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Biography
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{{cquote\|Ich kann nur in der Sprache singen, in der ich auch träume..''I can sing only in the language in which I also dream...'' \|200\|50\|Claudia Jung{{cite web\|url\=http://www.claudia\-jung.de/index\_musik.html \|title\=Archived copy \|accessdate\=2008\-10\-22 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081222005618/http://www.claudia\-jung.de/index\_musik.html \|archivedate\=2008\-12\-22 }}}}
Jung was born in [Ratingen](/wiki/Ratingen "Ratingen"), [North Rhine\-Westphalia](/wiki/North_Rhine-Westphalia "North Rhine-Westphalia"). From 1974 till 1980, she attended the school Liebfrauenschule in Ratingen. As a child she took guitar lessons and during her schooltime she sang in the Amt\-Angerland\-Chor. Before her career in show business she worked as a photo lab technician, a dental assistant and a tourist guide in [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy"). Every now and then she performed as a non\-professional singer.
In 1984, she met the music producer [Adam Schairer](/wiki/Adam_Schairer "Adam Schairer") with whom she subsequently made experimental recordings. She made her first single releases in collaboration with Schairer and the composer and producer [Jean Frankfurter](/wiki/Jean_Frankfurter "Jean Frankfurter") as well as the lyricist Erich Offierowski. The debut album *Halt' mich fest* ("Hold me tight") was released in 1988\. Since 1999 her albums have been produced by Hans Singer with André Franke as co\-producer.
During her career, Claudia Jung has achieved multiple gold and platinum records. She has also been awarded various prizes such as the [Echo\-Preis](/wiki/ECHO_%28music_award%29 "ECHO (music award)"), [Goldene Stimmgabel](/wiki/Goldene_Stimmgabel "Goldene Stimmgabel") and the Fred\-Jay\-Textdichterpreis. Jung has had duets with many international stars including [Richard Clayderman](/wiki/Richard_Clayderman "Richard Clayderman") (e.g. "Je t'aime mon amour"), Rosanna Perinic ("Domani l'amore vincerà"), [Nino de Angelo](/wiki/Nino_de_Angelo "Nino de Angelo") ("Hand in Hand") and [Cliff Richard](/wiki/Cliff_Richard "Cliff Richard") ("Mistletoe and Wine"). She sings mainly in her native language, German, but has also interpreted songs in English, French and Italian.
In 2004, she recorded a duet "Heut' fliegt ein Engel durch die Nacht" with her daughter Anna.
Since November 2007, Claudia Jung has been the protector of a childcare project for traumatized children who have lost faith in themselves, other people and the surrounding world.
In 2008, she debuted as actress, appearing as the female lead in the television series of the ARD (First German channel): Das Musikhotel am Wolfgangsee (The Musical hotel on Lake Wolfgang).
On 2 March 2008 Claudia Jung \- officially Ute Singer \- was elected as representative of the group Freie Wähler in the county council of [Pfaffenhofen](/wiki/Pfaffenhofen_%28district%29 "Pfaffenhofen (district)"). She also works as a councilwoman of the Christliche Wählergemeinschaft in the community of [Gerolsbach](/wiki/Gerolsbach "Gerolsbach"). In the state election on 28 September 2008 Claudia Jung was elected as representative of the [Freie Wähler](/wiki/Free_Voters "Free Voters") in the [Landtag of Bavaria](/wiki/Landtag_of_Bavaria "Landtag of Bavaria").[Landeswahlleiter Bayern](http://www.landtagswahl2008.bayern.de/tabz1901041.html)
During her career, Claudia Jung has sold more than 445,000 records, most albums. The most commercially successful album was the same name "Claudia Jung".
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"{{cquote\\|Ich kann nur in der Sprache singen, in der ich auch träume..''I can sing only in the language in which I also dream...'' \\|200\\|50\\|Claudia Jung{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.claudia\\-jung.de/index\\_musik.html \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-22 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081222005618/http://www.claudia\\-jung.de/index\\_musik.html \\|archivedate\\=2008\\-12\\-22 }}}}",
"Jung was born in [Ratingen](/wiki/Ratingen \"Ratingen\"), [North Rhine\\-Westphalia](/wiki/North_Rhine-Westphalia \"North Rhine-Westphalia\"). From 1974 till 1980, she attended the school Liebfrauenschule in Ratingen. As a child she took guitar lessons and during her schooltime she sang in the Amt\\-Angerland\\-Chor. Before her career in show business she worked as a photo lab technician, a dental assistant and a tourist guide in [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"). Every now and then she performed as a non\\-professional singer.",
"In 1984, she met the music producer [Adam Schairer](/wiki/Adam_Schairer \"Adam Schairer\") with whom she subsequently made experimental recordings. She made her first single releases in collaboration with Schairer and the composer and producer [Jean Frankfurter](/wiki/Jean_Frankfurter \"Jean Frankfurter\") as well as the lyricist Erich Offierowski. The debut album *Halt' mich fest* (\"Hold me tight\") was released in 1988\\. Since 1999 her albums have been produced by Hans Singer with André Franke as co\\-producer.",
"During her career, Claudia Jung has achieved multiple gold and platinum records. She has also been awarded various prizes such as the [Echo\\-Preis](/wiki/ECHO_%28music_award%29 \"ECHO (music award)\"), [Goldene Stimmgabel](/wiki/Goldene_Stimmgabel \"Goldene Stimmgabel\") and the Fred\\-Jay\\-Textdichterpreis. Jung has had duets with many international stars including [Richard Clayderman](/wiki/Richard_Clayderman \"Richard Clayderman\") (e.g. \"Je t'aime mon amour\"), Rosanna Perinic (\"Domani l'amore vincerà\"), [Nino de Angelo](/wiki/Nino_de_Angelo \"Nino de Angelo\") (\"Hand in Hand\") and [Cliff Richard](/wiki/Cliff_Richard \"Cliff Richard\") (\"Mistletoe and Wine\"). She sings mainly in her native language, German, but has also interpreted songs in English, French and Italian.",
"In 2004, she recorded a duet \"Heut' fliegt ein Engel durch die Nacht\" with her daughter Anna.",
"Since November 2007, Claudia Jung has been the protector of a childcare project for traumatized children who have lost faith in themselves, other people and the surrounding world.",
"In 2008, she debuted as actress, appearing as the female lead in the television series of the ARD (First German channel): Das Musikhotel am Wolfgangsee (The Musical hotel on Lake Wolfgang).",
"On 2 March 2008 Claudia Jung \\- officially Ute Singer \\- was elected as representative of the group Freie Wähler in the county council of [Pfaffenhofen](/wiki/Pfaffenhofen_%28district%29 \"Pfaffenhofen (district)\"). She also works as a councilwoman of the Christliche Wählergemeinschaft in the community of [Gerolsbach](/wiki/Gerolsbach \"Gerolsbach\"). In the state election on 28 September 2008 Claudia Jung was elected as representative of the [Freie Wähler](/wiki/Free_Voters \"Free Voters\") in the [Landtag of Bavaria](/wiki/Landtag_of_Bavaria \"Landtag of Bavaria\").[Landeswahlleiter Bayern](http://www.landtagswahl2008.bayern.de/tabz1901041.html)",
"During her career, Claudia Jung has sold more than 445,000 records, most albums. The most commercially successful album was the same name \"Claudia Jung\".",
""
] |
Materials
---------
The veneers used are primarily woods, but may include bone, ivory, turtle\-shell (conventionally called "[tortoiseshell](/wiki/Tortoiseshell_material "Tortoiseshell material")"), [mother\-of\-pearl](/wiki/Mother-of-pearl "Mother-of-pearl"), [pewter](/wiki/Pewter "Pewter"), [brass](/wiki/Brass "Brass") or fine metals. Marquetry using colored [straw](/wiki/Straw_marquetry "Straw marquetry") was a specialty of some European spa resorts from the end of the 18th century. Many exotic woods as well as common varieties can be employed, from the near\-white of [boxwood](/wiki/Buxus "Buxus"){{cite web \|last\=Mac Sween \|first\=Peter \|title\=Boxwood: Buxus sempervirens \|website\=Canadian Woodworking \|url\=https://canadianwoodworking.com/woods/woods\-to\-know\-boxwood/ \|access\-date\=21 September 2024 \|quote\=European boxwood has a creamy white to pale yellow colour. }}{{efn\|Boxwood turns golden\-tan as it ages.}} to the near\-black of [ebony](/wiki/Ebony "Ebony"); colors not found in nature can be achieved by applying dye to a veneer that retains stains well, such as [sycamore](/wiki/Sycamore "Sycamore").
The French cabinet maker [Andre\-Charles Boulle](/wiki/Andre-Charles_Boulle "Andre-Charles Boulle") (1642–1732\) specialized in furniture using metal and either wood or [tortoiseshell](/wiki/Tortoiseshell "Tortoiseshell") together, the latter acting as the background.
The simplest kind of marquetry uses only two sheets of veneer, which are temporarily glued together and cut with a fine saw, producing two contrasting panels of identical design, (in French called *partie* and *contre\-partie*, "part" and "counterpart").
[thumb\|An example of sand\-shading and shellac\-inking; subject copied from a [Moronobu](/wiki/Moronobu "Moronobu") print](/wiki/Image:Marquetry-TwoLovers.JPG "Marquetry-TwoLovers.JPG")
Marquetry as a modern craft most commonly uses knife\-cut veneers. However, the knife\-cutting technique usually requires a lot of time. For that reason, many marquetarians have switched to [fret](/wiki/Fretsaw "Fretsaw") or scroll saw techniques. Other requirements are a pattern of some kind, some brown gummed tape (this kind of tape is used because as its moistened glue dries the tape shrinks, pulling the veneer pieces closer together), [PVA glue](/wiki/Polyvinyl_acetate "Polyvinyl acetate") and a base\-board with balancing veneers on the alternate face to compensate stresses. Finishing the piece will require fine abrasive paper, always backed by a sanding block. Choices of sealers and finishes that can be applied include ordinary varnish, special varnishes, polyurethane (either oil or water based), wax, and [French polish](/wiki/French_polish "French polish").
Sand shading is a process used to make a picture appear to be more three\-dimensional. A piece of veneer to be incorporated into a picture is partially submerged in hot sand for a few seconds.
Another shading process is engraving fine lines into a picture and filling them with a mixture of [India ink](/wiki/India_ink "India ink") and [shellac](/wiki/Shellac "Shellac").
|
[
"Materials\n---------",
"The veneers used are primarily woods, but may include bone, ivory, turtle\\-shell (conventionally called \"[tortoiseshell](/wiki/Tortoiseshell_material \"Tortoiseshell material\")\"), [mother\\-of\\-pearl](/wiki/Mother-of-pearl \"Mother-of-pearl\"), [pewter](/wiki/Pewter \"Pewter\"), [brass](/wiki/Brass \"Brass\") or fine metals. Marquetry using colored [straw](/wiki/Straw_marquetry \"Straw marquetry\") was a specialty of some European spa resorts from the end of the 18th century. Many exotic woods as well as common varieties can be employed, from the near\\-white of [boxwood](/wiki/Buxus \"Buxus\"){{cite web \\|last\\=Mac Sween \\|first\\=Peter \\|title\\=Boxwood: Buxus sempervirens \\|website\\=Canadian Woodworking \\|url\\=https://canadianwoodworking.com/woods/woods\\-to\\-know\\-boxwood/ \\|access\\-date\\=21 September 2024 \\|quote\\=European boxwood has a creamy white to pale yellow colour. }}{{efn\\|Boxwood turns golden\\-tan as it ages.}} to the near\\-black of [ebony](/wiki/Ebony \"Ebony\"); colors not found in nature can be achieved by applying dye to a veneer that retains stains well, such as [sycamore](/wiki/Sycamore \"Sycamore\").",
"The French cabinet maker [Andre\\-Charles Boulle](/wiki/Andre-Charles_Boulle \"Andre-Charles Boulle\") (1642–1732\\) specialized in furniture using metal and either wood or [tortoiseshell](/wiki/Tortoiseshell \"Tortoiseshell\") together, the latter acting as the background.",
"The simplest kind of marquetry uses only two sheets of veneer, which are temporarily glued together and cut with a fine saw, producing two contrasting panels of identical design, (in French called *partie* and *contre\\-partie*, \"part\" and \"counterpart\").",
"[thumb\\|An example of sand\\-shading and shellac\\-inking; subject copied from a [Moronobu](/wiki/Moronobu \"Moronobu\") print](/wiki/Image:Marquetry-TwoLovers.JPG \"Marquetry-TwoLovers.JPG\")\nMarquetry as a modern craft most commonly uses knife\\-cut veneers. However, the knife\\-cutting technique usually requires a lot of time. For that reason, many marquetarians have switched to [fret](/wiki/Fretsaw \"Fretsaw\") or scroll saw techniques. Other requirements are a pattern of some kind, some brown gummed tape (this kind of tape is used because as its moistened glue dries the tape shrinks, pulling the veneer pieces closer together), [PVA glue](/wiki/Polyvinyl_acetate \"Polyvinyl acetate\") and a base\\-board with balancing veneers on the alternate face to compensate stresses. Finishing the piece will require fine abrasive paper, always backed by a sanding block. Choices of sealers and finishes that can be applied include ordinary varnish, special varnishes, polyurethane (either oil or water based), wax, and [French polish](/wiki/French_polish \"French polish\").",
"Sand shading is a process used to make a picture appear to be more three\\-dimensional. A piece of veneer to be incorporated into a picture is partially submerged in hot sand for a few seconds.",
"Another shading process is engraving fine lines into a picture and filling them with a mixture of [India ink](/wiki/India_ink \"India ink\") and [shellac](/wiki/Shellac \"Shellac\").",
""
] |
History
-------
Furniture inlaid with precious woods, metals, glass and stones is known from the ancient world and Roman examples have been recovered from the first century sites of [Pompeii](/wiki/Pompeii "Pompeii") and [Herculaneum](/wiki/Herculaneum "Herculaneum") demonstrating that the technique was highly advanced.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/249232 \|title\=Couch and footstool with bone carvings and glass inlays \|website\=\[\[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] \|access\-date\=2018\-12\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612140158/https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/249232 \|archive\-date\=2018\-06\-12 \|url\-status\=live }} The revival of the technique of veneered marquetry had its inspiration in 16th century [Florence](/wiki/Florence "Florence") and at [Naples](/wiki/Naples "Naples") ultimately from classical inspiration. Marquetry elaborated upon Florentine techniques of inlaying solid marble slabs with designs formed of fitted marbles, jaspers and semi\-precious stones. This work, called *opere di commessi*, has medieval parallels in Central Italian "[Cosmati](/wiki/Cosmati "Cosmati")"\-work of inlaid marble floors, altars and columns. The technique is known in English as [pietra dura](/wiki/Pietra_dura "Pietra dura"), for the "hardstones" used: [onyx](/wiki/Onyx "Onyx"), [jasper](/wiki/Jasper "Jasper"), [cornelian](/wiki/Cornelian "Cornelian"), [lapis lazuli](/wiki/Lapis_lazuli "Lapis lazuli") and colored marbles. In Florence, the [Chapel of the Medici at San Lorenzo](/wiki/Basilica_di_San_Lorenzo_di_Firenze "Basilica di San Lorenzo di Firenze") is completely covered in a colored marble facing using this demanding jig\-sawn technique.
{{External media \| width \= 210px \| float \= right \| headerimage\=\[\[File:Château de Versailles, appartements de la Dauphine, cabinet intérieur, secrétaire à pente, Bernard II van Riesenbergh.jpg\|210px]] \| video1 \= \[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=9JcpyE01Yzc The Inlay Technique of Marquetry], \[\[J. Paul Getty Museum]]
\| video2 \= \[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=wFhopfsjwi4 LaunchPad: Roentgen Marquetry], \[\[Art Institute of Chicago]]
}}
Techniques of wood marquetry were developed in [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp "Antwerp") and other Flemish centers of luxury [cabinet\-making](/wiki/Cabinet_making "Cabinet making") during the early 16th century. The craft was imported full\-blown to France after the mid\-seventeenth century, to create furniture of unprecedented luxury being made at the [royal manufactory of the Gobelins](/wiki/Gobelins_manufactory "Gobelins manufactory"), charged with providing furnishings to decorate [Versailles](/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles "Palace of Versailles") and the other royal residences of [Louis XIV](/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France "Louis XIV of France"). Early masters of French marquetry were the Fleming [Pierre Gole](/wiki/Pierre_Gole "Pierre Gole") and his son\-in\-law, [André\-Charles Boulle](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Charles_Boulle "André-Charles Boulle"), who founded a dynasty of royal and Parisian cabinet\-makers (*[ébénistes](/wiki/%C3%89b%C3%A9niste "Ébéniste")*) and gave his name to a technique of marquetry employing *tortoiseshell* and brass with pewter in [arabesque](/wiki/Arabesque_%28Islamic_art%29 "Arabesque (Islamic art)") or intricately foliate designs. *Boulle* marquetry dropped out of favor in the 1720s, but was revived in the 1780s. In the decades between, carefully matched quarter\-sawn veneers sawn from the same piece of timber were arranged symmetrically on case pieces and contrasted with [gilt\-bronze](/wiki/Gilt-bronze "Gilt-bronze") mounts. Floral marquetry came into favor in Parisian furniture in the 1750s, employed by cabinet\-makers like [Bernard II van Risamburgh](/wiki/Bernard_II_van_Risamburgh "Bernard II van Risamburgh"), [Jean\-Pierre Latz](/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Latz "Jean-Pierre Latz") and [Simon\-François Oeben](/wiki/Simon-Fran%C3%A7ois_Oeben "Simon-François Oeben"). The most famous royal French furniture veneered with marquetry are the pieces delivered by [Jean Henri Riesener](/wiki/Jean_Henri_Riesener "Jean Henri Riesener") in the 1770s and 1780s. The *[Bureau du Roi](/wiki/Bureau_du_Roi "Bureau du Roi")* was the most famous amongst these famous masterpieces.
Marquetry was not ordinarily a feature of furniture made outside large urban centers. Nevertheless, marquetry was introduced into [London furniture](/wiki/Restoration_style "Restoration style") at the [Restoration](/wiki/English_Restoration "English Restoration") of [Charles II](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England "Charles II of England") in 1660, the product of immigrant Dutch 'inlayers', whose craft traditions owed a lot to Antwerp. Panels of elaborately scrolling "seaweed" marquetry of box or holly contrasting with walnut appeared on table tops, cabinets, and long\-case clocks. At the end of the 17th century, a new influx of French [Huguenot](/wiki/Huguenot "Huguenot") craftsmen went to [London](/wiki/London "London"), but marquetry in England had little appeal in the anti\-French, more Chinese\-inspired high\-style English furniture (mis\-called 'Queen Anne') after *ca* 1720\. Marquetry was revived as a vehicle of [Neoclassicism](/wiki/Neoclassicism "Neoclassicism") and a 'French taste' in London furniture, starting in the late 1760s. Cabinet\-makers associated with London\-made marquetry furniture, 1765–1790, include [Thomas Chippendale](/wiki/Thomas_Chippendale "Thomas Chippendale") and less familiar names, like [John Linnell](/wiki/John_Linnell_18th_C_Cabinet-Maker_and_Upholsterer "John Linnell 18th C Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer"), the French craftsman Pierre Langlois, and the firm of [William Ince and John Mayhew](/wiki/Ince_and_Mayhew "Ince and Mayhew").
[thumb\|right\|Modern marquetry: a [tangram](/wiki/Tangram "Tangram") table by [Silas Kopf](/wiki/Silas_Kopf "Silas Kopf"), with *[trompe\-l'œil](/wiki/Trompe-l%27%C5%93il "Trompe-l'œil")* images of paper and brush made entirely of different shades of flat veneer](/wiki/Image:Silas_Kopf_Tangram_Table.JPG "Silas Kopf Tangram Table.JPG")
Although marquetry is a technique separate from inlay, English marquetry\-makers were called "inlayers" throughout the 18th century. In Paris, before 1789, makers of veneered or marquetry furniture (*ébénistes*) belonged to a separate guild from chair\-makers and other furniture craftsmen working in solid wood (*menuisiers*).
Tiling patterning has been more highly developed in the Islamic world than anywhere else, and many extraordinary examples of inlay work have come from Middle Eastern countries such as Lebanon and [Iran](/wiki/Khatam "Khatam").
At [Tonbridge](/wiki/Tonbridge "Tonbridge") and [Royal Tunbridge Wells](/wiki/Royal_Tunbridge_Wells "Royal Tunbridge Wells"), England, souvenir "Tunbridge wares"—small boxes and the like—made from the mid\-18th century onwards, were veneered with panels of minute wood mosaics, usually geometric, but which could include complicated subjects like landscapes. They were made by laboriously assembling and gluing thin strips and shaped rods, which then could be sliced crossways to provide numerous mosaic panels all of the same design.
Marquetry was a feature of some centers of German cabinet\-making from c. 1710\. The craft and artistry of [David Roentgen](/wiki/David_Roentgen "David Roentgen"), Neuwied, (and later at Paris as well) was unsurpassed, even in Paris, by any 18th\-century marquetry craftsman.
Marquetry was not a mainstream fashion in 18th\-century Italy, but the neoclassical marquetry of [Giuseppe Maggiolini](/wiki/Giuseppe_Maggiolini "Giuseppe Maggiolini"), made in Milan at the end of the century is notable.
The classic illustrated description of 18th century marquetry\-making was contributed by [Roubo](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Jacob_Roubo "André Jacob Roubo") to the *Encyclopédie des Arts et Métiers,* 1770\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Furniture inlaid with precious woods, metals, glass and stones is known from the ancient world and Roman examples have been recovered from the first century sites of [Pompeii](/wiki/Pompeii \"Pompeii\") and [Herculaneum](/wiki/Herculaneum \"Herculaneum\") demonstrating that the technique was highly advanced.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/249232 \\|title\\=Couch and footstool with bone carvings and glass inlays \\|website\\=\\[\\[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-12\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612140158/https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/249232 \\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-06\\-12 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The revival of the technique of veneered marquetry had its inspiration in 16th century [Florence](/wiki/Florence \"Florence\") and at [Naples](/wiki/Naples \"Naples\") ultimately from classical inspiration. Marquetry elaborated upon Florentine techniques of inlaying solid marble slabs with designs formed of fitted marbles, jaspers and semi\\-precious stones. This work, called *opere di commessi*, has medieval parallels in Central Italian \"[Cosmati](/wiki/Cosmati \"Cosmati\")\"\\-work of inlaid marble floors, altars and columns. The technique is known in English as [pietra dura](/wiki/Pietra_dura \"Pietra dura\"), for the \"hardstones\" used: [onyx](/wiki/Onyx \"Onyx\"), [jasper](/wiki/Jasper \"Jasper\"), [cornelian](/wiki/Cornelian \"Cornelian\"), [lapis lazuli](/wiki/Lapis_lazuli \"Lapis lazuli\") and colored marbles. In Florence, the [Chapel of the Medici at San Lorenzo](/wiki/Basilica_di_San_Lorenzo_di_Firenze \"Basilica di San Lorenzo di Firenze\") is completely covered in a colored marble facing using this demanding jig\\-sawn technique.",
"{{External media \\| width \\= 210px \\| float \\= right \\| headerimage\\=\\[\\[File:Château de Versailles, appartements de la Dauphine, cabinet intérieur, secrétaire à pente, Bernard II van Riesenbergh.jpg\\|210px]] \\| video1 \\= \\[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=9JcpyE01Yzc The Inlay Technique of Marquetry], \\[\\[J. Paul Getty Museum]]\n\\| video2 \\= \\[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=wFhopfsjwi4 LaunchPad: Roentgen Marquetry], \\[\\[Art Institute of Chicago]]\n}}\nTechniques of wood marquetry were developed in [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp \"Antwerp\") and other Flemish centers of luxury [cabinet\\-making](/wiki/Cabinet_making \"Cabinet making\") during the early 16th century. The craft was imported full\\-blown to France after the mid\\-seventeenth century, to create furniture of unprecedented luxury being made at the [royal manufactory of the Gobelins](/wiki/Gobelins_manufactory \"Gobelins manufactory\"), charged with providing furnishings to decorate [Versailles](/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles \"Palace of Versailles\") and the other royal residences of [Louis XIV](/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France \"Louis XIV of France\"). Early masters of French marquetry were the Fleming [Pierre Gole](/wiki/Pierre_Gole \"Pierre Gole\") and his son\\-in\\-law, [André\\-Charles Boulle](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Charles_Boulle \"André-Charles Boulle\"), who founded a dynasty of royal and Parisian cabinet\\-makers (*[ébénistes](/wiki/%C3%89b%C3%A9niste \"Ébéniste\")*) and gave his name to a technique of marquetry employing *tortoiseshell* and brass with pewter in [arabesque](/wiki/Arabesque_%28Islamic_art%29 \"Arabesque (Islamic art)\") or intricately foliate designs. *Boulle* marquetry dropped out of favor in the 1720s, but was revived in the 1780s. In the decades between, carefully matched quarter\\-sawn veneers sawn from the same piece of timber were arranged symmetrically on case pieces and contrasted with [gilt\\-bronze](/wiki/Gilt-bronze \"Gilt-bronze\") mounts. Floral marquetry came into favor in Parisian furniture in the 1750s, employed by cabinet\\-makers like [Bernard II van Risamburgh](/wiki/Bernard_II_van_Risamburgh \"Bernard II van Risamburgh\"), [Jean\\-Pierre Latz](/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Latz \"Jean-Pierre Latz\") and [Simon\\-François Oeben](/wiki/Simon-Fran%C3%A7ois_Oeben \"Simon-François Oeben\"). The most famous royal French furniture veneered with marquetry are the pieces delivered by [Jean Henri Riesener](/wiki/Jean_Henri_Riesener \"Jean Henri Riesener\") in the 1770s and 1780s. The *[Bureau du Roi](/wiki/Bureau_du_Roi \"Bureau du Roi\")* was the most famous amongst these famous masterpieces.",
"Marquetry was not ordinarily a feature of furniture made outside large urban centers. Nevertheless, marquetry was introduced into [London furniture](/wiki/Restoration_style \"Restoration style\") at the [Restoration](/wiki/English_Restoration \"English Restoration\") of [Charles II](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England \"Charles II of England\") in 1660, the product of immigrant Dutch 'inlayers', whose craft traditions owed a lot to Antwerp. Panels of elaborately scrolling \"seaweed\" marquetry of box or holly contrasting with walnut appeared on table tops, cabinets, and long\\-case clocks. At the end of the 17th century, a new influx of French [Huguenot](/wiki/Huguenot \"Huguenot\") craftsmen went to [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), but marquetry in England had little appeal in the anti\\-French, more Chinese\\-inspired high\\-style English furniture (mis\\-called 'Queen Anne') after *ca* 1720\\. Marquetry was revived as a vehicle of [Neoclassicism](/wiki/Neoclassicism \"Neoclassicism\") and a 'French taste' in London furniture, starting in the late 1760s. Cabinet\\-makers associated with London\\-made marquetry furniture, 1765–1790, include [Thomas Chippendale](/wiki/Thomas_Chippendale \"Thomas Chippendale\") and less familiar names, like [John Linnell](/wiki/John_Linnell_18th_C_Cabinet-Maker_and_Upholsterer \"John Linnell 18th C Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer\"), the French craftsman Pierre Langlois, and the firm of [William Ince and John Mayhew](/wiki/Ince_and_Mayhew \"Ince and Mayhew\").",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Modern marquetry: a [tangram](/wiki/Tangram \"Tangram\") table by [Silas Kopf](/wiki/Silas_Kopf \"Silas Kopf\"), with *[trompe\\-l'œil](/wiki/Trompe-l%27%C5%93il \"Trompe-l'œil\")* images of paper and brush made entirely of different shades of flat veneer](/wiki/Image:Silas_Kopf_Tangram_Table.JPG \"Silas Kopf Tangram Table.JPG\") \nAlthough marquetry is a technique separate from inlay, English marquetry\\-makers were called \"inlayers\" throughout the 18th century. In Paris, before 1789, makers of veneered or marquetry furniture (*ébénistes*) belonged to a separate guild from chair\\-makers and other furniture craftsmen working in solid wood (*menuisiers*).",
"Tiling patterning has been more highly developed in the Islamic world than anywhere else, and many extraordinary examples of inlay work have come from Middle Eastern countries such as Lebanon and [Iran](/wiki/Khatam \"Khatam\").",
"At [Tonbridge](/wiki/Tonbridge \"Tonbridge\") and [Royal Tunbridge Wells](/wiki/Royal_Tunbridge_Wells \"Royal Tunbridge Wells\"), England, souvenir \"Tunbridge wares\"—small boxes and the like—made from the mid\\-18th century onwards, were veneered with panels of minute wood mosaics, usually geometric, but which could include complicated subjects like landscapes. They were made by laboriously assembling and gluing thin strips and shaped rods, which then could be sliced crossways to provide numerous mosaic panels all of the same design.",
"Marquetry was a feature of some centers of German cabinet\\-making from c. 1710\\. The craft and artistry of [David Roentgen](/wiki/David_Roentgen \"David Roentgen\"), Neuwied, (and later at Paris as well) was unsurpassed, even in Paris, by any 18th\\-century marquetry craftsman.",
"Marquetry was not a mainstream fashion in 18th\\-century Italy, but the neoclassical marquetry of [Giuseppe Maggiolini](/wiki/Giuseppe_Maggiolini \"Giuseppe Maggiolini\"), made in Milan at the end of the century is notable.",
"The classic illustrated description of 18th century marquetry\\-making was contributed by [Roubo](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Jacob_Roubo \"André Jacob Roubo\") to the *Encyclopédie des Arts et Métiers,* 1770\\.",
""
] |
Motor racing career
-------------------
### Junior racing career
[thumb\|upright\|The [Lola B99/50](/wiki/Lola_Cars "Lola Cars") Alonso drove in the [2000 International Formula 3000 Championship](/wiki/2000_International_Formula_3000_Championship "2000 International Formula 3000 Championship").](/wiki/File:Lola_B99-50_front-right_2017_Museo_Fernando_Alonso.jpg "Lola B99-50 front-right 2017 Museo Fernando Alonso.jpg")
Aged 17, Alonso made his car racing debut in the [1999 Euro Open by Nissan](/wiki/1999_Euro_Open_by_Nissan "1999 Euro Open by Nissan") with [Campos Motorsport](/wiki/Campos_Racing "Campos Racing"), winning the title from [Manuel Gião](/wiki/Manuel_Gi%C3%A3o "Manuel Gião") at the final race of the season with six wins and nine [pole positions](/wiki/Pole_position "Pole position").{{efn\|Gião filed an appeal under the belief Alonso had passed him under \[\[Racing flags\#Yellow flag\|yellow flag]] conditions. The appeal was rejected because Gião had filed it through his manager and not his team; officials subsequently confirmed Alonso's championship win.{{Cite web \|date\=27 November 1999 \|title\=Alonso title confirmed \|url\=http://classic.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/7039/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719024337/http://classic.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/7039/ \|archive\-date\=19 July 2018 \|access\-date\=27 November 2019 \|website\=\[\[Autosport]]}}}} For [2000](/wiki/2000_International_Formula_3000_Championship "2000 International Formula 3000 Championship"), he progressed to the higher\-tier [International Formula 3000 Championship](/wiki/International_Formula_3000 "International Formula 3000") with the [Minardi](/wiki/Minardi "Minardi")\-backed [Team Astromega](/wiki/Team_Astromega "Team Astromega"), after a sponsorship agreement with driver Robert Lechner fell through.{{Cite journal \|last\=Arron \|first\=Simon \|date\=5 February 2018 \|title\=Silverstone 2000: Meeting Fernando Alonso \|url\=https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/opinion/f1/silverstone\-2000\-meeting\-fernando\-alonso \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191127213115/https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/opinion/f1/silverstone\-2000\-meeting\-fernando\-alonso \|archive\-date\=27 November 2019 \|access\-date\=27 November 2019 \|website\=\[\[Motor Sport (magazine)\|Motor Sport]]}} Alonso finished second at the [Hungaroring](/wiki/Hungaroring "Hungaroring") and won the season\-ending round at [Circuit de Spa\-Francorchamps](/wiki/Circuit_de_Spa-Francorchamps "Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps") for fourth overall with 17 points.
### Formula One
#### Minardi and Renault (2001–2006\)
[Cesare Fiorio](/wiki/Cesare_Fiorio "Cesare Fiorio"), the sports director, gave Alonso a test in a [Formula One](/wiki/Formula_One "Formula One") (F1\) car at the [Circuito de Jerez](/wiki/Circuito_de_Jerez "Circuito de Jerez") in December 1999, as part of the Euro Open by Nissan's organising company RPM's agreement to give its series champion an opportunity to test at a higher level.{{Cite news \|last\=Sanz \|first\=Miguel \|date\=4 March 2009 \|title\=Alonso y Minardi, 10 años de una gran historia \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=Alonso and Minardi, 10 years of a great story \|work\=\[\[Marca (newspaper)\|Marca]] \|url\=https://www.marca.com/blogs/elgrancirco/2009/03/04/alonso\-y\-minardi\-10\-anos\-de\-una\-gran.html \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=28 November 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191128091729/https://www.marca.com/blogs/elgrancirco/2009/03/04/alonso\-y\-minardi\-10\-anos\-de\-una\-gran.html \|archive\-date\=28 November 2019}} He was Minardi's test and reserve driver in {{F1\|2000}} before joining its race team in {{F1\|2001}}. In a non\-competitive car,{{Cite web \|last\=Cooper \|first\=Adam \|date\=21 March 2011 \|title\=Fernando Alonso and the class of 2001 \|url\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/feature/3361/fernando\-alonso\-and\-the\-class\-of\-2001 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223154842/https://www.autosport.com/f1/feature/3361/fernando\-alonso\-and\-the\-class\-of\-2001 \|archive\-date\=23 December 2019 \|access\-date\=23 December 2019 \|website\=\[\[Autosport]]}} Alonso's best result of the season was a tenth\-place finish in the {{F1GP\|2001\|German}} and scored no [points](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Championship_points_scoring_systems "List of Formula One World Championship points scoring systems") for 23rd overall.
[thumb\|Alonso at the [2003 British Grand Prix](/wiki/2003_British_Grand_Prix "2003 British Grand Prix")](/wiki/File:Fernando_Alonso_2003_Silverstone_9.jpg "Fernando Alonso 2003 Silverstone 9.jpg")
He signed as [Renault](/wiki/Renault_in_Formula_One "Renault in Formula One")'s test driver for {{F1\|2002}} per the orders of manager [Flavio Briatore](/wiki/Flavio_Briatore "Flavio Briatore") to familiarise himself with the team and improve himself for the future.{{Cite web \|date\=24 June 2002 \|title\=Alonso's hopes for Renault race drive \|url\=http://www.formula1\.com/news/headlines02/06/s9854\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020628020127/http://www.formula1\.com/news/headlines02/06/s9854\.html \|archive\-date\=28 June 2002 \|access\-date\=7 December 2019 \|website\=\[\[Formula1\.com]]}} Alonso worked with the engineering department to improve [Giancarlo Fisichella](/wiki/Giancarlo_Fisichella "Giancarlo Fisichella")'s and [Jenson Button](/wiki/Jenson_Button "Jenson Button")'s performance,{{Cite news \|last\=Williams \|first\=Richard \|date\=1 May 2005 \|title\=Interview with Fernando Alonso \|work\=\[\[The Guardian]] \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2005/may/02/formulaone.formulaone2005 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=25 November 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206163114/https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2005/may/02/formulaone.formulaone2005 \|archive\-date\=6 December 2019}} and tested in Spain and the United Kingdom.{{Cite web \|title\=Fernando Alonso Biography \|url\=https://www.racefans.net/fernando\-alonso/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217182803/http://www.racefans.net/fernando\-alonso/ \|archive\-date\=17 December 2018 \|access\-date\=6 December 2019 \|website\=Racefans.net}} He drove a [Jaguar](/wiki/Jaguar_Racing "Jaguar Racing") in an evaluation session against test drivers [André Lotterer](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Lotterer "André Lotterer") and [James Courtney](/wiki/James_Courtney "James Courtney") at the [Silverstone Circuit](/wiki/Silverstone_Circuit "Silverstone Circuit") in May 2002\.{{Cite web \|date\=30 May 2002 \|title\=Alonso impresses in Jaguar test \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula\_one/2011180\.stm \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040430131259/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula\_one/2011180\.stm \|archive\-date\=30 April 2004 \|access\-date\=6 August 2015 \|publisher\=\[\[BBC Sport]]}} Alonso was promoted to the Renault race team for {{F1\|2003}}. He went on to break the records of youngest driver to win a pole position at the season's second race, the {{F1 GP\|2003\|Malaysian}}, and broke [Bruce McLaren](/wiki/Bruce_McLaren "Bruce McLaren")'s record as the youngest F1 race winner at the {{F1GP\|2003\|Hungarian}} later in the year.{{efn\|\[\[Sebastian Vettel]] is the current holder of the youngest Formula One pole position starter and youngest one and two\-time world champion.\|name\=VettelALO\|group\=}}{{Cite journal \|date\=July 2016 \|title\=The youth of today \|url\=https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/archive/article/july\-2016/40/youth\-today \|url\-status\=live \|journal\=\[\[Motor Sport (magazine)\|Motor Sport]] \|volume\=92 \|issue\=7 \|pages\=40–41 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512152112/https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/archive/article/july\-2016/40/youth\-today \|archive\-date\=12 May 2019 \|access\-date\=7 December 2019}} He achieved four podium finishes in 2003 and was sixth in the [World Drivers' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Drivers%27_Champions "List of Formula One World Drivers' Champions") with 55 points.
He remained with Renault for {{F1\|2004}}.{{Cite web \|date\=20 August 2003 \|title\=Renault name unchanged line\-up \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula\_one/3166183\.stm \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030822055118/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula\_one/3166183\.stm \|archive\-date\=22 August 2003 \|access\-date\=8 December 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[BBC Sport]]}} Alonso had an improved season: he finished the season\-opening {{F1GP\|2004\|Australian}} in third position and took three more podium finishes that year. He took pole position for the {{F1GP\|2004\|French}} but achieved no race victories en route to fourth in the World Drivers' Championship with 59 points. Alonso stayed at Renault for {{F1\|2005}}. He duelled with [McLaren](/wiki/McLaren "McLaren") driver [Kimi Räikkönen](/wiki/Kimi_R%C3%A4ikk%C3%B6nen "Kimi Räikkönen") for the World Championship in 2005 due to regulation changes prohibiting teams from changing tyres during a race and requiring engines to last for two races before they could be changed. Alonso's car was more reliable than Räikkönen's albeit lacking in speed.{{Cite web \|date\=1 January 2005 \|title\=2005: A first for Fernando \|url\=http://en.espn.co.uk/f1/motorsport/story/11691\.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210161104/http://en.espn.co.uk/f1/motorsport/story/11691\.html \|archive\-date\=10 December 2019 \|access\-date\=10 December 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[ESPN]]}} Alonso eclipsed [Emerson Fittipaldi](/wiki/Emerson_Fittipaldi "Emerson Fittipaldi") as the youngest World Drivers' Champion, having won seven victories, six pole positions and fourteen podium finishes for 133 points altogether.
[thumb\|left\|Alonso won his second World Drivers' Championship at the [2006 Brazilian Grand Prix](/wiki/2006_Brazilian_Grand_Prix "2006 Brazilian Grand Prix")](/wiki/File:Fernando_Alonso_2006_Brazil.jpg "Fernando Alonso 2006 Brazil.jpg")
He signed a contract extension with Renault for {{F1\|2006}} in April 2005\.{{Cite news \|last\=Moffitt \|first\=Alastair \|date\=20 December 2005 \|title\=Alonso to make shock switch from Renault to McLaren \|work\=\[\[The Independent]] \|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/motor\-racing/alonso\-to\-make\-shock\-switch\-from\-renault\-to\-mclaren\-520190\.html \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=11 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428113233/https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/motor\-racing/alonso\-to\-make\-shock\-switch\-from\-renault\-to\-mclaren\-520190\.html \|archive\-date\=28 April 2019}} Bookmakers installed Alonso as the favourite to retain the Drivers' Championship.{{Cite news \|last\=Roebuck \|first\=Dan \|date\=10 March 2006 \|title\=Renault reliability gives champion edge \|work\=\[\[The Guardian]] \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2006/mar/10/formulaone.sport \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=11 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211102454/https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2006/mar/10/formulaone.sport \|archive\-date\=11 December 2019}} His primary competition was Ferrari driver [Michael Schumacher](/wiki/Michael_Schumacher "Michael Schumacher").{{Cite news \|last\=Allen \|first\=James \|date\=20 October 2006 \|title\=To Alonso, the title – to Schumacher, the legend \|work\=\[\[Financial Times]] \|url\=https://www.ft.com/content/649ead2e\-6061\-11db\-a716\-0000779e2340 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=11 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211162731/https://www.ft.com/content/649ead2e\-6061\-11db\-a716\-0000779e2340 \|archive\-date\=11 December 2019}} Alonso won six of the first nine races and finished no lower than second to lead the championship with 84 out of a possible 90 points. An [Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile](/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Internationale_de_l%27Automobile "Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile") (FIA; F1's governing body)\-imposed ban on Renault's [tuned mass damper](/wiki/Tuned_mass_damper "Tuned mass damper") device to slow Alonso and an increase of development into Schumacher's Ferrari for competitiveness saw the two tied on points entering the season's penultimate round, the {{F1GP\|2006\|Japanese}}. Alonso won the race as Schumacher retired due to an engine failure whilst leading. He needed to score one point at the season\-ending {{F1GP\|2006\|Brazilian}} for a second title.{{Cite news \|last\=Garside \|first\=Kevin \|date\=11 October 2006 \|title\=Alonso to play safe in Brazil \|work\=\[\[The Daily Telegraph]] \|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/columnists/kevingarside/2347765/Alonso\-to\-play\-safe\-in\-Brazil.html \|url\-status\=live \|url\-access\=limited \|access\-date\=11 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211162731/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/columnists/kevingarside/2347765/Alonso\-to\-play\-safe\-in\-Brazil.html \|archive\-date\=11 December 2019}} Alonso won the championship by finishing second and was Formula 1's youngest double World Champion.{{efn\|name\=VettelALO}}{{clear}}
#### McLaren and second stint with Renault (2007–2009\)
[thumb\|Alonso en route to victory at the [2007 Malaysian Grand Prix](/wiki/2007_Malaysian_Grand_Prix "2007 Malaysian Grand Prix")](/wiki/File:Fernando_Alonso_2007_Malaysia.jpg "Fernando Alonso 2007 Malaysia.jpg")
He and McLaren team owner [Ron Dennis](/wiki/Ron_Dennis "Ron Dennis") met secretly in Japan after Dennis talked to Alonso about driving for the team in the future and Alonso expressed interest in the idea. Both men agreed to a three\-year contract for Alonso to drive for McLaren starting from {{F1\|2007}}.{{Cite news \|last\=Baldwin \|first\=Alan \|date\=7 December 2006 \|title\=How Alonso switched to McLaren? \|work\=\[\[Rediff.com]] \|agency\=\[\[Reuters]] \|url\=https://www.rediff.com/sports/2006/dec/07alonso.htm \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=25 November 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080616214228/http://www.rediff.com/sports/2006/dec/07alonso.htm \|archive\-date\=16 June 2008}}{{Cite web \|last\=Benson \|first\=Andrew \|date\=19 November 2018 \|title\=Fernando Alonso: Lewis Hamilton, Ron Dennis \& where it started to go wrong at McLaren in 2007 \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/46225204 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181205001319/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/46225204 \|archive\-date\=5 December 2018 \|access\-date\=11 December 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[BBC Sport]]}} Alonso's contract with Renault expired on 31 December 2006, and he was not granted an early release for sponsorship reasons.{{Cite web \|last\=Noble \|first\=Jonathan \|date\=15 December 2006 \|title\=More security, no stickers for Alonso debut \|url\=http://classic.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/56024/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211171342/http://classic.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/56024/ \|archive\-date\=11 December 2019 \|access\-date\=11 December 2019 \|website\=\[\[Autosport]]}} Renault allowed Alonso to make his first appearance for McLaren in a test session at the [Circuito de Jerez](/wiki/Circuito_de_Jerez "Circuito de Jerez") in November 2006\.{{Cite news \|last\=Spurgeon \|first\=Brad \|date\=15 December 2006 \|title\=Champions All Around \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|url\=https://rendezvous.blogs.nytimes.com/2006/12/15/champions\-all\-around/ \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=11 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001070130/https://rendezvous.blogs.nytimes.com/2006/12/15/champions\-all\-around/ \|archive\-date\=1 October 2019}} His main competitors in 2007 were his teammate [Lewis Hamilton](/wiki/Lewis_Hamilton "Lewis Hamilton") and Räikkönen at Ferrari. Alonso achieved four Grand Prix victories in [Malaysia](/wiki/2007_Malaysian_Grand_Prix "2007 Malaysian Grand Prix"), [Monaco](/wiki/2007_Monaco_Grand_Prix "2007 Monaco Grand Prix"), [Europe](/wiki/2007_European_Grand_Prix "2007 European Grand Prix") and [Italy](/wiki/2007_Italian_Grand_Prix "2007 Italian Grand Prix") and led the championship until Hamilton overtook him.{{Cite web \|last\=Harden \|first\=Oliver \|date\=17 December 2014 \|title\=Fernando Alonso and McLaren: Where It Went Wrong in 2007 \|url\=https://bleacherreport.com/articles/2302639\-fernando\-alonso\-and\-mclaren\-where\-it\-went\-wrong\-in\-2007 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212093514/https://bleacherreport.com/articles/2302639\-fernando\-alonso\-and\-mclaren\-where\-it\-went\-wrong\-in\-2007 \|archive\-date\=12 December 2019 \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[Bleacher Report]]}} Prior to the season's final round, the {{F1 GP\|2007\|Brazilian}}, he had 103 championship points to Räikkönen's 100 and Hamilton's 107, and needed to win the race and for his teammate to finish third or lower for his third title.{{Cite news \|date\=18 October 2007 \|title\=Formula One title permutations \|work\=\[\[Reuters]] \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia\-30043820071018 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212093517/https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia\-30043820071018 \|archive\-date\=12 December 2019}} Alonso finished the event third for third overall with 109 points. He had the same number of points as Hamilton; the tie was broken on count\-back as Hamilton finished second more often than Alonso.{{Cite web \|date\=1 December 2018 \|title\=17 surprising Fernando Alonso facts – one for each of his F1 seasons \|url\=https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.17\-surprising\-fernando\-alonso\-facts\-one\-for\-each\-of\-his\-f1\-seasons.2QM5BOQyakieK6KeMAG68G.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212093517/https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.17\-surprising\-fernando\-alonso\-facts\-one\-for\-each\-of\-his\-f1\-seasons.2QM5BOQyakieK6KeMAG68G.html \|archive\-date\=12 December 2019 \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|website\=\[\[Formula1\.com]]}}
[thumb\|left\|Alonso took a controversial victory at the [2008 Singapore Grand Prix](/wiki/2008_Singapore_Grand_Prix "2008 Singapore Grand Prix"), after his teammate, [Nelson Piquet Jr.](/wiki/Nelson_Piquet_Jr. "Nelson Piquet Jr."), was ordered to crash deliberately.](/wiki/File:Singapore_grand_prix_2008_alonso_win.jpg "Singapore grand prix 2008 alonso win.jpg")
Throughout the season, Alonso and Hamilton were involved in a number of incidents, such as the [espionage scandal](/wiki/2007_Formula_One_espionage_controversy "2007 Formula One espionage controversy") and the flare\-up during qualifying for the {{F1GP\|2007\|Hungarian}} when Hamilton disobeyed a team instruction, thus disadvantaging Alonso, and Alonso responded by delaying Hamilton in the pit lane.{{Cite web \|last\=Benson \|first\=Andrew \|date\=19 November 2018 \|title\=Fernando Alonso: Lewis Hamilton, McLaren, 'spy\-gate' \& threats \& demands to Ron Dennis \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/46226823 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926080923/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/46226823 \|archive\-date\=26 September 2019 \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[BBC Sport]]}} The tensions culminated in Alonso and McLaren terminating their contract by mutual consent in November.{{Cite news \|last\=Rodríguez \|first\=Jaime \|date\=2 November 2007 \|title\=Alonso: 'En McLaren, nunca me sentí en casa' \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=Alonso: 'At McLaren, I never felt at home' \|work\=\[\[El Mundo (Spain)\|El Mundo]] \|url\=https://www.elmundo.es/elmundodeporte/2007/11/02/motor/1194002469\.html \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212161345/https://www.elmundo.es/elmundodeporte/2007/11/02/motor/1194002469\.html \|archive\-date\=12 December 2019}} Alonso was forbidden from joining a team whom McLaren considered their primary challengers for {{F1\|2008}}.{{Cite web \|title\=Alonso: Why I quit McLaren \|date\=2 November 2007 \|url\=https://www.eurosport.com/formula\-1/season/2007/alonso\-why\-i\-quit\-mclaren\_sto1368239/story.shtml \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212161346/https://www.eurosport.com/formula\-1/season/2007/alonso\-why\-i\-quit\-mclaren\_sto1368239/story.shtml \|archive\-date\=12 December 2019 \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[Eurosport]]}} After rejecting offers from several teams,{{Cite news \|last\=González \|first\=Elvira \|date\=30 October 2013 \|title\=Cuando Alonso pudo sur Vettel: A finales de Vettel, tras dejar McLaren, el asturiano tenia a Red Bull como primera opción \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=When Alonso could replace Vettel: At the end of Vettel, after leaving McLaren, the Spaniard had Red Bull as the first option \|page\=26 \|work\=\[\[Mundo Deportivo]] \|url\=http://hemeroteca.mundodeportivo.com/preview/2013/10/30/pagina\-26/13038734/pdf.html \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212183512/http://hemeroteca.mundodeportivo.com/preview/2013/10/30/pagina\-26/13038734/pdf.html \|archive\-date\=12 December 2019}} he signed a two\-year contract to rejoin Renault from 2008 because of the manufacturer's long\-term commitment to F1 and on\-track record.{{Cite news \|date\=11 December 2007 \|title\=Alonso dreams of a perfect season \|publisher\=\[\[RTÉ Sport]] \|url\=https://www.rte.ie/sport/motorsport/2007/1211/225752\-alonsof/ \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212231905/https://www.rte.ie/sport/motorsport/2007/1211/225752\-alonsof/ \|archive\-date\=12 December 2019}}{{Cite web \|date\=10 December 2007 \|title\=Alonso opts for return to Renault \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula\_one/7136498\.stm \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805141904/https://secure\-uk.imrworldwide.com/cgi\-bin/m?rnd\=1628173144082\&ci\=bbc\&cg\=0\&sr\=1600x1000\&ts\=v51\.js\&cd\=24≶\=en\-US\&je\=n\&ck\=y\&tz\=0\&ct\=\&hp\=\&tl\=BBC%20SPORT%20%7C%20Motorsport%20%7C%20Formula%20One%20%7C%20Alonso%20opts%20for%20return%20to%20Renault\&si\=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2Fsport2%2Fhi%2Fmotorsport%2Fformula\_one%2F7136498\.stm\&rp\= \|archive\-date\=5 August 2021 \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[BBC Sport]]}} Alonso's car lacked power early on due to an imposed moratorium in development and he scored nine points in the first seven races.{{Cite news \|last\=Cary \|first\=Tom \|date\=23 March 2009 \|title\=Fernando Alonso: F1 2009 driver profile \|work\=\[\[The Daily Telegraph]] \|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/motorsport/formulaone/lotus/5007362/Fernando\-Alonso\-F1\-2009\-driver\-profile.html \|url\-status\=live \|url\-access\=limited \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212231944/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/motorsport/formulaone/lotus/5007362/Fernando\-Alonso\-F1\-2009\-driver\-profile.html \|archive\-date\=12 December 2019}} He was thereafter able to improve his performance later due to aerodynamic developments to the car's and won in [Singapore](/wiki/2008_Singapore_Grand_Prix "2008 Singapore Grand Prix") and [Japan](/wiki/2008_Japanese_Grand_Prix "2008 Japanese Grand Prix"); the former race saw Renault order his teammate [Nelson Piquet Jr.](/wiki/Nelson_Piquet_Jr. "Nelson Piquet Jr.") to crash deliberately and trigger the deployment of the [safety car](/wiki/Safety_car "Safety car") in what became known as "[crashgate](/wiki/Renault_Formula_One_crash_controversy "Renault Formula One crash controversy")". Alonso scored more points than any other driver in the final five races with 43\.{{Cite news \|last\=Allievi \|first\=Pino \|date\=27 December 2008 \|title\=Top 10 Gazzetta E' Alonso il numero 1 \|language\=it \|trans\-title\=Top 10 Gazzetta Alonso is number 1 \|work\=\[\[La Gazzetta dello Sport]] \|url\=http://archiviostorico.gazzetta.it//2008/dicembre/27/Top\_Gazzetta\_Alonso\_numero\_1\_ga\_10\_081227026\.shtml \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212231938/http://archiviostorico.gazzetta.it//2008/dicembre/27/Top\_Gazzetta\_Alonso\_numero\_1\_ga\_10\_081227026\.shtml \|archive\-date\=12 December 2019}} He scored 61 points for fifth in the Drivers' Championship.
Alonso was due to become a free agent for {{F1\|2009}} if Renault were lower than third in the [Constructors' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Constructors%27_Champions "List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions").{{Cite web \|last\=Noble \|first\=Jonathan \|date\=4 July 2008 \|title\=Alonso to decide future after summer \|url\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/68815 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708080540/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/68815 \|archive\-date\=8 July 2008 \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|website\=Autosport}} After offers from [Red Bull Racing](/wiki/Red_Bull_Racing "Red Bull Racing") and [Honda](/wiki/Honda_in_Formula_One "Honda in Formula One"),{{Cite news \|last\=Henry \|first\=Alan \|date\=4 August 2008 \|title\=Alonso set for Honda move as staging post to long\-term Ferrari future \|work\=\[\[The Guardian]] \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2008/aug/04/formulaone.motorsports \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212231929/https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2008/aug/04/formulaone.motorsports \|archive\-date\=12 December 2019}} he re\-signed to Renault on a two\-year contract.{{Cite web \|last\=English \|first\=Steven \|date\=5 November 2008 \|title\=Renault retain Alonso and Piquet for '09 \|url\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/72010 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081108013026/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/72010 \|archive\-date\=8 November 2008 \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|website\=\[\[Autosport]]}} His car proved to be noncompetitive because it lacked a dual diffuser system and outright speed.{{Cite news \|last\=Tremayne \|first\=David \|date\=25 July 2009 \|title\=Fernando Alonso: 'With all the fights, this may be F1's worst year ever' \|work\=\[\[The Independent]] \|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/motor\-racing/fernando\-alonso\-with\-all\-the\-fights\-this\-may\-be\-f1s\-worst\-year\-ever\-1760567\.html \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=13 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213082110/https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/motor\-racing/fernando\-alonso\-with\-all\-the\-fights\-this\-may\-be\-f1s\-worst\-year\-ever\-1760567\.html \|archive\-date\=13 December 2019}} Alonso eschewed an aerodynamic front wing mandated in an attempt to make overtaking more possible since he did not believe it would help him. He scored points in eight races and achieved one podium finish: a third\-place at the {{F1GP\|2009\|Singapore}}.{{Cite web \|title\=Drivers: Fernando Alonso \|url\=https://www.grandprix.com/gpe/drv\-alofer.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213082114/https://www.grandprix.com/gpe/drv\-alofer.html \|archive\-date\=13 December 2019 \|access\-date\=13 December 2019 \|publisher\=GrandPrix.com}} Alonso won pole position for the {{F1GP\|2009\|Hungarian}} and led the first 12 laps before he retired following an incorrectly fitted right\-front wheel.{{Cite news \|last\=Caygill \|first\=Graham \|date\=28 July 2009 \|title\=Renault to fight race ban \|work\=\[\[The National (Abu Dhabi)\|The National]] \|url\=https://www.thenational.ae/sport/other\-sport/renault\-to\-fight\-race\-ban\-1\.529118 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=13 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213082113/https://www.thenational.ae/sport/other\-sport/renault\-to\-fight\-race\-ban\-1\.529118 \|archive\-date\=13 December 2019}} Alonso was ninth in the Drivers' Championship with 26 points, his lowest placing since he came sixth in 2003; he maintained his reputation as one of F1's best drivers.
#### Ferrari (2010–2014\)
[thumb\|Alonso won on his debut with Ferrari at the [2010 Bahrain Grand Prix](/wiki/2010_Bahrain_Grand_Prix "2010 Bahrain Grand Prix").](/wiki/File:Ferrari_Bahrain_2010.jpg "Ferrari Bahrain 2010.jpg")
Alonso agreed with Ferrari president [Luca Cordero di Montezemolo](/wiki/Luca_Cordero_di_Montezemolo "Luca Cordero di Montezemolo") to drive for Ferrari in 2009, but team principal [Jean Todt](/wiki/Jean_Todt "Jean Todt") extended the contracts of both [Felipe Massa](/wiki/Felipe_Massa "Felipe Massa") and Räikkönen to {{F1\|2010}}.{{Cite journal \|last\=Knutson \|first\=Dan \|date\=11 November 2009 \|title\=Forza Fernando! \|journal\=Auto Action \|issue\=1365 \|pages\=24–26 \|issn\=1320\-2073}} Alonso obtained a mid\-2009 agreement to drive for Ferrari from {{F1\|2011}} on but it was moved to 2010 after Renault were investigated for race fixing in Singapore and Räikkönen was released from the team.{{Cite web \|last\=Allen \|first\=James \|date\=1 October 2009 \|title\=Raikkonen and Domenicali differ on reasons why he was dropped \|url\=http://www.jamesallenonf1\.com/2009/10/raikkonen\-and\-domenicali\-differ\-on\-reasons\-why\-he\-was\-dropped/ \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111115201957/http://www.jamesallenonf1\.com/2009/10/raikkonen\-and\-domenicali\-differ\-on\-reasons\-why\-he\-was\-dropped/ \|archive\-date\=15 November 2011 \|access\-date\=13 December 2019 \|publisher\=James Allen on F1}} McLaren's Hamilton and Button and Red Bull's of [Sebastian Vettel](/wiki/Sebastian_Vettel "Sebastian Vettel") and [Mark Webber](/wiki/Mark_Webber_%28racing_driver%29 "Mark Webber (racing driver)") were Alonso's main championship competition.{{Cite web \|last\=Holt \|first\=Sarah \|date\=23 September 2010 \|title\=Fernando Alonso is main threat – Lewis Hamilton \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula\_one/9027425\.stm \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924044759/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/motorsport/formula\_one/9027425\.stm \|archive\-date\=24 September 2010 \|access\-date\=13 December 2019 \|publisher\=BBC Sport}} He won five races that season and entered the season\-ending {{F1 GP\|2010\|Abu Dhabi}} leading by eight points after being 47 behind mid\-season following errors. Alonso finished runner\-up to Vettel after finishing seventh thereby losing 19 points to Vettel who won the race.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/88264\|first\=Simon\|last\=Strang\|title\=Defeated Alonso defends pit strategy\|work\=autosport.com\|publisher\=\[\[Haymarket Group\|Haymarket Publications]]\|date\=14 November 2010\|access\-date\=19 November 2010\|archive\-date\=17 November 2010\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101117131913/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/88264\|url\-status\=live}}
His 2011 season was mixed: his car was built conservatively and lacked aerodynamic grip and tyre handling in qualifying.{{Cite journal \|last\=Cooper \|first\=Adam \|date\=February 2012 \|title\=Putting it all on red: has Fernando Alonso taken a reckless gamble by committing to Ferrari through 2017? Or is the Prancing Horse finally ready to fight the Red Bulls? \|url\=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A278510102/GPS?u\=wikipedia\&sid\=GPS\&xid\=1c0d42e2 \|url\-status\=live \|journal\=\[\[Racer (magazine)\|Racer]] \|pages\=36–38 \|url\-access\=subscription \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805141858/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p\=GPS\&u\=wikipedia\&id\=GALE%7CA278510102\&v\=2\.1\=r\&sid\=GPS\&asid\=1c0d42e2 \|archive\-date\=5 August 2021 \|access\-date\=19 December 2019 \|via\=Gale In Context: Biography}} He extracted additional pace from his car to claim ten podium finishes and win the {{F1GP\|2011\|British}} after a strategy error from Red Bull. His best qualification of the year was a second at the {{F1GP\|2011\|Canadian}} and he out\-qualified his teammate Massa fifteen times over the course of the season. Alonso was fourth overall with 257 points; he was in contention to finish second to eventual champion Vettel following a series of strong finishes until Webber won the season\-ending {{F1GP\|2011\|Brazilian}}.{{Cite web \|last\=Collantine \|first\=Keith \|date\=16 December 2011 \|title\=2011 F1 driver rankings no.2: Fernando Alonso \|url\=https://www.racefans.net/2011/12/16/2011\-f1\-driver\-rankings\-no2\-fernando\-alonso/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805141945/https://www.racefans.net/2011/12/16/2011\-f1\-driver\-rankings\-no2\-fernando\-alonso/ \|archive\-date\=5 August 2021 \|access\-date\=18 December 2019 \|publisher\=RaceFans}}
[thumb\|left\|Alonso at the [2012 German Grand Prix](/wiki/2012_German_Grand_Prix "2012 German Grand Prix")](/wiki/File:2012_German_Grand_Prix_Fernando_Alonso.jpg "2012 German Grand Prix Fernando Alonso.jpg")
Ahead of {{F1\|2012}}, Alonso extended his contract with Ferrari until {{F1\|2016}}.{{Cite news \|date\=19 May 2011 \|title\=Alonso staying with Ferrari until 2016 \|publisher\=CNN \|url\=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/SPORT/motorsport/05/19/motorsport.ferrari.alonso.contract/index.html \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=19 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219095124/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/SPORT/motorsport/05/19/motorsport.ferrari.alonso.contract/index.html \|archive\-date\=19 December 2019}} His main competition for the title in 2012 was Vettel.{{Cite news \|last\=Spurgeon \|first\=Brad \|date\=23 November 2012 \|title\=The Crown Awaits: Vettel or Alonso? \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/24/sports/autoracing/24iht\-srf1prix24\.html \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=19 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219150236/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/24/sports/autoracing/24iht\-srf1prix24\.html \|archive\-date\=19 December 2019}} Wins in [Malaysia](/wiki/2012_Malaysian_Grand_Prix "2012 Malaysian Grand Prix"), [Valencia](/wiki/2012_European_Grand_Prix "2012 European Grand Prix") and [Germany](/wiki/2012_German_Grand_Prix "2012 German Grand Prix") and consistent points\-scoring finishes allowed him to build a 40\-point lead in the Drivers' Championship. Thereafter start\-line collisions, a mechanical failure and an improved performance for Vettel eliminated Alonso's points lead.{{Cite web \|last\=Benson \|first\=Andrew \|date\=13 November 2012 \|title\=Would Vettel or Alonso be more deserving champion? \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/andrewbenson/2012/11/benson.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521143813/https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/andrewbenson/2012/11/benson.html \|archive\-date\=21 May 2019 \|access\-date\=19 December 2019 \|publisher\=BBC Sport}}{{Cite web \|last\=Salisbury \|first\=Matt \|date\=27 November 2012 \|title\=How Vettel beat Alonso to the 2012 title \|url\=https://www.crash.net/f1/feature/186485/1/how\-vettel\-beat\-alonso\-to\-the\-2012\-title\-pt1 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219150244/https://www.crash.net/f1/feature/186485/1/how\-vettel\-beat\-alonso\-to\-the\-2012\-title\-pt1 \|archive\-date\=19 December 2019 \|access\-date\=19 December 2019 \|publisher\=Crash \|pages\=\[https://www.crash.net/f1/feature/186485/1/how\-vettel\-beat\-alonso\-to\-the\-2012\-title\-pt1 page 1] \& \[https://www.crash.net/f1/feature/186486/1/how\-vettel\-beat\-alonso\-to\-the\-2012\-title\-pt2 page 2]}} Alonso entered the season\-ending {{F1GP\|2012\|Brazilian}} 13 points behind Vettel and needed to finish third and for Vettel not to score points for a third championship. He was second and Vettel finished fourth, despite spinning on the opening lap, resigning Alonso to be runner\-up for the second time in his career on 278 points.
To begin {{F1\|2013}}, Alonso drove an aggressively designed car allowing him to win in [China](/wiki/2013_Chinese_Grand_Prix "2013 Chinese Grand Prix") and [Spain](/wiki/2013_Spanish_Grand_Prix "2013 Spanish Grand Prix") and consistently scored points.{{Cite journal \|last\=Straw \|first\=Edd \|date\=12 December 2013 \|title\=Alonso and Ferrari's season of discontent \|url\=http://porschecarshistory.com/wp\-content/old/lib/magazines/autosport/2013/12/AS2013\.12\.12\.pdf \|url\-status\=live \|journal\=Autosport \|volume\=214 \|issue\=11 \|pages\=52–54 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219204346/http://porschecarshistory.com/wp\-content/old/lib/magazines/autosport/2013/12/AS2013\.12\.12\.pdf \|archive\-date\=19 December 2019 \|access\-date\=19 December 2019}} He was slower than Vettel after a change of tyre compound at the {{F1GP\|2013\|German}} and front and rear bodywork components intended to improve his car's performance were ineffective.{{Cite web \|last\=Estrada \|first\=Chris \|date\=2 December 2013 \|title\=Ecclestone: Fernando Alonso "gave up a little bit" in 2013 \|url\=https://motorsports.nbcsports.com/2013/12/02/ecclestone\-fernando\-alonso\-gave\-up\-a\-little\-bit\-in\-2013/comment\-page\-1/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220091505/https://motorsports.nbcsports.com/2013/12/02/ecclestone\-fernando\-alonso\-gave\-up\-a\-little\-bit\-in\-2013/comment\-page\-1/ \|archive\-date\=20 December 2019 \|access\-date\=20 December 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[NBC Sports]]}} With 242 points, Alonso was second for the third time in his career. His relationship with Ferrari cooled due to his perception the team could not construct a title\-winning car.{{Cite web \|last\=Benson \|first\=Andrew \|date\=19 November 2018 \|title\=Fernando Alonso: The Ferrari years and the championships that got away \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/46228877 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926080949/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/46228877 \|archive\-date\=26 September 2019 \|access\-date\=20 December 2019 \|publisher\=BBC Sport}}
Alonso's 2014 season saw him achieve no race wins because his car was less powerful than the championship\-winning [Mercedes](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_in_Formula_One "Mercedes-Benz in Formula One") but took third in the {{F1GP\|2014\|Chinese}} and second in the {{F1 GP\|2014\|Hungarian}}. Alonso fell to sixth in the Drivers' Championship with 161 points. He qualified faster than his teammate Räikkönen 16 times by an average of more than {{frac\|1\|2}} second per lap in 2014\.
#### Return to McLaren (2015–2019\)
Alonso had severe disagreements with team principal [Marco Mattiacci](/wiki/Marco_Mattiacci "Marco Mattiacci") in 2014 and left Ferrari after contract negotiations to remain at the team fell through. He rejoined McLaren on a three\-year contract from {{F1\|2015}} to {{F1\|2017}} with no opt\-out clauses.{{Cite web \|last\=Gill \|first\=Pete \|date\=1 May 2015 \|title\=Fernando Alonso signed three\-year McLaren deal, reveals Ron Dennis \|url\=https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24184/9831212/fernando\-alonso\-signed\-three\-year\-mclaren\-deal\-reveals\-ron\-dennis \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221120332/https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24184/9831212/fernando\-alonso\-signed\-three\-year\-mclaren\-deal\-reveals\-ron\-dennis \|archive\-date\=21 December 2019 \|access\-date\=21 December 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[Sky Sports]]}} An accident during a pre\-season test session at Spain's [Circuit de Barcelona\-Catalunya](/wiki/Circuit_de_Barcelona-Catalunya "Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya") in February 2015 saw Alonso sustain a concussion and he was replaced by reserve driver [Kevin Magnussen](/wiki/Kevin_Magnussen "Kevin Magnussen") for the season\-opening {{F1 GP\|2015\|Australian}}.{{Cite news \|date\=3 March 2015 \|title\=McLaren driver Fernando Alonso to miss Formula One's season\-opening Australian GP \|work\=\[\[The National (Abu Dhabi)\|The National]] \|agency\=\[\[Agence France\-Presse]] \|url\=https://www.thenational.ae/sport/other\-sport/mclaren\-driver\-fernando\-alonso\-to\-miss\-formula\-one\-s\-season\-opening\-australian\-gp\-1\.4524 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=21 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221120332/https://www.thenational.ae/sport/other\-sport/mclaren\-driver\-fernando\-alonso\-to\-miss\-formula\-one\-s\-season\-opening\-australian\-gp\-1\.4524 \|archive\-date\=21 December 2019}} He endured a difficult season: his car's [Honda](/wiki/Honda_in_Formula_One "Honda in Formula One") engine was under\-powered and overall speed leaving him vulnerable to being passed.{{cite news \|last\=Finnerty \|first\=Joe \|date\=18 March 2016 \|title\=McLaren\-Honda bidding to launch revival at Australian Grand Prix \|publisher\=Surrey Live \|url\=https://www.getsurrey.co.uk/sport/other\-sport/motorsport/mclaren\-honda\-bidding\-launch\-revival\-11057872 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=21 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221150206/https://www.getsurrey.co.uk/sport/other\-sport/motorsport/mclaren\-honda\-bidding\-launch\-revival\-11057872 \|archive\-date\=21 December 2019}}{{Cite web \|last\=Benson \|first\=Andrew \|date\=18 March 2015 \|title\=McLaren: could one of F1's top teams struggle for years? \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/31942251 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221150404/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/31942251 \|archive\-date\=21 December 2019 \|access\-date\=21 December 2019 \|website\=BBC News}} Alonso scored points twice in 2015: a tenth in the {{F1GP\|2015\|British}} and a fifth in the {{F1GP\|2015\|Hungarian}} for 17th in the Drivers' Championship with 11 points. He was dissatisfied with a slow pace, which became evident after multiple radio complaints that year.{{Cite news \|last\=Douglas \|first\=Steve \|date\=8 June 2015 \|title\='Amateur' outburst exposes Alonso's frustration at McLaren \|work\=\[\[Associated Press]] \|url\=https://apnews.com/2add772049a94ab5ae7f87fa7453e567 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=21 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221150203/https://apnews.com/2add772049a94ab5ae7f87fa7453e567 \|archive\-date\=21 December 2019}}{{Cite web \|last\=Saunders \|first\=Nate \|date\=27 September 2015 \|title\=Fernando Alonso fumes at Honda's 'GP2 engine' at Suzuka \|url\=https://www.espn.co.uk/f1/story/\_/id/13751402/mclaren\-fernando\-alonso\-fumes\-honda\-gp2\-engine\-suzuka \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221150206/https://www.espn.co.uk/f1/story/\_/id/13751402/mclaren\-fernando\-alonso\-fumes\-honda\-gp2\-engine\-suzuka \|archive\-date\=21 December 2019 \|access\-date\=21 December 2019 \|publisher\=ESPN}}
[thumb\|Alonso at the [2016 Monaco Grand Prix](/wiki/2016_Monaco_Grand_Prix "2016 Monaco Grand Prix")](/wiki/File:Alonso_Monaco_2016.jpg "Alonso Monaco 2016.jpg")
Despite the unreliable and noncompetitive car,{{Cite news \|last\=Baldwin \|first\=Alan \|date\=28 November 2015 \|title\=Alonso could take a sabbatical in 2016, says Dennis \|work\=\[\[Reuters]] \|editor\-last\=Palmer \|editor\-first\=Justin \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/motor\-racing\-prix\-alonso/alonso\-could\-take\-a\-sabbatical\-in\-2016\-says\-dennis\-idINKBN0TH0D620151128 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=21 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221163856/https://www.reuters.com/article/motor\-racing\-prix\-alonso/alonso\-could\-take\-a\-sabbatical\-in\-2016\-says\-dennis\-idINKBN0TH0D620151128 \|archive\-date\=21 December 2019}} Alonso remained with McLaren for {{F1\|2016}}.{{Cite web \|last\=Barretto \|first\=Lawrence \|date\=4 December 2015 \|title\=Fernando Alonso committed to racing for McLaren in F1 in 2016 \|url\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/122139/alonso\-committed\-to\-racing\-in\-2016 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221163902/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/122139/alonso\-committed\-to\-racing\-in\-2016 \|archive\-date\=21 December 2019 \|access\-date\=21 December 2019 \|website\=Autosport}} Injuries from a heavy crash with [Esteban Gutiérrez](/wiki/Esteban_Guti%C3%A9rrez "Esteban Gutiérrez") at the season\-opening {{F1GP\|2016\|Australian}} caused him to miss the {{F1GP\|2016\|Bahrain}} on medical grounds and was replaced by reserve driver [Stoffel Vandoorne](/wiki/Stoffel_Vandoorne "Stoffel Vandoorne").{{Cite news \|last\=Johnson \|first\=Daniel \|date\=31 March 2016 \|title\=Doctors order Fernando Alonso to miss Bahrain Grand Prix \|work\=The Daily Telegraph \|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/formula\-1/2016/03/31/fernando\-alonso\-out\-of\-bahrain\-grand\-prix\-with\-crash\-injuries/ \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=21 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221203222/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/formula\-1/2016/03/31/fernando\-alonso\-out\-of\-bahrain\-grand\-prix\-with\-crash\-injuries/ \|archive\-date\=21 December 2019}} He qualified better than teammate Button fifteen times and scored points nine times, which included two fifth\-place finishes in the {{F1 GP\|2016\|Monaco}} and the {{F1 GP\|2016\|United States}}. He was tenth in the Drivers' Championship with 54 points.
Alonso stayed at McLaren in {{F1\|2017}},{{Cite web \|last\=Barretto \|first\=Lawrence \|date\=13 December 2016 \|title\=Fernando Alonso tells McLaren staff he's staying in 2017 \|url\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/127483/alonso\-tells\-mclaren\-staff\-he\-staying \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221203223/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/127483/alonso\-tells\-mclaren\-staff\-he\-staying \|archive\-date\=21 December 2019 \|access\-date\=21 December 2019 \|website\=Autosport}} but poor reliability affected his season, particularly during the early rounds, and his best finish was a sixth place in the {{F1 GP\|2017\|Hungarian}}. After three consecutive top\-ten finishes, Alonso finished 15th in the Drivers' Championship with 17 points.
[thumb\|Alonso at the [2018 Austrian Grand Prix](/wiki/2018_Austrian_Grand_Prix "2018 Austrian Grand Prix")](/wiki/File:FIA_F1_Austria_2018_Nr._14_Alonso.jpg "FIA F1 Austria 2018 Nr. 14 Alonso.jpg")
Following contract negotiations with the McLaren CEO [Zak Brown](/wiki/Zak_Brown "Zak Brown"),{{Cite news \|last\=Smith \|first\=Luke \|date\=13 January 2017 \|title\=McLaren planning to open Alonso F1 contract talks 'a few races into the year' \|newspaper\=Motorsportstalk {{pipe}} NBC Sports \|url\=https://motorsports.nbcsports.com/2017/01/13/mclaren\-planning\-to\-open\-alonso\-f1\-contract\-talks\-a\-few\-races\-into\-the\-year/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222144832/https://motorsports.nbcsports.com/2017/01/13/mclaren\-planning\-to\-open\-alonso\-f1\-contract\-talks\-a\-few\-races\-into\-the\-year/ \|archive\-date\=22 December 2019 \|access\-date\=22 December 2019 \|publisher\=NBC Sports}} Alonso signed a multi\-year extension with McLaren on 19 October 2017\.{{Cite web \|last\=Elizade \|first\=Pablo \|date\=19 October 2017 \|title\=Alonso says new McLaren deal is "long\-term" \|url\=https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/alonso\-says\-new\-mclaren\-deal\-is\-long\-term\-967418/3052959/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222144831/https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/alonso\-says\-new\-mclaren\-deal\-is\-long\-term\-967418/3052959/ \|archive\-date\=22 December 2019 \|access\-date\=22 December 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[Motorsport.com]]}} He finished fifth at the season\-opening 2018 {{F1GP\|2018\|Australian}} and took nine top\-ten finishes. Alonso out\-qualified his teammate Stoffel Vandoorne at every race and drove quickly and aggressively. He became increasingly annoyed with certain drivers and his commitment to F1 waned after McLaren stopped developing their car to focus on {{F1\|2019}}.{{Cite web \|title\=Alonso will not race in Formula 1 in 2019 \|url\=https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/alonso\-will\-not\-race\-in\-formula\-1\-in\-2019/3158671/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203215505/https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/alonso\-will\-not\-race\-in\-formula\-1\-in\-2019/3158671/ \|archive\-date\=3 February 2020 \|access\-date\=8 February 2020 \|website\=www.motorsport.com \|date\=14 August 2018 \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|last\=Collantine \|first\=Keith \|date\=17 December 2018 \|title\=2018 F1 driver rankings \#4: Alonso \|url\=https://www.racefans.net/2018/12/17/2018\-f1\-driver\-rankings\-4\-alonso/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805141959/https://www.racefans.net/2018/12/17/2018\-f1\-driver\-rankings\-4\-alonso/ \|archive\-date\=5 August 2021 \|access\-date\=22 December 2019 \|publisher\=RaceFans}} Alonso was 11th in the Drivers' Championship with 50 points, and left the sport as a driver at the end of the 2018 season, citing a perceived lack of on\-track racing, the predictability of results and felt discussions away from racing about the broadcast of radio transmissions and polemics harmed the series.{{Cite journal \|last\=Straw \|first\=Edd \|date\=23 August 2018 \|title\=Why Alonso is leaving Formula 1 \|url\=https://www.pressreader.com/uk/autosport\-uk/20180823/281621011187929 \|url\-status\=live \|journal\=Autosport \|pages\=16–22 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222204116/https://www.pressreader.com/uk/autosport\-uk/20180823/281621011187929 \|archive\-date\=22 December 2019 \|access\-date\=22 December 2019}}
He remained at McLaren as a brand ambassador to aid and advise drivers and drove in select test sessions to develop their cars. Alonso drove the [MCL34](/wiki/McLaren_MCL34 "McLaren MCL34") during a two\-day in\-season post\-race Bahrain test in April 2019 to develop tyres for Pirelli.{{Cite web \|date\=28 March 2019 \|title\=Alonso to make F1 return in post\-race Bahrain test \|url\=https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\-to\-make\-f1\-return\-at\-post\-race\-bahrain\-test.7FpcdVdbZtd70nC1h3Fepa.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331103944/https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\-to\-make\-f1\-return\-at\-post\-race\-bahrain\-test.7FpcdVdbZtd70nC1h3Fepa.html \|archive\-date\=31 March 2019 \|access\-date\=7 April 2019 \|publisher\=Formula One}} No further runs were planned for him and McLaren focused on their current drivers.{{Cite web \|last\=Larkham \|first\=Lewis \|date\=23 June 2019 \|title\=McLaren has no more F1 runs planned for Alonso \|url\=https://www.crash.net/f1/news/923639/1/mclaren\-has\-no\-more\-f1\-runs\-planned\-alonso \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813083215/https://www.crash.net/f1/news/923639/1/mclaren\-has\-no\-more\-f1\-runs\-planned\-alonso \|archive\-date\=13 August 2020 \|access\-date\=28 July 2020 \|publisher\=Crash}} Alonso's ambassador contract with McLaren expired at the end of 2019, and was not renewed for 2020\.{{Cite web \|last\=Noble \|first\=Jonathan \|date\=20 January 2020 \|title\=Alonso no longer a McLaren ambassador \|url\=https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/alonso\-ends\-mclaren\-relationship\-ambassador/4665379/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200121190019/https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/alonso\-ends\-mclaren\-relationship\-ambassador/4665379/ \|archive\-date\=21 January 2020 \|access\-date\=20 January 2020 \|publisher\=Motorsport.com}}
#### Alpine (2021–2022\)
[thumb\|Alonso at the [2021 Austrian Grand Prix](/wiki/2021_Austrian_Grand_Prix "2021 Austrian Grand Prix"), upon his return to Formula One](/wiki/File:FIA_F1_Austria_2021_Nr._14_Alonso.jpg "FIA F1 Austria 2021 Nr. 14 Alonso.jpg")
Alonso was signed to drive for [Alpine F1 Team](/wiki/Alpine_F1_Team "Alpine F1 Team") for the {{F1\|2021}} season,{{Cite web \|last\=Balseiro \|first\=Jesús \|date\=7 July 2020 \|title\=Alonso está de vuelta \|trans\-title\=Alonso is back \|url\=https://as.com/motor/2020/07/07/formula\_1/1594121714\_805810\.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031055134/https://as.com/motor/2020/07/07/formula\_1/1594121714\_805810\.html \|archive\-date\=31 October 2020 \|access\-date\=28 July 2020 \|website\=\[\[Diario AS]] \|language\=es}} alongside [Esteban Ocon](/wiki/Esteban_Ocon "Esteban Ocon"), with Renault having rebranded the team under its new name. In preparation for his F1 return, Alonso performed four testing days driving the [Renault R.S.18](/wiki/Renault_R.S.18 "Renault R.S.18") and was quickest in the post\-2020 season young driver's test driving the [Renault R.S.20](/wiki/Renault_R.S.20 "Renault R.S.20") for Renault.{{Cite web \|date\=13 October 2020 \|title\=Alonso says 'it's like a new beginning' as he gets first taste of 2020 Renault in Barcelona test \|url\=https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\-says\-its\-like\-a\-new\-beginning\-as\-he\-gets\-first\-taste\-of\-2020\-renault.7f9tTX9yyqCVfCtEbwxgcG.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124210029/https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\-says\-its\-like\-a\-new\-beginning\-as\-he\-gets\-first\-taste\-of\-2020\-renault.7f9tTX9yyqCVfCtEbwxgcG.html \|archive\-date\=24 January 2021 \|access\-date\=13 October 2020 \|website\=\[\[Formula1\.com]]}}{{Cite web \|last\=Morlidge \|first\=Matt \|date\=15 December 2020 \|title\=Fernando Alonso tops 'young driver test' for Renault on F1 2020's last day \|url\=https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12433/12162529/fernando\-alonso\-tops\-young\-driver\-test\-for\-renault\-on\-f1\-2020s\-last\-day \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526030231/https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12433/12162529/fernando\-alonso\-tops\-young\-driver\-test\-for\-renault\-on\-f1\-2020s\-last\-day \|archive\-date\=26 May 2021 \|access\-date\=15 February 2021 \|website\=\[\[Sky Sports]] \|language\=en}} In his first race with Alpine at the [2021 Bahrain Grand Prix](/wiki/2021_Bahrain_Grand_Prix "2021 Bahrain Grand Prix"), Alonso was forced to retire after plastic debris entered his brake duct.{{Cite web \|date\=28 March 2021 \|title\=Alonso says debris caused brake failure that curtailed 'fun' Formula 1 return \|url\=https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\-says\-debris\-caused\-brake\-failure\-that\-curtailed\-fun\-formula\-1\-return.5X4ZVDFmtdlZwiUjTsICKO.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506171956/https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\-says\-debris\-caused\-brake\-failure\-that\-curtailed\-fun\-formula\-1\-return.5X4ZVDFmtdlZwiUjTsICKO.html \|archive\-date\=6 May 2021 \|access\-date\=12 April 2021 \|website\=\[\[Formula1\.com]] \|language\=en}} At the [2021 Emilia Romagna Grand Prix](/wiki/2021_Emilia_Romagna_Grand_Prix "2021 Emilia Romagna Grand Prix") he finished in 11th after qualifying 15th,{{Cite web \|last\=Smith \|first\=Luke \|date\=17 April 2021 \|title\=Alonso: Lack of trust in Alpine F1 car costly at old\-school Imola \|url\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/alonso\-lack\-of\-trust\-in\-alpine\-car\-costly\-at\-old\-school\-imola/6314107/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506164000/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/alonso\-lack\-of\-trust\-in\-alpine\-car\-costly\-at\-old\-school\-imola/6314107/ \|archive\-date\=6 May 2021 \|access\-date\=29 April 2021 \|website\=\[\[Autosport]] \|language\=en}} with teammate Ocon finishing ahead in tenth, but both were upgraded one position after [Kimi Räikkönen](/wiki/Kimi_R%C3%A4ikk%C3%B6nen "Kimi Räikkönen") was penalised, giving Alonso his first points of the season.{{Cite web \|last\=Howard \|first\=Tom \|date\=18 April 2021 \|title\=Raikkonen loses points after post\-race penalty at Imola \|url\=https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/raikkonen\-loses\-points\-after\-post\-race\-imola\-penalty/6334393/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210525021858/https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/raikkonen\-loses\-points\-after\-post\-race\-imola\-penalty/6334393/ \|archive\-date\=25 May 2021 \|access\-date\=29 April 2021 \|website\=\[\[Motorsport.com]] \|language\=en}}
In [Hungary](/wiki/2021_Hungarian_Grand_Prix "2021 Hungarian Grand Prix"), Alonso temporarily led the race before he made a pit stop and fell to fourth, ahead of [Lewis Hamilton](/wiki/Lewis_Hamilton "Lewis Hamilton"). Teammate Ocon credited Alonso's defence against Hamilton with enabling him to achieve his first race victory.{{Cite web \|last\=Smith \|first\=Luke \|date\=2 August 2021 \|title\=Ocon credits Alonso for role in shock Hungary F1 race victory \|url\=https://au.motorsport.com/f1/news/ocon\-credits\-alonso\-for\-role\-in\-shock\-hungary\-f1\-race\-victory/6640589/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210802085918/https://au.motorsport.com/f1/news/ocon\-credits\-alonso\-for\-role\-in\-shock\-hungary\-f1\-race\-victory/6640589/ \|archive\-date\=2 August 2021 \|access\-date\=2 August 2021 \|website\=\[\[Motorsport.com]] \|language\=en}} In August 2021, Alonso invoked an option to extend his contract for the {{F1\|2022}} season.{{Cite web \|last\=Galloway \|first\=James \|date\=26 August 2021 \|title\=Fernando Alonso extends Formula 1 return into 2022 season with Alpine as contract confirmed \|url\=https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24184/12390884/fernando\-alonso\-extends\-formula\-1\-return\-into\-2022\-season\-with\-alpine\-as\-contract\-confirmed \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210826223228/https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24184/12390884/fernando\-alonso\-extends\-formula\-1\-return\-into\-2022\-season\-with\-alpine\-as\-contract\-confirmed \|archive\-date\=26 August 2021 \|access\-date\=26 August 2021 \|website\=\[\[Sky Sports]]}} Alonso scored points in multiple races following the summer break, finishing sixth in the [Netherlands](/wiki/2021_Dutch_Grand_Prix "2021 Dutch Grand Prix"),{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.gpfans.com/en/f1\-news/69385/why\-alonso\-was\-thinking\-of\-the\-worst\-during\-charge\-to\-sixth/\|title\=Why Alonso was "thinking of the worst" during charge to sixth\|date\=5 September 2021\|access\-date\=26 September 2021\|first\=Ewan\|last\=Gale\|website\=GP Fans\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927173709/https://www.gpfans.com/en/f1\-news/69385/why\-alonso\-was\-thinking\-of\-the\-worst\-during\-charge\-to\-sixth/ \|archive\-date\=27 September 2021}} eighth in [Italy](/wiki/2021_Italian_Grand_Prix "2021 Italian Grand Prix"),{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\-pleased\-with\-alpines\-points\-at\-monza\-after\-uncompetitive\-start\-to.6BsFj4MfI8xJX7OMQLxZHo.html\|title\=Alonso pleased with Alpine's points at Monza after 'uncompetitive' start to weekend\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917070706/https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\-pleased\-with\-alpines\-points\-at\-monza\-after\-uncompetitive\-start\-to.6BsFj4MfI8xJX7OMQLxZHo.html\|archive\-date\=17 September 2021\|access\-date\=26 September 2021\|website\=\[\[Formula1\.com]]\|date\=16 September 2021}} sixth in [Russia](/wiki/2021_Russian_Grand_Prix "2021 Russian Grand Prix"), having run in third in Russia before being forced to pit under wet conditions,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.racefans.net/2021/09/26/we\-never\-get\-lucky\-rues\-alonso\-after\-losing\-podium\-finish/\|title\="We never get lucky" rues Alonso after losing podium finish\|date\=26 September 2021\|first\=Keith\|last\=Collantine\|website\=RaceFans.net\|access\-date\=26 September 2021\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927174020/https://www.racefans.net/2021/09/26/we\-never\-get\-lucky\-rues\-alonso\-after\-losing\-podium\-finish/\|archive\-date\=27 September 2021}} and third in [Qatar](/wiki/2021_Qatar_Grand_Prix "2021 Qatar Grand Prix"). His third\-place finish at [Qatar](/wiki/2021_Qatar_Grand_Prix "2021 Qatar Grand Prix") was his first podium finish since the [2014 Hungarian Grand Prix](/wiki/2014_Hungarian_Grand_Prix "2014 Hungarian Grand Prix").
For the [2022 season](/wiki/2022_Formula_One_World_Championship "2022 Formula One World Championship"), Alonso remained with Alpine.{{cite web \|date\=10 March 2022 \|title\=2022 FIA Formula One World Championship – Entry List \|url\=https://www.fia.com/events/fia\-formula\-one\-world\-championship/season\-2022/2022\-fia\-formula\-one\-world\-championship\-entry \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220114204626/https://www.fia.com/events/fia\-formula\-one\-world\-championship/season\-2022/2022\-fia\-formula\-one\-world\-championship\-entry \|archive\-date\=14 January 2022 \|access\-date\=10 March 2022 \|publisher\=\[\[Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]]}} Alonso achieved his highest start driving for Alpine during wet qualifying for the [Canadian Grand Prix](/wiki/2022_Canadian_Grand_Prix "2022 Canadian Grand Prix"), starting in second, but had to endure questionable strategies and an engine issue that developed during the race. He dropped down to seventh, and furthermore, received a post\-race time penalty that dropped him down to ninth.{{Cite news \|last\=Benson \|first\=Andrew \|date\=2022\-06\-19 \|title\=Verstappen holds off Sainz to win in Canada \|language\=en\-GB \|work\=BBC Sport \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/formula1/61860298 \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-21 \|archive\-date\=21 June 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621172133/https://www.bbc.com/sport/formula1/61860298 \|url\-status\=live }}
#### Aston Martin (2023–)
Alonso joined [Aston Martin](/wiki/Aston_Martin_in_Formula_One "Aston Martin in Formula One") on a multi\-year deal in {{F1\|2023}} alongside [Lance Stroll](/wiki/Lance_Stroll "Lance Stroll").{{Cite web \|date\=1 August 2022 \|title\=Fernando Alonso signs to Aston Martin for 2023 on multi\-year contract \|url\=https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.breaking\-fernando\-alonso\-signs\-to\-aston\-martin\-for\-2023\-on\-multi\-year.1i8QwJht5v7dBCWFCcrqml.html \|access\-date\=2 August 2022 \|website\=Formula1 \|archive\-date\=1 August 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220801083548/https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.breaking\-fernando\-alonso\-signs\-to\-aston\-martin\-for\-2023\-on\-multi\-year.1i8QwJht5v7dBCWFCcrqml.html \|url\-status\=live }} He joined the team because he wanted a multi\-year contract extension, and Alpine was only willing to give him one more year in F1\.{{Cite web \|date\=1 August 2022 \|title\=Alpine thought it could treat Alonso as Piastri's seat\-warmer \|url\=https://the\-race.com/formula\-1/alpine\-thought\-it\-could\-treat\-alonso\-as\-piastris\-seat\-warmer/ \|access\-date\=16 October 2022 \|website\=The Race \|language\=en\-GB \|archive\-date\=16 October 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221016202427/https://the\-race.com/formula\-1/alpine\-thought\-it\-could\-treat\-alonso\-as\-piastris\-seat\-warmer/ \|url\-status\=live }}
[thumb\|Alonso at the [2023 Austrian Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_Austrian_Grand_Prix "2023 Austrian Grand Prix"), with [Aston Martin](/wiki/Aston_Martin_in_Formula_One "Aston Martin in Formula One")](/wiki/File:FIA_F1_Austria_2023_Nr._14_%281%29.jpg "FIA F1 Austria 2023 Nr. 14 (1).jpg")
[thumb\|Alonso at the [2024 Chinese Grand Prix](/wiki/2024_Chinese_Grand_Prix "2024 Chinese Grand Prix"), with [Aston Martin](/wiki/Aston_Martin_in_Formula_One "Aston Martin in Formula One")](/wiki/File:Fernando_Alonso_2024_Chinese_GP.jpg "Fernando Alonso 2024 Chinese GP.jpg")
On his Aston Martin debut at the [2023 Bahrain Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_Bahrain_Grand_Prix "2023 Bahrain Grand Prix"), Alonso, benefitting from the much\-improved machinery of the [Aston Martin AMR23](/wiki/Aston_Martin_AMR23 "Aston Martin AMR23"), recovered from a first\-lap contact with his teammate [Lance Stroll](/wiki/Lance_Stroll "Lance Stroll") without any damage and went on to finish in 3rd place, securing a podium finish and Aston's first since [Sebastian Vettel](/wiki/Sebastian_Vettel "Sebastian Vettel")'s podium at the [2021 Azerbaijan Grand Prix](/wiki/2021_Azerbaijan_Grand_Prix "2021 Azerbaijan Grand Prix") (the German would finish second at the [2021 Hungarian Grand Prix](/wiki/2021_Hungarian_Grand_Prix "2021 Hungarian Grand Prix") but would be disqualified due to insufficient fuel sample).{{Cite news \|last1\=Das \|first1\=Andrew \|last2\=Katz \|first2\=Josh \|date\=5 March 2023 \|title\=Verstappen Runs Away With Formula 1 Opener \|language\=en\-US \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/05/sports/autoracing/formula\-1\-race\-bahrain.html \|access\-date\=5 March 2023 \|issn\=0362\-4331 \|archive\-date\=5 March 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305101256/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/05/sports/autoracing/formula\-1\-race\-bahrain.html \|url\-status\=live }} Despite having to serve a penalty due to his car being off\-position at the starting grid, he finished in third again at the following race at the [2023 Saudi Arabian Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_Saudi_Arabian_Grand_Prix "2023 Saudi Arabian Grand Prix"); this marked his 100th podium, making him the sixth driver to have scored 100 podiums in his career. Following the race, he was issued another ten\-second penalty due to serving the first one improperly at his pit stop, dropping him to fourth behind [George Russell](/wiki/George_Russell_%28racing_driver%29 "George Russell (racing driver)");{{cite web\|url\=https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24184/12838550/fernando\-alonso\-hits\-out\-at\-poor\-show\-from\-fia\-amid\-time\-penalty\-farce\-at\-saudi\-arabian\-grand\-prixl\|title\=Fernando Alonso restored to third place at Saudi Arabian GP and hits out at 'poor show' from FIA\|website\=Sky Sports F1\|date\=19 March 2023\|access\-date\=19 March 2023\|archive\-date\=20 March 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320010634/https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24184/12838550/fernando\-alonso\-hits\-out\-at\-poor\-show\-from\-fia\-amid\-time\-penalty\-farce\-at\-saudi\-arabian\-grand\-prixl\|url\-status\=live}} however, the team's appeal was accepted and the second penalty was reversed, keeping his podium.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.breaking\-alonso\-loses\-p3\-and\-100th\-f1\-podium\-after\-receiving\-10s\-penalty\-in.4QbFJtlN8sUWqQXt4jJmmR.html\|title\='I am happy in the end with the result' – Alonso relieved after 100th career podium reinstated in Jeddah\|website\=Formula One website\|date\=19 March 2023\|access\-date\=22 March 2023\|archive\-date\=21 March 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321043117/https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.breaking\-alonso\-loses\-p3\-and\-100th\-f1\-podium\-after\-receiving\-10s\-penalty\-in.4QbFJtlN8sUWqQXt4jJmmR.html\|url\-status\=live}}
Alonso finished in third once again after a chaotic [Australian Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_Australian_Grand_Prix "2023 Australian Grand Prix"); the third and final restart of the session saw his car make contact with the Ferrari of [Carlos Sainz Jr.](/wiki/Carlos_Sainz_Jr. "Carlos Sainz Jr."), causing the latter driver to receive a five\-second penalty; due to this, Sainz would be classified in last place out of the finishing cars. Alonso's car was undamaged.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12433/12847996/australian\-gp\-max\-verstappen\-holds\-off\-lewis\-hamilton\-for\-victory\-after\-wild\-finish\-to\-chaotic\-race\|title\=Australian GP: Max Verstappen holds off Lewis Hamilton for victory after wild finish to chaotic race\|website\=\[\[Sky Sports F1]]\|date\=2 April 2023\|access\-date\=24 April 2023\|archive\-date\=9 April 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409110829/https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12433/12847996/australian\-gp\-max\-verstappen\-holds\-off\-lewis\-hamilton\-for\-victory\-after\-wild\-finish\-to\-chaotic\-race\|url\-status\=live}} Alonso agreed with Sainz's criticisms of the penalty, stating that it was "too harsh".{{cite web\|url\=https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/sainz\-blasts\-most\-unfair\-penalty\-ever\-seeks\-australian\-gp\-stewards\-explanation/10452169/\|title\=Sainz blasts "most unfair penalty ever", seeks Australian GP stewards' explanation\|website\=Motorsport.com\|last\=Cobb\|first\=Haydn\|date\=2 April 2023\|access\-date\=24 April 2023\|archive\-date\=12 April 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412190415/https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/sainz\-blasts\-most\-unfair\-penalty\-ever\-seeks\-australian\-gp\-stewards\-explanation/10452169/\|url\-status\=live}} The Aston Martins were plagued with [DRS](/wiki/Drag_reduction_system "Drag reduction system") issues during qualification of the [Azerbaijan Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_Azerbaijan_Grand_Prix "2023 Azerbaijan Grand Prix"), going on to qualify eighth in the new "sprint shootout" qualification{{cite web\|url\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\-azerbaijan\-gp\-sprint\-shootout\-report/10462311/\|title\=F1 Azerbaijan GP: Leclerc doubles up for sprint race pole despite crash\|last\=Boxall\-Legge\|first\=Jake\|website\=Autosport.com\|date\=29 April 2023\|access\-date\=2 May 2023\|archive\-date\=2 May 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502173647/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\-azerbaijan\-gp\-sprint\-shootout\-report/10462311/\|url\-status\=live}} and sixth for the main qualification session;{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\-azerbaijan\-gp\-leclerc\-beats\-red\-bulls\-for\-grand\-prix\-pole/10461826/\|title\=F1 Azerbaijan GP: Leclerc beats Red Bulls for grand prix pole\|first\=Jake\|last\=Boxall\-Legge\|date\=28 April 2023\|website\=Autosport\|access\-date\=2 May 2023\|archive\-date\=3 May 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230503013841/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\-azerbaijan\-gp\-leclerc\-beats\-red\-bulls\-for\-grand\-prix\-pole/10461826/\|url\-status\=live}} he would finish sixth in the sprint race,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/f1\-azerbaijan\-gp\-perez\-passes\-leclerc\-to\-win\-f1\-sprint/10462575/\|title\=F1 Azerbaijan GP: Perez passes Leclerc to win F1 sprint\|last\=Boxall\-Legge\|first\=Jake\|website\=Motorsport.com\|date\=29 April 2023\|access\-date\=2 May 2023\|archive\-date\=1 May 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230501205749/https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/f1\-azerbaijan\-gp\-perez\-passes\-leclerc\-to\-win\-f1\-sprint/10462575/\|url\-status\=live}} and fourth in the main race.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\-azerbaijan\-gp\-perez\-leads\-dominant\-red\-bull\-1\-2\-from\-leclerc/10463146/\|title\=F1 Azerbaijan GP: Perez leads dominant Red Bull 1\-2 from Leclerc\|last\=Boxall\-Legge\|first\=Jake\|website\=Autosport.com\|date\=30 April 2023\|access\-date\=2 May 2023\|archive\-date\=30 April 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430222636/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\-azerbaijan\-gp\-perez\-leads\-dominant\-red\-bull\-1\-2\-from\-leclerc/10463146/\|url\-status\=live}} It was at this point in time the car had dropped in performance, failing to secure podiums on a consistent basis, though he took two podium finishes at [Zandvoort](/wiki/2023_Dutch_Grand_Prix "2023 Dutch Grand Prix"),{{Cite news \|url\= https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\-dutch\-gp\-verstappen\-fends\-off\-alonso\-in\-red\-flagged\-rain\-hit\-race/10512346/ \|title\= F1 Dutch GP: Verstappen fends off Alonso in red\-flagged, rain hit race \|work\= \[\[Autosport]] \|date\= 27 August 2023 \|access\-date\= 28 August 2023 \|last\= Boxall\-Legge \|first\= Jake \|url\-access\= limited \|archive\-date\= 28 August 2023 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20230828021055/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\-dutch\-gp\-verstappen\-fends\-off\-alonso\-in\-red\-flagged\-rain\-hit\-race/10512346/ \|url\-status\= live }} where he recorded his first fastest lap since the [2017 Hungarian Grand Prix](/wiki/2017_Hungarian_Grand_Prix "2017 Hungarian Grand Prix"),{{Cite web \|title\=Fernando Alonso \- Fastests laps \|url\=https://www.statsf1\.com/en/fernando\-alonso/meilleur\-tour.aspx \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-09 \|website\=Statsf1 \|archive\-date\=4 November 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231104084145/https://www.statsf1\.com/en/fernando\-alonso/meilleur\-tour.aspx \|url\-status\=live }} and [São Paulo](/wiki/2023_S%C3%A3o_Paulo_Grand_Prix "2023 São Paulo Grand Prix"); the latter instance edging out [Sergio Pérez](/wiki/Sergio_P%C3%A9rez "Sergio Pérez") by 0\.053 seconds.{{cite news \|last1\=Benson \|first1\=Andrew \|title\='Alonso masterclass burnishes the legend of one of the greatest' \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/formula1/67329196 \|access\-date\=6 November 2023 \|work\=BBC Sport \|date\=5 November 2023 \|archive\-date\=6 November 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106063932/https://www.bbc.com/sport/formula1/67329196 \|url\-status\=live }} After a seventh\-place finish at the [Abu Dhabi Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_Abu_Dhabi_Grand_Prix "2023 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix"), Alonso ended the season fourth in the standings, scoring 206 points against his teammate Stroll's 74\. Alonso's fourth position in the standings was his highest finish since {{f1\|2013}}.
