studios in [St. Augustine, Florida](/wiki/St._Augustine%2C_Florida \"St. Augustine, Florida\"). Retrophonics is the private studio of producer [Jim Devito](/wiki/Jim_Devito \"Jim Devito\") who has recorded several famous bands including [Tom Petty](/wiki/Tom_Petty \"Tom Petty\") and the Heartbreakers, [Lynyrd Skynyrd](/wiki/Lynyrd_Skynyrd \"Lynyrd Skynyrd\"), Don Henley, Creed and [JJ Grey](/wiki/JJ_Grey \"JJ Grey\") \\& Mofro.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.discogs.com/Creed\\-Higher/release/1868636 \\|title\\=Creed – Higher (7' Vinyl) at Discogs \\|publisher\\=VISO Music \\|date\\=March 18, 1999\\|accessdate\\=November 28, 2012}} The band recorded to analog reel\\-to\\-reel tape and tracked all six songs during one session. The album features several vintage instruments and amplifiers from the 1950s–1970s. In addition, the album was mixed with producer [Sylvia Massy](/wiki/Sylvia_Massy \"Sylvia Massy\") at RadioStar Studios in [Weed, California](/wiki/Weed%2C_California \"Weed, California\").", "The album was originally released on the band's Blame Records label on July 4, 2011\\. The album received good reviews and two songs (\"Hitman Blues\" and \"Just A Game\") were placed in the video game *Rock Band 3* for both Xbox 360 and the PlayStation Network.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rockband.com/songs/artists/The\\+Blue\\+News \\|title\\=The Blue News – Songs – Rock Band \\|publisher\\=VISO Music \\|date\\=September 13, 2011\\|accessdate\\=November 28, 2012}} Another song from the album, *Two Lovers*, was selected by [Sublime with Rome](/wiki/Sublime_with_Rome \"Sublime with Rome\") to be included on Guitar Center's *Fresh Cuts Volume 7* and 50,000 CD copies were given away in stores nationwide. In October 2011, the band was awarded 2nd place for the Blues Foundation's 'Best Self\\-Produced Blues CD' for the state of Indiana. The Blue News charted on both CMJ [Alternative Rock](/wiki/Alternative_Rock \"Alternative Rock\") and [Blues](/wiki/Blues \"Blues\") radio charts during a successful radio campaign with Tinderbox Music.", "In 2012, The Blue News signed a label partnership with Musik and Film Records in for limited digital distribution and the band's entire discography was re\\-released through [The Orchard](/wiki/The_Orchard_%28company%29 \"The Orchard (company)\"), a New York City\\-based digital distribution and entertainment services company. Among notable artists, The Orchard distributes many notable recording artists including the music of [Butch Walker](/wiki/Butch_Walker \"Butch Walker\") and [Sharon Jones \\& The Dap\\-Kings](/wiki/Sharon_Jones_%26_The_Dap-Kings \"Sharon Jones & The Dap-Kings\").", "### *Greatest Hits* (2017\\)", "In September 2017, The Blue News released their sixth album *Greatest Hits*, which includes remastered songs from previous albums that have been the most popular among fans.", "" ]
Early political career ---------------------- Leon Guerrero served as a senator of the 23rd, 24th, 26th, 27th, and the 28th sessions of the Guam Legislature. Leon Guerrero authored the public law which created the Healthy Futures Fund, which currently funds medical care and cancer research in Guam.Governor of Guam. [*Lourdes “Lou” A. Leon Guerrero*](http://governor.guam.gov/about-the-governor/), Hagatna, Guam. In addition, she introduced and secured the passage of the Natasha Protection Act, which regulates public smoking.Guam Legislature. [*Public Law 28\-80\.*](http://www.guamlegislature.com/Public_Laws_28th/P.L.%2028-80.pdf) Hagatna, Guam. ### Entry to the Guam Legislature (1995–1999\) #### 23rd Guam Legislature Lou Leon Guerrero first ran to become senator in the [Guam Legislature](/wiki/Legislature_of_Guam "Legislature of Guam") in [1994](/wiki/1994_Guamanian_gubernatorial_election "1994 Guamanian gubernatorial election"). Leon Guerrero advanced to the general election after having placed 9th, with 10,611 votes, in a field of 30 candidates in the [Democratic Party of Guam](/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Guam "Democratic Party of Guam")'s legislative primary election held on September 3, 1994\. Leon Guerrero won election, receiving 20,168 votes and placing 9th in the general election on November 8, 1994\.Guam Election Commission. [*Election 1994 Comparative Analysis Report.*](https://drive.google.com/a/gec.guam.gov/file/d/0B62DVqWtLI3yZVJUTmY4UnBDNUU/edit?usp=sharing) Hagatna, Guam. Leon Guerrero was inaugurated to serve in the [23rd Guam Legislature](/wiki/23rd_Guam_Legislature "23rd Guam Legislature") on Monday, January 2, 1995\. During her first term in the Guam Legislature, Leon Guerrero was in the majority and sponsored or co\-sponsored 18 public laws.Guam Legislature. [*23rd Guam Legislature \- Public Laws.*](https://www.guamlegislature.com/23rd_public_laws.htm) Hagatna, Guam. #### 24th Guam Legislature Lou Leon Guerrero ran for reelection into the 24th Guam Legislature in 1996\. She advanced to the general election after having placed 12th, with 10,185 votes, in a field of 31 candidates in the democratic primary election of September 7, 1996\. She won reelection, receiving 20,050 votes and placing 8th in the general election on November 5, 1996\.Guam Election Commission. [*Election 1996 Comparative Analysis Report*](https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B_3ylv378_szMlJ2UnRSYlZIOXc/edit) Hagatna, Guam. As a minority member of the 24th Guam Legislature, Leon Guerrero sponsored or cosponsored 6 public laws.Guam Legislature. [*24th Guam Legislature \- Public Laws.*](https://www.guamlegislature.com/24th_public_laws.htm) Hagatna, Guam. ### 1998 lieutenant gubernatorial candidacy {{Main\|1998 Guamanian general election}} Incumbent Governor [Carl T.C. Gutierrez](/wiki/Carl_Gutierrez "Carl Gutierrez") and Lieutenant Governor [Madeleine Z. Bordallo](/wiki/Madeleine_Bordallo "Madeleine Bordallo") had two Democratic primary election challenges for [Governor](/wiki/Governor_of_Guam "Governor of Guam") and [Lieutenant Governor of Guam](/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_Guam "Lieutenant Governor of Guam") in [1998](/wiki/1998_Guamanian_general_election%23Governor "1998 Guamanian general election#Governor"). Lou Leon Guerrero was chosen as the running mate of Senator [Thomas C. Ada](/wiki/Tom_Ada "Tom Ada"), and Senator [Angel L.G. Santos](/wiki/Angel_Santos "Angel Santos") ran with Mayor [Jose "Pedo" Terlaje](/wiki/Pedo_Terlaje "Pedo Terlaje"). The "Tom and Lou" ticket placed 2nd in the Democratic gubernatorial primary on September 5, 1998, with 9,788 votes. ### Return to the Guam Legislature (2001–2007\) #### 26th Guam Legislature Leon Guerrero returned to public service in [2000](/wiki/2000_Guamanian_general_election "2000 Guamanian general election"), when she ran for a seat in the 26th Guam Legislature. The legislative primary election was cancelled that year, so Leon Guerrero automatically advanced to the general election held on November 7, 2000\. She secured a seat in the legislature by placing 5th in the legislative general election with 18,748 votes. As a minority member of the 26th Guam Legislature, Leon Guerrero sponsored 5 public laws.Guam Legislature. [*26th Guam Legislature \- Public Laws.*](https://www.guamlegislature.com/26th_public_laws.htm) Hagatna, Guam. #### 27th Guam Legislature Leon Guerrero stood for election in the [27th Guam Legislature](/wiki/27th_Guam_Legislature "27th Guam Legislature") in [2002](/wiki/2002_Guamanian_general_election "2002 Guamanian general election"). Leon Guerrero advanced to the general election after placing 3rd in the Democratic primary election on September 7, 2002, with 14,112 votes. Leon Guerrero placed 5th in the general election on November 5, 2002, with 23,651 votes.Guam Election Commission. [*Election 2002 Comparative Analysis Report.*](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1aAeNsBLFGcTytGcbi8uSzRKOD8VA-51k/view) Hagatna, Guam As a majority member of the 27th Guam Legislature, Leon Guerrero sponsored 21 public laws.Guam Legislature. [*27th Guam Legislature \- Public Laws.*](https://www.guamlegislature.com/27th_public_laws.htm) Hagatna, Guam. ##### 28th Guam Legislature Leon Guerrero ran for re\-election into the [28th Guam Legislature](/wiki/28th_Guam_Legislature "28th Guam Legislature") in [2004](/wiki/2004_Guamanian_general_election "2004 Guamanian general election"). After placing fourth in the Democratic primary election on September 7, 2004, with 7,983 votes, Leon Guerrero advanced to the general election. Leon Guerrero was elected into the 28th Guam Legislature, placing 14th and garnering 14,853 votes in the general election on November 2, 2004\.Guam Election Commission. *Election 2004 Comparative Analysis Report,* Hagatna, Guam. During this term she authored 27 bills, 9 of which became public laws.
[ "Early political career\n----------------------", "Leon Guerrero served as a senator of the 23rd, 24th, 26th, 27th, and the 28th sessions of the Guam Legislature. Leon Guerrero authored the public law which created the Healthy Futures Fund, which currently funds medical care and cancer research in Guam.Governor of Guam. [*Lourdes “Lou” A. Leon Guerrero*](http://governor.guam.gov/about-the-governor/), Hagatna, Guam. In addition, she introduced and secured the passage of the Natasha Protection Act, which regulates public smoking.Guam Legislature. [*Public Law 28\\-80\\.*](http://www.guamlegislature.com/Public_Laws_28th/P.L.%2028-80.pdf) Hagatna, Guam.", "### Entry to the Guam Legislature (1995–1999\\)", "#### 23rd Guam Legislature", "Lou Leon Guerrero first ran to become senator in the [Guam Legislature](/wiki/Legislature_of_Guam \"Legislature of Guam\") in [1994](/wiki/1994_Guamanian_gubernatorial_election \"1994 Guamanian gubernatorial election\"). Leon Guerrero advanced to the general election after having placed 9th, with 10,611 votes, in a field of 30 candidates in the [Democratic Party of Guam](/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Guam \"Democratic Party of Guam\")'s legislative primary election held on September 3, 1994\\. Leon Guerrero won election, receiving 20,168 votes and placing 9th in the general election on November 8, 1994\\.Guam Election Commission. [*Election 1994 Comparative Analysis Report.*](https://drive.google.com/a/gec.guam.gov/file/d/0B62DVqWtLI3yZVJUTmY4UnBDNUU/edit?usp=sharing) Hagatna, Guam.", "Leon Guerrero was inaugurated to serve in the [23rd Guam Legislature](/wiki/23rd_Guam_Legislature \"23rd Guam Legislature\") on Monday, January 2, 1995\\. During her first term in the Guam Legislature, Leon Guerrero was in the majority and sponsored or co\\-sponsored 18 public laws.Guam Legislature. [*23rd Guam Legislature \\- Public Laws.*](https://www.guamlegislature.com/23rd_public_laws.htm) Hagatna, Guam.", "#### 24th Guam Legislature", "Lou Leon Guerrero ran for reelection into the 24th Guam Legislature in 1996\\. She advanced to the general election after having placed 12th, with 10,185 votes, in a field of 31 candidates in the democratic primary election of September 7, 1996\\. She won reelection, receiving 20,050 votes and placing 8th in the general election on November 5, 1996\\.Guam Election Commission. [*Election 1996 Comparative Analysis Report*](https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B_3ylv378_szMlJ2UnRSYlZIOXc/edit) Hagatna, Guam. As a minority member of the 24th Guam Legislature, Leon Guerrero sponsored or cosponsored 6 public laws.Guam Legislature. [*24th Guam Legislature \\- Public Laws.*](https://www.guamlegislature.com/24th_public_laws.htm) Hagatna, Guam.", "### 1998 lieutenant gubernatorial candidacy", "{{Main\\|1998 Guamanian general election}}\nIncumbent Governor [Carl T.C. Gutierrez](/wiki/Carl_Gutierrez \"Carl Gutierrez\") and Lieutenant Governor [Madeleine Z. Bordallo](/wiki/Madeleine_Bordallo \"Madeleine Bordallo\") had two Democratic primary election challenges for [Governor](/wiki/Governor_of_Guam \"Governor of Guam\") and [Lieutenant Governor of Guam](/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_Guam \"Lieutenant Governor of Guam\") in [1998](/wiki/1998_Guamanian_general_election%23Governor \"1998 Guamanian general election#Governor\"). Lou Leon Guerrero was chosen as the running mate of Senator [Thomas C. Ada](/wiki/Tom_Ada \"Tom Ada\"), and Senator [Angel L.G. Santos](/wiki/Angel_Santos \"Angel Santos\") ran with Mayor [Jose \"Pedo\" Terlaje](/wiki/Pedo_Terlaje \"Pedo Terlaje\"). The \"Tom and Lou\" ticket placed 2nd in the Democratic gubernatorial primary on September 5, 1998, with 9,788 votes.", "### Return to the Guam Legislature (2001–2007\\)", "#### 26th Guam Legislature", "Leon Guerrero returned to public service in [2000](/wiki/2000_Guamanian_general_election \"2000 Guamanian general election\"), when she ran for a seat in the 26th Guam Legislature. The legislative primary election was cancelled that year, so Leon Guerrero automatically advanced to the general election held on November 7, 2000\\. She secured a seat in the legislature by placing 5th in the legislative general election with 18,748 votes. As a minority member of the 26th Guam Legislature, Leon Guerrero sponsored 5 public laws.Guam Legislature. [*26th Guam Legislature \\- Public Laws.*](https://www.guamlegislature.com/26th_public_laws.htm) Hagatna, Guam.", "#### 27th Guam Legislature", "Leon Guerrero stood for election in the [27th Guam Legislature](/wiki/27th_Guam_Legislature \"27th Guam Legislature\") in [2002](/wiki/2002_Guamanian_general_election \"2002 Guamanian general election\"). Leon Guerrero advanced to the general election after placing 3rd in the Democratic primary election on September 7, 2002, with 14,112 votes. Leon Guerrero placed 5th in the general election on November 5, 2002, with 23,651 votes.Guam Election Commission. [*Election 2002 Comparative Analysis Report.*](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1aAeNsBLFGcTytGcbi8uSzRKOD8VA-51k/view) Hagatna, Guam As a majority member of the 27th Guam Legislature, Leon Guerrero sponsored 21 public laws.Guam Legislature. [*27th Guam Legislature \\- Public Laws.*](https://www.guamlegislature.com/27th_public_laws.htm) Hagatna, Guam.", "##### 28th Guam Legislature", "Leon Guerrero ran for re\\-election into the [28th Guam Legislature](/wiki/28th_Guam_Legislature \"28th Guam Legislature\") in [2004](/wiki/2004_Guamanian_general_election \"2004 Guamanian general election\"). After placing fourth in the Democratic primary election on September 7, 2004, with 7,983 votes, Leon Guerrero advanced to the general election. Leon Guerrero was elected into the 28th Guam Legislature, placing 14th and garnering 14,853 votes in the general election on November 2, 2004\\.Guam Election Commission. *Election 2004 Comparative Analysis Report,* Hagatna, Guam. During this term she authored 27 bills, 9 of which became public laws.", "" ]
Governor of Guam (2019–present) ------------------------------- Lou Leon Guerrero was inaugurated on January 7, 2019, as the 9th Governor of Guam at the University of Guam Calvo Field House in Mangilao. ### Policy initiatives #### Minimum wage increase Leon Guerrero expressed her support for a proposal to raise Guam's minimum wage to $9\.25 in September 2019\.Josh Tyquiengco. [*Governor supports increase in minimum wage.*](https://www.pncguam.com/governor-supports-increase-in-minimum-wage/), Hagatna, Guam. 9 September 2019\. She signed the bill increasing in the minimum wage in stages in October 2019\. The first stage, increasing the minimum wage to $8\.75 per hour went into effect in March 2020\.Guam Legislature. [*Public Law 35\-38\.*](https://www.guamlegislature.com/Public_Laws_35th/P.L.%20No.%2035-38.pdf) Hagatna, Guam. A bill has since been passed and signed into law by Governor Guerrero delaying the increase in the minimum wage by 6 months, to reduce its impact to businesses during the Covid\-19 Pandemic. However, the minimum wage is still set to reach $9\.25 per hour in September 2021\.Guam Legislature. [*Public Law 36\-1\.*](https://www.guamlegislature.com/36th_Guam_Legislature/Public_Laws_36th/Public%20Law%20No.%2036-1%20Bill%20No.%2024-36%20(COR).pdf) Hagatna, Guam. #### Response to inflation Going into 2022, the Guamanian economy experienced [increased inflation](/wiki/2021%E2%80%932023_inflation "2021–2023 inflation") that hindered residents' purchasing power. To offset the rising cost of power and to avert economic crisis, Leon Guerrero pursued the creation of a monthly $100 credit for ratepayers in the territory.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-06\-22 \|title\=Leon Guerrero: Guam is 'fighting its way forward and getting stronger every day' \|url\=https://www.pacificislandtimes.com/post/leon\-guerrero\-guam\-is\-fighting\-its\-way\-forward\-and\-getting\-stronger\-every\-day \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-31 \|website\=Pacific Times \|language\=en}} #### War claims advance payments to World War II survivors Speaker [Tina Rose Muña Barnes](/wiki/Tina_Rose_Mu%C3%B1a_Barnes "Tina Rose Muña Barnes") introduced a bill to expedite the payment of war claims to survivors of atrocities committed on Guam during World War II in July 2019\.Guam Legislature. [*Bill No. 181\-35 (COR).*](https://www.guamlegislature.com/Bills_Introduced_35th/Bill%20No.%20181-35%20(COR).pdf) Hagatna, Guam. In October 2019, the Lieutenant Governor [Josh Tenorio](/wiki/Josh_Tenorio "Josh Tenorio") and Chief of Staff Tony Babauta visited Washington, D.C., to lobby for war claims, among other administration initiatives.Guam Daily Post. [*Lieutenant governor goes on 2\-week trip.*](https://www.postguam.com/news/local/lieutenant-governor-goes-on--week-trip/article_da538b8a-e040-11e9-b59f-afea5b753af7.html) Tamuning, Guam. 27 September 2019\. Congressman [Michael San Nicolas](/wiki/Michael_San_Nicolas "Michael San Nicolas") claimed that the local bill to pay war claims was a sham.Sabrina Salas Matanane. [*San Nicolas calls local war claims bill a sham.*](https://www.kuam.com/story/41487222/san-nicolas-calls-local-war-claims-bill-a-sham) Tamuning, Guam. 23 December 2019\. Leon Guerrero signed the war claims bill into law on January 3, 2020\.KUAM. [*Governor signs local war claims bill into law.*](https://www.kuam.com/story/41514898/governor-signs-local-war-claims-bill-into-law) Tamuning, Guam. 3 January 2020\.Guam Legislature. [*P.L. No. 35\-61\.*](https://www.guamlegislature.com/Public_Laws_35th/P.L.%20No.%2035-61.pdf) Hagatna, Guam. The first war claims checks were distributed at a ceremony on January 29, 2020\.Nestor Licanto. [*Governor hands out first war claims checks.*](https://www.kuam.com/story/41624357/governor-hands-out-first-war-claims-checks) Tamuning, Guam. 29 January 2020\. By February, hundreds of Guam World War II survivors received their compensation through the local advance payment system.KUAM. [*300 more war claims checks to be released.*](https://www.kuam.com/story/41659641/300-more-war-claims-checks-to-be-released) Tamuning, Guam. 5 February 2020\. #### Abortion rights In December 2022, Leon Guerrero vetoed legislation passed by the [Legislature of Guam](/wiki/Legislature_of_Guam "Legislature of Guam") seeking to curtail [abortion rights](/wiki/Abortion_in_Guam "Abortion in Guam") in Guam, with the relevant bill compared to the 2021 [Texas Heartbeat Act](/wiki/Texas_Heartbeat_Act "Texas Heartbeat Act"). The legislature ultimately fell two votes short of overriding Leon Guerrero’s veto. ### Management of the COVID\-19 Pandemic on Guam {{Further\|COVID\-19 pandemic in Guam}} #### "Path to Half" vaccination campaign Leon Guerrero announced an ambitious "Path to Half" vaccination campaign at a press conference on March 15, 2021\. She set the goal of vaccinating half of Guam's adult population by May 1\.Steve Limtiaco. [*Governor: Travel quarantine could ease May 1 if more residents vaccinated.*](https://www.guampdn.com/story/news/2021/03/15/travel-quarantine-could-ease-may-1-if-more-residents-vaccinated/4697970001/) Hagatna, Guam. 15 March 2021\. The Path to Half benchmark was met 3 days ahead of the deadline of May 1\.Haidee Eugenio Gilbert. [*Guam exceeds 62,500 adult full vaccination goal ahead of time.*](https://www.postguam.com/news/local/guam-exceeds-62-500-adult-full-vaccination-goal-ahead-of-time/article_3d670590-a8cb-11eb-96d7-37bcd9adb365.html) Hagatna, Guam. 30 April 2021\.
[ "Governor of Guam (2019–present)\n-------------------------------", "Lou Leon Guerrero was inaugurated on January 7, 2019, as the 9th Governor of Guam at the University of Guam Calvo Field House in Mangilao.", "### Policy initiatives", "#### Minimum wage increase", "Leon Guerrero expressed her support for a proposal to raise Guam's minimum wage to $9\\.25 in September 2019\\.Josh Tyquiengco. [*Governor supports increase in minimum wage.*](https://www.pncguam.com/governor-supports-increase-in-minimum-wage/), Hagatna, Guam. 9 September 2019\\. She signed the bill increasing in the minimum wage in stages in October 2019\\. The first stage, increasing the minimum wage to $8\\.75 per hour went into effect in March 2020\\.Guam Legislature. [*Public Law 35\\-38\\.*](https://www.guamlegislature.com/Public_Laws_35th/P.L.%20No.%2035-38.pdf) Hagatna, Guam. A bill has since been passed and signed into law by Governor Guerrero delaying the increase in the minimum wage by 6 months, to reduce its impact to businesses during the Covid\\-19 Pandemic. However, the minimum wage is still set to reach $9\\.25 per hour in September 2021\\.Guam Legislature. [*Public Law 36\\-1\\.*](https://www.guamlegislature.com/36th_Guam_Legislature/Public_Laws_36th/Public%20Law%20No.%2036-1%20Bill%20No.%2024-36%20(COR).pdf) Hagatna, Guam.", "#### Response to inflation", "Going into 2022, the Guamanian economy experienced [increased inflation](/wiki/2021%E2%80%932023_inflation \"2021–2023 inflation\") that hindered residents' purchasing power. To offset the rising cost of power and to avert economic crisis, Leon Guerrero pursued the creation of a monthly $100 credit for ratepayers in the territory.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-06\\-22 \\|title\\=Leon Guerrero: Guam is 'fighting its way forward and getting stronger every day' \\|url\\=https://www.pacificislandtimes.com/post/leon\\-guerrero\\-guam\\-is\\-fighting\\-its\\-way\\-forward\\-and\\-getting\\-stronger\\-every\\-day \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-31 \\|website\\=Pacific Times \\|language\\=en}}", "#### War claims advance payments to World War II survivors", "Speaker [Tina Rose Muña Barnes](/wiki/Tina_Rose_Mu%C3%B1a_Barnes \"Tina Rose Muña Barnes\") introduced a bill to expedite the payment of war claims to survivors of atrocities committed on Guam during World War II in July 2019\\.Guam Legislature. [*Bill No. 181\\-35 (COR).*](https://www.guamlegislature.com/Bills_Introduced_35th/Bill%20No.%20181-35%20(COR).pdf) Hagatna, Guam. In October 2019, the Lieutenant Governor [Josh Tenorio](/wiki/Josh_Tenorio \"Josh Tenorio\") and Chief of Staff Tony Babauta visited Washington, D.C., to lobby for war claims, among other administration initiatives.Guam Daily Post. [*Lieutenant governor goes on 2\\-week trip.*](https://www.postguam.com/news/local/lieutenant-governor-goes-on--week-trip/article_da538b8a-e040-11e9-b59f-afea5b753af7.html) Tamuning, Guam. 27 September 2019\\. Congressman [Michael San Nicolas](/wiki/Michael_San_Nicolas \"Michael San Nicolas\") claimed that the local bill to pay war claims was a sham.Sabrina Salas Matanane. [*San Nicolas calls local war claims bill a sham.*](https://www.kuam.com/story/41487222/san-nicolas-calls-local-war-claims-bill-a-sham) Tamuning, Guam. 23 December 2019\\.", "Leon Guerrero signed the war claims bill into law on January 3, 2020\\.KUAM. [*Governor signs local war claims bill into law.*](https://www.kuam.com/story/41514898/governor-signs-local-war-claims-bill-into-law) Tamuning, Guam. 3 January 2020\\.Guam Legislature. [*P.L. No. 35\\-61\\.*](https://www.guamlegislature.com/Public_Laws_35th/P.L.%20No.%2035-61.pdf) Hagatna, Guam. The first war claims checks were distributed at a ceremony on January 29, 2020\\.Nestor Licanto. [*Governor hands out first war claims checks.*](https://www.kuam.com/story/41624357/governor-hands-out-first-war-claims-checks) Tamuning, Guam. 29 January 2020\\. By February, hundreds of Guam World War II survivors received their compensation through the local advance payment system.KUAM. [*300 more war claims checks to be released.*](https://www.kuam.com/story/41659641/300-more-war-claims-checks-to-be-released) Tamuning, Guam. 5 February 2020\\.", "#### Abortion rights", "In December 2022, Leon Guerrero vetoed legislation passed by the [Legislature of Guam](/wiki/Legislature_of_Guam \"Legislature of Guam\") seeking to curtail [abortion rights](/wiki/Abortion_in_Guam \"Abortion in Guam\") in Guam, with the relevant bill compared to the 2021 [Texas Heartbeat Act](/wiki/Texas_Heartbeat_Act \"Texas Heartbeat Act\"). The legislature ultimately fell two votes short of overriding Leon Guerrero’s veto.", "### Management of the COVID\\-19 Pandemic on Guam", "{{Further\\|COVID\\-19 pandemic in Guam}}", "#### \"Path to Half\" vaccination campaign", "Leon Guerrero announced an ambitious \"Path to Half\" vaccination campaign at a press conference on March 15, 2021\\. She set the goal of vaccinating half of Guam's adult population by May 1\\.Steve Limtiaco. [*Governor: Travel quarantine could ease May 1 if more residents vaccinated.*](https://www.guampdn.com/story/news/2021/03/15/travel-quarantine-could-ease-may-1-if-more-residents-vaccinated/4697970001/) Hagatna, Guam. 15 March 2021\\. The Path to Half benchmark was met 3 days ahead of the deadline of May 1\\.Haidee Eugenio Gilbert. [*Guam exceeds 62,500 adult full vaccination goal ahead of time.*](https://www.postguam.com/news/local/guam-exceeds-62-500-adult-full-vaccination-goal-ahead-of-time/article_3d670590-a8cb-11eb-96d7-37bcd9adb365.html) Hagatna, Guam. 30 April 2021\\.", "" ]
Biography --------- Nikolai Vasilyevich Uspensky was born on 31 May ([Old Style](/wiki/Old_Style_calendar "Old Style calendar") 18 May), 1837, in Stupino, a small village in [Tula Governorate](/wiki/Tula_Governorate "Tula Governorate"), [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire"), to a local [clergyman](/wiki/Clergyman "Clergyman"). He had seven siblings, brothers Ivan, Alexander and Mikhail, and sisters Anna, Maria, Elizaveta and Seraphima. Despite his relatively privileged position as the son of a priest, Uspensky grew up surrounded by [poverty](/wiki/Poverty "Poverty") and [alcoholism](/wiki/Alcoholism "Alcoholism")\-driven violence, and frequently socialized with [peasant](/wiki/Peasant "Peasant") children and often labored with them. "While me and brother Ivan were aspiring to the masters' children's lifestyle, Nikolai was different: he ploughed, sawn, mowed and was often making nightwatch trips into the fields," his brother Mikhail later remembered.Korney Chukovsky. The Life and Works of Nikolay Uspensky. The Complete Works of K.I. Chukovsky in 6 volumes. Khudozhestvennaya Literatura. 1976\. Vol. VI. pp. 138–140 In 1848, Uspensky joined the [theological seminary](/wiki/Theological_seminary "Theological seminary") in [Tula](/wiki/Tula%2C_Russia "Tula, Russia") where he was [flogged](/wiki/Flogged "Flogged") on a daily basis.Chukovsky, pp. 141–150 According to Korney Chukovsky, {{quote\|Executions of this sort were the only pedagogical method known in this school. Flogging, vodka, bribery, cards, the atmosphere of servility and betrayal,Chukovsky uses the word ''naushnichestvo'', implying that pupils were reporting on one another to their tutors. outward piety and secret debauchery—such were the basic elements of Nikolai's upbringing for more than ten years. One thing he could take refuge in were wild shenanigans... in which his brilliant talents, otherwise pent up, could be realized to some extent. For, despite things that were going on around him his mirth was fountain\-like, making him perform every minute some kind of trick, practical joke or mystification.}} The only person who took interest in Uspensky's life was his uncle, Ivan Uspensky, a wealthy Tula\-based state official. Ivan had a son, future writer [Gleb](/wiki/Gleb_Uspensky "Gleb Uspensky"), who was forbidden to communicate with "dirty bursaks" (as pupils of seminary \[bursa] were known), and who every morning was taken to school in a carriage. This in itself provided enough reason for Nikolai to hate his cousin Gleb. "We are brothers with him, in law, of course. Two Lazaruses, he—the rich one, me the poor. He a son to a local government secretary, me a country boy, son of a poor priest. He rolled like cheese in butter in his youth, I gnawed my crust. He left school with all kinds of diplomas, I remained an undergraduate forever," Nikolai Uspensky later was quoted to say.Martyanov, P.K. The Deeds and the People of the Century. Saint Petersburg, 1893, р. 233\. Uspensky was not a good student. He spent most of his time in local [traktirs](/wiki/Inn "Inn"), playing pool and getting drunk, and was described as a "haggard loafer going on a downward spiral," but it was in those days that he started writing. In 1856, prior to graduation, Uspensky left the seminary and moved to [Saint Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg "Saint Petersburg") to enroll in the Medical Surgical Academy. In less than a year, though, he was expelled after a bizarre incident in which he vandalized a medical cabinet, apparently without any reason. He joined the [St. Petersburg University](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_State_University "Saint Petersburg State University") historical and philological faculty, but soon left it too. ### Writing career In 1857, *[Syn Otechestva](/wiki/Syn_Otechestva "Syn Otechestva")* published his first two stories, "Old Woman" and "The Christening", both ignored by critics. His third one, "The Good Existence", was published in 1858 by *[Sovremennik](/wiki/Sovremennik "Sovremennik")*, and made an impression; soon the author signed a contract, making a commitment to publish his work in this magazine exclusively. Besides, the editor [Nikolai Nekrasov](/wiki/Nikolai_Nekrasov "Nikolai Nekrasov") asked the Saint Petersburg University rector Pletnyov to support Uspensky financially. Nekrasov saw in Uspensky the possible pivotal figure for the magazine whose major contributors, [Turgenev](/wiki/Turgenev "Turgenev"), [Tolstoy](/wiki/Tolstoy "Tolstoy") and [Grigorovich](/wiki/Dmitry_Grigorovich_%28writer%29 "Dmitry Grigorovich (writer)"), felt no affiliation with its new, more radical policy and were beginning to look elsewhere. Also in *Sovremennik* came out the short stories "Piglet", "Scenes from a Village Holiday", "Grushka" and "The Dragon" (1858\), "The Holy Day's Eve", "A Village Apothecary", "Bachelor" and "The Road Scenes" (1859\), "The Country Newspaper", "The Evening", "Food Train" and autobiographical "Brusilov" (1860\).Handbook of Russian Literature, Victor Terras, Yale University Press 1990\. Uspensky’s stories, describing the poverty and the misery of the peasants, the lives of Russian clergymen, and [raznochintsy intellectuals](/wiki/Raznochintsy "Raznochintsy"), attracted the attention of many prominent radicals. In 1860 [Nikolai Dobrolyubov](/wiki/Nikolai_Dobrolyubov "Nikolai Dobrolyubov") recommended several of his stories for the school reader compiled by [Alexey Galakhov](/wiki/Alexey_Galakhov "Alexey Galakhov"). Chernyshevsky had many private talks with him, and the conservative Russian press, when criticizing *Sovremennik*, often mentioned the two in one breath, regarding Uspensky "a loudmouth for Chernyshevsky's ideas." #### In Europe [thumb\|right\|180px\|Nikolay Uspensky, in 1860s](/wiki/File:Nikolay_Uspensky_1.jpg "Nikolay Uspensky 1.jpg") In January 1861, Uspensky went abroad to travel through Italy and [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland"), and spent some time in France, financed by Nekrasov who was waiting from him a big novel. But, according to the biographer Korney Chukovsky, "…he bought himself dandy clothes, a wide\-brimmed hat and started sauntering the Paris boulevards like a rich tourist, as if foreseeing this to be his last bright glimpse of life." On several occasions in Paris Uspensky met [Turgenev](/wiki/Turgenev "Turgenev"), who was in the process of working upon his *[Fathers and Sons](/wiki/Fathers_and_Sons_%28novel%29 "Fathers and Sons (novel)")* novel, and was in need of a first\-hand material. Having only read of '[nihilists](/wiki/Nihilist_movement "Nihilist movement")' in the Russian press he saw the chance to meet the real one as a godsend. In a letter to [Pavel Annenkov](/wiki/Pavel_Annenkov "Pavel Annenkov"), Turgenev wrote: "A [misanthrope](/wiki/Misanthrope "Misanthrope") by the name of Uspensky, Nikolay has been here recently and dined at my place. He saw it as his duty for some reason to slag [Pushkin](/wiki/Pushkin "Pushkin") and was assuring me that what the latter was only doing in his poems, was exclaiming incessantly: "Rise, rise to fight for our saintly Rus!" Something tells me he'll soon go mad." Thinking apparently that such 'misanthropic' view on Pushkin was typical for the 'new men', Turgenev used the quoted phrase in his novel, giving it to his character Bazarov.Чуковский, стр. 151–156 In Rome, Uspensky met [Vasily Botkin](/wiki/Vasily_Botkin "Vasily Botkin"), an expert in [antique culture](/wiki/Classical_antiquity "Classical antiquity"), who tried to share his love for it with his companion. But Uspensky believed that Rome looked "ugly". "None of the art masterpieces could shield off from me emaciated faces and hopes in boots of poor people," he later wrote. In 15 years time he published his travellers' sketches, very naive, superficial and patchy, but full of sympathy for suffering lower class. #### 1861 reform Uspensky's attitude towards the [Emancipation reform of 1861](/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861 "Emancipation reform of 1861") was hostile, close to that of Chernyshevsky, as both men saw attempts to improve the life of a Russian peasant class by gradual reform as unacceptable. "I saw this \[reform] coming long ago and felt no interest in the Manifest whatsoever, never even read the Charter,” he wrote to Sluchevsky. His best known stories of the time, the anti\-liberal "Country Apothecary" and "Village Theatre", targeted people posing as 'enlighteners' as vile and dangerous schemers. A few years later, on [Andrey Krayevsky](/wiki/Andrey_Krayevsky "Andrey Krayevsky")'s recommendation, the then\-minister of education Alexander Golovnin commissioned Uspensky to inspect schools in Moscow, Tula and [Oryol](/wiki/Oryol_Governorate "Oryol Governorate") governorates, and advice upon possible measures of improving the quality of teaching there. Uspensky in his report maintained that educational reform made no sense in rural areas devastated by Alexander II's reforms, as what the Russian peasant needed first was having enough to eat. He also opposed the [Narodnik](/wiki/Narodnik "Narodnik") movement, which held the obschina (rural community) as their ideal, seeing it as just another mechanism for making rich peasants richer and push the poor men further into poverty. "The contemporary Russian peasantry is hopeless, it won't ever resurrect, the sick one is going to die," wrote Uspensky in one of his articles, "Notes of a Country Landlord". There was a basic difference between Uspensky's nihilism and the ideology of new *Sovremennik*. While the latter rejected liberal reforms seeing them as a hindrance for the forthcoming social upheaval they were hoping for, the former had no specific reason for his hatred for all things coming from the government. Chukovsky wrote "…He's never even made an attempt to try and understand the political doctrine behind the magazine that's been fostering him as the driving force in a peasant revolution... So when Chernyshevsky used his early prose to support his own theory about Russian peasants being ready to riot, Uspensky felt apparently so indifferent to the latter as to leave *Sovremennik* for the enemy camp right after its publication". #### Scandals and decline in popularity In late summer of 1861, Uspensky returned from his Paris vacation and, after a short stay at Stupino, his remote home village in Tula Governorate, went to Saint Petersburg where his debut short story collection *Stories by N.V.Uspensky* had been just published to a great success.Chukovsky, pp. 179–185 "This unexpected success turned his head around", wrote [Yakov Polonsky](/wiki/Yakov_Polonsky "Yakov Polonsky") later. "Thank God, I am not devoid of talent. Don't know about the future, but now for my antagonists I'll stand like a bone in throat, won't let them get a step ahead of me," Uspensky told the journalist Martyanov. Uspensky's 'antagonists' were a group of emerging raznotchinsky writers—[Alexander Levitov](/wiki/Alexander_Levitov "Alexander Levitov"), [Nikolai Pomyalovsky](/wiki/Nikolai_Pomyalovsky "Nikolai Pomyalovsky"), [Vasily Sleptsov](/wiki/Vasily_Sleptsov "Vasily Sleptsov")—whom he was now regarding as dangerous competitors and, according to Martyanov, referred to as '[mite](/wiki/Mite "Mite")', 'scum' and 'dirt'. Having spent eight months in Europe on Nekrasov's money (2,500 [roubles](/wiki/Rouble "Rouble") according to Chukovsky), suddenly accused the later of underpaying him and an ugly scandal broke out. In January 1862, Uspensky asked Chernyshevsky to summon a court of arbitration to resolve the financial issue, the latter refused, and said that should such a hearing ever take place, he will be on Nekrasov's side. In early1862, Uspensky severed all ties with the magazine and retired to Stupino, very ill and depressed. This self\-imposed [exile](/wiki/Exile "Exile") lasted for a short time as *Otechestvennye Zapiski*, Lev Tolstoy, and Ivan Turgenev began encouraging Uspensky to return to writing. Turgenev, who at the time himself was openly accusing Nekrasov of financial wrongdoings, accepted Uspensky's version of events wholeheartedly. In 1862, Tolstoy invited Uspensky to teach Russian grammar to his [Yasnaya Polyana](/wiki/Yasnaya_Polyana "Yasnaya Polyana") school. Some years later Tolstoy told one of his guests, Zakharyin: "I rate Nikolai Uspensky much higher than the second one, Gleb, who's well behind in terms of both realism and artistry." After a quarrel with Tolstoy, Nikolai Uspensky moved to Spasskoye, Turgenev's estate where the latter granted him a plot of land. Again, this stay was short, as one relative stated: "Being carried away at the time with ideas of agricultural innovations, Nikolai Vasilyevich began cultivating his soil in peculiar manner, fertilizing it with salt and steamed animal's bones... None of this worked of course and he, knowing nothing about agriculture, has left Spasskoye disgruntled."Chukovsky, pp. 186–189 For several years Uspensky travelled through Russia, teaching in numerous schools and gymnasiums in Tula governorate, [Orenburg](/wiki/Orenburg "Orenburg"), Saint Petersburg, and back at Yasnaya Polyana again, never staying at one place for long.The Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 3rd Edition (1970–1979\). 2010, The Gale Group, Inc. Finally, driven by financial difficulties, he returned to Spasskoye to sell the land he had been given. Horrified, Turgenev asked his manager to interfere, "Should this man be so dishonest as to sell this plot to a third party?" he wondered in a letter.The Letters by I. Is. Turgenev in 13 Volumes. Vol.VII. 1964\. p. 205\. Negotiations proved futile and only after Turgenev agreed to buy back his own land that Uspensky agreed to leave the estate, still accusing the host of "having taken back his own gift." Turgenev wrote to Polonsky: "Nikolai Uspensky is a finished man, we might as well forget about him." During the 1860s Uspensky's work appeared occasionally in *Otechestvennye Zapisky*, *[Vestnik Evropy](/wiki/Vestnik_Evropy "Vestnik Evropy")*, *[Iskra](/wiki/Iskra_%28magazine%29 "Iskra (magazine)")*, *[Russky Vestnik](/wiki/Russky_Vestnik "Russky Vestnik")*, *[Grazhdanin](/wiki/Grazhdanin "Grazhdanin")* and some other magazines and newspapers, attracting little attention. In 1866 Uspensky's first [novelette](/wiki/Novella%23Versus_novelette "Novella#Versus novelette"), *Fyodor Petrovich*, was released. In retrospect it has been regarded as arguably the first piece of work in Russian literature to show the emergence of capitalism in rural Russia, but the contemporary critics ignored it. His next novelet, *Old Things in an Old Way* (Старое – по\-старому, 1870\) published by *Vestnik Evropy*, targeted liberal values in general and the institution of [zemstvo](/wiki/Zemstvo "Zemstvo") in particular. A romantic idyll called *Yegorka the Shepherd* (*Vestnik Evropy*) where for the first time virtuous characters dominated the plot came out in 1871 and was ignored, too. "Defeated... He returned to his backwater Tula village to submerge himself into the petty routine and, totally discarding his own literary past, started to write small sketches on microscopic themes. Even his language, once rich and colourful, lost its liveliness and became bland and pompous," Korney Chukovsky wrote.Chukovsky, 190–194 All four of Nikolai Uspensky's short stories collections (published in 1871, 1872, 1875 and 1883\) were either ignored or lambasted by the press. ### Family In 1878, 42\-year\-old Uspensky married a 16\-year\-old woman called Elizaveta, the daughter of a rich local priest who disapproved of their relationship and refused her financial support.Milovidov, S. Remembering N.V. Uspenky. *Priazovsky Krai*, 1893, No. 119\. Uspensky responded with a short story about an affluent clergyman who drives his daughter to consumption by plunging her into poverty.The Works by N.V. Uspensky, Vol.II, 1883, pp. 133–150 Three years later Elizaveta indeed died of [tuberculosis](/wiki/Tuberculosis "Tuberculosis") but the reason for this was the [nomadic](/wiki/Nomadic "Nomadic") lifestyle of her husband, who was moving from one village to another, dragging his wife and their infant daughter behind. All the while he continued to wage war against his father\-in\-law, accusing him of financial crimes, writing letters to officials and staging public meetings to support his case. "It was painful to see how much talent and pathos has been wasted in those petty quarrels, but the root of the tragedy was that, having once risen from mires of provincial darkness, he—unlike many authors of the same raznochntsy breed (Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, Pomyalovsky, Eliseev, Levitov)—once the literary world ejected him, returned to where he came from and sank down there," Chukovsky wrote.Chukovsky, pp. 189–206 Having buried his wife in 1881, Uspensky took with him a harmonica, a stuffed [crocodile](/wiki/Crocodile "Crocodile") and his two\-year\-old daughter Olga, and embarked upon the life of a [tramp](/wiki/Tramp "Tramp") artiste, entertaining drunken audiences with literature 'lectures' and self\-styled musical shows (featuring Olga dancing, dressed as a boy), looking for a glass of vodka by way of payment. Relatives attempted to kidnap Olga from Uspensky, but he would fight them off. Occasionally attempts were successful, and then Uspensky arrived to 'besiege' the house. "For me those were times of many tears. As a young man he was so kind, handsome and intelligent. And there he was now, sitting in a ditch, grey\-haired, horrible\-looking. I used to send him some bread and cried watching him, eating it in the dirt,"*Istorichesky Vestnik*, 1905, No. 12, р. 498 remembered Elizaveta Vasilyevna, his sister, the major force behind those 'kidnappings'. At the age of ten Olga settled at her grandfather's house, and her desperate father started flooding his relatives with letters, written in a strange pseudo\-religious style. For some time the ex\-nihilist was assuring his friends (all of them local criminals known by nicknames only) that his intention was to make a holy trip to a [monastery](/wiki/Monastery "Monastery"), where some 'inner voice' apparently summoned him, but that came to nothing and soon he resumed his 'literary gigs', keeping lives of martyr writers highest on his "price list", at the bottom of which resided Pushkin whom he still thought worthless. ### Last years In his last years Uspensky became friends with the [bohemian](/wiki/Bohemianism "Bohemianism") author [Ivan Kondratyev](/wiki/Ivan_Kondratyev "Ivan Kondratyev") (known as 'The Poet of Nikolsky market\-place') who contributed to *[Razvlechenye](/wiki/Razvlechenye "Razvlechenye")* magazine. There Nikolai Uspensky started to publish his new sketches of country life, featuring crooked vile peasants and noble, naive masters.*[Razvlecheniye](/wiki/Razvlecheniye "Razvlecheniye")*, 1889, Nos. 5, 9, 11, 15 Influenced by Kondratyev, Uspensky started a series of 'revelatory' memoirs about Lev Tolstoy, Nekrasov, Turgenev and Gleb Uspensky. For the leftist critics, this only went to justify their opinion of Uspensky being a has\-been, and even the conservative journalists like [Viktor Burenin](/wiki/Viktor_Burenin "Viktor Burenin") warned their readership against taking those writings as anything remotely credible. Gleb Uspensky wrote a letter demanding to stop publishing these slanderous pieces, and after the proof emerged showing that Uspensky’s memoirs on Nekrasov were libelous, the series abruptly stopped. These publications were taken kindly to by the conservative press, and Uspensky was invited to [Fyodor Berg](/wiki/Fyodor_Berg "Fyodor Berg")'s *[Russky Vestnik](/wiki/Russky_Vestnik "Russky Vestnik")*. There he published his *Sketches from the Estate*, praised for being 'true to the [Orthodox](/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church "Russian Orthodox Church") tradition' by [Konstantin Leontyev](/wiki/Konstantin_Leontyev "Konstantin Leontyev").Russky Vestnik, 1889, No. 5 All this served little to cheer up the author who was now described as "shabbily dressed, skinny and utterly depressed." In the autumn of 1889, Uspensky made his last trip to Stupino to see his beloved daughter, Olga, but the latter became so frightened as to refuse to come out. ### Death Shortly after his visit to Stupino, Uspensky returned to Moscow, where he committed suicide on 2 November ([Old Style](/wiki/Old_Style_calendar "Old Style calendar") 21 October) 1889\. The day before he reportedly had approached Ivan Kondratyev for a razor, and the latter said: "Want to kill yourself? A penknife would do." Uspensky indeed purchased a penknife and slit his own throat. According to one newspaper report, "On October 21, nearby one of the houses of the Smolensky market a body of a dead old man was found with two wounds to his throat... The body lay in two large pools of blood and a dull penknife was found nearby. In his pocket there was the passport of former teacher Nikolai Vasilyevich Uspensky." Eight [kopecks](/wiki/Kopeck "Kopeck") found in his pocket were sent to his daughter Olga, her only inheritance. Not a single literary man was present at the funeral, and the only official there was Karl Knobloch, the Moscow college inspector who came to pay a tribute to Uspensky as a former teacher. The first obituary was published by *Russkye Vedomosty* where Uspensky was credited only as "the former teacher. "*Russkiye Vedomosti*, 1889, No. 295\. Chukovsky suggests that this was due to this newspaper's closeness to Gleb Uspensky. "How many of our readers have ever heard, let alone read this author?" asked *Novosty* (No. 295, 1889\), and several issues later repeated the stereotypical opinion that this author "ridiculed peasants and his talent was evil and nasty..."Novosti, 1889, \#302 The conservative press was more sympathetic, and on 29 October, in *Grazhdanin* [Vladimir Meshchersky](/wiki/Vladimir_Meshchersky "Vladimir Meshchersky") wrote: "The writer as we know belonged to the conservative camp, he was not the servant of the liberal muse and wasn't engaged in pouring out liberal/narodnik lamentations—that is why he died broke and hungry in the country where there is a Literary fund and in a huge city where there are numerous journals and newspapers."*Grazhdanin*, 1889, No.300, October 29