### Endurance racing
Alonso made his sports car endurance racing debut at the 1999 24 Hours of Barcelona. Paired with [Antonio García](/wiki/Antonio_Garc%C3%ADa_%28racing_driver%29 "Antonio García (racing driver)"), Salvi Delmuns and the journalist Pedro Fermín Flores, the quartet finished third in the M10 class and tenth overall in a [Hyundai Accent](/wiki/Hyundai_Accent "Hyundai Accent").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.autobild.es/noticias/dia\-alonso\-debuto\-resistencia\-24\-horas\-barcelona\-1999\-187012\|title\=El día que Alonso debutó en resistencia: 24 Horas Barcelona 1999\|last\=Mancebo\|first\=Adrián\|date\=25 January 2018\|website\=\[\[Auto Bild]]\|language\=es\|trans\-title\=El día que Alonso debutó en resistencia: 24 Horas Barcelona 1999\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191127213106/https://www.autobild.es/noticias/dia\-alonso\-debuto\-resistencia\-24\-horas\-barcelona\-1999\-187012\|archive\-date\=27 November 2019\|access\-date\=27 November 2019}} Alonso was due to enter the [2015 24 Hours of Le Mans](/wiki/2015_24_Hours_of_Le_Mans "2015 24 Hours of Le Mans") with [Porsche](/wiki/Porsche_in_motorsport "Porsche in motorsport")'s [Le Mans Prototype 1](/wiki/Le_Mans_Prototype "Le Mans Prototype") team before Honda blocked it.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.marca.com/en/2015/04/29/en/more\_sports/1430329083\.html\|title\=Alonso had deal with Porsche to race in Le Mans\|last\=Canseco\|first\=Marco\|date\=29 April 2015\|website\=Marca\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222220359/https://www.marca.com/en/2015/04/29/en/more\_sports/1430329083\.html\|archive\-date\=22 December 2019\|access\-date\=22 December 2019}}
#### WeatherTech SportsCar Championship (2018–2019\)
[thumb\|right\|The [Wayne Taylor Racing](/wiki/Wayne_Taylor_Racing "Wayne Taylor Racing") [Cadillac DPi\-V.R](/wiki/Cadillac_DPi-V.R "Cadillac DPi-V.R") driven in the [2019 24 Hours of Daytona](/wiki/2019_24_Hours_of_Daytona "2019 24 Hours of Daytona") (pictured at the [2017 Petit Le Mans](/wiki/2017_Petit_Le_Mans "2017 Petit Le Mans")).](/wiki/File:Cadillac_DPi-V.R_-_Petit_Le_Mans_2017.jpg "Cadillac DPi-V.R - Petit Le Mans 2017.jpg")
Alonso drove a [Ligier JS P217](/wiki/Ligier_JS_P217 "Ligier JS P217") entered by [United Autosports](/wiki/United_Autosports "United Autosports") in the [2018 24 Hours of Daytona](/wiki/2018_24_Hours_of_Daytona "2018 24 Hours of Daytona") as preparation for the 24 Hours of Le Mans.{{cite web\|last\=Bradley\|first\=Charles\|title\=Brown: United will "bring our A\-game" for Alonso's Daytona bid\|url\=https://www.motorsport.com/imsa/news/alonso\-daytona\-rolex\-united\-brown\-970743/1372204/\|publisher\=motorsport.com\|date\=26 October 2017\|access\-date\=23 December 2019\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223100950/https://www.motorsport.com/imsa/news/alonso\-daytona\-rolex\-united\-brown\-970743/1372204/\|archive\-date\=23 December 2019}} Alonso, [Philip Hanson](/wiki/Philip_Hanson_%28racing_driver%29 "Philip Hanson (racing driver)") and McLaren reserve driver [Lando Norris](/wiki/Lando_Norris "Lando Norris") qualified 13th and finished 38th after multiple mechanical issues affected the car during the race.{{cite web\|last\=Pockrass\|first\=Bob\|title\=Fernando Alonso's Daytona 24 Hours scuppered by brake issues\|url\=https://www.espn.co.uk/f1/story/\_/id/22242826/fernando\-alonso\-daytona\-24\-hours\-scuppered\-brake\-issues\|publisher\=ESPN\|date\=28 January 2018\|access\-date\=23 December 2019\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223100951/https://www.espn.co.uk/f1/story/\_/id/22242826/fernando\-alonso\-daytona\-24\-hours\-scuppered\-brake\-issues\|archive\-date\=23 December 2019}} Alonso returned to race in the [2019 24 Hours of Daytona](/wiki/2019_24_Hours_of_Daytona "2019 24 Hours of Daytona") with [Wayne Taylor Racing](/wiki/Wayne_Taylor_Racing "Wayne Taylor Racing"). He shared a [Cadillac DPi\-V.R](/wiki/Cadillac_DPi-V.R "Cadillac DPi-V.R") with [Kamui Kobayashi](/wiki/Kamui_Kobayashi "Kamui Kobayashi"), [Renger van der Zande](/wiki/Renger_van_der_Zande "Renger van der Zande") and [Jordan Taylor](/wiki/Jordan_Taylor_%28racing_driver%29 "Jordan Taylor (racing driver)"). The quartet completed 593 laps to win the rain\-shortened event.{{cite web\|last\=Klein\|first\=Jamie\|title\=Rolex 24: WTR wins shortened race as Alonso beats Nasr\|url\=https://www.motorsport.com/imsa/news/rolex\-wayne\-taylor\-alonso\-victory/4329602/\|publisher\=motorsport.com\|date\=27 January 2019\|access\-date\=23 December 2019\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223100952/https://www.motorsport.com/imsa/news/rolex\-wayne\-taylor\-alonso\-victory/4329602/\|archive\-date\=23 December 2019}}
#### FIA World Endurance Championship (2018–2019\)
[left\|thumb\|Alonso driving a [Toyota TS050 Hybrid](/wiki/Toyota_TS050_Hybrid "Toyota TS050 Hybrid") at the [2018 6 Hours of Silverstone](/wiki/2018_6_Hours_of_Silverstone "2018 6 Hours of Silverstone").](/wiki/File:Toyota_TS050_Alonso_Silverstone_2018_Village.jpg "Toyota TS050 Alonso Silverstone 2018 Village.jpg")
Brown discussed an entry for the [2018 24 Hours of Le Mans](/wiki/2018_24_Hours_of_Le_Mans "2018 24 Hours of Le Mans") with Alonso and was prepared to consent to a switch to another team if certain circumstances were met.{{cite web\|last\=Watkins\|first\=Gary\|title\=Toyota open to Alonso discussions for Le Mans 2018\|url\=https://www.autosport.com/wec/news/131856/toyota\-open\-to\-alonso\-le\-mans\-talks\|work\=Autosport\|date\=16 September 2017\|access\-date\=23 December 2019\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223100949/https://www.autosport.com/wec/news/131856/toyota\-open\-to\-alonso\-le\-mans\-talks\|archive\-date\=23 December 2019}} Alonso and Toyota held talks and agreed to compete in the 24 Hours of Le Mans.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/41947568\|title\=Fernando Alonso to race Le Mans next year for Toyota\|last\=Benson\|first\=Andrew\|date\=10 November 2017\|publisher\=BBC Sport\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223154842/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/41947568\|archive\-date\=23 December 2019\|access\-date\=23 December 2019}} He visited Toyota's factory in [Cologne](/wiki/Cologne "Cologne") for a seat fitting in a [TS050 Hybrid](/wiki/Toyota_TS050_Hybrid "Toyota TS050 Hybrid") in November 2017\.{{cite web\|last\=Goodwin\|first\=Graham\|title\=Alonso Visits Toyota in Cologne For 'Seat Fitting'\|url\=http://www.dailysportscar.com/2017/11/07/alonso\-visits\-toyota\-in\-cologne\-for\-seat\-fitting.html\|publisher\=DailySportsCar\|date\=7 November 2017\|access\-date\=23 December 2019\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223100958/http://www.dailysportscar.com/2017/11/07/alonso\-visits\-toyota\-in\-cologne\-for\-seat\-fitting.html\|archive\-date\=23 December 2019}} Toyota entered Alonso into a post\-season rookie test at the [Bahrain International Circuit](/wiki/Bahrain_International_Circuit "Bahrain International Circuit") later that month.{{Cite web\|url\=https://sportscar365\.com/lemans/wec/alonso\-happy\-to\-complete\-long\-awaited\-maiden\-lmp1\-test/\|title\=Alonso Happy to Complete Long\-Awaited Maiden LMP1 Test\|last\=Smith\|first\=Luke\|date\=19 November 2017\|publisher\=SportsCar365\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324191203/https://sportscar365\.com/lemans/wec/alonso\-happy\-to\-complete\-long\-awaited\-maiden\-lmp1\-test/\|archive\-date\=24 March 2019\|access\-date\=23 December 2019}} In January 2018, McLaren and Toyota reached an agreement to allow Alonso to enter the full [2018–19 FIA World Endurance Championship](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_FIA_World_Endurance_Championship "2018–19 FIA World Endurance Championship").{{efn\|The owners of the \[\[Fuji Speedway]], which organised the \[\[2018 6 Hours of Fuji\|6 Hours of Fuji]], had a request granted for its race to be moved back by a week to allow Alonso to compete in the event and avoid a date clash with the \[\[2018 United States Grand Prix]].}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.motorsport.com/wec/news/alonso\-le\-mans\-world\-endurance\-championship\-toyota\-mclaren\-1000481/1388858/\|title\=Alonso joins Toyota for Le Mans debut, other WEC races\|last\=Noble\|first\=Jonathan\|date\=30 January 2018\|publisher\=motorsport.com\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223154841/https://www.motorsport.com/wec/news/alonso\-le\-mans\-world\-endurance\-championship\-toyota\-mclaren\-1000481/1388858/\|archive\-date\=23 December 2019\|access\-date\=23 December 2019}} He joined [Sébastien Buemi](/wiki/S%C3%A9bastien_Buemi "Sébastien Buemi") and [Kazuki Nakajima](/wiki/Kazuki_Nakajima "Kazuki Nakajima") in Toyota's {{Abbr\|No.\|Car number}} 8 TS050 Hybrid.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.autocar.co.uk/car\-news/motorsport\-le\-mans/fernando\-alonso\-contest\-entire\-wec\-season\-after\-race\-moved\-avoid\-f1\|title\=Fernando Alonso to contest entire WEC season after race moved to avoid F1 clash\|last\=Sheehan\|first\=Sam\|date\=9 February 2018\|website\=\[\[Autocar (magazine)\|Autocar]]\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223160345/https://www.autocar.co.uk/car\-news/motorsport\-le\-mans/fernando\-alonso\-contest\-entire\-wec\-season\-after\-race\-moved\-avoid\-f1\|archive\-date\=23 December 2019\|access\-date\=23 December 2019}}
[thumb\|Alonso driving at the [2019 24 Hours of Le Mans](/wiki/2019_24_Hours_of_Le_Mans "2019 24 Hours of Le Mans")](/wiki/File:Toyota_Gazoo_Racing%27s_Toyota_TS050_Hybrid_No._8_Fernando_Alonso%2C_S%C3%A9bastien_Buemi_and_Kazuki_Nakajima.jpg "Toyota Gazoo Racing's Toyota TS050 Hybrid No. 8 Fernando Alonso, Sébastien Buemi and Kazuki Nakajima.jpg")
Alonso drove a 2018 TS050 Hybrid in a three\-day test session at the Ciudad del Motor de Aragón in February and drove with no artificial lights in a 24\-hour kart race as preparation.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.espn.co.uk/f1/story/\_/id/22364262/alonso\-tests\-toyota\-le\-mans\-rocket\-ship\|title\=Alonso tests Toyota's Le Mans 'rocket ship'\|last\=Saunders\|first\=Nate\|date\=8 February 2018\|publisher\=ESPN\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190522185925/http://www.espn.co.uk/f1/story/\_/id/22364262/alonso\-tests\-toyota\-le\-mans\-rocket\-ship\|archive\-date\=22 May 2019\|access\-date\=23 December 2019}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.dailysportscar.com/2018/05/04/alonso\-aiming\-for\-more\-than\-a\-le\-mans\-win.html\|title\=Alonso Aiming For More Than Just A Le Mans Win in Sportscars\|last\=Tickell\|first\=Sam\|date\=4 May 2018\|publisher\=DailySportsCar\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223154838/http://www.dailysportscar.com/2018/05/04/alonso\-aiming\-for\-more\-than\-a\-le\-mans\-win.html\|archive\-date\=23 December 2019\|access\-date\=23 December 2019}} He, Buemi and Nakajima won the LMP1 Drivers' Championship with five victories including the 2018 24 Hours of Le Mans and the [2019 24 Hours of Le Mans](/wiki/2019_24_Hours_of_Le_Mans "2019 24 Hours of Le Mans") over the eight round season, though this was enhanced by their teammates [Mike Conway](/wiki/Mike_Conway "Mike Conway"), [Kamui Kobayashi](/wiki/Kamui_Kobayashi "Kamui Kobayashi") and [José María López](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_L%C3%B3pez "José María López") suffering a sensor issue while leading the [2019 6 Hours of Spa](/wiki/2019_6_Hours_of_Spa-Francorchamps "2019 6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps") and then suffering a puncture while comfortably leading the 2019 24 Hours of Le Mans with an hour remaining.{{Cite web\|url\=https://wec\-magazin.com/alonso\-buemi\-nakajima\-wrap\-up\-world\-championship/\|title\=Alonso, Buemi \& Nakajima wrap up World Championship\|last\=Tunnicliffe\|first\=David\|date\=17 June 2019\|publisher\=WEC Magazin\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223154840/https://wec\-magazin.com/alonso\-buemi\-nakajima\-wrap\-up\-world\-championship/\|archive\-date\=23 December 2019\|access\-date\=23 December 2019}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://wec\-magazin.com/toyota\-and\-aston\-martin\-victorious\-in\-6\-hours\-of\-spa/\|title\=Toyota and Aston Martin victorious in Spa\|last\=David {{!}}\|date\=4 May 2019\|website\=WEC\-Magazin\|language\=en\-GB\|access\-date\=17 March 2020\|archive\-date\=26 January 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230126232126/https://wec\-magazin.com/toyota\-and\-aston\-martin\-victorious\-in\-6\-hours\-of\-spa/\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.motorsport.com/lemans/news/toyota\-wiring\-issue\-conway\-kobayashi\-lopez/4478020/\|title\=Toyota diagnoses wiring issue that cost \#7 car Le Mans victory\|website\=www.motorsport.com\|date\=20 June 2019 \|language\=en\|access\-date\=17 March 2020\|archive\-date\=26 January 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230126232123/https://www.motorsport.com/lemans/news/toyota\-wiring\-issue\-conway\-kobayashi\-lopez/4478020/\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.motorsport.com/lemans/news/final\-report\-toyota\-wins\-ferrari/4475585/\|title\=Le Mans 24h: Alonso, Buemi, Nakajima win again for Toyota\|website\=www.motorsport.com\|date\=16 June 2019 \|language\=en\|access\-date\=17 March 2020\|archive\-date\=26 January 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230126232142/https://www.motorsport.com/lemans/news/final\-report\-toyota\-wins\-ferrari/4475585/\|url\-status\=live}} Alonso left the series at the end of the season.{{Cite news\|url\=https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk\-motor\-lemans\-alonso/alonso\-to\-leave\-toyota\-wec\-team\-after\-le\-mans\-idUKKCN1S73SW\|title\=Alonso to leave Toyota WEC team after Le Mans\|last\=Baldwin\|first\=Alan\|date\=1 May 2019\|access\-date\=23 December 2019\|url\-status\=dead\|work\=Reuters\|editor\-last\=Ferris\|editor\-first\=Ken\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223154842/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk\-motor\-lemans\-alonso/alonso\-to\-leave\-toyota\-wec\-team\-after\-le\-mans\-idUKKCN1S73SW\|archive\-date\=23 December 2019}}
### IndyCar Series
[thumb\|right\|Alonso's car prior to the [2017 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/2017_Indianapolis_500 "2017 Indianapolis 500").](/wiki/File:Dallara_DW12_%28Fernando_Alonso%29_2017_Indianapolis_500.jpg "Dallara DW12 (Fernando Alonso) 2017 Indianapolis 500.jpg")
#### McLaren Honda Andretti (2017\)
Before the [2017 Australian Grand Prix](/wiki/2017_Australian_Grand_Prix "2017 Australian Grand Prix"), Zak Brown said to Alonso they should enter the [2017 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/2017_Indianapolis_500 "2017 Indianapolis 500") to which Alonso suggested he was joking. The idea later re\-emerged in a conservation in Los Angeles and Alonso told Brown he was happy with the idea since McLaren had won it before. He and his manager Garcia Abad met Brown and Éric Boullier in China to talk more about the plan and said he would decide the next day. Alonso told Brown he wanted to race at Indianapolis and told him it was "a good decision for everyone: a win, win for myself, for F1, the fans, everyone'."{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.motorsport.com/indycar/news/alonso\-indy\-500\-idea\-was\-originally\-a\-joke\-says\-brown\-893019/893019/\|title\=Alonso Indy 500 idea was originally a joke, says Brown\|last\=Noble\|first\=Jonathan\|date\=12 April 2017\|publisher\=motorsport.com\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223181503/https://www.motorsport.com/indycar/news/alonso\-indy\-500\-idea\-was\-originally\-a\-joke\-says\-brown\-893019/893019/\|archive\-date\=23 December 2019\|access\-date\=23 December 2019}} Brown then spoke to the [IndyCar Series](/wiki/IndyCar_Series "IndyCar Series") chief executive officer Mark Miles and discovered that there were no Honda\-powered cars.{{cite web\|last\=Barstow\|first\=Ollie\|title\=The British driver that made Alonso's Indy 500 deal possible\|url\=https://www.crash.net/f1/news/243573/1/the\-british\-driver\-that\-made\-alonsos\-indy\-500\-deal\-possible\|publisher\=Crash\|date\=12 April 2017\|access\-date\=23 December 2019\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223201108/https://www.crash.net/f1/news/243573/1/the\-british\-driver\-that\-made\-alonsos\-indy\-500\-deal\-possible\|archive\-date\=23 December 2019}} Miles met the [Andretti Autosport](/wiki/Andretti_Autosport "Andretti Autosport") owner [Michael Andretti](/wiki/Michael_Andretti "Michael Andretti"), who got driver [Stefan Wilson](/wiki/Stefan_Wilson "Stefan Wilson") to agree to forego his planned entry in partnership with [Michael Shank Racing](/wiki/Michael_Shank_Racing "Michael Shank Racing") and allow Alonso to drive instead.{{cite web\|last\=Adam\|first\=Mitchell\|title\=Stefan Wilson parked 2017 Indy 500 bid for McLaren and Alonso\|url\=https://www.autosport.com/indycar/news/128937/stefan\-wilson\-parked\-indy\-500\-bid\-for\-alonso\|work\=Autosport\|date\=12 April 2017\|access\-date\=23 December 2019\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223201100/https://www.autosport.com/indycar/news/128937/stefan\-wilson\-parked\-indy\-500\-bid\-for\-alonso\|archive\-date\=23 December 2019}}
Driving the No. 29 McLaren\-Honda\-Andretti [Dallara DW12](/wiki/Dallara_DW12 "Dallara DW12"),{{cite web\|last\=Khorounzhiy\|first\=Valentin\|title\=Livery unveiled for Alonso's Indy 500 campaign\|url\=https://www.motorsport.com/indycar/news/livery\-unveiled\-for\-alonso\-s\-indy\-500\-campaign\-901393/901393/\|publisher\=motorsport.com\|date\=3 May 2017\|access\-date\=24 December 2019\|archive\-date\=26 January 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230126232458/https://www.motorsport.com/indycar/news/livery\-unveiled\-for\-alonso\-s\-indy\-500\-campaign\-901393/901393/\|url\-status\=live}} he completed a three\-stage rookie orientation programme at the [Indianapolis Motor Speedway](/wiki/Indianapolis_Motor_Speedway "Indianapolis Motor Speedway") on 3 May.{{efn\|More than two million watched a livestream of the rookie orientation programme on social media.{{cite web\|last\=Saunders\|first\=Nate\|title\=Over 2 million watched Fernando Alonso's Indy 500 test\|url\=https://www.espn.co.uk/f1/story/\_/id/19314643/over\-2\-million\-watched\-fernando\-alonso\-indy\-500\-test\|publisher\=ESPN\|date\=5 May 2017\|access\-date\=24 December 2019\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203021625/http://www.espn.co.uk/f1/story/\_/id/19314643/over\-2\-million\-watched\-fernando\-alonso\-indy\-500\-test\|archive\-date\=3 December 2018}}}}{{cite news\|last\=Ayello\|first\=Jim\|title\=Insider: Fernando Alonso enjoys 'perfect' IMS debut\|url\=https://eu.indystar.com/story/sports/motor/2017/05/03/insider\-fernando\-alonso\-enjoy\-perfect\-indy\-car\-debut\-ims/101263146/\|work\=\[\[The Indianapolis Star]]\|date\=4 May 2017\|access\-date\=24 December 2019\|archive\-date\=23 March 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323145655/https://www.indystar.com/story/sports/motor/2017/05/03/insider\-fernando\-alonso\-enjoy\-perfect\-indy\-car\-debut\-ims/101263146/\|url\-status\=live}} Alonso advanced to the Fast Nine shootout in qualifying and set the fifth\-fastest four\-lap average speed; in the race, he led four times for a total of 27 laps before his engine failed with 21 laps to go.{{cite web\|last\=Martin\|first\=Bruce\|title\=Excellent adventure: Fernando Alonso's road to the Indy 500\|url\=https://autoweek.com/article/indy\-500/excellent\-adventure\-fernando\-alonsos\-road\-indy\-500\|work\=Autoweek\|date\=3 June 2017\|access\-date\=24 December 2019\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190203180147/https://autoweek.com/article/indy\-500/excellent\-adventure\-fernando\-alonsos\-road\-indy\-500\|archive\-date\=3 February 2019}} Alonso was classified 24th.{{cite web\|title\=Alonso named Indy 500 Rookie of the Year\|url\=https://en.as.com/en/2017/05/30/other\_sports/1496141050\_266928\.html\|work\=AS\|date\=30 May 2017\|access\-date\=24 December 2019\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613215455/http://en.as.com/en/2017/05/30/other\_sports/1496141050\_266928\.html\|archive\-date\=13 June 2017}}
#### McLaren Racing (2019\)
[thumb\|Alonso at the [2019 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/2019_Indianapolis_500 "2019 Indianapolis 500")](/wiki/File:Fernando_Alonso_-_2019_Indy_500.jpg "Fernando Alonso - 2019 Indy 500.jpg")
McLaren began planning an entry for him in the [2019 IndyCar Series](/wiki/2019_IndyCar_Series "2019 IndyCar Series") in August 2018 and would be supported by the series.{{cite web\|last\=Errington\|first\=Tom\|title\=IndyCar: McLaren plans a series switch for Fernando Alonso in 2019\|url\=https://www.autosport.com/indycar/news/138028/mclaren\-plotting\-alonso\-indycar\-move\-for\-2019\|work\=Autosport\|date\=14 August 2018\|access\-date\=24 December 2019\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224160709/https://www.autosport.com/indycar/news/138028/mclaren\-plotting\-alonso\-indycar\-move\-for\-2019\|archive\-date\=24 December 2019}} Alonso tested a 2018\-specification Andretti Autosport\-entered Dallara DW12\-Honda at the [Barber Motorsports Park](/wiki/Barber_Motorsports_Park "Barber Motorsports Park") on 5 September.{{cite web\|last\=Pruett\|first\=Marshall\|title\=Alonso pleased with IndyCar Barber test\|url\=https://racer.com/2018/09/05/alonso\-pleased\-with\-indycar\-barber\-test/\|work\=Racer\|date\=5 September 2018\|access\-date\=24 December 2019\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224160711/https://racer.com/2018/09/05/alonso\-pleased\-with\-indycar\-barber\-test/\|archive\-date\=24 December 2019}} McLaren opted to enter just the [2019 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/2019_Indianapolis_500 "2019 Indianapolis 500") due to its focus on Formula One and collaborated with [Carlin Motorsport](/wiki/Carlin_Motorsport "Carlin Motorsport") in a logistical and technical partnership and signed an engine supply deal with [Chevrolet](/wiki/Chevrolet "Chevrolet").{{cite web\|last\=Beer\|first\=Matt\|title\=How Alonso and McLaren's 2019 Indianapolis 500 attempt unravelled\|url\=https://www.autosport.com/indycar/news/143527/how\-alonso\-and\-mclaren\-indy\-500\-unravelled\|work\=Autosport\|date\=20 May 2019\|access\-date\=24 December 2019\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224160709/https://www.autosport.com/indycar/news/143527/how\-alonso\-and\-mclaren\-indy\-500\-unravelled\|archive\-date\=24 December 2019}} Alonso ventured to the McLaren Technology Centre in early March 2019 for a seat fitting to become comfortable in the No. 66 Dallara IR18\-Chevrolet and its brake pedal was shifted away from his feet since it is used less in IndyCar than in Formula One. [Andy Brown](/wiki/Andy_Brown_%28engineer%29 "Andy Brown (engineer)") was Alonso's race engineer and his chief mechanic was Liam Dance.{{cite web\|title\=Fernando's Indy 500 Seat Fit\|url\=https://www.mclaren.com/racing/2019/indy\-500/fernando\-alonso\-seat\-fit/\|publisher\=McLaren\|date\=6 March 2019\|access\-date\=24 December 2019\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224160710/https://www.mclaren.com/racing/2019/indy\-500/fernando\-alonso\-seat\-fit/\|archive\-date\=24 December 2019}}
{{cite web\|last\=Malsher\|first\=David\|title\=Alonso has McLaren seat fit ahead of Indy 500 return\|url\=https://www.motorsport.com/indycar/news/alonso\-mclaren\-indycar\-indy\-seat/4348176/\|publisher\=motorsport.com\|date\=6 March 2019\|access\-date\=24 December 2019\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224160705/https://www.motorsport.com/indycar/news/alonso\-mclaren\-indycar\-indy\-seat/4348176/\|archive\-date\=24 December 2019}} Alonso did not qualify after [Juncos Racing](/wiki/Juncos_Racing "Juncos Racing")'s [Kyle Kaiser](/wiki/Kyle_Kaiser "Kyle Kaiser") demoted him to 34th.{{efn\|McLaren offered to purchase the \[\[Arrow McLaren SP\|Arrow Schmidt Peterson]] car of \[\[Oriol Servià]] to allow Alonso to enter the race and meet sponsorship obligations since the two teams were in a partnership. Alonso was against replacing a driver who had qualified and McLaren opted against doing so.{{cite news\|last\=Fryer\|first\=Jenna\|title\=Alonso Rejects McLaren Offer to Buy Him Indy 500 Seat\|url\=https://www.usnews.com/news/sports/articles/2019\-05\-20/alonso\-rejects\-mclaren\-offer\-to\-buy\-him\-indy\-500\-seat\|work\=\[\[U.S. News \& World Report]]\|agency\=Associated Press\|date\=20 May 2019\|access\-date\=24 December 2019\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224211020/https://www.usnews.com/news/sports/articles/2019\-05\-20/alonso\-rejects\-mclaren\-offer\-to\-buy\-him\-indy\-500\-seat\|archive\-date\=24 December 2019}}}} Reasons included a dismantled spare car needed to assembled and flown from Carlin's factory after Alonso crashed in practice. An error converting from the [American imperial system](/wiki/Imperial_units "Imperial units") to the [British metric system](/wiki/Metric_system "Metric system") caused his car to scrape along the tarmac surface and incorrect gear ratios slowed him.{{cite web\|last\=Saunders\|first\=Nate\|title\=McLaren explains comedy of errors that led to Fernando Alonso's Indy 500 nightmare\|url\=https://www.espn.com/f1/story/\_/id/26806757/mclaren\-explains\-comedy\-errors\-led\-fernando\-alonso\-indy\-500\-nightmare\|publisher\=ESPN\|date\=23 May 2019\|access\-date\=24 December 2019\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191117071953/https://www.espn.com/f1/story/\_/id/26806757/mclaren\-explains\-comedy\-errors\-led\-fernando\-alonso\-indy\-500\-nightmare\|archive\-date\=17 November 2019}}
#### Arrow McLaren SP (2020\)
He entered the [2020 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/2020_Indianapolis_500 "2020 Indianapolis 500") with [Arrow McLaren SP](/wiki/Arrow_McLaren_SP "Arrow McLaren SP") after an agreement with Andretti Autosports fell through.{{cite web\|last\=Martin\|first\=Bruce\|title\=Why it's important for Fernando Alonso to be in the Indianapolis 500\|url\=https://motorsports.nbcsports.com/2020/02/25/fernando\-alonso\-michael\-andretti\-sam\-schmidt\-zak\-brown\-indianapolis\-500\-indianapolis\-motor\-speedway/\|publisher\=NBC Sports\|date\=25 February 2020\|access\-date\=13 March 2020\|archive\-date\=15 March 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200315152759/https://motorsports.nbcsports.com/2020/02/25/fernando\-alonso\-michael\-andretti\-sam\-schmidt\-zak\-brown\-indianapolis\-500\-indianapolis\-motor\-speedway/\|url\-status\=live}}
Alonso had a crash during practice. He qualified 26th.{{Cite web\|url\=https://the\-race.com/indycar/why\-alonsos\-indy\-dream\-is\-alive\-despite\-disaster\-qualifying/\|title\=Why Alonso's Indy dream is alive despite disaster qualifying\|date\=16 August 2020\|website\=The Race\|access\-date\=18 August 2020\|archive\-date\=26 January 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230126233956/https://the\-race.com/indycar/why\-alonsos\-indy\-dream\-is\-alive\-despite\-disaster\-qualifying/\|url\-status\=live}}
Alonso did manage to finish the race. He started 26th, was running 15th halfway through the race, and then ended up P21 and one lap down because of a clutch issue causing the team to manually start the car during every pit stop.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\-reveals\-a\-clutch\-problem\-derailed\-his\-indy\-500\-bid\-as\-ex\-f1\-racer.274JiGOUmrg9PmxxNf4QUZ.html\|title\=Fernando Alonso reveals a clutch problem derailed his Indy 500 bid as ex\-F1 racer Takuma Sato took victory\|website\=www.formula1\.com\|access\-date\=25 August 2020\|archive\-date\=4 February 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204013850/https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\-reveals\-a\-clutch\-problem\-derailed\-his\-indy\-500\-bid\-as\-ex\-f1\-racer.274JiGOUmrg9PmxxNf4QUZ.html\|url\-status\=live}}
### Off\-road racing
Alonso entered the [Dakar Rally](/wiki/Dakar_Rally "Dakar Rally") with Toyota in [2020](/wiki/2020_Dakar_Rally "2020 Dakar Rally") following a five\-month testing programme in Africa, Europe and the Middle East and driving a series of races to better himself.{{Cite web \|last\=Keiloh \|first\=Graham \|date\=20 August 2019 \|title\=Fernando Alonso prepares for Dakar Rally with five\-month test programme \|url\=https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/news/rally/fernando\-alonso\-prepares\-dakar\-rally\-five\-month\-test\-programme \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203131113/https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/news/rally/fernando\-alonso\-prepares\-dakar\-rally\-five\-month\-test\-programme \|archive\-date\=3 December 2019 \|access\-date\=25 December 2019 \|website\=\[\[Motor Sport (magazine)\|Motor Sport]]}}{{Cite web \|last1\=Lillo \|first1\=Sergio \|last2\=Khorounzhiy \|first2\=Valentin \|date\=20 August 2019 \|title\=Alonso begins Dakar 2020 preparations with Toyota \|url\=https://www.motorsport.com/dakar/news/alonso\-toyota\-preparations\-dakar\-debut/4515515/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191130194552/https://www.motorsport.com/dakar/news/alonso\-toyota\-preparations\-dakar\-debut/4515515/ \|archive\-date\=30 November 2019 \|access\-date\=25 December 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[Motorsport.com]]}} He raced in the Lichtenburg 400 in South Africa, the [Rally du Maroc](/wiki/Rallye_du_Maroc_%28rally_raid%29 "Rallye du Maroc (rally raid)") in Morocco and the Al Ula–Neom Rally in Saudi Arabia,{{cite news\|title\=Rallye\-raid : Fernando Alonso participe au Rallye Al Ula\-Neom\|trans\-title\=Rally\-raid: Fernando Alonso participates in the Rally Al Ula\-Neom\|url\=https://www.lequipe.fr/Rallye\-raid/Actualites/Rallye\-raid\-fernando\-alonso\-participe\-au\-rallye\-al\-ula\-neom/1076956\|work\=\[\[L'Equipe]]\|language\=fr\|date\=5 November 2019\|access\-date\=25 December 2019\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225212309/https://www.lequipe.fr/Rallye\-raid/Actualites/Rallye\-raid\-fernando\-alonso\-participe\-au\-rallye\-al\-ula\-neom/1076956\|archive\-date\=25 December 2019}} with the five\-time Dakar Rally bike class winner [Marc Coma](/wiki/Marc_Coma "Marc Coma") his co\-driver. Alonso was third at the Al Ula\-Neom Rally, which was his highest finish in three preparation events.{{cite news\|title\=Fernando Alonso ramps up Dakar Rally preparations with podium finish at AlUla\-Neom cross\-country rally\|url\=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1584101/sport\|work\=\[\[Arab News]]\|date\=14 November 2019\|access\-date\=25 December 2019\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191128015853/https://www.arabnews.com/node/1584101/sport\|archive\-date\=28 November 2019}} With co\-driver Coma, he finished the Dakar in 13th position with a best stage finish of second place.{{Cite web \|date\=17 January 2020 \|title\=Dakar Rally 2020: Carlos Sainz wins third title as Fernando Alonso finishes 13th \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/motorsport/51146885 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202025646/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/motorsport/51146885 \|archive\-date\=2 February 2020 \|access\-date\=5 August 2021 \|publisher\=\[\[BBC Sport]] }} A stop for repairs on the second stage and a roll on the tenth lost him several hours in the general classification.{{Cite web \|last\=Smith \|first\=Luke \|date\=17 January 2020 \|title\=Alonso expecting Dakar Rally return in the future \|url\=https://www.crash.net/dakar/news/935496/1/alonso\-expecting\-dakar\-rally\-return\-future?amp \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200117231702/https://www.crash.net/dakar/news/935496/1/alonso\-expecting\-dakar\-rally\-return\-future?amp \|archive\-date\=17 January 2020 \|access\-date\=8 February 2020 \|publisher\=Crash}}
|
[
"Motor racing career\n-------------------",
"### Junior racing career",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|The [Lola B99/50](/wiki/Lola_Cars \"Lola Cars\") Alonso drove in the [2000 International Formula 3000 Championship](/wiki/2000_International_Formula_3000_Championship \"2000 International Formula 3000 Championship\").](/wiki/File:Lola_B99-50_front-right_2017_Museo_Fernando_Alonso.jpg \"Lola B99-50 front-right 2017 Museo Fernando Alonso.jpg\")\nAged 17, Alonso made his car racing debut in the [1999 Euro Open by Nissan](/wiki/1999_Euro_Open_by_Nissan \"1999 Euro Open by Nissan\") with [Campos Motorsport](/wiki/Campos_Racing \"Campos Racing\"), winning the title from [Manuel Gião](/wiki/Manuel_Gi%C3%A3o \"Manuel Gião\") at the final race of the season with six wins and nine [pole positions](/wiki/Pole_position \"Pole position\").{{efn\\|Gião filed an appeal under the belief Alonso had passed him under \\[\\[Racing flags\\#Yellow flag\\|yellow flag]] conditions. The appeal was rejected because Gião had filed it through his manager and not his team; officials subsequently confirmed Alonso's championship win.{{Cite web \\|date\\=27 November 1999 \\|title\\=Alonso title confirmed \\|url\\=http://classic.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/7039/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719024337/http://classic.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/7039/ \\|archive\\-date\\=19 July 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=27 November 2019 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Autosport]]}}}} For [2000](/wiki/2000_International_Formula_3000_Championship \"2000 International Formula 3000 Championship\"), he progressed to the higher\\-tier [International Formula 3000 Championship](/wiki/International_Formula_3000 \"International Formula 3000\") with the [Minardi](/wiki/Minardi \"Minardi\")\\-backed [Team Astromega](/wiki/Team_Astromega \"Team Astromega\"), after a sponsorship agreement with driver Robert Lechner fell through.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Arron \\|first\\=Simon \\|date\\=5 February 2018 \\|title\\=Silverstone 2000: Meeting Fernando Alonso \\|url\\=https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/opinion/f1/silverstone\\-2000\\-meeting\\-fernando\\-alonso \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191127213115/https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/opinion/f1/silverstone\\-2000\\-meeting\\-fernando\\-alonso \\|archive\\-date\\=27 November 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=27 November 2019 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Motor Sport (magazine)\\|Motor Sport]]}} Alonso finished second at the [Hungaroring](/wiki/Hungaroring \"Hungaroring\") and won the season\\-ending round at [Circuit de Spa\\-Francorchamps](/wiki/Circuit_de_Spa-Francorchamps \"Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps\") for fourth overall with 17 points.",
"### Formula One",
"#### Minardi and Renault (2001–2006\\)",
"[Cesare Fiorio](/wiki/Cesare_Fiorio \"Cesare Fiorio\"), the sports director, gave Alonso a test in a [Formula One](/wiki/Formula_One \"Formula One\") (F1\\) car at the [Circuito de Jerez](/wiki/Circuito_de_Jerez \"Circuito de Jerez\") in December 1999, as part of the Euro Open by Nissan's organising company RPM's agreement to give its series champion an opportunity to test at a higher level.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Sanz \\|first\\=Miguel \\|date\\=4 March 2009 \\|title\\=Alonso y Minardi, 10 años de una gran historia \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=Alonso and Minardi, 10 years of a great story \\|work\\=\\[\\[Marca (newspaper)\\|Marca]] \\|url\\=https://www.marca.com/blogs/elgrancirco/2009/03/04/alonso\\-y\\-minardi\\-10\\-anos\\-de\\-una\\-gran.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191128091729/https://www.marca.com/blogs/elgrancirco/2009/03/04/alonso\\-y\\-minardi\\-10\\-anos\\-de\\-una\\-gran.html \\|archive\\-date\\=28 November 2019}} He was Minardi's test and reserve driver in {{F1\\|2000}} before joining its race team in {{F1\\|2001}}. In a non\\-competitive car,{{Cite web \\|last\\=Cooper \\|first\\=Adam \\|date\\=21 March 2011 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso and the class of 2001 \\|url\\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/feature/3361/fernando\\-alonso\\-and\\-the\\-class\\-of\\-2001 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223154842/https://www.autosport.com/f1/feature/3361/fernando\\-alonso\\-and\\-the\\-class\\-of\\-2001 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2019 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Autosport]]}} Alonso's best result of the season was a tenth\\-place finish in the {{F1GP\\|2001\\|German}} and scored no [points](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Championship_points_scoring_systems \"List of Formula One World Championship points scoring systems\") for 23rd overall.",
"[thumb\\|Alonso at the [2003 British Grand Prix](/wiki/2003_British_Grand_Prix \"2003 British Grand Prix\")](/wiki/File:Fernando_Alonso_2003_Silverstone_9.jpg \"Fernando Alonso 2003 Silverstone 9.jpg\")\nHe signed as [Renault](/wiki/Renault_in_Formula_One \"Renault in Formula One\")'s test driver for {{F1\\|2002}} per the orders of manager [Flavio Briatore](/wiki/Flavio_Briatore \"Flavio Briatore\") to familiarise himself with the team and improve himself for the future.{{Cite web \\|date\\=24 June 2002 \\|title\\=Alonso's hopes for Renault race drive \\|url\\=http://www.formula1\\.com/news/headlines02/06/s9854\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020628020127/http://www.formula1\\.com/news/headlines02/06/s9854\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=28 June 2002 \\|access\\-date\\=7 December 2019 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Formula1\\.com]]}} Alonso worked with the engineering department to improve [Giancarlo Fisichella](/wiki/Giancarlo_Fisichella \"Giancarlo Fisichella\")'s and [Jenson Button](/wiki/Jenson_Button \"Jenson Button\")'s performance,{{Cite news \\|last\\=Williams \\|first\\=Richard \\|date\\=1 May 2005 \\|title\\=Interview with Fernando Alonso \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]] \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2005/may/02/formulaone.formulaone2005 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=25 November 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206163114/https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2005/may/02/formulaone.formulaone2005 \\|archive\\-date\\=6 December 2019}} and tested in Spain and the United Kingdom.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso Biography \\|url\\=https://www.racefans.net/fernando\\-alonso/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217182803/http://www.racefans.net/fernando\\-alonso/ \\|archive\\-date\\=17 December 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=6 December 2019 \\|website\\=Racefans.net}} He drove a [Jaguar](/wiki/Jaguar_Racing \"Jaguar Racing\") in an evaluation session against test drivers [André Lotterer](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Lotterer \"André Lotterer\") and [James Courtney](/wiki/James_Courtney \"James Courtney\") at the [Silverstone Circuit](/wiki/Silverstone_Circuit \"Silverstone Circuit\") in May 2002\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=30 May 2002 \\|title\\=Alonso impresses in Jaguar test \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula\\_one/2011180\\.stm \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040430131259/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula\\_one/2011180\\.stm \\|archive\\-date\\=30 April 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=6 August 2015 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[BBC Sport]]}} Alonso was promoted to the Renault race team for {{F1\\|2003}}. He went on to break the records of youngest driver to win a pole position at the season's second race, the {{F1 GP\\|2003\\|Malaysian}}, and broke [Bruce McLaren](/wiki/Bruce_McLaren \"Bruce McLaren\")'s record as the youngest F1 race winner at the {{F1GP\\|2003\\|Hungarian}} later in the year.{{efn\\|\\[\\[Sebastian Vettel]] is the current holder of the youngest Formula One pole position starter and youngest one and two\\-time world champion.\\|name\\=VettelALO\\|group\\=}}{{Cite journal \\|date\\=July 2016 \\|title\\=The youth of today \\|url\\=https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/archive/article/july\\-2016/40/youth\\-today \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Motor Sport (magazine)\\|Motor Sport]] \\|volume\\=92 \\|issue\\=7 \\|pages\\=40–41 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512152112/https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/archive/article/july\\-2016/40/youth\\-today \\|archive\\-date\\=12 May 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=7 December 2019}} He achieved four podium finishes in 2003 and was sixth in the [World Drivers' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Drivers%27_Champions \"List of Formula One World Drivers' Champions\") with 55 points.",
"He remained with Renault for {{F1\\|2004}}.{{Cite web \\|date\\=20 August 2003 \\|title\\=Renault name unchanged line\\-up \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula\\_one/3166183\\.stm \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030822055118/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula\\_one/3166183\\.stm \\|archive\\-date\\=22 August 2003 \\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[BBC Sport]]}} Alonso had an improved season: he finished the season\\-opening {{F1GP\\|2004\\|Australian}} in third position and took three more podium finishes that year. He took pole position for the {{F1GP\\|2004\\|French}} but achieved no race victories en route to fourth in the World Drivers' Championship with 59 points. Alonso stayed at Renault for {{F1\\|2005}}. He duelled with [McLaren](/wiki/McLaren \"McLaren\") driver [Kimi Räikkönen](/wiki/Kimi_R%C3%A4ikk%C3%B6nen \"Kimi Räikkönen\") for the World Championship in 2005 due to regulation changes prohibiting teams from changing tyres during a race and requiring engines to last for two races before they could be changed. Alonso's car was more reliable than Räikkönen's albeit lacking in speed.{{Cite web \\|date\\=1 January 2005 \\|title\\=2005: A first for Fernando \\|url\\=http://en.espn.co.uk/f1/motorsport/story/11691\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210161104/http://en.espn.co.uk/f1/motorsport/story/11691\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=10 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ESPN]]}} Alonso eclipsed [Emerson Fittipaldi](/wiki/Emerson_Fittipaldi \"Emerson Fittipaldi\") as the youngest World Drivers' Champion, having won seven victories, six pole positions and fourteen podium finishes for 133 points altogether.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Alonso won his second World Drivers' Championship at the [2006 Brazilian Grand Prix](/wiki/2006_Brazilian_Grand_Prix \"2006 Brazilian Grand Prix\")](/wiki/File:Fernando_Alonso_2006_Brazil.jpg \"Fernando Alonso 2006 Brazil.jpg\")\nHe signed a contract extension with Renault for {{F1\\|2006}} in April 2005\\.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Moffitt \\|first\\=Alastair \\|date\\=20 December 2005 \\|title\\=Alonso to make shock switch from Renault to McLaren \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Independent]] \\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/motor\\-racing/alonso\\-to\\-make\\-shock\\-switch\\-from\\-renault\\-to\\-mclaren\\-520190\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=11 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428113233/https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/motor\\-racing/alonso\\-to\\-make\\-shock\\-switch\\-from\\-renault\\-to\\-mclaren\\-520190\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=28 April 2019}} Bookmakers installed Alonso as the favourite to retain the Drivers' Championship.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Roebuck \\|first\\=Dan \\|date\\=10 March 2006 \\|title\\=Renault reliability gives champion edge \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]] \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2006/mar/10/formulaone.sport \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=11 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211102454/https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2006/mar/10/formulaone.sport \\|archive\\-date\\=11 December 2019}} His primary competition was Ferrari driver [Michael Schumacher](/wiki/Michael_Schumacher \"Michael Schumacher\").{{Cite news \\|last\\=Allen \\|first\\=James \\|date\\=20 October 2006 \\|title\\=To Alonso, the title – to Schumacher, the legend \\|work\\=\\[\\[Financial Times]] \\|url\\=https://www.ft.com/content/649ead2e\\-6061\\-11db\\-a716\\-0000779e2340 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=11 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211162731/https://www.ft.com/content/649ead2e\\-6061\\-11db\\-a716\\-0000779e2340 \\|archive\\-date\\=11 December 2019}} Alonso won six of the first nine races and finished no lower than second to lead the championship with 84 out of a possible 90 points. An [Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile](/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Internationale_de_l%27Automobile \"Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile\") (FIA; F1's governing body)\\-imposed ban on Renault's [tuned mass damper](/wiki/Tuned_mass_damper \"Tuned mass damper\") device to slow Alonso and an increase of development into Schumacher's Ferrari for competitiveness saw the two tied on points entering the season's penultimate round, the {{F1GP\\|2006\\|Japanese}}. Alonso won the race as Schumacher retired due to an engine failure whilst leading. He needed to score one point at the season\\-ending {{F1GP\\|2006\\|Brazilian}} for a second title.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Garside \\|first\\=Kevin \\|date\\=11 October 2006 \\|title\\=Alonso to play safe in Brazil \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Daily Telegraph]] \\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/columnists/kevingarside/2347765/Alonso\\-to\\-play\\-safe\\-in\\-Brazil.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|url\\-access\\=limited \\|access\\-date\\=11 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211162731/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/columnists/kevingarside/2347765/Alonso\\-to\\-play\\-safe\\-in\\-Brazil.html \\|archive\\-date\\=11 December 2019}} Alonso won the championship by finishing second and was Formula 1's youngest double World Champion.{{efn\\|name\\=VettelALO}}{{clear}}",
"#### McLaren and second stint with Renault (2007–2009\\)",
"[thumb\\|Alonso en route to victory at the [2007 Malaysian Grand Prix](/wiki/2007_Malaysian_Grand_Prix \"2007 Malaysian Grand Prix\")](/wiki/File:Fernando_Alonso_2007_Malaysia.jpg \"Fernando Alonso 2007 Malaysia.jpg\")",
"He and McLaren team owner [Ron Dennis](/wiki/Ron_Dennis \"Ron Dennis\") met secretly in Japan after Dennis talked to Alonso about driving for the team in the future and Alonso expressed interest in the idea. Both men agreed to a three\\-year contract for Alonso to drive for McLaren starting from {{F1\\|2007}}.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Baldwin \\|first\\=Alan \\|date\\=7 December 2006 \\|title\\=How Alonso switched to McLaren? \\|work\\=\\[\\[Rediff.com]] \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\|url\\=https://www.rediff.com/sports/2006/dec/07alonso.htm \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=25 November 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080616214228/http://www.rediff.com/sports/2006/dec/07alonso.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=16 June 2008}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Benson \\|first\\=Andrew \\|date\\=19 November 2018 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso: Lewis Hamilton, Ron Dennis \\& where it started to go wrong at McLaren in 2007 \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/46225204 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181205001319/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/46225204 \\|archive\\-date\\=5 December 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=11 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[BBC Sport]]}} Alonso's contract with Renault expired on 31 December 2006, and he was not granted an early release for sponsorship reasons.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Noble \\|first\\=Jonathan \\|date\\=15 December 2006 \\|title\\=More security, no stickers for Alonso debut \\|url\\=http://classic.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/56024/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211171342/http://classic.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/56024/ \\|archive\\-date\\=11 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=11 December 2019 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Autosport]]}} Renault allowed Alonso to make his first appearance for McLaren in a test session at the [Circuito de Jerez](/wiki/Circuito_de_Jerez \"Circuito de Jerez\") in November 2006\\.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Spurgeon \\|first\\=Brad \\|date\\=15 December 2006 \\|title\\=Champions All Around \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|url\\=https://rendezvous.blogs.nytimes.com/2006/12/15/champions\\-all\\-around/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=11 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001070130/https://rendezvous.blogs.nytimes.com/2006/12/15/champions\\-all\\-around/ \\|archive\\-date\\=1 October 2019}} His main competitors in 2007 were his teammate [Lewis Hamilton](/wiki/Lewis_Hamilton \"Lewis Hamilton\") and Räikkönen at Ferrari. Alonso achieved four Grand Prix victories in [Malaysia](/wiki/2007_Malaysian_Grand_Prix \"2007 Malaysian Grand Prix\"), [Monaco](/wiki/2007_Monaco_Grand_Prix \"2007 Monaco Grand Prix\"), [Europe](/wiki/2007_European_Grand_Prix \"2007 European Grand Prix\") and [Italy](/wiki/2007_Italian_Grand_Prix \"2007 Italian Grand Prix\") and led the championship until Hamilton overtook him.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Harden \\|first\\=Oliver \\|date\\=17 December 2014 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso and McLaren: Where It Went Wrong in 2007 \\|url\\=https://bleacherreport.com/articles/2302639\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-and\\-mclaren\\-where\\-it\\-went\\-wrong\\-in\\-2007 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212093514/https://bleacherreport.com/articles/2302639\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-and\\-mclaren\\-where\\-it\\-went\\-wrong\\-in\\-2007 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Bleacher Report]]}} Prior to the season's final round, the {{F1 GP\\|2007\\|Brazilian}}, he had 103 championship points to Räikkönen's 100 and Hamilton's 107, and needed to win the race and for his teammate to finish third or lower for his third title.{{Cite news \\|date\\=18 October 2007 \\|title\\=Formula One title permutations \\|work\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia\\-30043820071018 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212093517/https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia\\-30043820071018 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 December 2019}} Alonso finished the event third for third overall with 109 points. He had the same number of points as Hamilton; the tie was broken on count\\-back as Hamilton finished second more often than Alonso.{{Cite web \\|date\\=1 December 2018 \\|title\\=17 surprising Fernando Alonso facts – one for each of his F1 seasons \\|url\\=https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.17\\-surprising\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-facts\\-one\\-for\\-each\\-of\\-his\\-f1\\-seasons.2QM5BOQyakieK6KeMAG68G.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212093517/https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.17\\-surprising\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-facts\\-one\\-for\\-each\\-of\\-his\\-f1\\-seasons.2QM5BOQyakieK6KeMAG68G.html \\|archive\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Formula1\\.com]]}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Alonso took a controversial victory at the [2008 Singapore Grand Prix](/wiki/2008_Singapore_Grand_Prix \"2008 Singapore Grand Prix\"), after his teammate, [Nelson Piquet Jr.](/wiki/Nelson_Piquet_Jr. \"Nelson Piquet Jr.\"), was ordered to crash deliberately.](/wiki/File:Singapore_grand_prix_2008_alonso_win.jpg \"Singapore grand prix 2008 alonso win.jpg\")",
"Throughout the season, Alonso and Hamilton were involved in a number of incidents, such as the [espionage scandal](/wiki/2007_Formula_One_espionage_controversy \"2007 Formula One espionage controversy\") and the flare\\-up during qualifying for the {{F1GP\\|2007\\|Hungarian}} when Hamilton disobeyed a team instruction, thus disadvantaging Alonso, and Alonso responded by delaying Hamilton in the pit lane.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Benson \\|first\\=Andrew \\|date\\=19 November 2018 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso: Lewis Hamilton, McLaren, 'spy\\-gate' \\& threats \\& demands to Ron Dennis \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/46226823 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926080923/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/46226823 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 September 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[BBC Sport]]}} The tensions culminated in Alonso and McLaren terminating their contract by mutual consent in November.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Rodríguez \\|first\\=Jaime \\|date\\=2 November 2007 \\|title\\=Alonso: 'En McLaren, nunca me sentí en casa' \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=Alonso: 'At McLaren, I never felt at home' \\|work\\=\\[\\[El Mundo (Spain)\\|El Mundo]] \\|url\\=https://www.elmundo.es/elmundodeporte/2007/11/02/motor/1194002469\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212161345/https://www.elmundo.es/elmundodeporte/2007/11/02/motor/1194002469\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=12 December 2019}} Alonso was forbidden from joining a team whom McLaren considered their primary challengers for {{F1\\|2008}}.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Alonso: Why I quit McLaren \\|date\\=2 November 2007 \\|url\\=https://www.eurosport.com/formula\\-1/season/2007/alonso\\-why\\-i\\-quit\\-mclaren\\_sto1368239/story.shtml \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212161346/https://www.eurosport.com/formula\\-1/season/2007/alonso\\-why\\-i\\-quit\\-mclaren\\_sto1368239/story.shtml \\|archive\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Eurosport]]}} After rejecting offers from several teams,{{Cite news \\|last\\=González \\|first\\=Elvira \\|date\\=30 October 2013 \\|title\\=Cuando Alonso pudo sur Vettel: A finales de Vettel, tras dejar McLaren, el asturiano tenia a Red Bull como primera opción \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=When Alonso could replace Vettel: At the end of Vettel, after leaving McLaren, the Spaniard had Red Bull as the first option \\|page\\=26 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Mundo Deportivo]] \\|url\\=http://hemeroteca.mundodeportivo.com/preview/2013/10/30/pagina\\-26/13038734/pdf.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212183512/http://hemeroteca.mundodeportivo.com/preview/2013/10/30/pagina\\-26/13038734/pdf.html \\|archive\\-date\\=12 December 2019}} he signed a two\\-year contract to rejoin Renault from 2008 because of the manufacturer's long\\-term commitment to F1 and on\\-track record.{{Cite news \\|date\\=11 December 2007 \\|title\\=Alonso dreams of a perfect season \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[RTÉ Sport]] \\|url\\=https://www.rte.ie/sport/motorsport/2007/1211/225752\\-alonsof/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212231905/https://www.rte.ie/sport/motorsport/2007/1211/225752\\-alonsof/ \\|archive\\-date\\=12 December 2019}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=10 December 2007 \\|title\\=Alonso opts for return to Renault \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula\\_one/7136498\\.stm \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805141904/https://secure\\-uk.imrworldwide.com/cgi\\-bin/m?rnd\\=1628173144082\\&ci\\=bbc\\&cg\\=0\\&sr\\=1600x1000\\&ts\\=v51\\.js\\&cd\\=24≶\\=en\\-US\\&je\\=n\\&ck\\=y\\&tz\\=0\\&ct\\=\\&hp\\=\\&tl\\=BBC%20SPORT%20%7C%20Motorsport%20%7C%20Formula%20One%20%7C%20Alonso%20opts%20for%20return%20to%20Renault\\&si\\=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2Fsport2%2Fhi%2Fmotorsport%2Fformula\\_one%2F7136498\\.stm\\&rp\\= \\|archive\\-date\\=5 August 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[BBC Sport]]}} Alonso's car lacked power early on due to an imposed moratorium in development and he scored nine points in the first seven races.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Cary \\|first\\=Tom \\|date\\=23 March 2009 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso: F1 2009 driver profile \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Daily Telegraph]] \\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/motorsport/formulaone/lotus/5007362/Fernando\\-Alonso\\-F1\\-2009\\-driver\\-profile.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|url\\-access\\=limited \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212231944/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/motorsport/formulaone/lotus/5007362/Fernando\\-Alonso\\-F1\\-2009\\-driver\\-profile.html \\|archive\\-date\\=12 December 2019}} He was thereafter able to improve his performance later due to aerodynamic developments to the car's and won in [Singapore](/wiki/2008_Singapore_Grand_Prix \"2008 Singapore Grand Prix\") and [Japan](/wiki/2008_Japanese_Grand_Prix \"2008 Japanese Grand Prix\"); the former race saw Renault order his teammate [Nelson Piquet Jr.](/wiki/Nelson_Piquet_Jr. \"Nelson Piquet Jr.\") to crash deliberately and trigger the deployment of the [safety car](/wiki/Safety_car \"Safety car\") in what became known as \"[crashgate](/wiki/Renault_Formula_One_crash_controversy \"Renault Formula One crash controversy\")\". Alonso scored more points than any other driver in the final five races with 43\\.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Allievi \\|first\\=Pino \\|date\\=27 December 2008 \\|title\\=Top 10 Gazzetta E' Alonso il numero 1 \\|language\\=it \\|trans\\-title\\=Top 10 Gazzetta Alonso is number 1 \\|work\\=\\[\\[La Gazzetta dello Sport]] \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.gazzetta.it//2008/dicembre/27/Top\\_Gazzetta\\_Alonso\\_numero\\_1\\_ga\\_10\\_081227026\\.shtml \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212231938/http://archiviostorico.gazzetta.it//2008/dicembre/27/Top\\_Gazzetta\\_Alonso\\_numero\\_1\\_ga\\_10\\_081227026\\.shtml \\|archive\\-date\\=12 December 2019}} He scored 61 points for fifth in the Drivers' Championship.",
"Alonso was due to become a free agent for {{F1\\|2009}} if Renault were lower than third in the [Constructors' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Constructors%27_Champions \"List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Noble \\|first\\=Jonathan \\|date\\=4 July 2008 \\|title\\=Alonso to decide future after summer \\|url\\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/68815 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708080540/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/68815 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 July 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|website\\=Autosport}} After offers from [Red Bull Racing](/wiki/Red_Bull_Racing \"Red Bull Racing\") and [Honda](/wiki/Honda_in_Formula_One \"Honda in Formula One\"),{{Cite news \\|last\\=Henry \\|first\\=Alan \\|date\\=4 August 2008 \\|title\\=Alonso set for Honda move as staging post to long\\-term Ferrari future \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]] \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2008/aug/04/formulaone.motorsports \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212231929/https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2008/aug/04/formulaone.motorsports \\|archive\\-date\\=12 December 2019}} he re\\-signed to Renault on a two\\-year contract.{{Cite web \\|last\\=English \\|first\\=Steven \\|date\\=5 November 2008 \\|title\\=Renault retain Alonso and Piquet for '09 \\|url\\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/72010 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081108013026/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/72010 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 November 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Autosport]]}} His car proved to be noncompetitive because it lacked a dual diffuser system and outright speed.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Tremayne \\|first\\=David \\|date\\=25 July 2009 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso: 'With all the fights, this may be F1's worst year ever' \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Independent]] \\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/motor\\-racing/fernando\\-alonso\\-with\\-all\\-the\\-fights\\-this\\-may\\-be\\-f1s\\-worst\\-year\\-ever\\-1760567\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=13 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213082110/https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/motor\\-racing/fernando\\-alonso\\-with\\-all\\-the\\-fights\\-this\\-may\\-be\\-f1s\\-worst\\-year\\-ever\\-1760567\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=13 December 2019}} Alonso eschewed an aerodynamic front wing mandated in an attempt to make overtaking more possible since he did not believe it would help him. He scored points in eight races and achieved one podium finish: a third\\-place at the {{F1GP\\|2009\\|Singapore}}.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Drivers: Fernando Alonso \\|url\\=https://www.grandprix.com/gpe/drv\\-alofer.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213082114/https://www.grandprix.com/gpe/drv\\-alofer.html \\|archive\\-date\\=13 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=13 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=GrandPrix.com}} Alonso won pole position for the {{F1GP\\|2009\\|Hungarian}} and led the first 12 laps before he retired following an incorrectly fitted right\\-front wheel.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Caygill \\|first\\=Graham \\|date\\=28 July 2009 \\|title\\=Renault to fight race ban \\|work\\=\\[\\[The National (Abu Dhabi)\\|The National]] \\|url\\=https://www.thenational.ae/sport/other\\-sport/renault\\-to\\-fight\\-race\\-ban\\-1\\.529118 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=13 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213082113/https://www.thenational.ae/sport/other\\-sport/renault\\-to\\-fight\\-race\\-ban\\-1\\.529118 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 December 2019}} Alonso was ninth in the Drivers' Championship with 26 points, his lowest placing since he came sixth in 2003; he maintained his reputation as one of F1's best drivers.",
"#### Ferrari (2010–2014\\)",
"[thumb\\|Alonso won on his debut with Ferrari at the [2010 Bahrain Grand Prix](/wiki/2010_Bahrain_Grand_Prix \"2010 Bahrain Grand Prix\").](/wiki/File:Ferrari_Bahrain_2010.jpg \"Ferrari Bahrain 2010.jpg\")\nAlonso agreed with Ferrari president [Luca Cordero di Montezemolo](/wiki/Luca_Cordero_di_Montezemolo \"Luca Cordero di Montezemolo\") to drive for Ferrari in 2009, but team principal [Jean Todt](/wiki/Jean_Todt \"Jean Todt\") extended the contracts of both [Felipe Massa](/wiki/Felipe_Massa \"Felipe Massa\") and Räikkönen to {{F1\\|2010}}.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Knutson \\|first\\=Dan \\|date\\=11 November 2009 \\|title\\=Forza Fernando! \\|journal\\=Auto Action \\|issue\\=1365 \\|pages\\=24–26 \\|issn\\=1320\\-2073}} Alonso obtained a mid\\-2009 agreement to drive for Ferrari from {{F1\\|2011}} on but it was moved to 2010 after Renault were investigated for race fixing in Singapore and Räikkönen was released from the team.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Allen \\|first\\=James \\|date\\=1 October 2009 \\|title\\=Raikkonen and Domenicali differ on reasons why he was dropped \\|url\\=http://www.jamesallenonf1\\.com/2009/10/raikkonen\\-and\\-domenicali\\-differ\\-on\\-reasons\\-why\\-he\\-was\\-dropped/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111115201957/http://www.jamesallenonf1\\.com/2009/10/raikkonen\\-and\\-domenicali\\-differ\\-on\\-reasons\\-why\\-he\\-was\\-dropped/ \\|archive\\-date\\=15 November 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=13 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=James Allen on F1}} McLaren's Hamilton and Button and Red Bull's of [Sebastian Vettel](/wiki/Sebastian_Vettel \"Sebastian Vettel\") and [Mark Webber](/wiki/Mark_Webber_%28racing_driver%29 \"Mark Webber (racing driver)\") were Alonso's main championship competition.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Holt \\|first\\=Sarah \\|date\\=23 September 2010 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso is main threat – Lewis Hamilton \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula\\_one/9027425\\.stm \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924044759/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/motorsport/formula\\_one/9027425\\.stm \\|archive\\-date\\=24 September 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=13 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport}} He won five races that season and entered the season\\-ending {{F1 GP\\|2010\\|Abu Dhabi}} leading by eight points after being 47 behind mid\\-season following errors. Alonso finished runner\\-up to Vettel after finishing seventh thereby losing 19 points to Vettel who won the race.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/88264\\|first\\=Simon\\|last\\=Strang\\|title\\=Defeated Alonso defends pit strategy\\|work\\=autosport.com\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Haymarket Group\\|Haymarket Publications]]\\|date\\=14 November 2010\\|access\\-date\\=19 November 2010\\|archive\\-date\\=17 November 2010\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101117131913/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/88264\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"His 2011 season was mixed: his car was built conservatively and lacked aerodynamic grip and tyre handling in qualifying.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Cooper \\|first\\=Adam \\|date\\=February 2012 \\|title\\=Putting it all on red: has Fernando Alonso taken a reckless gamble by committing to Ferrari through 2017? Or is the Prancing Horse finally ready to fight the Red Bulls? \\|url\\=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A278510102/GPS?u\\=wikipedia\\&sid\\=GPS\\&xid\\=1c0d42e2 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Racer (magazine)\\|Racer]] \\|pages\\=36–38 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805141858/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p\\=GPS\\&u\\=wikipedia\\&id\\=GALE%7CA278510102\\&v\\=2\\.1\\=r\\&sid\\=GPS\\&asid\\=1c0d42e2 \\|archive\\-date\\=5 August 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=19 December 2019 \\|via\\=Gale In Context: Biography}} He extracted additional pace from his car to claim ten podium finishes and win the {{F1GP\\|2011\\|British}} after a strategy error from Red Bull. His best qualification of the year was a second at the {{F1GP\\|2011\\|Canadian}} and he out\\-qualified his teammate Massa fifteen times over the course of the season. Alonso was fourth overall with 257 points; he was in contention to finish second to eventual champion Vettel following a series of strong finishes until Webber won the season\\-ending {{F1GP\\|2011\\|Brazilian}}.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Collantine \\|first\\=Keith \\|date\\=16 December 2011 \\|title\\=2011 F1 driver rankings no.2: Fernando Alonso \\|url\\=https://www.racefans.net/2011/12/16/2011\\-f1\\-driver\\-rankings\\-no2\\-fernando\\-alonso/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805141945/https://www.racefans.net/2011/12/16/2011\\-f1\\-driver\\-rankings\\-no2\\-fernando\\-alonso/ \\|archive\\-date\\=5 August 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=18 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=RaceFans}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Alonso at the [2012 German Grand Prix](/wiki/2012_German_Grand_Prix \"2012 German Grand Prix\")](/wiki/File:2012_German_Grand_Prix_Fernando_Alonso.jpg \"2012 German Grand Prix Fernando Alonso.jpg\")\nAhead of {{F1\\|2012}}, Alonso extended his contract with Ferrari until {{F1\\|2016}}.{{Cite news \\|date\\=19 May 2011 \\|title\\=Alonso staying with Ferrari until 2016 \\|publisher\\=CNN \\|url\\=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/SPORT/motorsport/05/19/motorsport.ferrari.alonso.contract/index.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=19 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219095124/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/SPORT/motorsport/05/19/motorsport.ferrari.alonso.contract/index.html \\|archive\\-date\\=19 December 2019}} His main competition for the title in 2012 was Vettel.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Spurgeon \\|first\\=Brad \\|date\\=23 November 2012 \\|title\\=The Crown Awaits: Vettel or Alonso? \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/24/sports/autoracing/24iht\\-srf1prix24\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=19 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219150236/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/24/sports/autoracing/24iht\\-srf1prix24\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=19 December 2019}} Wins in [Malaysia](/wiki/2012_Malaysian_Grand_Prix \"2012 Malaysian Grand Prix\"), [Valencia](/wiki/2012_European_Grand_Prix \"2012 European Grand Prix\") and [Germany](/wiki/2012_German_Grand_Prix \"2012 German Grand Prix\") and consistent points\\-scoring finishes allowed him to build a 40\\-point lead in the Drivers' Championship. Thereafter start\\-line collisions, a mechanical failure and an improved performance for Vettel eliminated Alonso's points lead.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Benson \\|first\\=Andrew \\|date\\=13 November 2012 \\|title\\=Would Vettel or Alonso be more deserving champion? \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/andrewbenson/2012/11/benson.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521143813/https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/andrewbenson/2012/11/benson.html \\|archive\\-date\\=21 May 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=19 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Salisbury \\|first\\=Matt \\|date\\=27 November 2012 \\|title\\=How Vettel beat Alonso to the 2012 title \\|url\\=https://www.crash.net/f1/feature/186485/1/how\\-vettel\\-beat\\-alonso\\-to\\-the\\-2012\\-title\\-pt1 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219150244/https://www.crash.net/f1/feature/186485/1/how\\-vettel\\-beat\\-alonso\\-to\\-the\\-2012\\-title\\-pt1 \\|archive\\-date\\=19 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=19 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=Crash \\|pages\\=\\[https://www.crash.net/f1/feature/186485/1/how\\-vettel\\-beat\\-alonso\\-to\\-the\\-2012\\-title\\-pt1 page 1] \\& \\[https://www.crash.net/f1/feature/186486/1/how\\-vettel\\-beat\\-alonso\\-to\\-the\\-2012\\-title\\-pt2 page 2]}} Alonso entered the season\\-ending {{F1GP\\|2012\\|Brazilian}} 13 points behind Vettel and needed to finish third and for Vettel not to score points for a third championship. He was second and Vettel finished fourth, despite spinning on the opening lap, resigning Alonso to be runner\\-up for the second time in his career on 278 points.",
"To begin {{F1\\|2013}}, Alonso drove an aggressively designed car allowing him to win in [China](/wiki/2013_Chinese_Grand_Prix \"2013 Chinese Grand Prix\") and [Spain](/wiki/2013_Spanish_Grand_Prix \"2013 Spanish Grand Prix\") and consistently scored points.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Straw \\|first\\=Edd \\|date\\=12 December 2013 \\|title\\=Alonso and Ferrari's season of discontent \\|url\\=http://porschecarshistory.com/wp\\-content/old/lib/magazines/autosport/2013/12/AS2013\\.12\\.12\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|journal\\=Autosport \\|volume\\=214 \\|issue\\=11 \\|pages\\=52–54 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219204346/http://porschecarshistory.com/wp\\-content/old/lib/magazines/autosport/2013/12/AS2013\\.12\\.12\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=19 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=19 December 2019}} He was slower than Vettel after a change of tyre compound at the {{F1GP\\|2013\\|German}} and front and rear bodywork components intended to improve his car's performance were ineffective.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Estrada \\|first\\=Chris \\|date\\=2 December 2013 \\|title\\=Ecclestone: Fernando Alonso \"gave up a little bit\" in 2013 \\|url\\=https://motorsports.nbcsports.com/2013/12/02/ecclestone\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-gave\\-up\\-a\\-little\\-bit\\-in\\-2013/comment\\-page\\-1/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220091505/https://motorsports.nbcsports.com/2013/12/02/ecclestone\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-gave\\-up\\-a\\-little\\-bit\\-in\\-2013/comment\\-page\\-1/ \\|archive\\-date\\=20 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=20 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NBC Sports]]}} With 242 points, Alonso was second for the third time in his career. His relationship with Ferrari cooled due to his perception the team could not construct a title\\-winning car.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Benson \\|first\\=Andrew \\|date\\=19 November 2018 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso: The Ferrari years and the championships that got away \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/46228877 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926080949/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/46228877 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 September 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=20 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport}}",
"Alonso's 2014 season saw him achieve no race wins because his car was less powerful than the championship\\-winning [Mercedes](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_in_Formula_One \"Mercedes-Benz in Formula One\") but took third in the {{F1GP\\|2014\\|Chinese}} and second in the {{F1 GP\\|2014\\|Hungarian}}. Alonso fell to sixth in the Drivers' Championship with 161 points. He qualified faster than his teammate Räikkönen 16 times by an average of more than {{frac\\|1\\|2}} second per lap in 2014\\.",
"#### Return to McLaren (2015–2019\\)",
"Alonso had severe disagreements with team principal [Marco Mattiacci](/wiki/Marco_Mattiacci \"Marco Mattiacci\") in 2014 and left Ferrari after contract negotiations to remain at the team fell through. He rejoined McLaren on a three\\-year contract from {{F1\\|2015}} to {{F1\\|2017}} with no opt\\-out clauses.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Gill \\|first\\=Pete \\|date\\=1 May 2015 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso signed three\\-year McLaren deal, reveals Ron Dennis \\|url\\=https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24184/9831212/fernando\\-alonso\\-signed\\-three\\-year\\-mclaren\\-deal\\-reveals\\-ron\\-dennis \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221120332/https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24184/9831212/fernando\\-alonso\\-signed\\-three\\-year\\-mclaren\\-deal\\-reveals\\-ron\\-dennis \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Sky Sports]]}} An accident during a pre\\-season test session at Spain's [Circuit de Barcelona\\-Catalunya](/wiki/Circuit_de_Barcelona-Catalunya \"Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya\") in February 2015 saw Alonso sustain a concussion and he was replaced by reserve driver [Kevin Magnussen](/wiki/Kevin_Magnussen \"Kevin Magnussen\") for the season\\-opening {{F1 GP\\|2015\\|Australian}}.{{Cite news \\|date\\=3 March 2015 \\|title\\=McLaren driver Fernando Alonso to miss Formula One's season\\-opening Australian GP \\|work\\=\\[\\[The National (Abu Dhabi)\\|The National]] \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Agence France\\-Presse]] \\|url\\=https://www.thenational.ae/sport/other\\-sport/mclaren\\-driver\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-to\\-miss\\-formula\\-one\\-s\\-season\\-opening\\-australian\\-gp\\-1\\.4524 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221120332/https://www.thenational.ae/sport/other\\-sport/mclaren\\-driver\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-to\\-miss\\-formula\\-one\\-s\\-season\\-opening\\-australian\\-gp\\-1\\.4524 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2019}} He endured a difficult season: his car's [Honda](/wiki/Honda_in_Formula_One \"Honda in Formula One\") engine was under\\-powered and overall speed leaving him vulnerable to being passed.{{cite news \\|last\\=Finnerty \\|first\\=Joe \\|date\\=18 March 2016 \\|title\\=McLaren\\-Honda bidding to launch revival at Australian Grand Prix \\|publisher\\=Surrey Live \\|url\\=https://www.getsurrey.co.uk/sport/other\\-sport/motorsport/mclaren\\-honda\\-bidding\\-launch\\-revival\\-11057872 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221150206/https://www.getsurrey.co.uk/sport/other\\-sport/motorsport/mclaren\\-honda\\-bidding\\-launch\\-revival\\-11057872 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2019}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Benson \\|first\\=Andrew \\|date\\=18 March 2015 \\|title\\=McLaren: could one of F1's top teams struggle for years? \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/31942251 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221150404/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/31942251 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|website\\=BBC News}} Alonso scored points twice in 2015: a tenth in the {{F1GP\\|2015\\|British}} and a fifth in the {{F1GP\\|2015\\|Hungarian}} for 17th in the Drivers' Championship with 11 points. He was dissatisfied with a slow pace, which became evident after multiple radio complaints that year.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Douglas \\|first\\=Steve \\|date\\=8 June 2015 \\|title\\='Amateur' outburst exposes Alonso's frustration at McLaren \\|work\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]] \\|url\\=https://apnews.com/2add772049a94ab5ae7f87fa7453e567 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221150203/https://apnews.com/2add772049a94ab5ae7f87fa7453e567 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2019}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Saunders \\|first\\=Nate \\|date\\=27 September 2015 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso fumes at Honda's 'GP2 engine' at Suzuka \\|url\\=https://www.espn.co.uk/f1/story/\\_/id/13751402/mclaren\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-fumes\\-honda\\-gp2\\-engine\\-suzuka \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221150206/https://www.espn.co.uk/f1/story/\\_/id/13751402/mclaren\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-fumes\\-honda\\-gp2\\-engine\\-suzuka \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=ESPN}}",
"[thumb\\|Alonso at the [2016 Monaco Grand Prix](/wiki/2016_Monaco_Grand_Prix \"2016 Monaco Grand Prix\")](/wiki/File:Alonso_Monaco_2016.jpg \"Alonso Monaco 2016.jpg\")\nDespite the unreliable and noncompetitive car,{{Cite news \\|last\\=Baldwin \\|first\\=Alan \\|date\\=28 November 2015 \\|title\\=Alonso could take a sabbatical in 2016, says Dennis \\|work\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\|editor\\-last\\=Palmer \\|editor\\-first\\=Justin \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/motor\\-racing\\-prix\\-alonso/alonso\\-could\\-take\\-a\\-sabbatical\\-in\\-2016\\-says\\-dennis\\-idINKBN0TH0D620151128 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221163856/https://www.reuters.com/article/motor\\-racing\\-prix\\-alonso/alonso\\-could\\-take\\-a\\-sabbatical\\-in\\-2016\\-says\\-dennis\\-idINKBN0TH0D620151128 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2019}} Alonso remained with McLaren for {{F1\\|2016}}.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Barretto \\|first\\=Lawrence \\|date\\=4 December 2015 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso committed to racing for McLaren in F1 in 2016 \\|url\\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/122139/alonso\\-committed\\-to\\-racing\\-in\\-2016 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221163902/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/122139/alonso\\-committed\\-to\\-racing\\-in\\-2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|website\\=Autosport}} Injuries from a heavy crash with [Esteban Gutiérrez](/wiki/Esteban_Guti%C3%A9rrez \"Esteban Gutiérrez\") at the season\\-opening {{F1GP\\|2016\\|Australian}} caused him to miss the {{F1GP\\|2016\\|Bahrain}} on medical grounds and was replaced by reserve driver [Stoffel Vandoorne](/wiki/Stoffel_Vandoorne \"Stoffel Vandoorne\").{{Cite news \\|last\\=Johnson \\|first\\=Daniel \\|date\\=31 March 2016 \\|title\\=Doctors order Fernando Alonso to miss Bahrain Grand Prix \\|work\\=The Daily Telegraph \\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/formula\\-1/2016/03/31/fernando\\-alonso\\-out\\-of\\-bahrain\\-grand\\-prix\\-with\\-crash\\-injuries/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221203222/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/formula\\-1/2016/03/31/fernando\\-alonso\\-out\\-of\\-bahrain\\-grand\\-prix\\-with\\-crash\\-injuries/ \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2019}} He qualified better than teammate Button fifteen times and scored points nine times, which included two fifth\\-place finishes in the {{F1 GP\\|2016\\|Monaco}} and the {{F1 GP\\|2016\\|United States}}. He was tenth in the Drivers' Championship with 54 points.",
"Alonso stayed at McLaren in {{F1\\|2017}},{{Cite web \\|last\\=Barretto \\|first\\=Lawrence \\|date\\=13 December 2016 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso tells McLaren staff he's staying in 2017 \\|url\\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/127483/alonso\\-tells\\-mclaren\\-staff\\-he\\-staying \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221203223/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/127483/alonso\\-tells\\-mclaren\\-staff\\-he\\-staying \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|website\\=Autosport}} but poor reliability affected his season, particularly during the early rounds, and his best finish was a sixth place in the {{F1 GP\\|2017\\|Hungarian}}. After three consecutive top\\-ten finishes, Alonso finished 15th in the Drivers' Championship with 17 points.",
"[thumb\\|Alonso at the [2018 Austrian Grand Prix](/wiki/2018_Austrian_Grand_Prix \"2018 Austrian Grand Prix\")](/wiki/File:FIA_F1_Austria_2018_Nr._14_Alonso.jpg \"FIA F1 Austria 2018 Nr. 14 Alonso.jpg\")\nFollowing contract negotiations with the McLaren CEO [Zak Brown](/wiki/Zak_Brown \"Zak Brown\"),{{Cite news \\|last\\=Smith \\|first\\=Luke \\|date\\=13 January 2017 \\|title\\=McLaren planning to open Alonso F1 contract talks 'a few races into the year' \\|newspaper\\=Motorsportstalk {{pipe}} NBC Sports \\|url\\=https://motorsports.nbcsports.com/2017/01/13/mclaren\\-planning\\-to\\-open\\-alonso\\-f1\\-contract\\-talks\\-a\\-few\\-races\\-into\\-the\\-year/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222144832/https://motorsports.nbcsports.com/2017/01/13/mclaren\\-planning\\-to\\-open\\-alonso\\-f1\\-contract\\-talks\\-a\\-few\\-races\\-into\\-the\\-year/ \\|archive\\-date\\=22 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=22 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=NBC Sports}} Alonso signed a multi\\-year extension with McLaren on 19 October 2017\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Elizade \\|first\\=Pablo \\|date\\=19 October 2017 \\|title\\=Alonso says new McLaren deal is \"long\\-term\" \\|url\\=https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/alonso\\-says\\-new\\-mclaren\\-deal\\-is\\-long\\-term\\-967418/3052959/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222144831/https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/alonso\\-says\\-new\\-mclaren\\-deal\\-is\\-long\\-term\\-967418/3052959/ \\|archive\\-date\\=22 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=22 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Motorsport.com]]}} He finished fifth at the season\\-opening 2018 {{F1GP\\|2018\\|Australian}} and took nine top\\-ten finishes. Alonso out\\-qualified his teammate Stoffel Vandoorne at every race and drove quickly and aggressively. He became increasingly annoyed with certain drivers and his commitment to F1 waned after McLaren stopped developing their car to focus on {{F1\\|2019}}.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Alonso will not race in Formula 1 in 2019 \\|url\\=https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/alonso\\-will\\-not\\-race\\-in\\-formula\\-1\\-in\\-2019/3158671/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203215505/https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/alonso\\-will\\-not\\-race\\-in\\-formula\\-1\\-in\\-2019/3158671/ \\|archive\\-date\\=3 February 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=8 February 2020 \\|website\\=www.motorsport.com \\|date\\=14 August 2018 \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Collantine \\|first\\=Keith \\|date\\=17 December 2018 \\|title\\=2018 F1 driver rankings \\#4: Alonso \\|url\\=https://www.racefans.net/2018/12/17/2018\\-f1\\-driver\\-rankings\\-4\\-alonso/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805141959/https://www.racefans.net/2018/12/17/2018\\-f1\\-driver\\-rankings\\-4\\-alonso/ \\|archive\\-date\\=5 August 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=22 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=RaceFans}} Alonso was 11th in the Drivers' Championship with 50 points, and left the sport as a driver at the end of the 2018 season, citing a perceived lack of on\\-track racing, the predictability of results and felt discussions away from racing about the broadcast of radio transmissions and polemics harmed the series.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Straw \\|first\\=Edd \\|date\\=23 August 2018 \\|title\\=Why Alonso is leaving Formula 1 \\|url\\=https://www.pressreader.com/uk/autosport\\-uk/20180823/281621011187929 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|journal\\=Autosport \\|pages\\=16–22 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222204116/https://www.pressreader.com/uk/autosport\\-uk/20180823/281621011187929 \\|archive\\-date\\=22 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=22 December 2019}}",
"He remained at McLaren as a brand ambassador to aid and advise drivers and drove in select test sessions to develop their cars. Alonso drove the [MCL34](/wiki/McLaren_MCL34 \"McLaren MCL34\") during a two\\-day in\\-season post\\-race Bahrain test in April 2019 to develop tyres for Pirelli.{{Cite web \\|date\\=28 March 2019 \\|title\\=Alonso to make F1 return in post\\-race Bahrain test \\|url\\=https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\\-to\\-make\\-f1\\-return\\-at\\-post\\-race\\-bahrain\\-test.7FpcdVdbZtd70nC1h3Fepa.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331103944/https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\\-to\\-make\\-f1\\-return\\-at\\-post\\-race\\-bahrain\\-test.7FpcdVdbZtd70nC1h3Fepa.html \\|archive\\-date\\=31 March 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=7 April 2019 \\|publisher\\=Formula One}} No further runs were planned for him and McLaren focused on their current drivers.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Larkham \\|first\\=Lewis \\|date\\=23 June 2019 \\|title\\=McLaren has no more F1 runs planned for Alonso \\|url\\=https://www.crash.net/f1/news/923639/1/mclaren\\-has\\-no\\-more\\-f1\\-runs\\-planned\\-alonso \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813083215/https://www.crash.net/f1/news/923639/1/mclaren\\-has\\-no\\-more\\-f1\\-runs\\-planned\\-alonso \\|archive\\-date\\=13 August 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=28 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=Crash}} Alonso's ambassador contract with McLaren expired at the end of 2019, and was not renewed for 2020\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Noble \\|first\\=Jonathan \\|date\\=20 January 2020 \\|title\\=Alonso no longer a McLaren ambassador \\|url\\=https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/alonso\\-ends\\-mclaren\\-relationship\\-ambassador/4665379/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200121190019/https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/alonso\\-ends\\-mclaren\\-relationship\\-ambassador/4665379/ \\|archive\\-date\\=21 January 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=20 January 2020 \\|publisher\\=Motorsport.com}}",
"#### Alpine (2021–2022\\)",
"[thumb\\|Alonso at the [2021 Austrian Grand Prix](/wiki/2021_Austrian_Grand_Prix \"2021 Austrian Grand Prix\"), upon his return to Formula One](/wiki/File:FIA_F1_Austria_2021_Nr._14_Alonso.jpg \"FIA F1 Austria 2021 Nr. 14 Alonso.jpg\")\nAlonso was signed to drive for [Alpine F1 Team](/wiki/Alpine_F1_Team \"Alpine F1 Team\") for the {{F1\\|2021}} season,{{Cite web \\|last\\=Balseiro \\|first\\=Jesús \\|date\\=7 July 2020 \\|title\\=Alonso está de vuelta \\|trans\\-title\\=Alonso is back \\|url\\=https://as.com/motor/2020/07/07/formula\\_1/1594121714\\_805810\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031055134/https://as.com/motor/2020/07/07/formula\\_1/1594121714\\_805810\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=31 October 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=28 July 2020 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Diario AS]] \\|language\\=es}} alongside [Esteban Ocon](/wiki/Esteban_Ocon \"Esteban Ocon\"), with Renault having rebranded the team under its new name. In preparation for his F1 return, Alonso performed four testing days driving the [Renault R.S.18](/wiki/Renault_R.S.18 \"Renault R.S.18\") and was quickest in the post\\-2020 season young driver's test driving the [Renault R.S.20](/wiki/Renault_R.S.20 \"Renault R.S.20\") for Renault.{{Cite web \\|date\\=13 October 2020 \\|title\\=Alonso says 'it's like a new beginning' as he gets first taste of 2020 Renault in Barcelona test \\|url\\=https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\\-says\\-its\\-like\\-a\\-new\\-beginning\\-as\\-he\\-gets\\-first\\-taste\\-of\\-2020\\-renault.7f9tTX9yyqCVfCtEbwxgcG.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124210029/https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\\-says\\-its\\-like\\-a\\-new\\-beginning\\-as\\-he\\-gets\\-first\\-taste\\-of\\-2020\\-renault.7f9tTX9yyqCVfCtEbwxgcG.html \\|archive\\-date\\=24 January 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=13 October 2020 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Formula1\\.com]]}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Morlidge \\|first\\=Matt \\|date\\=15 December 2020 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso tops 'young driver test' for Renault on F1 2020's last day \\|url\\=https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12433/12162529/fernando\\-alonso\\-tops\\-young\\-driver\\-test\\-for\\-renault\\-on\\-f1\\-2020s\\-last\\-day \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526030231/https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12433/12162529/fernando\\-alonso\\-tops\\-young\\-driver\\-test\\-for\\-renault\\-on\\-f1\\-2020s\\-last\\-day \\|archive\\-date\\=26 May 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=15 February 2021 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Sky Sports]] \\|language\\=en}} In his first race with Alpine at the [2021 Bahrain Grand Prix](/wiki/2021_Bahrain_Grand_Prix \"2021 Bahrain Grand Prix\"), Alonso was forced to retire after plastic debris entered his brake duct.{{Cite web \\|date\\=28 March 2021 \\|title\\=Alonso says debris caused brake failure that curtailed 'fun' Formula 1 return \\|url\\=https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\\-says\\-debris\\-caused\\-brake\\-failure\\-that\\-curtailed\\-fun\\-formula\\-1\\-return.5X4ZVDFmtdlZwiUjTsICKO.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506171956/https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\\-says\\-debris\\-caused\\-brake\\-failure\\-that\\-curtailed\\-fun\\-formula\\-1\\-return.5X4ZVDFmtdlZwiUjTsICKO.html \\|archive\\-date\\=6 May 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=12 April 2021 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Formula1\\.com]] \\|language\\=en}} At the [2021 Emilia Romagna Grand Prix](/wiki/2021_Emilia_Romagna_Grand_Prix \"2021 Emilia Romagna Grand Prix\") he finished in 11th after qualifying 15th,{{Cite web \\|last\\=Smith \\|first\\=Luke \\|date\\=17 April 2021 \\|title\\=Alonso: Lack of trust in Alpine F1 car costly at old\\-school Imola \\|url\\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/alonso\\-lack\\-of\\-trust\\-in\\-alpine\\-car\\-costly\\-at\\-old\\-school\\-imola/6314107/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506164000/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/alonso\\-lack\\-of\\-trust\\-in\\-alpine\\-car\\-costly\\-at\\-old\\-school\\-imola/6314107/ \\|archive\\-date\\=6 May 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=29 April 2021 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Autosport]] \\|language\\=en}} with teammate Ocon finishing ahead in tenth, but both were upgraded one position after [Kimi Räikkönen](/wiki/Kimi_R%C3%A4ikk%C3%B6nen \"Kimi Räikkönen\") was penalised, giving Alonso his first points of the season.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Howard \\|first\\=Tom \\|date\\=18 April 2021 \\|title\\=Raikkonen loses points after post\\-race penalty at Imola \\|url\\=https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/raikkonen\\-loses\\-points\\-after\\-post\\-race\\-imola\\-penalty/6334393/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210525021858/https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/raikkonen\\-loses\\-points\\-after\\-post\\-race\\-imola\\-penalty/6334393/ \\|archive\\-date\\=25 May 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=29 April 2021 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Motorsport.com]] \\|language\\=en}}",
"In [Hungary](/wiki/2021_Hungarian_Grand_Prix \"2021 Hungarian Grand Prix\"), Alonso temporarily led the race before he made a pit stop and fell to fourth, ahead of [Lewis Hamilton](/wiki/Lewis_Hamilton \"Lewis Hamilton\"). Teammate Ocon credited Alonso's defence against Hamilton with enabling him to achieve his first race victory.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Smith \\|first\\=Luke \\|date\\=2 August 2021 \\|title\\=Ocon credits Alonso for role in shock Hungary F1 race victory \\|url\\=https://au.motorsport.com/f1/news/ocon\\-credits\\-alonso\\-for\\-role\\-in\\-shock\\-hungary\\-f1\\-race\\-victory/6640589/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210802085918/https://au.motorsport.com/f1/news/ocon\\-credits\\-alonso\\-for\\-role\\-in\\-shock\\-hungary\\-f1\\-race\\-victory/6640589/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2 August 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=2 August 2021 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Motorsport.com]] \\|language\\=en}} In August 2021, Alonso invoked an option to extend his contract for the {{F1\\|2022}} season.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Galloway \\|first\\=James \\|date\\=26 August 2021 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso extends Formula 1 return into 2022 season with Alpine as contract confirmed \\|url\\=https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24184/12390884/fernando\\-alonso\\-extends\\-formula\\-1\\-return\\-into\\-2022\\-season\\-with\\-alpine\\-as\\-contract\\-confirmed \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210826223228/https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24184/12390884/fernando\\-alonso\\-extends\\-formula\\-1\\-return\\-into\\-2022\\-season\\-with\\-alpine\\-as\\-contract\\-confirmed \\|archive\\-date\\=26 August 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=26 August 2021 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Sky Sports]]}} Alonso scored points in multiple races following the summer break, finishing sixth in the [Netherlands](/wiki/2021_Dutch_Grand_Prix \"2021 Dutch Grand Prix\"),{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.gpfans.com/en/f1\\-news/69385/why\\-alonso\\-was\\-thinking\\-of\\-the\\-worst\\-during\\-charge\\-to\\-sixth/\\|title\\=Why Alonso was \"thinking of the worst\" during charge to sixth\\|date\\=5 September 2021\\|access\\-date\\=26 September 2021\\|first\\=Ewan\\|last\\=Gale\\|website\\=GP Fans\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927173709/https://www.gpfans.com/en/f1\\-news/69385/why\\-alonso\\-was\\-thinking\\-of\\-the\\-worst\\-during\\-charge\\-to\\-sixth/ \\|archive\\-date\\=27 September 2021}} eighth in [Italy](/wiki/2021_Italian_Grand_Prix \"2021 Italian Grand Prix\"),{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\\-pleased\\-with\\-alpines\\-points\\-at\\-monza\\-after\\-uncompetitive\\-start\\-to.6BsFj4MfI8xJX7OMQLxZHo.html\\|title\\=Alonso pleased with Alpine's points at Monza after 'uncompetitive' start to weekend\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917070706/https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\\-pleased\\-with\\-alpines\\-points\\-at\\-monza\\-after\\-uncompetitive\\-start\\-to.6BsFj4MfI8xJX7OMQLxZHo.html\\|archive\\-date\\=17 September 2021\\|access\\-date\\=26 September 2021\\|website\\=\\[\\[Formula1\\.com]]\\|date\\=16 September 2021}} sixth in [Russia](/wiki/2021_Russian_Grand_Prix \"2021 Russian Grand Prix\"), having run in third in Russia before being forced to pit under wet conditions,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.racefans.net/2021/09/26/we\\-never\\-get\\-lucky\\-rues\\-alonso\\-after\\-losing\\-podium\\-finish/\\|title\\=\"We never get lucky\" rues Alonso after losing podium finish\\|date\\=26 September 2021\\|first\\=Keith\\|last\\=Collantine\\|website\\=RaceFans.net\\|access\\-date\\=26 September 2021\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927174020/https://www.racefans.net/2021/09/26/we\\-never\\-get\\-lucky\\-rues\\-alonso\\-after\\-losing\\-podium\\-finish/\\|archive\\-date\\=27 September 2021}} and third in [Qatar](/wiki/2021_Qatar_Grand_Prix \"2021 Qatar Grand Prix\"). His third\\-place finish at [Qatar](/wiki/2021_Qatar_Grand_Prix \"2021 Qatar Grand Prix\") was his first podium finish since the [2014 Hungarian Grand Prix](/wiki/2014_Hungarian_Grand_Prix \"2014 Hungarian Grand Prix\").",
"For the [2022 season](/wiki/2022_Formula_One_World_Championship \"2022 Formula One World Championship\"), Alonso remained with Alpine.{{cite web \\|date\\=10 March 2022 \\|title\\=2022 FIA Formula One World Championship – Entry List \\|url\\=https://www.fia.com/events/fia\\-formula\\-one\\-world\\-championship/season\\-2022/2022\\-fia\\-formula\\-one\\-world\\-championship\\-entry \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220114204626/https://www.fia.com/events/fia\\-formula\\-one\\-world\\-championship/season\\-2022/2022\\-fia\\-formula\\-one\\-world\\-championship\\-entry \\|archive\\-date\\=14 January 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=10 March 2022 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]]}} Alonso achieved his highest start driving for Alpine during wet qualifying for the [Canadian Grand Prix](/wiki/2022_Canadian_Grand_Prix \"2022 Canadian Grand Prix\"), starting in second, but had to endure questionable strategies and an engine issue that developed during the race. He dropped down to seventh, and furthermore, received a post\\-race time penalty that dropped him down to ninth.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Benson \\|first\\=Andrew \\|date\\=2022\\-06\\-19 \\|title\\=Verstappen holds off Sainz to win in Canada \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|work\\=BBC Sport \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/formula1/61860298 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-21 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 June 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621172133/https://www.bbc.com/sport/formula1/61860298 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"#### Aston Martin (2023–)",
"Alonso joined [Aston Martin](/wiki/Aston_Martin_in_Formula_One \"Aston Martin in Formula One\") on a multi\\-year deal in {{F1\\|2023}} alongside [Lance Stroll](/wiki/Lance_Stroll \"Lance Stroll\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=1 August 2022 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso signs to Aston Martin for 2023 on multi\\-year contract \\|url\\=https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.breaking\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-signs\\-to\\-aston\\-martin\\-for\\-2023\\-on\\-multi\\-year.1i8QwJht5v7dBCWFCcrqml.html \\|access\\-date\\=2 August 2022 \\|website\\=Formula1 \\|archive\\-date\\=1 August 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220801083548/https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.breaking\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-signs\\-to\\-aston\\-martin\\-for\\-2023\\-on\\-multi\\-year.1i8QwJht5v7dBCWFCcrqml.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} He joined the team because he wanted a multi\\-year contract extension, and Alpine was only willing to give him one more year in F1\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=1 August 2022 \\|title\\=Alpine thought it could treat Alonso as Piastri's seat\\-warmer \\|url\\=https://the\\-race.com/formula\\-1/alpine\\-thought\\-it\\-could\\-treat\\-alonso\\-as\\-piastris\\-seat\\-warmer/ \\|access\\-date\\=16 October 2022 \\|website\\=The Race \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|archive\\-date\\=16 October 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221016202427/https://the\\-race.com/formula\\-1/alpine\\-thought\\-it\\-could\\-treat\\-alonso\\-as\\-piastris\\-seat\\-warmer/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"[thumb\\|Alonso at the [2023 Austrian Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_Austrian_Grand_Prix \"2023 Austrian Grand Prix\"), with [Aston Martin](/wiki/Aston_Martin_in_Formula_One \"Aston Martin in Formula One\")](/wiki/File:FIA_F1_Austria_2023_Nr._14_%281%29.jpg \"FIA F1 Austria 2023 Nr. 14 (1).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Alonso at the [2024 Chinese Grand Prix](/wiki/2024_Chinese_Grand_Prix \"2024 Chinese Grand Prix\"), with [Aston Martin](/wiki/Aston_Martin_in_Formula_One \"Aston Martin in Formula One\")](/wiki/File:Fernando_Alonso_2024_Chinese_GP.jpg \"Fernando Alonso 2024 Chinese GP.jpg\")\nOn his Aston Martin debut at the [2023 Bahrain Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_Bahrain_Grand_Prix \"2023 Bahrain Grand Prix\"), Alonso, benefitting from the much\\-improved machinery of the [Aston Martin AMR23](/wiki/Aston_Martin_AMR23 \"Aston Martin AMR23\"), recovered from a first\\-lap contact with his teammate [Lance Stroll](/wiki/Lance_Stroll \"Lance Stroll\") without any damage and went on to finish in 3rd place, securing a podium finish and Aston's first since [Sebastian Vettel](/wiki/Sebastian_Vettel \"Sebastian Vettel\")'s podium at the [2021 Azerbaijan Grand Prix](/wiki/2021_Azerbaijan_Grand_Prix \"2021 Azerbaijan Grand Prix\") (the German would finish second at the [2021 Hungarian Grand Prix](/wiki/2021_Hungarian_Grand_Prix \"2021 Hungarian Grand Prix\") but would be disqualified due to insufficient fuel sample).{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Das \\|first1\\=Andrew \\|last2\\=Katz \\|first2\\=Josh \\|date\\=5 March 2023 \\|title\\=Verstappen Runs Away With Formula 1 Opener \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/05/sports/autoracing/formula\\-1\\-race\\-bahrain.html \\|access\\-date\\=5 March 2023 \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331 \\|archive\\-date\\=5 March 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305101256/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/05/sports/autoracing/formula\\-1\\-race\\-bahrain.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Despite having to serve a penalty due to his car being off\\-position at the starting grid, he finished in third again at the following race at the [2023 Saudi Arabian Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_Saudi_Arabian_Grand_Prix \"2023 Saudi Arabian Grand Prix\"); this marked his 100th podium, making him the sixth driver to have scored 100 podiums in his career. Following the race, he was issued another ten\\-second penalty due to serving the first one improperly at his pit stop, dropping him to fourth behind [George Russell](/wiki/George_Russell_%28racing_driver%29 \"George Russell (racing driver)\");{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24184/12838550/fernando\\-alonso\\-hits\\-out\\-at\\-poor\\-show\\-from\\-fia\\-amid\\-time\\-penalty\\-farce\\-at\\-saudi\\-arabian\\-grand\\-prixl\\|title\\=Fernando Alonso restored to third place at Saudi Arabian GP and hits out at 'poor show' from FIA\\|website\\=Sky Sports F1\\|date\\=19 March 2023\\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=20 March 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320010634/https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24184/12838550/fernando\\-alonso\\-hits\\-out\\-at\\-poor\\-show\\-from\\-fia\\-amid\\-time\\-penalty\\-farce\\-at\\-saudi\\-arabian\\-grand\\-prixl\\|url\\-status\\=live}} however, the team's appeal was accepted and the second penalty was reversed, keeping his podium.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.breaking\\-alonso\\-loses\\-p3\\-and\\-100th\\-f1\\-podium\\-after\\-receiving\\-10s\\-penalty\\-in.4QbFJtlN8sUWqQXt4jJmmR.html\\|title\\='I am happy in the end with the result' – Alonso relieved after 100th career podium reinstated in Jeddah\\|website\\=Formula One website\\|date\\=19 March 2023\\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=21 March 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321043117/https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.breaking\\-alonso\\-loses\\-p3\\-and\\-100th\\-f1\\-podium\\-after\\-receiving\\-10s\\-penalty\\-in.4QbFJtlN8sUWqQXt4jJmmR.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Alonso finished in third once again after a chaotic [Australian Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_Australian_Grand_Prix \"2023 Australian Grand Prix\"); the third and final restart of the session saw his car make contact with the Ferrari of [Carlos Sainz Jr.](/wiki/Carlos_Sainz_Jr. \"Carlos Sainz Jr.\"), causing the latter driver to receive a five\\-second penalty; due to this, Sainz would be classified in last place out of the finishing cars. Alonso's car was undamaged.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12433/12847996/australian\\-gp\\-max\\-verstappen\\-holds\\-off\\-lewis\\-hamilton\\-for\\-victory\\-after\\-wild\\-finish\\-to\\-chaotic\\-race\\|title\\=Australian GP: Max Verstappen holds off Lewis Hamilton for victory after wild finish to chaotic race\\|website\\=\\[\\[Sky Sports F1]]\\|date\\=2 April 2023\\|access\\-date\\=24 April 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=9 April 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409110829/https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12433/12847996/australian\\-gp\\-max\\-verstappen\\-holds\\-off\\-lewis\\-hamilton\\-for\\-victory\\-after\\-wild\\-finish\\-to\\-chaotic\\-race\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Alonso agreed with Sainz's criticisms of the penalty, stating that it was \"too harsh\".{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/sainz\\-blasts\\-most\\-unfair\\-penalty\\-ever\\-seeks\\-australian\\-gp\\-stewards\\-explanation/10452169/\\|title\\=Sainz blasts \"most unfair penalty ever\", seeks Australian GP stewards' explanation\\|website\\=Motorsport.com\\|last\\=Cobb\\|first\\=Haydn\\|date\\=2 April 2023\\|access\\-date\\=24 April 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=12 April 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412190415/https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/sainz\\-blasts\\-most\\-unfair\\-penalty\\-ever\\-seeks\\-australian\\-gp\\-stewards\\-explanation/10452169/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The Aston Martins were plagued with [DRS](/wiki/Drag_reduction_system \"Drag reduction system\") issues during qualification of the [Azerbaijan Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_Azerbaijan_Grand_Prix \"2023 Azerbaijan Grand Prix\"), going on to qualify eighth in the new \"sprint shootout\" qualification{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\\-azerbaijan\\-gp\\-sprint\\-shootout\\-report/10462311/\\|title\\=F1 Azerbaijan GP: Leclerc doubles up for sprint race pole despite crash\\|last\\=Boxall\\-Legge\\|first\\=Jake\\|website\\=Autosport.com\\|date\\=29 April 2023\\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=2 May 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502173647/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\\-azerbaijan\\-gp\\-sprint\\-shootout\\-report/10462311/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} and sixth for the main qualification session;{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\\-azerbaijan\\-gp\\-leclerc\\-beats\\-red\\-bulls\\-for\\-grand\\-prix\\-pole/10461826/\\|title\\=F1 Azerbaijan GP: Leclerc beats Red Bulls for grand prix pole\\|first\\=Jake\\|last\\=Boxall\\-Legge\\|date\\=28 April 2023\\|website\\=Autosport\\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=3 May 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230503013841/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\\-azerbaijan\\-gp\\-leclerc\\-beats\\-red\\-bulls\\-for\\-grand\\-prix\\-pole/10461826/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} he would finish sixth in the sprint race,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/f1\\-azerbaijan\\-gp\\-perez\\-passes\\-leclerc\\-to\\-win\\-f1\\-sprint/10462575/\\|title\\=F1 Azerbaijan GP: Perez passes Leclerc to win F1 sprint\\|last\\=Boxall\\-Legge\\|first\\=Jake\\|website\\=Motorsport.com\\|date\\=29 April 2023\\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=1 May 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230501205749/https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/f1\\-azerbaijan\\-gp\\-perez\\-passes\\-leclerc\\-to\\-win\\-f1\\-sprint/10462575/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} and fourth in the main race.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\\-azerbaijan\\-gp\\-perez\\-leads\\-dominant\\-red\\-bull\\-1\\-2\\-from\\-leclerc/10463146/\\|title\\=F1 Azerbaijan GP: Perez leads dominant Red Bull 1\\-2 from Leclerc\\|last\\=Boxall\\-Legge\\|first\\=Jake\\|website\\=Autosport.com\\|date\\=30 April 2023\\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=30 April 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430222636/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\\-azerbaijan\\-gp\\-perez\\-leads\\-dominant\\-red\\-bull\\-1\\-2\\-from\\-leclerc/10463146/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} It was at this point in time the car had dropped in performance, failing to secure podiums on a consistent basis, though he took two podium finishes at [Zandvoort](/wiki/2023_Dutch_Grand_Prix \"2023 Dutch Grand Prix\"),{{Cite news \\|url\\= https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\\-dutch\\-gp\\-verstappen\\-fends\\-off\\-alonso\\-in\\-red\\-flagged\\-rain\\-hit\\-race/10512346/ \\|title\\= F1 Dutch GP: Verstappen fends off Alonso in red\\-flagged, rain hit race \\|work\\= \\[\\[Autosport]] \\|date\\= 27 August 2023 \\|access\\-date\\= 28 August 2023 \\|last\\= Boxall\\-Legge \\|first\\= Jake \\|url\\-access\\= limited \\|archive\\-date\\= 28 August 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20230828021055/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\\-dutch\\-gp\\-verstappen\\-fends\\-off\\-alonso\\-in\\-red\\-flagged\\-rain\\-hit\\-race/10512346/ \\|url\\-status\\= live }} where he recorded his first fastest lap since the [2017 Hungarian Grand Prix](/wiki/2017_Hungarian_Grand_Prix \"2017 Hungarian Grand Prix\"),{{Cite web \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso \\- Fastests laps \\|url\\=https://www.statsf1\\.com/en/fernando\\-alonso/meilleur\\-tour.aspx \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-09 \\|website\\=Statsf1 \\|archive\\-date\\=4 November 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231104084145/https://www.statsf1\\.com/en/fernando\\-alonso/meilleur\\-tour.aspx \\|url\\-status\\=live }} and [São Paulo](/wiki/2023_S%C3%A3o_Paulo_Grand_Prix \"2023 São Paulo Grand Prix\"); the latter instance edging out [Sergio Pérez](/wiki/Sergio_P%C3%A9rez \"Sergio Pérez\") by 0\\.053 seconds.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Benson \\|first1\\=Andrew \\|title\\='Alonso masterclass burnishes the legend of one of the greatest' \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/formula1/67329196 \\|access\\-date\\=6 November 2023 \\|work\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=5 November 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=6 November 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106063932/https://www.bbc.com/sport/formula1/67329196 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} After a seventh\\-place finish at the [Abu Dhabi Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_Abu_Dhabi_Grand_Prix \"2023 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix\"), Alonso ended the season fourth in the standings, scoring 206 points against his teammate Stroll's 74\\. Alonso's fourth position in the standings was his highest finish since {{f1\\|2013}}.",
"### Endurance racing",
"Alonso made his sports car endurance racing debut at the 1999 24 Hours of Barcelona. Paired with [Antonio García](/wiki/Antonio_Garc%C3%ADa_%28racing_driver%29 \"Antonio García (racing driver)\"), Salvi Delmuns and the journalist Pedro Fermín Flores, the quartet finished third in the M10 class and tenth overall in a [Hyundai Accent](/wiki/Hyundai_Accent \"Hyundai Accent\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.autobild.es/noticias/dia\\-alonso\\-debuto\\-resistencia\\-24\\-horas\\-barcelona\\-1999\\-187012\\|title\\=El día que Alonso debutó en resistencia: 24 Horas Barcelona 1999\\|last\\=Mancebo\\|first\\=Adrián\\|date\\=25 January 2018\\|website\\=\\[\\[Auto Bild]]\\|language\\=es\\|trans\\-title\\=El día que Alonso debutó en resistencia: 24 Horas Barcelona 1999\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191127213106/https://www.autobild.es/noticias/dia\\-alonso\\-debuto\\-resistencia\\-24\\-horas\\-barcelona\\-1999\\-187012\\|archive\\-date\\=27 November 2019\\|access\\-date\\=27 November 2019}} Alonso was due to enter the [2015 24 Hours of Le Mans](/wiki/2015_24_Hours_of_Le_Mans \"2015 24 Hours of Le Mans\") with [Porsche](/wiki/Porsche_in_motorsport \"Porsche in motorsport\")'s [Le Mans Prototype 1](/wiki/Le_Mans_Prototype \"Le Mans Prototype\") team before Honda blocked it.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.marca.com/en/2015/04/29/en/more\\_sports/1430329083\\.html\\|title\\=Alonso had deal with Porsche to race in Le Mans\\|last\\=Canseco\\|first\\=Marco\\|date\\=29 April 2015\\|website\\=Marca\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222220359/https://www.marca.com/en/2015/04/29/en/more\\_sports/1430329083\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=22 December 2019\\|access\\-date\\=22 December 2019}}",
"#### WeatherTech SportsCar Championship (2018–2019\\)",
"[thumb\\|right\\|The [Wayne Taylor Racing](/wiki/Wayne_Taylor_Racing \"Wayne Taylor Racing\") [Cadillac DPi\\-V.R](/wiki/Cadillac_DPi-V.R \"Cadillac DPi-V.R\") driven in the [2019 24 Hours of Daytona](/wiki/2019_24_Hours_of_Daytona \"2019 24 Hours of Daytona\") (pictured at the [2017 Petit Le Mans](/wiki/2017_Petit_Le_Mans \"2017 Petit Le Mans\")).](/wiki/File:Cadillac_DPi-V.R_-_Petit_Le_Mans_2017.jpg \"Cadillac DPi-V.R - Petit Le Mans 2017.jpg\")",
"Alonso drove a [Ligier JS P217](/wiki/Ligier_JS_P217 \"Ligier JS P217\") entered by [United Autosports](/wiki/United_Autosports \"United Autosports\") in the [2018 24 Hours of Daytona](/wiki/2018_24_Hours_of_Daytona \"2018 24 Hours of Daytona\") as preparation for the 24 Hours of Le Mans.{{cite web\\|last\\=Bradley\\|first\\=Charles\\|title\\=Brown: United will \"bring our A\\-game\" for Alonso's Daytona bid\\|url\\=https://www.motorsport.com/imsa/news/alonso\\-daytona\\-rolex\\-united\\-brown\\-970743/1372204/\\|publisher\\=motorsport.com\\|date\\=26 October 2017\\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223100950/https://www.motorsport.com/imsa/news/alonso\\-daytona\\-rolex\\-united\\-brown\\-970743/1372204/\\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2019}} Alonso, [Philip Hanson](/wiki/Philip_Hanson_%28racing_driver%29 \"Philip Hanson (racing driver)\") and McLaren reserve driver [Lando Norris](/wiki/Lando_Norris \"Lando Norris\") qualified 13th and finished 38th after multiple mechanical issues affected the car during the race.{{cite web\\|last\\=Pockrass\\|first\\=Bob\\|title\\=Fernando Alonso's Daytona 24 Hours scuppered by brake issues\\|url\\=https://www.espn.co.uk/f1/story/\\_/id/22242826/fernando\\-alonso\\-daytona\\-24\\-hours\\-scuppered\\-brake\\-issues\\|publisher\\=ESPN\\|date\\=28 January 2018\\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223100951/https://www.espn.co.uk/f1/story/\\_/id/22242826/fernando\\-alonso\\-daytona\\-24\\-hours\\-scuppered\\-brake\\-issues\\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2019}} Alonso returned to race in the [2019 24 Hours of Daytona](/wiki/2019_24_Hours_of_Daytona \"2019 24 Hours of Daytona\") with [Wayne Taylor Racing](/wiki/Wayne_Taylor_Racing \"Wayne Taylor Racing\"). He shared a [Cadillac DPi\\-V.R](/wiki/Cadillac_DPi-V.R \"Cadillac DPi-V.R\") with [Kamui Kobayashi](/wiki/Kamui_Kobayashi \"Kamui Kobayashi\"), [Renger van der Zande](/wiki/Renger_van_der_Zande \"Renger van der Zande\") and [Jordan Taylor](/wiki/Jordan_Taylor_%28racing_driver%29 \"Jordan Taylor (racing driver)\"). The quartet completed 593 laps to win the rain\\-shortened event.{{cite web\\|last\\=Klein\\|first\\=Jamie\\|title\\=Rolex 24: WTR wins shortened race as Alonso beats Nasr\\|url\\=https://www.motorsport.com/imsa/news/rolex\\-wayne\\-taylor\\-alonso\\-victory/4329602/\\|publisher\\=motorsport.com\\|date\\=27 January 2019\\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223100952/https://www.motorsport.com/imsa/news/rolex\\-wayne\\-taylor\\-alonso\\-victory/4329602/\\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2019}}",
"#### FIA World Endurance Championship (2018–2019\\)",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Alonso driving a [Toyota TS050 Hybrid](/wiki/Toyota_TS050_Hybrid \"Toyota TS050 Hybrid\") at the [2018 6 Hours of Silverstone](/wiki/2018_6_Hours_of_Silverstone \"2018 6 Hours of Silverstone\").](/wiki/File:Toyota_TS050_Alonso_Silverstone_2018_Village.jpg \"Toyota TS050 Alonso Silverstone 2018 Village.jpg\")",
"Brown discussed an entry for the [2018 24 Hours of Le Mans](/wiki/2018_24_Hours_of_Le_Mans \"2018 24 Hours of Le Mans\") with Alonso and was prepared to consent to a switch to another team if certain circumstances were met.{{cite web\\|last\\=Watkins\\|first\\=Gary\\|title\\=Toyota open to Alonso discussions for Le Mans 2018\\|url\\=https://www.autosport.com/wec/news/131856/toyota\\-open\\-to\\-alonso\\-le\\-mans\\-talks\\|work\\=Autosport\\|date\\=16 September 2017\\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223100949/https://www.autosport.com/wec/news/131856/toyota\\-open\\-to\\-alonso\\-le\\-mans\\-talks\\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2019}} Alonso and Toyota held talks and agreed to compete in the 24 Hours of Le Mans.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/41947568\\|title\\=Fernando Alonso to race Le Mans next year for Toyota\\|last\\=Benson\\|first\\=Andrew\\|date\\=10 November 2017\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223154842/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/41947568\\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2019\\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2019}} He visited Toyota's factory in [Cologne](/wiki/Cologne \"Cologne\") for a seat fitting in a [TS050 Hybrid](/wiki/Toyota_TS050_Hybrid \"Toyota TS050 Hybrid\") in November 2017\\.{{cite web\\|last\\=Goodwin\\|first\\=Graham\\|title\\=Alonso Visits Toyota in Cologne For 'Seat Fitting'\\|url\\=http://www.dailysportscar.com/2017/11/07/alonso\\-visits\\-toyota\\-in\\-cologne\\-for\\-seat\\-fitting.html\\|publisher\\=DailySportsCar\\|date\\=7 November 2017\\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223100958/http://www.dailysportscar.com/2017/11/07/alonso\\-visits\\-toyota\\-in\\-cologne\\-for\\-seat\\-fitting.html\\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2019}} Toyota entered Alonso into a post\\-season rookie test at the [Bahrain International Circuit](/wiki/Bahrain_International_Circuit \"Bahrain International Circuit\") later that month.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://sportscar365\\.com/lemans/wec/alonso\\-happy\\-to\\-complete\\-long\\-awaited\\-maiden\\-lmp1\\-test/\\|title\\=Alonso Happy to Complete Long\\-Awaited Maiden LMP1 Test\\|last\\=Smith\\|first\\=Luke\\|date\\=19 November 2017\\|publisher\\=SportsCar365\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324191203/https://sportscar365\\.com/lemans/wec/alonso\\-happy\\-to\\-complete\\-long\\-awaited\\-maiden\\-lmp1\\-test/\\|archive\\-date\\=24 March 2019\\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2019}} In January 2018, McLaren and Toyota reached an agreement to allow Alonso to enter the full [2018–19 FIA World Endurance Championship](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_FIA_World_Endurance_Championship \"2018–19 FIA World Endurance Championship\").{{efn\\|The owners of the \\[\\[Fuji Speedway]], which organised the \\[\\[2018 6 Hours of Fuji\\|6 Hours of Fuji]], had a request granted for its race to be moved back by a week to allow Alonso to compete in the event and avoid a date clash with the \\[\\[2018 United States Grand Prix]].}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.motorsport.com/wec/news/alonso\\-le\\-mans\\-world\\-endurance\\-championship\\-toyota\\-mclaren\\-1000481/1388858/\\|title\\=Alonso joins Toyota for Le Mans debut, other WEC races\\|last\\=Noble\\|first\\=Jonathan\\|date\\=30 January 2018\\|publisher\\=motorsport.com\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223154841/https://www.motorsport.com/wec/news/alonso\\-le\\-mans\\-world\\-endurance\\-championship\\-toyota\\-mclaren\\-1000481/1388858/\\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2019\\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2019}} He joined [Sébastien Buemi](/wiki/S%C3%A9bastien_Buemi \"Sébastien Buemi\") and [Kazuki Nakajima](/wiki/Kazuki_Nakajima \"Kazuki Nakajima\") in Toyota's {{Abbr\\|No.\\|Car number}} 8 TS050 Hybrid.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.autocar.co.uk/car\\-news/motorsport\\-le\\-mans/fernando\\-alonso\\-contest\\-entire\\-wec\\-season\\-after\\-race\\-moved\\-avoid\\-f1\\|title\\=Fernando Alonso to contest entire WEC season after race moved to avoid F1 clash\\|last\\=Sheehan\\|first\\=Sam\\|date\\=9 February 2018\\|website\\=\\[\\[Autocar (magazine)\\|Autocar]]\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223160345/https://www.autocar.co.uk/car\\-news/motorsport\\-le\\-mans/fernando\\-alonso\\-contest\\-entire\\-wec\\-season\\-after\\-race\\-moved\\-avoid\\-f1\\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2019\\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2019}}\n[thumb\\|Alonso driving at the [2019 24 Hours of Le Mans](/wiki/2019_24_Hours_of_Le_Mans \"2019 24 Hours of Le Mans\")](/wiki/File:Toyota_Gazoo_Racing%27s_Toyota_TS050_Hybrid_No._8_Fernando_Alonso%2C_S%C3%A9bastien_Buemi_and_Kazuki_Nakajima.jpg \"Toyota Gazoo Racing's Toyota TS050 Hybrid No. 8 Fernando Alonso, Sébastien Buemi and Kazuki Nakajima.jpg\")\nAlonso drove a 2018 TS050 Hybrid in a three\\-day test session at the Ciudad del Motor de Aragón in February and drove with no artificial lights in a 24\\-hour kart race as preparation.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espn.co.uk/f1/story/\\_/id/22364262/alonso\\-tests\\-toyota\\-le\\-mans\\-rocket\\-ship\\|title\\=Alonso tests Toyota's Le Mans 'rocket ship'\\|last\\=Saunders\\|first\\=Nate\\|date\\=8 February 2018\\|publisher\\=ESPN\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190522185925/http://www.espn.co.uk/f1/story/\\_/id/22364262/alonso\\-tests\\-toyota\\-le\\-mans\\-rocket\\-ship\\|archive\\-date\\=22 May 2019\\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2019}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dailysportscar.com/2018/05/04/alonso\\-aiming\\-for\\-more\\-than\\-a\\-le\\-mans\\-win.html\\|title\\=Alonso Aiming For More Than Just A Le Mans Win in Sportscars\\|last\\=Tickell\\|first\\=Sam\\|date\\=4 May 2018\\|publisher\\=DailySportsCar\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223154838/http://www.dailysportscar.com/2018/05/04/alonso\\-aiming\\-for\\-more\\-than\\-a\\-le\\-mans\\-win.html\\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2019\\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2019}} He, Buemi and Nakajima won the LMP1 Drivers' Championship with five victories including the 2018 24 Hours of Le Mans and the [2019 24 Hours of Le Mans](/wiki/2019_24_Hours_of_Le_Mans \"2019 24 Hours of Le Mans\") over the eight round season, though this was enhanced by their teammates [Mike Conway](/wiki/Mike_Conway \"Mike Conway\"), [Kamui Kobayashi](/wiki/Kamui_Kobayashi \"Kamui Kobayashi\") and [José María López](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_L%C3%B3pez \"José María López\") suffering a sensor issue while leading the [2019 6 Hours of Spa](/wiki/2019_6_Hours_of_Spa-Francorchamps \"2019 6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps\") and then suffering a puncture while comfortably leading the 2019 24 Hours of Le Mans with an hour remaining.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://wec\\-magazin.com/alonso\\-buemi\\-nakajima\\-wrap\\-up\\-world\\-championship/\\|title\\=Alonso, Buemi \\& Nakajima wrap up World Championship\\|last\\=Tunnicliffe\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=17 June 2019\\|publisher\\=WEC Magazin\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223154840/https://wec\\-magazin.com/alonso\\-buemi\\-nakajima\\-wrap\\-up\\-world\\-championship/\\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2019\\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2019}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://wec\\-magazin.com/toyota\\-and\\-aston\\-martin\\-victorious\\-in\\-6\\-hours\\-of\\-spa/\\|title\\=Toyota and Aston Martin victorious in Spa\\|last\\=David {{!}}\\|date\\=4 May 2019\\|website\\=WEC\\-Magazin\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=26 January 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230126232126/https://wec\\-magazin.com/toyota\\-and\\-aston\\-martin\\-victorious\\-in\\-6\\-hours\\-of\\-spa/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.motorsport.com/lemans/news/toyota\\-wiring\\-issue\\-conway\\-kobayashi\\-lopez/4478020/\\|title\\=Toyota diagnoses wiring issue that cost \\#7 car Le Mans victory\\|website\\=www.motorsport.com\\|date\\=20 June 2019 \\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=26 January 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230126232123/https://www.motorsport.com/lemans/news/toyota\\-wiring\\-issue\\-conway\\-kobayashi\\-lopez/4478020/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.motorsport.com/lemans/news/final\\-report\\-toyota\\-wins\\-ferrari/4475585/\\|title\\=Le Mans 24h: Alonso, Buemi, Nakajima win again for Toyota\\|website\\=www.motorsport.com\\|date\\=16 June 2019 \\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=26 January 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230126232142/https://www.motorsport.com/lemans/news/final\\-report\\-toyota\\-wins\\-ferrari/4475585/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Alonso left the series at the end of the season.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk\\-motor\\-lemans\\-alonso/alonso\\-to\\-leave\\-toyota\\-wec\\-team\\-after\\-le\\-mans\\-idUKKCN1S73SW\\|title\\=Alonso to leave Toyota WEC team after Le Mans\\|last\\=Baldwin\\|first\\=Alan\\|date\\=1 May 2019\\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2019\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|work\\=Reuters\\|editor\\-last\\=Ferris\\|editor\\-first\\=Ken\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223154842/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk\\-motor\\-lemans\\-alonso/alonso\\-to\\-leave\\-toyota\\-wec\\-team\\-after\\-le\\-mans\\-idUKKCN1S73SW\\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2019}}",
"### IndyCar Series",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Alonso's car prior to the [2017 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/2017_Indianapolis_500 \"2017 Indianapolis 500\").](/wiki/File:Dallara_DW12_%28Fernando_Alonso%29_2017_Indianapolis_500.jpg \"Dallara DW12 (Fernando Alonso) 2017 Indianapolis 500.jpg\")",
"#### McLaren Honda Andretti (2017\\)",
"Before the [2017 Australian Grand Prix](/wiki/2017_Australian_Grand_Prix \"2017 Australian Grand Prix\"), Zak Brown said to Alonso they should enter the [2017 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/2017_Indianapolis_500 \"2017 Indianapolis 500\") to which Alonso suggested he was joking. The idea later re\\-emerged in a conservation in Los Angeles and Alonso told Brown he was happy with the idea since McLaren had won it before. He and his manager Garcia Abad met Brown and Éric Boullier in China to talk more about the plan and said he would decide the next day. Alonso told Brown he wanted to race at Indianapolis and told him it was \"a good decision for everyone: a win, win for myself, for F1, the fans, everyone'.\"{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.motorsport.com/indycar/news/alonso\\-indy\\-500\\-idea\\-was\\-originally\\-a\\-joke\\-says\\-brown\\-893019/893019/\\|title\\=Alonso Indy 500 idea was originally a joke, says Brown\\|last\\=Noble\\|first\\=Jonathan\\|date\\=12 April 2017\\|publisher\\=motorsport.com\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223181503/https://www.motorsport.com/indycar/news/alonso\\-indy\\-500\\-idea\\-was\\-originally\\-a\\-joke\\-says\\-brown\\-893019/893019/\\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2019\\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2019}} Brown then spoke to the [IndyCar Series](/wiki/IndyCar_Series \"IndyCar Series\") chief executive officer Mark Miles and discovered that there were no Honda\\-powered cars.{{cite web\\|last\\=Barstow\\|first\\=Ollie\\|title\\=The British driver that made Alonso's Indy 500 deal possible\\|url\\=https://www.crash.net/f1/news/243573/1/the\\-british\\-driver\\-that\\-made\\-alonsos\\-indy\\-500\\-deal\\-possible\\|publisher\\=Crash\\|date\\=12 April 2017\\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223201108/https://www.crash.net/f1/news/243573/1/the\\-british\\-driver\\-that\\-made\\-alonsos\\-indy\\-500\\-deal\\-possible\\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2019}} Miles met the [Andretti Autosport](/wiki/Andretti_Autosport \"Andretti Autosport\") owner [Michael Andretti](/wiki/Michael_Andretti \"Michael Andretti\"), who got driver [Stefan Wilson](/wiki/Stefan_Wilson \"Stefan Wilson\") to agree to forego his planned entry in partnership with [Michael Shank Racing](/wiki/Michael_Shank_Racing \"Michael Shank Racing\") and allow Alonso to drive instead.{{cite web\\|last\\=Adam\\|first\\=Mitchell\\|title\\=Stefan Wilson parked 2017 Indy 500 bid for McLaren and Alonso\\|url\\=https://www.autosport.com/indycar/news/128937/stefan\\-wilson\\-parked\\-indy\\-500\\-bid\\-for\\-alonso\\|work\\=Autosport\\|date\\=12 April 2017\\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223201100/https://www.autosport.com/indycar/news/128937/stefan\\-wilson\\-parked\\-indy\\-500\\-bid\\-for\\-alonso\\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2019}}",
"Driving the No. 29 McLaren\\-Honda\\-Andretti [Dallara DW12](/wiki/Dallara_DW12 \"Dallara DW12\"),{{cite web\\|last\\=Khorounzhiy\\|first\\=Valentin\\|title\\=Livery unveiled for Alonso's Indy 500 campaign\\|url\\=https://www.motorsport.com/indycar/news/livery\\-unveiled\\-for\\-alonso\\-s\\-indy\\-500\\-campaign\\-901393/901393/\\|publisher\\=motorsport.com\\|date\\=3 May 2017\\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=26 January 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230126232458/https://www.motorsport.com/indycar/news/livery\\-unveiled\\-for\\-alonso\\-s\\-indy\\-500\\-campaign\\-901393/901393/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} he completed a three\\-stage rookie orientation programme at the [Indianapolis Motor Speedway](/wiki/Indianapolis_Motor_Speedway \"Indianapolis Motor Speedway\") on 3 May.{{efn\\|More than two million watched a livestream of the rookie orientation programme on social media.{{cite web\\|last\\=Saunders\\|first\\=Nate\\|title\\=Over 2 million watched Fernando Alonso's Indy 500 test\\|url\\=https://www.espn.co.uk/f1/story/\\_/id/19314643/over\\-2\\-million\\-watched\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-indy\\-500\\-test\\|publisher\\=ESPN\\|date\\=5 May 2017\\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203021625/http://www.espn.co.uk/f1/story/\\_/id/19314643/over\\-2\\-million\\-watched\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-indy\\-500\\-test\\|archive\\-date\\=3 December 2018}}}}{{cite news\\|last\\=Ayello\\|first\\=Jim\\|title\\=Insider: Fernando Alonso enjoys 'perfect' IMS debut\\|url\\=https://eu.indystar.com/story/sports/motor/2017/05/03/insider\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-enjoy\\-perfect\\-indy\\-car\\-debut\\-ims/101263146/\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Indianapolis Star]]\\|date\\=4 May 2017\\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=23 March 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323145655/https://www.indystar.com/story/sports/motor/2017/05/03/insider\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-enjoy\\-perfect\\-indy\\-car\\-debut\\-ims/101263146/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Alonso advanced to the Fast Nine shootout in qualifying and set the fifth\\-fastest four\\-lap average speed; in the race, he led four times for a total of 27 laps before his engine failed with 21 laps to go.{{cite web\\|last\\=Martin\\|first\\=Bruce\\|title\\=Excellent adventure: Fernando Alonso's road to the Indy 500\\|url\\=https://autoweek.com/article/indy\\-500/excellent\\-adventure\\-fernando\\-alonsos\\-road\\-indy\\-500\\|work\\=Autoweek\\|date\\=3 June 2017\\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190203180147/https://autoweek.com/article/indy\\-500/excellent\\-adventure\\-fernando\\-alonsos\\-road\\-indy\\-500\\|archive\\-date\\=3 February 2019}} Alonso was classified 24th.{{cite web\\|title\\=Alonso named Indy 500 Rookie of the Year\\|url\\=https://en.as.com/en/2017/05/30/other\\_sports/1496141050\\_266928\\.html\\|work\\=AS\\|date\\=30 May 2017\\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613215455/http://en.as.com/en/2017/05/30/other\\_sports/1496141050\\_266928\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=13 June 2017}}",
"#### McLaren Racing (2019\\)",
"[thumb\\|Alonso at the [2019 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/2019_Indianapolis_500 \"2019 Indianapolis 500\")](/wiki/File:Fernando_Alonso_-_2019_Indy_500.jpg \"Fernando Alonso - 2019 Indy 500.jpg\")\nMcLaren began planning an entry for him in the [2019 IndyCar Series](/wiki/2019_IndyCar_Series \"2019 IndyCar Series\") in August 2018 and would be supported by the series.{{cite web\\|last\\=Errington\\|first\\=Tom\\|title\\=IndyCar: McLaren plans a series switch for Fernando Alonso in 2019\\|url\\=https://www.autosport.com/indycar/news/138028/mclaren\\-plotting\\-alonso\\-indycar\\-move\\-for\\-2019\\|work\\=Autosport\\|date\\=14 August 2018\\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224160709/https://www.autosport.com/indycar/news/138028/mclaren\\-plotting\\-alonso\\-indycar\\-move\\-for\\-2019\\|archive\\-date\\=24 December 2019}} Alonso tested a 2018\\-specification Andretti Autosport\\-entered Dallara DW12\\-Honda at the [Barber Motorsports Park](/wiki/Barber_Motorsports_Park \"Barber Motorsports Park\") on 5 September.{{cite web\\|last\\=Pruett\\|first\\=Marshall\\|title\\=Alonso pleased with IndyCar Barber test\\|url\\=https://racer.com/2018/09/05/alonso\\-pleased\\-with\\-indycar\\-barber\\-test/\\|work\\=Racer\\|date\\=5 September 2018\\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224160711/https://racer.com/2018/09/05/alonso\\-pleased\\-with\\-indycar\\-barber\\-test/\\|archive\\-date\\=24 December 2019}} McLaren opted to enter just the [2019 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/2019_Indianapolis_500 \"2019 Indianapolis 500\") due to its focus on Formula One and collaborated with [Carlin Motorsport](/wiki/Carlin_Motorsport \"Carlin Motorsport\") in a logistical and technical partnership and signed an engine supply deal with [Chevrolet](/wiki/Chevrolet \"Chevrolet\").{{cite web\\|last\\=Beer\\|first\\=Matt\\|title\\=How Alonso and McLaren's 2019 Indianapolis 500 attempt unravelled\\|url\\=https://www.autosport.com/indycar/news/143527/how\\-alonso\\-and\\-mclaren\\-indy\\-500\\-unravelled\\|work\\=Autosport\\|date\\=20 May 2019\\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224160709/https://www.autosport.com/indycar/news/143527/how\\-alonso\\-and\\-mclaren\\-indy\\-500\\-unravelled\\|archive\\-date\\=24 December 2019}} Alonso ventured to the McLaren Technology Centre in early March 2019 for a seat fitting to become comfortable in the No. 66 Dallara IR18\\-Chevrolet and its brake pedal was shifted away from his feet since it is used less in IndyCar than in Formula One. [Andy Brown](/wiki/Andy_Brown_%28engineer%29 \"Andy Brown (engineer)\") was Alonso's race engineer and his chief mechanic was Liam Dance.{{cite web\\|title\\=Fernando's Indy 500 Seat Fit\\|url\\=https://www.mclaren.com/racing/2019/indy\\-500/fernando\\-alonso\\-seat\\-fit/\\|publisher\\=McLaren\\|date\\=6 March 2019\\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224160710/https://www.mclaren.com/racing/2019/indy\\-500/fernando\\-alonso\\-seat\\-fit/\\|archive\\-date\\=24 December 2019}} \n{{cite web\\|last\\=Malsher\\|first\\=David\\|title\\=Alonso has McLaren seat fit ahead of Indy 500 return\\|url\\=https://www.motorsport.com/indycar/news/alonso\\-mclaren\\-indycar\\-indy\\-seat/4348176/\\|publisher\\=motorsport.com\\|date\\=6 March 2019\\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224160705/https://www.motorsport.com/indycar/news/alonso\\-mclaren\\-indycar\\-indy\\-seat/4348176/\\|archive\\-date\\=24 December 2019}} Alonso did not qualify after [Juncos Racing](/wiki/Juncos_Racing \"Juncos Racing\")'s [Kyle Kaiser](/wiki/Kyle_Kaiser \"Kyle Kaiser\") demoted him to 34th.{{efn\\|McLaren offered to purchase the \\[\\[Arrow McLaren SP\\|Arrow Schmidt Peterson]] car of \\[\\[Oriol Servià]] to allow Alonso to enter the race and meet sponsorship obligations since the two teams were in a partnership. Alonso was against replacing a driver who had qualified and McLaren opted against doing so.{{cite news\\|last\\=Fryer\\|first\\=Jenna\\|title\\=Alonso Rejects McLaren Offer to Buy Him Indy 500 Seat\\|url\\=https://www.usnews.com/news/sports/articles/2019\\-05\\-20/alonso\\-rejects\\-mclaren\\-offer\\-to\\-buy\\-him\\-indy\\-500\\-seat\\|work\\=\\[\\[U.S. News \\& World Report]]\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|date\\=20 May 2019\\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224211020/https://www.usnews.com/news/sports/articles/2019\\-05\\-20/alonso\\-rejects\\-mclaren\\-offer\\-to\\-buy\\-him\\-indy\\-500\\-seat\\|archive\\-date\\=24 December 2019}}}} Reasons included a dismantled spare car needed to assembled and flown from Carlin's factory after Alonso crashed in practice. An error converting from the [American imperial system](/wiki/Imperial_units \"Imperial units\") to the [British metric system](/wiki/Metric_system \"Metric system\") caused his car to scrape along the tarmac surface and incorrect gear ratios slowed him.{{cite web\\|last\\=Saunders\\|first\\=Nate\\|title\\=McLaren explains comedy of errors that led to Fernando Alonso's Indy 500 nightmare\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/f1/story/\\_/id/26806757/mclaren\\-explains\\-comedy\\-errors\\-led\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-indy\\-500\\-nightmare\\|publisher\\=ESPN\\|date\\=23 May 2019\\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191117071953/https://www.espn.com/f1/story/\\_/id/26806757/mclaren\\-explains\\-comedy\\-errors\\-led\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-indy\\-500\\-nightmare\\|archive\\-date\\=17 November 2019}}",
"#### Arrow McLaren SP (2020\\)",
"He entered the [2020 Indianapolis 500](/wiki/2020_Indianapolis_500 \"2020 Indianapolis 500\") with [Arrow McLaren SP](/wiki/Arrow_McLaren_SP \"Arrow McLaren SP\") after an agreement with Andretti Autosports fell through.{{cite web\\|last\\=Martin\\|first\\=Bruce\\|title\\=Why it's important for Fernando Alonso to be in the Indianapolis 500\\|url\\=https://motorsports.nbcsports.com/2020/02/25/fernando\\-alonso\\-michael\\-andretti\\-sam\\-schmidt\\-zak\\-brown\\-indianapolis\\-500\\-indianapolis\\-motor\\-speedway/\\|publisher\\=NBC Sports\\|date\\=25 February 2020\\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=15 March 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200315152759/https://motorsports.nbcsports.com/2020/02/25/fernando\\-alonso\\-michael\\-andretti\\-sam\\-schmidt\\-zak\\-brown\\-indianapolis\\-500\\-indianapolis\\-motor\\-speedway/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\nAlonso had a crash during practice. He qualified 26th.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://the\\-race.com/indycar/why\\-alonsos\\-indy\\-dream\\-is\\-alive\\-despite\\-disaster\\-qualifying/\\|title\\=Why Alonso's Indy dream is alive despite disaster qualifying\\|date\\=16 August 2020\\|website\\=The Race\\|access\\-date\\=18 August 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=26 January 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230126233956/https://the\\-race.com/indycar/why\\-alonsos\\-indy\\-dream\\-is\\-alive\\-despite\\-disaster\\-qualifying/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\nAlonso did manage to finish the race. He started 26th, was running 15th halfway through the race, and then ended up P21 and one lap down because of a clutch issue causing the team to manually start the car during every pit stop.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\\-reveals\\-a\\-clutch\\-problem\\-derailed\\-his\\-indy\\-500\\-bid\\-as\\-ex\\-f1\\-racer.274JiGOUmrg9PmxxNf4QUZ.html\\|title\\=Fernando Alonso reveals a clutch problem derailed his Indy 500 bid as ex\\-F1 racer Takuma Sato took victory\\|website\\=www.formula1\\.com\\|access\\-date\\=25 August 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=4 February 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204013850/https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\\-reveals\\-a\\-clutch\\-problem\\-derailed\\-his\\-indy\\-500\\-bid\\-as\\-ex\\-f1\\-racer.274JiGOUmrg9PmxxNf4QUZ.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"### Off\\-road racing",
"Alonso entered the [Dakar Rally](/wiki/Dakar_Rally \"Dakar Rally\") with Toyota in [2020](/wiki/2020_Dakar_Rally \"2020 Dakar Rally\") following a five\\-month testing programme in Africa, Europe and the Middle East and driving a series of races to better himself.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Keiloh \\|first\\=Graham \\|date\\=20 August 2019 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso prepares for Dakar Rally with five\\-month test programme \\|url\\=https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/news/rally/fernando\\-alonso\\-prepares\\-dakar\\-rally\\-five\\-month\\-test\\-programme \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203131113/https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/news/rally/fernando\\-alonso\\-prepares\\-dakar\\-rally\\-five\\-month\\-test\\-programme \\|archive\\-date\\=3 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=25 December 2019 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Motor Sport (magazine)\\|Motor Sport]]}}{{Cite web \\|last1\\=Lillo \\|first1\\=Sergio \\|last2\\=Khorounzhiy \\|first2\\=Valentin \\|date\\=20 August 2019 \\|title\\=Alonso begins Dakar 2020 preparations with Toyota \\|url\\=https://www.motorsport.com/dakar/news/alonso\\-toyota\\-preparations\\-dakar\\-debut/4515515/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191130194552/https://www.motorsport.com/dakar/news/alonso\\-toyota\\-preparations\\-dakar\\-debut/4515515/ \\|archive\\-date\\=30 November 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=25 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Motorsport.com]]}} He raced in the Lichtenburg 400 in South Africa, the [Rally du Maroc](/wiki/Rallye_du_Maroc_%28rally_raid%29 \"Rallye du Maroc (rally raid)\") in Morocco and the Al Ula–Neom Rally in Saudi Arabia,{{cite news\\|title\\=Rallye\\-raid : Fernando Alonso participe au Rallye Al Ula\\-Neom\\|trans\\-title\\=Rally\\-raid: Fernando Alonso participates in the Rally Al Ula\\-Neom\\|url\\=https://www.lequipe.fr/Rallye\\-raid/Actualites/Rallye\\-raid\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-participe\\-au\\-rallye\\-al\\-ula\\-neom/1076956\\|work\\=\\[\\[L'Equipe]]\\|language\\=fr\\|date\\=5 November 2019\\|access\\-date\\=25 December 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225212309/https://www.lequipe.fr/Rallye\\-raid/Actualites/Rallye\\-raid\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-participe\\-au\\-rallye\\-al\\-ula\\-neom/1076956\\|archive\\-date\\=25 December 2019}} with the five\\-time Dakar Rally bike class winner [Marc Coma](/wiki/Marc_Coma \"Marc Coma\") his co\\-driver. Alonso was third at the Al Ula\\-Neom Rally, which was his highest finish in three preparation events.{{cite news\\|title\\=Fernando Alonso ramps up Dakar Rally preparations with podium finish at AlUla\\-Neom cross\\-country rally\\|url\\=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1584101/sport\\|work\\=\\[\\[Arab News]]\\|date\\=14 November 2019\\|access\\-date\\=25 December 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191128015853/https://www.arabnews.com/node/1584101/sport\\|archive\\-date\\=28 November 2019}} With co\\-driver Coma, he finished the Dakar in 13th position with a best stage finish of second place.{{Cite web \\|date\\=17 January 2020 \\|title\\=Dakar Rally 2020: Carlos Sainz wins third title as Fernando Alonso finishes 13th \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/motorsport/51146885 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202025646/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/motorsport/51146885 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 February 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=5 August 2021 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[BBC Sport]] }} A stop for repairs on the second stage and a roll on the tenth lost him several hours in the general classification.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Smith \\|first\\=Luke \\|date\\=17 January 2020 \\|title\\=Alonso expecting Dakar Rally return in the future \\|url\\=https://www.crash.net/dakar/news/935496/1/alonso\\-expecting\\-dakar\\-rally\\-return\\-future?amp \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200117231702/https://www.crash.net/dakar/news/935496/1/alonso\\-expecting\\-dakar\\-rally\\-return\\-future?amp \\|archive\\-date\\=17 January 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=8 February 2020 \\|publisher\\=Crash}}",
""
] |
### Formula One
#### Minardi and Renault (2001–2006\)
[Cesare Fiorio](/wiki/Cesare_Fiorio "Cesare Fiorio"), the sports director, gave Alonso a test in a [Formula One](/wiki/Formula_One "Formula One") (F1\) car at the [Circuito de Jerez](/wiki/Circuito_de_Jerez "Circuito de Jerez") in December 1999, as part of the Euro Open by Nissan's organising company RPM's agreement to give its series champion an opportunity to test at a higher level.{{Cite news \|last\=Sanz \|first\=Miguel \|date\=4 March 2009 \|title\=Alonso y Minardi, 10 años de una gran historia \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=Alonso and Minardi, 10 years of a great story \|work\=\[\[Marca (newspaper)\|Marca]] \|url\=https://www.marca.com/blogs/elgrancirco/2009/03/04/alonso\-y\-minardi\-10\-anos\-de\-una\-gran.html \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=28 November 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191128091729/https://www.marca.com/blogs/elgrancirco/2009/03/04/alonso\-y\-minardi\-10\-anos\-de\-una\-gran.html \|archive\-date\=28 November 2019}} He was Minardi's test and reserve driver in {{F1\|2000}} before joining its race team in {{F1\|2001}}. In a non\-competitive car,{{Cite web \|last\=Cooper \|first\=Adam \|date\=21 March 2011 \|title\=Fernando Alonso and the class of 2001 \|url\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/feature/3361/fernando\-alonso\-and\-the\-class\-of\-2001 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223154842/https://www.autosport.com/f1/feature/3361/fernando\-alonso\-and\-the\-class\-of\-2001 \|archive\-date\=23 December 2019 \|access\-date\=23 December 2019 \|website\=\[\[Autosport]]}} Alonso's best result of the season was a tenth\-place finish in the {{F1GP\|2001\|German}} and scored no [points](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Championship_points_scoring_systems "List of Formula One World Championship points scoring systems") for 23rd overall.