[ "Biography\n---------", "Nikolai Vasilyevich Uspensky was born on 31 May ([Old Style](/wiki/Old_Style_calendar \"Old Style calendar\") 18 May), 1837, in Stupino, a small village in [Tula Governorate](/wiki/Tula_Governorate \"Tula Governorate\"), [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\"), to a local [clergyman](/wiki/Clergyman \"Clergyman\"). He had seven siblings, brothers Ivan, Alexander and Mikhail, and sisters Anna, Maria, Elizaveta and Seraphima. Despite his relatively privileged position as the son of a priest, Uspensky grew up surrounded by [poverty](/wiki/Poverty \"Poverty\") and [alcoholism](/wiki/Alcoholism \"Alcoholism\")\\-driven violence, and frequently socialized with [peasant](/wiki/Peasant \"Peasant\") children and often labored with them. \"While me and brother Ivan were aspiring to the masters' children's lifestyle, Nikolai was different: he ploughed, sawn, mowed and was often making nightwatch trips into the fields,\" his brother Mikhail later remembered.Korney Chukovsky. The Life and Works of Nikolay Uspensky. The Complete Works of K.I. Chukovsky in 6 volumes. Khudozhestvennaya Literatura. 1976\\. Vol. VI. pp. 138–140", "In 1848, Uspensky joined the [theological seminary](/wiki/Theological_seminary \"Theological seminary\") in [Tula](/wiki/Tula%2C_Russia \"Tula, Russia\") where he was [flogged](/wiki/Flogged \"Flogged\") on a daily basis.Chukovsky, pp. 141–150 According to Korney Chukovsky, {{quote\\|Executions of this sort were the only pedagogical method known in this school. Flogging, vodka, bribery, cards, the atmosphere of servility and betrayal,Chukovsky uses the word ''naushnichestvo'', implying that pupils were reporting on one another to their tutors. outward piety and secret debauchery—such were the basic elements of Nikolai's upbringing for more than ten years. One thing he could take refuge in were wild shenanigans... in which his brilliant talents, otherwise pent up, could be realized to some extent. For, despite things that were going on around him his mirth was fountain\\-like, making him perform every minute some kind of trick, practical joke or mystification.}}", "The only person who took interest in Uspensky's life was his uncle, Ivan Uspensky, a wealthy Tula\\-based state official. Ivan had a son, future writer [Gleb](/wiki/Gleb_Uspensky \"Gleb Uspensky\"), who was forbidden to communicate with \"dirty bursaks\" (as pupils of seminary \\[bursa] were known), and who every morning was taken to school in a carriage. This in itself provided enough reason for Nikolai to hate his cousin Gleb. \"We are brothers with him, in law, of course. Two Lazaruses, he—the rich one, me the poor. He a son to a local government secretary, me a country boy, son of a poor priest. He rolled like cheese in butter in his youth, I gnawed my crust. He left school with all kinds of diplomas, I remained an undergraduate forever,\" Nikolai Uspensky later was quoted to say.Martyanov, P.K. The Deeds and the People of the Century. Saint Petersburg, 1893, р. 233\\.", "Uspensky was not a good student. He spent most of his time in local [traktirs](/wiki/Inn \"Inn\"), playing pool and getting drunk, and was described as a \"haggard loafer going on a downward spiral,\" but it was in those days that he started writing. In 1856, prior to graduation, Uspensky left the seminary and moved to [Saint Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg \"Saint Petersburg\") to enroll in the Medical Surgical Academy. In less than a year, though, he was expelled after a bizarre incident in which he vandalized a medical cabinet, apparently without any reason. He joined the [St. Petersburg University](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_State_University \"Saint Petersburg State University\") historical and philological faculty, but soon left it too.", "### Writing career", "In 1857, *[Syn Otechestva](/wiki/Syn_Otechestva \"Syn Otechestva\")* published his first two stories, \"Old Woman\" and \"The Christening\", both ignored by critics. His third one, \"The Good Existence\", was published in 1858 by *[Sovremennik](/wiki/Sovremennik \"Sovremennik\")*, and made an impression; soon the author signed a contract, making a commitment to publish his work in this magazine exclusively. Besides, the editor [Nikolai Nekrasov](/wiki/Nikolai_Nekrasov \"Nikolai Nekrasov\") asked the Saint Petersburg University rector Pletnyov to support Uspensky financially. Nekrasov saw in Uspensky the possible pivotal figure for the magazine whose major contributors, [Turgenev](/wiki/Turgenev \"Turgenev\"), [Tolstoy](/wiki/Tolstoy \"Tolstoy\") and [Grigorovich](/wiki/Dmitry_Grigorovich_%28writer%29 \"Dmitry Grigorovich (writer)\"), felt no affiliation with its new, more radical policy and were beginning to look elsewhere. Also in *Sovremennik* came out the short stories \"Piglet\", \"Scenes from a Village Holiday\", \"Grushka\" and \"The Dragon\" (1858\\), \"The Holy Day's Eve\", \"A Village Apothecary\", \"Bachelor\" and \"The Road Scenes\" (1859\\), \"The Country Newspaper\", \"The Evening\", \"Food Train\" and autobiographical \"Brusilov\" (1860\\).Handbook of Russian Literature, Victor Terras, Yale University Press 1990\\.", "Uspensky’s stories, describing the poverty and the misery of the peasants, the lives of Russian clergymen, and [raznochintsy intellectuals](/wiki/Raznochintsy \"Raznochintsy\"), attracted the attention of many prominent radicals. In 1860 [Nikolai Dobrolyubov](/wiki/Nikolai_Dobrolyubov \"Nikolai Dobrolyubov\") recommended several of his stories for the school reader compiled by [Alexey Galakhov](/wiki/Alexey_Galakhov \"Alexey Galakhov\"). Chernyshevsky had many private talks with him, and the conservative Russian press, when criticizing *Sovremennik*, often mentioned the two in one breath, regarding Uspensky \"a loudmouth for Chernyshevsky's ideas.\"", "#### In Europe", "[thumb\\|right\\|180px\\|Nikolay Uspensky, in 1860s](/wiki/File:Nikolay_Uspensky_1.jpg \"Nikolay Uspensky 1.jpg\")\nIn January 1861, Uspensky went abroad to travel through Italy and [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\"), and spent some time in France, financed by Nekrasov who was waiting from him a big novel. But, according to the biographer Korney Chukovsky, \"…he bought himself dandy clothes, a wide\\-brimmed hat and started sauntering the Paris boulevards like a rich tourist, as if foreseeing this to be his last bright glimpse of life.\" On several occasions in Paris Uspensky met [Turgenev](/wiki/Turgenev \"Turgenev\"), who was in the process of working upon his *[Fathers and Sons](/wiki/Fathers_and_Sons_%28novel%29 \"Fathers and Sons (novel)\")* novel, and was in need of a first\\-hand material. Having only read of '[nihilists](/wiki/Nihilist_movement \"Nihilist movement\")' in the Russian press he saw the chance to meet the real one as a godsend. In a letter to [Pavel Annenkov](/wiki/Pavel_Annenkov \"Pavel Annenkov\"), Turgenev wrote: \"A [misanthrope](/wiki/Misanthrope \"Misanthrope\") by the name of Uspensky, Nikolay has been here recently and dined at my place. He saw it as his duty for some reason to slag [Pushkin](/wiki/Pushkin \"Pushkin\") and was assuring me that what the latter was only doing in his poems, was exclaiming incessantly: \"Rise, rise to fight for our saintly Rus!\" Something tells me he'll soon go mad.\" Thinking apparently that such 'misanthropic' view on Pushkin was typical for the 'new men', Turgenev used the quoted phrase in his novel, giving it to his character Bazarov.Чуковский, стр. 151–156", "In Rome, Uspensky met [Vasily Botkin](/wiki/Vasily_Botkin \"Vasily Botkin\"), an expert in [antique culture](/wiki/Classical_antiquity \"Classical antiquity\"), who tried to share his love for it with his companion. But Uspensky believed that Rome looked \"ugly\". \"None of the art masterpieces could shield off from me emaciated faces and hopes in boots of poor people,\" he later wrote. In 15 years time he published his travellers' sketches, very naive, superficial and patchy, but full of sympathy for suffering lower class.", "#### 1861 reform", "Uspensky's attitude towards the [Emancipation reform of 1861](/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861 \"Emancipation reform of 1861\") was hostile, close to that of Chernyshevsky, as both men saw attempts to improve the life of a Russian peasant class by gradual reform as unacceptable. \"I saw this \\[reform] coming long ago and felt no interest in the Manifest whatsoever, never even read the Charter,” he wrote to Sluchevsky. His best known stories of the time, the anti\\-liberal \"Country Apothecary\" and \"Village Theatre\", targeted people posing as 'enlighteners' as vile and dangerous schemers.", "A few years later, on [Andrey Krayevsky](/wiki/Andrey_Krayevsky \"Andrey Krayevsky\")'s recommendation, the then\\-minister of education Alexander Golovnin commissioned Uspensky to inspect schools in Moscow, Tula and [Oryol](/wiki/Oryol_Governorate \"Oryol Governorate\") governorates, and advice upon possible measures of improving the quality of teaching there. Uspensky in his report maintained that educational reform made no sense in rural areas devastated by Alexander II's reforms, as what the Russian peasant needed first was having enough to eat. He also opposed the [Narodnik](/wiki/Narodnik \"Narodnik\") movement, which held the obschina (rural community) as their ideal, seeing it as just another mechanism for making rich peasants richer and push the poor men further into poverty. \"The contemporary Russian peasantry is hopeless, it won't ever resurrect, the sick one is going to die,\" wrote Uspensky in one of his articles, \"Notes of a Country Landlord\".", "There was a basic difference between Uspensky's nihilism and the ideology of new *Sovremennik*. While the latter rejected liberal reforms seeing them as a hindrance for the forthcoming social upheaval they were hoping for, the former had no specific reason for his hatred for all things coming from the government. Chukovsky wrote \"…He's never even made an attempt to try and understand the political doctrine behind the magazine that's been fostering him as the driving force in a peasant revolution... So when Chernyshevsky used his early prose to support his own theory about Russian peasants being ready to riot, Uspensky felt apparently so indifferent to the latter as to leave *Sovremennik* for the enemy camp right after its publication\".", "#### Scandals and decline in popularity", "In late summer of 1861, Uspensky returned from his Paris vacation and, after a short stay at Stupino, his remote home village in Tula Governorate, went to Saint Petersburg where his debut short story collection *Stories by N.V.Uspensky* had been just published to a great success.Chukovsky, pp. 179–185 \"This unexpected success turned his head around\", wrote [Yakov Polonsky](/wiki/Yakov_Polonsky \"Yakov Polonsky\") later. \"Thank God, I am not devoid of talent. Don't know about the future, but now for my antagonists I'll stand like a bone in throat, won't let them get a step ahead of me,\" Uspensky told the journalist Martyanov. Uspensky's 'antagonists' were a group of emerging raznotchinsky writers—[Alexander Levitov](/wiki/Alexander_Levitov \"Alexander Levitov\"), [Nikolai Pomyalovsky](/wiki/Nikolai_Pomyalovsky \"Nikolai Pomyalovsky\"), [Vasily Sleptsov](/wiki/Vasily_Sleptsov \"Vasily Sleptsov\")—whom he was now regarding as dangerous competitors and, according to Martyanov, referred to as '[mite](/wiki/Mite \"Mite\")', 'scum' and 'dirt'.", "Having spent eight months in Europe on Nekrasov's money (2,500 [roubles](/wiki/Rouble \"Rouble\") according to Chukovsky), suddenly accused the later of underpaying him and an ugly scandal broke out. In January 1862, Uspensky asked Chernyshevsky to summon a court of arbitration to resolve the financial issue, the latter refused, and said that should such a hearing ever take place, he will be on Nekrasov's side. In early1862, Uspensky severed all ties with the magazine and retired to Stupino, very ill and depressed. This self\\-imposed [exile](/wiki/Exile \"Exile\") lasted for a short time as *Otechestvennye Zapiski*, Lev Tolstoy, and Ivan Turgenev began encouraging Uspensky to return to writing. Turgenev, who at the time himself was openly accusing Nekrasov of financial wrongdoings, accepted Uspensky's version of events wholeheartedly. In 1862, Tolstoy invited Uspensky to teach Russian grammar to his [Yasnaya Polyana](/wiki/Yasnaya_Polyana \"Yasnaya Polyana\") school. Some years later Tolstoy told one of his guests, Zakharyin: \"I rate Nikolai Uspensky much higher than the second one, Gleb, who's well behind in terms of both realism and artistry.\" After a quarrel with Tolstoy, Nikolai Uspensky moved to Spasskoye, Turgenev's estate where the latter granted him a plot of land. Again, this stay was short, as one relative stated: \"Being carried away at the time with ideas of agricultural innovations, Nikolai Vasilyevich began cultivating his soil in peculiar manner, fertilizing it with salt and steamed animal's bones... None of this worked of course and he, knowing nothing about agriculture, has left Spasskoye disgruntled.\"Chukovsky, pp. 186–189 For several years Uspensky travelled through Russia, teaching in numerous schools and gymnasiums in Tula governorate, [Orenburg](/wiki/Orenburg \"Orenburg\"), Saint Petersburg, and back at Yasnaya Polyana again, never staying at one place for long.The Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 3rd Edition (1970–1979\\). 2010, The Gale Group, Inc. Finally, driven by financial difficulties, he returned to Spasskoye to sell the land he had been given. Horrified, Turgenev asked his manager to interfere, \"Should this man be so dishonest as to sell this plot to a third party?\" he wondered in a letter.The Letters by I. Is. Turgenev in 13 Volumes. Vol.VII. 1964\\. p. 205\\. Negotiations proved futile and only after Turgenev agreed to buy back his own land that Uspensky agreed to leave the estate, still accusing the host of \"having taken back his own gift.\" Turgenev wrote to Polonsky: \"Nikolai Uspensky is a finished man, we might as well forget about him.\"", "During the 1860s Uspensky's work appeared occasionally in *Otechestvennye Zapisky*, *[Vestnik Evropy](/wiki/Vestnik_Evropy \"Vestnik Evropy\")*, *[Iskra](/wiki/Iskra_%28magazine%29 \"Iskra (magazine)\")*, *[Russky Vestnik](/wiki/Russky_Vestnik \"Russky Vestnik\")*, *[Grazhdanin](/wiki/Grazhdanin \"Grazhdanin\")* and some other magazines and newspapers, attracting little attention. In 1866 Uspensky's first [novelette](/wiki/Novella%23Versus_novelette \"Novella#Versus novelette\"), *Fyodor Petrovich*, was released. In retrospect it has been regarded as arguably the first piece of work in Russian literature to show the emergence of capitalism in rural Russia, but the contemporary critics ignored it. His next novelet, *Old Things in an Old Way* (Старое – по\\-старому, 1870\\) published by *Vestnik Evropy*, targeted liberal values in general and the institution of [zemstvo](/wiki/Zemstvo \"Zemstvo\") in particular. A romantic idyll called *Yegorka the Shepherd* (*Vestnik Evropy*) where for the first time virtuous characters dominated the plot came out in 1871 and was ignored, too. \"Defeated... He returned to his backwater Tula village to submerge himself into the petty routine and, totally discarding his own literary past, started to write small sketches on microscopic themes. Even his language, once rich and colourful, lost its liveliness and became bland and pompous,\" Korney Chukovsky wrote.Chukovsky, 190–194 All four of Nikolai Uspensky's short stories collections (published in 1871, 1872, 1875 and 1883\\) were either ignored or lambasted by the press.", "### Family", "In 1878, 42\\-year\\-old Uspensky married a 16\\-year\\-old woman called Elizaveta, the daughter of a rich local priest who disapproved of their relationship and refused her financial support.Milovidov, S. Remembering N.V. Uspenky. *Priazovsky Krai*, 1893, No. 119\\. Uspensky responded with a short story about an affluent clergyman who drives his daughter to consumption by plunging her into poverty.The Works by N.V. Uspensky, Vol.II, 1883, pp. 133–150 Three years later Elizaveta indeed died of [tuberculosis](/wiki/Tuberculosis \"Tuberculosis\") but the reason for this was the [nomadic](/wiki/Nomadic \"Nomadic\") lifestyle of her husband, who was moving from one village to another, dragging his wife and their infant daughter behind. All the while he continued to wage war against his father\\-in\\-law, accusing him of financial crimes, writing letters to officials and staging public meetings to support his case. \"It was painful to see how much talent and pathos has been wasted in those petty quarrels, but the root of the tragedy was that, having once risen from mires of provincial darkness, he—unlike many authors of the same raznochntsy breed (Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, Pomyalovsky, Eliseev, Levitov)—once the literary world ejected him, returned to where he came from and sank down there,\" Chukovsky wrote.Chukovsky, pp. 189–206 Having buried his wife in 1881, Uspensky took with him a harmonica, a stuffed [crocodile](/wiki/Crocodile \"Crocodile\") and his two\\-year\\-old daughter Olga, and embarked upon the life of a [tramp](/wiki/Tramp \"Tramp\") artiste, entertaining drunken audiences with literature 'lectures' and self\\-styled musical shows (featuring Olga dancing, dressed as a boy), looking for a glass of vodka by way of payment. Relatives attempted to kidnap Olga from Uspensky, but he would fight them off. Occasionally attempts were successful, and then Uspensky arrived to 'besiege' the house. \"For me those were times of many tears. As a young man he was so kind, handsome and intelligent. And there he was now, sitting in a ditch, grey\\-haired, horrible\\-looking. I used to send him some bread and cried watching him, eating it in the dirt,\"*Istorichesky Vestnik*, 1905, No. 12, р. 498 remembered Elizaveta Vasilyevna, his sister, the major force behind those 'kidnappings'. At the age of ten Olga settled at her grandfather's house, and her desperate father started flooding his relatives with letters, written in a strange pseudo\\-religious style. For some time the ex\\-nihilist was assuring his friends (all of them local criminals known by nicknames only) that his intention was to make a holy trip to a [monastery](/wiki/Monastery \"Monastery\"), where some 'inner voice' apparently summoned him, but that came to nothing and soon he resumed his 'literary gigs', keeping lives of martyr writers highest on his \"price list\", at the bottom of which resided Pushkin whom he still thought worthless.", "### Last years", "In his last years Uspensky became friends with the [bohemian](/wiki/Bohemianism \"Bohemianism\") author [Ivan Kondratyev](/wiki/Ivan_Kondratyev \"Ivan Kondratyev\") (known as 'The Poet of Nikolsky market\\-place') who contributed to *[Razvlechenye](/wiki/Razvlechenye \"Razvlechenye\")* magazine. There Nikolai Uspensky started to publish his new sketches of country life, featuring crooked vile peasants and noble, naive masters.*[Razvlecheniye](/wiki/Razvlecheniye \"Razvlecheniye\")*, 1889, Nos. 5, 9, 11, 15 Influenced by Kondratyev, Uspensky started a series of 'revelatory' memoirs about Lev Tolstoy, Nekrasov, Turgenev and Gleb Uspensky. For the leftist critics, this only went to justify their opinion of Uspensky being a has\\-been, and even the conservative journalists like [Viktor Burenin](/wiki/Viktor_Burenin \"Viktor Burenin\") warned their readership against taking those writings as anything remotely credible. Gleb Uspensky wrote a letter demanding to stop publishing these slanderous pieces, and after the proof emerged showing that Uspensky’s memoirs on Nekrasov were libelous, the series abruptly stopped. These publications were taken kindly to by the conservative press, and Uspensky was invited to [Fyodor Berg](/wiki/Fyodor_Berg \"Fyodor Berg\")'s *[Russky Vestnik](/wiki/Russky_Vestnik \"Russky Vestnik\")*. There he published his *Sketches from the Estate*, praised for being 'true to the [Orthodox](/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church \"Russian Orthodox Church\") tradition' by [Konstantin Leontyev](/wiki/Konstantin_Leontyev \"Konstantin Leontyev\").Russky Vestnik, 1889, No. 5 All this served little to cheer up the author who was now described as \"shabbily dressed, skinny and utterly depressed.\" In the autumn of 1889, Uspensky made his last trip to Stupino to see his beloved daughter, Olga, but the latter became so frightened as to refuse to come out.", "### Death", "Shortly after his visit to Stupino, Uspensky returned to Moscow, where he committed suicide on 2 November ([Old Style](/wiki/Old_Style_calendar \"Old Style calendar\") 21 October) 1889\\. The day before he reportedly had approached Ivan Kondratyev for a razor, and the latter said: \"Want to kill yourself? A penknife would do.\" Uspensky indeed purchased a penknife and slit his own throat. According to one newspaper report, \"On October 21, nearby one of the houses of the Smolensky market a body of a dead old man was found with two wounds to his throat... The body lay in two large pools of blood and a dull penknife was found nearby. In his pocket there was the passport of former teacher Nikolai Vasilyevich Uspensky.\" Eight [kopecks](/wiki/Kopeck \"Kopeck\") found in his pocket were sent to his daughter Olga, her only inheritance. Not a single literary man was present at the funeral, and the only official there was Karl Knobloch, the Moscow college inspector who came to pay a tribute to Uspensky as a former teacher. The first obituary was published by *Russkye Vedomosty* where Uspensky was credited only as \"the former teacher. \"*Russkiye Vedomosti*, 1889, No. 295\\. Chukovsky suggests that this was due to this newspaper's closeness to Gleb Uspensky. \"How many of our readers have ever heard, let alone read this author?\" asked *Novosty* (No. 295, 1889\\), and several issues later repeated the stereotypical opinion that this author \"ridiculed peasants and his talent was evil and nasty...\"Novosti, 1889, \\#302 The conservative press was more sympathetic, and on 29 October, in *Grazhdanin* [Vladimir Meshchersky](/wiki/Vladimir_Meshchersky \"Vladimir Meshchersky\") wrote: \"The writer as we know belonged to the conservative camp, he was not the servant of the liberal muse and wasn't engaged in pouring out liberal/narodnik lamentations—that is why he died broke and hungry in the country where there is a Literary fund and in a huge city where there are numerous journals and newspapers.\"*Grazhdanin*, 1889, No.300, October 29", "" ]
### Writing career In 1857, *[Syn Otechestva](/wiki/Syn_Otechestva "Syn Otechestva")* published his first two stories, "Old Woman" and "The Christening", both ignored by critics. His third one, "The Good Existence", was published in 1858 by *[Sovremennik](/wiki/Sovremennik "Sovremennik")*, and made an impression; soon the author signed a contract, making a commitment to publish his work in this magazine exclusively. Besides, the editor [Nikolai Nekrasov](/wiki/Nikolai_Nekrasov "Nikolai Nekrasov") asked the Saint Petersburg University rector Pletnyov to support Uspensky financially. Nekrasov saw in Uspensky the possible pivotal figure for the magazine whose major contributors, [Turgenev](/wiki/Turgenev "Turgenev"), [Tolstoy](/wiki/Tolstoy "Tolstoy") and [Grigorovich](/wiki/Dmitry_Grigorovich_%28writer%29 "Dmitry Grigorovich (writer)"), felt no affiliation with its new, more radical policy and were beginning to look elsewhere. Also in *Sovremennik* came out the short stories "Piglet", "Scenes from a Village Holiday", "Grushka" and "The Dragon" (1858\), "The Holy Day's Eve", "A Village Apothecary", "Bachelor" and "The Road Scenes" (1859\), "The Country Newspaper", "The Evening", "Food Train" and autobiographical "Brusilov" (1860\).Handbook of Russian Literature, Victor Terras, Yale University Press 1990\. Uspensky’s stories, describing the poverty and the misery of the peasants, the lives of Russian clergymen, and [raznochintsy intellectuals](/wiki/Raznochintsy "Raznochintsy"), attracted the attention of many prominent radicals. In 1860 [Nikolai Dobrolyubov](/wiki/Nikolai_Dobrolyubov "Nikolai Dobrolyubov") recommended several of his stories for the school reader compiled by [Alexey Galakhov](/wiki/Alexey_Galakhov "Alexey Galakhov"). Chernyshevsky had many private talks with him, and the conservative Russian press, when criticizing *Sovremennik*, often mentioned the two in one breath, regarding Uspensky "a loudmouth for Chernyshevsky's ideas." #### In Europe [thumb\|right\|180px\|Nikolay Uspensky, in 1860s](/wiki/File:Nikolay_Uspensky_1.jpg "Nikolay Uspensky 1.jpg") In January 1861, Uspensky went abroad to travel through Italy and [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland"), and spent some time in France, financed by Nekrasov who was waiting from him a big novel. But, according to the biographer Korney Chukovsky, "…he bought himself dandy clothes, a wide\-brimmed hat and started sauntering the Paris boulevards like a rich tourist, as if foreseeing this to be his last bright glimpse of life." On several occasions in Paris Uspensky met [Turgenev](/wiki/Turgenev "Turgenev"), who was in the process of working upon his *[Fathers and Sons](/wiki/Fathers_and_Sons_%28novel%29 "Fathers and Sons (novel)")* novel, and was in need of a first\-hand material. Having only read of '[nihilists](/wiki/Nihilist_movement "Nihilist movement")' in the Russian press he saw the chance to meet the real one as a godsend. In a letter to [Pavel Annenkov](/wiki/Pavel_Annenkov "Pavel Annenkov"), Turgenev wrote: "A [misanthrope](/wiki/Misanthrope "Misanthrope") by the name of Uspensky, Nikolay has been here recently and dined at my place. He saw it as his duty for some reason to slag [Pushkin](/wiki/Pushkin "Pushkin") and was assuring me that what the latter was only doing in his poems, was exclaiming incessantly: "Rise, rise to fight for our saintly Rus!" Something tells me he'll soon go mad." Thinking apparently that such 'misanthropic' view on Pushkin was typical for the 'new men', Turgenev used the quoted phrase in his novel, giving it to his character Bazarov.Чуковский, стр. 151–156 In Rome, Uspensky met [Vasily Botkin](/wiki/Vasily_Botkin "Vasily Botkin"), an expert in [antique culture](/wiki/Classical_antiquity "Classical antiquity"), who tried to share his love for it with his companion. But Uspensky believed that Rome looked "ugly". "None of the art masterpieces could shield off from me emaciated faces and hopes in boots of poor people," he later wrote. In 15 years time he published his travellers' sketches, very naive, superficial and patchy, but full of sympathy for suffering lower class. #### 1861 reform Uspensky's attitude towards the [Emancipation reform of 1861](/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861 "Emancipation reform of 1861") was hostile, close to that of Chernyshevsky, as both men saw attempts to improve the life of a Russian peasant class by gradual reform as unacceptable. "I saw this \[reform] coming long ago and felt no interest in the Manifest whatsoever, never even read the Charter,” he wrote to Sluchevsky. His best known stories of the time, the anti\-liberal "Country Apothecary" and "Village Theatre", targeted people posing as 'enlighteners' as vile and dangerous schemers. A few years later, on [Andrey Krayevsky](/wiki/Andrey_Krayevsky "Andrey Krayevsky")'s recommendation, the then\-minister of education Alexander Golovnin commissioned Uspensky to inspect schools in Moscow, Tula and [Oryol](/wiki/Oryol_Governorate "Oryol Governorate") governorates, and advice upon possible measures of improving the quality of teaching there. Uspensky in his report maintained that educational reform made no sense in rural areas devastated by Alexander II's reforms, as what the Russian peasant needed first was having enough to eat. He also opposed the [Narodnik](/wiki/Narodnik "Narodnik") movement, which held the obschina (rural community) as their ideal, seeing it as just another mechanism for making rich peasants richer and push the poor men further into poverty. "The contemporary Russian peasantry is hopeless, it won't ever resurrect, the sick one is going to die," wrote Uspensky in one of his articles, "Notes of a Country Landlord". There was a basic difference between Uspensky's nihilism and the ideology of new *Sovremennik*. While the latter rejected liberal reforms seeing them as a hindrance for the forthcoming social upheaval they were hoping for, the former had no specific reason for his hatred for all things coming from the government. Chukovsky wrote "…He's never even made an attempt to try and understand the political doctrine behind the magazine that's been fostering him as the driving force in a peasant revolution... So when Chernyshevsky used his early prose to support his own theory about Russian peasants being ready to riot, Uspensky felt apparently so indifferent to the latter as to leave *Sovremennik* for the enemy camp right after its publication". #### Scandals and decline in popularity In late summer of 1861, Uspensky returned from his Paris vacation and, after a short stay at Stupino, his remote home village in Tula Governorate, went to Saint Petersburg where his debut short story collection *Stories by N.V.Uspensky* had been just published to a great success.Chukovsky, pp. 179–185 "This unexpected success turned his head around", wrote [Yakov Polonsky](/wiki/Yakov_Polonsky "Yakov Polonsky") later. "Thank God, I am not devoid of talent. Don't know about the future, but now for my antagonists I'll stand like a bone in throat, won't let them get a step ahead of me," Uspensky told the journalist Martyanov. Uspensky's 'antagonists' were a group of emerging raznotchinsky writers—[Alexander Levitov](/wiki/Alexander_Levitov "Alexander Levitov"), [Nikolai Pomyalovsky](/wiki/Nikolai_Pomyalovsky "Nikolai Pomyalovsky"), [Vasily Sleptsov](/wiki/Vasily_Sleptsov "Vasily Sleptsov")—whom he was now regarding as dangerous competitors and, according to Martyanov, referred to as '[mite](/wiki/Mite "Mite")', 'scum' and 'dirt'. Having spent eight months in Europe on Nekrasov's money (2,500 [roubles](/wiki/Rouble "Rouble") according to Chukovsky), suddenly accused the later of underpaying him and an ugly scandal broke out. In January 1862, Uspensky asked Chernyshevsky to summon a court of arbitration to resolve the financial issue, the latter refused, and said that should such a hearing ever take place, he will be on Nekrasov's side. In early1862, Uspensky severed all ties with the magazine and retired to Stupino, very ill and depressed. This self\-imposed [exile](/wiki/Exile "Exile") lasted for a short time as *Otechestvennye Zapiski*, Lev Tolstoy, and Ivan Turgenev began encouraging Uspensky to return to writing. Turgenev, who at the time himself was openly accusing Nekrasov of financial wrongdoings, accepted Uspensky's version of events wholeheartedly. In 1862, Tolstoy invited Uspensky to teach Russian grammar to his [Yasnaya Polyana](/wiki/Yasnaya_Polyana "Yasnaya Polyana") school. Some years later Tolstoy told one of his guests, Zakharyin: "I rate Nikolai Uspensky much higher than the second one, Gleb, who's well behind in terms of both realism and artistry." After a quarrel with Tolstoy, Nikolai Uspensky moved to Spasskoye, Turgenev's estate where the latter granted him a plot of land. Again, this stay was short, as one relative stated: "Being carried away at the time with ideas of agricultural innovations, Nikolai Vasilyevich began cultivating his soil in peculiar manner, fertilizing it with salt and steamed animal's bones... None of this worked of course and he, knowing nothing about agriculture, has left Spasskoye disgruntled."Chukovsky, pp. 186–189 For several years Uspensky travelled through Russia, teaching in numerous schools and gymnasiums in Tula governorate, [Orenburg](/wiki/Orenburg "Orenburg"), Saint Petersburg, and back at Yasnaya Polyana again, never staying at one place for long.The Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 3rd Edition (1970–1979\). 2010, The Gale Group, Inc. Finally, driven by financial difficulties, he returned to Spasskoye to sell the land he had been given. Horrified, Turgenev asked his manager to interfere, "Should this man be so dishonest as to sell this plot to a third party?" he wondered in a letter.The Letters by I. Is. Turgenev in 13 Volumes. Vol.VII. 1964\. p. 205\. Negotiations proved futile and only after Turgenev agreed to buy back his own land that Uspensky agreed to leave the estate, still accusing the host of "having taken back his own gift." Turgenev wrote to Polonsky: "Nikolai Uspensky is a finished man, we might as well forget about him." During the 1860s Uspensky's work appeared occasionally in *Otechestvennye Zapisky*, *[Vestnik Evropy](/wiki/Vestnik_Evropy "Vestnik Evropy")*, *[Iskra](/wiki/Iskra_%28magazine%29 "Iskra (magazine)")*, *[Russky Vestnik](/wiki/Russky_Vestnik "Russky Vestnik")*, *[Grazhdanin](/wiki/Grazhdanin "Grazhdanin")* and some other magazines and newspapers, attracting little attention. In 1866 Uspensky's first [novelette](/wiki/Novella%23Versus_novelette "Novella#Versus novelette"), *Fyodor Petrovich*, was released. In retrospect it has been regarded as arguably the first piece of work in Russian literature to show the emergence of capitalism in rural Russia, but the contemporary critics ignored it. His next novelet, *Old Things in an Old Way* (Старое – по\-старому, 1870\) published by *Vestnik Evropy*, targeted liberal values in general and the institution of [zemstvo](/wiki/Zemstvo "Zemstvo") in particular. A romantic idyll called *Yegorka the Shepherd* (*Vestnik Evropy*) where for the first time virtuous characters dominated the plot came out in 1871 and was ignored, too. "Defeated... He returned to his backwater Tula village to submerge himself into the petty routine and, totally discarding his own literary past, started to write small sketches on microscopic themes. Even his language, once rich and colourful, lost its liveliness and became bland and pompous," Korney Chukovsky wrote.Chukovsky, 190–194 All four of Nikolai Uspensky's short stories collections (published in 1871, 1872, 1875 and 1883\) were either ignored or lambasted by the press.
[ "### Writing career", "In 1857, *[Syn Otechestva](/wiki/Syn_Otechestva \"Syn Otechestva\")* published his first two stories, \"Old Woman\" and \"The Christening\", both ignored by critics. His third one, \"The Good Existence\", was published in 1858 by *[Sovremennik](/wiki/Sovremennik \"Sovremennik\")*, and made an impression; soon the author signed a contract, making a commitment to publish his work in this magazine exclusively. Besides, the editor [Nikolai Nekrasov](/wiki/Nikolai_Nekrasov \"Nikolai Nekrasov\") asked the Saint Petersburg University rector Pletnyov to support Uspensky financially. Nekrasov saw in Uspensky the possible pivotal figure for the magazine whose major contributors, [Turgenev](/wiki/Turgenev \"Turgenev\"), [Tolstoy](/wiki/Tolstoy \"Tolstoy\") and [Grigorovich](/wiki/Dmitry_Grigorovich_%28writer%29 \"Dmitry Grigorovich (writer)\"), felt no affiliation with its new, more radical policy and were beginning to look elsewhere. Also in *Sovremennik* came out the short stories \"Piglet\", \"Scenes from a Village Holiday\", \"Grushka\" and \"The Dragon\" (1858\\), \"The Holy Day's Eve\", \"A Village Apothecary\", \"Bachelor\" and \"The Road Scenes\" (1859\\), \"The Country Newspaper\", \"The Evening\", \"Food Train\" and autobiographical \"Brusilov\" (1860\\).Handbook of Russian Literature, Victor Terras, Yale University Press 1990\\.", "Uspensky’s stories, describing the poverty and the misery of the peasants, the lives of Russian clergymen, and [raznochintsy intellectuals](/wiki/Raznochintsy \"Raznochintsy\"), attracted the attention of many prominent radicals. In 1860 [Nikolai Dobrolyubov](/wiki/Nikolai_Dobrolyubov \"Nikolai Dobrolyubov\") recommended several of his stories for the school reader compiled by [Alexey Galakhov](/wiki/Alexey_Galakhov \"Alexey Galakhov\"). Chernyshevsky had many private talks with him, and the conservative Russian press, when criticizing *Sovremennik*, often mentioned the two in one breath, regarding Uspensky \"a loudmouth for Chernyshevsky's ideas.\"", "#### In Europe", "[thumb\\|right\\|180px\\|Nikolay Uspensky, in 1860s](/wiki/File:Nikolay_Uspensky_1.jpg \"Nikolay Uspensky 1.jpg\")\nIn January 1861, Uspensky went abroad to travel through Italy and [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\"), and spent some time in France, financed by Nekrasov who was waiting from him a big novel. But, according to the biographer Korney Chukovsky, \"…he bought himself dandy clothes, a wide\\-brimmed hat and started sauntering the Paris boulevards like a rich tourist, as if foreseeing this to be his last bright glimpse of life.\" On several occasions in Paris Uspensky met [Turgenev](/wiki/Turgenev \"Turgenev\"), who was in the process of working upon his *[Fathers and Sons](/wiki/Fathers_and_Sons_%28novel%29 \"Fathers and Sons (novel)\")* novel, and was in need of a first\\-hand material. Having only read of '[nihilists](/wiki/Nihilist_movement \"Nihilist movement\")' in the Russian press he saw the chance to meet the real one as a godsend. In a letter to [Pavel Annenkov](/wiki/Pavel_Annenkov \"Pavel Annenkov\"), Turgenev wrote: \"A [misanthrope](/wiki/Misanthrope \"Misanthrope\") by the name of Uspensky, Nikolay has been here recently and dined at my place. He saw it as his duty for some reason to slag [Pushkin](/wiki/Pushkin \"Pushkin\") and was assuring me that what the latter was only doing in his poems, was exclaiming incessantly: \"Rise, rise to fight for our saintly Rus!\" Something tells me he'll soon go mad.\" Thinking apparently that such 'misanthropic' view on Pushkin was typical for the 'new men', Turgenev used the quoted phrase in his novel, giving it to his character Bazarov.Чуковский, стр. 151–156", "In Rome, Uspensky met [Vasily Botkin](/wiki/Vasily_Botkin \"Vasily Botkin\"), an expert in [antique culture](/wiki/Classical_antiquity \"Classical antiquity\"), who tried to share his love for it with his companion. But Uspensky believed that Rome looked \"ugly\". \"None of the art masterpieces could shield off from me emaciated faces and hopes in boots of poor people,\" he later wrote. In 15 years time he published his travellers' sketches, very naive, superficial and patchy, but full of sympathy for suffering lower class.", "#### 1861 reform", "Uspensky's attitude towards the [Emancipation reform of 1861](/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861 \"Emancipation reform of 1861\") was hostile, close to that of Chernyshevsky, as both men saw attempts to improve the life of a Russian peasant class by gradual reform as unacceptable. \"I saw this \\[reform] coming long ago and felt no interest in the Manifest whatsoever, never even read the Charter,” he wrote to Sluchevsky. His best known stories of the time, the anti\\-liberal \"Country Apothecary\" and \"Village Theatre\", targeted people posing as 'enlighteners' as vile and dangerous schemers.", "A few years later, on [Andrey Krayevsky](/wiki/Andrey_Krayevsky \"Andrey Krayevsky\")'s recommendation, the then\\-minister of education Alexander Golovnin commissioned Uspensky to inspect schools in Moscow, Tula and [Oryol](/wiki/Oryol_Governorate \"Oryol Governorate\") governorates, and advice upon possible measures of improving the quality of teaching there. Uspensky in his report maintained that educational reform made no sense in rural areas devastated by Alexander II's reforms, as what the Russian peasant needed first was having enough to eat. He also opposed the [Narodnik](/wiki/Narodnik \"Narodnik\") movement, which held the obschina (rural community) as their ideal, seeing it as just another mechanism for making rich peasants richer and push the poor men further into poverty. \"The contemporary Russian peasantry is hopeless, it won't ever resurrect, the sick one is going to die,\" wrote Uspensky in one of his articles, \"Notes of a Country Landlord\".", "There was a basic difference between Uspensky's nihilism and the ideology of new *Sovremennik*. While the latter rejected liberal reforms seeing them as a hindrance for the forthcoming social upheaval they were hoping for, the former had no specific reason for his hatred for all things coming from the government. Chukovsky wrote \"…He's never even made an attempt to try and understand the political doctrine behind the magazine that's been fostering him as the driving force in a peasant revolution... So when Chernyshevsky used his early prose to support his own theory about Russian peasants being ready to riot, Uspensky felt apparently so indifferent to the latter as to leave *Sovremennik* for the enemy camp right after its publication\".", "#### Scandals and decline in popularity", "In late summer of 1861, Uspensky returned from his Paris vacation and, after a short stay at Stupino, his remote home village in Tula Governorate, went to Saint Petersburg where his debut short story collection *Stories by N.V.Uspensky* had been just published to a great success.Chukovsky, pp. 179–185 \"This unexpected success turned his head around\", wrote [Yakov Polonsky](/wiki/Yakov_Polonsky \"Yakov Polonsky\") later. \"Thank God, I am not devoid of talent. Don't know about the future, but now for my antagonists I'll stand like a bone in throat, won't let them get a step ahead of me,\" Uspensky told the journalist Martyanov. Uspensky's 'antagonists' were a group of emerging raznotchinsky writers—[Alexander Levitov](/wiki/Alexander_Levitov \"Alexander Levitov\"), [Nikolai Pomyalovsky](/wiki/Nikolai_Pomyalovsky \"Nikolai Pomyalovsky\"), [Vasily Sleptsov](/wiki/Vasily_Sleptsov \"Vasily Sleptsov\")—whom he was now regarding as dangerous competitors and, according to Martyanov, referred to as '[mite](/wiki/Mite \"Mite\")', 'scum' and 'dirt'.", "Having spent eight months in Europe on Nekrasov's money (2,500 [roubles](/wiki/Rouble \"Rouble\") according to Chukovsky), suddenly accused the later of underpaying him and an ugly scandal broke out. In January 1862, Uspensky asked Chernyshevsky to summon a court of arbitration to resolve the financial issue, the latter refused, and said that should such a hearing ever take place, he will be on Nekrasov's side. In early1862, Uspensky severed all ties with the magazine and retired to Stupino, very ill and depressed. This self\\-imposed [exile](/wiki/Exile \"Exile\") lasted for a short time as *Otechestvennye Zapiski*, Lev Tolstoy, and Ivan Turgenev began encouraging Uspensky to return to writing. Turgenev, who at the time himself was openly accusing Nekrasov of financial wrongdoings, accepted Uspensky's version of events wholeheartedly. In 1862, Tolstoy invited Uspensky to teach Russian grammar to his [Yasnaya Polyana](/wiki/Yasnaya_Polyana \"Yasnaya Polyana\") school. Some years later Tolstoy told one of his guests, Zakharyin: \"I rate Nikolai Uspensky much higher than the second one, Gleb, who's well behind in terms of both realism and artistry.\" After a quarrel with Tolstoy, Nikolai Uspensky moved to Spasskoye, Turgenev's estate where the latter granted him a plot of land. Again, this stay was short, as one relative stated: \"Being carried away at the time with ideas of agricultural innovations, Nikolai Vasilyevich began cultivating his soil in peculiar manner, fertilizing it with salt and steamed animal's bones... None of this worked of course and he, knowing nothing about agriculture, has left Spasskoye disgruntled.\"Chukovsky, pp. 186–189 For several years Uspensky travelled through Russia, teaching in numerous schools and gymnasiums in Tula governorate, [Orenburg](/wiki/Orenburg \"Orenburg\"), Saint Petersburg, and back at Yasnaya Polyana again, never staying at one place for long.The Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 3rd Edition (1970–1979\\). 2010, The Gale Group, Inc. Finally, driven by financial difficulties, he returned to Spasskoye to sell the land he had been given. Horrified, Turgenev asked his manager to interfere, \"Should this man be so dishonest as to sell this plot to a third party?\" he wondered in a letter.The Letters by I. Is. Turgenev in 13 Volumes. Vol.VII. 1964\\. p. 205\\. Negotiations proved futile and only after Turgenev agreed to buy back his own land that Uspensky agreed to leave the estate, still accusing the host of \"having taken back his own gift.\" Turgenev wrote to Polonsky: \"Nikolai Uspensky is a finished man, we might as well forget about him.\"", "During the 1860s Uspensky's work appeared occasionally in *Otechestvennye Zapisky*, *[Vestnik Evropy](/wiki/Vestnik_Evropy \"Vestnik Evropy\")*, *[Iskra](/wiki/Iskra_%28magazine%29 \"Iskra (magazine)\")*, *[Russky Vestnik](/wiki/Russky_Vestnik \"Russky Vestnik\")*, *[Grazhdanin](/wiki/Grazhdanin \"Grazhdanin\")* and some other magazines and newspapers, attracting little attention. In 1866 Uspensky's first [novelette](/wiki/Novella%23Versus_novelette \"Novella#Versus novelette\"), *Fyodor Petrovich*, was released. In retrospect it has been regarded as arguably the first piece of work in Russian literature to show the emergence of capitalism in rural Russia, but the contemporary critics ignored it. His next novelet, *Old Things in an Old Way* (Старое – по\\-старому, 1870\\) published by *Vestnik Evropy*, targeted liberal values in general and the institution of [zemstvo](/wiki/Zemstvo \"Zemstvo\") in particular. A romantic idyll called *Yegorka the Shepherd* (*Vestnik Evropy*) where for the first time virtuous characters dominated the plot came out in 1871 and was ignored, too. \"Defeated... He returned to his backwater Tula village to submerge himself into the petty routine and, totally discarding his own literary past, started to write small sketches on microscopic themes. Even his language, once rich and colourful, lost its liveliness and became bland and pompous,\" Korney Chukovsky wrote.Chukovsky, 190–194 All four of Nikolai Uspensky's short stories collections (published in 1871, 1872, 1875 and 1883\\) were either ignored or lambasted by the press.", "" ]
Fictional character biography ----------------------------- ### Global Guardians Sigrid Nansen received their powers as the result of an experiment funded by the Norwegian government. In an attempt to please both their overbearing scientist mother (who constantly belittled them for not having a boyfriend and not being a top scientist) and the Norwegian government, Sigrid reluctantly agreed to the experiments. The goal was to duplicate the abilities of what at the time were a legendary tribe of Ice\-people; the experiment was a success, though as a side\-effect Sigrid's skin was permanently turned blue. Taking the name Icemaiden, they joined the [Global Guardians](/wiki/Global_Guardians "Global Guardians") as their country's representative to that international super\-team.{{Citation \| last \= Greenberger \| first \= Robert \| author\-link \= Robert Greenberger \| contribution \= Global Guardians \| editor\-last \= Dougall \| editor\-first \= Alastair \| title \= The DC Comics Encyclopedia \| pages \= 138 \| publisher \= \[\[Dorling Kindersley]] \| place \= New York \| year \= 2008 \| isbn \= 978\-0\-7566\-4119\-1 \| oclc \= 213309017}} ### *Legends* During the DC miniseries *[Legends](/wiki/Legends_%28comics%29 "Legends (comics)")*, the people of the United States were turned against all heroes, superheroes, and metahumans; the President even decreed that no costumed hero could operate legally. This did not affect the Global Guardians, however, who worked outside of the U.S. During this time, what [Sylvester Pemberton](/wiki/Sylvester_Pemberton "Sylvester Pemberton") referred to as the "Great Super\-Hero Scare"*Infinity Inc. Special* \#1 (1987\) [Doctor Mist](/wiki/Doctor_Mist "Doctor Mist") sent Icemaiden, along with [Rising Sun](/wiki/Rising_Sun_%28comics%29 "Rising Sun (comics)"), the [Tasmanian Devil](/wiki/Tasmanian_Devil_%28comics%29 "Tasmanian Devil (comics)"), and the [Green Flame](/wiki/Fire_%28DC_Comics%29 "Fire (DC Comics)") to Canada to run security for the international Trade Conference. Icemaiden fell victim, however, to the group calling itself [Injustice Unlimited](/wiki/Injustice_Society%23Injustice_Unlimited "Injustice Society#Injustice Unlimited"), and was hypnotized into serving the villains. This resulted in them traveling to Greenland with [Jade](/wiki/Jade_%28DC_Comics%29 "Jade (DC Comics)") and the new [Icicle](/wiki/Icicle_%28comics%29%23Cameron_Mahkent "Icicle (comics)#Cameron Mahkent") on a mission to find and free [Solomon Grundy](/wiki/Solomon_Grundy_%28character%29 "Solomon Grundy (character)"). In the end, the villains were defeated and Icemaiden regained their free will.*Infinity Inc.* \#32\-37 ### Resignation Upon the discovery of a real tribe of Ice\-people, their princess Tora Olafsdotter ([Ice](/wiki/Ice_%28character%29 "Ice (character)")) joined the [Global Guardians](/wiki/Global_Guardians "Global Guardians"). This led Sigrid to quit the team. ### Justice League Years later, after Ice had left the Global Guardians, joined the [Justice League International](/wiki/Justice_League_International "Justice League International"), and was killed by the [Overmaster](/wiki/Overmaster "Overmaster"), Sigrid re\-emerged. They chose to honor the fallen heroine by serving as her replacement in the [Justice League](/wiki/Justice_League "Justice League").*Justice League America* \#97\. DC Comics. There were hints of a romantic relationship with their teammate [Fire](/wiki/Fire_%28comics%29 "Fire (comics)"), but this was all part of a plan hatched by Sigrid. Realizing Fire was not coping with Ice's death (and Fire was attempting to control them, much like Sigrid's mother had done growing up), they dressed up to resemble Ice and showed romantic feelings toward Fire. The shock made Fire realize that Ice was gone, and she could not recreate the past. During their time in the JLA, they were disliked and criticized by [Guy Gardner](/wiki/Guy_Gardner_%28comics%29 "Guy Gardner (comics)"), who had also not come to terms with Ice's death.*Justice League America* \#100\-113\. DC Comics. They left active duty with the League after they and several others were heavily wounded during the attack of the [Hyperclan](/wiki/White_Martian "White Martian") ([White Martians](/wiki/White_Martian "White Martian")).*JLA* \#1 Later recovered, Sigrid resumed their superhero career and is assumed to have eventually joined an unofficial branch of [Justice League Europe](/wiki/Justice_League_Europe "Justice League Europe"). That League chapter was, however, infiltrated by the [Mist](/wiki/Mist_%28comics%29 "Mist (comics)"), who apparently lured Icemaiden away and subsequently disguised herself as the blue\-skinned hero before killing three League members: [Crimson Fox](/wiki/Crimson_Fox "Crimson Fox"), [Amazing Man](/wiki/Amazing_Man_%28DC_Comics%29 "Amazing Man (DC Comics)"), and [Blue Devil](/wiki/Blue_Devil_%28DC_Comics%29 "Blue Devil (DC Comics)"). In the same story, it was revealed that Mist covertly contacted Icemaiden and informed them of a supposed threat facing their homeland of Norway, and they must defeat the threat without informing anyone until afterwards. Icemaiden left during the middle of the night, and Mist replaced them within the JLE by the next morning. The JLE did not know that Mist replaced Icemaiden until Mist began her attacks against them. Mist informed Crimson Fox that the threat she informed Icemaiden about was not real, and that she had sent Icemaiden on an ultimately fruitless search so that she could disguise herself as Icemaiden and replace them on the team.*Starman* (vol. 2\) \#38\. DC Comics. ### One Year Later {{main\|One Year Later}} After the "[Infinite Crisis](/wiki/Infinite_Crisis "Infinite Crisis")" storyline, it was revealed that Icemaiden had at some point been abducted by the supervillain [Warp](/wiki/Warp_%28comics%29 "Warp (comics)"), a capture paid for by a mysterious "organ\-napper" who turned out to be former film actress [Delores Winters](/wiki/Delores_Winters "Delores Winters"). Winters—who was believed to have been killed decades earlier by the [Ultra\-Humanite](/wiki/Ultra-Humanite "Ultra-Humanite")—longed for new flesh to replace her own aging skin and had her personal physician surgically flay the Icemaiden in order to harvest their superpowered skin. Icemaiden did not die and eventually was placed, comatose, into a hydration womb within a facility of [S.T.A.R. Labs](/wiki/S.T.A.R._Labs "S.T.A.R. Labs").*JSA Classified* \#19\-20 (Jan\-Feb 2007\). DC Comics. Later, in the same story, the hydration womb is cracked. It is unknown if Icemaiden survived. It is mentioned in this story that Icemaiden has alabaster skin, although they had blue skin in all of their prior appearances save for their appearances in *[Extreme Justice](/wiki/Extreme_Justice "Extreme Justice")*.*Extreme Justice* \#10\-11 (Nov\-Dec 1995\). DC Comics. Delores was recently killed in a battle with [Batwoman](/wiki/Batwoman "Batwoman"), and her corpse was taken by the Justice League. It is unknown if they will be able to remove the skin. ### Infinite Frontier In the "[Infinity Frontier](/wiki/Infinity_Frontier "Infinity Frontier")" relaunch, Sigrid appears in the winter holiday special "Tis the Season to be Freezin" in Andrew Wheeler and Meghan Hetrick's "Break the Ice" story and takes the codename of Glacier.*Tis The Season To Be Freezin* \#1\. DC Comics. Sigrid is referred to using they/them pronouns at the end. Andrew Wheeler stated on Twitter that Sigrid was nonbinary.