[thumb\|Alonso at the [2003 British Grand Prix](/wiki/2003_British_Grand_Prix "2003 British Grand Prix")](/wiki/File:Fernando_Alonso_2003_Silverstone_9.jpg "Fernando Alonso 2003 Silverstone 9.jpg")
He signed as [Renault](/wiki/Renault_in_Formula_One "Renault in Formula One")'s test driver for {{F1\|2002}} per the orders of manager [Flavio Briatore](/wiki/Flavio_Briatore "Flavio Briatore") to familiarise himself with the team and improve himself for the future.{{Cite web \|date\=24 June 2002 \|title\=Alonso's hopes for Renault race drive \|url\=http://www.formula1\.com/news/headlines02/06/s9854\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020628020127/http://www.formula1\.com/news/headlines02/06/s9854\.html \|archive\-date\=28 June 2002 \|access\-date\=7 December 2019 \|website\=\[\[Formula1\.com]]}} Alonso worked with the engineering department to improve [Giancarlo Fisichella](/wiki/Giancarlo_Fisichella "Giancarlo Fisichella")'s and [Jenson Button](/wiki/Jenson_Button "Jenson Button")'s performance,{{Cite news \|last\=Williams \|first\=Richard \|date\=1 May 2005 \|title\=Interview with Fernando Alonso \|work\=\[\[The Guardian]] \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2005/may/02/formulaone.formulaone2005 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=25 November 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206163114/https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2005/may/02/formulaone.formulaone2005 \|archive\-date\=6 December 2019}} and tested in Spain and the United Kingdom.{{Cite web \|title\=Fernando Alonso Biography \|url\=https://www.racefans.net/fernando\-alonso/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217182803/http://www.racefans.net/fernando\-alonso/ \|archive\-date\=17 December 2018 \|access\-date\=6 December 2019 \|website\=Racefans.net}} He drove a [Jaguar](/wiki/Jaguar_Racing "Jaguar Racing") in an evaluation session against test drivers [André Lotterer](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Lotterer "André Lotterer") and [James Courtney](/wiki/James_Courtney "James Courtney") at the [Silverstone Circuit](/wiki/Silverstone_Circuit "Silverstone Circuit") in May 2002\.{{Cite web \|date\=30 May 2002 \|title\=Alonso impresses in Jaguar test \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula\_one/2011180\.stm \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040430131259/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula\_one/2011180\.stm \|archive\-date\=30 April 2004 \|access\-date\=6 August 2015 \|publisher\=\[\[BBC Sport]]}} Alonso was promoted to the Renault race team for {{F1\|2003}}. He went on to break the records of youngest driver to win a pole position at the season's second race, the {{F1 GP\|2003\|Malaysian}}, and broke [Bruce McLaren](/wiki/Bruce_McLaren "Bruce McLaren")'s record as the youngest F1 race winner at the {{F1GP\|2003\|Hungarian}} later in the year.{{efn\|\[\[Sebastian Vettel]] is the current holder of the youngest Formula One pole position starter and youngest one and two\-time world champion.\|name\=VettelALO\|group\=}}{{Cite journal \|date\=July 2016 \|title\=The youth of today \|url\=https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/archive/article/july\-2016/40/youth\-today \|url\-status\=live \|journal\=\[\[Motor Sport (magazine)\|Motor Sport]] \|volume\=92 \|issue\=7 \|pages\=40–41 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512152112/https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/archive/article/july\-2016/40/youth\-today \|archive\-date\=12 May 2019 \|access\-date\=7 December 2019}} He achieved four podium finishes in 2003 and was sixth in the [World Drivers' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Drivers%27_Champions "List of Formula One World Drivers' Champions") with 55 points.
He remained with Renault for {{F1\|2004}}.{{Cite web \|date\=20 August 2003 \|title\=Renault name unchanged line\-up \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula\_one/3166183\.stm \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030822055118/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula\_one/3166183\.stm \|archive\-date\=22 August 2003 \|access\-date\=8 December 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[BBC Sport]]}} Alonso had an improved season: he finished the season\-opening {{F1GP\|2004\|Australian}} in third position and took three more podium finishes that year. He took pole position for the {{F1GP\|2004\|French}} but achieved no race victories en route to fourth in the World Drivers' Championship with 59 points. Alonso stayed at Renault for {{F1\|2005}}. He duelled with [McLaren](/wiki/McLaren "McLaren") driver [Kimi Räikkönen](/wiki/Kimi_R%C3%A4ikk%C3%B6nen "Kimi Räikkönen") for the World Championship in 2005 due to regulation changes prohibiting teams from changing tyres during a race and requiring engines to last for two races before they could be changed. Alonso's car was more reliable than Räikkönen's albeit lacking in speed.{{Cite web \|date\=1 January 2005 \|title\=2005: A first for Fernando \|url\=http://en.espn.co.uk/f1/motorsport/story/11691\.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210161104/http://en.espn.co.uk/f1/motorsport/story/11691\.html \|archive\-date\=10 December 2019 \|access\-date\=10 December 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[ESPN]]}} Alonso eclipsed [Emerson Fittipaldi](/wiki/Emerson_Fittipaldi "Emerson Fittipaldi") as the youngest World Drivers' Champion, having won seven victories, six pole positions and fourteen podium finishes for 133 points altogether.
[thumb\|left\|Alonso won his second World Drivers' Championship at the [2006 Brazilian Grand Prix](/wiki/2006_Brazilian_Grand_Prix "2006 Brazilian Grand Prix")](/wiki/File:Fernando_Alonso_2006_Brazil.jpg "Fernando Alonso 2006 Brazil.jpg")
He signed a contract extension with Renault for {{F1\|2006}} in April 2005\.{{Cite news \|last\=Moffitt \|first\=Alastair \|date\=20 December 2005 \|title\=Alonso to make shock switch from Renault to McLaren \|work\=\[\[The Independent]] \|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/motor\-racing/alonso\-to\-make\-shock\-switch\-from\-renault\-to\-mclaren\-520190\.html \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=11 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428113233/https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/motor\-racing/alonso\-to\-make\-shock\-switch\-from\-renault\-to\-mclaren\-520190\.html \|archive\-date\=28 April 2019}} Bookmakers installed Alonso as the favourite to retain the Drivers' Championship.{{Cite news \|last\=Roebuck \|first\=Dan \|date\=10 March 2006 \|title\=Renault reliability gives champion edge \|work\=\[\[The Guardian]] \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2006/mar/10/formulaone.sport \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=11 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211102454/https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2006/mar/10/formulaone.sport \|archive\-date\=11 December 2019}} His primary competition was Ferrari driver [Michael Schumacher](/wiki/Michael_Schumacher "Michael Schumacher").{{Cite news \|last\=Allen \|first\=James \|date\=20 October 2006 \|title\=To Alonso, the title – to Schumacher, the legend \|work\=\[\[Financial Times]] \|url\=https://www.ft.com/content/649ead2e\-6061\-11db\-a716\-0000779e2340 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=11 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211162731/https://www.ft.com/content/649ead2e\-6061\-11db\-a716\-0000779e2340 \|archive\-date\=11 December 2019}} Alonso won six of the first nine races and finished no lower than second to lead the championship with 84 out of a possible 90 points. An [Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile](/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Internationale_de_l%27Automobile "Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile") (FIA; F1's governing body)\-imposed ban on Renault's [tuned mass damper](/wiki/Tuned_mass_damper "Tuned mass damper") device to slow Alonso and an increase of development into Schumacher's Ferrari for competitiveness saw the two tied on points entering the season's penultimate round, the {{F1GP\|2006\|Japanese}}. Alonso won the race as Schumacher retired due to an engine failure whilst leading. He needed to score one point at the season\-ending {{F1GP\|2006\|Brazilian}} for a second title.{{Cite news \|last\=Garside \|first\=Kevin \|date\=11 October 2006 \|title\=Alonso to play safe in Brazil \|work\=\[\[The Daily Telegraph]] \|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/columnists/kevingarside/2347765/Alonso\-to\-play\-safe\-in\-Brazil.html \|url\-status\=live \|url\-access\=limited \|access\-date\=11 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211162731/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/columnists/kevingarside/2347765/Alonso\-to\-play\-safe\-in\-Brazil.html \|archive\-date\=11 December 2019}} Alonso won the championship by finishing second and was Formula 1's youngest double World Champion.{{efn\|name\=VettelALO}}{{clear}}
#### McLaren and second stint with Renault (2007–2009\)
[thumb\|Alonso en route to victory at the [2007 Malaysian Grand Prix](/wiki/2007_Malaysian_Grand_Prix "2007 Malaysian Grand Prix")](/wiki/File:Fernando_Alonso_2007_Malaysia.jpg "Fernando Alonso 2007 Malaysia.jpg")
He and McLaren team owner [Ron Dennis](/wiki/Ron_Dennis "Ron Dennis") met secretly in Japan after Dennis talked to Alonso about driving for the team in the future and Alonso expressed interest in the idea. Both men agreed to a three\-year contract for Alonso to drive for McLaren starting from {{F1\|2007}}.{{Cite news \|last\=Baldwin \|first\=Alan \|date\=7 December 2006 \|title\=How Alonso switched to McLaren? \|work\=\[\[Rediff.com]] \|agency\=\[\[Reuters]] \|url\=https://www.rediff.com/sports/2006/dec/07alonso.htm \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=25 November 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080616214228/http://www.rediff.com/sports/2006/dec/07alonso.htm \|archive\-date\=16 June 2008}}{{Cite web \|last\=Benson \|first\=Andrew \|date\=19 November 2018 \|title\=Fernando Alonso: Lewis Hamilton, Ron Dennis \& where it started to go wrong at McLaren in 2007 \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/46225204 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181205001319/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/46225204 \|archive\-date\=5 December 2018 \|access\-date\=11 December 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[BBC Sport]]}} Alonso's contract with Renault expired on 31 December 2006, and he was not granted an early release for sponsorship reasons.{{Cite web \|last\=Noble \|first\=Jonathan \|date\=15 December 2006 \|title\=More security, no stickers for Alonso debut \|url\=http://classic.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/56024/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211171342/http://classic.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/56024/ \|archive\-date\=11 December 2019 \|access\-date\=11 December 2019 \|website\=\[\[Autosport]]}} Renault allowed Alonso to make his first appearance for McLaren in a test session at the [Circuito de Jerez](/wiki/Circuito_de_Jerez "Circuito de Jerez") in November 2006\.{{Cite news \|last\=Spurgeon \|first\=Brad \|date\=15 December 2006 \|title\=Champions All Around \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|url\=https://rendezvous.blogs.nytimes.com/2006/12/15/champions\-all\-around/ \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=11 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001070130/https://rendezvous.blogs.nytimes.com/2006/12/15/champions\-all\-around/ \|archive\-date\=1 October 2019}} His main competitors in 2007 were his teammate [Lewis Hamilton](/wiki/Lewis_Hamilton "Lewis Hamilton") and Räikkönen at Ferrari. Alonso achieved four Grand Prix victories in [Malaysia](/wiki/2007_Malaysian_Grand_Prix "2007 Malaysian Grand Prix"), [Monaco](/wiki/2007_Monaco_Grand_Prix "2007 Monaco Grand Prix"), [Europe](/wiki/2007_European_Grand_Prix "2007 European Grand Prix") and [Italy](/wiki/2007_Italian_Grand_Prix "2007 Italian Grand Prix") and led the championship until Hamilton overtook him.{{Cite web \|last\=Harden \|first\=Oliver \|date\=17 December 2014 \|title\=Fernando Alonso and McLaren: Where It Went Wrong in 2007 \|url\=https://bleacherreport.com/articles/2302639\-fernando\-alonso\-and\-mclaren\-where\-it\-went\-wrong\-in\-2007 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212093514/https://bleacherreport.com/articles/2302639\-fernando\-alonso\-and\-mclaren\-where\-it\-went\-wrong\-in\-2007 \|archive\-date\=12 December 2019 \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[Bleacher Report]]}} Prior to the season's final round, the {{F1 GP\|2007\|Brazilian}}, he had 103 championship points to Räikkönen's 100 and Hamilton's 107, and needed to win the race and for his teammate to finish third or lower for his third title.{{Cite news \|date\=18 October 2007 \|title\=Formula One title permutations \|work\=\[\[Reuters]] \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia\-30043820071018 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212093517/https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia\-30043820071018 \|archive\-date\=12 December 2019}} Alonso finished the event third for third overall with 109 points. He had the same number of points as Hamilton; the tie was broken on count\-back as Hamilton finished second more often than Alonso.{{Cite web \|date\=1 December 2018 \|title\=17 surprising Fernando Alonso facts – one for each of his F1 seasons \|url\=https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.17\-surprising\-fernando\-alonso\-facts\-one\-for\-each\-of\-his\-f1\-seasons.2QM5BOQyakieK6KeMAG68G.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212093517/https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.17\-surprising\-fernando\-alonso\-facts\-one\-for\-each\-of\-his\-f1\-seasons.2QM5BOQyakieK6KeMAG68G.html \|archive\-date\=12 December 2019 \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|website\=\[\[Formula1\.com]]}}
[thumb\|left\|Alonso took a controversial victory at the [2008 Singapore Grand Prix](/wiki/2008_Singapore_Grand_Prix "2008 Singapore Grand Prix"), after his teammate, [Nelson Piquet Jr.](/wiki/Nelson_Piquet_Jr. "Nelson Piquet Jr."), was ordered to crash deliberately.](/wiki/File:Singapore_grand_prix_2008_alonso_win.jpg "Singapore grand prix 2008 alonso win.jpg")
Throughout the season, Alonso and Hamilton were involved in a number of incidents, such as the [espionage scandal](/wiki/2007_Formula_One_espionage_controversy "2007 Formula One espionage controversy") and the flare\-up during qualifying for the {{F1GP\|2007\|Hungarian}} when Hamilton disobeyed a team instruction, thus disadvantaging Alonso, and Alonso responded by delaying Hamilton in the pit lane.{{Cite web \|last\=Benson \|first\=Andrew \|date\=19 November 2018 \|title\=Fernando Alonso: Lewis Hamilton, McLaren, 'spy\-gate' \& threats \& demands to Ron Dennis \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/46226823 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926080923/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/46226823 \|archive\-date\=26 September 2019 \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[BBC Sport]]}} The tensions culminated in Alonso and McLaren terminating their contract by mutual consent in November.{{Cite news \|last\=Rodríguez \|first\=Jaime \|date\=2 November 2007 \|title\=Alonso: 'En McLaren, nunca me sentí en casa' \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=Alonso: 'At McLaren, I never felt at home' \|work\=\[\[El Mundo (Spain)\|El Mundo]] \|url\=https://www.elmundo.es/elmundodeporte/2007/11/02/motor/1194002469\.html \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212161345/https://www.elmundo.es/elmundodeporte/2007/11/02/motor/1194002469\.html \|archive\-date\=12 December 2019}} Alonso was forbidden from joining a team whom McLaren considered their primary challengers for {{F1\|2008}}.{{Cite web \|title\=Alonso: Why I quit McLaren \|date\=2 November 2007 \|url\=https://www.eurosport.com/formula\-1/season/2007/alonso\-why\-i\-quit\-mclaren\_sto1368239/story.shtml \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212161346/https://www.eurosport.com/formula\-1/season/2007/alonso\-why\-i\-quit\-mclaren\_sto1368239/story.shtml \|archive\-date\=12 December 2019 \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[Eurosport]]}} After rejecting offers from several teams,{{Cite news \|last\=González \|first\=Elvira \|date\=30 October 2013 \|title\=Cuando Alonso pudo sur Vettel: A finales de Vettel, tras dejar McLaren, el asturiano tenia a Red Bull como primera opción \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=When Alonso could replace Vettel: At the end of Vettel, after leaving McLaren, the Spaniard had Red Bull as the first option \|page\=26 \|work\=\[\[Mundo Deportivo]] \|url\=http://hemeroteca.mundodeportivo.com/preview/2013/10/30/pagina\-26/13038734/pdf.html \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212183512/http://hemeroteca.mundodeportivo.com/preview/2013/10/30/pagina\-26/13038734/pdf.html \|archive\-date\=12 December 2019}} he signed a two\-year contract to rejoin Renault from 2008 because of the manufacturer's long\-term commitment to F1 and on\-track record.{{Cite news \|date\=11 December 2007 \|title\=Alonso dreams of a perfect season \|publisher\=\[\[RTÉ Sport]] \|url\=https://www.rte.ie/sport/motorsport/2007/1211/225752\-alonsof/ \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212231905/https://www.rte.ie/sport/motorsport/2007/1211/225752\-alonsof/ \|archive\-date\=12 December 2019}}{{Cite web \|date\=10 December 2007 \|title\=Alonso opts for return to Renault \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula\_one/7136498\.stm \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805141904/https://secure\-uk.imrworldwide.com/cgi\-bin/m?rnd\=1628173144082\&ci\=bbc\&cg\=0\&sr\=1600x1000\&ts\=v51\.js\&cd\=24≶\=en\-US\&je\=n\&ck\=y\&tz\=0\&ct\=\&hp\=\&tl\=BBC%20SPORT%20%7C%20Motorsport%20%7C%20Formula%20One%20%7C%20Alonso%20opts%20for%20return%20to%20Renault\&si\=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2Fsport2%2Fhi%2Fmotorsport%2Fformula\_one%2F7136498\.stm\&rp\= \|archive\-date\=5 August 2021 \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[BBC Sport]]}} Alonso's car lacked power early on due to an imposed moratorium in development and he scored nine points in the first seven races.{{Cite news \|last\=Cary \|first\=Tom \|date\=23 March 2009 \|title\=Fernando Alonso: F1 2009 driver profile \|work\=\[\[The Daily Telegraph]] \|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/motorsport/formulaone/lotus/5007362/Fernando\-Alonso\-F1\-2009\-driver\-profile.html \|url\-status\=live \|url\-access\=limited \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212231944/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/motorsport/formulaone/lotus/5007362/Fernando\-Alonso\-F1\-2009\-driver\-profile.html \|archive\-date\=12 December 2019}} He was thereafter able to improve his performance later due to aerodynamic developments to the car's and won in [Singapore](/wiki/2008_Singapore_Grand_Prix "2008 Singapore Grand Prix") and [Japan](/wiki/2008_Japanese_Grand_Prix "2008 Japanese Grand Prix"); the former race saw Renault order his teammate [Nelson Piquet Jr.](/wiki/Nelson_Piquet_Jr. "Nelson Piquet Jr.") to crash deliberately and trigger the deployment of the [safety car](/wiki/Safety_car "Safety car") in what became known as "[crashgate](/wiki/Renault_Formula_One_crash_controversy "Renault Formula One crash controversy")". Alonso scored more points than any other driver in the final five races with 43\.{{Cite news \|last\=Allievi \|first\=Pino \|date\=27 December 2008 \|title\=Top 10 Gazzetta E' Alonso il numero 1 \|language\=it \|trans\-title\=Top 10 Gazzetta Alonso is number 1 \|work\=\[\[La Gazzetta dello Sport]] \|url\=http://archiviostorico.gazzetta.it//2008/dicembre/27/Top\_Gazzetta\_Alonso\_numero\_1\_ga\_10\_081227026\.shtml \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212231938/http://archiviostorico.gazzetta.it//2008/dicembre/27/Top\_Gazzetta\_Alonso\_numero\_1\_ga\_10\_081227026\.shtml \|archive\-date\=12 December 2019}} He scored 61 points for fifth in the Drivers' Championship.
Alonso was due to become a free agent for {{F1\|2009}} if Renault were lower than third in the [Constructors' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Constructors%27_Champions "List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions").{{Cite web \|last\=Noble \|first\=Jonathan \|date\=4 July 2008 \|title\=Alonso to decide future after summer \|url\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/68815 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708080540/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/68815 \|archive\-date\=8 July 2008 \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|website\=Autosport}} After offers from [Red Bull Racing](/wiki/Red_Bull_Racing "Red Bull Racing") and [Honda](/wiki/Honda_in_Formula_One "Honda in Formula One"),{{Cite news \|last\=Henry \|first\=Alan \|date\=4 August 2008 \|title\=Alonso set for Honda move as staging post to long\-term Ferrari future \|work\=\[\[The Guardian]] \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2008/aug/04/formulaone.motorsports \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212231929/https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2008/aug/04/formulaone.motorsports \|archive\-date\=12 December 2019}} he re\-signed to Renault on a two\-year contract.{{Cite web \|last\=English \|first\=Steven \|date\=5 November 2008 \|title\=Renault retain Alonso and Piquet for '09 \|url\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/72010 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081108013026/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/72010 \|archive\-date\=8 November 2008 \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|website\=\[\[Autosport]]}} His car proved to be noncompetitive because it lacked a dual diffuser system and outright speed.{{Cite news \|last\=Tremayne \|first\=David \|date\=25 July 2009 \|title\=Fernando Alonso: 'With all the fights, this may be F1's worst year ever' \|work\=\[\[The Independent]] \|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/motor\-racing/fernando\-alonso\-with\-all\-the\-fights\-this\-may\-be\-f1s\-worst\-year\-ever\-1760567\.html \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=13 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213082110/https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/motor\-racing/fernando\-alonso\-with\-all\-the\-fights\-this\-may\-be\-f1s\-worst\-year\-ever\-1760567\.html \|archive\-date\=13 December 2019}} Alonso eschewed an aerodynamic front wing mandated in an attempt to make overtaking more possible since he did not believe it would help him. He scored points in eight races and achieved one podium finish: a third\-place at the {{F1GP\|2009\|Singapore}}.{{Cite web \|title\=Drivers: Fernando Alonso \|url\=https://www.grandprix.com/gpe/drv\-alofer.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213082114/https://www.grandprix.com/gpe/drv\-alofer.html \|archive\-date\=13 December 2019 \|access\-date\=13 December 2019 \|publisher\=GrandPrix.com}} Alonso won pole position for the {{F1GP\|2009\|Hungarian}} and led the first 12 laps before he retired following an incorrectly fitted right\-front wheel.{{Cite news \|last\=Caygill \|first\=Graham \|date\=28 July 2009 \|title\=Renault to fight race ban \|work\=\[\[The National (Abu Dhabi)\|The National]] \|url\=https://www.thenational.ae/sport/other\-sport/renault\-to\-fight\-race\-ban\-1\.529118 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=13 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213082113/https://www.thenational.ae/sport/other\-sport/renault\-to\-fight\-race\-ban\-1\.529118 \|archive\-date\=13 December 2019}} Alonso was ninth in the Drivers' Championship with 26 points, his lowest placing since he came sixth in 2003; he maintained his reputation as one of F1's best drivers.
#### Ferrari (2010–2014\)
[thumb\|Alonso won on his debut with Ferrari at the [2010 Bahrain Grand Prix](/wiki/2010_Bahrain_Grand_Prix "2010 Bahrain Grand Prix").](/wiki/File:Ferrari_Bahrain_2010.jpg "Ferrari Bahrain 2010.jpg")
Alonso agreed with Ferrari president [Luca Cordero di Montezemolo](/wiki/Luca_Cordero_di_Montezemolo "Luca Cordero di Montezemolo") to drive for Ferrari in 2009, but team principal [Jean Todt](/wiki/Jean_Todt "Jean Todt") extended the contracts of both [Felipe Massa](/wiki/Felipe_Massa "Felipe Massa") and Räikkönen to {{F1\|2010}}.{{Cite journal \|last\=Knutson \|first\=Dan \|date\=11 November 2009 \|title\=Forza Fernando! \|journal\=Auto Action \|issue\=1365 \|pages\=24–26 \|issn\=1320\-2073}} Alonso obtained a mid\-2009 agreement to drive for Ferrari from {{F1\|2011}} on but it was moved to 2010 after Renault were investigated for race fixing in Singapore and Räikkönen was released from the team.{{Cite web \|last\=Allen \|first\=James \|date\=1 October 2009 \|title\=Raikkonen and Domenicali differ on reasons why he was dropped \|url\=http://www.jamesallenonf1\.com/2009/10/raikkonen\-and\-domenicali\-differ\-on\-reasons\-why\-he\-was\-dropped/ \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111115201957/http://www.jamesallenonf1\.com/2009/10/raikkonen\-and\-domenicali\-differ\-on\-reasons\-why\-he\-was\-dropped/ \|archive\-date\=15 November 2011 \|access\-date\=13 December 2019 \|publisher\=James Allen on F1}} McLaren's Hamilton and Button and Red Bull's of [Sebastian Vettel](/wiki/Sebastian_Vettel "Sebastian Vettel") and [Mark Webber](/wiki/Mark_Webber_%28racing_driver%29 "Mark Webber (racing driver)") were Alonso's main championship competition.{{Cite web \|last\=Holt \|first\=Sarah \|date\=23 September 2010 \|title\=Fernando Alonso is main threat – Lewis Hamilton \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula\_one/9027425\.stm \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924044759/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/motorsport/formula\_one/9027425\.stm \|archive\-date\=24 September 2010 \|access\-date\=13 December 2019 \|publisher\=BBC Sport}} He won five races that season and entered the season\-ending {{F1 GP\|2010\|Abu Dhabi}} leading by eight points after being 47 behind mid\-season following errors. Alonso finished runner\-up to Vettel after finishing seventh thereby losing 19 points to Vettel who won the race.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/88264\|first\=Simon\|last\=Strang\|title\=Defeated Alonso defends pit strategy\|work\=autosport.com\|publisher\=\[\[Haymarket Group\|Haymarket Publications]]\|date\=14 November 2010\|access\-date\=19 November 2010\|archive\-date\=17 November 2010\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101117131913/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/88264\|url\-status\=live}}
His 2011 season was mixed: his car was built conservatively and lacked aerodynamic grip and tyre handling in qualifying.{{Cite journal \|last\=Cooper \|first\=Adam \|date\=February 2012 \|title\=Putting it all on red: has Fernando Alonso taken a reckless gamble by committing to Ferrari through 2017? Or is the Prancing Horse finally ready to fight the Red Bulls? \|url\=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A278510102/GPS?u\=wikipedia\&sid\=GPS\&xid\=1c0d42e2 \|url\-status\=live \|journal\=\[\[Racer (magazine)\|Racer]] \|pages\=36–38 \|url\-access\=subscription \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805141858/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p\=GPS\&u\=wikipedia\&id\=GALE%7CA278510102\&v\=2\.1\=r\&sid\=GPS\&asid\=1c0d42e2 \|archive\-date\=5 August 2021 \|access\-date\=19 December 2019 \|via\=Gale In Context: Biography}} He extracted additional pace from his car to claim ten podium finishes and win the {{F1GP\|2011\|British}} after a strategy error from Red Bull. His best qualification of the year was a second at the {{F1GP\|2011\|Canadian}} and he out\-qualified his teammate Massa fifteen times over the course of the season. Alonso was fourth overall with 257 points; he was in contention to finish second to eventual champion Vettel following a series of strong finishes until Webber won the season\-ending {{F1GP\|2011\|Brazilian}}.{{Cite web \|last\=Collantine \|first\=Keith \|date\=16 December 2011 \|title\=2011 F1 driver rankings no.2: Fernando Alonso \|url\=https://www.racefans.net/2011/12/16/2011\-f1\-driver\-rankings\-no2\-fernando\-alonso/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805141945/https://www.racefans.net/2011/12/16/2011\-f1\-driver\-rankings\-no2\-fernando\-alonso/ \|archive\-date\=5 August 2021 \|access\-date\=18 December 2019 \|publisher\=RaceFans}}
[thumb\|left\|Alonso at the [2012 German Grand Prix](/wiki/2012_German_Grand_Prix "2012 German Grand Prix")](/wiki/File:2012_German_Grand_Prix_Fernando_Alonso.jpg "2012 German Grand Prix Fernando Alonso.jpg")
Ahead of {{F1\|2012}}, Alonso extended his contract with Ferrari until {{F1\|2016}}.{{Cite news \|date\=19 May 2011 \|title\=Alonso staying with Ferrari until 2016 \|publisher\=CNN \|url\=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/SPORT/motorsport/05/19/motorsport.ferrari.alonso.contract/index.html \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=19 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219095124/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/SPORT/motorsport/05/19/motorsport.ferrari.alonso.contract/index.html \|archive\-date\=19 December 2019}} His main competition for the title in 2012 was Vettel.{{Cite news \|last\=Spurgeon \|first\=Brad \|date\=23 November 2012 \|title\=The Crown Awaits: Vettel or Alonso? \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/24/sports/autoracing/24iht\-srf1prix24\.html \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=19 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219150236/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/24/sports/autoracing/24iht\-srf1prix24\.html \|archive\-date\=19 December 2019}} Wins in [Malaysia](/wiki/2012_Malaysian_Grand_Prix "2012 Malaysian Grand Prix"), [Valencia](/wiki/2012_European_Grand_Prix "2012 European Grand Prix") and [Germany](/wiki/2012_German_Grand_Prix "2012 German Grand Prix") and consistent points\-scoring finishes allowed him to build a 40\-point lead in the Drivers' Championship. Thereafter start\-line collisions, a mechanical failure and an improved performance for Vettel eliminated Alonso's points lead.{{Cite web \|last\=Benson \|first\=Andrew \|date\=13 November 2012 \|title\=Would Vettel or Alonso be more deserving champion? \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/andrewbenson/2012/11/benson.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521143813/https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/andrewbenson/2012/11/benson.html \|archive\-date\=21 May 2019 \|access\-date\=19 December 2019 \|publisher\=BBC Sport}}{{Cite web \|last\=Salisbury \|first\=Matt \|date\=27 November 2012 \|title\=How Vettel beat Alonso to the 2012 title \|url\=https://www.crash.net/f1/feature/186485/1/how\-vettel\-beat\-alonso\-to\-the\-2012\-title\-pt1 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219150244/https://www.crash.net/f1/feature/186485/1/how\-vettel\-beat\-alonso\-to\-the\-2012\-title\-pt1 \|archive\-date\=19 December 2019 \|access\-date\=19 December 2019 \|publisher\=Crash \|pages\=\[https://www.crash.net/f1/feature/186485/1/how\-vettel\-beat\-alonso\-to\-the\-2012\-title\-pt1 page 1] \& \[https://www.crash.net/f1/feature/186486/1/how\-vettel\-beat\-alonso\-to\-the\-2012\-title\-pt2 page 2]}} Alonso entered the season\-ending {{F1GP\|2012\|Brazilian}} 13 points behind Vettel and needed to finish third and for Vettel not to score points for a third championship. He was second and Vettel finished fourth, despite spinning on the opening lap, resigning Alonso to be runner\-up for the second time in his career on 278 points.
To begin {{F1\|2013}}, Alonso drove an aggressively designed car allowing him to win in [China](/wiki/2013_Chinese_Grand_Prix "2013 Chinese Grand Prix") and [Spain](/wiki/2013_Spanish_Grand_Prix "2013 Spanish Grand Prix") and consistently scored points.{{Cite journal \|last\=Straw \|first\=Edd \|date\=12 December 2013 \|title\=Alonso and Ferrari's season of discontent \|url\=http://porschecarshistory.com/wp\-content/old/lib/magazines/autosport/2013/12/AS2013\.12\.12\.pdf \|url\-status\=live \|journal\=Autosport \|volume\=214 \|issue\=11 \|pages\=52–54 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219204346/http://porschecarshistory.com/wp\-content/old/lib/magazines/autosport/2013/12/AS2013\.12\.12\.pdf \|archive\-date\=19 December 2019 \|access\-date\=19 December 2019}} He was slower than Vettel after a change of tyre compound at the {{F1GP\|2013\|German}} and front and rear bodywork components intended to improve his car's performance were ineffective.{{Cite web \|last\=Estrada \|first\=Chris \|date\=2 December 2013 \|title\=Ecclestone: Fernando Alonso "gave up a little bit" in 2013 \|url\=https://motorsports.nbcsports.com/2013/12/02/ecclestone\-fernando\-alonso\-gave\-up\-a\-little\-bit\-in\-2013/comment\-page\-1/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220091505/https://motorsports.nbcsports.com/2013/12/02/ecclestone\-fernando\-alonso\-gave\-up\-a\-little\-bit\-in\-2013/comment\-page\-1/ \|archive\-date\=20 December 2019 \|access\-date\=20 December 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[NBC Sports]]}} With 242 points, Alonso was second for the third time in his career. His relationship with Ferrari cooled due to his perception the team could not construct a title\-winning car.{{Cite web \|last\=Benson \|first\=Andrew \|date\=19 November 2018 \|title\=Fernando Alonso: The Ferrari years and the championships that got away \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/46228877 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926080949/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/46228877 \|archive\-date\=26 September 2019 \|access\-date\=20 December 2019 \|publisher\=BBC Sport}}
Alonso's 2014 season saw him achieve no race wins because his car was less powerful than the championship\-winning [Mercedes](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_in_Formula_One "Mercedes-Benz in Formula One") but took third in the {{F1GP\|2014\|Chinese}} and second in the {{F1 GP\|2014\|Hungarian}}. Alonso fell to sixth in the Drivers' Championship with 161 points. He qualified faster than his teammate Räikkönen 16 times by an average of more than {{frac\|1\|2}} second per lap in 2014\.
#### Return to McLaren (2015–2019\)
Alonso had severe disagreements with team principal [Marco Mattiacci](/wiki/Marco_Mattiacci "Marco Mattiacci") in 2014 and left Ferrari after contract negotiations to remain at the team fell through. He rejoined McLaren on a three\-year contract from {{F1\|2015}} to {{F1\|2017}} with no opt\-out clauses.{{Cite web \|last\=Gill \|first\=Pete \|date\=1 May 2015 \|title\=Fernando Alonso signed three\-year McLaren deal, reveals Ron Dennis \|url\=https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24184/9831212/fernando\-alonso\-signed\-three\-year\-mclaren\-deal\-reveals\-ron\-dennis \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221120332/https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24184/9831212/fernando\-alonso\-signed\-three\-year\-mclaren\-deal\-reveals\-ron\-dennis \|archive\-date\=21 December 2019 \|access\-date\=21 December 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[Sky Sports]]}} An accident during a pre\-season test session at Spain's [Circuit de Barcelona\-Catalunya](/wiki/Circuit_de_Barcelona-Catalunya "Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya") in February 2015 saw Alonso sustain a concussion and he was replaced by reserve driver [Kevin Magnussen](/wiki/Kevin_Magnussen "Kevin Magnussen") for the season\-opening {{F1 GP\|2015\|Australian}}.{{Cite news \|date\=3 March 2015 \|title\=McLaren driver Fernando Alonso to miss Formula One's season\-opening Australian GP \|work\=\[\[The National (Abu Dhabi)\|The National]] \|agency\=\[\[Agence France\-Presse]] \|url\=https://www.thenational.ae/sport/other\-sport/mclaren\-driver\-fernando\-alonso\-to\-miss\-formula\-one\-s\-season\-opening\-australian\-gp\-1\.4524 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=21 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221120332/https://www.thenational.ae/sport/other\-sport/mclaren\-driver\-fernando\-alonso\-to\-miss\-formula\-one\-s\-season\-opening\-australian\-gp\-1\.4524 \|archive\-date\=21 December 2019}} He endured a difficult season: his car's [Honda](/wiki/Honda_in_Formula_One "Honda in Formula One") engine was under\-powered and overall speed leaving him vulnerable to being passed.{{cite news \|last\=Finnerty \|first\=Joe \|date\=18 March 2016 \|title\=McLaren\-Honda bidding to launch revival at Australian Grand Prix \|publisher\=Surrey Live \|url\=https://www.getsurrey.co.uk/sport/other\-sport/motorsport/mclaren\-honda\-bidding\-launch\-revival\-11057872 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=21 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221150206/https://www.getsurrey.co.uk/sport/other\-sport/motorsport/mclaren\-honda\-bidding\-launch\-revival\-11057872 \|archive\-date\=21 December 2019}}{{Cite web \|last\=Benson \|first\=Andrew \|date\=18 March 2015 \|title\=McLaren: could one of F1's top teams struggle for years? \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/31942251 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221150404/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/31942251 \|archive\-date\=21 December 2019 \|access\-date\=21 December 2019 \|website\=BBC News}} Alonso scored points twice in 2015: a tenth in the {{F1GP\|2015\|British}} and a fifth in the {{F1GP\|2015\|Hungarian}} for 17th in the Drivers' Championship with 11 points. He was dissatisfied with a slow pace, which became evident after multiple radio complaints that year.{{Cite news \|last\=Douglas \|first\=Steve \|date\=8 June 2015 \|title\='Amateur' outburst exposes Alonso's frustration at McLaren \|work\=\[\[Associated Press]] \|url\=https://apnews.com/2add772049a94ab5ae7f87fa7453e567 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=21 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221150203/https://apnews.com/2add772049a94ab5ae7f87fa7453e567 \|archive\-date\=21 December 2019}}{{Cite web \|last\=Saunders \|first\=Nate \|date\=27 September 2015 \|title\=Fernando Alonso fumes at Honda's 'GP2 engine' at Suzuka \|url\=https://www.espn.co.uk/f1/story/\_/id/13751402/mclaren\-fernando\-alonso\-fumes\-honda\-gp2\-engine\-suzuka \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221150206/https://www.espn.co.uk/f1/story/\_/id/13751402/mclaren\-fernando\-alonso\-fumes\-honda\-gp2\-engine\-suzuka \|archive\-date\=21 December 2019 \|access\-date\=21 December 2019 \|publisher\=ESPN}}
[thumb\|Alonso at the [2016 Monaco Grand Prix](/wiki/2016_Monaco_Grand_Prix "2016 Monaco Grand Prix")](/wiki/File:Alonso_Monaco_2016.jpg "Alonso Monaco 2016.jpg")
Despite the unreliable and noncompetitive car,{{Cite news \|last\=Baldwin \|first\=Alan \|date\=28 November 2015 \|title\=Alonso could take a sabbatical in 2016, says Dennis \|work\=\[\[Reuters]] \|editor\-last\=Palmer \|editor\-first\=Justin \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/motor\-racing\-prix\-alonso/alonso\-could\-take\-a\-sabbatical\-in\-2016\-says\-dennis\-idINKBN0TH0D620151128 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=21 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221163856/https://www.reuters.com/article/motor\-racing\-prix\-alonso/alonso\-could\-take\-a\-sabbatical\-in\-2016\-says\-dennis\-idINKBN0TH0D620151128 \|archive\-date\=21 December 2019}} Alonso remained with McLaren for {{F1\|2016}}.{{Cite web \|last\=Barretto \|first\=Lawrence \|date\=4 December 2015 \|title\=Fernando Alonso committed to racing for McLaren in F1 in 2016 \|url\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/122139/alonso\-committed\-to\-racing\-in\-2016 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221163902/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/122139/alonso\-committed\-to\-racing\-in\-2016 \|archive\-date\=21 December 2019 \|access\-date\=21 December 2019 \|website\=Autosport}} Injuries from a heavy crash with [Esteban Gutiérrez](/wiki/Esteban_Guti%C3%A9rrez "Esteban Gutiérrez") at the season\-opening {{F1GP\|2016\|Australian}} caused him to miss the {{F1GP\|2016\|Bahrain}} on medical grounds and was replaced by reserve driver [Stoffel Vandoorne](/wiki/Stoffel_Vandoorne "Stoffel Vandoorne").{{Cite news \|last\=Johnson \|first\=Daniel \|date\=31 March 2016 \|title\=Doctors order Fernando Alonso to miss Bahrain Grand Prix \|work\=The Daily Telegraph \|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/formula\-1/2016/03/31/fernando\-alonso\-out\-of\-bahrain\-grand\-prix\-with\-crash\-injuries/ \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=21 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221203222/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/formula\-1/2016/03/31/fernando\-alonso\-out\-of\-bahrain\-grand\-prix\-with\-crash\-injuries/ \|archive\-date\=21 December 2019}} He qualified better than teammate Button fifteen times and scored points nine times, which included two fifth\-place finishes in the {{F1 GP\|2016\|Monaco}} and the {{F1 GP\|2016\|United States}}. He was tenth in the Drivers' Championship with 54 points.
Alonso stayed at McLaren in {{F1\|2017}},{{Cite web \|last\=Barretto \|first\=Lawrence \|date\=13 December 2016 \|title\=Fernando Alonso tells McLaren staff he's staying in 2017 \|url\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/127483/alonso\-tells\-mclaren\-staff\-he\-staying \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221203223/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/127483/alonso\-tells\-mclaren\-staff\-he\-staying \|archive\-date\=21 December 2019 \|access\-date\=21 December 2019 \|website\=Autosport}} but poor reliability affected his season, particularly during the early rounds, and his best finish was a sixth place in the {{F1 GP\|2017\|Hungarian}}. After three consecutive top\-ten finishes, Alonso finished 15th in the Drivers' Championship with 17 points.
[thumb\|Alonso at the [2018 Austrian Grand Prix](/wiki/2018_Austrian_Grand_Prix "2018 Austrian Grand Prix")](/wiki/File:FIA_F1_Austria_2018_Nr._14_Alonso.jpg "FIA F1 Austria 2018 Nr. 14 Alonso.jpg")
Following contract negotiations with the McLaren CEO [Zak Brown](/wiki/Zak_Brown "Zak Brown"),{{Cite news \|last\=Smith \|first\=Luke \|date\=13 January 2017 \|title\=McLaren planning to open Alonso F1 contract talks 'a few races into the year' \|newspaper\=Motorsportstalk {{pipe}} NBC Sports \|url\=https://motorsports.nbcsports.com/2017/01/13/mclaren\-planning\-to\-open\-alonso\-f1\-contract\-talks\-a\-few\-races\-into\-the\-year/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222144832/https://motorsports.nbcsports.com/2017/01/13/mclaren\-planning\-to\-open\-alonso\-f1\-contract\-talks\-a\-few\-races\-into\-the\-year/ \|archive\-date\=22 December 2019 \|access\-date\=22 December 2019 \|publisher\=NBC Sports}} Alonso signed a multi\-year extension with McLaren on 19 October 2017\.{{Cite web \|last\=Elizade \|first\=Pablo \|date\=19 October 2017 \|title\=Alonso says new McLaren deal is "long\-term" \|url\=https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/alonso\-says\-new\-mclaren\-deal\-is\-long\-term\-967418/3052959/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222144831/https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/alonso\-says\-new\-mclaren\-deal\-is\-long\-term\-967418/3052959/ \|archive\-date\=22 December 2019 \|access\-date\=22 December 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[Motorsport.com]]}} He finished fifth at the season\-opening 2018 {{F1GP\|2018\|Australian}} and took nine top\-ten finishes. Alonso out\-qualified his teammate Stoffel Vandoorne at every race and drove quickly and aggressively. He became increasingly annoyed with certain drivers and his commitment to F1 waned after McLaren stopped developing their car to focus on {{F1\|2019}}.{{Cite web \|title\=Alonso will not race in Formula 1 in 2019 \|url\=https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/alonso\-will\-not\-race\-in\-formula\-1\-in\-2019/3158671/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203215505/https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/alonso\-will\-not\-race\-in\-formula\-1\-in\-2019/3158671/ \|archive\-date\=3 February 2020 \|access\-date\=8 February 2020 \|website\=www.motorsport.com \|date\=14 August 2018 \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|last\=Collantine \|first\=Keith \|date\=17 December 2018 \|title\=2018 F1 driver rankings \#4: Alonso \|url\=https://www.racefans.net/2018/12/17/2018\-f1\-driver\-rankings\-4\-alonso/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805141959/https://www.racefans.net/2018/12/17/2018\-f1\-driver\-rankings\-4\-alonso/ \|archive\-date\=5 August 2021 \|access\-date\=22 December 2019 \|publisher\=RaceFans}} Alonso was 11th in the Drivers' Championship with 50 points, and left the sport as a driver at the end of the 2018 season, citing a perceived lack of on\-track racing, the predictability of results and felt discussions away from racing about the broadcast of radio transmissions and polemics harmed the series.{{Cite journal \|last\=Straw \|first\=Edd \|date\=23 August 2018 \|title\=Why Alonso is leaving Formula 1 \|url\=https://www.pressreader.com/uk/autosport\-uk/20180823/281621011187929 \|url\-status\=live \|journal\=Autosport \|pages\=16–22 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222204116/https://www.pressreader.com/uk/autosport\-uk/20180823/281621011187929 \|archive\-date\=22 December 2019 \|access\-date\=22 December 2019}}
He remained at McLaren as a brand ambassador to aid and advise drivers and drove in select test sessions to develop their cars. Alonso drove the [MCL34](/wiki/McLaren_MCL34 "McLaren MCL34") during a two\-day in\-season post\-race Bahrain test in April 2019 to develop tyres for Pirelli.{{Cite web \|date\=28 March 2019 \|title\=Alonso to make F1 return in post\-race Bahrain test \|url\=https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\-to\-make\-f1\-return\-at\-post\-race\-bahrain\-test.7FpcdVdbZtd70nC1h3Fepa.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331103944/https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\-to\-make\-f1\-return\-at\-post\-race\-bahrain\-test.7FpcdVdbZtd70nC1h3Fepa.html \|archive\-date\=31 March 2019 \|access\-date\=7 April 2019 \|publisher\=Formula One}} No further runs were planned for him and McLaren focused on their current drivers.{{Cite web \|last\=Larkham \|first\=Lewis \|date\=23 June 2019 \|title\=McLaren has no more F1 runs planned for Alonso \|url\=https://www.crash.net/f1/news/923639/1/mclaren\-has\-no\-more\-f1\-runs\-planned\-alonso \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813083215/https://www.crash.net/f1/news/923639/1/mclaren\-has\-no\-more\-f1\-runs\-planned\-alonso \|archive\-date\=13 August 2020 \|access\-date\=28 July 2020 \|publisher\=Crash}} Alonso's ambassador contract with McLaren expired at the end of 2019, and was not renewed for 2020\.{{Cite web \|last\=Noble \|first\=Jonathan \|date\=20 January 2020 \|title\=Alonso no longer a McLaren ambassador \|url\=https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/alonso\-ends\-mclaren\-relationship\-ambassador/4665379/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200121190019/https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/alonso\-ends\-mclaren\-relationship\-ambassador/4665379/ \|archive\-date\=21 January 2020 \|access\-date\=20 January 2020 \|publisher\=Motorsport.com}}
#### Alpine (2021–2022\)
[thumb\|Alonso at the [2021 Austrian Grand Prix](/wiki/2021_Austrian_Grand_Prix "2021 Austrian Grand Prix"), upon his return to Formula One](/wiki/File:FIA_F1_Austria_2021_Nr._14_Alonso.jpg "FIA F1 Austria 2021 Nr. 14 Alonso.jpg")
Alonso was signed to drive for [Alpine F1 Team](/wiki/Alpine_F1_Team "Alpine F1 Team") for the {{F1\|2021}} season,{{Cite web \|last\=Balseiro \|first\=Jesús \|date\=7 July 2020 \|title\=Alonso está de vuelta \|trans\-title\=Alonso is back \|url\=https://as.com/motor/2020/07/07/formula\_1/1594121714\_805810\.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031055134/https://as.com/motor/2020/07/07/formula\_1/1594121714\_805810\.html \|archive\-date\=31 October 2020 \|access\-date\=28 July 2020 \|website\=\[\[Diario AS]] \|language\=es}} alongside [Esteban Ocon](/wiki/Esteban_Ocon "Esteban Ocon"), with Renault having rebranded the team under its new name. In preparation for his F1 return, Alonso performed four testing days driving the [Renault R.S.18](/wiki/Renault_R.S.18 "Renault R.S.18") and was quickest in the post\-2020 season young driver's test driving the [Renault R.S.20](/wiki/Renault_R.S.20 "Renault R.S.20") for Renault.{{Cite web \|date\=13 October 2020 \|title\=Alonso says 'it's like a new beginning' as he gets first taste of 2020 Renault in Barcelona test \|url\=https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\-says\-its\-like\-a\-new\-beginning\-as\-he\-gets\-first\-taste\-of\-2020\-renault.7f9tTX9yyqCVfCtEbwxgcG.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124210029/https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\-says\-its\-like\-a\-new\-beginning\-as\-he\-gets\-first\-taste\-of\-2020\-renault.7f9tTX9yyqCVfCtEbwxgcG.html \|archive\-date\=24 January 2021 \|access\-date\=13 October 2020 \|website\=\[\[Formula1\.com]]}}{{Cite web \|last\=Morlidge \|first\=Matt \|date\=15 December 2020 \|title\=Fernando Alonso tops 'young driver test' for Renault on F1 2020's last day \|url\=https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12433/12162529/fernando\-alonso\-tops\-young\-driver\-test\-for\-renault\-on\-f1\-2020s\-last\-day \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526030231/https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12433/12162529/fernando\-alonso\-tops\-young\-driver\-test\-for\-renault\-on\-f1\-2020s\-last\-day \|archive\-date\=26 May 2021 \|access\-date\=15 February 2021 \|website\=\[\[Sky Sports]] \|language\=en}} In his first race with Alpine at the [2021 Bahrain Grand Prix](/wiki/2021_Bahrain_Grand_Prix "2021 Bahrain Grand Prix"), Alonso was forced to retire after plastic debris entered his brake duct.{{Cite web \|date\=28 March 2021 \|title\=Alonso says debris caused brake failure that curtailed 'fun' Formula 1 return \|url\=https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\-says\-debris\-caused\-brake\-failure\-that\-curtailed\-fun\-formula\-1\-return.5X4ZVDFmtdlZwiUjTsICKO.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506171956/https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\-says\-debris\-caused\-brake\-failure\-that\-curtailed\-fun\-formula\-1\-return.5X4ZVDFmtdlZwiUjTsICKO.html \|archive\-date\=6 May 2021 \|access\-date\=12 April 2021 \|website\=\[\[Formula1\.com]] \|language\=en}} At the [2021 Emilia Romagna Grand Prix](/wiki/2021_Emilia_Romagna_Grand_Prix "2021 Emilia Romagna Grand Prix") he finished in 11th after qualifying 15th,{{Cite web \|last\=Smith \|first\=Luke \|date\=17 April 2021 \|title\=Alonso: Lack of trust in Alpine F1 car costly at old\-school Imola \|url\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/alonso\-lack\-of\-trust\-in\-alpine\-car\-costly\-at\-old\-school\-imola/6314107/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506164000/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/alonso\-lack\-of\-trust\-in\-alpine\-car\-costly\-at\-old\-school\-imola/6314107/ \|archive\-date\=6 May 2021 \|access\-date\=29 April 2021 \|website\=\[\[Autosport]] \|language\=en}} with teammate Ocon finishing ahead in tenth, but both were upgraded one position after [Kimi Räikkönen](/wiki/Kimi_R%C3%A4ikk%C3%B6nen "Kimi Räikkönen") was penalised, giving Alonso his first points of the season.{{Cite web \|last\=Howard \|first\=Tom \|date\=18 April 2021 \|title\=Raikkonen loses points after post\-race penalty at Imola \|url\=https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/raikkonen\-loses\-points\-after\-post\-race\-imola\-penalty/6334393/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210525021858/https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/raikkonen\-loses\-points\-after\-post\-race\-imola\-penalty/6334393/ \|archive\-date\=25 May 2021 \|access\-date\=29 April 2021 \|website\=\[\[Motorsport.com]] \|language\=en}}
In [Hungary](/wiki/2021_Hungarian_Grand_Prix "2021 Hungarian Grand Prix"), Alonso temporarily led the race before he made a pit stop and fell to fourth, ahead of [Lewis Hamilton](/wiki/Lewis_Hamilton "Lewis Hamilton"). Teammate Ocon credited Alonso's defence against Hamilton with enabling him to achieve his first race victory.{{Cite web \|last\=Smith \|first\=Luke \|date\=2 August 2021 \|title\=Ocon credits Alonso for role in shock Hungary F1 race victory \|url\=https://au.motorsport.com/f1/news/ocon\-credits\-alonso\-for\-role\-in\-shock\-hungary\-f1\-race\-victory/6640589/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210802085918/https://au.motorsport.com/f1/news/ocon\-credits\-alonso\-for\-role\-in\-shock\-hungary\-f1\-race\-victory/6640589/ \|archive\-date\=2 August 2021 \|access\-date\=2 August 2021 \|website\=\[\[Motorsport.com]] \|language\=en}} In August 2021, Alonso invoked an option to extend his contract for the {{F1\|2022}} season.{{Cite web \|last\=Galloway \|first\=James \|date\=26 August 2021 \|title\=Fernando Alonso extends Formula 1 return into 2022 season with Alpine as contract confirmed \|url\=https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24184/12390884/fernando\-alonso\-extends\-formula\-1\-return\-into\-2022\-season\-with\-alpine\-as\-contract\-confirmed \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210826223228/https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24184/12390884/fernando\-alonso\-extends\-formula\-1\-return\-into\-2022\-season\-with\-alpine\-as\-contract\-confirmed \|archive\-date\=26 August 2021 \|access\-date\=26 August 2021 \|website\=\[\[Sky Sports]]}} Alonso scored points in multiple races following the summer break, finishing sixth in the [Netherlands](/wiki/2021_Dutch_Grand_Prix "2021 Dutch Grand Prix"),{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.gpfans.com/en/f1\-news/69385/why\-alonso\-was\-thinking\-of\-the\-worst\-during\-charge\-to\-sixth/\|title\=Why Alonso was "thinking of the worst" during charge to sixth\|date\=5 September 2021\|access\-date\=26 September 2021\|first\=Ewan\|last\=Gale\|website\=GP Fans\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927173709/https://www.gpfans.com/en/f1\-news/69385/why\-alonso\-was\-thinking\-of\-the\-worst\-during\-charge\-to\-sixth/ \|archive\-date\=27 September 2021}} eighth in [Italy](/wiki/2021_Italian_Grand_Prix "2021 Italian Grand Prix"),{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\-pleased\-with\-alpines\-points\-at\-monza\-after\-uncompetitive\-start\-to.6BsFj4MfI8xJX7OMQLxZHo.html\|title\=Alonso pleased with Alpine's points at Monza after 'uncompetitive' start to weekend\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917070706/https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\-pleased\-with\-alpines\-points\-at\-monza\-after\-uncompetitive\-start\-to.6BsFj4MfI8xJX7OMQLxZHo.html\|archive\-date\=17 September 2021\|access\-date\=26 September 2021\|website\=\[\[Formula1\.com]]\|date\=16 September 2021}} sixth in [Russia](/wiki/2021_Russian_Grand_Prix "2021 Russian Grand Prix"), having run in third in Russia before being forced to pit under wet conditions,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.racefans.net/2021/09/26/we\-never\-get\-lucky\-rues\-alonso\-after\-losing\-podium\-finish/\|title\="We never get lucky" rues Alonso after losing podium finish\|date\=26 September 2021\|first\=Keith\|last\=Collantine\|website\=RaceFans.net\|access\-date\=26 September 2021\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927174020/https://www.racefans.net/2021/09/26/we\-never\-get\-lucky\-rues\-alonso\-after\-losing\-podium\-finish/\|archive\-date\=27 September 2021}} and third in [Qatar](/wiki/2021_Qatar_Grand_Prix "2021 Qatar Grand Prix"). His third\-place finish at [Qatar](/wiki/2021_Qatar_Grand_Prix "2021 Qatar Grand Prix") was his first podium finish since the [2014 Hungarian Grand Prix](/wiki/2014_Hungarian_Grand_Prix "2014 Hungarian Grand Prix").
For the [2022 season](/wiki/2022_Formula_One_World_Championship "2022 Formula One World Championship"), Alonso remained with Alpine.{{cite web \|date\=10 March 2022 \|title\=2022 FIA Formula One World Championship – Entry List \|url\=https://www.fia.com/events/fia\-formula\-one\-world\-championship/season\-2022/2022\-fia\-formula\-one\-world\-championship\-entry \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220114204626/https://www.fia.com/events/fia\-formula\-one\-world\-championship/season\-2022/2022\-fia\-formula\-one\-world\-championship\-entry \|archive\-date\=14 January 2022 \|access\-date\=10 March 2022 \|publisher\=\[\[Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]]}} Alonso achieved his highest start driving for Alpine during wet qualifying for the [Canadian Grand Prix](/wiki/2022_Canadian_Grand_Prix "2022 Canadian Grand Prix"), starting in second, but had to endure questionable strategies and an engine issue that developed during the race. He dropped down to seventh, and furthermore, received a post\-race time penalty that dropped him down to ninth.{{Cite news \|last\=Benson \|first\=Andrew \|date\=2022\-06\-19 \|title\=Verstappen holds off Sainz to win in Canada \|language\=en\-GB \|work\=BBC Sport \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/formula1/61860298 \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-21 \|archive\-date\=21 June 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621172133/https://www.bbc.com/sport/formula1/61860298 \|url\-status\=live }}
#### Aston Martin (2023–)
Alonso joined [Aston Martin](/wiki/Aston_Martin_in_Formula_One "Aston Martin in Formula One") on a multi\-year deal in {{F1\|2023}} alongside [Lance Stroll](/wiki/Lance_Stroll "Lance Stroll").{{Cite web \|date\=1 August 2022 \|title\=Fernando Alonso signs to Aston Martin for 2023 on multi\-year contract \|url\=https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.breaking\-fernando\-alonso\-signs\-to\-aston\-martin\-for\-2023\-on\-multi\-year.1i8QwJht5v7dBCWFCcrqml.html \|access\-date\=2 August 2022 \|website\=Formula1 \|archive\-date\=1 August 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220801083548/https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.breaking\-fernando\-alonso\-signs\-to\-aston\-martin\-for\-2023\-on\-multi\-year.1i8QwJht5v7dBCWFCcrqml.html \|url\-status\=live }} He joined the team because he wanted a multi\-year contract extension, and Alpine was only willing to give him one more year in F1\.{{Cite web \|date\=1 August 2022 \|title\=Alpine thought it could treat Alonso as Piastri's seat\-warmer \|url\=https://the\-race.com/formula\-1/alpine\-thought\-it\-could\-treat\-alonso\-as\-piastris\-seat\-warmer/ \|access\-date\=16 October 2022 \|website\=The Race \|language\=en\-GB \|archive\-date\=16 October 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221016202427/https://the\-race.com/formula\-1/alpine\-thought\-it\-could\-treat\-alonso\-as\-piastris\-seat\-warmer/ \|url\-status\=live }}
[thumb\|Alonso at the [2023 Austrian Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_Austrian_Grand_Prix "2023 Austrian Grand Prix"), with [Aston Martin](/wiki/Aston_Martin_in_Formula_One "Aston Martin in Formula One")](/wiki/File:FIA_F1_Austria_2023_Nr._14_%281%29.jpg "FIA F1 Austria 2023 Nr. 14 (1).jpg")
[thumb\|Alonso at the [2024 Chinese Grand Prix](/wiki/2024_Chinese_Grand_Prix "2024 Chinese Grand Prix"), with [Aston Martin](/wiki/Aston_Martin_in_Formula_One "Aston Martin in Formula One")](/wiki/File:Fernando_Alonso_2024_Chinese_GP.jpg "Fernando Alonso 2024 Chinese GP.jpg")
On his Aston Martin debut at the [2023 Bahrain Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_Bahrain_Grand_Prix "2023 Bahrain Grand Prix"), Alonso, benefitting from the much\-improved machinery of the [Aston Martin AMR23](/wiki/Aston_Martin_AMR23 "Aston Martin AMR23"), recovered from a first\-lap contact with his teammate [Lance Stroll](/wiki/Lance_Stroll "Lance Stroll") without any damage and went on to finish in 3rd place, securing a podium finish and Aston's first since [Sebastian Vettel](/wiki/Sebastian_Vettel "Sebastian Vettel")'s podium at the [2021 Azerbaijan Grand Prix](/wiki/2021_Azerbaijan_Grand_Prix "2021 Azerbaijan Grand Prix") (the German would finish second at the [2021 Hungarian Grand Prix](/wiki/2021_Hungarian_Grand_Prix "2021 Hungarian Grand Prix") but would be disqualified due to insufficient fuel sample).{{Cite news \|last1\=Das \|first1\=Andrew \|last2\=Katz \|first2\=Josh \|date\=5 March 2023 \|title\=Verstappen Runs Away With Formula 1 Opener \|language\=en\-US \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/05/sports/autoracing/formula\-1\-race\-bahrain.html \|access\-date\=5 March 2023 \|issn\=0362\-4331 \|archive\-date\=5 March 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305101256/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/05/sports/autoracing/formula\-1\-race\-bahrain.html \|url\-status\=live }} Despite having to serve a penalty due to his car being off\-position at the starting grid, he finished in third again at the following race at the [2023 Saudi Arabian Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_Saudi_Arabian_Grand_Prix "2023 Saudi Arabian Grand Prix"); this marked his 100th podium, making him the sixth driver to have scored 100 podiums in his career. Following the race, he was issued another ten\-second penalty due to serving the first one improperly at his pit stop, dropping him to fourth behind [George Russell](/wiki/George_Russell_%28racing_driver%29 "George Russell (racing driver)");{{cite web\|url\=https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24184/12838550/fernando\-alonso\-hits\-out\-at\-poor\-show\-from\-fia\-amid\-time\-penalty\-farce\-at\-saudi\-arabian\-grand\-prixl\|title\=Fernando Alonso restored to third place at Saudi Arabian GP and hits out at 'poor show' from FIA\|website\=Sky Sports F1\|date\=19 March 2023\|access\-date\=19 March 2023\|archive\-date\=20 March 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320010634/https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24184/12838550/fernando\-alonso\-hits\-out\-at\-poor\-show\-from\-fia\-amid\-time\-penalty\-farce\-at\-saudi\-arabian\-grand\-prixl\|url\-status\=live}} however, the team's appeal was accepted and the second penalty was reversed, keeping his podium.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.breaking\-alonso\-loses\-p3\-and\-100th\-f1\-podium\-after\-receiving\-10s\-penalty\-in.4QbFJtlN8sUWqQXt4jJmmR.html\|title\='I am happy in the end with the result' – Alonso relieved after 100th career podium reinstated in Jeddah\|website\=Formula One website\|date\=19 March 2023\|access\-date\=22 March 2023\|archive\-date\=21 March 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321043117/https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.breaking\-alonso\-loses\-p3\-and\-100th\-f1\-podium\-after\-receiving\-10s\-penalty\-in.4QbFJtlN8sUWqQXt4jJmmR.html\|url\-status\=live}}
Alonso finished in third once again after a chaotic [Australian Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_Australian_Grand_Prix "2023 Australian Grand Prix"); the third and final restart of the session saw his car make contact with the Ferrari of [Carlos Sainz Jr.](/wiki/Carlos_Sainz_Jr. "Carlos Sainz Jr."), causing the latter driver to receive a five\-second penalty; due to this, Sainz would be classified in last place out of the finishing cars. Alonso's car was undamaged.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12433/12847996/australian\-gp\-max\-verstappen\-holds\-off\-lewis\-hamilton\-for\-victory\-after\-wild\-finish\-to\-chaotic\-race\|title\=Australian GP: Max Verstappen holds off Lewis Hamilton for victory after wild finish to chaotic race\|website\=\[\[Sky Sports F1]]\|date\=2 April 2023\|access\-date\=24 April 2023\|archive\-date\=9 April 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409110829/https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12433/12847996/australian\-gp\-max\-verstappen\-holds\-off\-lewis\-hamilton\-for\-victory\-after\-wild\-finish\-to\-chaotic\-race\|url\-status\=live}} Alonso agreed with Sainz's criticisms of the penalty, stating that it was "too harsh".{{cite web\|url\=https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/sainz\-blasts\-most\-unfair\-penalty\-ever\-seeks\-australian\-gp\-stewards\-explanation/10452169/\|title\=Sainz blasts "most unfair penalty ever", seeks Australian GP stewards' explanation\|website\=Motorsport.com\|last\=Cobb\|first\=Haydn\|date\=2 April 2023\|access\-date\=24 April 2023\|archive\-date\=12 April 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412190415/https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/sainz\-blasts\-most\-unfair\-penalty\-ever\-seeks\-australian\-gp\-stewards\-explanation/10452169/\|url\-status\=live}} The Aston Martins were plagued with [DRS](/wiki/Drag_reduction_system "Drag reduction system") issues during qualification of the [Azerbaijan Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_Azerbaijan_Grand_Prix "2023 Azerbaijan Grand Prix"), going on to qualify eighth in the new "sprint shootout" qualification{{cite web\|url\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\-azerbaijan\-gp\-sprint\-shootout\-report/10462311/\|title\=F1 Azerbaijan GP: Leclerc doubles up for sprint race pole despite crash\|last\=Boxall\-Legge\|first\=Jake\|website\=Autosport.com\|date\=29 April 2023\|access\-date\=2 May 2023\|archive\-date\=2 May 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502173647/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\-azerbaijan\-gp\-sprint\-shootout\-report/10462311/\|url\-status\=live}} and sixth for the main qualification session;{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\-azerbaijan\-gp\-leclerc\-beats\-red\-bulls\-for\-grand\-prix\-pole/10461826/\|title\=F1 Azerbaijan GP: Leclerc beats Red Bulls for grand prix pole\|first\=Jake\|last\=Boxall\-Legge\|date\=28 April 2023\|website\=Autosport\|access\-date\=2 May 2023\|archive\-date\=3 May 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230503013841/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\-azerbaijan\-gp\-leclerc\-beats\-red\-bulls\-for\-grand\-prix\-pole/10461826/\|url\-status\=live}} he would finish sixth in the sprint race,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/f1\-azerbaijan\-gp\-perez\-passes\-leclerc\-to\-win\-f1\-sprint/10462575/\|title\=F1 Azerbaijan GP: Perez passes Leclerc to win F1 sprint\|last\=Boxall\-Legge\|first\=Jake\|website\=Motorsport.com\|date\=29 April 2023\|access\-date\=2 May 2023\|archive\-date\=1 May 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230501205749/https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/f1\-azerbaijan\-gp\-perez\-passes\-leclerc\-to\-win\-f1\-sprint/10462575/\|url\-status\=live}} and fourth in the main race.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\-azerbaijan\-gp\-perez\-leads\-dominant\-red\-bull\-1\-2\-from\-leclerc/10463146/\|title\=F1 Azerbaijan GP: Perez leads dominant Red Bull 1\-2 from Leclerc\|last\=Boxall\-Legge\|first\=Jake\|website\=Autosport.com\|date\=30 April 2023\|access\-date\=2 May 2023\|archive\-date\=30 April 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430222636/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\-azerbaijan\-gp\-perez\-leads\-dominant\-red\-bull\-1\-2\-from\-leclerc/10463146/\|url\-status\=live}} It was at this point in time the car had dropped in performance, failing to secure podiums on a consistent basis, though he took two podium finishes at [Zandvoort](/wiki/2023_Dutch_Grand_Prix "2023 Dutch Grand Prix"),{{Cite news \|url\= https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\-dutch\-gp\-verstappen\-fends\-off\-alonso\-in\-red\-flagged\-rain\-hit\-race/10512346/ \|title\= F1 Dutch GP: Verstappen fends off Alonso in red\-flagged, rain hit race \|work\= \[\[Autosport]] \|date\= 27 August 2023 \|access\-date\= 28 August 2023 \|last\= Boxall\-Legge \|first\= Jake \|url\-access\= limited \|archive\-date\= 28 August 2023 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20230828021055/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\-dutch\-gp\-verstappen\-fends\-off\-alonso\-in\-red\-flagged\-rain\-hit\-race/10512346/ \|url\-status\= live }} where he recorded his first fastest lap since the [2017 Hungarian Grand Prix](/wiki/2017_Hungarian_Grand_Prix "2017 Hungarian Grand Prix"),{{Cite web \|title\=Fernando Alonso \- Fastests laps \|url\=https://www.statsf1\.com/en/fernando\-alonso/meilleur\-tour.aspx \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-09 \|website\=Statsf1 \|archive\-date\=4 November 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231104084145/https://www.statsf1\.com/en/fernando\-alonso/meilleur\-tour.aspx \|url\-status\=live }} and [São Paulo](/wiki/2023_S%C3%A3o_Paulo_Grand_Prix "2023 São Paulo Grand Prix"); the latter instance edging out [Sergio Pérez](/wiki/Sergio_P%C3%A9rez "Sergio Pérez") by 0\.053 seconds.{{cite news \|last1\=Benson \|first1\=Andrew \|title\='Alonso masterclass burnishes the legend of one of the greatest' \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/formula1/67329196 \|access\-date\=6 November 2023 \|work\=BBC Sport \|date\=5 November 2023 \|archive\-date\=6 November 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106063932/https://www.bbc.com/sport/formula1/67329196 \|url\-status\=live }} After a seventh\-place finish at the [Abu Dhabi Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_Abu_Dhabi_Grand_Prix "2023 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix"), Alonso ended the season fourth in the standings, scoring 206 points against his teammate Stroll's 74\. Alonso's fourth position in the standings was his highest finish since {{f1\|2013}}.
|
[
"### Formula One",
"#### Minardi and Renault (2001–2006\\)",
"[Cesare Fiorio](/wiki/Cesare_Fiorio \"Cesare Fiorio\"), the sports director, gave Alonso a test in a [Formula One](/wiki/Formula_One \"Formula One\") (F1\\) car at the [Circuito de Jerez](/wiki/Circuito_de_Jerez \"Circuito de Jerez\") in December 1999, as part of the Euro Open by Nissan's organising company RPM's agreement to give its series champion an opportunity to test at a higher level.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Sanz \\|first\\=Miguel \\|date\\=4 March 2009 \\|title\\=Alonso y Minardi, 10 años de una gran historia \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=Alonso and Minardi, 10 years of a great story \\|work\\=\\[\\[Marca (newspaper)\\|Marca]] \\|url\\=https://www.marca.com/blogs/elgrancirco/2009/03/04/alonso\\-y\\-minardi\\-10\\-anos\\-de\\-una\\-gran.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191128091729/https://www.marca.com/blogs/elgrancirco/2009/03/04/alonso\\-y\\-minardi\\-10\\-anos\\-de\\-una\\-gran.html \\|archive\\-date\\=28 November 2019}} He was Minardi's test and reserve driver in {{F1\\|2000}} before joining its race team in {{F1\\|2001}}. In a non\\-competitive car,{{Cite web \\|last\\=Cooper \\|first\\=Adam \\|date\\=21 March 2011 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso and the class of 2001 \\|url\\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/feature/3361/fernando\\-alonso\\-and\\-the\\-class\\-of\\-2001 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223154842/https://www.autosport.com/f1/feature/3361/fernando\\-alonso\\-and\\-the\\-class\\-of\\-2001 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2019 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Autosport]]}} Alonso's best result of the season was a tenth\\-place finish in the {{F1GP\\|2001\\|German}} and scored no [points](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Championship_points_scoring_systems \"List of Formula One World Championship points scoring systems\") for 23rd overall.",
"[thumb\\|Alonso at the [2003 British Grand Prix](/wiki/2003_British_Grand_Prix \"2003 British Grand Prix\")](/wiki/File:Fernando_Alonso_2003_Silverstone_9.jpg \"Fernando Alonso 2003 Silverstone 9.jpg\")\nHe signed as [Renault](/wiki/Renault_in_Formula_One \"Renault in Formula One\")'s test driver for {{F1\\|2002}} per the orders of manager [Flavio Briatore](/wiki/Flavio_Briatore \"Flavio Briatore\") to familiarise himself with the team and improve himself for the future.{{Cite web \\|date\\=24 June 2002 \\|title\\=Alonso's hopes for Renault race drive \\|url\\=http://www.formula1\\.com/news/headlines02/06/s9854\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020628020127/http://www.formula1\\.com/news/headlines02/06/s9854\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=28 June 2002 \\|access\\-date\\=7 December 2019 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Formula1\\.com]]}} Alonso worked with the engineering department to improve [Giancarlo Fisichella](/wiki/Giancarlo_Fisichella \"Giancarlo Fisichella\")'s and [Jenson Button](/wiki/Jenson_Button \"Jenson Button\")'s performance,{{Cite news \\|last\\=Williams \\|first\\=Richard \\|date\\=1 May 2005 \\|title\\=Interview with Fernando Alonso \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]] \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2005/may/02/formulaone.formulaone2005 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=25 November 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206163114/https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2005/may/02/formulaone.formulaone2005 \\|archive\\-date\\=6 December 2019}} and tested in Spain and the United Kingdom.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso Biography \\|url\\=https://www.racefans.net/fernando\\-alonso/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217182803/http://www.racefans.net/fernando\\-alonso/ \\|archive\\-date\\=17 December 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=6 December 2019 \\|website\\=Racefans.net}} He drove a [Jaguar](/wiki/Jaguar_Racing \"Jaguar Racing\") in an evaluation session against test drivers [André Lotterer](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Lotterer \"André Lotterer\") and [James Courtney](/wiki/James_Courtney \"James Courtney\") at the [Silverstone Circuit](/wiki/Silverstone_Circuit \"Silverstone Circuit\") in May 2002\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=30 May 2002 \\|title\\=Alonso impresses in Jaguar test \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula\\_one/2011180\\.stm \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040430131259/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula\\_one/2011180\\.stm \\|archive\\-date\\=30 April 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=6 August 2015 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[BBC Sport]]}} Alonso was promoted to the Renault race team for {{F1\\|2003}}. He went on to break the records of youngest driver to win a pole position at the season's second race, the {{F1 GP\\|2003\\|Malaysian}}, and broke [Bruce McLaren](/wiki/Bruce_McLaren \"Bruce McLaren\")'s record as the youngest F1 race winner at the {{F1GP\\|2003\\|Hungarian}} later in the year.{{efn\\|\\[\\[Sebastian Vettel]] is the current holder of the youngest Formula One pole position starter and youngest one and two\\-time world champion.\\|name\\=VettelALO\\|group\\=}}{{Cite journal \\|date\\=July 2016 \\|title\\=The youth of today \\|url\\=https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/archive/article/july\\-2016/40/youth\\-today \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Motor Sport (magazine)\\|Motor Sport]] \\|volume\\=92 \\|issue\\=7 \\|pages\\=40–41 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512152112/https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/archive/article/july\\-2016/40/youth\\-today \\|archive\\-date\\=12 May 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=7 December 2019}} He achieved four podium finishes in 2003 and was sixth in the [World Drivers' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Drivers%27_Champions \"List of Formula One World Drivers' Champions\") with 55 points.",
"He remained with Renault for {{F1\\|2004}}.{{Cite web \\|date\\=20 August 2003 \\|title\\=Renault name unchanged line\\-up \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula\\_one/3166183\\.stm \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030822055118/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula\\_one/3166183\\.stm \\|archive\\-date\\=22 August 2003 \\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[BBC Sport]]}} Alonso had an improved season: he finished the season\\-opening {{F1GP\\|2004\\|Australian}} in third position and took three more podium finishes that year. He took pole position for the {{F1GP\\|2004\\|French}} but achieved no race victories en route to fourth in the World Drivers' Championship with 59 points. Alonso stayed at Renault for {{F1\\|2005}}. He duelled with [McLaren](/wiki/McLaren \"McLaren\") driver [Kimi Räikkönen](/wiki/Kimi_R%C3%A4ikk%C3%B6nen \"Kimi Räikkönen\") for the World Championship in 2005 due to regulation changes prohibiting teams from changing tyres during a race and requiring engines to last for two races before they could be changed. Alonso's car was more reliable than Räikkönen's albeit lacking in speed.{{Cite web \\|date\\=1 January 2005 \\|title\\=2005: A first for Fernando \\|url\\=http://en.espn.co.uk/f1/motorsport/story/11691\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210161104/http://en.espn.co.uk/f1/motorsport/story/11691\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=10 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ESPN]]}} Alonso eclipsed [Emerson Fittipaldi](/wiki/Emerson_Fittipaldi \"Emerson Fittipaldi\") as the youngest World Drivers' Champion, having won seven victories, six pole positions and fourteen podium finishes for 133 points altogether.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Alonso won his second World Drivers' Championship at the [2006 Brazilian Grand Prix](/wiki/2006_Brazilian_Grand_Prix \"2006 Brazilian Grand Prix\")](/wiki/File:Fernando_Alonso_2006_Brazil.jpg \"Fernando Alonso 2006 Brazil.jpg\")\nHe signed a contract extension with Renault for {{F1\\|2006}} in April 2005\\.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Moffitt \\|first\\=Alastair \\|date\\=20 December 2005 \\|title\\=Alonso to make shock switch from Renault to McLaren \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Independent]] \\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/motor\\-racing/alonso\\-to\\-make\\-shock\\-switch\\-from\\-renault\\-to\\-mclaren\\-520190\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=11 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428113233/https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/motor\\-racing/alonso\\-to\\-make\\-shock\\-switch\\-from\\-renault\\-to\\-mclaren\\-520190\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=28 April 2019}} Bookmakers installed Alonso as the favourite to retain the Drivers' Championship.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Roebuck \\|first\\=Dan \\|date\\=10 March 2006 \\|title\\=Renault reliability gives champion edge \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]] \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2006/mar/10/formulaone.sport \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=11 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211102454/https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2006/mar/10/formulaone.sport \\|archive\\-date\\=11 December 2019}} His primary competition was Ferrari driver [Michael Schumacher](/wiki/Michael_Schumacher \"Michael Schumacher\").{{Cite news \\|last\\=Allen \\|first\\=James \\|date\\=20 October 2006 \\|title\\=To Alonso, the title – to Schumacher, the legend \\|work\\=\\[\\[Financial Times]] \\|url\\=https://www.ft.com/content/649ead2e\\-6061\\-11db\\-a716\\-0000779e2340 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=11 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211162731/https://www.ft.com/content/649ead2e\\-6061\\-11db\\-a716\\-0000779e2340 \\|archive\\-date\\=11 December 2019}} Alonso won six of the first nine races and finished no lower than second to lead the championship with 84 out of a possible 90 points. An [Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile](/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Internationale_de_l%27Automobile \"Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile\") (FIA; F1's governing body)\\-imposed ban on Renault's [tuned mass damper](/wiki/Tuned_mass_damper \"Tuned mass damper\") device to slow Alonso and an increase of development into Schumacher's Ferrari for competitiveness saw the two tied on points entering the season's penultimate round, the {{F1GP\\|2006\\|Japanese}}. Alonso won the race as Schumacher retired due to an engine failure whilst leading. He needed to score one point at the season\\-ending {{F1GP\\|2006\\|Brazilian}} for a second title.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Garside \\|first\\=Kevin \\|date\\=11 October 2006 \\|title\\=Alonso to play safe in Brazil \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Daily Telegraph]] \\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/columnists/kevingarside/2347765/Alonso\\-to\\-play\\-safe\\-in\\-Brazil.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|url\\-access\\=limited \\|access\\-date\\=11 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211162731/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/columnists/kevingarside/2347765/Alonso\\-to\\-play\\-safe\\-in\\-Brazil.html \\|archive\\-date\\=11 December 2019}} Alonso won the championship by finishing second and was Formula 1's youngest double World Champion.{{efn\\|name\\=VettelALO}}{{clear}}",
"#### McLaren and second stint with Renault (2007–2009\\)",
"[thumb\\|Alonso en route to victory at the [2007 Malaysian Grand Prix](/wiki/2007_Malaysian_Grand_Prix \"2007 Malaysian Grand Prix\")](/wiki/File:Fernando_Alonso_2007_Malaysia.jpg \"Fernando Alonso 2007 Malaysia.jpg\")",
"He and McLaren team owner [Ron Dennis](/wiki/Ron_Dennis \"Ron Dennis\") met secretly in Japan after Dennis talked to Alonso about driving for the team in the future and Alonso expressed interest in the idea. Both men agreed to a three\\-year contract for Alonso to drive for McLaren starting from {{F1\\|2007}}.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Baldwin \\|first\\=Alan \\|date\\=7 December 2006 \\|title\\=How Alonso switched to McLaren? \\|work\\=\\[\\[Rediff.com]] \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\|url\\=https://www.rediff.com/sports/2006/dec/07alonso.htm \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=25 November 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080616214228/http://www.rediff.com/sports/2006/dec/07alonso.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=16 June 2008}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Benson \\|first\\=Andrew \\|date\\=19 November 2018 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso: Lewis Hamilton, Ron Dennis \\& where it started to go wrong at McLaren in 2007 \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/46225204 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181205001319/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/46225204 \\|archive\\-date\\=5 December 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=11 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[BBC Sport]]}} Alonso's contract with Renault expired on 31 December 2006, and he was not granted an early release for sponsorship reasons.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Noble \\|first\\=Jonathan \\|date\\=15 December 2006 \\|title\\=More security, no stickers for Alonso debut \\|url\\=http://classic.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/56024/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211171342/http://classic.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/56024/ \\|archive\\-date\\=11 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=11 December 2019 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Autosport]]}} Renault allowed Alonso to make his first appearance for McLaren in a test session at the [Circuito de Jerez](/wiki/Circuito_de_Jerez \"Circuito de Jerez\") in November 2006\\.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Spurgeon \\|first\\=Brad \\|date\\=15 December 2006 \\|title\\=Champions All Around \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|url\\=https://rendezvous.blogs.nytimes.com/2006/12/15/champions\\-all\\-around/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=11 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001070130/https://rendezvous.blogs.nytimes.com/2006/12/15/champions\\-all\\-around/ \\|archive\\-date\\=1 October 2019}} His main competitors in 2007 were his teammate [Lewis Hamilton](/wiki/Lewis_Hamilton \"Lewis Hamilton\") and Räikkönen at Ferrari. Alonso achieved four Grand Prix victories in [Malaysia](/wiki/2007_Malaysian_Grand_Prix \"2007 Malaysian Grand Prix\"), [Monaco](/wiki/2007_Monaco_Grand_Prix \"2007 Monaco Grand Prix\"), [Europe](/wiki/2007_European_Grand_Prix \"2007 European Grand Prix\") and [Italy](/wiki/2007_Italian_Grand_Prix \"2007 Italian Grand Prix\") and led the championship until Hamilton overtook him.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Harden \\|first\\=Oliver \\|date\\=17 December 2014 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso and McLaren: Where It Went Wrong in 2007 \\|url\\=https://bleacherreport.com/articles/2302639\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-and\\-mclaren\\-where\\-it\\-went\\-wrong\\-in\\-2007 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212093514/https://bleacherreport.com/articles/2302639\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-and\\-mclaren\\-where\\-it\\-went\\-wrong\\-in\\-2007 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Bleacher Report]]}} Prior to the season's final round, the {{F1 GP\\|2007\\|Brazilian}}, he had 103 championship points to Räikkönen's 100 and Hamilton's 107, and needed to win the race and for his teammate to finish third or lower for his third title.{{Cite news \\|date\\=18 October 2007 \\|title\\=Formula One title permutations \\|work\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia\\-30043820071018 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212093517/https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia\\-30043820071018 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 December 2019}} Alonso finished the event third for third overall with 109 points. He had the same number of points as Hamilton; the tie was broken on count\\-back as Hamilton finished second more often than Alonso.{{Cite web \\|date\\=1 December 2018 \\|title\\=17 surprising Fernando Alonso facts – one for each of his F1 seasons \\|url\\=https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.17\\-surprising\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-facts\\-one\\-for\\-each\\-of\\-his\\-f1\\-seasons.2QM5BOQyakieK6KeMAG68G.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212093517/https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.17\\-surprising\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-facts\\-one\\-for\\-each\\-of\\-his\\-f1\\-seasons.2QM5BOQyakieK6KeMAG68G.html \\|archive\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Formula1\\.com]]}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Alonso took a controversial victory at the [2008 Singapore Grand Prix](/wiki/2008_Singapore_Grand_Prix \"2008 Singapore Grand Prix\"), after his teammate, [Nelson Piquet Jr.](/wiki/Nelson_Piquet_Jr. \"Nelson Piquet Jr.\"), was ordered to crash deliberately.](/wiki/File:Singapore_grand_prix_2008_alonso_win.jpg \"Singapore grand prix 2008 alonso win.jpg\")",
"Throughout the season, Alonso and Hamilton were involved in a number of incidents, such as the [espionage scandal](/wiki/2007_Formula_One_espionage_controversy \"2007 Formula One espionage controversy\") and the flare\\-up during qualifying for the {{F1GP\\|2007\\|Hungarian}} when Hamilton disobeyed a team instruction, thus disadvantaging Alonso, and Alonso responded by delaying Hamilton in the pit lane.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Benson \\|first\\=Andrew \\|date\\=19 November 2018 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso: Lewis Hamilton, McLaren, 'spy\\-gate' \\& threats \\& demands to Ron Dennis \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/46226823 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926080923/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/46226823 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 September 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[BBC Sport]]}} The tensions culminated in Alonso and McLaren terminating their contract by mutual consent in November.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Rodríguez \\|first\\=Jaime \\|date\\=2 November 2007 \\|title\\=Alonso: 'En McLaren, nunca me sentí en casa' \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=Alonso: 'At McLaren, I never felt at home' \\|work\\=\\[\\[El Mundo (Spain)\\|El Mundo]] \\|url\\=https://www.elmundo.es/elmundodeporte/2007/11/02/motor/1194002469\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212161345/https://www.elmundo.es/elmundodeporte/2007/11/02/motor/1194002469\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=12 December 2019}} Alonso was forbidden from joining a team whom McLaren considered their primary challengers for {{F1\\|2008}}.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Alonso: Why I quit McLaren \\|date\\=2 November 2007 \\|url\\=https://www.eurosport.com/formula\\-1/season/2007/alonso\\-why\\-i\\-quit\\-mclaren\\_sto1368239/story.shtml \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212161346/https://www.eurosport.com/formula\\-1/season/2007/alonso\\-why\\-i\\-quit\\-mclaren\\_sto1368239/story.shtml \\|archive\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Eurosport]]}} After rejecting offers from several teams,{{Cite news \\|last\\=González \\|first\\=Elvira \\|date\\=30 October 2013 \\|title\\=Cuando Alonso pudo sur Vettel: A finales de Vettel, tras dejar McLaren, el asturiano tenia a Red Bull como primera opción \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=When Alonso could replace Vettel: At the end of Vettel, after leaving McLaren, the Spaniard had Red Bull as the first option \\|page\\=26 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Mundo Deportivo]] \\|url\\=http://hemeroteca.mundodeportivo.com/preview/2013/10/30/pagina\\-26/13038734/pdf.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212183512/http://hemeroteca.mundodeportivo.com/preview/2013/10/30/pagina\\-26/13038734/pdf.html \\|archive\\-date\\=12 December 2019}} he signed a two\\-year contract to rejoin Renault from 2008 because of the manufacturer's long\\-term commitment to F1 and on\\-track record.{{Cite news \\|date\\=11 December 2007 \\|title\\=Alonso dreams of a perfect season \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[RTÉ Sport]] \\|url\\=https://www.rte.ie/sport/motorsport/2007/1211/225752\\-alonsof/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212231905/https://www.rte.ie/sport/motorsport/2007/1211/225752\\-alonsof/ \\|archive\\-date\\=12 December 2019}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=10 December 2007 \\|title\\=Alonso opts for return to Renault \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula\\_one/7136498\\.stm \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805141904/https://secure\\-uk.imrworldwide.com/cgi\\-bin/m?rnd\\=1628173144082\\&ci\\=bbc\\&cg\\=0\\&sr\\=1600x1000\\&ts\\=v51\\.js\\&cd\\=24≶\\=en\\-US\\&je\\=n\\&ck\\=y\\&tz\\=0\\&ct\\=\\&hp\\=\\&tl\\=BBC%20SPORT%20%7C%20Motorsport%20%7C%20Formula%20One%20%7C%20Alonso%20opts%20for%20return%20to%20Renault\\&si\\=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2Fsport2%2Fhi%2Fmotorsport%2Fformula\\_one%2F7136498\\.stm\\&rp\\= \\|archive\\-date\\=5 August 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[BBC Sport]]}} Alonso's car lacked power early on due to an imposed moratorium in development and he scored nine points in the first seven races.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Cary \\|first\\=Tom \\|date\\=23 March 2009 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso: F1 2009 driver profile \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Daily Telegraph]] \\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/motorsport/formulaone/lotus/5007362/Fernando\\-Alonso\\-F1\\-2009\\-driver\\-profile.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|url\\-access\\=limited \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212231944/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/motorsport/formulaone/lotus/5007362/Fernando\\-Alonso\\-F1\\-2009\\-driver\\-profile.html \\|archive\\-date\\=12 December 2019}} He was thereafter able to improve his performance later due to aerodynamic developments to the car's and won in [Singapore](/wiki/2008_Singapore_Grand_Prix \"2008 Singapore Grand Prix\") and [Japan](/wiki/2008_Japanese_Grand_Prix \"2008 Japanese Grand Prix\"); the former race saw Renault order his teammate [Nelson Piquet Jr.](/wiki/Nelson_Piquet_Jr. \"Nelson Piquet Jr.\") to crash deliberately and trigger the deployment of the [safety car](/wiki/Safety_car \"Safety car\") in what became known as \"[crashgate](/wiki/Renault_Formula_One_crash_controversy \"Renault Formula One crash controversy\")\". Alonso scored more points than any other driver in the final five races with 43\\.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Allievi \\|first\\=Pino \\|date\\=27 December 2008 \\|title\\=Top 10 Gazzetta E' Alonso il numero 1 \\|language\\=it \\|trans\\-title\\=Top 10 Gazzetta Alonso is number 1 \\|work\\=\\[\\[La Gazzetta dello Sport]] \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.gazzetta.it//2008/dicembre/27/Top\\_Gazzetta\\_Alonso\\_numero\\_1\\_ga\\_10\\_081227026\\.shtml \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212231938/http://archiviostorico.gazzetta.it//2008/dicembre/27/Top\\_Gazzetta\\_Alonso\\_numero\\_1\\_ga\\_10\\_081227026\\.shtml \\|archive\\-date\\=12 December 2019}} He scored 61 points for fifth in the Drivers' Championship.",
"Alonso was due to become a free agent for {{F1\\|2009}} if Renault were lower than third in the [Constructors' Championship](/wiki/List_of_Formula_One_World_Constructors%27_Champions \"List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Noble \\|first\\=Jonathan \\|date\\=4 July 2008 \\|title\\=Alonso to decide future after summer \\|url\\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/68815 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708080540/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/68815 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 July 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|website\\=Autosport}} After offers from [Red Bull Racing](/wiki/Red_Bull_Racing \"Red Bull Racing\") and [Honda](/wiki/Honda_in_Formula_One \"Honda in Formula One\"),{{Cite news \\|last\\=Henry \\|first\\=Alan \\|date\\=4 August 2008 \\|title\\=Alonso set for Honda move as staging post to long\\-term Ferrari future \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]] \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2008/aug/04/formulaone.motorsports \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212231929/https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2008/aug/04/formulaone.motorsports \\|archive\\-date\\=12 December 2019}} he re\\-signed to Renault on a two\\-year contract.{{Cite web \\|last\\=English \\|first\\=Steven \\|date\\=5 November 2008 \\|title\\=Renault retain Alonso and Piquet for '09 \\|url\\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/72010 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081108013026/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/72010 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 November 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Autosport]]}} His car proved to be noncompetitive because it lacked a dual diffuser system and outright speed.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Tremayne \\|first\\=David \\|date\\=25 July 2009 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso: 'With all the fights, this may be F1's worst year ever' \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Independent]] \\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/motor\\-racing/fernando\\-alonso\\-with\\-all\\-the\\-fights\\-this\\-may\\-be\\-f1s\\-worst\\-year\\-ever\\-1760567\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=13 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213082110/https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/motor\\-racing/fernando\\-alonso\\-with\\-all\\-the\\-fights\\-this\\-may\\-be\\-f1s\\-worst\\-year\\-ever\\-1760567\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=13 December 2019}} Alonso eschewed an aerodynamic front wing mandated in an attempt to make overtaking more possible since he did not believe it would help him. He scored points in eight races and achieved one podium finish: a third\\-place at the {{F1GP\\|2009\\|Singapore}}.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Drivers: Fernando Alonso \\|url\\=https://www.grandprix.com/gpe/drv\\-alofer.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213082114/https://www.grandprix.com/gpe/drv\\-alofer.html \\|archive\\-date\\=13 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=13 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=GrandPrix.com}} Alonso won pole position for the {{F1GP\\|2009\\|Hungarian}} and led the first 12 laps before he retired following an incorrectly fitted right\\-front wheel.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Caygill \\|first\\=Graham \\|date\\=28 July 2009 \\|title\\=Renault to fight race ban \\|work\\=\\[\\[The National (Abu Dhabi)\\|The National]] \\|url\\=https://www.thenational.ae/sport/other\\-sport/renault\\-to\\-fight\\-race\\-ban\\-1\\.529118 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=13 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213082113/https://www.thenational.ae/sport/other\\-sport/renault\\-to\\-fight\\-race\\-ban\\-1\\.529118 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 December 2019}} Alonso was ninth in the Drivers' Championship with 26 points, his lowest placing since he came sixth in 2003; he maintained his reputation as one of F1's best drivers.",
"#### Ferrari (2010–2014\\)",
"[thumb\\|Alonso won on his debut with Ferrari at the [2010 Bahrain Grand Prix](/wiki/2010_Bahrain_Grand_Prix \"2010 Bahrain Grand Prix\").](/wiki/File:Ferrari_Bahrain_2010.jpg \"Ferrari Bahrain 2010.jpg\")\nAlonso agreed with Ferrari president [Luca Cordero di Montezemolo](/wiki/Luca_Cordero_di_Montezemolo \"Luca Cordero di Montezemolo\") to drive for Ferrari in 2009, but team principal [Jean Todt](/wiki/Jean_Todt \"Jean Todt\") extended the contracts of both [Felipe Massa](/wiki/Felipe_Massa \"Felipe Massa\") and Räikkönen to {{F1\\|2010}}.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Knutson \\|first\\=Dan \\|date\\=11 November 2009 \\|title\\=Forza Fernando! \\|journal\\=Auto Action \\|issue\\=1365 \\|pages\\=24–26 \\|issn\\=1320\\-2073}} Alonso obtained a mid\\-2009 agreement to drive for Ferrari from {{F1\\|2011}} on but it was moved to 2010 after Renault were investigated for race fixing in Singapore and Räikkönen was released from the team.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Allen \\|first\\=James \\|date\\=1 October 2009 \\|title\\=Raikkonen and Domenicali differ on reasons why he was dropped \\|url\\=http://www.jamesallenonf1\\.com/2009/10/raikkonen\\-and\\-domenicali\\-differ\\-on\\-reasons\\-why\\-he\\-was\\-dropped/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111115201957/http://www.jamesallenonf1\\.com/2009/10/raikkonen\\-and\\-domenicali\\-differ\\-on\\-reasons\\-why\\-he\\-was\\-dropped/ \\|archive\\-date\\=15 November 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=13 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=James Allen on F1}} McLaren's Hamilton and Button and Red Bull's of [Sebastian Vettel](/wiki/Sebastian_Vettel \"Sebastian Vettel\") and [Mark Webber](/wiki/Mark_Webber_%28racing_driver%29 \"Mark Webber (racing driver)\") were Alonso's main championship competition.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Holt \\|first\\=Sarah \\|date\\=23 September 2010 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso is main threat – Lewis Hamilton \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula\\_one/9027425\\.stm \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924044759/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/motorsport/formula\\_one/9027425\\.stm \\|archive\\-date\\=24 September 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=13 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport}} He won five races that season and entered the season\\-ending {{F1 GP\\|2010\\|Abu Dhabi}} leading by eight points after being 47 behind mid\\-season following errors. Alonso finished runner\\-up to Vettel after finishing seventh thereby losing 19 points to Vettel who won the race.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/88264\\|first\\=Simon\\|last\\=Strang\\|title\\=Defeated Alonso defends pit strategy\\|work\\=autosport.com\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Haymarket Group\\|Haymarket Publications]]\\|date\\=14 November 2010\\|access\\-date\\=19 November 2010\\|archive\\-date\\=17 November 2010\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101117131913/http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/88264\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"His 2011 season was mixed: his car was built conservatively and lacked aerodynamic grip and tyre handling in qualifying.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Cooper \\|first\\=Adam \\|date\\=February 2012 \\|title\\=Putting it all on red: has Fernando Alonso taken a reckless gamble by committing to Ferrari through 2017? Or is the Prancing Horse finally ready to fight the Red Bulls? \\|url\\=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A278510102/GPS?u\\=wikipedia\\&sid\\=GPS\\&xid\\=1c0d42e2 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Racer (magazine)\\|Racer]] \\|pages\\=36–38 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805141858/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p\\=GPS\\&u\\=wikipedia\\&id\\=GALE%7CA278510102\\&v\\=2\\.1\\=r\\&sid\\=GPS\\&asid\\=1c0d42e2 \\|archive\\-date\\=5 August 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=19 December 2019 \\|via\\=Gale In Context: Biography}} He extracted additional pace from his car to claim ten podium finishes and win the {{F1GP\\|2011\\|British}} after a strategy error from Red Bull. His best qualification of the year was a second at the {{F1GP\\|2011\\|Canadian}} and he out\\-qualified his teammate Massa fifteen times over the course of the season. Alonso was fourth overall with 257 points; he was in contention to finish second to eventual champion Vettel following a series of strong finishes until Webber won the season\\-ending {{F1GP\\|2011\\|Brazilian}}.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Collantine \\|first\\=Keith \\|date\\=16 December 2011 \\|title\\=2011 F1 driver rankings no.2: Fernando Alonso \\|url\\=https://www.racefans.net/2011/12/16/2011\\-f1\\-driver\\-rankings\\-no2\\-fernando\\-alonso/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805141945/https://www.racefans.net/2011/12/16/2011\\-f1\\-driver\\-rankings\\-no2\\-fernando\\-alonso/ \\|archive\\-date\\=5 August 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=18 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=RaceFans}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Alonso at the [2012 German Grand Prix](/wiki/2012_German_Grand_Prix \"2012 German Grand Prix\")](/wiki/File:2012_German_Grand_Prix_Fernando_Alonso.jpg \"2012 German Grand Prix Fernando Alonso.jpg\")\nAhead of {{F1\\|2012}}, Alonso extended his contract with Ferrari until {{F1\\|2016}}.{{Cite news \\|date\\=19 May 2011 \\|title\\=Alonso staying with Ferrari until 2016 \\|publisher\\=CNN \\|url\\=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/SPORT/motorsport/05/19/motorsport.ferrari.alonso.contract/index.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=19 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219095124/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/SPORT/motorsport/05/19/motorsport.ferrari.alonso.contract/index.html \\|archive\\-date\\=19 December 2019}} His main competition for the title in 2012 was Vettel.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Spurgeon \\|first\\=Brad \\|date\\=23 November 2012 \\|title\\=The Crown Awaits: Vettel or Alonso? \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/24/sports/autoracing/24iht\\-srf1prix24\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=19 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219150236/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/24/sports/autoracing/24iht\\-srf1prix24\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=19 December 2019}} Wins in [Malaysia](/wiki/2012_Malaysian_Grand_Prix \"2012 Malaysian Grand Prix\"), [Valencia](/wiki/2012_European_Grand_Prix \"2012 European Grand Prix\") and [Germany](/wiki/2012_German_Grand_Prix \"2012 German Grand Prix\") and consistent points\\-scoring finishes allowed him to build a 40\\-point lead in the Drivers' Championship. Thereafter start\\-line collisions, a mechanical failure and an improved performance for Vettel eliminated Alonso's points lead.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Benson \\|first\\=Andrew \\|date\\=13 November 2012 \\|title\\=Would Vettel or Alonso be more deserving champion? \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/andrewbenson/2012/11/benson.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521143813/https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/andrewbenson/2012/11/benson.html \\|archive\\-date\\=21 May 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=19 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Salisbury \\|first\\=Matt \\|date\\=27 November 2012 \\|title\\=How Vettel beat Alonso to the 2012 title \\|url\\=https://www.crash.net/f1/feature/186485/1/how\\-vettel\\-beat\\-alonso\\-to\\-the\\-2012\\-title\\-pt1 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219150244/https://www.crash.net/f1/feature/186485/1/how\\-vettel\\-beat\\-alonso\\-to\\-the\\-2012\\-title\\-pt1 \\|archive\\-date\\=19 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=19 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=Crash \\|pages\\=\\[https://www.crash.net/f1/feature/186485/1/how\\-vettel\\-beat\\-alonso\\-to\\-the\\-2012\\-title\\-pt1 page 1] \\& \\[https://www.crash.net/f1/feature/186486/1/how\\-vettel\\-beat\\-alonso\\-to\\-the\\-2012\\-title\\-pt2 page 2]}} Alonso entered the season\\-ending {{F1GP\\|2012\\|Brazilian}} 13 points behind Vettel and needed to finish third and for Vettel not to score points for a third championship. He was second and Vettel finished fourth, despite spinning on the opening lap, resigning Alonso to be runner\\-up for the second time in his career on 278 points.",
"To begin {{F1\\|2013}}, Alonso drove an aggressively designed car allowing him to win in [China](/wiki/2013_Chinese_Grand_Prix \"2013 Chinese Grand Prix\") and [Spain](/wiki/2013_Spanish_Grand_Prix \"2013 Spanish Grand Prix\") and consistently scored points.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Straw \\|first\\=Edd \\|date\\=12 December 2013 \\|title\\=Alonso and Ferrari's season of discontent \\|url\\=http://porschecarshistory.com/wp\\-content/old/lib/magazines/autosport/2013/12/AS2013\\.12\\.12\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|journal\\=Autosport \\|volume\\=214 \\|issue\\=11 \\|pages\\=52–54 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219204346/http://porschecarshistory.com/wp\\-content/old/lib/magazines/autosport/2013/12/AS2013\\.12\\.12\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=19 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=19 December 2019}} He was slower than Vettel after a change of tyre compound at the {{F1GP\\|2013\\|German}} and front and rear bodywork components intended to improve his car's performance were ineffective.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Estrada \\|first\\=Chris \\|date\\=2 December 2013 \\|title\\=Ecclestone: Fernando Alonso \"gave up a little bit\" in 2013 \\|url\\=https://motorsports.nbcsports.com/2013/12/02/ecclestone\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-gave\\-up\\-a\\-little\\-bit\\-in\\-2013/comment\\-page\\-1/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220091505/https://motorsports.nbcsports.com/2013/12/02/ecclestone\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-gave\\-up\\-a\\-little\\-bit\\-in\\-2013/comment\\-page\\-1/ \\|archive\\-date\\=20 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=20 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NBC Sports]]}} With 242 points, Alonso was second for the third time in his career. His relationship with Ferrari cooled due to his perception the team could not construct a title\\-winning car.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Benson \\|first\\=Andrew \\|date\\=19 November 2018 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso: The Ferrari years and the championships that got away \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/46228877 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926080949/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/46228877 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 September 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=20 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport}}",
"Alonso's 2014 season saw him achieve no race wins because his car was less powerful than the championship\\-winning [Mercedes](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_in_Formula_One \"Mercedes-Benz in Formula One\") but took third in the {{F1GP\\|2014\\|Chinese}} and second in the {{F1 GP\\|2014\\|Hungarian}}. Alonso fell to sixth in the Drivers' Championship with 161 points. He qualified faster than his teammate Räikkönen 16 times by an average of more than {{frac\\|1\\|2}} second per lap in 2014\\.",
"#### Return to McLaren (2015–2019\\)",
"Alonso had severe disagreements with team principal [Marco Mattiacci](/wiki/Marco_Mattiacci \"Marco Mattiacci\") in 2014 and left Ferrari after contract negotiations to remain at the team fell through. He rejoined McLaren on a three\\-year contract from {{F1\\|2015}} to {{F1\\|2017}} with no opt\\-out clauses.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Gill \\|first\\=Pete \\|date\\=1 May 2015 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso signed three\\-year McLaren deal, reveals Ron Dennis \\|url\\=https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24184/9831212/fernando\\-alonso\\-signed\\-three\\-year\\-mclaren\\-deal\\-reveals\\-ron\\-dennis \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221120332/https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24184/9831212/fernando\\-alonso\\-signed\\-three\\-year\\-mclaren\\-deal\\-reveals\\-ron\\-dennis \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Sky Sports]]}} An accident during a pre\\-season test session at Spain's [Circuit de Barcelona\\-Catalunya](/wiki/Circuit_de_Barcelona-Catalunya \"Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya\") in February 2015 saw Alonso sustain a concussion and he was replaced by reserve driver [Kevin Magnussen](/wiki/Kevin_Magnussen \"Kevin Magnussen\") for the season\\-opening {{F1 GP\\|2015\\|Australian}}.{{Cite news \\|date\\=3 March 2015 \\|title\\=McLaren driver Fernando Alonso to miss Formula One's season\\-opening Australian GP \\|work\\=\\[\\[The National (Abu Dhabi)\\|The National]] \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Agence France\\-Presse]] \\|url\\=https://www.thenational.ae/sport/other\\-sport/mclaren\\-driver\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-to\\-miss\\-formula\\-one\\-s\\-season\\-opening\\-australian\\-gp\\-1\\.4524 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221120332/https://www.thenational.ae/sport/other\\-sport/mclaren\\-driver\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-to\\-miss\\-formula\\-one\\-s\\-season\\-opening\\-australian\\-gp\\-1\\.4524 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2019}} He endured a difficult season: his car's [Honda](/wiki/Honda_in_Formula_One \"Honda in Formula One\") engine was under\\-powered and overall speed leaving him vulnerable to being passed.{{cite news \\|last\\=Finnerty \\|first\\=Joe \\|date\\=18 March 2016 \\|title\\=McLaren\\-Honda bidding to launch revival at Australian Grand Prix \\|publisher\\=Surrey Live \\|url\\=https://www.getsurrey.co.uk/sport/other\\-sport/motorsport/mclaren\\-honda\\-bidding\\-launch\\-revival\\-11057872 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221150206/https://www.getsurrey.co.uk/sport/other\\-sport/motorsport/mclaren\\-honda\\-bidding\\-launch\\-revival\\-11057872 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2019}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Benson \\|first\\=Andrew \\|date\\=18 March 2015 \\|title\\=McLaren: could one of F1's top teams struggle for years? \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/31942251 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221150404/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/formula1/31942251 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|website\\=BBC News}} Alonso scored points twice in 2015: a tenth in the {{F1GP\\|2015\\|British}} and a fifth in the {{F1GP\\|2015\\|Hungarian}} for 17th in the Drivers' Championship with 11 points. He was dissatisfied with a slow pace, which became evident after multiple radio complaints that year.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Douglas \\|first\\=Steve \\|date\\=8 June 2015 \\|title\\='Amateur' outburst exposes Alonso's frustration at McLaren \\|work\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]] \\|url\\=https://apnews.com/2add772049a94ab5ae7f87fa7453e567 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221150203/https://apnews.com/2add772049a94ab5ae7f87fa7453e567 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2019}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Saunders \\|first\\=Nate \\|date\\=27 September 2015 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso fumes at Honda's 'GP2 engine' at Suzuka \\|url\\=https://www.espn.co.uk/f1/story/\\_/id/13751402/mclaren\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-fumes\\-honda\\-gp2\\-engine\\-suzuka \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221150206/https://www.espn.co.uk/f1/story/\\_/id/13751402/mclaren\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-fumes\\-honda\\-gp2\\-engine\\-suzuka \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=ESPN}}",
"[thumb\\|Alonso at the [2016 Monaco Grand Prix](/wiki/2016_Monaco_Grand_Prix \"2016 Monaco Grand Prix\")](/wiki/File:Alonso_Monaco_2016.jpg \"Alonso Monaco 2016.jpg\")\nDespite the unreliable and noncompetitive car,{{Cite news \\|last\\=Baldwin \\|first\\=Alan \\|date\\=28 November 2015 \\|title\\=Alonso could take a sabbatical in 2016, says Dennis \\|work\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\|editor\\-last\\=Palmer \\|editor\\-first\\=Justin \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/motor\\-racing\\-prix\\-alonso/alonso\\-could\\-take\\-a\\-sabbatical\\-in\\-2016\\-says\\-dennis\\-idINKBN0TH0D620151128 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221163856/https://www.reuters.com/article/motor\\-racing\\-prix\\-alonso/alonso\\-could\\-take\\-a\\-sabbatical\\-in\\-2016\\-says\\-dennis\\-idINKBN0TH0D620151128 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2019}} Alonso remained with McLaren for {{F1\\|2016}}.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Barretto \\|first\\=Lawrence \\|date\\=4 December 2015 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso committed to racing for McLaren in F1 in 2016 \\|url\\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/122139/alonso\\-committed\\-to\\-racing\\-in\\-2016 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221163902/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/122139/alonso\\-committed\\-to\\-racing\\-in\\-2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|website\\=Autosport}} Injuries from a heavy crash with [Esteban Gutiérrez](/wiki/Esteban_Guti%C3%A9rrez \"Esteban Gutiérrez\") at the season\\-opening {{F1GP\\|2016\\|Australian}} caused him to miss the {{F1GP\\|2016\\|Bahrain}} on medical grounds and was replaced by reserve driver [Stoffel Vandoorne](/wiki/Stoffel_Vandoorne \"Stoffel Vandoorne\").{{Cite news \\|last\\=Johnson \\|first\\=Daniel \\|date\\=31 March 2016 \\|title\\=Doctors order Fernando Alonso to miss Bahrain Grand Prix \\|work\\=The Daily Telegraph \\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/formula\\-1/2016/03/31/fernando\\-alonso\\-out\\-of\\-bahrain\\-grand\\-prix\\-with\\-crash\\-injuries/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221203222/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/formula\\-1/2016/03/31/fernando\\-alonso\\-out\\-of\\-bahrain\\-grand\\-prix\\-with\\-crash\\-injuries/ \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2019}} He qualified better than teammate Button fifteen times and scored points nine times, which included two fifth\\-place finishes in the {{F1 GP\\|2016\\|Monaco}} and the {{F1 GP\\|2016\\|United States}}. He was tenth in the Drivers' Championship with 54 points.",
"Alonso stayed at McLaren in {{F1\\|2017}},{{Cite web \\|last\\=Barretto \\|first\\=Lawrence \\|date\\=13 December 2016 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso tells McLaren staff he's staying in 2017 \\|url\\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/127483/alonso\\-tells\\-mclaren\\-staff\\-he\\-staying \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221203223/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/127483/alonso\\-tells\\-mclaren\\-staff\\-he\\-staying \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|website\\=Autosport}} but poor reliability affected his season, particularly during the early rounds, and his best finish was a sixth place in the {{F1 GP\\|2017\\|Hungarian}}. After three consecutive top\\-ten finishes, Alonso finished 15th in the Drivers' Championship with 17 points.",
"[thumb\\|Alonso at the [2018 Austrian Grand Prix](/wiki/2018_Austrian_Grand_Prix \"2018 Austrian Grand Prix\")](/wiki/File:FIA_F1_Austria_2018_Nr._14_Alonso.jpg \"FIA F1 Austria 2018 Nr. 14 Alonso.jpg\")\nFollowing contract negotiations with the McLaren CEO [Zak Brown](/wiki/Zak_Brown \"Zak Brown\"),{{Cite news \\|last\\=Smith \\|first\\=Luke \\|date\\=13 January 2017 \\|title\\=McLaren planning to open Alonso F1 contract talks 'a few races into the year' \\|newspaper\\=Motorsportstalk {{pipe}} NBC Sports \\|url\\=https://motorsports.nbcsports.com/2017/01/13/mclaren\\-planning\\-to\\-open\\-alonso\\-f1\\-contract\\-talks\\-a\\-few\\-races\\-into\\-the\\-year/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222144832/https://motorsports.nbcsports.com/2017/01/13/mclaren\\-planning\\-to\\-open\\-alonso\\-f1\\-contract\\-talks\\-a\\-few\\-races\\-into\\-the\\-year/ \\|archive\\-date\\=22 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=22 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=NBC Sports}} Alonso signed a multi\\-year extension with McLaren on 19 October 2017\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Elizade \\|first\\=Pablo \\|date\\=19 October 2017 \\|title\\=Alonso says new McLaren deal is \"long\\-term\" \\|url\\=https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/alonso\\-says\\-new\\-mclaren\\-deal\\-is\\-long\\-term\\-967418/3052959/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222144831/https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/alonso\\-says\\-new\\-mclaren\\-deal\\-is\\-long\\-term\\-967418/3052959/ \\|archive\\-date\\=22 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=22 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Motorsport.com]]}} He finished fifth at the season\\-opening 2018 {{F1GP\\|2018\\|Australian}} and took nine top\\-ten finishes. Alonso out\\-qualified his teammate Stoffel Vandoorne at every race and drove quickly and aggressively. He became increasingly annoyed with certain drivers and his commitment to F1 waned after McLaren stopped developing their car to focus on {{F1\\|2019}}.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Alonso will not race in Formula 1 in 2019 \\|url\\=https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/alonso\\-will\\-not\\-race\\-in\\-formula\\-1\\-in\\-2019/3158671/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203215505/https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/alonso\\-will\\-not\\-race\\-in\\-formula\\-1\\-in\\-2019/3158671/ \\|archive\\-date\\=3 February 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=8 February 2020 \\|website\\=www.motorsport.com \\|date\\=14 August 2018 \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Collantine \\|first\\=Keith \\|date\\=17 December 2018 \\|title\\=2018 F1 driver rankings \\#4: Alonso \\|url\\=https://www.racefans.net/2018/12/17/2018\\-f1\\-driver\\-rankings\\-4\\-alonso/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805141959/https://www.racefans.net/2018/12/17/2018\\-f1\\-driver\\-rankings\\-4\\-alonso/ \\|archive\\-date\\=5 August 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=22 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=RaceFans}} Alonso was 11th in the Drivers' Championship with 50 points, and left the sport as a driver at the end of the 2018 season, citing a perceived lack of on\\-track racing, the predictability of results and felt discussions away from racing about the broadcast of radio transmissions and polemics harmed the series.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Straw \\|first\\=Edd \\|date\\=23 August 2018 \\|title\\=Why Alonso is leaving Formula 1 \\|url\\=https://www.pressreader.com/uk/autosport\\-uk/20180823/281621011187929 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|journal\\=Autosport \\|pages\\=16–22 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222204116/https://www.pressreader.com/uk/autosport\\-uk/20180823/281621011187929 \\|archive\\-date\\=22 December 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=22 December 2019}}",
"He remained at McLaren as a brand ambassador to aid and advise drivers and drove in select test sessions to develop their cars. Alonso drove the [MCL34](/wiki/McLaren_MCL34 \"McLaren MCL34\") during a two\\-day in\\-season post\\-race Bahrain test in April 2019 to develop tyres for Pirelli.{{Cite web \\|date\\=28 March 2019 \\|title\\=Alonso to make F1 return in post\\-race Bahrain test \\|url\\=https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\\-to\\-make\\-f1\\-return\\-at\\-post\\-race\\-bahrain\\-test.7FpcdVdbZtd70nC1h3Fepa.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331103944/https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\\-to\\-make\\-f1\\-return\\-at\\-post\\-race\\-bahrain\\-test.7FpcdVdbZtd70nC1h3Fepa.html \\|archive\\-date\\=31 March 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=7 April 2019 \\|publisher\\=Formula One}} No further runs were planned for him and McLaren focused on their current drivers.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Larkham \\|first\\=Lewis \\|date\\=23 June 2019 \\|title\\=McLaren has no more F1 runs planned for Alonso \\|url\\=https://www.crash.net/f1/news/923639/1/mclaren\\-has\\-no\\-more\\-f1\\-runs\\-planned\\-alonso \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813083215/https://www.crash.net/f1/news/923639/1/mclaren\\-has\\-no\\-more\\-f1\\-runs\\-planned\\-alonso \\|archive\\-date\\=13 August 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=28 July 2020 \\|publisher\\=Crash}} Alonso's ambassador contract with McLaren expired at the end of 2019, and was not renewed for 2020\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Noble \\|first\\=Jonathan \\|date\\=20 January 2020 \\|title\\=Alonso no longer a McLaren ambassador \\|url\\=https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/alonso\\-ends\\-mclaren\\-relationship\\-ambassador/4665379/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200121190019/https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/alonso\\-ends\\-mclaren\\-relationship\\-ambassador/4665379/ \\|archive\\-date\\=21 January 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=20 January 2020 \\|publisher\\=Motorsport.com}}",
"#### Alpine (2021–2022\\)",
"[thumb\\|Alonso at the [2021 Austrian Grand Prix](/wiki/2021_Austrian_Grand_Prix \"2021 Austrian Grand Prix\"), upon his return to Formula One](/wiki/File:FIA_F1_Austria_2021_Nr._14_Alonso.jpg \"FIA F1 Austria 2021 Nr. 14 Alonso.jpg\")\nAlonso was signed to drive for [Alpine F1 Team](/wiki/Alpine_F1_Team \"Alpine F1 Team\") for the {{F1\\|2021}} season,{{Cite web \\|last\\=Balseiro \\|first\\=Jesús \\|date\\=7 July 2020 \\|title\\=Alonso está de vuelta \\|trans\\-title\\=Alonso is back \\|url\\=https://as.com/motor/2020/07/07/formula\\_1/1594121714\\_805810\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031055134/https://as.com/motor/2020/07/07/formula\\_1/1594121714\\_805810\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=31 October 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=28 July 2020 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Diario AS]] \\|language\\=es}} alongside [Esteban Ocon](/wiki/Esteban_Ocon \"Esteban Ocon\"), with Renault having rebranded the team under its new name. In preparation for his F1 return, Alonso performed four testing days driving the [Renault R.S.18](/wiki/Renault_R.S.18 \"Renault R.S.18\") and was quickest in the post\\-2020 season young driver's test driving the [Renault R.S.20](/wiki/Renault_R.S.20 \"Renault R.S.20\") for Renault.{{Cite web \\|date\\=13 October 2020 \\|title\\=Alonso says 'it's like a new beginning' as he gets first taste of 2020 Renault in Barcelona test \\|url\\=https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\\-says\\-its\\-like\\-a\\-new\\-beginning\\-as\\-he\\-gets\\-first\\-taste\\-of\\-2020\\-renault.7f9tTX9yyqCVfCtEbwxgcG.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124210029/https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\\-says\\-its\\-like\\-a\\-new\\-beginning\\-as\\-he\\-gets\\-first\\-taste\\-of\\-2020\\-renault.7f9tTX9yyqCVfCtEbwxgcG.html \\|archive\\-date\\=24 January 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=13 October 2020 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Formula1\\.com]]}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Morlidge \\|first\\=Matt \\|date\\=15 December 2020 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso tops 'young driver test' for Renault on F1 2020's last day \\|url\\=https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12433/12162529/fernando\\-alonso\\-tops\\-young\\-driver\\-test\\-for\\-renault\\-on\\-f1\\-2020s\\-last\\-day \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526030231/https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12433/12162529/fernando\\-alonso\\-tops\\-young\\-driver\\-test\\-for\\-renault\\-on\\-f1\\-2020s\\-last\\-day \\|archive\\-date\\=26 May 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=15 February 2021 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Sky Sports]] \\|language\\=en}} In his first race with Alpine at the [2021 Bahrain Grand Prix](/wiki/2021_Bahrain_Grand_Prix \"2021 Bahrain Grand Prix\"), Alonso was forced to retire after plastic debris entered his brake duct.{{Cite web \\|date\\=28 March 2021 \\|title\\=Alonso says debris caused brake failure that curtailed 'fun' Formula 1 return \\|url\\=https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\\-says\\-debris\\-caused\\-brake\\-failure\\-that\\-curtailed\\-fun\\-formula\\-1\\-return.5X4ZVDFmtdlZwiUjTsICKO.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506171956/https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\\-says\\-debris\\-caused\\-brake\\-failure\\-that\\-curtailed\\-fun\\-formula\\-1\\-return.5X4ZVDFmtdlZwiUjTsICKO.html \\|archive\\-date\\=6 May 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=12 April 2021 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Formula1\\.com]] \\|language\\=en}} At the [2021 Emilia Romagna Grand Prix](/wiki/2021_Emilia_Romagna_Grand_Prix \"2021 Emilia Romagna Grand Prix\") he finished in 11th after qualifying 15th,{{Cite web \\|last\\=Smith \\|first\\=Luke \\|date\\=17 April 2021 \\|title\\=Alonso: Lack of trust in Alpine F1 car costly at old\\-school Imola \\|url\\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/alonso\\-lack\\-of\\-trust\\-in\\-alpine\\-car\\-costly\\-at\\-old\\-school\\-imola/6314107/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506164000/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/alonso\\-lack\\-of\\-trust\\-in\\-alpine\\-car\\-costly\\-at\\-old\\-school\\-imola/6314107/ \\|archive\\-date\\=6 May 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=29 April 2021 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Autosport]] \\|language\\=en}} with teammate Ocon finishing ahead in tenth, but both were upgraded one position after [Kimi Räikkönen](/wiki/Kimi_R%C3%A4ikk%C3%B6nen \"Kimi Räikkönen\") was penalised, giving Alonso his first points of the season.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Howard \\|first\\=Tom \\|date\\=18 April 2021 \\|title\\=Raikkonen loses points after post\\-race penalty at Imola \\|url\\=https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/raikkonen\\-loses\\-points\\-after\\-post\\-race\\-imola\\-penalty/6334393/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210525021858/https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/raikkonen\\-loses\\-points\\-after\\-post\\-race\\-imola\\-penalty/6334393/ \\|archive\\-date\\=25 May 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=29 April 2021 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Motorsport.com]] \\|language\\=en}}",
"In [Hungary](/wiki/2021_Hungarian_Grand_Prix \"2021 Hungarian Grand Prix\"), Alonso temporarily led the race before he made a pit stop and fell to fourth, ahead of [Lewis Hamilton](/wiki/Lewis_Hamilton \"Lewis Hamilton\"). Teammate Ocon credited Alonso's defence against Hamilton with enabling him to achieve his first race victory.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Smith \\|first\\=Luke \\|date\\=2 August 2021 \\|title\\=Ocon credits Alonso for role in shock Hungary F1 race victory \\|url\\=https://au.motorsport.com/f1/news/ocon\\-credits\\-alonso\\-for\\-role\\-in\\-shock\\-hungary\\-f1\\-race\\-victory/6640589/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210802085918/https://au.motorsport.com/f1/news/ocon\\-credits\\-alonso\\-for\\-role\\-in\\-shock\\-hungary\\-f1\\-race\\-victory/6640589/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2 August 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=2 August 2021 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Motorsport.com]] \\|language\\=en}} In August 2021, Alonso invoked an option to extend his contract for the {{F1\\|2022}} season.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Galloway \\|first\\=James \\|date\\=26 August 2021 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso extends Formula 1 return into 2022 season with Alpine as contract confirmed \\|url\\=https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24184/12390884/fernando\\-alonso\\-extends\\-formula\\-1\\-return\\-into\\-2022\\-season\\-with\\-alpine\\-as\\-contract\\-confirmed \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210826223228/https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24184/12390884/fernando\\-alonso\\-extends\\-formula\\-1\\-return\\-into\\-2022\\-season\\-with\\-alpine\\-as\\-contract\\-confirmed \\|archive\\-date\\=26 August 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=26 August 2021 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Sky Sports]]}} Alonso scored points in multiple races following the summer break, finishing sixth in the [Netherlands](/wiki/2021_Dutch_Grand_Prix \"2021 Dutch Grand Prix\"),{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.gpfans.com/en/f1\\-news/69385/why\\-alonso\\-was\\-thinking\\-of\\-the\\-worst\\-during\\-charge\\-to\\-sixth/\\|title\\=Why Alonso was \"thinking of the worst\" during charge to sixth\\|date\\=5 September 2021\\|access\\-date\\=26 September 2021\\|first\\=Ewan\\|last\\=Gale\\|website\\=GP Fans\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927173709/https://www.gpfans.com/en/f1\\-news/69385/why\\-alonso\\-was\\-thinking\\-of\\-the\\-worst\\-during\\-charge\\-to\\-sixth/ \\|archive\\-date\\=27 September 2021}} eighth in [Italy](/wiki/2021_Italian_Grand_Prix \"2021 Italian Grand Prix\"),{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\\-pleased\\-with\\-alpines\\-points\\-at\\-monza\\-after\\-uncompetitive\\-start\\-to.6BsFj4MfI8xJX7OMQLxZHo.html\\|title\\=Alonso pleased with Alpine's points at Monza after 'uncompetitive' start to weekend\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917070706/https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.alonso\\-pleased\\-with\\-alpines\\-points\\-at\\-monza\\-after\\-uncompetitive\\-start\\-to.6BsFj4MfI8xJX7OMQLxZHo.html\\|archive\\-date\\=17 September 2021\\|access\\-date\\=26 September 2021\\|website\\=\\[\\[Formula1\\.com]]\\|date\\=16 September 2021}} sixth in [Russia](/wiki/2021_Russian_Grand_Prix \"2021 Russian Grand Prix\"), having run in third in Russia before being forced to pit under wet conditions,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.racefans.net/2021/09/26/we\\-never\\-get\\-lucky\\-rues\\-alonso\\-after\\-losing\\-podium\\-finish/\\|title\\=\"We never get lucky\" rues Alonso after losing podium finish\\|date\\=26 September 2021\\|first\\=Keith\\|last\\=Collantine\\|website\\=RaceFans.net\\|access\\-date\\=26 September 2021\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927174020/https://www.racefans.net/2021/09/26/we\\-never\\-get\\-lucky\\-rues\\-alonso\\-after\\-losing\\-podium\\-finish/\\|archive\\-date\\=27 September 2021}} and third in [Qatar](/wiki/2021_Qatar_Grand_Prix \"2021 Qatar Grand Prix\"). His third\\-place finish at [Qatar](/wiki/2021_Qatar_Grand_Prix \"2021 Qatar Grand Prix\") was his first podium finish since the [2014 Hungarian Grand Prix](/wiki/2014_Hungarian_Grand_Prix \"2014 Hungarian Grand Prix\").",
"For the [2022 season](/wiki/2022_Formula_One_World_Championship \"2022 Formula One World Championship\"), Alonso remained with Alpine.{{cite web \\|date\\=10 March 2022 \\|title\\=2022 FIA Formula One World Championship – Entry List \\|url\\=https://www.fia.com/events/fia\\-formula\\-one\\-world\\-championship/season\\-2022/2022\\-fia\\-formula\\-one\\-world\\-championship\\-entry \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220114204626/https://www.fia.com/events/fia\\-formula\\-one\\-world\\-championship/season\\-2022/2022\\-fia\\-formula\\-one\\-world\\-championship\\-entry \\|archive\\-date\\=14 January 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=10 March 2022 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]]}} Alonso achieved his highest start driving for Alpine during wet qualifying for the [Canadian Grand Prix](/wiki/2022_Canadian_Grand_Prix \"2022 Canadian Grand Prix\"), starting in second, but had to endure questionable strategies and an engine issue that developed during the race. He dropped down to seventh, and furthermore, received a post\\-race time penalty that dropped him down to ninth.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Benson \\|first\\=Andrew \\|date\\=2022\\-06\\-19 \\|title\\=Verstappen holds off Sainz to win in Canada \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|work\\=BBC Sport \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/formula1/61860298 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-21 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 June 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621172133/https://www.bbc.com/sport/formula1/61860298 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"#### Aston Martin (2023–)",
"Alonso joined [Aston Martin](/wiki/Aston_Martin_in_Formula_One \"Aston Martin in Formula One\") on a multi\\-year deal in {{F1\\|2023}} alongside [Lance Stroll](/wiki/Lance_Stroll \"Lance Stroll\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=1 August 2022 \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso signs to Aston Martin for 2023 on multi\\-year contract \\|url\\=https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.breaking\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-signs\\-to\\-aston\\-martin\\-for\\-2023\\-on\\-multi\\-year.1i8QwJht5v7dBCWFCcrqml.html \\|access\\-date\\=2 August 2022 \\|website\\=Formula1 \\|archive\\-date\\=1 August 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220801083548/https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.breaking\\-fernando\\-alonso\\-signs\\-to\\-aston\\-martin\\-for\\-2023\\-on\\-multi\\-year.1i8QwJht5v7dBCWFCcrqml.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} He joined the team because he wanted a multi\\-year contract extension, and Alpine was only willing to give him one more year in F1\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=1 August 2022 \\|title\\=Alpine thought it could treat Alonso as Piastri's seat\\-warmer \\|url\\=https://the\\-race.com/formula\\-1/alpine\\-thought\\-it\\-could\\-treat\\-alonso\\-as\\-piastris\\-seat\\-warmer/ \\|access\\-date\\=16 October 2022 \\|website\\=The Race \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|archive\\-date\\=16 October 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221016202427/https://the\\-race.com/formula\\-1/alpine\\-thought\\-it\\-could\\-treat\\-alonso\\-as\\-piastris\\-seat\\-warmer/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"[thumb\\|Alonso at the [2023 Austrian Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_Austrian_Grand_Prix \"2023 Austrian Grand Prix\"), with [Aston Martin](/wiki/Aston_Martin_in_Formula_One \"Aston Martin in Formula One\")](/wiki/File:FIA_F1_Austria_2023_Nr._14_%281%29.jpg \"FIA F1 Austria 2023 Nr. 14 (1).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Alonso at the [2024 Chinese Grand Prix](/wiki/2024_Chinese_Grand_Prix \"2024 Chinese Grand Prix\"), with [Aston Martin](/wiki/Aston_Martin_in_Formula_One \"Aston Martin in Formula One\")](/wiki/File:Fernando_Alonso_2024_Chinese_GP.jpg \"Fernando Alonso 2024 Chinese GP.jpg\")\nOn his Aston Martin debut at the [2023 Bahrain Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_Bahrain_Grand_Prix \"2023 Bahrain Grand Prix\"), Alonso, benefitting from the much\\-improved machinery of the [Aston Martin AMR23](/wiki/Aston_Martin_AMR23 \"Aston Martin AMR23\"), recovered from a first\\-lap contact with his teammate [Lance Stroll](/wiki/Lance_Stroll \"Lance Stroll\") without any damage and went on to finish in 3rd place, securing a podium finish and Aston's first since [Sebastian Vettel](/wiki/Sebastian_Vettel \"Sebastian Vettel\")'s podium at the [2021 Azerbaijan Grand Prix](/wiki/2021_Azerbaijan_Grand_Prix \"2021 Azerbaijan Grand Prix\") (the German would finish second at the [2021 Hungarian Grand Prix](/wiki/2021_Hungarian_Grand_Prix \"2021 Hungarian Grand Prix\") but would be disqualified due to insufficient fuel sample).{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Das \\|first1\\=Andrew \\|last2\\=Katz \\|first2\\=Josh \\|date\\=5 March 2023 \\|title\\=Verstappen Runs Away With Formula 1 Opener \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/05/sports/autoracing/formula\\-1\\-race\\-bahrain.html \\|access\\-date\\=5 March 2023 \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331 \\|archive\\-date\\=5 March 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305101256/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/05/sports/autoracing/formula\\-1\\-race\\-bahrain.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Despite having to serve a penalty due to his car being off\\-position at the starting grid, he finished in third again at the following race at the [2023 Saudi Arabian Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_Saudi_Arabian_Grand_Prix \"2023 Saudi Arabian Grand Prix\"); this marked his 100th podium, making him the sixth driver to have scored 100 podiums in his career. Following the race, he was issued another ten\\-second penalty due to serving the first one improperly at his pit stop, dropping him to fourth behind [George Russell](/wiki/George_Russell_%28racing_driver%29 \"George Russell (racing driver)\");{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24184/12838550/fernando\\-alonso\\-hits\\-out\\-at\\-poor\\-show\\-from\\-fia\\-amid\\-time\\-penalty\\-farce\\-at\\-saudi\\-arabian\\-grand\\-prixl\\|title\\=Fernando Alonso restored to third place at Saudi Arabian GP and hits out at 'poor show' from FIA\\|website\\=Sky Sports F1\\|date\\=19 March 2023\\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=20 March 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320010634/https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/24184/12838550/fernando\\-alonso\\-hits\\-out\\-at\\-poor\\-show\\-from\\-fia\\-amid\\-time\\-penalty\\-farce\\-at\\-saudi\\-arabian\\-grand\\-prixl\\|url\\-status\\=live}} however, the team's appeal was accepted and the second penalty was reversed, keeping his podium.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.breaking\\-alonso\\-loses\\-p3\\-and\\-100th\\-f1\\-podium\\-after\\-receiving\\-10s\\-penalty\\-in.4QbFJtlN8sUWqQXt4jJmmR.html\\|title\\='I am happy in the end with the result' – Alonso relieved after 100th career podium reinstated in Jeddah\\|website\\=Formula One website\\|date\\=19 March 2023\\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=21 March 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321043117/https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.breaking\\-alonso\\-loses\\-p3\\-and\\-100th\\-f1\\-podium\\-after\\-receiving\\-10s\\-penalty\\-in.4QbFJtlN8sUWqQXt4jJmmR.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Alonso finished in third once again after a chaotic [Australian Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_Australian_Grand_Prix \"2023 Australian Grand Prix\"); the third and final restart of the session saw his car make contact with the Ferrari of [Carlos Sainz Jr.](/wiki/Carlos_Sainz_Jr. \"Carlos Sainz Jr.\"), causing the latter driver to receive a five\\-second penalty; due to this, Sainz would be classified in last place out of the finishing cars. Alonso's car was undamaged.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12433/12847996/australian\\-gp\\-max\\-verstappen\\-holds\\-off\\-lewis\\-hamilton\\-for\\-victory\\-after\\-wild\\-finish\\-to\\-chaotic\\-race\\|title\\=Australian GP: Max Verstappen holds off Lewis Hamilton for victory after wild finish to chaotic race\\|website\\=\\[\\[Sky Sports F1]]\\|date\\=2 April 2023\\|access\\-date\\=24 April 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=9 April 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409110829/https://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12433/12847996/australian\\-gp\\-max\\-verstappen\\-holds\\-off\\-lewis\\-hamilton\\-for\\-victory\\-after\\-wild\\-finish\\-to\\-chaotic\\-race\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Alonso agreed with Sainz's criticisms of the penalty, stating that it was \"too harsh\".{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/sainz\\-blasts\\-most\\-unfair\\-penalty\\-ever\\-seeks\\-australian\\-gp\\-stewards\\-explanation/10452169/\\|title\\=Sainz blasts \"most unfair penalty ever\", seeks Australian GP stewards' explanation\\|website\\=Motorsport.com\\|last\\=Cobb\\|first\\=Haydn\\|date\\=2 April 2023\\|access\\-date\\=24 April 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=12 April 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412190415/https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/sainz\\-blasts\\-most\\-unfair\\-penalty\\-ever\\-seeks\\-australian\\-gp\\-stewards\\-explanation/10452169/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The Aston Martins were plagued with [DRS](/wiki/Drag_reduction_system \"Drag reduction system\") issues during qualification of the [Azerbaijan Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_Azerbaijan_Grand_Prix \"2023 Azerbaijan Grand Prix\"), going on to qualify eighth in the new \"sprint shootout\" qualification{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\\-azerbaijan\\-gp\\-sprint\\-shootout\\-report/10462311/\\|title\\=F1 Azerbaijan GP: Leclerc doubles up for sprint race pole despite crash\\|last\\=Boxall\\-Legge\\|first\\=Jake\\|website\\=Autosport.com\\|date\\=29 April 2023\\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=2 May 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502173647/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\\-azerbaijan\\-gp\\-sprint\\-shootout\\-report/10462311/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} and sixth for the main qualification session;{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\\-azerbaijan\\-gp\\-leclerc\\-beats\\-red\\-bulls\\-for\\-grand\\-prix\\-pole/10461826/\\|title\\=F1 Azerbaijan GP: Leclerc beats Red Bulls for grand prix pole\\|first\\=Jake\\|last\\=Boxall\\-Legge\\|date\\=28 April 2023\\|website\\=Autosport\\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=3 May 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230503013841/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\\-azerbaijan\\-gp\\-leclerc\\-beats\\-red\\-bulls\\-for\\-grand\\-prix\\-pole/10461826/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} he would finish sixth in the sprint race,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/f1\\-azerbaijan\\-gp\\-perez\\-passes\\-leclerc\\-to\\-win\\-f1\\-sprint/10462575/\\|title\\=F1 Azerbaijan GP: Perez passes Leclerc to win F1 sprint\\|last\\=Boxall\\-Legge\\|first\\=Jake\\|website\\=Motorsport.com\\|date\\=29 April 2023\\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=1 May 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230501205749/https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/f1\\-azerbaijan\\-gp\\-perez\\-passes\\-leclerc\\-to\\-win\\-f1\\-sprint/10462575/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} and fourth in the main race.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\\-azerbaijan\\-gp\\-perez\\-leads\\-dominant\\-red\\-bull\\-1\\-2\\-from\\-leclerc/10463146/\\|title\\=F1 Azerbaijan GP: Perez leads dominant Red Bull 1\\-2 from Leclerc\\|last\\=Boxall\\-Legge\\|first\\=Jake\\|website\\=Autosport.com\\|date\\=30 April 2023\\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=30 April 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430222636/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\\-azerbaijan\\-gp\\-perez\\-leads\\-dominant\\-red\\-bull\\-1\\-2\\-from\\-leclerc/10463146/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} It was at this point in time the car had dropped in performance, failing to secure podiums on a consistent basis, though he took two podium finishes at [Zandvoort](/wiki/2023_Dutch_Grand_Prix \"2023 Dutch Grand Prix\"),{{Cite news \\|url\\= https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\\-dutch\\-gp\\-verstappen\\-fends\\-off\\-alonso\\-in\\-red\\-flagged\\-rain\\-hit\\-race/10512346/ \\|title\\= F1 Dutch GP: Verstappen fends off Alonso in red\\-flagged, rain hit race \\|work\\= \\[\\[Autosport]] \\|date\\= 27 August 2023 \\|access\\-date\\= 28 August 2023 \\|last\\= Boxall\\-Legge \\|first\\= Jake \\|url\\-access\\= limited \\|archive\\-date\\= 28 August 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20230828021055/https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/f1\\-dutch\\-gp\\-verstappen\\-fends\\-off\\-alonso\\-in\\-red\\-flagged\\-rain\\-hit\\-race/10512346/ \\|url\\-status\\= live }} where he recorded his first fastest lap since the [2017 Hungarian Grand Prix](/wiki/2017_Hungarian_Grand_Prix \"2017 Hungarian Grand Prix\"),{{Cite web \\|title\\=Fernando Alonso \\- Fastests laps \\|url\\=https://www.statsf1\\.com/en/fernando\\-alonso/meilleur\\-tour.aspx \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-09 \\|website\\=Statsf1 \\|archive\\-date\\=4 November 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231104084145/https://www.statsf1\\.com/en/fernando\\-alonso/meilleur\\-tour.aspx \\|url\\-status\\=live }} and [São Paulo](/wiki/2023_S%C3%A3o_Paulo_Grand_Prix \"2023 São Paulo Grand Prix\"); the latter instance edging out [Sergio Pérez](/wiki/Sergio_P%C3%A9rez \"Sergio Pérez\") by 0\\.053 seconds.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Benson \\|first1\\=Andrew \\|title\\='Alonso masterclass burnishes the legend of one of the greatest' \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/formula1/67329196 \\|access\\-date\\=6 November 2023 \\|work\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=5 November 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=6 November 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106063932/https://www.bbc.com/sport/formula1/67329196 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} After a seventh\\-place finish at the [Abu Dhabi Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_Abu_Dhabi_Grand_Prix \"2023 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix\"), Alonso ended the season fourth in the standings, scoring 206 points against his teammate Stroll's 74\\. Alonso's fourth position in the standings was his highest finish since {{f1\\|2013}}.",
""
] |
Career
------
Locke joined the civil service in 1945 as an Assistant Principal in the [Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries](/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture%2C_Fisheries_and_Food "Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food") remaining there until 1965\. He was promoted to Under\-Secretary and worked in the [Cabinet Office](/wiki/Cabinet_Office "Cabinet Office") from 1965 to 1966\. [Thomas Balogh](/wiki/Thomas_Balogh%2C_Baron_Balogh "Thomas Balogh, Baron Balogh"), the economic advisor in the Cabinet Office, recommended Locke to [Barbara Castle](/wiki/Barbara_Castle "Barbara Castle"), the Minister of Transport; she ‘lured’ Under\-Secretary Locke to the [Ministry of Transport](/wiki/Ministry_of_Transport "Ministry of Transport").{{Cite book\|last\=Castle\|first\=Barbara\|title\=The Castle Diaries 1964–1976\|publisher\=Macmillan\|year\=1990\|isbn\=0333499492\|location\=London\|pages\=132, 356, 367, 370, 382}} She noted that he ‘entered fully into the spirit of our transport policy’ and worked on the rationalisation and expansion of passenger transport services under public ownership.
### Department of Employment
His administrative abilities so impressed Barbara Castle, that she took Locke with her when she was transferred to the Department of Employment and Productivity in 1968\.John Locke Obituary, *Times,* 16 Oct 1998, p.29 The Equal Pay Bill was a key piece of legislation occupying the department in late 1969\. Castle acknowledged that John Locke had done an excellent job in drafting the Bill. As he had initially drafted it, the Bill defined ‘equal pay for the same work’, but after discussions with Castle the definition ‘same work’ was changed to ‘like work of the same or broadly similar nature’. Another key document was the Prices and Incomes white paper. The Chancellor, [Roy Jenkins](/wiki/Roy_Jenkins "Roy Jenkins"), wanted the text to include a statement to the effect that the low paid should only be entitled to higher pay to give then ‘reasonable’ standards. Castle noted that ‘John Locke and I are determined not to include anything so nonsensical’. In Cabinet on Thursday 4 December 1969 the Chancellor and [Harold Lever](/wiki/Harold_Lever%2C_Baron_Lever_of_Manchester "Harold Lever, Baron Lever of Manchester") strongly opposed aspects of the paper. It was agreed that officials should meet to agree the draft. Castle told Locke to get cracking at once but ‘not to yield anything of substance’. Locke and Castle went through what had been agreed over the weekend, and the paper ‘sailed’ through Cabinet on Monday 8 December. A press conference was held on 28 January 1970 for which Locke had produced a background document. Castle thought this was an excellent paper and noted ‘He really is bright, that boy!’ (Locke was aged 46\).
### Industry pay dispute
In 1971 Locke was promoted to Deputy\-Secretary and remained in the Department of Employment from 1971 to 1974 under the Conservative Administration. He was secretary to [Lord Wilberforce](/wiki/Richard_Wilberforce%2C_Baron_Wilberforce "Richard Wilberforce, Baron Wilberforce")'s court of inquiry into the electricity industry pay dispute in 1971\.'Treasury chief to face electricity inquiry', *Times*, 9 Jan 1971, p. 5Coal Industry (Wilberforce Report) House of Commons Debate 21 February 1972 vol 831 cc898\-906Lord Wilberforce obituary, Civilised and balanced judge, cautious but acceptant of change: *The Guardian,* 19 Feb 2003\.Lord Wilberforce obituary, *The Daily Telegraph,* 18 Feb 2003\. This was an unusually senior appointment for such a role and demonstrates the seriousness of the situation for the government. Negotiations between the industry and the unions had broken down in December 1970 and the unions had taken industrial action which led to major disruption of electricity supplies and the government had declared a state of emergency.{{Cite book\|title\=Electricity Supply in the United Kingdom\|last\=The Electricity Council\|publisher\=The Electricity Council\|year\=1987\|isbn\=978\-0\-85188\-105\-8\|location\=London\|pages\=104}} The Wilberforce court of inquiry was held in the week of 18 January and its report was published on 10 February 1971\. The report noted that the majority of workers in the industry had not, between 1964 and 1969, been adequately compensated for changes to working conditions. The report recommended pay increases of £105 a year and an extra £35 a year for craftsmen and foremen plus improved shift payments and three additional days' holiday. The recommendations were incorporated in an agreement on 22 March.{{Cite book\|title\=Crisis Management in the Power Industry\|last\=Frank Ledger and Howard Sallis\|publisher\=Routledge\|year\=1995\|isbn\=978\-0\-415\-11876\-7\|location\=London\|pages\=41–42}}
### Manpower services
Locke was largely responsible for drafting the Employment and Training Act 1973 which established the [Manpower Services Commission](/wiki/Manpower_Services_Commission "Manpower Services Commission"); and personally would have wished to head the Commission although his career took another direction. He was also responsible for reorganising the [Department of Employment](/wiki/Department_of_Employment "Department of Employment"), including the Employment Service, the Training Service and Unemployment Benefit Service.
### Workplace health, safety and welfare
Locke's major achievements were implementing the recommendations of the 1972 [Robens Report](/wiki/Alfred_Robens%2C_Baron_Robens_of_Woldingham "Alfred Robens, Baron Robens of Woldingham") on occupational safety and health by transposing it into statute as the [Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974](/wiki/Health_and_Safety_at_Work_etc._Act_1974 "Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974"); and leading the Health and Safety Executive for nine years.{{Cite journal\|last\=Sirrs\|first\=Christopher\|date\=2015\|title\=Accidents and Apathy: The Construction of the 'Robens Philosophy' of Occupational Safety and Health Regulation in Britain, 1961–1974\|journal\=Social History of Medicine\|volume\= 29\| issue \= 1\|pages\= 66–88\|doi\=10\.1093/shm/hkv068\|pmid\=26858514\|pmc\=4743682}}
The Robens Report had noted the humanitarian cost – 1,000 fatalities and half a million injuries a year – of the existing "bloated, fragmented, reactive and overly prescriptive system".{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.mineaccidents.com.au/uploads/robens\-report\-original.pdf\|title\=Lord Robens, Safety and Health at Work, Report of the Committee, Cmnd. 5034, p.1}} This would be replaced with redistribution of responsibilities away from statutory regulation to "*those who create the risks and those who work with them"*.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.mineaccidents.com.au/uploads/robens\-report\-original.pdf\|title\=Lord Robens, Safety and Health at Work, Report of the Committee, Cmnd. 5034, p.12}} Robens believed the role of the state was to facilitate good practice, establishing and strengthening the arrangements through which self\-regulation could thrive. However, this entailed considerable change within the machinery of government. From 1972 to 1974 Locke was involved in a "prolonged and intensive period of interdepartmental consultation" on the new arrangements; as the Secretary of State for Employment, [Michael Foot](/wiki/Michael_Foot "Michael Foot"), said: "what that means is that there was a first\-class Whitehall row",{{Cite web\|url\=https://api.parliament.uk/historic\-hansard/commons/1974/apr/03/health\-and\-safety\-at\-work\-etc\-bill\#S5CV0871P0\_19740403\_HOC\_290\|work\=\[\[Hansard\|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]]\|date\=3 April 1974\|title\=Hansard, House of Commons Debates, 3 Apr 1974 Vol. 871 Col. 1287}} as Departments resisted the transfer of their health and safety functions to a new quasi\-independent authority. Locke's "blend of creativity and steel" was deployed effectively to fuse together 13 organisations from six ministries.The National Archives, BA 17/855, HS(72\) 30th meeting 'Follow up of Robens Report on Safety and Health at Work', 8 Dec 1972\. He took over as Director of Occupational Safety and Health in the Department of Employment with the Chief Inspector of Factories and the Chief Employment Medical Adviser reporting to him. He also acted as chairman of the shadow management board for the new Health and Safety Executive established by the 1974 Act.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.britsafe.org/publications/safety\-management\-magazine/safety\-management\-magazine/2017/director\-of\-safety\|title\=Director of Safety, Interview with John Locke, Safety Management, February 1975, British Safety Council}}
### The Health and Safety Commission and Executive
The Robens Report had envisaged the responsibility for health and safety would be vested in a single institution, the National Authority for Safety and Health at Work. However, Locke was instrumental in creating two new agencies instead of the single authority.The National Archives, BA 17/860, Department of Employment, 'Separation of the Commission and the Executive', 9 July 1973\. For records of the Robens Committee see TNA LAB 96\. The [Health and Safety Commission](/wiki/Health_and_Safety_Commission "Health and Safety Commission") (HSC) developed health and safety policy: it was a tripartite organisation incorporating the interests of employees, employers and the public; realised through trade unions, employers organisations, and local authorities and professional bodies.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1974/37/pdfs/ukpga\_19740037\_en.pdf\|title\=See Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974, sections 10 \& 11\.}} The [Health and Safety Executive](/wiki/Health_and_Safety_Executive "Health and Safety Executive") (HSE) was, legally, a three\-person body corporate, comprising a director\-general and two deputy directors\-general, its operational arm comprised officials enforcing the law, undertaking research and publicity and providing advice to the HSC. Locke was the first director\-general of the [Health and Safety Executive](/wiki/Health_and_Safety_Executive "Health and Safety Executive") from its establishment on 1 January 1975 until December 1983\. He actively promoted the regulatory model established by the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act by publishing papers,{{Cite journal\|last\=Locke\|first\=John\|date\=1976\|title\=Provision of information and advice for the protection of health and safety at work\|journal\=ASLIB Proceedings\|volume\= 28\| issue \= 1\|pages\= 8–16\|doi\=10\.1108/eb050538}} giving lectures,J. Locke, 'The politics of health and safety' Alexander Redgrave Memorial Lecture, 1981\. and contributing to contemporary debates on safety issues'MP attacks island oil plants expansion', *The Guardian*, 21 Jun 1978, p.2'Unions will be safety watchdogs', *The Guardian*,1 Oct 1978, p.2'Safety changes urged for Canvey Island plants', *Times*, 21 Jun 1978, p.2 and health concerns.'Safety executive director's plea to end rift over herbicide peril', *The Guardian*, 1 Jul 1980, p.2
### Career appraisal and legacies
Locke retired from the civil service in December 1983\. [Michael Foot](/wiki/Michael_Foot "Michael Foot"), then [Leader of the Opposition](/wiki/Leader_of_the_Opposition_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Leader of the Opposition (United Kingdom)"), paid tribute to him in Parliament, saying: "John Locke was one of the great civil servants, and without his inspiration and drive we would not have been able to establish the \[Health and Safety] Commission in that way. His work has been of outstanding importance to the Commission".{{Cite web\|url\=https://api.parliament.uk/historic\-hansard/commons/1984/feb/03/health\-and\-safety\-at\-work\#S6CV0053P0\_19840203\_HOC\_48\|work\=\[\[Hansard\|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]]\|date\=3 February 1984\|title\=Hansard, House of Commons Debates, 3 Feb 1984, Vol. 53 Cols. 23\-24}}
David Eves, a Deputy Director General of the HSE, commented on John Locke’s character: “John Locke was a clever and determined senior civil servant with a reputation for ruthlessness; inevitably he made enemies in Whitehall as he wore down Departmental opposition and drew the Executive’s resources together.”{{Cite web \|last\=Eves \|first\=David \|date\= \|title\=History of Occupational Safety and Health, Chapter 11: A great leap forward: the Act of 1974 \|url\=https://www.historyofosh.org.uk/brief/\#chapter11 \|access\-date\=26 March 2024 \|website\=}} In addition to HM Factory Inspectorate, the staff of several inspectorates transferred to HSE in 1975\. These included the Explosives Inspectorate, the Employment Medical Advisory Service, Nuclear Installations Inspectorate, Mines and Quarries Inspectorate, Safety in Mines Research Establishment, the British Approvals Service for Electrical Equipment in Flammable Atmospheres (BASEEFA), the Alkali and Clean Air Inspectorate. John Locke retired in 1983 and was succeeded by John Rimington. “Rimington set about mending fences that Locke had forced down in Whitehall when gathering the various Departmental Inspectorates together under the Executive’s wing”.
Ministers are responsible to Parliament for success or failure in health and safety at work. John Locke once said to a Minister, *‘We’ll know how good you are when you have to respond to your first disaster’*.
His successor as director\-general, [John Rimington](/wiki/John_Rimington_%28civil_servant%29 "John Rimington (civil servant)"), said that Locke was the first official to realise the importance of the professionalisation of occupational safety and health and "put his effort where his mouth was in helping, playing a leading part ... in the development of the framework for professional testing and examination".{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.historyofnebosh.org.uk/images/uploads/timeline/John%20Rimington.pdf\|title\='Thirty\-five years of health and safety – what has changed, and what has stayed the same' Address by John Rimington, House of Lords, 3 Nov 2009\.\|access\-date\=11 September 2017\|archive\-date\=20 September 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920105015/http://www.historyofnebosh.org.uk/images/uploads/timeline/John%20Rimington.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}} Locke did a "good deal to maintain and improve the professional status" of safety advisers in the face of scepticism by some in the business community that advisers were "interpreting rules too strictly and making unnecessary and expensive demands". Three years after retiring he accepted the unpaid chairmanship of the National Examination Board in Occupational Safety and Health until September 1993\. He was a director of the [Institution of Occupational Safety and Health](/wiki/Institution_of_Occupational_Safety_and_Health "Institution of Occupational Safety and Health") until November 1993\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://beta.companieshouse.gov.uk/officers/Y9gyKnAlAC9EY22PhuEiALZGmXE/appointments\|title\=Companies House Directorships}} He was also invited by the Australian Government to advise on setting up a safety executive.
Locke was made a [Companion of the Order of the Bath](/wiki/Order_of_the_Bath "Order of the Bath") in the New Year honours list 1984\.[New Years Honours 1984](/wiki/1984_New_Year_Honours%23Companion_of_the_Order_of_the_Bath_.28CB.29 "1984 New Year Honours#Companion of the Order of the Bath .28CB.29"){{Circular reference\|date\=November 2020}}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Locke joined the civil service in 1945 as an Assistant Principal in the [Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries](/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture%2C_Fisheries_and_Food \"Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food\") remaining there until 1965\\. He was promoted to Under\\-Secretary and worked in the [Cabinet Office](/wiki/Cabinet_Office \"Cabinet Office\") from 1965 to 1966\\. [Thomas Balogh](/wiki/Thomas_Balogh%2C_Baron_Balogh \"Thomas Balogh, Baron Balogh\"), the economic advisor in the Cabinet Office, recommended Locke to [Barbara Castle](/wiki/Barbara_Castle \"Barbara Castle\"), the Minister of Transport; she ‘lured’ Under\\-Secretary Locke to the [Ministry of Transport](/wiki/Ministry_of_Transport \"Ministry of Transport\").{{Cite book\\|last\\=Castle\\|first\\=Barbara\\|title\\=The Castle Diaries 1964–1976\\|publisher\\=Macmillan\\|year\\=1990\\|isbn\\=0333499492\\|location\\=London\\|pages\\=132, 356, 367, 370, 382}} She noted that he ‘entered fully into the spirit of our transport policy’ and worked on the rationalisation and expansion of passenger transport services under public ownership.",
"### Department of Employment",
"His administrative abilities so impressed Barbara Castle, that she took Locke with her when she was transferred to the Department of Employment and Productivity in 1968\\.John Locke Obituary, *Times,* 16 Oct 1998, p.29 The Equal Pay Bill was a key piece of legislation occupying the department in late 1969\\. Castle acknowledged that John Locke had done an excellent job in drafting the Bill. As he had initially drafted it, the Bill defined ‘equal pay for the same work’, but after discussions with Castle the definition ‘same work’ was changed to ‘like work of the same or broadly similar nature’. Another key document was the Prices and Incomes white paper. The Chancellor, [Roy Jenkins](/wiki/Roy_Jenkins \"Roy Jenkins\"), wanted the text to include a statement to the effect that the low paid should only be entitled to higher pay to give then ‘reasonable’ standards. Castle noted that ‘John Locke and I are determined not to include anything so nonsensical’. In Cabinet on Thursday 4 December 1969 the Chancellor and [Harold Lever](/wiki/Harold_Lever%2C_Baron_Lever_of_Manchester \"Harold Lever, Baron Lever of Manchester\") strongly opposed aspects of the paper. It was agreed that officials should meet to agree the draft. Castle told Locke to get cracking at once but ‘not to yield anything of substance’. Locke and Castle went through what had been agreed over the weekend, and the paper ‘sailed’ through Cabinet on Monday 8 December. A press conference was held on 28 January 1970 for which Locke had produced a background document. Castle thought this was an excellent paper and noted ‘He really is bright, that boy!’ (Locke was aged 46\\).",
"### Industry pay dispute",
"In 1971 Locke was promoted to Deputy\\-Secretary and remained in the Department of Employment from 1971 to 1974 under the Conservative Administration. He was secretary to [Lord Wilberforce](/wiki/Richard_Wilberforce%2C_Baron_Wilberforce \"Richard Wilberforce, Baron Wilberforce\")'s court of inquiry into the electricity industry pay dispute in 1971\\.'Treasury chief to face electricity inquiry', *Times*, 9 Jan 1971, p. 5Coal Industry (Wilberforce Report) House of Commons Debate 21 February 1972 vol 831 cc898\\-906Lord Wilberforce obituary, Civilised and balanced judge, cautious but acceptant of change: *The Guardian,* 19 Feb 2003\\.Lord Wilberforce obituary, *The Daily Telegraph,* 18 Feb 2003\\. This was an unusually senior appointment for such a role and demonstrates the seriousness of the situation for the government. Negotiations between the industry and the unions had broken down in December 1970 and the unions had taken industrial action which led to major disruption of electricity supplies and the government had declared a state of emergency.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Electricity Supply in the United Kingdom\\|last\\=The Electricity Council\\|publisher\\=The Electricity Council\\|year\\=1987\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-85188\\-105\\-8\\|location\\=London\\|pages\\=104}} The Wilberforce court of inquiry was held in the week of 18 January and its report was published on 10 February 1971\\. The report noted that the majority of workers in the industry had not, between 1964 and 1969, been adequately compensated for changes to working conditions. The report recommended pay increases of £105 a year and an extra £35 a year for craftsmen and foremen plus improved shift payments and three additional days' holiday. The recommendations were incorporated in an agreement on 22 March.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Crisis Management in the Power Industry\\|last\\=Frank Ledger and Howard Sallis\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|year\\=1995\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-415\\-11876\\-7\\|location\\=London\\|pages\\=41–42}}",
"### Manpower services",
"Locke was largely responsible for drafting the Employment and Training Act 1973 which established the [Manpower Services Commission](/wiki/Manpower_Services_Commission \"Manpower Services Commission\"); and personally would have wished to head the Commission although his career took another direction. He was also responsible for reorganising the [Department of Employment](/wiki/Department_of_Employment \"Department of Employment\"), including the Employment Service, the Training Service and Unemployment Benefit Service.",
"### Workplace health, safety and welfare",
"Locke's major achievements were implementing the recommendations of the 1972 [Robens Report](/wiki/Alfred_Robens%2C_Baron_Robens_of_Woldingham \"Alfred Robens, Baron Robens of Woldingham\") on occupational safety and health by transposing it into statute as the [Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974](/wiki/Health_and_Safety_at_Work_etc._Act_1974 \"Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974\"); and leading the Health and Safety Executive for nine years.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Sirrs\\|first\\=Christopher\\|date\\=2015\\|title\\=Accidents and Apathy: The Construction of the 'Robens Philosophy' of Occupational Safety and Health Regulation in Britain, 1961–1974\\|journal\\=Social History of Medicine\\|volume\\= 29\\| issue \\= 1\\|pages\\= 66–88\\|doi\\=10\\.1093/shm/hkv068\\|pmid\\=26858514\\|pmc\\=4743682}}",
"The Robens Report had noted the humanitarian cost – 1,000 fatalities and half a million injuries a year – of the existing \"bloated, fragmented, reactive and overly prescriptive system\".{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mineaccidents.com.au/uploads/robens\\-report\\-original.pdf\\|title\\=Lord Robens, Safety and Health at Work, Report of the Committee, Cmnd. 5034, p.1}} This would be replaced with redistribution of responsibilities away from statutory regulation to \"*those who create the risks and those who work with them\"*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mineaccidents.com.au/uploads/robens\\-report\\-original.pdf\\|title\\=Lord Robens, Safety and Health at Work, Report of the Committee, Cmnd. 5034, p.12}} Robens believed the role of the state was to facilitate good practice, establishing and strengthening the arrangements through which self\\-regulation could thrive. However, this entailed considerable change within the machinery of government. From 1972 to 1974 Locke was involved in a \"prolonged and intensive period of interdepartmental consultation\" on the new arrangements; as the Secretary of State for Employment, [Michael Foot](/wiki/Michael_Foot \"Michael Foot\"), said: \"what that means is that there was a first\\-class Whitehall row\",{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://api.parliament.uk/historic\\-hansard/commons/1974/apr/03/health\\-and\\-safety\\-at\\-work\\-etc\\-bill\\#S5CV0871P0\\_19740403\\_HOC\\_290\\|work\\=\\[\\[Hansard\\|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]]\\|date\\=3 April 1974\\|title\\=Hansard, House of Commons Debates, 3 Apr 1974 Vol. 871 Col. 1287}} as Departments resisted the transfer of their health and safety functions to a new quasi\\-independent authority. Locke's \"blend of creativity and steel\" was deployed effectively to fuse together 13 organisations from six ministries.The National Archives, BA 17/855, HS(72\\) 30th meeting 'Follow up of Robens Report on Safety and Health at Work', 8 Dec 1972\\. He took over as Director of Occupational Safety and Health in the Department of Employment with the Chief Inspector of Factories and the Chief Employment Medical Adviser reporting to him. He also acted as chairman of the shadow management board for the new Health and Safety Executive established by the 1974 Act.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.britsafe.org/publications/safety\\-management\\-magazine/safety\\-management\\-magazine/2017/director\\-of\\-safety\\|title\\=Director of Safety, Interview with John Locke, Safety Management, February 1975, British Safety Council}}",
"### The Health and Safety Commission and Executive",
"The Robens Report had envisaged the responsibility for health and safety would be vested in a single institution, the National Authority for Safety and Health at Work. However, Locke was instrumental in creating two new agencies instead of the single authority.The National Archives, BA 17/860, Department of Employment, 'Separation of the Commission and the Executive', 9 July 1973\\. For records of the Robens Committee see TNA LAB 96\\. The [Health and Safety Commission](/wiki/Health_and_Safety_Commission \"Health and Safety Commission\") (HSC) developed health and safety policy: it was a tripartite organisation incorporating the interests of employees, employers and the public; realised through trade unions, employers organisations, and local authorities and professional bodies.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1974/37/pdfs/ukpga\\_19740037\\_en.pdf\\|title\\=See Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974, sections 10 \\& 11\\.}} The [Health and Safety Executive](/wiki/Health_and_Safety_Executive \"Health and Safety Executive\") (HSE) was, legally, a three\\-person body corporate, comprising a director\\-general and two deputy directors\\-general, its operational arm comprised officials enforcing the law, undertaking research and publicity and providing advice to the HSC. Locke was the first director\\-general of the [Health and Safety Executive](/wiki/Health_and_Safety_Executive \"Health and Safety Executive\") from its establishment on 1 January 1975 until December 1983\\. He actively promoted the regulatory model established by the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act by publishing papers,{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Locke\\|first\\=John\\|date\\=1976\\|title\\=Provision of information and advice for the protection of health and safety at work\\|journal\\=ASLIB Proceedings\\|volume\\= 28\\| issue \\= 1\\|pages\\= 8–16\\|doi\\=10\\.1108/eb050538}} giving lectures,J. Locke, 'The politics of health and safety' Alexander Redgrave Memorial Lecture, 1981\\. and contributing to contemporary debates on safety issues'MP attacks island oil plants expansion', *The Guardian*, 21 Jun 1978, p.2'Unions will be safety watchdogs', *The Guardian*,1 Oct 1978, p.2'Safety changes urged for Canvey Island plants', *Times*, 21 Jun 1978, p.2 and health concerns.'Safety executive director's plea to end rift over herbicide peril', *The Guardian*, 1 Jul 1980, p.2",
"### Career appraisal and legacies",
"Locke retired from the civil service in December 1983\\. [Michael Foot](/wiki/Michael_Foot \"Michael Foot\"), then [Leader of the Opposition](/wiki/Leader_of_the_Opposition_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Leader of the Opposition (United Kingdom)\"), paid tribute to him in Parliament, saying: \"John Locke was one of the great civil servants, and without his inspiration and drive we would not have been able to establish the \\[Health and Safety] Commission in that way. His work has been of outstanding importance to the Commission\".{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://api.parliament.uk/historic\\-hansard/commons/1984/feb/03/health\\-and\\-safety\\-at\\-work\\#S6CV0053P0\\_19840203\\_HOC\\_48\\|work\\=\\[\\[Hansard\\|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]]\\|date\\=3 February 1984\\|title\\=Hansard, House of Commons Debates, 3 Feb 1984, Vol. 53 Cols. 23\\-24}}",
"David Eves, a Deputy Director General of the HSE, commented on John Locke’s character: “John Locke was a clever and determined senior civil servant with a reputation for ruthlessness; inevitably he made enemies in Whitehall as he wore down Departmental opposition and drew the Executive’s resources together.”{{Cite web \\|last\\=Eves \\|first\\=David \\|date\\= \\|title\\=History of Occupational Safety and Health, Chapter 11: A great leap forward: the Act of 1974 \\|url\\=https://www.historyofosh.org.uk/brief/\\#chapter11 \\|access\\-date\\=26 March 2024 \\|website\\=}} In addition to HM Factory Inspectorate, the staff of several inspectorates transferred to HSE in 1975\\. These included the Explosives Inspectorate, the Employment Medical Advisory Service, Nuclear Installations Inspectorate, Mines and Quarries Inspectorate, Safety in Mines Research Establishment, the British Approvals Service for Electrical Equipment in Flammable Atmospheres (BASEEFA), the Alkali and Clean Air Inspectorate. John Locke retired in 1983 and was succeeded by John Rimington. “Rimington set about mending fences that Locke had forced down in Whitehall when gathering the various Departmental Inspectorates together under the Executive’s wing”.",
"Ministers are responsible to Parliament for success or failure in health and safety at work. John Locke once said to a Minister, *‘We’ll know how good you are when you have to respond to your first disaster’*.",
"His successor as director\\-general, [John Rimington](/wiki/John_Rimington_%28civil_servant%29 \"John Rimington (civil servant)\"), said that Locke was the first official to realise the importance of the professionalisation of occupational safety and health and \"put his effort where his mouth was in helping, playing a leading part ... in the development of the framework for professional testing and examination\".{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.historyofnebosh.org.uk/images/uploads/timeline/John%20Rimington.pdf\\|title\\='Thirty\\-five years of health and safety – what has changed, and what has stayed the same' Address by John Rimington, House of Lords, 3 Nov 2009\\.\\|access\\-date\\=11 September 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=20 September 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920105015/http://www.historyofnebosh.org.uk/images/uploads/timeline/John%20Rimington.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Locke did a \"good deal to maintain and improve the professional status\" of safety advisers in the face of scepticism by some in the business community that advisers were \"interpreting rules too strictly and making unnecessary and expensive demands\". Three years after retiring he accepted the unpaid chairmanship of the National Examination Board in Occupational Safety and Health until September 1993\\. He was a director of the [Institution of Occupational Safety and Health](/wiki/Institution_of_Occupational_Safety_and_Health \"Institution of Occupational Safety and Health\") until November 1993\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://beta.companieshouse.gov.uk/officers/Y9gyKnAlAC9EY22PhuEiALZGmXE/appointments\\|title\\=Companies House Directorships}} He was also invited by the Australian Government to advise on setting up a safety executive.",
"Locke was made a [Companion of the Order of the Bath](/wiki/Order_of_the_Bath \"Order of the Bath\") in the New Year honours list 1984\\.[New Years Honours 1984](/wiki/1984_New_Year_Honours%23Companion_of_the_Order_of_the_Bath_.28CB.29 \"1984 New Year Honours#Companion of the Order of the Bath .28CB.29\"){{Circular reference\\|date\\=November 2020}}",
""
] |
History
-------
The facility opened in June 1942 as **Lockbourne Army Airfield,** named for the nearby village of [Lockbourne](/wiki/Lockbourne%2C_Ohio "Lockbourne, Ohio").{{Cite web \|last\= \|first\= \|date\=2019\-03\-11 \|title\=Columbus Rickenbacker continues international air cargo push \|url\=https://www.freightwaves.com/news/air\-freight/columbus\-rickenbacker\-air\-cargo\-push \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-24 \|website\=FreightWaves \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite news \|date\=Fall 2016 \|title\=Rickenbacker International Airport's New ATC Tower \|pages\=1 \|work\=Momentum \|publisher\=Exodyne, Inc \|url\=https://www.aecmep.com/images/news/LCK%20Tower%20Newsletter%20NOV2016\.pdf \|access\-date\=May 24, 2023}} Soon renamed the Northeastern Training Center of the [Army Air Corps](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Corps "United States Army Air Corps"), it provided basic [pilot training](/wiki/Flight_training "Flight training") and military support; it also trained [Women Airforce Service Pilots](/wiki/Women_Airforce_Service_Pilots "Women Airforce Service Pilots") (WASPs) to fly [B\-17](/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress "Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress") bombers and glider pilots to fly the [Waco CG\-4A](/wiki/Waco_CG-4 "Waco CG-4"). After the war, the airfield switched from flight training to developing and testing all\-weather military flight operations. The primary unit at the base was the all\-Black 447th Composite Group, also known as the [Tuskegee Airmen](/wiki/Tuskegee_Airmen "Tuskegee Airmen").
During the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War"), the facility was renamed **Lockbourne Air Force Base** and was assigned to the USAF [Strategic Air Command](/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command "Strategic Air Command"), then on May 18, 1974, redesignated **[Rickenbacker Air Force Base](/wiki/Rickenbacker_Air_Force_Base "Rickenbacker Air Force Base")** by Department of the Air Force Special Order GA\-11 of March 6, 1974, to honor Columbus native [Eddie Rickenbacker](/wiki/Eddie_Rickenbacker "Eddie Rickenbacker"), the leading American fighter pilot of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I").
The base was transferred from the [Strategic Air Command](/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command "Strategic Air Command") (SAC) to the [Air National Guard](/wiki/Air_National_Guard "Air National Guard") and redesignated **[Rickenbacker Air National Guard Base](/wiki/Rickenbacker_Air_National_Guard_Base "Rickenbacker Air National Guard Base")** on April 1, 1980\.
[right\|thumb\|Current Rickenbacker Tower](/wiki/File:Rickenbacker_International_Airport_Tower_1.jpg "Rickenbacker International Airport Tower 1.jpg")
The base was recommended for closure by the [1991 Base Realignment and Closure Commission](/wiki/1991_Base_Realignment_and_Closure_Commission "1991 Base Realignment and Closure Commission"), which would have moved the [121st Air Refueling Wing](/wiki/121st_Air_Refueling_Wing "121st Air Refueling Wing") and the [160th Air Refueling Group](/wiki/160th_Air_Refueling_Group "160th Air Refueling Group") of the [Ohio Air National Guard](/wiki/Ohio_Air_National_Guard "Ohio Air National Guard") to [Wright\-Patterson AFB](/wiki/Wright-Patterson_AFB "Wright-Patterson AFB"). But following a proposal by the State of Ohio, the 1993 Commission recommended that the Air National Guard units remain at Rickenbacker, operating as tenants in a military cantonment area. The military facilities were renamed **Rickenbacker Air National Guard Station** on September 30, 1994, by the 1991 Commission.
In August 2001 construction started on a consolidated Navy and Marine Corps Air Reserve Center at Rickenbacker International Airport. The $10 million center, scheduled for completion in early 2003, sits at the intersection of 2nd Avenue and Club Street next to the Air National Guard facility. Developed by the Navy Reserve, the project consolidated the Naval Air Reserve Center at Rickenbacker with the Navy and Marine Corps Reserve Center on Yearling Road in Columbus. The nearly 1,000 Navy and Marine Corps reservists at the two reserve centers shifted their activities to the new facility, allowing the old Naval Air Reserve Center at Rickenbacker to be redeveloped by the Columbus Regional Airport Authority, which operates the {{convert\|5000\|acre\|ha\|0\|adj\=on}} airport.
In 2015, [Cathay Pacific Cargo](/wiki/Cathay_Pacific_Cargo "Cathay Pacific Cargo") and [Emirates SkyCargo](/wiki/Emirates_SkyCargo "Emirates SkyCargo") boosted their services at the airport to support growth at the airport. Thanks to their additional service, logistics company [Morrison Express](/wiki/Morrison_Express "Morrison Express") launched operations at Rickenbacker in 2016 to support them.{{Cite web \|last\=Graham \|first\=Jam \|date\=2015\-12\-04 \|title\=Asia boosting Rickenbacker International Airport \|url\=https://www.aircargoweek.com/asia\-boosting\-rickenbacker\-international\-airport/ \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-24 \|website\=AIR CARGO WEEK \|language\=en\-GB}}{{Cite web \|date\=2016\-08\-30 \|title\=Morrison Express Launches Rickenbacker International Airport (LCK) Service Offering \|url\=https://www.aviationpros.com/gse/baggage\-cargo/press\-release/12251618/morrison\-express\-launches\-rickenbacker\-international\-airport\-lck\-service\-offering \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-24 \|website\=Aviation Pros}}
A new Air Traffic Control tower was opened at the airport in 2016\.
In 2018, the airport launched a $565,000 improvement project to boost the efficiency of its jetways. New ground power units and pre\-conditioned air units were installed. Funding was provided largely from an FAA grant awarded as part of its [Voluntary Airport Low Emissions](/wiki/Voluntary_Airport_Low_Emissions "Voluntary Airport Low Emissions") program, which helps airports meet air quality standards set by the US [Clean Air Act](/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_%28United_States%29 "Clean Air Act (United States)").{{Cite web \|date\=April 5, 2018 \|title\=Rickenbacker International Airport cleans up \|url\=https://www.airsideint.com/issue\-article/rickenbacker\-international\-airport\-cleans\-up/ \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-24 \|website\=Airside International \|language\=en\-GB}}{{Cite web \|last\= \|date\=2018\-01\-16 \|title\=Rickenbacker International Airport installing new equipment that improves air quality \|url\=https://www.circlevilleherald.com/community/rickenbacker\-international\-airport\-installing\-new\-equipment\-that\-improves\-air\-quality/article\_c0ab4bc1\-d3a9\-5cf6\-ad5b\-c6c1d0812b10\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-24 \|website\=Circleville Herald \|language\=en}}
That same year, the company upgraded its animal transport facility to ensure operational efficiency and animal safety. The facility earned U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) status as both a certified Export Inspection Facility and a Permanent Port of Embarkation for livestock. The upgrade included 12 new animal stalls and an on\-site USDA office.{{Cite web \|title\=Rickenbacker International Airport upgrades animal transport facility {{!}} 2018\-07\-17 {{!}} Refrigerated \& Frozen Foods \|url\=https://www.refrigeratedfrozenfood.com/articles/95252\-rickenbacker\-international\-airport\-upgrades\-animal\-transport\-facility \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-24 \|website\=Refrigerated Frozen Food \|language\=en}}
During the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"), airlines such as Emirates, Korean Air, and Etihad serviced the airport with passenger aircraft converted to transport loose cargo when demand for air travel waned and demand for freight continued to rise. On April 1, 2021, Rickenbacker and the CRAA celebrated the 500th arrival of a converted passenger plane: Emirates flight 2501 from Copenhagen.
In 2020, Rickenbacker was one of the most cost\-effective small commercial airports in the country for passengers. It ranked as the third\-cheapest airport of its size that year.{{Cite web \|last\=Cooley \|first\=Patrick \|title\=Rickenbacker's fares among the lowest in the nation for small airports \|url\=https://www.dispatch.com/story/business/2021/08/11/least\-expensive\-airports\-rickenbacker/5460923001/ \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-24 \|website\=The Columbus Dispatch \|language\=en\-US}} The [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic") brought historical traffic levels to the airport. Monthly international arrivals peaked at 120 in 2020 and even higher in 2021 as airlines brought medical cargo in to the airport. 2021 was the airport's best year to date due to the [COVID\-19 pandemic's](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") impact on cargo aviation.{{Cite web \|last\= \|first\= \|date\=2020\-07\-29 \|title\=Rickenbacker International Airport reports historical cargo activity \|url\=https://www.stattimes.com/news/rickenbacker\-international\-airport\-reports\-historical\-cargo\-activity\-air\-cargo\-cargo\-airports/ \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-24 \|website\=www.stattimes.com \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|last\=Colombo \|first\=Hayleigh \|date\=January 31, 2022 \|title\=Columbus’ cargo airport just had its best year ever while passenger traffic there continues to grow \|url\=https://www.bizjournals.com/columbus/news/2022/01/31/columbus\-air\-travel\-2021\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-24 \|website\=Columbus Business First \|publisher\=The Business Journals}} It was named the 2021 Airport of the Year by the [Ohio Aviation Association](/wiki/Ohio_Aviation_Association "Ohio Aviation Association") for its role in bringing emergency protective equipment, its record\-breaking shipments of international cargo, and receiving its first passenger aircraft converted for cargo.{{Cite web \|last\=Latta \|first\=Tiffany \|title\=Rickenbacker International Airport named Ohio airport of the year \|url\=https://spectrumnews1\.com/oh/columbus/news/2021/08/27/rickenbacker\-international\-airport\-named\-ohio\-airport\-of\-the\-year \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-24 \|website\=Spectrum News 1 \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|last\=Clay \|first\=Jarrod \|date\=2021\-08\-25 \|title\=Rickenbacker International Airport named Ohio airport of the year \|url\=https://abc6onyourside.com/news/local/rickenbacker\-international\-airport\-named\-ohio\-airport\-of\-the\-year \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-24 \|website\=WSYX \|publisher\=ABC 6 \|language\=en}}
Rickenbacker took part in an FAA research project on drones in 2021\. It was one of five airports to participate in the agency’s Airport Unmanned Aircraft Systems Detection and Mitigation Research Program.{{Cite web \|last\= \|date\=2021\-03\-04 \|title\=Rickenbacker chosen to participate in groundbreaking FAA research on drones \|url\=https://columbus.org/rickenbacker\-chosen\-to\-participate\-in\-groundbreaking\-faa\-research\-on\-drones/ \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-24 \|website\=Columbus Chamber of Commerce \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web \|last\=Herchik \|first\=Matthew \|date\=2022\-08\-31 \|title\=Rickenbacker taking part in drone safety program \|url\=https://www.nbc4i.com/news/local\-news/columbus/rickenbacker\-taking\-part\-in\-drone\-safety\-program/ \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-24 \|website\=NBC4 WCMH\-TV \|publisher\=NBC News \|language\=en\-US}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The facility opened in June 1942 as **Lockbourne Army Airfield,** named for the nearby village of [Lockbourne](/wiki/Lockbourne%2C_Ohio \"Lockbourne, Ohio\").{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\=2019\\-03\\-11 \\|title\\=Columbus Rickenbacker continues international air cargo push \\|url\\=https://www.freightwaves.com/news/air\\-freight/columbus\\-rickenbacker\\-air\\-cargo\\-push \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-24 \\|website\\=FreightWaves \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite news \\|date\\=Fall 2016 \\|title\\=Rickenbacker International Airport's New ATC Tower \\|pages\\=1 \\|work\\=Momentum \\|publisher\\=Exodyne, Inc \\|url\\=https://www.aecmep.com/images/news/LCK%20Tower%20Newsletter%20NOV2016\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=May 24, 2023}} Soon renamed the Northeastern Training Center of the [Army Air Corps](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Corps \"United States Army Air Corps\"), it provided basic [pilot training](/wiki/Flight_training \"Flight training\") and military support; it also trained [Women Airforce Service Pilots](/wiki/Women_Airforce_Service_Pilots \"Women Airforce Service Pilots\") (WASPs) to fly [B\\-17](/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress \"Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress\") bombers and glider pilots to fly the [Waco CG\\-4A](/wiki/Waco_CG-4 \"Waco CG-4\"). After the war, the airfield switched from flight training to developing and testing all\\-weather military flight operations. The primary unit at the base was the all\\-Black 447th Composite Group, also known as the [Tuskegee Airmen](/wiki/Tuskegee_Airmen \"Tuskegee Airmen\").",
"During the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\"), the facility was renamed **Lockbourne Air Force Base** and was assigned to the USAF [Strategic Air Command](/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command \"Strategic Air Command\"), then on May 18, 1974, redesignated **[Rickenbacker Air Force Base](/wiki/Rickenbacker_Air_Force_Base \"Rickenbacker Air Force Base\")** by Department of the Air Force Special Order GA\\-11 of March 6, 1974, to honor Columbus native [Eddie Rickenbacker](/wiki/Eddie_Rickenbacker \"Eddie Rickenbacker\"), the leading American fighter pilot of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\").",
"The base was transferred from the [Strategic Air Command](/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command \"Strategic Air Command\") (SAC) to the [Air National Guard](/wiki/Air_National_Guard \"Air National Guard\") and redesignated **[Rickenbacker Air National Guard Base](/wiki/Rickenbacker_Air_National_Guard_Base \"Rickenbacker Air National Guard Base\")** on April 1, 1980\\.",
"[right\\|thumb\\|Current Rickenbacker Tower](/wiki/File:Rickenbacker_International_Airport_Tower_1.jpg \"Rickenbacker International Airport Tower 1.jpg\")\nThe base was recommended for closure by the [1991 Base Realignment and Closure Commission](/wiki/1991_Base_Realignment_and_Closure_Commission \"1991 Base Realignment and Closure Commission\"), which would have moved the [121st Air Refueling Wing](/wiki/121st_Air_Refueling_Wing \"121st Air Refueling Wing\") and the [160th Air Refueling Group](/wiki/160th_Air_Refueling_Group \"160th Air Refueling Group\") of the [Ohio Air National Guard](/wiki/Ohio_Air_National_Guard \"Ohio Air National Guard\") to [Wright\\-Patterson AFB](/wiki/Wright-Patterson_AFB \"Wright-Patterson AFB\"). But following a proposal by the State of Ohio, the 1993 Commission recommended that the Air National Guard units remain at Rickenbacker, operating as tenants in a military cantonment area. The military facilities were renamed **Rickenbacker Air National Guard Station** on September 30, 1994, by the 1991 Commission.",
"In August 2001 construction started on a consolidated Navy and Marine Corps Air Reserve Center at Rickenbacker International Airport. The $10 million center, scheduled for completion in early 2003, sits at the intersection of 2nd Avenue and Club Street next to the Air National Guard facility. Developed by the Navy Reserve, the project consolidated the Naval Air Reserve Center at Rickenbacker with the Navy and Marine Corps Reserve Center on Yearling Road in Columbus. The nearly 1,000 Navy and Marine Corps reservists at the two reserve centers shifted their activities to the new facility, allowing the old Naval Air Reserve Center at Rickenbacker to be redeveloped by the Columbus Regional Airport Authority, which operates the {{convert\\|5000\\|acre\\|ha\\|0\\|adj\\=on}} airport.",
"In 2015, [Cathay Pacific Cargo](/wiki/Cathay_Pacific_Cargo \"Cathay Pacific Cargo\") and [Emirates SkyCargo](/wiki/Emirates_SkyCargo \"Emirates SkyCargo\") boosted their services at the airport to support growth at the airport. Thanks to their additional service, logistics company [Morrison Express](/wiki/Morrison_Express \"Morrison Express\") launched operations at Rickenbacker in 2016 to support them.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Graham \\|first\\=Jam \\|date\\=2015\\-12\\-04 \\|title\\=Asia boosting Rickenbacker International Airport \\|url\\=https://www.aircargoweek.com/asia\\-boosting\\-rickenbacker\\-international\\-airport/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-24 \\|website\\=AIR CARGO WEEK \\|language\\=en\\-GB}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2016\\-08\\-30 \\|title\\=Morrison Express Launches Rickenbacker International Airport (LCK) Service Offering \\|url\\=https://www.aviationpros.com/gse/baggage\\-cargo/press\\-release/12251618/morrison\\-express\\-launches\\-rickenbacker\\-international\\-airport\\-lck\\-service\\-offering \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-24 \\|website\\=Aviation Pros}}",
"A new Air Traffic Control tower was opened at the airport in 2016\\.",
"In 2018, the airport launched a $565,000 improvement project to boost the efficiency of its jetways. New ground power units and pre\\-conditioned air units were installed. Funding was provided largely from an FAA grant awarded as part of its [Voluntary Airport Low Emissions](/wiki/Voluntary_Airport_Low_Emissions \"Voluntary Airport Low Emissions\") program, which helps airports meet air quality standards set by the US [Clean Air Act](/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_%28United_States%29 \"Clean Air Act (United States)\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=April 5, 2018 \\|title\\=Rickenbacker International Airport cleans up \\|url\\=https://www.airsideint.com/issue\\-article/rickenbacker\\-international\\-airport\\-cleans\\-up/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-24 \\|website\\=Airside International \\|language\\=en\\-GB}}{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|date\\=2018\\-01\\-16 \\|title\\=Rickenbacker International Airport installing new equipment that improves air quality \\|url\\=https://www.circlevilleherald.com/community/rickenbacker\\-international\\-airport\\-installing\\-new\\-equipment\\-that\\-improves\\-air\\-quality/article\\_c0ab4bc1\\-d3a9\\-5cf6\\-ad5b\\-c6c1d0812b10\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-24 \\|website\\=Circleville Herald \\|language\\=en}}",
"That same year, the company upgraded its animal transport facility to ensure operational efficiency and animal safety. The facility earned U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) status as both a certified Export Inspection Facility and a Permanent Port of Embarkation for livestock. The upgrade included 12 new animal stalls and an on\\-site USDA office.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Rickenbacker International Airport upgrades animal transport facility {{!}} 2018\\-07\\-17 {{!}} Refrigerated \\& Frozen Foods \\|url\\=https://www.refrigeratedfrozenfood.com/articles/95252\\-rickenbacker\\-international\\-airport\\-upgrades\\-animal\\-transport\\-facility \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-24 \\|website\\=Refrigerated Frozen Food \\|language\\=en}}",
"During the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"), airlines such as Emirates, Korean Air, and Etihad serviced the airport with passenger aircraft converted to transport loose cargo when demand for air travel waned and demand for freight continued to rise. On April 1, 2021, Rickenbacker and the CRAA celebrated the 500th arrival of a converted passenger plane: Emirates flight 2501 from Copenhagen.",
"In 2020, Rickenbacker was one of the most cost\\-effective small commercial airports in the country for passengers. It ranked as the third\\-cheapest airport of its size that year.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Cooley \\|first\\=Patrick \\|title\\=Rickenbacker's fares among the lowest in the nation for small airports \\|url\\=https://www.dispatch.com/story/business/2021/08/11/least\\-expensive\\-airports\\-rickenbacker/5460923001/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-24 \\|website\\=The Columbus Dispatch \\|language\\=en\\-US}} The [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\") brought historical traffic levels to the airport. Monthly international arrivals peaked at 120 in 2020 and even higher in 2021 as airlines brought medical cargo in to the airport. 2021 was the airport's best year to date due to the [COVID\\-19 pandemic's](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States \"COVID-19 pandemic in the United States\") impact on cargo aviation.{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\=2020\\-07\\-29 \\|title\\=Rickenbacker International Airport reports historical cargo activity \\|url\\=https://www.stattimes.com/news/rickenbacker\\-international\\-airport\\-reports\\-historical\\-cargo\\-activity\\-air\\-cargo\\-cargo\\-airports/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-24 \\|website\\=www.stattimes.com \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Colombo \\|first\\=Hayleigh \\|date\\=January 31, 2022 \\|title\\=Columbus’ cargo airport just had its best year ever while passenger traffic there continues to grow \\|url\\=https://www.bizjournals.com/columbus/news/2022/01/31/columbus\\-air\\-travel\\-2021\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-24 \\|website\\=Columbus Business First \\|publisher\\=The Business Journals}} It was named the 2021 Airport of the Year by the [Ohio Aviation Association](/wiki/Ohio_Aviation_Association \"Ohio Aviation Association\") for its role in bringing emergency protective equipment, its record\\-breaking shipments of international cargo, and receiving its first passenger aircraft converted for cargo.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Latta \\|first\\=Tiffany \\|title\\=Rickenbacker International Airport named Ohio airport of the year \\|url\\=https://spectrumnews1\\.com/oh/columbus/news/2021/08/27/rickenbacker\\-international\\-airport\\-named\\-ohio\\-airport\\-of\\-the\\-year \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-24 \\|website\\=Spectrum News 1 \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Clay \\|first\\=Jarrod \\|date\\=2021\\-08\\-25 \\|title\\=Rickenbacker International Airport named Ohio airport of the year \\|url\\=https://abc6onyourside.com/news/local/rickenbacker\\-international\\-airport\\-named\\-ohio\\-airport\\-of\\-the\\-year \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-24 \\|website\\=WSYX \\|publisher\\=ABC 6 \\|language\\=en}}",
"Rickenbacker took part in an FAA research project on drones in 2021\\. It was one of five airports to participate in the agency’s Airport Unmanned Aircraft Systems Detection and Mitigation Research Program.{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|date\\=2021\\-03\\-04 \\|title\\=Rickenbacker chosen to participate in groundbreaking FAA research on drones \\|url\\=https://columbus.org/rickenbacker\\-chosen\\-to\\-participate\\-in\\-groundbreaking\\-faa\\-research\\-on\\-drones/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-24 \\|website\\=Columbus Chamber of Commerce \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Herchik \\|first\\=Matthew \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-31 \\|title\\=Rickenbacker taking part in drone safety program \\|url\\=https://www.nbc4i.com/news/local\\-news/columbus/rickenbacker\\-taking\\-part\\-in\\-drone\\-safety\\-program/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-24 \\|website\\=NBC4 WCMH\\-TV \\|publisher\\=NBC News \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
""
] |
Principles
----------
The challenge of structuring and sharing components in a collaborative system is not new; over
the years programming language designers have attacked this problem from many angles. While
trends change, the basic principles are well understood. Features such as encapsulation, abstraction,
modularity, and typing produce clear benefits. We believe that similar principles apply when sharing
configuration information across administrative domains.
The Quattor configuration tool\-kit derives its architecture from [LCFG](/wiki/LCFG "LCFG"), improving it in several
aspects. At the core of Quattor is Pan, a high\-level, typed language with flexible include mechanisms,
a range of data structures, and validation features familiar to modern programmers. Pan
allows collaborative administrators to build up a complex set of configuration templates describing
service types, hardware components, configuration parameters, users etc. The use of a high\-level
language facilitates code reuse in a way that goes beyond cut\-and\-paste of configuration snippets.
The principles embodied in Quattor are in line with those established within the system administration
community. In particular, all managed nodes retrieve their configurations from
a configuration server backed by a source\-control system (or systems in the case of devolved management).
This allows individual nodes to be recreated in the case of hardware failure. Quattor
handles both distributed and traditional (single\-site) infrastructures.
Devolved management includes the following features: consistency over a multi\-site
infrastructure, multiple management points, and the ability to accommodate the specific needs
of constituent sites. There is no single “correct” model for a devolved infrastructure, thus great
flexibility is needed in the architecture of the configuration system itself. Sometimes a set of highly autonomous
sites wish to collaborate loosely. In this case each site will host a fairly comprehensive
set of configuration servers, with common configuration information being retrieved from a shared
database and integrated with the local configuration.
Distributing the management task can potentially introduce new costs. For example, transmitting
configuration information over the WAN introduces latency and security concerns. Quattor
allows servers to be placed at appropriate locations in the infrastructure to reduce latency, and
the use of standard tools and protocols means that existing security systems (such as a public key
infrastructure) can be harnessed to encrypt and authenticate communications.
|
[
"Principles\n----------",
"The challenge of structuring and sharing components in a collaborative system is not new; over\nthe years programming language designers have attacked this problem from many angles. While\ntrends change, the basic principles are well understood. Features such as encapsulation, abstraction,\nmodularity, and typing produce clear benefits. We believe that similar principles apply when sharing\nconfiguration information across administrative domains.",
"The Quattor configuration tool\\-kit derives its architecture from [LCFG](/wiki/LCFG \"LCFG\"), improving it in several\naspects. At the core of Quattor is Pan, a high\\-level, typed language with flexible include mechanisms,\na range of data structures, and validation features familiar to modern programmers. Pan\nallows collaborative administrators to build up a complex set of configuration templates describing\nservice types, hardware components, configuration parameters, users etc. The use of a high\\-level\nlanguage facilitates code reuse in a way that goes beyond cut\\-and\\-paste of configuration snippets.",
"The principles embodied in Quattor are in line with those established within the system administration\ncommunity. In particular, all managed nodes retrieve their configurations from\na configuration server backed by a source\\-control system (or systems in the case of devolved management).\nThis allows individual nodes to be recreated in the case of hardware failure. Quattor\nhandles both distributed and traditional (single\\-site) infrastructures.",
"Devolved management includes the following features: consistency over a multi\\-site\ninfrastructure, multiple management points, and the ability to accommodate the specific needs\nof constituent sites. There is no single “correct” model for a devolved infrastructure, thus great\nflexibility is needed in the architecture of the configuration system itself. Sometimes a set of highly autonomous\nsites wish to collaborate loosely. In this case each site will host a fairly comprehensive\nset of configuration servers, with common configuration information being retrieved from a shared\ndatabase and integrated with the local configuration.",
"Distributing the management task can potentially introduce new costs. For example, transmitting\nconfiguration information over the WAN introduces latency and security concerns. Quattor\nallows servers to be placed at appropriate locations in the infrastructure to reduce latency, and\nthe use of standard tools and protocols means that existing security systems (such as a public key\ninfrastructure) can be harnessed to encrypt and authenticate communications.",
""
] |
Quattor Architecture
--------------------
### Configuration management system
Quattor's configuration management system is composed of a configuration database that stores
high\-level configuration templates, the Pan compiler that validates templates and translates them
to XML or JSON profiles, and a machine profile repository that serves the profiles to client nodes. Only the
Pan compiler is strictly necessary in a Quattor system; the other two subsystems
can be replaced by any service providing similar functionality.
Devolved management in a cross\-domain environment requires users to be authenticated and
their operations to be authorized. For the configuration database X.509 certificates can be used
because of the support offered by many standard tools, and access control lists (ACLs)
because they allow a fine\-grained control (an ACL can be attached to each template). When many
users interact with the system, conflicts and misconfiguration may arise which require a roll back
mechanism; to this purpose, a simple concurrent transaction mechanism, based on standard version
control systems, was implemented.
Quattor's modular architecture allows the three configuration management subsystems to be
deployed in either a distributed or centralized fashion. In the distributed approach, profile compilation
(at development stage) is carried out on client systems, templates are then checked into a
suitable database, and finally the deployment is initiated by invoking a separate operation on the
server. The centralized approach provides strict control of configuration data. The compilation
burden is placed onto the central server, and users can only access and modify templates via a
dedicated interface.
Since the two paradigms provide essentially the same functionality, the choice between them
depends on which fits the management model of an organization better. For instance, the centralized
approach fits large computer centres well because of its strictly controlled work\-flow, whereas multi\-site
organizations such as GRIF prefer the distributed approach because it allows different parts of
the whole configuration set to be handled autonomously.
### Pan language
The Pan language compiler panc sits at the core of the Quattor tool\-kit. It compiles machine configurations
written in the [Pan configuration language](/wiki/Pan_%28programming_language%29 "Pan (programming language)") by system administrators and produces XML or JSON
files (profiles) that are easily consumed by Quattor clients. The Pan language itself has a simple,
declarative syntax that allows simultaneous definition of configuration information and an associated
schema. In this section, we focus only on the Pan features that are relevant to devolved
management of distributed sites: validation, configuration reuse, and modularization.
**Validation**. The extensive validation features in the Pan language maximize the probability of
finding configuration problems at compile time, minimizing costly clean\-ups of deployed misconfiguration.
Pan enables system administrators to define atomic or compound types with associated
validation functions; when a part of the configuration schema is bound to a type, the declared
constraints are automatically enforced.
**Configuration reuse**. Pan allows identification and reuse of configuration information through
“structure templates.” These identify small, reusable chunks of Pan\-level configuration information
which can be used whenever an administrator identifies an invariant (or nearly invariant) configuration
sub\-tree.
**Modularization**. With respect to the original design, two new features have been developed
to promote modularization and large\-scale reuse of configurations: the name\-spacing and load\-path
mechanisms.
A full site configuration typically consists of a large number of templates organized into directories
and subdirectories. The Pan template name\-spacing mimics (and enforces) this organization
much as is done in the Java language. The name\-space hierarchy is independent of the configuration
schema. The configuration schema is often organized by low\-level services such as firewall settings
for ports, account generation, log rotation entries, [cron](/wiki/Cron "Cron") entries, and the like. In contrast, the Pan
templates are usually organized based on other criteria like high\-level services (web server, mail
server, etc.) or by responsible person/group.
The name\-spacing allows various parts of the configuration to be separated and identified. To
effectively modularize part of the configuration for reuse, administrators must be able to import
the modules easily into a site's configuration and to customize them. Users of the Pan compiler
combine a load\-path with the name\-spacing to achieve this. The compiler uses the load\-path to search
multiple root directories for particular, named templates; the first version found on the load\-path
is the one that is used by the compiler. This allows modules to be kept in a pristine state while
allowing sites to override any particular template.
Further, module developers can also expose global variables to parameterize the module, permitting
a system administrator to use a module without having to understand the inner workings
of the module's templates.
Quattor Working Group (QWG) templates are used to configure grid [middleware](/wiki/Middleware "Middleware") services.
The QWG templates use all of the features of Pan to allow distributed sites to share grid [middleware](/wiki/Middleware "Middleware") expertise.
### Automated installation management
A key feature for administering large distributed infrastructures is the ability to automatically
install machines, possibly from a remote location. To this purpose, Quattor provides a modular
framework called the Automated Installation Infrastructure (AII). This framework is responsible
for translating the configuration parameters embodied in node profiles into installation instructions
suitable for use by standard installation tools. Current AII modules use node profiles to configure
DHCP servers, PXE boot and Kickstart\-guided installations.
Normally AII is set up with an install server at each site. However, the above\-mentioned
technologies allow the transparent implementation of multi\-site installations, by setting up a central
server and appropriate relays using standard protocols.
### Node configuration management
In Quattor, managed nodes handle their configuration process autonomously; all actions are initiated locally, once the configuration profile has been retrieved from the repository.
Each node has a set of configuration agents (components) that are each registered with a particular part of the configuration schema.
For example, the component that manages user accounts is registered with the path /software/components/accounts.
A dispatcher program running on the node performs an analysis of the freshly retrieved configuration for changes in the relevant sections, and triggers the appropriate components.
Run\-time dependencies may be expressed in the node's profile, so that a partial order can be enforced on component execution.
For example, it is important that the user accounts component runs before the file creation component, to ensure that file ownership can be correctly specified.
By design, no control loop is provided for ensuring the correct execution of configuration components.
Site administrators typically use standard monitoring systems to detect and respond to
configuration failures. [Nagios](/wiki/Nagios "Nagios") and Lemon are both being used at Quattor sites for this
purpose. In fact, Lemon has been developed in tandem with Quattor, and provides sensors to
detect failures in Quattor component execution.
While nodes normally update themselves automatically, administrators can configure the system
to disable automatic change deployment. This is crucial in a devolved system where the responsibilities
for, respectively, modifying and deploying the configuration may be separated. A typical
scenario is that top\-level administrators manage the shared configuration of multiple remote sites
and local managers apply it according to their policies. For instance, software updates might be
scheduled at different times.
|
[
"Quattor Architecture\n--------------------",
"### Configuration management system",
"Quattor's configuration management system is composed of a configuration database that stores\nhigh\\-level configuration templates, the Pan compiler that validates templates and translates them\nto XML or JSON profiles, and a machine profile repository that serves the profiles to client nodes. Only the\nPan compiler is strictly necessary in a Quattor system; the other two subsystems\ncan be replaced by any service providing similar functionality.",
"Devolved management in a cross\\-domain environment requires users to be authenticated and\ntheir operations to be authorized. For the configuration database X.509 certificates can be used\nbecause of the support offered by many standard tools, and access control lists (ACLs)\nbecause they allow a fine\\-grained control (an ACL can be attached to each template). When many\nusers interact with the system, conflicts and misconfiguration may arise which require a roll back\nmechanism; to this purpose, a simple concurrent transaction mechanism, based on standard version\ncontrol systems, was implemented.",
"Quattor's modular architecture allows the three configuration management subsystems to be\ndeployed in either a distributed or centralized fashion. In the distributed approach, profile compilation\n(at development stage) is carried out on client systems, templates are then checked into a\nsuitable database, and finally the deployment is initiated by invoking a separate operation on the\nserver. The centralized approach provides strict control of configuration data. The compilation\nburden is placed onto the central server, and users can only access and modify templates via a\ndedicated interface.",
"Since the two paradigms provide essentially the same functionality, the choice between them\ndepends on which fits the management model of an organization better. For instance, the centralized\napproach fits large computer centres well because of its strictly controlled work\\-flow, whereas multi\\-site\norganizations such as GRIF prefer the distributed approach because it allows different parts of\nthe whole configuration set to be handled autonomously.",
"### Pan language",
"The Pan language compiler panc sits at the core of the Quattor tool\\-kit. It compiles machine configurations\nwritten in the [Pan configuration language](/wiki/Pan_%28programming_language%29 \"Pan (programming language)\") by system administrators and produces XML or JSON\nfiles (profiles) that are easily consumed by Quattor clients. The Pan language itself has a simple,\ndeclarative syntax that allows simultaneous definition of configuration information and an associated\nschema. In this section, we focus only on the Pan features that are relevant to devolved\nmanagement of distributed sites: validation, configuration reuse, and modularization.",
"**Validation**. The extensive validation features in the Pan language maximize the probability of\nfinding configuration problems at compile time, minimizing costly clean\\-ups of deployed misconfiguration.\nPan enables system administrators to define atomic or compound types with associated\nvalidation functions; when a part of the configuration schema is bound to a type, the declared\nconstraints are automatically enforced.",
"**Configuration reuse**. Pan allows identification and reuse of configuration information through\n“structure templates.” These identify small, reusable chunks of Pan\\-level configuration information\nwhich can be used whenever an administrator identifies an invariant (or nearly invariant) configuration\nsub\\-tree.",
"**Modularization**. With respect to the original design, two new features have been developed\nto promote modularization and large\\-scale reuse of configurations: the name\\-spacing and load\\-path\nmechanisms.",
"A full site configuration typically consists of a large number of templates organized into directories\nand subdirectories. The Pan template name\\-spacing mimics (and enforces) this organization\nmuch as is done in the Java language. The name\\-space hierarchy is independent of the configuration\nschema. The configuration schema is often organized by low\\-level services such as firewall settings\nfor ports, account generation, log rotation entries, [cron](/wiki/Cron \"Cron\") entries, and the like. In contrast, the Pan\ntemplates are usually organized based on other criteria like high\\-level services (web server, mail\nserver, etc.) or by responsible person/group.",
"The name\\-spacing allows various parts of the configuration to be separated and identified. To\neffectively modularize part of the configuration for reuse, administrators must be able to import\nthe modules easily into a site's configuration and to customize them. Users of the Pan compiler\ncombine a load\\-path with the name\\-spacing to achieve this. The compiler uses the load\\-path to search\nmultiple root directories for particular, named templates; the first version found on the load\\-path\nis the one that is used by the compiler. This allows modules to be kept in a pristine state while\nallowing sites to override any particular template.",
"Further, module developers can also expose global variables to parameterize the module, permitting\na system administrator to use a module without having to understand the inner workings\nof the module's templates.",
"Quattor Working Group (QWG) templates are used to configure grid [middleware](/wiki/Middleware \"Middleware\") services.\nThe QWG templates use all of the features of Pan to allow distributed sites to share grid [middleware](/wiki/Middleware \"Middleware\") expertise.",
"### Automated installation management",
"A key feature for administering large distributed infrastructures is the ability to automatically\ninstall machines, possibly from a remote location. To this purpose, Quattor provides a modular\nframework called the Automated Installation Infrastructure (AII). This framework is responsible\nfor translating the configuration parameters embodied in node profiles into installation instructions\nsuitable for use by standard installation tools. Current AII modules use node profiles to configure\nDHCP servers, PXE boot and Kickstart\\-guided installations.",
"Normally AII is set up with an install server at each site. However, the above\\-mentioned\ntechnologies allow the transparent implementation of multi\\-site installations, by setting up a central\nserver and appropriate relays using standard protocols.",
"### Node configuration management",
"In Quattor, managed nodes handle their configuration process autonomously; all actions are initiated locally, once the configuration profile has been retrieved from the repository.\nEach node has a set of configuration agents (components) that are each registered with a particular part of the configuration schema.\nFor example, the component that manages user accounts is registered with the path /software/components/accounts.\nA dispatcher program running on the node performs an analysis of the freshly retrieved configuration for changes in the relevant sections, and triggers the appropriate components.\nRun\\-time dependencies may be expressed in the node's profile, so that a partial order can be enforced on component execution.\nFor example, it is important that the user accounts component runs before the file creation component, to ensure that file ownership can be correctly specified.",
"By design, no control loop is provided for ensuring the correct execution of configuration components.\nSite administrators typically use standard monitoring systems to detect and respond to\nconfiguration failures. [Nagios](/wiki/Nagios \"Nagios\") and Lemon are both being used at Quattor sites for this\npurpose. In fact, Lemon has been developed in tandem with Quattor, and provides sensors to\ndetect failures in Quattor component execution.",
"While nodes normally update themselves automatically, administrators can configure the system\nto disable automatic change deployment. This is crucial in a devolved system where the responsibilities\nfor, respectively, modifying and deploying the configuration may be separated. A typical\nscenario is that top\\-level administrators manage the shared configuration of multiple remote sites\nand local managers apply it according to their policies. For instance, software updates might be\nscheduled at different times.",
""
] |
### Pan language
The Pan language compiler panc sits at the core of the Quattor tool\-kit. It compiles machine configurations
written in the [Pan configuration language](/wiki/Pan_%28programming_language%29 "Pan (programming language)") by system administrators and produces XML or JSON
files (profiles) that are easily consumed by Quattor clients. The Pan language itself has a simple,
declarative syntax that allows simultaneous definition of configuration information and an associated
schema. In this section, we focus only on the Pan features that are relevant to devolved
management of distributed sites: validation, configuration reuse, and modularization.
**Validation**. The extensive validation features in the Pan language maximize the probability of
finding configuration problems at compile time, minimizing costly clean\-ups of deployed misconfiguration.
Pan enables system administrators to define atomic or compound types with associated
validation functions; when a part of the configuration schema is bound to a type, the declared
constraints are automatically enforced.
**Configuration reuse**. Pan allows identification and reuse of configuration information through
“structure templates.” These identify small, reusable chunks of Pan\-level configuration information
which can be used whenever an administrator identifies an invariant (or nearly invariant) configuration
sub\-tree.
**Modularization**. With respect to the original design, two new features have been developed
to promote modularization and large\-scale reuse of configurations: the name\-spacing and load\-path
mechanisms.
A full site configuration typically consists of a large number of templates organized into directories
and subdirectories. The Pan template name\-spacing mimics (and enforces) this organization
much as is done in the Java language. The name\-space hierarchy is independent of the configuration
schema. The configuration schema is often organized by low\-level services such as firewall settings
for ports, account generation, log rotation entries, [cron](/wiki/Cron "Cron") entries, and the like. In contrast, the Pan
templates are usually organized based on other criteria like high\-level services (web server, mail
server, etc.) or by responsible person/group.
The name\-spacing allows various parts of the configuration to be separated and identified. To
effectively modularize part of the configuration for reuse, administrators must be able to import
the modules easily into a site's configuration and to customize them. Users of the Pan compiler
combine a load\-path with the name\-spacing to achieve this. The compiler uses the load\-path to search
multiple root directories for particular, named templates; the first version found on the load\-path
is the one that is used by the compiler. This allows modules to be kept in a pristine state while
allowing sites to override any particular template.
Further, module developers can also expose global variables to parameterize the module, permitting
a system administrator to use a module without having to understand the inner workings
of the module's templates.
Quattor Working Group (QWG) templates are used to configure grid [middleware](/wiki/Middleware "Middleware") services.
The QWG templates use all of the features of Pan to allow distributed sites to share grid [middleware](/wiki/Middleware "Middleware") expertise.
|
[
"### Pan language",
"The Pan language compiler panc sits at the core of the Quattor tool\\-kit. It compiles machine configurations\nwritten in the [Pan configuration language](/wiki/Pan_%28programming_language%29 \"Pan (programming language)\") by system administrators and produces XML or JSON\nfiles (profiles) that are easily consumed by Quattor clients. The Pan language itself has a simple,\ndeclarative syntax that allows simultaneous definition of configuration information and an associated\nschema. In this section, we focus only on the Pan features that are relevant to devolved\nmanagement of distributed sites: validation, configuration reuse, and modularization.",
"**Validation**. The extensive validation features in the Pan language maximize the probability of\nfinding configuration problems at compile time, minimizing costly clean\\-ups of deployed misconfiguration.\nPan enables system administrators to define atomic or compound types with associated\nvalidation functions; when a part of the configuration schema is bound to a type, the declared\nconstraints are automatically enforced.",
"**Configuration reuse**. Pan allows identification and reuse of configuration information through\n“structure templates.” These identify small, reusable chunks of Pan\\-level configuration information\nwhich can be used whenever an administrator identifies an invariant (or nearly invariant) configuration\nsub\\-tree.",
"**Modularization**. With respect to the original design, two new features have been developed\nto promote modularization and large\\-scale reuse of configurations: the name\\-spacing and load\\-path\nmechanisms.",
"A full site configuration typically consists of a large number of templates organized into directories\nand subdirectories. The Pan template name\\-spacing mimics (and enforces) this organization\nmuch as is done in the Java language. The name\\-space hierarchy is independent of the configuration\nschema. The configuration schema is often organized by low\\-level services such as firewall settings\nfor ports, account generation, log rotation entries, [cron](/wiki/Cron \"Cron\") entries, and the like. In contrast, the Pan\ntemplates are usually organized based on other criteria like high\\-level services (web server, mail\nserver, etc.) or by responsible person/group.",
"The name\\-spacing allows various parts of the configuration to be separated and identified. To\neffectively modularize part of the configuration for reuse, administrators must be able to import\nthe modules easily into a site's configuration and to customize them. Users of the Pan compiler\ncombine a load\\-path with the name\\-spacing to achieve this. The compiler uses the load\\-path to search\nmultiple root directories for particular, named templates; the first version found on the load\\-path\nis the one that is used by the compiler. This allows modules to be kept in a pristine state while\nallowing sites to override any particular template.",
"Further, module developers can also expose global variables to parameterize the module, permitting\na system administrator to use a module without having to understand the inner workings\nof the module's templates.",
"Quattor Working Group (QWG) templates are used to configure grid [middleware](/wiki/Middleware \"Middleware\") services.\nThe QWG templates use all of the features of Pan to allow distributed sites to share grid [middleware](/wiki/Middleware \"Middleware\") expertise.",
""
] |
Synopsis
--------
[Tony](/wiki/Tony_Soprano "Tony Soprano") and [Phil](/wiki/Phil_Leotardo "Phil Leotardo") work out a deal to split the profits from the distribution of [multivitamins](/wiki/Multivitamin "Multivitamin") acquired by Tony's crew. Phil suggests that [Johnny](/wiki/Johnny_Sack "Johnny Sack") be left out of the transaction, to which Tony agrees.
[Chris](/wiki/Christopher_Moltisanti "Christopher Moltisanti") is told by his girlfriend, [Kelli](/wiki/List_of_characters_from_The_Sopranos_-_Friends_and_Family%23Kelli_Lombardo_Moltisanti "List of characters from The Sopranos - Friends and Family#Kelli Lombardo Moltisanti"), that she is pregnant. He is thrilled; they get married and buy a large house.
On their way home from a trip to [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania "Pennsylvania"), Chris and Tony stop outside a town because Tony needs to urinate. They see two [bikers](/wiki/Outlaw_motorcycle_club "Outlaw motorcycle club") stealing vintage wine from a liquor store. As the bikers go back into the store, Chris and Tony plunder their wine. They speed away and Chris exchanges gunfire with one of the bikers, wounding him. Exhilarated, Tony and Chris celebrate at a restaurant. Chris decides to break his abstinence when Tony toasts his wedding. Later, as they drink more wine in the parking lot, they reminisce about good and bad times, including the day when Chris told Tony about Adriana and the Feds. They express their long\-lasting love and support for each other.
Chris pays [Corky](/wiki/List_of_characters_from_The_Sopranos_in_the_Soprano_crime_family%23Corky_Caporale "List of characters from The Sopranos in the Soprano crime family#Corky Caporale") for the hit on [Rusty](/wiki/List_of_characters_from_The_Sopranos_in_the_Lupertazzi_crime_family%23Rusty_Millio "List of characters from The Sopranos in the Lupertazzi crime family#Rusty Millio"), partly in [heroin](/wiki/Heroin "Heroin"). He ends up relapsing and using heroin with Corky, spending a night of the Feast of [Elzéar of Sabran](/wiki/Elz%C3%A9ar_of_Sabran "Elzéar of Sabran") in a stupor.
During the Feast, Tony and his crew manage a five\-day street festival for the benefit, [Paulie](/wiki/Paulie_Gualtieri "Paulie Gualtieri") says, of a non\-profit foundation. However, a new priest has looked into the finances and tells Paulie and [Patsy](/wiki/Patsy_Parisi "Patsy Parisi") that their donation to the church should be raised from $10,000 to $50,000\. When Paulie refuses to pay, he tells them they will not be permitted to display the traditional golden hat which adorns the statue of the saint. Several parishioners notice that the hat is missing, and word begins to spread that Paulie scrimped on the festival.
Paulie's penny\-pinching is blamed for an accident on a teacup ride at the festival, which leaves several people injured, including a child. [Little Paulie](/wiki/Little_Paulie_Germani "Little Paulie Germani") is left to deal with the police investigation. [Janice](/wiki/Janice_Soprano "Janice Soprano") and her daughter [Domenica](/wiki/List_of_characters_from_The_Sopranos_-_Friends_and_Family%23Domenica_.22Nica.22_Baccalieri "List of characters from The Sopranos - Friends and Family#Domenica .22Nica.22 Baccalieri") are on the ride and unhurt, but Janice pretends to develop a neck injury after hearing [Meadow](/wiki/Meadow_Soprano "Meadow Soprano")'s suggestion that the injured should be compensated monetarily. Janice presses [Bobby](/wiki/Bobby_Baccalieri "Bobby Baccalieri") to get the money. Threatening the ride operator, Bobby learns that Paulie refused to pay for a repair crew, or for newer and safer rides. In a public confrontation at the feast, Paulie refuses to compensate Bobby. Tension lingers during Christopher's bachelor party; Tony instructs Paulie to work things out with Bobby.
Paulie later encounters [Nucci](/wiki/List_of_characters_from_The_Sopranos_-_Friends_and_Family%23Marianucci_Gualtieri "List of characters from The Sopranos - Friends and Family#Marianucci Gualtieri"), who tells him that his cost cutting was not only wrong but sinful; Paulie swears at her and departs, leaving his adoptive mother in tears. At home, he is sleepless. Another source of stress is his fear that he has [prostate cancer](/wiki/Prostate_cancer "Prostate cancer"). Very early the next morning, at the [Bada Bing](/wiki/Bada_Bing "Bada Bing"), Paulie sees a vision of the [Virgin Mary](/wiki/Blessed_Virgin_Mary "Blessed Virgin Mary"). Shaken, he visits Nucci at Green Grove that night and sits quietly next to her while they watch *[The Lawrence Welk Show](/wiki/The_Lawrence_Welk_Show "The Lawrence Welk Show")* together.
{{wikiquote\|The\_Sopranos:\_Season\_6\#The\_Ride\|"The Ride"}}
|
[
"Synopsis\n--------",
"[Tony](/wiki/Tony_Soprano \"Tony Soprano\") and [Phil](/wiki/Phil_Leotardo \"Phil Leotardo\") work out a deal to split the profits from the distribution of [multivitamins](/wiki/Multivitamin \"Multivitamin\") acquired by Tony's crew. Phil suggests that [Johnny](/wiki/Johnny_Sack \"Johnny Sack\") be left out of the transaction, to which Tony agrees.",
"[Chris](/wiki/Christopher_Moltisanti \"Christopher Moltisanti\") is told by his girlfriend, [Kelli](/wiki/List_of_characters_from_The_Sopranos_-_Friends_and_Family%23Kelli_Lombardo_Moltisanti \"List of characters from The Sopranos - Friends and Family#Kelli Lombardo Moltisanti\"), that she is pregnant. He is thrilled; they get married and buy a large house.",
"On their way home from a trip to [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\"), Chris and Tony stop outside a town because Tony needs to urinate. They see two [bikers](/wiki/Outlaw_motorcycle_club \"Outlaw motorcycle club\") stealing vintage wine from a liquor store. As the bikers go back into the store, Chris and Tony plunder their wine. They speed away and Chris exchanges gunfire with one of the bikers, wounding him. Exhilarated, Tony and Chris celebrate at a restaurant. Chris decides to break his abstinence when Tony toasts his wedding. Later, as they drink more wine in the parking lot, they reminisce about good and bad times, including the day when Chris told Tony about Adriana and the Feds. They express their long\\-lasting love and support for each other.",
"Chris pays [Corky](/wiki/List_of_characters_from_The_Sopranos_in_the_Soprano_crime_family%23Corky_Caporale \"List of characters from The Sopranos in the Soprano crime family#Corky Caporale\") for the hit on [Rusty](/wiki/List_of_characters_from_The_Sopranos_in_the_Lupertazzi_crime_family%23Rusty_Millio \"List of characters from The Sopranos in the Lupertazzi crime family#Rusty Millio\"), partly in [heroin](/wiki/Heroin \"Heroin\"). He ends up relapsing and using heroin with Corky, spending a night of the Feast of [Elzéar of Sabran](/wiki/Elz%C3%A9ar_of_Sabran \"Elzéar of Sabran\") in a stupor.",
"During the Feast, Tony and his crew manage a five\\-day street festival for the benefit, [Paulie](/wiki/Paulie_Gualtieri \"Paulie Gualtieri\") says, of a non\\-profit foundation. However, a new priest has looked into the finances and tells Paulie and [Patsy](/wiki/Patsy_Parisi \"Patsy Parisi\") that their donation to the church should be raised from $10,000 to $50,000\\. When Paulie refuses to pay, he tells them they will not be permitted to display the traditional golden hat which adorns the statue of the saint. Several parishioners notice that the hat is missing, and word begins to spread that Paulie scrimped on the festival.",
"Paulie's penny\\-pinching is blamed for an accident on a teacup ride at the festival, which leaves several people injured, including a child. [Little Paulie](/wiki/Little_Paulie_Germani \"Little Paulie Germani\") is left to deal with the police investigation. [Janice](/wiki/Janice_Soprano \"Janice Soprano\") and her daughter [Domenica](/wiki/List_of_characters_from_The_Sopranos_-_Friends_and_Family%23Domenica_.22Nica.22_Baccalieri \"List of characters from The Sopranos - Friends and Family#Domenica .22Nica.22 Baccalieri\") are on the ride and unhurt, but Janice pretends to develop a neck injury after hearing [Meadow](/wiki/Meadow_Soprano \"Meadow Soprano\")'s suggestion that the injured should be compensated monetarily. Janice presses [Bobby](/wiki/Bobby_Baccalieri \"Bobby Baccalieri\") to get the money. Threatening the ride operator, Bobby learns that Paulie refused to pay for a repair crew, or for newer and safer rides. In a public confrontation at the feast, Paulie refuses to compensate Bobby. Tension lingers during Christopher's bachelor party; Tony instructs Paulie to work things out with Bobby.",
"Paulie later encounters [Nucci](/wiki/List_of_characters_from_The_Sopranos_-_Friends_and_Family%23Marianucci_Gualtieri \"List of characters from The Sopranos - Friends and Family#Marianucci Gualtieri\"), who tells him that his cost cutting was not only wrong but sinful; Paulie swears at her and departs, leaving his adoptive mother in tears. At home, he is sleepless. Another source of stress is his fear that he has [prostate cancer](/wiki/Prostate_cancer \"Prostate cancer\"). Very early the next morning, at the [Bada Bing](/wiki/Bada_Bing \"Bada Bing\"), Paulie sees a vision of the [Virgin Mary](/wiki/Blessed_Virgin_Mary \"Blessed Virgin Mary\"). Shaken, he visits Nucci at Green Grove that night and sits quietly next to her while they watch *[The Lawrence Welk Show](/wiki/The_Lawrence_Welk_Show \"The Lawrence Welk Show\")* together.",
"{{wikiquote\\|The\\_Sopranos:\\_Season\\_6\\#The\\_Ride\\|\"The Ride\"}}",
""
] |
History
-------
{{more citations needed section\|date\=December 2012}}
Probably designed by [H W Keef](/wiki/H_W_Keef "H W Keef"), it was built in 1889 by [Sir Bernard Hall](/wiki/Sir_Bernard_Hall "Sir Bernard Hall"), a [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies "West Indies") merchant, [Alderman](/wiki/Alderman "Alderman") and former [Mayor](/wiki/Mayor "Mayor") of Liverpool. His daughter Florence died while in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") at the age of 22 and he built this boys' club as a memorial and tribute to her at his sole expense.
The building itself was a fine example of late [Victorian architecture](/wiki/Victorian_architecture "Victorian architecture") with delicate use of [terracotta](/wiki/Terracotta "Terracotta"), and originally it had splendid interiors, from the [great hall](/wiki/Great_hall "Great hall") to the top lit gym to the library.
The Florence Institute was officially opened as a boys club in 1890, four years after the opening of a similar establishment, the [Gordon Working Lads Institute](/wiki/Gordon_Working_Lads_Institute "Gordon Working Lads Institute") in [Kirkdale](/wiki/Kirkdale%2C_Liverpool "Kirkdale, Liverpool") on the other side of the city. However it was the first building in Britain to be specifically constructed as a boys' [youth club](/wiki/Youth_club "Youth club").
As a [magistrate](/wiki/Magistrate "Magistrate") Bernard Hall knew all too well the product of [poverty](/wiki/Poverty "Poverty") and lack of recreation for youth in the area, and as stated by the plaque on the building, he created what he hoped would be 'an acceptable place of recreation and instruction for the poor and working boys of this district of the City'.{{cite web \| url\=https://historicengland.org.uk/services\-skills/education/educational\-images/florence\-institute\-mill\-street\-liverpool\-9021 \| title\=Florence Institute, Mill Street, Liverpool, Merseyside \| Educational Images \| Historic England }}
For a hundred years the 'Florrie' served the working and unemployed youth of the tough dock\-side area. Weekend camps were held at [Heswall](/wiki/Heswall "Heswall") on the [Wirral Peninsula](/wiki/Wirral_Peninsula "Wirral Peninsula"), reached by [6d](/wiki/Sixpence_%28British_coin%29 "Sixpence (British coin)") ferry and bus return ticket. Summer camps were held in the [Lake District](/wiki/Lake_District "Lake District") away from the smoke, grime and pestilence of the inner city. A variety of sports and outdoor pursuits were provided for the community, including [football](/wiki/Association_football "Association football"), [boxing](/wiki/Boxing "Boxing") and [baseball](/wiki/Baseball "Baseball") to name a few. [Gymnastics](/wiki/Gymnastics "Gymnastics") also was a part of the activities available for the local community.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.theflorriearchive.org/about\-us/ \| title\=About us – the Florrie Archive }} On the weekends [dances](/wiki/Ball_%28dance%29 "Ball (dance)") were provided.
Towards the end of the 1980s, at the depths of the economic slump for Liverpool the funding dried up for the Institute and in 1987 it was sold and its management, [The Florence Institute Incorporated Company](/wiki/The_Florence_Institute_Incorporated_Company "The Florence Institute Incorporated Company"), was dissolved in 1988 with the intention that the charitable work should be continued by another body. Unfortunately this never happened and through the [Bona Vacantia](/wiki/Bona_Vacantia "Bona Vacantia") principle title to the building eventually fell to the [Duchy of Lancaster](/wiki/Duchy_of_Lancaster "Duchy of Lancaster"), which is the private property portfolio of the [British monarch](/wiki/British_monarch "British monarch").
The building fell into disrepair and suffered from [vandalism](/wiki/Vandalism "Vandalism") and the natural elements. This was compounded when in 1999 there was a major fire which destroyed the roof.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{more citations needed section\\|date\\=December 2012}}\nProbably designed by [H W Keef](/wiki/H_W_Keef \"H W Keef\"), it was built in 1889 by [Sir Bernard Hall](/wiki/Sir_Bernard_Hall \"Sir Bernard Hall\"), a [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies \"West Indies\") merchant, [Alderman](/wiki/Alderman \"Alderman\") and former [Mayor](/wiki/Mayor \"Mayor\") of Liverpool. His daughter Florence died while in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") at the age of 22 and he built this boys' club as a memorial and tribute to her at his sole expense.",
"The building itself was a fine example of late [Victorian architecture](/wiki/Victorian_architecture \"Victorian architecture\") with delicate use of [terracotta](/wiki/Terracotta \"Terracotta\"), and originally it had splendid interiors, from the [great hall](/wiki/Great_hall \"Great hall\") to the top lit gym to the library.",
"The Florence Institute was officially opened as a boys club in 1890, four years after the opening of a similar establishment, the [Gordon Working Lads Institute](/wiki/Gordon_Working_Lads_Institute \"Gordon Working Lads Institute\") in [Kirkdale](/wiki/Kirkdale%2C_Liverpool \"Kirkdale, Liverpool\") on the other side of the city. However it was the first building in Britain to be specifically constructed as a boys' [youth club](/wiki/Youth_club \"Youth club\").",
"As a [magistrate](/wiki/Magistrate \"Magistrate\") Bernard Hall knew all too well the product of [poverty](/wiki/Poverty \"Poverty\") and lack of recreation for youth in the area, and as stated by the plaque on the building, he created what he hoped would be 'an acceptable place of recreation and instruction for the poor and working boys of this district of the City'.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://historicengland.org.uk/services\\-skills/education/educational\\-images/florence\\-institute\\-mill\\-street\\-liverpool\\-9021 \\| title\\=Florence Institute, Mill Street, Liverpool, Merseyside \\| Educational Images \\| Historic England }}",
"For a hundred years the 'Florrie' served the working and unemployed youth of the tough dock\\-side area. Weekend camps were held at [Heswall](/wiki/Heswall \"Heswall\") on the [Wirral Peninsula](/wiki/Wirral_Peninsula \"Wirral Peninsula\"), reached by [6d](/wiki/Sixpence_%28British_coin%29 \"Sixpence (British coin)\") ferry and bus return ticket. Summer camps were held in the [Lake District](/wiki/Lake_District \"Lake District\") away from the smoke, grime and pestilence of the inner city. A variety of sports and outdoor pursuits were provided for the community, including [football](/wiki/Association_football \"Association football\"), [boxing](/wiki/Boxing \"Boxing\") and [baseball](/wiki/Baseball \"Baseball\") to name a few. [Gymnastics](/wiki/Gymnastics \"Gymnastics\") also was a part of the activities available for the local community.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.theflorriearchive.org/about\\-us/ \\| title\\=About us – the Florrie Archive }} On the weekends [dances](/wiki/Ball_%28dance%29 \"Ball (dance)\") were provided.",
"Towards the end of the 1980s, at the depths of the economic slump for Liverpool the funding dried up for the Institute and in 1987 it was sold and its management, [The Florence Institute Incorporated Company](/wiki/The_Florence_Institute_Incorporated_Company \"The Florence Institute Incorporated Company\"), was dissolved in 1988 with the intention that the charitable work should be continued by another body. Unfortunately this never happened and through the [Bona Vacantia](/wiki/Bona_Vacantia \"Bona Vacantia\") principle title to the building eventually fell to the [Duchy of Lancaster](/wiki/Duchy_of_Lancaster \"Duchy of Lancaster\"), which is the private property portfolio of the [British monarch](/wiki/British_monarch \"British monarch\").",
"The building fell into disrepair and suffered from [vandalism](/wiki/Vandalism \"Vandalism\") and the natural elements. This was compounded when in 1999 there was a major fire which destroyed the roof.",
""
] |
Schedule
--------
The school runs on a block schedule, with all 7 classes on Mondays and Fridays and a rotating schedule on Tuesday\-Thursday.
### Core
"Core" class aid in the transition from elementary to middle school. "Core" is a series of classes taught by the same teacher in the same room, much like the main teacher in elementary school. Sixth graders are taught reading, language arts and social studies by their core teacher. Seventh graders are taught reading, language arts, and social studies, but have a separate teacher for math.{{cite web
\|author1\=Christopher Turney \|author2\=Stanley Ha \|author3\=Max Vicas \| title \=Math
\| publisher \=Piedmont Middle School
\| url \=http://www.piedmont.k12\.ca.us/pms/studentlife/math/math.html
\| accessdate \= 2007\-02\-22 }} By eighth grade, the core system is nonexistent. Other classes not taught by core teachers including science teachers, physical education teachers, and elective teachers.
### Foreign language
All seventh graders may begin a foreign language their second semester. Languages offered are Spanish, French, and Mandarin. If a student chooses Spanish, they take Spanish A in seventh grade and Spanish BC in eighth. These equal Spanish I in high school, and so by ninth grade they can take Spanish II. Students who do not take a foreign language in middle school, or who do not meet the minimum grade requirements to continue, start from the introductory level, such as Spanish I, when they reach high school.
### Electives
All sixth graders participate in the elective wheel, which rotates them through different electives, including drama, Green Team, art, Makers class, computers, and Communications. By seventh and eighth grade, students are allowed to pick a semester\- or year\-long elective.
Semester\- and year\-long electives offered include foreign language, ASB, drama, art, [ceramics](/wiki/Ceramic_art "Ceramic art"), [woodshop](/wiki/Woodworking "Woodworking"), music (band and orchestra), [filmmaking](/wiki/Filmmaking "Filmmaking"), [Green Team](/wiki/Green_Team "Green Team"), [Shakespeare](/wiki/Shakespeare "Shakespeare"), and computer arts and graphics. [Journalism](/wiki/Journalism "Journalism"), another elective, involves students in the production of the student newspaper, *The Globe.* An issue of *The Globe* is viewable [here](http://www.piedmont.k12.ca.us/pms/studentlife/Newspaper/PMSNews01.pdf). The [yearbook](/wiki/Yearbook "Yearbook") elective, for seventh and eighth graders, is a class where students create the annual [yearbook](/wiki/Yearbook "Yearbook").
[thumb\|350px\|right\|A view of Piedmont Middle School "P.E. hill," overlooking Witter Field and the greater [Bay Area](/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Area "San Francisco Bay Area")](/wiki/Image:Piedmont_Middle_School_PE_hill.jpg "Piedmont Middle School PE hill.jpg")
### Physical education
All students are required to take physical education unless they participate in an outside athletic, such as gymnastics, for a certain number of hours a week. In sixth grade, P.E. may be taken with band/orchestra so that students take P.E. every other day and music the remaining days. In seventh and eighth grade, P.E. is an everyday class. Students are required to wear a standard Piedmont P.E. T\-shirt, along with purple shorts. The uniform may be purchased from the school. Students are required to run the mile weekly, if they take full\-time P.E. If they do not, which may only occur in sixth\-grade, they run the mile every other week.
While teacher curricula differ, sports played in P.E. include hockey, ultimate frisbee, soccer, bocce ball, juggling, rock\-climbing, basketball, paddle tennis, team handball, track and field, whiffleball, croquet, hiking, dance, archery, badminton and softball.{{cite web
\| title \=Piedmont Middle School Physical Education
\| publisher \=Piedmont Middle School
\| url \=http://www.piedmont.k12\.ca.us/pms/studentlife/pe/pe.html
\| accessdate \= 2007\-02\-22 }}
|
[
"Schedule\n--------",
"The school runs on a block schedule, with all 7 classes on Mondays and Fridays and a rotating schedule on Tuesday\\-Thursday.",
"### Core",
"\"Core\" class aid in the transition from elementary to middle school. \"Core\" is a series of classes taught by the same teacher in the same room, much like the main teacher in elementary school. Sixth graders are taught reading, language arts and social studies by their core teacher. Seventh graders are taught reading, language arts, and social studies, but have a separate teacher for math.{{cite web\n \\|author1\\=Christopher Turney \\|author2\\=Stanley Ha \\|author3\\=Max Vicas \\| title \\=Math\n \\| publisher \\=Piedmont Middle School\n \\| url \\=http://www.piedmont.k12\\.ca.us/pms/studentlife/math/math.html\n \\| accessdate \\= 2007\\-02\\-22 }} By eighth grade, the core system is nonexistent. Other classes not taught by core teachers including science teachers, physical education teachers, and elective teachers.",
"### Foreign language",
"All seventh graders may begin a foreign language their second semester. Languages offered are Spanish, French, and Mandarin. If a student chooses Spanish, they take Spanish A in seventh grade and Spanish BC in eighth. These equal Spanish I in high school, and so by ninth grade they can take Spanish II. Students who do not take a foreign language in middle school, or who do not meet the minimum grade requirements to continue, start from the introductory level, such as Spanish I, when they reach high school.",
"### Electives",
"All sixth graders participate in the elective wheel, which rotates them through different electives, including drama, Green Team, art, Makers class, computers, and Communications. By seventh and eighth grade, students are allowed to pick a semester\\- or year\\-long elective.",
"Semester\\- and year\\-long electives offered include foreign language, ASB, drama, art, [ceramics](/wiki/Ceramic_art \"Ceramic art\"), [woodshop](/wiki/Woodworking \"Woodworking\"), music (band and orchestra), [filmmaking](/wiki/Filmmaking \"Filmmaking\"), [Green Team](/wiki/Green_Team \"Green Team\"), [Shakespeare](/wiki/Shakespeare \"Shakespeare\"), and computer arts and graphics. [Journalism](/wiki/Journalism \"Journalism\"), another elective, involves students in the production of the student newspaper, *The Globe.* An issue of *The Globe* is viewable [here](http://www.piedmont.k12.ca.us/pms/studentlife/Newspaper/PMSNews01.pdf). The [yearbook](/wiki/Yearbook \"Yearbook\") elective, for seventh and eighth graders, is a class where students create the annual [yearbook](/wiki/Yearbook \"Yearbook\").",
"[thumb\\|350px\\|right\\|A view of Piedmont Middle School \"P.E. hill,\" overlooking Witter Field and the greater [Bay Area](/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Area \"San Francisco Bay Area\")](/wiki/Image:Piedmont_Middle_School_PE_hill.jpg \"Piedmont Middle School PE hill.jpg\")",
"### Physical education",
"All students are required to take physical education unless they participate in an outside athletic, such as gymnastics, for a certain number of hours a week. In sixth grade, P.E. may be taken with band/orchestra so that students take P.E. every other day and music the remaining days. In seventh and eighth grade, P.E. is an everyday class. Students are required to wear a standard Piedmont P.E. T\\-shirt, along with purple shorts. The uniform may be purchased from the school. Students are required to run the mile weekly, if they take full\\-time P.E. If they do not, which may only occur in sixth\\-grade, they run the mile every other week.",
"While teacher curricula differ, sports played in P.E. include hockey, ultimate frisbee, soccer, bocce ball, juggling, rock\\-climbing, basketball, paddle tennis, team handball, track and field, whiffleball, croquet, hiking, dance, archery, badminton and softball.{{cite web\n \\| title \\=Piedmont Middle School Physical Education\n \\| publisher \\=Piedmont Middle School\n \\| url \\=http://www.piedmont.k12\\.ca.us/pms/studentlife/pe/pe.html\n \\| accessdate \\= 2007\\-02\\-22 }}",
""
] |
Career
------
In the 1940s, Alexander\-Lane ran a fashion boutique in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C.") In 1942, she became a clerk\-stenographer for the [War Department](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War "United States Department of War"). She later transferred to New York, where she opened another boutique and worked her way to become a Planning and Community Development Officer at the [Department of Housing and Urban Development](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Housing_and_Urban_Development "United States Department of Housing and Urban Development") in 1978\. In the 1940s, Alexander\-Lane started her career path in the federal government, and soon after ran a fashion boutique in Washington D.C.{{Cite web \|last\=A \|first\=Awo \|date\=2021\-11\-12 \|title\=A Fashion Exhibit in Harlem Continued What Lois K. Alexander Lane Started \|url\=https://girlinbrown.com/2021/11/12/a\-fashion\-exhibit\-in\-harlem\-continued\-what\-lois\-k\-alexander\-lane\-started/ \|access\-date\=2022\-03\-25 \|website\=Girl in Brown \|language\=en}} Around this time, she also worked as a freelance photographer for African\-American newspapers, and became vice president of the Capital Press Club.
In 1965, she purchased a brownstone in [Harlem](/wiki/Harlem "Harlem"), New York City, for $8,000\. There she founded the Harlem Institute of Fashion in 1966, offering courses in [dressmaking](/wiki/Dressmaker "Dressmaker"), [millinery](/wiki/Hatmaking "Hatmaking") and tailoring. The courses were free with only a $10 registration fee and graduated 4,500 students by 1987\. She also founded the National Association of Milliners, Dressmakers and Tailors in 1966\.
After leaving the federal government, Alexander\-Lane opened the Black Fashion Museum in Harlem in 1979 with a $20,000 grant from the [National Endowment of the Arts](/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Arts "National Endowment for the Arts"). The original site in Harlem on West 126th Street now houses the [William J. Clinton Foundation](/wiki/Clinton_Foundation "Clinton Foundation").{{rp\|3}} It was the first collection to highlight African\-American fashion designers from throughout the country's history, and Alexander\-Lane received little funding and largely funded the museum herself. She had trouble acquiring garments, as many of the designers had worked for wealthy white women, and the majority of the collection consisted of accessories and memorabilia.