[ "Fictional character biography\n-----------------------------", "### Global Guardians", "Sigrid Nansen received their powers as the result of an experiment funded by the Norwegian government. In an attempt to please both their overbearing scientist mother (who constantly belittled them for not having a boyfriend and not being a top scientist) and the Norwegian government, Sigrid reluctantly agreed to the experiments. The goal was to duplicate the abilities of what at the time were a legendary tribe of Ice\\-people; the experiment was a success, though as a side\\-effect Sigrid's skin was permanently turned blue. Taking the name Icemaiden, they joined the [Global Guardians](/wiki/Global_Guardians \"Global Guardians\") as their country's representative to that international super\\-team.{{Citation \\| last \\= Greenberger \\| first \\= Robert \\| author\\-link \\= Robert Greenberger \\| contribution \\= Global Guardians \\| editor\\-last \\= Dougall \\| editor\\-first \\= Alastair \\| title \\= The DC Comics Encyclopedia \\| pages \\= 138 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Dorling Kindersley]] \\| place \\= New York \\| year \\= 2008 \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-7566\\-4119\\-1 \\| oclc \\= 213309017}}", "### *Legends*", "During the DC miniseries *[Legends](/wiki/Legends_%28comics%29 \"Legends (comics)\")*, the people of the United States were turned against all heroes, superheroes, and metahumans; the President even decreed that no costumed hero could operate legally. This did not affect the Global Guardians, however, who worked outside of the U.S. During this time, what [Sylvester Pemberton](/wiki/Sylvester_Pemberton \"Sylvester Pemberton\") referred to as the \"Great Super\\-Hero Scare\"*Infinity Inc. Special* \\#1 (1987\\) [Doctor Mist](/wiki/Doctor_Mist \"Doctor Mist\") sent Icemaiden, along with [Rising Sun](/wiki/Rising_Sun_%28comics%29 \"Rising Sun (comics)\"), the [Tasmanian Devil](/wiki/Tasmanian_Devil_%28comics%29 \"Tasmanian Devil (comics)\"), and the [Green Flame](/wiki/Fire_%28DC_Comics%29 \"Fire (DC Comics)\") to Canada to run security for the international Trade Conference. Icemaiden fell victim, however, to the group calling itself [Injustice Unlimited](/wiki/Injustice_Society%23Injustice_Unlimited \"Injustice Society#Injustice Unlimited\"), and was hypnotized into serving the villains. This resulted in them traveling to Greenland with [Jade](/wiki/Jade_%28DC_Comics%29 \"Jade (DC Comics)\") and the new [Icicle](/wiki/Icicle_%28comics%29%23Cameron_Mahkent \"Icicle (comics)#Cameron Mahkent\") on a mission to find and free [Solomon Grundy](/wiki/Solomon_Grundy_%28character%29 \"Solomon Grundy (character)\"). In the end, the villains were defeated and Icemaiden regained their free will.*Infinity Inc.* \\#32\\-37", "### Resignation", "Upon the discovery of a real tribe of Ice\\-people, their princess Tora Olafsdotter ([Ice](/wiki/Ice_%28character%29 \"Ice (character)\")) joined the [Global Guardians](/wiki/Global_Guardians \"Global Guardians\"). This led Sigrid to quit the team.", "### Justice League", "Years later, after Ice had left the Global Guardians, joined the [Justice League International](/wiki/Justice_League_International \"Justice League International\"), and was killed by the [Overmaster](/wiki/Overmaster \"Overmaster\"), Sigrid re\\-emerged. They chose to honor the fallen heroine by serving as her replacement in the [Justice League](/wiki/Justice_League \"Justice League\").*Justice League America* \\#97\\. DC Comics.", "There were hints of a romantic relationship with their teammate [Fire](/wiki/Fire_%28comics%29 \"Fire (comics)\"), but this was all part of a plan hatched by Sigrid. Realizing Fire was not coping with Ice's death (and Fire was attempting to control them, much like Sigrid's mother had done growing up), they dressed up to resemble Ice and showed romantic feelings toward Fire. The shock made Fire realize that Ice was gone, and she could not recreate the past. During their time in the JLA, they were disliked and criticized by [Guy Gardner](/wiki/Guy_Gardner_%28comics%29 \"Guy Gardner (comics)\"), who had also not come to terms with Ice's death.*Justice League America* \\#100\\-113\\. DC Comics.", "They left active duty with the League after they and several others were heavily wounded during the attack of the [Hyperclan](/wiki/White_Martian \"White Martian\") ([White Martians](/wiki/White_Martian \"White Martian\")).*JLA* \\#1 Later recovered, Sigrid resumed their superhero career and is assumed to have eventually joined an unofficial branch of [Justice League Europe](/wiki/Justice_League_Europe \"Justice League Europe\"). That League chapter was, however, infiltrated by the [Mist](/wiki/Mist_%28comics%29 \"Mist (comics)\"), who apparently lured Icemaiden away and subsequently disguised herself as the blue\\-skinned hero before killing three League members: [Crimson Fox](/wiki/Crimson_Fox \"Crimson Fox\"), [Amazing Man](/wiki/Amazing_Man_%28DC_Comics%29 \"Amazing Man (DC Comics)\"), and [Blue Devil](/wiki/Blue_Devil_%28DC_Comics%29 \"Blue Devil (DC Comics)\").", "In the same story, it was revealed that Mist covertly contacted Icemaiden and informed them of a supposed threat facing their homeland of Norway, and they must defeat the threat without informing anyone until afterwards. Icemaiden left during the middle of the night, and Mist replaced them within the JLE by the next morning. The JLE did not know that Mist replaced Icemaiden until Mist began her attacks against them. Mist informed Crimson Fox that the threat she informed Icemaiden about was not real, and that she had sent Icemaiden on an ultimately fruitless search so that she could disguise herself as Icemaiden and replace them on the team.*Starman* (vol. 2\\) \\#38\\. DC Comics.", "### One Year Later", "{{main\\|One Year Later}}\nAfter the \"[Infinite Crisis](/wiki/Infinite_Crisis \"Infinite Crisis\")\" storyline, it was revealed that Icemaiden had at some point been abducted by the supervillain [Warp](/wiki/Warp_%28comics%29 \"Warp (comics)\"), a capture paid for by a mysterious \"organ\\-napper\" who turned out to be former film actress [Delores Winters](/wiki/Delores_Winters \"Delores Winters\"). Winters—who was believed to have been killed decades earlier by the [Ultra\\-Humanite](/wiki/Ultra-Humanite \"Ultra-Humanite\")—longed for new flesh to replace her own aging skin and had her personal physician surgically flay the Icemaiden in order to harvest their superpowered skin. Icemaiden did not die and eventually was placed, comatose, into a hydration womb within a facility of [S.T.A.R. Labs](/wiki/S.T.A.R._Labs \"S.T.A.R. Labs\").*JSA Classified* \\#19\\-20 (Jan\\-Feb 2007\\). DC Comics. Later, in the same story, the hydration womb is cracked. It is unknown if Icemaiden survived.", "It is mentioned in this story that Icemaiden has alabaster skin, although they had blue skin in all of their prior appearances save for their appearances in *[Extreme Justice](/wiki/Extreme_Justice \"Extreme Justice\")*.*Extreme Justice* \\#10\\-11 (Nov\\-Dec 1995\\). DC Comics.", "Delores was recently killed in a battle with [Batwoman](/wiki/Batwoman \"Batwoman\"), and her corpse was taken by the Justice League. It is unknown if they will be able to remove the skin.", "### Infinite Frontier", "In the \"[Infinity Frontier](/wiki/Infinity_Frontier \"Infinity Frontier\")\" relaunch, Sigrid appears in the winter holiday special \"Tis the Season to be Freezin\" in Andrew Wheeler and Meghan Hetrick's \"Break the Ice\" story and takes the codename of Glacier.*Tis The Season To Be Freezin* \\#1\\. DC Comics. Sigrid is referred to using they/them pronouns at the end. Andrew Wheeler stated on Twitter that Sigrid was nonbinary.", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|1880\= 797 \|1890\= 2342 \|1900\= 2791 \|1910\= 2628 \|1920\= 2724 \|1930\= 3339 \|1940\= 3533 \|1950\= 3428 \|1960\= 4003 \|1970\= 4318 \|1980\= 4595 \|1990\= 4693 \|2000\= 4682 \|2010\= 4797 \|2020\= 4817 \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|access\-date\=June 4, 2015}} }} ### 2010 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=2012\-07\-08}} of 2010, there were 4,797 people, 1,961 households, and 1,208 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|1262\.4\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 2,234 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|587\.9\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 91\.4% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 5\.3% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.1% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.5% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.1% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), 0\.8% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 1\.9% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 2\.2% of the population. There were 1,961 households, of which 30\.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43\.7% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 13\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 4\.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 38\.4% were non\-families. 33\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15\.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.34 and the average family size was 2\.93\. The median age in the city was 39\.5 years. 23\.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 9\.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24\.4% were from 25 to 44; 24\.6% were from 45 to 64; and 18\.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47\.6% male and 52\.4% female. ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 4,682 people, 1,778 households, and 1,175 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\|1,270\.6\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 1,946 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|528\.1\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 91\.56% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 5\.28% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.43% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.53% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.68% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 1\.52% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 1\.50% of the population. There were 1,778 households, out of which 33\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49\.0% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 12\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33\.9% were non\-families. 29\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13\.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.39 and the average family size was 2\.94\. In the city the population was spread out, with 24\.9% under the age of 18, 8\.0% from 18 to 24, 26\.4% from 25 to 44, 20\.6% from 45 to 64, and 20\.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 83\.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80\.7 males. The median income for a household in the city was $31,497, and the median income for a family was $40,511\. Males had a median income of $31,291 versus $21,596 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $17,982\. About 7\.1% of families and 8\.4% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 10\.5% of those under age 18 and 9\.7% of those age 65 or over. Ancestries were German 34\.8%, Irish 10\.7%, English 10\.1%, United States 9\.2%, French 3\.1%, Scotch 2\.3%, the census reported.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|1880\\= 797\n\\|1890\\= 2342\n\\|1900\\= 2791\n\\|1910\\= 2628\n\\|1920\\= 2724\n\\|1930\\= 3339\n\\|1940\\= 3533\n\\|1950\\= 3428\n\\|1960\\= 4003\n\\|1970\\= 4318\n\\|1980\\= 4595\n\\|1990\\= 4693\n\\|2000\\= 4682\n\\|2010\\= 4797\n\\|2020\\= 4817\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}", "### 2010 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-07\\-08}} of 2010, there were 4,797 people, 1,961 households, and 1,208 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|1262\\.4\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 2,234 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|587\\.9\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 91\\.4% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 5\\.3% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.1% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.5% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.1% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.8% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 1\\.9% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 2\\.2% of the population.", "There were 1,961 households, of which 30\\.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43\\.7% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 13\\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 4\\.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 38\\.4% were non\\-families. 33\\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15\\.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.34 and the average family size was 2\\.93\\.", "The median age in the city was 39\\.5 years. 23\\.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 9\\.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24\\.4% were from 25 to 44; 24\\.6% were from 45 to 64; and 18\\.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47\\.6% male and 52\\.4% female.", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 4,682 people, 1,778 households, and 1,175 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|1,270\\.6\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 1,946 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|528\\.1\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 91\\.56% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 5\\.28% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.43% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.53% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.68% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 1\\.52% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 1\\.50% of the population.", "There were 1,778 households, out of which 33\\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49\\.0% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 12\\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33\\.9% were non\\-families. 29\\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13\\.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.39 and the average family size was 2\\.94\\.", "In the city the population was spread out, with 24\\.9% under the age of 18, 8\\.0% from 18 to 24, 26\\.4% from 25 to 44, 20\\.6% from 45 to 64, and 20\\.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 83\\.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80\\.7 males.", "The median income for a household in the city was $31,497, and the median income for a family was $40,511\\. Males had a median income of $31,291 versus $21,596 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $17,982\\. About 7\\.1% of families and 8\\.4% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 10\\.5% of those under age 18 and 9\\.7% of those age 65 or over.", "Ancestries were German 34\\.8%, Irish 10\\.7%, English 10\\.1%, United States 9\\.2%, French 3\\.1%, Scotch 2\\.3%, the census reported.", "" ]
### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 4,682 people, 1,778 households, and 1,175 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\|1,270\.6\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 1,946 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|528\.1\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 91\.56% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 5\.28% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.43% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.53% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.68% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 1\.52% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 1\.50% of the population. There were 1,778 households, out of which 33\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49\.0% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 12\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33\.9% were non\-families. 29\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13\.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.39 and the average family size was 2\.94\. In the city the population was spread out, with 24\.9% under the age of 18, 8\.0% from 18 to 24, 26\.4% from 25 to 44, 20\.6% from 45 to 64, and 20\.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 83\.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80\.7 males. The median income for a household in the city was $31,497, and the median income for a family was $40,511\. Males had a median income of $31,291 versus $21,596 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $17,982\. About 7\.1% of families and 8\.4% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 10\.5% of those under age 18 and 9\.7% of those age 65 or over. Ancestries were German 34\.8%, Irish 10\.7%, English 10\.1%, United States 9\.2%, French 3\.1%, Scotch 2\.3%, the census reported.
[ "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 4,682 people, 1,778 households, and 1,175 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|1,270\\.6\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 1,946 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|528\\.1\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 91\\.56% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 5\\.28% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.43% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.53% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.68% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 1\\.52% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 1\\.50% of the population.", "There were 1,778 households, out of which 33\\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49\\.0% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 12\\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33\\.9% were non\\-families. 29\\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13\\.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.39 and the average family size was 2\\.94\\.", "In the city the population was spread out, with 24\\.9% under the age of 18, 8\\.0% from 18 to 24, 26\\.4% from 25 to 44, 20\\.6% from 45 to 64, and 20\\.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 83\\.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80\\.7 males.", "The median income for a household in the city was $31,497, and the median income for a family was $40,511\\. Males had a median income of $31,291 versus $21,596 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $17,982\\. About 7\\.1% of families and 8\\.4% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 10\\.5% of those under age 18 and 9\\.7% of those age 65 or over.", "Ancestries were German 34\\.8%, Irish 10\\.7%, English 10\\.1%, United States 9\\.2%, French 3\\.1%, Scotch 2\\.3%, the census reported.", "" ]
Background ---------- Though these cards can be issued with HRAs and HSAs as well as FSAs, the FSA is the oldest and most common of these accounts; therefore, for simplicity these cards are often referred to as "FSA" debit cards. Though a few FSA debit cards are also issued for dependent care and transportation expenses, most are issued for medical expenses. (The rest of this article deals only with FSA debit cards used with medical FSAs, HRAs or HSAs.) Traditionally, to meet [Internal Revenue Service](/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Service "Internal Revenue Service") (IRS) substantiation requirements, FSAs were accessed only through claims for reimbursement after incurring (and usually paying) an out\-of\-pocket expense, often after deductions were already made from the employee's paycheck to fund the FSA. This, along with the so\-called "use it or lose it" rule (i.e., all funds not spent are forfeited), has long been seen as one of the problems minimizing utilization of FSAs. The FSA debit card was developed to avoid this problem by allowing users to access their FSA directly without reimbursement, and also (where possible) to provide methods for automating the IRS substantiation requirements which often require substantial paperwork and manpower. Substantiating an FSA debit card transaction without paperwork is known as "auto\-adjudication". HRAs, which were introduced later, not by employee funds; however, they are subject to the same IRS requirements as FSAs, and thus are generally accessed only by paper claims or debit cards just like FSAs. Unlike FSAs and HRAs, HSAs do not require substantiation prior to withdrawal; users need only retain their receipts with their tax papers. However, since most HSA providers came from FSA and HRA backgrounds, most offer substantiation services for HSAs that are similar to those for FSAs and HRAs. Though many HSA providers offer unrestricted debit cards and even [credit cards](/wiki/Credit_card "Credit card") with their accounts, some voluntarily choose to issue HSA debit cards and impose the same restrictions on their use as those required by the IRS for FSAs and HRAs. Flexible Spending Accounts (FSAs), commonly referred to as “Section 125” plans or “Cafeteria” plans, were developed as part of Internal Revenue Code Section 125 to provide employees with tax relief for their un\-reimbursed medical and dependent day\-care costs. FSAs enable employees to utilize pre\-tax dollars and save Federal, FICA, and, in most cases, state taxes when paying for eligible expenses not covered by traditional insurance plans.
[ "Background\n----------", "Though these cards can be issued with HRAs and HSAs as well as FSAs, the FSA is the oldest and most common of these accounts; therefore, for simplicity these cards are often referred to as \"FSA\" debit cards.", "Though a few FSA debit cards are also issued for dependent care and transportation expenses, most are issued for medical expenses. (The rest of this article deals only with FSA debit cards used with medical FSAs, HRAs or HSAs.)", "Traditionally, to meet [Internal Revenue Service](/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Service \"Internal Revenue Service\") (IRS) substantiation requirements, FSAs were accessed only through claims for reimbursement after incurring (and usually paying) an out\\-of\\-pocket expense, often after deductions were already made from the employee's paycheck to fund the FSA. This, along with the so\\-called \"use it or lose it\" rule (i.e., all funds not spent are forfeited), has long been seen as one of the problems minimizing utilization of FSAs.", "The FSA debit card was developed to avoid this problem by allowing users to access their FSA directly without reimbursement, and also (where possible) to provide methods for automating the IRS substantiation requirements which often require substantial paperwork and manpower. Substantiating an FSA debit card transaction without paperwork is known as \"auto\\-adjudication\".", "HRAs, which were introduced later, not by employee funds; however, they are subject to the same IRS requirements as FSAs, and thus are generally accessed only by paper claims or debit cards just like FSAs.", "Unlike FSAs and HRAs, HSAs do not require substantiation prior to withdrawal; users need only retain their receipts with their tax papers. However, since most HSA providers came from FSA and HRA backgrounds, most offer substantiation services for HSAs that are similar to those for FSAs and HRAs. Though many HSA providers offer unrestricted debit cards and even [credit cards](/wiki/Credit_card \"Credit card\") with their accounts, some voluntarily choose to issue HSA debit cards and impose the same restrictions on their use as those required by the IRS for FSAs and HRAs.", "Flexible Spending Accounts (FSAs), commonly referred to as “Section 125” plans or “Cafeteria” plans, were developed as part of Internal Revenue Code Section 125 to provide employees with tax relief for their un\\-reimbursed medical and dependent day\\-care costs. FSAs enable employees to utilize pre\\-tax dollars and save Federal, FICA, and, in most cases, state taxes when paying for eligible expenses not covered by traditional insurance plans.", "" ]
IRS requirements ---------------- Under IRS Revenue Ruling 2003\-43, every transaction on an FSA debit card must be either substantiated or recouped from the employee. Substantiation can be through either electronic evidence (auto\-adjudication) or paper receipts submitted by the user (similar to paper claims). The process of obtaining receipts or recoupment when auto\-adjudication is not possible is known as "pay and chase", a term the IRS also used in its most recent ruling (Notice 2007\-02\). The most common method of auto\-adjudication is known as "copay matching". Under Ruling 2003\-43 as amplified by Notice 2006\-69, the FSA or HRA provider must obtain from the employee's health plan the standard copayment amounts for that plan. If the charge is **exactly** equal to between one and five of those copayment amounts, it may be auto\-adjudicated and approved without receipts. If the health plan has different copayment amounts for a particular type of charge, any valid combination of copayment amounts may be approved, up to five times the highest possible copayment amount. Also, charges may be auto\-adjudicated if they are accompanied by electronic information substantiating that the charge is for medical purposes. This may be done through such means as including details of the transaction with the charge (Ruling 2003\-43\) or forwarding the health plan's explanation of benefits to the FSA or HRA provider for further processing (Notice 2006\-69\). Under Notice 2006\-69, all charges from a merchant with an IIAS may also be auto\-adjudicated; however, beginning in 2007 the merchant must make available to the employer the detailed records of all such transactions for IRS review. This may be done either automatically or in response to an IRS audit of the employer. If the charge is not substantiated by auto\-adjudication or receipts, the FSA or HRA provider must recoup the charge and suspend the card until it is recouped. In addition to voluntary methods of recoupment, employers commonly use payroll deduction, as well as offsetting the recoupment against future paper claims. If all else fails, the employer may add the amount of the charge to the employee's W\-2 as taxable income.
[ "IRS requirements\n----------------", "Under IRS Revenue Ruling 2003\\-43, every transaction on an FSA debit card must be either substantiated or recouped from the employee. Substantiation can be through either electronic evidence (auto\\-adjudication) or paper receipts submitted by the user (similar to paper claims). The process of obtaining receipts or recoupment when auto\\-adjudication is not possible is known as \"pay and chase\", a term the IRS also used in its most recent ruling (Notice 2007\\-02\\).", "The most common method of auto\\-adjudication is known as \"copay matching\". Under Ruling 2003\\-43 as amplified by Notice 2006\\-69, the FSA or HRA provider must obtain from the employee's health plan the standard copayment amounts for that plan. If the charge is **exactly** equal to between one and five of those copayment amounts, it may be auto\\-adjudicated and approved without receipts. If the health plan has different copayment amounts for a particular type of charge, any valid combination of copayment amounts may be approved, up to five times the highest possible copayment amount.", "Also, charges may be auto\\-adjudicated if they are accompanied by electronic information substantiating that the charge is for medical purposes. This may be done through such means as including details of the transaction with the charge (Ruling 2003\\-43\\) or forwarding the health plan's explanation of benefits to the FSA or HRA provider for further processing (Notice 2006\\-69\\).", "Under Notice 2006\\-69, all charges from a merchant with an IIAS may also be auto\\-adjudicated; however, beginning in 2007 the merchant must make available to the employer the detailed records of all such transactions for IRS review. This may be done either automatically or in response to an IRS audit of the employer.", "If the charge is not substantiated by auto\\-adjudication or receipts, the FSA or HRA provider must recoup the charge and suspend the card until it is recouped. In addition to voluntary methods of recoupment, employers commonly use payroll deduction, as well as offsetting the recoupment against future paper claims. If all else fails, the employer may add the amount of the charge to the employee's W\\-2 as taxable income.", "" ]
Timeline -------- ### Military action begins The conflict began around 1:00 a.m. local time when Marines from [1st Battalion, 5th Marines](/wiki/1st_Battalion%2C_5th_Marines "1st Battalion, 5th Marines") (1/5\), were dropped by CH\-47s and UH\-60s helicopters of the [82nd Airborne Division](/wiki/82nd_Airborne_Division "82nd Airborne Division"), into dirt fields around the town of Nawa\-l\-Barakzayi, south of [Lashkar Gah](/wiki/Lashkar_Gah "Lashkar Gah"). The first shots of the operation were fired at daybreak (around 6:15 a.m.) when a Marine unit received small\-arms fire from a tree\-line. [Cobra attack helicopters](/wiki/AH-1_Cobra "AH-1 Cobra") were called in and made strafing runs at the tree line from where the fire was coming from. Simultaneously, Marines from [2nd Battalion, 8th Marines](/wiki/2nd_Battalion%2C_8th_Marines "2nd Battalion, 8th Marines") (2/8\), were dropped by helicopters just outside the town of Sorkh\-Duz. The town of Sork\-Duz lies between Nawa\-l\-Barakzayi and [Garmsir](/wiki/Garmsir "Garmsir"). Temperatures reached over {{convert\|100\|°F\|°C}}. File:US Marines boarding CH\-53 Super Stallion at FOB Dwyer, Afghanistan.jpg\|Marines from 2/8 board helicopters at \[\[Camp Dwyer]], July 2, 2009 File:Operation\-khanjar\-part1\-DVIDS.ogv\|Video, Operation Khanjar, Part I, "Send in the Reinforcements", \[\[United States Marine Corps]] with support from \[\[Afghan National Army]], An additional 4,000 U.S. Marines are deployed to the Helmand province. Published July 31, 2009\. File:Operation\-khanjar\-part2\-DVIDS.ogv\|Video, Operation Khanjar, Part II, "Mission Launch", \[\[United States Marine Corps]] with support from \[\[Afghan National Army]], About 25 helicopters fly back and forth dropping U.S. Marines throughout the Helmand River valley. Published July 31, 2009\. ### U.S. restraint Although the operation was meant to eliminate the Taliban threat, the operation's principal focus was to win the locals' confidence and protect them from Taliban threat. To affirm this, Marine units throughout exercised military restraint when encountering enemy insurgents. Although the troops encountered roadside bombs and small\-arms attacks, which resulted in the death of one Marine and several others wounded, commanders opted to mute their return fire. In the first 24 hours of the operation, the Marines did not fire artillery or call for fighter planes to drop bombs. Civilian casualties was an issue Gen. [Stanley McChrystal](/wiki/Stanley_McChrystal "Stanley McChrystal"), the U.S. Forces Afghanistan and ISAF commander, underscored prior to the operation, as it was one sure way of losing the locals' hearts and minds regardless of how many human shields the Taliban would go through on a single day. McChrystal further elaborated the need for constant surveillance to foil Taliban attempts to murder civilians while claiming US collateral damage. Though troops in similar circumstances might have called in airstrikes, Marine commanders practiced what they called "tactical patience" in a conscious effort to further minimize coalition civilian casualties in the face of strict Rules of Engagement.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.thestate.com/world/story/848461\.html \|title\=Marines exchange fire with Taliban in searing heat \|agency\=Associated Press \|date\=2009\-07\-03 \|access\-date\=2009\-07\-06 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090709041837/http://www.thestate.com/world/story/848461\.html \|archive\-date\=July 9, 2009 }} On the first day, July 2, Marines from 1/5 made contact with a group of about 20 militants holed up in a mud\-brick compound in Nawa\-l\-Barakzayi. The Marines refrained from calling in a [fixed\-wing](/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircraft "Fixed-wing aircraft") airstrike and instead used the [20mm guns](/wiki/M197_Gatling_gun "M197 Gatling gun") from their [AH\-1W SuperCobra](/wiki/AH-1_SuperCobra "AH-1 SuperCobra") helicopter gunships to avoid the risk of civilian casualties. The militants managed to escape.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/news/2009/07/marine\_meb\_070109w/\|title\=Marines suffer first casualties in Afghan offensive\|publisher\=Associated Press via Marine Corps Times\|first\=Jason\|last\=Straziuso\|date\=2009\-07\-03\|access\-date\=2009\-07\-04\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090709170648/http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/news/2009/07/marine\_meb\_070109w/\|archive\-date\=2009\-07\-09}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\-dyn/content/gallery/2009/07/01/GA2009070103245\.html?sid\=ST2009070103271\|title\=U.S. Pushes Into Taliban Strongholds\|newspaper\=The Washington Post \| date\=2009\-07\-01 \| access\-date\=2010\-05\-20}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/07/03/afghanistan.offensive/index.html?iref\=newssearch\|title\=Marines targeting Taliban in Afghan push\|publisher\=CNN\|date\=2009\-07\-03\|access\-date\=2009\-07\-06}} Though fired upon, Marines refrained from destroying many compounds because they could not confirm if civilians were inside Marine officers distributed handbills explaining their presence and talked to residents with the help of interpreters. Some Marine companies, out of respect as well as to safeguard the locals from Taliban reprisals, bedded down for the night in empty homes "with the permission of the hearts and minds of the people", instead of constructing bases with razor wire and sand\-filled barriers. ### Garmsir district Marines from [2nd Battalion 8th Marines](/wiki/2nd_Battalion_8th_Marines "2nd Battalion 8th Marines") (2/8\) met little or no resistance initially.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\-dyn/content/article/2009/07/03/AR2009070300877\.html\|title\=Insurgents Step Up Attacks on Marines\|date\=2009\-07\-04\|access\-date\=2009\-07\-04\|first\=Rajiv\|last\=Chandrasekran\|newspaper\=The Washington Post}} On July 3, Taliban fighters in a walled compound in Garmsir engaged Marines for eight hours until an [AV\-8B Harrier II](/wiki/AV-8B_Harrier_II "AV-8B Harrier II") attack jet from [VMA\-214](/wiki/VMA-214 "VMA-214") destroyed the compound with a 500\-pound bomb, killing all of the estimated 30–40 Taliban inside. No Marines were reported wounded in the action, although it delayed U.S. plans to meet with village elders and some locals. Marines from 2/8 conducted joint patrols with the [Afghan National Army](/wiki/Afghan_National_Army "Afghan National Army") in and around the town of Sorkh\-Duz. By July 5, elements of 2/8 were engaged in heavy fighting at Toshtay, 16 miles south of Garmsir.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/5733149/US\-marines\-face\-a\-hell\-of\-a\-fight\-in\-Helmand\-surge.html\|title\=US Marines face a 'hell of a fight' in Helmand\|date\=2009\-07\-05\|access\-date\=2009\-07\-05\|publisher\=UK Telegraph\|first\=Ben\|last\=Farmer \| location\=London}} Image:US Marines firing M4s in Helmand province Afghanistan.jpg\|Marines from 2/8 firing on an enemy position in Garmsir, July 3, 2009 File:Operation\-khanjar\-part3\-DVIDS.ogv\|Video, Operation Khanjar, Part III, \[\[United States Marine Corps]] with support from \[\[Afghan National Army]], A company of US Marines are on patrol in the village of Sorkh\-Duz, in Garmsir, Helmand Province. They've been invited by the district governor. Their mission is to win over the local people. Published August 4, 2009\. ### Nawa\-l\-Barakzayi district Hundreds of Marines from [1st Battalion 5th Marines](/wiki/1st_Battalion_5th_Marines "1st Battalion 5th Marines") (1/5\) were lifted by helicopter into the village of Nawa\-I\-Barakzayi, encountering sporadic resistance. Marine commanders noted that Taliban forces seemed to have withdrawn for the time being to observe the Marines. On July 24, Marines from Company F, 2nd Battalion, 8th Marine Regiment, [Regimental Combat Team 3](/wiki/3rd_Marine_Regiment_%28United_States%29 "3rd Marine Regiment (United States)"), along with ANA Troops, raided a Taliban compound. Five insurgents were killed and over 270,000 lbs of poppy seed, 33 bags of opium, 13 bags of hashish, 50 barrels of precursory explosive material, 20 bolt\-action rifles, 20 [IED's](/wiki/Improvised_explosive_device "Improvised explosive device"), and 130,000 lbs of fertilizer, that could have been used for explosives charges, were seized.{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2009}} ### Khan Neshin district On July 2, 2009, approximately 500 Marines from 2nd LAR, 70\-vehicle strong, arrived at Khanashin, the capital of Khan Neshin District. Khanashin had been a Taliban stronghold and coalition forces had never had a sustained presence in areas so deep into the southern Helmand River valley. The Marines halted outside the village, waiting for the village surgeon to give them permission. By the end of the day, the Marines were able to negotiate entry into the town, encountered no resistance, and began talks.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\-dyn/content/article/2009/07/02/AR2009070200832\_2\.html?hpid\=artslot\&sid\=ST2009070103271\|title\=Marines Meet Little Resistance in Afghan Push, page 2\|newspaper\=The Washington Post\|first\=Rajiv\|last\=Chandrasekaran\|date\=2009\-07\-03\|access\-date\=2009\-07\-04}} ### Marine attack on Dahaneh {{main\|Battle of Dahaneh}} On August 12, 2009, U.S. Marines mounted a helicopter assault on the Taliban\-held town of Dahaneh, it had been under insurgent control for years. The assault began before dawn, the first assault wave in Humvees and [MRAPs](/wiki/MRAP_%28armored_vehicle%29 "MRAP (armored vehicle)") left a Marine base at 1:00 a.m. in the town of Naw Zad, about five miles north of Dahaneh. Three [CH\-53E Super Stallion](/wiki/CH-53E_Super_Stallion "CH-53E Super Stallion") helicopters then picked up a platoon of Marines and dropped them behind Taliban lines in Dahaneh. These troops blasted their way into a suspected militant compound, where they arrested five men and took over the compound as a base. U.S. Marine AV\-8B Harrier II jets were also involved in the battle dropping flares in a show of force. As dawn broke, insurgent rocket and mortar fire started raining down on U.S. troops. Marines entered the town as others battled militants in the surrounding mountains. The first wave of Marines was met with small arms, mortar and rocket propelled grenade fire. Insurgents were firing from house rooftops and courtyards. A heavy machine gun the Taliban was firing from one of the streets slowed the Marines' progress into the town. Militants also brought in a truck to fire heavy missiles. After militants fired volleys of rockets from a mud\-wall compound, the Marines called in a missile strike which destroyed the building and killed 7–10 militants inside, according to the Marines. By sunset, the Marines had made little progress into Dahaneh beyond the gains of the initial pre\-dawn assault. Since the Marines encountered stiff resistance they suspected that the Taliban knew of the attack on the town and prepared themselves. Marine forces seized about 66 pounds of opium on the first day of the battle.<https://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20090812/ap_on_re_as/as_afghanistan_56>{{dead link\|date\=June 2010}} The second day of the fighting, Marine AH\-1W SuperCobra attack helicopters fired [rockets](/wiki/Hydra_70 "Hydra 70") at Taliban positions in the nearby mountains where militants were believed firing at troops in the town. Later, U.S. [A\-10 Thunderbolt II](/wiki/A-10_Thunderbolt_II "A-10 Thunderbolt II") [attack aircraft](/wiki/Ground-attack_aircraft "Ground-attack aircraft") fired multiple rounds into the cliffs overlooking what the Marines call "Hell's Pass", the entrance into the Now Zad valley, and U.S. [surface\-to\-surface missiles](/wiki/High_Mobility_Artillery_Rocket_System "High Mobility Artillery Rocket System"), fired from the main Marine base, pounded the hillsides. Meanwhile, in the town, Marines came under heavy machine gun fire as they moved through the streets and alleyways. One Marine was killed. By the evening of the second day, Marine and Afghan troops had managed to take about half the town, however resistance was still continuing.[http://www.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/20090814/NEWS01/908140363/\-1/RSS02?source\=rss\_localnews](http://www.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/20090814/NEWS01/908140363/-1/RSS02?source=rss_localnews){{dead link\|date\=June 2010}} On the third day, Marines launched a pre\-dawn raid against a Taliban position on the southern edge of the town, storming a fortified compound and then blowing up two towers from which insurgents fired rockets and mortars at U.S. troops the day before. Marines found marijuana plants growing in the courtyard and confiscated trigger plates used to manufacture roadside bombs. By the fourth day the battle had ended and coalition troops secured the town.
[ "Timeline\n--------", "### Military action begins", "The conflict began around 1:00 a.m. local time when Marines from [1st Battalion, 5th Marines](/wiki/1st_Battalion%2C_5th_Marines \"1st Battalion, 5th Marines\") (1/5\\), were dropped by CH\\-47s and UH\\-60s helicopters of the [82nd Airborne Division](/wiki/82nd_Airborne_Division \"82nd Airborne Division\"), into dirt fields around the town of Nawa\\-l\\-Barakzayi, south of [Lashkar Gah](/wiki/Lashkar_Gah \"Lashkar Gah\"). The first shots of the operation were fired at daybreak (around 6:15 a.m.) when a Marine unit received small\\-arms fire from a tree\\-line. [Cobra attack helicopters](/wiki/AH-1_Cobra \"AH-1 Cobra\") were called in and made strafing runs at the tree line from where the fire was coming from. Simultaneously, Marines from [2nd Battalion, 8th Marines](/wiki/2nd_Battalion%2C_8th_Marines \"2nd Battalion, 8th Marines\") (2/8\\), were dropped by helicopters just outside the town of Sorkh\\-Duz. The town of Sork\\-Duz lies between Nawa\\-l\\-Barakzayi and [Garmsir](/wiki/Garmsir \"Garmsir\"). Temperatures reached over {{convert\\|100\\|°F\\|°C}}.", "", "", "File:US Marines boarding CH\\-53 Super Stallion at FOB Dwyer, Afghanistan.jpg\\|Marines from 2/8 board helicopters at \\[\\[Camp Dwyer]], July 2, 2009\nFile:Operation\\-khanjar\\-part1\\-DVIDS.ogv\\|Video, Operation Khanjar, Part I, \"Send in the Reinforcements\", \\[\\[United States Marine Corps]] with support from \\[\\[Afghan National Army]], An additional 4,000 U.S. Marines are deployed to the Helmand province. Published July 31, 2009\\.\nFile:Operation\\-khanjar\\-part2\\-DVIDS.ogv\\|Video, Operation Khanjar, Part II, \"Mission Launch\", \\[\\[United States Marine Corps]] with support from \\[\\[Afghan National Army]], About 25 helicopters fly back and forth dropping U.S. Marines throughout the Helmand River valley. Published July 31, 2009\\.", "### U.S. restraint", "Although the operation was meant to eliminate the Taliban threat, the operation's principal focus was to win the locals' confidence and protect them from Taliban threat. To affirm this, Marine units throughout exercised military restraint when encountering enemy insurgents. Although the troops encountered roadside bombs and small\\-arms attacks, which resulted in the death of one Marine and several others wounded, commanders opted to mute their return fire. In the first 24 hours of the operation, the Marines did not fire artillery or call for fighter planes to drop bombs.", "Civilian casualties was an issue Gen. [Stanley McChrystal](/wiki/Stanley_McChrystal \"Stanley McChrystal\"), the U.S. Forces Afghanistan and ISAF commander, underscored prior to the operation, as it was one sure way of losing the locals' hearts and minds regardless of how many human shields the Taliban would go through on a single day. McChrystal further elaborated the need for constant surveillance to foil Taliban attempts to murder civilians while claiming US collateral damage.\nThough troops in similar circumstances might have called in airstrikes, Marine commanders practiced what they called \"tactical patience\" in a conscious effort to further minimize coalition civilian casualties in the face of strict Rules of Engagement.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.thestate.com/world/story/848461\\.html \\|title\\=Marines exchange fire with Taliban in searing heat \\|agency\\=Associated Press \\|date\\=2009\\-07\\-03 \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-07\\-06 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090709041837/http://www.thestate.com/world/story/848461\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=July 9, 2009 }}", "On the first day, July 2, Marines from 1/5 made contact with a group of about 20 militants holed up in a mud\\-brick compound in Nawa\\-l\\-Barakzayi. The Marines refrained from calling in a [fixed\\-wing](/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircraft \"Fixed-wing aircraft\") airstrike and instead used the [20mm guns](/wiki/M197_Gatling_gun \"M197 Gatling gun\") from their [AH\\-1W SuperCobra](/wiki/AH-1_SuperCobra \"AH-1 SuperCobra\") helicopter gunships to avoid the risk of civilian casualties. The militants managed to escape.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/news/2009/07/marine\\_meb\\_070109w/\\|title\\=Marines suffer first casualties in Afghan offensive\\|publisher\\=Associated Press via Marine Corps Times\\|first\\=Jason\\|last\\=Straziuso\\|date\\=2009\\-07\\-03\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-07\\-04\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090709170648/http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/news/2009/07/marine\\_meb\\_070109w/\\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-07\\-09}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\\-dyn/content/gallery/2009/07/01/GA2009070103245\\.html?sid\\=ST2009070103271\\|title\\=U.S. Pushes Into Taliban Strongholds\\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post \\| date\\=2009\\-07\\-01 \\| access\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-20}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/07/03/afghanistan.offensive/index.html?iref\\=newssearch\\|title\\=Marines targeting Taliban in Afghan push\\|publisher\\=CNN\\|date\\=2009\\-07\\-03\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-07\\-06}} Though fired upon, Marines refrained from destroying many compounds because they could not confirm if civilians were inside", "Marine officers distributed handbills explaining their presence and talked to residents with the help of interpreters. Some Marine companies, out of respect as well as to safeguard the locals from Taliban reprisals, bedded down for the night in empty homes \"with the permission of the hearts and minds of the people\", instead of constructing bases with razor wire and sand\\-filled barriers.", "### Garmsir district", "Marines from [2nd Battalion 8th Marines](/wiki/2nd_Battalion_8th_Marines \"2nd Battalion 8th Marines\") (2/8\\) met little or no resistance initially.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\\-dyn/content/article/2009/07/03/AR2009070300877\\.html\\|title\\=Insurgents Step Up Attacks on Marines\\|date\\=2009\\-07\\-04\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-07\\-04\\|first\\=Rajiv\\|last\\=Chandrasekran\\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post}} On July 3, Taliban fighters in a walled compound in Garmsir engaged Marines for eight hours until an [AV\\-8B Harrier II](/wiki/AV-8B_Harrier_II \"AV-8B Harrier II\") attack jet from [VMA\\-214](/wiki/VMA-214 \"VMA-214\") destroyed the compound with a 500\\-pound bomb, killing all of the estimated 30–40 Taliban inside. No Marines were reported wounded in the action, although it delayed U.S. plans to meet with village elders and some locals. Marines from 2/8 conducted joint patrols with the [Afghan National Army](/wiki/Afghan_National_Army \"Afghan National Army\") in and around the town of Sorkh\\-Duz.", "By July 5, elements of 2/8 were engaged in heavy fighting at Toshtay, 16 miles south of Garmsir.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/5733149/US\\-marines\\-face\\-a\\-hell\\-of\\-a\\-fight\\-in\\-Helmand\\-surge.html\\|title\\=US Marines face a 'hell of a fight' in Helmand\\|date\\=2009\\-07\\-05\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-07\\-05\\|publisher\\=UK Telegraph\\|first\\=Ben\\|last\\=Farmer \\| location\\=London}}", "", "", "Image:US Marines firing M4s in Helmand province Afghanistan.jpg\\|Marines from 2/8 firing on an enemy position in Garmsir, July 3, 2009\nFile:Operation\\-khanjar\\-part3\\-DVIDS.ogv\\|Video, Operation Khanjar, Part III, \\[\\[United States Marine Corps]] with support from \\[\\[Afghan National Army]], A company of US Marines are on patrol in the village of Sorkh\\-Duz, in Garmsir, Helmand Province. They've been invited by the district governor. Their mission is to win over the local people. Published August 4, 2009\\.", "### Nawa\\-l\\-Barakzayi district", "Hundreds of Marines from [1st Battalion 5th Marines](/wiki/1st_Battalion_5th_Marines \"1st Battalion 5th Marines\") (1/5\\) were lifted by helicopter into the village of Nawa\\-I\\-Barakzayi, encountering sporadic resistance. Marine commanders noted that Taliban forces seemed to have withdrawn for the time being to observe the Marines.", "On July 24, Marines from Company F, 2nd Battalion, 8th Marine Regiment, [Regimental Combat Team 3](/wiki/3rd_Marine_Regiment_%28United_States%29 \"3rd Marine Regiment (United States)\"), along with ANA Troops, raided a Taliban compound. Five insurgents were killed and over 270,000 lbs of poppy seed, 33 bags of opium, 13 bags of hashish, 50 barrels of precursory explosive material, 20 bolt\\-action rifles, 20 [IED's](/wiki/Improvised_explosive_device \"Improvised explosive device\"), and 130,000 lbs of fertilizer, that could have been used for explosives charges, were seized.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2009}}", "### Khan Neshin district", "On July 2, 2009, approximately 500 Marines from 2nd LAR, 70\\-vehicle strong, arrived at Khanashin, the capital of Khan Neshin District. Khanashin had been a Taliban stronghold and coalition forces had never had a sustained presence in areas so deep into the southern Helmand River valley. The Marines halted outside the village, waiting for the village surgeon to give them permission. By the end of the day, the Marines were able to negotiate entry into the town, encountered no resistance, and began talks.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\\-dyn/content/article/2009/07/02/AR2009070200832\\_2\\.html?hpid\\=artslot\\&sid\\=ST2009070103271\\|title\\=Marines Meet Little Resistance in Afghan Push, page 2\\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post\\|first\\=Rajiv\\|last\\=Chandrasekaran\\|date\\=2009\\-07\\-03\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-07\\-04}}", "### Marine attack on Dahaneh", "{{main\\|Battle of Dahaneh}}", "On August 12, 2009, U.S. Marines mounted a helicopter assault on the Taliban\\-held town of Dahaneh, it had been under insurgent control for years. The assault began before dawn, the first assault wave in Humvees and [MRAPs](/wiki/MRAP_%28armored_vehicle%29 \"MRAP (armored vehicle)\") left a Marine base at 1:00 a.m. in the town of Naw Zad, about five miles north of Dahaneh. Three [CH\\-53E Super Stallion](/wiki/CH-53E_Super_Stallion \"CH-53E Super Stallion\") helicopters then picked up a platoon of Marines and dropped them behind Taliban lines in Dahaneh. These troops blasted their way into a suspected militant compound, where they arrested five men and took over the compound as a base. U.S. Marine AV\\-8B Harrier II jets were also involved in the battle dropping flares in a show of force. As dawn broke, insurgent rocket and mortar fire started raining down on U.S. troops. Marines entered the town as others battled militants in the surrounding mountains. The first wave of Marines was met with small arms, mortar and rocket propelled grenade fire. Insurgents were firing from house rooftops and courtyards. A heavy machine gun the Taliban was firing from one of the streets slowed the Marines' progress into the town. Militants also brought in a truck to fire heavy missiles. After militants fired volleys of rockets from a mud\\-wall compound, the Marines called in a missile strike which destroyed the building and killed 7–10 militants inside, according to the Marines. By sunset, the Marines had made little progress into Dahaneh beyond the gains of the initial pre\\-dawn assault. Since the Marines encountered stiff resistance they suspected that the Taliban knew of the attack on the town and prepared themselves. Marine forces seized about 66 pounds of opium on the first day of the battle.<https://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20090812/ap_on_re_as/as_afghanistan_56>{{dead link\\|date\\=June 2010}}", "The second day of the fighting, Marine AH\\-1W SuperCobra attack helicopters fired [rockets](/wiki/Hydra_70 \"Hydra 70\") at Taliban positions in the nearby mountains where militants were believed firing at troops in the town. Later, U.S. [A\\-10 Thunderbolt II](/wiki/A-10_Thunderbolt_II \"A-10 Thunderbolt II\") [attack aircraft](/wiki/Ground-attack_aircraft \"Ground-attack aircraft\") fired multiple rounds into the cliffs overlooking what the Marines call \"Hell's Pass\", the entrance into the Now Zad valley, and U.S. [surface\\-to\\-surface missiles](/wiki/High_Mobility_Artillery_Rocket_System \"High Mobility Artillery Rocket System\"), fired from the main Marine base, pounded the hillsides. Meanwhile, in the town, Marines came under heavy machine gun fire as they moved through the streets and alleyways. One Marine was killed. By the evening of the second day, Marine and Afghan troops had managed to take about half the town, however resistance was still continuing.[http://www.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/20090814/NEWS01/908140363/\\-1/RSS02?source\\=rss\\_localnews](http://www.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/20090814/NEWS01/908140363/-1/RSS02?source=rss_localnews){{dead link\\|date\\=June 2010}}", "On the third day, Marines launched a pre\\-dawn raid against a Taliban position on the southern edge of the town, storming a fortified compound and then blowing up two towers from which insurgents fired rockets and mortars at U.S. troops the day before. Marines found marijuana plants growing in the courtyard and confiscated trigger plates used to manufacture roadside bombs.", "By the fourth day the battle had ended and coalition troops secured the town.", "" ]
Aftermath --------- ### Pakistani concerns On July 3, 2009, Prime Minister [Yousaf Raza Gillani](/wiki/Yousaf_Raza_Gillani "Yousaf Raza Gillani") of Pakistan said that he was concerned with the influx of volatile strategic assets fleeing from Afghanistan into Pakistan due to the ongoing operation in Helmand, and this needs to be stopped. He urged this to a French delegation.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn\-content\-library/dawn/news/pakistan/19\-pm\-rules\-out\-formation\-of\-more\-provinces\-02\|title\=PM Gilani rules out formation of more provinces \|date\=2009\-07\-03\|publisher\=Dawn (newspaper)\|access\-date\=2009\-07\-04}} The [Pakistani army](/wiki/Pakistan_Army "Pakistan Army") moved troops from elsewhere on its side of the Afghan border to the stretch opposite Helmand to try to stop any militants from fleeing the offensive. Both U.S. and Pakistani officials have expressed concern that stepped\-up operations in southern Afghanistan could push the insurgents across the border. ### Effectiveness On July 7, 2009, Afghan defense officials said that Taliban fighters and their commanders have escaped the big U.S. offensive in [Helmand province](/wiki/Helmand_province "Helmand province") and simply moved into areas to the west and north, prompting fears that the U.S. effort has just moved the Taliban problem elsewhere.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/251/story/71432\.html \|title\=Afghans: Taliban Have Escaped Helmand and Marines \|access\-date\=2009\-07\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090712125402/http://www.mcclatchydc.com/251/story/71432\.html \|archive\-date\=2009\-07\-12 \|url\-status\=dead }} Gen. Zahir Azami, speaking for the [Afghan Ministry of Defense](/wiki/Ministry_of_Defense_%28Afghanistan%29 "Ministry of Defense (Afghanistan)"), said that since the U.S. Marines began their offensive, Taliban fighters have moved to northern Helmand province near Baghran, an area controlled by German forces, and to the eastern edge of Farah province, largely under Italy's control. Brig. Gen. Mahaiddin Ghori, the Afghan army commander in Helmand, estimated that Helmand province had roughly 500 foreign Taliban fighters and another 1,000 Afghan Taliban. Gen. Zahir Azami had no estimates of how many had moved north and west. U.S. and NATO officials acknowledged that the Taliban moved from Helmand ahead of the Marines, and U.S. officials privately said they had seen less fighting during the one\-week offensive than they had anticipated. General Ghori lamented the tightening of the RoE allowing up to two companies of Taliban to escape the clutches of the allied forces. The shift of the Taliban into the areas to the west and north has prompted complaints from German and Italian commanders, whose troops shelter there, and have prompted questions about whether the United States has enough troops to pursue the insurgents while at the same time carrying out Army Gen. Stanley McChrystal's plan to "clear, hold and build" areas taken from Taliban control and simultaneously support the northern and western areas held by German and Italian forces. ### Casualties During the operation 14 U.S. Marines were killed. Two Afghan soldiers and one Afghan interpreter working with the Marines were also killed. The U.S. does not officially count the enemy dead so it is almost impossible to get an accurate number of the Taliban who died in the operation.{{cite news\| url\=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/07/26/us\-stops\-giving\-militant\-\_n\_244947\.html \| work\=The Huffington Post \| first\=Lila \| last\=Shapiro \| title\=US Stops Giving Militant Death Tolls In Afghanistan \| date\=2009\-07\-26}} However, based on a few reports released, it can be concluded between July 2 and 4 also August 12 and 15 at least 49–62 Taliban were killed. This also however, is most likely a minimum since there is no official enemy dead count throughout the whole operation and the Taliban have a tendency to bury their dead quickly according to their religion, which makes it hard to get an accurate number of killed.