The museum relocated to Washington, D.C., in 1994 to a historic row house at 2007 Vermont Avenue NW.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\-dyn/content/article/2010/05/21/AR2010052101654\.html?sid\=ST2010052101774\|title\=Black Fashion Museum collection finds a fine home with Smithsonian\|last\=Givhan\|first\=Robin\|date\=2010\-05\-23\|newspaper\=The Washington Post\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0190\-8286\|access\-date\=2016\-03\-19}}{{rp\|1}} The collection comprises about two thousand garments designed, fabricated or worn by African\-Americans to tell the story of women and men of the [African diaspora](/wiki/African_diaspora "African diaspora"). The collection includes garments created by enslaved women; a dress sewn by [Rosa Parks](/wiki/Rosa_Parks "Rosa Parks") shortly before her famous arrest in Montgomery, Alabama; the original costumes designed by [Geoffrey Holder](/wiki/Geoffrey_Holder "Geoffrey Holder") for the 1975 Broadway musical *[The Wiz](/wiki/The_Wiz "The Wiz")*; and gowns by [Ann Lowe](/wiki/Ann_Lowe "Ann Lowe"), a pioneering African\-American designer.
Alexander\-Lane designed an extended line of garments, mostly for wealthy sponsors, such as the [Rockefeller](/wiki/Rockefeller_family "Rockefeller family"), [Roosevelt](/wiki/Roosevelt_family "Roosevelt family"), and [du Pont](/wiki/Du_Pont_family "Du Pont family") families. She was part of the board, and at one time president, of the National Association of Fashion and Accessory Designers.{{Cite web \|date\=2017\-02\-08 \|title\=Lois K. Alexander Lane: Founder of the Harlem Institute of Fashion \& Black Fashion Museum \|url\=https://blackthen.com/lois\-k\-alexander\-lane\-founder\-harlem\-institute\-fashion\-black\-fashion\-museum/ \|access\-date\=2022\-03\-25 \|website\=Black Then \|language\=en\-US}} She was part of The National Council of Negro Women, being a charter member.
In 1993, Alexander\-Lane received the [NAACP](/wiki/NAACP "NAACP")'s Crusader's Award.{{Cite news\|date\=1993\-07\-28\|title\=Fashion Museum Harlem's best kept secret\|pages\=530\|work\=Daily News\|first\=Don\|last\=Thomas\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/74888006/fashion\-museum\-harlems\-best\-kept\-secret/\|access\-date\=2021\-04\-01}} She became a show producer for Harlem Week, an exhibition of Harlem fashion, in 1979\. In 1992, due to her poverty efforts in New York, Alexander\-Lane was given the Josephine Shaw Lowell Award.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"In the 1940s, Alexander\\-Lane ran a fashion boutique in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\") In 1942, she became a clerk\\-stenographer for the [War Department](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War \"United States Department of War\"). She later transferred to New York, where she opened another boutique and worked her way to become a Planning and Community Development Officer at the [Department of Housing and Urban Development](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Housing_and_Urban_Development \"United States Department of Housing and Urban Development\") in 1978\\. In the 1940s, Alexander\\-Lane started her career path in the federal government, and soon after ran a fashion boutique in Washington D.C.{{Cite web \\|last\\=A \\|first\\=Awo \\|date\\=2021\\-11\\-12 \\|title\\=A Fashion Exhibit in Harlem Continued What Lois K. Alexander Lane Started \\|url\\=https://girlinbrown.com/2021/11/12/a\\-fashion\\-exhibit\\-in\\-harlem\\-continued\\-what\\-lois\\-k\\-alexander\\-lane\\-started/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-25 \\|website\\=Girl in Brown \\|language\\=en}} Around this time, she also worked as a freelance photographer for African\\-American newspapers, and became vice president of the Capital Press Club.",
"In 1965, she purchased a brownstone in [Harlem](/wiki/Harlem \"Harlem\"), New York City, for $8,000\\. There she founded the Harlem Institute of Fashion in 1966, offering courses in [dressmaking](/wiki/Dressmaker \"Dressmaker\"), [millinery](/wiki/Hatmaking \"Hatmaking\") and tailoring. The courses were free with only a $10 registration fee and graduated 4,500 students by 1987\\. She also founded the National Association of Milliners, Dressmakers and Tailors in 1966\\.",
"After leaving the federal government, Alexander\\-Lane opened the Black Fashion Museum in Harlem in 1979 with a $20,000 grant from the [National Endowment of the Arts](/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Arts \"National Endowment for the Arts\"). The original site in Harlem on West 126th Street now houses the [William J. Clinton Foundation](/wiki/Clinton_Foundation \"Clinton Foundation\").{{rp\\|3}} It was the first collection to highlight African\\-American fashion designers from throughout the country's history, and Alexander\\-Lane received little funding and largely funded the museum herself. She had trouble acquiring garments, as many of the designers had worked for wealthy white women, and the majority of the collection consisted of accessories and memorabilia.",
"The museum relocated to Washington, D.C., in 1994 to a historic row house at 2007 Vermont Avenue NW.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\\-dyn/content/article/2010/05/21/AR2010052101654\\.html?sid\\=ST2010052101774\\|title\\=Black Fashion Museum collection finds a fine home with Smithsonian\\|last\\=Givhan\\|first\\=Robin\\|date\\=2010\\-05\\-23\\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0190\\-8286\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-19}}{{rp\\|1}} The collection comprises about two thousand garments designed, fabricated or worn by African\\-Americans to tell the story of women and men of the [African diaspora](/wiki/African_diaspora \"African diaspora\"). The collection includes garments created by enslaved women; a dress sewn by [Rosa Parks](/wiki/Rosa_Parks \"Rosa Parks\") shortly before her famous arrest in Montgomery, Alabama; the original costumes designed by [Geoffrey Holder](/wiki/Geoffrey_Holder \"Geoffrey Holder\") for the 1975 Broadway musical *[The Wiz](/wiki/The_Wiz \"The Wiz\")*; and gowns by [Ann Lowe](/wiki/Ann_Lowe \"Ann Lowe\"), a pioneering African\\-American designer.",
"Alexander\\-Lane designed an extended line of garments, mostly for wealthy sponsors, such as the [Rockefeller](/wiki/Rockefeller_family \"Rockefeller family\"), [Roosevelt](/wiki/Roosevelt_family \"Roosevelt family\"), and [du Pont](/wiki/Du_Pont_family \"Du Pont family\") families. She was part of the board, and at one time president, of the National Association of Fashion and Accessory Designers.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2017\\-02\\-08 \\|title\\=Lois K. Alexander Lane: Founder of the Harlem Institute of Fashion \\& Black Fashion Museum \\|url\\=https://blackthen.com/lois\\-k\\-alexander\\-lane\\-founder\\-harlem\\-institute\\-fashion\\-black\\-fashion\\-museum/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-25 \\|website\\=Black Then \\|language\\=en\\-US}} She was part of The National Council of Negro Women, being a charter member.",
"In 1993, Alexander\\-Lane received the [NAACP](/wiki/NAACP \"NAACP\")'s Crusader's Award.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1993\\-07\\-28\\|title\\=Fashion Museum Harlem's best kept secret\\|pages\\=530\\|work\\=Daily News\\|first\\=Don\\|last\\=Thomas\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/74888006/fashion\\-museum\\-harlems\\-best\\-kept\\-secret/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-01}} She became a show producer for Harlem Week, an exhibition of Harlem fashion, in 1979\\. In 1992, due to her poverty efforts in New York, Alexander\\-Lane was given the Josephine Shaw Lowell Award.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Foundation as K\-III
The company, initially called **K\-III Communications Corporation**, was founded in 1989 by [Kohlberg Kravis Roberts](/wiki/Kohlberg_Kravis_Roberts "Kohlberg Kravis Roberts") and [Macmillan Inc.](/wiki/Macmillan_Inc. "Macmillan Inc.") president [Bill Reilly](/wiki/Bill_Reilly "Bill Reilly"),{{cite magazine\|url\=https://archive.foliomag.com/magazine\-industry\-reacts\-death\-primedia\-founder\-bill\-reilly/\|title\=Industry Reacts to Death of Primedia Founder: Charlie McCurdy: O'Reilly 'forever changed the face of specialty publishing.'\|first\=Jason\|last\=Fell\|date\=October 20, 2008\|magazine\=\[\[Folio (magazine)\|Folio]]}} as a platform to buy media properties. Its first acquisitions were Macmillan's Book Clubs, Gryphon Editions (renamed Newbridge Communications), and Intertec Publishing; and [Maxwell Communications Corporation](/wiki/Maxwell_Communications_Corporation "Maxwell Communications Corporation")'s Webb Publishing.{{Cite news \| issn\=0362\-4331 \| title\=THE MEDIA BUSINESS; Macmillan and Maxwell Sell Four Units to Kohlberg \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=December 2, 1988 \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/02/business/the\-media\-business\-macmillan\-and\-maxwell\-sell\-four\-units\-to\-kohlberg.html}}
In 1990, K\-III acquired [Ward's](/wiki/Ward%27s "Ward's") from [Thomson Corporation](/wiki/Thomson_Corporation "Thomson Corporation"){{Cite news \| title\=K\-III to Buy Automotive Industry Publisher Ward's Communications\| work\=\[\[Associated Press]] \| date\=May 7, 1990 \| url\=https://apnews.com/article/f6516ca230d30191675064b3fbd0e97e}} It also acquired the business publications of Andrews Communications; Readers Garden, operator of special interest book clubs; and *[Weekly Reader](/wiki/Weekly_Reader "Weekly Reader")* and [Funk \& Wagnalls](/wiki/Funk_%26_Wagnalls "Funk & Wagnalls") from [Marshall Field V](/wiki/Marshall_Field_V "Marshall Field V").{{Cite news \| issn\=0362\-4331 \| last\=Hicks \| first\=Jonathan P.\| title\=COMPANY NEWS; K\-III Holdings to Buy Field Assets \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\| date\=December 22, 1990 \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/12/22/business/company\-news\-k\-iii\-holdings\-to\-buy\-field\-assets.html}}
In 1991, it acquired nine magazines from [News Corporation](/wiki/News_Corporation "News Corporation") for $600 million: *[Daily Racing Form](/wiki/Daily_Racing_Form "Daily Racing Form")*, *[Soap Opera Digest](/wiki/Soap_Opera_Digest "Soap Opera Digest")*, *[Soap Opera Weekly](/wiki/Soap_Opera_Weekly "Soap Opera Weekly")*, *[New York](/wiki/New_York_%28magazine%29 "New York (magazine)")*, *[Seventeen](/wiki/Seventeen_%28American_magazine%29 "Seventeen (American magazine)")*, *[Premiere](/wiki/Premiere_%28magazine%29 "Premiere (magazine)")*, *European Travel \& Life*, *[Automobile](/wiki/Automobile_%28magazine%29 "Automobile (magazine)")*, and *New Woman*.{{Cite news \| title\=K\-III Bid Wins Murdoch Mags\| work\=Variety \| url\=https://variety.com/1991/scene/markets\-festivals/k\-iii\-bid\-wins\-murdoch\-mags\-99126319/}}
In 1992, it acquired medical publisher Krames from [Grolier](/wiki/Grolier "Grolier"),{{Cite news \| issn\=0362\-4331 \| agency\=\[\[Reuters]] \| title\=K\-III Buys Publisher \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/02/19/business/k\-iii\-buys\-publisher.html \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=February 19, 1992}} and [Films for the Humanities \& Sciences](/wiki/Films_for_the_Humanities_%26_Sciences "Films for the Humanities & Sciences").
In 1993, it acquired three magazines from Wiesner, and *[The World Almanac](/wiki/The_World_Almanac "The World Almanac")* from [E. W. Scripps Company](/wiki/E._W._Scripps_Company "E. W. Scripps Company").
In 1994, K\-III acquired *[Stagebill](/wiki/Stagebill "Stagebill")*; [Gibbs College](/wiki/Gibbs_College "Gibbs College");{{Cite news \| last\=Jones \| first\=Kathryn \| title\=COMPANY NEWS; Katharine Gibbs Schools Are Sold \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/03/09/business/company\-news\-katharine\-gibbs\-schools\-are\-sold.html \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=March 9, 1994}} Haas Publishing (now Consumer Source Inc.), publisher of *Apartment Guide*; and PJS Publications.{{Cite news \| title\=Publishers: Editors: Managing Editors\| work\=\[\[Associated Press]] \| url\=https://apnews.com/article/8929e735396f0952000ebbd026c87aa8 \| date\=December 27, 1994}}
### Going public
In 1995, the company became a [public company](/wiki/Public_company "Public company") via an [initial public offering](/wiki/Initial_public_offering "Initial public offering"), selling 15 million shares at $12 per share in a deal that left Kohlberg Kravis Roberts with control of 82\.2% of the company's shares.{{cite news
\| url\=https://archive.nytimes.com/query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage\-9E06E7DB1239F934A35753C1A963958260\.html \| title\=K\-III's Initial Stock Offering \| agency\=\[\[Reuters]] \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=October 7, 1995}} It also acquired the US trade magazine operations of [Maclean\-Hunter](/wiki/Maclean-Hunter "Maclean-Hunter"),{{Cite news \| title\=CURTAIN UP FOR 'PREMIERE' SALE: WENNER, REED, TIME AND HACHETTE COULD BE INTERESTED\| url\=https://adage.com/article/btob/study\-sites\-twitter\-share\-buttons\-gain\-social\-boost/283689 \| work\=\[\[Advertising Age]] \| date\= September 6, 2011}} *[Chicago](/wiki/Chicago_%28magazine%29 "Chicago (magazine)")* from [Landmark Media Enterprises](/wiki/Landmark_Media_Enterprises "Landmark Media Enterprises"), and McMullen \& Yee Publishing, a publisher of automotive magazine.
In 1996, the company acquired 14 publications from [Cahners Consumer Magazines](/wiki/Reed_Business_Information "Reed Business Information"), *[Pro Football Weekly](/wiki/Pro_Football_Weekly "Pro Football Weekly")*,{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1996\-07\-08\-fi\-22110\-story.html \| title\=MEDIA \| work\=\[\[Los Angeles Times]] \| date\=July 8, 1996}} and Westcott Communications,{{cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/04/23/business/company\-reports\-k\-iii\-to\-acquire\-westcott\-after\-twice\-raising\-its\-bid.html \| title\=COMPANY REPORTS;K\-III to Acquire Westcott After Twice Raising Its Bid \| first\=Geraldine \| last\=Fabrikant \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=April 23, 1996}} later renamed **Primedia Workplace Learning**.
In 1997, the company acquired Farm Press,{{Cite web \| url\=https://www.farmprogress.com/farm\-press\-mirrors\-ag\-achievement \| title\=Farm Press mirrors ag achievement \| first\=Hembree \| last\=Brandon \| work\=Farm Press \| date\=April 5, 2003}} Park Avenue Publishing, publisher of *[Lowrider](/wiki/Lowrider_%28magazine%29 "Lowrider (magazine)")*,{{cite news \| url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1997\-aug\-07\-fi\-20135\-story.html \| title\=Spotlight: McMullen Argus Buys Park Avenue Publishing \| work\=\[\[Los Angeles Times]] \| date\=August 7, 1997}} and Intellichoice. It also sold Krames to the [Times Mirror Company](/wiki/Times_Mirror_Company "Times Mirror Company"),{{Cite news\| issn\=0362\-4331\| title\=Times Mirror to Acquire Unit From K\-III \| agency\=\[\[Bloomberg News]] \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=1997\-07\-23\| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/07/23/business/times\-mirror\-to\-acquire\-unit\-from\-k\-iii.html}} sold *New Woman* to [Rodale, Inc.](/wiki/Rodale%2C_Inc. "Rodale, Inc."), and sold Gibbs College to [Career Education Corporation](/wiki/Career_Education_Corporation "Career Education Corporation").
### Rebranding as Primedia; shift away from print
As of November 18, 1997, the company changed its name to **Primedia** to more clearly focus on its core business.{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/11/01/business/k\-iii\-s\-new\-name\-to\-be\-primedia.html \| title\=K\-III's New Name To Be 'Primedia' \| agency\=\[\[Associated Press]] \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\| date\=November 1, 1997}}
In 1998, the company acquired the Cowles Enthusiast Media and Cowles Business Media divisions of [Cowles Media Company](/wiki/Cowles_Media_Company "Cowles Media Company") from [McClatchy Newspapers](/wiki/McClatchy_Newspapers "McClatchy Newspapers").{{cite web\|title\=McCLATCHY FINDS NEW HOMES FOR COWLES DIVISIONS\|publisher\= NewsInc\|url\=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/McCLATCHY\+FINDS\+NEW\+HOMES\+FOR\+COWLES\+DIVISIONS\+Acquisition\+costs...\-a050305401\|accessdate\=2012\-09\-11\|date\=Jan 19, 1998}} It sold *[Daily Racing Form](/wiki/Daily_Racing_Form "Daily Racing Form")* to private investors, sold *[Stagebill](/wiki/Stagebill "Stagebill")* to Fred B. Tarter, sold Newbridge Communications to [Doubleday Direct](/wiki/Doubleday_Direct "Doubleday Direct"),{{Cite news \| issn\=0362\-4331 \| last\=Carvajal \| first\=Doreen \| title\=MEDIA: PUBLISHING; For book clubs, the big increase in sales is coming in smaller niches. \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=January 26, 1998 \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/01/26/business/media\-publishing\-for\-book\-clubs\-big\-increase\-sales\-coming\-smaller\-niches.html}} and acquired [Sterling/MacFadden](/wiki/Sterling/MacFadden "Sterling/MacFadden")'s teen magazines and teen publisher [Laufer Publishing](/wiki/Laufer_Publishing "Laufer Publishing").
In 1999, as the company's stock remained moribund,{{cite news\|title\=KRAVIS PRIMED FOR PRIMEDIA BREAKUP\|first\=Keith J. \|last\=Kelly\|date\=March 21, 1999\|url\=https://nypost.com/1999/03/21/kravis\-primed\-for\-primedia\-breakup/\|work\=\[\[New York Post]]}} it sold its education unit (*[Weekly Reader](/wiki/Weekly_Reader "Weekly Reader")*, [The World Almanac](/wiki/The_World_Almanac "The World Almanac")) to [Ripplewood Holdings](/wiki/Ripplewood_Holdings "Ripplewood Holdings"), acquired Multimedia Publishing,{{cite news \| url\=https://www.bizjournals.com/houston/stories/1999/10/11/story3\.html \| title\=Tech wildcatter sells company for $35 million \| first\=Laura \| last\=Elder \| work\=\[\[American City Business Journals]] \| date\=October 10, 1999}} and sold *Better Nutrition*, *Southwest Art*, and *[Vegetarian Times](/wiki/Vegetarian_Times "Vegetarian Times")* to Sabot Publishing.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.desilvaphillips.com/DealProfile.aspx?deal\=51881 \| title\=Deals\-Southwest Art\|date\=May 1999\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029201229/http://www.desilvaphillips.com/DealProfile.aspx?deal\=51881\|archive\-date\=October 29, 2013\|website\=Desilva \+ Phillips\|quote\=Primedia, Inc. has sold Southwest Art, Inc. to Sabot Publishing, Inc.}}{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct\-xpm\-1999\-11\-09\-9911090309\-story.html \| title\=Alberto Move From Lois A Beauty For Tatham \| first\=George \| last\=Lazarus \| work\=\[\[Chicago Tribune]] \| date\=November 9, 1999}}
In 2000, the company acquired the digital media company [About.com](/wiki/About.com "About.com") for $690 million.{{cite news \| url\=https://money.cnn.com/2000/10/30/deals/pri/ \| title\=Primedia buys About.com \| work\=\[\[CNN]] \| date\=October 30, 2000}}
In January 2001, as part of a joint venture, Primedia handed over editorial control of its trade publications that reported on the media industry to [Steven Brill](/wiki/Steven_Brill_%28journalist%29 "Steven Brill (journalist)").{{cite news\|title\=Primedia and Brill Media in Joint Venture\|date\=Jan 5, 2001\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/01/05/business/primedia\-and\-brill\-media\-in\-joint\-venture.html}} Later that year, the company acquired [EMAP](/wiki/EMAP "EMAP")'s U.S. magazines{{cite news \| url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB994019691498154557 \| title\=Primedia Agrees to Acquire Emap's U.S. Magazine Assets \| work\=\[\[The Wall Street Journal]] \| date\=July 2, 2001}} and closed *[Country Journal](/wiki/Country_Journal "Country Journal")*. In October 2001, Primedia dissolved its partnership with Brill.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/16/business/brill\-s\-content\-closes\-web\-site\-insidecom\-is\-cut\-back.html \|title\=Brill's Content Closes; Web Site, Inside.com, Is Cut Back \|first\=Felicity \|last\=Barringer \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=16 October 2001 \|access\-date\=19 August 2020}}
In 2002, the company sold *Modern Bride* to [Condé Nast Publications](/wiki/Cond%C3%A9_Nast_Publications "Condé Nast Publications"),{{cite news \| url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1011051092296655920 \| title\=Conde Nast to Buy Modern Bride From Primedia for $52 Million \| first\=Matthew \| last\=Rose \| work\=\[\[The Wall Street Journal]] \| date\=January 14, 2002}} sold *Pro Football Weekly* to Arkush family, sold *[Chicago](/wiki/Chicago_%28magazine%29 "Chicago (magazine)")* to [Tribune Company](/wiki/Tribune_Company "Tribune Company"), and sold *American Baby* to [Meredith Corporation](/wiki/Meredith_Corporation "Meredith Corporation").
In 2003, the company sold *Volleyball*, *Teddy Bear and Friends* and *[Doll Reader](/wiki/Doll_Reader "Doll Reader")* to Ashton International Media,{{Cite web \| url\=https://www.jegi.com/transactions/2002/ \| title\=Transactions \- JEGI from 2002 \| access\-date\=2020\-11\-27 \| archive\-date\=2016\-03\-15 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315225141/http://www.jegi.com/transactions/2002/ \| url\-status\=dead }} sold *[Seventeen](/wiki/Seventeen_%28American_magazine%29 "Seventeen (American magazine)")* to [Hearst Corporation](/wiki/Hearst_Corporation "Hearst Corporation") for $182\.4 million,{{cite news \| url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10512075664185300 \| title\=Primedia to Sell Seventeen To Hearst for $182\.4 Million \| work\=\[\[The Wall Street Journal]] \| date\=April 24, 2003}} sold *[New York](/wiki/New_York_%28magazine%29 "New York (magazine)")* to Bruce Wasserstein for $55 million,{{cite news \| url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB107161014035529200 \| title\=Wasserstein Wins Primedia Auction To Buy New York \| first1\=Matthew \| last1\=Rose \| first2\=Robert \| last2\=Frank \| work\=\[\[The Wall Street Journal]] \| date\=December 17, 2003}} sold *[Tiger Beat](/wiki/Tiger_Beat "Tiger Beat")* and *[Bop](/wiki/Bop_%28magazine%29 "Bop (magazine)")* to [Laufer Media](/wiki/Laufer_Media "Laufer Media"), sold *Kitplanes* to Belvoir Publications,{{cite web \| url\=https://www.avweb.com/briefs/kitplanes\-joins\-avweb\-under\-belvoir/ \| title\=KITPLANES Joins AVweb Under Belvoir \| first\=Glenn \| last\=Pew \| date\=October 5, 2003}} and sold Simba Information to [R.R. Bowker](/wiki/R.R._Bowker "R.R. Bowker").{{cite news \| url\=http://www.econtentmag.com/Articles/News/News\-Item/R.R.\-Bowker\-Acquires\-Simba\-Information\-\-5509\.htm \| title\=R.R. Bowker Acquires Simba Information \| date\=September 23, 2003}}
In 2004, the company sold *[Folio](/wiki/Folio_%28magazine%29 "Folio (magazine)")* and *Circulation Management* to a [joint venture](/wiki/Joint_venture "Joint venture") with Red 7 Media.{{cite news \| url\=https://nypost.com/2004/08/13/primedia\-offloads\-2\-trades/ \| title\=PRIMEDIA OFFLOADS 2 TRADES \| first\=Keith J. \| last\=Kelly \| work\=\[\[New York Post]] \| date\=August 13, 2004}}
In 2005, the company sold [About.com](/wiki/About.com "About.com") to [The New York Times Company](/wiki/The_New_York_Times_Company "The New York Times Company") for $410 million,{{cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/18/business/media/the\-times\-company\-acquires\-aboutcom\-for\-410\-million.html \| title\=The Times Company Acquires About.com for $410 Million \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=February 18, 2005}} sold [Prism Business Media](/wiki/Prism_Business_Media "Prism Business Media") (ex\-Intertec) to private investors [Wasserstein](/wiki/Bruce_Wasserstein "Bruce Wasserstein") \& Co. (later merged with [Penton Media](/wiki/Penton_Media "Penton Media")), and sold [Ward's](/wiki/Ward%27s "Ward's") to [Prism Business Media](/wiki/Prism_Business_Media "Prism Business Media").{{Cite web\| title\=PRIMEDIA's Wards Automotive Magazines Sold to Prism Media \| url\=https://www.theautochannel.com/news/2005/12/22/187803\.html \| date\=December 22, 2005}}
In 2006, the company was publishing over 280 separate magazine titles.{{cite web\|title\=Climbing and C\&K Unaffected By Primedia Challenges\|date\=Apr 5, 2006\|website\=\[\[Outside Business Journal]]\|url\=https://www.outsidebusinessjournal.com/brands/climbing\-and\-ck\-unaffected\-by\-primedia\-challenges/}} That year, it sold history magazines to [Weider History Group](/wiki/Weider_History_Group "Weider History Group"),{{cite news \| url\=http://armchairgeneral.com/weider\-purchases\-history\-magazines\-from\-primedia.htm \| title\=Weider Purchases History Magazines From Primedia \| date\=February 28, 2006}} sold Crafts Group to Sandler Capital Management for $132 million,{{Cite news \| title\=BREAKING NEWS: Primedia To Sell Crafts Group for $132 Million \| url\=https://www.foliomag.com/breaking\-news\-primedia\-sell\-crafts\-group\-132\-million/ \| first\=Marrecca \| last\=Fiore \| work\=\[\[Folio (magazine)\|Folio]] \| date\=June 16, 2006}} and sold [Outdoor Group](/wiki/InterMedia_Outdoor_Holdings "InterMedia Outdoor Holdings") to [InterMedia Partners](/wiki/InterMedia_Partners "InterMedia Partners"){{Cite web \| title\=Primedia To Sell Outdoor Group \| url\=https://www.foliomag.com/primedia\-sell\-outdoor\-group/ \| work\=\[\[Folio (magazine)\|Folio]] \| date\=December 7, 2006}}
In 2007, the company sold a group of 17 outdoor\-oriented magazines to [InterMedia Outdoors](/wiki/InterMedia_Outdoors "InterMedia Outdoors") for $170 million in cash, in a deal that included *[Guns \& Ammo](/wiki/Guns_%26_Ammo "Guns & Ammo")* and *Fly Fisherman*. It also sold its Enthusiast Media division to [Source Interlink](/wiki/Source_Interlink "Source Interlink"), controlled by [Ronald Burkle](/wiki/Ronald_Burkle "Ronald Burkle"), in a deal that netted Primedia $1\.15 billion in cash in exchange for a group of more than 70 magazines, including *[Motor Trend](/wiki/Motor_Trend "Motor Trend")* and *[Soap Opera Digest](/wiki/Soap_Opera_Digest "Soap Opera Digest")* and 90 consumer websites. The deal left Primedia to focus on a series of free print and online consumer guides published by its Consumer Source unit.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.sun\-sentinel.com/news/fl\-xpm\-2007\-05\-15\-0705140269\-story.html \|title\=Billionaire Burkle to buy Primedia \| first\=Leon \| last\=Lazaroff \| agency\=\[\[Bloomberg News]] \| publisher\=\[\[The Sun Sentinel]] \| date\=May 15, 2007}}{{cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/15/business/media/15mag.html \| title\=Magazine Publisher Is Selling Special\-Interest Unit for $1\.15 Billion \| agency\=\[\[Reuters]] \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=May 15, 2007}} It also sold Gems group to Interweave,{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.foliomag.com/interweave\-press\-buys\-primedias\-gems\-group\-posted\-9\-5/ \| title\=Interweave Press Buys Primedia's Gems Group \| work\=\[\[Folio (magazine)\|Folio]] \| first\=Matt \| last\=Kinsman \| date\=September 5, 2006}} sold *[Climbing](/wiki/Climbing_%28magazine%29 "Climbing (magazine)")* to Skram Media,{{cite news \| url\=https://www.foliomag.com/primedia\-unclips\-climbing/ \| title\=Primedia Unclips Climbing \| first\=Bill \| last\=Mickey \| work\=\[\[Folio (magazine)\|Folio]] \| date\=January 5, 2007}} sold Films for the Humanities \& Sciences to [Infobase Publishing](/wiki/Infobase_Publishing "Infobase Publishing"),{{Cite web \| title\=Infobase Buys Films Media Group \| work\=\[\[Library Journal]] \| url\=https://www.libraryjournal.com/?detailStory\=infobase\-buys\-films\-media\-group \| date\=June 28, 2007}} and sold [Channel One News](/wiki/Channel_One_News "Channel One News") to Alloy Media and Marketing.
In 2008, the company sold *South Florida Auto Guide* and *Wisconsin Auto Guide* to Target Media Partners and closed *Atlanta Auto Guide*.
In 2009, the company closed *Today's Custom Home*.
### Acquisition by TPG Capital and shift toward real estate
In 2011, [TPG Capital](/wiki/TPG_Capital "TPG Capital") bought Primedia for $525 million,{{cite news \| title\=After 22 Years — 22 Years! — K.K.R. Is Exiting Primedia \| first\=Peter \| last\=Lattman \| url\=https://dealbook.nytimes.com/2011/05/16/after\-22\-years\-22\-years\-k\-k\-r\-is\-exiting\-primedia/ \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=May 16, 2011}} and in 2012, Primedia acquired [rent.com](/wiki/Rent.com "Rent.com") from [eBay](/wiki/EBay "EBay").{{cite press release \| url\=https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20120322006615/en/PRIMEDIA\-Acquire\-Rent.com\-eBay \| title\=PRIMEDIA to Acquire Rent.com from eBay Inc. \| publisher\=\[\[Business Wire]] \| date\=March 22, 2012}}{{cite news \| url\=https://techcrunch.com/2012/03/22/ebay\-sells\-off\-real\-estate\-listings\-site\-rent\-com\-to\-primedia/ \| title\=eBay Sells Off Real Estate Listings Site Rent.com To Primedia \| first\=Leena \| last\=Rao \| work\=\[\[TechCrunch]] \| date\=March 22, 2012}}
In 2013, the company changed its name to **RentPath**. In 2014 it acquired Lovely for $13 million.{{cite news \| url\=https://techcrunch.com/2014/04/02/tpgs\-rentpath\-buys\-lovely\-for\-13m\-to\-expand\-from\-property\-search\-into\-full\-rental\-services/ \| title\=TPG's RentPath Buys Lovely For $13M To Expand From property search into full rental services \| first\=Ingrid \| last\=Lunden \| work\=\[\[TechCrunch]] \| date\=April 2, 2014}}
In 2014, [Providence Equity Partners](/wiki/Providence_Equity_Partners "Providence Equity Partners") LLC acquired 50% of the company.{{cite news
\| url\=https://www.bizjournals.com/atlanta/news/2014/10/22/providence\-equity\-tpg\-become\-equal\-partners\-in.html \| title\=Providence Equity, TPG become equal partners in RentPath \| first\=Phil W. \| last\=Hudson \| work\=\[\[American City Business Journals]] \| date\=October 22, 2014}}
In July 2015, former CEO of [Autotrader.com](/wiki/Autotrader.com "Autotrader.com"), Chip Perry, was named president and CEO of RentPath. He succeeded Charles Stubbs, who remained on the RentPath board of directors.{{cite web \| title\=Former AutoTrader CEO Chip Perry named RentPath CEO \| url\=https://www.bizjournals.com/atlanta/news/2015/07/13/former\-autotrader\-ceo\-chip\-perry\-named\-rentpath.html \| work\=\[\[American City Business Journals]] \| date\=July 13, 2015}} In November 2015, Chip Perry stepped down as president and CEO of RentPath, to take over as CEO of TrueCar.{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.autonews.com/article/20151123/OEM02/151129953/chip\-perry\-truecar\-s\-new\-ceo\-seeks\-to\-rebuild\-dealers\-trust \| title\=Chip Perry, TrueCar's new CEO, seeks to rebuild dealers' trust \| first\=DAVID \| last\=UNDERCOFFLER \| work\=\[\[Automotive News]] \| date\=November 23, 2015}}
RentPath named Marc P. Lefar as President and CEO on April 4, 2016\.{{cite press release \| url\=https://www.prnewswire.com/news\-releases/rentpath\-names\-marc\-lefar\-as\-president\-and\-chief\-executive\-officer\-300245613\.html \| title\=RentPath Names Marc Lefar as President and Chief Executive Officer \| publisher\=\[\[PR Newswire]] \| date\=April 4, 2016}}
### Bankruptcy
In February 2020, RentPath filed [bankruptcy](/wiki/Bankruptcy "Bankruptcy") in preparation for acquisition by CoStar, which reached an agreement to acquire RentPath for $588 million.{{cite news \| url\=https://www.bizjournals.com/atlanta/news/2020/02/12/atlanta\-based\-rentpath\-files\-chapter\-11\-agrees\-to.html \| title\=Atlanta\-based RentPath files Chapter 11, agrees to be bought by CoStar for $588M \| first\=Jessica \| last\=Saunders \| work\=\[\[American City Business Journals]] \| date\=February 12, 2020}} On December 29, 2020, new CEO Dhiren Fonseca{{Cite web\|last\=Peters\|first\=Joe\|title\=Executive Team Members\|url\=https://www.rentpath.com/blog/team\-showcase/exc/\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-12\|website\=RentPath\|language\=en\-US}} terminated RentPath's agreement to be acquired by CoStar.{{Cite web\|date\=2020\-12\-29\|title\=RentPath terminates agreement to be acquired by CoStar Group\|url\=https://apnews.com/press\-release/pr\-newswire/lifestyle\-residential\-real\-estate\-housing\-rental\-3e3bf6c3cc6699015e2393ddf2fee44d\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-12\|website\=AP NEWS}}
On April 5, 2021, RentPath was acquired by [Redfin](/wiki/Redfin "Redfin") for $608 million.{{Cite web\|title\=Redfin Completes Acquisition of RentPath for $608 Million {{!}} Redfin Press Center\|url\=https://press.redfin.com/news\-releases/news\-release\-details/redfin\-completes\-acquisition\-rentpath\-608\-million/\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-12\|website\=press.redfin.com\|language\=en}} RentPath rental home listings were to be integrated into Redfin.com by 2022\. RentPath's headquarters remain in Atlanta and Fonseca remains in his role as CEO while the new owners seek a new permanent head.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Foundation as K\\-III",
"The company, initially called **K\\-III Communications Corporation**, was founded in 1989 by [Kohlberg Kravis Roberts](/wiki/Kohlberg_Kravis_Roberts \"Kohlberg Kravis Roberts\") and [Macmillan Inc.](/wiki/Macmillan_Inc. \"Macmillan Inc.\") president [Bill Reilly](/wiki/Bill_Reilly \"Bill Reilly\"),{{cite magazine\\|url\\=https://archive.foliomag.com/magazine\\-industry\\-reacts\\-death\\-primedia\\-founder\\-bill\\-reilly/\\|title\\=Industry Reacts to Death of Primedia Founder: Charlie McCurdy: O'Reilly 'forever changed the face of specialty publishing.'\\|first\\=Jason\\|last\\=Fell\\|date\\=October 20, 2008\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Folio (magazine)\\|Folio]]}} as a platform to buy media properties. Its first acquisitions were Macmillan's Book Clubs, Gryphon Editions (renamed Newbridge Communications), and Intertec Publishing; and [Maxwell Communications Corporation](/wiki/Maxwell_Communications_Corporation \"Maxwell Communications Corporation\")'s Webb Publishing.{{Cite news \\| issn\\=0362\\-4331 \\| title\\=THE MEDIA BUSINESS; Macmillan and Maxwell Sell Four Units to Kohlberg \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=December 2, 1988 \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/02/business/the\\-media\\-business\\-macmillan\\-and\\-maxwell\\-sell\\-four\\-units\\-to\\-kohlberg.html}}",
"In 1990, K\\-III acquired [Ward's](/wiki/Ward%27s \"Ward's\") from [Thomson Corporation](/wiki/Thomson_Corporation \"Thomson Corporation\"){{Cite news \\| title\\=K\\-III to Buy Automotive Industry Publisher Ward's Communications\\| work\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]] \\| date\\=May 7, 1990 \\| url\\=https://apnews.com/article/f6516ca230d30191675064b3fbd0e97e}} It also acquired the business publications of Andrews Communications; Readers Garden, operator of special interest book clubs; and *[Weekly Reader](/wiki/Weekly_Reader \"Weekly Reader\")* and [Funk \\& Wagnalls](/wiki/Funk_%26_Wagnalls \"Funk & Wagnalls\") from [Marshall Field V](/wiki/Marshall_Field_V \"Marshall Field V\").{{Cite news \\| issn\\=0362\\-4331 \\| last\\=Hicks \\| first\\=Jonathan P.\\| title\\=COMPANY NEWS; K\\-III Holdings to Buy Field Assets \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\| date\\=December 22, 1990 \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/12/22/business/company\\-news\\-k\\-iii\\-holdings\\-to\\-buy\\-field\\-assets.html}}",
"In 1991, it acquired nine magazines from [News Corporation](/wiki/News_Corporation \"News Corporation\") for $600 million: *[Daily Racing Form](/wiki/Daily_Racing_Form \"Daily Racing Form\")*, *[Soap Opera Digest](/wiki/Soap_Opera_Digest \"Soap Opera Digest\")*, *[Soap Opera Weekly](/wiki/Soap_Opera_Weekly \"Soap Opera Weekly\")*, *[New York](/wiki/New_York_%28magazine%29 \"New York (magazine)\")*, *[Seventeen](/wiki/Seventeen_%28American_magazine%29 \"Seventeen (American magazine)\")*, *[Premiere](/wiki/Premiere_%28magazine%29 \"Premiere (magazine)\")*, *European Travel \\& Life*, *[Automobile](/wiki/Automobile_%28magazine%29 \"Automobile (magazine)\")*, and *New Woman*.{{Cite news \\| title\\=K\\-III Bid Wins Murdoch Mags\\| work\\=Variety \\| url\\=https://variety.com/1991/scene/markets\\-festivals/k\\-iii\\-bid\\-wins\\-murdoch\\-mags\\-99126319/}}",
"In 1992, it acquired medical publisher Krames from [Grolier](/wiki/Grolier \"Grolier\"),{{Cite news \\| issn\\=0362\\-4331 \\| agency\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\| title\\=K\\-III Buys Publisher \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/02/19/business/k\\-iii\\-buys\\-publisher.html \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=February 19, 1992}} and [Films for the Humanities \\& Sciences](/wiki/Films_for_the_Humanities_%26_Sciences \"Films for the Humanities & Sciences\").",
"In 1993, it acquired three magazines from Wiesner, and *[The World Almanac](/wiki/The_World_Almanac \"The World Almanac\")* from [E. W. Scripps Company](/wiki/E._W._Scripps_Company \"E. W. Scripps Company\").",
"In 1994, K\\-III acquired *[Stagebill](/wiki/Stagebill \"Stagebill\")*; [Gibbs College](/wiki/Gibbs_College \"Gibbs College\");{{Cite news \\| last\\=Jones \\| first\\=Kathryn \\| title\\=COMPANY NEWS; Katharine Gibbs Schools Are Sold \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/03/09/business/company\\-news\\-katharine\\-gibbs\\-schools\\-are\\-sold.html \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=March 9, 1994}} Haas Publishing (now Consumer Source Inc.), publisher of *Apartment Guide*; and PJS Publications.{{Cite news \\| title\\=Publishers: Editors: Managing Editors\\| work\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]] \\| url\\=https://apnews.com/article/8929e735396f0952000ebbd026c87aa8 \\| date\\=December 27, 1994}}",
"### Going public",
"In 1995, the company became a [public company](/wiki/Public_company \"Public company\") via an [initial public offering](/wiki/Initial_public_offering \"Initial public offering\"), selling 15 million shares at $12 per share in a deal that left Kohlberg Kravis Roberts with control of 82\\.2% of the company's shares.{{cite news \n\\| url\\=https://archive.nytimes.com/query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage\\-9E06E7DB1239F934A35753C1A963958260\\.html \\| title\\=K\\-III's Initial Stock Offering \\| agency\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=October 7, 1995}} It also acquired the US trade magazine operations of [Maclean\\-Hunter](/wiki/Maclean-Hunter \"Maclean-Hunter\"),{{Cite news \\| title\\=CURTAIN UP FOR 'PREMIERE' SALE: WENNER, REED, TIME AND HACHETTE COULD BE INTERESTED\\| url\\=https://adage.com/article/btob/study\\-sites\\-twitter\\-share\\-buttons\\-gain\\-social\\-boost/283689 \\| work\\=\\[\\[Advertising Age]] \\| date\\= September 6, 2011}} *[Chicago](/wiki/Chicago_%28magazine%29 \"Chicago (magazine)\")* from [Landmark Media Enterprises](/wiki/Landmark_Media_Enterprises \"Landmark Media Enterprises\"), and McMullen \\& Yee Publishing, a publisher of automotive magazine.",
"In 1996, the company acquired 14 publications from [Cahners Consumer Magazines](/wiki/Reed_Business_Information \"Reed Business Information\"), *[Pro Football Weekly](/wiki/Pro_Football_Weekly \"Pro Football Weekly\")*,{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1996\\-07\\-08\\-fi\\-22110\\-story.html \\| title\\=MEDIA \\| work\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles Times]] \\| date\\=July 8, 1996}} and Westcott Communications,{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/04/23/business/company\\-reports\\-k\\-iii\\-to\\-acquire\\-westcott\\-after\\-twice\\-raising\\-its\\-bid.html \\| title\\=COMPANY REPORTS;K\\-III to Acquire Westcott After Twice Raising Its Bid \\| first\\=Geraldine \\| last\\=Fabrikant \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=April 23, 1996}} later renamed **Primedia Workplace Learning**.",
"In 1997, the company acquired Farm Press,{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://www.farmprogress.com/farm\\-press\\-mirrors\\-ag\\-achievement \\| title\\=Farm Press mirrors ag achievement \\| first\\=Hembree \\| last\\=Brandon \\| work\\=Farm Press \\| date\\=April 5, 2003}} Park Avenue Publishing, publisher of *[Lowrider](/wiki/Lowrider_%28magazine%29 \"Lowrider (magazine)\")*,{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1997\\-aug\\-07\\-fi\\-20135\\-story.html \\| title\\=Spotlight: McMullen Argus Buys Park Avenue Publishing \\| work\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles Times]] \\| date\\=August 7, 1997}} and Intellichoice. It also sold Krames to the [Times Mirror Company](/wiki/Times_Mirror_Company \"Times Mirror Company\"),{{Cite news\\| issn\\=0362\\-4331\\| title\\=Times Mirror to Acquire Unit From K\\-III \\| agency\\=\\[\\[Bloomberg News]] \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=1997\\-07\\-23\\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/07/23/business/times\\-mirror\\-to\\-acquire\\-unit\\-from\\-k\\-iii.html}} sold *New Woman* to [Rodale, Inc.](/wiki/Rodale%2C_Inc. \"Rodale, Inc.\"), and sold Gibbs College to [Career Education Corporation](/wiki/Career_Education_Corporation \"Career Education Corporation\").",
"### Rebranding as Primedia; shift away from print",
"As of November 18, 1997, the company changed its name to **Primedia** to more clearly focus on its core business.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/11/01/business/k\\-iii\\-s\\-new\\-name\\-to\\-be\\-primedia.html \\| title\\=K\\-III's New Name To Be 'Primedia' \\| agency\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]] \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\| date\\=November 1, 1997}}",
"In 1998, the company acquired the Cowles Enthusiast Media and Cowles Business Media divisions of [Cowles Media Company](/wiki/Cowles_Media_Company \"Cowles Media Company\") from [McClatchy Newspapers](/wiki/McClatchy_Newspapers \"McClatchy Newspapers\").{{cite web\\|title\\=McCLATCHY FINDS NEW HOMES FOR COWLES DIVISIONS\\|publisher\\= NewsInc\\|url\\=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/McCLATCHY\\+FINDS\\+NEW\\+HOMES\\+FOR\\+COWLES\\+DIVISIONS\\+Acquisition\\+costs...\\-a050305401\\|accessdate\\=2012\\-09\\-11\\|date\\=Jan 19, 1998}} It sold *[Daily Racing Form](/wiki/Daily_Racing_Form \"Daily Racing Form\")* to private investors, sold *[Stagebill](/wiki/Stagebill \"Stagebill\")* to Fred B. Tarter, sold Newbridge Communications to [Doubleday Direct](/wiki/Doubleday_Direct \"Doubleday Direct\"),{{Cite news \\| issn\\=0362\\-4331 \\| last\\=Carvajal \\| first\\=Doreen \\| title\\=MEDIA: PUBLISHING; For book clubs, the big increase in sales is coming in smaller niches. \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=January 26, 1998 \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/01/26/business/media\\-publishing\\-for\\-book\\-clubs\\-big\\-increase\\-sales\\-coming\\-smaller\\-niches.html}} and acquired [Sterling/MacFadden](/wiki/Sterling/MacFadden \"Sterling/MacFadden\")'s teen magazines and teen publisher [Laufer Publishing](/wiki/Laufer_Publishing \"Laufer Publishing\").",
"In 1999, as the company's stock remained moribund,{{cite news\\|title\\=KRAVIS PRIMED FOR PRIMEDIA BREAKUP\\|first\\=Keith J. \\|last\\=Kelly\\|date\\=March 21, 1999\\|url\\=https://nypost.com/1999/03/21/kravis\\-primed\\-for\\-primedia\\-breakup/\\|work\\=\\[\\[New York Post]]}} it sold its education unit (*[Weekly Reader](/wiki/Weekly_Reader \"Weekly Reader\")*, [The World Almanac](/wiki/The_World_Almanac \"The World Almanac\")) to [Ripplewood Holdings](/wiki/Ripplewood_Holdings \"Ripplewood Holdings\"), acquired Multimedia Publishing,{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.bizjournals.com/houston/stories/1999/10/11/story3\\.html \\| title\\=Tech wildcatter sells company for $35 million \\| first\\=Laura \\| last\\=Elder \\| work\\=\\[\\[American City Business Journals]] \\| date\\=October 10, 1999}} and sold *Better Nutrition*, *Southwest Art*, and *[Vegetarian Times](/wiki/Vegetarian_Times \"Vegetarian Times\")* to Sabot Publishing.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.desilvaphillips.com/DealProfile.aspx?deal\\=51881 \\| title\\=Deals\\-Southwest Art\\|date\\=May 1999\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029201229/http://www.desilvaphillips.com/DealProfile.aspx?deal\\=51881\\|archive\\-date\\=October 29, 2013\\|website\\=Desilva \\+ Phillips\\|quote\\=Primedia, Inc. has sold Southwest Art, Inc. to Sabot Publishing, Inc.}}{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct\\-xpm\\-1999\\-11\\-09\\-9911090309\\-story.html \\| title\\=Alberto Move From Lois A Beauty For Tatham \\| first\\=George \\| last\\=Lazarus \\| work\\=\\[\\[Chicago Tribune]] \\| date\\=November 9, 1999}}",
"In 2000, the company acquired the digital media company [About.com](/wiki/About.com \"About.com\") for $690 million.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://money.cnn.com/2000/10/30/deals/pri/ \\| title\\=Primedia buys About.com \\| work\\=\\[\\[CNN]] \\| date\\=October 30, 2000}}",
"In January 2001, as part of a joint venture, Primedia handed over editorial control of its trade publications that reported on the media industry to [Steven Brill](/wiki/Steven_Brill_%28journalist%29 \"Steven Brill (journalist)\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Primedia and Brill Media in Joint Venture\\|date\\=Jan 5, 2001\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/01/05/business/primedia\\-and\\-brill\\-media\\-in\\-joint\\-venture.html}} Later that year, the company acquired [EMAP](/wiki/EMAP \"EMAP\")'s U.S. magazines{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB994019691498154557 \\| title\\=Primedia Agrees to Acquire Emap's U.S. Magazine Assets \\| work\\=\\[\\[The Wall Street Journal]] \\| date\\=July 2, 2001}} and closed *[Country Journal](/wiki/Country_Journal \"Country Journal\")*. In October 2001, Primedia dissolved its partnership with Brill.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/16/business/brill\\-s\\-content\\-closes\\-web\\-site\\-insidecom\\-is\\-cut\\-back.html \\|title\\=Brill's Content Closes; Web Site, Inside.com, Is Cut Back \\|first\\=Felicity \\|last\\=Barringer \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=16 October 2001 \\|access\\-date\\=19 August 2020}}",
"In 2002, the company sold *Modern Bride* to [Condé Nast Publications](/wiki/Cond%C3%A9_Nast_Publications \"Condé Nast Publications\"),{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1011051092296655920 \\| title\\=Conde Nast to Buy Modern Bride From Primedia for $52 Million \\| first\\=Matthew \\| last\\=Rose \\| work\\=\\[\\[The Wall Street Journal]] \\| date\\=January 14, 2002}} sold *Pro Football Weekly* to Arkush family, sold *[Chicago](/wiki/Chicago_%28magazine%29 \"Chicago (magazine)\")* to [Tribune Company](/wiki/Tribune_Company \"Tribune Company\"), and sold *American Baby* to [Meredith Corporation](/wiki/Meredith_Corporation \"Meredith Corporation\").",
"In 2003, the company sold *Volleyball*, *Teddy Bear and Friends* and *[Doll Reader](/wiki/Doll_Reader \"Doll Reader\")* to Ashton International Media,{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://www.jegi.com/transactions/2002/ \\| title\\=Transactions \\- JEGI from 2002 \\| access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-27 \\| archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-15 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315225141/http://www.jegi.com/transactions/2002/ \\| url\\-status\\=dead }} sold *[Seventeen](/wiki/Seventeen_%28American_magazine%29 \"Seventeen (American magazine)\")* to [Hearst Corporation](/wiki/Hearst_Corporation \"Hearst Corporation\") for $182\\.4 million,{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10512075664185300 \\| title\\=Primedia to Sell Seventeen To Hearst for $182\\.4 Million \\| work\\=\\[\\[The Wall Street Journal]] \\| date\\=April 24, 2003}} sold *[New York](/wiki/New_York_%28magazine%29 \"New York (magazine)\")* to Bruce Wasserstein for $55 million,{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB107161014035529200 \\| title\\=Wasserstein Wins Primedia Auction To Buy New York \\| first1\\=Matthew \\| last1\\=Rose \\| first2\\=Robert \\| last2\\=Frank \\| work\\=\\[\\[The Wall Street Journal]] \\| date\\=December 17, 2003}} sold *[Tiger Beat](/wiki/Tiger_Beat \"Tiger Beat\")* and *[Bop](/wiki/Bop_%28magazine%29 \"Bop (magazine)\")* to [Laufer Media](/wiki/Laufer_Media \"Laufer Media\"), sold *Kitplanes* to Belvoir Publications,{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.avweb.com/briefs/kitplanes\\-joins\\-avweb\\-under\\-belvoir/ \\| title\\=KITPLANES Joins AVweb Under Belvoir \\| first\\=Glenn \\| last\\=Pew \\| date\\=October 5, 2003}} and sold Simba Information to [R.R. Bowker](/wiki/R.R._Bowker \"R.R. Bowker\").{{cite news \\| url\\=http://www.econtentmag.com/Articles/News/News\\-Item/R.R.\\-Bowker\\-Acquires\\-Simba\\-Information\\-\\-5509\\.htm \\| title\\=R.R. Bowker Acquires Simba Information \\| date\\=September 23, 2003}}",
"In 2004, the company sold *[Folio](/wiki/Folio_%28magazine%29 \"Folio (magazine)\")* and *Circulation Management* to a [joint venture](/wiki/Joint_venture \"Joint venture\") with Red 7 Media.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://nypost.com/2004/08/13/primedia\\-offloads\\-2\\-trades/ \\| title\\=PRIMEDIA OFFLOADS 2 TRADES \\| first\\=Keith J. \\| last\\=Kelly \\| work\\=\\[\\[New York Post]] \\| date\\=August 13, 2004}}",
"In 2005, the company sold [About.com](/wiki/About.com \"About.com\") to [The New York Times Company](/wiki/The_New_York_Times_Company \"The New York Times Company\") for $410 million,{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/18/business/media/the\\-times\\-company\\-acquires\\-aboutcom\\-for\\-410\\-million.html \\| title\\=The Times Company Acquires About.com for $410 Million \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=February 18, 2005}} sold [Prism Business Media](/wiki/Prism_Business_Media \"Prism Business Media\") (ex\\-Intertec) to private investors [Wasserstein](/wiki/Bruce_Wasserstein \"Bruce Wasserstein\") \\& Co. (later merged with [Penton Media](/wiki/Penton_Media \"Penton Media\")), and sold [Ward's](/wiki/Ward%27s \"Ward's\") to [Prism Business Media](/wiki/Prism_Business_Media \"Prism Business Media\").{{Cite web\\| title\\=PRIMEDIA's Wards Automotive Magazines Sold to Prism Media \\| url\\=https://www.theautochannel.com/news/2005/12/22/187803\\.html \\| date\\=December 22, 2005}}",
"In 2006, the company was publishing over 280 separate magazine titles.{{cite web\\|title\\=Climbing and C\\&K Unaffected By Primedia Challenges\\|date\\=Apr 5, 2006\\|website\\=\\[\\[Outside Business Journal]]\\|url\\=https://www.outsidebusinessjournal.com/brands/climbing\\-and\\-ck\\-unaffected\\-by\\-primedia\\-challenges/}} That year, it sold history magazines to [Weider History Group](/wiki/Weider_History_Group \"Weider History Group\"),{{cite news \\| url\\=http://armchairgeneral.com/weider\\-purchases\\-history\\-magazines\\-from\\-primedia.htm \\| title\\=Weider Purchases History Magazines From Primedia \\| date\\=February 28, 2006}} sold Crafts Group to Sandler Capital Management for $132 million,{{Cite news \\| title\\=BREAKING NEWS: Primedia To Sell Crafts Group for $132 Million \\| url\\=https://www.foliomag.com/breaking\\-news\\-primedia\\-sell\\-crafts\\-group\\-132\\-million/ \\| first\\=Marrecca \\| last\\=Fiore \\| work\\=\\[\\[Folio (magazine)\\|Folio]] \\| date\\=June 16, 2006}} and sold [Outdoor Group](/wiki/InterMedia_Outdoor_Holdings \"InterMedia Outdoor Holdings\") to [InterMedia Partners](/wiki/InterMedia_Partners \"InterMedia Partners\"){{Cite web \\| title\\=Primedia To Sell Outdoor Group \\| url\\=https://www.foliomag.com/primedia\\-sell\\-outdoor\\-group/ \\| work\\=\\[\\[Folio (magazine)\\|Folio]] \\| date\\=December 7, 2006}}",
"In 2007, the company sold a group of 17 outdoor\\-oriented magazines to [InterMedia Outdoors](/wiki/InterMedia_Outdoors \"InterMedia Outdoors\") for $170 million in cash, in a deal that included *[Guns \\& Ammo](/wiki/Guns_%26_Ammo \"Guns & Ammo\")* and *Fly Fisherman*. It also sold its Enthusiast Media division to [Source Interlink](/wiki/Source_Interlink \"Source Interlink\"), controlled by [Ronald Burkle](/wiki/Ronald_Burkle \"Ronald Burkle\"), in a deal that netted Primedia $1\\.15 billion in cash in exchange for a group of more than 70 magazines, including *[Motor Trend](/wiki/Motor_Trend \"Motor Trend\")* and *[Soap Opera Digest](/wiki/Soap_Opera_Digest \"Soap Opera Digest\")* and 90 consumer websites. The deal left Primedia to focus on a series of free print and online consumer guides published by its Consumer Source unit.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.sun\\-sentinel.com/news/fl\\-xpm\\-2007\\-05\\-15\\-0705140269\\-story.html \\|title\\=Billionaire Burkle to buy Primedia \\| first\\=Leon \\| last\\=Lazaroff \\| agency\\=\\[\\[Bloomberg News]] \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[The Sun Sentinel]] \\| date\\=May 15, 2007}}{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/15/business/media/15mag.html \\| title\\=Magazine Publisher Is Selling Special\\-Interest Unit for $1\\.15 Billion \\| agency\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=May 15, 2007}} It also sold Gems group to Interweave,{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.foliomag.com/interweave\\-press\\-buys\\-primedias\\-gems\\-group\\-posted\\-9\\-5/ \\| title\\=Interweave Press Buys Primedia's Gems Group \\| work\\=\\[\\[Folio (magazine)\\|Folio]] \\| first\\=Matt \\| last\\=Kinsman \\| date\\=September 5, 2006}} sold *[Climbing](/wiki/Climbing_%28magazine%29 \"Climbing (magazine)\")* to Skram Media,{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.foliomag.com/primedia\\-unclips\\-climbing/ \\| title\\=Primedia Unclips Climbing \\| first\\=Bill \\| last\\=Mickey \\| work\\=\\[\\[Folio (magazine)\\|Folio]] \\| date\\=January 5, 2007}} sold Films for the Humanities \\& Sciences to [Infobase Publishing](/wiki/Infobase_Publishing \"Infobase Publishing\"),{{Cite web \\| title\\=Infobase Buys Films Media Group \\| work\\=\\[\\[Library Journal]] \\| url\\=https://www.libraryjournal.com/?detailStory\\=infobase\\-buys\\-films\\-media\\-group \\| date\\=June 28, 2007}} and sold [Channel One News](/wiki/Channel_One_News \"Channel One News\") to Alloy Media and Marketing.",
"In 2008, the company sold *South Florida Auto Guide* and *Wisconsin Auto Guide* to Target Media Partners and closed *Atlanta Auto Guide*.",
"In 2009, the company closed *Today's Custom Home*.",
"### Acquisition by TPG Capital and shift toward real estate",
"In 2011, [TPG Capital](/wiki/TPG_Capital \"TPG Capital\") bought Primedia for $525 million,{{cite news \\| title\\=After 22 Years — 22 Years! — K.K.R. Is Exiting Primedia \\| first\\=Peter \\| last\\=Lattman \\| url\\=https://dealbook.nytimes.com/2011/05/16/after\\-22\\-years\\-22\\-years\\-k\\-k\\-r\\-is\\-exiting\\-primedia/ \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=May 16, 2011}} and in 2012, Primedia acquired [rent.com](/wiki/Rent.com \"Rent.com\") from [eBay](/wiki/EBay \"EBay\").{{cite press release \\| url\\=https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20120322006615/en/PRIMEDIA\\-Acquire\\-Rent.com\\-eBay \\| title\\=PRIMEDIA to Acquire Rent.com from eBay Inc. \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Business Wire]] \\| date\\=March 22, 2012}}{{cite news \\| url\\=https://techcrunch.com/2012/03/22/ebay\\-sells\\-off\\-real\\-estate\\-listings\\-site\\-rent\\-com\\-to\\-primedia/ \\| title\\=eBay Sells Off Real Estate Listings Site Rent.com To Primedia \\| first\\=Leena \\| last\\=Rao \\| work\\=\\[\\[TechCrunch]] \\| date\\=March 22, 2012}}",
"In 2013, the company changed its name to **RentPath**. In 2014 it acquired Lovely for $13 million.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://techcrunch.com/2014/04/02/tpgs\\-rentpath\\-buys\\-lovely\\-for\\-13m\\-to\\-expand\\-from\\-property\\-search\\-into\\-full\\-rental\\-services/ \\| title\\=TPG's RentPath Buys Lovely For $13M To Expand From property search into full rental services \\| first\\=Ingrid \\| last\\=Lunden \\| work\\=\\[\\[TechCrunch]] \\| date\\=April 2, 2014}}",
"In 2014, [Providence Equity Partners](/wiki/Providence_Equity_Partners \"Providence Equity Partners\") LLC acquired 50% of the company.{{cite news \n\\| url\\=https://www.bizjournals.com/atlanta/news/2014/10/22/providence\\-equity\\-tpg\\-become\\-equal\\-partners\\-in.html \\| title\\=Providence Equity, TPG become equal partners in RentPath \\| first\\=Phil W. \\| last\\=Hudson \\| work\\=\\[\\[American City Business Journals]] \\| date\\=October 22, 2014}}",
"In July 2015, former CEO of [Autotrader.com](/wiki/Autotrader.com \"Autotrader.com\"), Chip Perry, was named president and CEO of RentPath. He succeeded Charles Stubbs, who remained on the RentPath board of directors.{{cite web \\| title\\=Former AutoTrader CEO Chip Perry named RentPath CEO \\| url\\=https://www.bizjournals.com/atlanta/news/2015/07/13/former\\-autotrader\\-ceo\\-chip\\-perry\\-named\\-rentpath.html \\| work\\=\\[\\[American City Business Journals]] \\| date\\=July 13, 2015}} In November 2015, Chip Perry stepped down as president and CEO of RentPath, to take over as CEO of TrueCar.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.autonews.com/article/20151123/OEM02/151129953/chip\\-perry\\-truecar\\-s\\-new\\-ceo\\-seeks\\-to\\-rebuild\\-dealers\\-trust \\| title\\=Chip Perry, TrueCar's new CEO, seeks to rebuild dealers' trust \\| first\\=DAVID \\| last\\=UNDERCOFFLER \\| work\\=\\[\\[Automotive News]] \\| date\\=November 23, 2015}}",
"RentPath named Marc P. Lefar as President and CEO on April 4, 2016\\.{{cite press release \\| url\\=https://www.prnewswire.com/news\\-releases/rentpath\\-names\\-marc\\-lefar\\-as\\-president\\-and\\-chief\\-executive\\-officer\\-300245613\\.html \\| title\\=RentPath Names Marc Lefar as President and Chief Executive Officer \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[PR Newswire]] \\| date\\=April 4, 2016}}",
"### Bankruptcy",
"In February 2020, RentPath filed [bankruptcy](/wiki/Bankruptcy \"Bankruptcy\") in preparation for acquisition by CoStar, which reached an agreement to acquire RentPath for $588 million.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.bizjournals.com/atlanta/news/2020/02/12/atlanta\\-based\\-rentpath\\-files\\-chapter\\-11\\-agrees\\-to.html \\| title\\=Atlanta\\-based RentPath files Chapter 11, agrees to be bought by CoStar for $588M \\| first\\=Jessica \\| last\\=Saunders \\| work\\=\\[\\[American City Business Journals]] \\| date\\=February 12, 2020}} On December 29, 2020, new CEO Dhiren Fonseca{{Cite web\\|last\\=Peters\\|first\\=Joe\\|title\\=Executive Team Members\\|url\\=https://www.rentpath.com/blog/team\\-showcase/exc/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-12\\|website\\=RentPath\\|language\\=en\\-US}} terminated RentPath's agreement to be acquired by CoStar.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2020\\-12\\-29\\|title\\=RentPath terminates agreement to be acquired by CoStar Group\\|url\\=https://apnews.com/press\\-release/pr\\-newswire/lifestyle\\-residential\\-real\\-estate\\-housing\\-rental\\-3e3bf6c3cc6699015e2393ddf2fee44d\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-12\\|website\\=AP NEWS}}",
"On April 5, 2021, RentPath was acquired by [Redfin](/wiki/Redfin \"Redfin\") for $608 million.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Redfin Completes Acquisition of RentPath for $608 Million {{!}} Redfin Press Center\\|url\\=https://press.redfin.com/news\\-releases/news\\-release\\-details/redfin\\-completes\\-acquisition\\-rentpath\\-608\\-million/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-12\\|website\\=press.redfin.com\\|language\\=en}} RentPath rental home listings were to be integrated into Redfin.com by 2022\\. RentPath's headquarters remain in Atlanta and Fonseca remains in his role as CEO while the new owners seek a new permanent head.",
""
] |
Church\-State relations
-----------------------
[thumb\|Archbishop Gonzi monument at the Catholic Institute in [Floriana](/wiki/Floriana "Floriana")](/wiki/File:Michael_Gonzi_Monument_-_Catholic_Institute.jpeg "Michael Gonzi Monument - Catholic Institute.jpeg")
Gonzi's tenure as [Archbishop of Malta](/wiki/Archbishop_of_Malta "Archbishop of Malta") was marred due to strained relations with the [Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28Malta%29 "Labour Party (Malta)"), particularly with its leader [Dom Mintoff](/wiki/Dom_Mintoff "Dom Mintoff").
Trouble started in 1948 when Mintoff was still Deputy Leader of his Party. At a dinner in which Mintoff presided, guests sang *[The Red Flag](/wiki/The_Red_Flag "The Red Flag")* and [anti\-clerical](/wiki/Anti-clerical "Anti-clerical") speeches were made.
Relations started deteriorating again during the [Integration campaign](/wiki/Maltese_integration_into_the_United_Kingdom_referendum%2C_1956%23Attempted_integration_with_the_United_Kingdom "Maltese integration into the United Kingdom referendum, 1956#Attempted integration with the United Kingdom") of the mid\-1950s. Gonzi feared that the privileged position of the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church") would be lost to the [Anglican Church](/wiki/Anglican_Church "Anglican Church") once Malta became part of the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") and asked for guarantees which were never forthcoming. The church and its supporters were categorically against the plan for integration and asked voters to vote 'no' or abstain in the referendum of 14 February 1956, floating banners such as *Meta tivvota Alla jarak u jiġġudikak* (When you're voting God will watch you and will judge you).
The Church, and in particular Gonzi's, relationship with the Labour Party, worsened further in 1958 when nationwide protests and street unrest developed when it was announced that the dockyard would be gradually shutting down and the number of workers drastically reduced. Gonzi condemned the violent protests and accused the Labour Party of supporting them. The Labour Party in turn accused the church for condemning the protesting workers while never condemning the harsh repressions by the British colonial authorities.
The antagonistic talk was further exacerbated with Labour's decision to develop relationships with [Afro\-Asian Peoples' Solidarity Organization](/wiki/Afro-Asian_Peoples%27_Solidarity_Organization "Afro-Asian Peoples' Solidarity Organization") (AAPSO), believed to be a socialist [front organisation](/wiki/Front_organisation "Front organisation").{{cite web\|title\=About Us\|url\=http://www.aapsorg.org/site/docs/Aboutus/Aboutus\_home.htm\|publisher\=Afro\-Asian Peoples' Solidarity Organization\|accessdate\=2 November 2010\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100702141853/http://www.aapsorg.org/site/docs/Aboutus/Aboutus\_home.htm\|archivedate\=2 July 2010}} On [St. Patrick's Day](/wiki/St._Patrick%27s_Day "St. Patrick's Day"), 17 March 1961, Gonzi '[interdicted](/wiki/Interdict "Interdict")' supporters of the [Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28Malta%29 "Labour Party (Malta)"), specifically, the Party's Executive Committee, readers, distributors and advertisers in the Party papers and voters and candidates of the Party. The key issue became whether the state should be secularised in line with modern parameters, or whether the Church should retain its privileged position.
Those 'interdicted' could not receive the sacraments and, when they died, were buried in unconsecrated ground, in a part of the cemetery popularly called by the pejorative term *Il\-Miżbla*. This included Labour deputy leader and prominent novelist [Ġużè Ellul Mercer](/wiki/%C4%A0u%C5%BC%C3%A8_Ellul_Mercer "Ġużè Ellul Mercer").[Guze Ellul Mercer](http://www.maltatoday.com.mt/2005/10/09/pix/interdett.pdf) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060107020411/http://www.maltatoday.com.mt/2005/10/09/pix/interdett.pdf \|date\=2006\-01\-07 }}
During 'interdiction', the political climate in Malta was very tense with the church organising rallies for preparation of the spirit in view of the forthcoming elections. The Labour Party rallies were also often disrupted by continuous churchbell ringing and whistling and other deliberate noise by Catholic laymen. Sermons during [Mass](/wiki/Mass_%28liturgy%29 "Mass (liturgy)") were predominantly characterised by political issues and so were pastoral letters read in church.
[Interdiction](/wiki/Interdict "Interdict") would only be lifted in 1964 and peace with the [Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28Malta%29 "Labour Party (Malta)") only made in 1969\.
|
[
"Church\\-State relations\n-----------------------",
"[thumb\\|Archbishop Gonzi monument at the Catholic Institute in [Floriana](/wiki/Floriana \"Floriana\")](/wiki/File:Michael_Gonzi_Monument_-_Catholic_Institute.jpeg \"Michael Gonzi Monument - Catholic Institute.jpeg\")\nGonzi's tenure as [Archbishop of Malta](/wiki/Archbishop_of_Malta \"Archbishop of Malta\") was marred due to strained relations with the [Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28Malta%29 \"Labour Party (Malta)\"), particularly with its leader [Dom Mintoff](/wiki/Dom_Mintoff \"Dom Mintoff\").",
"Trouble started in 1948 when Mintoff was still Deputy Leader of his Party. At a dinner in which Mintoff presided, guests sang *[The Red Flag](/wiki/The_Red_Flag \"The Red Flag\")* and [anti\\-clerical](/wiki/Anti-clerical \"Anti-clerical\") speeches were made.",
"Relations started deteriorating again during the [Integration campaign](/wiki/Maltese_integration_into_the_United_Kingdom_referendum%2C_1956%23Attempted_integration_with_the_United_Kingdom \"Maltese integration into the United Kingdom referendum, 1956#Attempted integration with the United Kingdom\") of the mid\\-1950s. Gonzi feared that the privileged position of the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\") would be lost to the [Anglican Church](/wiki/Anglican_Church \"Anglican Church\") once Malta became part of the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") and asked for guarantees which were never forthcoming. The church and its supporters were categorically against the plan for integration and asked voters to vote 'no' or abstain in the referendum of 14 February 1956, floating banners such as *Meta tivvota Alla jarak u jiġġudikak* (When you're voting God will watch you and will judge you).",
"The Church, and in particular Gonzi's, relationship with the Labour Party, worsened further in 1958 when nationwide protests and street unrest developed when it was announced that the dockyard would be gradually shutting down and the number of workers drastically reduced. Gonzi condemned the violent protests and accused the Labour Party of supporting them. The Labour Party in turn accused the church for condemning the protesting workers while never condemning the harsh repressions by the British colonial authorities.",
"The antagonistic talk was further exacerbated with Labour's decision to develop relationships with [Afro\\-Asian Peoples' Solidarity Organization](/wiki/Afro-Asian_Peoples%27_Solidarity_Organization \"Afro-Asian Peoples' Solidarity Organization\") (AAPSO), believed to be a socialist [front organisation](/wiki/Front_organisation \"Front organisation\").{{cite web\\|title\\=About Us\\|url\\=http://www.aapsorg.org/site/docs/Aboutus/Aboutus\\_home.htm\\|publisher\\=Afro\\-Asian Peoples' Solidarity Organization\\|accessdate\\=2 November 2010\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100702141853/http://www.aapsorg.org/site/docs/Aboutus/Aboutus\\_home.htm\\|archivedate\\=2 July 2010}} On [St. Patrick's Day](/wiki/St._Patrick%27s_Day \"St. Patrick's Day\"), 17 March 1961, Gonzi '[interdicted](/wiki/Interdict \"Interdict\")' supporters of the [Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28Malta%29 \"Labour Party (Malta)\"), specifically, the Party's Executive Committee, readers, distributors and advertisers in the Party papers and voters and candidates of the Party. The key issue became whether the state should be secularised in line with modern parameters, or whether the Church should retain its privileged position.",
"Those 'interdicted' could not receive the sacraments and, when they died, were buried in unconsecrated ground, in a part of the cemetery popularly called by the pejorative term *Il\\-Miżbla*. This included Labour deputy leader and prominent novelist [Ġużè Ellul Mercer](/wiki/%C4%A0u%C5%BC%C3%A8_Ellul_Mercer \"Ġużè Ellul Mercer\").[Guze Ellul Mercer](http://www.maltatoday.com.mt/2005/10/09/pix/interdett.pdf) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060107020411/http://www.maltatoday.com.mt/2005/10/09/pix/interdett.pdf \\|date\\=2006\\-01\\-07 }}",
"During 'interdiction', the political climate in Malta was very tense with the church organising rallies for preparation of the spirit in view of the forthcoming elections. The Labour Party rallies were also often disrupted by continuous churchbell ringing and whistling and other deliberate noise by Catholic laymen. Sermons during [Mass](/wiki/Mass_%28liturgy%29 \"Mass (liturgy)\") were predominantly characterised by political issues and so were pastoral letters read in church.",
"[Interdiction](/wiki/Interdict \"Interdict\") would only be lifted in 1964 and peace with the [Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28Malta%29 \"Labour Party (Malta)\") only made in 1969\\.",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|1920\= 214
\|1930\= 171
\|1940\= 168
\|1950\= 139
\|1960\= 135
\|1970\= 101
\|1980\= 108
\|1990\= 70
\|2000\= 86
\|2010\= 91
\|2020\= 87
\|align\-fn\=center
\|footnote\=\[https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html U.S. Decennial Census]{{cite web\|url\=https://api.census.gov/data/2020/dec/pl?get\=P1\_001N,NAME\&for\=place:\*∈\=state:46\&key\=5ccd0821c15d9f4520e2dcc0f8d92b2ec9336108\|title\=Census Population API\|publisher\=United States Census Bureau\|accessdate\=October 15, 2022}}
}}
### 2010 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=June 21, 2012}} of 2010, there were 91 people, 38 households, and 26 families residing in the town. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|107\.1\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 44 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|51\.8\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the town was 100\.0% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)").
There were 38 households, of which 28\.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60\.5% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 2\.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 5\.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 31\.6% were non\-families. 28\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.39 and the average family size was 2\.77\.
The median age in the town was 42\.8 years. 27\.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 3\.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 20\.9% were from 25 to 44; 24\.2% were from 45 to 64; and 24\.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 58\.2% male and 41\.8% female.
### 2000 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 86 people, 38 households, and 29 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\|100\.7\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 41 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|48\.0\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 100\.00% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)").
There were 38 households, out of which 23\.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 76\.3% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 2\.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 21\.1% were non\-families. 21\.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7\.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.26 and the average family size was 2\.60\.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 17\.4% under the age of 18, 3\.5% from 18 to 24, 25\.6% from 25 to 44, 29\.1% from 45 to 64, and 24\.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 48 years. For every 100 females, there were 100\.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82\.1 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $26,875, and the median income for a family was $30,000\. Males had a median income of $26,875 versus $22,813 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the town was $13,062\. There were 15\.6% of families and 24\.7% of the population living below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 77\.8% of under eighteens and 10\.0% of those over 64\.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|1920\\= 214\n\\|1930\\= 171\n\\|1940\\= 168\n\\|1950\\= 139\n\\|1960\\= 135\n\\|1970\\= 101\n\\|1980\\= 108\n\\|1990\\= 70\n\\|2000\\= 86\n\\|2010\\= 91\n\\|2020\\= 87\n\\|align\\-fn\\=center\n\\|footnote\\=\\[https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html U.S. Decennial Census]{{cite web\\|url\\=https://api.census.gov/data/2020/dec/pl?get\\=P1\\_001N,NAME\\&for\\=place:\\*∈\\=state:46\\&key\\=5ccd0821c15d9f4520e2dcc0f8d92b2ec9336108\\|title\\=Census Population API\\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau\\|accessdate\\=October 15, 2022}}\n}}",
"### 2010 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=June 21, 2012}} of 2010, there were 91 people, 38 households, and 26 families residing in the town. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|107\\.1\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 44 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|51\\.8\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the town was 100\\.0% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\").",
"There were 38 households, of which 28\\.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60\\.5% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 2\\.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 5\\.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 31\\.6% were non\\-families. 28\\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5\\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.39 and the average family size was 2\\.77\\.",
"The median age in the town was 42\\.8 years. 27\\.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 3\\.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 20\\.9% were from 25 to 44; 24\\.2% were from 45 to 64; and 24\\.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 58\\.2% male and 41\\.8% female.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 86 people, 38 households, and 29 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\\|100\\.7\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 41 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|48\\.0\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 100\\.00% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\").",
"There were 38 households, out of which 23\\.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 76\\.3% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 2\\.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 21\\.1% were non\\-families. 21\\.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7\\.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.26 and the average family size was 2\\.60\\.",
"In the town, the population was spread out, with 17\\.4% under the age of 18, 3\\.5% from 18 to 24, 25\\.6% from 25 to 44, 29\\.1% from 45 to 64, and 24\\.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 48 years. For every 100 females, there were 100\\.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82\\.1 males.",
"The median income for a household in the town was $26,875, and the median income for a family was $30,000\\. Males had a median income of $26,875 versus $22,813 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the town was $13,062\\. There were 15\\.6% of families and 24\\.7% of the population living below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 77\\.8% of under eighteens and 10\\.0% of those over 64\\.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Wang was born in [Qian'an County](/wiki/Qian%27an_County "Qian'an County"), [Jilin](/wiki/Jilin "Jilin") in July 1960\.
Resumption of University Entrance Examination in 1977, Wang entered [Jilin University](/wiki/Jilin_University "Jilin University"), majoring in geology, where he graduated in August 1983\.
Wang served as the President of Jilin Exploration and Development Research Institute of PetroChina between August 1983 to September 1999\. He entered the [PetroChina](/wiki/PetroChina "PetroChina") in October 2004\.
In August 2009 he was promoted to become the President of [Daqing Oil Field](/wiki/Daqing_Oil_Field "Daqing Oil Field") Limited\-Liability Company, a position he held until April 2011\.
In April 2011, he was appointed the Vice\-President of PetroChina, he remained in that position until August 2013\.
On August 26, 2013, Wang was being investigated by the [Central Commission for Discipline Inspection](/wiki/Central_Commission_for_Discipline_Inspection "Central Commission for Discipline Inspection") for "serious violations of laws and regulations".{{cite web \|url\=http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2013\-09\-10/104028178822\.shtml \|script\-title\=zh:知情人称王永春落马当地检察系统插不上手 \|date\=2013\-09\-10 \|publisher\=Sina \|language\=zh}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.legaldaily.com.cn/locality/content/2013\-09/04/content\_4818900\.htm?node\=30764 \|script\-title\=zh:国资委党委书记：蒋洁敏、王永春等涉案是个人问题 \|date\=2013\-09\-04 \|publisher\=法制网 \|language\=zh \|access\-date\=2014\-02\-20 \|archive\-date\=2014\-02\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227020657/http://www.legaldaily.com.cn/locality/content/2013\-09/04/content\_4818900\.htm?node\=30764 \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite web \|url\=http://finance.qq.com/a/20130903/015912\.htm \|script\-title\=zh:张毅：对蒋洁敏王永春等的调查体现惩治腐败决心 \|date\=2013\-09\-03 \|publisher\=Tcent \|language\=zh \|access\-date\=2014\-02\-20 \|archive\-date\=2014\-02\-26 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226154902/http://finance.qq.com/a/20130903/015912\.htm \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite web \|url\=http://news.ifeng.com/mainland/special/zhongshiyou/content\-3/detail\_2013\_09/01/29207428\_0\.shtml?\_from\_ralated \|script\-title\=zh:蒋洁敏曾任中石油董事长 任国资委主任不到半年 \|date\=2013\-09\-10 \|publisher\=Ifeng \|language\=zh}} Wang was expelled from the Communist Party on June 30, 2014\.
On October 13, 2015, following a trial at the [Xiangyang](/wiki/Xiangyang "Xiangyang") Intermediate People's Court in [Hubei](/wiki/Hubei "Hubei") province, Wang Yongchun was convicted on charges of abuse of power, bribery, and "amassing wealth of unclear origin", and sentenced to 20 years in prison.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-china\-corruption\-idUSKCN0S70JQ20151013 \|title\=Former senior China energy executive jailed for 20 years for graft \|date\= Oct 13, 2015 \|publisher\=Reuters }} He was said to have taken over 48\.56 million yuan (\~$7\.64 million) in bribes over his time as an energy executive.{{cite news\|title\=中石油原副总王永春获刑20年 因自首立功获轻判\|url\=http://news.sina.com.cn/c/nd/2015\-10\-13/doc\-ifxirmqc5087950\.shtml\|work\=Sina\|date\=October 13, 2015}}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Wang was born in [Qian'an County](/wiki/Qian%27an_County \"Qian'an County\"), [Jilin](/wiki/Jilin \"Jilin\") in July 1960\\.",
"Resumption of University Entrance Examination in 1977, Wang entered [Jilin University](/wiki/Jilin_University \"Jilin University\"), majoring in geology, where he graduated in August 1983\\.",
"Wang served as the President of Jilin Exploration and Development Research Institute of PetroChina between August 1983 to September 1999\\. He entered the [PetroChina](/wiki/PetroChina \"PetroChina\") in October 2004\\.",
"In August 2009 he was promoted to become the President of [Daqing Oil Field](/wiki/Daqing_Oil_Field \"Daqing Oil Field\") Limited\\-Liability Company, a position he held until April 2011\\.",
"In April 2011, he was appointed the Vice\\-President of PetroChina, he remained in that position until August 2013\\.",
"On August 26, 2013, Wang was being investigated by the [Central Commission for Discipline Inspection](/wiki/Central_Commission_for_Discipline_Inspection \"Central Commission for Discipline Inspection\") for \"serious violations of laws and regulations\".{{cite web \\|url\\=http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2013\\-09\\-10/104028178822\\.shtml \\|script\\-title\\=zh:知情人称王永春落马当地检察系统插不上手 \\|date\\=2013\\-09\\-10 \\|publisher\\=Sina \\|language\\=zh}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.legaldaily.com.cn/locality/content/2013\\-09/04/content\\_4818900\\.htm?node\\=30764 \\|script\\-title\\=zh:国资委党委书记：蒋洁敏、王永春等涉案是个人问题 \\|date\\=2013\\-09\\-04 \\|publisher\\=法制网 \\|language\\=zh \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-02\\-20 \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-02\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227020657/http://www.legaldaily.com.cn/locality/content/2013\\-09/04/content\\_4818900\\.htm?node\\=30764 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://finance.qq.com/a/20130903/015912\\.htm \\|script\\-title\\=zh:张毅：对蒋洁敏王永春等的调查体现惩治腐败决心 \\|date\\=2013\\-09\\-03 \\|publisher\\=Tcent \\|language\\=zh \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-02\\-20 \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-02\\-26 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226154902/http://finance.qq.com/a/20130903/015912\\.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://news.ifeng.com/mainland/special/zhongshiyou/content\\-3/detail\\_2013\\_09/01/29207428\\_0\\.shtml?\\_from\\_ralated \\|script\\-title\\=zh:蒋洁敏曾任中石油董事长 任国资委主任不到半年 \\|date\\=2013\\-09\\-10 \\|publisher\\=Ifeng \\|language\\=zh}} Wang was expelled from the Communist Party on June 30, 2014\\.",
"On October 13, 2015, following a trial at the [Xiangyang](/wiki/Xiangyang \"Xiangyang\") Intermediate People's Court in [Hubei](/wiki/Hubei \"Hubei\") province, Wang Yongchun was convicted on charges of abuse of power, bribery, and \"amassing wealth of unclear origin\", and sentenced to 20 years in prison.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-china\\-corruption\\-idUSKCN0S70JQ20151013 \\|title\\=Former senior China energy executive jailed for 20 years for graft \\|date\\= Oct 13, 2015 \\|publisher\\=Reuters }} He was said to have taken over 48\\.56 million yuan (\\~$7\\.64 million) in bribes over his time as an energy executive.{{cite news\\|title\\=中石油原副总王永春获刑20年 因自首立功获轻判\\|url\\=http://news.sina.com.cn/c/nd/2015\\-10\\-13/doc\\-ifxirmqc5087950\\.shtml\\|work\\=Sina\\|date\\=October 13, 2015}}",
""
] |
History
-------
{{further\|Roman Catholic Diocese of Vincennes, Indiana}}
### 1675 to 1944
During the 17th century, present day Indiana was part of the French colony of [New France](/wiki/New_France "New France"). The Diocese of Quebec, which had jurisdiction over the colony, sent French missionaries to the region. The first French [Jesuit](/wiki/Jesuit "Jesuit") missionaries came to the [Vincennes](/wiki/Vincennes "Vincennes") area around 1675\.{{Cite web \|title\=About Us \- History of the Diocese \|url\=https://www.evdio.org/history\-of\-the\-diocese.html \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-29 \|website\=Evansville Catholic Diocese \|language\=en}}
After the British took control of New France in 1763, the [Archdiocese of Quebec](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Quebec "Archdiocese of Quebec") retained jurisdiction in the Indiana area. In 1776, the new United States claimed sovereignty over the area of Indiana. In 1787, Indiana became part of the [Northwest Territory](/wiki/Northwest_Territory "Northwest Territory") of the United States.
With the creation of the [Diocese of Bardstown](/wiki/Diocese_of_Bardstown "Diocese of Bardstown") in Kentucky in 1810, supervision of the [Indiana Territory](/wiki/Indiana_Territory "Indiana Territory") shifted there. In 1827, the bishop of the [Diocese of St. Louis](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_St._Louis "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of St. Louis") assumed jurisdiction in the new state of Indiana. In 1834, [Pope Gregory XVI](/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XVI "Pope Gregory XVI") erected the [Diocese of Vincennes](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Vincennes%2C_Indiana "Roman Catholic Diocese of Vincennes, Indiana"), which included both Indiana and Illinois. [Pope Pius IX](/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX "Pope Pius IX") created the [Diocese of Fort Wayne](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Fort_Wayne%E2%80%93South_Bend "Roman Catholic Diocese of Fort Wayne–South Bend") for Indiana 1857\. {{Cite web \|title\=Evansville (Diocese) \[Catholic\-Hierarchy] \|url\=https://www.catholic\-hierarchy.org/diocese/devan.html \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-28 \|website\=www.catholic\-hierarchy.org}} The Evansville area would remain part of the Diocese of Vincennes, succeeded by the Diocese of Indianapolis, for the next 87 years.[thumb\|321x321px\|Basilica of St. Francis Xavier (Old Cathedral), Vincennes](/wiki/File:St._Francis_Xavier_Basilica_%28Vincennes%2C_IN%29_-_facade.jpg "St. Francis Xavier Basilica (Vincennes, IN) - facade.jpg")
### 1944 to 1965
[Pope Pius XII](/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII "Pope Pius XII") erected the Diocese of Evansville from the Diocese of Indianapolis on October 21, 1944\. The pope named Reverend [Henry Grimmelsman](/wiki/Henry_Joseph_Grimmelsmann "Henry Joseph Grimmelsmann"), rector of the [Pontifical College Josephinum](/wiki/Pontifical_College_Josephinum "Pontifical College Josephinum") in Worthington, Ohio, as its first bishop. Grimmelsman named Assumption Church in Evansville as his cathedral.
At the time of its founding, the diocese included five deaneries, 63 parishes and missions; it had a population of 49,737 Catholics, and 75 diocesan priests. The diocese purchased the [John Augustus Reitz Home](/wiki/Reitz_Home_Museum "Reitz Home Museum") in Evansville from the Daughters of Isabella for use as the chancery and bishop's residence. In 1948, Grimmelsman conducted the first [synod](/wiki/Synod "Synod") for the diocese.
The diocese grew rapidly after [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"); 12 new parishes were founded between 1944 and 1962 in the Evansville suburbs, Jasper, [Fort Branch](/wiki/Fort_Branch%2C_Indiana "Fort Branch, Indiana") and [Bloomfield](/wiki/Bloomfield%2C_Indiana "Bloomfield, Indiana"). The diocese also elevated mission churches in [New Harmony](/wiki/New_Harmony%2C_Indiana "New Harmony, Indiana") and [Oakland City](/wiki/Oakland_City%2C_Indiana "Oakland City, Indiana") to parishes. The diocese constructed the following facilities:
* Mater Dei and Rex Mundi High Schools in Evansville
* Magister Noster, a high school seminary, in Evansville
* High schools in [Ferdinand](/wiki/Ferdinand%2C_Indiana "Ferdinand, Indiana"), Loogootee, and [Vincennes](/wiki/Vincennes%2C_Indiana "Vincennes, Indiana")
* St. Benedict College in Ferdinand
* Memorial Hospital in Jasper, sponsored by the [Sisters of the Little Company of Mary](/wiki/Sisters_of_the_Little_Company_of_Mary "Sisters of the Little Company of Mary")
* A new facility for [St. Mary's Medical Center](/wiki/St._Mary%27s_Hospital_and_Medical_Center "St. Mary's Hospital and Medical Center") in Evansville, sponsored by the [Daughters of Charity](/wiki/Daughters_of_Charity_of_St._Vincent_de_Paul "Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul")
### 1965 to 1989
[thumb\|312x312px\|St. John the Baptist Church, Vincennes](/wiki/File:St._John_the_Baptist%2C_Vincennes%2C_IN_-_exterior_front_facade.jpg "St. John the Baptist, Vincennes, IN - exterior front facade.jpg")
The population of downtown Evansville declined in the 1960s, forcing the diocese to close Assumption Cathedral in 1965\. Holy Trinity Church, the home of the chancery since 1957, was named the [pro\-cathedral](/wiki/Pro-cathedral "Pro-cathedral"), for the diocese.
After Grimmelsman retired in 1965, [Pope Paul VI](/wiki/Pope_Paul_VI "Pope Paul VI") appointed Auxiliary Bishop [Paul Leibold](/wiki/Paul_Francis_Leibold "Paul Francis Leibold") of the [Archdiocese of Cincinnati](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Cincinnati "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cincinnati") as the second bishop of Evansville. Three years later in 1969, Paul VI named Leibold as archbishop of Cincinnati. The pope appointed Monsignor [Francis Shea](/wiki/Francis_Raymond_Shea "Francis Raymond Shea") of the [Diocese of Nashville](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Nashville "Roman Catholic Diocese of Nashville") as Leibold's replacement in Evansville.
Shea constructed a new mission church in [Santa Claus, Indiana](/wiki/Santa_Claus%2C_Indiana "Santa Claus, Indiana"), in 1967\. The diocese also expanded facilities at St. John Home in Evansville and the Providence Home in [Jasper](/wiki/Jasper%2C_Indiana "Jasper, Indiana"). The diocese also made these changes:
* Sold its high schools in Ferdinand and [Loogootee](/wiki/Loogootee%2C_Indiana "Loogootee, Indiana") to the local public school districts.
* Closed Rex Mundi and Magister Noster High Schools in Evansville. Rex Mundi went to [Ivy Tech Community College](/wiki/Ivy_Tech_Community_College_of_Indiana "Ivy Tech Community College of Indiana") and Magister Noster became the diocesan chancery.
* Closed St. Benedict College
* Consolidated the high schools in Vincennes
* Closed St. Ann Mission in [Shelburn](/wiki/Shelburn%2C_Indiana "Shelburn, Indiana") in 1978
* Closed Our Lady of Perpetual Help Mission in [Dugger](/wiki/Dugger%2C_Indiana "Dugger, Indiana") in 1982
### 1989 to 2010
[thumb\|207x207px\|St. Joseph Church, Jasper](/wiki/File:St._Joseph%27s_Catholic_Church_in_Jasper.jpg "St. Joseph's Catholic Church in Jasper.jpg")
When Shea retired in 1989, [Pope John Paul II](/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II "Pope John Paul II") named Monsignor [Gerald Gettelfinger](/wiki/Gerald_Andrew_Gettelfinger "Gerald Andrew Gettelfinger") of the Archdiocese of Indianapolis as the next bishop of Evansville. Several parishes built new churches in the 1990s, and the Santa Claus mission became a parish. As the number of priests began to decline and the Catholic population shifted to suburban areas, the diocese in 1997 closed St. Patrick Parish in [Corning](/wiki/Corning%2C_Indiana "Corning, Indiana"), St. Mary Parish in [Barr Township](/wiki/Barr_Township%2C_Daviess_County%2C_Indiana "Barr Township, Daviess County, Indiana") and St. Michael Parish in Montgomery. The St. Patrick and St. Mary Churches were redesignated as chapels while St. Michael was razed. In 1999, Gettelfinger named St. Benedict, the largest church in Evansville, as the new cathedral for the diocese.
Recognizing the influx of Hispanic Catholics into the diocese, Gettelfinger opened a Hispanic ministry in 2000\. Although the number of priests continued to decrease, the diocese began to ordain several large classes of [permanent deacons](/wiki/Permanent_deacons "Permanent deacons"). In 2008, the diocese merged St. Mary and St. Simon Parishes in [Washington](/wiki/Washington%2C_Indiana "Washington, Indiana") into Our Lady of Hope Parish, then demolished the St. Mary church. The diocese began a formal planning process in 2009 to allocate resources for the future. Pope John Paul II High School opened in Jasper in 2009, but closed in 2012 due to low enrollment.
### 2010 to present
In 2011, [Pope Benedict XVI](/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI "Pope Benedict XVI") named Monsignor [Charles C. Thompson](/wiki/Charles_C._Thompson "Charles C. Thompson") of the [Archdiocese of Louisville](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Louisville "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Louisville") as the fifth bishop of the diocese, replacing Gettelfinger.
Emily Herx, a teacher for the diocesan schools, sued the diocese in 2011, claiming that it had discriminated against her because she was a woman. The diocese terminated Herx when it learned that she was undergoing [in vitro fertilization](/wiki/In_vitro_fertilisation "In vitro fertilisation") to become pregnant.{{Cite web \|last\=Odendahl \|first\=Marilyn \|date\=2014\-09\-08 \|title\=Federal judges allows sex discrimination lawsuit against Catholic diocese to continue \|url\=https://www.theindianalawyer.com/articles/35083\-federal\-judges\-allows\-sex\-discrimination\-lawsuit\-against\-catholic\-diocese\-to\-continue \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-30 \|website\=The Indiana Lawyer \|language\=en\-US}} A jury awarded Herx $2 million in 2014\.{{Cite web \|date\=2014\-12\-22 \|title\=Jury awards Indiana teacher nearly $2M in firing over IVF \|url\=https://www.theindianalawyer.com/articles/35965\-jury\-awards\-indiana\-teacher\-nearly\-2m\-in\-firing\-over\-ivf \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-30 \|website\=The Indiana Lawyer \|language\=en\-US}}
In 2014, Thompson merged 19 parishes into eight parishes. The diocese also prohibited priests from celebrating more that three masses per Sunday, including the Saturday evening vigil. For some churches in the newly merged parishes, it meant no Sunday masses at all.{{cite journal\|journal\=The Message\|title\=Bishop announces parish changes in first phase of Diocesan Strategic Plan\|author\=Tim Lilley\|date\=September 27, 2013\|volume\=44\|issue\=4\|pages\=1–2}} The diocese in 2015 merged seven more parishes into three parishes.
Pope Francis appointed Thompson as archbishop of Indianapolis in 2017 and replaced him in Evansville with Auxiliary Bishop [Joseph M. Siegel](/wiki/Joseph_M._Siegel "Joseph M. Siegel") from the [Diocese of Joliet](/wiki/Diocese_of_Joliet "Diocese of Joliet"). In 2018, the diocese began renovations of St. Benedict Cathedral. As of 2023, Siegel is the current bishop of Evansville.
### Sex abuse
Bishop Evans in February 2019 released a list of ten clerics in the diocese who faced credible accusations of [sexual assault](/wiki/Sexual_assault "Sexual assault") against minors.{{Cite web \|last\=Olivia \|title\=Diocese releases list of priests accused of sexual abuse \|url\=https://www.duboiscountyherald.com/news/local/diocese\-releases\-list\-of\-priests\-accused\-of\-sexual\-abuse/article\_223bed5d\-4a3c\-5038\-a7ce\-d87c0c9777b4\.html \|access\-date\=2022\-01\-08 \|website\=Dubois County Herald \|date\=February 22, 2019 \|language\=en}} In August 2019, the diocese notified the [Evansville Police Department](/wiki/Evansville_Police_Department_%28Indiana%29 "Evansville Police Department (Indiana)") about an accusation of sexual abuse dating back to the 1980s. The victim was then a 14 year old parishioner at Holy Spirit School in Evansville. The unidentified perpetrator died before 1990\.{{Cite web \|date\=2019\-08\-23 \|title\=Evansville Diocese Reports Decades\-Old Case Of Child Abuse To Police \|url\=https://news.wnin.org/local\-news/2019\-08\-23/evansville\-diocese\-reports\-decades\-old\-case\-of\-child\-abuse\-to\-police \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-20 \|website\=WNIN \|language\=en}}
In 2007, Reverend Fredy Mendez\-Morales had sex with a [developmentally disabled](/wiki/Developmental_disability "Developmental disability") young woman at a youth camp run by the diocese. Mendez\-Morales claimed that he did not know that she was disabled. He later pleaded guilty, was sentenced to ten years in prison and was deported after his release. The girl's mother, Silvia Gameros, sued the diocese in 2009, claiming that it was negligent in supervising the girl at camp and tried to convince her to take [emergency contraception](/wiki/Emergency_contraception "Emergency contraception") after the attack. Gameros and the diocese reached a settlement in 2013\.{{Cite web \|title\=Mom who said daughter was raped, Catholic church reach lawsuit settlement \|url\=https://www.indystar.com/story/news/crime/2013/12/27/mom\-who\-said\-daughter\-was\-raped\-catholic\-church\-reach\-lawsuit\-settlement/4225857/ \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-29 \|website\=The Indianapolis Star \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web \|title\=Lawsuit: Church to blame for rape \|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/05/05/lawsuit\-church\-to\-blame\-for\-rape/2135933/ \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-29 \|website\=USA TODAY \|language\=en\-US}}
In March 2022, Reverend Bernie Etienne of Holy Rosary Parish in Evansville was suspended from ministry while the diocese investigated an allegation of sexual abuse from the early 2000s. In November 2022, the diocese determined that the allegations against Etienne were not credible and allowed him to return to ministry.{{Cite web \|last\=Lyman \|first\=Jill \|title\=Evansville Diocese Priest returns to ministry after sexual misconduct allegations \|url\=https://www.14news.com/2022/11/25/evansville\-diocese\-priest\-returns\-ministry\-after\-sexual\-misconduct\-allegations/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-20 \|website\=www.14news.com \|date\=November 25, 2022 \|language\=en}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{further\\|Roman Catholic Diocese of Vincennes, Indiana}}",
"### 1675 to 1944",
"During the 17th century, present day Indiana was part of the French colony of [New France](/wiki/New_France \"New France\"). The Diocese of Quebec, which had jurisdiction over the colony, sent French missionaries to the region. The first French [Jesuit](/wiki/Jesuit \"Jesuit\") missionaries came to the [Vincennes](/wiki/Vincennes \"Vincennes\") area around 1675\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=About Us \\- History of the Diocese \\|url\\=https://www.evdio.org/history\\-of\\-the\\-diocese.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-29 \\|website\\=Evansville Catholic Diocese \\|language\\=en}}",
"After the British took control of New France in 1763, the [Archdiocese of Quebec](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Quebec \"Archdiocese of Quebec\") retained jurisdiction in the Indiana area. In 1776, the new United States claimed sovereignty over the area of Indiana. In 1787, Indiana became part of the [Northwest Territory](/wiki/Northwest_Territory \"Northwest Territory\") of the United States.",
"With the creation of the [Diocese of Bardstown](/wiki/Diocese_of_Bardstown \"Diocese of Bardstown\") in Kentucky in 1810, supervision of the [Indiana Territory](/wiki/Indiana_Territory \"Indiana Territory\") shifted there. In 1827, the bishop of the [Diocese of St. Louis](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_St._Louis \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of St. Louis\") assumed jurisdiction in the new state of Indiana. In 1834, [Pope Gregory XVI](/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XVI \"Pope Gregory XVI\") erected the [Diocese of Vincennes](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Vincennes%2C_Indiana \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Vincennes, Indiana\"), which included both Indiana and Illinois. [Pope Pius IX](/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX \"Pope Pius IX\") created the [Diocese of Fort Wayne](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Fort_Wayne%E2%80%93South_Bend \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Fort Wayne–South Bend\") for Indiana 1857\\. {{Cite web \\|title\\=Evansville (Diocese) \\[Catholic\\-Hierarchy] \\|url\\=https://www.catholic\\-hierarchy.org/diocese/devan.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-28 \\|website\\=www.catholic\\-hierarchy.org}} The Evansville area would remain part of the Diocese of Vincennes, succeeded by the Diocese of Indianapolis, for the next 87 years.[thumb\\|321x321px\\|Basilica of St. Francis Xavier (Old Cathedral), Vincennes](/wiki/File:St._Francis_Xavier_Basilica_%28Vincennes%2C_IN%29_-_facade.jpg \"St. Francis Xavier Basilica (Vincennes, IN) - facade.jpg\")",
"### 1944 to 1965",
"[Pope Pius XII](/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII \"Pope Pius XII\") erected the Diocese of Evansville from the Diocese of Indianapolis on October 21, 1944\\. The pope named Reverend [Henry Grimmelsman](/wiki/Henry_Joseph_Grimmelsmann \"Henry Joseph Grimmelsmann\"), rector of the [Pontifical College Josephinum](/wiki/Pontifical_College_Josephinum \"Pontifical College Josephinum\") in Worthington, Ohio, as its first bishop. Grimmelsman named Assumption Church in Evansville as his cathedral.",
"At the time of its founding, the diocese included five deaneries, 63 parishes and missions; it had a population of 49,737 Catholics, and 75 diocesan priests. The diocese purchased the [John Augustus Reitz Home](/wiki/Reitz_Home_Museum \"Reitz Home Museum\") in Evansville from the Daughters of Isabella for use as the chancery and bishop's residence. In 1948, Grimmelsman conducted the first [synod](/wiki/Synod \"Synod\") for the diocese.",
"The diocese grew rapidly after [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"); 12 new parishes were founded between 1944 and 1962 in the Evansville suburbs, Jasper, [Fort Branch](/wiki/Fort_Branch%2C_Indiana \"Fort Branch, Indiana\") and [Bloomfield](/wiki/Bloomfield%2C_Indiana \"Bloomfield, Indiana\"). The diocese also elevated mission churches in [New Harmony](/wiki/New_Harmony%2C_Indiana \"New Harmony, Indiana\") and [Oakland City](/wiki/Oakland_City%2C_Indiana \"Oakland City, Indiana\") to parishes. The diocese constructed the following facilities:",
"* Mater Dei and Rex Mundi High Schools in Evansville\n* Magister Noster, a high school seminary, in Evansville\n* High schools in [Ferdinand](/wiki/Ferdinand%2C_Indiana \"Ferdinand, Indiana\"), Loogootee, and [Vincennes](/wiki/Vincennes%2C_Indiana \"Vincennes, Indiana\")\n* St. Benedict College in Ferdinand\n* Memorial Hospital in Jasper, sponsored by the [Sisters of the Little Company of Mary](/wiki/Sisters_of_the_Little_Company_of_Mary \"Sisters of the Little Company of Mary\")\n* A new facility for [St. Mary's Medical Center](/wiki/St._Mary%27s_Hospital_and_Medical_Center \"St. Mary's Hospital and Medical Center\") in Evansville, sponsored by the [Daughters of Charity](/wiki/Daughters_of_Charity_of_St._Vincent_de_Paul \"Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul\")",
"### 1965 to 1989",
"[thumb\\|312x312px\\|St. John the Baptist Church, Vincennes](/wiki/File:St._John_the_Baptist%2C_Vincennes%2C_IN_-_exterior_front_facade.jpg \"St. John the Baptist, Vincennes, IN - exterior front facade.jpg\")\nThe population of downtown Evansville declined in the 1960s, forcing the diocese to close Assumption Cathedral in 1965\\. Holy Trinity Church, the home of the chancery since 1957, was named the [pro\\-cathedral](/wiki/Pro-cathedral \"Pro-cathedral\"), for the diocese.",
"After Grimmelsman retired in 1965, [Pope Paul VI](/wiki/Pope_Paul_VI \"Pope Paul VI\") appointed Auxiliary Bishop [Paul Leibold](/wiki/Paul_Francis_Leibold \"Paul Francis Leibold\") of the [Archdiocese of Cincinnati](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Cincinnati \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cincinnati\") as the second bishop of Evansville. Three years later in 1969, Paul VI named Leibold as archbishop of Cincinnati. The pope appointed Monsignor [Francis Shea](/wiki/Francis_Raymond_Shea \"Francis Raymond Shea\") of the [Diocese of Nashville](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Nashville \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Nashville\") as Leibold's replacement in Evansville.",
"Shea constructed a new mission church in [Santa Claus, Indiana](/wiki/Santa_Claus%2C_Indiana \"Santa Claus, Indiana\"), in 1967\\. The diocese also expanded facilities at St. John Home in Evansville and the Providence Home in [Jasper](/wiki/Jasper%2C_Indiana \"Jasper, Indiana\"). The diocese also made these changes:",
"* Sold its high schools in Ferdinand and [Loogootee](/wiki/Loogootee%2C_Indiana \"Loogootee, Indiana\") to the local public school districts.\n* Closed Rex Mundi and Magister Noster High Schools in Evansville. Rex Mundi went to [Ivy Tech Community College](/wiki/Ivy_Tech_Community_College_of_Indiana \"Ivy Tech Community College of Indiana\") and Magister Noster became the diocesan chancery.\n* Closed St. Benedict College\n* Consolidated the high schools in Vincennes\n* Closed St. Ann Mission in [Shelburn](/wiki/Shelburn%2C_Indiana \"Shelburn, Indiana\") in 1978\n* Closed Our Lady of Perpetual Help Mission in [Dugger](/wiki/Dugger%2C_Indiana \"Dugger, Indiana\") in 1982",
"### 1989 to 2010",
"[thumb\\|207x207px\\|St. Joseph Church, Jasper](/wiki/File:St._Joseph%27s_Catholic_Church_in_Jasper.jpg \"St. Joseph's Catholic Church in Jasper.jpg\")\nWhen Shea retired in 1989, [Pope John Paul II](/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II \"Pope John Paul II\") named Monsignor [Gerald Gettelfinger](/wiki/Gerald_Andrew_Gettelfinger \"Gerald Andrew Gettelfinger\") of the Archdiocese of Indianapolis as the next bishop of Evansville. Several parishes built new churches in the 1990s, and the Santa Claus mission became a parish. As the number of priests began to decline and the Catholic population shifted to suburban areas, the diocese in 1997 closed St. Patrick Parish in [Corning](/wiki/Corning%2C_Indiana \"Corning, Indiana\"), St. Mary Parish in [Barr Township](/wiki/Barr_Township%2C_Daviess_County%2C_Indiana \"Barr Township, Daviess County, Indiana\") and St. Michael Parish in Montgomery. The St. Patrick and St. Mary Churches were redesignated as chapels while St. Michael was razed. In 1999, Gettelfinger named St. Benedict, the largest church in Evansville, as the new cathedral for the diocese.",
"Recognizing the influx of Hispanic Catholics into the diocese, Gettelfinger opened a Hispanic ministry in 2000\\. Although the number of priests continued to decrease, the diocese began to ordain several large classes of [permanent deacons](/wiki/Permanent_deacons \"Permanent deacons\"). In 2008, the diocese merged St. Mary and St. Simon Parishes in [Washington](/wiki/Washington%2C_Indiana \"Washington, Indiana\") into Our Lady of Hope Parish, then demolished the St. Mary church. The diocese began a formal planning process in 2009 to allocate resources for the future. Pope John Paul II High School opened in Jasper in 2009, but closed in 2012 due to low enrollment.",
"### 2010 to present",
"In 2011, [Pope Benedict XVI](/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI \"Pope Benedict XVI\") named Monsignor [Charles C. Thompson](/wiki/Charles_C._Thompson \"Charles C. Thompson\") of the [Archdiocese of Louisville](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Louisville \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Louisville\") as the fifth bishop of the diocese, replacing Gettelfinger.",
"Emily Herx, a teacher for the diocesan schools, sued the diocese in 2011, claiming that it had discriminated against her because she was a woman. The diocese terminated Herx when it learned that she was undergoing [in vitro fertilization](/wiki/In_vitro_fertilisation \"In vitro fertilisation\") to become pregnant.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Odendahl \\|first\\=Marilyn \\|date\\=2014\\-09\\-08 \\|title\\=Federal judges allows sex discrimination lawsuit against Catholic diocese to continue \\|url\\=https://www.theindianalawyer.com/articles/35083\\-federal\\-judges\\-allows\\-sex\\-discrimination\\-lawsuit\\-against\\-catholic\\-diocese\\-to\\-continue \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-30 \\|website\\=The Indiana Lawyer \\|language\\=en\\-US}} A jury awarded Herx $2 million in 2014\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2014\\-12\\-22 \\|title\\=Jury awards Indiana teacher nearly $2M in firing over IVF \\|url\\=https://www.theindianalawyer.com/articles/35965\\-jury\\-awards\\-indiana\\-teacher\\-nearly\\-2m\\-in\\-firing\\-over\\-ivf \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-30 \\|website\\=The Indiana Lawyer \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"In 2014, Thompson merged 19 parishes into eight parishes. The diocese also prohibited priests from celebrating more that three masses per Sunday, including the Saturday evening vigil. For some churches in the newly merged parishes, it meant no Sunday masses at all.{{cite journal\\|journal\\=The Message\\|title\\=Bishop announces parish changes in first phase of Diocesan Strategic Plan\\|author\\=Tim Lilley\\|date\\=September 27, 2013\\|volume\\=44\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=1–2}} The diocese in 2015 merged seven more parishes into three parishes.",
"Pope Francis appointed Thompson as archbishop of Indianapolis in 2017 and replaced him in Evansville with Auxiliary Bishop [Joseph M. Siegel](/wiki/Joseph_M._Siegel \"Joseph M. Siegel\") from the [Diocese of Joliet](/wiki/Diocese_of_Joliet \"Diocese of Joliet\"). In 2018, the diocese began renovations of St. Benedict Cathedral. As of 2023, Siegel is the current bishop of Evansville.",
"### Sex abuse",
"Bishop Evans in February 2019 released a list of ten clerics in the diocese who faced credible accusations of [sexual assault](/wiki/Sexual_assault \"Sexual assault\") against minors.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Olivia \\|title\\=Diocese releases list of priests accused of sexual abuse \\|url\\=https://www.duboiscountyherald.com/news/local/diocese\\-releases\\-list\\-of\\-priests\\-accused\\-of\\-sexual\\-abuse/article\\_223bed5d\\-4a3c\\-5038\\-a7ce\\-d87c0c9777b4\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-01\\-08 \\|website\\=Dubois County Herald \\|date\\=February 22, 2019 \\|language\\=en}} In August 2019, the diocese notified the [Evansville Police Department](/wiki/Evansville_Police_Department_%28Indiana%29 \"Evansville Police Department (Indiana)\") about an accusation of sexual abuse dating back to the 1980s. The victim was then a 14 year old parishioner at Holy Spirit School in Evansville. The unidentified perpetrator died before 1990\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2019\\-08\\-23 \\|title\\=Evansville Diocese Reports Decades\\-Old Case Of Child Abuse To Police \\|url\\=https://news.wnin.org/local\\-news/2019\\-08\\-23/evansville\\-diocese\\-reports\\-decades\\-old\\-case\\-of\\-child\\-abuse\\-to\\-police \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-20 \\|website\\=WNIN \\|language\\=en}}",
"In 2007, Reverend Fredy Mendez\\-Morales had sex with a [developmentally disabled](/wiki/Developmental_disability \"Developmental disability\") young woman at a youth camp run by the diocese. Mendez\\-Morales claimed that he did not know that she was disabled. He later pleaded guilty, was sentenced to ten years in prison and was deported after his release. The girl's mother, Silvia Gameros, sued the diocese in 2009, claiming that it was negligent in supervising the girl at camp and tried to convince her to take [emergency contraception](/wiki/Emergency_contraception \"Emergency contraception\") after the attack. Gameros and the diocese reached a settlement in 2013\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Mom who said daughter was raped, Catholic church reach lawsuit settlement \\|url\\=https://www.indystar.com/story/news/crime/2013/12/27/mom\\-who\\-said\\-daughter\\-was\\-raped\\-catholic\\-church\\-reach\\-lawsuit\\-settlement/4225857/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-29 \\|website\\=The Indianapolis Star \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Lawsuit: Church to blame for rape \\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/05/05/lawsuit\\-church\\-to\\-blame\\-for\\-rape/2135933/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-29 \\|website\\=USA TODAY \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"In March 2022, Reverend Bernie Etienne of Holy Rosary Parish in Evansville was suspended from ministry while the diocese investigated an allegation of sexual abuse from the early 2000s. In November 2022, the diocese determined that the allegations against Etienne were not credible and allowed him to return to ministry.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Lyman \\|first\\=Jill \\|title\\=Evansville Diocese Priest returns to ministry after sexual misconduct allegations \\|url\\=https://www.14news.com/2022/11/25/evansville\\-diocese\\-priest\\-returns\\-ministry\\-after\\-sexual\\-misconduct\\-allegations/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-20 \\|website\\=www.14news.com \\|date\\=November 25, 2022 \\|language\\=en}}",
""
] |
Signs and symptoms
------------------
Clinical symptoms of RED\-S may include disordered eating, fatigue, hair loss, cold hands and feet, dry skin, noticeable weight loss, increased healing time from injuries (e.g., lingering bruises), increased incidence of bone fracture and cessation of menses.{{cite book \|doi\=10\.1007/978\-3\-319\-21632\-4\_5 \|chapter\=The Female Athlete Triad \|title\=The Young Female Athlete \|series\=Contemporary Pediatric and Adolescent Sports Medicine \|year\=2016 \|last1\=Eguiguren \|first1\=Maria L. \|last2\=Ackerman \|first2\=Kathryn E. \|pages\=57–71 \|isbn\=978\-3\-319\-21631\-7 \|s2cid\=28161037 }} Affected athletes may also struggle with low self\-esteem and depression.
Upon physical examination, a physician may also note the following symptoms: elevated carotene in the blood, [anemia](/wiki/Anemia "Anemia"), [orthostatic hypotension](/wiki/Orthostatic_hypotension "Orthostatic hypotension"), electrolyte irregularities, [hypoestrogenism](/wiki/Hypoestrogenism "Hypoestrogenism"), [vaginal atrophy](/wiki/Atrophic_vaginitis "Atrophic vaginitis"), and [bradycardia](/wiki/Bradycardia "Bradycardia").
An athlete may show signs of restrictive eating, but not meet the clinical criteria for an eating disorder. They may also display subtle menstrual disturbances, such as a change in menstrual cycle length, anovulation, or luteal phase defects, but not yet have developed complete amenorrhea. Likewise, an athlete's bone density may decrease, but may not yet have dropped below her age\-matched normal range. These signs can be considered "occult," as no one symptom may be severe enough to seek medical attention, leaving the triad to go unnoticed or untreated.
### Disordered eating
{{main\|Disordered eating}}
Energy availability is defined as energy intake minus energy expended. Energy is taken in through food consumption. Bodies expend energy through normal functioning as well as through exercise. In the case of RED\-S, low energy availability may be due to eating disorders, but not necessarily so. Athletes may experience low energy availability by exercising more without a concomitant change in eating habits, or they may increase their energy expenditure while also eating less. Disordered eating is defined among this situation due to the low caloric intake or low energy availability.
While most athletes do not meet the clinical criteria to be diagnosed with an eating disorder such as [anorexia nervosa](/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa "Anorexia nervosa") or [bulimia nervosa](/wiki/Bulimia_nervosa "Bulimia nervosa"), many still exhibit subclinical disordered eating, along with general psychopathology associated with eating disorders (anxiety, depression, obsessive\-compulsive symptoms.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Ibáñez\-Caparrós \|first1\=Ana \|last2\=Sánchez \|first2\=Isabel \|last3\=Granero \|first3\=Roser \|last4\=Jiménez\-Murcia \|first4\=Susana \|last5\=Rosinska \|first5\=Magda \|last6\=Thiel \|first6\=Ansgar \|last7\=Zipfel \|first7\=Stephan \|last8\=de Pablo \|first8\=Joan \|last9\=Camacho\-Barcia \|first9\=Lucia \|last10\=Fernandez\-Aranda \|first10\=Fernando \|date\=2023\-06\-30 \|title\=Athletes with Eating Disorders: Analysis of Their Clinical Characteristics, Psychopathology and Response to Treatment \|journal\=Nutrients \|language\=en \|volume\=15 \|issue\=13 \|pages\=3003 \|doi\=10\.3390/nu15133003 \|doi\-access\=free \|issn\=2072\-6643 \|pmc\=10346587 \|pmid\=37447333}} Particularly, excessive fasting and avoidance of certain types of food (such as foods containing fat) arise commonly in athletes. Especially in weight\-class sports, leanness\-dependent sports, and aesthetic sports, the prevalence of eating disorders soar much higher than the average population.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Sundgot\-Borgen \|first1\=Jorunn \|last2\=Torstveit \|first2\=Monica Klungland \|date\=January 2004 \|title\=Prevalence of Eating Disorders in Elite Athletes Is Higher Than in the General Population \|url\=http://journals.lww.com/00042752\-200401000\-00005 \|journal\=Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine \|language\=en \|volume\=14 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=25–32 \|doi\=10\.1097/00042752\-200401000\-00005 \|pmid\=14712163 \|s2cid\=43816328 \|issn\=1050\-642X}} In athletes that engage in such sports, the pressure to perform promotes excessive dieting and other disordered eating habits, as athletes try to conform to expected weight patterns.
More severe examples of disordered eating habits may include [binge\-eating](/wiki/Binge-eating "Binge-eating"); [purging](/wiki/Vomiting "Vomiting"); and the use of [diet\-pills](/wiki/Anti-obesity_medication "Anti-obesity medication"), [laxatives](/wiki/Laxatives "Laxatives"), [diuretics](/wiki/Diuretics "Diuretics"), and [enemas](/wiki/Enemas "Enemas").
By restricting their diet, the athlete may worsen their problem of low energy availability. Having low dietary energy from excessive exercise or dietary restrictions leaves too little energy for the body to carry out normal functions such as maintaining a regular menstrual cycle or healthy bone density.
### Amenorrhea
{{main\|Amenorrhea\|Functional hypothalamic amenorrhea}}
Amenorrhea, defined as the cessation of the menstrual cycle for more than three months, is the second disorder in the triad. Weight fluctuations from dietary restrictions and/or excessive exercise affect the [hypothalamus'](/wiki/Hypothalamus "Hypothalamus") output of gonadotropic hormones. Gonadotropic hormones “stimulate growth of the gonads and the secretion of sex hormones”,Online Medical Dictionary. 1997\. Center for Cancer Education. \<[http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi\-bin/omd?action\=Search\+OMD\&query\=gonadotropins](http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?action=Search+OMD&query=gonadotropins)\> Retrieved on 2007\-10\-24\. (e.g. gonadotropin\-releasing hormone, lutenizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone). These gonadotropic hormones play a role in stimulating estrogen release from the ovaries. Without estrogen release, the menstrual cycle is disrupted.Menstruation and the Menstrual Cycle. The National Women’s Health Information Center. 2007\. \< <http://www.4women.gov/FAQ/menstru.htm>\> Retrieved on 2007\-10\-19\. Exercising intensely and not eating enough calories can lead to decreases in estrogen, the hormone that helps to regulate the menstrual cycle. As a result, periods may become irregular or stop altogether.
There are two types of amenorrhea. A person who has been having her period and then stops menstruating for ninety days or more is said to have secondary amenorrhea. In the case of RED\-S, the majority of secondary amenorrhea cases are attributed to [functional hypothalamic amenorrhea](/wiki/Functional_hypothalamic_amenorrhea "Functional hypothalamic amenorrhea") (FHA), an adaptive mechanism to preserve energy for survival and vital processes rather than reproduction when energy balance is low.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Allaway \| first1 \= HC \| last2 \= Southmayd \| first2 \= EA \| last3 \= De Souza \| first3 \= MJ \| date \= Feb 2016 \| title \= The physiology of functional hypothalamic amenorrhea associated with energy deficiency in exercising women and in women with anorexia nervosa \| journal \= Horm Mol Biol Clin Investig \| volume \= 25 \| issue \= 2\| pages \= 91–119 \| doi \= 10\.1515/hmbci\-2015\-0053 \| pmid \= 26953710 \| s2cid \= 635270 }}{{cite journal \|last1\=Mountjoy \|first1\=Margo \|last2\=Sundgot\-Borgen \|first2\=Jorunn Kaiander \|last3\=Burke \|first3\=Louise M \|last4\=Ackerman \|first4\=Kathryn E \|last5\=Blauwet \|first5\=Cheri \|last6\=Constantini \|first6\=Naama \|last7\=Lebrun \|first7\=Constance \|last8\=Lundy \|first8\=Bronwen \|last9\=Melin \|first9\=Anna Katarina \|last10\=Meyer \|first10\=Nanna L \|last11\=Sherman \|first11\=Roberta T \|last12\=Tenforde \|first12\=Adam S \|last13\=Klungland Torstveit \|first13\=Monica \|last14\=Budgett \|first14\=Richard \|title\=IOC consensus statement on relative energy deficiency in sport (RED\-S): 2018 update \|journal\=British Journal of Sports Medicine \|date\=June 2018 \|volume\=52 \|issue\=11 \|pages\=687–697 \|doi\=10\.1136/bjsports\-2018\-099193 \|pmid\=29773536 \|doi\-access\=free }} Primary amenorrhea is characterized by delayed [menarche](/wiki/Menarche "Menarche") (the onset of menses during puberty). Delayed menarche may be associated with delay of the development of secondary sexual characteristics.