[ "Aftermath\n---------", "### Pakistani concerns", "On July 3, 2009, Prime Minister [Yousaf Raza Gillani](/wiki/Yousaf_Raza_Gillani \"Yousaf Raza Gillani\") of Pakistan said that he was concerned with the influx of volatile strategic assets fleeing from Afghanistan into Pakistan due to the ongoing operation in Helmand, and this needs to be stopped. He urged this to a French delegation.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn\\-content\\-library/dawn/news/pakistan/19\\-pm\\-rules\\-out\\-formation\\-of\\-more\\-provinces\\-02\\|title\\=PM Gilani rules out formation of more provinces \\|date\\=2009\\-07\\-03\\|publisher\\=Dawn (newspaper)\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-07\\-04}}", "The [Pakistani army](/wiki/Pakistan_Army \"Pakistan Army\") moved troops from elsewhere on its side of the Afghan border to the stretch opposite Helmand to try to stop any militants from fleeing the offensive. Both U.S. and Pakistani officials have expressed concern that stepped\\-up operations in southern Afghanistan could push the insurgents across the border.", "### Effectiveness", "On July 7, 2009, Afghan defense officials said that Taliban fighters and their commanders have escaped the big U.S. offensive in [Helmand province](/wiki/Helmand_province \"Helmand province\") and simply moved into areas to the west and north, prompting fears that the U.S. effort has just moved the Taliban problem elsewhere.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/251/story/71432\\.html \\|title\\=Afghans: Taliban Have Escaped Helmand and Marines \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-07\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090712125402/http://www.mcclatchydc.com/251/story/71432\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-07\\-12 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "Gen. Zahir Azami, speaking for the [Afghan Ministry of Defense](/wiki/Ministry_of_Defense_%28Afghanistan%29 \"Ministry of Defense (Afghanistan)\"), said that since the U.S. Marines began their offensive, Taliban fighters have moved to northern Helmand province near Baghran, an area controlled by German forces, and to the eastern edge of Farah province, largely under Italy's control.", "Brig. Gen. Mahaiddin Ghori, the Afghan army commander in Helmand, estimated that Helmand province had roughly 500 foreign Taliban fighters and another 1,000 Afghan Taliban. Gen. Zahir Azami had no estimates of how many had moved north and west.", "U.S. and NATO officials acknowledged that the Taliban moved from Helmand ahead of the Marines, and U.S. officials privately said they had seen less fighting during the one\\-week offensive than they had anticipated.\nGeneral Ghori lamented the tightening of the RoE allowing up to two companies of Taliban to escape the clutches of the allied forces.", "The shift of the Taliban into the areas to the west and north has prompted complaints from German and Italian commanders, whose troops shelter there, and have prompted questions about whether the United States has enough troops to pursue the insurgents while at the same time carrying out Army Gen. Stanley McChrystal's plan to \"clear, hold and build\" areas taken from Taliban control and simultaneously support the northern and western areas held by German and Italian forces.", "### Casualties", "During the operation 14 U.S. Marines were killed. Two Afghan soldiers and one Afghan interpreter working with the Marines were also killed.", "The U.S. does not officially count the enemy dead so it is almost impossible to get an accurate number of the Taliban who died in the operation.{{cite news\\| url\\=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/07/26/us\\-stops\\-giving\\-militant\\-\\_n\\_244947\\.html \\| work\\=The Huffington Post \\| first\\=Lila \\| last\\=Shapiro \\| title\\=US Stops Giving Militant Death Tolls In Afghanistan \\| date\\=2009\\-07\\-26}} However, based on a few reports released, it can be concluded between July 2 and 4 also August 12 and 15 at least 49–62 Taliban were killed. This also however, is most likely a minimum since there is no official enemy dead count throughout the whole operation and the Taliban have a tendency to bury their dead quickly according to their religion, which makes it hard to get an accurate number of killed.", "" ]
Pioneer ------- In the early 1840s, Savage's parents joined the LDS Church. The family moved from Michigan to [Nauvoo, Illinois](/wiki/Nauvoo%2C_Illinois "Nauvoo, Illinois"), and later migrated as Mormon pioneers to the [Salt Lake Valley](/wiki/Salt_Lake_Valley "Salt Lake Valley") in 1847\. During the move from Nauvoo to [Salt Lake City](/wiki/Salt_Lake_City "Salt Lake City"), Savage enlisted in the U.S. Army as a part of the [Mormon Battalion](/wiki/Mormon_Battalion "Mormon Battalion"). His enlistment began in July 1846 in Company D of the battalion. The battalion marched 1,400 miles from [Council Bluffs, Iowa](/wiki/Council_Bluffs%2C_Iowa "Council Bluffs, Iowa"), to [San Diego, California](/wiki/San_Diego%2C_California "San Diego, California"). Savage's family was a part of the June 18, 1847, [Abraham O. Smoot](/wiki/Abraham_O._Smoot "Abraham O. Smoot")/George B. Wallace [wagon train](/wiki/Wagon_train "Wagon train") company. His mother, Polly, died on the trek to Utah. Savage learned of his mother's death after he finished his enlistment with the Mormon Battalion. Savage arrived in Salt Lake City via San Diego on October 16, 1847, three weeks after the family. Savage married Jane Mathers on January 23, 1848\. Jane had crossed the plains as the cook for Savage's parents. Their only child, Levi Mathers Savage, was born on January 11, 1851\. Jane died on December 29, 1852,{{Cite web\|url\=https://familysearch.org/photos/artifacts/2885955\|title \= Levi Savage, Jr. History\| website\=\[\[FamilySearch]] }} leaving Levi Jr. to raise their infant. On July 10, 1856, Savage was in [Iowa City, Iowa](/wiki/Iowa_City%2C_Iowa "Iowa City, Iowa"), where he joined the ill\-fated [Willie handcart company](/wiki/Mormon_handcart_pioneers "Mormon handcart pioneers") that was migrating to Salt Lake City. He was appointed as a sub\-captain in the company. At a tense meeting in Florence, Nebraska on August 13, 1856, Savage was asked for his views and told the group that he firmly believed that embarking West so late in the season was dangerous.Savage, Levi. Journal. LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah. Entry date 13 Aug. 1856\. When overruled Savage reportedly said, "What I have said I know to be true; but seeing you are to go forward, I will go with you, will help all I can, will work with you, will rest with you, and if necessary, will die with you. May God in his mercy bless and preserve us."{{cite book \|last\=Stenhouse \|first\=T.B.H. \|date\=1873 \|title\=Rocky Mountain Saints: A Full and Complete History of the Mormons \|url\=https://archive.org/details/rockymountainsa00stengoog \|location\=New York \|publisher\=D. Appleton and Co. \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/rockymountainsa00stengoog/page/n345 317]}} William Woodward, a captain of the company, later wrote, "Levi Savage, who was censured for his truthful statement at Florence, was I think the best help we had—resolute \& determined his whole soul was for the salvation of our company."[History of William Woodward 1833–1908](http://handcart.byu.edu/Sources/WilliamWoodward.aspx) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207024325/http://handcart.byu.edu/Sources/WilliamWoodward.aspx \|date\=2012\-02\-07}} Over one\-fifth of the group died from freezing and starvation before they arrived in Salt Lake City on November 9, 1856\. After returning to Salt Lake City with the ill\-fated pioneers, Savage married Ann Brummel Cooper, a member of the Willie handcart company he helped rescue. He later also married two of Ann Brummel Cooper's daughters, Mary Ann and Adelaide although he only had children with Mary Ann.{{Cite web\|url\=https://familysearch.org/photos/artifacts/2885955\|title \= Levi Savage, Jr. History\| website\=\[\[FamilySearch]] }} Savage married Ann Brummel Cooper on October 31, 1858\. At the time of the marriage, Ann's daughter Adelaide was 6 years of age (b. Nov. 28, 1851\). Mary Ann was 8 (b. Nov. 22, 1849\). Savage later married Adelaide when he was 48 and she was 16 (m. October 17, 1868\). One week later he married his other step\-daughter, Mary Ann (m. October 24, 1868\). She was 18\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://wchsutah.org/people/levi\-savage\-jr.php\|title\=Levi Savage Jr}} From the marriage with Mary Ann were born three children, William, Riley, and Clara.{{cite web\|last1\=Warburton\|first1\=Brian\|title\=Mormon Missionary Diaries \- Levi Savage, Jr.\|url\=http://lib.byu.edu/collections/mormon\-missionary\-diaries/about/diarists/levi\-savage\-jr/\|website\=BYU \- Harold B. Lee Library\|access\-date\=17 January 2015}}
[ "Pioneer\n-------", "In the early 1840s, Savage's parents joined the LDS Church. The family moved from Michigan to [Nauvoo, Illinois](/wiki/Nauvoo%2C_Illinois \"Nauvoo, Illinois\"), and later migrated as Mormon pioneers to the [Salt Lake Valley](/wiki/Salt_Lake_Valley \"Salt Lake Valley\") in 1847\\.", "During the move from Nauvoo to [Salt Lake City](/wiki/Salt_Lake_City \"Salt Lake City\"), Savage enlisted in the U.S. Army as a part of the [Mormon Battalion](/wiki/Mormon_Battalion \"Mormon Battalion\"). His enlistment began in July 1846 in Company D of the battalion. The battalion marched 1,400 miles from [Council Bluffs, Iowa](/wiki/Council_Bluffs%2C_Iowa \"Council Bluffs, Iowa\"), to [San Diego, California](/wiki/San_Diego%2C_California \"San Diego, California\").", "Savage's family was a part of the June 18, 1847, [Abraham O. Smoot](/wiki/Abraham_O._Smoot \"Abraham O. Smoot\")/George B. Wallace [wagon train](/wiki/Wagon_train \"Wagon train\") company. His mother, Polly, died on the trek to Utah. Savage learned of his mother's death after he finished his enlistment with the Mormon Battalion. Savage arrived in Salt Lake City via San Diego on October 16, 1847, three weeks after the family.", "Savage married Jane Mathers on January 23, 1848\\. Jane had crossed the plains as the cook for Savage's parents. Their only child, Levi Mathers Savage, was born on January 11, 1851\\. Jane died on December 29, 1852,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://familysearch.org/photos/artifacts/2885955\\|title \\= Levi Savage, Jr. History\\| website\\=\\[\\[FamilySearch]] }} leaving Levi Jr. to raise their infant.", "On July 10, 1856, Savage was in [Iowa City, Iowa](/wiki/Iowa_City%2C_Iowa \"Iowa City, Iowa\"), where he joined the ill\\-fated [Willie handcart company](/wiki/Mormon_handcart_pioneers \"Mormon handcart pioneers\") that was migrating to Salt Lake City. He was appointed as a sub\\-captain in the company. At a tense meeting in Florence, Nebraska on August 13, 1856, Savage was asked for his views and told the group that he firmly believed that embarking West so late in the season was dangerous.Savage, Levi. Journal. LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah. Entry date 13 Aug. 1856\\. When overruled Savage reportedly said, \"What I have said I know to be true; but seeing you are to go forward, I will go with you, will help all I can, will work with you, will rest with you, and if necessary, will die with you. May God in his mercy bless and preserve us.\"{{cite book \\|last\\=Stenhouse \\|first\\=T.B.H. \\|date\\=1873 \\|title\\=Rocky Mountain Saints: A Full and Complete History of the Mormons \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/rockymountainsa00stengoog \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=D. Appleton and Co. \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/rockymountainsa00stengoog/page/n345 317]}} William Woodward, a captain of the company, later wrote, \"Levi Savage, who was censured for his truthful statement at Florence, was I think the best help we had—resolute \\& determined his whole soul was for the salvation of our company.\"[History of William Woodward 1833–1908](http://handcart.byu.edu/Sources/WilliamWoodward.aspx) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207024325/http://handcart.byu.edu/Sources/WilliamWoodward.aspx \\|date\\=2012\\-02\\-07}} Over one\\-fifth of the group died from freezing and starvation before they arrived in Salt Lake City on November 9, 1856\\.", "After returning to Salt Lake City with the ill\\-fated pioneers, Savage married Ann Brummel Cooper, a member of the Willie handcart company he helped rescue. He later also married two of Ann Brummel Cooper's daughters, Mary Ann and Adelaide although he only had children with Mary Ann.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://familysearch.org/photos/artifacts/2885955\\|title \\= Levi Savage, Jr. History\\| website\\=\\[\\[FamilySearch]] }} Savage married Ann Brummel Cooper on October 31, 1858\\. At the time of the marriage, Ann's daughter Adelaide was 6 years of age (b. Nov. 28, 1851\\). Mary Ann was 8 (b. Nov. 22, 1849\\). Savage later married Adelaide when he was 48 and she was 16 (m. October 17, 1868\\). One week later he married his other step\\-daughter, Mary Ann (m. October 24, 1868\\). She was 18\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://wchsutah.org/people/levi\\-savage\\-jr.php\\|title\\=Levi Savage Jr}} From the marriage with Mary Ann were born three children, William, Riley, and Clara.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Warburton\\|first1\\=Brian\\|title\\=Mormon Missionary Diaries \\- Levi Savage, Jr.\\|url\\=http://lib.byu.edu/collections/mormon\\-missionary\\-diaries/about/diarists/levi\\-savage\\-jr/\\|website\\=BYU \\- Harold B. Lee Library\\|access\\-date\\=17 January 2015}}", "" ]
Nationality of holders ---------------------- A home return permit issued to a Chinese national constitutes proof of Chinese nationality in [Mainland China](/wiki/Mainland_China "Mainland China"). Its status in Hong Kong law is less clear, due to the principle of *[one country, two systems](/wiki/One_country%2C_two_systems "One country, two systems")* and the designation of the [Hong Kong Immigration Department](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Immigration_Department "Hong Kong Immigration Department") as the competent authority to determine matters under the [Chinese Nationality Law](/wiki/Chinese_Nationality_Law "Chinese Nationality Law") relating to Hong Kong permanent residents. As Vice\-president of the [Court of Appeal](/wiki/Court_of_Appeal_%28Hong_Kong%29 "Court of Appeal (Hong Kong)") [Wally Yeung](/wiki/Wally_Yeung "Wally Yeung") wrote:{{Cite Hong Kong case\|litigants\=Tse Yiu\-hon v. HKSAR Passports Appeal Board\|id\=33920\|list\=HCAL\|number\=1240\|year\=2000}}; the applicant was found on appeal to be a Chinese national, but in overturning Yeung's judgment the court did not disturb this point. Mr. Pun has also emphasized that the fact that Yiu Hon holds a Home Visit Permit shows that the Chinese Government recognizes Yiu Hon has the status as a Chinese national. I do not understand the principle on which the Chinese Government issued Yiu Hon a Home Visit Permit. However, under the principle of one country, two systems, the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region will not be subject to the decision of the Chinese Government on the above question. The Court shall decide whether or not Yiu Hon is still a 'Chinese national' in accordance with the Chinese Nationality Law and related provisions. The fact that Yiu Hon holds a Home Visit Permit has no direct bearing or significance on the matter in question. Furthermore, not all Chinese nationals in Hong Kong or Macau have a Home Return Permit. Unlike the compulsory [Hong Kong Identity Card](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Identity_Card "Hong Kong Identity Card") or [Macau Resident Identity Card](/wiki/Macau_Resident_Identity_Card "Macau Resident Identity Card"), application for a Home Return Permit is voluntary. Those who do not apply for the Permit are still eligible for an [HKSAR passport](/wiki/HKSAR_passport "HKSAR passport") issued by the [Immigration Department of Hong Kong](/wiki/Immigration_Department_of_Hong_Kong "Immigration Department of Hong Kong"), or an [MSAR passport](/wiki/MSAR_passport "MSAR passport") by the Identification Services Bureau of Macau. The SAR passports are only issued to Chinese nationals with the [right of abode](/wiki/Right_of_abode_issue%2C_Hong_Kong "Right of abode issue, Hong Kong") in Hong Kong or Macau. The HKSAR passport or MSAR passport allows the holder to travel to other countries and regions, but it may not be used for travelling to Macau/Hong Kong(except transit). The HKSAR passport or MSAR passport is also used as a travel document for travel to Taiwan in conjunction with the [Exit and Entry Permit](/wiki/Exit_%26_Entry_Permit_%28Republic_of_China%29 "Exit & Entry Permit (Republic of China)") issued by the government of [Republic of China](/wiki/Republic_of_China "Republic of China"). Chinese nationals holding an HKSAR passport cannot use it to enter mainland China, and the HKSAR Government has stated that "in line with the one country principle, it was considered inappropriate to adopt HKSAR passport as a travel document to enter the Mainland."HK Gov. " [Legco](http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr98-99/english/panels/se/minutes/se310399.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050321124215/http://legco.gov.hk/yr98\-99/english/panels/se/minutes/se310399\.htm \|date\=2005\-03\-21 }}." *LegCo Panel on Security.* Retrieved on 2007\-04\-03\. Likewise, the Home Return Permit cannot be used to enter Hong Kong or Macau, and residents are required to use their [Hong Kong Identity Card](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Identity_Card "Hong Kong Identity Card") or a [Macau Resident Identity Card](/wiki/Macau_Resident_Identity_Card "Macau Resident Identity Card"). Home Return Permits issued to foreign nationals state their nationality. ### Issues faced by British passport holders Many, but not all, residents of Hong Kong are dual Chinese nationals and [British Nationals (Overseas)](/wiki/British_National_%28Overseas%29 "British National (Overseas)") (BN(O)s). The PRC Government does not recognise [BN(O) passports](/wiki/BN%28O%29_passport "BN(O) passport") issued to Hong Kong residents of Chinese descent. They cannot use their BN(O) passports to enter mainland China before or after the handover. If a person in Hong Kong is a [British citizen](/wiki/British_citizen "British citizen") but not a Chinese national, they can only enter the mainland with a [British passport](/wiki/British_passport "British passport") affixed with a [Chinese visa](/wiki/Chinese_visa "Chinese visa"), although they may be eligible for brief group tourist trips to the [Pearl River Delta](/wiki/Pearl_River_Delta "Pearl River Delta") and [Hainan Province](/wiki/Hainan_Province "Hainan Province"), or visits to mainland cities while in transit to and from other countries or regions (including Hong Kong).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.chinese\-embassy.org.uk/eng/visa/qzxz/t1021834\.htm\|title\=A Brief Introduction to Chinese Visas\|author\=Embassy of the People's Republic of China}} ### Issues faced by other foreign passport holders Besides BN(O) status, British citizenship and Chinese nationality, many residents of Hong Kong have obtained citizenship in countries such as [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia"), Canada, or the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"). Officially speaking, if they have not made a "declaration of change of nationality" at the [Immigration Department of Hong Kong](/wiki/Immigration_Department_%28Hong_Kong%29 "Immigration Department (Hong Kong)"), they are regarded by the Chinese authorities as Chinese nationals. In this case, they can use their Home Return Permits to enter mainland China instead of their foreign passports. Under the [master nationality rule](/wiki/Master_nationality_rule "Master nationality rule"), persons entering mainland China with a Home Return Permit are Chinese nationals and are accordingly not entitled to foreign consular protection. Now, the mainland is allowing permanent residents of Hongkong who do not have Chinese citizenship to apply for a permit to visit the mainland for up to 90 days, for everything other than to work, study or claim benefits.
[ "Nationality of holders\n----------------------", "A home return permit issued to a Chinese national constitutes proof of Chinese nationality in [Mainland China](/wiki/Mainland_China \"Mainland China\"). Its status in Hong Kong law is less clear, due to the principle of *[one country, two systems](/wiki/One_country%2C_two_systems \"One country, two systems\")* and the designation of the [Hong Kong Immigration Department](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Immigration_Department \"Hong Kong Immigration Department\") as the competent authority to determine matters under the [Chinese Nationality Law](/wiki/Chinese_Nationality_Law \"Chinese Nationality Law\") relating to Hong Kong permanent residents. As Vice\\-president of the [Court of Appeal](/wiki/Court_of_Appeal_%28Hong_Kong%29 \"Court of Appeal (Hong Kong)\") [Wally Yeung](/wiki/Wally_Yeung \"Wally Yeung\") wrote:{{Cite Hong Kong case\\|litigants\\=Tse Yiu\\-hon v. HKSAR Passports Appeal Board\\|id\\=33920\\|list\\=HCAL\\|number\\=1240\\|year\\=2000}}; the applicant was found on appeal to be a Chinese national, but in overturning Yeung's judgment the court did not disturb this point.", "Mr. Pun has also emphasized that the fact that Yiu Hon holds a Home Visit Permit shows that the Chinese Government recognizes Yiu Hon has the status as a Chinese national. I do not understand the principle on which the Chinese Government issued Yiu Hon a Home Visit Permit. However, under the principle of one country, two systems, the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region will not be subject to the decision of the Chinese Government on the above question. The Court shall decide whether or not Yiu Hon is still a 'Chinese national' in accordance with the Chinese Nationality Law and related provisions. The fact that Yiu Hon holds a Home Visit Permit has no direct bearing or significance on the matter in question.\nFurthermore, not all Chinese nationals in Hong Kong or Macau have a Home Return Permit. Unlike the compulsory [Hong Kong Identity Card](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Identity_Card \"Hong Kong Identity Card\") or [Macau Resident Identity Card](/wiki/Macau_Resident_Identity_Card \"Macau Resident Identity Card\"), application for a Home Return Permit is voluntary. Those who do not apply for the Permit are still eligible for an [HKSAR passport](/wiki/HKSAR_passport \"HKSAR passport\") issued by the [Immigration Department of Hong Kong](/wiki/Immigration_Department_of_Hong_Kong \"Immigration Department of Hong Kong\"), or an [MSAR passport](/wiki/MSAR_passport \"MSAR passport\") by the Identification Services Bureau of Macau. The SAR passports are only issued to Chinese nationals with the [right of abode](/wiki/Right_of_abode_issue%2C_Hong_Kong \"Right of abode issue, Hong Kong\") in Hong Kong or Macau. The HKSAR passport or MSAR passport allows the holder to travel to other countries and regions, but it may not be used for travelling to Macau/Hong Kong(except transit). The HKSAR passport or MSAR passport is also used as a travel document for travel to Taiwan in conjunction with the [Exit and Entry Permit](/wiki/Exit_%26_Entry_Permit_%28Republic_of_China%29 \"Exit & Entry Permit (Republic of China)\") issued by the government of [Republic of China](/wiki/Republic_of_China \"Republic of China\"). Chinese nationals holding an HKSAR passport cannot use it to enter mainland China, and the HKSAR Government has stated that \"in line with the one country principle, it was considered inappropriate to adopt HKSAR passport as a travel document to enter the Mainland.\"HK Gov. \" [Legco](http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr98-99/english/panels/se/minutes/se310399.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050321124215/http://legco.gov.hk/yr98\\-99/english/panels/se/minutes/se310399\\.htm \\|date\\=2005\\-03\\-21 }}.\" *LegCo Panel on Security.* Retrieved on 2007\\-04\\-03\\.", "Likewise, the Home Return Permit cannot be used to enter Hong Kong or Macau, and residents are required to use their [Hong Kong Identity Card](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Identity_Card \"Hong Kong Identity Card\") or a [Macau Resident Identity Card](/wiki/Macau_Resident_Identity_Card \"Macau Resident Identity Card\").", "Home Return Permits issued to foreign nationals state their nationality.", "### Issues faced by British passport holders", "Many, but not all, residents of Hong Kong are dual Chinese nationals and [British Nationals (Overseas)](/wiki/British_National_%28Overseas%29 \"British National (Overseas)\") (BN(O)s). The PRC Government does not recognise [BN(O) passports](/wiki/BN%28O%29_passport \"BN(O) passport\") issued to Hong Kong residents of Chinese descent. They cannot use their BN(O) passports to enter mainland China before or after the handover.", "If a person in Hong Kong is a [British citizen](/wiki/British_citizen \"British citizen\") but not a Chinese national, they can only enter the mainland with a [British passport](/wiki/British_passport \"British passport\") affixed with a [Chinese visa](/wiki/Chinese_visa \"Chinese visa\"), although they may be eligible for brief group tourist trips to the [Pearl River Delta](/wiki/Pearl_River_Delta \"Pearl River Delta\") and [Hainan Province](/wiki/Hainan_Province \"Hainan Province\"), or visits to mainland cities while in transit to and from other countries or regions (including Hong Kong).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.chinese\\-embassy.org.uk/eng/visa/qzxz/t1021834\\.htm\\|title\\=A Brief Introduction to Chinese Visas\\|author\\=Embassy of the People's Republic of China}}", "### Issues faced by other foreign passport holders", "Besides BN(O) status, British citizenship and Chinese nationality, many residents of Hong Kong have obtained citizenship in countries such as [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\"), Canada, or the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"). Officially speaking, if they have not made a \"declaration of change of nationality\" at the [Immigration Department of Hong Kong](/wiki/Immigration_Department_%28Hong_Kong%29 \"Immigration Department (Hong Kong)\"), they are regarded by the Chinese authorities as Chinese nationals. In this case, they can use their Home Return Permits to enter mainland China instead of their foreign passports. Under the [master nationality rule](/wiki/Master_nationality_rule \"Master nationality rule\"), persons entering mainland China with a Home Return Permit are Chinese nationals and are accordingly not entitled to foreign consular protection. Now, the mainland is allowing permanent residents of Hongkong who do not have Chinese citizenship to apply for a permit to visit the mainland for up to 90 days, for everything other than to work, study or claim benefits.", "" ]
Plot summary ------------ The narrative starts with Nazar Chagataev’s graduation from the [Moscow Institute of Economics](/wiki/Moscow_Institute_of_Economics_and_Finance "Moscow Institute of Economics and Finance"). In the courtyard, he meets a woman named Vera and goes home with her that night. At her home, he sees an interesting [diptych](/wiki/Diptych "Diptych") on her wall{{Cite journal\|last\=Skakov\|first\=Nariman\|date\=2011\|title\=Ekphrastic Metaphysics of Dzhan\|journal\=Ulbandus Review\|volume\=14\|pages\=76–92}} and learns that Vera is pregnant, but the father of the child is dead. He immediately fosters a strange connection to Vera and to her young daughter, Ksenya. After frequent visits, he decides marry Vera, but then leaves after the summer to go to his posting to “bring [socialism](/wiki/Socialism "Socialism")” to his people and assist the *Dzhan* nation into a better life. He sets off on a long journey by train across the steppe, by boat down the [Amu\-Darya](/wiki/Amu_Darya "Amu Darya"), and finally reaches the *Dzhan* nation living in a delta called Sary\-Kamysh. He meets Sufyan, Molla Cherkezov, Aidym and Gyulchatay, but his mother, Gyulchatay, does not seem to remember him. He sees that they are a sad, destitute nation living in a miserable state with very few possessions and little strength to live. He returns briefly to Chimgay for supplies, and there he receives a letter from Ksenya stating that Vera and the baby have died. Although the news gives him sorrow, he decides that he must carry on his mission with the *Dzhan*. He returns to them and has a discussion with Nur\-Mohammed who has been sent by the district executive committee to keep track of and assist the *Dzhan*. Although Nur\-Mohammed has no hope in the nation, Chagataev decides they must migrate to a better location, hoping that this move with result in better living conditions for the group. During this slow migration across the Kara\-Kum sands, the group struggles to find sustenance and follows a fold of wandering sheep in hopes for food and direction. Some members of the nation die in the unforgiving sands. Chagataev slowly separates from the group as he falls behind and nearly dies from exhaustion and starvation. As he approaches death, he fights off two giant birds attacking him, shooting them with a pistol, and collapses into unconsciousness. Meanwhile, Nur\-Mohammed stays with the group and in an act of desperation, intentionally separates from the group with Aidym. During a strange rape scene involving Nur\-Mohammed, Aidym sees the giant birds fly overhead and hears the shots of Chagataev’s gun. She goes immediately to him and sees him unconscious. Aidym quickly tries to comfort Nazar and restore his health. By this time, Nur\-Mohammed comes back and once again tries to steal Aidym and take her to Afghanistan. Nazar tries to stop him and they get into a fight. The fight ends as Nazar shoots Nur\-Mohammaed in the legs, and he runs off in to the sands never to be seen again. After this scene, the nation has lost a few members, their spirits are low, and they decide to eat the giant birds that Nazar killed. They rest for some days, then continue onward to the Ust\-Yurt Mountains. However, once they reach the mountains, only Nazar and Aidym work to keep a small group of sheep, build a small dwelling, and restore the health the remaining members. They work together to build adobe houses and properly settle in the Ust\-Yurt Mountains. However, soon after their health is restored many of the members disperse in all directions before the winter. Nazar stays the winter, then goes to Khiva and other cities to look for them. Chagataev decides that he must secure the well\-being of the Dzhan nation and then return to Moscow. He meets another outcast, a young girl named Khanom, and he fosters an interesting relationship with her. They share some nights together, and he tells her to stay in the *[chaikhana](/wiki/Teahouse "Teahouse")* until he returns. Nazar goes to Chardzhou where he meets Sufyan. They continue around other cities such as [Ashgabat](/wiki/Ashgabat "Ashgabat"), Bairam\-Ali and [Merv](/wiki/Merv "Merv") until he decides to return to [Khiva](/wiki/Khiva "Khiva"), collect Khanom and go back to the mountains. When he returns, the owners of the *chaikhana* tell him that Khanom left to go look for him.  He takes off quickly to the Ust\-Yurt Mountains to see Aidym once more. When he arrives, he sees that Khanom has made her way there along with other members of the nation. She has decided to stay and marry Molla Cherkezov. There is now a sufficient fold of sheep and other mud dwellings. Chagataev stays until the end of summer, but ultimately realizes that he is no longer needed. At the end of his stay, he advises the *Dzhan* to elect Khanom as the new leader. After everything seems in place, Nazar decides to take Aidym to school in Moscow and they both leave the Ust\-Yurt Mountains and take the long journey. When they return to Moscow, Ksenya and Aidym become friends. Ksenya helps Aidym adjust to the city life by taking her to the bathhouse, helping her get clothes and teaching her things about the city. The story ends as Ksenya and Nazar hold hands, and Nazar realizes that help can only come from others, not from himself.
[ "Plot summary\n------------", "The narrative starts with Nazar Chagataev’s graduation from the [Moscow Institute of Economics](/wiki/Moscow_Institute_of_Economics_and_Finance \"Moscow Institute of Economics and Finance\"). In the courtyard, he meets a woman named Vera and goes home with her that night. At her home, he sees an interesting [diptych](/wiki/Diptych \"Diptych\") on her wall{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Skakov\\|first\\=Nariman\\|date\\=2011\\|title\\=Ekphrastic Metaphysics of Dzhan\\|journal\\=Ulbandus Review\\|volume\\=14\\|pages\\=76–92}} and learns that Vera is pregnant, but the father of the child is dead. He immediately fosters a strange connection to Vera and to her young daughter, Ksenya. After frequent visits, he decides marry Vera, but then leaves after the summer to go to his posting to “bring [socialism](/wiki/Socialism \"Socialism\")” to his people and assist the *Dzhan* nation into a better life.", "He sets off on a long journey by train across the steppe, by boat down the [Amu\\-Darya](/wiki/Amu_Darya \"Amu Darya\"), and finally reaches the *Dzhan* nation living in a delta called Sary\\-Kamysh. He meets Sufyan, Molla Cherkezov, Aidym and Gyulchatay, but his mother, Gyulchatay, does not seem to remember him. He sees that they are a sad, destitute nation living in a miserable state with very few possessions and little strength to live.", "He returns briefly to Chimgay for supplies, and there he receives a letter from Ksenya stating that Vera and the baby have died. Although the news gives him sorrow, he decides that he must carry on his mission with the *Dzhan*. He returns to them and has a discussion with Nur\\-Mohammed who has been sent by the district executive committee to keep track of and assist the *Dzhan*. Although Nur\\-Mohammed has no hope in the nation, Chagataev decides they must migrate to a better location, hoping that this move with result in better living conditions for the group.", "During this slow migration across the Kara\\-Kum sands, the group struggles to find sustenance and follows a fold of wandering sheep in hopes for food and direction. Some members of the nation die in the unforgiving sands. Chagataev slowly separates from the group as he falls behind and nearly dies from exhaustion and starvation. As he approaches death, he fights off two giant birds attacking him, shooting them with a pistol, and collapses into unconsciousness. Meanwhile, Nur\\-Mohammed stays with the group and in an act of desperation, intentionally separates from the group with Aidym. During a strange rape scene involving Nur\\-Mohammed, Aidym sees the giant birds fly overhead and hears the shots of Chagataev’s gun. She goes immediately to him and sees him unconscious.", "Aidym quickly tries to comfort Nazar and restore his health. By this time, Nur\\-Mohammed comes back and once again tries to steal Aidym and take her to Afghanistan. Nazar tries to stop him and they get into a fight. The fight ends as Nazar shoots Nur\\-Mohammaed in the legs, and he runs off in to the sands never to be seen again.", "After this scene, the nation has lost a few members, their spirits are low, and they decide to eat the giant birds that Nazar killed. They rest for some days, then continue onward to the Ust\\-Yurt Mountains. However, once they reach the mountains, only Nazar and Aidym work to keep a small group of sheep, build a small dwelling, and restore the health the remaining members. They work together to build adobe houses and properly settle in the Ust\\-Yurt Mountains.", "However, soon after their health is restored many of the members disperse in all directions before the winter. Nazar stays the winter, then goes to Khiva and other cities to look for them. Chagataev decides that he must secure the well\\-being of the Dzhan nation and then return to Moscow. He meets another outcast, a young girl named Khanom, and he fosters an interesting relationship with her. They share some nights together, and he tells her to stay in the *[chaikhana](/wiki/Teahouse \"Teahouse\")* until he returns.", "Nazar goes to Chardzhou where he meets Sufyan. They continue around other cities such as [Ashgabat](/wiki/Ashgabat \"Ashgabat\"), Bairam\\-Ali and [Merv](/wiki/Merv \"Merv\") until he decides to return to [Khiva](/wiki/Khiva \"Khiva\"), collect Khanom and go back to the mountains. When he returns, the owners of the *chaikhana* tell him that Khanom left to go look for him.  He takes off quickly to the Ust\\-Yurt Mountains to see Aidym once more.", "When he arrives, he sees that Khanom has made her way there along with other members of the nation. She has decided to stay and marry Molla Cherkezov. There is now a sufficient fold of sheep and other mud dwellings. Chagataev stays until the end of summer, but ultimately realizes that he is no longer needed. At the end of his stay, he advises the *Dzhan* to elect Khanom as the new leader. After everything seems in place, Nazar decides to take Aidym to school in Moscow and they both leave the Ust\\-Yurt Mountains and take the long journey.", "When they return to Moscow, Ksenya and Aidym become friends. Ksenya helps Aidym adjust to the city life by taking her to the bathhouse, helping her get clothes and teaching her things about the city. The story ends as Ksenya and Nazar hold hands, and Nazar realizes that help can only come from others, not from himself.", "" ]
Main characters --------------- Nazar Chagataev – His mother is Gyulchatay and his father was Ivan Chagataev, a Russian soldier in Khiva. His name, *nazar*, means “inner vision.” He is the protagonist or hero of the novella. He is a “non\-Russian” economist from Central Asia, and he attempts to lead the *Dzhan* nation from the Sary\-Kamysh delta to the Ust\-Yurt Mountains before returning to Moscow. Vera – She is a student in her final year at the Chemistry Institute. Nazar Chagataev meets her in Moscow and after frequent visits decides to marry her. She dies in childbirth, leaving Ksenya an only child. Ksenya – She is the daughter of Vera. She suffers through her mother’s death and becomes an only child. She lives in Moscow and grows up to be a “real woman” who welcomes Nazar and Aidym at the end of the novella. Gyulchatay – She is Nazar Chagataev’s Turkmen mother. She is an older member of the *Dzhan* nation.   Nur\-Mohammed – He is a man sent by the district executive committee in Tashkent who does not belong to the *Dzhan* nation. He becomes the “villain” of the novel when he tries to steal Aidym and take her to Afghanistan. Sufyan – He is one of the older, wiser members of the *Dzhan* nation. He gives frequent comments on the state and the status of the *Dzhan*. Molla Cherkezov – He is a blind man and a member of the *Dzhan*. He marries Khanom at the end of the novel. Aidym – She is the daughter of Molla Cherkezov. She is a teenage girl and one of the youngest members of the *Dzhan* nation. She suffers through various hardships such as rape, extreme poverty, and starvation, yet becomes a leader for which the *Dzhan* rely when they reach the Ust\-Yurt Mountains. At the end of the novella, she returns with Nazar to Moscow to begin a new life. Khanom – Her name, *khanom*, means “young woman” or “young lady.” She is a young woman that Nazar meets in Khiva. He spends some nights with her and convinces her to live with the *Dzhan*. She marries Molla Cherkezov and becomes one of the leaders of the *Dzhan* nation.
[ "Main characters\n---------------", "Nazar Chagataev – His mother is Gyulchatay and his father was Ivan Chagataev, a Russian soldier in Khiva. His name, *nazar*, means “inner vision.” He is the protagonist or hero of the novella. He is a “non\\-Russian” economist from Central Asia, and he attempts to lead the *Dzhan* nation from the Sary\\-Kamysh delta to the Ust\\-Yurt Mountains before returning to Moscow.", "Vera – She is a student in her final year at the Chemistry Institute. Nazar Chagataev meets her in Moscow and after frequent visits decides to marry her. She dies in childbirth, leaving Ksenya an only child.", "Ksenya – She is the daughter of Vera. She suffers through her mother’s death and becomes an only child. She lives in Moscow and grows up to be a “real woman” who welcomes Nazar and Aidym at the end of the novella.", "Gyulchatay – She is Nazar Chagataev’s Turkmen mother. She is an older member of the *Dzhan* nation.", "Nur\\-Mohammed – He is a man sent by the district executive committee in Tashkent who does not belong to the *Dzhan* nation. He becomes the “villain” of the novel when he tries to steal Aidym and take her to Afghanistan.", "Sufyan – He is one of the older, wiser members of the *Dzhan* nation. He gives frequent comments on the state and the status of the *Dzhan*.", "Molla Cherkezov – He is a blind man and a member of the *Dzhan*. He marries Khanom at the end of the novel.", "Aidym – She is the daughter of Molla Cherkezov. She is a teenage girl and one of the youngest members of the *Dzhan* nation. She suffers through various hardships such as rape, extreme poverty, and starvation, yet becomes a leader for which the *Dzhan* rely when they reach the Ust\\-Yurt Mountains. At the end of the novella, she returns with Nazar to Moscow to begin a new life.", "Khanom – Her name, *khanom*, means “young woman” or “young lady.” She is a young woman that Nazar meets in Khiva. He spends some nights with her and convinces her to live with the *Dzhan*. She marries Molla Cherkezov and becomes one of the leaders of the *Dzhan* nation.", "" ]
Proclamations and recognition ----------------------------- The [Mayor of Columbia, South Carolina](/wiki/Mayor_of_Columbia%2C_South_Carolina "Mayor of Columbia, South Carolina"), [Stephen K. Benjamin](/wiki/Stephen_K._Benjamin "Stephen K. Benjamin") proclaimed March 2, 2019, as South Carolina Chapter of Mu Beta Phi Military Fraternity, Inc. Day. Mu Beta Phi Military Fraternity, Inc. was recognized as the 2021 Outstanding Community Service Award recipient by the Professional Fraternity Association for its dedication to the local and veteran community. Mu Beta Phi Military Fraternity, Inc.'s founder, Dr. Gary V. Ammons, was the recipient of the 2021 Outstanding Community Leader award by the Professional Fraternity Association for his leadership and inspiration to the community. Mu Beta Phi has also been recognized through formal citation and official lettering from senator and member of the [Senate Armed Services Committee](/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_Armed_Services "United States Senate Committee on Armed Services"), [Tim Kaine](/wiki/Tim_Kaine "Tim Kaine") of Virginia, for their work within the veteran community, the homeless veteran population and for advocating for veteran benefits and veteran mental health care. Mu Beta Phi has been recognized by senator and member of the [Congressional Black Caucus](/wiki/Congressional_Black_Caucus "Congressional Black Caucus") (CBC), [Jim Clyburn](/wiki/Jim_Clyburn "Jim Clyburn") of South Carolina for their dedication and work for minority military men and their equal rights of recognition within the military ranks and their advocacy work within the communities they serve. Mu Beta Phi has received numerous state and government\-level proclamations, letters of commendation, and letters of appreciation from the Senate Armed Services Committee, [Governor](/wiki/Governor_of_Virginia "Governor of Virginia") [Tim Kaine](/wiki/Tim_Kaine "Tim Kaine") of [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia"), Senator [James Clyburn](/wiki/Jim_Clyburn "Jim Clyburn") of [South Carolina](/wiki/South_Carolina "South Carolina"), Senator [Stephanie Murphy](/wiki/Stephanie_Murphy "Stephanie Murphy") of [Florida](/wiki/Florida "Florida"), [Mayor](/wiki/Mayor_of_Virginia_Beach "Mayor of Virginia Beach") [William Sessoms](/wiki/Will_Sessoms "Will Sessoms") of [Virginia Beach](/wiki/Virginia_Beach%2C_Virginia "Virginia Beach, Virginia"), Mayor Linda Johnson of [Suffolk, Virginia](/wiki/Suffolk%2C_Virginia "Suffolk, Virginia"), [Mayor](/wiki/Mayor_of_Las_Vegas "Mayor of Las Vegas") [Carolyn Goodman](/wiki/Carolyn_Goodman "Carolyn Goodman") of [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas "Las Vegas"), [Nevada](/wiki/Nevada "Nevada"); recognizing their work for the local communities and veteran families in which they live.
[ "Proclamations and recognition\n-----------------------------", "The [Mayor of Columbia, South Carolina](/wiki/Mayor_of_Columbia%2C_South_Carolina \"Mayor of Columbia, South Carolina\"), [Stephen K. Benjamin](/wiki/Stephen_K._Benjamin \"Stephen K. Benjamin\") proclaimed March 2, 2019, as South Carolina Chapter of Mu Beta Phi Military Fraternity, Inc. Day.", "Mu Beta Phi Military Fraternity, Inc. was recognized as the 2021 Outstanding Community Service Award recipient by the Professional Fraternity Association for its dedication to the local and veteran community.", "Mu Beta Phi Military Fraternity, Inc.'s founder, Dr. Gary V. Ammons, was the recipient of the 2021 Outstanding Community Leader award by the Professional Fraternity Association for his leadership and inspiration to the community.", "Mu Beta Phi has also been recognized through formal citation and official lettering from senator and member of the [Senate Armed Services Committee](/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_Armed_Services \"United States Senate Committee on Armed Services\"), [Tim Kaine](/wiki/Tim_Kaine \"Tim Kaine\") of Virginia, for their work within the veteran community, the homeless veteran population and for advocating for veteran benefits and veteran mental health care.", "Mu Beta Phi has been recognized by senator and member of the [Congressional Black Caucus](/wiki/Congressional_Black_Caucus \"Congressional Black Caucus\") (CBC), [Jim Clyburn](/wiki/Jim_Clyburn \"Jim Clyburn\") of South Carolina for their dedication and work for minority military men and their equal rights of recognition within the military ranks and their advocacy work within the communities they serve.", "Mu Beta Phi has received numerous state and government\\-level proclamations, letters of commendation, and letters of appreciation from the Senate Armed Services Committee, [Governor](/wiki/Governor_of_Virginia \"Governor of Virginia\") [Tim Kaine](/wiki/Tim_Kaine \"Tim Kaine\") of [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\"), Senator [James Clyburn](/wiki/Jim_Clyburn \"Jim Clyburn\") of [South Carolina](/wiki/South_Carolina \"South Carolina\"), Senator [Stephanie Murphy](/wiki/Stephanie_Murphy \"Stephanie Murphy\") of [Florida](/wiki/Florida \"Florida\"), [Mayor](/wiki/Mayor_of_Virginia_Beach \"Mayor of Virginia Beach\") [William Sessoms](/wiki/Will_Sessoms \"Will Sessoms\") of [Virginia Beach](/wiki/Virginia_Beach%2C_Virginia \"Virginia Beach, Virginia\"), Mayor Linda Johnson of [Suffolk, Virginia](/wiki/Suffolk%2C_Virginia \"Suffolk, Virginia\"), [Mayor](/wiki/Mayor_of_Las_Vegas \"Mayor of Las Vegas\") [Carolyn Goodman](/wiki/Carolyn_Goodman \"Carolyn Goodman\") of [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas \"Las Vegas\"), [Nevada](/wiki/Nevada \"Nevada\"); recognizing their work for the local communities and veteran families in which they live.", "" ]
Racing history -------------- Debuting at Hockenheim, on 13 April (first round of the [1997 FIA GT Championship season](/wiki/1997_FIA_GT_Championship_season "1997 FIA GT Championship season")), the three factory Elise GT1s and the privateer GBF car took to the grid. Their debut was short lived, as all four cars failed to finish, all due to [alternator](/wiki/Alternator_%28automotive%29 "Alternator (automotive)") problems in the engine. For race two (Silverstone, 11 May), privateer GBF UK received their second car (an untested chassis bearing number 06 driven by Andrea Boldrini and Mauro Martini). Again the three factory cars suffered, failing to finish because of gearbox difficulty. GBF's Elise GT1s fared slightly better, with one of their entries actually finishing, although classified last and 25 laps down from the winner. [thumb\|left\|One of six Elise GT1 race cars following restoration](/wiki/File:Lotus_Elise_GT1.jpg "Lotus Elise GT1.jpg") The third race of the season in [Helsinki](/wiki/Helsinki_Thunder "Helsinki Thunder") was a shorter race, featuring a smaller field (23 cars). Only three Elise GT1s were entered, but GBF was able to succeed in taking 5th place, earning them points in the championship. The other two Elise GT1s also finished the race as well, an improvement for the company. As the season progressed, the teams began to suffer. After Helsinki was the [24 Hours of Le Mans](/wiki/24_Hours_of_Le_Mans "24 Hours of Le Mans"), in which only a lone GT1 was entered due to concern over the car's ability to last 24 hours. The car had an engine block failure after 121 laps. Returning to the FIA championship at the [Nürburgring](/wiki/N%C3%BCrburgring "Nürburgring"), the full complement of five cars managed a best result of only 11th, while at [Spa](/wiki/Circuit_de_Spa-Francorchamps "Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps") they achieved 8th, but at [Zeltweg](/wiki/Zeltweg "Zeltweg") all five cars failed to finish again. The teams did not attempt the [Suzuka](/wiki/Suzuka_Circuit "Suzuka Circuit") round and again could only earn 12th place at [Donington](/wiki/Donington_Park "Donington Park") and 11th at [Mugello](/wiki/Mugello_Circuit "Mugello Circuit") when the series returned to Europe. The final two races in the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") saw only the factory team bring two cars, with US prepared NASCAR 5\.7 ltr Chevrolet engines with 2 valves 1 cam and a cast iron block, to overcome the previous engine failures. Also because of 2 valves and weight increase the restrictor size was now 2 x 36\.8 and gave more power.They managed to finish on a 13th and 5th\-place. The factory squad ended the season without any points, while GBF's points finish at Helsinki earned them 8th place in the championship. Following the 1997 season, Lotus and its parent company, [Proton](/wiki/Proton_Holdings "Proton Holdings"), decided that the GT1 was not only lacking in pace in comparison to Porsche, Mercedes\-Benz and the older McLarens, but that it was also extremely expensive. The Chevrolet V8 was not a custom built race engine like its competitors, leaving it lacking in top speed while the Lotus twin\-turbocharged V8 was faring even worse. The chassis was also too similar to a production car to compete with the exotic designs of other cars. The project was therefore cancelled and the factory team folded. Owner of G.T.I. racing Toine Hezemans took the complete inventory including the 2 Factory cars to Holland and the 2 cars are still in their family. The privateer teams also either folded or bought more capable cars. Miraculously, in 2003 British squad Team Elite announced plans to purchase the Elise GT1 chassis \#05 and to use in the [12 Hours of Sebring](/wiki/12_Hours_of_Sebring "12 Hours of Sebring") and [24 Hours of Le Mans](/wiki/24_Hours_of_Le_Mans "24 Hours of Le Mans") in 2004 as a closed cockpit [Le Mans prototype](/wiki/Le_Mans_prototype "Le Mans prototype"). This was similar to a plan by [Panoz](/wiki/Panoz "Panoz") and French squad Larbre Compétition to use a [Panoz Esperante GTR\-1](/wiki/Panoz_Esperante_GTR-1 "Panoz Esperante GTR-1"), a car which had originally competed with the Elise GT1 in FIA GT in 1997, as a closed cockpit prototype as well. The Elise would be modified to meet modern regulations as well as to attempt to bring the seven\-year\-old car up to speed. At Sebring, the car proved its age, lasting a mere seven laps before its transmission failed. The project was promptly cancelled.
[ "Racing history\n--------------", "Debuting at Hockenheim, on 13 April (first round of the [1997 FIA GT Championship season](/wiki/1997_FIA_GT_Championship_season \"1997 FIA GT Championship season\")), the three factory Elise GT1s and the privateer GBF car took to the grid. Their debut was short lived, as all four cars failed to finish, all due to [alternator](/wiki/Alternator_%28automotive%29 \"Alternator (automotive)\") problems in the engine. For race two (Silverstone, 11 May), privateer GBF UK received their second car (an untested chassis bearing number 06 driven by Andrea Boldrini and Mauro Martini). Again the three factory cars suffered, failing to finish because of gearbox difficulty. GBF's Elise GT1s fared slightly better, with one of their entries actually finishing, although classified last and 25 laps down from the winner.", "[thumb\\|left\\|One of six Elise GT1 race cars following restoration](/wiki/File:Lotus_Elise_GT1.jpg \"Lotus Elise GT1.jpg\")", "The third race of the season in [Helsinki](/wiki/Helsinki_Thunder \"Helsinki Thunder\") was a shorter race, featuring a smaller field (23 cars). Only three Elise GT1s were entered, but GBF was able to succeed in taking 5th place, earning them points in the championship. The other two Elise GT1s also finished the race as well, an improvement for the company.", "As the season progressed, the teams began to suffer. After Helsinki was the [24 Hours of Le Mans](/wiki/24_Hours_of_Le_Mans \"24 Hours of Le Mans\"), in which only a lone GT1 was entered due to concern over the car's ability to last 24 hours. The car had an engine block failure after 121 laps. Returning to the FIA championship at the [Nürburgring](/wiki/N%C3%BCrburgring \"Nürburgring\"), the full complement of five cars managed a best result of only 11th, while at [Spa](/wiki/Circuit_de_Spa-Francorchamps \"Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps\") they achieved 8th, but at [Zeltweg](/wiki/Zeltweg \"Zeltweg\") all five cars failed to finish again. The teams did not attempt the [Suzuka](/wiki/Suzuka_Circuit \"Suzuka Circuit\") round and again could only earn 12th place at [Donington](/wiki/Donington_Park \"Donington Park\") and 11th at [Mugello](/wiki/Mugello_Circuit \"Mugello Circuit\") when the series returned to Europe. The final two races in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") saw only the factory team bring two cars, with US prepared NASCAR 5\\.7 ltr Chevrolet engines with 2 valves 1 cam and a cast iron block, to overcome the previous engine failures. Also because of 2 valves and weight increase the restrictor size was now 2 x 36\\.8 and gave more power.They managed to finish on a 13th and 5th\\-place. The factory squad ended the season without any points, while GBF's points finish at Helsinki earned them 8th place in the championship.", "Following the 1997 season, Lotus and its parent company, [Proton](/wiki/Proton_Holdings \"Proton Holdings\"), decided that the GT1 was not only lacking in pace in comparison to Porsche, Mercedes\\-Benz and the older McLarens, but that it was also extremely expensive. The Chevrolet V8 was not a custom built race engine like its competitors, leaving it lacking in top speed while the Lotus twin\\-turbocharged V8 was faring even worse. The chassis was also too similar to a production car to compete with the exotic designs of other cars. The project was therefore cancelled and the factory team folded. Owner of G.T.I. racing Toine Hezemans took the complete inventory including the 2 Factory cars to Holland and the 2 cars are still in their family. The privateer teams also either folded or bought more capable cars.", "Miraculously, in 2003 British squad Team Elite announced plans to purchase the Elise GT1 chassis \\#05 and to use in the [12 Hours of Sebring](/wiki/12_Hours_of_Sebring \"12 Hours of Sebring\") and [24 Hours of Le Mans](/wiki/24_Hours_of_Le_Mans \"24 Hours of Le Mans\") in 2004 as a closed cockpit [Le Mans prototype](/wiki/Le_Mans_prototype \"Le Mans prototype\"). This was similar to a plan by [Panoz](/wiki/Panoz \"Panoz\") and French squad Larbre Compétition to use a [Panoz Esperante GTR\\-1](/wiki/Panoz_Esperante_GTR-1 \"Panoz Esperante GTR-1\"), a car which had originally competed with the Elise GT1 in FIA GT in 1997, as a closed cockpit prototype as well. The Elise would be modified to meet modern regulations as well as to attempt to bring the seven\\-year\\-old car up to speed. At Sebring, the car proved its age, lasting a mere seven laps before its transmission failed. The project was promptly cancelled.", "" ]
Plot ---- In 1918, [Harlem](/wiki/Harlem "Harlem"), small\-time gambling operator Sugar Ray is nearly killed by an irate unlucky gambler until Ray's seven\-year\-old errand boy Vernest Brown shoots the gambler in the head. Learning that Vernest is an orphan, Ray decides to raise the boy as his son. In 1938, the now affluent Ray and Vernest—known as Quick—run the high\-class "Club Sugar Ray", with gambling and dancing in the front, and a brothel in the back. The club's success undermines the businesses of ruthless white gangster Bugsy Calhoune. Determined to eliminate his competition, he sends corrupt and racist police sergeant Phil Cantone to demand the majority of the club's earnings each week. Knowing the club cannot survive, Ray insists on relocating to another city but Quick is eager to fight back. Ray chastizes Quick for his reckless immaturity, cautioning that he will only get himself killed challenging the powerful Calhoune. Instead, Ray suggests a plan that will earn their friends $50,000 each before they relocate:{{efn\|$50,000 in 1938 is equivalent to ${{Format price\|{{Inflation\|US\|50000\|1938}}}} in {{Inflation/year\|US}}.}} on the night of a highly anticipated boxing match between their friend, World Heavyweight Champion Jack Jenkins, and Michael Kirkpatrick, Ray's team will rob the mainly\-Calhoune owned betting houses of at least $750,000 in cash.{{efn\|$750,000 in 1938 is equivalent to ${{Format price\|{{Inflation\|US\|750000\|1938}}}} in {{Inflation/year\|US}}.}} Ray and his associates bet on Kirkpatrick to win, tricking Calhoune into believing they have convinced Jenkins to lose the fight and guarantee their success. In turn, Calhoune bets $500,000 of his own money on Kirkpatrick. Calhoune has his black enforcer Tommy Smalls murdered for embezzling funds. Quick later arrives at Smalls' apartment looking for information on Calhoune but promptly leaves after finding Smalls' corpse; Smalls' brother Reggie sees Quick leaving and assumes he is responsible. Quick meets with Calhoune's [Creole](/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people "Louisiana Creole people") mistress Dominique LaRue for a romantic dinner, unaware Calhoune is accompanying her. Calhoune offers to hire Quick to manage his Pitty\-Pat Club but he declines. Outside, Quick is attacked by, and kills, Reggie and his friends—he assumes they were sent by Calhoune to assassinate him. Later, Calhoune has Dominique seduce Quick, but Quick becomes suspicious of her when he finds a gun hidden on the bed and unloads it as a precaution. When the unaware Dominique tries to use the gun on Quick, he shoots her dead. Ray sends Quick into hiding while Calhoune retaliates by having Cantone raid the club and eventually having it burned down. Ray learns that Calhoune's bag man Richie Vento will be collecting the cash from the bets and has his old friend Madame Vera assign one of her escorts, Sunshine, to seduce and convince the besotted Richie to allow her to accompany him on the collection. While Calhoune is distracted by the boxing match, Ray's men blow up the Pitty\-Pat. Richie collects the bag of betting cash and stores it in his car alongside Sunshine's identical bag supposedly containing [numbers racket](/wiki/Numbers_game "Numbers game") papers. An orchestrated car crash allows Ray and Quick, disguised as policemen, to intervene and take the money bag, claiming Sunshine is a prolific heroin dealer and the bag contains narcotics. Two white officers arrive, dismiss Ray and Quick, and take Sunshine and the bag away. Cantone, who was overseeing the cash delivery, follows Ray and Quick to a disused bank and confronts them. They reveal they had anticipated Cantone's involvement and trap him in the bank vault, promising to have him released in a few days. Calhoune realizes he has been tricked, as Jenkins easily defeats Kirkpatrick, and returns home in a rage after learning that the Pitty\-Pat was destroyed. Richie unwittingly delivers Sunshine's bag to Calhoune, who realizes Ray is behind the scheme because it contains parcels of sugar.{{efn\|Bugsy Calhoune states that the bag should contain $1{{spaces}}million so it is unclear exactly how much Sugar Ray and his accomplices stole.}} Vera, seemingly afraid for her safety, visits Calhoune and confesses that Ray and Quick are at Ray's house. Calhoune and his men go there and trigger hidden explosives that kill all of them. On the outskirts of Harlem, Ray and Quick pay the white officers for their role in the plan and split up Calhoune's money. Believing there is nowhere like Harlem, but knowing they can never safely return, Ray takes a final look at the skyline before departing with Quick and his friends to start over in another city.
[ "Plot\n----", "In 1918, [Harlem](/wiki/Harlem \"Harlem\"), small\\-time gambling operator Sugar Ray is nearly killed by an irate unlucky gambler until Ray's seven\\-year\\-old errand boy Vernest Brown shoots the gambler in the head. Learning that Vernest is an orphan, Ray decides to raise the boy as his son.", "In 1938, the now affluent Ray and Vernest—known as Quick—run the high\\-class \"Club Sugar Ray\", with gambling and dancing in the front, and a brothel in the back. The club's success undermines the businesses of ruthless white gangster Bugsy Calhoune. Determined to eliminate his competition, he sends corrupt and racist police sergeant Phil Cantone to demand the majority of the club's earnings each week. Knowing the club cannot survive, Ray insists on relocating to another city but Quick is eager to fight back. Ray chastizes Quick for his reckless immaturity, cautioning that he will only get himself killed challenging the powerful Calhoune. Instead, Ray suggests a plan that will earn their friends $50,000 each before they relocate:{{efn\\|$50,000 in 1938 is equivalent to ${{Format price\\|{{Inflation\\|US\\|50000\\|1938}}}} in {{Inflation/year\\|US}}.}} on the night of a highly anticipated boxing match between their friend, World Heavyweight Champion Jack Jenkins, and Michael Kirkpatrick, Ray's team will rob the mainly\\-Calhoune owned betting houses of at least $750,000 in cash.{{efn\\|$750,000 in 1938 is equivalent to ${{Format price\\|{{Inflation\\|US\\|750000\\|1938}}}} in {{Inflation/year\\|US}}.}} Ray and his associates bet on Kirkpatrick to win, tricking Calhoune into believing they have convinced Jenkins to lose the fight and guarantee their success. In turn, Calhoune bets $500,000 of his own money on Kirkpatrick.", "Calhoune has his black enforcer Tommy Smalls murdered for embezzling funds. Quick later arrives at Smalls' apartment looking for information on Calhoune but promptly leaves after finding Smalls' corpse; Smalls' brother Reggie sees Quick leaving and assumes he is responsible. Quick meets with Calhoune's [Creole](/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people \"Louisiana Creole people\") mistress Dominique LaRue for a romantic dinner, unaware Calhoune is accompanying her. Calhoune offers to hire Quick to manage his Pitty\\-Pat Club but he declines. Outside, Quick is attacked by, and kills, Reggie and his friends—he assumes they were sent by Calhoune to assassinate him. Later, Calhoune has Dominique seduce Quick, but Quick becomes suspicious of her when he finds a gun hidden on the bed and unloads it as a precaution. When the unaware Dominique tries to use the gun on Quick, he shoots her dead. Ray sends Quick into hiding while Calhoune retaliates by having Cantone raid the club and eventually having it burned down.", "Ray learns that Calhoune's bag man Richie Vento will be collecting the cash from the bets and has his old friend Madame Vera assign one of her escorts, Sunshine, to seduce and convince the besotted Richie to allow her to accompany him on the collection. While Calhoune is distracted by the boxing match, Ray's men blow up the Pitty\\-Pat. Richie collects the bag of betting cash and stores it in his car alongside Sunshine's identical bag supposedly containing [numbers racket](/wiki/Numbers_game \"Numbers game\") papers. An orchestrated car crash allows Ray and Quick, disguised as policemen, to intervene and take the money bag, claiming Sunshine is a prolific heroin dealer and the bag contains narcotics. Two white officers arrive, dismiss Ray and Quick, and take Sunshine and the bag away. Cantone, who was overseeing the cash delivery, follows Ray and Quick to a disused bank and confronts them. They reveal they had anticipated Cantone's involvement and trap him in the bank vault, promising to have him released in a few days.", "Calhoune realizes he has been tricked, as Jenkins easily defeats Kirkpatrick, and returns home in a rage after learning that the Pitty\\-Pat was destroyed. Richie unwittingly delivers Sunshine's bag to Calhoune, who realizes Ray is behind the scheme because it contains parcels of sugar.{{efn\\|Bugsy Calhoune states that the bag should contain $1{{spaces}}million so it is unclear exactly how much Sugar Ray and his accomplices stole.}} Vera, seemingly afraid for her safety, visits Calhoune and confesses that Ray and Quick are at Ray's house. Calhoune and his men go there and trigger hidden explosives that kill all of them.", "On the outskirts of Harlem, Ray and Quick pay the white officers for their role in the plan and split up Calhoune's money. Believing there is nowhere like Harlem, but knowing they can never safely return, Ray takes a final look at the skyline before departing with Quick and his friends to start over in another city.", "" ]
Results ------- ### Heats The heats were held on July 30\. The winner of each advanced to the A final, with all others going to the repechage. No boats were eliminated in this round. #### Heat 1 The first heat featured all three of the eventual medalists. The race was held during calm winds. The Romanian pair led by over 2 seconds at the halfway mark, holding to that lead over the second half of the race. The British boat was only half a second behind the Dutch team after 500 metres before falling back to 9 seconds out of third place at the end.Official Report, vol. 2, p. 520\. | Rank | Rower | Nation | Time | Notes | | 1 | {{unbulleted list\|\[\[Elisabeta Lipă]]\|\[\[Marioara Popescu]]}} {{flagIOC\|ROU\|1984 Summer}} 3:24\.28 | {{abbr\|QA\|Qualified for final A}} | | 2 | {{unbulleted list\|\[\[Daniele Laumann]]\|\[\[Silken Laumann]]}} {{flagIOC\|CAN\|1984 Summer}} 3:26\.72 | {{abbr\|R\|Repechage}} | | 3 | {{unbulleted list\|\[\[Greet Hellemans]]\|\[\[Nicolette Hellemans]]}} {{flagIOC\|NED\|1984 Summer}} 3:28\.67 | {{abbr\|R\|Repechage}} | | 4 | {{unbulleted list\|\[\[Sally Bloomfield]]\|\[\[Nonie Ray]]}} {{flagIOC\|GBR\|1984 Summer}} 3:37\.72 | {{abbr\|R\|Repechage}} | #### Heat 2 The race was held during calm winds. At the halfway mark, the Norwegians held a 1\.33 second lead over the Swedes. The Austrians and Americans were further back, with Austria holding a very slight lead for third place. Over the second half of the course, the Swedes pulled closer but were unable to catch the Norwegians. The Austrians fell back to fourth place, finishing nearly 6 seconds after the Americans.Official Report, vol. 2, p. 521\. | Rank | Rower | Nation | Time | Notes | | 1 | {{unbulleted list\|\[\[Solfrid Johansen]]\|\[\[Haldis Lenes]]}} {{flagIOC\|NOR\|1984 Summer}} 3:27\.87 | {{abbr\|QA\|Qualified for final A}} | | 2 | {{unbulleted list\|\[\[Marie Carlsson]]\|\[\[Carina Gustavsson]]}} {{flagIOC\|SWE\|1984 Summer}} 3:28\.41 | {{abbr\|R\|Repechage}} | | 3 | {{unbulleted list\|\[\[Judy Geer]] \[\[Cathy Thaxton\-Tippett]]}} {{flagIOC\|USA\|1984 Summer}} 3:30\.91 | {{abbr\|R\|Repechage}} | | 4 | {{unbulleted list\|\[\[Inge Niedermayer]]\|\[\[Vera Sommerbauer]]}} {{flagIOC\|AUT\|1984 Summer}} 3:36\.62 | {{abbr\|R\|Repechage}} | ### Repechage The repechage was held on August 1\. The race was held during calm winds. The temperature was significantly cooler than during the heats (16 °C vs. 27 °C). By the halfway mark, the boats had separated into two groups, with the Canadians leading the Dutch and Swedes in the lead group while the Americans led the Brits and Austrians in the second group. The results of the second group were more important, as the top 4 boats advanced to the main final; the Americans pulled closer to the lead group while the British and Austrian boats fell further behind. The Dutch pair had the best second\-half, taking the lead while the Canadians fell from first to third. | Rank | Rower | Nation | Time | Notes | | 1 | {{unbulleted list\|\[\[Greet Hellemans]]\|\[\[Nicolette Hellemans]]}} {{flagIOC\|NED\|1984 Summer}} 3:28\.67 | {{abbr\|QA\|Qualified for final A}} | | 2 | {{unbulleted list\|\[\[Marie Carlsson]]\|\[\[Carina Gustavsson]]}} {{flagIOC\|SWE\|1984 Summer}} 3:28\.41 | {{abbr\|QA\|Qualified for final A}} | | 3 | {{unbulleted list\|\[\[Daniele Laumann]]\|\[\[Silken Laumann]]}} {{flagIOC\|CAN\|1984 Summer}} 3:26\.72 | {{abbr\|QA\|Qualified for final A}} | | 4 | {{unbulleted list\|\[\[Judy Geer]] \[\[Cathy Thaxton\-Tippett]]}} {{flagIOC\|USA\|1984 Summer}} 3:30\.91 | {{abbr\|QA\|Qualified for final A}} | | 5 | {{unbulleted list\|\[\[Inge Niedermayer]]\|\[\[Vera Sommerbauer]]}} {{flagIOC\|AUT\|1984 Summer}} 3:36\.62 | {{abbr\|QB\|Qualified for final B}} | | 6 | {{unbulleted list\|\[\[Sally Bloomfield]]\|\[\[Nonie Ray]]}} {{flagIOC\|GBR\|1984 Summer}} 3:37\.72 | {{abbr\|QB\|Qualified for final B}} | ### Finals #### Final B The "B" final was held on August 3\. It featured the last two boats from the repechage, facing off for 7th and 8th place. There was an east\-northeast wind at 1\.2 m/s, and the weather was warmer again (23 °C). The British boat led by half a second at the halfway mark, but the Austrians had a strong second half to win by nearly 4 seconds. | Rank | Rower | Nation | Time | | 7 | {{unbulleted list\|\[\[Inge Niedermayer]]\|\[\[Vera Sommerbauer]]}} {{flagIOC\|AUT\|1984 Summer}} 3:36\.20 | | 8 | {{unbulleted list\|\[\[Sally Bloomfield]]\|\[\[Nonie Ray]]}} {{flagIOC\|GBR\|1984 Summer}} 3:40\.08 | #### Final A The "A" final was held on August 4, with calm winds but cooler temperatures (18 °C). The Romanians established a 1\-second lead by halfway, increasing to a final margin of victory of nearly 2\.4 seconds. The next three boats were closer than that but still relatively separated, with the Canadians taking bronze at 0\.7 seconds behind the Dutch silver medalists and the Swedes in fourth at 1 second after that. The Norwegian boat, despite winning its heat, found itself in a tight race for 5th and 6th place against the Americans, beating them by only a quarter\-second.Official Report, vol. 2, p. 521\. | Rank | Rower | Nation | Time | | {{gold01}} | {{unbulleted list\|\[\[Elisabeta Lipă]]\|\[\[Marioara Popescu]]}} {{flagIOC\|ROU\|1984 Summer}} 3:26\.75 | | {{silver02}} | {{unbulleted list\|\[\[Greet Hellemans]]\|\[\[Nicolette Hellemans]]}} {{flagIOC\|NED\|1984 Summer}} 3:29\.13 | | {{bronze03}} | {{unbulleted list\|\[\[Daniele Laumann]]\|\[\[Silken Laumann]]}} {{flagIOC\|CAN\|1984 Summer}} 3:29\.82 | | 4 | {{unbulleted list\|\[\[Marie Carlsson]]\|\[\[Carina Gustavsson]]}} {{flagIOC\|SWE\|1984 Summer}} 3:30\.79 | | 5 | {{unbulleted list\|\[\[Solfrid Johansen]]\|\[\[Haldis Lenes]]}} {{flagIOC\|NOR\|1984 Summer}} 3:32\.09 | | 6 | {{unbulleted list\|\[\[Judy Geer]] \[\[Cathy Thaxton\-Tippett]]}} {{flagIOC\|USA\|1984 Summer}} 3:32\.33 |
[ "Results\n-------", "### Heats", "The heats were held on July 30\\. The winner of each advanced to the A final, with all others going to the repechage. No boats were eliminated in this round.", "#### Heat 1", "The first heat featured all three of the eventual medalists. The race was held during calm winds. The Romanian pair led by over 2 seconds at the halfway mark, holding to that lead over the second half of the race. The British boat was only half a second behind the Dutch team after 500 metres before falling back to 9 seconds out of third place at the end.Official Report, vol. 2, p. 520\\.", "", "| Rank | Rower | Nation | Time | Notes |\n| 1 | {{unbulleted list\\|\\[\\[Elisabeta Lipă]]\\|\\[\\[Marioara Popescu]]}} {{flagIOC\\|ROU\\|1984 Summer}} 3:24\\.28 | {{abbr\\|QA\\|Qualified for final A}} |\n| 2 | {{unbulleted list\\|\\[\\[Daniele Laumann]]\\|\\[\\[Silken Laumann]]}} {{flagIOC\\|CAN\\|1984 Summer}} 3:26\\.72 | {{abbr\\|R\\|Repechage}} |\n| 3 | {{unbulleted list\\|\\[\\[Greet Hellemans]]\\|\\[\\[Nicolette Hellemans]]}} {{flagIOC\\|NED\\|1984 Summer}} 3:28\\.67 | {{abbr\\|R\\|Repechage}} |\n| 4 | {{unbulleted list\\|\\[\\[Sally Bloomfield]]\\|\\[\\[Nonie Ray]]}} {{flagIOC\\|GBR\\|1984 Summer}} 3:37\\.72 | {{abbr\\|R\\|Repechage}} |", "#### Heat 2", "The race was held during calm winds. At the halfway mark, the Norwegians held a 1\\.33 second lead over the Swedes. The Austrians and Americans were further back, with Austria holding a very slight lead for third place. Over the second half of the course, the Swedes pulled closer but were unable to catch the Norwegians. The Austrians fell back to fourth place, finishing nearly 6 seconds after the Americans.Official Report, vol. 2, p. 521\\.", "", "| Rank | Rower | Nation | Time | Notes |\n| 1 | {{unbulleted list\\|\\[\\[Solfrid Johansen]]\\|\\[\\[Haldis Lenes]]}} {{flagIOC\\|NOR\\|1984 Summer}} 3:27\\.87 | {{abbr\\|QA\\|Qualified for final A}} |\n| 2 | {{unbulleted list\\|\\[\\[Marie Carlsson]]\\|\\[\\[Carina Gustavsson]]}} {{flagIOC\\|SWE\\|1984 Summer}} 3:28\\.41 | {{abbr\\|R\\|Repechage}} |\n| 3 | {{unbulleted list\\|\\[\\[Judy Geer]] \n\\[\\[Cathy Thaxton\\-Tippett]]}} {{flagIOC\\|USA\\|1984 Summer}} 3:30\\.91 | {{abbr\\|R\\|Repechage}} |\n| 4 | {{unbulleted list\\|\\[\\[Inge Niedermayer]]\\|\\[\\[Vera Sommerbauer]]}} {{flagIOC\\|AUT\\|1984 Summer}} 3:36\\.62 | {{abbr\\|R\\|Repechage}} |", "### Repechage", "The repechage was held on August 1\\. The race was held during calm winds. The temperature was significantly cooler than during the heats (16 °C vs. 27 °C). By the halfway mark, the boats had separated into two groups, with the Canadians leading the Dutch and Swedes in the lead group while the Americans led the Brits and Austrians in the second group. The results of the second group were more important, as the top 4 boats advanced to the main final; the Americans pulled closer to the lead group while the British and Austrian boats fell further behind. The Dutch pair had the best second\\-half, taking the lead while the Canadians fell from first to third.", "", "| Rank | Rower | Nation | Time | Notes |\n| 1 | {{unbulleted list\\|\\[\\[Greet Hellemans]]\\|\\[\\[Nicolette Hellemans]]}} {{flagIOC\\|NED\\|1984 Summer}} 3:28\\.67 | {{abbr\\|QA\\|Qualified for final A}} |\n| 2 | {{unbulleted list\\|\\[\\[Marie Carlsson]]\\|\\[\\[Carina Gustavsson]]}} {{flagIOC\\|SWE\\|1984 Summer}} 3:28\\.41 | {{abbr\\|QA\\|Qualified for final A}} |\n| 3 | {{unbulleted list\\|\\[\\[Daniele Laumann]]\\|\\[\\[Silken Laumann]]}} {{flagIOC\\|CAN\\|1984 Summer}} 3:26\\.72 | {{abbr\\|QA\\|Qualified for final A}} |\n| 4 | {{unbulleted list\\|\\[\\[Judy Geer]] \n\\[\\[Cathy Thaxton\\-Tippett]]}} {{flagIOC\\|USA\\|1984 Summer}} 3:30\\.91 | {{abbr\\|QA\\|Qualified for final A}} |\n| 5 | {{unbulleted list\\|\\[\\[Inge Niedermayer]]\\|\\[\\[Vera Sommerbauer]]}} {{flagIOC\\|AUT\\|1984 Summer}} 3:36\\.62 | {{abbr\\|QB\\|Qualified for final B}} |\n| 6 | {{unbulleted list\\|\\[\\[Sally Bloomfield]]\\|\\[\\[Nonie Ray]]}} {{flagIOC\\|GBR\\|1984 Summer}} 3:37\\.72 | {{abbr\\|QB\\|Qualified for final B}} |", "### Finals", "#### Final B", "The \"B\" final was held on August 3\\. It featured the last two boats from the repechage, facing off for 7th and 8th place. There was an east\\-northeast wind at 1\\.2 m/s, and the weather was warmer again (23 °C). The British boat led by half a second at the halfway mark, but the Austrians had a strong second half to win by nearly 4 seconds.", "", "| Rank | Rower | Nation | Time |\n| 7 | {{unbulleted list\\|\\[\\[Inge Niedermayer]]\\|\\[\\[Vera Sommerbauer]]}} {{flagIOC\\|AUT\\|1984 Summer}} 3:36\\.20 |\n| 8 | {{unbulleted list\\|\\[\\[Sally Bloomfield]]\\|\\[\\[Nonie Ray]]}} {{flagIOC\\|GBR\\|1984 Summer}} 3:40\\.08 |", "#### Final A", "The \"A\" final was held on August 4, with calm winds but cooler temperatures (18 °C). The Romanians established a 1\\-second lead by halfway, increasing to a final margin of victory of nearly 2\\.4 seconds. The next three boats were closer than that but still relatively separated, with the Canadians taking bronze at 0\\.7 seconds behind the Dutch silver medalists and the Swedes in fourth at 1 second after that. The Norwegian boat, despite winning its heat, found itself in a tight race for 5th and 6th place against the Americans, beating them by only a quarter\\-second.Official Report, vol. 2, p. 521\\.", "", "| Rank | Rower | Nation | Time |\n| {{gold01}} | {{unbulleted list\\|\\[\\[Elisabeta Lipă]]\\|\\[\\[Marioara Popescu]]}} {{flagIOC\\|ROU\\|1984 Summer}} 3:26\\.75 |\n| {{silver02}} | {{unbulleted list\\|\\[\\[Greet Hellemans]]\\|\\[\\[Nicolette Hellemans]]}} {{flagIOC\\|NED\\|1984 Summer}} 3:29\\.13 |\n| {{bronze03}} | {{unbulleted list\\|\\[\\[Daniele Laumann]]\\|\\[\\[Silken Laumann]]}} {{flagIOC\\|CAN\\|1984 Summer}} 3:29\\.82 |\n| 4 | {{unbulleted list\\|\\[\\[Marie Carlsson]]\\|\\[\\[Carina Gustavsson]]}} {{flagIOC\\|SWE\\|1984 Summer}} 3:30\\.79 |\n| 5 | {{unbulleted list\\|\\[\\[Solfrid Johansen]]\\|\\[\\[Haldis Lenes]]}} {{flagIOC\\|NOR\\|1984 Summer}} 3:32\\.09 |\n| 6 | {{unbulleted list\\|\\[\\[Judy Geer]] \n\\[\\[Cathy Thaxton\\-Tippett]]}} {{flagIOC\\|USA\\|1984 Summer}} 3:32\\.33 |" ]
Chemistry --------- The reactive layer contains a polymer resin that acts as a carrier for a suitable [leuco dye](/wiki/Leuco_dye "Leuco dye"), which, upon contact with atmospheric [oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen "Oxygen"), oxidizes to form an opaque or semi\-opaque material. Some of the dyes used are [methylene blue](/wiki/Methylene_blue "Methylene blue"), [prussian blue](/wiki/Prussian_blue "Prussian blue"), [brilliant cresyl blue](/wiki/Brilliant_cresyl_blue "Brilliant cresyl blue"), [Toluidine Blue O](/wiki/Toluidine_Blue_O "Toluidine Blue O"), [Basic Blue 3](/wiki/Basic_Blue_3 "Basic Blue 3"), [Methylene green](/wiki/Methylene_green "Methylene green"), [Taylor's blue](/wiki/Taylor%27s_blue "Taylor's blue"), [Janus Green B](/wiki/Janus_Green_B "Janus Green B"), [Meldola's Blue](/wiki/Meldola%27s_Blue "Meldola's Blue"), [Thionin](/wiki/Thionin "Thionin"), [Nile Blue](/wiki/Nile_Blue "Nile Blue"), and [Celestine blue](/wiki/Celestine_blue "Celestine blue"). The leuco dye is prepared by chemical [reduction](/wiki/Redox "Redox") using a suitable [reducing agent](/wiki/Reducing_agent "Reducing agent"). The method commercially used by Flexplay and SpectraDisc employs methylene blue reduced by [sodium dithionite](/wiki/Sodium_dithionite "Sodium dithionite"). In order to prevent the oxidation from being triggered during manufacture of the discs, and in order to avoid the need for manufacturing in an inert atmosphere, the leuco dyes are further chemically modified to their blocked forms. Such blocked leuco dyes are the leuco dye precursors that form the leuco dye by a slow, controlled chemical reaction. Leucomethylene blue can be reacted with triisopropylsilyl trifluoromethanesulfonate, forming triisopropylsilyloxycarbonylleucomethylene blue (TIPSOCLMB), which is stable in presence of air oxygen. In presence of nucleophile reagents, e.g. [water](/wiki/Water_%28molecule%29 "Water (molecule)"), the blocked leuco dye compound undergoes hydrolysis, releasing the unblocked leuco dye. This reaction is slow (several days to a week), and the hydrolytic compound is supplied either as atmospheric moisture, or in the formulation of the resin. The rate of the deblocked leuco dye oxidation is dependent on the [pH](/wiki/PH "PH") of the resin polymer matrix. By adding basic compounds (for example, 1,4\-diazabicyclo\[2\.2\.2] octane ([DABCO](/wiki/DABCO "DABCO")), or other [amines](/wiki/Amine "Amine")), the pH is increased, and the reaction rate increases correspondingly. Correspondingly, by adding strong protic acids (for example, [camphorsulfonic acid](/wiki/Camphorsulfonic_acid "Camphorsulfonic acid")), the reaction rate can be decreased and the lifetime of the disc prolonged. The residual oxygen can be removed from the substrates used for disc manufacture by storing them under a vacuum or oxygen free atmosphere (e.g. pure nitrogen) for a period of time (hours to days). Alternatively, an [oxygen scavenger](/wiki/Oxygen_scavenger "Oxygen scavenger") (e.g. iron(II) salts, tin(II) salts, or organometallic compounds) can be added to the polymer formulation, reacting with the oxygen present in the polymer matrix in shorter timeframe than the hydrolysis of the blocked leuco dye takes. The reaction timing can be further controlled by addition of other substances. As the diffusion rate of oxygen through the polymer layer is more or less constant, a supply of suitable [antioxidants](/wiki/Antioxidant "Antioxidant") (e.g. organometallic compounds) which react with the oxygen preferentially to the leuco dye leads to gradual depletion of the antioxidant compound. Only after the antioxidant is consumed, the leuco dye starts being oxidized, achieving the period of delay of the reaction onset, followed by a rapid reflectivity degradation. [Stannous ethylhexanoate](/wiki/Stannous_ethylhexanoate "Stannous ethylhexanoate") can be used here as the antioxidant organometallic. Various resin\-soluble tin(II) and iron(II) compounds can be used, e.g. [chelates](/wiki/Chelates "Chelates") and [fatty acid](/wiki/Fatty_acid "Fatty acid") salts. Other usable compounds are e.g. [hydroquinones](/wiki/Hydroquinone "Hydroquinone"), alkyl[hydroxylamines](/wiki/Hydroxylamine "Hydroxylamine"), [dithionates](/wiki/Dithionate "Dithionate"), reducing saccharides (e.g. [glucose](/wiki/Glucose "Glucose")), α\-hydroxyketones (e.g., [hydroxyacetone](/wiki/Hydroxyacetone "Hydroxyacetone")), substituted [boron hydrides](/wiki/Boron_hydride "Boron hydride") and [silicon hydrides](/wiki/Silicon_hydride_%28disambiguation%29 "Silicon hydride (disambiguation)"). The oxidized dyes in the expired discs absorb primarily at the wavelength of the current [diode lasers](/wiki/Diode_laser "Diode laser") (red, 650 nm) used in the DVD players. However, the new generation of DVDs is designed to use blue lasers at 450\-460 or even 405 nm, for which the methylene blue is essentially transparent. While SpectraDisc did not take this in account, the Flexplay discs incorporate a red color filter, blocking blue lasers from reading the disc, expired or not. [Acridine Yellow](/wiki/Acridine_Yellow "Acridine Yellow") can be used for this purpose, together with [9,10\-bis(phenylethynyl)anthracene](/wiki/9%2C10-bis%28phenylethynyl%29anthracene "9,10-bis(phenylethynyl)anthracene"), and a scale of different [azo dyes](/wiki/Azo_dye "Azo dye"), [aromatic hydrocarbons](/wiki/Aromatic_hydrocarbon "Aromatic hydrocarbon"), and other dyes. The dyes can be added directly to the polycarbonate resin the discs are made of. Additionally, other methods of the disc degradation are proposed to be deployed together with the primary one; the concern of the technology developers here is that while the dye oxidation mechanism prevents the disc from being read by current consumer technologies, the information on the disc, recorded in the pattern of the pits in the reflective layer, remains intact and could be recovered. One of the methods is to make the two reflective layers in the DVD\-9 disc of different metals (e.g. [aluminium](/wiki/Aluminium "Aluminium") and [silver](/wiki/Silver "Silver")), and separate them with an ionic conductor separator. The atmospheric oxygen then undergoes electrochemical reaction in such crude [fuel cell](/wiki/Fuel_cell "Fuel cell") with the silver as [cathode](/wiki/Cathode "Cathode") and aluminum as [anode](/wiki/Anode "Anode"), leading to growth of dendritic silver through the dielectric layer. When the silver reaches the aluminium, an electric short circuit forms, and [galvanic corrosion](/wiki/Galvanic_corrosion "Galvanic corrosion") then rapidly degrades the reflective layers. Many other mechanisms are proposed for this slower, less controlled "backup" method of data destruction, ranging from corrosion of the reflective layers to degradation of the polymer matrix of the disc itself.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.patentstorm.us/patents/6756103\.html\|title\=Limited play optical devices with interstitial reactive layer and methods of making same\|last\=\|first\=\|date\=\|website\=\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929100008/http://www.patentstorm.us/patents/6756103\.html\|archive\-date\=September 29, 2007\|access\-date\=April 4, 2020}}
[ "Chemistry\n---------", "The reactive layer contains a polymer resin that acts as a carrier for a suitable [leuco dye](/wiki/Leuco_dye \"Leuco dye\"), which, upon contact with atmospheric [oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen \"Oxygen\"), oxidizes to form an opaque or semi\\-opaque material.", "Some of the dyes used are [methylene blue](/wiki/Methylene_blue \"Methylene blue\"), [prussian blue](/wiki/Prussian_blue \"Prussian blue\"), [brilliant cresyl blue](/wiki/Brilliant_cresyl_blue \"Brilliant cresyl blue\"), [Toluidine Blue O](/wiki/Toluidine_Blue_O \"Toluidine Blue O\"), [Basic Blue 3](/wiki/Basic_Blue_3 \"Basic Blue 3\"), [Methylene green](/wiki/Methylene_green \"Methylene green\"), [Taylor's blue](/wiki/Taylor%27s_blue \"Taylor's blue\"), [Janus Green B](/wiki/Janus_Green_B \"Janus Green B\"), [Meldola's Blue](/wiki/Meldola%27s_Blue \"Meldola's Blue\"), [Thionin](/wiki/Thionin \"Thionin\"), [Nile Blue](/wiki/Nile_Blue \"Nile Blue\"), and [Celestine blue](/wiki/Celestine_blue \"Celestine blue\"). The leuco dye is prepared by chemical [reduction](/wiki/Redox \"Redox\") using a suitable [reducing agent](/wiki/Reducing_agent \"Reducing agent\"). The method commercially used by Flexplay and SpectraDisc employs methylene blue reduced by [sodium dithionite](/wiki/Sodium_dithionite \"Sodium dithionite\").", "In order to prevent the oxidation from being triggered during manufacture of the discs, and in order to avoid the need for manufacturing in an inert atmosphere, the leuco dyes are further chemically modified to their blocked forms. Such blocked leuco dyes are the leuco dye precursors that form the leuco dye by a slow, controlled chemical reaction. Leucomethylene blue can be reacted with triisopropylsilyl trifluoromethanesulfonate, forming triisopropylsilyloxycarbonylleucomethylene blue (TIPSOCLMB), which is stable in presence of air oxygen. In presence of nucleophile reagents, e.g. [water](/wiki/Water_%28molecule%29 \"Water (molecule)\"), the blocked leuco dye compound undergoes hydrolysis, releasing the unblocked leuco dye. This reaction is slow (several days to a week), and the hydrolytic compound is supplied either as atmospheric moisture, or in the formulation of the resin.", "The rate of the deblocked leuco dye oxidation is dependent on the [pH](/wiki/PH \"PH\") of the resin polymer matrix. By adding basic compounds (for example, 1,4\\-diazabicyclo\\[2\\.2\\.2] octane ([DABCO](/wiki/DABCO \"DABCO\")), or other [amines](/wiki/Amine \"Amine\")), the pH is increased, and the reaction rate increases correspondingly. Correspondingly, by adding strong protic acids (for example, [camphorsulfonic acid](/wiki/Camphorsulfonic_acid \"Camphorsulfonic acid\")), the reaction rate can be decreased and the lifetime of the disc prolonged.", "The residual oxygen can be removed from the substrates used for disc manufacture by storing them under a vacuum or oxygen free atmosphere (e.g. pure nitrogen) for a period of time (hours to days). Alternatively, an [oxygen scavenger](/wiki/Oxygen_scavenger \"Oxygen scavenger\") (e.g. iron(II) salts, tin(II) salts, or organometallic compounds) can be added to the polymer formulation, reacting with the oxygen present in the polymer matrix in shorter timeframe than the hydrolysis of the blocked leuco dye takes.", "The reaction timing can be further controlled by addition of other substances. As the diffusion rate of oxygen through the polymer layer is more or less constant, a supply of suitable [antioxidants](/wiki/Antioxidant \"Antioxidant\") (e.g. organometallic compounds) which react with the oxygen preferentially to the leuco dye leads to gradual depletion of the antioxidant compound. Only after the antioxidant is consumed, the leuco dye starts being oxidized, achieving the period of delay of the reaction onset, followed by a rapid reflectivity degradation. [Stannous ethylhexanoate](/wiki/Stannous_ethylhexanoate \"Stannous ethylhexanoate\") can be used here as the antioxidant organometallic. Various resin\\-soluble tin(II) and iron(II) compounds can be used, e.g. [chelates](/wiki/Chelates \"Chelates\") and [fatty acid](/wiki/Fatty_acid \"Fatty acid\") salts. Other usable compounds are e.g. [hydroquinones](/wiki/Hydroquinone \"Hydroquinone\"), alkyl[hydroxylamines](/wiki/Hydroxylamine \"Hydroxylamine\"), [dithionates](/wiki/Dithionate \"Dithionate\"), reducing saccharides (e.g. [glucose](/wiki/Glucose \"Glucose\")), α\\-hydroxyketones (e.g., [hydroxyacetone](/wiki/Hydroxyacetone \"Hydroxyacetone\")), substituted [boron hydrides](/wiki/Boron_hydride \"Boron hydride\") and [silicon hydrides](/wiki/Silicon_hydride_%28disambiguation%29 \"Silicon hydride (disambiguation)\").", "The oxidized dyes in the expired discs absorb primarily at the wavelength of the current [diode lasers](/wiki/Diode_laser \"Diode laser\") (red, 650 nm) used in the DVD players. However, the new generation of DVDs is designed to use blue lasers at 450\\-460 or even 405 nm, for which the methylene blue is essentially transparent. While SpectraDisc did not take this in account, the Flexplay discs incorporate a red color filter, blocking blue lasers from reading the disc, expired or not. [Acridine Yellow](/wiki/Acridine_Yellow \"Acridine Yellow\") can be used for this purpose, together with [9,10\\-bis(phenylethynyl)anthracene](/wiki/9%2C10-bis%28phenylethynyl%29anthracene \"9,10-bis(phenylethynyl)anthracene\"), and a scale of different [azo dyes](/wiki/Azo_dye \"Azo dye\"), [aromatic hydrocarbons](/wiki/Aromatic_hydrocarbon \"Aromatic hydrocarbon\"), and other dyes. The dyes can be added directly to the polycarbonate resin the discs are made of.\nAdditionally, other methods of the disc degradation are proposed to be deployed together with the primary one; the concern of the technology developers here is that while the dye oxidation mechanism prevents the disc from being read by current consumer technologies, the information on the disc, recorded in the pattern of the pits in the reflective layer, remains intact and could be recovered. One of the methods is to make the two reflective layers in the DVD\\-9 disc of different metals (e.g. [aluminium](/wiki/Aluminium \"Aluminium\") and [silver](/wiki/Silver \"Silver\")), and separate them with an ionic conductor separator. The atmospheric oxygen then undergoes electrochemical reaction in such crude [fuel cell](/wiki/Fuel_cell \"Fuel cell\") with the silver as [cathode](/wiki/Cathode \"Cathode\") and aluminum as [anode](/wiki/Anode \"Anode\"), leading to growth of dendritic silver through the dielectric layer. When the silver reaches the aluminium, an electric short circuit forms, and [galvanic corrosion](/wiki/Galvanic_corrosion \"Galvanic corrosion\") then rapidly degrades the reflective layers. Many other mechanisms are proposed for this slower, less controlled \"backup\" method of data destruction, ranging from corrosion of the reflective layers to degradation of the polymer matrix of the disc itself.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.patentstorm.us/patents/6756103\\.html\\|title\\=Limited play optical devices with interstitial reactive layer and methods of making same\\|last\\=\\|first\\=\\|date\\=\\|website\\=\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929100008/http://www.patentstorm.us/patents/6756103\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=September 29, 2007\\|access\\-date\\=April 4, 2020}}", "" ]
Gameplay -------- *Contagion* is a multiplayer focused game with three different game modes; Hunted, Escape, and Extraction. There is also a beta game mode called Flatline. Hunted, which supports up to 16 players, is a free\-for\-all "deathmatch" game mode in which players fight each other, while A.I.\-controlled zombies wander the level and serve as an environmental hazard. When a player is killed, they respawn as a zombie and can participate alongside the A.I.\-controlled zombies in attacking the surviving players. The goal of the game is to be the last living player. Escape is a cooperative game mode in which a team of up to 8 players is tasked with progressing through a level, fighting through zombies while completing various mission objectives in a linear order with the ultimate goal of escaping the map. Extraction is another cooperative game mode in which the goal is to explore a location and rescue a number of A.I.\-controlled non\-player character survivors. When reaching an area with survivors to save, the players will have to fend off a horde with the resources found in that area; and after a few minutes, you can extract those survivors at the border of the location, where the survivors will drop the weapons and ammo they're carrying on themselves. If all the survivors of the current area die, the players will fail. In both game modes, when a player is killed they respawn as a zombie and are tasked with helping the A.I.\-controlled zombies hunt down the remaining human players; you can also turn into a zombie if a zombie attack infects the player (Though this and player zombie respawn can be turned off) . Player\-controlled zombies are faster and more maneuverable than A.I.\-controlled zombie enemies and therefore present a greater threat to human players. Both Escape and Extraction can be played off\-line by a single player, although they are geared towards multi\-player gameplay. Flatline is a multiplayer\-geared wave based survival mode. The player starts in a singular location, where new parts of the map open every few waves. At the end of a wave, players who died the previous round are resurrected and all players have the option to visit a shop/safehouse and get better weapons/equipment. Panic Objective and Panic Classic emulate the previous game of the "franchise", *[Zombie Panic Source](/wiki/Zombie_Panic%21_Source%23Gameplay "Zombie Panic! Source#Gameplay")*. *Contagion* is distinguished from other similar games in the genre in that it features "[Romero Zombies](/wiki/Zombie%23George_A._Romero_and_the_modern_zombie_film "Zombie#George A. Romero and the modern zombie film")" (zombies akin to those seen in the *[Night of the Living Dead](/wiki/Night_of_the_Living_Dead_%28film_series%29 "Night of the Living Dead (film series)")* series of films by director [George Romero](/wiki/George_Romero "George Romero")). Resources such as weapons and ammunition are scarce, encouraging more precise and methodical gameplay. Unlike other games in the genre, *Contagion* does not feature zombies with special abilities, with the exception of a rare [riot cop](/wiki/Riot_control "Riot control") zombie wearing [body armor](/wiki/Body_armor "Body armor") that can survive significantly more damage than a regular zombie.
[ "Gameplay\n--------", "*Contagion* is a multiplayer focused game with three different game modes; Hunted, Escape, and Extraction. There is also a beta game mode called Flatline.", "Hunted, which supports up to 16 players, is a free\\-for\\-all \"deathmatch\" game mode in which players fight each other, while A.I.\\-controlled zombies wander the level and serve as an environmental hazard. When a player is killed, they respawn as a zombie and can participate alongside the A.I.\\-controlled zombies in attacking the surviving players. The goal of the game is to be the last living player.", "Escape is a cooperative game mode in which a team of up to 8 players is tasked with progressing through a level, fighting through zombies while completing various mission objectives in a linear order with the ultimate goal of escaping the map.", "Extraction is another cooperative game mode in which the goal is to explore a location and rescue a number of A.I.\\-controlled non\\-player character survivors. When reaching an area with survivors to save, the players will have to fend off a horde with the resources found in that area; and after a few minutes, you can extract those survivors at the border of the location, where the survivors will drop the weapons and ammo they're carrying on themselves. If all the survivors of the current area die, the players will fail.", "In both game modes, when a player is killed they respawn as a zombie and are tasked with helping the A.I.\\-controlled zombies hunt down the remaining human players; you can also turn into a zombie if a zombie attack infects the player (Though this and player zombie respawn can be turned off) . Player\\-controlled zombies are faster and more maneuverable than A.I.\\-controlled zombie enemies and therefore present a greater threat to human players. Both Escape and Extraction can be played off\\-line by a single player, although they are geared towards multi\\-player gameplay.", "Flatline is a multiplayer\\-geared wave based survival mode. The player starts in a singular location, where new parts of the map open every few waves. At the end of a wave, players who died the previous round are resurrected and all players have the option to visit a shop/safehouse and get better weapons/equipment.", "Panic Objective and Panic Classic emulate the previous game of the \"franchise\", *[Zombie Panic Source](/wiki/Zombie_Panic%21_Source%23Gameplay \"Zombie Panic! Source#Gameplay\")*.", "*Contagion* is distinguished from other similar games in the genre in that it features \"[Romero Zombies](/wiki/Zombie%23George_A._Romero_and_the_modern_zombie_film \"Zombie#George A. Romero and the modern zombie film\")\" (zombies akin to those seen in the *[Night of the Living Dead](/wiki/Night_of_the_Living_Dead_%28film_series%29 \"Night of the Living Dead (film series)\")* series of films by director [George Romero](/wiki/George_Romero \"George Romero\")). Resources such as weapons and ammunition are scarce, encouraging more precise and methodical gameplay. Unlike other games in the genre, *Contagion* does not feature zombies with special abilities, with the exception of a rare [riot cop](/wiki/Riot_control \"Riot control\") zombie wearing [body armor](/wiki/Body_armor \"Body armor\") that can survive significantly more damage than a regular zombie.", "" ]
Life ---- Born in [Mondéjar](/wiki/Mond%C3%A9jar "Mondéjar"), [Guadalajara](/wiki/Guadalajara_%28province%29 "Guadalajara (province)"), Spain, he entered the Society of Jesus at Alcalá on 27 May 1565\. He was rector of the college of [Navalcarnero](/wiki/Navalcarnero "Navalcarnero"), taught grammar for five years, and in 1579 went to the mission of [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico"), where he was rector of the seminary. Early in 1581 he set out for the Philippines with Bishop [Domingo de Salazar](/wiki/Domingo_de_Salazar "Domingo de Salazar"). Sánchez and his companion, [Antonio Sedeno](/wiki/Antonio_Sedeno "Antonio Sedeno"), and a lay brother, were the first Jesuits in these islands. The bishop made Sánchez his counsellor, appointed him to write the acts of the [synod of Manila](/wiki/Synod_of_Manila "Synod of Manila"), and, when Sánchez was sent on an embassy to [China](/wiki/China "China"), interrupted the synod until Sánchez had returned. Twice Sánchez was despatched on official business to China, where he met celebrated Jesuit missionaries of that country and from Japan. He was thus able to publish later an account of the state of Christianity of China at the end of the sixteenth century. He was also a promoter of the {{lang\|es\|\[\[empresa de China]]}}. By the unanimous vote of all the Spanish officials, civil and religious, of the merchants and other leading citizens, Sánchez was chosen to go to Madrid as representative of the colony in 1586\. Sánchez's mission to [Philip II of Spain](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain "Philip II of Spain") was very successful, his arguments moving the king to retain the islands, which many of his advisors had been urging him to abandon. From Madrid he went to Rome, and was there welcomed by [Pope Sixtus V](/wiki/Pope_Sixtus_V "Pope Sixtus V"), from whom he received many privileges for the Catholic church in the Philippines. In a brief of 28 June 1591, [Pope Gregory XIV](/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XIV "Pope Gregory XIV") praises the apostolic labours and writings of Sánchez, calling him a true defender of the authority and rights of the Holy See. [Pope Innocent IX](/wiki/Pope_Innocent_IX "Pope Innocent IX") addressed to him the bull {{lang\|la\|Inter felices}}, in which he lauds his work. [Pope Clement VIII](/wiki/Pope_Clement_VIII "Pope Clement VIII") at his request granted various favours to the bishop and clergy in the islands. Sánchez gave an account of the Jesuit missions in the Philippines to [Aquaviva](/wiki/Claudio_Acquaviva "Claudio Acquaviva"), the general of the Society of Jesus. It had been proposed to withdraw the priests from the Archipelago, but Aquaviva, following the plan proposed by Sánchez, determined that the society should remain, and made the Manila residence a college with Sedeno as its first rector. Sánchez now asked to be allowed to return to the Philippines, but was sent instead as visitor to some of the Spanish provinces of the Society of Jesus, where there were serious domestic and external troubles. The tact of Sánchez gained the day; he expelled some influential but turbulent members from the Society, and won over the king, the Inquisition, and prominent personages, so that they became better disposed towards the Society. Sánchez was elected one of the representatives of the Province of Toledo to the Fifth General Congregation of the Society, but he remarked that he had a more important journey to make than the one to Rome. He died twelve days later, at [Alcalá de Henares](/wiki/Alcal%C3%A1_de_Henares "Alcalá de Henares"), on the [feast of the Ascension](/wiki/Feast_of_the_Ascension "Feast of the Ascension").