### Osteoporosis
{{main\|Osteoporosis}}
Osteoporosis is defined by the National Institutes of Health as ‘‘a skeletal disorder characterized by compromised bone strength predisposing a person to an increased risk of fracture.’’Osteoporosis. 2006\. National Institutes of Health. \<<http://www.niams.nih.gov/Health_Info/Bone/Osteoporosis/default.asp>\> Retrieved on 2007\-10\-24\. Low estrogen levels and poor nutrition, especially low calcium intake, can lead to osteoporosis, the third aspect of the triad. This condition can ruin an athlete's career because it may lead to [stress fractures](/wiki/Stress_fracture "Stress fracture") and other injuries.
Patients with RED\-S get osteoporosis due to hypoestrogenemia, or low estrogen levels. With estrogen deficiency, the osteoclasts live longer and are therefore able to resorb more bone. In response to the increased bone resorption, there is increased bone formation and a high\-turnover state develops which leads to bone loss and perforation of the trabecular plates.Ott, Susan. 2007\. Estrogen: Mechanism of Bone Action. Department of Medicine University of Washington. \< <http://courses.washington.edu/bonephys/esteffects.html>\> Retrieved on 2007\-10\-24\. As osteoclasts break down bone, patients see a loss of bone mineral density (BMD). Low BMD renders bones more brittle and hence susceptible to fracture. Because athletes are active and their bones must endure mechanical stress, the likelihood of experiencing bone fracture is particularly high.
Additionally, because those suffering with RED\-S are also restricting their diet, they may also not be consuming sufficient amounts vitamins and minerals which contribute to bone density; not getting enough [calcium](/wiki/Calcium "Calcium") or [vitamin D](/wiki/Vitamin_D "Vitamin D") further exacerbates the problem of weak bones.
Bone mass is now thought to peak between the ages of 18 and 25\. Thus, behaviors which result in low bone density in youth could be detrimental to an athlete's bone health throughout their lifetime.
In addition, ovulation is the primary way that females create the hormone progesterone. When an ovum is released from the ovary, the structure that remains develops into the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum emits the hormone progesterone during the 10–16 days of the luteal phase. Without experiencing regular, ovulatory menstrual cycles, the female is not secreting the hormone progesterone during the luteal phase of her cycle. Progesterone directly stimulates osteoblasts to make new bone. Therefore, if the woman is not ovulating, she is not creating progesterone, and misses out on this opportunity to stimulate new bone growth.{{Cite journal \|pmc \= 2968416\|year \= 2010\|last1 \= Seifert\-Klauss\|first1 \= V.\|title \= Progesterone and Bone: Actions Promoting Bone Health in Women\|journal \= Journal of Osteoporosis\|volume \= 2010\|pages \= 1–18\|last2 \= Prior\|first2 \= J. C.\|pmid \= 21052538\|doi \= 10\.4061/2010/845180 \| doi\-access\=free }}
|
[
"Signs and symptoms\n------------------",
"Clinical symptoms of RED\\-S may include disordered eating, fatigue, hair loss, cold hands and feet, dry skin, noticeable weight loss, increased healing time from injuries (e.g., lingering bruises), increased incidence of bone fracture and cessation of menses.{{cite book \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/978\\-3\\-319\\-21632\\-4\\_5 \\|chapter\\=The Female Athlete Triad \\|title\\=The Young Female Athlete \\|series\\=Contemporary Pediatric and Adolescent Sports Medicine \\|year\\=2016 \\|last1\\=Eguiguren \\|first1\\=Maria L. \\|last2\\=Ackerman \\|first2\\=Kathryn E. \\|pages\\=57–71 \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-319\\-21631\\-7 \\|s2cid\\=28161037 }} Affected athletes may also struggle with low self\\-esteem and depression.",
"Upon physical examination, a physician may also note the following symptoms: elevated carotene in the blood, [anemia](/wiki/Anemia \"Anemia\"), [orthostatic hypotension](/wiki/Orthostatic_hypotension \"Orthostatic hypotension\"), electrolyte irregularities, [hypoestrogenism](/wiki/Hypoestrogenism \"Hypoestrogenism\"), [vaginal atrophy](/wiki/Atrophic_vaginitis \"Atrophic vaginitis\"), and [bradycardia](/wiki/Bradycardia \"Bradycardia\").",
"An athlete may show signs of restrictive eating, but not meet the clinical criteria for an eating disorder. They may also display subtle menstrual disturbances, such as a change in menstrual cycle length, anovulation, or luteal phase defects, but not yet have developed complete amenorrhea. Likewise, an athlete's bone density may decrease, but may not yet have dropped below her age\\-matched normal range. These signs can be considered \"occult,\" as no one symptom may be severe enough to seek medical attention, leaving the triad to go unnoticed or untreated.",
"### Disordered eating",
"{{main\\|Disordered eating}}\nEnergy availability is defined as energy intake minus energy expended. Energy is taken in through food consumption. Bodies expend energy through normal functioning as well as through exercise. In the case of RED\\-S, low energy availability may be due to eating disorders, but not necessarily so. Athletes may experience low energy availability by exercising more without a concomitant change in eating habits, or they may increase their energy expenditure while also eating less. Disordered eating is defined among this situation due to the low caloric intake or low energy availability.",
"While most athletes do not meet the clinical criteria to be diagnosed with an eating disorder such as [anorexia nervosa](/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa \"Anorexia nervosa\") or [bulimia nervosa](/wiki/Bulimia_nervosa \"Bulimia nervosa\"), many still exhibit subclinical disordered eating, along with general psychopathology associated with eating disorders (anxiety, depression, obsessive\\-compulsive symptoms.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Ibáñez\\-Caparrós \\|first1\\=Ana \\|last2\\=Sánchez \\|first2\\=Isabel \\|last3\\=Granero \\|first3\\=Roser \\|last4\\=Jiménez\\-Murcia \\|first4\\=Susana \\|last5\\=Rosinska \\|first5\\=Magda \\|last6\\=Thiel \\|first6\\=Ansgar \\|last7\\=Zipfel \\|first7\\=Stephan \\|last8\\=de Pablo \\|first8\\=Joan \\|last9\\=Camacho\\-Barcia \\|first9\\=Lucia \\|last10\\=Fernandez\\-Aranda \\|first10\\=Fernando \\|date\\=2023\\-06\\-30 \\|title\\=Athletes with Eating Disorders: Analysis of Their Clinical Characteristics, Psychopathology and Response to Treatment \\|journal\\=Nutrients \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=15 \\|issue\\=13 \\|pages\\=3003 \\|doi\\=10\\.3390/nu15133003 \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|issn\\=2072\\-6643 \\|pmc\\=10346587 \\|pmid\\=37447333}} Particularly, excessive fasting and avoidance of certain types of food (such as foods containing fat) arise commonly in athletes. Especially in weight\\-class sports, leanness\\-dependent sports, and aesthetic sports, the prevalence of eating disorders soar much higher than the average population.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Sundgot\\-Borgen \\|first1\\=Jorunn \\|last2\\=Torstveit \\|first2\\=Monica Klungland \\|date\\=January 2004 \\|title\\=Prevalence of Eating Disorders in Elite Athletes Is Higher Than in the General Population \\|url\\=http://journals.lww.com/00042752\\-200401000\\-00005 \\|journal\\=Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=25–32 \\|doi\\=10\\.1097/00042752\\-200401000\\-00005 \\|pmid\\=14712163 \\|s2cid\\=43816328 \\|issn\\=1050\\-642X}} In athletes that engage in such sports, the pressure to perform promotes excessive dieting and other disordered eating habits, as athletes try to conform to expected weight patterns.",
"More severe examples of disordered eating habits may include [binge\\-eating](/wiki/Binge-eating \"Binge-eating\"); [purging](/wiki/Vomiting \"Vomiting\"); and the use of [diet\\-pills](/wiki/Anti-obesity_medication \"Anti-obesity medication\"), [laxatives](/wiki/Laxatives \"Laxatives\"), [diuretics](/wiki/Diuretics \"Diuretics\"), and [enemas](/wiki/Enemas \"Enemas\").",
"By restricting their diet, the athlete may worsen their problem of low energy availability. Having low dietary energy from excessive exercise or dietary restrictions leaves too little energy for the body to carry out normal functions such as maintaining a regular menstrual cycle or healthy bone density.",
"### Amenorrhea",
"{{main\\|Amenorrhea\\|Functional hypothalamic amenorrhea}}\nAmenorrhea, defined as the cessation of the menstrual cycle for more than three months, is the second disorder in the triad. Weight fluctuations from dietary restrictions and/or excessive exercise affect the [hypothalamus'](/wiki/Hypothalamus \"Hypothalamus\") output of gonadotropic hormones. Gonadotropic hormones “stimulate growth of the gonads and the secretion of sex hormones”,Online Medical Dictionary. 1997\\. Center for Cancer Education. \\<[http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi\\-bin/omd?action\\=Search\\+OMD\\&query\\=gonadotropins](http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?action=Search+OMD&query=gonadotropins)\\> Retrieved on 2007\\-10\\-24\\. (e.g. gonadotropin\\-releasing hormone, lutenizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone). These gonadotropic hormones play a role in stimulating estrogen release from the ovaries. Without estrogen release, the menstrual cycle is disrupted.Menstruation and the Menstrual Cycle. The National Women’s Health Information Center. 2007\\. \\< <http://www.4women.gov/FAQ/menstru.htm>\\> Retrieved on 2007\\-10\\-19\\. Exercising intensely and not eating enough calories can lead to decreases in estrogen, the hormone that helps to regulate the menstrual cycle. As a result, periods may become irregular or stop altogether.",
"There are two types of amenorrhea. A person who has been having her period and then stops menstruating for ninety days or more is said to have secondary amenorrhea. In the case of RED\\-S, the majority of secondary amenorrhea cases are attributed to [functional hypothalamic amenorrhea](/wiki/Functional_hypothalamic_amenorrhea \"Functional hypothalamic amenorrhea\") (FHA), an adaptive mechanism to preserve energy for survival and vital processes rather than reproduction when energy balance is low.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Allaway \\| first1 \\= HC \\| last2 \\= Southmayd \\| first2 \\= EA \\| last3 \\= De Souza \\| first3 \\= MJ \\| date \\= Feb 2016 \\| title \\= The physiology of functional hypothalamic amenorrhea associated with energy deficiency in exercising women and in women with anorexia nervosa \\| journal \\= Horm Mol Biol Clin Investig \\| volume \\= 25 \\| issue \\= 2\\| pages \\= 91–119 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1515/hmbci\\-2015\\-0053 \\| pmid \\= 26953710 \\| s2cid \\= 635270 }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Mountjoy \\|first1\\=Margo \\|last2\\=Sundgot\\-Borgen \\|first2\\=Jorunn Kaiander \\|last3\\=Burke \\|first3\\=Louise M \\|last4\\=Ackerman \\|first4\\=Kathryn E \\|last5\\=Blauwet \\|first5\\=Cheri \\|last6\\=Constantini \\|first6\\=Naama \\|last7\\=Lebrun \\|first7\\=Constance \\|last8\\=Lundy \\|first8\\=Bronwen \\|last9\\=Melin \\|first9\\=Anna Katarina \\|last10\\=Meyer \\|first10\\=Nanna L \\|last11\\=Sherman \\|first11\\=Roberta T \\|last12\\=Tenforde \\|first12\\=Adam S \\|last13\\=Klungland Torstveit \\|first13\\=Monica \\|last14\\=Budgett \\|first14\\=Richard \\|title\\=IOC consensus statement on relative energy deficiency in sport (RED\\-S): 2018 update \\|journal\\=British Journal of Sports Medicine \\|date\\=June 2018 \\|volume\\=52 \\|issue\\=11 \\|pages\\=687–697 \\|doi\\=10\\.1136/bjsports\\-2018\\-099193 \\|pmid\\=29773536 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} Primary amenorrhea is characterized by delayed [menarche](/wiki/Menarche \"Menarche\") (the onset of menses during puberty). Delayed menarche may be associated with delay of the development of secondary sexual characteristics.",
"### Osteoporosis",
"{{main\\|Osteoporosis}}\nOsteoporosis is defined by the National Institutes of Health as ‘‘a skeletal disorder characterized by compromised bone strength predisposing a person to an increased risk of fracture.’’Osteoporosis. 2006\\. National Institutes of Health. \\<<http://www.niams.nih.gov/Health_Info/Bone/Osteoporosis/default.asp>\\> Retrieved on 2007\\-10\\-24\\. Low estrogen levels and poor nutrition, especially low calcium intake, can lead to osteoporosis, the third aspect of the triad. This condition can ruin an athlete's career because it may lead to [stress fractures](/wiki/Stress_fracture \"Stress fracture\") and other injuries.",
"Patients with RED\\-S get osteoporosis due to hypoestrogenemia, or low estrogen levels. With estrogen deficiency, the osteoclasts live longer and are therefore able to resorb more bone. In response to the increased bone resorption, there is increased bone formation and a high\\-turnover state develops which leads to bone loss and perforation of the trabecular plates.Ott, Susan. 2007\\. Estrogen: Mechanism of Bone Action. Department of Medicine University of Washington. \\< <http://courses.washington.edu/bonephys/esteffects.html>\\> Retrieved on 2007\\-10\\-24\\. As osteoclasts break down bone, patients see a loss of bone mineral density (BMD). Low BMD renders bones more brittle and hence susceptible to fracture. Because athletes are active and their bones must endure mechanical stress, the likelihood of experiencing bone fracture is particularly high.",
"Additionally, because those suffering with RED\\-S are also restricting their diet, they may also not be consuming sufficient amounts vitamins and minerals which contribute to bone density; not getting enough [calcium](/wiki/Calcium \"Calcium\") or [vitamin D](/wiki/Vitamin_D \"Vitamin D\") further exacerbates the problem of weak bones.",
"Bone mass is now thought to peak between the ages of 18 and 25\\. Thus, behaviors which result in low bone density in youth could be detrimental to an athlete's bone health throughout their lifetime.",
"In addition, ovulation is the primary way that females create the hormone progesterone. When an ovum is released from the ovary, the structure that remains develops into the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum emits the hormone progesterone during the 10–16 days of the luteal phase. Without experiencing regular, ovulatory menstrual cycles, the female is not secreting the hormone progesterone during the luteal phase of her cycle. Progesterone directly stimulates osteoblasts to make new bone. Therefore, if the woman is not ovulating, she is not creating progesterone, and misses out on this opportunity to stimulate new bone growth.{{Cite journal \\|pmc \\= 2968416\\|year \\= 2010\\|last1 \\= Seifert\\-Klauss\\|first1 \\= V.\\|title \\= Progesterone and Bone: Actions Promoting Bone Health in Women\\|journal \\= Journal of Osteoporosis\\|volume \\= 2010\\|pages \\= 1–18\\|last2 \\= Prior\\|first2 \\= J. C.\\|pmid \\= 21052538\\|doi \\= 10\\.4061/2010/845180 \\| doi\\-access\\=free }}",
""
] |
Treatment
---------
The underlying cause of the RED\-S is an imbalance between energy taken into the body (through [nutrition](/wiki/Food_energy "Food energy")) and energy used by the body (through exercise). The treatment includes correcting this imbalance by either increasing calories in a diet or by decreasing calories burned by exercise for 12 months or longer. Typically, it is recommended that athletes increase their consumption of calories by 300–600 kcal per day in the early stages of treatment, but there is no standard when it comes to increasing calories over time.{{cite journal \|last1\=Dave \|first1\=Sona C. \|last2\=Fisher \|first2\=Martin \|title\=Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED – S) \|journal\=Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care \|date\=August 2022 \|volume\=52 \|issue\=8 \|pages\=101242 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.cppeds.2022\.101242 \|pmid\=35915044 \|s2cid\=251204780 }} Part of the treatment includes an assessment that determines the cause of low energy availability, as treatment needs to be specialized based on the presence of disordered eating or an eating disorder.{{cite journal \|last1\=Kuikman \|first1\=Megan A. \|last2\=Mountjoy \|first2\=Margo \|last3\=Stellingwerff \|first3\=Trent \|last4\=Burr \|first4\=Jamie F. \|title\=A Review of Nonpharmacological Strategies in the Treatment of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport \|journal\=International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism \|date\=May 2021 \|volume\=31 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=268–275 \|doi\=10\.1123/ijsnem.2020\-0211 \|pmid\=33465762 \|s2cid\=231650429 }} Persons with RED\-S should get treatment from a multi\-disciplinary team that includes a physician, [dietitian](/wiki/Dietitian "Dietitian"), and [mental health counselor](/wiki/Mental_health_counselor "Mental health counselor"), and seek support from family, friends, and their [coach](/wiki/Coach_%28sport%29 "Coach (sport)"). It is important that physicians are aware of the signs of [refeeding syndrome](/wiki/Refeeding_syndrome "Refeeding syndrome"), as this can be life\-threatening if not detected early.
Because a symptom of the RED\-S is menstrual dysfunction, some physicians may recommend [oral contraceptives](/wiki/Combined_oral_contraceptive_pill "Combined oral contraceptive pill") because those pills will regulate the menstrual cycle. However, the underlying cause of the menstrual disorder is an energy imbalance, and using pills to regulate the menstrual cycle without changes in diet and behavior is likely to mask the food deficiency and delay appropriate treatment. A menstruating person taking contraceptives to treat menstrual dysfunction without correcting this energy imbalance will continue to lose bone density. Bone density should be measured using [dual\-energy X\-ray absorpitiometry](/wiki/Dual-energy_X-ray_absorptiometry "Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry") (DEXA) to determine severity of bone loss, especially if there is an absence of menstruation.
### Decreasing energy expenditure
Continued participation in training and competition depends on the physical and mental health of the athlete. Athletes who weigh less than 80 percent of their ideal body weight may not be able to safely participate.
Persons with RED\-S are often asked by health care providers to reduce the amount of time they spend exercising by 10–12 percent.
### Increasing energy intake
Low energy availability with or without eating disorders, functional hypothalamic amenorrhea, and osteoporosis, alone or in combination, pose significant health risks to physically active girls and women. Prevention, recognition, and treatment of these clinical conditions should be a priority of those who work with female athletes to ensure that they maximize the benefits of regular exercise.
Patients are recommended to work with a dietician who can monitor their nutritional status and help the patient work towards a healthy goal weight. Patients should also meet with a psychiatrist or psychologist to address the psychological aspects of the triad. Therefore, it is important that trainers and coaches are made aware of the athlete's condition and be part of her recovery.
### Medicine
Patients are also sometimes treated pharmacologically. To both induce menses and improve bone density, doctors may prescribe cyclic [estrogen](/wiki/Estrogen "Estrogen") or [progesterone](/wiki/Progesterone "Progesterone") as is used to treat post\-menopausal women. Patients may also be put on oral contraceptives to stimulate regular periods. In addition to hormone therapy, nutrition supplements may be recommended. Doctors may prescribe calcium supplements. Vitamin D supplements may be also used because this vitamin aids in calcium absorption. [Bisphosphonates](/wiki/Bisphosphonates "Bisphosphonates") and [calcitonin](/wiki/Calcitonin "Calcitonin"), used to treat adults with osteoporosis, may be prescribed, although their effectiveness in adolescents has not yet been established. Finally, if indicated by a psychiatric examination, the affected athlete may be prescribed anti\-depressants and in some cases benzodiazepines to help in alleviating severe distress at mealtimes.
### Psychological treatment
Although relative energy deficiency in sport is often regarded as a physiological issue, it can have psychological impacts in the process of treatment and psychological stress may contribute to the development of RED\-S, as athletes may use excessive exercise and decreased energy consumption as a means to manage stress levels.{{cite journal \|last1\=Langbein \|first1\=Rachel K. \|last2\=Martin \|first2\=Daniel \|last3\=Allen\-Collinson \|first3\=Jacquelyn \|last4\=Jackman \|first4\=Patricia C. \|title\='It's hard to find balance when you're broken': Exploring female endurance athletes' psychological experience of recovery from relative energy deficiency in sport (RED\-S) \|journal\=Performance Enhancement \& Health \|date\=February 2022 \|volume\=10 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=100214 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.peh.2021\.100214 \|s2cid\=245150041 \|url\=https://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/id/eprint/47554/1/Langbein%20et%20al.%20%282021%29%20Psychology%20of%20RED\-S%20Recovery.pdf }} Many athletes strive for perfection and this can exacerbate mental stress as well as put athletes at a greater risk for developing an eating disorder. The main reasons why athletes would be resistant to treatment for RED\-S is due to psychological factors. A mental health counselor who is experienced in eating disorders should provide treatment. If there are other comorbid psychological disorders, such as depression and anxiety, a risk of self harm, medical complications and lack of progress in an outpatient level of care, the person struggling with RED\-S may need more intensive care at an inpatient, residential, partial hospitalization or intensive outpatient level. At each level of care, treatment modalities include cognitive\-behavioral therapy, dialectical behavioral therapy or family\-based therapy.
|
[
"Treatment\n---------",
"The underlying cause of the RED\\-S is an imbalance between energy taken into the body (through [nutrition](/wiki/Food_energy \"Food energy\")) and energy used by the body (through exercise). The treatment includes correcting this imbalance by either increasing calories in a diet or by decreasing calories burned by exercise for 12 months or longer. Typically, it is recommended that athletes increase their consumption of calories by 300–600 kcal per day in the early stages of treatment, but there is no standard when it comes to increasing calories over time.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Dave \\|first1\\=Sona C. \\|last2\\=Fisher \\|first2\\=Martin \\|title\\=Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED – S) \\|journal\\=Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care \\|date\\=August 2022 \\|volume\\=52 \\|issue\\=8 \\|pages\\=101242 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.cppeds.2022\\.101242 \\|pmid\\=35915044 \\|s2cid\\=251204780 }} Part of the treatment includes an assessment that determines the cause of low energy availability, as treatment needs to be specialized based on the presence of disordered eating or an eating disorder.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Kuikman \\|first1\\=Megan A. \\|last2\\=Mountjoy \\|first2\\=Margo \\|last3\\=Stellingwerff \\|first3\\=Trent \\|last4\\=Burr \\|first4\\=Jamie F. \\|title\\=A Review of Nonpharmacological Strategies in the Treatment of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport \\|journal\\=International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism \\|date\\=May 2021 \\|volume\\=31 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=268–275 \\|doi\\=10\\.1123/ijsnem.2020\\-0211 \\|pmid\\=33465762 \\|s2cid\\=231650429 }} Persons with RED\\-S should get treatment from a multi\\-disciplinary team that includes a physician, [dietitian](/wiki/Dietitian \"Dietitian\"), and [mental health counselor](/wiki/Mental_health_counselor \"Mental health counselor\"), and seek support from family, friends, and their [coach](/wiki/Coach_%28sport%29 \"Coach (sport)\"). It is important that physicians are aware of the signs of [refeeding syndrome](/wiki/Refeeding_syndrome \"Refeeding syndrome\"), as this can be life\\-threatening if not detected early.",
"Because a symptom of the RED\\-S is menstrual dysfunction, some physicians may recommend [oral contraceptives](/wiki/Combined_oral_contraceptive_pill \"Combined oral contraceptive pill\") because those pills will regulate the menstrual cycle. However, the underlying cause of the menstrual disorder is an energy imbalance, and using pills to regulate the menstrual cycle without changes in diet and behavior is likely to mask the food deficiency and delay appropriate treatment. A menstruating person taking contraceptives to treat menstrual dysfunction without correcting this energy imbalance will continue to lose bone density. Bone density should be measured using [dual\\-energy X\\-ray absorpitiometry](/wiki/Dual-energy_X-ray_absorptiometry \"Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry\") (DEXA) to determine severity of bone loss, especially if there is an absence of menstruation.",
"### Decreasing energy expenditure",
"Continued participation in training and competition depends on the physical and mental health of the athlete. Athletes who weigh less than 80 percent of their ideal body weight may not be able to safely participate.",
"Persons with RED\\-S are often asked by health care providers to reduce the amount of time they spend exercising by 10–12 percent.",
"### Increasing energy intake",
"Low energy availability with or without eating disorders, functional hypothalamic amenorrhea, and osteoporosis, alone or in combination, pose significant health risks to physically active girls and women. Prevention, recognition, and treatment of these clinical conditions should be a priority of those who work with female athletes to ensure that they maximize the benefits of regular exercise.",
"Patients are recommended to work with a dietician who can monitor their nutritional status and help the patient work towards a healthy goal weight. Patients should also meet with a psychiatrist or psychologist to address the psychological aspects of the triad. Therefore, it is important that trainers and coaches are made aware of the athlete's condition and be part of her recovery.",
"### Medicine",
"Patients are also sometimes treated pharmacologically. To both induce menses and improve bone density, doctors may prescribe cyclic [estrogen](/wiki/Estrogen \"Estrogen\") or [progesterone](/wiki/Progesterone \"Progesterone\") as is used to treat post\\-menopausal women. Patients may also be put on oral contraceptives to stimulate regular periods. In addition to hormone therapy, nutrition supplements may be recommended. Doctors may prescribe calcium supplements. Vitamin D supplements may be also used because this vitamin aids in calcium absorption. [Bisphosphonates](/wiki/Bisphosphonates \"Bisphosphonates\") and [calcitonin](/wiki/Calcitonin \"Calcitonin\"), used to treat adults with osteoporosis, may be prescribed, although their effectiveness in adolescents has not yet been established. Finally, if indicated by a psychiatric examination, the affected athlete may be prescribed anti\\-depressants and in some cases benzodiazepines to help in alleviating severe distress at mealtimes.",
"### Psychological treatment",
"Although relative energy deficiency in sport is often regarded as a physiological issue, it can have psychological impacts in the process of treatment and psychological stress may contribute to the development of RED\\-S, as athletes may use excessive exercise and decreased energy consumption as a means to manage stress levels.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Langbein \\|first1\\=Rachel K. \\|last2\\=Martin \\|first2\\=Daniel \\|last3\\=Allen\\-Collinson \\|first3\\=Jacquelyn \\|last4\\=Jackman \\|first4\\=Patricia C. \\|title\\='It's hard to find balance when you're broken': Exploring female endurance athletes' psychological experience of recovery from relative energy deficiency in sport (RED\\-S) \\|journal\\=Performance Enhancement \\& Health \\|date\\=February 2022 \\|volume\\=10 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=100214 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.peh.2021\\.100214 \\|s2cid\\=245150041 \\|url\\=https://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/id/eprint/47554/1/Langbein%20et%20al.%20%282021%29%20Psychology%20of%20RED\\-S%20Recovery.pdf }} Many athletes strive for perfection and this can exacerbate mental stress as well as put athletes at a greater risk for developing an eating disorder. The main reasons why athletes would be resistant to treatment for RED\\-S is due to psychological factors. A mental health counselor who is experienced in eating disorders should provide treatment. If there are other comorbid psychological disorders, such as depression and anxiety, a risk of self harm, medical complications and lack of progress in an outpatient level of care, the person struggling with RED\\-S may need more intensive care at an inpatient, residential, partial hospitalization or intensive outpatient level. At each level of care, treatment modalities include cognitive\\-behavioral therapy, dialectical behavioral therapy or family\\-based therapy.",
""
] |
Domestic policy
---------------
The main achievement of the government was that it showed itself to be 'fit to govern'. Although this might not have meant much in terms of concrete policy\-making, it at least did not alarm voters who may have feared that the party would dismantle the country and promulgate 'socialism'; although, in any case, its tenuous parliamentary position would have made radical moves near impossible. Hence, Labour policies such as nationalisation, the 'capital levy' taxation and public works programmes to alleviate unemployment were either played down or ignored altogether. However, to act 'respectably', as any other government would have, was a major component of the MacDonald electoral appeal and strategy. Indeed, some historians have seen, in this time, an electoral consensus that existed between MacDonald and his Conservative counterpart Baldwin, to maintain the stability of the electoral system and preclude any radicalism that might have alienated voters or exacerbated crises such as unemployment. By 1929, voters felt able to trust Labour and thus they were voted back in again.
Despite lacking a parliamentary majority, the First Labour Government was able to introduce a number of measures which made life more tolerable for working people.Ramsay Macdonald: A Labour Tragedy? by Duncan Watts The main achievement of the government was the [Housing (Financial Provisions) Act 1924](/wiki/Housing_%28Financial_Provisions%29_Act_1924 "Housing (Financial Provisions) Act 1924") (the Wheatley Housing Act), which MacDonald dubbed 'our most important legislative item'.{{cite book \|last1\=Lyman \|first1\=Richard W. \|author\-link1\=Richard Wall Lyman\|title\=The first Labour government, 1924\|url\=https://archive.org/details/firstlabourgover0000lyma\|url\-access\=registration \|quote\=The housing scheme is our most important legislative item. \|access\-date\=12 July 2009\|year\=1957\|publisher\=Chapman \& Hall \|location\=London\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/firstlabourgover0000lyma/page/110 110]\|isbn\=9780846217848 }} This measure went some way towards rectifying the problem of the housing shortage, caused by the disruption of the building trade during the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War "First World War") and the inability of working\-class tenants to rent decent, affordable housing. Wheatley was able to provide public housing to council tenants, as against the previous government's commitment to privatisation. This landmark act subsidised the construction of 521,700 rented homes at controlled rents by 1933, when the subsidy for encouraging local authority housing construction was abolished.
Various improvements were also made in benefits for pensioners and the unemployed. More generous provision for the unemployed was provided, with increases in both children's allowances and in unemployment benefits for both men and women. Unemployment benefit payments were increased from 15 shillings (75p) to 18 shillings (90p) a week for men, and from 12 shillings (60p) to 15 shillings (75p) for women, while the children's allowance was doubled to two shillings.England in the Twentieth Century (1914–63\) by David Thompson The "gap" between periods of benefit under the unemployment insurance scheme was also abolished.*Britain Between The Wars 1918–1940* by [Charles Loch Mowat](/wiki/Charles_Loch_Mowat "Charles Loch Mowat") In addition, eligibility for benefits was extended,The People's Party: the History of the Labour Party by Tony Wright and Matt Carter while the household means\-test for the long\-term unemployed was removed,*Labour's First Century* by [Duncan Tanner](/wiki/Duncan_Tanner "Duncan Tanner"), [Pat Thane](/wiki/Pat_Thane "Pat Thane"), and Nick Tiratsoo more people were made eligible for unemployment benefits, uncovenanted benefits (beyond those covered by insurance) were made a statutory right, and the duration of unemployment benefits was extended from 26 to 41 weeks. However, a "genuinely seeking work" clause, by which applicants had to prove that they were actively seeking work, was introduced, a move that the government saw as a means of preventing abuse but drew criticism from within the Labour movement.*Britain's First Labour Government* by John Shepherd and [Keith Laybourn](/wiki/Keith_Laybourn "Keith Laybourn")
For pensioners, increases were made in both old\-age pensions and the pensions of ex\-servicemen and of their widows and children. Improvements were made in the condition of old\-age pensioners by allowing small incomes from savings to be disregarded in calculating the pension due. As a result of this change, 60,000 elderly people, whose meagre savings had previously reduced their pension entitlement, received the full state pension. Eligibility for the state pension was also extended so that it covered 70% of the over\-seventies, and 150,000 elderly people who had never received a pension before were now entitled to them. In addition, changes were made which allowed for pensions to be transferred to a surviving parent of a dependant who had a pension. An Old Age Pensions Act was also passed, which guaranteed a weekly pension of ten shillings (50p) to people over the age of seventy who earned under 15 shillings (75p) a week.
The government also endeavoured to extend educational opportunities. Local authorities were empowered, where they wished, to raise the school\-leaving age to 15, the adult education grant was tripled, maintenance allowances for young people in secondary schools were increased, state scholarships (which had previously been in suspense) were restored, the proportion of free places in secondary schools was increased, approval was given to forty new secondary schools, a survey was carried out to provide for the replacement of as many of the more insanitary or obsolete schools as possible, and forty was set as the maximum class size in elementary school. Restrictions on education spending imposed by the previous government were removed, while local authorities were encouraged to increase the number of free secondary school places.The Longman Companion to The Labour Party 1900–1998 by Harry Harmer In addition, an Education Act was passed which created an English secondary school system between the ages of 11–14\.The companion to British history by Charles Arnold\-Baker The restriction on maintenance allowances given by local authorities was removed, with the previous rule being that 20% of the expenditure was given as grant by the board to the local authorities, but this was raised to 50%. In addition, restrictions on grants for providing meals for children were removed. Spending on adult education was increased, with the grant\-in\-aid increased from £20,600 to £30,500, while a small expansion of central and secondary schools took place.{{Cite book \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=TaJmjBvMk8kC\&q\=charles\+trevelyan\+education\+1924\&pg\=PR18 \|title \= Secondary Education for All\|isbn \= 9780907628996\|last1 \= Tawney\|first1 \= R. H.\|date \= January 1924\| publisher\=A\&C Black }}
The Agricultural Wages (Regulation) Act restored minimum wages for agricultural workers. County committees were established with the power to fix wages, together with a central wages board to supervise the county awards. The act helped bring about a substantial improvement over most of the country, with agricultural wages being quickly increased to 30 shillings a week (a higher level in certain counties) under the wage committees. In addition, a Conservative bill "to attenuate the powers of the Trade Boards" was dropped.A History of British Trade Unions since 1889 Volume II 1911–1933 by Hugh Armstrong Clegg Cuts in both direct and indirect taxation were also made which were hailed as representing a victory for working people, with the chancellor [Philip Snowden](/wiki/Philip_Snowden "Philip Snowden") describing the programme as representing "the greatest step ever taken towards the [Radical](/wiki/Radicals_%28UK%29 "Radicals (UK)") idea of the [free breakfast table](/wiki/Free_breakfast_table "Free breakfast table")."
Miner's silicosis was included within the provisions for workmen's compensation, under the [Workmen's Compensation (Silicosis) Act 1924](/wiki/Workmen%27s_Compensation_%28Silicosis%29_Act_1924 "Workmen's Compensation (Silicosis) Act 1924") while the [London Traffic Act 1924](/wiki/London_Traffic_Act_1924 "London Traffic Act 1924"), which provided for the regulation of London traffic, regulated privately owned public transport; setting timetables and safety standards.
A law was introduced which modified the right of a landlord to obtain possession of a house for his own family's use, where unnecessary hardship would be caused to the tenant. The [Protection from Eviction Act 1924](/wiki/Protection_from_Eviction_Act_1924 "Protection from Eviction Act 1924") provided some degree of protection to tenants "in the face of landlords seeking vacant possession and rent rises."Class, capital and social policy by Norman Ginsberg This legislation protected tenants from eviction by landlords who attempted to obtain "decontrolled" status for their properties to raise rents. In addition, government funds were allocated for the repair and modernisation of 60,000 government built houses.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/TUjowett.htm \|title\=Frederick Jowett : Biography \|publisher\=Spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk \|access\-date\=4 December 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111018080838/http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/TUjowett.htm \|archive\-date\=18 October 2011 \|df\=dmy\-all }}
A subsidy for sugar beet cultivation to support agriculture was introduced,Labour and the countryside: the politics of rural Britain 1918–1939 by Clare V. J. Griffiths while schemes for roads and bridges, land reclamation and drainage, and afforestation were developed and extended. Financial support was also provided to municipal works to reduce unemployment.Higher School Certificate History by B. Hodge, B.A. (Hons.) and W.L. Mellor, B.A., Dip.Ed. Although relief schemes funded by the chancellor [Philip Snowden](/wiki/Philip_Snowden "Philip Snowden") had little impact on reducing unemployment, the registered rate of unemployment fell from 11\.7% in 1923 to 10\.3% in 1924\.*[Speak for Britain! A New History of the Labour Party](/wiki/Speak_for_Britain%21_A_New_History_of_the_Labour_Party "Speak for Britain! A New History of the Labour Party")* by [Martin Pugh](/wiki/Martin_Pugh_%28author%29 "Martin Pugh (author)")
The restrictions imposed by the previous government on spending by the Poplar Board of Guardians were removed, while the National Health Insurance (Cost of Medical Benefit) Bill revised the capitation fee paid to doctors. Restrictions introduced by the previous Coalition government on state grants to the principal public health grant earning services (including maternity and child welfare, tuberculosis, and venereal disease) were removed. This was followed by a circular issued to local authorities to this effect and enabling them "to carry out more effectively their public health powers under the law." Child welfare and maternity services were extended, while ex\-service patients who had been treated as "pauper lunatics" under former Governments were removed from being treated in that way. As a result of this change, they were now paid for out of public funds.{{cite news \|title\=Nelson and Colne Labour Election News \|url\=http://www.pendlelabour.com/PDF/1924GeneralElectionNews.pdf \|access\-date\=6 February 2021 \|date\=October 1924 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402104708/http://www.pendlelabour.com/PDF/1924GeneralElectionNews.pdf \|archive\-date\=2 April 2012}}
The restrictions which prevented people from other countries, short\-time workers, married women, and single persons residing with relatives from claiming uncovenanted benefit were abolished, while the "gaps" of 3 weeks which previous governments had made necessary after 12 weeks' unemployment pay. In addition, a new act was passed that extended the benefit period from 26 to 41 weeks. The rate of interest charged under the [Agricultural Credits Act 1923](/wiki/Agricultural_Credits_Act_1923 "Agricultural Credits Act 1923") passed by the previous Conservative government was reduced to 4%, while a 5% reduction on admissions to training colleges (imposed in 1923\) was withdrawn. Improvements were also made in the pay of workers in the Army.Labour's Great Record: An Outline of the First Six Months' Work of the Labour Government, by Labour Publications Department, 3 Eccleston Square, London, S.W.I For war pensioners, new pensions were provided "in deserving cases at the rate of over three hundred a week."The Book Of The Labour Party Edited by Herbert Tracey, Volume 1
Various improvements were also made to public places. A scheme for beautifying [St James's Park](/wiki/St_James%27s_Park "St James's Park") was carried out with a large measure of success, while additional areas of park land were allocated for games in [Bushey Park](/wiki/Bushey_Park "Bushey Park"), [Richmond Park](/wiki/Richmond_Park "Richmond Park"), and [Regent's Park](/wiki/Regent%27s_Park "Regent's Park"). Lawn\-tennis courts were opened in Bushey Park, while two more playgrounds were provided for children in Regent's Park and one in Greenwich Park. F. O. Roberts, the Minister of Pensions, stopped the making of "final awards," by instructing boards that awards should be "given for a year and until further instructions," which meant that every man under such awards had the right of appeal for an increase of pension if he got worse. In addition, pensions could now be transferred to a surviving parent of a dependent who had a pension, while Need Pensions were raised, with the minimum rate increased from 4s.2d. to 5s. a week and the basis for these need pensions increased to 25 shillings (£1\.25\) a week for one individual and 35 shillings (£1\.75\) a week for a married couple. The result of this was that every parent or dependent in receipt of a need pension, received an immediate increase of between 2s.6d (12\.5p) to 5s (25p) a week.
During its first six months in office, the First Labour Government issued a circular that removed restrictions on grants for health services, an action which led to the extension of welfare schemes for childhood and maternity. About 70 new infant welfare centres had been opened, more health visitors had been appointed, many more beds had been provided in homes for mothers and babies, and the milk supply was extended in 16 cases. As a result of the new circular, for TB, about 1,500 new beds had been arranged by the local authorities. In May 1924, a grant of £1 million was made from a Road Fund to assist the rural areas in England and Wales to improve their roads.
The Scottish Office introduced various measures to improve socio\-economic conditions in Scotland. To alleviate unemployment and distress caused in the Outer Hebrides due to a depression in the fishing industry and the failure of crops, the board inaugurated relief work schemes which had for their object the resurfacing of the roads in the regions affected. Financial assistance was allocated towards the execution of Land Drainage schemes to reduce unemployment in several areas while loans were granted to crofters to enable them to purchase the implements and seeds necessary for the cultivation of their holdings, and to take over stocks of sheep and other livestock. Wherever the rents of the holdings were considered to be too high they were reduced, a valuation having been undertaken by the Land Court in each case. Several hundreds of additional applicants were settled on the land, with the assistance of the funds of the Scottish Board. Structural additions were carried out at several agricultural colleges, and scholarships enabling them to receive instruction were granted to the sons and daughters of agricultural workers and others.
The Scottish Board of Health also withdrew the restrictions imposed under the previous Conservative government upon the expenditure to be incurred in the public health services, and consequently there were developments affecting port sanitation, Tuberculosis, the welfare of the blind, and maternity and child welfare. The board also extended grants to local authorities for the purpose of [slum clearance](/wiki/Slum_clearance_in_the_United_Kingdom "Slum clearance in the United Kingdom"), while a limit was placed upon the number of two\-apartment houses to be erected as a means of improving housing standards. The provisions under which Poor Law Relief was accorded to able\-bodied unemployed and their dependents were extended for a further year, and were improved to permit of parish councils making grants in aid of emigration. A number of schemes for the extension of school premises were put into operation.
Entitlement to sickness allowances to war widows and orphans were extended, a national electrical policy and a national road policy was launched, and two additional treatment centres for those afflicted by venereal diseases were constructed. Various measures were also introduced to improve mine safety, as characterised by the application of new rules, attempts to enforce safety regulations, and the appointment of additional inspectors.{{Cite web\|url\=http://gdl.cdlr.strath.ac.uk/redclyde/redcly142c.html\|title \= Red Clydeside: Election address of Emanuel Shinwell, Labour candidate for Linlithgowshire, page 3}} The old regulations for working in Quarries and Metalliferous Mines were improved, while a medical man was appointed to inspect the First Aid equipment kept at mines. Higher spending on education and health was carried out,Labour Inside the Gate: A History of the British Labour Party between the Wars by Matthew Worley while sickness grants (which had been abolished under a previous administration) were restored.
According to the Labour Party historian [G. D. H. Cole](/wiki/G._D._H._Cole "G. D. H. Cole"), in summing up the record of the First Labour Government,
> What it could do and did achieve was to undo a good many of the administrative effects of the "[Geddes Axe](/wiki/Geddes_Axe "Geddes Axe")," to pass several valuable measures of social reform, and to make a somewhat faint\-hearted attempt at coping with the unemployment problem by the institution of public worksA History of the Labour Party from 1914 by G. D. H. Cole
|
[
"Domestic policy\n---------------",
"The main achievement of the government was that it showed itself to be 'fit to govern'. Although this might not have meant much in terms of concrete policy\\-making, it at least did not alarm voters who may have feared that the party would dismantle the country and promulgate 'socialism'; although, in any case, its tenuous parliamentary position would have made radical moves near impossible. Hence, Labour policies such as nationalisation, the 'capital levy' taxation and public works programmes to alleviate unemployment were either played down or ignored altogether. However, to act 'respectably', as any other government would have, was a major component of the MacDonald electoral appeal and strategy. Indeed, some historians have seen, in this time, an electoral consensus that existed between MacDonald and his Conservative counterpart Baldwin, to maintain the stability of the electoral system and preclude any radicalism that might have alienated voters or exacerbated crises such as unemployment. By 1929, voters felt able to trust Labour and thus they were voted back in again.",
"Despite lacking a parliamentary majority, the First Labour Government was able to introduce a number of measures which made life more tolerable for working people.Ramsay Macdonald: A Labour Tragedy? by Duncan Watts The main achievement of the government was the [Housing (Financial Provisions) Act 1924](/wiki/Housing_%28Financial_Provisions%29_Act_1924 \"Housing (Financial Provisions) Act 1924\") (the Wheatley Housing Act), which MacDonald dubbed 'our most important legislative item'.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Lyman \\|first1\\=Richard W. \\|author\\-link1\\=Richard Wall Lyman\\|title\\=The first Labour government, 1924\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/firstlabourgover0000lyma\\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|quote\\=The housing scheme is our most important legislative item. \\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2009\\|year\\=1957\\|publisher\\=Chapman \\& Hall \\|location\\=London\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/firstlabourgover0000lyma/page/110 110]\\|isbn\\=9780846217848 }} This measure went some way towards rectifying the problem of the housing shortage, caused by the disruption of the building trade during the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War \"First World War\") and the inability of working\\-class tenants to rent decent, affordable housing. Wheatley was able to provide public housing to council tenants, as against the previous government's commitment to privatisation. This landmark act subsidised the construction of 521,700 rented homes at controlled rents by 1933, when the subsidy for encouraging local authority housing construction was abolished.",
"Various improvements were also made in benefits for pensioners and the unemployed. More generous provision for the unemployed was provided, with increases in both children's allowances and in unemployment benefits for both men and women. Unemployment benefit payments were increased from 15 shillings (75p) to 18 shillings (90p) a week for men, and from 12 shillings (60p) to 15 shillings (75p) for women, while the children's allowance was doubled to two shillings.England in the Twentieth Century (1914–63\\) by David Thompson The \"gap\" between periods of benefit under the unemployment insurance scheme was also abolished.*Britain Between The Wars 1918–1940* by [Charles Loch Mowat](/wiki/Charles_Loch_Mowat \"Charles Loch Mowat\") In addition, eligibility for benefits was extended,The People's Party: the History of the Labour Party by Tony Wright and Matt Carter while the household means\\-test for the long\\-term unemployed was removed,*Labour's First Century* by [Duncan Tanner](/wiki/Duncan_Tanner \"Duncan Tanner\"), [Pat Thane](/wiki/Pat_Thane \"Pat Thane\"), and Nick Tiratsoo more people were made eligible for unemployment benefits, uncovenanted benefits (beyond those covered by insurance) were made a statutory right, and the duration of unemployment benefits was extended from 26 to 41 weeks. However, a \"genuinely seeking work\" clause, by which applicants had to prove that they were actively seeking work, was introduced, a move that the government saw as a means of preventing abuse but drew criticism from within the Labour movement.*Britain's First Labour Government* by John Shepherd and [Keith Laybourn](/wiki/Keith_Laybourn \"Keith Laybourn\")",
"For pensioners, increases were made in both old\\-age pensions and the pensions of ex\\-servicemen and of their widows and children. Improvements were made in the condition of old\\-age pensioners by allowing small incomes from savings to be disregarded in calculating the pension due. As a result of this change, 60,000 elderly people, whose meagre savings had previously reduced their pension entitlement, received the full state pension. Eligibility for the state pension was also extended so that it covered 70% of the over\\-seventies, and 150,000 elderly people who had never received a pension before were now entitled to them. In addition, changes were made which allowed for pensions to be transferred to a surviving parent of a dependant who had a pension. An Old Age Pensions Act was also passed, which guaranteed a weekly pension of ten shillings (50p) to people over the age of seventy who earned under 15 shillings (75p) a week.",
"The government also endeavoured to extend educational opportunities. Local authorities were empowered, where they wished, to raise the school\\-leaving age to 15, the adult education grant was tripled, maintenance allowances for young people in secondary schools were increased, state scholarships (which had previously been in suspense) were restored, the proportion of free places in secondary schools was increased, approval was given to forty new secondary schools, a survey was carried out to provide for the replacement of as many of the more insanitary or obsolete schools as possible, and forty was set as the maximum class size in elementary school. Restrictions on education spending imposed by the previous government were removed, while local authorities were encouraged to increase the number of free secondary school places.The Longman Companion to The Labour Party 1900–1998 by Harry Harmer In addition, an Education Act was passed which created an English secondary school system between the ages of 11–14\\.The companion to British history by Charles Arnold\\-Baker The restriction on maintenance allowances given by local authorities was removed, with the previous rule being that 20% of the expenditure was given as grant by the board to the local authorities, but this was raised to 50%. In addition, restrictions on grants for providing meals for children were removed. Spending on adult education was increased, with the grant\\-in\\-aid increased from £20,600 to £30,500, while a small expansion of central and secondary schools took place.{{Cite book \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=TaJmjBvMk8kC\\&q\\=charles\\+trevelyan\\+education\\+1924\\&pg\\=PR18 \\|title \\= Secondary Education for All\\|isbn \\= 9780907628996\\|last1 \\= Tawney\\|first1 \\= R. H.\\|date \\= January 1924\\| publisher\\=A\\&C Black }}",
"The Agricultural Wages (Regulation) Act restored minimum wages for agricultural workers. County committees were established with the power to fix wages, together with a central wages board to supervise the county awards. The act helped bring about a substantial improvement over most of the country, with agricultural wages being quickly increased to 30 shillings a week (a higher level in certain counties) under the wage committees. In addition, a Conservative bill \"to attenuate the powers of the Trade Boards\" was dropped.A History of British Trade Unions since 1889 Volume II 1911–1933 by Hugh Armstrong Clegg Cuts in both direct and indirect taxation were also made which were hailed as representing a victory for working people, with the chancellor [Philip Snowden](/wiki/Philip_Snowden \"Philip Snowden\") describing the programme as representing \"the greatest step ever taken towards the [Radical](/wiki/Radicals_%28UK%29 \"Radicals (UK)\") idea of the [free breakfast table](/wiki/Free_breakfast_table \"Free breakfast table\").\"",
"Miner's silicosis was included within the provisions for workmen's compensation, under the [Workmen's Compensation (Silicosis) Act 1924](/wiki/Workmen%27s_Compensation_%28Silicosis%29_Act_1924 \"Workmen's Compensation (Silicosis) Act 1924\") while the [London Traffic Act 1924](/wiki/London_Traffic_Act_1924 \"London Traffic Act 1924\"), which provided for the regulation of London traffic, regulated privately owned public transport; setting timetables and safety standards.",
"A law was introduced which modified the right of a landlord to obtain possession of a house for his own family's use, where unnecessary hardship would be caused to the tenant. The [Protection from Eviction Act 1924](/wiki/Protection_from_Eviction_Act_1924 \"Protection from Eviction Act 1924\") provided some degree of protection to tenants \"in the face of landlords seeking vacant possession and rent rises.\"Class, capital and social policy by Norman Ginsberg This legislation protected tenants from eviction by landlords who attempted to obtain \"decontrolled\" status for their properties to raise rents. In addition, government funds were allocated for the repair and modernisation of 60,000 government built houses.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/TUjowett.htm \\|title\\=Frederick Jowett : Biography \\|publisher\\=Spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk \\|access\\-date\\=4 December 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111018080838/http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/TUjowett.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=18 October 2011 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }}",
"A subsidy for sugar beet cultivation to support agriculture was introduced,Labour and the countryside: the politics of rural Britain 1918–1939 by Clare V. J. Griffiths while schemes for roads and bridges, land reclamation and drainage, and afforestation were developed and extended. Financial support was also provided to municipal works to reduce unemployment.Higher School Certificate History by B. Hodge, B.A. (Hons.) and W.L. Mellor, B.A., Dip.Ed. Although relief schemes funded by the chancellor [Philip Snowden](/wiki/Philip_Snowden \"Philip Snowden\") had little impact on reducing unemployment, the registered rate of unemployment fell from 11\\.7% in 1923 to 10\\.3% in 1924\\.*[Speak for Britain! A New History of the Labour Party](/wiki/Speak_for_Britain%21_A_New_History_of_the_Labour_Party \"Speak for Britain! A New History of the Labour Party\")* by [Martin Pugh](/wiki/Martin_Pugh_%28author%29 \"Martin Pugh (author)\")",
"The restrictions imposed by the previous government on spending by the Poplar Board of Guardians were removed, while the National Health Insurance (Cost of Medical Benefit) Bill revised the capitation fee paid to doctors. Restrictions introduced by the previous Coalition government on state grants to the principal public health grant earning services (including maternity and child welfare, tuberculosis, and venereal disease) were removed. This was followed by a circular issued to local authorities to this effect and enabling them \"to carry out more effectively their public health powers under the law.\" Child welfare and maternity services were extended, while ex\\-service patients who had been treated as \"pauper lunatics\" under former Governments were removed from being treated in that way. As a result of this change, they were now paid for out of public funds.{{cite news \\|title\\=Nelson and Colne Labour Election News \\|url\\=http://www.pendlelabour.com/PDF/1924GeneralElectionNews.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=6 February 2021 \\|date\\=October 1924 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402104708/http://www.pendlelabour.com/PDF/1924GeneralElectionNews.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2 April 2012}}",
"The restrictions which prevented people from other countries, short\\-time workers, married women, and single persons residing with relatives from claiming uncovenanted benefit were abolished, while the \"gaps\" of 3 weeks which previous governments had made necessary after 12 weeks' unemployment pay. In addition, a new act was passed that extended the benefit period from 26 to 41 weeks. The rate of interest charged under the [Agricultural Credits Act 1923](/wiki/Agricultural_Credits_Act_1923 \"Agricultural Credits Act 1923\") passed by the previous Conservative government was reduced to 4%, while a 5% reduction on admissions to training colleges (imposed in 1923\\) was withdrawn. Improvements were also made in the pay of workers in the Army.Labour's Great Record: An Outline of the First Six Months' Work of the Labour Government, by Labour Publications Department, 3 Eccleston Square, London, S.W.I For war pensioners, new pensions were provided \"in deserving cases at the rate of over three hundred a week.\"The Book Of The Labour Party Edited by Herbert Tracey, Volume 1",
"Various improvements were also made to public places. A scheme for beautifying [St James's Park](/wiki/St_James%27s_Park \"St James's Park\") was carried out with a large measure of success, while additional areas of park land were allocated for games in [Bushey Park](/wiki/Bushey_Park \"Bushey Park\"), [Richmond Park](/wiki/Richmond_Park \"Richmond Park\"), and [Regent's Park](/wiki/Regent%27s_Park \"Regent's Park\"). Lawn\\-tennis courts were opened in Bushey Park, while two more playgrounds were provided for children in Regent's Park and one in Greenwich Park. F. O. Roberts, the Minister of Pensions, stopped the making of \"final awards,\" by instructing boards that awards should be \"given for a year and until further instructions,\" which meant that every man under such awards had the right of appeal for an increase of pension if he got worse. In addition, pensions could now be transferred to a surviving parent of a dependent who had a pension, while Need Pensions were raised, with the minimum rate increased from 4s.2d. to 5s. a week and the basis for these need pensions increased to 25 shillings (£1\\.25\\) a week for one individual and 35 shillings (£1\\.75\\) a week for a married couple. The result of this was that every parent or dependent in receipt of a need pension, received an immediate increase of between 2s.6d (12\\.5p) to 5s (25p) a week.",
"During its first six months in office, the First Labour Government issued a circular that removed restrictions on grants for health services, an action which led to the extension of welfare schemes for childhood and maternity. About 70 new infant welfare centres had been opened, more health visitors had been appointed, many more beds had been provided in homes for mothers and babies, and the milk supply was extended in 16 cases. As a result of the new circular, for TB, about 1,500 new beds had been arranged by the local authorities. In May 1924, a grant of £1 million was made from a Road Fund to assist the rural areas in England and Wales to improve their roads.",
"The Scottish Office introduced various measures to improve socio\\-economic conditions in Scotland. To alleviate unemployment and distress caused in the Outer Hebrides due to a depression in the fishing industry and the failure of crops, the board inaugurated relief work schemes which had for their object the resurfacing of the roads in the regions affected. Financial assistance was allocated towards the execution of Land Drainage schemes to reduce unemployment in several areas while loans were granted to crofters to enable them to purchase the implements and seeds necessary for the cultivation of their holdings, and to take over stocks of sheep and other livestock. Wherever the rents of the holdings were considered to be too high they were reduced, a valuation having been undertaken by the Land Court in each case. Several hundreds of additional applicants were settled on the land, with the assistance of the funds of the Scottish Board. Structural additions were carried out at several agricultural colleges, and scholarships enabling them to receive instruction were granted to the sons and daughters of agricultural workers and others.",
"The Scottish Board of Health also withdrew the restrictions imposed under the previous Conservative government upon the expenditure to be incurred in the public health services, and consequently there were developments affecting port sanitation, Tuberculosis, the welfare of the blind, and maternity and child welfare. The board also extended grants to local authorities for the purpose of [slum clearance](/wiki/Slum_clearance_in_the_United_Kingdom \"Slum clearance in the United Kingdom\"), while a limit was placed upon the number of two\\-apartment houses to be erected as a means of improving housing standards. The provisions under which Poor Law Relief was accorded to able\\-bodied unemployed and their dependents were extended for a further year, and were improved to permit of parish councils making grants in aid of emigration. A number of schemes for the extension of school premises were put into operation.",
"Entitlement to sickness allowances to war widows and orphans were extended, a national electrical policy and a national road policy was launched, and two additional treatment centres for those afflicted by venereal diseases were constructed. Various measures were also introduced to improve mine safety, as characterised by the application of new rules, attempts to enforce safety regulations, and the appointment of additional inspectors.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://gdl.cdlr.strath.ac.uk/redclyde/redcly142c.html\\|title \\= Red Clydeside: Election address of Emanuel Shinwell, Labour candidate for Linlithgowshire, page 3}} The old regulations for working in Quarries and Metalliferous Mines were improved, while a medical man was appointed to inspect the First Aid equipment kept at mines. Higher spending on education and health was carried out,Labour Inside the Gate: A History of the British Labour Party between the Wars by Matthew Worley while sickness grants (which had been abolished under a previous administration) were restored.",
"According to the Labour Party historian [G. D. H. Cole](/wiki/G._D._H._Cole \"G. D. H. Cole\"), in summing up the record of the First Labour Government,",
"",
"> What it could do and did achieve was to undo a good many of the administrative effects of the \"[Geddes Axe](/wiki/Geddes_Axe \"Geddes Axe\"),\" to pass several valuable measures of social reform, and to make a somewhat faint\\-hearted attempt at coping with the unemployment problem by the institution of public worksA History of the Labour Party from 1914 by G. D. H. Cole",
""
] |
General description
-------------------
The generally slender, bluish\-white to milk\-white, semitranslucent shell is more or less elongated and has a cylindro\-conic shape.
The [apex](/wiki/Apex_%28mollusc%29 "Apex (mollusc)") is sinistral. The reversed, flattened or projecting [protoconch](/wiki/Protoconch "Protoconch") consists of 1½ to 3 whorls that are oblique or tilted from transverse to the axis.
The [teleoconch](/wiki/Teleoconch "Teleoconch") contains many planulate or more or less convex [whorls](/wiki/Whorl_%28mollusc%29 "Whorl (mollusc)"). These are sometimes shouldered and are generally ornamented with less prominent longitudinal ribs ( \= costulate).
The intercostal spaces are smooth or crossed bv more or less distinct, incised, sometimes raised, spiral lines. The spiral lines often also appear on the base of the shell, which varies from short, little rounded (the [body whorl](/wiki/Body_whorl "Body whorl") is subangulated at the periphery), to elongate and well\-rounded.
The shape of the [aperture](/wiki/Aperture_%28mollusc%29 "Aperture (mollusc)") varies from subquadrate with a straight columellar lip, to an elongate\-ovate shape, well\-rounded and produced below, with a curved columellar lip. The peritreme is generally discontinuous, rarely continuous.
The [outer lip](/wiki/Lip_%28gastropod%29 "Lip (gastropod)") is always thin and entire. The inner lip is more or less thickened and reflected, often with a plication or fold that is not always visible externally.
The [columella](/wiki/Columella_%28gastropod%29 "Columella (gastropod)") is vertical, not plicate. The columellar fold is single, varying in strength. The horny [operculum](/wiki/Operculum_%28gastropod%29 "Operculum (gastropod)") is subspiral. The shell is usually smaller than in *[Pyramidella](/wiki/Pyramidella "Pyramidella")* and larger than in *[Odostomia](/wiki/Odostomia "Odostomia")*.
The animal has wide tentacles, an elongated, flattened [mentum](/wiki/Mentum "Mentum"), usually bilobed in front. The foot is large and anteriorly auriculated.[Dall \& Bartsch, A Monograph of West American Pyramidellid Mollusks, United States National Museum Bulletin 68, p. 19: 1909](https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/32384#page/8/mode/1up)[G.W. Tryon, Manual of Conchology vol. VIII p. 317](https://archive.org/stream/manualconch08tryorich#page/n5/mode/2up){{cite journal \| url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/4062489\.pdf \| jstor\=4062489 \| title\=Descriptions of New Species of Turbonilla of the Western Atlantic Fauna, with Notes on Those Previously Known \| last1\=Bush \| first1\=Katharine Jeannette \| journal\=Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia \| date\=1899 \| volume\=51 \| issue\=1 \| pages\=145–177 }}
|
[
"General description\n-------------------",
"The generally slender, bluish\\-white to milk\\-white, semitranslucent shell is more or less elongated and has a cylindro\\-conic shape.",
"The [apex](/wiki/Apex_%28mollusc%29 \"Apex (mollusc)\") is sinistral. The reversed, flattened or projecting [protoconch](/wiki/Protoconch \"Protoconch\") consists of 1½ to 3 whorls that are oblique or tilted from transverse to the axis.",
"The [teleoconch](/wiki/Teleoconch \"Teleoconch\") contains many planulate or more or less convex [whorls](/wiki/Whorl_%28mollusc%29 \"Whorl (mollusc)\"). These are sometimes shouldered and are generally ornamented with less prominent longitudinal ribs ( \\= costulate).",
"The intercostal spaces are smooth or crossed bv more or less distinct, incised, sometimes raised, spiral lines. The spiral lines often also appear on the base of the shell, which varies from short, little rounded (the [body whorl](/wiki/Body_whorl \"Body whorl\") is subangulated at the periphery), to elongate and well\\-rounded.",
"The shape of the [aperture](/wiki/Aperture_%28mollusc%29 \"Aperture (mollusc)\") varies from subquadrate with a straight columellar lip, to an elongate\\-ovate shape, well\\-rounded and produced below, with a curved columellar lip. The peritreme is generally discontinuous, rarely continuous.",
"The [outer lip](/wiki/Lip_%28gastropod%29 \"Lip (gastropod)\") is always thin and entire. The inner lip is more or less thickened and reflected, often with a plication or fold that is not always visible externally.",
"The [columella](/wiki/Columella_%28gastropod%29 \"Columella (gastropod)\") is vertical, not plicate. The columellar fold is single, varying in strength. The horny [operculum](/wiki/Operculum_%28gastropod%29 \"Operculum (gastropod)\") is subspiral. The shell is usually smaller than in *[Pyramidella](/wiki/Pyramidella \"Pyramidella\")* and larger than in *[Odostomia](/wiki/Odostomia \"Odostomia\")*.",
"The animal has wide tentacles, an elongated, flattened [mentum](/wiki/Mentum \"Mentum\"), usually bilobed in front. The foot is large and anteriorly auriculated.[Dall \\& Bartsch, A Monograph of West American Pyramidellid Mollusks, United States National Museum Bulletin 68, p. 19: 1909](https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/32384#page/8/mode/1up)[G.W. Tryon, Manual of Conchology vol. VIII p. 317](https://archive.org/stream/manualconch08tryorich#page/n5/mode/2up){{cite journal \\| url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/4062489\\.pdf \\| jstor\\=4062489 \\| title\\=Descriptions of New Species of Turbonilla of the Western Atlantic Fauna, with Notes on Those Previously Known \\| last1\\=Bush \\| first1\\=Katharine Jeannette \\| journal\\=Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia \\| date\\=1899 \\| volume\\=51 \\| issue\\=1 \\| pages\\=145–177 }}",
""
] |
Geography
---------
{{Unreferenced section\|date\=July 2020}}
The municipality of Magpet is located in the eastern part of Cotabato Province and at the foothills of Mt. Apo with generally a sloping to mountainous terrain. Furthermore, it is a landlocked municipality located at the boundary of the provinces of Cotabato and Davao del Sur. It is bounded on the North by the Municipality of Arakan; on the East by Davao City, on the West by President Roxas and Antipas and 9\.0 km on the South by Kidapawan City of Cotabato Province. The municipality lies between the latitude 7º 6\.178’ N and longitude 125º 7\.461’ E.
### Barangays
Magpet is politically subdivided into 32 [barangays](/wiki/Barangay "Barangay").{{PSGC detail\|area}} Each barangay consists of [puroks](/wiki/Purok "Purok") while some have [sitios](/wiki/Sitios "Sitios").
{{Div col\|colwidth\=15em}}
* Alibayon
* Bagumbayan
* Bangkal
* Bantac
* Basak
* Binay
* Bongolanon
* Datu Celo
* Del Pilar
* Doles
* Gubatan
* Ilian
* Inac
* Kamada
* Kauswagan
* Kisandal
* Magcaalam
* Mahongcog
* Manobo
* Noa
* Owas
* Pangao\-an
* Poblacion
* Sallab
* Tagbac
* Temporan
* Amabel
* Balite
* Don Panaca
* Imamaling
* Kinarum
* Manobisa
{{div col end}}
### Physical and geophysical features
{{Unreferenced section\|date\=July 2020}}
Magpet has a total land area of 75,536 hectares agricultural and forestlands. It has 32 barangays of which only Barangay Poblacion is considered an urban barangay. Barangays with biggest land area are Libertad (8% of total land area), Manobo (7\.3%), Mahongkong (6\.7%) and Imamaling (6\.1%). Those with smallest land area, on the other hand, are barangays Bagumbayan (0\.5% of total land area), Alibayon (0\.36%), Del Pilar (0\.25%) and Kauswagan (0\.17%).
### Topography
{{Unreferenced section\|date\=July 2020}}
Approximately 34\.76% or 26,256 hectares are considered areas with very steep to strongly hilly slopes. Around 6,381 hectares of slopes 0 – 3% are very good lands for intensive agricultural production.
The soils found in Magpet are quilada sandy loam (9,846 hectares); aroman clay loam (24,345 hectares) and bolinao clay loam (41,345 hectares). Generally, these lands are classified as No. 45 or mountainous. Magpet's soil is suitable for crops like rubber, coconut, coffee, cacao, black pepper, banana, fruit trees and vegetables. Land capability further rates the soil in the municipality as CE and U classification. Clay loam soils. However, are also found in various barangays.
Dominant soil types in the area have high and medium water holding capacity. About 22% of the land area has no apparent erosion problem while 30,194\.70 hectares or 31% have been considered to be under slightly eroded condition. Those classified with moderate erosion potential total to 10,382\.20 hectares while 24% or 18,382\.20 hectares are already susceptible with severe erosion.
### Climate
{{Weather box
\| location \= Magpet, Cotabato
\| width \= auto
\| metric first \= Yes
\| single line \= Yes
\| Jan high C \= 29
\| Jan low C \= 20
\| Feb high C \= 29
\| Feb low C \= 20
\| Mar high C \= 30
\| Mar low C \= 20
\| Apr high C \= 31
\| Apr low C \= 21
\| May high C \= 29
\| May low C \= 22
\| Jun high C \= 28
\| Jun low C \= 22
\| Jul high C \= 28
\| Jul low C \= 22
\| Aug high C \= 28
\| Aug low C \= 22
\| Sep high C \= 29
\| Sep low C \= 22
\| Oct high C \= 29
\| Oct low C \= 22
\| Nov high C \= 29
\| Nov low C \= 21
\| Dec high C \= 29
\| Dec low C \= 21
\| Jan precipitation mm \= 51
\| Feb precipitation mm \= 41
\| Mar precipitation mm \= 38
\| Apr precipitation mm \= 45
\| May precipitation mm \= 82
\| Jun precipitation mm \= 108
\| Jul precipitation mm \= 114
\| Aug precipitation mm \= 120
\| Sep precipitation mm \= 95
\| Oct precipitation mm \= 96
\| Nov precipitation mm \= 76
\| Dec precipitation mm \= 52
\| Jan rain days \= 13\.2
\| Feb rain days \= 12\.0
\| Mar rain days \= 13\.8
\| Apr rain days \= 15\.3
\| May rain days \= 22\.5
\| Jun rain days \= 23\.9
\| Jul rain days \= 25\.2
\| Aug rain days \= 25\.4
\| Sep rain days \= 23\.3
\| Oct rain days \= 24\.1
\| Nov rain days \= 21\.0
\| Dec rain days \= 16\.8
\| source 1 \= Meteoblue
{{cite web
\| url \= https://www.meteoblue.com/en/weather/historyclimate/climatemodelled/magpet\_philippines\_1703792
\| title \= Magpet: Average Temperatures and Rainfall
\| publisher \= Meteoblue
\| access\-date \= 30 January 2020}}
\| date \= 30 January 2020
}}
{{clear\-left}}
### Land area
{{Unreferenced section\|date\=July 2020}}
The municipality has an area of approximately 75,536 hectares, 0\.98% (744 hectares) of which covers the urban area, while 99\.02% (74,792 hectares) of land is for rural area. Based on the Municipality Socio\-Economic Profile the municipality has 35 barangays, classified into 1 urban area; the Poblacion and rest (34\) are rural area.
### Natural resources
#### Water
{{Unreferenced section\|date\=July 2020}}
Several rivers located in Magpet are being tapped for irrigation development and potential for hydro power plants. Others are the major tributaries to Kabacan River, which flows to many barangays of Magpet, to the Municipalities of Pres. Roxas, Matalam, Kabacan, Carmen and connects with Pulangi River. As a major source of water supply, it served for irrigation purposes, servicing thousands of hectares of rice fields not only in the Municipality of Magpet, but also in the various areas of the Province as well. Magpet is serviced by two public water system (Level III) by the Metro Kidapawan Water District(MKWD) servicing to barangays Bongolanon, Kisandal, Tagbak, Poblacion and Gubatan. While Magpet Water Works Services (MWWS), a water system owned and managed by the Local Government Unit extend its services to barangyas Magkaalam, Tagbak, Poblacion, Owas, Kamada, Gubatan, Kauswagan, Alibayon, Del Pilar, Inac, Doles, Binay, Bantac and Pangao\-an . Other barangays have their own system, the Barangay Water Sanitation (BAWASA), a level III and level II water system.
#### Minerals
{{Unreferenced section\|date\=July 2020}}
Mineral products found in the municipality of Magpet include non\-metallic like limestone, sand and gravel which are the basic good materials for constructions while the red and white clay, considered as among the best in the country, are good materials for ceramic production. These can be found particularly in the barangays of Doles, Inca and Noa. Metallic minerals include gold, nickel and silver.
|
[
"Geography\n---------",
"{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=July 2020}}",
"The municipality of Magpet is located in the eastern part of Cotabato Province and at the foothills of Mt. Apo with generally a sloping to mountainous terrain. Furthermore, it is a landlocked municipality located at the boundary of the provinces of Cotabato and Davao del Sur. It is bounded on the North by the Municipality of Arakan; on the East by Davao City, on the West by President Roxas and Antipas and 9\\.0 km on the South by Kidapawan City of Cotabato Province. The municipality lies between the latitude 7º 6\\.178’ N and longitude 125º 7\\.461’ E.",
"### Barangays",
"Magpet is politically subdivided into 32 [barangays](/wiki/Barangay \"Barangay\").{{PSGC detail\\|area}} Each barangay consists of [puroks](/wiki/Purok \"Purok\") while some have [sitios](/wiki/Sitios \"Sitios\").\n{{Div col\\|colwidth\\=15em}}\n* Alibayon\n* Bagumbayan\n* Bangkal\n* Bantac\n* Basak\n* Binay\n* Bongolanon\n* Datu Celo\n* Del Pilar\n* Doles\n* Gubatan\n* Ilian\n* Inac\n* Kamada\n* Kauswagan\n* Kisandal\n* Magcaalam\n* Mahongcog\n* Manobo\n* Noa\n* Owas\n* Pangao\\-an\n* Poblacion\n* Sallab\n* Tagbac\n* Temporan\n* Amabel\n* Balite\n* Don Panaca\n* Imamaling\n* Kinarum\n* Manobisa\n{{div col end}}",
"### Physical and geophysical features",
"{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=July 2020}}",
"Magpet has a total land area of 75,536 hectares agricultural and forestlands. It has 32 barangays of which only Barangay Poblacion is considered an urban barangay. Barangays with biggest land area are Libertad (8% of total land area), Manobo (7\\.3%), Mahongkong (6\\.7%) and Imamaling (6\\.1%). Those with smallest land area, on the other hand, are barangays Bagumbayan (0\\.5% of total land area), Alibayon (0\\.36%), Del Pilar (0\\.25%) and Kauswagan (0\\.17%).",
"### Topography",
"{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=July 2020}}",
"Approximately 34\\.76% or 26,256 hectares are considered areas with very steep to strongly hilly slopes. Around 6,381 hectares of slopes 0 – 3% are very good lands for intensive agricultural production.",
"The soils found in Magpet are quilada sandy loam (9,846 hectares); aroman clay loam (24,345 hectares) and bolinao clay loam (41,345 hectares). Generally, these lands are classified as No. 45 or mountainous. Magpet's soil is suitable for crops like rubber, coconut, coffee, cacao, black pepper, banana, fruit trees and vegetables. Land capability further rates the soil in the municipality as CE and U classification. Clay loam soils. However, are also found in various barangays.",
"Dominant soil types in the area have high and medium water holding capacity. About 22% of the land area has no apparent erosion problem while 30,194\\.70 hectares or 31% have been considered to be under slightly eroded condition. Those classified with moderate erosion potential total to 10,382\\.20 hectares while 24% or 18,382\\.20 hectares are already susceptible with severe erosion.",
"### Climate",
"{{Weather box\n\\| location \\= Magpet, Cotabato\n\\| width \\= auto\n\\| metric first \\= Yes\n\\| single line \\= Yes\n\\| Jan high C \\= 29\n\\| Jan low C \\= 20\n\\| Feb high C \\= 29\n\\| Feb low C \\= 20\n\\| Mar high C \\= 30\n\\| Mar low C \\= 20\n\\| Apr high C \\= 31\n\\| Apr low C \\= 21\n\\| May high C \\= 29\n\\| May low C \\= 22\n\\| Jun high C \\= 28\n\\| Jun low C \\= 22\n\\| Jul high C \\= 28\n\\| Jul low C \\= 22\n\\| Aug high C \\= 28\n\\| Aug low C \\= 22\n\\| Sep high C \\= 29\n\\| Sep low C \\= 22\n\\| Oct high C \\= 29\n\\| Oct low C \\= 22\n\\| Nov high C \\= 29\n\\| Nov low C \\= 21\n\\| Dec high C \\= 29\n\\| Dec low C \\= 21\n\\| Jan precipitation mm \\= 51\n\\| Feb precipitation mm \\= 41\n\\| Mar precipitation mm \\= 38\n\\| Apr precipitation mm \\= 45\n\\| May precipitation mm \\= 82\n\\| Jun precipitation mm \\= 108\n\\| Jul precipitation mm \\= 114\n\\| Aug precipitation mm \\= 120\n\\| Sep precipitation mm \\= 95\n\\| Oct precipitation mm \\= 96\n\\| Nov precipitation mm \\= 76\n\\| Dec precipitation mm \\= 52\n\\| Jan rain days \\= 13\\.2\n\\| Feb rain days \\= 12\\.0\n\\| Mar rain days \\= 13\\.8\n\\| Apr rain days \\= 15\\.3\n\\| May rain days \\= 22\\.5\n\\| Jun rain days \\= 23\\.9\n\\| Jul rain days \\= 25\\.2\n\\| Aug rain days \\= 25\\.4\n\\| Sep rain days \\= 23\\.3\n\\| Oct rain days \\= 24\\.1\n\\| Nov rain days \\= 21\\.0\n\\| Dec rain days \\= 16\\.8\n\\| source 1 \\= Meteoblue \n{{cite web\n\\| url \\= https://www.meteoblue.com/en/weather/historyclimate/climatemodelled/magpet\\_philippines\\_1703792\n\\| title \\= Magpet: Average Temperatures and Rainfall\n\\| publisher \\= Meteoblue\n\\| access\\-date \\= 30 January 2020}}\n\\| date \\= 30 January 2020 \n}}\n{{clear\\-left}}",
"### Land area",
"{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=July 2020}}\nThe municipality has an area of approximately 75,536 hectares, 0\\.98% (744 hectares) of which covers the urban area, while 99\\.02% (74,792 hectares) of land is for rural area. Based on the Municipality Socio\\-Economic Profile the municipality has 35 barangays, classified into 1 urban area; the Poblacion and rest (34\\) are rural area.",
"### Natural resources",
"#### Water",
"{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=July 2020}}\nSeveral rivers located in Magpet are being tapped for irrigation development and potential for hydro power plants. Others are the major tributaries to Kabacan River, which flows to many barangays of Magpet, to the Municipalities of Pres. Roxas, Matalam, Kabacan, Carmen and connects with Pulangi River. As a major source of water supply, it served for irrigation purposes, servicing thousands of hectares of rice fields not only in the Municipality of Magpet, but also in the various areas of the Province as well. Magpet is serviced by two public water system (Level III) by the Metro Kidapawan Water District(MKWD) servicing to barangays Bongolanon, Kisandal, Tagbak, Poblacion and Gubatan. While Magpet Water Works Services (MWWS), a water system owned and managed by the Local Government Unit extend its services to barangyas Magkaalam, Tagbak, Poblacion, Owas, Kamada, Gubatan, Kauswagan, Alibayon, Del Pilar, Inac, Doles, Binay, Bantac and Pangao\\-an . Other barangays have their own system, the Barangay Water Sanitation (BAWASA), a level III and level II water system.",
"#### Minerals",
"{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=July 2020}}\nMineral products found in the municipality of Magpet include non\\-metallic like limestone, sand and gravel which are the basic good materials for constructions while the red and white clay, considered as among the best in the country, are good materials for ceramic production. These can be found particularly in the barangays of Doles, Inca and Noa. Metallic minerals include gold, nickel and silver.",
""
] |
Economy
-------
{{PH poverty incidence}}
{{Unreferenced section\|date\=July 2020}}
The municipality has a huge area for agricultural and mostly the people are farmers and their income derived from farming activities. The average annual family income is Php 83,053 or an average monthly income of Php 6,921\.
Wages and salaries as well as entrepreneurial is also as their main income for workers, individual or self\-employed income earners has been noted also in the municipality like skylab or single motorcycle driver, tricycle drivers, market and ambulant vendors and among others.
The data of poverty incidence of the municipality from the Philippine Statistic Authority, 2012 show that poverty incidence of Magpet is 43\.9% in 2006, 36\.7% in 2009 and 48\.9% in 2012\.
Magpet's primary income is coming from agriculture, this is because of huge potential area for agriculture development, and the major agricultural product produce are rubber, banana both lacatan and cardava, coconuts, coffee and frits. While the minor products, rice and corn, root crops,Tahiti and vegetables, etc.
The municipality is not so much a meat and poultry producing municipality, but mostly a small or a backyard poultry and hog raising only.
Rice production in Magpet is only 1\.16% or 1,028 hectares of the total land area with another 1\.50% or 1,115 hectares as potential area due to its land topography, which is mostly hilly or mountainous.
Magpet is the No. 1 Banana producing municipality in the Province of North Cotabato. Knowing Magpet has a cool climate and high elevation, favourable in growing large and sweet variety of highland lacatan banana.
Of all the commodity crops planted, Lacatan banana is the no. 1 income generating in the municipality. It covers the entire barangays in Magpet, while some areas identified as rice and corn commodity were subsequently converted into banana plantation areas. About 25% or a total of 171 hectares were converted into banana production.
Banana covers the largest plantation area in the municipality with a total of 2,123\.30 hectares and has a total of 940,531,500\.00 metric tons per year as of December 31, 2013 data. This Lacatan banana variety is being sold to the local market and transported to Cities like Manila, Cebu, Iloilo and Cagayan de Oro via Davao City.
For now, only DOLE Stanfilco grow Cavendish bananas in the southwest portion of the municipality. This banana variety is exported to Middle East countries and Central Asia countries like China, Singapore and others. It provides employment to local farmers who do not have a farm of their own to till.
Businesses in the municipality are dominated by small to medium\-scale establishments engaged mostly in the distribution of finished products. As of 2018, number of registered business establishments totaled to 326 (new – 93; renewal – 233\).
Tourism industry is also a very potential entrepreneur in the municipality, this give income to the LGU. Mostly tourist spot was developed by the LGU like in Tausuvan water falls and Kirongdong water falls in Kinarum. There are also privately operated resorts in the municipality.
{{clear\-left}}
|
[
"Economy\n-------",
"{{PH poverty incidence}}\n{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=July 2020}}\nThe municipality has a huge area for agricultural and mostly the people are farmers and their income derived from farming activities. The average annual family income is Php 83,053 or an average monthly income of Php 6,921\\.",
"Wages and salaries as well as entrepreneurial is also as their main income for workers, individual or self\\-employed income earners has been noted also in the municipality like skylab or single motorcycle driver, tricycle drivers, market and ambulant vendors and among others.\nThe data of poverty incidence of the municipality from the Philippine Statistic Authority, 2012 show that poverty incidence of Magpet is 43\\.9% in 2006, 36\\.7% in 2009 and 48\\.9% in 2012\\.",
"Magpet's primary income is coming from agriculture, this is because of huge potential area for agriculture development, and the major agricultural product produce are rubber, banana both lacatan and cardava, coconuts, coffee and frits. While the minor products, rice and corn, root crops,Tahiti and vegetables, etc.\nThe municipality is not so much a meat and poultry producing municipality, but mostly a small or a backyard poultry and hog raising only.",
"Rice production in Magpet is only 1\\.16% or 1,028 hectares of the total land area with another 1\\.50% or 1,115 hectares as potential area due to its land topography, which is mostly hilly or mountainous.",
"Magpet is the No. 1 Banana producing municipality in the Province of North Cotabato. Knowing Magpet has a cool climate and high elevation, favourable in growing large and sweet variety of highland lacatan banana.",
"Of all the commodity crops planted, Lacatan banana is the no. 1 income generating in the municipality. It covers the entire barangays in Magpet, while some areas identified as rice and corn commodity were subsequently converted into banana plantation areas. About 25% or a total of 171 hectares were converted into banana production.",
"Banana covers the largest plantation area in the municipality with a total of 2,123\\.30 hectares and has a total of 940,531,500\\.00 metric tons per year as of December 31, 2013 data. This Lacatan banana variety is being sold to the local market and transported to Cities like Manila, Cebu, Iloilo and Cagayan de Oro via Davao City.",
"For now, only DOLE Stanfilco grow Cavendish bananas in the southwest portion of the municipality. This banana variety is exported to Middle East countries and Central Asia countries like China, Singapore and others. It provides employment to local farmers who do not have a farm of their own to till.",
"Businesses in the municipality are dominated by small to medium\\-scale establishments engaged mostly in the distribution of finished products. As of 2018, number of registered business establishments totaled to 326 (new – 93; renewal – 233\\).",
"Tourism industry is also a very potential entrepreneur in the municipality, this give income to the LGU. Mostly tourist spot was developed by the LGU like in Tausuvan water falls and Kirongdong water falls in Kinarum. There are also privately operated resorts in the municipality.",
"{{clear\\-left}}",
""
] |
Digital cameras
---------------
{{Further\|Digital camera\#History}}
[Digital cameras](/wiki/Digital_camera "Digital camera") differ from their analog predecessors primarily in that they do not use film, but capture and save photographs on digital memory cards or internal storage instead. Their low operating costs have relegated chemical cameras to [niche markets](/wiki/Niche_market "Niche market"). Digital cameras now include wireless communication capabilities (for example [Wi\-Fi](/wiki/Wi-Fi "Wi-Fi") or [Bluetooth](/wiki/Bluetooth "Bluetooth")) to transfer, print, or share photos, and are commonly found on [mobile phones](/wiki/Camera_phone "Camera phone").
### Digital imaging technology
{{Further\|Digital imaging\#History}}
{{See also\|Image sensor\|Data compression}}
The first semiconductor image sensor was the CCD, invented by [Willard S. Boyle](/wiki/Willard_S._Boyle "Willard S. Boyle") and [George E. Smith](/wiki/George_E._Smith "George E. Smith") at Bell Labs in 1969\.{{Cite book \| title \= Scientific charge\-coupled devices \| author \= James R. Janesick \| publisher \= SPIE Press \| year \= 2001 \| isbn \= 978\-0\-8194\-3698\-6 \| pages \= 3–4 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=3GyE4SWytn4C\&pg\=PA3}} While researching MOS technology, they realized that an electric charge was the analogy of the magnetic bubble and that it could be stored on a tiny [MOS capacitor](/wiki/MOS_capacitor "MOS capacitor"). As it was fairly straightforward to [fabricate](/wiki/Semiconductor_device_fabrication "Semiconductor device fabrication") a series of MOS capacitors in a row, they connected a suitable voltage to them so that the charge could be stepped along from one to the next.{{cite book\|last1\=Williams\|first1\=J. B.\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=v4QlDwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA245\|title\=The Electronics Revolution: Inventing the Future\|date\=2017\|publisher\=Springer\|isbn\=9783319490885\|pages\=245–8}} The CCD is a semiconductor circuit that was later used in the first [digital video cameras](/wiki/Digital_video_camera "Digital video camera") for [television broadcasting](/wiki/Television_broadcasting "Television broadcasting").{{cite journal\|last1\=Boyle\|first1\=William S\|last2\=Smith\|first2\=George E.\|date\=1970\|title\=Charge Coupled Semiconductor Devices\|journal\=Bell Syst. Tech. J.\|volume\=49\|issue\=4\|pages\=587–593\|doi\=10\.1002/j.1538\-7305\.1970\.tb01790\.x\|bibcode\=1970BSTJ...49\..587B }}
The [NMOS](/wiki/NMOS_logic "NMOS logic") [active\-pixel sensor](/wiki/Active-pixel_sensor "Active-pixel sensor") (APS) was invented by [Olympus](/wiki/Olympus_Corporation "Olympus Corporation") in Japan during the mid\-1980s. This was enabled by advances in MOS [semiconductor device fabrication](/wiki/Semiconductor_device_fabrication "Semiconductor device fabrication"), with [MOSFET scaling](/wiki/MOSFET_scaling "MOSFET scaling") reaching smaller [micron and then sub\-micron](/wiki/List_of_semiconductor_scale_examples "List of semiconductor scale examples") levels.{{cite journal \|last1\=Fossum \|first1\=Eric R. \|author1\-link\=Eric Fossum \|title\=Active pixel sensors: are CCDs dinosaurs? \|journal\=SPIE Proceedings Vol. 1900: Charge\-Coupled Devices and Solid State Optical Sensors III \|series\=Charge\-Coupled Devices and Solid State Optical Sensors III \|date\=12 July 1993 \|volume\=1900 \|doi\=10\.1117/12\.148585 \|publisher\=International Society for Optics and Photonics \|pages\=2–14 \|bibcode\=1993SPIE.1900\....2F \|editor1\-last\=Blouke \|editor1\-first\=Morley M.\|citeseerx\=10\.1\.1\.408\.6558\|s2cid\=10556755 }}{{cite journal \|last1\=Fossum \|first1\=Eric R. \|author1\-link\=Eric Fossum \|title\=Active Pixel Sensors \|website\=\[\[Semantic Scholar]] \|year\=2007 \|s2cid\=18831792 \|url\=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f510/d40cfe0556392bb2d34981f7158327dec169\.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190309065505/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f510/d40cfe0556392bb2d34981f7158327dec169\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=9 March 2019 \|access\-date\=8 October 2019}} The NMOS APS was fabricated by Tsutomu Nakamura's team at Olympus in 1985\.{{cite journal \|last1\=Matsumoto \|first1\=Kazuya \|last2\=Nakamura \|first2\=Tsutomu \|last3\=Yusa \|first3\=Atsushi \|last4\=Nagai \|first4\=Shohei \|display\-authors\=1\|date\=1985 \|title\=A new MOS phototransistor operating in a non\-destructive readout mode \|journal\=Japanese Journal of Applied Physics \|volume\=24 \|issue\=5A \|page\=L323\|doi\=10\.1143/JJAP.24\.L323 \|bibcode\=1985JaJAP..24L.323M\|s2cid\=108450116 }} The [CMOS](/wiki/CMOS "CMOS") active\-pixel sensor (CMOS sensor) was later developed by [Eric Fossum](/wiki/Eric_Fossum "Eric Fossum")'s team at the [NASA](/wiki/NASA "NASA") [Jet Propulsion Laboratory](/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory "Jet Propulsion Laboratory") in 1993\.{{cite journal \|last1\=Fossum \|first1\=Eric R. \|author1\-link\=Eric Fossum \|last2\=Hondongwa \|first2\=D. B. \|title\=A Review of the Pinned Photodiode for CCD and CMOS Image Sensors \|journal\=IEEE Journal of the Electron Devices Society \|date\=2014 \|volume\=2 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=33–43 \|doi\=10\.1109/JEDS.2014\.2306412\|doi\-access\=free }}
### Early digital camera prototypes
The concept of digitizing images on scanners, and the concept of digitizing video signals, predate the concept of making still pictures by digitizing signals from an array of discrete sensor elements. Early [spy satellites](/wiki/Spy_satellite "Spy satellite") used the extremely complex and expensive method of de\-orbit and airborne retrieval of film canisters. Technology was pushed to skip these steps through the use of in\-satellite developing and electronic scanning of the film for direct transmission to the ground. The amount of film was still a major limitation, and this was overcome and greatly simplified by the push to develop an electronic image capturing array that could be used instead of film. The first electronic imaging satellite was the [KH\-11](/wiki/KH-11 "KH-11") launched by the [NRO](/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office "National Reconnaissance Office") in late 1976\. It had a [charge\-coupled device](/wiki/Charge-coupled_device "Charge-coupled device") (CCD) array with a resolution of {{nowrap\|800 x 800 pixels}} (0\.64 megapixels).[globalsecurity.org – KH\-11 KENNAN](https://www.globalsecurity.org/space/systems/kh-11.htm), 24 April 2007 At Philips Labs in New York, Edward Stupp, Pieter Cath and Zsolt Szilagyi filed for a patent on "All Solid State Radiation Imagers" on 6 September 1968 and constructed a flat\-screen target for receiving and storing an optical image on a matrix composed of an array of photodiodes connected to a capacitor to form an array of two terminal devices connected in rows and columns. Their US patent was granted on 10 November 1970\.{{Cite patent\|country\=US\|number\=3540011\|pubdate\=1970\-11\-10\|title\=All solid state radiation imagers\|assign1\=\[\[Philips\|US Philips Corp.]]\|inventor1\-last\=Stupp\|inventor1\-first\=Edward H.\|inventor2\-last\=Cath\|inventor2\-first\=Pieter G.\|inventor3\-last\=Szilagyi\|inventor3\-first\=Zsolt}} Texas Instruments engineer [Willis Adcock](/wiki/Willis_Adcock "Willis Adcock") designed a filmless camera that was not digital and applied for a patent in 1972, but it is not known whether it was ever built.{{Cite patent\|country\=US\|number\=4057830}} and {{Cite patent\|country\=US\|number\=4163256}} were filed in 1972 but were only later awarded in 1976 and 1977\. {{cite web\|url\=http://www.digicamhistory.com/1970s.html\|title\=1970s\|access\-date\=15 June 2008}}
The [Cromemco Cyclops](/wiki/Cromemco_Cyclops "Cromemco Cyclops"), introduced as a hobbyist construction project in 1975,{{Cite journal \|journal\= Popular Electronics\| title\= Build Cyclops \|last1\= Walker \|first1\= Terry \|last2\= Garland \|first2\= Harry \|last3\= Melen \|first3\= Roger \|volume\= 7 \|issue\= 2 \|pages\= 27–31\| publisher\= Ziff Davis \|date\=February 1975}} was the first digital camera to be interfaced to a [microcomputer](/wiki/Microcomputer "Microcomputer"). Its [image sensor](/wiki/Image_sensor "Image sensor") was a modified [metal–oxide–semiconductor](/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93oxide%E2%80%93semiconductor "Metal–oxide–semiconductor") (MOS) dynamic [RAM](/wiki/Random-access_memory "Random-access memory") ([DRAM](/wiki/Dynamic_random-access_memory "Dynamic random-access memory")) [memory chip](/wiki/Memory_chip "Memory chip").{{cite web \|last1\=Benchoff\|first1\=Brian\|title\=Building the First Digital Camera\|url\=http://hackaday.com/2016/04/17/building\-the\-first\-digital\-camera/\|website\=\[\[Hackaday]]\|access\-date\=30 April 2016\|date\=17 April 2016\|quote\=the Cyclops was the first digital camera}}
The first recorded attempt at building a self\-contained digital camera was in 1975 by [Steven Sasson](/wiki/Steven_Sasson "Steven Sasson"), an engineer at Eastman Kodak.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.womeninphotography.org/Events\-Exhibits/Kodak/EasyShare\_3\.html \|work\= Women in Photography International \|title\= Digital Photography Milestones from Kodak \|access\-date\= 17 September 2007}}{{cite web\|url\=http://pluggedin.kodak.com/post/?id\=687843 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100529062439/http://pluggedin.kodak.com/post/?ID\=687843 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=29 May 2010 \|title\=Kodak blog: We Had No Idea}} It used the then\-new solid\-state CCD [image sensor](/wiki/Image_sensor "Image sensor") chips developed by [Fairchild Semiconductor](/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductor "Fairchild Semiconductor") in 1973\.{{cite book \|title\= The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography \|edition\= 4th \|author\= Michael R. Peres \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=VYyldcYfq3MC\&q\=sasson\+ccd\+fairchild\&pg\=RA1\-PA16 \|publisher\= Focal Press \|year\= 2007 \|isbn\= 978\-0\-240\-80740\-9}} The camera weighed 8 pounds (3\.6 kg), recorded black\-and\-white images to a compact cassette tape, had a resolution of 0\.01 megapixels (10,000 pixels), and took 23 seconds to capture its first image in December 1975\. The prototype camera was a technical exercise, not intended for production.
### Analog electronic cameras
{{Main\|Still video camera}}
[thumb\|Sony Mavica, 1981](/wiki/File:Sony_Mavica_1981_prototype_CP%2B_2011_%28filter_crop_soerfm%29.jpg "Sony Mavica 1981 prototype CP+ 2011 (filter crop soerfm).jpg")
Handheld electronic cameras, in the sense of a device meant to be carried and used as a handheld film camera, appeared in 1981 with the demonstration of the [Sony Mavica](/wiki/Sony_Mavica "Sony Mavica") (Magnetic Video Camera). This is not to be confused with the later cameras by Sony that also bore the Mavica name. This was an analog camera, in that it recorded pixel signals continuously, as videotape machines did, without converting them to discrete levels; it recorded television\-like signals to a 2 × 2 inch "[video floppy](/wiki/Video_floppy "Video floppy")".{{cite book \| title\= Image sensors and signal processing for digital still cameras \| chapter\= Digital Still Cameras at a Glance \| author\= Kenji Toyoda \| editor\= Junichi Nakamura \| publisher\= CRC Press \| year\= 2006 \| isbn\= 978\-0\-8493\-3545\-7 \| page\= 5 \| chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=UY6QzgzgieYC\&q\=sony\+mavica\+analog\&pg\=PA5}}
In essence, it was a video movie camera that recorded single frames, 50 per disk in field mode, and 25 per disk in frame mode. The image quality was considered equal to that of then\-current televisions.
[thumb\|Canon RC\-701, 1986](/wiki/File:Canon_RC-701_img_0829.jpg "Canon RC-701 img 0829.jpg")
Analog electronic cameras do not appear to have reached the market until 1986 with the Canon RC\-701\. Canon demonstrated a prototype of this model at the [1984 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics "1984 Summer Olympics"), printing the images in the *[Yomiuri Shimbun](/wiki/Yomiuri_Shimbun "Yomiuri Shimbun")*, a Japanese newspaper. In the United States, the first publication to use these cameras for real reportage was [USA Today](/wiki/USA_Today "USA Today"), in its coverage of World Series baseball. Several factors held back the widespread adoption of analog cameras; the cost (upwards of [$](/wiki/United_States_dollar "United States dollar")20,000, {{Inflation\|US\|20000\|1986\|fmt\=eq\|r\=\-3}}{{Inflation/fn\|US}}), poor image quality compared to film, and the lack of quality affordable printers. Capturing and printing an image originally required access to equipment such as a frame grabber, which was beyond the reach of the average consumer. The "video floppy" disks later had several reader devices available for viewing on a screen but were never standardized as a computer drive.
The early adopters tended to be in the news media, where the cost was negated by the utility and the ability to transmit images by telephone lines. The poor image quality was offset by the low resolution of newspaper graphics. This capability to transmit images without a satellite link was useful during the [1989 Tiananmen Square protests](/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests "1989 Tiananmen Square protests") and the first [Gulf War](/wiki/Gulf_War "Gulf War") in 1991\.
US government agencies also took a strong interest in the still video concept, notably the US Navy for use as a real\-time air\-to\-sea surveillance system.
The first analog electronic camera marketed to consumers may have been the Casio VS\-101 in 1987\. A notable analog camera produced the same year was the [Nikon QV\-1000C](https://imaging.nikon.com/history/chronicle/cousins16-e/), designed as a press camera and not offered for sale to general users, which sold only a few hundred units. It recorded images in [greyscale](/wiki/Greyscale "Greyscale"), and the quality in newspaper print was equal to film cameras. In appearance it closely resembled a modern digital [single\-lens reflex camera](/wiki/Single-lens_reflex_camera "Single-lens reflex camera"). Images were stored on video floppy disks.
Silicon Film, a proposed digital sensor cartridge for film cameras that would allow 35 mm cameras to take digital photographs without modification was announced in late 1998\. Silicon Film was to work as a roll of 35 mm film, with a 1\.3 [megapixel](/wiki/Megapixel "Megapixel") sensor behind the lens and a battery and storage unit fitting in the film holder in the camera. The product, which was never released, became increasingly obsolete due to improvements in digital camera technology and affordability. Silicon Films' parent company filed for bankruptcy in 2001\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.dpreview.com/news/0109/01091702siliconfilmvaporizes.asp \|title\=Silicon Film – vaporized\-ware \|first\=Phil \|last\=Askey \|year\=2001 \|access\-date\=20 February 2008}}
### Early true digital cameras
[thumb\|Minolta RD\-175, the first portable digital SLR camera, introduced by Minolta in 1995\.](/wiki/File:Minolta_RD-175_Digital_SLR.JPG "Minolta RD-175 Digital SLR.JPG")
[thumb\|Nikon D1, 1999](/wiki/File:Capas-d1.jpg "Capas-d1.jpg")
By the late 1970s, the technology required to produce truly commercial digital cameras existed. The first true portable digital camera that recorded images as a computerized file was likely the [Fuji](/wiki/Fujifilm "Fujifilm") DS\-1P of 1988, which recorded to a 2 MB [SRAM](/wiki/Static_random-access_memory "Static random-access memory") (static [RAM](/wiki/Random-access_memory "Random-access memory")) [memory card](/wiki/Memory_card "Memory card") that used a battery to keep the data in memory. This camera was never marketed to the public.
The first digital camera of any kind ever sold commercially was possibly the MegaVision Tessera in 1987{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.mega\-vision.com/why\_Measured\_Photography.html\|title\=MegaVision Professional Camera Backs\|access\-date\=4 May 2014\|archive\-date\=14 July 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170714124625/http://www.mega\-vision.com/why\_Measured\_Photography.html\|url\-status\=dead}} though there is not extensive documentation of its sale known. The first *portable* digital camera that was actually marketed commercially was sold in December 1989 in Japan, the DS\-X by
Fuji[History of the digital camera and digital imaging](https://www.digitalkameramuseum.de/en/history) The first commercially available portable digital camera in the United States was the Dycam Model 1, first shipped in November 1990\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://business.highbeam.com/2025/article\-1G1\-11194804/digital\-cameras\-next\-wave\|title\=Digital cameras, the next wave. (Electronic Imaging Issue; includes related articles) \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503221856/http://business.highbeam.com/2025/article\-1G1\-11194804/digital\-cameras\-next\-wave\|archive\-date\=3 May 2014}} It was originally a commercial failure because it was black\-and\-white, low in resolution, and cost nearly $1,000 ({{Inflation\|US\|1000\|1990\|fmt\=eq\|r\=\-2}}{{Inflation/fn\|US}}).{{Cite web\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=lFAEAAAAMBAJ\&q\=%22dycam\+model\+1%22\&pg\=PA54\|title\=InfoWorld\|first\=InfoWorld Media Group\|last\=Inc\|date\=12 August 1991\|publisher\=InfoWorld Media Group, Inc.\|via\=Google Books}} It later saw modest success when it was re\-sold as the [Logitech](/wiki/Logitech "Logitech") Fotoman in 1992\. It used a CCD [image sensor](/wiki/Image_sensor "Image sensor"), stored pictures digitally, and connected directly to a computer for download.{{cite web \|title\=History of the digital camera and digital imaging \|url\=https://www.digitalkameramuseum.de/en/history \|website\=The Digital Camera Museum}}{{cite web \|title\= Dycam Model 1: The world's first consumer digital still camera \|work\= DigiBarn computer museum \|url\=http://www.digibarn.com/collections/cameras/dycam\-model1/index.html}}Carolyn Said, "DYCAM Model 1: The first portable Digital Still Camera", *MacWeek*, vol. 4, No. 35, 16 Oct. 1990, p. 34\.
### Digital SLRs (DSLRs)
{{Main\|Digital single\-lens reflex camera\#History}}
[Nikon](/wiki/Nikon "Nikon") was interested in digital photography since the mid\-1980s. In July 1986, while presenting to [Photokina](/wiki/Photokina "Photokina"), Nikon introduced an operational prototype of the first [SLR\-type digital camera](/wiki/Digital_single-lens_reflex_camera "Digital single-lens reflex camera") (Still Video Camera), manufactured by [Panasonic](/wiki/Panasonic "Panasonic").David D. Busch (2011\), [*Nikon D70 Digital Field Guide*, page 11](https://books.google.com/books?id=jOVSzasqzQ4C&pg=PT11), [John Wiley \& Sons](/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons "John Wiley & Sons") The Nikon SVC was built around a sensor 2/3 " [charge\-coupled device](/wiki/Charge-coupled_device "Charge-coupled device") of 300,000 [pixels](/wiki/Pixels "Pixels"). Storage media, a magnetic floppy inside the camera, allows recording 25 or 50 B\&W images, depending on the definition.[Nikon SLR\-type digital cameras](http://apphotnum.free.fr/N2BE2.html), Pierre Jarleton
In 1991, Kodak brought to market the [Kodak DCS](/wiki/Kodak_DCS "Kodak DCS") (Kodak Digital Camera System), the beginning of a long line of professional [Kodak DCS](/wiki/Kodak_DCS "Kodak DCS") SLR cameras that were based in part on film bodies, often Nikons. The Kodak DCS was the first commercially available Digital SLR (DSLR) It used a 1\.3 megapixel sensor, had a bulky external digital storage system and was priced at $13,000 ({{Inflation\|US\|13000\|1991\|fmt\=eq\|r\=\-3}}{{Inflation/fn\|US}}). At the arrival of the Kodak DCS\-200, the [Kodak DCS](/wiki/Kodak_DCS "Kodak DCS") was dubbed [Kodak DCS\-100](/wiki/Kodak_DCS-100 "Kodak DCS-100").
The move to digital formats was helped by the formation of the first [JPEG](/wiki/JPEG "JPEG") and [MPEG](/wiki/MPEG "MPEG") standards in 1988, which allowed image and video files to be compressed for storage. The first consumer camera with a liquid crystal display on the back was the [Casio](/wiki/Casio "Casio") QV\-10 developed by a team led by Hiroyuki Suetaka in 1995\. The first camera to use [CompactFlash](/wiki/CompactFlash "CompactFlash") was the Kodak DC\-25 in 1996\.{{cite web \|title\=Kodak DC25 (1996\) \|url\=https://www.digitalkameramuseum.de/en/cameras/item/kodak\-dc25 \|website\=DigitalKamera Museum}} The first camera that offered the ability to record [video](/wiki/Video "Video") clips may have been the [Ricoh](/wiki/Ricoh "Ricoh") RDC\-1 in 1995\.
In 1995 Minolta introduced the [RD\-175](/wiki/Minolta_RD-175 "Minolta RD-175"), which was based on the Minolta 500si SLR with a splitter and three independent CCDs. This combination delivered 1\.75M pixels. The benefit of using an SLR base was the ability to use any existing Minolta AF mount lens. 1999 saw the introduction of the [Nikon D1](/wiki/Nikon_D1 "Nikon D1"), a 2\.74 megapixel camera that was the first [digital SLR](/wiki/Digital_SLR "Digital SLR") developed entirely from the ground up by a major manufacturer, and at a cost of under $6,000 ({{Inflation\|US\|6000\|1995\|fmt\=eq\|r\=\-2}}{{Inflation/fn\|US}}) at introduction was affordable by professional photographers and high\-end consumers. This camera also used Nikon F\-mount lenses, which meant film photographers could use many of the same lenses they already owned.
Digital camera sales continued to flourish, driven by technology advances. The digital market segmented into different categories, Compact Digital Still Cameras, Bridge Cameras, Mirrorless Compacts and Digital SLRs.