[ "Life\n----", "Born in [Mondéjar](/wiki/Mond%C3%A9jar \"Mondéjar\"), [Guadalajara](/wiki/Guadalajara_%28province%29 \"Guadalajara (province)\"), Spain, he entered the Society of Jesus at Alcalá on 27 May 1565\\. He was rector of the college of [Navalcarnero](/wiki/Navalcarnero \"Navalcarnero\"), taught grammar for five years, and in 1579 went to the mission of [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\"), where he was rector of the seminary.", "Early in 1581 he set out for the Philippines with Bishop [Domingo de Salazar](/wiki/Domingo_de_Salazar \"Domingo de Salazar\"). Sánchez and his companion, [Antonio Sedeno](/wiki/Antonio_Sedeno \"Antonio Sedeno\"), and a lay brother, were the first Jesuits in these islands. The bishop made Sánchez his counsellor, appointed him to write the acts of the [synod of Manila](/wiki/Synod_of_Manila \"Synod of Manila\"), and, when Sánchez was sent on an embassy to [China](/wiki/China \"China\"), interrupted the synod until Sánchez had returned.", "Twice Sánchez was despatched on official business to China, where he met celebrated Jesuit missionaries of that country and from Japan. He was thus able to publish later an account of the state of Christianity of China at the end of the sixteenth century. He was also a promoter of the {{lang\\|es\\|\\[\\[empresa de China]]}}.", "By the unanimous vote of all the Spanish officials, civil and religious, of the merchants and other leading citizens, Sánchez was chosen to go to Madrid as representative of the colony in 1586\\. Sánchez's mission to [Philip II of Spain](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain \"Philip II of Spain\") was very successful, his arguments moving the king to retain the islands, which many of his advisors had been urging him to abandon. From Madrid he went to Rome, and was there welcomed by [Pope Sixtus V](/wiki/Pope_Sixtus_V \"Pope Sixtus V\"), from whom he received many privileges for the Catholic church in the Philippines. In a brief of 28 June 1591, [Pope Gregory XIV](/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XIV \"Pope Gregory XIV\") praises the apostolic labours and writings of Sánchez, calling him a true defender of the authority and rights of the Holy See. [Pope Innocent IX](/wiki/Pope_Innocent_IX \"Pope Innocent IX\") addressed to him the bull {{lang\\|la\\|Inter felices}}, in which he lauds his work. [Pope Clement VIII](/wiki/Pope_Clement_VIII \"Pope Clement VIII\") at his request granted various favours to the bishop and clergy in the islands.", "Sánchez gave an account of the Jesuit missions in the Philippines to [Aquaviva](/wiki/Claudio_Acquaviva \"Claudio Acquaviva\"), the general of the Society of Jesus. It had been proposed to withdraw the priests from the Archipelago, but Aquaviva, following the plan proposed by Sánchez, determined that the society should remain, and made the Manila residence a college with Sedeno as its first rector.", "Sánchez now asked to be allowed to return to the Philippines, but was sent instead as visitor to some of the Spanish provinces of the Society of Jesus, where there were serious domestic and external troubles. The tact of Sánchez gained the day; he expelled some influential but turbulent members from the Society, and won over the king, the Inquisition, and prominent personages, so that they became better disposed towards the Society.", "Sánchez was elected one of the representatives of the Province of Toledo to the Fifth General Congregation of the Society, but he remarked that he had a more important journey to make than the one to Rome. He died twelve days later, at [Alcalá de Henares](/wiki/Alcal%C3%A1_de_Henares \"Alcalá de Henares\"), on the [feast of the Ascension](/wiki/Feast_of_the_Ascension \"Feast of the Ascension\").", "" ]
History ------- {{Main\|History of Fall River, Massachusetts}} ### Colonial period to 1800s [thumb\|upright\=1\.1\|An 1877 [pictorial map](/wiki/Pictorial_map "Pictorial map") of Fall River with a list of the city's sights](/wiki/File:City_of_Fall_River%2C_Mass._1877._LOC_75694571.jpg "City of Fall River, Mass. 1877. LOC 75694571.jpg") At the time of the establishment of the [Plymouth Colony](/wiki/Plymouth_Colony "Plymouth Colony") in 1620, the area that would one day become Troy City was inhabited by the [Pocasset](/wiki/Pocasset_people "Pocasset people") [Wampanoag](/wiki/Wampanoag_people "Wampanoag people") tribe, affiliated with the Pokanoket Confederacy headquartered at [Mount Hope](/wiki/Mount_Hope_%28Rhode_Island%29 "Mount Hope (Rhode Island)") in what is now [Bristol, Rhode Island](/wiki/Bristol%2C_Rhode_Island "Bristol, Rhode Island"). The "falling" river that the city's name refers to is the [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River "Quequechan River") (pronounced "quick\-a\-shan" by locals) a 2\.5 mi (4km) river which flows through the city before draining into the bay. *Quequechan* is a [Wampanoag](/wiki/Massachusett_language "Massachusett language") word believed to mean "falling river" or "leaping/falling waters." During the 1960s, [Interstate 195](/wiki/Interstate_195_%28Rhode_Island_%E2%80%93_Massachusetts%29 "Interstate 195 (Rhode Island – Massachusetts)") was constructed through the city along the length of the Quequechan River. The portion west of Plymouth Avenue was routed underground through a series of box culverts, while much of the eastern section "mill pond" was filled in for the highway embankment. In 1653, [Freetown](/wiki/Freetown%2C_Massachusetts "Freetown, Massachusetts") was settled at [Assonet Bay](/wiki/Assonet_Bay "Assonet Bay") by members of the Massachusetts Bay Colony as part of Freeman's Purchase, which included the northern part of what is now Fall River. In 1683, Freetown was incorporated as a town within the colony. The southern part of what is now Fall River was incorporated as the town of Tiverton as part of the [Massachusetts Bay Colony](/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony "Massachusetts Bay Colony") in 1694, a few years after the merger with Plymouth Colony. In 1746, in the settlement of a colonial boundary dispute between Rhode Island and Massachusetts, [Tiverton](/wiki/Tiverton%2C_Rhode_Island "Tiverton, Rhode Island") was annexed to [Rhode Island](/wiki/Rhode_Island "Rhode Island"), along with Little Compton and what is now [Newport County, Rhode Island](/wiki/Newport_County%2C_Rhode_Island "Newport County, Rhode Island"). The boundary was then placed approximately at what is now Columbia Street. In 1703, Benjamin Church, a hero of [King Philip's War](/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War "King Philip's War") established a [saw mill](/wiki/Saw_mill "Saw mill"), [grist mill](/wiki/Grist_mill "Grist mill"), and a [fulling](/wiki/Fulling "Fulling") mill on the Quequechan River. In 1714, Church sold his land, along with the water rights to Richard Borden of Tiverton and his brother Joseph. This transaction would prove to be extremely valuable 100 years later, helping to establish the Borden family as the leaders in the development of Fall River's textile industry. During the 18th century, the area consisted mostly of small farms and relatively few inhabitants. In 1778, the [Battle of Freetown](/wiki/Battle_of_Freetown "Battle of Freetown"), was fought here during the [American Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War "American Revolutionary War") (1775–1783\) after British raids badly damaged Bristol and Warren. The militia of Fall River, at that time known as Freetown, put up a stronger defense against a [British](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain "Kingdom of Great Britain") force. In 1803, Fall River was separated from Freetown and officially incorporated as its own [town](/wiki/New_England_town "New England town"). A year later, Fall River changed its name to "Troy." The name "Troy" was used for 30 years and was officially changed back to Fall River on February 12, 1834\. During this period, Fall River was governed by a three\-member [Board of Selectmen](/wiki/List_of_selectmen_of_Fall_River%2C_Massachusetts "List of selectmen of Fall River, Massachusetts"), until it became a City in 1854\. In 1835, The [Fall River Female Anti Slavery Society](/wiki/Fall_River_Female_Anti_Slavery_Society "Fall River Female Anti Slavery Society") was formed (one of the many anti\-slavery societies in New England) to promote abolition and to allow a women's space to conduct social activism. There was an initial group, which was wary of allowing free black full membership, so a second group (this one) was formed in response by [Elizabeth Buffum Chace](/wiki/Elizabeth_Buffum_Chace "Elizabeth Buffum Chace") and her sisters, who were committed to allowing free black women membership.Stevens, Elizabeth C. *Elizabeth Buffum Chace and Lillie Chace Wyman: A Century of Abolitionist, Suffragist, and Workers' Rights Activism*. United States: McFarland Publishing, 2003\. Sarah G. Buffman, a delegate from the group, was sent to the [Anti\-Slavery Convention of American Women](/wiki/Anti-Slavery_Convention_of_American_Women "Anti-Slavery Convention of American Women") in Philadelphia in 1838\. Buffman signed all three of the statements that the convention's delegates agreed on.Ira V. Brown, ""Am I Not a Woman and a Sister?" The Anti Slavery Convention of American Women, 1837\-1839", Pennsylvania State University In July 1843, the first great fire in Fall River's history destroyed much of the town center, including the Atheneum, which housed the [Skeleton in Armor](/wiki/The_Skeleton_in_Armor "The Skeleton in Armor") which had been discovered in a sand bank in 1832 near what is now the corner of Hartwell and Fifth Street. During this time, the southern part of what is now Fall River (south of Columbia Street) remained part of [Tiverton, Rhode Island](/wiki/Tiverton%2C_Rhode_Island "Tiverton, Rhode Island"). In 1856, the town of Tiverton, Rhode Island voted to split off its industrial northern section as Fall River, Rhode Island. In 1861, after decades of dispute, the [United States Supreme Court](/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court "United States Supreme Court") moved the state boundary to what is now State Avenue, unifying both Fall Rivers as a city in Massachusetts (among other changes; see {{section link\|History of Massachusetts\|Rhode Island eastern border}}). ### Industrial development and prosperity {{See also\|List of mills in Fall River, Massachusetts}} [thumb\|upright\=1\.1\|Group of workers in the Sagamore Manufacturing Company in August 1911 photographed by [Lewis Hine](/wiki/Lewis_Hine "Lewis Hine")](/wiki/File:Child_workers_in_Fall_River%2C_MA.jpg "Child workers in Fall River, MA.jpg") #### 19th century The early establishment of the textile industry in Fall River grew out of the developments made in nearby [Rhode Island](/wiki/Rhode_Island "Rhode Island"), beginning with [Samuel Slater](/wiki/Samuel_Slater "Samuel Slater") at [Pawtucket, Rhode Island](/wiki/Pawtucket%2C_Rhode_Island "Pawtucket, Rhode Island") in 1793\. In 1811, Col. Joseph Durfee, the Revolutionary War veteran and hero of the Battle of Freetown in 1778, built the Globe Manufactory, a spinning mill at the outlet of Cook Pond on Dwelly St. near what is now Globe Four Corners in the city's South End. (It was part of [Tiverton, Rhode Island](/wiki/Tiverton%2C_Rhode_Island "Tiverton, Rhode Island") at the time.) While Durfee's mill itself was not particularly successful, its establishment marked the beginning of Fall River's time as a mill city. The real development of Fall River's industry, however, would occur along the falling river from which it was named, about a mile north of Durfee's first mill. The [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River "Quequechan River"), with its eight falls, combined to make Fall River the best tidewater privilege in southern New England. It was perfect for industrialization—big enough for profit and expansion, yet small enough to be developed by local capital without interference from [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston").*The Run of the Mill*, Dunwell, Steve, 1978 The [Fall River Manufactory](/wiki/Fall_River_Manufactory "Fall River Manufactory") was established by David Anthony and others in 1813\. That same year, the [Troy Cotton \& Woolen Manufactory](/wiki/Troy_Cotton_%26_Woolen_Manufactory "Troy Cotton & Woolen Manufactory") was founded by a group of investors led by [Oliver Chace](/wiki/Oliver_Chace "Oliver Chace") of Swansea. Chace had worked as a carpenter for [Samuel Slater](/wiki/Samuel_Slater "Samuel Slater") in his early years. The Troy Mill opened in 1814 at the upper end of the falls. In 1821, [Colonel Richard Borden](/wiki/Colonel_Richard_Borden "Colonel Richard Borden") (along with Maj. Bradford Durfee) established the [Fall River Iron Works](/wiki/Fall_River_Iron_Works "Fall River Iron Works") at the lower part of the [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River "Quequechan River"). Durfee was a shipwright, and Borden was the owner of a grist mill. After an uncertain start, in which some early investors pulled out, the Fall River Iron Works was incorporated in 1825\. The Iron Works began producing nails, bar stock, and other items, such as bands for casks in the nearby [New Bedford](/wiki/New_Bedford "New Bedford") [whaling](/wiki/Whaling "Whaling") industry. They soon gained a reputation for producing nails of high quality, and business flourished. In 1827, Col. Borden began regular steamship service to [Providence, Rhode Island](/wiki/Providence%2C_Rhode_Island "Providence, Rhode Island").["The Fall River Iron Works Prospered After Shaky Start", Fall River *Herald News*, October 17, 1989](http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/fallriverironworks.pdf) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051227163555/http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/fallriverironworks.pdf \|date\=December 27, 2005 }} The [American Print Works](/wiki/Fall_River_Iron_Works "Fall River Iron Works") was established in 1835 by Holder Borden, uncle of Col. Richard Borden. With the leadership of the Borden family, the American Print Works (later known as the American Printing Company) became the largest and most important textile company in the city, employing thousands at its peak in the early 20th century. Richard Borden also constructed the [Metacomet Mill](/wiki/Metacomet_Mill "Metacomet Mill") in 1847, which today is the oldest remaining textile mill in the city; it is located on Anawan Street. By 1845, the Quequechan's power had been all but maximized. The Massasoit Steam Mill was established in 1846, above the dam near the end of Pleasant Street. However, it would be another decade or so when improvements in the steam engine by [George Corliss](/wiki/George_Henry_Corliss "George Henry Corliss") would enable the construction of the first large steam\-powered mill in the city, the Union Mills in 1859\. The advantage of being able to import bales of cotton and coal to fuel the steam engines to Fall River's deep water harbor (and ship them out from the same) made Fall River the city of choice for a series of cotton mill magnates. The first railroad line serving Fall River, The Fall River Branch Railroad, was incorporated in 1844 and opened in 1845\. In 1847, the first regular steamboat service to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") began. The [Fall River Line](/wiki/Fall_River_Line "Fall River Line"), as it came to be known, operated until 1937, and for many years was the preferred way to travel between [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston") and [Manhattan](/wiki/Manhattan "Manhattan"). The [Old Colony Railroad](/wiki/Old_Colony_Railroad "Old Colony Railroad") and Fall River Railroad merged in 1854, forming the Old Colony and Fall River Railroad. In 1854, Fall River was officially incorporated as a city; it had a population of about 12,000\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/1903\.pdf\|title\=Illustrated History of Fall River, 1903}} Its first [mayor](/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Fall_River%2C_Massachusetts "List of mayors of Fall River, Massachusetts") was James Buffington. Fall River profited well from the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") and was in a fine position to take advantage of the prosperity that followed. By 1868, it had surpassed Lowell as the leading textile city in America with over 500,000 spindles. #### Expansion and growth [thumb\|upright\=1\.1\|Border City Mill](/wiki/File:Bordercity.jpg "Bordercity.jpg") In 1871 and 1872, a "most dramatic expansion" of the city occurred: 15 new corporations were founded, building 22 new mills throughout the city, while some of the older mills expanded. The city's population increased by 20,000 people during these two years, while overall mill capacity doubled to more than 1,000,000 spindles. By 1876, the city had one\-sixth of all New England cotton capacity and one\-half of all print cloth production. The Spindle City, as it became known, was second in the world to only Manchester, England in terms of output. To house the thousands of new workers—mostly [Irish](/wiki/Irish_diaspora "Irish diaspora") and [French Canadian](/wiki/French_Canadian "French Canadian") immigrants during these years—over 12,000 units of company housing were built. Unlike the well\-spaced boardinghouses and tidy cottages of [Rhode Island](/wiki/Rhode_Island "Rhode Island"), worker housing in Fall River consisted of thousands of wood\-framed, multi\-family tenements, usually three\-floor "[triple\-deckers](/wiki/Triple-decker "Triple-decker")" with up to six apartments. Many more privately owned tenements supplemented the company housing.*The Run of the Mill*, Dunwell, Steve, 1978, p.105\-110 During the 19th century, Fall River became famous for the granite rock on which much of the city is built. Several granite quarries operated during this time, the largest of which was the Beattie Granite Quarry, near what is now the corner of North Quarry and Locust Streets.[2003 "Local Rock Vital in City's Construction", *Herald News*, February 26, 2003](http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/localrock.pdf) Many of the mills in the city were built from this stone, and it was highly regarded as a building material for many public buildings and private homes alike. The [Chateau\-sur\-Mer](/wiki/Chateau-sur-Mer "Chateau-sur-Mer") mansion in [Newport, Rhode Island](/wiki/Newport%2C_Rhode_Island "Newport, Rhode Island") was constructed from [Fall River granite](/wiki/Fall_River_granite "Fall River granite"), known for its greyish\-pink color. While most of the mills "above the hill" were constructed from native Fall River granite, nearly all of their counterparts along the [Taunton River](/wiki/Taunton_River "Taunton River") and [Mount Hope Bay](/wiki/Mount_Hope_Bay "Mount Hope Bay") were made of red brick due to the high costs and impracticality associated with transporting the rock through the city and down the hill. (One notable exception is the Sagamore Mills on North Main Street, which were constructed from similar rock quarried in Freetown and brought to the site by rail). #### 20th century [thumb\|upright\=1\.1\|[Davol Mills](/wiki/Davol_Mills "Davol Mills")](/wiki/File:Davol_Mills_Fall_River.jpg "Davol Mills Fall River.jpg") [thumb\|upright\=1\.1\|[Massachusetts Route 79](/wiki/Massachusetts_Route_79 "Massachusetts Route 79") viaduct and Braga Bridge in Fall River. The [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River "Quequechan River") flows beneath the parking lot. The viaduct was demolished in 2014 and replaced with a surface boulevard.](/wiki/File:Highway_79.jpg "Highway 79.jpg") Fall River rode a wave of economic prosperity well into the early 20th century. During this time, the city boasted a bustling downtown with several upscale hotels and theaters. As the city continuously expanded during the late 19th century, additional infrastructure such as parks, schools, streetcar lines, a public water supply, and sewerage system were constructed to meet the needs of its growing population. From 1896 to 1912, Fall River was the headquarters of the [E. P. Charlton \& Company](/wiki/E._P._Charlton_%26_Company "E. P. Charlton & Company"), a chain of [five and ten cent stores](/wiki/Variety_store "Variety store"). Founded at Fall River in 1890 by [Seymour H. Knox](/wiki/Seymour_H._Knox_I "Seymour H. Knox I") and Earle Perry Charlton as the Knox \& Charlton Five and Ten Cent Store, E.P. Charlton operated fifty\-eight stores in the United States and Canada by the time of its merger with several other retailers to form the [F. W. Woolworth Company](/wiki/F._W._Woolworth_Company "F. W. Woolworth Company") in 1912\. In 1920, the population of Fall River peaked at 120,485\.U.S. Census. *1940 Population Reports*. p. 32 Image:North Main Street, Fall River, MA.jpg\|North Main Street, {{circa\|1910}} Image:First Cotton Mill, Fall River, MA.jpg\|First Cotton Mill, built in 1811 Image:Printing Works, Fall River, MA.jpg\|Printing Works, {{circa\|1920}} Image:The Charlton Block, Fall River, Mass..jpg\|The Charlton Block, 1908 The cotton mills of Fall River had built their business largely on one product: print cloth. Around 1910, the city's largest employer, the [American Printing Company](/wiki/American_Printing_Company_%28Fall_River_Iron_Works%29 "American Printing Company (Fall River Iron Works)") (APC), employed 6,000 people and was the largest company printer of cloth in the world. Dozens of other city mills solely produced cloth to be printed at the APC. [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") had provided a general increase in demand for textiles, and many of the mills of [New England](/wiki/New_England "New England") benefited during this time. The post\-war economy quickly slowed, however, and production quickly outpaced demand. The Northern mills faced serious competition from their Southern counterparts due to lower labor and transportation costs, as well as the South's large investment in new machinery and other equipment. In 1923, Fall River faced the first wave of mill closures. Several of the mills merged, allowing them to remain in business into the late 1920s. The worst fire in Fall River's history occurred on the evening of February 2, 1928\.[Sailsinc.org](http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/fire.pdf) Picture of the Worst Fire in Fall River's History It began when workers were dismantling the recently vacated [Pocasset Mill](/wiki/Pocasset_Manufacturing_Company "Pocasset Manufacturing Company"). During the night, the fire spread quickly and wiped out a large portion of downtown. City Hall was spared, but was badly damaged. Today, many of the structures near the corner of North Main and Bedford Street date from the early 1930s, as they were rebuilt soon after the fire. By the 1930s and the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"), many of the mills were out of business and the city was bankrupt. The once mighty [American Printing Company](/wiki/American_Printing_Company_%28Fall_River_Iron_Works%29 "American Printing Company (Fall River Iron Works)") finally closed for good in 1934\. In 1937, their huge plant waterfront on Water Street was acquired by the [Firestone Tire \& Rubber Company](/wiki/Firestone_Tire_%26_Rubber_Company "Firestone Tire & Rubber Company") and soon employed 2,600 people. A handful managed to survive through [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") and into the 1950s. In October 1941, just a few weeks before the attack on [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor "Pearl Harbor"), another large fire broke out in the main building of the printworks. The fire was a major setback to the U.S. war effort; 30,000 pounds (13,607 kilograms) of raw rubber worth $15 million was lost in the inferno.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/fulltext.htm\|title\=Keeley Library, B.M.C. Durfee High School \- Full\-text Online Books \& Articles\|website\=sailsinc.org}} With the demise of the textile industry, many of the city's mills were occupied by smaller companies, some in the garment industry, traditionally based in the [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") area but attracted to [New England](/wiki/New_England "New England") by the lure of cheap factory space and an eager workforce in need of jobs.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sec.state.ma.us/mhc/mhcpdf/Town%20reports/SE\-Mass/flr.pdf\|title\=MHC Survey, 1982}} The garment industry survived in the city well into the 1990s, by which point it had fallen victim to [globalization](/wiki/Globalization "Globalization") and foreign competition.[History of Fall River's Garment Industry](http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/lambert.pdf) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080627160246/http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/lambert.pdf \|date\=June 27, 2008 }} #### Modern era [thumb\|upright\=.8\|Old City Hall, demolished in 1962 for construction of Interstate 195](/wiki/File:Fall_River_Old_City_Hall_color_image.jpg "Fall River Old City Hall color image.jpg") In the 1960s, the city's landscape was drastically transformed with the construction of the [Braga Bridge](/wiki/Charles_M._Braga_Jr._Memorial_Bridge "Charles M. Braga Jr. Memorial Bridge") and Interstate 195, which cut directly through the heart of the city. In the wake of the highway building boom, the city lost many of its longtime landmarks. The [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River "Quequechan River") was filled in and re\-routed for much of its length. The historic falls were diverted into underground culverts. A series of elevated steel viaducts was constructed to allow access the new bridge. Many historic buildings were demolished, including the Old City Hall, the Troy Mills, the Second Granite Block (built after the 1928 fire), as well as other 19th\-century brick\-and\-mortar buildings near Old City Hall. Constructed directly over Interstate 195 in the place of it predecessor, the new city hall (known as Government Center) was opened in 1976 after years of construction delays and quality control problems. Built in the [Brutalist](/wiki/Brutalist "Brutalist") style popular in the 1960s and 1970s, the new city hall drew complaints from city workers and residents almost immediately.{{Citation needed\|date\=October 2022}} In 1970, [Valle's Steak House](/wiki/Valle%27s_Steak_House "Valle's Steak House") opened one of its landmark restaurants on William S. Canning Boulevard in the city's South End. The steak house was popular with Fall River residents, but economic challenges caused the chain to close all of its restaurants in the 1980s."Valle's Steak House, opened in 1970 and demolished in 1984" (August 6, 2012\) *The Herald News* (Fall River, Mass.)[http://www.heraldnews.com/photos/timeframes/x1225369819/Valles\-Steak\-House\-opened\-in\-1970\-and\-demolished\-in\-1984](http://www.heraldnews.com/photos/timeframes/x1225369819/Valles-Steak-House-opened-in-1970-and-demolished-in-1984) Also during the 1970s, several modern apartment high\-rise towers were built throughout the city, many part of the Fall River Housing Authority. There were two built near Milliken Boulevard, two on Pleasant Street in Flint Village, another on South Main Street, and in the north end off Robeson Street. Today, these high\-rises mostly house the elderly. In 1978, the city opened the new B.M.C. Durfee High School in the North End, replacing the historic Rock Street building that had become overcrowded and outdated for use as a high school. The "new" Durfee is one of the largest high schools in [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts "Massachusetts"). Since approximately 1980, there has been a considerable amount of new development in the North End of the city. A significant number of new single\- and multi\-family housing developments have been constructed, particularly along North Main Street. In 2017, Fall River was ranked the 51st most dangerous city in the United States. It was also the third most dangerous city in Massachusetts and fourth most dangerous city in New England.{{cite web \|last1\=Schiller \|first1\=Andrew \|title\=NeighborhoodScout's Most Dangerous Cities \- 2021 \|url\=https://www.neighborhoodscout.com/blog/top100dangerous \|website\=Neighborhoodscout.com \|date\=January 2, 2021 \|access\-date\=January 2, 2021 \|archive\-date\=March 8, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170308110815/https://www.neighborhoodscout.com/blog/top100dangerous \|url\-status\=dead }} On January 20, 2019, a cannabis dispensary opened in Fall River, becoming only the sixth dispensary in Massachusetts and the first in Southeastern Massachusetts to open to anyone 21 years or older.{{cite web \|title\=The Northeast Alternatives Story \|url\=https://nealternatives.com/history\-northeast\-alternatives/ \|website\=Northeast Alternatives \|access\-date\=May 31, 2019 \|archive\-date\=May 31, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531152542/https://nealternatives.com/history\-northeast\-alternatives/ \|url\-status\=dead }}
[ "History\n-------", "{{Main\\|History of Fall River, Massachusetts}}", "### Colonial period to 1800s", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.1\\|An 1877 [pictorial map](/wiki/Pictorial_map \"Pictorial map\") of Fall River with a list of the city's sights](/wiki/File:City_of_Fall_River%2C_Mass._1877._LOC_75694571.jpg \"City of Fall River, Mass. 1877. LOC 75694571.jpg\")\nAt the time of the establishment of the [Plymouth Colony](/wiki/Plymouth_Colony \"Plymouth Colony\") in 1620, the area that would one day become Troy City was inhabited by the [Pocasset](/wiki/Pocasset_people \"Pocasset people\") [Wampanoag](/wiki/Wampanoag_people \"Wampanoag people\") tribe, affiliated with the Pokanoket Confederacy headquartered at [Mount Hope](/wiki/Mount_Hope_%28Rhode_Island%29 \"Mount Hope (Rhode Island)\") in what is now [Bristol, Rhode Island](/wiki/Bristol%2C_Rhode_Island \"Bristol, Rhode Island\"). The \"falling\" river that the city's name refers to is the [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River \"Quequechan River\") (pronounced \"quick\\-a\\-shan\" by locals) a 2\\.5 mi (4km) river which flows through the city before draining into the bay. *Quequechan* is a [Wampanoag](/wiki/Massachusett_language \"Massachusett language\") word believed to mean \"falling river\" or \"leaping/falling waters.\" During the 1960s, [Interstate 195](/wiki/Interstate_195_%28Rhode_Island_%E2%80%93_Massachusetts%29 \"Interstate 195 (Rhode Island – Massachusetts)\") was constructed through the city along the length of the Quequechan River. The portion west of Plymouth Avenue was routed underground through a series of box culverts, while much of the eastern section \"mill pond\" was filled in for the highway embankment.", "In 1653, [Freetown](/wiki/Freetown%2C_Massachusetts \"Freetown, Massachusetts\") was settled at [Assonet Bay](/wiki/Assonet_Bay \"Assonet Bay\") by members of the Massachusetts Bay Colony as part of Freeman's Purchase, which included the northern part of what is now Fall River. In 1683, Freetown was incorporated as a town within the colony. The southern part of what is now Fall River was incorporated as the town of Tiverton as part of the [Massachusetts Bay Colony](/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony \"Massachusetts Bay Colony\") in 1694, a few years after the merger with Plymouth Colony. In 1746, in the settlement of a colonial boundary dispute between Rhode Island and Massachusetts, [Tiverton](/wiki/Tiverton%2C_Rhode_Island \"Tiverton, Rhode Island\") was annexed to [Rhode Island](/wiki/Rhode_Island \"Rhode Island\"), along with Little Compton and what is now [Newport County, Rhode Island](/wiki/Newport_County%2C_Rhode_Island \"Newport County, Rhode Island\"). The boundary was then placed approximately at what is now Columbia Street.", "In 1703, Benjamin Church, a hero of [King Philip's War](/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War \"King Philip's War\") established a [saw mill](/wiki/Saw_mill \"Saw mill\"), [grist mill](/wiki/Grist_mill \"Grist mill\"), and a [fulling](/wiki/Fulling \"Fulling\") mill on the Quequechan River. In 1714, Church sold his land, along with the water rights to Richard Borden of Tiverton and his brother Joseph. This transaction would prove to be extremely valuable 100 years later, helping to establish the Borden family as the leaders in the development of Fall River's textile industry.", "During the 18th century, the area consisted mostly of small farms and relatively few inhabitants. In 1778, the [Battle of Freetown](/wiki/Battle_of_Freetown \"Battle of Freetown\"), was fought here during the [American Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War \"American Revolutionary War\") (1775–1783\\) after British raids badly damaged Bristol and Warren. The militia of Fall River, at that time known as Freetown, put up a stronger defense against a [British](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain \"Kingdom of Great Britain\") force.", "In 1803, Fall River was separated from Freetown and officially incorporated as its own [town](/wiki/New_England_town \"New England town\"). A year later, Fall River changed its name to \"Troy.\" The name \"Troy\" was used for 30 years and was officially changed back to Fall River on February 12, 1834\\. During this period, Fall River was governed by a three\\-member [Board of Selectmen](/wiki/List_of_selectmen_of_Fall_River%2C_Massachusetts \"List of selectmen of Fall River, Massachusetts\"), until it became a City in 1854\\.", "In 1835, The [Fall River Female Anti Slavery Society](/wiki/Fall_River_Female_Anti_Slavery_Society \"Fall River Female Anti Slavery Society\") was formed (one of the many anti\\-slavery societies in New England) to promote abolition and to allow a women's space to conduct social activism. There was an initial group, which was wary of allowing free black full membership, so a second group (this one) was formed in response by [Elizabeth Buffum Chace](/wiki/Elizabeth_Buffum_Chace \"Elizabeth Buffum Chace\") and her sisters, who were committed to allowing free black women membership.Stevens, Elizabeth C. *Elizabeth Buffum Chace and Lillie Chace Wyman: A Century of Abolitionist, Suffragist, and Workers' Rights Activism*. United States: McFarland Publishing, 2003\\. Sarah G. Buffman, a delegate from the group, was sent to the [Anti\\-Slavery Convention of American Women](/wiki/Anti-Slavery_Convention_of_American_Women \"Anti-Slavery Convention of American Women\") in Philadelphia in 1838\\. Buffman signed all three of the statements that the convention's delegates agreed on.Ira V. Brown, \"\"Am I Not a Woman and a Sister?\" The Anti Slavery Convention of American Women, 1837\\-1839\", Pennsylvania State University", "In July 1843, the first great fire in Fall River's history destroyed much of the town center, including the Atheneum, which housed the [Skeleton in Armor](/wiki/The_Skeleton_in_Armor \"The Skeleton in Armor\") which had been discovered in a sand bank in 1832 near what is now the corner of Hartwell and Fifth Street.", "During this time, the southern part of what is now Fall River (south of Columbia Street) remained part of [Tiverton, Rhode Island](/wiki/Tiverton%2C_Rhode_Island \"Tiverton, Rhode Island\"). In 1856, the town of Tiverton, Rhode Island voted to split off its industrial northern section as Fall River, Rhode Island. In 1861, after decades of dispute, the [United States Supreme Court](/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court \"United States Supreme Court\") moved the state boundary to what is now State Avenue, unifying both Fall Rivers as a city in Massachusetts (among other changes; see {{section link\\|History of Massachusetts\\|Rhode Island eastern border}}).", "### Industrial development and prosperity", "{{See also\\|List of mills in Fall River, Massachusetts}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.1\\|Group of workers in the Sagamore Manufacturing Company in August 1911 photographed by [Lewis Hine](/wiki/Lewis_Hine \"Lewis Hine\")](/wiki/File:Child_workers_in_Fall_River%2C_MA.jpg \"Child workers in Fall River, MA.jpg\")", "#### 19th century", "The early establishment of the textile industry in Fall River grew out of the developments made in nearby [Rhode Island](/wiki/Rhode_Island \"Rhode Island\"), beginning with [Samuel Slater](/wiki/Samuel_Slater \"Samuel Slater\") at [Pawtucket, Rhode Island](/wiki/Pawtucket%2C_Rhode_Island \"Pawtucket, Rhode Island\") in 1793\\. In 1811, Col. Joseph Durfee, the Revolutionary War veteran and hero of the Battle of Freetown in 1778, built the Globe Manufactory, a spinning mill at the outlet of Cook Pond on Dwelly St. near what is now Globe Four Corners in the city's South End. (It was part of [Tiverton, Rhode Island](/wiki/Tiverton%2C_Rhode_Island \"Tiverton, Rhode Island\") at the time.) While Durfee's mill itself was not particularly successful, its establishment marked the beginning of Fall River's time as a mill city.", "The real development of Fall River's industry, however, would occur along the falling river from which it was named, about a mile north of Durfee's first mill. The [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River \"Quequechan River\"), with its eight falls, combined to make Fall River the best tidewater privilege in southern New England. It was perfect for industrialization—big enough for profit and expansion, yet small enough to be developed by local capital without interference from [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\").*The Run of the Mill*, Dunwell, Steve, 1978", "The [Fall River Manufactory](/wiki/Fall_River_Manufactory \"Fall River Manufactory\") was established by David Anthony and others in 1813\\. That same year, the [Troy Cotton \\& Woolen Manufactory](/wiki/Troy_Cotton_%26_Woolen_Manufactory \"Troy Cotton & Woolen Manufactory\") was founded by a group of investors led by [Oliver Chace](/wiki/Oliver_Chace \"Oliver Chace\") of Swansea. Chace had worked as a carpenter for [Samuel Slater](/wiki/Samuel_Slater \"Samuel Slater\") in his early years. The Troy Mill opened in 1814 at the upper end of the falls.", "In 1821, [Colonel Richard Borden](/wiki/Colonel_Richard_Borden \"Colonel Richard Borden\") (along with Maj. Bradford Durfee) established the [Fall River Iron Works](/wiki/Fall_River_Iron_Works \"Fall River Iron Works\") at the lower part of the [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River \"Quequechan River\"). Durfee was a shipwright, and Borden was the owner of a grist mill. After an uncertain start, in which some early investors pulled out, the Fall River Iron Works was incorporated in 1825\\. The Iron Works began producing nails, bar stock, and other items, such as bands for casks in the nearby [New Bedford](/wiki/New_Bedford \"New Bedford\") [whaling](/wiki/Whaling \"Whaling\") industry. They soon gained a reputation for producing nails of high quality, and business flourished. In 1827, Col. Borden began regular steamship service to [Providence, Rhode Island](/wiki/Providence%2C_Rhode_Island \"Providence, Rhode Island\").[\"The Fall River Iron Works Prospered After Shaky Start\", Fall River *Herald News*, October 17, 1989](http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/fallriverironworks.pdf) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051227163555/http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/fallriverironworks.pdf \\|date\\=December 27, 2005 }}", "The [American Print Works](/wiki/Fall_River_Iron_Works \"Fall River Iron Works\") was established in 1835 by Holder Borden, uncle of Col. Richard Borden. With the leadership of the Borden family, the American Print Works (later known as the American Printing Company) became the largest and most important textile company in the city, employing thousands at its peak in the early 20th century. Richard Borden also constructed the [Metacomet Mill](/wiki/Metacomet_Mill \"Metacomet Mill\") in 1847, which today is the oldest remaining textile mill in the city; it is located on Anawan Street.", "By 1845, the Quequechan's power had been all but maximized. The Massasoit Steam Mill was established in 1846, above the dam near the end of Pleasant Street. However, it would be another decade or so when improvements in the steam engine by [George Corliss](/wiki/George_Henry_Corliss \"George Henry Corliss\") would enable the construction of the first large steam\\-powered mill in the city, the Union Mills in 1859\\.", "The advantage of being able to import bales of cotton and coal to fuel the steam engines to Fall River's deep water harbor (and ship them out from the same) made Fall River the city of choice for a series of cotton mill magnates. The first railroad line serving Fall River, The Fall River Branch Railroad, was incorporated in 1844 and opened in 1845\\. In 1847, the first regular steamboat service to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") began. The [Fall River Line](/wiki/Fall_River_Line \"Fall River Line\"), as it came to be known, operated until 1937, and for many years was the preferred way to travel between [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\") and [Manhattan](/wiki/Manhattan \"Manhattan\"). The [Old Colony Railroad](/wiki/Old_Colony_Railroad \"Old Colony Railroad\") and Fall River Railroad merged in 1854, forming the Old Colony and Fall River Railroad.", "In 1854, Fall River was officially incorporated as a city; it had a population of about 12,000\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/1903\\.pdf\\|title\\=Illustrated History of Fall River, 1903}} Its first [mayor](/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Fall_River%2C_Massachusetts \"List of mayors of Fall River, Massachusetts\") was James Buffington.", "Fall River profited well from the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") and was in a fine position to take advantage of the prosperity that followed. By 1868, it had surpassed Lowell as the leading textile city in America with over 500,000 spindles.", "#### Expansion and growth", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.1\\|Border City Mill](/wiki/File:Bordercity.jpg \"Bordercity.jpg\")\nIn 1871 and 1872, a \"most dramatic expansion\" of the city occurred: 15 new corporations were founded, building 22 new mills throughout the city, while some of the older mills expanded. The city's population increased by 20,000 people during these two years, while overall mill capacity doubled to more than 1,000,000 spindles.", "By 1876, the city had one\\-sixth of all New England cotton capacity and one\\-half of all print cloth production. The Spindle City, as it became known, was second in the world to only Manchester, England in terms of output.", "To house the thousands of new workers—mostly [Irish](/wiki/Irish_diaspora \"Irish diaspora\") and [French Canadian](/wiki/French_Canadian \"French Canadian\") immigrants during these years—over 12,000 units of company housing were built. Unlike the well\\-spaced boardinghouses and tidy cottages of [Rhode Island](/wiki/Rhode_Island \"Rhode Island\"), worker housing in Fall River consisted of thousands of wood\\-framed, multi\\-family tenements, usually three\\-floor \"[triple\\-deckers](/wiki/Triple-decker \"Triple-decker\")\" with up to six apartments. Many more privately owned tenements supplemented the company housing.*The Run of the Mill*, Dunwell, Steve, 1978, p.105\\-110", "During the 19th century, Fall River became famous for the granite rock on which much of the city is built. Several granite quarries operated during this time, the largest of which was the Beattie Granite Quarry, near what is now the corner of North Quarry and Locust Streets.[2003 \"Local Rock Vital in City's Construction\", *Herald News*, February 26, 2003](http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/localrock.pdf) Many of the mills in the city were built from this stone, and it was highly regarded as a building material for many public buildings and private homes alike. The [Chateau\\-sur\\-Mer](/wiki/Chateau-sur-Mer \"Chateau-sur-Mer\") mansion in [Newport, Rhode Island](/wiki/Newport%2C_Rhode_Island \"Newport, Rhode Island\") was constructed from [Fall River granite](/wiki/Fall_River_granite \"Fall River granite\"), known for its greyish\\-pink color.", "While most of the mills \"above the hill\" were constructed from native Fall River granite, nearly all of their counterparts along the [Taunton River](/wiki/Taunton_River \"Taunton River\") and [Mount Hope Bay](/wiki/Mount_Hope_Bay \"Mount Hope Bay\") were made of red brick due to the high costs and impracticality associated with transporting the rock through the city and down the hill. (One notable exception is the Sagamore Mills on North Main Street, which were constructed from similar rock quarried in Freetown and brought to the site by rail).", "#### 20th century", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.1\\|[Davol Mills](/wiki/Davol_Mills \"Davol Mills\")](/wiki/File:Davol_Mills_Fall_River.jpg \"Davol Mills Fall River.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.1\\|[Massachusetts Route 79](/wiki/Massachusetts_Route_79 \"Massachusetts Route 79\") viaduct and Braga Bridge in Fall River. The [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River \"Quequechan River\") flows beneath the parking lot. The viaduct was demolished in 2014 and replaced with a surface boulevard.](/wiki/File:Highway_79.jpg \"Highway 79.jpg\")\nFall River rode a wave of economic prosperity well into the early 20th century. During this time, the city boasted a bustling downtown with several upscale hotels and theaters. As the city continuously expanded during the late 19th century, additional infrastructure such as parks, schools, streetcar lines, a public water supply, and sewerage system were constructed to meet the needs of its growing population.", "From 1896 to 1912, Fall River was the headquarters of the [E. P. Charlton \\& Company](/wiki/E._P._Charlton_%26_Company \"E. P. Charlton & Company\"), a chain of [five and ten cent stores](/wiki/Variety_store \"Variety store\"). Founded at Fall River in 1890 by [Seymour H. Knox](/wiki/Seymour_H._Knox_I \"Seymour H. Knox I\") and Earle Perry Charlton as the Knox \\& Charlton Five and Ten Cent Store, E.P. Charlton operated fifty\\-eight stores in the United States and Canada by the time of its merger with several other retailers to form the [F. W. Woolworth Company](/wiki/F._W._Woolworth_Company \"F. W. Woolworth Company\") in 1912\\.", "In 1920, the population of Fall River peaked at 120,485\\.U.S. Census. *1940 Population Reports*. p. 32", "", "Image:North Main Street, Fall River, MA.jpg\\|North Main Street, {{circa\\|1910}}\nImage:First Cotton Mill, Fall River, MA.jpg\\|First Cotton Mill, built in 1811\nImage:Printing Works, Fall River, MA.jpg\\|Printing Works, {{circa\\|1920}}\nImage:The Charlton Block, Fall River, Mass..jpg\\|The Charlton Block, 1908", "", "The cotton mills of Fall River had built their business largely on one product: print cloth. Around 1910, the city's largest employer, the [American Printing Company](/wiki/American_Printing_Company_%28Fall_River_Iron_Works%29 \"American Printing Company (Fall River Iron Works)\") (APC), employed 6,000 people and was the largest company printer of cloth in the world. Dozens of other city mills solely produced cloth to be printed at the APC.", "[World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") had provided a general increase in demand for textiles, and many of the mills of [New England](/wiki/New_England \"New England\") benefited during this time. The post\\-war economy quickly slowed, however, and production quickly outpaced demand. The Northern mills faced serious competition from their Southern counterparts due to lower labor and transportation costs, as well as the South's large investment in new machinery and other equipment. In 1923, Fall River faced the first wave of mill closures. Several of the mills merged, allowing them to remain in business into the late 1920s.", "The worst fire in Fall River's history occurred on the evening of February 2, 1928\\.[Sailsinc.org](http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/fire.pdf) Picture of the Worst Fire in Fall River's History It began when workers were dismantling the recently vacated [Pocasset Mill](/wiki/Pocasset_Manufacturing_Company \"Pocasset Manufacturing Company\"). During the night, the fire spread quickly and wiped out a large portion of downtown. City Hall was spared, but was badly damaged. Today, many of the structures near the corner of North Main and Bedford Street date from the early 1930s, as they were rebuilt soon after the fire.", "By the 1930s and the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"), many of the mills were out of business and the city was bankrupt. The once mighty [American Printing Company](/wiki/American_Printing_Company_%28Fall_River_Iron_Works%29 \"American Printing Company (Fall River Iron Works)\") finally closed for good in 1934\\. In 1937, their huge plant waterfront on Water Street was acquired by the [Firestone Tire \\& Rubber Company](/wiki/Firestone_Tire_%26_Rubber_Company \"Firestone Tire & Rubber Company\") and soon employed 2,600 people. A handful managed to survive through [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") and into the 1950s. In October 1941, just a few weeks before the attack on [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\"), another large fire broke out in the main building of the printworks. The fire was a major setback to the U.S. war effort; 30,000 pounds (13,607 kilograms) of raw rubber worth $15 million was lost in the inferno.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/fulltext.htm\\|title\\=Keeley Library, B.M.C. Durfee High School \\- Full\\-text Online Books \\& Articles\\|website\\=sailsinc.org}}", "With the demise of the textile industry, many of the city's mills were occupied by smaller companies, some in the garment industry, traditionally based in the [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") area but attracted to [New England](/wiki/New_England \"New England\") by the lure of cheap factory space and an eager workforce in need of jobs.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sec.state.ma.us/mhc/mhcpdf/Town%20reports/SE\\-Mass/flr.pdf\\|title\\=MHC Survey, 1982}} The garment industry survived in the city well into the 1990s, by which point it had fallen victim to [globalization](/wiki/Globalization \"Globalization\") and foreign competition.[History of Fall River's Garment Industry](http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/lambert.pdf) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080627160246/http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/lambert.pdf \\|date\\=June 27, 2008 }}", "#### Modern era", "[thumb\\|upright\\=.8\\|Old City Hall, demolished in 1962 for construction of Interstate 195](/wiki/File:Fall_River_Old_City_Hall_color_image.jpg \"Fall River Old City Hall color image.jpg\")\nIn the 1960s, the city's landscape was drastically transformed with the construction of the [Braga Bridge](/wiki/Charles_M._Braga_Jr._Memorial_Bridge \"Charles M. Braga Jr. Memorial Bridge\") and Interstate 195, which cut directly through the heart of the city. In the wake of the highway building boom, the city lost many of its longtime landmarks. The [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River \"Quequechan River\") was filled in and re\\-routed for much of its length. The historic falls were diverted into underground culverts. A series of elevated steel viaducts was constructed to allow access the new bridge. Many historic buildings were demolished, including the Old City Hall, the Troy Mills, the Second Granite Block (built after the 1928 fire), as well as other 19th\\-century brick\\-and\\-mortar buildings near Old City Hall.", "Constructed directly over Interstate 195 in the place of it predecessor, the new city hall (known as Government Center) was opened in 1976 after years of construction delays and quality control problems. Built in the [Brutalist](/wiki/Brutalist \"Brutalist\") style popular in the 1960s and 1970s, the new city hall drew complaints from city workers and residents almost immediately.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2022}}", "In 1970, [Valle's Steak House](/wiki/Valle%27s_Steak_House \"Valle's Steak House\") opened one of its landmark restaurants on William S. Canning Boulevard in the city's South End. The steak house was popular with Fall River residents, but economic challenges caused the chain to close all of its restaurants in the 1980s.\"Valle's Steak House, opened in 1970 and demolished in 1984\" (August 6, 2012\\) *The Herald News* (Fall River, Mass.)[http://www.heraldnews.com/photos/timeframes/x1225369819/Valles\\-Steak\\-House\\-opened\\-in\\-1970\\-and\\-demolished\\-in\\-1984](http://www.heraldnews.com/photos/timeframes/x1225369819/Valles-Steak-House-opened-in-1970-and-demolished-in-1984)", "Also during the 1970s, several modern apartment high\\-rise towers were built throughout the city, many part of the Fall River Housing Authority. There were two built near Milliken Boulevard, two on Pleasant Street in Flint Village, another on South Main Street, and in the north end off Robeson Street. Today, these high\\-rises mostly house the elderly.", "In 1978, the city opened the new B.M.C. Durfee High School in the North End, replacing the historic Rock Street building that had become overcrowded and outdated for use as a high school. The \"new\" Durfee is one of the largest high schools in [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts \"Massachusetts\").", "Since approximately 1980, there has been a considerable amount of new development in the North End of the city. A significant number of new single\\- and multi\\-family housing developments have been constructed, particularly along North Main Street.", "In 2017, Fall River was ranked the 51st most dangerous city in the United States. It was also the third most dangerous city in Massachusetts and fourth most dangerous city in New England.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Schiller \\|first1\\=Andrew \\|title\\=NeighborhoodScout's Most Dangerous Cities \\- 2021 \\|url\\=https://www.neighborhoodscout.com/blog/top100dangerous \\|website\\=Neighborhoodscout.com \\|date\\=January 2, 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=January 2, 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 8, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170308110815/https://www.neighborhoodscout.com/blog/top100dangerous \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "On January 20, 2019, a cannabis dispensary opened in Fall River, becoming only the sixth dispensary in Massachusetts and the first in Southeastern Massachusetts to open to anyone 21 years or older.{{cite web \\|title\\=The Northeast Alternatives Story \\|url\\=https://nealternatives.com/history\\-northeast\\-alternatives/ \\|website\\=Northeast Alternatives \\|access\\-date\\=May 31, 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=May 31, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531152542/https://nealternatives.com/history\\-northeast\\-alternatives/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "" ]
### Colonial period to 1800s [thumb\|upright\=1\.1\|An 1877 [pictorial map](/wiki/Pictorial_map "Pictorial map") of Fall River with a list of the city's sights](/wiki/File:City_of_Fall_River%2C_Mass._1877._LOC_75694571.jpg "City of Fall River, Mass. 1877. LOC 75694571.jpg") At the time of the establishment of the [Plymouth Colony](/wiki/Plymouth_Colony "Plymouth Colony") in 1620, the area that would one day become Troy City was inhabited by the [Pocasset](/wiki/Pocasset_people "Pocasset people") [Wampanoag](/wiki/Wampanoag_people "Wampanoag people") tribe, affiliated with the Pokanoket Confederacy headquartered at [Mount Hope](/wiki/Mount_Hope_%28Rhode_Island%29 "Mount Hope (Rhode Island)") in what is now [Bristol, Rhode Island](/wiki/Bristol%2C_Rhode_Island "Bristol, Rhode Island"). The "falling" river that the city's name refers to is the [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River "Quequechan River") (pronounced "quick\-a\-shan" by locals) a 2\.5 mi (4km) river which flows through the city before draining into the bay. *Quequechan* is a [Wampanoag](/wiki/Massachusett_language "Massachusett language") word believed to mean "falling river" or "leaping/falling waters." During the 1960s, [Interstate 195](/wiki/Interstate_195_%28Rhode_Island_%E2%80%93_Massachusetts%29 "Interstate 195 (Rhode Island – Massachusetts)") was constructed through the city along the length of the Quequechan River. The portion west of Plymouth Avenue was routed underground through a series of box culverts, while much of the eastern section "mill pond" was filled in for the highway embankment. In 1653, [Freetown](/wiki/Freetown%2C_Massachusetts "Freetown, Massachusetts") was settled at [Assonet Bay](/wiki/Assonet_Bay "Assonet Bay") by members of the Massachusetts Bay Colony as part of Freeman's Purchase, which included the northern part of what is now Fall River. In 1683, Freetown was incorporated as a town within the colony. The southern part of what is now Fall River was incorporated as the town of Tiverton as part of the [Massachusetts Bay Colony](/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony "Massachusetts Bay Colony") in 1694, a few years after the merger with Plymouth Colony. In 1746, in the settlement of a colonial boundary dispute between Rhode Island and Massachusetts, [Tiverton](/wiki/Tiverton%2C_Rhode_Island "Tiverton, Rhode Island") was annexed to [Rhode Island](/wiki/Rhode_Island "Rhode Island"), along with Little Compton and what is now [Newport County, Rhode Island](/wiki/Newport_County%2C_Rhode_Island "Newport County, Rhode Island"). The boundary was then placed approximately at what is now Columbia Street. In 1703, Benjamin Church, a hero of [King Philip's War](/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War "King Philip's War") established a [saw mill](/wiki/Saw_mill "Saw mill"), [grist mill](/wiki/Grist_mill "Grist mill"), and a [fulling](/wiki/Fulling "Fulling") mill on the Quequechan River. In 1714, Church sold his land, along with the water rights to Richard Borden of Tiverton and his brother Joseph. This transaction would prove to be extremely valuable 100 years later, helping to establish the Borden family as the leaders in the development of Fall River's textile industry. During the 18th century, the area consisted mostly of small farms and relatively few inhabitants. In 1778, the [Battle of Freetown](/wiki/Battle_of_Freetown "Battle of Freetown"), was fought here during the [American Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War "American Revolutionary War") (1775–1783\) after British raids badly damaged Bristol and Warren. The militia of Fall River, at that time known as Freetown, put up a stronger defense against a [British](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain "Kingdom of Great Britain") force. In 1803, Fall River was separated from Freetown and officially incorporated as its own [town](/wiki/New_England_town "New England town"). A year later, Fall River changed its name to "Troy." The name "Troy" was used for 30 years and was officially changed back to Fall River on February 12, 1834\. During this period, Fall River was governed by a three\-member [Board of Selectmen](/wiki/List_of_selectmen_of_Fall_River%2C_Massachusetts "List of selectmen of Fall River, Massachusetts"), until it became a City in 1854\. In 1835, The [Fall River Female Anti Slavery Society](/wiki/Fall_River_Female_Anti_Slavery_Society "Fall River Female Anti Slavery Society") was formed (one of the many anti\-slavery societies in New England) to promote abolition and to allow a women's space to conduct social activism. There was an initial group, which was wary of allowing free black full membership, so a second group (this one) was formed in response by [Elizabeth Buffum Chace](/wiki/Elizabeth_Buffum_Chace "Elizabeth Buffum Chace") and her sisters, who were committed to allowing free black women membership.Stevens, Elizabeth C. *Elizabeth Buffum Chace and Lillie Chace Wyman: A Century of Abolitionist, Suffragist, and Workers' Rights Activism*. United States: McFarland Publishing, 2003\. Sarah G. Buffman, a delegate from the group, was sent to the [Anti\-Slavery Convention of American Women](/wiki/Anti-Slavery_Convention_of_American_Women "Anti-Slavery Convention of American Women") in Philadelphia in 1838\. Buffman signed all three of the statements that the convention's delegates agreed on.Ira V. Brown, ""Am I Not a Woman and a Sister?" The Anti Slavery Convention of American Women, 1837\-1839", Pennsylvania State University In July 1843, the first great fire in Fall River's history destroyed much of the town center, including the Atheneum, which housed the [Skeleton in Armor](/wiki/The_Skeleton_in_Armor "The Skeleton in Armor") which had been discovered in a sand bank in 1832 near what is now the corner of Hartwell and Fifth Street. During this time, the southern part of what is now Fall River (south of Columbia Street) remained part of [Tiverton, Rhode Island](/wiki/Tiverton%2C_Rhode_Island "Tiverton, Rhode Island"). In 1856, the town of Tiverton, Rhode Island voted to split off its industrial northern section as Fall River, Rhode Island. In 1861, after decades of dispute, the [United States Supreme Court](/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court "United States Supreme Court") moved the state boundary to what is now State Avenue, unifying both Fall Rivers as a city in Massachusetts (among other changes; see {{section link\|History of Massachusetts\|Rhode Island eastern border}}).
[ "### Colonial period to 1800s", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.1\\|An 1877 [pictorial map](/wiki/Pictorial_map \"Pictorial map\") of Fall River with a list of the city's sights](/wiki/File:City_of_Fall_River%2C_Mass._1877._LOC_75694571.jpg \"City of Fall River, Mass. 1877. LOC 75694571.jpg\")\nAt the time of the establishment of the [Plymouth Colony](/wiki/Plymouth_Colony \"Plymouth Colony\") in 1620, the area that would one day become Troy City was inhabited by the [Pocasset](/wiki/Pocasset_people \"Pocasset people\") [Wampanoag](/wiki/Wampanoag_people \"Wampanoag people\") tribe, affiliated with the Pokanoket Confederacy headquartered at [Mount Hope](/wiki/Mount_Hope_%28Rhode_Island%29 \"Mount Hope (Rhode Island)\") in what is now [Bristol, Rhode Island](/wiki/Bristol%2C_Rhode_Island \"Bristol, Rhode Island\"). The \"falling\" river that the city's name refers to is the [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River \"Quequechan River\") (pronounced \"quick\\-a\\-shan\" by locals) a 2\\.5 mi (4km) river which flows through the city before draining into the bay. *Quequechan* is a [Wampanoag](/wiki/Massachusett_language \"Massachusett language\") word believed to mean \"falling river\" or \"leaping/falling waters.\" During the 1960s, [Interstate 195](/wiki/Interstate_195_%28Rhode_Island_%E2%80%93_Massachusetts%29 \"Interstate 195 (Rhode Island – Massachusetts)\") was constructed through the city along the length of the Quequechan River. The portion west of Plymouth Avenue was routed underground through a series of box culverts, while much of the eastern section \"mill pond\" was filled in for the highway embankment.", "In 1653, [Freetown](/wiki/Freetown%2C_Massachusetts \"Freetown, Massachusetts\") was settled at [Assonet Bay](/wiki/Assonet_Bay \"Assonet Bay\") by members of the Massachusetts Bay Colony as part of Freeman's Purchase, which included the northern part of what is now Fall River. In 1683, Freetown was incorporated as a town within the colony. The southern part of what is now Fall River was incorporated as the town of Tiverton as part of the [Massachusetts Bay Colony](/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony \"Massachusetts Bay Colony\") in 1694, a few years after the merger with Plymouth Colony. In 1746, in the settlement of a colonial boundary dispute between Rhode Island and Massachusetts, [Tiverton](/wiki/Tiverton%2C_Rhode_Island \"Tiverton, Rhode Island\") was annexed to [Rhode Island](/wiki/Rhode_Island \"Rhode Island\"), along with Little Compton and what is now [Newport County, Rhode Island](/wiki/Newport_County%2C_Rhode_Island \"Newport County, Rhode Island\"). The boundary was then placed approximately at what is now Columbia Street.", "In 1703, Benjamin Church, a hero of [King Philip's War](/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War \"King Philip's War\") established a [saw mill](/wiki/Saw_mill \"Saw mill\"), [grist mill](/wiki/Grist_mill \"Grist mill\"), and a [fulling](/wiki/Fulling \"Fulling\") mill on the Quequechan River. In 1714, Church sold his land, along with the water rights to Richard Borden of Tiverton and his brother Joseph. This transaction would prove to be extremely valuable 100 years later, helping to establish the Borden family as the leaders in the development of Fall River's textile industry.", "During the 18th century, the area consisted mostly of small farms and relatively few inhabitants. In 1778, the [Battle of Freetown](/wiki/Battle_of_Freetown \"Battle of Freetown\"), was fought here during the [American Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War \"American Revolutionary War\") (1775–1783\\) after British raids badly damaged Bristol and Warren. The militia of Fall River, at that time known as Freetown, put up a stronger defense against a [British](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain \"Kingdom of Great Britain\") force.", "In 1803, Fall River was separated from Freetown and officially incorporated as its own [town](/wiki/New_England_town \"New England town\"). A year later, Fall River changed its name to \"Troy.\" The name \"Troy\" was used for 30 years and was officially changed back to Fall River on February 12, 1834\\. During this period, Fall River was governed by a three\\-member [Board of Selectmen](/wiki/List_of_selectmen_of_Fall_River%2C_Massachusetts \"List of selectmen of Fall River, Massachusetts\"), until it became a City in 1854\\.", "In 1835, The [Fall River Female Anti Slavery Society](/wiki/Fall_River_Female_Anti_Slavery_Society \"Fall River Female Anti Slavery Society\") was formed (one of the many anti\\-slavery societies in New England) to promote abolition and to allow a women's space to conduct social activism. There was an initial group, which was wary of allowing free black full membership, so a second group (this one) was formed in response by [Elizabeth Buffum Chace](/wiki/Elizabeth_Buffum_Chace \"Elizabeth Buffum Chace\") and her sisters, who were committed to allowing free black women membership.Stevens, Elizabeth C. *Elizabeth Buffum Chace and Lillie Chace Wyman: A Century of Abolitionist, Suffragist, and Workers' Rights Activism*. United States: McFarland Publishing, 2003\\. Sarah G. Buffman, a delegate from the group, was sent to the [Anti\\-Slavery Convention of American Women](/wiki/Anti-Slavery_Convention_of_American_Women \"Anti-Slavery Convention of American Women\") in Philadelphia in 1838\\. Buffman signed all three of the statements that the convention's delegates agreed on.Ira V. Brown, \"\"Am I Not a Woman and a Sister?\" The Anti Slavery Convention of American Women, 1837\\-1839\", Pennsylvania State University", "In July 1843, the first great fire in Fall River's history destroyed much of the town center, including the Atheneum, which housed the [Skeleton in Armor](/wiki/The_Skeleton_in_Armor \"The Skeleton in Armor\") which had been discovered in a sand bank in 1832 near what is now the corner of Hartwell and Fifth Street.", "During this time, the southern part of what is now Fall River (south of Columbia Street) remained part of [Tiverton, Rhode Island](/wiki/Tiverton%2C_Rhode_Island \"Tiverton, Rhode Island\"). In 1856, the town of Tiverton, Rhode Island voted to split off its industrial northern section as Fall River, Rhode Island. In 1861, after decades of dispute, the [United States Supreme Court](/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court \"United States Supreme Court\") moved the state boundary to what is now State Avenue, unifying both Fall Rivers as a city in Massachusetts (among other changes; see {{section link\\|History of Massachusetts\\|Rhode Island eastern border}}).", "" ]
### Industrial development and prosperity {{See also\|List of mills in Fall River, Massachusetts}} [thumb\|upright\=1\.1\|Group of workers in the Sagamore Manufacturing Company in August 1911 photographed by [Lewis Hine](/wiki/Lewis_Hine "Lewis Hine")](/wiki/File:Child_workers_in_Fall_River%2C_MA.jpg "Child workers in Fall River, MA.jpg") #### 19th century The early establishment of the textile industry in Fall River grew out of the developments made in nearby [Rhode Island](/wiki/Rhode_Island "Rhode Island"), beginning with [Samuel Slater](/wiki/Samuel_Slater "Samuel Slater") at [Pawtucket, Rhode Island](/wiki/Pawtucket%2C_Rhode_Island "Pawtucket, Rhode Island") in 1793\. In 1811, Col. Joseph Durfee, the Revolutionary War veteran and hero of the Battle of Freetown in 1778, built the Globe Manufactory, a spinning mill at the outlet of Cook Pond on Dwelly St. near what is now Globe Four Corners in the city's South End. (It was part of [Tiverton, Rhode Island](/wiki/Tiverton%2C_Rhode_Island "Tiverton, Rhode Island") at the time.) While Durfee's mill itself was not particularly successful, its establishment marked the beginning of Fall River's time as a mill city. The real development of Fall River's industry, however, would occur along the falling river from which it was named, about a mile north of Durfee's first mill. The [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River "Quequechan River"), with its eight falls, combined to make Fall River the best tidewater privilege in southern New England. It was perfect for industrialization—big enough for profit and expansion, yet small enough to be developed by local capital without interference from [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston").*The Run of the Mill*, Dunwell, Steve, 1978 The [Fall River Manufactory](/wiki/Fall_River_Manufactory "Fall River Manufactory") was established by David Anthony and others in 1813\. That same year, the [Troy Cotton \& Woolen Manufactory](/wiki/Troy_Cotton_%26_Woolen_Manufactory "Troy Cotton & Woolen Manufactory") was founded by a group of investors led by [Oliver Chace](/wiki/Oliver_Chace "Oliver Chace") of Swansea. Chace had worked as a carpenter for [Samuel Slater](/wiki/Samuel_Slater "Samuel Slater") in his early years. The Troy Mill opened in 1814 at the upper end of the falls. In 1821, [Colonel Richard Borden](/wiki/Colonel_Richard_Borden "Colonel Richard Borden") (along with Maj. Bradford Durfee) established the [Fall River Iron Works](/wiki/Fall_River_Iron_Works "Fall River Iron Works") at the lower part of the [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River "Quequechan River"). Durfee was a shipwright, and Borden was the owner of a grist mill. After an uncertain start, in which some early investors pulled out, the Fall River Iron Works was incorporated in 1825\. The Iron Works began producing nails, bar stock, and other items, such as bands for casks in the nearby [New Bedford](/wiki/New_Bedford "New Bedford") [whaling](/wiki/Whaling "Whaling") industry. They soon gained a reputation for producing nails of high quality, and business flourished. In 1827, Col. Borden began regular steamship service to [Providence, Rhode Island](/wiki/Providence%2C_Rhode_Island "Providence, Rhode Island").["The Fall River Iron Works Prospered After Shaky Start", Fall River *Herald News*, October 17, 1989](http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/fallriverironworks.pdf) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051227163555/http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/fallriverironworks.pdf \|date\=December 27, 2005 }} The [American Print Works](/wiki/Fall_River_Iron_Works "Fall River Iron Works") was established in 1835 by Holder Borden, uncle of Col. Richard Borden. With the leadership of the Borden family, the American Print Works (later known as the American Printing Company) became the largest and most important textile company in the city, employing thousands at its peak in the early 20th century. Richard Borden also constructed the [Metacomet Mill](/wiki/Metacomet_Mill "Metacomet Mill") in 1847, which today is the oldest remaining textile mill in the city; it is located on Anawan Street. By 1845, the Quequechan's power had been all but maximized. The Massasoit Steam Mill was established in 1846, above the dam near the end of Pleasant Street. However, it would be another decade or so when improvements in the steam engine by [George Corliss](/wiki/George_Henry_Corliss "George Henry Corliss") would enable the construction of the first large steam\-powered mill in the city, the Union Mills in 1859\. The advantage of being able to import bales of cotton and coal to fuel the steam engines to Fall River's deep water harbor (and ship them out from the same) made Fall River the city of choice for a series of cotton mill magnates. The first railroad line serving Fall River, The Fall River Branch Railroad, was incorporated in 1844 and opened in 1845\. In 1847, the first regular steamboat service to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") began. The [Fall River Line](/wiki/Fall_River_Line "Fall River Line"), as it came to be known, operated until 1937, and for many years was the preferred way to travel between [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston") and [Manhattan](/wiki/Manhattan "Manhattan"). The [Old Colony Railroad](/wiki/Old_Colony_Railroad "Old Colony Railroad") and Fall River Railroad merged in 1854, forming the Old Colony and Fall River Railroad. In 1854, Fall River was officially incorporated as a city; it had a population of about 12,000\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/1903\.pdf\|title\=Illustrated History of Fall River, 1903}} Its first [mayor](/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Fall_River%2C_Massachusetts "List of mayors of Fall River, Massachusetts") was James Buffington. Fall River profited well from the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") and was in a fine position to take advantage of the prosperity that followed. By 1868, it had surpassed Lowell as the leading textile city in America with over 500,000 spindles. #### Expansion and growth [thumb\|upright\=1\.1\|Border City Mill](/wiki/File:Bordercity.jpg "Bordercity.jpg") In 1871 and 1872, a "most dramatic expansion" of the city occurred: 15 new corporations were founded, building 22 new mills throughout the city, while some of the older mills expanded. The city's population increased by 20,000 people during these two years, while overall mill capacity doubled to more than 1,000,000 spindles. By 1876, the city had one\-sixth of all New England cotton capacity and one\-half of all print cloth production. The Spindle City, as it became known, was second in the world to only Manchester, England in terms of output. To house the thousands of new workers—mostly [Irish](/wiki/Irish_diaspora "Irish diaspora") and [French Canadian](/wiki/French_Canadian "French Canadian") immigrants during these years—over 12,000 units of company housing were built. Unlike the well\-spaced boardinghouses and tidy cottages of [Rhode Island](/wiki/Rhode_Island "Rhode Island"), worker housing in Fall River consisted of thousands of wood\-framed, multi\-family tenements, usually three\-floor "[triple\-deckers](/wiki/Triple-decker "Triple-decker")" with up to six apartments. Many more privately owned tenements supplemented the company housing.*The Run of the Mill*, Dunwell, Steve, 1978, p.105\-110 During the 19th century, Fall River became famous for the granite rock on which much of the city is built. Several granite quarries operated during this time, the largest of which was the Beattie Granite Quarry, near what is now the corner of North Quarry and Locust Streets.[2003 "Local Rock Vital in City's Construction", *Herald News*, February 26, 2003](http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/localrock.pdf) Many of the mills in the city were built from this stone, and it was highly regarded as a building material for many public buildings and private homes alike. The [Chateau\-sur\-Mer](/wiki/Chateau-sur-Mer "Chateau-sur-Mer") mansion in [Newport, Rhode Island](/wiki/Newport%2C_Rhode_Island "Newport, Rhode Island") was constructed from [Fall River granite](/wiki/Fall_River_granite "Fall River granite"), known for its greyish\-pink color. While most of the mills "above the hill" were constructed from native Fall River granite, nearly all of their counterparts along the [Taunton River](/wiki/Taunton_River "Taunton River") and [Mount Hope Bay](/wiki/Mount_Hope_Bay "Mount Hope Bay") were made of red brick due to the high costs and impracticality associated with transporting the rock through the city and down the hill. (One notable exception is the Sagamore Mills on North Main Street, which were constructed from similar rock quarried in Freetown and brought to the site by rail). #### 20th century [thumb\|upright\=1\.1\|[Davol Mills](/wiki/Davol_Mills "Davol Mills")](/wiki/File:Davol_Mills_Fall_River.jpg "Davol Mills Fall River.jpg") [thumb\|upright\=1\.1\|[Massachusetts Route 79](/wiki/Massachusetts_Route_79 "Massachusetts Route 79") viaduct and Braga Bridge in Fall River. The [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River "Quequechan River") flows beneath the parking lot. The viaduct was demolished in 2014 and replaced with a surface boulevard.](/wiki/File:Highway_79.jpg "Highway 79.jpg") Fall River rode a wave of economic prosperity well into the early 20th century. During this time, the city boasted a bustling downtown with several upscale hotels and theaters. As the city continuously expanded during the late 19th century, additional infrastructure such as parks, schools, streetcar lines, a public water supply, and sewerage system were constructed to meet the needs of its growing population. From 1896 to 1912, Fall River was the headquarters of the [E. P. Charlton \& Company](/wiki/E._P._Charlton_%26_Company "E. P. Charlton & Company"), a chain of [five and ten cent stores](/wiki/Variety_store "Variety store"). Founded at Fall River in 1890 by [Seymour H. Knox](/wiki/Seymour_H._Knox_I "Seymour H. Knox I") and Earle Perry Charlton as the Knox \& Charlton Five and Ten Cent Store, E.P. Charlton operated fifty\-eight stores in the United States and Canada by the time of its merger with several other retailers to form the [F. W. Woolworth Company](/wiki/F._W._Woolworth_Company "F. W. Woolworth Company") in 1912\. In 1920, the population of Fall River peaked at 120,485\.U.S. Census. *1940 Population Reports*. p. 32 Image:North Main Street, Fall River, MA.jpg\|North Main Street, {{circa\|1910}} Image:First Cotton Mill, Fall River, MA.jpg\|First Cotton Mill, built in 1811 Image:Printing Works, Fall River, MA.jpg\|Printing Works, {{circa\|1920}} Image:The Charlton Block, Fall River, Mass..jpg\|The Charlton Block, 1908 The cotton mills of Fall River had built their business largely on one product: print cloth. Around 1910, the city's largest employer, the [American Printing Company](/wiki/American_Printing_Company_%28Fall_River_Iron_Works%29 "American Printing Company (Fall River Iron Works)") (APC), employed 6,000 people and was the largest company printer of cloth in the world. Dozens of other city mills solely produced cloth to be printed at the APC. [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") had provided a general increase in demand for textiles, and many of the mills of [New England](/wiki/New_England "New England") benefited during this time. The post\-war economy quickly slowed, however, and production quickly outpaced demand. The Northern mills faced serious competition from their Southern counterparts due to lower labor and transportation costs, as well as the South's large investment in new machinery and other equipment. In 1923, Fall River faced the first wave of mill closures. Several of the mills merged, allowing them to remain in business into the late 1920s. The worst fire in Fall River's history occurred on the evening of February 2, 1928\.[Sailsinc.org](http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/fire.pdf) Picture of the Worst Fire in Fall River's History It began when workers were dismantling the recently vacated [Pocasset Mill](/wiki/Pocasset_Manufacturing_Company "Pocasset Manufacturing Company"). During the night, the fire spread quickly and wiped out a large portion of downtown. City Hall was spared, but was badly damaged. Today, many of the structures near the corner of North Main and Bedford Street date from the early 1930s, as they were rebuilt soon after the fire. By the 1930s and the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"), many of the mills were out of business and the city was bankrupt. The once mighty [American Printing Company](/wiki/American_Printing_Company_%28Fall_River_Iron_Works%29 "American Printing Company (Fall River Iron Works)") finally closed for good in 1934\. In 1937, their huge plant waterfront on Water Street was acquired by the [Firestone Tire \& Rubber Company](/wiki/Firestone_Tire_%26_Rubber_Company "Firestone Tire & Rubber Company") and soon employed 2,600 people. A handful managed to survive through [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") and into the 1950s. In October 1941, just a few weeks before the attack on [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor "Pearl Harbor"), another large fire broke out in the main building of the printworks. The fire was a major setback to the U.S. war effort; 30,000 pounds (13,607 kilograms) of raw rubber worth $15 million was lost in the inferno.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/fulltext.htm\|title\=Keeley Library, B.M.C. Durfee High School \- Full\-text Online Books \& Articles\|website\=sailsinc.org}} With the demise of the textile industry, many of the city's mills were occupied by smaller companies, some in the garment industry, traditionally based in the [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") area but attracted to [New England](/wiki/New_England "New England") by the lure of cheap factory space and an eager workforce in need of jobs.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sec.state.ma.us/mhc/mhcpdf/Town%20reports/SE\-Mass/flr.pdf\|title\=MHC Survey, 1982}} The garment industry survived in the city well into the 1990s, by which point it had fallen victim to [globalization](/wiki/Globalization "Globalization") and foreign competition.[History of Fall River's Garment Industry](http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/lambert.pdf) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080627160246/http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/lambert.pdf \|date\=June 27, 2008 }} #### Modern era [thumb\|upright\=.8\|Old City Hall, demolished in 1962 for construction of Interstate 195](/wiki/File:Fall_River_Old_City_Hall_color_image.jpg "Fall River Old City Hall color image.jpg") In the 1960s, the city's landscape was drastically transformed with the construction of the [Braga Bridge](/wiki/Charles_M._Braga_Jr._Memorial_Bridge "Charles M. Braga Jr. Memorial Bridge") and Interstate 195, which cut directly through the heart of the city. In the wake of the highway building boom, the city lost many of its longtime landmarks. The [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River "Quequechan River") was filled in and re\-routed for much of its length. The historic falls were diverted into underground culverts. A series of elevated steel viaducts was constructed to allow access the new bridge. Many historic buildings were demolished, including the Old City Hall, the Troy Mills, the Second Granite Block (built after the 1928 fire), as well as other 19th\-century brick\-and\-mortar buildings near Old City Hall. Constructed directly over Interstate 195 in the place of it predecessor, the new city hall (known as Government Center) was opened in 1976 after years of construction delays and quality control problems. Built in the [Brutalist](/wiki/Brutalist "Brutalist") style popular in the 1960s and 1970s, the new city hall drew complaints from city workers and residents almost immediately.{{Citation needed\|date\=October 2022}} In 1970, [Valle's Steak House](/wiki/Valle%27s_Steak_House "Valle's Steak House") opened one of its landmark restaurants on William S. Canning Boulevard in the city's South End. The steak house was popular with Fall River residents, but economic challenges caused the chain to close all of its restaurants in the 1980s."Valle's Steak House, opened in 1970 and demolished in 1984" (August 6, 2012\) *The Herald News* (Fall River, Mass.)[http://www.heraldnews.com/photos/timeframes/x1225369819/Valles\-Steak\-House\-opened\-in\-1970\-and\-demolished\-in\-1984](http://www.heraldnews.com/photos/timeframes/x1225369819/Valles-Steak-House-opened-in-1970-and-demolished-in-1984) Also during the 1970s, several modern apartment high\-rise towers were built throughout the city, many part of the Fall River Housing Authority. There were two built near Milliken Boulevard, two on Pleasant Street in Flint Village, another on South Main Street, and in the north end off Robeson Street. Today, these high\-rises mostly house the elderly. In 1978, the city opened the new B.M.C. Durfee High School in the North End, replacing the historic Rock Street building that had become overcrowded and outdated for use as a high school. The "new" Durfee is one of the largest high schools in [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts "Massachusetts"). Since approximately 1980, there has been a considerable amount of new development in the North End of the city. A significant number of new single\- and multi\-family housing developments have been constructed, particularly along North Main Street. In 2017, Fall River was ranked the 51st most dangerous city in the United States. It was also the third most dangerous city in Massachusetts and fourth most dangerous city in New England.{{cite web \|last1\=Schiller \|first1\=Andrew \|title\=NeighborhoodScout's Most Dangerous Cities \- 2021 \|url\=https://www.neighborhoodscout.com/blog/top100dangerous \|website\=Neighborhoodscout.com \|date\=January 2, 2021 \|access\-date\=January 2, 2021 \|archive\-date\=March 8, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170308110815/https://www.neighborhoodscout.com/blog/top100dangerous \|url\-status\=dead }} On January 20, 2019, a cannabis dispensary opened in Fall River, becoming only the sixth dispensary in Massachusetts and the first in Southeastern Massachusetts to open to anyone 21 years or older.{{cite web \|title\=The Northeast Alternatives Story \|url\=https://nealternatives.com/history\-northeast\-alternatives/ \|website\=Northeast Alternatives \|access\-date\=May 31, 2019 \|archive\-date\=May 31, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531152542/https://nealternatives.com/history\-northeast\-alternatives/ \|url\-status\=dead }}
[ "### Industrial development and prosperity", "{{See also\\|List of mills in Fall River, Massachusetts}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.1\\|Group of workers in the Sagamore Manufacturing Company in August 1911 photographed by [Lewis Hine](/wiki/Lewis_Hine \"Lewis Hine\")](/wiki/File:Child_workers_in_Fall_River%2C_MA.jpg \"Child workers in Fall River, MA.jpg\")", "#### 19th century", "The early establishment of the textile industry in Fall River grew out of the developments made in nearby [Rhode Island](/wiki/Rhode_Island \"Rhode Island\"), beginning with [Samuel Slater](/wiki/Samuel_Slater \"Samuel Slater\") at [Pawtucket, Rhode Island](/wiki/Pawtucket%2C_Rhode_Island \"Pawtucket, Rhode Island\") in 1793\\. In 1811, Col. Joseph Durfee, the Revolutionary War veteran and hero of the Battle of Freetown in 1778, built the Globe Manufactory, a spinning mill at the outlet of Cook Pond on Dwelly St. near what is now Globe Four Corners in the city's South End. (It was part of [Tiverton, Rhode Island](/wiki/Tiverton%2C_Rhode_Island \"Tiverton, Rhode Island\") at the time.) While Durfee's mill itself was not particularly successful, its establishment marked the beginning of Fall River's time as a mill city.", "The real development of Fall River's industry, however, would occur along the falling river from which it was named, about a mile north of Durfee's first mill. The [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River \"Quequechan River\"), with its eight falls, combined to make Fall River the best tidewater privilege in southern New England. It was perfect for industrialization—big enough for profit and expansion, yet small enough to be developed by local capital without interference from [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\").*The Run of the Mill*, Dunwell, Steve, 1978", "The [Fall River Manufactory](/wiki/Fall_River_Manufactory \"Fall River Manufactory\") was established by David Anthony and others in 1813\\. That same year, the [Troy Cotton \\& Woolen Manufactory](/wiki/Troy_Cotton_%26_Woolen_Manufactory \"Troy Cotton & Woolen Manufactory\") was founded by a group of investors led by [Oliver Chace](/wiki/Oliver_Chace \"Oliver Chace\") of Swansea. Chace had worked as a carpenter for [Samuel Slater](/wiki/Samuel_Slater \"Samuel Slater\") in his early years. The Troy Mill opened in 1814 at the upper end of the falls.", "In 1821, [Colonel Richard Borden](/wiki/Colonel_Richard_Borden \"Colonel Richard Borden\") (along with Maj. Bradford Durfee) established the [Fall River Iron Works](/wiki/Fall_River_Iron_Works \"Fall River Iron Works\") at the lower part of the [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River \"Quequechan River\"). Durfee was a shipwright, and Borden was the owner of a grist mill. After an uncertain start, in which some early investors pulled out, the Fall River Iron Works was incorporated in 1825\\. The Iron Works began producing nails, bar stock, and other items, such as bands for casks in the nearby [New Bedford](/wiki/New_Bedford \"New Bedford\") [whaling](/wiki/Whaling \"Whaling\") industry. They soon gained a reputation for producing nails of high quality, and business flourished. In 1827, Col. Borden began regular steamship service to [Providence, Rhode Island](/wiki/Providence%2C_Rhode_Island \"Providence, Rhode Island\").[\"The Fall River Iron Works Prospered After Shaky Start\", Fall River *Herald News*, October 17, 1989](http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/fallriverironworks.pdf) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051227163555/http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/fallriverironworks.pdf \\|date\\=December 27, 2005 }}", "The [American Print Works](/wiki/Fall_River_Iron_Works \"Fall River Iron Works\") was established in 1835 by Holder Borden, uncle of Col. Richard Borden. With the leadership of the Borden family, the American Print Works (later known as the American Printing Company) became the largest and most important textile company in the city, employing thousands at its peak in the early 20th century. Richard Borden also constructed the [Metacomet Mill](/wiki/Metacomet_Mill \"Metacomet Mill\") in 1847, which today is the oldest remaining textile mill in the city; it is located on Anawan Street.", "By 1845, the Quequechan's power had been all but maximized. The Massasoit Steam Mill was established in 1846, above the dam near the end of Pleasant Street. However, it would be another decade or so when improvements in the steam engine by [George Corliss](/wiki/George_Henry_Corliss \"George Henry Corliss\") would enable the construction of the first large steam\\-powered mill in the city, the Union Mills in 1859\\.", "The advantage of being able to import bales of cotton and coal to fuel the steam engines to Fall River's deep water harbor (and ship them out from the same) made Fall River the city of choice for a series of cotton mill magnates. The first railroad line serving Fall River, The Fall River Branch Railroad, was incorporated in 1844 and opened in 1845\\. In 1847, the first regular steamboat service to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") began. The [Fall River Line](/wiki/Fall_River_Line \"Fall River Line\"), as it came to be known, operated until 1937, and for many years was the preferred way to travel between [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\") and [Manhattan](/wiki/Manhattan \"Manhattan\"). The [Old Colony Railroad](/wiki/Old_Colony_Railroad \"Old Colony Railroad\") and Fall River Railroad merged in 1854, forming the Old Colony and Fall River Railroad.", "In 1854, Fall River was officially incorporated as a city; it had a population of about 12,000\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/1903\\.pdf\\|title\\=Illustrated History of Fall River, 1903}} Its first [mayor](/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Fall_River%2C_Massachusetts \"List of mayors of Fall River, Massachusetts\") was James Buffington.", "Fall River profited well from the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") and was in a fine position to take advantage of the prosperity that followed. By 1868, it had surpassed Lowell as the leading textile city in America with over 500,000 spindles.", "#### Expansion and growth", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.1\\|Border City Mill](/wiki/File:Bordercity.jpg \"Bordercity.jpg\")\nIn 1871 and 1872, a \"most dramatic expansion\" of the city occurred: 15 new corporations were founded, building 22 new mills throughout the city, while some of the older mills expanded. The city's population increased by 20,000 people during these two years, while overall mill capacity doubled to more than 1,000,000 spindles.", "By 1876, the city had one\\-sixth of all New England cotton capacity and one\\-half of all print cloth production. The Spindle City, as it became known, was second in the world to only Manchester, England in terms of output.", "To house the thousands of new workers—mostly [Irish](/wiki/Irish_diaspora \"Irish diaspora\") and [French Canadian](/wiki/French_Canadian \"French Canadian\") immigrants during these years—over 12,000 units of company housing were built. Unlike the well\\-spaced boardinghouses and tidy cottages of [Rhode Island](/wiki/Rhode_Island \"Rhode Island\"), worker housing in Fall River consisted of thousands of wood\\-framed, multi\\-family tenements, usually three\\-floor \"[triple\\-deckers](/wiki/Triple-decker \"Triple-decker\")\" with up to six apartments. Many more privately owned tenements supplemented the company housing.*The Run of the Mill*, Dunwell, Steve, 1978, p.105\\-110", "During the 19th century, Fall River became famous for the granite rock on which much of the city is built. Several granite quarries operated during this time, the largest of which was the Beattie Granite Quarry, near what is now the corner of North Quarry and Locust Streets.[2003 \"Local Rock Vital in City's Construction\", *Herald News*, February 26, 2003](http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/localrock.pdf) Many of the mills in the city were built from this stone, and it was highly regarded as a building material for many public buildings and private homes alike. The [Chateau\\-sur\\-Mer](/wiki/Chateau-sur-Mer \"Chateau-sur-Mer\") mansion in [Newport, Rhode Island](/wiki/Newport%2C_Rhode_Island \"Newport, Rhode Island\") was constructed from [Fall River granite](/wiki/Fall_River_granite \"Fall River granite\"), known for its greyish\\-pink color.", "While most of the mills \"above the hill\" were constructed from native Fall River granite, nearly all of their counterparts along the [Taunton River](/wiki/Taunton_River \"Taunton River\") and [Mount Hope Bay](/wiki/Mount_Hope_Bay \"Mount Hope Bay\") were made of red brick due to the high costs and impracticality associated with transporting the rock through the city and down the hill. (One notable exception is the Sagamore Mills on North Main Street, which were constructed from similar rock quarried in Freetown and brought to the site by rail).", "#### 20th century", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.1\\|[Davol Mills](/wiki/Davol_Mills \"Davol Mills\")](/wiki/File:Davol_Mills_Fall_River.jpg \"Davol Mills Fall River.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.1\\|[Massachusetts Route 79](/wiki/Massachusetts_Route_79 \"Massachusetts Route 79\") viaduct and Braga Bridge in Fall River. The [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River \"Quequechan River\") flows beneath the parking lot. The viaduct was demolished in 2014 and replaced with a surface boulevard.](/wiki/File:Highway_79.jpg \"Highway 79.jpg\")\nFall River rode a wave of economic prosperity well into the early 20th century. During this time, the city boasted a bustling downtown with several upscale hotels and theaters. As the city continuously expanded during the late 19th century, additional infrastructure such as parks, schools, streetcar lines, a public water supply, and sewerage system were constructed to meet the needs of its growing population.", "From 1896 to 1912, Fall River was the headquarters of the [E. P. Charlton \\& Company](/wiki/E._P._Charlton_%26_Company \"E. P. Charlton & Company\"), a chain of [five and ten cent stores](/wiki/Variety_store \"Variety store\"). Founded at Fall River in 1890 by [Seymour H. Knox](/wiki/Seymour_H._Knox_I \"Seymour H. Knox I\") and Earle Perry Charlton as the Knox \\& Charlton Five and Ten Cent Store, E.P. Charlton operated fifty\\-eight stores in the United States and Canada by the time of its merger with several other retailers to form the [F. W. Woolworth Company](/wiki/F._W._Woolworth_Company \"F. W. Woolworth Company\") in 1912\\.", "In 1920, the population of Fall River peaked at 120,485\\.U.S. Census. *1940 Population Reports*. p. 32", "", "Image:North Main Street, Fall River, MA.jpg\\|North Main Street, {{circa\\|1910}}\nImage:First Cotton Mill, Fall River, MA.jpg\\|First Cotton Mill, built in 1811\nImage:Printing Works, Fall River, MA.jpg\\|Printing Works, {{circa\\|1920}}\nImage:The Charlton Block, Fall River, Mass..jpg\\|The Charlton Block, 1908", "", "The cotton mills of Fall River had built their business largely on one product: print cloth. Around 1910, the city's largest employer, the [American Printing Company](/wiki/American_Printing_Company_%28Fall_River_Iron_Works%29 \"American Printing Company (Fall River Iron Works)\") (APC), employed 6,000 people and was the largest company printer of cloth in the world. Dozens of other city mills solely produced cloth to be printed at the APC.", "[World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") had provided a general increase in demand for textiles, and many of the mills of [New England](/wiki/New_England \"New England\") benefited during this time. The post\\-war economy quickly slowed, however, and production quickly outpaced demand. The Northern mills faced serious competition from their Southern counterparts due to lower labor and transportation costs, as well as the South's large investment in new machinery and other equipment. In 1923, Fall River faced the first wave of mill closures. Several of the mills merged, allowing them to remain in business into the late 1920s.", "The worst fire in Fall River's history occurred on the evening of February 2, 1928\\.[Sailsinc.org](http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/fire.pdf) Picture of the Worst Fire in Fall River's History It began when workers were dismantling the recently vacated [Pocasset Mill](/wiki/Pocasset_Manufacturing_Company \"Pocasset Manufacturing Company\"). During the night, the fire spread quickly and wiped out a large portion of downtown. City Hall was spared, but was badly damaged. Today, many of the structures near the corner of North Main and Bedford Street date from the early 1930s, as they were rebuilt soon after the fire.", "By the 1930s and the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"), many of the mills were out of business and the city was bankrupt. The once mighty [American Printing Company](/wiki/American_Printing_Company_%28Fall_River_Iron_Works%29 \"American Printing Company (Fall River Iron Works)\") finally closed for good in 1934\\. In 1937, their huge plant waterfront on Water Street was acquired by the [Firestone Tire \\& Rubber Company](/wiki/Firestone_Tire_%26_Rubber_Company \"Firestone Tire & Rubber Company\") and soon employed 2,600 people. A handful managed to survive through [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") and into the 1950s. In October 1941, just a few weeks before the attack on [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\"), another large fire broke out in the main building of the printworks. The fire was a major setback to the U.S. war effort; 30,000 pounds (13,607 kilograms) of raw rubber worth $15 million was lost in the inferno.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/fulltext.htm\\|title\\=Keeley Library, B.M.C. Durfee High School \\- Full\\-text Online Books \\& Articles\\|website\\=sailsinc.org}}", "With the demise of the textile industry, many of the city's mills were occupied by smaller companies, some in the garment industry, traditionally based in the [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") area but attracted to [New England](/wiki/New_England \"New England\") by the lure of cheap factory space and an eager workforce in need of jobs.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sec.state.ma.us/mhc/mhcpdf/Town%20reports/SE\\-Mass/flr.pdf\\|title\\=MHC Survey, 1982}} The garment industry survived in the city well into the 1990s, by which point it had fallen victim to [globalization](/wiki/Globalization \"Globalization\") and foreign competition.[History of Fall River's Garment Industry](http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/lambert.pdf) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080627160246/http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/lambert.pdf \\|date\\=June 27, 2008 }}", "#### Modern era", "[thumb\\|upright\\=.8\\|Old City Hall, demolished in 1962 for construction of Interstate 195](/wiki/File:Fall_River_Old_City_Hall_color_image.jpg \"Fall River Old City Hall color image.jpg\")\nIn the 1960s, the city's landscape was drastically transformed with the construction of the [Braga Bridge](/wiki/Charles_M._Braga_Jr._Memorial_Bridge \"Charles M. Braga Jr. Memorial Bridge\") and Interstate 195, which cut directly through the heart of the city. In the wake of the highway building boom, the city lost many of its longtime landmarks. The [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River \"Quequechan River\") was filled in and re\\-routed for much of its length. The historic falls were diverted into underground culverts. A series of elevated steel viaducts was constructed to allow access the new bridge. Many historic buildings were demolished, including the Old City Hall, the Troy Mills, the Second Granite Block (built after the 1928 fire), as well as other 19th\\-century brick\\-and\\-mortar buildings near Old City Hall.", "Constructed directly over Interstate 195 in the place of it predecessor, the new city hall (known as Government Center) was opened in 1976 after years of construction delays and quality control problems. Built in the [Brutalist](/wiki/Brutalist \"Brutalist\") style popular in the 1960s and 1970s, the new city hall drew complaints from city workers and residents almost immediately.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2022}}", "In 1970, [Valle's Steak House](/wiki/Valle%27s_Steak_House \"Valle's Steak House\") opened one of its landmark restaurants on William S. Canning Boulevard in the city's South End. The steak house was popular with Fall River residents, but economic challenges caused the chain to close all of its restaurants in the 1980s.\"Valle's Steak House, opened in 1970 and demolished in 1984\" (August 6, 2012\\) *The Herald News* (Fall River, Mass.)[http://www.heraldnews.com/photos/timeframes/x1225369819/Valles\\-Steak\\-House\\-opened\\-in\\-1970\\-and\\-demolished\\-in\\-1984](http://www.heraldnews.com/photos/timeframes/x1225369819/Valles-Steak-House-opened-in-1970-and-demolished-in-1984)", "Also during the 1970s, several modern apartment high\\-rise towers were built throughout the city, many part of the Fall River Housing Authority. There were two built near Milliken Boulevard, two on Pleasant Street in Flint Village, another on South Main Street, and in the north end off Robeson Street. Today, these high\\-rises mostly house the elderly.", "In 1978, the city opened the new B.M.C. Durfee High School in the North End, replacing the historic Rock Street building that had become overcrowded and outdated for use as a high school. The \"new\" Durfee is one of the largest high schools in [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts \"Massachusetts\").", "Since approximately 1980, there has been a considerable amount of new development in the North End of the city. A significant number of new single\\- and multi\\-family housing developments have been constructed, particularly along North Main Street.", "In 2017, Fall River was ranked the 51st most dangerous city in the United States. It was also the third most dangerous city in Massachusetts and fourth most dangerous city in New England.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Schiller \\|first1\\=Andrew \\|title\\=NeighborhoodScout's Most Dangerous Cities \\- 2021 \\|url\\=https://www.neighborhoodscout.com/blog/top100dangerous \\|website\\=Neighborhoodscout.com \\|date\\=January 2, 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=January 2, 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 8, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170308110815/https://www.neighborhoodscout.com/blog/top100dangerous \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "On January 20, 2019, a cannabis dispensary opened in Fall River, becoming only the sixth dispensary in Massachusetts and the first in Southeastern Massachusetts to open to anyone 21 years or older.{{cite web \\|title\\=The Northeast Alternatives Story \\|url\\=https://nealternatives.com/history\\-northeast\\-alternatives/ \\|website\\=Northeast Alternatives \\|access\\-date\\=May 31, 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=May 31, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531152542/https://nealternatives.com/history\\-northeast\\-alternatives/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "" ]
#### 19th century The early establishment of the textile industry in Fall River grew out of the developments made in nearby [Rhode Island](/wiki/Rhode_Island "Rhode Island"), beginning with [Samuel Slater](/wiki/Samuel_Slater "Samuel Slater") at [Pawtucket, Rhode Island](/wiki/Pawtucket%2C_Rhode_Island "Pawtucket, Rhode Island") in 1793\. In 1811, Col. Joseph Durfee, the Revolutionary War veteran and hero of the Battle of Freetown in 1778, built the Globe Manufactory, a spinning mill at the outlet of Cook Pond on Dwelly St. near what is now Globe Four Corners in the city's South End. (It was part of [Tiverton, Rhode Island](/wiki/Tiverton%2C_Rhode_Island "Tiverton, Rhode Island") at the time.) While Durfee's mill itself was not particularly successful, its establishment marked the beginning of Fall River's time as a mill city. The real development of Fall River's industry, however, would occur along the falling river from which it was named, about a mile north of Durfee's first mill. The [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River "Quequechan River"), with its eight falls, combined to make Fall River the best tidewater privilege in southern New England. It was perfect for industrialization—big enough for profit and expansion, yet small enough to be developed by local capital without interference from [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston").*The Run of the Mill*, Dunwell, Steve, 1978 The [Fall River Manufactory](/wiki/Fall_River_Manufactory "Fall River Manufactory") was established by David Anthony and others in 1813\. That same year, the [Troy Cotton \& Woolen Manufactory](/wiki/Troy_Cotton_%26_Woolen_Manufactory "Troy Cotton & Woolen Manufactory") was founded by a group of investors led by [Oliver Chace](/wiki/Oliver_Chace "Oliver Chace") of Swansea. Chace had worked as a carpenter for [Samuel Slater](/wiki/Samuel_Slater "Samuel Slater") in his early years. The Troy Mill opened in 1814 at the upper end of the falls. In 1821, [Colonel Richard Borden](/wiki/Colonel_Richard_Borden "Colonel Richard Borden") (along with Maj. Bradford Durfee) established the [Fall River Iron Works](/wiki/Fall_River_Iron_Works "Fall River Iron Works") at the lower part of the [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River "Quequechan River"). Durfee was a shipwright, and Borden was the owner of a grist mill. After an uncertain start, in which some early investors pulled out, the Fall River Iron Works was incorporated in 1825\. The Iron Works began producing nails, bar stock, and other items, such as bands for casks in the nearby [New Bedford](/wiki/New_Bedford "New Bedford") [whaling](/wiki/Whaling "Whaling") industry. They soon gained a reputation for producing nails of high quality, and business flourished. In 1827, Col. Borden began regular steamship service to [Providence, Rhode Island](/wiki/Providence%2C_Rhode_Island "Providence, Rhode Island").["The Fall River Iron Works Prospered After Shaky Start", Fall River *Herald News*, October 17, 1989](http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/fallriverironworks.pdf) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051227163555/http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/fallriverironworks.pdf \|date\=December 27, 2005 }} The [American Print Works](/wiki/Fall_River_Iron_Works "Fall River Iron Works") was established in 1835 by Holder Borden, uncle of Col. Richard Borden. With the leadership of the Borden family, the American Print Works (later known as the American Printing Company) became the largest and most important textile company in the city, employing thousands at its peak in the early 20th century. Richard Borden also constructed the [Metacomet Mill](/wiki/Metacomet_Mill "Metacomet Mill") in 1847, which today is the oldest remaining textile mill in the city; it is located on Anawan Street. By 1845, the Quequechan's power had been all but maximized. The Massasoit Steam Mill was established in 1846, above the dam near the end of Pleasant Street. However, it would be another decade or so when improvements in the steam engine by [George Corliss](/wiki/George_Henry_Corliss "George Henry Corliss") would enable the construction of the first large steam\-powered mill in the city, the Union Mills in 1859\. The advantage of being able to import bales of cotton and coal to fuel the steam engines to Fall River's deep water harbor (and ship them out from the same) made Fall River the city of choice for a series of cotton mill magnates. The first railroad line serving Fall River, The Fall River Branch Railroad, was incorporated in 1844 and opened in 1845\. In 1847, the first regular steamboat service to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") began. The [Fall River Line](/wiki/Fall_River_Line "Fall River Line"), as it came to be known, operated until 1937, and for many years was the preferred way to travel between [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston") and [Manhattan](/wiki/Manhattan "Manhattan"). The [Old Colony Railroad](/wiki/Old_Colony_Railroad "Old Colony Railroad") and Fall River Railroad merged in 1854, forming the Old Colony and Fall River Railroad. In 1854, Fall River was officially incorporated as a city; it had a population of about 12,000\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/1903\.pdf\|title\=Illustrated History of Fall River, 1903}} Its first [mayor](/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Fall_River%2C_Massachusetts "List of mayors of Fall River, Massachusetts") was James Buffington. Fall River profited well from the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") and was in a fine position to take advantage of the prosperity that followed. By 1868, it had surpassed Lowell as the leading textile city in America with over 500,000 spindles.
[ "#### 19th century", "The early establishment of the textile industry in Fall River grew out of the developments made in nearby [Rhode Island](/wiki/Rhode_Island \"Rhode Island\"), beginning with [Samuel Slater](/wiki/Samuel_Slater \"Samuel Slater\") at [Pawtucket, Rhode Island](/wiki/Pawtucket%2C_Rhode_Island \"Pawtucket, Rhode Island\") in 1793\\. In 1811, Col. Joseph Durfee, the Revolutionary War veteran and hero of the Battle of Freetown in 1778, built the Globe Manufactory, a spinning mill at the outlet of Cook Pond on Dwelly St. near what is now Globe Four Corners in the city's South End. (It was part of [Tiverton, Rhode Island](/wiki/Tiverton%2C_Rhode_Island \"Tiverton, Rhode Island\") at the time.) While Durfee's mill itself was not particularly successful, its establishment marked the beginning of Fall River's time as a mill city.", "The real development of Fall River's industry, however, would occur along the falling river from which it was named, about a mile north of Durfee's first mill. The [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River \"Quequechan River\"), with its eight falls, combined to make Fall River the best tidewater privilege in southern New England. It was perfect for industrialization—big enough for profit and expansion, yet small enough to be developed by local capital without interference from [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\").*The Run of the Mill*, Dunwell, Steve, 1978", "The [Fall River Manufactory](/wiki/Fall_River_Manufactory \"Fall River Manufactory\") was established by David Anthony and others in 1813\\. That same year, the [Troy Cotton \\& Woolen Manufactory](/wiki/Troy_Cotton_%26_Woolen_Manufactory \"Troy Cotton & Woolen Manufactory\") was founded by a group of investors led by [Oliver Chace](/wiki/Oliver_Chace \"Oliver Chace\") of Swansea. Chace had worked as a carpenter for [Samuel Slater](/wiki/Samuel_Slater \"Samuel Slater\") in his early years. The Troy Mill opened in 1814 at the upper end of the falls.", "In 1821, [Colonel Richard Borden](/wiki/Colonel_Richard_Borden \"Colonel Richard Borden\") (along with Maj. Bradford Durfee) established the [Fall River Iron Works](/wiki/Fall_River_Iron_Works \"Fall River Iron Works\") at the lower part of the [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River \"Quequechan River\"). Durfee was a shipwright, and Borden was the owner of a grist mill. After an uncertain start, in which some early investors pulled out, the Fall River Iron Works was incorporated in 1825\\. The Iron Works began producing nails, bar stock, and other items, such as bands for casks in the nearby [New Bedford](/wiki/New_Bedford \"New Bedford\") [whaling](/wiki/Whaling \"Whaling\") industry. They soon gained a reputation for producing nails of high quality, and business flourished. In 1827, Col. Borden began regular steamship service to [Providence, Rhode Island](/wiki/Providence%2C_Rhode_Island \"Providence, Rhode Island\").[\"The Fall River Iron Works Prospered After Shaky Start\", Fall River *Herald News*, October 17, 1989](http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/fallriverironworks.pdf) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051227163555/http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/fallriverironworks.pdf \\|date\\=December 27, 2005 }}", "The [American Print Works](/wiki/Fall_River_Iron_Works \"Fall River Iron Works\") was established in 1835 by Holder Borden, uncle of Col. Richard Borden. With the leadership of the Borden family, the American Print Works (later known as the American Printing Company) became the largest and most important textile company in the city, employing thousands at its peak in the early 20th century. Richard Borden also constructed the [Metacomet Mill](/wiki/Metacomet_Mill \"Metacomet Mill\") in 1847, which today is the oldest remaining textile mill in the city; it is located on Anawan Street.", "By 1845, the Quequechan's power had been all but maximized. The Massasoit Steam Mill was established in 1846, above the dam near the end of Pleasant Street. However, it would be another decade or so when improvements in the steam engine by [George Corliss](/wiki/George_Henry_Corliss \"George Henry Corliss\") would enable the construction of the first large steam\\-powered mill in the city, the Union Mills in 1859\\.", "The advantage of being able to import bales of cotton and coal to fuel the steam engines to Fall River's deep water harbor (and ship them out from the same) made Fall River the city of choice for a series of cotton mill magnates. The first railroad line serving Fall River, The Fall River Branch Railroad, was incorporated in 1844 and opened in 1845\\. In 1847, the first regular steamboat service to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") began. The [Fall River Line](/wiki/Fall_River_Line \"Fall River Line\"), as it came to be known, operated until 1937, and for many years was the preferred way to travel between [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\") and [Manhattan](/wiki/Manhattan \"Manhattan\"). The [Old Colony Railroad](/wiki/Old_Colony_Railroad \"Old Colony Railroad\") and Fall River Railroad merged in 1854, forming the Old Colony and Fall River Railroad.", "In 1854, Fall River was officially incorporated as a city; it had a population of about 12,000\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sailsinc.org/durfee/1903\\.pdf\\|title\\=Illustrated History of Fall River, 1903}} Its first [mayor](/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Fall_River%2C_Massachusetts \"List of mayors of Fall River, Massachusetts\") was James Buffington.", "Fall River profited well from the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") and was in a fine position to take advantage of the prosperity that followed. By 1868, it had surpassed Lowell as the leading textile city in America with over 500,000 spindles.", "" ]
Geography --------- [thumb\|upright\=1\.1\|Fall River on [Mount Hope Bay](/wiki/Mount_Hope_Bay "Mount Hope Bay") in 1905](/wiki/File:View_of_Bay%2C_Fall_River%2C_MA.jpg "View of Bay, Fall River, MA.jpg") According to the [U.S. Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau "United States Census Bureau"), the city has a total area of {{convert\|104\.2\|sqkm\|order\=flip}}, of which {{convert\|85\.8\|km2\|order\=flip}} is land and {{convert\|18\.4\|km2\|order\=flip}}, or 17\.68%, is water.{{cite web\|url\=http://factfinder2\.census.gov/bkmk/table/1\.0/en/DEC/10\_DP/G001/1600000US2523000\|title\=Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Demographic Profile Data (G001\): Fall River city, Massachusetts\|publisher\=U.S. Census Bureau, American Factfinder\|access\-date\=February 5, 2013}} Water power from the [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River "Quequechan River") and natural [granite](/wiki/Granite "Granite") helped form and shape Fall River into the city it is today. The Quequechan River once flowed through downtown unrestricted, providing water power for the mills and, in the last {{convert\|1/2\|mile\|km\|1}} of its length, down a series of eight steep waterfalls falling {{convert\|128\|feet}} into the [Taunton River](/wiki/Taunton_River "Taunton River") at the head of the deep [Mount Hope Bay](/wiki/Mount_Hope_Bay "Mount Hope Bay"). Fall River and surrounding areas are located in the northeastern coastal forests, which make up the temperate broadleaf and mixed forest biome. Fall River was the only city on the East Coast of the United States to have had an exposed waterfall in part of its downtown area; it flowed less than {{convert\|1/2\|mile\|km\|1}} into a sheltered harbor at the edge of downtown. Fall River has two large lakes (originally one lake) and a large portion of protected woodlands on the eastern part of the city, which is higher in elevation, with the Quequechan River draining out of the ponds and flowing {{convert\|2\.5\|miles}} through the heart of the city, emptying out an estimated {{convert\|26\|e6USgal\|e6l}} per day into the deep Mount Hope Bay/Taunton River [estuary](/wiki/Estuary "Estuary") in the western part of the city. The city lies on the eastern border of Mount Hope Bay, which begins at the mouth of the Taunton River starting south from the [Charles M. Braga Jr. Memorial Bridge](/wiki/Charles_M._Braga_Jr._Memorial_Bridge "Charles M. Braga Jr. Memorial Bridge"). The greater portion of the city is built on hillsides rising quite abruptly from the water's edge to a height of more than {{convert\|60\|m\|order\=flip}}. From the summits of these hills, the terrain extends back in a comparatively level table\-land, on which a large section of the city now stands. Two miles (3 km) eastward from the shore lies a chain of deep and narrow ponds, eight miles (13 km) long, with an average width of three\-quarters of a mile, and covering an area of {{convert\|3,500\|acre\|km2\|abbr\=on}}. These ponds are supplied by springs and brooks, draining a watershed of {{convert\|20,000\|acre\|km2\|abbr\=on}}. The northern pond is the North [Watuppa Pond](/wiki/Watuppa_Pond "Watuppa Pond"), the city's main reservoir. The southern pond is the South Watuppa Pond. The narrow strip of land where the two ponds meet is known as The Narrows. East of the North Watuppa Pond is the Watuppa Reservation, which includes several thousand acres of forest\-land for water supply protection that extends north into the [Freetown\-Fall River State Forest](/wiki/Freetown-Fall_River_State_Forest "Freetown-Fall River State Forest"), and east to the [Copicut Reservoir](/wiki/Copicut_Reservoir "Copicut Reservoir"). Copicut Pond is located on the border of [Dartmouth](/wiki/Dartmouth%2C_Massachusetts "Dartmouth, Massachusetts") in North Dartmouth's Hixville section that borders Fall River. Copicut Hill, the highest point in Fall River, is located between North Watuppa Pond and the Copicut Reservoir. The hill has a summit elevation of greater than {{convert\|123\|m\|order\=flip}} above sea level.U.S. Geological Survey *Fall River, MA* 7\.5 by 15\-minute quadrangle, 1985\. The Quequechan River breaks out of its bed in the west part of the South Watuppa Pond, just west of The Narrows, and flows through the city (partially underground in conduits) where it falls to a channel leading to what is now [Fall River Heritage State Park](/wiki/Fall_River_Heritage_State_Park "Fall River Heritage State Park") at [Battleship Cove](/wiki/Battleship_Cove "Battleship Cove") on the Taunton River. The Quequechan River originally flowed unconfined over an almost level course for more than a mile. In the last half\-mile (800 m) of its progress it rushes down the hillside in a narrow, precipitous, rocky channel, creating the falls for which Fall River is named. In this distance the total fall is about {{convert\|132\|ft\|m}}. and the volume of water {{convert\|122\|cuft\|m3}} per second. [thumb\|Quequechan River Rail Trail](/wiki/File:Quequechan_River_Rail_Trail%2C_Fall_River_MA.jpg "Quequechan River Rail Trail, Fall River MA.jpg") [thumb\|right\|Fall River's [Granite Mills](/wiki/Granite_Mills "Granite Mills") in 1908](/wiki/File:Granite_Mills%2C_Fall_River%2C_MA.jpg "Granite Mills, Fall River, MA.jpg") [thumb\|right\|upright\=.7\|Statue of [Marquis de Lafayette](/wiki/Gilbert_du_Motier%2C_Marquis_de_Lafayette "Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette") stands in Lafayette Park.](/wiki/File:Statue_of_Lafayette_in_Lafayette_Park%2C_Fall_River%2C_Massachusetts.jpg "Statue of Lafayette in Lafayette Park, Fall River, Massachusetts.jpg") Originally an attractive feature of the landscape, the Quequechan has seldom been visible since it was covered over by cotton mills and the [Bay Colony Railroad](/wiki/Bay_Colony_Railroad "Bay Colony Railroad") line in the 19th century. As the Quequechan became an underground feature of the industrial landscape, it also became a sewer. In the 20th century the mills were abandoned and some of them burned, exposing the falls once more. Because of highway construction in the 1960s, the waterfalls were buried under [Interstate 195](/wiki/Interstate_195_%28Rhode_Island-Massachusetts%29 "Interstate 195 (Rhode Island-Massachusetts)"), which crosses the Taunton River at Battleship Cove. Plans exist to "daylight" the falls, restore or re\-create them, and build a green belt with a bicycle path along the Quequechan River. In the south end, Cook Pond, also formerly known as Laurel Lake, is located east of the Taunton River and west of the South Watuppa Pond. The area between the modern day Cook and South Watuppa Ponds, east of the Taunton River and north of [Tiverton, Rhode Island](/wiki/Tiverton%2C_Rhode_Island "Tiverton, Rhode Island"), was once referred to as "Pocasset Swamp" during [King Philip's War](/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War "King Philip's War") in 1675–1676\. Fall River is a part of the [South Coast](/wiki/South_Coast_%28Massachusetts%29 "South Coast (Massachusetts)") region of Massachusetts. ### Neighborhoods The city is divided into two by [Interstate 195](/wiki/Interstate_195_%28Rhode_Island%E2%80%93Massachusetts%29%23Massachusetts "Interstate 195 (Rhode Island–Massachusetts)#Massachusetts"), which runs directly through downtown and underneath Fall River City Hall. The two sections of the city contain a number of distinct neighborhoods. **Northern Neighborhoods ("The North End"; North of I\-195, extending to the city's northern border with Freetown, Massachusetts and western border with Dartmouth, Massachusetts)** * Waterfront/Battleship Cove (east of Route 79 to the edge of the Taunton River/Mount Hope Bay) * The Highlands + Lower Highlands (Bedford St, up High St to Prospect St) + Upper Highlands (Prospect St along President Ave, up to Wilson Rd) * Fall River Industrial Park ("Airport Road", area north of Wilson Rd bounded to the west by Route 24 and to the east by Riggenbach Rd) * Fall River/Freetown State Forest **Southern Neighborhoods ("The South End"; South of I\-195, extending to the city's southern border with Tiverton, RI)** * Flint Village ("The Flint")South and east of Bedford and Quarry Sts, respectively) * Globe Village (Cook Pond, Broadway) * Townsend Hill (South Main and Bay St Neighborhoods bordering Tiverton, R.I.) * [Maplewood](/wiki/Maplewood%2C_Fall_River%2C_Massachusetts "Maplewood, Fall River, Massachusetts") ### Parks Fall River has 23 municipal parks and playgrounds, including three designed by landscape architect [Frederick Law Olmsted](/wiki/Frederick_Law_Olmsted "Frederick Law Olmsted").{{cite news \|title\=Fall River has 23 parks and playgrounds for recreational fun \|url\=https://www.heraldnews.com/x447613659/Fall\-River\-has\-23\-parks\-and\-playgrounds\-for\-recreational\-fun \|access\-date\=February 15, 2020 \|publisher\=Fall River Herald News \|date\=May 15, 2011}}{{cite news \|last1\=Dion \|first1\=Marc Munroe \|title\=OLMSTED FACTS: Frederick Law Olmsted famed for parks nationwide \|url\=https://www.heraldnews.com/article/20110515/NEWS/305159723 \|access\-date\=February 15, 2020 \|publisher\=Fall River Herald News \|date\=May 15, 2011}} Fall River's more notable parks include: * [Kennedy Park](/wiki/Kennedy_Park_%28Fall_River%2C_Massachusetts%29 "Kennedy Park (Fall River, Massachusetts)") (Olmsted, 1868\): South Main Street, 54 acres, four tennis courts, three baseball fields, two basketball courts, softball field, skating pond, playground * North Park (Olmsted, 1901\): President Avenue, 25 acres, two baseball fields, two basketball courts, playground, skating pond, skate park * [Ruggles Park](/wiki/Ruggles_Park "Ruggles Park") (Olmsted, 1903\): Locust Street, 9 acres, basketball court, playground, softball field * Bicentennial Park: Davol Street, 2 acres, boat ramp * Lafayette Park: Eastern Avenue, 11 acres, baseball field, basketball court, playground, swimming pool, tennis court, skate park * [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River "Quequechan River") Rail Trail: 2\.5 mile Bike path from Britland Park and Rodman Street to Westport Line on Route 6{{Cite web\|title\=Fall River\|url\=https://www.southcoastbikeway.com/fall\-river.html\|access\-date\=August 1, 2021\|website\=South Coast Bikeway\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=August 1, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210801054451/https://www.southcoastbikeway.com/fall\-river.html\|url\-status\=dead}} The city is also home to several Massachusetts state parks, including [Fall River Heritage State Park](/wiki/Fall_River_Heritage_State_Park "Fall River Heritage State Park") and [Freetown\-Fall River State Forest](/wiki/Freetown-Fall_River_State_Forest "Freetown-Fall River State Forest").