Since 2003, digital cameras have outsold film cameras{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.macworld.com/article/1039455/digitalfilm.html\|title\=Digital outsells film, but film still king to some\|date\=23 September 2004\|website\=Macworld}} and [Kodak](/wiki/Kodak "Kodak") announced in January 2004 that they would no longer sell Kodak\-branded film cameras in the [developed world](/wiki/Developed_world "Developed world"){{cite web \|url\=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/20/kodak\_to\_drop\_35mm\_cameras/ \|title\=Kodak to drop 35 mm cameras in Europe, US \|first\=Tony \|last\=Smith \|date\=2004\-01\-20 \|publisher\=The Register \|access\-date\=2007\-04\-03}} – and in 2012 filed for bankruptcy after struggling to adapt to the changing industry.{{cite news \|url\=https://dealbook.nytimes.com/2012/01/19/eastman\-kodak\-files\-for\-bankruptcy/ \|work\=The New York Times \|title\=Eastman Kodak Files for Bankruptcy \|date\=2012\-01\-19}}
### Camera phones
{{Main\|Camera phone}}
The first commercial [camera phone](/wiki/Camera_phone "Camera phone") was the [Kyocera](/wiki/Kyocera "Kyocera") Visual Phone VP\-210, released in Japan in May 1999\.{{cite web \|title\=Camera phones: A look back and forward \|url\=https://www.computerworld.com/article/2473084/camera\-phones\-\-a\-look\-back\-and\-forward.html \|website\=\[\[Computerworld]] \|date\=11 May 2012 \|access\-date\=15 September 2019 \|archive\-date\=9 October 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009064125/https://www.computerworld.com/article/2473084/camera\-phones\-\-a\-look\-back\-and\-forward.html \|url\-status\=dead }} It was called a "mobile videophone" at the time,{{cite news \|title\=First mobile videophone introduced \|url\=http://edition.cnn.com/TECH/ptech/9905/18/japan.phonetv/ \|access\-date\=15 September 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[CNN]] \|date\=18 May 1999}} and had a 110,000\-[pixel](/wiki/Pixel "Pixel") [front\-facing camera](/wiki/Front-facing_camera "Front-facing camera"). It stored up to 20 [JPEG](/wiki/JPEG "JPEG") [digital images](/wiki/Digital_images "Digital images"), which could be sent over [e\-mail](/wiki/E-mail "E-mail"), or the phone could send up to two images per second over Japan's [Personal Handy\-phone System](/wiki/Personal_Handy-phone_System "Personal Handy-phone System") (PHS) [cellular network](/wiki/Cellular_network "Cellular network"). The [Samsung](/wiki/Samsung "Samsung") SCH\-V200, released in [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea "South Korea") in June 2000, was also one of the first phones with a built\-in camera. It had a [TFT](/wiki/Thin-film_transistor "Thin-film transistor") [liquid\-crystal display](/wiki/Liquid-crystal_display "Liquid-crystal display") (LCD) and stored up to 20 [digital photos](/wiki/Digital_photo "Digital photo") at 350,000\-pixel resolution. However, it could not send the resulting image over the telephone function, but required a [computer](/wiki/Computer "Computer") connection to access photos.{{cite web \|title\=From J\-Phone to Lumia 1020: A complete history of the camera phone \|url\=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/camera\-phone\-history/ \|website\=\[\[Digital Trends]] \|date\=11 August 2013 \|access\-date\=15 September 2019}} The first mass\-market camera phone was the [J\-SH04](/wiki/J-SH04 "J-SH04"), a [Sharp](/wiki/Sharp_Corporation "Sharp Corporation") [J\-Phone](/wiki/J-Phone "J-Phone") model sold in Japan in November 2000\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.hoista.net/post/18437919296/evolution\-of\-the\-cameraphone\-from\-sharp\-j\-sh04\-to \|title\=Evolution of the Camera phone: From Sharp J\-SH04 to Nokia 808 Pureview \|publisher\=Hoista.net \|date\=2012\-02\-28 \|access\-date\=2013\-06\-21 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731053246/http://www.hoista.net/post/18437919296/evolution\-of\-the\-cameraphone\-from\-sharp\-j\-sh04\-to \|archive\-date\=2013\-07\-31}} It could instantly transmit pictures via cell phone [telecommunication](/wiki/Telecommunication "Telecommunication").{{cite news \|title\=Taking pictures with your phone \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/1550622\.stm \|access\-date\=15 September 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[BBC News]] \|date\=18 September 2001}}
One of the major technology advances was the development of [CMOS sensors](/wiki/CMOS_sensor "CMOS sensor"), which helped drive sensor costs low enough to enable the widespread adoption of camera phones. [Smartphones](/wiki/Smartphone "Smartphone") now routinely include high resolution digital cameras.
|
[
"Digital cameras\n---------------",
"{{Further\\|Digital camera\\#History}}",
"[Digital cameras](/wiki/Digital_camera \"Digital camera\") differ from their analog predecessors primarily in that they do not use film, but capture and save photographs on digital memory cards or internal storage instead. Their low operating costs have relegated chemical cameras to [niche markets](/wiki/Niche_market \"Niche market\"). Digital cameras now include wireless communication capabilities (for example [Wi\\-Fi](/wiki/Wi-Fi \"Wi-Fi\") or [Bluetooth](/wiki/Bluetooth \"Bluetooth\")) to transfer, print, or share photos, and are commonly found on [mobile phones](/wiki/Camera_phone \"Camera phone\").",
"### Digital imaging technology",
"{{Further\\|Digital imaging\\#History}}\n{{See also\\|Image sensor\\|Data compression}}",
"The first semiconductor image sensor was the CCD, invented by [Willard S. Boyle](/wiki/Willard_S._Boyle \"Willard S. Boyle\") and [George E. Smith](/wiki/George_E._Smith \"George E. Smith\") at Bell Labs in 1969\\.{{Cite book \\| title \\= Scientific charge\\-coupled devices \\| author \\= James R. Janesick \\| publisher \\= SPIE Press \\| year \\= 2001 \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-8194\\-3698\\-6 \\| pages \\= 3–4 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=3GyE4SWytn4C\\&pg\\=PA3}} While researching MOS technology, they realized that an electric charge was the analogy of the magnetic bubble and that it could be stored on a tiny [MOS capacitor](/wiki/MOS_capacitor \"MOS capacitor\"). As it was fairly straightforward to [fabricate](/wiki/Semiconductor_device_fabrication \"Semiconductor device fabrication\") a series of MOS capacitors in a row, they connected a suitable voltage to them so that the charge could be stepped along from one to the next.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Williams\\|first1\\=J. B.\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=v4QlDwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA245\\|title\\=The Electronics Revolution: Inventing the Future\\|date\\=2017\\|publisher\\=Springer\\|isbn\\=9783319490885\\|pages\\=245–8}} The CCD is a semiconductor circuit that was later used in the first [digital video cameras](/wiki/Digital_video_camera \"Digital video camera\") for [television broadcasting](/wiki/Television_broadcasting \"Television broadcasting\").{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Boyle\\|first1\\=William S\\|last2\\=Smith\\|first2\\=George E.\\|date\\=1970\\|title\\=Charge Coupled Semiconductor Devices\\|journal\\=Bell Syst. Tech. J.\\|volume\\=49\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=587–593\\|doi\\=10\\.1002/j.1538\\-7305\\.1970\\.tb01790\\.x\\|bibcode\\=1970BSTJ...49\\..587B }}",
"The [NMOS](/wiki/NMOS_logic \"NMOS logic\") [active\\-pixel sensor](/wiki/Active-pixel_sensor \"Active-pixel sensor\") (APS) was invented by [Olympus](/wiki/Olympus_Corporation \"Olympus Corporation\") in Japan during the mid\\-1980s. This was enabled by advances in MOS [semiconductor device fabrication](/wiki/Semiconductor_device_fabrication \"Semiconductor device fabrication\"), with [MOSFET scaling](/wiki/MOSFET_scaling \"MOSFET scaling\") reaching smaller [micron and then sub\\-micron](/wiki/List_of_semiconductor_scale_examples \"List of semiconductor scale examples\") levels.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Fossum \\|first1\\=Eric R. \\|author1\\-link\\=Eric Fossum \\|title\\=Active pixel sensors: are CCDs dinosaurs? \\|journal\\=SPIE Proceedings Vol. 1900: Charge\\-Coupled Devices and Solid State Optical Sensors III \\|series\\=Charge\\-Coupled Devices and Solid State Optical Sensors III \\|date\\=12 July 1993 \\|volume\\=1900 \\|doi\\=10\\.1117/12\\.148585 \\|publisher\\=International Society for Optics and Photonics \\|pages\\=2–14 \\|bibcode\\=1993SPIE.1900\\....2F \\|editor1\\-last\\=Blouke \\|editor1\\-first\\=Morley M.\\|citeseerx\\=10\\.1\\.1\\.408\\.6558\\|s2cid\\=10556755 }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Fossum \\|first1\\=Eric R. \\|author1\\-link\\=Eric Fossum \\|title\\=Active Pixel Sensors \\|website\\=\\[\\[Semantic Scholar]] \\|year\\=2007 \\|s2cid\\=18831792 \\|url\\=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f510/d40cfe0556392bb2d34981f7158327dec169\\.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190309065505/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f510/d40cfe0556392bb2d34981f7158327dec169\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=9 March 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=8 October 2019}} The NMOS APS was fabricated by Tsutomu Nakamura's team at Olympus in 1985\\.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Matsumoto \\|first1\\=Kazuya \\|last2\\=Nakamura \\|first2\\=Tsutomu \\|last3\\=Yusa \\|first3\\=Atsushi \\|last4\\=Nagai \\|first4\\=Shohei \\|display\\-authors\\=1\\|date\\=1985 \\|title\\=A new MOS phototransistor operating in a non\\-destructive readout mode \\|journal\\=Japanese Journal of Applied Physics \\|volume\\=24 \\|issue\\=5A \\|page\\=L323\\|doi\\=10\\.1143/JJAP.24\\.L323 \\|bibcode\\=1985JaJAP..24L.323M\\|s2cid\\=108450116 }} The [CMOS](/wiki/CMOS \"CMOS\") active\\-pixel sensor (CMOS sensor) was later developed by [Eric Fossum](/wiki/Eric_Fossum \"Eric Fossum\")'s team at the [NASA](/wiki/NASA \"NASA\") [Jet Propulsion Laboratory](/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory \"Jet Propulsion Laboratory\") in 1993\\.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Fossum \\|first1\\=Eric R. \\|author1\\-link\\=Eric Fossum \\|last2\\=Hondongwa \\|first2\\=D. B. \\|title\\=A Review of the Pinned Photodiode for CCD and CMOS Image Sensors \\|journal\\=IEEE Journal of the Electron Devices Society \\|date\\=2014 \\|volume\\=2 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=33–43 \\|doi\\=10\\.1109/JEDS.2014\\.2306412\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"### Early digital camera prototypes",
"The concept of digitizing images on scanners, and the concept of digitizing video signals, predate the concept of making still pictures by digitizing signals from an array of discrete sensor elements. Early [spy satellites](/wiki/Spy_satellite \"Spy satellite\") used the extremely complex and expensive method of de\\-orbit and airborne retrieval of film canisters. Technology was pushed to skip these steps through the use of in\\-satellite developing and electronic scanning of the film for direct transmission to the ground. The amount of film was still a major limitation, and this was overcome and greatly simplified by the push to develop an electronic image capturing array that could be used instead of film. The first electronic imaging satellite was the [KH\\-11](/wiki/KH-11 \"KH-11\") launched by the [NRO](/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office \"National Reconnaissance Office\") in late 1976\\. It had a [charge\\-coupled device](/wiki/Charge-coupled_device \"Charge-coupled device\") (CCD) array with a resolution of {{nowrap\\|800 x 800 pixels}} (0\\.64 megapixels).[globalsecurity.org – KH\\-11 KENNAN](https://www.globalsecurity.org/space/systems/kh-11.htm), 24 April 2007 At Philips Labs in New York, Edward Stupp, Pieter Cath and Zsolt Szilagyi filed for a patent on \"All Solid State Radiation Imagers\" on 6 September 1968 and constructed a flat\\-screen target for receiving and storing an optical image on a matrix composed of an array of photodiodes connected to a capacitor to form an array of two terminal devices connected in rows and columns. Their US patent was granted on 10 November 1970\\.{{Cite patent\\|country\\=US\\|number\\=3540011\\|pubdate\\=1970\\-11\\-10\\|title\\=All solid state radiation imagers\\|assign1\\=\\[\\[Philips\\|US Philips Corp.]]\\|inventor1\\-last\\=Stupp\\|inventor1\\-first\\=Edward H.\\|inventor2\\-last\\=Cath\\|inventor2\\-first\\=Pieter G.\\|inventor3\\-last\\=Szilagyi\\|inventor3\\-first\\=Zsolt}} Texas Instruments engineer [Willis Adcock](/wiki/Willis_Adcock \"Willis Adcock\") designed a filmless camera that was not digital and applied for a patent in 1972, but it is not known whether it was ever built.{{Cite patent\\|country\\=US\\|number\\=4057830}} and {{Cite patent\\|country\\=US\\|number\\=4163256}} were filed in 1972 but were only later awarded in 1976 and 1977\\. {{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.digicamhistory.com/1970s.html\\|title\\=1970s\\|access\\-date\\=15 June 2008}}",
"The [Cromemco Cyclops](/wiki/Cromemco_Cyclops \"Cromemco Cyclops\"), introduced as a hobbyist construction project in 1975,{{Cite journal \\|journal\\= Popular Electronics\\| title\\= Build Cyclops \\|last1\\= Walker \\|first1\\= Terry \\|last2\\= Garland \\|first2\\= Harry \\|last3\\= Melen \\|first3\\= Roger \\|volume\\= 7 \\|issue\\= 2 \\|pages\\= 27–31\\| publisher\\= Ziff Davis \\|date\\=February 1975}} was the first digital camera to be interfaced to a [microcomputer](/wiki/Microcomputer \"Microcomputer\"). Its [image sensor](/wiki/Image_sensor \"Image sensor\") was a modified [metal–oxide–semiconductor](/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93oxide%E2%80%93semiconductor \"Metal–oxide–semiconductor\") (MOS) dynamic [RAM](/wiki/Random-access_memory \"Random-access memory\") ([DRAM](/wiki/Dynamic_random-access_memory \"Dynamic random-access memory\")) [memory chip](/wiki/Memory_chip \"Memory chip\").{{cite web \\|last1\\=Benchoff\\|first1\\=Brian\\|title\\=Building the First Digital Camera\\|url\\=http://hackaday.com/2016/04/17/building\\-the\\-first\\-digital\\-camera/\\|website\\=\\[\\[Hackaday]]\\|access\\-date\\=30 April 2016\\|date\\=17 April 2016\\|quote\\=the Cyclops was the first digital camera}}",
"The first recorded attempt at building a self\\-contained digital camera was in 1975 by [Steven Sasson](/wiki/Steven_Sasson \"Steven Sasson\"), an engineer at Eastman Kodak.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.womeninphotography.org/Events\\-Exhibits/Kodak/EasyShare\\_3\\.html \\|work\\= Women in Photography International \\|title\\= Digital Photography Milestones from Kodak \\|access\\-date\\= 17 September 2007}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://pluggedin.kodak.com/post/?id\\=687843 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100529062439/http://pluggedin.kodak.com/post/?ID\\=687843 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=29 May 2010 \\|title\\=Kodak blog: We Had No Idea}} It used the then\\-new solid\\-state CCD [image sensor](/wiki/Image_sensor \"Image sensor\") chips developed by [Fairchild Semiconductor](/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductor \"Fairchild Semiconductor\") in 1973\\.{{cite book \\|title\\= The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography \\|edition\\= 4th \\|author\\= Michael R. Peres \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=VYyldcYfq3MC\\&q\\=sasson\\+ccd\\+fairchild\\&pg\\=RA1\\-PA16 \\|publisher\\= Focal Press \\|year\\= 2007 \\|isbn\\= 978\\-0\\-240\\-80740\\-9}} The camera weighed 8 pounds (3\\.6 kg), recorded black\\-and\\-white images to a compact cassette tape, had a resolution of 0\\.01 megapixels (10,000 pixels), and took 23 seconds to capture its first image in December 1975\\. The prototype camera was a technical exercise, not intended for production.",
"### Analog electronic cameras",
"{{Main\\|Still video camera}}\n[thumb\\|Sony Mavica, 1981](/wiki/File:Sony_Mavica_1981_prototype_CP%2B_2011_%28filter_crop_soerfm%29.jpg \"Sony Mavica 1981 prototype CP+ 2011 (filter crop soerfm).jpg\")",
"Handheld electronic cameras, in the sense of a device meant to be carried and used as a handheld film camera, appeared in 1981 with the demonstration of the [Sony Mavica](/wiki/Sony_Mavica \"Sony Mavica\") (Magnetic Video Camera). This is not to be confused with the later cameras by Sony that also bore the Mavica name. This was an analog camera, in that it recorded pixel signals continuously, as videotape machines did, without converting them to discrete levels; it recorded television\\-like signals to a 2 × 2 inch \"[video floppy](/wiki/Video_floppy \"Video floppy\")\".{{cite book \\| title\\= Image sensors and signal processing for digital still cameras \\| chapter\\= Digital Still Cameras at a Glance \\| author\\= Kenji Toyoda \\| editor\\= Junichi Nakamura \\| publisher\\= CRC Press \\| year\\= 2006 \\| isbn\\= 978\\-0\\-8493\\-3545\\-7 \\| page\\= 5 \\| chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=UY6QzgzgieYC\\&q\\=sony\\+mavica\\+analog\\&pg\\=PA5}}\nIn essence, it was a video movie camera that recorded single frames, 50 per disk in field mode, and 25 per disk in frame mode. The image quality was considered equal to that of then\\-current televisions.",
"[thumb\\|Canon RC\\-701, 1986](/wiki/File:Canon_RC-701_img_0829.jpg \"Canon RC-701 img 0829.jpg\")",
"Analog electronic cameras do not appear to have reached the market until 1986 with the Canon RC\\-701\\. Canon demonstrated a prototype of this model at the [1984 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics \"1984 Summer Olympics\"), printing the images in the *[Yomiuri Shimbun](/wiki/Yomiuri_Shimbun \"Yomiuri Shimbun\")*, a Japanese newspaper. In the United States, the first publication to use these cameras for real reportage was [USA Today](/wiki/USA_Today \"USA Today\"), in its coverage of World Series baseball. Several factors held back the widespread adoption of analog cameras; the cost (upwards of [$](/wiki/United_States_dollar \"United States dollar\")20,000, {{Inflation\\|US\\|20000\\|1986\\|fmt\\=eq\\|r\\=\\-3}}{{Inflation/fn\\|US}}), poor image quality compared to film, and the lack of quality affordable printers. Capturing and printing an image originally required access to equipment such as a frame grabber, which was beyond the reach of the average consumer. The \"video floppy\" disks later had several reader devices available for viewing on a screen but were never standardized as a computer drive.",
"The early adopters tended to be in the news media, where the cost was negated by the utility and the ability to transmit images by telephone lines. The poor image quality was offset by the low resolution of newspaper graphics. This capability to transmit images without a satellite link was useful during the [1989 Tiananmen Square protests](/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests \"1989 Tiananmen Square protests\") and the first [Gulf War](/wiki/Gulf_War \"Gulf War\") in 1991\\.",
"US government agencies also took a strong interest in the still video concept, notably the US Navy for use as a real\\-time air\\-to\\-sea surveillance system.",
"The first analog electronic camera marketed to consumers may have been the Casio VS\\-101 in 1987\\. A notable analog camera produced the same year was the [Nikon QV\\-1000C](https://imaging.nikon.com/history/chronicle/cousins16-e/), designed as a press camera and not offered for sale to general users, which sold only a few hundred units. It recorded images in [greyscale](/wiki/Greyscale \"Greyscale\"), and the quality in newspaper print was equal to film cameras. In appearance it closely resembled a modern digital [single\\-lens reflex camera](/wiki/Single-lens_reflex_camera \"Single-lens reflex camera\"). Images were stored on video floppy disks.",
"Silicon Film, a proposed digital sensor cartridge for film cameras that would allow 35 mm cameras to take digital photographs without modification was announced in late 1998\\. Silicon Film was to work as a roll of 35 mm film, with a 1\\.3 [megapixel](/wiki/Megapixel \"Megapixel\") sensor behind the lens and a battery and storage unit fitting in the film holder in the camera. The product, which was never released, became increasingly obsolete due to improvements in digital camera technology and affordability. Silicon Films' parent company filed for bankruptcy in 2001\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.dpreview.com/news/0109/01091702siliconfilmvaporizes.asp \\|title\\=Silicon Film – vaporized\\-ware \\|first\\=Phil \\|last\\=Askey \\|year\\=2001 \\|access\\-date\\=20 February 2008}}",
"### Early true digital cameras",
"[thumb\\|Minolta RD\\-175, the first portable digital SLR camera, introduced by Minolta in 1995\\.](/wiki/File:Minolta_RD-175_Digital_SLR.JPG \"Minolta RD-175 Digital SLR.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|Nikon D1, 1999](/wiki/File:Capas-d1.jpg \"Capas-d1.jpg\")",
"By the late 1970s, the technology required to produce truly commercial digital cameras existed. The first true portable digital camera that recorded images as a computerized file was likely the [Fuji](/wiki/Fujifilm \"Fujifilm\") DS\\-1P of 1988, which recorded to a 2 MB [SRAM](/wiki/Static_random-access_memory \"Static random-access memory\") (static [RAM](/wiki/Random-access_memory \"Random-access memory\")) [memory card](/wiki/Memory_card \"Memory card\") that used a battery to keep the data in memory. This camera was never marketed to the public.",
"The first digital camera of any kind ever sold commercially was possibly the MegaVision Tessera in 1987{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mega\\-vision.com/why\\_Measured\\_Photography.html\\|title\\=MegaVision Professional Camera Backs\\|access\\-date\\=4 May 2014\\|archive\\-date\\=14 July 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170714124625/http://www.mega\\-vision.com/why\\_Measured\\_Photography.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} though there is not extensive documentation of its sale known. The first *portable* digital camera that was actually marketed commercially was sold in December 1989 in Japan, the DS\\-X by\nFuji[History of the digital camera and digital imaging](https://www.digitalkameramuseum.de/en/history) The first commercially available portable digital camera in the United States was the Dycam Model 1, first shipped in November 1990\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://business.highbeam.com/2025/article\\-1G1\\-11194804/digital\\-cameras\\-next\\-wave\\|title\\=Digital cameras, the next wave. (Electronic Imaging Issue; includes related articles) \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503221856/http://business.highbeam.com/2025/article\\-1G1\\-11194804/digital\\-cameras\\-next\\-wave\\|archive\\-date\\=3 May 2014}} It was originally a commercial failure because it was black\\-and\\-white, low in resolution, and cost nearly $1,000 ({{Inflation\\|US\\|1000\\|1990\\|fmt\\=eq\\|r\\=\\-2}}{{Inflation/fn\\|US}}).{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=lFAEAAAAMBAJ\\&q\\=%22dycam\\+model\\+1%22\\&pg\\=PA54\\|title\\=InfoWorld\\|first\\=InfoWorld Media Group\\|last\\=Inc\\|date\\=12 August 1991\\|publisher\\=InfoWorld Media Group, Inc.\\|via\\=Google Books}} It later saw modest success when it was re\\-sold as the [Logitech](/wiki/Logitech \"Logitech\") Fotoman in 1992\\. It used a CCD [image sensor](/wiki/Image_sensor \"Image sensor\"), stored pictures digitally, and connected directly to a computer for download.{{cite web \\|title\\=History of the digital camera and digital imaging \\|url\\=https://www.digitalkameramuseum.de/en/history \\|website\\=The Digital Camera Museum}}{{cite web \\|title\\= Dycam Model 1: The world's first consumer digital still camera \\|work\\= DigiBarn computer museum \\|url\\=http://www.digibarn.com/collections/cameras/dycam\\-model1/index.html}}Carolyn Said, \"DYCAM Model 1: The first portable Digital Still Camera\", *MacWeek*, vol. 4, No. 35, 16 Oct. 1990, p. 34\\.",
"### Digital SLRs (DSLRs)",
"{{Main\\|Digital single\\-lens reflex camera\\#History}}",
"[Nikon](/wiki/Nikon \"Nikon\") was interested in digital photography since the mid\\-1980s. In July 1986, while presenting to [Photokina](/wiki/Photokina \"Photokina\"), Nikon introduced an operational prototype of the first [SLR\\-type digital camera](/wiki/Digital_single-lens_reflex_camera \"Digital single-lens reflex camera\") (Still Video Camera), manufactured by [Panasonic](/wiki/Panasonic \"Panasonic\").David D. Busch (2011\\), [*Nikon D70 Digital Field Guide*, page 11](https://books.google.com/books?id=jOVSzasqzQ4C&pg=PT11), [John Wiley \\& Sons](/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons \"John Wiley & Sons\") The Nikon SVC was built around a sensor 2/3 \" [charge\\-coupled device](/wiki/Charge-coupled_device \"Charge-coupled device\") of 300,000 [pixels](/wiki/Pixels \"Pixels\"). Storage media, a magnetic floppy inside the camera, allows recording 25 or 50 B\\&W images, depending on the definition.[Nikon SLR\\-type digital cameras](http://apphotnum.free.fr/N2BE2.html), Pierre Jarleton",
"In 1991, Kodak brought to market the [Kodak DCS](/wiki/Kodak_DCS \"Kodak DCS\") (Kodak Digital Camera System), the beginning of a long line of professional [Kodak DCS](/wiki/Kodak_DCS \"Kodak DCS\") SLR cameras that were based in part on film bodies, often Nikons. The Kodak DCS was the first commercially available Digital SLR (DSLR) It used a 1\\.3 megapixel sensor, had a bulky external digital storage system and was priced at $13,000 ({{Inflation\\|US\\|13000\\|1991\\|fmt\\=eq\\|r\\=\\-3}}{{Inflation/fn\\|US}}). At the arrival of the Kodak DCS\\-200, the [Kodak DCS](/wiki/Kodak_DCS \"Kodak DCS\") was dubbed [Kodak DCS\\-100](/wiki/Kodak_DCS-100 \"Kodak DCS-100\").",
"The move to digital formats was helped by the formation of the first [JPEG](/wiki/JPEG \"JPEG\") and [MPEG](/wiki/MPEG \"MPEG\") standards in 1988, which allowed image and video files to be compressed for storage. The first consumer camera with a liquid crystal display on the back was the [Casio](/wiki/Casio \"Casio\") QV\\-10 developed by a team led by Hiroyuki Suetaka in 1995\\. The first camera to use [CompactFlash](/wiki/CompactFlash \"CompactFlash\") was the Kodak DC\\-25 in 1996\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Kodak DC25 (1996\\) \\|url\\=https://www.digitalkameramuseum.de/en/cameras/item/kodak\\-dc25 \\|website\\=DigitalKamera Museum}} The first camera that offered the ability to record [video](/wiki/Video \"Video\") clips may have been the [Ricoh](/wiki/Ricoh \"Ricoh\") RDC\\-1 in 1995\\.",
"In 1995 Minolta introduced the [RD\\-175](/wiki/Minolta_RD-175 \"Minolta RD-175\"), which was based on the Minolta 500si SLR with a splitter and three independent CCDs. This combination delivered 1\\.75M pixels. The benefit of using an SLR base was the ability to use any existing Minolta AF mount lens. 1999 saw the introduction of the [Nikon D1](/wiki/Nikon_D1 \"Nikon D1\"), a 2\\.74 megapixel camera that was the first [digital SLR](/wiki/Digital_SLR \"Digital SLR\") developed entirely from the ground up by a major manufacturer, and at a cost of under $6,000 ({{Inflation\\|US\\|6000\\|1995\\|fmt\\=eq\\|r\\=\\-2}}{{Inflation/fn\\|US}}) at introduction was affordable by professional photographers and high\\-end consumers. This camera also used Nikon F\\-mount lenses, which meant film photographers could use many of the same lenses they already owned.",
"Digital camera sales continued to flourish, driven by technology advances. The digital market segmented into different categories, Compact Digital Still Cameras, Bridge Cameras, Mirrorless Compacts and Digital SLRs.",
"Since 2003, digital cameras have outsold film cameras{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.macworld.com/article/1039455/digitalfilm.html\\|title\\=Digital outsells film, but film still king to some\\|date\\=23 September 2004\\|website\\=Macworld}} and [Kodak](/wiki/Kodak \"Kodak\") announced in January 2004 that they would no longer sell Kodak\\-branded film cameras in the [developed world](/wiki/Developed_world \"Developed world\"){{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/01/20/kodak\\_to\\_drop\\_35mm\\_cameras/ \\|title\\=Kodak to drop 35 mm cameras in Europe, US \\|first\\=Tony \\|last\\=Smith \\|date\\=2004\\-01\\-20 \\|publisher\\=The Register \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-04\\-03}} – and in 2012 filed for bankruptcy after struggling to adapt to the changing industry.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://dealbook.nytimes.com/2012/01/19/eastman\\-kodak\\-files\\-for\\-bankruptcy/ \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|title\\=Eastman Kodak Files for Bankruptcy \\|date\\=2012\\-01\\-19}}",
"### Camera phones",
"{{Main\\|Camera phone}}",
"The first commercial [camera phone](/wiki/Camera_phone \"Camera phone\") was the [Kyocera](/wiki/Kyocera \"Kyocera\") Visual Phone VP\\-210, released in Japan in May 1999\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Camera phones: A look back and forward \\|url\\=https://www.computerworld.com/article/2473084/camera\\-phones\\-\\-a\\-look\\-back\\-and\\-forward.html \\|website\\=\\[\\[Computerworld]] \\|date\\=11 May 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=15 September 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=9 October 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009064125/https://www.computerworld.com/article/2473084/camera\\-phones\\-\\-a\\-look\\-back\\-and\\-forward.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} It was called a \"mobile videophone\" at the time,{{cite news \\|title\\=First mobile videophone introduced \\|url\\=http://edition.cnn.com/TECH/ptech/9905/18/japan.phonetv/ \\|access\\-date\\=15 September 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[CNN]] \\|date\\=18 May 1999}} and had a 110,000\\-[pixel](/wiki/Pixel \"Pixel\") [front\\-facing camera](/wiki/Front-facing_camera \"Front-facing camera\"). It stored up to 20 [JPEG](/wiki/JPEG \"JPEG\") [digital images](/wiki/Digital_images \"Digital images\"), which could be sent over [e\\-mail](/wiki/E-mail \"E-mail\"), or the phone could send up to two images per second over Japan's [Personal Handy\\-phone System](/wiki/Personal_Handy-phone_System \"Personal Handy-phone System\") (PHS) [cellular network](/wiki/Cellular_network \"Cellular network\"). The [Samsung](/wiki/Samsung \"Samsung\") SCH\\-V200, released in [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea \"South Korea\") in June 2000, was also one of the first phones with a built\\-in camera. It had a [TFT](/wiki/Thin-film_transistor \"Thin-film transistor\") [liquid\\-crystal display](/wiki/Liquid-crystal_display \"Liquid-crystal display\") (LCD) and stored up to 20 [digital photos](/wiki/Digital_photo \"Digital photo\") at 350,000\\-pixel resolution. However, it could not send the resulting image over the telephone function, but required a [computer](/wiki/Computer \"Computer\") connection to access photos.{{cite web \\|title\\=From J\\-Phone to Lumia 1020: A complete history of the camera phone \\|url\\=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/camera\\-phone\\-history/ \\|website\\=\\[\\[Digital Trends]] \\|date\\=11 August 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=15 September 2019}} The first mass\\-market camera phone was the [J\\-SH04](/wiki/J-SH04 \"J-SH04\"), a [Sharp](/wiki/Sharp_Corporation \"Sharp Corporation\") [J\\-Phone](/wiki/J-Phone \"J-Phone\") model sold in Japan in November 2000\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.hoista.net/post/18437919296/evolution\\-of\\-the\\-cameraphone\\-from\\-sharp\\-j\\-sh04\\-to \\|title\\=Evolution of the Camera phone: From Sharp J\\-SH04 to Nokia 808 Pureview \\|publisher\\=Hoista.net \\|date\\=2012\\-02\\-28 \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-06\\-21 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731053246/http://www.hoista.net/post/18437919296/evolution\\-of\\-the\\-cameraphone\\-from\\-sharp\\-j\\-sh04\\-to \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-07\\-31}} It could instantly transmit pictures via cell phone [telecommunication](/wiki/Telecommunication \"Telecommunication\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Taking pictures with your phone \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/1550622\\.stm \\|access\\-date\\=15 September 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[BBC News]] \\|date\\=18 September 2001}}",
"One of the major technology advances was the development of [CMOS sensors](/wiki/CMOS_sensor \"CMOS sensor\"), which helped drive sensor costs low enough to enable the widespread adoption of camera phones. [Smartphones](/wiki/Smartphone \"Smartphone\") now routinely include high resolution digital cameras.",
""
] |
### Analog electronic cameras
{{Main\|Still video camera}}
[thumb\|Sony Mavica, 1981](/wiki/File:Sony_Mavica_1981_prototype_CP%2B_2011_%28filter_crop_soerfm%29.jpg "Sony Mavica 1981 prototype CP+ 2011 (filter crop soerfm).jpg")
Handheld electronic cameras, in the sense of a device meant to be carried and used as a handheld film camera, appeared in 1981 with the demonstration of the [Sony Mavica](/wiki/Sony_Mavica "Sony Mavica") (Magnetic Video Camera). This is not to be confused with the later cameras by Sony that also bore the Mavica name. This was an analog camera, in that it recorded pixel signals continuously, as videotape machines did, without converting them to discrete levels; it recorded television\-like signals to a 2 × 2 inch "[video floppy](/wiki/Video_floppy "Video floppy")".{{cite book \| title\= Image sensors and signal processing for digital still cameras \| chapter\= Digital Still Cameras at a Glance \| author\= Kenji Toyoda \| editor\= Junichi Nakamura \| publisher\= CRC Press \| year\= 2006 \| isbn\= 978\-0\-8493\-3545\-7 \| page\= 5 \| chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=UY6QzgzgieYC\&q\=sony\+mavica\+analog\&pg\=PA5}}
In essence, it was a video movie camera that recorded single frames, 50 per disk in field mode, and 25 per disk in frame mode. The image quality was considered equal to that of then\-current televisions.
[thumb\|Canon RC\-701, 1986](/wiki/File:Canon_RC-701_img_0829.jpg "Canon RC-701 img 0829.jpg")
Analog electronic cameras do not appear to have reached the market until 1986 with the Canon RC\-701\. Canon demonstrated a prototype of this model at the [1984 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics "1984 Summer Olympics"), printing the images in the *[Yomiuri Shimbun](/wiki/Yomiuri_Shimbun "Yomiuri Shimbun")*, a Japanese newspaper. In the United States, the first publication to use these cameras for real reportage was [USA Today](/wiki/USA_Today "USA Today"), in its coverage of World Series baseball. Several factors held back the widespread adoption of analog cameras; the cost (upwards of [$](/wiki/United_States_dollar "United States dollar")20,000, {{Inflation\|US\|20000\|1986\|fmt\=eq\|r\=\-3}}{{Inflation/fn\|US}}), poor image quality compared to film, and the lack of quality affordable printers. Capturing and printing an image originally required access to equipment such as a frame grabber, which was beyond the reach of the average consumer. The "video floppy" disks later had several reader devices available for viewing on a screen but were never standardized as a computer drive.
The early adopters tended to be in the news media, where the cost was negated by the utility and the ability to transmit images by telephone lines. The poor image quality was offset by the low resolution of newspaper graphics. This capability to transmit images without a satellite link was useful during the [1989 Tiananmen Square protests](/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests "1989 Tiananmen Square protests") and the first [Gulf War](/wiki/Gulf_War "Gulf War") in 1991\.
US government agencies also took a strong interest in the still video concept, notably the US Navy for use as a real\-time air\-to\-sea surveillance system.
The first analog electronic camera marketed to consumers may have been the Casio VS\-101 in 1987\. A notable analog camera produced the same year was the [Nikon QV\-1000C](https://imaging.nikon.com/history/chronicle/cousins16-e/), designed as a press camera and not offered for sale to general users, which sold only a few hundred units. It recorded images in [greyscale](/wiki/Greyscale "Greyscale"), and the quality in newspaper print was equal to film cameras. In appearance it closely resembled a modern digital [single\-lens reflex camera](/wiki/Single-lens_reflex_camera "Single-lens reflex camera"). Images were stored on video floppy disks.
Silicon Film, a proposed digital sensor cartridge for film cameras that would allow 35 mm cameras to take digital photographs without modification was announced in late 1998\. Silicon Film was to work as a roll of 35 mm film, with a 1\.3 [megapixel](/wiki/Megapixel "Megapixel") sensor behind the lens and a battery and storage unit fitting in the film holder in the camera. The product, which was never released, became increasingly obsolete due to improvements in digital camera technology and affordability. Silicon Films' parent company filed for bankruptcy in 2001\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.dpreview.com/news/0109/01091702siliconfilmvaporizes.asp \|title\=Silicon Film – vaporized\-ware \|first\=Phil \|last\=Askey \|year\=2001 \|access\-date\=20 February 2008}}
|
[
"### Analog electronic cameras",
"{{Main\\|Still video camera}}\n[thumb\\|Sony Mavica, 1981](/wiki/File:Sony_Mavica_1981_prototype_CP%2B_2011_%28filter_crop_soerfm%29.jpg \"Sony Mavica 1981 prototype CP+ 2011 (filter crop soerfm).jpg\")",
"Handheld electronic cameras, in the sense of a device meant to be carried and used as a handheld film camera, appeared in 1981 with the demonstration of the [Sony Mavica](/wiki/Sony_Mavica \"Sony Mavica\") (Magnetic Video Camera). This is not to be confused with the later cameras by Sony that also bore the Mavica name. This was an analog camera, in that it recorded pixel signals continuously, as videotape machines did, without converting them to discrete levels; it recorded television\\-like signals to a 2 × 2 inch \"[video floppy](/wiki/Video_floppy \"Video floppy\")\".{{cite book \\| title\\= Image sensors and signal processing for digital still cameras \\| chapter\\= Digital Still Cameras at a Glance \\| author\\= Kenji Toyoda \\| editor\\= Junichi Nakamura \\| publisher\\= CRC Press \\| year\\= 2006 \\| isbn\\= 978\\-0\\-8493\\-3545\\-7 \\| page\\= 5 \\| chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=UY6QzgzgieYC\\&q\\=sony\\+mavica\\+analog\\&pg\\=PA5}}\nIn essence, it was a video movie camera that recorded single frames, 50 per disk in field mode, and 25 per disk in frame mode. The image quality was considered equal to that of then\\-current televisions.",
"[thumb\\|Canon RC\\-701, 1986](/wiki/File:Canon_RC-701_img_0829.jpg \"Canon RC-701 img 0829.jpg\")",
"Analog electronic cameras do not appear to have reached the market until 1986 with the Canon RC\\-701\\. Canon demonstrated a prototype of this model at the [1984 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics \"1984 Summer Olympics\"), printing the images in the *[Yomiuri Shimbun](/wiki/Yomiuri_Shimbun \"Yomiuri Shimbun\")*, a Japanese newspaper. In the United States, the first publication to use these cameras for real reportage was [USA Today](/wiki/USA_Today \"USA Today\"), in its coverage of World Series baseball. Several factors held back the widespread adoption of analog cameras; the cost (upwards of [$](/wiki/United_States_dollar \"United States dollar\")20,000, {{Inflation\\|US\\|20000\\|1986\\|fmt\\=eq\\|r\\=\\-3}}{{Inflation/fn\\|US}}), poor image quality compared to film, and the lack of quality affordable printers. Capturing and printing an image originally required access to equipment such as a frame grabber, which was beyond the reach of the average consumer. The \"video floppy\" disks later had several reader devices available for viewing on a screen but were never standardized as a computer drive.",
"The early adopters tended to be in the news media, where the cost was negated by the utility and the ability to transmit images by telephone lines. The poor image quality was offset by the low resolution of newspaper graphics. This capability to transmit images without a satellite link was useful during the [1989 Tiananmen Square protests](/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests \"1989 Tiananmen Square protests\") and the first [Gulf War](/wiki/Gulf_War \"Gulf War\") in 1991\\.",
"US government agencies also took a strong interest in the still video concept, notably the US Navy for use as a real\\-time air\\-to\\-sea surveillance system.",
"The first analog electronic camera marketed to consumers may have been the Casio VS\\-101 in 1987\\. A notable analog camera produced the same year was the [Nikon QV\\-1000C](https://imaging.nikon.com/history/chronicle/cousins16-e/), designed as a press camera and not offered for sale to general users, which sold only a few hundred units. It recorded images in [greyscale](/wiki/Greyscale \"Greyscale\"), and the quality in newspaper print was equal to film cameras. In appearance it closely resembled a modern digital [single\\-lens reflex camera](/wiki/Single-lens_reflex_camera \"Single-lens reflex camera\"). Images were stored on video floppy disks.",
"Silicon Film, a proposed digital sensor cartridge for film cameras that would allow 35 mm cameras to take digital photographs without modification was announced in late 1998\\. Silicon Film was to work as a roll of 35 mm film, with a 1\\.3 [megapixel](/wiki/Megapixel \"Megapixel\") sensor behind the lens and a battery and storage unit fitting in the film holder in the camera. The product, which was never released, became increasingly obsolete due to improvements in digital camera technology and affordability. Silicon Films' parent company filed for bankruptcy in 2001\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.dpreview.com/news/0109/01091702siliconfilmvaporizes.asp \\|title\\=Silicon Film – vaporized\\-ware \\|first\\=Phil \\|last\\=Askey \\|year\\=2001 \\|access\\-date\\=20 February 2008}}",
""
] |
Service history
---------------
### May–September 1943
On the day of her commissioning, *I\-181* was formally attached to the Sasebo Naval District and assigned to Submarine [Squadron](/wiki/Squadron_%28naval%29 "Squadron (naval)") 11 in the [1st Fleet](/wiki/1st_Fleet_%28Imperial_Japanese_Navy%29 "1st Fleet (Imperial Japanese Navy)"), an element of the [Combined Fleet](/wiki/Combined_Fleet "Combined Fleet"), for workups. On 20 August 1943, she was reassigned to Submarine [Division](/wiki/Division_%28naval%29 "Division (naval)") 22 in Submarine Squadron 3 in the [6th Fleet](/wiki/6th_Fleet_%28Imperial_Japanese_Navy%29 "6th Fleet (Imperial Japanese Navy)"), also an element of the Combined Fleet. She departed Kure on 25 August 1943 bound for [Truk Atoll](/wiki/Chuuk_Atoll "Chuuk Atoll") in the [Caroline Islands](/wiki/Caroline_Islands "Caroline Islands"), which she reached on 1 September 1943\.
### First war patrol
On 7 September 1943, *I\-181* put to sea from Truk to begin her first war patrol, assigned a patrol area off [Espiritu Santo](/wiki/Espiritu_Santo "Espiritu Santo") in the [New Hebrides](/wiki/New_Hebrides "New Hebrides"). While she was on patrol, Submarine Squadron 3 was disbanded on 15 September 1943, and Submarine Division 22 was assigned directly to the 6th Fleet. She moved to the [Solomon Islands](/wiki/Solomon_Islands_%28archipelago%29 "Solomon Islands (archipelago)") to patrol in an area off [Cape Esperance](/wiki/Cape_Esperance "Cape Esperance") on the northwestern tip of [Guadalcanal](/wiki/Guadalcanal "Guadalcanal"). She sighted no enemy ships, and on 30 September 1943 received orders to proceed to a new patrol area in the [Torres Strait](/wiki/Torres_Strait "Torres Strait") between southeastern [New Guinea](/wiki/New_Guinea "New Guinea") and northeastern [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia"), which she reached on 2 October 1943\. She attacked an [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II") [convoy](/wiki/Convoy "Convoy") twice in the Torres Strait on 14 October 1943, but scored no hits. She concluded her patrol with her return to Truk on 20 October 1943\.
### Second war patrol
*I\-181* got underway from Truk for her second war patrol on 11 November 1943, bound for a patrol area off [Bougainville](/wiki/Bougainville_Island "Bougainville Island") in the Solomon Islands. While at sea, she was reassigned to the [8th Fleet](/wiki/8th_Fleet_%28Imperial_Japanese_Navy%29 "8th Fleet (Imperial Japanese Navy)"), an element of the [Southeast Area Fleet](/wiki/Southeast_Area_Fleet "Southeast Area Fleet"), on 12 November 1943\. On 26 November 1943, in the aftermath of the [Battle of Cape St. George](/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_St._George "Battle of Cape St. George") — fought between Japanese and [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy") [destroyers](/wiki/Destroyer "Destroyer") {{convert\|50\|nmi}} east of [Cape St. George](/wiki/Cape_St._George "Cape St. George"), [New Ireland](/wiki/New_Ireland_%28island%29 "New Ireland (island)"), on 25 November 1943 — she rescued 11 survivors of the destroyer {{ship\|Japanese destroyer\|Yūgiri\|1930\|2}}, which the destroyers {{USS\|Charles Ausburne\|DD\-570}}, {{USS\|Claxton\|DD\-571}}, and {{USS\|Dyson\|DD\-572}} had sunk at {{coord\|04\|44\|S\|154\|00\|E\|name\=''Yūgiri''}}, while the submarine {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-177\|\|2}} rescued another 278 *Yūgiri* survivors. *I\-181*′s patrol concluded with her arrival at [Rabaul](/wiki/Rabaul "Rabaul") on [New Britain](/wiki/New_Britain "New Britain") in the [Bismarck Archipelago](/wiki/Bismarck_Archipelago "Bismarck Archipelago") on 29 November 1943\.
### New Guinea campaign
After her arrival at Rabaul, *I\-181* was assigned to supply duty in support of Japanese forces fighting on New Guinea in the [New Guinea campaign](/wiki/New_Guinea_campaign "New Guinea campaign"). She set out from Rabaul on her first supply run at 09:30 on 7 December 1943 bound for [Sio](/wiki/Sio%2C_Papua_New_Guinea "Sio, Papua New Guinea"), New Guinea, with 44 tons of cargo that included two packages of type H [ammunition](/wiki/Ammunition "Ammunition"), one package of type U ammunition, four packages of [code books](/wiki/Code_book "Code book"), and one package of [light globes](/wiki/Light_globe "Light globe"). She arrived at Sio on 9 December and came under attack by Allied [bombers](/wiki/Bomber "Bomber") which dropped 15 [depth charges](/wiki/Depth_charge "Depth charge"), but she [crash\-dived](/wiki/Crash_dive "Crash dive") and avoided damage. She then unloaded her cargo and proceeded to Rabaul, where she arrived at 08:00 on 11 December 1943\.
On 14 December 1943, *I\-181* began her second New Guinea supply run. She unloaded her cargo at [Buka](/wiki/Buka%2C_Papua_New_Guinea "Buka, Papua New Guinea") on 16 December and got back underway the same day, returning to Rabaul on 18 December 1943\. She began her third supply run on 21 December 1943, again bound for Buka, but after arriving at Buka on 22 December was unable to unload her cargo. She returned to Rabaul on 24 December 1943\.
*I\-181* got underway from Rabaul on 28 December 1943 for her fourth supply run, heading for Sio. After delivering the cargo, she received orders to proceed to the waters north of [Choiseul](/wiki/Choiseul_Island "Choiseul Island") in the Solomon Islands to intercept an Allied [task force](/wiki/Task_force "Task force"). She did not find the Allied ships, and headed back for Rabaul. During her return voyage, she surfaced in [St. George's Channel](/wiki/St._George%27s_Channel_%28Papua_New_Guinea%29 "St. George's Channel (Papua New Guinea)") on 3 January 1944 and rescued the [United States Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps "United States Marine Corps") 26\-kill [ace](/wiki/Flying_ace "Flying ace") [Gregory "Pappy" Boyington](/wiki/Pappy_Boyington "Pappy Boyington"), who had been shot down eight hours earlier during a [fighter](/wiki/Fighter_aircraft "Fighter aircraft") sweep over Rabaul and was injured when he [ditched](/wiki/Water_landing "Water landing") his [F4U Corsair](/wiki/Vought_F4U_Corsair "Vought F4U Corsair") about {{convert\|5\|nmi}} off shore. *I\-181* arrived at Rabaul two hours later. After World War II, Boyington said that the best treatment he received while a [prisoner\-of\-war](/wiki/Prisoner-of-war "Prisoner-of-war") was during his time aboard *I\-181*.
On 6 January 1944, *I\-181* began her fifth supply run. She unloaded her cargo at Buka on 7 January and headed back to Rabaul, arriving there on 9 January 1944\.
With the commander of Submarine Division 22 and his staff embarked, *I\-181* departed Rabaul on 13 January 1944 on her sixth supply run in company with the submarine {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|Ro\-104\|\|2}}, bound for [Gali](/wiki/Gali%2C_New_Guinea "Gali, New Guinea"), New Guinea. The Japanese never heard from *I\-181* again.
### Loss
The circumstances of *I\-181*′s loss remain unclear. The Japanese garrison at Gali reported witnessing a running battle in the [Vitiaz Strait](/wiki/Vitiaz_Strait "Vitiaz Strait") off Gali on the evening of 16 January 1944 involving *I\-181* and an unidentified American destroyer and [PT boat](/wiki/PT_boat "PT boat") in which *I\-181* was depth\-charged and sunk with the loss of all on board. A widely reproduced photograph often is alleged to show the wreck of *I\-181* aground in [Kelanoa Harbour](/wiki/Kelanoa_Harbour "Kelanoa Harbour") on the coast of New Guinea, leading to the assertion by some sources that she [ran aground](/wiki/Ship_grounding "Ship grounding") and was destroyed with the loss of all hands during the battle on 16 January 1944, but the photograph actually shows the wreckage of a large [towed](/wiki/Towing "Towing") Japanese supply container destroyed on 24 December 1943 by the U.S. Navy PT boats {{nowrap\|''\[\[Patrol torpedo boat PT\-151\|PT\-151]]''}} and {{nowrap\|''\[\[Patrol torpedo boat PT\-192\|PT\-192]]''}}. Some sources claim U.S. Navy aircraft sank *I\-181* in St. George's Channel on 16 January 1944\.
At 23:00 on 18 January 1944, the U.S. Navy PT boat {{nowrap\|''\[\[Patrol torpedo boat PT\-143\|PT\-143]]''}} detected a target on radar about {{convert\|27\|nmi}} bearing 150 degrees True from [Gasmata](/wiki/Gasmata "Gasmata") on the south coast of New Britain, and after closing to a range of {{convert\|200\|yd\|m\|0}} in limited visibility identified it as a Japanese "[*I\-61*\-class](/wiki/I-61-class_submarine "I-61-class submarine")" submarine.[Lidster, LT(jg) Allen Y., "Report of Action With Enemy Submarine night of 18/19 January 1944," Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Eight, 20 January 1944](https://www.fold3.com/image/272049566) The submarine submerged and *PT\-143* dropped two depth charges — set to explode at a depth of {{convert\|50\|ft\|0}} — ahead of the submarine's [wake](/wiki/Wake_%28physics%29 "Wake (physics)") about {{convert\|25\|nmi}} bearing 150 degrees True from Gasmata. *PT\-143*′s crew heard a third explosion after the two depth charges detonated, but found no evidence that the depth charges damaged the submarine despite searching a {{convert\|5\|nmi\|adj\=on}} area around the location of the attack until 03:00 on 19 January 1944\.
At 03:01 on 21 January 1944, while patrolling {{convert\|3\|nmi}} north of the coast of New Guinea off Weber Point, the PT boats {{nowrap\|''\[\[Patrol torpedo boat PT\-329\|PT\-329]]''}}, {{nowrap\|''\[\[Patrol torpedo boat PT\-362\|PT\-362]]''}} and {{nowrap\|''\[\[Patrol torpedo boat PT\-364\|PT\-364]]''}} detected a target on radar and closed with it, visually identifying it as a large submarine and tentatively describing her as having a [flush deck](/wiki/Flush_deck "Flush deck"), a [conning tower](/wiki/Conning_tower "Conning tower") disproportionately long and tall for her length, and no visible deck armament.\[Everett, C.F., "Action Report, concerning two submarine contacts night of 20/21 January 1944," Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Twelve, 23 January 1944] The submarine submerged when the PT boats closed to {{convert\|4,500\|yd\|sigfig\=2}}. The PT boats again detected the submarine on radar at 06:06, and it submerged again at a range of {{convert\|2\.75\|nmi\|km mi}}. *PT\-364* dropped one depth charge {{convert\|4\|nmi}} to the north and another {{convert\|3\|nmi}} to the north in an attempt to drive the submerged submarine toward the waiting *PT\-329* and *PT\-364*, but none of the PT boats gained any further contact on the submarine.
On 1 March 1944, the Imperial Japanese Navy declared *I\-181* to be presumed lost with all 89 men aboard southwest of New Guinea. The Japanese struck her from the [Navy List](/wiki/Navy_List "Navy List") on 30 April 1944\.
|
[
"Service history\n---------------",
"### May–September 1943",
"On the day of her commissioning, *I\\-181* was formally attached to the Sasebo Naval District and assigned to Submarine [Squadron](/wiki/Squadron_%28naval%29 \"Squadron (naval)\") 11 in the [1st Fleet](/wiki/1st_Fleet_%28Imperial_Japanese_Navy%29 \"1st Fleet (Imperial Japanese Navy)\"), an element of the [Combined Fleet](/wiki/Combined_Fleet \"Combined Fleet\"), for workups. On 20 August 1943, she was reassigned to Submarine [Division](/wiki/Division_%28naval%29 \"Division (naval)\") 22 in Submarine Squadron 3 in the [6th Fleet](/wiki/6th_Fleet_%28Imperial_Japanese_Navy%29 \"6th Fleet (Imperial Japanese Navy)\"), also an element of the Combined Fleet. She departed Kure on 25 August 1943 bound for [Truk Atoll](/wiki/Chuuk_Atoll \"Chuuk Atoll\") in the [Caroline Islands](/wiki/Caroline_Islands \"Caroline Islands\"), which she reached on 1 September 1943\\.",
"### First war patrol",
"On 7 September 1943, *I\\-181* put to sea from Truk to begin her first war patrol, assigned a patrol area off [Espiritu Santo](/wiki/Espiritu_Santo \"Espiritu Santo\") in the [New Hebrides](/wiki/New_Hebrides \"New Hebrides\"). While she was on patrol, Submarine Squadron 3 was disbanded on 15 September 1943, and Submarine Division 22 was assigned directly to the 6th Fleet. She moved to the [Solomon Islands](/wiki/Solomon_Islands_%28archipelago%29 \"Solomon Islands (archipelago)\") to patrol in an area off [Cape Esperance](/wiki/Cape_Esperance \"Cape Esperance\") on the northwestern tip of [Guadalcanal](/wiki/Guadalcanal \"Guadalcanal\"). She sighted no enemy ships, and on 30 September 1943 received orders to proceed to a new patrol area in the [Torres Strait](/wiki/Torres_Strait \"Torres Strait\") between southeastern [New Guinea](/wiki/New_Guinea \"New Guinea\") and northeastern [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\"), which she reached on 2 October 1943\\. She attacked an [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\") [convoy](/wiki/Convoy \"Convoy\") twice in the Torres Strait on 14 October 1943, but scored no hits. She concluded her patrol with her return to Truk on 20 October 1943\\.",
"### Second war patrol",
"*I\\-181* got underway from Truk for her second war patrol on 11 November 1943, bound for a patrol area off [Bougainville](/wiki/Bougainville_Island \"Bougainville Island\") in the Solomon Islands. While at sea, she was reassigned to the [8th Fleet](/wiki/8th_Fleet_%28Imperial_Japanese_Navy%29 \"8th Fleet (Imperial Japanese Navy)\"), an element of the [Southeast Area Fleet](/wiki/Southeast_Area_Fleet \"Southeast Area Fleet\"), on 12 November 1943\\. On 26 November 1943, in the aftermath of the [Battle of Cape St. George](/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_St._George \"Battle of Cape St. George\") — fought between Japanese and [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\") [destroyers](/wiki/Destroyer \"Destroyer\") {{convert\\|50\\|nmi}} east of [Cape St. George](/wiki/Cape_St._George \"Cape St. George\"), [New Ireland](/wiki/New_Ireland_%28island%29 \"New Ireland (island)\"), on 25 November 1943 — she rescued 11 survivors of the destroyer {{ship\\|Japanese destroyer\\|Yūgiri\\|1930\\|2}}, which the destroyers {{USS\\|Charles Ausburne\\|DD\\-570}}, {{USS\\|Claxton\\|DD\\-571}}, and {{USS\\|Dyson\\|DD\\-572}} had sunk at {{coord\\|04\\|44\\|S\\|154\\|00\\|E\\|name\\=''Yūgiri''}}, while the submarine {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-177\\|\\|2}} rescued another 278 *Yūgiri* survivors. *I\\-181*′s patrol concluded with her arrival at [Rabaul](/wiki/Rabaul \"Rabaul\") on [New Britain](/wiki/New_Britain \"New Britain\") in the [Bismarck Archipelago](/wiki/Bismarck_Archipelago \"Bismarck Archipelago\") on 29 November 1943\\.",
"### New Guinea campaign",
"After her arrival at Rabaul, *I\\-181* was assigned to supply duty in support of Japanese forces fighting on New Guinea in the [New Guinea campaign](/wiki/New_Guinea_campaign \"New Guinea campaign\"). She set out from Rabaul on her first supply run at 09:30 on 7 December 1943 bound for [Sio](/wiki/Sio%2C_Papua_New_Guinea \"Sio, Papua New Guinea\"), New Guinea, with 44 tons of cargo that included two packages of type H [ammunition](/wiki/Ammunition \"Ammunition\"), one package of type U ammunition, four packages of [code books](/wiki/Code_book \"Code book\"), and one package of [light globes](/wiki/Light_globe \"Light globe\"). She arrived at Sio on 9 December and came under attack by Allied [bombers](/wiki/Bomber \"Bomber\") which dropped 15 [depth charges](/wiki/Depth_charge \"Depth charge\"), but she [crash\\-dived](/wiki/Crash_dive \"Crash dive\") and avoided damage. She then unloaded her cargo and proceeded to Rabaul, where she arrived at 08:00 on 11 December 1943\\.",
"On 14 December 1943, *I\\-181* began her second New Guinea supply run. She unloaded her cargo at [Buka](/wiki/Buka%2C_Papua_New_Guinea \"Buka, Papua New Guinea\") on 16 December and got back underway the same day, returning to Rabaul on 18 December 1943\\. She began her third supply run on 21 December 1943, again bound for Buka, but after arriving at Buka on 22 December was unable to unload her cargo. She returned to Rabaul on 24 December 1943\\.",
"*I\\-181* got underway from Rabaul on 28 December 1943 for her fourth supply run, heading for Sio. After delivering the cargo, she received orders to proceed to the waters north of [Choiseul](/wiki/Choiseul_Island \"Choiseul Island\") in the Solomon Islands to intercept an Allied [task force](/wiki/Task_force \"Task force\"). She did not find the Allied ships, and headed back for Rabaul. During her return voyage, she surfaced in [St. George's Channel](/wiki/St._George%27s_Channel_%28Papua_New_Guinea%29 \"St. George's Channel (Papua New Guinea)\") on 3 January 1944 and rescued the [United States Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps \"United States Marine Corps\") 26\\-kill [ace](/wiki/Flying_ace \"Flying ace\") [Gregory \"Pappy\" Boyington](/wiki/Pappy_Boyington \"Pappy Boyington\"), who had been shot down eight hours earlier during a [fighter](/wiki/Fighter_aircraft \"Fighter aircraft\") sweep over Rabaul and was injured when he [ditched](/wiki/Water_landing \"Water landing\") his [F4U Corsair](/wiki/Vought_F4U_Corsair \"Vought F4U Corsair\") about {{convert\\|5\\|nmi}} off shore. *I\\-181* arrived at Rabaul two hours later. After World War II, Boyington said that the best treatment he received while a [prisoner\\-of\\-war](/wiki/Prisoner-of-war \"Prisoner-of-war\") was during his time aboard *I\\-181*.",
"On 6 January 1944, *I\\-181* began her fifth supply run. She unloaded her cargo at Buka on 7 January and headed back to Rabaul, arriving there on 9 January 1944\\.",
"With the commander of Submarine Division 22 and his staff embarked, *I\\-181* departed Rabaul on 13 January 1944 on her sixth supply run in company with the submarine {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|Ro\\-104\\|\\|2}}, bound for [Gali](/wiki/Gali%2C_New_Guinea \"Gali, New Guinea\"), New Guinea. The Japanese never heard from *I\\-181* again.",
"### Loss",
"The circumstances of *I\\-181*′s loss remain unclear. The Japanese garrison at Gali reported witnessing a running battle in the [Vitiaz Strait](/wiki/Vitiaz_Strait \"Vitiaz Strait\") off Gali on the evening of 16 January 1944 involving *I\\-181* and an unidentified American destroyer and [PT boat](/wiki/PT_boat \"PT boat\") in which *I\\-181* was depth\\-charged and sunk with the loss of all on board. A widely reproduced photograph often is alleged to show the wreck of *I\\-181* aground in [Kelanoa Harbour](/wiki/Kelanoa_Harbour \"Kelanoa Harbour\") on the coast of New Guinea, leading to the assertion by some sources that she [ran aground](/wiki/Ship_grounding \"Ship grounding\") and was destroyed with the loss of all hands during the battle on 16 January 1944, but the photograph actually shows the wreckage of a large [towed](/wiki/Towing \"Towing\") Japanese supply container destroyed on 24 December 1943 by the U.S. Navy PT boats {{nowrap\\|''\\[\\[Patrol torpedo boat PT\\-151\\|PT\\-151]]''}} and {{nowrap\\|''\\[\\[Patrol torpedo boat PT\\-192\\|PT\\-192]]''}}. Some sources claim U.S. Navy aircraft sank *I\\-181* in St. George's Channel on 16 January 1944\\.",
"At 23:00 on 18 January 1944, the U.S. Navy PT boat {{nowrap\\|''\\[\\[Patrol torpedo boat PT\\-143\\|PT\\-143]]''}} detected a target on radar about {{convert\\|27\\|nmi}} bearing 150 degrees True from [Gasmata](/wiki/Gasmata \"Gasmata\") on the south coast of New Britain, and after closing to a range of {{convert\\|200\\|yd\\|m\\|0}} in limited visibility identified it as a Japanese \"[*I\\-61*\\-class](/wiki/I-61-class_submarine \"I-61-class submarine\")\" submarine.[Lidster, LT(jg) Allen Y., \"Report of Action With Enemy Submarine night of 18/19 January 1944,\" Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Eight, 20 January 1944](https://www.fold3.com/image/272049566) The submarine submerged and *PT\\-143* dropped two depth charges — set to explode at a depth of {{convert\\|50\\|ft\\|0}} — ahead of the submarine's [wake](/wiki/Wake_%28physics%29 \"Wake (physics)\") about {{convert\\|25\\|nmi}} bearing 150 degrees True from Gasmata. *PT\\-143*′s crew heard a third explosion after the two depth charges detonated, but found no evidence that the depth charges damaged the submarine despite searching a {{convert\\|5\\|nmi\\|adj\\=on}} area around the location of the attack until 03:00 on 19 January 1944\\.",
"At 03:01 on 21 January 1944, while patrolling {{convert\\|3\\|nmi}} north of the coast of New Guinea off Weber Point, the PT boats {{nowrap\\|''\\[\\[Patrol torpedo boat PT\\-329\\|PT\\-329]]''}}, {{nowrap\\|''\\[\\[Patrol torpedo boat PT\\-362\\|PT\\-362]]''}} and {{nowrap\\|''\\[\\[Patrol torpedo boat PT\\-364\\|PT\\-364]]''}} detected a target on radar and closed with it, visually identifying it as a large submarine and tentatively describing her as having a [flush deck](/wiki/Flush_deck \"Flush deck\"), a [conning tower](/wiki/Conning_tower \"Conning tower\") disproportionately long and tall for her length, and no visible deck armament.\\[Everett, C.F., \"Action Report, concerning two submarine contacts night of 20/21 January 1944,\" Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Twelve, 23 January 1944] The submarine submerged when the PT boats closed to {{convert\\|4,500\\|yd\\|sigfig\\=2}}. The PT boats again detected the submarine on radar at 06:06, and it submerged again at a range of {{convert\\|2\\.75\\|nmi\\|km mi}}. *PT\\-364* dropped one depth charge {{convert\\|4\\|nmi}} to the north and another {{convert\\|3\\|nmi}} to the north in an attempt to drive the submerged submarine toward the waiting *PT\\-329* and *PT\\-364*, but none of the PT boats gained any further contact on the submarine.",
"On 1 March 1944, the Imperial Japanese Navy declared *I\\-181* to be presumed lost with all 89 men aboard southwest of New Guinea. The Japanese struck her from the [Navy List](/wiki/Navy_List \"Navy List\") on 30 April 1944\\.",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|1910\= 371
\|1920\= 252
\|1930\= 250
\|1940\= 250
\|1950\= 233
\|1960\= 261
\|1970\= 319
\|1980\= 296
\|1990\= 262
\|2000\= 254
\|2010\= 247
\|2020\= 246
\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|accessdate\=June 4, 2015}}
}}
### 2010 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=November 25, 2012}} of 2010, there were 247 people, 84 households, and 63 families residing in the village. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|228\.7\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 103 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|95\.4\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the village was 83\.4% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 1\.2% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 2\.0% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.4% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 6\.5% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 6\.5% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 17\.8% of the population.
There were 84 households, of which 36\.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57\.1% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 10\.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 7\.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 25\.0% were non\-families. 20\.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7\.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.94 and the average family size was 3\.30\.
The median age in the village was 34\.2 years. 27\.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 9\.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26% were from 25 to 44; 25\.2% were from 45 to 64; and 11\.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 49\.8% male and 50\.2% female.
### 2000 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 254 people, 87 households, and 66 families residing in the village. The population density was {{convert\|208\.6\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 104 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|85\.4\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the village was 88\.19% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 2\.36% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 1\.97% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 6\.30% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 1\.18% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 14\.57% of the population.
There were 87 households, out of which 46\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54\.0% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 18\.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 24\.1% were non\-families. 20\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9\.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.92 and the average family size was 3\.33\.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 34\.3% under the age of 18, 7\.5% from 18 to 24, 32\.7% from 25 to 44, 15\.0% from 45 to 64, and 10\.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 91\.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89\.8 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $27,083, and the median income for a family was $31,429\. Males had a median income of $31,083 versus $16,667 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the village was $9,305\. About 25\.0% of families and 32\.5% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 42\.3% of those under the age of 18 and none of those ages 65 or older.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|1910\\= 371\n\\|1920\\= 252\n\\|1930\\= 250\n\\|1940\\= 250\n\\|1950\\= 233\n\\|1960\\= 261\n\\|1970\\= 319\n\\|1980\\= 296\n\\|1990\\= 262\n\\|2000\\= 254\n\\|2010\\= 247\n\\|2020\\= 246\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|accessdate\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}",
"### 2010 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=November 25, 2012}} of 2010, there were 247 people, 84 households, and 63 families residing in the village. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|228\\.7\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 103 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|95\\.4\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the village was 83\\.4% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.2% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 2\\.0% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.4% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 6\\.5% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 6\\.5% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 17\\.8% of the population.",
"There were 84 households, of which 36\\.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57\\.1% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 10\\.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 7\\.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 25\\.0% were non\\-families. 20\\.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7\\.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.94 and the average family size was 3\\.30\\.",
"The median age in the village was 34\\.2 years. 27\\.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 9\\.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26% were from 25 to 44; 25\\.2% were from 45 to 64; and 11\\.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 49\\.8% male and 50\\.2% female.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 254 people, 87 households, and 66 families residing in the village. The population density was {{convert\\|208\\.6\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 104 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|85\\.4\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the village was 88\\.19% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 2\\.36% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.97% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 6\\.30% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 1\\.18% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 14\\.57% of the population.",
"There were 87 households, out of which 46\\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54\\.0% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 18\\.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 24\\.1% were non\\-families. 20\\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9\\.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.92 and the average family size was 3\\.33\\.",
"In the village, the population was spread out, with 34\\.3% under the age of 18, 7\\.5% from 18 to 24, 32\\.7% from 25 to 44, 15\\.0% from 45 to 64, and 10\\.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 91\\.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89\\.8 males.",
"The median income for a household in the village was $27,083, and the median income for a family was $31,429\\. Males had a median income of $31,083 versus $16,667 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the village was $9,305\\. About 25\\.0% of families and 32\\.5% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 42\\.3% of those under the age of 18 and none of those ages 65 or older.",
""
] |
Education and career
--------------------
Carey studied at [Rockford Seminary](/wiki/Rockford_University "Rockford University") (1876\), [Oberlin College](/wiki/Oberlin_College "Oberlin College"), Ohio (1877\) and the library school of the [University of Illinois](/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Urbana-Champaign "University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign") (1898\).{{Cite book\|last\=Vicinity\|first\=Alden Kindred of New York City and\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=N2QxAAAAMAAJ\&q\=Miriam\+Eliza\+Carey\|title\=Alden Kindred Gossip\|date\=1937\|publisher\=Alden Kindred of New York City and Vicinity.\|language\=en}}
She taught for many years but left her teaching career to attend the Illinois State Library School{{Cite book \|last\=Iowa \|first\=State University of \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=r\_pJAQAAMAAJ\&dq\=Miriam\+Eliza\+Carey\&pg\=PA27 \|title\=Calendar \|date\=1908 \|publisher\=State University of Iowa \|language\=en}} at the age of 40\. She soon discovered a passion for librarianship while working at the [Hull House](/wiki/Hull_House "Hull House") in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago"), a resettlement institution for immigrants, where she was greatly influenced by American activist [Jane Addams](/wiki/Jane_Addams "Jane Addams"). After attending the library school for one year, and without graduating, Carey left academia to take a position as director of the public library in [Burlington](/wiki/Burlington%2C_Iowa "Burlington, Iowa"), Iowa, and she worked there from 1899 to 1905\.{{Cite book \|last\=Leonard \|first\=John W. \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=PMQ\-AQAAMAAJ\&dq\=Miriam\+Eliza\+Carey\&pg\=PA160 \|title\=Woman's Who's who of America \|date\=1914 \|publisher\=American Commonwealth Company \|language\=en}}
In Burlington, she met [Alice S. Tyler](/wiki/Alice_S._Tyler "Alice S. Tyler"), who was secretary of the library commission working with a new college graduate, [Fanny Duren](/wiki/Fanny_Duren "Fanny Duren"), creating programs that would use books to help youth who were detained at the new School for Delinquent Boys. Based on the success of her work, Tyler convinced the Iowa Board of Control to create a new position, Supervisor for the Iowa State Institution Libraries, which was "the first position of its kind in America." Carey was appointed to the new job in 1906, and grew the program by establishing processes and methods to use books as a "rehabilitative tool in prison wards and mental hospitals, as well as in tuberculosis sanitariums and schools for delinquent children." In many cases, these were the first libraries housed in those institutions.
In 1913, after her success with the Iowa library plan, Carey was appointed to head a similar post as director of institutional libraries in Minnesota, for which she organized libraries at 18 institutions across that state.
She also taught at [Talladega College](/wiki/Talladega_College "Talladega College"), [Fisk University](/wiki/Fisk_University "Fisk University"){{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=vP\_oAAAAMAAJ\&q\=Miriam\+Eliza\+Carey\|title\=A Biographical\-bibliographical Directory of Women Librarians\|date\=1976\|publisher\=University of Wisconsin, Madison Library School Women's Group\|language\=en}} and the [University of Minnesota](/wiki/University_of_Minnesota "University of Minnesota").{{Cite web\|title\=Miriam Eliza Carey\|url\=http://web.utk.edu/\~arnold/carey.htm\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-08\|website\=web.utk.edu}}{{Cite book\|last\=Minnesota\|first\=University of\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=SflNAQAAMAAJ\&q\=Miriam\+Eliza\+Carey\|title\=The Biennial Report of the President of the University of Minnesota to the Board of Regents\|date\=1934\|publisher\=The University\|language\=en}}
### War years
During the years of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), the [American Library Association](/wiki/American_Library_Association "American Library Association") sent Carey to army camps and hospitals in five southern states to establish libraries at each site. These greatly benefited the soldiers who were training or recovering from injuries and the movement helped launch a national intent to create libraries in civilian hospitals as well. From 1913 to 1923, she headed of the Committee on Libraries in Correctional Institutions in addition to her other duties.
Carey officially retired in 1927 at the age of 69, but nevertheless, she joined the faculty at the newly established library school at the [University of Minnesota](/wiki/University_of_Minnesota "University of Minnesota"). She also went on to publish short stories about her efforts to set up libraries in prisons.
Miriam E. Carey died in [Cheyenne](/wiki/Cheyenne%2C_Wyoming "Cheyenne, Wyoming"), Wyoming, on January 9, 1937, at age 78\.
### Legacy
Carey's papers are held at the [Minnesota Historical Society Library](/wiki/Minnesota_Historical_Society "Minnesota Historical Society").{{Cite book\|last1\=Carey\|first1\=Miriam E\|url\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/313819163\|title\=Miriam Eliza Carey papers\|last2\=Gale\|first2\=Zona\|last3\=Jones\|first3\=Perrie\|date\=1911\|language\=English\|oclc\=313819163}}
|
[
"Education and career\n--------------------",
"Carey studied at [Rockford Seminary](/wiki/Rockford_University \"Rockford University\") (1876\\), [Oberlin College](/wiki/Oberlin_College \"Oberlin College\"), Ohio (1877\\) and the library school of the [University of Illinois](/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Urbana-Champaign \"University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign\") (1898\\).{{Cite book\\|last\\=Vicinity\\|first\\=Alden Kindred of New York City and\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=N2QxAAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=Miriam\\+Eliza\\+Carey\\|title\\=Alden Kindred Gossip\\|date\\=1937\\|publisher\\=Alden Kindred of New York City and Vicinity.\\|language\\=en}}",
"She taught for many years but left her teaching career to attend the Illinois State Library School{{Cite book \\|last\\=Iowa \\|first\\=State University of \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=r\\_pJAQAAMAAJ\\&dq\\=Miriam\\+Eliza\\+Carey\\&pg\\=PA27 \\|title\\=Calendar \\|date\\=1908 \\|publisher\\=State University of Iowa \\|language\\=en}} at the age of 40\\. She soon discovered a passion for librarianship while working at the [Hull House](/wiki/Hull_House \"Hull House\") in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\"), a resettlement institution for immigrants, where she was greatly influenced by American activist [Jane Addams](/wiki/Jane_Addams \"Jane Addams\"). After attending the library school for one year, and without graduating, Carey left academia to take a position as director of the public library in [Burlington](/wiki/Burlington%2C_Iowa \"Burlington, Iowa\"), Iowa, and she worked there from 1899 to 1905\\.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Leonard \\|first\\=John W. \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=PMQ\\-AQAAMAAJ\\&dq\\=Miriam\\+Eliza\\+Carey\\&pg\\=PA160 \\|title\\=Woman's Who's who of America \\|date\\=1914 \\|publisher\\=American Commonwealth Company \\|language\\=en}}",
"In Burlington, she met [Alice S. Tyler](/wiki/Alice_S._Tyler \"Alice S. Tyler\"), who was secretary of the library commission working with a new college graduate, [Fanny Duren](/wiki/Fanny_Duren \"Fanny Duren\"), creating programs that would use books to help youth who were detained at the new School for Delinquent Boys. Based on the success of her work, Tyler convinced the Iowa Board of Control to create a new position, Supervisor for the Iowa State Institution Libraries, which was \"the first position of its kind in America.\" Carey was appointed to the new job in 1906, and grew the program by establishing processes and methods to use books as a \"rehabilitative tool in prison wards and mental hospitals, as well as in tuberculosis sanitariums and schools for delinquent children.\" In many cases, these were the first libraries housed in those institutions.",
"In 1913, after her success with the Iowa library plan, Carey was appointed to head a similar post as director of institutional libraries in Minnesota, for which she organized libraries at 18 institutions across that state.",
"She also taught at [Talladega College](/wiki/Talladega_College \"Talladega College\"), [Fisk University](/wiki/Fisk_University \"Fisk University\"){{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=vP\\_oAAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=Miriam\\+Eliza\\+Carey\\|title\\=A Biographical\\-bibliographical Directory of Women Librarians\\|date\\=1976\\|publisher\\=University of Wisconsin, Madison Library School Women's Group\\|language\\=en}} and the [University of Minnesota](/wiki/University_of_Minnesota \"University of Minnesota\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Miriam Eliza Carey\\|url\\=http://web.utk.edu/\\~arnold/carey.htm\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-08\\|website\\=web.utk.edu}}{{Cite book\\|last\\=Minnesota\\|first\\=University of\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=SflNAQAAMAAJ\\&q\\=Miriam\\+Eliza\\+Carey\\|title\\=The Biennial Report of the President of the University of Minnesota to the Board of Regents\\|date\\=1934\\|publisher\\=The University\\|language\\=en}}",
"### War years",
"During the years of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), the [American Library Association](/wiki/American_Library_Association \"American Library Association\") sent Carey to army camps and hospitals in five southern states to establish libraries at each site. These greatly benefited the soldiers who were training or recovering from injuries and the movement helped launch a national intent to create libraries in civilian hospitals as well. From 1913 to 1923, she headed of the Committee on Libraries in Correctional Institutions in addition to her other duties.",
"Carey officially retired in 1927 at the age of 69, but nevertheless, she joined the faculty at the newly established library school at the [University of Minnesota](/wiki/University_of_Minnesota \"University of Minnesota\"). She also went on to publish short stories about her efforts to set up libraries in prisons.",
"Miriam E. Carey died in [Cheyenne](/wiki/Cheyenne%2C_Wyoming \"Cheyenne, Wyoming\"), Wyoming, on January 9, 1937, at age 78\\.",
"### Legacy",
"Carey's papers are held at the [Minnesota Historical Society Library](/wiki/Minnesota_Historical_Society \"Minnesota Historical Society\").{{Cite book\\|last1\\=Carey\\|first1\\=Miriam E\\|url\\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/313819163\\|title\\=Miriam Eliza Carey papers\\|last2\\=Gale\\|first2\\=Zona\\|last3\\=Jones\\|first3\\=Perrie\\|date\\=1911\\|language\\=English\\|oclc\\=313819163}}",
""
] |
Plot
----
The town of [Rimrock, Arizona](/wiki/Rimrock%2C_Arizona "Rimrock, Arizona") is run by [political boss](/wiki/Political_boss "Political boss") Luke Starr ([Broderick Crawford](/wiki/Broderick_Crawford "Broderick Crawford")). When one of Starr's [henchmen](/wiki/Henchmen "Henchmen") wishes to escape from Starr he meets with the editor of the town newspaper, Roy Carlin ([Víctor Vilanova](/wiki/V%C3%ADctor_Vilanova "Víctor Vilanova")), to ask for his help. Starr discovers the meeting and he and his loyal henchmen shoot both of them, spreading the story that the two killed each other in a gunfight.
Roy Carlin's brother Jess ([Audie Murphy](/wiki/Audie_Murphy "Audie Murphy")) is a former Texas sheriff now living in semi\-retirement with his girlfriend in Mexico. He has a price on his head for unstated crimes committed in the United States but earns income and beats the boredom of his quiet life by capturing fugitive American criminals and turning them over to American lawmen who return them across the border.
When Jess finds out the story of his brother he renounces the quiet life to bring his brother's killer to justice, as he knows Roy never carried a firearm. On the way he is unsuccessfully ambushed by [bounty hunters](/wiki/Bounty_hunter "Bounty hunter") and has to escape without his saddle.
Stopping off at a ranch he thinks is unoccupied, he leaves money for a saddle but is held at gunpoint by the ranch owner Sandy ([Luz Márquez](/wiki/Luz_M%C3%A1rquez "Luz Márquez")). She changes her opinion on Jess after discovering he has left money as payment that is four times the value of the saddle.
Riding into Rimrock, Jess unsuccessfully tries to find out more about his brother's death. The new editor of the paper asks Jess to stay to eliminate Luke Starr and his band. Jess explains that in the past, when he was a sheriff in the same town where his brother was a newspaper editor, they cleaned up the town but found out the hard way that the men who replaced those they got rid of were much worse.
After fist and gun fights, Jess is finally able to establish proof of Luke's involvement in the killing when he finds a decorative concho that leather worker Sandy is able to identify as one that came off Luke's gun belt.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"The town of [Rimrock, Arizona](/wiki/Rimrock%2C_Arizona \"Rimrock, Arizona\") is run by [political boss](/wiki/Political_boss \"Political boss\") Luke Starr ([Broderick Crawford](/wiki/Broderick_Crawford \"Broderick Crawford\")). When one of Starr's [henchmen](/wiki/Henchmen \"Henchmen\") wishes to escape from Starr he meets with the editor of the town newspaper, Roy Carlin ([Víctor Vilanova](/wiki/V%C3%ADctor_Vilanova \"Víctor Vilanova\")), to ask for his help. Starr discovers the meeting and he and his loyal henchmen shoot both of them, spreading the story that the two killed each other in a gunfight.",
"Roy Carlin's brother Jess ([Audie Murphy](/wiki/Audie_Murphy \"Audie Murphy\")) is a former Texas sheriff now living in semi\\-retirement with his girlfriend in Mexico. He has a price on his head for unstated crimes committed in the United States but earns income and beats the boredom of his quiet life by capturing fugitive American criminals and turning them over to American lawmen who return them across the border.",
"When Jess finds out the story of his brother he renounces the quiet life to bring his brother's killer to justice, as he knows Roy never carried a firearm. On the way he is unsuccessfully ambushed by [bounty hunters](/wiki/Bounty_hunter \"Bounty hunter\") and has to escape without his saddle.",
"Stopping off at a ranch he thinks is unoccupied, he leaves money for a saddle but is held at gunpoint by the ranch owner Sandy ([Luz Márquez](/wiki/Luz_M%C3%A1rquez \"Luz Márquez\")). She changes her opinion on Jess after discovering he has left money as payment that is four times the value of the saddle.",
"Riding into Rimrock, Jess unsuccessfully tries to find out more about his brother's death. The new editor of the paper asks Jess to stay to eliminate Luke Starr and his band. Jess explains that in the past, when he was a sheriff in the same town where his brother was a newspaper editor, they cleaned up the town but found out the hard way that the men who replaced those they got rid of were much worse.",
"After fist and gun fights, Jess is finally able to establish proof of Luke's involvement in the killing when he finds a decorative concho that leather worker Sandy is able to identify as one that came off Luke's gun belt.",
""
] |
Life and career
---------------
Born in [Seoul](/wiki/Seoul "Seoul"), [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea "South Korea"), Pak immigrated along with her parents to [California](/wiki/California "California") when she was five years old. She grew up in [Union City, California](/wiki/Union_City%2C_California "Union City, California"), a [suburb](/wiki/Suburb "Suburb") southeast of [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco"). Her parents own a small restaurant in downtown [Oakland, California](/wiki/Oakland%2C_California "Oakland, California").
Pak never planned on a career in television. While attending [James Logan High School](/wiki/James_Logan_High_School "James Logan High School"), she volunteered for the YMCA program Youth and Government, an organization aimed at involving and educating young people in the political process. She was also a member of the school's [forensics team](/wiki/James_Logan_High_School%23The_Forensics_Speech_and_Debate_program "James Logan High School#The Forensics Speech and Debate program"), in which she did expository speaking. In 1992, she placed 8th in the state of California. She was interviewed for the news by [KGO\-TV](/wiki/KGO-TV "KGO-TV"), the [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company "American Broadcasting Company") affiliate in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco") for the show *Straight Talk 'N Teens*. The program director for another station happened to see the piece and approached her to host the [teen](/wiki/Teenager "Teenager")\-based magazine show *First Cut* on [KRON](/wiki/KRON "KRON"), the then\-[NBC](/wiki/NBC "NBC") (now MyNetwork TV) affiliate in San Francisco. This "after\-school job" became Pak's introduction to the entertainment world. Her first big interview for the show was [Ice\-T](/wiki/Ice-T "Ice-T").
While attending the [University of California, Berkeley](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Berkeley "University of California, Berkeley") as a [political science](/wiki/Political_science "Political science") major, Pak was once again discovered, when the producer of a [PBS](/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service "Public Broadcasting Service") science show called *[Newton's Apple](/wiki/Newton%27s_Apple "Newton's Apple")* saw a tape of her. Following graduation, she was approached by [ZDTV](/wiki/ZDTV "ZDTV"), a cable network devoted to technology and the Internet. After a year working on *[Internet Tonight](/wiki/Internet_Tonight "Internet Tonight")*, a daily half\-hour show at [ZDTV](/wiki/ZDTV "ZDTV"), she was recruited to be a correspondent on [KRON](/wiki/KRON "KRON"). Looking to move on from San Francisco, she sent in a tape to the start\-up cable network [Oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen_%28TV_channel%29 "Oxygen (TV channel)"). After a year\-long audition process, she was hired as a host for the show *[Trackers](/wiki/Trackers_%28Oxygen_TV_series%29 "Trackers (Oxygen TV series)")* and moved to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"). From there, [MTV](/wiki/MTV "MTV") spotted her and she was soon the first [Asian](/wiki/Asian_people "Asian people") face of MTV.
[thumb\|Pak speaking at an Asian Pacific American Heritage Month celebration, September 2005](/wiki/File:Suchin_Pak.jpg "Suchin Pak.jpg")
She has covered the *[MTV Movie Awards](/wiki/MTV_Movie_Awards "MTV Movie Awards")*, the *[Sundance Film Festival](/wiki/Sundance_Film_Festival "Sundance Film Festival")*, and the *[MTV Video Music Awards](/wiki/MTV_Video_Music_Awards "MTV Video Music Awards")*. She also co\-hosted, with [Kurt Loder](/wiki/Kurt_Loder "Kurt Loder"), MTV's pre\-[Grammy](/wiki/Grammy "Grammy") show. As a correspondent for "MTV Daily News", she has interviewed [Mariah Carey](/wiki/Mariah_Carey "Mariah Carey"), [\*NSYNC](/wiki/%2ANSYNC "*NSYNC"), [P. Diddy](/wiki/P._Diddy "P. Diddy"), [George Lucas](/wiki/George_Lucas "George Lucas"), [Jane's Addiction](/wiki/Jane%27s_Addiction "Jane's Addiction"), [Mary J. Blige](/wiki/Mary_J._Blige "Mary J. Blige"), [Billy Idol](/wiki/Billy_Idol "Billy Idol"), and [Fred Durst](/wiki/Fred_Durst "Fred Durst"). On March 6, 2012, she hosted [*Demi Lovato: Stay Strong — The After Show*](/wiki/Demi_Lovato:Stay_Strong%23Promotion "Stay Strong#Promotion"). Pak hosted her own MTV documentary about multicultural young people called *My Life (Translated)*.{{cite web\|last\=Pak\|first\=SuChin\|title\=My Life (Translated)\|url\=http://www.mtv.com/bands/m/mylifetranslated/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040428212514/http://www.mtv.com/bands/m/mylifetranslated/\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=April 28, 2004\|publisher\=MTV\|accessdate\=3 April 2013}} She narrated later seasons of *[MTV Cribs](/wiki/MTV_Cribs "MTV Cribs")* and *[True Life](/wiki/True_Life "True Life")*.
In 2007, she appeared on *[The Oprah Winfrey Show](/wiki/The_Oprah_Winfrey_Show "The Oprah Winfrey Show")*, revealing that she has struggled with [confidence](/wiki/Confidence "Confidence") and [beauty](/wiki/Beauty "Beauty") issues for many years. She mainly spoke about her [epicanthal folds](/wiki/Epicanthal_fold "Epicanthal fold"), and explained how her family and other Asians believe a [double eyelid](/wiki/Double_eyelid "Double eyelid") is crucial to beauty. She also mentioned how [epicanthoplasty](/wiki/East_Asian_blepharoplasty "East Asian blepharoplasty") is the top form of [plastic surgery](/wiki/Plastic_surgery "Plastic surgery") being done in Asia.
In 2008, Pak had left MTV News for [Planet Green](/wiki/Planet_Green_%28TV_channel%29 "Planet Green (TV channel)") to host *G Word*, which is co\-hosted by [Daniel Sieberg](/wiki/Daniel_Sieberg "Daniel Sieberg"). In 2010, Pak returned to MTV News and hosted the VMAs Pre Show. Recently, Pak has been the host for the National Constitution Center's "The Exchange", a program in which high school students discuss their views on relevant constitutional issues.
In 2012, Pak was hired as the new on\-air correspondent for [DailyCandy](/wiki/DailyCandy "DailyCandy"), an email newsletter based in New York. In 2016, she co\-hosted *People's List*, a weekly summer primetime [infotainment](/wiki/Infotainment "Infotainment") series associated with [People magazine](/wiki/People_%28magazine%29 "People (magazine)") on [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company "American Broadcasting Company").
In October 2020, it was announced that Pak would be joining [Lemonada Media](/wiki/Lemonada_Media "Lemonada Media")'s podcast slate as the co\-host{{Cite web\|date\=2020\-11\-19\|title\=This Week in Comedy Podcasts: Meet Your New Wellness Experts\|url\=https://www.vulture.com/2020/11/this\-week\-in\-comedy\-podcasts\-meet\-your\-new\-wellness\-experts.html\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-30\|website\=Vulture\|language\=en\-us}} of the new show *Add to Cart* alongside comedian and actress [Kulap Vilaysack](/wiki/Kulap_Vilaysack "Kulap Vilaysack"). The podcast launched on November 17, 2020 and is “a subversive and fun way about talking about consumerism, and how we all participate in it.”{{Cite web\|last\= \|first\= \|date\=2020\-10\-22\|title\=They lost their brothers to addiction. Now they're tackling deadly stigmas head on, with humor\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment\-arts/story/2020\-10\-22/podcast\-suicide\-addiction\-last\-day\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-30\|website\=Los Angeles Times\|language\=en\-US}} In 2021, Pak resumed her role as narrator of MTV Cribs.MTV. (2021, August 15\). "Travis Mills, Marsai Martin \& Christian Siriano." MTV Cribs. episode.
|
[
"Life and career\n---------------",
"Born in [Seoul](/wiki/Seoul \"Seoul\"), [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea \"South Korea\"), Pak immigrated along with her parents to [California](/wiki/California \"California\") when she was five years old. She grew up in [Union City, California](/wiki/Union_City%2C_California \"Union City, California\"), a [suburb](/wiki/Suburb \"Suburb\") southeast of [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\"). Her parents own a small restaurant in downtown [Oakland, California](/wiki/Oakland%2C_California \"Oakland, California\").",
"Pak never planned on a career in television. While attending [James Logan High School](/wiki/James_Logan_High_School \"James Logan High School\"), she volunteered for the YMCA program Youth and Government, an organization aimed at involving and educating young people in the political process. She was also a member of the school's [forensics team](/wiki/James_Logan_High_School%23The_Forensics_Speech_and_Debate_program \"James Logan High School#The Forensics Speech and Debate program\"), in which she did expository speaking. In 1992, she placed 8th in the state of California. She was interviewed for the news by [KGO\\-TV](/wiki/KGO-TV \"KGO-TV\"), the [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company \"American Broadcasting Company\") affiliate in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\") for the show *Straight Talk 'N Teens*. The program director for another station happened to see the piece and approached her to host the [teen](/wiki/Teenager \"Teenager\")\\-based magazine show *First Cut* on [KRON](/wiki/KRON \"KRON\"), the then\\-[NBC](/wiki/NBC \"NBC\") (now MyNetwork TV) affiliate in San Francisco. This \"after\\-school job\" became Pak's introduction to the entertainment world. Her first big interview for the show was [Ice\\-T](/wiki/Ice-T \"Ice-T\").",
"While attending the [University of California, Berkeley](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Berkeley \"University of California, Berkeley\") as a [political science](/wiki/Political_science \"Political science\") major, Pak was once again discovered, when the producer of a [PBS](/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service \"Public Broadcasting Service\") science show called *[Newton's Apple](/wiki/Newton%27s_Apple \"Newton's Apple\")* saw a tape of her. Following graduation, she was approached by [ZDTV](/wiki/ZDTV \"ZDTV\"), a cable network devoted to technology and the Internet. After a year working on *[Internet Tonight](/wiki/Internet_Tonight \"Internet Tonight\")*, a daily half\\-hour show at [ZDTV](/wiki/ZDTV \"ZDTV\"), she was recruited to be a correspondent on [KRON](/wiki/KRON \"KRON\"). Looking to move on from San Francisco, she sent in a tape to the start\\-up cable network [Oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen_%28TV_channel%29 \"Oxygen (TV channel)\"). After a year\\-long audition process, she was hired as a host for the show *[Trackers](/wiki/Trackers_%28Oxygen_TV_series%29 \"Trackers (Oxygen TV series)\")* and moved to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"). From there, [MTV](/wiki/MTV \"MTV\") spotted her and she was soon the first [Asian](/wiki/Asian_people \"Asian people\") face of MTV.",
"[thumb\\|Pak speaking at an Asian Pacific American Heritage Month celebration, September 2005](/wiki/File:Suchin_Pak.jpg \"Suchin Pak.jpg\")\nShe has covered the *[MTV Movie Awards](/wiki/MTV_Movie_Awards \"MTV Movie Awards\")*, the *[Sundance Film Festival](/wiki/Sundance_Film_Festival \"Sundance Film Festival\")*, and the *[MTV Video Music Awards](/wiki/MTV_Video_Music_Awards \"MTV Video Music Awards\")*. She also co\\-hosted, with [Kurt Loder](/wiki/Kurt_Loder \"Kurt Loder\"), MTV's pre\\-[Grammy](/wiki/Grammy \"Grammy\") show. As a correspondent for \"MTV Daily News\", she has interviewed [Mariah Carey](/wiki/Mariah_Carey \"Mariah Carey\"), [\\*NSYNC](/wiki/%2ANSYNC \"*NSYNC\"), [P. Diddy](/wiki/P._Diddy \"P. Diddy\"), [George Lucas](/wiki/George_Lucas \"George Lucas\"), [Jane's Addiction](/wiki/Jane%27s_Addiction \"Jane's Addiction\"), [Mary J. Blige](/wiki/Mary_J._Blige \"Mary J. Blige\"), [Billy Idol](/wiki/Billy_Idol \"Billy Idol\"), and [Fred Durst](/wiki/Fred_Durst \"Fred Durst\"). On March 6, 2012, she hosted [*Demi Lovato: Stay Strong — The After Show*](/wiki/Demi_Lovato:Stay_Strong%23Promotion \"Stay Strong#Promotion\"). Pak hosted her own MTV documentary about multicultural young people called *My Life (Translated)*.{{cite web\\|last\\=Pak\\|first\\=SuChin\\|title\\=My Life (Translated)\\|url\\=http://www.mtv.com/bands/m/mylifetranslated/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040428212514/http://www.mtv.com/bands/m/mylifetranslated/\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=April 28, 2004\\|publisher\\=MTV\\|accessdate\\=3 April 2013}} She narrated later seasons of *[MTV Cribs](/wiki/MTV_Cribs \"MTV Cribs\")* and *[True Life](/wiki/True_Life \"True Life\")*.",
"In 2007, she appeared on *[The Oprah Winfrey Show](/wiki/The_Oprah_Winfrey_Show \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\")*, revealing that she has struggled with [confidence](/wiki/Confidence \"Confidence\") and [beauty](/wiki/Beauty \"Beauty\") issues for many years. She mainly spoke about her [epicanthal folds](/wiki/Epicanthal_fold \"Epicanthal fold\"), and explained how her family and other Asians believe a [double eyelid](/wiki/Double_eyelid \"Double eyelid\") is crucial to beauty. She also mentioned how [epicanthoplasty](/wiki/East_Asian_blepharoplasty \"East Asian blepharoplasty\") is the top form of [plastic surgery](/wiki/Plastic_surgery \"Plastic surgery\") being done in Asia.",
"In 2008, Pak had left MTV News for [Planet Green](/wiki/Planet_Green_%28TV_channel%29 \"Planet Green (TV channel)\") to host *G Word*, which is co\\-hosted by [Daniel Sieberg](/wiki/Daniel_Sieberg \"Daniel Sieberg\"). In 2010, Pak returned to MTV News and hosted the VMAs Pre Show. Recently, Pak has been the host for the National Constitution Center's \"The Exchange\", a program in which high school students discuss their views on relevant constitutional issues.",
"In 2012, Pak was hired as the new on\\-air correspondent for [DailyCandy](/wiki/DailyCandy \"DailyCandy\"), an email newsletter based in New York. In 2016, she co\\-hosted *People's List*, a weekly summer primetime [infotainment](/wiki/Infotainment \"Infotainment\") series associated with [People magazine](/wiki/People_%28magazine%29 \"People (magazine)\") on [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company \"American Broadcasting Company\").",
"In October 2020, it was announced that Pak would be joining [Lemonada Media](/wiki/Lemonada_Media \"Lemonada Media\")'s podcast slate as the co\\-host{{Cite web\\|date\\=2020\\-11\\-19\\|title\\=This Week in Comedy Podcasts: Meet Your New Wellness Experts\\|url\\=https://www.vulture.com/2020/11/this\\-week\\-in\\-comedy\\-podcasts\\-meet\\-your\\-new\\-wellness\\-experts.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-30\\|website\\=Vulture\\|language\\=en\\-us}} of the new show *Add to Cart* alongside comedian and actress [Kulap Vilaysack](/wiki/Kulap_Vilaysack \"Kulap Vilaysack\"). The podcast launched on November 17, 2020 and is “a subversive and fun way about talking about consumerism, and how we all participate in it.”{{Cite web\\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\=2020\\-10\\-22\\|title\\=They lost their brothers to addiction. Now they're tackling deadly stigmas head on, with humor\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment\\-arts/story/2020\\-10\\-22/podcast\\-suicide\\-addiction\\-last\\-day\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-30\\|website\\=Los Angeles Times\\|language\\=en\\-US}} In 2021, Pak resumed her role as narrator of MTV Cribs.MTV. (2021, August 15\\). \"Travis Mills, Marsai Martin \\& Christian Siriano.\" MTV Cribs. episode.",
""
] |
History of the Diocese of Nebraska
----------------------------------
Source:{{Cite web\|url\=https://dioneb.org/About%20us/diocese\-history.html\|title\=History of the Diocese\|website\=dioneb.org\|access\-date\=2019\-10\-30}}
### Earliest History
While it is certain that men and women associated with the Episcopal Church were included among the earliest explorers and settlers of the territory that came to be called Nebraska, it is unknown who those first Episcopalians might have been and where in the territory they might first have led worship services from the Book of Common Prayer. The first Episcopal clergyman known to have served in the Nebraska territory was the Rev. James DePui, a Chaplain at Ft. Kearney.
### Earliest Parishes
In 1856 several churchmen in Omaha city requested the Bishop of Iowa visit them and consult about forming a parish. The Rev. Dr. Edward Peet arrived April 12, 1856, and met with 8 or 10 churchmen who organized a parish under the name of Trinity Church. On Sunday, April 13, Dr. Peet conducted the first known service of the Episcopal Church in Omaha.
In the autumn of 1857 an Episcopal missionary, the Rev. Mr. Eli Adams, came to Nebraska City and organized a parish under the name of St. Mary's. Having accepted a call from the vestry to be the rector, Adams went east to spend the winter. He returned in the spring of 1858 and found the parish had not been incorporated. On July 4, 1858, at the morning service the little congregation of pioneers adopted the following preamble: "We whose names are hereto affixed, deeply sensible of the truth of the Christian religion, and earnestly desirous of promoting its holy influences in our hearts and in those of our families and neighbors, do hereby incorporate ourselves under the name of St. Mary's Parish in Nebraska City, Nebraska Territory in communion with the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States."
### The Earliest Bishops
The Episcopal Church General Convention of 1838 tasked the great Missionary Bishop, Jackson Kemper with jurisdiction over, "the Territories of Wisconsin and Iowa and in all other parts of the United States north of latitude 36 1/2 where the Church is as yet unorganized." That included the area that came to be known as Nebraska.
Following Bishop Jackson Kemper, the Rt. Rev. Joseph C. Talbot served as a missionary bishop to the west. Kemper was the first bishop of the Episcopal Church with exclusive jurisdiction west of the Missouri River (parts of Kemper's missionary territories were located further east.) Bishop Talbot made Nebraska City (and St. Mary's) his home for five years beginning in 1860, during which time he laid foundations for the Episcopal Church's later work in his vast jurisdiction which included the present states of Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, Oregon, Washington, and California.
### Nebraska’s “First” Bishop
Because he was appointed to serve a smaller and distinct area of the U.S. (Nebraska and the Dakotas) and because he made Nebraska his permanent home and seat, Robert Harper Clarkson is remembered as the first bishop of Nebraska.
Clarkson was born on November 19, 1826, in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, and received a B.A. from Pennsylvania College in 1844\. He was ordained deacon on June 18, 1848, and priest on January 5, 1851\. He married Meliora McPherson on May 18, 1849\. They had two daughters, Mary and Nellie.
In his earliest days of ministry, Clarkson and his spouse lived in Chicago, Illinois. They were in the city during the days of the 1849 Chicago cholera outbreak that killed 678 people. Although some other clergymen fled the city, Clarkson stayed to minister to the sick and bury the dead. He went on to earn a D.D. from Racine College which was awarded in 1857 while he was serving as the rector of St. James's Episcopal Church in Chicago.
Clarkson was consecrated Missionary Bishop of Nebraska and Dakota on November 15, 1865\. During his ministry in Nebraska, Clarkson helped establish the first Christian missions to the Ponca Indians and was responsible for building fifty churches in his diocese as well as a children's hospital.
Clarkson designated Trinity Church in Omaha as his cathedral and soon determined to improve that physical plant. He laid the cornerstone for the current cathedral building on May 25, 1880\. Trinity served as the base of many Episcopal missions to areas of the western United States and remains today the episcopal seat of the Bishop of Nebraska.
Clarkson received an LL.D. from the University of Nebraska in 1872\.
He died on March 10, 1884\.
### Western Nebraska
For almost sixty years there were 2 dioceses in the state of Nebraska. In 1889 the Missionary District of The Platte was split off from the Diocese of Nebraska at about mid\-state. The first bishop of the diocese was Anson Rogers Graves who served from 1890 through 1910\. During Bishops Graves tenure, the new diocese was renamed the Missionary District of Laramie, and later the Missionary District of Kearney.
In 1910, George Allan Beecher became the second bishop of the western diocese. During Beecher's tenure, which lasted until 1943, the diocese was again renamed. It became the Missionary District of Western Nebraska. In 1918, Beecher designated St. Mark's Church in Hastings as Pro\-Cathedral for the Western Nebraska district.
In 1946, the Diocese of Western Nebraska was re\-absorbed into the Diocese of Nebraska. Saint Mark's in Hastings is still the Pro\-Cathedral of the Diocese of Nebraska.
|
[
"History of the Diocese of Nebraska\n----------------------------------",
"Source:{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://dioneb.org/About%20us/diocese\\-history.html\\|title\\=History of the Diocese\\|website\\=dioneb.org\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-30}}",
"### Earliest History",
"While it is certain that men and women associated with the Episcopal Church were included among the earliest explorers and settlers of the territory that came to be called Nebraska, it is unknown who those first Episcopalians might have been and where in the territory they might first have led worship services from the Book of Common Prayer. The first Episcopal clergyman known to have served in the Nebraska territory was the Rev. James DePui, a Chaplain at Ft. Kearney.",
"### Earliest Parishes",
"In 1856 several churchmen in Omaha city requested the Bishop of Iowa visit them and consult about forming a parish. The Rev. Dr. Edward Peet arrived April 12, 1856, and met with 8 or 10 churchmen who organized a parish under the name of Trinity Church. On Sunday, April 13, Dr. Peet conducted the first known service of the Episcopal Church in Omaha.",
"In the autumn of 1857 an Episcopal missionary, the Rev. Mr. Eli Adams, came to Nebraska City and organized a parish under the name of St. Mary's. Having accepted a call from the vestry to be the rector, Adams went east to spend the winter. He returned in the spring of 1858 and found the parish had not been incorporated. On July 4, 1858, at the morning service the little congregation of pioneers adopted the following preamble: \"We whose names are hereto affixed, deeply sensible of the truth of the Christian religion, and earnestly desirous of promoting its holy influences in our hearts and in those of our families and neighbors, do hereby incorporate ourselves under the name of St. Mary's Parish in Nebraska City, Nebraska Territory in communion with the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States.\"",
"### The Earliest Bishops",
"The Episcopal Church General Convention of 1838 tasked the great Missionary Bishop, Jackson Kemper with jurisdiction over, \"the Territories of Wisconsin and Iowa and in all other parts of the United States north of latitude 36 1/2 where the Church is as yet unorganized.\" That included the area that came to be known as Nebraska.",
"Following Bishop Jackson Kemper, the Rt. Rev. Joseph C. Talbot served as a missionary bishop to the west. Kemper was the first bishop of the Episcopal Church with exclusive jurisdiction west of the Missouri River (parts of Kemper's missionary territories were located further east.) Bishop Talbot made Nebraska City (and St. Mary's) his home for five years beginning in 1860, during which time he laid foundations for the Episcopal Church's later work in his vast jurisdiction which included the present states of Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, Oregon, Washington, and California.",
"### Nebraska’s “First” Bishop",
"Because he was appointed to serve a smaller and distinct area of the U.S. (Nebraska and the Dakotas) and because he made Nebraska his permanent home and seat, Robert Harper Clarkson is remembered as the first bishop of Nebraska.",
"Clarkson was born on November 19, 1826, in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, and received a B.A. from Pennsylvania College in 1844\\. He was ordained deacon on June 18, 1848, and priest on January 5, 1851\\. He married Meliora McPherson on May 18, 1849\\. They had two daughters, Mary and Nellie.",
"In his earliest days of ministry, Clarkson and his spouse lived in Chicago, Illinois. They were in the city during the days of the 1849 Chicago cholera outbreak that killed 678 people. Although some other clergymen fled the city, Clarkson stayed to minister to the sick and bury the dead. He went on to earn a D.D. from Racine College which was awarded in 1857 while he was serving as the rector of St. James's Episcopal Church in Chicago.",
"Clarkson was consecrated Missionary Bishop of Nebraska and Dakota on November 15, 1865\\. During his ministry in Nebraska, Clarkson helped establish the first Christian missions to the Ponca Indians and was responsible for building fifty churches in his diocese as well as a children's hospital.",
"Clarkson designated Trinity Church in Omaha as his cathedral and soon determined to improve that physical plant. He laid the cornerstone for the current cathedral building on May 25, 1880\\. Trinity served as the base of many Episcopal missions to areas of the western United States and remains today the episcopal seat of the Bishop of Nebraska.",
"Clarkson received an LL.D. from the University of Nebraska in 1872\\.",
"He died on March 10, 1884\\.",
"### Western Nebraska",
"For almost sixty years there were 2 dioceses in the state of Nebraska. In 1889 the Missionary District of The Platte was split off from the Diocese of Nebraska at about mid\\-state. The first bishop of the diocese was Anson Rogers Graves who served from 1890 through 1910\\. During Bishops Graves tenure, the new diocese was renamed the Missionary District of Laramie, and later the Missionary District of Kearney.",
"In 1910, George Allan Beecher became the second bishop of the western diocese. During Beecher's tenure, which lasted until 1943, the diocese was again renamed. It became the Missionary District of Western Nebraska. In 1918, Beecher designated St. Mark's Church in Hastings as Pro\\-Cathedral for the Western Nebraska district.",
"In 1946, the Diocese of Western Nebraska was re\\-absorbed into the Diocese of Nebraska. Saint Mark's in Hastings is still the Pro\\-Cathedral of the Diocese of Nebraska.",
""
] |
### Nebraska’s “First” Bishop
Because he was appointed to serve a smaller and distinct area of the U.S. (Nebraska and the Dakotas) and because he made Nebraska his permanent home and seat, Robert Harper Clarkson is remembered as the first bishop of Nebraska.
Clarkson was born on November 19, 1826, in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, and received a B.A. from Pennsylvania College in 1844\. He was ordained deacon on June 18, 1848, and priest on January 5, 1851\. He married Meliora McPherson on May 18, 1849\. They had two daughters, Mary and Nellie.
In his earliest days of ministry, Clarkson and his spouse lived in Chicago, Illinois. They were in the city during the days of the 1849 Chicago cholera outbreak that killed 678 people. Although some other clergymen fled the city, Clarkson stayed to minister to the sick and bury the dead. He went on to earn a D.D. from Racine College which was awarded in 1857 while he was serving as the rector of St. James's Episcopal Church in Chicago.
Clarkson was consecrated Missionary Bishop of Nebraska and Dakota on November 15, 1865\. During his ministry in Nebraska, Clarkson helped establish the first Christian missions to the Ponca Indians and was responsible for building fifty churches in his diocese as well as a children's hospital.
Clarkson designated Trinity Church in Omaha as his cathedral and soon determined to improve that physical plant. He laid the cornerstone for the current cathedral building on May 25, 1880\. Trinity served as the base of many Episcopal missions to areas of the western United States and remains today the episcopal seat of the Bishop of Nebraska.
Clarkson received an LL.D. from the University of Nebraska in 1872\.
He died on March 10, 1884\.
|
[
"### Nebraska’s “First” Bishop",
"Because he was appointed to serve a smaller and distinct area of the U.S. (Nebraska and the Dakotas) and because he made Nebraska his permanent home and seat, Robert Harper Clarkson is remembered as the first bishop of Nebraska.",
"Clarkson was born on November 19, 1826, in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, and received a B.A. from Pennsylvania College in 1844\\. He was ordained deacon on June 18, 1848, and priest on January 5, 1851\\. He married Meliora McPherson on May 18, 1849\\. They had two daughters, Mary and Nellie.",
"In his earliest days of ministry, Clarkson and his spouse lived in Chicago, Illinois. They were in the city during the days of the 1849 Chicago cholera outbreak that killed 678 people. Although some other clergymen fled the city, Clarkson stayed to minister to the sick and bury the dead. He went on to earn a D.D. from Racine College which was awarded in 1857 while he was serving as the rector of St. James's Episcopal Church in Chicago.",
"Clarkson was consecrated Missionary Bishop of Nebraska and Dakota on November 15, 1865\\. During his ministry in Nebraska, Clarkson helped establish the first Christian missions to the Ponca Indians and was responsible for building fifty churches in his diocese as well as a children's hospital.",
"Clarkson designated Trinity Church in Omaha as his cathedral and soon determined to improve that physical plant. He laid the cornerstone for the current cathedral building on May 25, 1880\\. Trinity served as the base of many Episcopal missions to areas of the western United States and remains today the episcopal seat of the Bishop of Nebraska.",
"Clarkson received an LL.D. from the University of Nebraska in 1872\\.",
"He died on March 10, 1884\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|300px\|right\|Door handle of a mid\-20th century Woolworth's store](/wiki/File:WoolworthsSelfService.jpg "WoolworthsSelfService.jpg")
### Origin
The F.W. Woolworth Co. had the first [five\-and\-dime stores](/wiki/Five_and_dime "Five and dime"), which sold [discounted](/wiki/Discounts_and_allowances "Discounts and allowances") general merchandise and [fixed price](/wiki/Fixed_price "Fixed price"), usually five or ten cents, [undercutting](/wiki/Edgeworth_price_cycle "Edgeworth price cycle") the prices of other local merchants. Woolworth, as the stores popularly became known, was one of the first American retailers to put merchandise out for the shopping public to handle and select without the assistance of a [sales clerk](/wiki/Sales "Sales"). Earlier retailers had kept all merchandise behind a counter and customers presented the clerk with a list of items they wished to buy.{{cite news\| url\=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2008/nov/19/woolworths\-retail\-department\-stores \|title\=Woolworths: the rise and fall of the department store empire \|first\=James \|last\=Robinson \|newspaper\=\[\[The Guardian]] \|location\=London \|date\=November 19, 2008}}
After working in Augsbury and Moore [dry goods](/wiki/Dry_goods "Dry goods") store in [Watertown, New York](/wiki/Watertown%2C_New_York "Watertown, New York"), Frank Winfield Woolworth obtained credit from his former boss, William Moore, along with some savings, to buy merchandise and open the "Woolworth's Great Five Cent Store" in [Utica, New York](/wiki/Utica%2C_New_York "Utica, New York"), on February 22, 1879\. The store failed and closed in May 1879, after Woolworth earned enough money to pay back William Moore. Woolworth soon made a second attempt, and opened his "Woolworth's Great Five Cent Store", using the same sign, on June 21, 1879, in [Lancaster, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Lancaster%2C_Pennsylvania "Lancaster, Pennsylvania").
Lancaster proved a success, and Woolworth opened a second store in [Harrisburg, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Harrisburg%2C_Pennsylvania "Harrisburg, Pennsylvania") in 1879, with his brother Charles Sumner Woolworth as manager. The Harrisburg store closed after a falling\-out with the landlord; their next store, in [York, Pennsylvania](/wiki/York%2C_Pennsylvania "York, Pennsylvania"), likewise closed after only three months of operation. Finally, the "5¢ Woolworth Bro's Store" opened in [Scranton, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Scranton%2C_Pennsylvania "Scranton, Pennsylvania") on November 6, 1880, with Charles as manager. At this location, the "5¢ \& 10¢" merchandising model was fully developed, and the store proved a success. Charles bought out Frank's share of the Scranton store in two installments, in January 1881 and 1882, making him the company's first franchisee.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.woolworthsmuseum.co.uk \|title\=Welcome to the Woolworths Museum \|website\=The Woolworths Museum}}{{cite journal \|url\=http://azwoolworths.org/Book/page21\.htm \|title\=VII: Frank Winfield Woolworth \|journal\=American Families Historic Lineages\| page\=3\| publisher\=\[\[New\-York Historical Society]]}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.gcmurphy.org/history\_timeline.html \|title\=Five and Dime Timeline, 1879–2003\| first\=Jason\| last\=Togyer\| website\=G.C. Murphy Memories\| access\-date\=January 1, 2021}}{{cite news \|first\=Helen \|last\=Pike \|title\=Woolworth in New Jersey: A Love\-Hate Relationship \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/12/05/nyregion/jerseyana\-woolworth\-in\-new\-jersey\-a\-love\-hate\-relationship.html?pagewanted\=all\&src\=pm \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=December 5, 1999 \|access\-date\=June 27, 2008 \|url\-access\=subscription}}
In 1884, Charles partnered with his longtime friend, wholesaler [Fred Morgan Kirby](/wiki/Fred_Morgan_Kirby "Fred Morgan Kirby"), on a location in [Wilkes\-Barre, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Wilkes-Barre%2C_Pennsylvania "Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania"), which they called "Woolworth and Kirby". This location, too, was successful, and the brothers continued persuading family members and other associates to join them in forming a "friendly rival syndicate" of five\-and\-ten\-cent stores. Each of the syndicate chain's stores looked similar inside and out, but operated under its founder's name. Frank Woolworth provided much of the merchandise, encouraging the rivals to club together to maximize their [inventory](/wiki/Inventory "Inventory") and [purchasing power](/wiki/Purchasing_power "Purchasing power").{{cite news \|title\=Remembering Woolworth's: A Nostalgic History of the World's Most Famous Five\-and\-Dime\| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=q\-uZg5L2W5wC\&q\=1878\&pg\=PA57\| publisher\=St. Martin's Press\| location\=New York\| year\=1999\| access\-date\=October 23, 2011\| first\=Karen\| last\=Plunkett\-Powell\| isbn\=978\-0312277048}}
### Rise and expansion
By 1904, the syndicate had six chains of affiliated stores operating in the United States and Canada, which began incorporating separately during the next few years. In 1912, however, all 596 stores [merged](/wiki/Mergers_and_acquisitions "Mergers and acquisitions") into one corporate entity under the name "F. W. Woolworth Company". Frank Woolworth served as president; Charles Woolworth, Fred Kirby, [Seymour H. Knox I](/wiki/Seymour_H._Knox_I "Seymour H. Knox I"), [Earle Charlton](/wiki/E._P._Charlton_%26_Company "E. P. Charlton & Company"), and William Moore each became a director and vice president.
In 1900, Frank Woolworth bought up adjoining properties in a low\-rent area of Lancaster. On the newly acquired land, he had a building erected with five floors of offices above a large store, as well as a garden and open\-air theater, which soon became the city's social center.{{citation needed\|date\=February 2024}}
[thumb\|right\|180px\|[Tea cup ballet](/wiki/Tea_cup_ballet "Tea cup ballet"), a 1935 photograph by [Olive Cotton](/wiki/Olive_Cotton "Olive Cotton") with some inexpensive cups and saucers from Woolworths](/wiki/File:Olive_Cotton_-_Tea_cup_ballet%2C_1935.jpg "Olive Cotton - Tea cup ballet, 1935.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|180px\|Second successful "Woolworth Bros" store, Scranton, Penn. Later bought by brother Charles, becoming the first "C. S. Woolworth" store, and eventually merged into the F. W. Woolworth Company.](/wiki/File:Scranton_Store_-_Woolworth_2nd-larger.jpg "Scranton Store - Woolworth 2nd-larger.jpg")
In 1910, Frank Woolworth commissioned the design and construction of the [Woolworth Building](/wiki/Woolworth_Building "Woolworth Building") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"). A pioneering early skyscraper, it was designed by American architect [Cass Gilbert](/wiki/Cass_Gilbert "Cass Gilbert"), a graduate of the [MIT architecture](/wiki/MIT_architecture "MIT architecture") school.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11376/ \|title\=Study for Woolworth Building, New York \|website\=\[\[World Digital Library]] \|date\=December 10, 1910 \|access\-date\=July 25, 2013}} The building was paid for entirely in cash. It was completed in 1913 and was the [tallest building in the world](/wiki/Tallest_building_in_the_world "Tallest building in the world") until 1930\. It also served as the company's headquarters until the F.W. Woolworth Company's successor, the [Venator Group](/wiki/Foot_Locker "Foot Locker") (now Foot Locker), sold it in 1998\.
[thumbnail\|left\|FW Woolworth store in Providence, RI, {{Circa\|1930–1945}}](/wiki/File:FW_Woolworth_store_Providence_RI.jpg "FW Woolworth store Providence RI.jpg")
After Frank Woolworth's 1919 death, his brother Charles took on the role of chairman of the board, and the company's treasurer [Hubert T. Parson](/wiki/Hubert_T._Parson "Hubert T. Parson") took over the presidency.
In 1925 the company reported $253 million in sales, in 1926 $239 million.{{Cite magazine \|date\=January 17, 1927 \|title\=Business: Business Notes, Jan. 17, 1927 \|language\=en\-US \|magazine\=Time \|url\=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,729858,00\.html \|access\-date\=January 13, 2023 \|issn\=0040\-781X}}
For many years the company did a strictly "five\-and\-ten cent" business, but in the spring of 1932 it added a 20\-cent line of merchandise. On November 13, 1935, the company's directors decided to discontinue selling\-price limits altogether.{{cite journal\| pages\=45–58\| url\=https://tehistory.org/hqda/html/v32/v32n2p045\.html\| title\=Club Members Remember Shopping at Woolworth's\| publisher\=Tredyffrin Easttown Historical Society\| journal\=History Quarterly\| date\=April 1994\| volume\=32\| number\=2\| access\-date\=January 1, 2021}}
The stores eventually incorporated lunch counters after the success of the counters in the first store in the UK in [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool "Liverpool"). These counters served as general gathering places, a precursor to the modern shopping mall [food court](/wiki/Food_court "Food court"). A Woolworth's lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina became the setting for the 1960 [Greensboro sit\-ins](/wiki/Greensboro_sit-ins "Greensboro sit-ins"), protesting the company's [racial segregation](/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States "Racial segregation in the United States") policies in the [South](/wiki/Southern_United_States "Southern United States"), a key event of the [Civil Rights Movement](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement "Civil Rights Movement").
The Woolworth's concept was widely imitated, and five\-and\-ten\-cent stores (also known as five\-and\-dime stores or dimestores) became a 20th\-century fixture in American downtowns. They would serve as [anchors](/wiki/Anchor_store "Anchor store") for suburban shopping plazas and shopping malls in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s. Criticisms that five\-and\-dime stores drove local merchants out of business would repeat themselves in the early 21st century, when [big\-box](/wiki/Big-box_store "Big-box store") discount stores became popular.
[thumb\|Front of a vintage Woolworth's store on 34th Street in New York City in 1954](/wiki/File:Old_Woolworth%27s_storefront_on_34th_Street_in_New_York_City_in_1954.jpg "Old Woolworth's storefront on 34th Street in New York City in 1954.jpg")
### Diversification
In the 1960s, the five\-and\-dime concept evolved into the larger [discount department store](/wiki/Discount_department_store "Discount department store") format. In 1962, Woolworth's founded a chain of large, single\-floor discount stores called [Woolco](/wiki/Woolco "Woolco"). In that same year, Woolworth's competitors opened similar retail chains that sold merchandise at a discount: the [S.S. Kresge Company](/wiki/S.S._Kresge "S.S. Kresge") opened [Kmart](/wiki/Kmart_%28United_States%29 "Kmart (United States)"), [Dayton's](/wiki/Dayton%27s "Dayton's") opened [Target](/wiki/Target_Corporation "Target Corporation"), and [Sam Walton](/wiki/Sam_Walton "Sam Walton") opened his first [Wal\-Mart](/wiki/Wal-Mart "Wal-Mart") store.
The following year, in 1963, Woolworth expanded into the shoe store business with the purchase of [Kinney Shoe Corporation](/wiki/Kinney_Shoes "Kinney Shoes"), which led to the founding of the sporting goods store Foot Locker in 1974; the company would specialise in sporting goods and exclusively focus on sporting goods by 2001\.
By Woolworth's 100th anniversary in 1979, it had become the largest department store chain in the world, according to the [Guinness Book of World Records](/wiki/Guinness_World_Records "Guinness World Records").
During the 1980s, the company began expansion into many different specialty store formats, including Afterthoughts (which sold jewelry and other accessories for women),{{cite news \|last1\=Barmash \|first1\=Isadore \|title\=Chain by Chain, Woolworth Reinvents Itself \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/12/13/business/chain\-by\-chain\-woolworth\-reinvents\-itself.html \|access\-date\=December 15, 2018 \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=December 13, 1992 \|page\=5, Sec. 3 \|url\-access\=subscription}} Northern Reflections (which sold cold\-weather outerwear), Rx Place (later sold to [Phar\-Mor](/wiki/Phar-Mor "Phar-Mor")), and [Champs Sports](/wiki/Champs_Sports "Champs Sports").
By 1989, the company was pursuing an aggressive strategy of multiple specialty store formats targeted at enclosed shopping malls. The idea was that if a particular concept failed at a given mall, the company could quickly replace it with a different concept. The company aimed for ten stores in each of the country's major shopping malls, but this never came to pass, as Woolworth never developed that many successful specialty store formats.
Also attempted was a revision of the classic Woolworth store model into *Woolworth Express*, a small, mall\-oriented variant which was dubbed "a specialty variety store'', stocked with everyday convenience items such as health and beauty aids, greeting cards, snack foods, cleaning supplies and school supplies (somewhat like the non\-pharmacy, mall\-based locations of [CVS/pharmacy](/wiki/CVS_Pharmacy "CVS Pharmacy") and other drug store chains).{{cite news\| url\=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct\-xpm\-1988\-06\-17\-8801080329\-story.html\| title\=Woolworth Will Add 800 Stores\| last\=Key\| first\=Janet\| newspaper\=\[\[Chicago Tribune]]\| access\-date\=September 30, 2018\| language\=en\-US}}
### Decline
[thumb\|Woolworths at 3200 [Lankershim Boulevard](/wiki/Lankershim_Boulevard "Lankershim Boulevard"), [North Hollywood, Los Angeles](/wiki/North_Hollywood%2C_Los_Angeles "North Hollywood, Los Angeles") in 1977](/wiki/File:Woolworths%2C_3200_Lankershim_Boulevard%2C_North_Hollywood%2C_California_LCCN2017703229.tif "Woolworths, 3200 Lankershim Boulevard, North Hollywood, California LCCN2017703229.tif")
[alt\=\|thumb\|The Woolworth's store in downtown [Seattle](/wiki/Seattle "Seattle") in the 1980s](/wiki/File:Downtown_Seattle_Woolworth%27s_in_1986.jpg "Downtown Seattle Woolworth's in 1986.jpg")
The growth and expansion of the company contributed to its downfall. The Woolworth company moved away from its [five\-and\-dime](/wiki/Variety_store "Variety store") roots and placed less emphasis on its [department store](/wiki/Department_store "Department store") chain as it focused on its specialty stores. Still, the company was unable to compete with other chains that had eroded its [market share](/wiki/Market_share "Market share").
While it was a success in Canada, the [Woolco](/wiki/Woolco "Woolco") chain closed in the United States in 1983\. Europe's largest F. W. Woolworth store, in [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester "Manchester"), England (one of two in the city centre), suffered a fire in May 1979\. Despite the store being rebuilt even larger and up to the latest fire codes, the negative stories in the press and loss of lives in the fire sealed its fate; it ultimately closed in 1986\. During the rebuilding and partly as a result of the bad press, the British operation was separated from the parent company as Woolworths plc. This proved fortuitous, as the brand subsequently lasted a full twelve years longer in the United Kingdom than it did in the United States.
On October 15, 1993, Woolworth's embarked on a [restructuring](/wiki/Restructuring "Restructuring") plan that included closing half of its 800\-plus [general merchandise](/wiki/Product_%28business%29 "Product (business)") stores in the United States and converting its Canadian stores to a [closeout](/wiki/Closeout_%28sale%29 "Closeout (sale)") division named [The Bargain! Shop](/wiki/The_Bargain%21_Shop "The Bargain! Shop"). Woolco and Woolworth survived in Canada until 1994, when the company sold the majority of the Woolco stores to [Wal\-Mart](/wiki/Wal-Mart "Wal-Mart"). The Woolco stores that Wal\-Mart did not purchase were either converted to *The Bargain! Shop*, sold to [Zellers](/wiki/Zellers "Zellers") or closed permanently. Approximately 100 Woolworth stores in Canada were rebranded as *The Bargain! Shop*, and the remainder closed.
### Transition
Amid the decline of the signature stores, Woolworth began focusing on the sale of athletic goods. On January 30, 1997, the company acquired the [mail order](/wiki/Mail_order "Mail order") catalog athletic retailer [Eastbay](/wiki/Eastbay "Eastbay").
On March 17, 1997, Wal\-Mart replaced Woolworth's as a component of the [Dow Jones Industrial Average](/wiki/Dow_Jones_Industrial_Average "Dow Jones Industrial Average").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.djindexes.com/mdsidx/downloads/brochure\_info/Dow\_Jones\_Industrial\_Average\_Historical\_Components.pdf \|title\=Dow Jones Industrial Average Historical Components \|date\=September 23, 2013 \|access\-date\=October 24, 2015 \|publisher\=S\&P Dow Jones Indices LLC \|archive\-date\=February 2, 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130202200847/http://www.djindexes.com/mdsidx/downloads/brochure\_info/Dow\_Jones\_Industrial\_Average\_Historical\_Components.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }} Analysts at the time cited the lower prices of the large [discount stores](/wiki/Discount_stores "Discount stores") and the expansion of supermarket [grocery stores](/wiki/Grocery_store "Grocery store") – which had begun to stock merchandise also sold by five\-and\-dime stores – as contributors to Woolworth's decline in the late 20th century.
#### Venator
On July 17, 1997, Woolworth's announced that it would be closing its remaining department stores in the United States.{{cite news \|last1\=Swanson \|first1\=Tia \|title\=Store's Finale ends Tradition \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/318730673/?match\=2\&clipping\_id\=151741697 \|access\-date\=21 July 2024 \|work\=\[\[Home News Tribune]] \|date\=18 July 1997}} The company also changed its corporate name to Venator. In 1999, Venator moved from the [Woolworth Building](/wiki/Woolworth_Building "Woolworth Building") in New York City to offices on [34th Street](/wiki/34th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "34th Street (Manhattan)").
#### Foot Locker
On October 20, 2001, the company changed names again; taking the name of its top retail performer and became [Foot Locker, Inc.](/wiki/Foot_Locker%2C_Inc. "Foot Locker, Inc."), which Woolworth started in 1974 under [Kinney Shoes](/wiki/Kinney_Shoes "Kinney Shoes"). Foot Locker, Inc., is the legal continuation of the original Woolworth; it retains Woolworth's pre\-1997 stock price history.
As part of celebrating F. W. Woolworth's centennial on the [New York Stock Exchange](/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange "New York Stock Exchange") on June 26, 2012, a news release featured 1912 Woolworth's store and a 2012 Foot Locker store.{{cite press release\| url\=https://www.footlocker\-inc.com/pdf/2012/pr\_2012\_fl\_Foot\_Locker\_NYSE\_100\_Release\_6\-26\-12a.pdf\| title\=Foot Locker to Celebrate 100\-year anniversary on the New York Stock Exchange\| date\=June 26, 2012\| publisher\=Foot Locker Inc.}}
### Influence on popular culture
{{multiple image
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* Woolworth was the pioneer of "five\-and\-dime"\-style retailing.{{cite journal\| url\=http://www.complex.com/pop\-culture/2013/07/mall\-stores\-that\-need\-to\-make\-a\-comeback/woolworths\| title\=Old School Mall Stores That Need to Make a Comeback\| date\=July 9, 2013\| access\-date\=October 24, 2015\| website\=Complex\| last\=Block\| first\=Justin}}
* In 1880, Woolworth first sold manufactured Christmas tree ornaments, which proved extremely popular.{{Cite web\|url \= http://projectbritain.com/Xmas/trees.html\|title \= British Christmas Traditions — Christmas Trees\|access\-date \= October 24, 2015\|website \= Project Britain\|last \= Barrow\|first \= Mandy}}
* In 1929, in [Atlantic City, New Jersey](/wiki/Atlantic_City%2C_New_Jersey "Atlantic City, New Jersey"), Sam Foster (founder of [Foster Grant](/wiki/Foster_Grant "Foster Grant") eyewear) sold sunglasses from his counter in Woolworth's on the city's famous boardwalk, which became a great hit with the sunbathing public.{{cite web\| url\=http://library.syr.edu/digital/guides/f/foster\_grant.htm\|title\=Foster Grant Collection\| access\-date\=October 24, 2015\| website\=\[\[Syracuse University]] Library}}
* [Paul Terry](/wiki/Paul_Terry_%28cartoonist%29 "Paul Terry (cartoonist)"), founder of the [Terrytoons](/wiki/Terrytoons "Terrytoons") Cartoon Studio, once said "Let [Walt Disney](/wiki/Walt_Disney "Walt Disney") be the [Tiffany's](/wiki/Tiffany_%26_Co. "Tiffany & Co."), I want to be the Woolworth's".
* On February 1, 1960, four African\-American students from [North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University](/wiki/North_Carolina_Agricultural_and_Technical_State_University "North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University") (NC A\&T) started the [Greensboro sit\-ins](/wiki/Greensboro_sit-ins "Greensboro sit-ins") at a "whites only" lunch counter in the Greensboro, North Carolina store. (The store is now a museum.)
* On February 27, 1960, in [Nashville, Tennessee](/wiki/Nashville%2C_Tennessee "Nashville, Tennessee"), an integrated student\-led movement from nearby black colleges, including [Fisk University](/wiki/Fisk_University "Fisk University"), [American Baptist College](/wiki/American_Baptist_College "American Baptist College"), and Tennessee A\&I (now [Tennessee State](/wiki/Tennessee_State_University "Tennessee State University")), drew more than 200 protestors to the lunch counters at Woolworth, Kress, McClellan, and Walgreens across the street, resulting in national media attention after the students' nonviolent tactics were met with violent backlash from white citizens. Among the protestors arrested was future US Congressman [John Lewis](/wiki/John_Lewis "John Lewis"), who participated in the sit\-in at the lunch counter at Woolworth. The building functioned as a diner, Woolworth's on Fifth, for several years after the original store's closing and is now being converted into an entertainment theater.{{Cite web \|last\=Riley \|first\=Joshua \|title\=Historic Woolworth \|url\=https://www.woolworththeatre.com/about/historic\-woolworth/ \|access\-date\=June 23, 2022 \|website\=Woolworth Theatre \|language\=en\-US}}
* On May 28, 1963, 14 activists – including [Tougaloo College](/wiki/Tougaloo_College "Tougaloo College") chaplain, Reverend Ed King and professors John Salter Jr. and Lois Chaffee (who were white), and students [Pearlena Lewis](/wiki/Pearlena_Lewis "Pearlena Lewis"), [Anne Moody](/wiki/Anne_Moody "Anne Moody") (who later published *[Coming of Age in Mississippi](/wiki/Coming_of_Age_in_Mississippi "Coming of Age in Mississippi")*), and Memphis Norman (who were black), and [Joan Trumpauer](/wiki/Joan_Trumpauer_Mulholland "Joan Trumpauer Mulholland") (who was white) – protested [Jim Crow](/wiki/Jim_Crow "Jim Crow") segregation via a sit\-in at Woolworth's "whites only" lunch counter in [Jackson, Mississippi](/wiki/Jackson%2C_Mississippi "Jackson, Mississippi").{{cite book\| last\=Moody\| first\=Anne\| title\=Coming of Age in Mississippi\| page\=286\| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=bWwPIHNdEZoC\&q\=woolworth\| location\=New York\| publisher\=Bantam Dell\| date\=September 7, 2011\| url\-access\=subscription\| isbn\=978\-0307803580}}{{cite book \|last\=Abel \|first\=Elizabeth \|author\-link\=Elizabeth Abel \|title\=Signs of the Times: The Visual Politics of Jim Crow \|location\= Berkeley, California \|publisher\=University of California Press \|page\=256 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=IakwDwAAQBAJ\&q\=woolworth \|date\=May 6, 2010\| isbn\=978\-0520261839}} Bill Minor, then the Mississippi correspondent covering civil rights events for the *New Orleans Times\-Picayune* and who was there that day, says the Jackson Woolworth's sit\-in was "the signature event of the protest movement in Jackson. The first one there was with real violence." The following year, the [Civil Rights Act of 1964](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964 "Civil Rights Act of 1964") was passed into law.{{cite news \|newspaper\=\[\[Jackson Free Press]] \|title\=Real Violence: 50 Years Ago at Woolworth \|last\=Burns \|first\=Trip \|date\=May 23, 2013 \|url\=http://www.jacksonfreepress.com/news/2013/may/23/real\-violence\-50\-years\-ago\-woolworth/}}
* In 1976, [David Bowie](/wiki/David_Bowie "David Bowie") memorably called his look, "a cross between [Nijinsky](/wiki/Nijinsky "Nijinsky") and Woolworth's."{{cite journal \|url\=https://issuu.com/theleither/docs/web\-93 \|title\=When Nijinsky met Woolworths \|date\=February 28, 2013 \|issue\=93 \|journal\=Leither Magazine \|page\=8 \|access\-date\=January 1, 2021 \|archive\-date\=February 28, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228075511/https://issuu.com/theleither/docs/web\-93 \|url\-status\=dead }}
* On folk singer [Nanci Griffith](/wiki/Nanci_Griffith "Nanci Griffith")'s 1988 live album, *[One Fair Summer Evening](/wiki/One_Fair_Summer_Evening "One Fair Summer Evening")*, the song "[Love at the Five and Dime](/wiki/Love_at_the_Five_and_Dime "Love at the Five and Dime")" includes an extended introduction that reminisces about Woolworth stores.
* A memorable scene in the Coen brothers' 2000 film *[O Brother, Where Art Thou?](/wiki/O_Brother%2C_Where_Art_Thou%3F "O Brother, Where Art Thou?")*, set in rural Mississippi in 1937, entails George Clooney's character being physically thrown out of an F.W. Woolworth Co. store and admonished by the manager, "And stay out o' the Woolsworth!"{{cite web \|first\=Ryan \|last\=Firekeeper \|title\=O Brother Where Art Thou \- Woolsworth \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=JaW0M6V85j8 \| archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211117/JaW0M6V85j8\| archive\-date\=November 17, 2021 \| url\-status\=live\|website\=\[\[YouTube]] \|date\=September 24, 2011 \|access\-date\=June 25, 2017}}{{cbignore}}{{cite web \|title\=O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000\) \- Quotes \|url\=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0190590/trivia?tab\=qt \|website\=\[\[IMDb]] \|date\=June 25, 2017 \|access\-date\=June 25, 2017}}
* Following Woolworth's dissolution, a Woolworth's building remained in operation (albeit as an antique store) in [Bakersfield, California](/wiki/Bakersfield%2C_California "Bakersfield, California"), and included a diner with similar offerings of the former brand. Both the store and diner closed indefinitely in 2022 for renovations following a sale of the building; as of 2024, there is no set re\-open date.{{cite web \|website\=Facebook \|url\=https://www.facebook.com/Woolworths\-Diner\-106269406061902/ \|title\=Woolworth's Diner}}{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-01\-25 \|title\=Woolworths Diner will be closing temporarily \|url\=https://www.kget.com/news/business/woolworths\-diner\-will\-be\-closing\-temporarily/ \|access\-date\=2024\-04\-12 \|website\=KGET 17 \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web \|last\=smayer@bakersfield.com \|first\=STEVEN MAYER \|date\=2024\-01\-20 \|title\=Transforming a historic space: Owners of Woolworth's building win $250,000 city grant to help \|url\=https://www.bakersfield.com/news/transforming\-a\-historic\-space\-owners\-of\-woolworths\-building\-win\-250\-000\-city\-grant\-to\-help/article\_b218d11c\-b7c7\-11ee\-a595\-d78d2317cb07\.html \|access\-date\=2024\-04\-12 \|website\=The Bakersfield Californian \|language\=en}}
* The 2nd season of *[The Red Green Show](/wiki/The_Red_Green_Show "The Red Green Show")* featured a character named Murray Woolworth, played by [Ed Sahely](/wiki/Ed_Sahely "Ed Sahely"), who ran a variety store called Murray's Variety, where he always sold useless junk and faulty inventions and devices, enforced a strict "no return\-no refunds\-no exchange" policy, and was constantly scheming ways to cheat Lodge members out of their money as a result of his shady and unethical business practices.