[ "Geography\n---------", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.1\\|Fall River on [Mount Hope Bay](/wiki/Mount_Hope_Bay \"Mount Hope Bay\") in 1905](/wiki/File:View_of_Bay%2C_Fall_River%2C_MA.jpg \"View of Bay, Fall River, MA.jpg\")\nAccording to the [U.S. Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau \"United States Census Bureau\"), the city has a total area of {{convert\\|104\\.2\\|sqkm\\|order\\=flip}}, of which {{convert\\|85\\.8\\|km2\\|order\\=flip}} is land and {{convert\\|18\\.4\\|km2\\|order\\=flip}}, or 17\\.68%, is water.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://factfinder2\\.census.gov/bkmk/table/1\\.0/en/DEC/10\\_DP/G001/1600000US2523000\\|title\\=Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Demographic Profile Data (G001\\): Fall River city, Massachusetts\\|publisher\\=U.S. Census Bureau, American Factfinder\\|access\\-date\\=February 5, 2013}}", "Water power from the [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River \"Quequechan River\") and natural [granite](/wiki/Granite \"Granite\") helped form and shape Fall River into the city it is today. The Quequechan River once flowed through downtown unrestricted, providing water power for the mills and, in the last {{convert\\|1/2\\|mile\\|km\\|1}} of its length, down a series of eight steep waterfalls falling {{convert\\|128\\|feet}} into the [Taunton River](/wiki/Taunton_River \"Taunton River\") at the head of the deep [Mount Hope Bay](/wiki/Mount_Hope_Bay \"Mount Hope Bay\"). Fall River and surrounding areas are located in the northeastern coastal forests, which make up the temperate broadleaf and mixed forest biome.", "Fall River was the only city on the East Coast of the United States to have had an exposed waterfall in part of its downtown area; it flowed less than {{convert\\|1/2\\|mile\\|km\\|1}} into a sheltered harbor at the edge of downtown. Fall River has two large lakes (originally one lake) and a large portion of protected woodlands on the eastern part of the city, which is higher in elevation, with the Quequechan River draining out of the ponds and flowing {{convert\\|2\\.5\\|miles}} through the heart of the city, emptying out an estimated {{convert\\|26\\|e6USgal\\|e6l}} per day into the deep Mount Hope Bay/Taunton River [estuary](/wiki/Estuary \"Estuary\") in the western part of the city.", "The city lies on the eastern border of Mount Hope Bay, which begins at the mouth of the Taunton River starting south from the [Charles M. Braga Jr. Memorial Bridge](/wiki/Charles_M._Braga_Jr._Memorial_Bridge \"Charles M. Braga Jr. Memorial Bridge\"). The greater portion of the city is built on hillsides rising quite abruptly from the water's edge to a height of more than {{convert\\|60\\|m\\|order\\=flip}}. From the summits of these hills, the terrain extends back in a comparatively level table\\-land, on which a large section of the city now stands.", "Two miles (3 km) eastward from the shore lies a chain of deep and narrow ponds, eight miles (13 km) long, with an average width of three\\-quarters of a mile, and covering an area of {{convert\\|3,500\\|acre\\|km2\\|abbr\\=on}}. These ponds are supplied by springs and brooks, draining a watershed of {{convert\\|20,000\\|acre\\|km2\\|abbr\\=on}}. The northern pond is the North [Watuppa Pond](/wiki/Watuppa_Pond \"Watuppa Pond\"), the city's main reservoir. The southern pond is the South Watuppa Pond. The narrow strip of land where the two ponds meet is known as The Narrows. East of the North Watuppa Pond is the Watuppa Reservation, which includes several thousand acres of forest\\-land for water supply protection that extends north into the [Freetown\\-Fall River State Forest](/wiki/Freetown-Fall_River_State_Forest \"Freetown-Fall River State Forest\"), and east to the [Copicut Reservoir](/wiki/Copicut_Reservoir \"Copicut Reservoir\"). Copicut Pond is located on the border of [Dartmouth](/wiki/Dartmouth%2C_Massachusetts \"Dartmouth, Massachusetts\") in North Dartmouth's Hixville section that borders Fall River. Copicut Hill, the highest point in Fall River, is located between North Watuppa Pond and the Copicut Reservoir. The hill has a summit elevation of greater than {{convert\\|123\\|m\\|order\\=flip}} above sea level.U.S. Geological Survey *Fall River, MA* 7\\.5 by 15\\-minute quadrangle, 1985\\.", "The Quequechan River breaks out of its bed in the west part of the South Watuppa Pond, just west of The Narrows, and flows through the city (partially underground in conduits) where it falls to a channel leading to what is now [Fall River Heritage State Park](/wiki/Fall_River_Heritage_State_Park \"Fall River Heritage State Park\") at [Battleship Cove](/wiki/Battleship_Cove \"Battleship Cove\") on the Taunton River. The Quequechan River originally flowed unconfined over an almost level course for more than a mile. In the last half\\-mile (800 m) of its progress it rushes down the hillside in a narrow, precipitous, rocky channel, creating the falls for which Fall River is named. In this distance the total fall is about {{convert\\|132\\|ft\\|m}}. and the volume of water {{convert\\|122\\|cuft\\|m3}} per second.\n[thumb\\|Quequechan River Rail Trail](/wiki/File:Quequechan_River_Rail_Trail%2C_Fall_River_MA.jpg \"Quequechan River Rail Trail, Fall River MA.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|Fall River's [Granite Mills](/wiki/Granite_Mills \"Granite Mills\") in 1908](/wiki/File:Granite_Mills%2C_Fall_River%2C_MA.jpg \"Granite Mills, Fall River, MA.jpg\") [thumb\\|right\\|upright\\=.7\\|Statue of [Marquis de Lafayette](/wiki/Gilbert_du_Motier%2C_Marquis_de_Lafayette \"Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette\") stands in Lafayette Park.](/wiki/File:Statue_of_Lafayette_in_Lafayette_Park%2C_Fall_River%2C_Massachusetts.jpg \"Statue of Lafayette in Lafayette Park, Fall River, Massachusetts.jpg\")", "Originally an attractive feature of the landscape, the Quequechan has seldom been visible since it was covered over by cotton mills and the [Bay Colony Railroad](/wiki/Bay_Colony_Railroad \"Bay Colony Railroad\") line in the 19th century. As the Quequechan became an underground feature of the industrial landscape, it also became a sewer. In the 20th century the mills were abandoned and some of them burned, exposing the falls once more. Because of highway construction in the 1960s, the waterfalls were buried under [Interstate 195](/wiki/Interstate_195_%28Rhode_Island-Massachusetts%29 \"Interstate 195 (Rhode Island-Massachusetts)\"), which crosses the Taunton River at Battleship Cove. Plans exist to \"daylight\" the falls, restore or re\\-create them, and build a green belt with a bicycle path along the Quequechan River.", "In the south end, Cook Pond, also formerly known as Laurel Lake, is located east of the Taunton River and west of the South Watuppa Pond. The area between the modern day Cook and South Watuppa Ponds, east of the Taunton River and north of [Tiverton, Rhode Island](/wiki/Tiverton%2C_Rhode_Island \"Tiverton, Rhode Island\"), was once referred to as \"Pocasset Swamp\" during [King Philip's War](/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War \"King Philip's War\") in 1675–1676\\.", "Fall River is a part of the [South Coast](/wiki/South_Coast_%28Massachusetts%29 \"South Coast (Massachusetts)\") region of Massachusetts.", "### Neighborhoods", "The city is divided into two by [Interstate 195](/wiki/Interstate_195_%28Rhode_Island%E2%80%93Massachusetts%29%23Massachusetts \"Interstate 195 (Rhode Island–Massachusetts)#Massachusetts\"), which runs directly through downtown and underneath Fall River City Hall. The two sections of the city contain a number of distinct neighborhoods.", "**Northern Neighborhoods (\"The North End\"; North of I\\-195, extending to the city's northern border with Freetown, Massachusetts and western border with Dartmouth, Massachusetts)**\n* Waterfront/Battleship Cove (east of Route 79 to the edge of the Taunton River/Mount Hope Bay)\n* The Highlands\n\t+ Lower Highlands (Bedford St, up High St to Prospect St)\n\t+ Upper Highlands (Prospect St along President Ave, up to Wilson Rd)\n* Fall River Industrial Park (\"Airport Road\", area north of Wilson Rd bounded to the west by Route 24 and to the east by Riggenbach Rd)\n* Fall River/Freetown State Forest\n**Southern Neighborhoods (\"The South End\"; South of I\\-195, extending to the city's southern border with Tiverton, RI)**\n* Flint Village (\"The Flint\")South and east of Bedford and Quarry Sts, respectively)\n* Globe Village (Cook Pond, Broadway)\n* Townsend Hill (South Main and Bay St Neighborhoods bordering Tiverton, R.I.)\n* [Maplewood](/wiki/Maplewood%2C_Fall_River%2C_Massachusetts \"Maplewood, Fall River, Massachusetts\")", "### Parks", "Fall River has 23 municipal parks and playgrounds, including three designed by landscape architect [Frederick Law Olmsted](/wiki/Frederick_Law_Olmsted \"Frederick Law Olmsted\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Fall River has 23 parks and playgrounds for recreational fun \\|url\\=https://www.heraldnews.com/x447613659/Fall\\-River\\-has\\-23\\-parks\\-and\\-playgrounds\\-for\\-recreational\\-fun \\|access\\-date\\=February 15, 2020 \\|publisher\\=Fall River Herald News \\|date\\=May 15, 2011}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Dion \\|first1\\=Marc Munroe \\|title\\=OLMSTED FACTS: Frederick Law Olmsted famed for parks nationwide \\|url\\=https://www.heraldnews.com/article/20110515/NEWS/305159723 \\|access\\-date\\=February 15, 2020 \\|publisher\\=Fall River Herald News \\|date\\=May 15, 2011}} Fall River's more notable parks include:\n* [Kennedy Park](/wiki/Kennedy_Park_%28Fall_River%2C_Massachusetts%29 \"Kennedy Park (Fall River, Massachusetts)\") (Olmsted, 1868\\): South Main Street, 54 acres, four tennis courts, three baseball fields, two basketball courts, softball field, skating pond, playground\n* North Park (Olmsted, 1901\\): President Avenue, 25 acres, two baseball fields, two basketball courts, playground, skating pond, skate park\n* [Ruggles Park](/wiki/Ruggles_Park \"Ruggles Park\") (Olmsted, 1903\\): Locust Street, 9 acres, basketball court, playground, softball field\n* Bicentennial Park: Davol Street, 2 acres, boat ramp\n* Lafayette Park: Eastern Avenue, 11 acres, baseball field, basketball court, playground, swimming pool, tennis court, skate park\n* [Quequechan River](/wiki/Quequechan_River \"Quequechan River\") Rail Trail: 2\\.5 mile Bike path from Britland Park and Rodman Street to Westport Line on Route 6{{Cite web\\|title\\=Fall River\\|url\\=https://www.southcoastbikeway.com/fall\\-river.html\\|access\\-date\\=August 1, 2021\\|website\\=South Coast Bikeway\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=August 1, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210801054451/https://www.southcoastbikeway.com/fall\\-river.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "The city is also home to several Massachusetts state parks, including [Fall River Heritage State Park](/wiki/Fall_River_Heritage_State_Park \"Fall River Heritage State Park\") and [Freetown\\-Fall River State Forest](/wiki/Freetown-Fall_River_State_Forest \"Freetown-Fall River State Forest\").", "" ]
Soccer ------ Fall River has a rich [soccer](/wiki/Football_%28soccer%29 "Football (soccer)") history. The game was first introduced to the city in the 1880s by immigrants from [Lancashire](/wiki/Lancashire "Lancashire") and [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow "Glasgow") who worked in the local [textile industry](/wiki/Textile_industry "Textile industry"). In later decades, the arrival of immigrants from [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal "Portugal") helped to sustain the game's popularity. Between 1888 and 1892, teams from Fall River won the [American Cup](/wiki/American_Cup "American Cup") for five straight years. One of these teams, the [Fall River Rovers](/wiki/Fall_River_Rovers "Fall River Rovers"), also won the [1917 National Challenge Cup](/wiki/1917_National_Challenge_Cup "1917 National Challenge Cup"). The star and captain of the team was local\-born [Thomas Swords](/wiki/Thomas_Swords "Thomas Swords"), who in 1916 captained the [United States](/wiki/United_States_men%27s_national_soccer_team "United States men's national soccer team") in their first official international. During the 1920s and early 1930s, the [Fall River F.C.](/wiki/Fall_River_F.C._%281922%E2%80%931931%29 "Fall River F.C. (1922–1931)") of Sam Mark were one of the most successful soccer clubs in the United States and were [American soccer champions](/wiki/List_of_American_and_Canadian_soccer_champions "List of American and Canadian soccer champions") on seven occasions. A subsequent [Fall River F.C.](/wiki/Fall_River_F.C._%281932%29 "Fall River F.C. (1932)"), were champions in 1932\. The 'Marksmen' won the [National Challenge Cup](/wiki/National_Challenge_Cup "National Challenge Cup") four times. Among their most notable players were [Billy Gonsalves](/wiki/Billy_Gonsalves "Billy Gonsalves") and [Bert Patenaude](/wiki/Bert_Patenaude "Bert Patenaude"), who were both raised in Fall River. Both played for the [United States](/wiki/United_States_men%27s_national_soccer_team "United States men's national soccer team") at the [first ever soccer World Cup](/wiki/1930_FIFA_World_Cup_squads "1930 FIFA World Cup squads") in 1930\. Patenaude is also credited with scoring the first ever [hat\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick "Hat-trick") in World Cup history. He scored all three goals in the United States' 3–0 victory over [Paraguay](/wiki/Paraguay_national_football_team "Paraguay national football team"). During the 1940s, [Ponta Delgada S.C.](/wiki/Ponta_Delgada_S.C. "Ponta Delgada S.C.") became one of the most successful amateur teams in the United States. In 1947 the team was selected to represent the [United States](/wiki/United_States_men%27s_national_soccer_team "United States men's national soccer team") at the [North American soccer championship](/wiki/1947_NAFC_Championship "1947 NAFC Championship"). In [1950](/wiki/1950_FIFA_World_Cup_squads "1950 FIFA World Cup squads"), two of their local born players, [Ed Souza](/wiki/Ed_Souza "Ed Souza") and [John Souza](/wiki/John_Souza "John Souza"), played at the [World Cup](/wiki/1950_FIFA_World_Cup "1950 FIFA World Cup"), helping the United States defeat [England](/wiki/England_national_football_team "England national football team") [1–0](/wiki/England_v_United_States_%281950%29 "England v United States (1950)").*Soccer in a Football World \- The Story of America's Forgotten Game* (2006\) : David Wangerin [amazon.com](https://www.amazon.com/dp/0954013476) On January 18, 2011, [Andrew Sousa](/wiki/Andrew_Sousa "Andrew Sousa") was drafted by [New England Revolution](/wiki/New_England_Revolution "New England Revolution"), becoming the first ever Fall River native to play in [Major League Soccer](/wiki/Major_League_Soccer "Major League Soccer"). In 2019, Fall River Football Club and Fall River Marksmen FC returned to the field after a long hiatus. Both clubs participated in the 1st annual Taça de Fall River, a Home \& Away match series, with Fall River Football Club becoming the eventual winners.
[ "Soccer\n------", "Fall River has a rich [soccer](/wiki/Football_%28soccer%29 \"Football (soccer)\") history. The game was first introduced to the city in the 1880s by immigrants from [Lancashire](/wiki/Lancashire \"Lancashire\") and [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow \"Glasgow\") who worked in the local [textile industry](/wiki/Textile_industry \"Textile industry\"). In later decades, the arrival of immigrants from [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal \"Portugal\") helped to sustain the game's popularity. Between 1888 and 1892, teams from Fall River won the [American Cup](/wiki/American_Cup \"American Cup\") for five straight years. One of these teams, the [Fall River Rovers](/wiki/Fall_River_Rovers \"Fall River Rovers\"), also won the [1917 National Challenge Cup](/wiki/1917_National_Challenge_Cup \"1917 National Challenge Cup\"). The star and captain of the team was local\\-born [Thomas Swords](/wiki/Thomas_Swords \"Thomas Swords\"), who in 1916 captained the [United States](/wiki/United_States_men%27s_national_soccer_team \"United States men's national soccer team\") in their first official international.", "During the 1920s and early 1930s, the [Fall River F.C.](/wiki/Fall_River_F.C._%281922%E2%80%931931%29 \"Fall River F.C. (1922–1931)\") of Sam Mark were one of the most successful soccer clubs in the United States and were [American soccer champions](/wiki/List_of_American_and_Canadian_soccer_champions \"List of American and Canadian soccer champions\") on seven occasions. A subsequent [Fall River F.C.](/wiki/Fall_River_F.C._%281932%29 \"Fall River F.C. (1932)\"), were champions in 1932\\.", "The 'Marksmen' won the [National Challenge Cup](/wiki/National_Challenge_Cup \"National Challenge Cup\") four times. Among their most notable players were [Billy Gonsalves](/wiki/Billy_Gonsalves \"Billy Gonsalves\") and [Bert Patenaude](/wiki/Bert_Patenaude \"Bert Patenaude\"), who were both raised in Fall River. Both played for the [United States](/wiki/United_States_men%27s_national_soccer_team \"United States men's national soccer team\") at the [first ever soccer World Cup](/wiki/1930_FIFA_World_Cup_squads \"1930 FIFA World Cup squads\") in 1930\\. Patenaude is also credited with scoring the first ever [hat\\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick \"Hat-trick\") in World Cup history. He scored all three goals in the United States' 3–0 victory over [Paraguay](/wiki/Paraguay_national_football_team \"Paraguay national football team\").", "During the 1940s, [Ponta Delgada S.C.](/wiki/Ponta_Delgada_S.C. \"Ponta Delgada S.C.\") became one of the most successful amateur teams in the United States. In 1947 the team was selected to represent the [United States](/wiki/United_States_men%27s_national_soccer_team \"United States men's national soccer team\") at the [North American soccer championship](/wiki/1947_NAFC_Championship \"1947 NAFC Championship\"). In [1950](/wiki/1950_FIFA_World_Cup_squads \"1950 FIFA World Cup squads\"), two of their local born players, [Ed Souza](/wiki/Ed_Souza \"Ed Souza\") and [John Souza](/wiki/John_Souza \"John Souza\"), played at the [World Cup](/wiki/1950_FIFA_World_Cup \"1950 FIFA World Cup\"), helping the United States defeat [England](/wiki/England_national_football_team \"England national football team\") [1–0](/wiki/England_v_United_States_%281950%29 \"England v United States (1950)\").*Soccer in a Football World \\- The Story of America's Forgotten Game* (2006\\) : David Wangerin [amazon.com](https://www.amazon.com/dp/0954013476)", "On January 18, 2011, [Andrew Sousa](/wiki/Andrew_Sousa \"Andrew Sousa\") was drafted by [New England Revolution](/wiki/New_England_Revolution \"New England Revolution\"), becoming the first ever Fall River native to play in [Major League Soccer](/wiki/Major_League_Soccer \"Major League Soccer\").", "In 2019, Fall River Football Club and Fall River Marksmen FC returned to the field after a long hiatus. Both clubs participated in the 1st annual Taça de Fall River, a Home \\& Away match series, with Fall River Football Club becoming the eventual winners.", "" ]
Biography --------- Born 6 May 1946 in [Cérons](/wiki/C%C3%A9rons "Cérons") ([Gironde](/wiki/Gironde "Gironde"), France), André Marceau completed his secondary school studies at the minor seminary there and entered the major seminary to begin his philosophy studies. He did his [national service](/wiki/National_service "National service") from 1966 to 1968 teaching history and geography at the minor seminary in [Bingerville](/wiki/Bingerville "Bingerville") in the [Ivory Coast](/wiki/Ivory_Coast "Ivory Coast"). He then completed his studies in Bordeaux and was [ordained](/wiki/Ordination "Ordination") a [priest](/wiki/Catholic_priest "Catholic priest") on 25 March 1972\. He worked for the next eight years in the Parish of St. Vincent in [Mérignac](/wiki/M%C3%A9rignac%2C_Gironde "Mérignac, Gironde") on the outskirts of Bordeaux, at the same time pursuing studies in pedagogy at the University of Bordeaux. He studied at the Catholic Institute of Paris from 1980 to 1982\. For the next ten years he was responsible for the diocesan catechumenate, while also heading priestly formation for the last four of those years. He became an [episcopal vicar](/wiki/Episcopal_vicar "Episcopal vicar") of the Archdiocese of Bordeaux in 1992, first responsible for the Gironde\-Sud sector until 1996 and then for the other sectors until 2002\. He was appointed [Bishop of Perpignan\-Elne](/wiki/Bishop_of_Perpignan-Elne "Bishop of Perpignan-Elne") ([Pyrénées\-Orientales](/wiki/Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es-Orientales "Pyrénées-Orientales")) on 13 January 2004 by [Pope John Paul II](/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II "Pope John Paul II").{{cite press release \| language \= it \| access\-date \= 2 May 2022 \| publisher \= Holy See Press Office \| date \= 13 January 2004 \| url \= https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2004/01/13/0017/00057\.html \| title \= Rinunce e Nomine, 13\.01\.2004 }}*Le Petit Episcopologe*, Issue 174, Number 14,544 {{full citation needed\|date\=December 2016}} On 7 March 2004 he received his episcopal consecration from Cardinal [Jean\-Pierre Ricard](/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Ricard "Jean-Pierre Ricard") in the Saint\-Jean\-Baptiste Cathedral of Perpignan. Within the Bishops' Conference of France he has been a member of the Council for Interreligious Relations and New Religious Movements. On 6 March 2014, he was appointed [bishop of Nice](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Nice "Roman Catholic Diocese of Nice").{{cite press release \| language \= it \| access\-date \= 2 May 2022 \| publisher \= Holy See Press Office \| date \= 6 March 2014 \| url \= https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2014/03/06/0166/00348\.html \| title \= Rinunce e Nomine, 06\.03\.2014 }}{{cite news \| title \= Mgr André Marceau nommé évêque de Nice \| work \= \[\[La Croix (newspaper)\|La Croix]] \| date\= 6 March 2014}}*[Journal officiel de la République française](/wiki/Journal_officiel_de_la_R%C3%A9publique_fran%C3%A7aise "Journal officiel de la République française")* « Décret du 18 avril 2014 portant promotion et nomination » \[archive], sur legifrance.gouv.fr, 20 avril 2014 (consulté le 22 avril 2014\). p6951 and he was installed there on 11 May. Pope Francis accepted his resignation on 9 March 2022\.{{cite press release \| publisher \= Holy See Press Office \| access\-date \= 2 May 2022\|url \= https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2022/03/09/0166/00350\.html \| title \= Rinunce e nomine, 09\.03\.2022 \| language \= it \| date \= 9 March 2022}}
[ "Biography\n---------", "Born 6 May 1946 in [Cérons](/wiki/C%C3%A9rons \"Cérons\") ([Gironde](/wiki/Gironde \"Gironde\"), France), André Marceau completed his secondary school studies at the minor seminary there and entered the major seminary to begin his philosophy studies. He did his [national service](/wiki/National_service \"National service\") from 1966 to 1968 teaching history and geography at the minor seminary in [Bingerville](/wiki/Bingerville \"Bingerville\") in the [Ivory Coast](/wiki/Ivory_Coast \"Ivory Coast\"). He then completed his studies in Bordeaux and was [ordained](/wiki/Ordination \"Ordination\") a [priest](/wiki/Catholic_priest \"Catholic priest\") on 25 March 1972\\. He worked for the next eight years in the Parish of St. Vincent in [Mérignac](/wiki/M%C3%A9rignac%2C_Gironde \"Mérignac, Gironde\") on the outskirts of Bordeaux, at the same time pursuing studies in pedagogy at the University of Bordeaux. He studied at the Catholic Institute of Paris from 1980 to 1982\\. For the next ten years he was responsible for the diocesan catechumenate, while also heading priestly formation for the last four of those years.", "He became an [episcopal vicar](/wiki/Episcopal_vicar \"Episcopal vicar\") of the Archdiocese of Bordeaux in 1992, first responsible for the Gironde\\-Sud sector until 1996 and then for the other sectors until 2002\\.", "He was appointed [Bishop of Perpignan\\-Elne](/wiki/Bishop_of_Perpignan-Elne \"Bishop of Perpignan-Elne\") ([Pyrénées\\-Orientales](/wiki/Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es-Orientales \"Pyrénées-Orientales\")) on 13 January 2004 by [Pope John Paul II](/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II \"Pope John Paul II\").{{cite press release \\| language \\= it \\| access\\-date \\= 2 May 2022 \\| publisher \\= Holy See Press Office \\| date \\= 13 January 2004 \\| url \\= https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2004/01/13/0017/00057\\.html \\| title \\= Rinunce e Nomine, 13\\.01\\.2004 }}*Le Petit Episcopologe*, Issue 174, Number 14,544 {{full citation needed\\|date\\=December 2016}} On 7 March 2004 he received his episcopal consecration from Cardinal [Jean\\-Pierre Ricard](/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Ricard \"Jean-Pierre Ricard\") in the Saint\\-Jean\\-Baptiste Cathedral of Perpignan.", "Within the Bishops' Conference of France he has been a member of the Council for Interreligious Relations and New Religious Movements.", "On 6 March 2014, he was appointed [bishop of Nice](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Nice \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Nice\").{{cite press release \\| language \\= it \\| access\\-date \\= 2 May 2022 \\| publisher \\= Holy See Press Office \\| date \\= 6 March 2014 \\| url \\= https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2014/03/06/0166/00348\\.html \\| title \\= Rinunce e Nomine, 06\\.03\\.2014 }}{{cite news \\| title \\= Mgr André Marceau nommé évêque de Nice \\| work \\= \\[\\[La Croix (newspaper)\\|La Croix]] \\| date\\= 6 March 2014}}*[Journal officiel de la République française](/wiki/Journal_officiel_de_la_R%C3%A9publique_fran%C3%A7aise \"Journal officiel de la République française\")* « Décret du 18 avril 2014 portant promotion et nomination » \\[archive], sur legifrance.gouv.fr, 20 avril 2014 (consulté le 22 avril 2014\\). p6951 and he was installed there on 11 May.", "Pope Francis accepted his resignation on 9 March 2022\\.{{cite press release \\| publisher \\= Holy See Press Office \\| access\\-date \\= 2 May 2022\\|url \\= https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2022/03/09/0166/00350\\.html \\| title \\= Rinunce e nomine, 09\\.03\\.2022 \\| language \\= it \\| date \\= 9 March 2022}}", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|align\=left\|1900\= 274 \|1910\= 234 \|1920\= 289 \|1930\= 265 \|1940\= 235 \|1950\= 229 \|1960\= 235 \|1970\= 177 \|1980\= 161 \|1990\= 105 \|2000\= 86 \|2010\= 87 \|2020\= 92 \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|access\-date\=June 4, 2015}} }} ### 2010 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=January 6, 2013}} of 2010, there were 87 people, 39 households, and 26 families living in the village. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|435\.0\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 52 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|260\.0\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the village was 94\.3% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 3\.4% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), and 2\.3% from two or more races. There were 39 households, of which 28\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48\.7% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 12\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 5\.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 33\.3% were non\-families. 28\.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15\.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.23 and the average family size was 2\.69\. The median age in the village was 40\.5 years. 18\.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25\.2% were from 25 to 44; 28\.6% were from 45 to 64; and 19\.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 40\.2% male and 59\.8% female. ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 86 people, 40 households, and 26 families living in the village. The population density was {{convert\|388\.1\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 59 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|266\.2\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the village was 96\.51% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 1\.16% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 2\.33% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"). [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 2\.33% of the population. There were 40 households, out of which 17\.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47\.5% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 12\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35\.0% were non\-families. 35\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 20\.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.15 and the average family size was 2\.77\. In the village, the population was spread out, with 16\.3% under the age of 18, 14\.0% from 18 to 24, 23\.3% from 25 to 44, 20\.9% from 45 to 64, and 25\.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females there were 79\.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 75\.6 males. The median income for a household in the village was $27,500, and the median income for a family was $35,000\. Males had a median income of $32,500 versus $25,625 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the village was $12,966\. There were 11\.5% of families and 14\.1% of the population living below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 21\.1% of under eighteens and 15\.8% of those over 64\.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|align\\=left\\|1900\\= 274\n\\|1910\\= 234\n\\|1920\\= 289\n\\|1930\\= 265\n\\|1940\\= 235\n\\|1950\\= 229\n\\|1960\\= 235\n\\|1970\\= 177\n\\|1980\\= 161\n\\|1990\\= 105\n\\|2000\\= 86\n\\|2010\\= 87\n\\|2020\\= 92\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}", "### 2010 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=January 6, 2013}} of 2010, there were 87 people, 39 households, and 26 families living in the village. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|435\\.0\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 52 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|260\\.0\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the village was 94\\.3% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 3\\.4% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), and 2\\.3% from two or more races.", "There were 39 households, of which 28\\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48\\.7% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 12\\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 5\\.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 33\\.3% were non\\-families. 28\\.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15\\.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.23 and the average family size was 2\\.69\\.", "The median age in the village was 40\\.5 years. 18\\.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25\\.2% were from 25 to 44; 28\\.6% were from 45 to 64; and 19\\.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 40\\.2% male and 59\\.8% female.", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 86 people, 40 households, and 26 families living in the village. The population density was {{convert\\|388\\.1\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 59 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|266\\.2\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the village was 96\\.51% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.16% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 2\\.33% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"). [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 2\\.33% of the population.", "There were 40 households, out of which 17\\.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47\\.5% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 12\\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35\\.0% were non\\-families. 35\\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 20\\.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.15 and the average family size was 2\\.77\\.", "In the village, the population was spread out, with 16\\.3% under the age of 18, 14\\.0% from 18 to 24, 23\\.3% from 25 to 44, 20\\.9% from 45 to 64, and 25\\.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females there were 79\\.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 75\\.6 males.", "The median income for a household in the village was $27,500, and the median income for a family was $35,000\\. Males had a median income of $32,500 versus $25,625 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the village was $12,966\\. There were 11\\.5% of families and 14\\.1% of the population living below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 21\\.1% of under eighteens and 15\\.8% of those over 64\\.", "" ]
Life ---- He was born in Northgate Street, [Exeter](/wiki/Exeter "Exeter"), on 14 December 1658, the third son of William Shower, merchant, of Exeter, by his wife Dorcas, daughter of John Anthony. [John Shower](/wiki/John_Shower "John Shower") was his brother. Educated in his native city, Bartholomew came to London early in 1675, entered the [Middle Temple](/wiki/Middle_Temple "Middle Temple") on 9 September 1676, was called to the bar on 21 May 1680, and became known as a pleader. In 1683 he achieved prominence as an adherent of the court party by publishing a pamphlet*An Antidote against Poison: composed of some remarks upon the Paper printed by the direction of the Lady Russell, and mentioned to have been delivered by the Lord Russell to the Sheriffs at the Place of Execution.* against the executed [William Russell, Lord Russell](/wiki/William_Russell%2C_Lord_Russell "William Russell, Lord Russell") and his partisans. He followed it up in the same year with *The Magistracy and Government of England Vindicated*. In 1684 he moved from the Temple into [Chancery Lane](/wiki/Chancery_Lane "Chancery Lane"), and next year was appointed deputy recorder under [Sir John Holt](/wiki/Sir_John_Holt "Sir John Holt"). Shower was knighted by James II at Whitehall on 12 May 1687, and was made recorder of London in place of Sir J. Tate on 6 February 1688\. He was made bencher of his inn on 25 May in this year, and reader three years later. He signalised himself by his speech for the crown against the [seven bishops](/wiki/Seven_bishops "Seven bishops") in June 1688\. He was replaced as recorder by [Sir George Treby](/wiki/Sir_George_Treby "Sir George Treby") in November 1688\. After the [Glorious Revolution](/wiki/Glorious_Revolution "Glorious Revolution") he became a rancorous opponent of the court, and a political follower of [Sir Edward Seymour, 4th Baronet](/wiki/Sir_Edward_Seymour%2C_4th_Baronet "Sir Edward Seymour, 4th Baronet"). With the years Shower's [Jacobitism](/wiki/Jacobitism "Jacobitism") grew more robust. He wrote a bitter squib on the opportunism of [William Sherlock](/wiki/William_Sherlock "William Sherlock"),*The Master of the Temple as bad a Lawyer as the Dean of St. Paul's is a Divine* (1696\). and he corresponded with [George Hickes](/wiki/George_Hickes_%28divine%29 "George Hickes (divine)") the [nonjuror](/wiki/Nonjuring_schism "Nonjuring schism"). In his career as lawyer, he disputed in 1695 the validity of a commitment by secretary of state for high treason in the case of the King v. Thomas Kendall and Richard Roe. In 1696 he was counsel for the defence of [Ambrose Rookwood](/wiki/Ambrose_Rookwood_%28Jacobite%29 "Ambrose Rookwood (Jacobite)") and Peter Cook, both charged with high treason; of Cook and [William Snatt](/wiki/William_Snatt "William Snatt"), the nonjuring parsons who gave absolution on the scaffold to [Sir William Parkyns](/wiki/Sir_William_Parkyns "Sir William Parkyns"); and in November he defended [Sir John Fenwick](/wiki/Sir_John_Fenwick%2C_3rd_Baronet "Sir John Fenwick, 3rd Baronet"), strongly deprecating the proceedings by [bill of attainder](/wiki/Bill_of_attainder "Bill of attainder"), on the ground that if he were acquitted his client would still be liable to proceedings under the [common law](/wiki/Common_law "Common law"). In 1698 he was retained on behalf of the "Old" [East India Company](/wiki/East_India_Company "East India Company"), and successfully screened his political leader, Seymour, from the imputation of bribery. In June 1699 he successfully defended [Charles Duncombe](/wiki/Charles_Duncombe_%28Lord_Mayor_of_the_City_of_London%29 "Charles Duncombe (Lord Mayor of the City of London)") against a charge of falsely endorsing exchequer bills, and four months later he was elected treasurer of the Middle Temple. Next month (November 1699\) he was counsel for Seymour against Captain George Kirke, who had fatally wounded the baronet's heir, [Popham Seymour\-Conway](/wiki/Popham_Seymour-Conway "Popham Seymour-Conway"), in a duel. In 1701 he was ready with advice as to the best means of proceeding against the leading Kentish petitioners. He was taken ill suddenly at the Temple Church on 2 December 1701, and two days later he died of [pleurisy](/wiki/Pleurisy "Pleurisy") at his house in Temple Lane. His remains were taken to [Pinner Hill](/wiki/Pinner_Hill "Pinner Hill"), where he had recently acquired a seat, and buried in the chancel of Pinner church, where there was a slab to Shower's memory. Shower states that he was married in Bread Street in 1682 by [Samuel Johnson](/wiki/Samuel_Johnson_%28pamphleteer%29 "Samuel Johnson (pamphleteer)"); his wife's name was Anne Bedford born about 1659 in Canterbury, Kent.
[ "Life\n----", "He was born in Northgate Street, [Exeter](/wiki/Exeter \"Exeter\"), on 14 December 1658, the third son of William Shower, merchant, of Exeter, by his wife Dorcas, daughter of John Anthony. [John Shower](/wiki/John_Shower \"John Shower\") was his brother. Educated in his native city, Bartholomew came to London early in 1675, entered the [Middle Temple](/wiki/Middle_Temple \"Middle Temple\") on 9 September 1676, was called to the bar on 21 May 1680, and became known as a pleader.", "In 1683 he achieved prominence as an adherent of the court party by publishing a pamphlet*An Antidote against Poison: composed of some remarks upon the Paper printed by the direction of the Lady Russell, and mentioned to have been delivered by the Lord Russell to the Sheriffs at the Place of Execution.* against the executed [William Russell, Lord Russell](/wiki/William_Russell%2C_Lord_Russell \"William Russell, Lord Russell\") and his partisans. He followed it up in the same year with *The Magistracy and Government of England Vindicated*. In 1684 he moved from the Temple into [Chancery Lane](/wiki/Chancery_Lane \"Chancery Lane\"), and next year was appointed deputy recorder under [Sir John Holt](/wiki/Sir_John_Holt \"Sir John Holt\"). Shower was knighted by James II at Whitehall on 12 May 1687, and was made recorder of London in place of Sir J. Tate on 6 February 1688\\. He was made bencher of his inn on 25 May in this year, and reader three years later. He signalised himself by his speech for the crown against the [seven bishops](/wiki/Seven_bishops \"Seven bishops\") in June 1688\\.", "He was replaced as recorder by [Sir George Treby](/wiki/Sir_George_Treby \"Sir George Treby\") in November 1688\\. After the [Glorious Revolution](/wiki/Glorious_Revolution \"Glorious Revolution\") he became a rancorous opponent of the court, and a political follower of [Sir Edward Seymour, 4th Baronet](/wiki/Sir_Edward_Seymour%2C_4th_Baronet \"Sir Edward Seymour, 4th Baronet\"). With the years Shower's [Jacobitism](/wiki/Jacobitism \"Jacobitism\") grew more robust. He wrote a bitter squib on the opportunism of [William Sherlock](/wiki/William_Sherlock \"William Sherlock\"),*The Master of the Temple as bad a Lawyer as the Dean of St. Paul's is a Divine* (1696\\). and he corresponded with [George Hickes](/wiki/George_Hickes_%28divine%29 \"George Hickes (divine)\") the [nonjuror](/wiki/Nonjuring_schism \"Nonjuring schism\").", "In his career as lawyer, he disputed in 1695 the validity of a commitment by secretary of state for high treason in the case of the King v. Thomas Kendall and Richard Roe. In 1696 he was counsel for the defence of [Ambrose Rookwood](/wiki/Ambrose_Rookwood_%28Jacobite%29 \"Ambrose Rookwood (Jacobite)\") and Peter Cook, both charged with high treason; of Cook and [William Snatt](/wiki/William_Snatt \"William Snatt\"), the nonjuring parsons who gave absolution on the scaffold to [Sir William Parkyns](/wiki/Sir_William_Parkyns \"Sir William Parkyns\"); and in November he defended [Sir John Fenwick](/wiki/Sir_John_Fenwick%2C_3rd_Baronet \"Sir John Fenwick, 3rd Baronet\"), strongly deprecating the proceedings by [bill of attainder](/wiki/Bill_of_attainder \"Bill of attainder\"), on the ground that if he were acquitted his client would still be liable to proceedings under the [common law](/wiki/Common_law \"Common law\"). In 1698 he was retained on behalf of the \"Old\" [East India Company](/wiki/East_India_Company \"East India Company\"), and successfully screened his political leader, Seymour, from the imputation of bribery. In June 1699 he successfully defended [Charles Duncombe](/wiki/Charles_Duncombe_%28Lord_Mayor_of_the_City_of_London%29 \"Charles Duncombe (Lord Mayor of the City of London)\") against a charge of falsely endorsing exchequer bills, and four months later he was elected treasurer of the Middle Temple. Next month (November 1699\\) he was counsel for Seymour against Captain George Kirke, who had fatally wounded the baronet's heir, [Popham Seymour\\-Conway](/wiki/Popham_Seymour-Conway \"Popham Seymour-Conway\"), in a duel. In 1701 he was ready with advice as to the best means of proceeding against the leading Kentish petitioners.", "He was taken ill suddenly at the Temple Church on 2 December 1701, and two days later he died of [pleurisy](/wiki/Pleurisy \"Pleurisy\") at his house in Temple Lane. His remains were taken to [Pinner Hill](/wiki/Pinner_Hill \"Pinner Hill\"), where he had recently acquired a seat, and buried in the chancel of Pinner church, where there was a slab to Shower's memory. Shower states that he was married in Bread Street in 1682 by [Samuel Johnson](/wiki/Samuel_Johnson_%28pamphleteer%29 \"Samuel Johnson (pamphleteer)\"); his wife's name was Anne Bedford born about 1659 in Canterbury, Kent.", "" ]
Biography --------- Born in [Logan County, West Virginia](/wiki/Logan_County%2C_West_Virginia "Logan County, West Virginia"), Hutchison worked as a [coal miner](/wiki/Coal_miner "Coal miner") at various coal mines in Logan County, both before and after his career as a recording artist. His exposure to [Appalachian music](/wiki/Appalachian_music "Appalachian music") came at an early age because his grandfather played fiddle and banjo in Logan before he died in 1903 in a mining accident. In 1904, the railroad first came into Logan County and exposed Hutchison to African\-American blues and pre\-blues. Hutchison is said to have walked with a limp, possibly as a result of a mining accident. Between 1926 and 1929, Hutchison recorded forty\-one sides for Okeh, of which nine were unissued. Three of the issued sides and three of the unissued were recorded with Sherman Lawson, a Logan County fiddler; others featured Hutchison's guitar, harmonica and voice. Hutchison also performed in the "Okeh Medicine Show," released by Okeh in 1929\. Some years after his recording career had ended and after he left the Logan County coal mines, Hutchison and his wife operated a store in [Lake, West Virginia](/wiki/Lake%2C_West_Virginia "Lake, West Virginia"), where he also served as postmaster. His family lived above the store. The store burned down, Hutchison lost everything and reportedly developed alcohol problems after that. He worked as a riverboat entertainer on the [Ohio River](/wiki/Ohio_River "Ohio River") and eventually moved to [Columbus, Ohio](/wiki/Columbus%2C_Ohio "Columbus, Ohio"). He died in 1945 at a [Dayton, Ohio](/wiki/Dayton%2C_Ohio "Dayton, Ohio") hospital, of [liver disease](/wiki/Liver_disease "Liver disease"), aged 48\. He is buried in a hillside family cemetery in [Lake, West Virginia](/wiki/Lake%2C_West_Virginia "Lake, West Virginia"). Hutchison is considered to be one of the finest performers of the "white country blues" genre of early [folk music](/wiki/Folk_music "Folk music"). One of his more famous recordings is "The Train That Carried My Girl From Town." His recording of "[Stackalee](/wiki/Stagger_Lee_%28song%29 "Stagger Lee (song)")" was included in Harry Smith's 1952 *Anthology of American Folk Music*, and influenced a number of musicians during the 1950s and 1960s [folk revival](/wiki/Folk_revival "Folk revival"). Hutchison's songs have been covered by or have influenced [Doc Watson](/wiki/Doc_Watson "Doc Watson"), [John Fahey](/wiki/John_Fahey_%28musician%29 "John Fahey (musician)"), [Bob Dylan](/wiki/Bob_Dylan "Bob Dylan"), [Mike Seeger](/wiki/Mike_Seeger "Mike Seeger"), [Roscoe Holcomb](/wiki/Roscoe_Holcomb "Roscoe Holcomb"), [Cowboy Copas](/wiki/Cowboy_Copas "Cowboy Copas"), [Frank Fairfield](/wiki/Frank_Fairfield "Frank Fairfield"), [Chris Smither](/wiki/Chris_Smither "Chris Smither"), and [Charlie Parr](/wiki/Charlie_Parr "Charlie Parr"). He was inducted into the West Virginia Music Hall of fame in 2018\.
[ "Biography\n---------", "Born in [Logan County, West Virginia](/wiki/Logan_County%2C_West_Virginia \"Logan County, West Virginia\"), Hutchison worked as a [coal miner](/wiki/Coal_miner \"Coal miner\") at various coal mines in Logan County, both before and after his career as a recording artist. His exposure to [Appalachian music](/wiki/Appalachian_music \"Appalachian music\") came at an early age because his grandfather played fiddle and banjo in Logan before he died in 1903 in a mining accident. In 1904, the railroad first came into Logan County and exposed Hutchison to African\\-American blues and pre\\-blues. Hutchison is said to have walked with a limp, possibly as a result of a mining accident.", "Between 1926 and 1929, Hutchison recorded forty\\-one sides for Okeh, of which nine were unissued. Three of the issued sides and three of the unissued were recorded with Sherman Lawson, a Logan County fiddler; others featured Hutchison's guitar, harmonica and voice. Hutchison also performed in the \"Okeh Medicine Show,\" released by Okeh in 1929\\.", "Some years after his recording career had ended and after he left the Logan County coal mines, Hutchison and his wife operated a store in [Lake, West Virginia](/wiki/Lake%2C_West_Virginia \"Lake, West Virginia\"), where he also served as postmaster. His family lived above the store. The store burned down, Hutchison lost everything and reportedly developed alcohol problems after that. He worked as a riverboat entertainer on the [Ohio River](/wiki/Ohio_River \"Ohio River\") and eventually moved to [Columbus, Ohio](/wiki/Columbus%2C_Ohio \"Columbus, Ohio\").", "He died in 1945 at a [Dayton, Ohio](/wiki/Dayton%2C_Ohio \"Dayton, Ohio\") hospital, of [liver disease](/wiki/Liver_disease \"Liver disease\"), aged 48\\. He is buried in a hillside family cemetery in [Lake, West Virginia](/wiki/Lake%2C_West_Virginia \"Lake, West Virginia\").", "Hutchison is considered to be one of the finest performers of the \"white country blues\" genre of early [folk music](/wiki/Folk_music \"Folk music\"). One of his more famous recordings is \"The Train That Carried My Girl From Town.\" His recording of \"[Stackalee](/wiki/Stagger_Lee_%28song%29 \"Stagger Lee (song)\")\" was included in Harry Smith's 1952 *Anthology of American Folk Music*, and influenced a number of musicians during the 1950s and 1960s [folk revival](/wiki/Folk_revival \"Folk revival\"). Hutchison's songs have been covered by or have influenced [Doc Watson](/wiki/Doc_Watson \"Doc Watson\"), [John Fahey](/wiki/John_Fahey_%28musician%29 \"John Fahey (musician)\"), [Bob Dylan](/wiki/Bob_Dylan \"Bob Dylan\"), [Mike Seeger](/wiki/Mike_Seeger \"Mike Seeger\"), [Roscoe Holcomb](/wiki/Roscoe_Holcomb \"Roscoe Holcomb\"), [Cowboy Copas](/wiki/Cowboy_Copas \"Cowboy Copas\"), [Frank Fairfield](/wiki/Frank_Fairfield \"Frank Fairfield\"), [Chris Smither](/wiki/Chris_Smither \"Chris Smither\"), and [Charlie Parr](/wiki/Charlie_Parr \"Charlie Parr\"). He was inducted into the West Virginia Music Hall of fame in 2018\\.", "" ]