[thumb\|Former Woolworth's Diner in Bakersfield, California.](/wiki/File:Woolworth%27s_Diner.jpg "Woolworth's Diner.jpg")
### Greensboro, and other, sit\-ins
{{Main\|Greensboro sit\-ins}}
On February 1, 1960, four black students sat down at a [segregated](/wiki/Racial_segregation "Racial segregation") [lunch counter](/wiki/Lunch_counter "Lunch counter") in a [Greensboro, North Carolina](/wiki/Greensboro%2C_North_Carolina "Greensboro, North Carolina"), Woolworth's store. They were refused service, touching off six months of [sit\-ins](/wiki/Sit-in "Sit-in") and [economic boycotts](/wiki/Boycott "Boycott") that became a landmark event in the civil rights movement. In 1993, an eight\-foot section of the lunch counter was moved to the [Smithsonian Institution](/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution "Smithsonian Institution") and the store site now contains a [civil rights museum](/wiki/International_Civil_Rights_Center_and_Museum "International Civil Rights Center and Museum"),
which had its grand opening on Monday, February 1, 2010, the 50th anniversary of the beginning of the sit\-ins.{{cite web \|url\=http://library.uncg.edu/dp/crg/itemlist1\.aspx?f\=0\&s\=20\&lastkey\=0 \|title\=Civil Rights Greensboro \|website\=\[\[University of North Carolina at Greensboro]] Library \|access\-date\=November 17, 2011 \|archive\-date\=March 26, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326131650/http://library.uncg.edu/dp/crg/itemlist1\.aspx?f\=0\&s\=20\&lastkey\=0 \|url\-status\=dead }}
Imitation sit\-ins also occurred in other cities where there were segregated lunch counters at Woolworth's. In [Roanoke, Virginia](/wiki/Roanoke%2C_Virginia "Roanoke, Virginia") on August 27, 1960, two women and a boy "...sat at the lunch counter and ordered a slice of pie, a soda and a [sundae](/wiki/Sundae "Sundae"), all under the watchful eyes of the biracial committee which had organized the event." The names of the three black customers were not reported at the time, and are now unknown. While the incident was uneventful, other sit\-ins were completed, also without incident, at 17 other segregated lunch counters in Roanoke.{{cite news\| title\=Editorial: Some historical markers we need \| url\=https://roanoke.com/opinion/editorials/editorial\-some\-historical\-markers\-we\-need/article\_aaa6f86e\-2fb3\-5297\-97ae\-e97bde1bcab0\.html\| newspaper\=\[\[Roanoke Times]]\| date\=February 17, 2017\| page\=8\| access\-date\=January 1, 2021}}
There were at least 3 sit\-ins in Florida Woolworth's locations; two in March 1960, in [Tampa](/wiki/Tampa%2C_Florida "Tampa, Florida"){{cite journal \|last1\=Pollitt \|first1\=Daniel H. \|title\=Dime Store Demonstrations: Events and Legal Problems of First Sixty Days \|journal\=Duke Law Journal \|date\=Summer 1960 \|volume\=1960 \|issue\=3 \|page\=325 \|doi\=10\.2307/1371082 \|jstor\=1371082 \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1371082 \|access\-date\=March 13, 2023}} and [Sarasota](/wiki/Sarasota%2C_Florida "Sarasota, Florida"),{{cite book \|last1\=LaHurd \|first1\=Jeff \|title\=Gulf Coast chronicles : remembering Sarasota's past \|date\=2005 \|publisher\=History Press \|location\=Charleston, SC \|isbn\=9781596290297 \|page\=93}} and in July 1963 in [St. Augustine, Florida](/wiki/St._Augustine%2C_Florida "St. Augustine, Florida").{{cite web \|last1\=Phillips \|first1\=Gayle \|title\=Historic Woolworth's Counter now on display \|url\=https://www.lincolnvillemuseum.org/blog/41i3v38njxftrfnf68l7d0ncxhfuau\#:\~:text\=In%20July%201963%2C%20Black%20students,and%20disturbance%20of%20the%20peace. \|access\-date\=March 13, 2023}}
### Presidents
{{div col\|colwidth\=22em}}
* [Frank Winfield Woolworth](/wiki/Frank_Winfield_Woolworth "Frank Winfield Woolworth") (1852–1919\) – founder
* [Hubert Templeton Parson](/wiki/Hubert_Templeton_Parson "Hubert Templeton Parson") (1919–1932\){{cite news \|title\=To succeed C.C. Griswald. The Woolworth Company Announces the Selection of H.T. Parsons. \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1916/01/29/archives/to\-succeed\-cc\-griswold\-the\-woolworth\-company\-announces\-the.html \|quote\=Announcement was made yesterday by the F.W. Woolworth Company that Hubert T. Parsons, present Secretary and Treasurer of the company, was to be appointed ... \|work\=The New York Times\|date\=January 29, 1916 \|access\-date\=June 27, 2008 }}{{cite news \|title\=H.T. Parson to Head Woolworth Stores. Acting President Since Death of Founder of System Named as Successor. C.S. Woolworth Elected to Newly Created Position as Chairman of the Board. \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1919/06/12/archives/ht\-parson\-to\-head\-wool\-worth\-stores\-acting\-president\-since\-death\-of.html \|quote\=H.T. Parson was elected President of F.W. Woolworth Co. yesterday at the organization meeting of the Directors, to succeed the late Frank W. Woolworth, founder of the system of 5 and 10 cent stores. \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=June 12, 1919 \|access\-date\=December 4, 2011 }}
* Byron D. Miller (1932–1935\)This and subsequent presidents through the present from [Funding Universe](http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/Foot-Locker-Inc-Company-History.html)
* Charles Deyo (1935–1946\)
* Alfred Cornwell (1946–1954\)
* James T. Leftwich (1954–1958\)
* Robert C. Kirkwood (1958–1965\)
* Lester A. Burcham (1965–1970\)
* John S. Roberts (1970–1975\)
* Edward F. Gibbons (1975–1978\)
* W. Robert Harris (1978–?)
* Robert L. Jennings 1984–1987{{cite news\| title\=Robert L. Jennings, Executive, 64\| newspaper\=The New York Times\| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/04/18/obituaries/robert\-l\-jennings\-executive\-64\.html\| date\=April 18, 1993\| url\-access\=subscription}} – President of flagship division, but not of corporation
* Frederick E. Hennig (1987–1995\){{cite news \|url\=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct\-xpm\-1995\-03\-14\-9503140148\-story.html \|title\=Woolworth Exec to Retire \|newspaper\=Chicago Tribune \|date\=March 14, 1995 \|access\-date\=January 1, 2021}}
* Jack Adams (1993–1994\) – interim CEO for restructuring
* Roger N. Farah (1994–2000\) – oversaw company's name change to Venator in 1997
* Matthew D. Serra (2001–2009\) – oversaw company's name change to Foot Locker in 2001
* Kenneth C. Hicks (2009–2014\)
* Richard A. Johnson (2014–2022\)
* Mary N. Dillon (2022–present){{cite web\| url\=https://investors.footlocker\-inc.com/news\-releases/news\-release\-details/richard\-johnson\-retire\-chairman\-and\-ceo\-mary\-n\-dillon\-appointed \|title \= RICHARD A. JOHNSON TO RETIRE AS CHAIRMAN AND CEO; MARY N. DILLON APPOINTED AS CEO, EFFECTIVE SEPTEMBER 1, 2022 \|date \= August 14, 2022 \| access\-date\=December 21, 2022}}
{{Div col end}}
In later years the chairman rather than the president was frequently the chief executive officer. Gibbons (1919–1982\) succeeded Burcham (1913–1987\) as chairman\-CEO in 1978 and died in office, succeeded by vice chairman John W. Lynn (1921–2013\) who was succeeded in 1986 by president (since 1983, replacing Richard L. Anderson (d. 2015\)) Harold Sells. Farah joined the company as chairman and CEO in December 1994 and Hennig was replaced by Dale W. Hilpert as president in May 1995\. That changed after the company's transition into a sporting goods company.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|300px\\|right\\|Door handle of a mid\\-20th century Woolworth's store](/wiki/File:WoolworthsSelfService.jpg \"WoolworthsSelfService.jpg\")",
"### Origin",
"The F.W. Woolworth Co. had the first [five\\-and\\-dime stores](/wiki/Five_and_dime \"Five and dime\"), which sold [discounted](/wiki/Discounts_and_allowances \"Discounts and allowances\") general merchandise and [fixed price](/wiki/Fixed_price \"Fixed price\"), usually five or ten cents, [undercutting](/wiki/Edgeworth_price_cycle \"Edgeworth price cycle\") the prices of other local merchants. Woolworth, as the stores popularly became known, was one of the first American retailers to put merchandise out for the shopping public to handle and select without the assistance of a [sales clerk](/wiki/Sales \"Sales\"). Earlier retailers had kept all merchandise behind a counter and customers presented the clerk with a list of items they wished to buy.{{cite news\\| url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2008/nov/19/woolworths\\-retail\\-department\\-stores \\|title\\=Woolworths: the rise and fall of the department store empire \\|first\\=James \\|last\\=Robinson \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]] \\|location\\=London \\|date\\=November 19, 2008}}",
"After working in Augsbury and Moore [dry goods](/wiki/Dry_goods \"Dry goods\") store in [Watertown, New York](/wiki/Watertown%2C_New_York \"Watertown, New York\"), Frank Winfield Woolworth obtained credit from his former boss, William Moore, along with some savings, to buy merchandise and open the \"Woolworth's Great Five Cent Store\" in [Utica, New York](/wiki/Utica%2C_New_York \"Utica, New York\"), on February 22, 1879\\. The store failed and closed in May 1879, after Woolworth earned enough money to pay back William Moore. Woolworth soon made a second attempt, and opened his \"Woolworth's Great Five Cent Store\", using the same sign, on June 21, 1879, in [Lancaster, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Lancaster%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lancaster, Pennsylvania\").",
"Lancaster proved a success, and Woolworth opened a second store in [Harrisburg, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Harrisburg%2C_Pennsylvania \"Harrisburg, Pennsylvania\") in 1879, with his brother Charles Sumner Woolworth as manager. The Harrisburg store closed after a falling\\-out with the landlord; their next store, in [York, Pennsylvania](/wiki/York%2C_Pennsylvania \"York, Pennsylvania\"), likewise closed after only three months of operation. Finally, the \"5¢ Woolworth Bro's Store\" opened in [Scranton, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Scranton%2C_Pennsylvania \"Scranton, Pennsylvania\") on November 6, 1880, with Charles as manager. At this location, the \"5¢ \\& 10¢\" merchandising model was fully developed, and the store proved a success. Charles bought out Frank's share of the Scranton store in two installments, in January 1881 and 1882, making him the company's first franchisee.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.woolworthsmuseum.co.uk \\|title\\=Welcome to the Woolworths Museum \\|website\\=The Woolworths Museum}}{{cite journal \\|url\\=http://azwoolworths.org/Book/page21\\.htm \\|title\\=VII: Frank Winfield Woolworth \\|journal\\=American Families Historic Lineages\\| page\\=3\\| publisher\\=\\[\\[New\\-York Historical Society]]}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.gcmurphy.org/history\\_timeline.html \\|title\\=Five and Dime Timeline, 1879–2003\\| first\\=Jason\\| last\\=Togyer\\| website\\=G.C. Murphy Memories\\| access\\-date\\=January 1, 2021}}{{cite news \\|first\\=Helen \\|last\\=Pike \\|title\\=Woolworth in New Jersey: A Love\\-Hate Relationship \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/12/05/nyregion/jerseyana\\-woolworth\\-in\\-new\\-jersey\\-a\\-love\\-hate\\-relationship.html?pagewanted\\=all\\&src\\=pm \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=December 5, 1999 \\|access\\-date\\=June 27, 2008 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription}}",
"In 1884, Charles partnered with his longtime friend, wholesaler [Fred Morgan Kirby](/wiki/Fred_Morgan_Kirby \"Fred Morgan Kirby\"), on a location in [Wilkes\\-Barre, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Wilkes-Barre%2C_Pennsylvania \"Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania\"), which they called \"Woolworth and Kirby\". This location, too, was successful, and the brothers continued persuading family members and other associates to join them in forming a \"friendly rival syndicate\" of five\\-and\\-ten\\-cent stores. Each of the syndicate chain's stores looked similar inside and out, but operated under its founder's name. Frank Woolworth provided much of the merchandise, encouraging the rivals to club together to maximize their [inventory](/wiki/Inventory \"Inventory\") and [purchasing power](/wiki/Purchasing_power \"Purchasing power\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Remembering Woolworth's: A Nostalgic History of the World's Most Famous Five\\-and\\-Dime\\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=q\\-uZg5L2W5wC\\&q\\=1878\\&pg\\=PA57\\| publisher\\=St. Martin's Press\\| location\\=New York\\| year\\=1999\\| access\\-date\\=October 23, 2011\\| first\\=Karen\\| last\\=Plunkett\\-Powell\\| isbn\\=978\\-0312277048}}",
"### Rise and expansion",
"By 1904, the syndicate had six chains of affiliated stores operating in the United States and Canada, which began incorporating separately during the next few years. In 1912, however, all 596 stores [merged](/wiki/Mergers_and_acquisitions \"Mergers and acquisitions\") into one corporate entity under the name \"F. W. Woolworth Company\". Frank Woolworth served as president; Charles Woolworth, Fred Kirby, [Seymour H. Knox I](/wiki/Seymour_H._Knox_I \"Seymour H. Knox I\"), [Earle Charlton](/wiki/E._P._Charlton_%26_Company \"E. P. Charlton & Company\"), and William Moore each became a director and vice president.",
"In 1900, Frank Woolworth bought up adjoining properties in a low\\-rent area of Lancaster. On the newly acquired land, he had a building erected with five floors of offices above a large store, as well as a garden and open\\-air theater, which soon became the city's social center.{{citation needed\\|date\\=February 2024}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|180px\\|[Tea cup ballet](/wiki/Tea_cup_ballet \"Tea cup ballet\"), a 1935 photograph by [Olive Cotton](/wiki/Olive_Cotton \"Olive Cotton\") with some inexpensive cups and saucers from Woolworths](/wiki/File:Olive_Cotton_-_Tea_cup_ballet%2C_1935.jpg \"Olive Cotton - Tea cup ballet, 1935.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|180px\\|Second successful \"Woolworth Bros\" store, Scranton, Penn. Later bought by brother Charles, becoming the first \"C. S. Woolworth\" store, and eventually merged into the F. W. Woolworth Company.](/wiki/File:Scranton_Store_-_Woolworth_2nd-larger.jpg \"Scranton Store - Woolworth 2nd-larger.jpg\")",
"In 1910, Frank Woolworth commissioned the design and construction of the [Woolworth Building](/wiki/Woolworth_Building \"Woolworth Building\") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"). A pioneering early skyscraper, it was designed by American architect [Cass Gilbert](/wiki/Cass_Gilbert \"Cass Gilbert\"), a graduate of the [MIT architecture](/wiki/MIT_architecture \"MIT architecture\") school.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11376/ \\|title\\=Study for Woolworth Building, New York \\|website\\=\\[\\[World Digital Library]] \\|date\\=December 10, 1910 \\|access\\-date\\=July 25, 2013}} The building was paid for entirely in cash. It was completed in 1913 and was the [tallest building in the world](/wiki/Tallest_building_in_the_world \"Tallest building in the world\") until 1930\\. It also served as the company's headquarters until the F.W. Woolworth Company's successor, the [Venator Group](/wiki/Foot_Locker \"Foot Locker\") (now Foot Locker), sold it in 1998\\.\n[thumbnail\\|left\\|FW Woolworth store in Providence, RI, {{Circa\\|1930–1945}}](/wiki/File:FW_Woolworth_store_Providence_RI.jpg \"FW Woolworth store Providence RI.jpg\")",
"After Frank Woolworth's 1919 death, his brother Charles took on the role of chairman of the board, and the company's treasurer [Hubert T. Parson](/wiki/Hubert_T._Parson \"Hubert T. Parson\") took over the presidency.",
"In 1925 the company reported $253 million in sales, in 1926 $239 million.{{Cite magazine \\|date\\=January 17, 1927 \\|title\\=Business: Business Notes, Jan. 17, 1927 \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|magazine\\=Time \\|url\\=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,729858,00\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=January 13, 2023 \\|issn\\=0040\\-781X}}",
"For many years the company did a strictly \"five\\-and\\-ten cent\" business, but in the spring of 1932 it added a 20\\-cent line of merchandise. On November 13, 1935, the company's directors decided to discontinue selling\\-price limits altogether.{{cite journal\\| pages\\=45–58\\| url\\=https://tehistory.org/hqda/html/v32/v32n2p045\\.html\\| title\\=Club Members Remember Shopping at Woolworth's\\| publisher\\=Tredyffrin Easttown Historical Society\\| journal\\=History Quarterly\\| date\\=April 1994\\| volume\\=32\\| number\\=2\\| access\\-date\\=January 1, 2021}}",
"The stores eventually incorporated lunch counters after the success of the counters in the first store in the UK in [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool \"Liverpool\"). These counters served as general gathering places, a precursor to the modern shopping mall [food court](/wiki/Food_court \"Food court\"). A Woolworth's lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina became the setting for the 1960 [Greensboro sit\\-ins](/wiki/Greensboro_sit-ins \"Greensboro sit-ins\"), protesting the company's [racial segregation](/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States \"Racial segregation in the United States\") policies in the [South](/wiki/Southern_United_States \"Southern United States\"), a key event of the [Civil Rights Movement](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement \"Civil Rights Movement\").",
"The Woolworth's concept was widely imitated, and five\\-and\\-ten\\-cent stores (also known as five\\-and\\-dime stores or dimestores) became a 20th\\-century fixture in American downtowns. They would serve as [anchors](/wiki/Anchor_store \"Anchor store\") for suburban shopping plazas and shopping malls in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s. Criticisms that five\\-and\\-dime stores drove local merchants out of business would repeat themselves in the early 21st century, when [big\\-box](/wiki/Big-box_store \"Big-box store\") discount stores became popular.",
"[thumb\\|Front of a vintage Woolworth's store on 34th Street in New York City in 1954](/wiki/File:Old_Woolworth%27s_storefront_on_34th_Street_in_New_York_City_in_1954.jpg \"Old Woolworth's storefront on 34th Street in New York City in 1954.jpg\")",
"### Diversification",
"In the 1960s, the five\\-and\\-dime concept evolved into the larger [discount department store](/wiki/Discount_department_store \"Discount department store\") format. In 1962, Woolworth's founded a chain of large, single\\-floor discount stores called [Woolco](/wiki/Woolco \"Woolco\"). In that same year, Woolworth's competitors opened similar retail chains that sold merchandise at a discount: the [S.S. Kresge Company](/wiki/S.S._Kresge \"S.S. Kresge\") opened [Kmart](/wiki/Kmart_%28United_States%29 \"Kmart (United States)\"), [Dayton's](/wiki/Dayton%27s \"Dayton's\") opened [Target](/wiki/Target_Corporation \"Target Corporation\"), and [Sam Walton](/wiki/Sam_Walton \"Sam Walton\") opened his first [Wal\\-Mart](/wiki/Wal-Mart \"Wal-Mart\") store.",
"The following year, in 1963, Woolworth expanded into the shoe store business with the purchase of [Kinney Shoe Corporation](/wiki/Kinney_Shoes \"Kinney Shoes\"), which led to the founding of the sporting goods store Foot Locker in 1974; the company would specialise in sporting goods and exclusively focus on sporting goods by 2001\\.",
"By Woolworth's 100th anniversary in 1979, it had become the largest department store chain in the world, according to the [Guinness Book of World Records](/wiki/Guinness_World_Records \"Guinness World Records\").",
"During the 1980s, the company began expansion into many different specialty store formats, including Afterthoughts (which sold jewelry and other accessories for women),{{cite news \\|last1\\=Barmash \\|first1\\=Isadore \\|title\\=Chain by Chain, Woolworth Reinvents Itself \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/12/13/business/chain\\-by\\-chain\\-woolworth\\-reinvents\\-itself.html \\|access\\-date\\=December 15, 2018 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=December 13, 1992 \\|page\\=5, Sec. 3 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription}} Northern Reflections (which sold cold\\-weather outerwear), Rx Place (later sold to [Phar\\-Mor](/wiki/Phar-Mor \"Phar-Mor\")), and [Champs Sports](/wiki/Champs_Sports \"Champs Sports\").",
"By 1989, the company was pursuing an aggressive strategy of multiple specialty store formats targeted at enclosed shopping malls. The idea was that if a particular concept failed at a given mall, the company could quickly replace it with a different concept. The company aimed for ten stores in each of the country's major shopping malls, but this never came to pass, as Woolworth never developed that many successful specialty store formats.",
"Also attempted was a revision of the classic Woolworth store model into *Woolworth Express*, a small, mall\\-oriented variant which was dubbed \"a specialty variety store'', stocked with everyday convenience items such as health and beauty aids, greeting cards, snack foods, cleaning supplies and school supplies (somewhat like the non\\-pharmacy, mall\\-based locations of [CVS/pharmacy](/wiki/CVS_Pharmacy \"CVS Pharmacy\") and other drug store chains).{{cite news\\| url\\=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct\\-xpm\\-1988\\-06\\-17\\-8801080329\\-story.html\\| title\\=Woolworth Will Add 800 Stores\\| last\\=Key\\| first\\=Janet\\| newspaper\\=\\[\\[Chicago Tribune]]\\| access\\-date\\=September 30, 2018\\| language\\=en\\-US}}",
"### Decline",
"[thumb\\|Woolworths at 3200 [Lankershim Boulevard](/wiki/Lankershim_Boulevard \"Lankershim Boulevard\"), [North Hollywood, Los Angeles](/wiki/North_Hollywood%2C_Los_Angeles \"North Hollywood, Los Angeles\") in 1977](/wiki/File:Woolworths%2C_3200_Lankershim_Boulevard%2C_North_Hollywood%2C_California_LCCN2017703229.tif \"Woolworths, 3200 Lankershim Boulevard, North Hollywood, California LCCN2017703229.tif\")\n[alt\\=\\|thumb\\|The Woolworth's store in downtown [Seattle](/wiki/Seattle \"Seattle\") in the 1980s](/wiki/File:Downtown_Seattle_Woolworth%27s_in_1986.jpg \"Downtown Seattle Woolworth's in 1986.jpg\")\nThe growth and expansion of the company contributed to its downfall. The Woolworth company moved away from its [five\\-and\\-dime](/wiki/Variety_store \"Variety store\") roots and placed less emphasis on its [department store](/wiki/Department_store \"Department store\") chain as it focused on its specialty stores. Still, the company was unable to compete with other chains that had eroded its [market share](/wiki/Market_share \"Market share\").",
"While it was a success in Canada, the [Woolco](/wiki/Woolco \"Woolco\") chain closed in the United States in 1983\\. Europe's largest F. W. Woolworth store, in [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester \"Manchester\"), England (one of two in the city centre), suffered a fire in May 1979\\. Despite the store being rebuilt even larger and up to the latest fire codes, the negative stories in the press and loss of lives in the fire sealed its fate; it ultimately closed in 1986\\. During the rebuilding and partly as a result of the bad press, the British operation was separated from the parent company as Woolworths plc. This proved fortuitous, as the brand subsequently lasted a full twelve years longer in the United Kingdom than it did in the United States.",
"On October 15, 1993, Woolworth's embarked on a [restructuring](/wiki/Restructuring \"Restructuring\") plan that included closing half of its 800\\-plus [general merchandise](/wiki/Product_%28business%29 \"Product (business)\") stores in the United States and converting its Canadian stores to a [closeout](/wiki/Closeout_%28sale%29 \"Closeout (sale)\") division named [The Bargain! Shop](/wiki/The_Bargain%21_Shop \"The Bargain! Shop\"). Woolco and Woolworth survived in Canada until 1994, when the company sold the majority of the Woolco stores to [Wal\\-Mart](/wiki/Wal-Mart \"Wal-Mart\"). The Woolco stores that Wal\\-Mart did not purchase were either converted to *The Bargain! Shop*, sold to [Zellers](/wiki/Zellers \"Zellers\") or closed permanently. Approximately 100 Woolworth stores in Canada were rebranded as *The Bargain! Shop*, and the remainder closed.",
"### Transition",
"Amid the decline of the signature stores, Woolworth began focusing on the sale of athletic goods. On January 30, 1997, the company acquired the [mail order](/wiki/Mail_order \"Mail order\") catalog athletic retailer [Eastbay](/wiki/Eastbay \"Eastbay\").",
"On March 17, 1997, Wal\\-Mart replaced Woolworth's as a component of the [Dow Jones Industrial Average](/wiki/Dow_Jones_Industrial_Average \"Dow Jones Industrial Average\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.djindexes.com/mdsidx/downloads/brochure\\_info/Dow\\_Jones\\_Industrial\\_Average\\_Historical\\_Components.pdf \\|title\\=Dow Jones Industrial Average Historical Components \\|date\\=September 23, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=October 24, 2015 \\|publisher\\=S\\&P Dow Jones Indices LLC \\|archive\\-date\\=February 2, 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130202200847/http://www.djindexes.com/mdsidx/downloads/brochure\\_info/Dow\\_Jones\\_Industrial\\_Average\\_Historical\\_Components.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Analysts at the time cited the lower prices of the large [discount stores](/wiki/Discount_stores \"Discount stores\") and the expansion of supermarket [grocery stores](/wiki/Grocery_store \"Grocery store\") – which had begun to stock merchandise also sold by five\\-and\\-dime stores – as contributors to Woolworth's decline in the late 20th century.",
"#### Venator",
"On July 17, 1997, Woolworth's announced that it would be closing its remaining department stores in the United States.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Swanson \\|first1\\=Tia \\|title\\=Store's Finale ends Tradition \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/318730673/?match\\=2\\&clipping\\_id\\=151741697 \\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2024 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Home News Tribune]] \\|date\\=18 July 1997}} The company also changed its corporate name to Venator. In 1999, Venator moved from the [Woolworth Building](/wiki/Woolworth_Building \"Woolworth Building\") in New York City to offices on [34th Street](/wiki/34th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"34th Street (Manhattan)\").",
"#### Foot Locker",
"On October 20, 2001, the company changed names again; taking the name of its top retail performer and became [Foot Locker, Inc.](/wiki/Foot_Locker%2C_Inc. \"Foot Locker, Inc.\"), which Woolworth started in 1974 under [Kinney Shoes](/wiki/Kinney_Shoes \"Kinney Shoes\"). Foot Locker, Inc., is the legal continuation of the original Woolworth; it retains Woolworth's pre\\-1997 stock price history.",
"As part of celebrating F. W. Woolworth's centennial on the [New York Stock Exchange](/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange \"New York Stock Exchange\") on June 26, 2012, a news release featured 1912 Woolworth's store and a 2012 Foot Locker store.{{cite press release\\| url\\=https://www.footlocker\\-inc.com/pdf/2012/pr\\_2012\\_fl\\_Foot\\_Locker\\_NYSE\\_100\\_Release\\_6\\-26\\-12a.pdf\\| title\\=Foot Locker to Celebrate 100\\-year anniversary on the New York Stock Exchange\\| date\\=June 26, 2012\\| publisher\\=Foot Locker Inc.}}",
"### Influence on popular culture",
"{{multiple image\n\\| align \\= right\n\\| direction \\= vertical\n\\| image1 \\= WoolworthLogo1960\\.svg\n\\| width1 \\= 245\n\\| alt2 \\= \n\\| caption1 \\= Logo used during 1960s and 70s\n}}\n* Woolworth was the pioneer of \"five\\-and\\-dime\"\\-style retailing.{{cite journal\\| url\\=http://www.complex.com/pop\\-culture/2013/07/mall\\-stores\\-that\\-need\\-to\\-make\\-a\\-comeback/woolworths\\| title\\=Old School Mall Stores That Need to Make a Comeback\\| date\\=July 9, 2013\\| access\\-date\\=October 24, 2015\\| website\\=Complex\\| last\\=Block\\| first\\=Justin}}\n* In 1880, Woolworth first sold manufactured Christmas tree ornaments, which proved extremely popular.{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://projectbritain.com/Xmas/trees.html\\|title \\= British Christmas Traditions — Christmas Trees\\|access\\-date \\= October 24, 2015\\|website \\= Project Britain\\|last \\= Barrow\\|first \\= Mandy}}\n* In 1929, in [Atlantic City, New Jersey](/wiki/Atlantic_City%2C_New_Jersey \"Atlantic City, New Jersey\"), Sam Foster (founder of [Foster Grant](/wiki/Foster_Grant \"Foster Grant\") eyewear) sold sunglasses from his counter in Woolworth's on the city's famous boardwalk, which became a great hit with the sunbathing public.{{cite web\\| url\\=http://library.syr.edu/digital/guides/f/foster\\_grant.htm\\|title\\=Foster Grant Collection\\| access\\-date\\=October 24, 2015\\| website\\=\\[\\[Syracuse University]] Library}}\n* [Paul Terry](/wiki/Paul_Terry_%28cartoonist%29 \"Paul Terry (cartoonist)\"), founder of the [Terrytoons](/wiki/Terrytoons \"Terrytoons\") Cartoon Studio, once said \"Let [Walt Disney](/wiki/Walt_Disney \"Walt Disney\") be the [Tiffany's](/wiki/Tiffany_%26_Co. \"Tiffany & Co.\"), I want to be the Woolworth's\".\n* On February 1, 1960, four African\\-American students from [North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University](/wiki/North_Carolina_Agricultural_and_Technical_State_University \"North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University\") (NC A\\&T) started the [Greensboro sit\\-ins](/wiki/Greensboro_sit-ins \"Greensboro sit-ins\") at a \"whites only\" lunch counter in the Greensboro, North Carolina store. (The store is now a museum.)\n* On February 27, 1960, in [Nashville, Tennessee](/wiki/Nashville%2C_Tennessee \"Nashville, Tennessee\"), an integrated student\\-led movement from nearby black colleges, including [Fisk University](/wiki/Fisk_University \"Fisk University\"), [American Baptist College](/wiki/American_Baptist_College \"American Baptist College\"), and Tennessee A\\&I (now [Tennessee State](/wiki/Tennessee_State_University \"Tennessee State University\")), drew more than 200 protestors to the lunch counters at Woolworth, Kress, McClellan, and Walgreens across the street, resulting in national media attention after the students' nonviolent tactics were met with violent backlash from white citizens. Among the protestors arrested was future US Congressman [John Lewis](/wiki/John_Lewis \"John Lewis\"), who participated in the sit\\-in at the lunch counter at Woolworth. The building functioned as a diner, Woolworth's on Fifth, for several years after the original store's closing and is now being converted into an entertainment theater.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Riley \\|first\\=Joshua \\|title\\=Historic Woolworth \\|url\\=https://www.woolworththeatre.com/about/historic\\-woolworth/ \\|access\\-date\\=June 23, 2022 \\|website\\=Woolworth Theatre \\|language\\=en\\-US}}\n* On May 28, 1963, 14 activists – including [Tougaloo College](/wiki/Tougaloo_College \"Tougaloo College\") chaplain, Reverend Ed King and professors John Salter Jr. and Lois Chaffee (who were white), and students [Pearlena Lewis](/wiki/Pearlena_Lewis \"Pearlena Lewis\"), [Anne Moody](/wiki/Anne_Moody \"Anne Moody\") (who later published *[Coming of Age in Mississippi](/wiki/Coming_of_Age_in_Mississippi \"Coming of Age in Mississippi\")*), and Memphis Norman (who were black), and [Joan Trumpauer](/wiki/Joan_Trumpauer_Mulholland \"Joan Trumpauer Mulholland\") (who was white) – protested [Jim Crow](/wiki/Jim_Crow \"Jim Crow\") segregation via a sit\\-in at Woolworth's \"whites only\" lunch counter in [Jackson, Mississippi](/wiki/Jackson%2C_Mississippi \"Jackson, Mississippi\").{{cite book\\| last\\=Moody\\| first\\=Anne\\| title\\=Coming of Age in Mississippi\\| page\\=286\\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=bWwPIHNdEZoC\\&q\\=woolworth\\| location\\=New York\\| publisher\\=Bantam Dell\\| date\\=September 7, 2011\\| url\\-access\\=subscription\\| isbn\\=978\\-0307803580}}{{cite book \\|last\\=Abel \\|first\\=Elizabeth \\|author\\-link\\=Elizabeth Abel \\|title\\=Signs of the Times: The Visual Politics of Jim Crow \\|location\\= Berkeley, California \\|publisher\\=University of California Press \\|page\\=256 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=IakwDwAAQBAJ\\&q\\=woolworth \\|date\\=May 6, 2010\\| isbn\\=978\\-0520261839}} Bill Minor, then the Mississippi correspondent covering civil rights events for the *New Orleans Times\\-Picayune* and who was there that day, says the Jackson Woolworth's sit\\-in was \"the signature event of the protest movement in Jackson. The first one there was with real violence.\" The following year, the [Civil Rights Act of 1964](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964 \"Civil Rights Act of 1964\") was passed into law.{{cite news \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Jackson Free Press]] \\|title\\=Real Violence: 50 Years Ago at Woolworth \\|last\\=Burns \\|first\\=Trip \\|date\\=May 23, 2013 \\|url\\=http://www.jacksonfreepress.com/news/2013/may/23/real\\-violence\\-50\\-years\\-ago\\-woolworth/}}\n* In 1976, [David Bowie](/wiki/David_Bowie \"David Bowie\") memorably called his look, \"a cross between [Nijinsky](/wiki/Nijinsky \"Nijinsky\") and Woolworth's.\"{{cite journal \\|url\\=https://issuu.com/theleither/docs/web\\-93 \\|title\\=When Nijinsky met Woolworths \\|date\\=February 28, 2013 \\|issue\\=93 \\|journal\\=Leither Magazine \\|page\\=8 \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=February 28, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228075511/https://issuu.com/theleither/docs/web\\-93 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\n* On folk singer [Nanci Griffith](/wiki/Nanci_Griffith \"Nanci Griffith\")'s 1988 live album, *[One Fair Summer Evening](/wiki/One_Fair_Summer_Evening \"One Fair Summer Evening\")*, the song \"[Love at the Five and Dime](/wiki/Love_at_the_Five_and_Dime \"Love at the Five and Dime\")\" includes an extended introduction that reminisces about Woolworth stores.\n* A memorable scene in the Coen brothers' 2000 film *[O Brother, Where Art Thou?](/wiki/O_Brother%2C_Where_Art_Thou%3F \"O Brother, Where Art Thou?\")*, set in rural Mississippi in 1937, entails George Clooney's character being physically thrown out of an F.W. Woolworth Co. store and admonished by the manager, \"And stay out o' the Woolsworth!\"{{cite web \\|first\\=Ryan \\|last\\=Firekeeper \\|title\\=O Brother Where Art Thou \\- Woolsworth \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=JaW0M6V85j8 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211117/JaW0M6V85j8\\| archive\\-date\\=November 17, 2021 \\| url\\-status\\=live\\|website\\=\\[\\[YouTube]] \\|date\\=September 24, 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=June 25, 2017}}{{cbignore}}{{cite web \\|title\\=O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000\\) \\- Quotes \\|url\\=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0190590/trivia?tab\\=qt \\|website\\=\\[\\[IMDb]] \\|date\\=June 25, 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=June 25, 2017}}\n* Following Woolworth's dissolution, a Woolworth's building remained in operation (albeit as an antique store) in [Bakersfield, California](/wiki/Bakersfield%2C_California \"Bakersfield, California\"), and included a diner with similar offerings of the former brand. Both the store and diner closed indefinitely in 2022 for renovations following a sale of the building; as of 2024, there is no set re\\-open date.{{cite web \\|website\\=Facebook \\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/Woolworths\\-Diner\\-106269406061902/ \\|title\\=Woolworth's Diner}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-01\\-25 \\|title\\=Woolworths Diner will be closing temporarily \\|url\\=https://www.kget.com/news/business/woolworths\\-diner\\-will\\-be\\-closing\\-temporarily/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-04\\-12 \\|website\\=KGET 17 \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=smayer@bakersfield.com \\|first\\=STEVEN MAYER \\|date\\=2024\\-01\\-20 \\|title\\=Transforming a historic space: Owners of Woolworth's building win $250,000 city grant to help \\|url\\=https://www.bakersfield.com/news/transforming\\-a\\-historic\\-space\\-owners\\-of\\-woolworths\\-building\\-win\\-250\\-000\\-city\\-grant\\-to\\-help/article\\_b218d11c\\-b7c7\\-11ee\\-a595\\-d78d2317cb07\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-04\\-12 \\|website\\=The Bakersfield Californian \\|language\\=en}}\n* The 2nd season of *[The Red Green Show](/wiki/The_Red_Green_Show \"The Red Green Show\")* featured a character named Murray Woolworth, played by [Ed Sahely](/wiki/Ed_Sahely \"Ed Sahely\"), who ran a variety store called Murray's Variety, where he always sold useless junk and faulty inventions and devices, enforced a strict \"no return\\-no refunds\\-no exchange\" policy, and was constantly scheming ways to cheat Lodge members out of their money as a result of his shady and unethical business practices.",
"[thumb\\|Former Woolworth's Diner in Bakersfield, California.](/wiki/File:Woolworth%27s_Diner.jpg \"Woolworth's Diner.jpg\")",
"### Greensboro, and other, sit\\-ins",
"{{Main\\|Greensboro sit\\-ins}}",
"On February 1, 1960, four black students sat down at a [segregated](/wiki/Racial_segregation \"Racial segregation\") [lunch counter](/wiki/Lunch_counter \"Lunch counter\") in a [Greensboro, North Carolina](/wiki/Greensboro%2C_North_Carolina \"Greensboro, North Carolina\"), Woolworth's store. They were refused service, touching off six months of [sit\\-ins](/wiki/Sit-in \"Sit-in\") and [economic boycotts](/wiki/Boycott \"Boycott\") that became a landmark event in the civil rights movement. In 1993, an eight\\-foot section of the lunch counter was moved to the [Smithsonian Institution](/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution \"Smithsonian Institution\") and the store site now contains a [civil rights museum](/wiki/International_Civil_Rights_Center_and_Museum \"International Civil Rights Center and Museum\"),\nwhich had its grand opening on Monday, February 1, 2010, the 50th anniversary of the beginning of the sit\\-ins.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://library.uncg.edu/dp/crg/itemlist1\\.aspx?f\\=0\\&s\\=20\\&lastkey\\=0 \\|title\\=Civil Rights Greensboro \\|website\\=\\[\\[University of North Carolina at Greensboro]] Library \\|access\\-date\\=November 17, 2011 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 26, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326131650/http://library.uncg.edu/dp/crg/itemlist1\\.aspx?f\\=0\\&s\\=20\\&lastkey\\=0 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"Imitation sit\\-ins also occurred in other cities where there were segregated lunch counters at Woolworth's. In [Roanoke, Virginia](/wiki/Roanoke%2C_Virginia \"Roanoke, Virginia\") on August 27, 1960, two women and a boy \"...sat at the lunch counter and ordered a slice of pie, a soda and a [sundae](/wiki/Sundae \"Sundae\"), all under the watchful eyes of the biracial committee which had organized the event.\" The names of the three black customers were not reported at the time, and are now unknown. While the incident was uneventful, other sit\\-ins were completed, also without incident, at 17 other segregated lunch counters in Roanoke.{{cite news\\| title\\=Editorial: Some historical markers we need \\| url\\=https://roanoke.com/opinion/editorials/editorial\\-some\\-historical\\-markers\\-we\\-need/article\\_aaa6f86e\\-2fb3\\-5297\\-97ae\\-e97bde1bcab0\\.html\\| newspaper\\=\\[\\[Roanoke Times]]\\| date\\=February 17, 2017\\| page\\=8\\| access\\-date\\=January 1, 2021}}",
"There were at least 3 sit\\-ins in Florida Woolworth's locations; two in March 1960, in [Tampa](/wiki/Tampa%2C_Florida \"Tampa, Florida\"){{cite journal \\|last1\\=Pollitt \\|first1\\=Daniel H. \\|title\\=Dime Store Demonstrations: Events and Legal Problems of First Sixty Days \\|journal\\=Duke Law Journal \\|date\\=Summer 1960 \\|volume\\=1960 \\|issue\\=3 \\|page\\=325 \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/1371082 \\|jstor\\=1371082 \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1371082 \\|access\\-date\\=March 13, 2023}} and [Sarasota](/wiki/Sarasota%2C_Florida \"Sarasota, Florida\"),{{cite book \\|last1\\=LaHurd \\|first1\\=Jeff \\|title\\=Gulf Coast chronicles : remembering Sarasota's past \\|date\\=2005 \\|publisher\\=History Press \\|location\\=Charleston, SC \\|isbn\\=9781596290297 \\|page\\=93}} and in July 1963 in [St. Augustine, Florida](/wiki/St._Augustine%2C_Florida \"St. Augustine, Florida\").{{cite web \\|last1\\=Phillips \\|first1\\=Gayle \\|title\\=Historic Woolworth's Counter now on display \\|url\\=https://www.lincolnvillemuseum.org/blog/41i3v38njxftrfnf68l7d0ncxhfuau\\#:\\~:text\\=In%20July%201963%2C%20Black%20students,and%20disturbance%20of%20the%20peace. \\|access\\-date\\=March 13, 2023}}",
"### Presidents",
"{{div col\\|colwidth\\=22em}}\n* [Frank Winfield Woolworth](/wiki/Frank_Winfield_Woolworth \"Frank Winfield Woolworth\") (1852–1919\\) – founder\n* [Hubert Templeton Parson](/wiki/Hubert_Templeton_Parson \"Hubert Templeton Parson\") (1919–1932\\){{cite news \\|title\\=To succeed C.C. Griswald. The Woolworth Company Announces the Selection of H.T. Parsons. \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1916/01/29/archives/to\\-succeed\\-cc\\-griswold\\-the\\-woolworth\\-company\\-announces\\-the.html \\|quote\\=Announcement was made yesterday by the F.W. Woolworth Company that Hubert T. Parsons, present Secretary and Treasurer of the company, was to be appointed ... \\|work\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=January 29, 1916 \\|access\\-date\\=June 27, 2008 }}{{cite news \\|title\\=H.T. Parson to Head Woolworth Stores. Acting President Since Death of Founder of System Named as Successor. C.S. Woolworth Elected to Newly Created Position as Chairman of the Board. \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1919/06/12/archives/ht\\-parson\\-to\\-head\\-wool\\-worth\\-stores\\-acting\\-president\\-since\\-death\\-of.html \\|quote\\=H.T. Parson was elected President of F.W. Woolworth Co. yesterday at the organization meeting of the Directors, to succeed the late Frank W. Woolworth, founder of the system of 5 and 10 cent stores. \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=June 12, 1919 \\|access\\-date\\=December 4, 2011 }}\n* Byron D. Miller (1932–1935\\)This and subsequent presidents through the present from [Funding Universe](http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/Foot-Locker-Inc-Company-History.html)\n* Charles Deyo (1935–1946\\)\n* Alfred Cornwell (1946–1954\\)\n* James T. Leftwich (1954–1958\\)\n* Robert C. Kirkwood (1958–1965\\)\n* Lester A. Burcham (1965–1970\\)\n* John S. Roberts (1970–1975\\)\n* Edward F. Gibbons (1975–1978\\)\n* W. Robert Harris (1978–?)\n* Robert L. Jennings 1984–1987{{cite news\\| title\\=Robert L. Jennings, Executive, 64\\| newspaper\\=The New York Times\\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/04/18/obituaries/robert\\-l\\-jennings\\-executive\\-64\\.html\\| date\\=April 18, 1993\\| url\\-access\\=subscription}} – President of flagship division, but not of corporation\n* Frederick E. Hennig (1987–1995\\){{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct\\-xpm\\-1995\\-03\\-14\\-9503140148\\-story.html \\|title\\=Woolworth Exec to Retire \\|newspaper\\=Chicago Tribune \\|date\\=March 14, 1995 \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2021}}\n* Jack Adams (1993–1994\\) – interim CEO for restructuring\n* Roger N. Farah (1994–2000\\) – oversaw company's name change to Venator in 1997\n* Matthew D. Serra (2001–2009\\) – oversaw company's name change to Foot Locker in 2001\n* Kenneth C. Hicks (2009–2014\\)\n* Richard A. Johnson (2014–2022\\)\n* Mary N. Dillon (2022–present){{cite web\\| url\\=https://investors.footlocker\\-inc.com/news\\-releases/news\\-release\\-details/richard\\-johnson\\-retire\\-chairman\\-and\\-ceo\\-mary\\-n\\-dillon\\-appointed \\|title \\= RICHARD A. JOHNSON TO RETIRE AS CHAIRMAN AND CEO; MARY N. DILLON APPOINTED AS CEO, EFFECTIVE SEPTEMBER 1, 2022 \\|date \\= August 14, 2022 \\| access\\-date\\=December 21, 2022}}\n{{Div col end}}",
"In later years the chairman rather than the president was frequently the chief executive officer. Gibbons (1919–1982\\) succeeded Burcham (1913–1987\\) as chairman\\-CEO in 1978 and died in office, succeeded by vice chairman John W. Lynn (1921–2013\\) who was succeeded in 1986 by president (since 1983, replacing Richard L. Anderson (d. 2015\\)) Harold Sells. Farah joined the company as chairman and CEO in December 1994 and Hennig was replaced by Dale W. Hilpert as president in May 1995\\. That changed after the company's transition into a sporting goods company.",
""
] |
### Diversification
In the 1960s, the five\-and\-dime concept evolved into the larger [discount department store](/wiki/Discount_department_store "Discount department store") format. In 1962, Woolworth's founded a chain of large, single\-floor discount stores called [Woolco](/wiki/Woolco "Woolco"). In that same year, Woolworth's competitors opened similar retail chains that sold merchandise at a discount: the [S.S. Kresge Company](/wiki/S.S._Kresge "S.S. Kresge") opened [Kmart](/wiki/Kmart_%28United_States%29 "Kmart (United States)"), [Dayton's](/wiki/Dayton%27s "Dayton's") opened [Target](/wiki/Target_Corporation "Target Corporation"), and [Sam Walton](/wiki/Sam_Walton "Sam Walton") opened his first [Wal\-Mart](/wiki/Wal-Mart "Wal-Mart") store.
The following year, in 1963, Woolworth expanded into the shoe store business with the purchase of [Kinney Shoe Corporation](/wiki/Kinney_Shoes "Kinney Shoes"), which led to the founding of the sporting goods store Foot Locker in 1974; the company would specialise in sporting goods and exclusively focus on sporting goods by 2001\.
By Woolworth's 100th anniversary in 1979, it had become the largest department store chain in the world, according to the [Guinness Book of World Records](/wiki/Guinness_World_Records "Guinness World Records").
During the 1980s, the company began expansion into many different specialty store formats, including Afterthoughts (which sold jewelry and other accessories for women),{{cite news \|last1\=Barmash \|first1\=Isadore \|title\=Chain by Chain, Woolworth Reinvents Itself \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/12/13/business/chain\-by\-chain\-woolworth\-reinvents\-itself.html \|access\-date\=December 15, 2018 \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=December 13, 1992 \|page\=5, Sec. 3 \|url\-access\=subscription}} Northern Reflections (which sold cold\-weather outerwear), Rx Place (later sold to [Phar\-Mor](/wiki/Phar-Mor "Phar-Mor")), and [Champs Sports](/wiki/Champs_Sports "Champs Sports").
By 1989, the company was pursuing an aggressive strategy of multiple specialty store formats targeted at enclosed shopping malls. The idea was that if a particular concept failed at a given mall, the company could quickly replace it with a different concept. The company aimed for ten stores in each of the country's major shopping malls, but this never came to pass, as Woolworth never developed that many successful specialty store formats.
Also attempted was a revision of the classic Woolworth store model into *Woolworth Express*, a small, mall\-oriented variant which was dubbed "a specialty variety store'', stocked with everyday convenience items such as health and beauty aids, greeting cards, snack foods, cleaning supplies and school supplies (somewhat like the non\-pharmacy, mall\-based locations of [CVS/pharmacy](/wiki/CVS_Pharmacy "CVS Pharmacy") and other drug store chains).{{cite news\| url\=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct\-xpm\-1988\-06\-17\-8801080329\-story.html\| title\=Woolworth Will Add 800 Stores\| last\=Key\| first\=Janet\| newspaper\=\[\[Chicago Tribune]]\| access\-date\=September 30, 2018\| language\=en\-US}}
|
[
"### Diversification",
"In the 1960s, the five\\-and\\-dime concept evolved into the larger [discount department store](/wiki/Discount_department_store \"Discount department store\") format. In 1962, Woolworth's founded a chain of large, single\\-floor discount stores called [Woolco](/wiki/Woolco \"Woolco\"). In that same year, Woolworth's competitors opened similar retail chains that sold merchandise at a discount: the [S.S. Kresge Company](/wiki/S.S._Kresge \"S.S. Kresge\") opened [Kmart](/wiki/Kmart_%28United_States%29 \"Kmart (United States)\"), [Dayton's](/wiki/Dayton%27s \"Dayton's\") opened [Target](/wiki/Target_Corporation \"Target Corporation\"), and [Sam Walton](/wiki/Sam_Walton \"Sam Walton\") opened his first [Wal\\-Mart](/wiki/Wal-Mart \"Wal-Mart\") store.",
"The following year, in 1963, Woolworth expanded into the shoe store business with the purchase of [Kinney Shoe Corporation](/wiki/Kinney_Shoes \"Kinney Shoes\"), which led to the founding of the sporting goods store Foot Locker in 1974; the company would specialise in sporting goods and exclusively focus on sporting goods by 2001\\.",
"By Woolworth's 100th anniversary in 1979, it had become the largest department store chain in the world, according to the [Guinness Book of World Records](/wiki/Guinness_World_Records \"Guinness World Records\").",
"During the 1980s, the company began expansion into many different specialty store formats, including Afterthoughts (which sold jewelry and other accessories for women),{{cite news \\|last1\\=Barmash \\|first1\\=Isadore \\|title\\=Chain by Chain, Woolworth Reinvents Itself \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/12/13/business/chain\\-by\\-chain\\-woolworth\\-reinvents\\-itself.html \\|access\\-date\\=December 15, 2018 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=December 13, 1992 \\|page\\=5, Sec. 3 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription}} Northern Reflections (which sold cold\\-weather outerwear), Rx Place (later sold to [Phar\\-Mor](/wiki/Phar-Mor \"Phar-Mor\")), and [Champs Sports](/wiki/Champs_Sports \"Champs Sports\").",
"By 1989, the company was pursuing an aggressive strategy of multiple specialty store formats targeted at enclosed shopping malls. The idea was that if a particular concept failed at a given mall, the company could quickly replace it with a different concept. The company aimed for ten stores in each of the country's major shopping malls, but this never came to pass, as Woolworth never developed that many successful specialty store formats.",
"Also attempted was a revision of the classic Woolworth store model into *Woolworth Express*, a small, mall\\-oriented variant which was dubbed \"a specialty variety store'', stocked with everyday convenience items such as health and beauty aids, greeting cards, snack foods, cleaning supplies and school supplies (somewhat like the non\\-pharmacy, mall\\-based locations of [CVS/pharmacy](/wiki/CVS_Pharmacy \"CVS Pharmacy\") and other drug store chains).{{cite news\\| url\\=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct\\-xpm\\-1988\\-06\\-17\\-8801080329\\-story.html\\| title\\=Woolworth Will Add 800 Stores\\| last\\=Key\\| first\\=Janet\\| newspaper\\=\\[\\[Chicago Tribune]]\\| access\\-date\\=September 30, 2018\\| language\\=en\\-US}}",
""
] |
History
-------
### Formation
In 1950, [John Wheeler](/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler "John Archibald Wheeler") was setting up a secret [H\-bomb](/wiki/H-bomb "H-bomb") research lab at [Princeton University](/wiki/Princeton_University "Princeton University"). [Lyman Spitzer, Jr.](/wiki/Lyman_Spitzer "Lyman Spitzer"), an avid mountaineer, was aware of this program and suggested the name "Project Matterhorn".{{cite web \|title\=Timeline \|website\=Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory \|url\=https://www.pppl.gov/about/history/timeline \|ref\=CITEREFTimeline}}
Spitzer, a professor of astronomy, had for many years been involved in the study of very hot rarefied gases in interstellar space. While leaving for a ski trip to [Aspen](/wiki/Aspen%2C_Colorado "Aspen, Colorado") in February 1951, his father called and told him to read the front page of the *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times "New York Times")*. The paper had a story about claims released the day before in [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina "Argentina") that a relatively unknown German scientist named [Ronald Richter](/wiki/Ronald_Richter "Ronald Richter") had achieved nuclear fusion in his [Huemul Project](/wiki/Huemul_Project "Huemul Project").Burke, James (1999\) *The Knowledge Web: From Electronic Agents to Stonehenge and Back – And Other Journeys Through Knowledge* Simon \& Schuster, New York, pp. 241–242, {{ISBN\|0\-684\-85934\-3}}. Spitzer ultimately dismissed these claims, and they were later proven erroneous, but the story got him thinking about fusion. While riding the [chairlift](/wiki/Chairlift "Chairlift") at Aspen, he struck upon a new concept to confine a [plasma](/wiki/Plasma_%28physics%29 "Plasma (physics)") for long periods so it could be heated to fusion temperatures. He called this concept the [stellarator](/wiki/Stellarator "Stellarator").
Later that year he took this design to the [Atomic Energy Commission](/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission "United States Atomic Energy Commission") in Washington. As a result of this meeting and a review of the invention by scientists throughout the nation, the stellarator proposal was funded in 1951\. As the device would produce high\-energy [neutrons](/wiki/Neutron "Neutron"), which could be used for breeding weapon fuel, the program was classified and carried out as part of Project Matterhorn. Matterhorn ultimately ended its involvement in the bomb field in 1954, becoming entirely devoted to the fusion power field.
In 1958, this magnetic fusion research was declassified following the [United Nations International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy](/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency%23History "International Atomic Energy Agency#History"). This generated an influx of graduate students eager to learn the "new" physics, which in turn influenced the lab to concentrate more on basic research.Bromberg, Joan Lisa (1982\) *Fusion: Science, Politics, and the Invention of a New Energy Source* [MIT Press](/wiki/MIT_Press "MIT Press"), Cambridge, Massachusetts, [p. 97](https://books.google.com/books?id=ECOvgg7b3MQC&pg=PA97), {{ISBN\|0\-262\-02180\-3}}.
The early figure\-8 stellarators included: Model\-A, Model\-B, Model\-B2, Model\-B3\. Model\-B64 was a square with round corners, and Model\-B65 had a racetrack configuration.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.jspf.or.jp/JPFRS/PDF/Vol1/jpfrs1998\_01\-003\.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.jspf.or.jp/JPFRS/PDF/Vol1/jpfrs1998\_01\-003\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2022\-10\-09 \|url\-status\=live\|title\=Highlights in Early Stellarator Research at Princeton. Stix. 1997}} The last and most powerful stellarator at this time was the "racetrack" [Model C](/wiki/Model_C_stellarator "Model C stellarator") (operating from 1961 to 1969\).{{Cite journal \|last\=Yoshikawa \|first\=S. \|last2\=Stix \|first2\=T.H. \|date\=1985\-09\-01 \|title\=Experiments on the Model C stellarator \|url\=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10\.1088/0029\-5515/25/9/047 \|journal\=Nuclear Fusion \|volume\=25 \|issue\=9 \|pages\=1275–1279 \|doi\=10\.1088/0029\-5515/25/9/047 \|issn\=0029\-5515}}
### Tokamak
By the mid\-1960s it was clear something was fundamentally wrong with the stellarators, as they leaked fuel at rates far beyond what theory predicted, rates that carried away energy from the plasma that was far beyond what the fusion reactions could ever produce. Spitzer became extremely skeptical that fusion energy was possible and expressed this opinion in very public fashion in 1965 at an international meeting in the UK. At the same meeting, the Soviet delegation announced results about 10 times better than any previous device, which Spitzer dismissed as a measurement error.
At the next meeting in 1968, the Soviets presented considerable data from their devices that showed even greater performance, about 100 times the [Bohm diffusion](/wiki/Bohm_diffusion "Bohm diffusion") limit. An enormous argument broke out between the AEC and the various labs about whether this was real. When a UK team verified the results in 1969, the AEC suggested PPPL to convert their Model C to a tokamak to test it, as the only lab willing to build one from scratch, [Oak Ridge](/wiki/Oak_Ridge_National_Laboratory "Oak Ridge National Laboratory"), would need some time to build theirs. Seeing the possibility of being bypassed in the fusion field, PPPL eventually agreed to convert the Model C to what became the Symmetric Tokamak (ST), quickly verifying the approach.
Two small machines followed the ST, exploring ways to heat the plasma, and then the [Princeton Large Torus](/wiki/Princeton_Large_Torus "Princeton Large Torus") (PLT) to test whether the theory that larger machines would be more stable was true. Starting in 1975, PLT verified these "scaling laws" and then went on to add [neutral beam injection](/wiki/Neutral_beam_injection "Neutral beam injection") from Oak Ridge that resulted in a series of record\-setting plasma temperatures, eventually topping out at 78 million [kelvins](/wiki/Kelvin "Kelvin"), well beyond what was needed for a practical fusion power system. Its success was major news.
With this string of successes, PPPL had little trouble winning the bid to build an even larger machine, one specifically designed to reach ["breakeven"](/wiki/Fusion_energy_gain_factor "Fusion energy gain factor") while running on an actual fusion fuel, rather than a test gas. This produced the [Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor](/wiki/Tokamak_Fusion_Test_Reactor "Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor"), or TFTR, which was completed in 1982\. After a lengthy breaking\-in period, TFTR began slowly increasing the temperature and density of the fuel, while introducing [deuterium](/wiki/Deuterium "Deuterium") gas as the fuel. In April 1986, it demonstrated a combination of density and confinement, the so\-called [fusion triple product](/wiki/Fusion_triple_product "Fusion triple product"), well beyond what was needed for a practical reactor. In July, it reached a temperature of 200 million kelvins, far beyond what was needed. However, when the system was operated with both of these conditions at the same time, a high enough triple product and temperature, the system became unstable. Three years of effort failed to address these issues, and TFTR never reached its goal.{{sfn\|Meade\|1988\|p\=107}} The system continued performing basic studies on these problems until being shut down in 1997\.Staff (1996\) "Fusion Lab Planning Big Reactor's Last Run", *[The Record](/wiki/The_Record_%28Bergen_County%29 "The Record (Bergen County)")*, 22 December 1996, p. N\-07\. Beginning in 1993, TFTR was the first in the world to use 1:1 mixtures of [deuterium](/wiki/Deuterium "Deuterium")–[tritium](/wiki/Tritium "Tritium"). In 1994 it yielded an unprecedented 10\.7 megawatts of fusion power.
### Later designs
In 1999, the [National Spherical Torus Experiment](/wiki/National_Spherical_Torus_Experiment "National Spherical Torus Experiment") (NSTX), based on the spherical tokamak concept, came online at the PPPL.
Odd\-parity heating was demonstrated in the 4 cm radius PFRC\-1 experiment in 2006\. PFRC\-2 has a plasma radius of 8 cm. Studies of electron heating in PFRC\-2 reached 500 [eV](/wiki/Electronvolt "Electronvolt") with pulse lengths of 300 ms.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.nextbigfuture.com/2019/06/game\-changing\-direct\-drive\-fusion\-propulsion\-progress.html \|title\=Game Changing Direct Drive Fusion Propulsion Progress \|last\=Wang \|first\=Brian \|date\=June 22, 2019 \|website\=NextBigFuture \|language\=en\-US \|access\-date\=2019\-06\-22}}
In 2015, PPPL completed an upgrade to NSTX to produce NSTX\-U that made it the most powerful experimental fusion facility, or tokamak, of its type in the world.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.pppl.gov/nstx \|title\=National Spherical Torus Experiment Upgrade (NSTX\-U) \|website\=Princeton Plasma Physics Lab}}
In 2017, the group received a Phase II NIAC grant along with two NASA STTRs funding the RF subsystem and superconducting coil subsystem.
In 2024, the lab announced MUSE, a new [stellarator](/wiki/Stellarator "Stellarator"). MUSE uses rare\-earth permanent magnets with a field strength that can exceed 1\.2 [teslas](/wiki/Tesla_%28unit%29 "Tesla (unit)"). The device uses quasiaxisymmetry, a subtype of [quasisymmetry](/wiki/Quasisymmetry "Quasisymmetry"). The research team claimed that its use of quasisymmetry was more sophisticated than prior devices.{{Cite web \|last\=Paul \|first\=Andrew \|date\=2024\-04\-05 \|title\=Stellarator fusion reactor gets new life thanks to a creative magnet workaround \|url\=https://www.popsci.com/environment/stellarator\-fusion\-reactor/ \|access\-date\=2024\-04\-11 \|website\=Popular Science \|language\=en\-US}} Also in 2024, PPL announced a [reinforcement learning](/wiki/Reinforcement_learning "Reinforcement learning") model that could forecast tearing mode instabilities up to 300 milliseconds in advance. That is enough time for the plasma controller to adjust operating parameters to prevent the tear and maintain [H\-mode](/wiki/High-confinement_mode "High-confinement mode") performance.{{Cite web \|date\=March 4, 2024 \|title\=AI can predict and prevent fusion plasma instabilities in milliseconds \|url\=https://www.ans.org/news/article\-5835/ai\-can\-predict\-and\-prevent\-fusion\-plasma\-instabilities\-in\-milliseconds/ \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-20 \|website\=www.ans.org \|language\=en}}{{Cite journal \|last\=Seo \|first\=Jaemin \|last2\=Kim \|first2\=SangKyeun \|last3\=Jalalvand \|first3\=Azarakhsh \|last4\=Conlin \|first4\=Rory \|last5\=Rothstein \|first5\=Andrew \|last6\=Abbate \|first6\=Joseph \|last7\=Erickson \|first7\=Keith \|last8\=Wai \|first8\=Josiah \|last9\=Shousha \|first9\=Ricardo \|last10\=Kolemen \|first10\=Egemen \|date\=2024 \|title\=Avoiding fusion plasma tearing instability with deep reinforcement learning \|url\=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586\-024\-07024\-9 \|journal\=Nature \|language\=en \|volume\=626 \|issue\=8000 \|pages\=746–751 \|doi\=10\.1038/s41586\-024\-07024\-9 \|issn\=1476\-4687\|pmc\=10881383 }}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Formation",
"In 1950, [John Wheeler](/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler \"John Archibald Wheeler\") was setting up a secret [H\\-bomb](/wiki/H-bomb \"H-bomb\") research lab at [Princeton University](/wiki/Princeton_University \"Princeton University\"). [Lyman Spitzer, Jr.](/wiki/Lyman_Spitzer \"Lyman Spitzer\"), an avid mountaineer, was aware of this program and suggested the name \"Project Matterhorn\".{{cite web \\|title\\=Timeline \\|website\\=Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory \\|url\\=https://www.pppl.gov/about/history/timeline \\|ref\\=CITEREFTimeline}}",
"Spitzer, a professor of astronomy, had for many years been involved in the study of very hot rarefied gases in interstellar space. While leaving for a ski trip to [Aspen](/wiki/Aspen%2C_Colorado \"Aspen, Colorado\") in February 1951, his father called and told him to read the front page of the *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times \"New York Times\")*. The paper had a story about claims released the day before in [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\") that a relatively unknown German scientist named [Ronald Richter](/wiki/Ronald_Richter \"Ronald Richter\") had achieved nuclear fusion in his [Huemul Project](/wiki/Huemul_Project \"Huemul Project\").Burke, James (1999\\) *The Knowledge Web: From Electronic Agents to Stonehenge and Back – And Other Journeys Through Knowledge* Simon \\& Schuster, New York, pp. 241–242, {{ISBN\\|0\\-684\\-85934\\-3}}. Spitzer ultimately dismissed these claims, and they were later proven erroneous, but the story got him thinking about fusion. While riding the [chairlift](/wiki/Chairlift \"Chairlift\") at Aspen, he struck upon a new concept to confine a [plasma](/wiki/Plasma_%28physics%29 \"Plasma (physics)\") for long periods so it could be heated to fusion temperatures. He called this concept the [stellarator](/wiki/Stellarator \"Stellarator\").",
"Later that year he took this design to the [Atomic Energy Commission](/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission \"United States Atomic Energy Commission\") in Washington. As a result of this meeting and a review of the invention by scientists throughout the nation, the stellarator proposal was funded in 1951\\. As the device would produce high\\-energy [neutrons](/wiki/Neutron \"Neutron\"), which could be used for breeding weapon fuel, the program was classified and carried out as part of Project Matterhorn. Matterhorn ultimately ended its involvement in the bomb field in 1954, becoming entirely devoted to the fusion power field.",
"In 1958, this magnetic fusion research was declassified following the [United Nations International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy](/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency%23History \"International Atomic Energy Agency#History\"). This generated an influx of graduate students eager to learn the \"new\" physics, which in turn influenced the lab to concentrate more on basic research.Bromberg, Joan Lisa (1982\\) *Fusion: Science, Politics, and the Invention of a New Energy Source* [MIT Press](/wiki/MIT_Press \"MIT Press\"), Cambridge, Massachusetts, [p. 97](https://books.google.com/books?id=ECOvgg7b3MQC&pg=PA97), {{ISBN\\|0\\-262\\-02180\\-3}}.",
"The early figure\\-8 stellarators included: Model\\-A, Model\\-B, Model\\-B2, Model\\-B3\\. Model\\-B64 was a square with round corners, and Model\\-B65 had a racetrack configuration.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.jspf.or.jp/JPFRS/PDF/Vol1/jpfrs1998\\_01\\-003\\.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.jspf.or.jp/JPFRS/PDF/Vol1/jpfrs1998\\_01\\-003\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-09 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|title\\=Highlights in Early Stellarator Research at Princeton. Stix. 1997}} The last and most powerful stellarator at this time was the \"racetrack\" [Model C](/wiki/Model_C_stellarator \"Model C stellarator\") (operating from 1961 to 1969\\).{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Yoshikawa \\|first\\=S. \\|last2\\=Stix \\|first2\\=T.H. \\|date\\=1985\\-09\\-01 \\|title\\=Experiments on the Model C stellarator \\|url\\=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10\\.1088/0029\\-5515/25/9/047 \\|journal\\=Nuclear Fusion \\|volume\\=25 \\|issue\\=9 \\|pages\\=1275–1279 \\|doi\\=10\\.1088/0029\\-5515/25/9/047 \\|issn\\=0029\\-5515}}",
"### Tokamak",
"By the mid\\-1960s it was clear something was fundamentally wrong with the stellarators, as they leaked fuel at rates far beyond what theory predicted, rates that carried away energy from the plasma that was far beyond what the fusion reactions could ever produce. Spitzer became extremely skeptical that fusion energy was possible and expressed this opinion in very public fashion in 1965 at an international meeting in the UK. At the same meeting, the Soviet delegation announced results about 10 times better than any previous device, which Spitzer dismissed as a measurement error.",
"At the next meeting in 1968, the Soviets presented considerable data from their devices that showed even greater performance, about 100 times the [Bohm diffusion](/wiki/Bohm_diffusion \"Bohm diffusion\") limit. An enormous argument broke out between the AEC and the various labs about whether this was real. When a UK team verified the results in 1969, the AEC suggested PPPL to convert their Model C to a tokamak to test it, as the only lab willing to build one from scratch, [Oak Ridge](/wiki/Oak_Ridge_National_Laboratory \"Oak Ridge National Laboratory\"), would need some time to build theirs. Seeing the possibility of being bypassed in the fusion field, PPPL eventually agreed to convert the Model C to what became the Symmetric Tokamak (ST), quickly verifying the approach.",
"Two small machines followed the ST, exploring ways to heat the plasma, and then the [Princeton Large Torus](/wiki/Princeton_Large_Torus \"Princeton Large Torus\") (PLT) to test whether the theory that larger machines would be more stable was true. Starting in 1975, PLT verified these \"scaling laws\" and then went on to add [neutral beam injection](/wiki/Neutral_beam_injection \"Neutral beam injection\") from Oak Ridge that resulted in a series of record\\-setting plasma temperatures, eventually topping out at 78 million [kelvins](/wiki/Kelvin \"Kelvin\"), well beyond what was needed for a practical fusion power system. Its success was major news.",
"With this string of successes, PPPL had little trouble winning the bid to build an even larger machine, one specifically designed to reach [\"breakeven\"](/wiki/Fusion_energy_gain_factor \"Fusion energy gain factor\") while running on an actual fusion fuel, rather than a test gas. This produced the [Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor](/wiki/Tokamak_Fusion_Test_Reactor \"Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor\"), or TFTR, which was completed in 1982\\. After a lengthy breaking\\-in period, TFTR began slowly increasing the temperature and density of the fuel, while introducing [deuterium](/wiki/Deuterium \"Deuterium\") gas as the fuel. In April 1986, it demonstrated a combination of density and confinement, the so\\-called [fusion triple product](/wiki/Fusion_triple_product \"Fusion triple product\"), well beyond what was needed for a practical reactor. In July, it reached a temperature of 200 million kelvins, far beyond what was needed. However, when the system was operated with both of these conditions at the same time, a high enough triple product and temperature, the system became unstable. Three years of effort failed to address these issues, and TFTR never reached its goal.{{sfn\\|Meade\\|1988\\|p\\=107}} The system continued performing basic studies on these problems until being shut down in 1997\\.Staff (1996\\) \"Fusion Lab Planning Big Reactor's Last Run\", *[The Record](/wiki/The_Record_%28Bergen_County%29 \"The Record (Bergen County)\")*, 22 December 1996, p. N\\-07\\. Beginning in 1993, TFTR was the first in the world to use 1:1 mixtures of [deuterium](/wiki/Deuterium \"Deuterium\")–[tritium](/wiki/Tritium \"Tritium\"). In 1994 it yielded an unprecedented 10\\.7 megawatts of fusion power.",
"### Later designs",
"In 1999, the [National Spherical Torus Experiment](/wiki/National_Spherical_Torus_Experiment \"National Spherical Torus Experiment\") (NSTX), based on the spherical tokamak concept, came online at the PPPL.",
"Odd\\-parity heating was demonstrated in the 4 cm radius PFRC\\-1 experiment in 2006\\. PFRC\\-2 has a plasma radius of 8 cm. Studies of electron heating in PFRC\\-2 reached 500 [eV](/wiki/Electronvolt \"Electronvolt\") with pulse lengths of 300 ms.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nextbigfuture.com/2019/06/game\\-changing\\-direct\\-drive\\-fusion\\-propulsion\\-progress.html \\|title\\=Game Changing Direct Drive Fusion Propulsion Progress \\|last\\=Wang \\|first\\=Brian \\|date\\=June 22, 2019 \\|website\\=NextBigFuture \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-06\\-22}}",
"In 2015, PPPL completed an upgrade to NSTX to produce NSTX\\-U that made it the most powerful experimental fusion facility, or tokamak, of its type in the world.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.pppl.gov/nstx \\|title\\=National Spherical Torus Experiment Upgrade (NSTX\\-U) \\|website\\=Princeton Plasma Physics Lab}}",
"In 2017, the group received a Phase II NIAC grant along with two NASA STTRs funding the RF subsystem and superconducting coil subsystem.",
"In 2024, the lab announced MUSE, a new [stellarator](/wiki/Stellarator \"Stellarator\"). MUSE uses rare\\-earth permanent magnets with a field strength that can exceed 1\\.2 [teslas](/wiki/Tesla_%28unit%29 \"Tesla (unit)\"). The device uses quasiaxisymmetry, a subtype of [quasisymmetry](/wiki/Quasisymmetry \"Quasisymmetry\"). The research team claimed that its use of quasisymmetry was more sophisticated than prior devices.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Paul \\|first\\=Andrew \\|date\\=2024\\-04\\-05 \\|title\\=Stellarator fusion reactor gets new life thanks to a creative magnet workaround \\|url\\=https://www.popsci.com/environment/stellarator\\-fusion\\-reactor/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-04\\-11 \\|website\\=Popular Science \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Also in 2024, PPL announced a [reinforcement learning](/wiki/Reinforcement_learning \"Reinforcement learning\") model that could forecast tearing mode instabilities up to 300 milliseconds in advance. That is enough time for the plasma controller to adjust operating parameters to prevent the tear and maintain [H\\-mode](/wiki/High-confinement_mode \"High-confinement mode\") performance.{{Cite web \\|date\\=March 4, 2024 \\|title\\=AI can predict and prevent fusion plasma instabilities in milliseconds \\|url\\=https://www.ans.org/news/article\\-5835/ai\\-can\\-predict\\-and\\-prevent\\-fusion\\-plasma\\-instabilities\\-in\\-milliseconds/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-20 \\|website\\=www.ans.org \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Seo \\|first\\=Jaemin \\|last2\\=Kim \\|first2\\=SangKyeun \\|last3\\=Jalalvand \\|first3\\=Azarakhsh \\|last4\\=Conlin \\|first4\\=Rory \\|last5\\=Rothstein \\|first5\\=Andrew \\|last6\\=Abbate \\|first6\\=Joseph \\|last7\\=Erickson \\|first7\\=Keith \\|last8\\=Wai \\|first8\\=Josiah \\|last9\\=Shousha \\|first9\\=Ricardo \\|last10\\=Kolemen \\|first10\\=Egemen \\|date\\=2024 \\|title\\=Avoiding fusion plasma tearing instability with deep reinforcement learning \\|url\\=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586\\-024\\-07024\\-9 \\|journal\\=Nature \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=626 \\|issue\\=8000 \\|pages\\=746–751 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/s41586\\-024\\-07024\\-9 \\|issn\\=1476\\-4687\\|pmc\\=10881383 }}",
""
] |
Work
----
Fraser was co\-organizer, with Helmut Draxler, of Services, a "working\-group exhibition" that has been conceived at [Kunstraum of Lüneburg University](/wiki/Kunstraum_of_L%C3%BCneburg_University "Kunstraum of Lüneburg University") and toured to eight venues in Europe and the United States between 1994 and 2001\.[Andrea Fraser \- Professor, New Genres](http://www.art.ucla.edu/faculty/fraser.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709220939/http://www.art.ucla.edu/faculty/fraser.html \|date\=2017\-07\-09 }} [UCLA](/wiki/UCLA "UCLA").
*Museum Highlights* (1989\) involved Fraser posing as a Museum tour guide at the [Philadelphia Museum of Art](/wiki/Philadelphia_Museum_of_Art "Philadelphia Museum of Art") in 1989 under the pseudonym of Jane Castleton.Fraser, 2005 During the performance, Fraser led a tour through the museum describing it in verbose and overly dramatic terms to her chagrined tour group. For example, in describing a common water fountain Fraser proclaims "a work of astonishing economy and monumentality ... it boldly contrasts with the severe and highly stylized productions of this form!" Upon entering the museum cafeteria: "This room represents the heyday of colonial art in Philadelphia on the eve of the Revolution, and must be regarded as one of the very finest of all American rooms." The tour is based on a script culled from an array of sources: [Immanuel Kant](/wiki/Immanuel_Kant "Immanuel Kant")’s *[Critique of Judgment](/wiki/Critique_of_Judgment "Critique of Judgment")*; a 1969 anthology of essays called "On Understanding Poverty"; and a 1987 article in *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* with the headline "Salad and Seurat: Sampling the Fare at Museums.”Martha Schwendener (February 9, 2012\), [At the Mausoleum, Art About Art Houses](https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/10/arts/design/spies-in-the-house-of-art-at-the-metropolitan-museum.html) *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*.
In *Kunst muss hängen* ("Art Must Hang") (Galerie Christian Nagel/Cologne, 2001\)—featured in [Make Your Own Life: Artists In \& Out of Cologne](https://web.archive.org/web/20061215091005/http://www.icaphila.org/exhibitions/past/ownlife.php) \- Fraser reenacted an impromptu 1995 speech by a drunk [Martin Kippenberger](/wiki/Martin_Kippenberger "Martin Kippenberger"), word\-by\-word, gesture\-for\-gesture.
For *Official Welcome* (2001\)—commissioned by the MICA Foundation for a private reception—Fraser mimicked "the banal comments and effusive words of praise uttered by presenters and recipients during art\-awards ceremonies. Midstream, assuming the persona of a troubled, postfeminist art star, Fraser strips down, \[...] to a Gucci thong, bra and high\-heel shoes, and says, *I'm not a person today. I'm an object in an art work.*"Pollack, 2002
Her videotape performance *Little Frank and His Carp* (2001\),{{Cite web\|url \= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=auOKsXnMmkg\|title \= Little Frank And His Carp (2001\)\|website \= Youtube.com}} shot with five hidden cameras in the atrium of the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao,{{Cite web\|url \= http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/fraser\-little\-frank\-and\-his\-carp\-t12324/text\-summary\|title \= Andrea Fraser Little Frank and his Carp 2001\|access\-date \= March 7, 2015\|website \= tate.org.uk\|publisher \= TATE\|last \= Martin\|first \= Richard}} targets architectural dominance of modern gallery spaces. Using the original soundtrack of an acoustic guide at the [Guggenheim Museum Bilbao](/wiki/Guggenheim_Museum_Bilbao "Guggenheim Museum Bilbao"), she "... writhes with pleasure as the recorded voice draws attention to the undulating curves and textured surfaces of the surrounding space" which she takes literally in an "erotic encounter". Fraser's sexual display towards the architecture reveals the irony of the erotic words used on the audio tour to describe the museum's structure.{{Cite web\|url \= http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/fraser\-little\-frank\-and\-his\-carp\-t12324/text\-summary\|title \= Little Frank and His Carp: Summary\|last \= Martin\|first \= Richard\|publisher \= Tate}}
In her videotape performance *Untitled* (2003\), 60 minutes in duration, Fraser recorded a hotel\-room sexual encounter at the Royalton Hotel in New York, with a private collector, who had paid close to $20,000 to participate,Trebay, 2004 "*not for sex,* according to the artist, but *to make an artwork.*"Saltz, 2007 According to Andrea Fraser, the amount that the collector had paid her has not been disclosed, and the "$20,000" figure is way off the mark. Only five copies of the 60\-minute DVD were produced, three of which are in private collections, one being that of the collector with whom she had had the sexual encounter; he had pre\-purchased the performance piece in which he was a participant. The contractual agreement, arranged by Friedrich Petzel Gallery, was proposed by Fraser as an assertion against the commoditization of art. Although critiqued both within and outside of the art world for prostituting herself, Fraser problematizes whether selling art to collectors in of itself is a form of prostitution.{{Cite web\|title\=Andrea Fraser\|url\=https://brooklynrail.org/2004/10/art/andrea\-fraser\|access\-date\=2018\-11\-20\|website\=The Brooklyn Rail\|date\=October 2004 }}
Fraser's video installation *Projection* (2008\) stages a psychoanalytic session in which the viewer is addressed as analyst, patient and voyeuristic spectator. The work is based on the transcripts of real psychoanalytic consultations, adapted into twelve monologues and alternated so that Fraser plays the roles of both analyst and patient. Looking directly into the camera, Fraser creates the effect of interacting with the image on the opposite wall but also with the viewer in the middle of the room, who becomes the object, or ‘psychoanalytic screen’, of each projection.[Andrea Fraser, 28 October 2013 – 31 August 2014](http://www.tate.org.uk/whats-on/tate-modern/display/andrea-fraser) [Tate Modern](/wiki/Tate_Modern "Tate Modern"), London.
Fraser's performance piece, *Not Just a Few of Us* (2014\), performed for Prospect.3 explores the desegregation struggles in New Orleans.
### Teaching
Fraser has taught at [University of California, Los Angeles](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Los_Angeles "University of California, Los Angeles"), the [Maine College of Art](/wiki/Maine_College_of_Art "Maine College of Art"), [Vermont College](/wiki/Vermont_College "Vermont College"), the [Whitney Independent Study Program](/wiki/Whitney_Museum "Whitney Museum"), [Columbia University School of the Arts](/wiki/Columbia_University_School_of_the_Arts "Columbia University School of the Arts"), and the [Center for Curatorial Studies](/wiki/Center_for_Curatorial_Studies "Center for Curatorial Studies"), Bard College.
|
[
"Work\n----",
"Fraser was co\\-organizer, with Helmut Draxler, of Services, a \"working\\-group exhibition\" that has been conceived at [Kunstraum of Lüneburg University](/wiki/Kunstraum_of_L%C3%BCneburg_University \"Kunstraum of Lüneburg University\") and toured to eight venues in Europe and the United States between 1994 and 2001\\.[Andrea Fraser \\- Professor, New Genres](http://www.art.ucla.edu/faculty/fraser.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709220939/http://www.art.ucla.edu/faculty/fraser.html \\|date\\=2017\\-07\\-09 }} [UCLA](/wiki/UCLA \"UCLA\").",
"*Museum Highlights* (1989\\) involved Fraser posing as a Museum tour guide at the [Philadelphia Museum of Art](/wiki/Philadelphia_Museum_of_Art \"Philadelphia Museum of Art\") in 1989 under the pseudonym of Jane Castleton.Fraser, 2005 During the performance, Fraser led a tour through the museum describing it in verbose and overly dramatic terms to her chagrined tour group. For example, in describing a common water fountain Fraser proclaims \"a work of astonishing economy and monumentality ... it boldly contrasts with the severe and highly stylized productions of this form!\" Upon entering the museum cafeteria: \"This room represents the heyday of colonial art in Philadelphia on the eve of the Revolution, and must be regarded as one of the very finest of all American rooms.\" The tour is based on a script culled from an array of sources: [Immanuel Kant](/wiki/Immanuel_Kant \"Immanuel Kant\")’s *[Critique of Judgment](/wiki/Critique_of_Judgment \"Critique of Judgment\")*; a 1969 anthology of essays called \"On Understanding Poverty\"; and a 1987 article in *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* with the headline \"Salad and Seurat: Sampling the Fare at Museums.”Martha Schwendener (February 9, 2012\\), [At the Mausoleum, Art About Art Houses](https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/10/arts/design/spies-in-the-house-of-art-at-the-metropolitan-museum.html) *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*.",
"In *Kunst muss hängen* (\"Art Must Hang\") (Galerie Christian Nagel/Cologne, 2001\\)—featured in [Make Your Own Life: Artists In \\& Out of Cologne](https://web.archive.org/web/20061215091005/http://www.icaphila.org/exhibitions/past/ownlife.php) \\- Fraser reenacted an impromptu 1995 speech by a drunk [Martin Kippenberger](/wiki/Martin_Kippenberger \"Martin Kippenberger\"), word\\-by\\-word, gesture\\-for\\-gesture.",
"For *Official Welcome* (2001\\)—commissioned by the MICA Foundation for a private reception—Fraser mimicked \"the banal comments and effusive words of praise uttered by presenters and recipients during art\\-awards ceremonies. Midstream, assuming the persona of a troubled, postfeminist art star, Fraser strips down, \\[...] to a Gucci thong, bra and high\\-heel shoes, and says, *I'm not a person today. I'm an object in an art work.*\"Pollack, 2002",
"Her videotape performance *Little Frank and His Carp* (2001\\),{{Cite web\\|url \\= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=auOKsXnMmkg\\|title \\= Little Frank And His Carp (2001\\)\\|website \\= Youtube.com}} shot with five hidden cameras in the atrium of the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao,{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/fraser\\-little\\-frank\\-and\\-his\\-carp\\-t12324/text\\-summary\\|title \\= Andrea Fraser Little Frank and his Carp 2001\\|access\\-date \\= March 7, 2015\\|website \\= tate.org.uk\\|publisher \\= TATE\\|last \\= Martin\\|first \\= Richard}} targets architectural dominance of modern gallery spaces. Using the original soundtrack of an acoustic guide at the [Guggenheim Museum Bilbao](/wiki/Guggenheim_Museum_Bilbao \"Guggenheim Museum Bilbao\"), she \"... writhes with pleasure as the recorded voice draws attention to the undulating curves and textured surfaces of the surrounding space\" which she takes literally in an \"erotic encounter\". Fraser's sexual display towards the architecture reveals the irony of the erotic words used on the audio tour to describe the museum's structure.{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/fraser\\-little\\-frank\\-and\\-his\\-carp\\-t12324/text\\-summary\\|title \\= Little Frank and His Carp: Summary\\|last \\= Martin\\|first \\= Richard\\|publisher \\= Tate}}",
"In her videotape performance *Untitled* (2003\\), 60 minutes in duration, Fraser recorded a hotel\\-room sexual encounter at the Royalton Hotel in New York, with a private collector, who had paid close to $20,000 to participate,Trebay, 2004 \"*not for sex,* according to the artist, but *to make an artwork.*\"Saltz, 2007 According to Andrea Fraser, the amount that the collector had paid her has not been disclosed, and the \"$20,000\" figure is way off the mark. Only five copies of the 60\\-minute DVD were produced, three of which are in private collections, one being that of the collector with whom she had had the sexual encounter; he had pre\\-purchased the performance piece in which he was a participant. The contractual agreement, arranged by Friedrich Petzel Gallery, was proposed by Fraser as an assertion against the commoditization of art. Although critiqued both within and outside of the art world for prostituting herself, Fraser problematizes whether selling art to collectors in of itself is a form of prostitution.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Andrea Fraser\\|url\\=https://brooklynrail.org/2004/10/art/andrea\\-fraser\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-20\\|website\\=The Brooklyn Rail\\|date\\=October 2004 }}",
"Fraser's video installation *Projection* (2008\\) stages a psychoanalytic session in which the viewer is addressed as analyst, patient and voyeuristic spectator. The work is based on the transcripts of real psychoanalytic consultations, adapted into twelve monologues and alternated so that Fraser plays the roles of both analyst and patient. Looking directly into the camera, Fraser creates the effect of interacting with the image on the opposite wall but also with the viewer in the middle of the room, who becomes the object, or ‘psychoanalytic screen’, of each projection.[Andrea Fraser, 28 October 2013 – 31 August 2014](http://www.tate.org.uk/whats-on/tate-modern/display/andrea-fraser) [Tate Modern](/wiki/Tate_Modern \"Tate Modern\"), London.",
"Fraser's performance piece, *Not Just a Few of Us* (2014\\), performed for Prospect.3 explores the desegregation struggles in New Orleans.",
"### Teaching",
"Fraser has taught at [University of California, Los Angeles](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Los_Angeles \"University of California, Los Angeles\"), the [Maine College of Art](/wiki/Maine_College_of_Art \"Maine College of Art\"), [Vermont College](/wiki/Vermont_College \"Vermont College\"), the [Whitney Independent Study Program](/wiki/Whitney_Museum \"Whitney Museum\"), [Columbia University School of the Arts](/wiki/Columbia_University_School_of_the_Arts \"Columbia University School of the Arts\"), and the [Center for Curatorial Studies](/wiki/Center_for_Curatorial_Studies \"Center for Curatorial Studies\"), Bard College.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Vladimir Volkov was born on 7 September 1954 in the village of Novoye Arakcheyevo in [Krasnoslobodsky District](/wiki/Krasnoslobodsky_District "Krasnoslobodsky District") of the [Mordovian ASSR](/wiki/Mordovian_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Mordovian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic"). In 1976 he graduated from the [Mordovian State University](/wiki/Mordovian_State_University "Mordovian State University"). In 1976 he graduated from [Mordovian State University](/wiki/Mordovian_State_University "Mordovian State University"), majoring in [electric engineering](/wiki/Electric_engineering "Electric engineering"), and then worked as an instructor of the regional headquarters of student construction teams Mordovia regional committee of [Komsomol](/wiki/Komsomol "Komsomol").
All of the further career of Vladimir Volkov, until 1991, is connected with the Komsomol and party work. From 1977 to 1979 he worked as a secretary of the Komsomol Committee of the Mordovian State University, and in 1979, he was appointed commander of the regional student detachment of the Mordovian regional committee of Komsomol.
In 1983, he was transferred to work in the Saransk Hills Komsomol, where he worked until 1986 as the first secretary of the [Saransk](/wiki/Saransk "Saransk") city committee of the Komsomol.
From 1986 to 1988, he was the head of the industrial and transportation department of the Saransk city committee of the CPSU. In 1988, he graduated from Mordovia State University, with a degree in civil engineering, receiving a second higher education.
From 1988 to 1990 he worked as the first secretary of the Proletarian District Committee of the CPSU of the city of Saransk.
In the period from 1990 to 1995, he was the Chairman of the Standing Committee of the Supreme Council of the Republic of Mordovia on capital construction, industry and building materials.
From the beginning of 1995 he worked as the deputy chairman of the [State Assembly of the Republic of Mordovia](/wiki/State_Assembly_of_the_Republic_of_Mordovia "State Assembly of the Republic of Mordovia"), serving [Nikolay Merkushkin](/wiki/Nikolay_Merkushkin "Nikolay Merkushkin").{{Cite web \|url\=http://e\-mordovia.ru/person/view/263 \|title\=Волков Владимир Дмитриевич — Правительство Республики Мордовии \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-12 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121040611/http://www.e\-mordovia.ru/person/view/263 \|archive\-date\=2012\-01\-21 \|url\-status\=dead }}
On 10 May 2012, after Nikolay Merkuskhkin left the post and transferred to work in the [Samara Oblast](/wiki/Samara_Oblast "Samara Oblast"), he was appointed acting head of the Republic of Mordovia by a presidential decree of [Vladimir Putin](/wiki/Vladimir_Putin "Vladimir Putin").[Президент принял отставку Главы Республики Мордовия — Сайт Президента России](http://президент.рф/news/15274)[Президент принял отставку губернатора Самарской области — сайт Президента России](http://kremlin.ru/news/15275)
In his first interview as acting head of the region, Vladimir Volkov announced his desire to continue the course for further development of the republic.
{{quote box\|width\=33%\|align\=right\|quote\=The course for further development of the republic will be continued. Today in Mordovia the mechanism of work is debugged, a management system has been built up, which clearly functions. When a successful leader leaves all this created, this is a great loss, but we have to continue this work. I am well aware of the problems that need to be addressed, so we will work on them. As for the main tasks, they were already outlined in the economy, social sphere, and those issues related to the strengthening of the image of Mordovia in the world and in Russia.\|source\=—Interview of Vladimir Volkov\[http://e\-mordovia.ru/news/view/7954 Н.И. Меркушкин возглавил Самарскую область. Обязанности Главы Мордовии исполняет В.Д.Волков — портал Республики Мордовии]}}
On 12 May 2012, Russian President Vladimir Putin nominated Volkov for the post of the Head of the Republic of Mordovia for consideration in the State Assembly of the Republic of Mordovia.[Владимир Путин внёс кандидатуру Владимира Волкова на пост Главы Республики Мордовия — сайт Президента России](http://kremlin.ru/news/15307)
On 14 May 2012, the State Assembly of the Republic of Mordovia approved Vladimir Volkov as Head of the Republic of Mordovia.[Владимир Волков утвержден Главой Республики Мордовия](http://www.vestnik-rm.ru/news-2-1367.htm)
On 12 April 2017, Volkov filed an application for early resignation, but on the same day he was appointed by the decree of Putin, as the acting head of the Republic of Mordovia for the second term, until the person elected by the Head of the Republic of Mordovia took office.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/54278\|title \= Владимир Волков назначен временно исполняющим обязанности Главы Мордовии\| date\=12 April 2017 }}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Vladimir Volkov was born on 7 September 1954 in the village of Novoye Arakcheyevo in [Krasnoslobodsky District](/wiki/Krasnoslobodsky_District \"Krasnoslobodsky District\") of the [Mordovian ASSR](/wiki/Mordovian_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Mordovian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic\"). In 1976 he graduated from the [Mordovian State University](/wiki/Mordovian_State_University \"Mordovian State University\"). In 1976 he graduated from [Mordovian State University](/wiki/Mordovian_State_University \"Mordovian State University\"), majoring in [electric engineering](/wiki/Electric_engineering \"Electric engineering\"), and then worked as an instructor of the regional headquarters of student construction teams Mordovia regional committee of [Komsomol](/wiki/Komsomol \"Komsomol\").",
"All of the further career of Vladimir Volkov, until 1991, is connected with the Komsomol and party work. From 1977 to 1979 he worked as a secretary of the Komsomol Committee of the Mordovian State University, and in 1979, he was appointed commander of the regional student detachment of the Mordovian regional committee of Komsomol.",
"In 1983, he was transferred to work in the Saransk Hills Komsomol, where he worked until 1986 as the first secretary of the [Saransk](/wiki/Saransk \"Saransk\") city committee of the Komsomol.",
"From 1986 to 1988, he was the head of the industrial and transportation department of the Saransk city committee of the CPSU. In 1988, he graduated from Mordovia State University, with a degree in civil engineering, receiving a second higher education.",
"From 1988 to 1990 he worked as the first secretary of the Proletarian District Committee of the CPSU of the city of Saransk.",
"In the period from 1990 to 1995, he was the Chairman of the Standing Committee of the Supreme Council of the Republic of Mordovia on capital construction, industry and building materials.",
"From the beginning of 1995 he worked as the deputy chairman of the [State Assembly of the Republic of Mordovia](/wiki/State_Assembly_of_the_Republic_of_Mordovia \"State Assembly of the Republic of Mordovia\"), serving [Nikolay Merkushkin](/wiki/Nikolay_Merkushkin \"Nikolay Merkushkin\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://e\\-mordovia.ru/person/view/263 \\|title\\=Волков Владимир Дмитриевич — Правительство Республики Мордовии \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-12 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121040611/http://www.e\\-mordovia.ru/person/view/263 \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-01\\-21 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"On 10 May 2012, after Nikolay Merkuskhkin left the post and transferred to work in the [Samara Oblast](/wiki/Samara_Oblast \"Samara Oblast\"), he was appointed acting head of the Republic of Mordovia by a presidential decree of [Vladimir Putin](/wiki/Vladimir_Putin \"Vladimir Putin\").[Президент принял отставку Главы Республики Мордовия — Сайт Президента России](http://президент.рф/news/15274)[Президент принял отставку губернатора Самарской области — сайт Президента России](http://kremlin.ru/news/15275)",
"In his first interview as acting head of the region, Vladimir Volkov announced his desire to continue the course for further development of the republic.",
"{{quote box\\|width\\=33%\\|align\\=right\\|quote\\=The course for further development of the republic will be continued. Today in Mordovia the mechanism of work is debugged, a management system has been built up, which clearly functions. When a successful leader leaves all this created, this is a great loss, but we have to continue this work. I am well aware of the problems that need to be addressed, so we will work on them. As for the main tasks, they were already outlined in the economy, social sphere, and those issues related to the strengthening of the image of Mordovia in the world and in Russia.\\|source\\=—Interview of Vladimir Volkov\\[http://e\\-mordovia.ru/news/view/7954 Н.И. Меркушкин возглавил Самарскую область. Обязанности Главы Мордовии исполняет В.Д.Волков — портал Республики Мордовии]}}",
"On 12 May 2012, Russian President Vladimir Putin nominated Volkov for the post of the Head of the Republic of Mordovia for consideration in the State Assembly of the Republic of Mordovia.[Владимир Путин внёс кандидатуру Владимира Волкова на пост Главы Республики Мордовия — сайт Президента России](http://kremlin.ru/news/15307)",
"On 14 May 2012, the State Assembly of the Republic of Mordovia approved Vladimir Volkov as Head of the Republic of Mordovia.[Владимир Волков утвержден Главой Республики Мордовия](http://www.vestnik-rm.ru/news-2-1367.htm)",
"On 12 April 2017, Volkov filed an application for early resignation, but on the same day he was appointed by the decree of Putin, as the acting head of the Republic of Mordovia for the second term, until the person elected by the Head of the Republic of Mordovia took office.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/54278\\|title \\= Владимир Волков назначен временно исполняющим обязанности Главы Мордовии\\| date\\=12 April 2017 }}",
""
] |
Television
----------
Evans' television career started in 1990 when he complained about an item on [TV\-am](/wiki/TV-am "TV-am") that made fun of fat pets, and was invited as a guest on the show giving advice to the owner of an obese cat.
In 1994, Evans co\-developed a new animal\-rescue based television series with [Endemol](/wiki/Endemol "Endemol")*[Pet Rescue](/wiki/Pet_Rescue_%28TV_series%29 "Pet Rescue (TV series)")* on [Channel 4](/wiki/Channel_4 "Channel 4"), becoming both presenter and an associate producer.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/I\+HOUSED\+ANIMALS\+BEFORE\+MY\+FAMILY%3B\+Mark\+stakes\+it\+all\+on\+his\+pet...\-a061060223\|title\=I HOUSED ANIMALS BEFORE MY FAMILY\|work\=\[\[Daily Mirror]]\|date\=31 October 1997\|accessdate\=6 March 2014}}
Evans has since presented over 1,500 shows,[Introduction to Mark’s Television Work](http://www.markevans.co.uk/mark-evans-television-introduction.php) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070821140623/http://www.markevans.co.uk/mark\-evans\-television\-introduction.php \|date\=21 August 2007 }}, MarkEvans.co.uk including shows based around pets, wildlife, science and engineering.
### Animals
Evans has worked as a presenter and producer on several animal television shows including *[Pet Rescue](/wiki/Pet_Rescue_%28TV_series%29 "Pet Rescue (TV series)")* and *[Inside Nature's Giants](/wiki/Inside_Nature%27s_Giants "Inside Nature's Giants")*.
In 2013, Evans hosted a one\-off documentary for [Channel 4](/wiki/Channel_4 "Channel 4") called *Dogs: Their Secret Lives*. A full series followed, beginning on 19 August 2014, as well as a one\-off live episode and a revisited episode, both airing in 2014\.
In September 2014, Evans began hosting *Operation Maneater*, a three\-part series for [Channel 4](/wiki/Channel_4 "Channel 4"). It was revealed that, during the filming, Evans had been clipped by a [crocodile](/wiki/Crocodile "Crocodile"), leaving him with a split lip and broken teeth. Evans said "For the last 10 months, I haven't been able to bite using my front teeth so have had to tear my food into chunks to eat".{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/tv/news/a597985/mark\-evans\-attacked\-by\-a\-crocodile\-during\-filming\-for\-new\-tv\-show.html\#\~oQq4MiA5GqGo8g\|title\=Mark Evans attacked by a crocodile\|date\=20 September 2014}}
### Engineering
In 1999, Evans co\-devised the workshop\-based "[Is Born](/wiki/Is_Born_series "Is Born series")" format for Discovery Networks Europe. Since then, he has co\-produced and presented ten series for Discovery Home \& Leisure (now [Discovery Real Time](/wiki/Discovery_Real_Time "Discovery Real Time")) and are often repeated on Discovery's [Quest](/wiki/Quest_%28TV_channel%29 "Quest (TV channel)") channel. The shows have transmitted in over 70 countries around the world.
* *[A Car Is Born](/wiki/A_Car_Is_Born "A Car Is Born")* (build of an AC Cobra replica) – 15 episodes
* *[A Plane Is Born](/wiki/A_Plane_Is_Born "A Plane Is Born")* (build of a 200 mph kit aeroplane) – 15 episodes
* *[A Car Is Reborn](/wiki/A_Car_Is_Reborn "A Car Is Reborn")* (total restoration of an E Type Jaguar) – 15 episodes
* *A Chopper Is Born* (build of a kit, two\-seater helicopter) – 15 episode
* *A Bike Is Born – Harley* (restoration of a Harley WLC45\) – 5 episodes
* *A Bike Is Born – Bonneville* (restoration of a Triumph Bonneville T120R) – 5 episodes
* *A Bike Is Born – Trike* (build of a Boom Power Trike) – 5 episodes
* *A Race Car Is Born* (build of a Westfield race car) – 15 episodes
* *[A 4x4 Is Born](/wiki/A_4x4_Is_Born "A 4x4 Is Born")* (build of an extreme off\-road Land Rover) – 15 episodes
* *[An MG Is Born](/wiki/An_MG_Is_Born "An MG Is Born")* (restoration of an MGB Roadster) – 10 episodes
* *Wreck Rescue* – follows his journey to help inspire and motivate the restorers of five very different vehicles to achieve their own restoration dreams.
* *Wood Wizard* with Richard Blizzard (crafting wooden objects) 15 episodes
* “ Classic British Cars: Made in Coventry" (2021\) – a history of the classic cars made in Coventry 1 episode
He also co\-devised and presented *Dream Machines* – a vehicle restoration series on [Channel 5](/wiki/Channel_5_%28UK%29 "Channel 5 (UK)").
|
[
"Television\n----------",
"Evans' television career started in 1990 when he complained about an item on [TV\\-am](/wiki/TV-am \"TV-am\") that made fun of fat pets, and was invited as a guest on the show giving advice to the owner of an obese cat.",
"In 1994, Evans co\\-developed a new animal\\-rescue based television series with [Endemol](/wiki/Endemol \"Endemol\")*[Pet Rescue](/wiki/Pet_Rescue_%28TV_series%29 \"Pet Rescue (TV series)\")* on [Channel 4](/wiki/Channel_4 \"Channel 4\"), becoming both presenter and an associate producer.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/I\\+HOUSED\\+ANIMALS\\+BEFORE\\+MY\\+FAMILY%3B\\+Mark\\+stakes\\+it\\+all\\+on\\+his\\+pet...\\-a061060223\\|title\\=I HOUSED ANIMALS BEFORE MY FAMILY\\|work\\=\\[\\[Daily Mirror]]\\|date\\=31 October 1997\\|accessdate\\=6 March 2014}}",
"Evans has since presented over 1,500 shows,[Introduction to Mark’s Television Work](http://www.markevans.co.uk/mark-evans-television-introduction.php) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070821140623/http://www.markevans.co.uk/mark\\-evans\\-television\\-introduction.php \\|date\\=21 August 2007 }}, MarkEvans.co.uk including shows based around pets, wildlife, science and engineering.",
"",
"### Animals",
"Evans has worked as a presenter and producer on several animal television shows including *[Pet Rescue](/wiki/Pet_Rescue_%28TV_series%29 \"Pet Rescue (TV series)\")* and *[Inside Nature's Giants](/wiki/Inside_Nature%27s_Giants \"Inside Nature's Giants\")*.",
"In 2013, Evans hosted a one\\-off documentary for [Channel 4](/wiki/Channel_4 \"Channel 4\") called *Dogs: Their Secret Lives*. A full series followed, beginning on 19 August 2014, as well as a one\\-off live episode and a revisited episode, both airing in 2014\\.",
"In September 2014, Evans began hosting *Operation Maneater*, a three\\-part series for [Channel 4](/wiki/Channel_4 \"Channel 4\"). It was revealed that, during the filming, Evans had been clipped by a [crocodile](/wiki/Crocodile \"Crocodile\"), leaving him with a split lip and broken teeth. Evans said \"For the last 10 months, I haven't been able to bite using my front teeth so have had to tear my food into chunks to eat\".{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/tv/news/a597985/mark\\-evans\\-attacked\\-by\\-a\\-crocodile\\-during\\-filming\\-for\\-new\\-tv\\-show.html\\#\\~oQq4MiA5GqGo8g\\|title\\=Mark Evans attacked by a crocodile\\|date\\=20 September 2014}}",
"### Engineering",
"In 1999, Evans co\\-devised the workshop\\-based \"[Is Born](/wiki/Is_Born_series \"Is Born series\")\" format for Discovery Networks Europe. Since then, he has co\\-produced and presented ten series for Discovery Home \\& Leisure (now [Discovery Real Time](/wiki/Discovery_Real_Time \"Discovery Real Time\")) and are often repeated on Discovery's [Quest](/wiki/Quest_%28TV_channel%29 \"Quest (TV channel)\") channel. The shows have transmitted in over 70 countries around the world.",
"* *[A Car Is Born](/wiki/A_Car_Is_Born \"A Car Is Born\")* (build of an AC Cobra replica) – 15 episodes\n* *[A Plane Is Born](/wiki/A_Plane_Is_Born \"A Plane Is Born\")* (build of a 200 mph kit aeroplane) – 15 episodes\n* *[A Car Is Reborn](/wiki/A_Car_Is_Reborn \"A Car Is Reborn\")* (total restoration of an E Type Jaguar) – 15 episodes\n* *A Chopper Is Born* (build of a kit, two\\-seater helicopter) – 15 episode\n* *A Bike Is Born – Harley* (restoration of a Harley WLC45\\) – 5 episodes\n* *A Bike Is Born – Bonneville* (restoration of a Triumph Bonneville T120R) – 5 episodes\n* *A Bike Is Born – Trike* (build of a Boom Power Trike) – 5 episodes\n* *A Race Car Is Born* (build of a Westfield race car) – 15 episodes\n* *[A 4x4 Is Born](/wiki/A_4x4_Is_Born \"A 4x4 Is Born\")* (build of an extreme off\\-road Land Rover) – 15 episodes\n* *[An MG Is Born](/wiki/An_MG_Is_Born \"An MG Is Born\")* (restoration of an MGB Roadster) – 10 episodes\n* *Wreck Rescue* – follows his journey to help inspire and motivate the restorers of five very different vehicles to achieve their own restoration dreams.\n* *Wood Wizard* with Richard Blizzard (crafting wooden objects) 15 episodes\n* “ Classic British Cars: Made in Coventry\" (2021\\) – a history of the classic cars made in Coventry 1 episode",
"He also co\\-devised and presented *Dream Machines* – a vehicle restoration series on [Channel 5](/wiki/Channel_5_%28UK%29 \"Channel 5 (UK)\").",
""
] |
History
-------
The Monument, a colossal landmark column, was designed by American architect [Robert Mills](/wiki/Robert_Mills_%28architect%29 "Robert Mills (architect)") (1781–1855\), who also designed the later [Washington Monument](/wiki/Washington_Monument "Washington Monument") on the [National Mall](/wiki/National_Mall "National Mall") in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C.") Construction began in 1815 on land donated by Colonel [John Eager Howard](/wiki/John_Eager_Howard "John Eager Howard") (1752–1827\), from his extensive "Belvidere" estate just north of Baltimore Town, and the masonry work was completed by 1829\. The 178 foot, 8 inch [doric](/wiki/Doric_order "Doric order") column holds a ground\-floor gallery offering digital exhibits about the construction of the Monument, the history of Mount Vernon and Washington Places neighborhood and of the life and accomplishments of General and President George Washington. Climbing the 227 steps to the top provides a view of the city from the historic neighborhood where it is located. Its neighbors and cultural institutions within a few blocks include the [Peabody Institute](/wiki/Peabody_Institute "Peabody Institute"), [The Walters Art Museum](/wiki/The_Walters_Art_Museum "The Walters Art Museum"), the Central Library of the [Enoch Pratt Free Library](/wiki/Enoch_Pratt_Free_Library "Enoch Pratt Free Library"), the [Maryland Center for History and Culture](/wiki/Maryland_Center_for_History_and_Culture "Maryland Center for History and Culture") with its [Enoch Pratt Mansion](/wiki/Enoch_Pratt "Enoch Pratt"), the [Basilica of the National Shrine of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary](/wiki/Basilica_of_the_National_Shrine_of_the_Assumption_of_the_Blessed_Virgin_Mary_%28Baltimore%29 "Basilica of the National Shrine of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary (Baltimore)") (old Baltimore Cathedral), and the [Baltimore School for the Arts](/wiki/Baltimore_School_for_the_Arts "Baltimore School for the Arts") (public high school).
The glorification of Washington began long before his death at his beloved [Mount Vernon](/wiki/Mount_Vernon "Mount Vernon") estate, along the [Potomac River](/wiki/Potomac_River "Potomac River") in [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia") in December 1799\. The old [Confederation Congress](/wiki/Confederation_Congress "Confederation Congress") (1781–1789 under [Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union](/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation "Articles of Confederation")) had first announced a desire for a sculpture in his honor in 1783 after the end of the War and of [General Washington's resigning of his commission](/wiki/George_Washington%27s_resignation_as_commander-in-chief "George Washington's resignation as commander-in-chief") and after his death, revived the idea of a memorial. However, these expressions of honor in the national capital floundered and would not be realized for decades. A monument honoring Washington in [Baltimore](/wiki/History_of_Baltimore "History of Baltimore"), then an up\-and\-coming rising town, the third largest in North America, was first proposed as early as 1807, and in 1809 a Board of Managers of private citizens formed to commission and fund the monument intended to be erected in the old former colonial\-era Courthouse Square on North Calvert Street, between East Lexington and East Fayette Streets (today's location of the [Battle Monument Square](/wiki/Battle_Monument_Square "Battle Monument Square"), constructed simultaneously 1815–1822\). In 1810, the first lottery authorized by the [General Assembly of Maryland](/wiki/Maryland_General_Assembly "Maryland General Assembly"), was held. In 1813, an architectural competition was announced with a $500 prize to design and build the Monument at a cost of $100,000\. Mills's design was chosen in 1814, the architect having taken pains to demonstrate to the Board of Managers that he was the first native born American with architectural training. The cornerstone was laid with great ceremony on [Independence Day](/wiki/Independence_Day_%28United_States%29 "Independence Day (United States)"), July 4, 1815\.Mount Vernon Place Conservancy, "Historical Timeline: Washington Monument and Mount Vernon Place" [http://mvpconservancy.org/digital\-exhibits/](http://mvpconservancy.org/digital-exhibits/)
Mills's competition\-winning designs included rich ornamentation, six iron galleries (balconies) dividing the exterior shaft into seven sections with text and images on each level highlighting important moments in Washington's life. An interior spiral staircase led to the top, where surmounting the column Washington was depicted in a [quadriga](/wiki/Quadriga "Quadriga"). Concerns over the expense of this design, as well as its projected height caused later changes in not only its design, but location. Residents of old Courthouse Square feared the tall column would fall on their houses in the event of some natural disaster, so a new location was found in Howard's Woods, north of the city, on the "Belvidere" estate and with a 200 square feet of surrounding land for future public squares/parks, which was donated by noted leading citizen, [American Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War "American Revolutionary War") hero, Col. [John Eager Howard](/wiki/John_Eager_Howard "John Eager Howard"), (1752–1827\) of the famed "[Maryland Line](/wiki/Maryland_Line "Maryland Line")" regiment of the [Continental Army](/wiki/Continental_Army "Continental Army").
By the time the Monument's cornerstone was laid in Howard's Woods in 1815, Mills had significantly simplified the original elaborate design as depicted in an account of the Fourth of July ceremony. The design of the completed column is very similar to the [Colonne Vendôme](/wiki/Place_Vend%C3%B4me "Place Vendôme") in [Paris](/wiki/Paris%2C_France "Paris, France"), which ultimately derived from [Trajan's Column](/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column "Trajan's Column") in [Rome](/wiki/Rome%2C_Italy "Rome, Italy") and was adopted in this time of the increasing popularity of [Neoclassicism](/wiki/Neoclassicism "Neoclassicism") in [American architecture](/wiki/American_architecture "American architecture").
The dignified cornerstone ceremony was overseen by the Monument's Board of Managers. Board President and noted citizen, James Buchanan observed that the city of Baltimore had not only "the glory of being the first to erect a monument of gratitude to the father and benefactor of our country," but that it had a "peculiar propriety" in erecting "this first expression of national gratitude," because of its successful defense against the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army "British Army") and [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") during the [Battle of Baltimore](/wiki/Battle_of_Baltimore "Battle of Baltimore") the previous fall.See the full 1815 account <https://archive.org/details/authenticaccount00prat>
At the ceremony it was declared that the Monument was to stand as "memorial of the blessings and advantages that our country derived from the character of and conduct of that personage whose name it is to bear, and whose virtues it is to perpetuate." Following speeches, the cornerstone was laid by [Levin Winder](/wiki/Levin_Winder "Levin Winder"), then [Governor of Maryland](/wiki/Governor_of_Maryland "Governor of Maryland") and head of the Maryland [Freemasons](/wiki/Freemasons "Freemasons"), in a dignified masonic ceremony. The entire proceedings were printed in the local newspaper, picked up by newspapers in other major cities, and published in a souvenir booklet with illustrations.
[left\|thumb\|Baltimore's Washington Monument, 1890 (looking north)](/wiki/File:Washington_Monument%2C_1890_1a.jpg "Washington Monument, 1890 1a.jpg")
Almost from the moment the cornerstone was laid, and particularly as the structure began to rise out of the ground (the first marble was laid in 1816\), the Monument was a destination and an active memorial. In June 1817, during fifth President [James Monroe](/wiki/James_Monroe "James Monroe")'s visit to the city, his itinerary included a visit to the Monument. Construction sites in the early nineteenth century were not what they are today, and during the building period it is clear the Monument was visited inside and out. As early as 1819 guests were leaving evidence of their visit in the Monument's subterranean vaults. By shortly after 1820 with the column proper largely complete with its integral interior staircase, visitors were already climbing to the top. [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") newspaper editor Nathaniel H. Carter visited in February 1823 and climbed to the top, escorted by a boy with a candle, to take in the views of the city."Arrival of the President," June 2, 1817, Baltimore Patriot. During the 2014–2015 restoration graffiti dating as early as 1819 was found in the Monument's basement. See [https://web.archive.org/web/20140508182933/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2014\-02\-07/news/bs\-md\-ci\-monument\-discovery\-20140207\_1\_lance\-humphries\-mount\-vernon\-place\-conservancy\-washington\-monument](https://web.archive.org/web/20140508182933/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2014-02-07/news/bs-md-ci-monument-discovery-20140207_1_lance-humphries-mount-vernon-place-conservancy-washington-monument). See "Baltimore," which prints Carter's account of his visit, Feb. 19, 1823, Baltimore Patriot.
The monument, constructed of marble from three quarries further north in [Baltimore County, Maryland](/wiki/Baltimore_County%2C_Maryland "Baltimore County, Maryland"), rises 178 feet 8 inches and consists of three main elements: a low, square base containing a gallery; a plain, unfluted column; and, atop the column, a standing figure of Washington. The marble was sourced from three quarries: the base from General [Charles Carnan Ridgely](/wiki/Charles_Carnan_Ridgely "Charles Carnan Ridgely")'s (1760–1829\), quarry, (near his [Baltimore County](/wiki/Baltimore_County "Baltimore County") estate of [Hampton Mansion](/wiki/Hampton_Mansion "Hampton Mansion") near [Towsontown](/wiki/Towson%2C_Maryland "Towson, Maryland")), the column and other details from Scott's quarry, and the statue from the quarry of Mrs. Frances D. T. Taylor.[http://mvpconservancy.org/digital\-exhibits/](http://mvpconservancy.org/digital-exhibits/) Mount Vernon Place Conservancy, "Washington Monument, Monument Facts"
[thumb\|Statue by Causici of [George Washington's resignation as commander\-in\-chief](/wiki/George_Washington%27s_resignation_as_commander-in-chief "George Washington's resignation as commander-in-chief")](/wiki/File:Washington_Monument_Baltimore_06_2017.jpg "Washington Monument Baltimore 06 2017.jpg")
Washington is depicted on the top of the Monument resigning his commission as Commander\-in\-Chief of the [Continental Army](/wiki/Continental_Army "Continental Army"), an act which took place in the Old Senate chamber in the [Maryland State House](/wiki/Maryland_State_House "Maryland State House") in the state capital of [Annapolis, Maryland](/wiki/Annapolis%2C_Maryland "Annapolis, Maryland") on December 23, 1783\. The [Confederation Congress](/wiki/Confederation_Congress "Confederation Congress") was meeting in the Maryland capitol which served for a few months as the temporary national capital. While there, the Congress also ratified the [Treaty of Paris of 1783](/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_%281783%29 "Treaty of Paris (1783)"), ending the [American Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War "American Revolutionary War") and recognizing the independence of the United States by [Great Britain](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain "Kingdom of Great Britain").
The statue was carved by Italian\-born sculptor {{ill\|Enrico Causici\|fr}}, who previous to his work on the Monument had been employed carving reliefs for the [United States Capitol](/wiki/United_States_Capitol "United States Capitol"). William Rusk, in his book *Art in Baltimore: Monuments and Memorials*, tells the following story about the raising of Causici's marble statue of Washington in 1829\. "Tradition recalls a prodigy occurring when the statue was raised to the summit of the monument – a shooting star dashed across the sky and an eagle lit on the head of the settling general."
[left\|thumb\|View from the top of the monument](/wiki/File:Call_me_Ishmael.jpg "Call me Ishmael.jpg")
Details added to the monument in the 1830s include the bronze inscriptions on all facades documenting eight principal events in George Washington's life, including his military and presidential career. Former president [John Quincy Adams](/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams "John Quincy Adams") assisted the monument's board of managers in determining the wording of these events. The interior of the monument was stuccoed at this time and exterior wood doors installed, painted to imitate ancient Roman bronze doors. The cast\-iron fence around the base was also designed by Mills and added in 1838\. It contains symbolic references to the Maryland and the strength achieved through the union of the original thirteen colonies.
[thumb\|1850 Tallis Map of the United States ( Texas at fullest extent) – Geographicus – United States\-tallis\-1850](/wiki/File:1850_Tallis_Map_of_the_United_States_%28_Texas_at_fullest_extent%29_-_Geographicus_-_UnitedStates-tallis-1850.jpg "1850 Tallis Map of the United States ( Texas at fullest extent) - Geographicus - UnitedStates-tallis-1850.jpg")
Other memorials to Washington were erected in Maryland and in the nearby national capital, including the one now in [Washington Monument State Park](/wiki/Washington_Monument_State_Park "Washington Monument State Park") (near
[Boonsboro](/wiki/Boonsboro "Boonsboro"), Maryland and the [Appalachian Trail](/wiki/Appalachian_Trail "Appalachian Trail")), which was first constructed in 1827\.{{cite web\|title\=Washington Monument State Park\|url\=http://www.dnr.state.md.us/publiclands/western/washington.asp\|publisher\=State of Maryland Department of Natural Resources\|access\-date\=November 25, 2012\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121117063822/http://www.dnr.state.md.us/publiclands/western/washington.asp\|archive\-date\=November 17, 2012}} The Boonsboro monument as it now stands reflects at least two rebuildings after the structure had fallen into ruin. In 1848 Mills's [Washington Monument](/wiki/Washington_Monument "Washington Monument") in the national capital was begun, but it would not be completed and dedicated until 1885\. Because of this, for decades the Baltimore Washington Monument served as a leading symbol of American pride and gratitude towards George Washington, as a founding father and the first president of the nation. Mid 19th century maps, for instance, pair the Baltimore column with the Capitol building because the Washington, DC monument had only just begun.
The monument is now open for tourists.
[right\|thumb\|Baltimore's Washington Monument, 1900 (looking west)](/wiki/File:Washington_Monument%2C_1900_1a.jpg "Washington Monument, 1900 1a.jpg")
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The Monument, a colossal landmark column, was designed by American architect [Robert Mills](/wiki/Robert_Mills_%28architect%29 \"Robert Mills (architect)\") (1781–1855\\), who also designed the later [Washington Monument](/wiki/Washington_Monument \"Washington Monument\") on the [National Mall](/wiki/National_Mall \"National Mall\") in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\") Construction began in 1815 on land donated by Colonel [John Eager Howard](/wiki/John_Eager_Howard \"John Eager Howard\") (1752–1827\\), from his extensive \"Belvidere\" estate just north of Baltimore Town, and the masonry work was completed by 1829\\. The 178 foot, 8 inch [doric](/wiki/Doric_order \"Doric order\") column holds a ground\\-floor gallery offering digital exhibits about the construction of the Monument, the history of Mount Vernon and Washington Places neighborhood and of the life and accomplishments of General and President George Washington. Climbing the 227 steps to the top provides a view of the city from the historic neighborhood where it is located. Its neighbors and cultural institutions within a few blocks include the [Peabody Institute](/wiki/Peabody_Institute \"Peabody Institute\"), [The Walters Art Museum](/wiki/The_Walters_Art_Museum \"The Walters Art Museum\"), the Central Library of the [Enoch Pratt Free Library](/wiki/Enoch_Pratt_Free_Library \"Enoch Pratt Free Library\"), the [Maryland Center for History and Culture](/wiki/Maryland_Center_for_History_and_Culture \"Maryland Center for History and Culture\") with its [Enoch Pratt Mansion](/wiki/Enoch_Pratt \"Enoch Pratt\"), the [Basilica of the National Shrine of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary](/wiki/Basilica_of_the_National_Shrine_of_the_Assumption_of_the_Blessed_Virgin_Mary_%28Baltimore%29 \"Basilica of the National Shrine of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary (Baltimore)\") (old Baltimore Cathedral), and the [Baltimore School for the Arts](/wiki/Baltimore_School_for_the_Arts \"Baltimore School for the Arts\") (public high school).",
"The glorification of Washington began long before his death at his beloved [Mount Vernon](/wiki/Mount_Vernon \"Mount Vernon\") estate, along the [Potomac River](/wiki/Potomac_River \"Potomac River\") in [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\") in December 1799\\. The old [Confederation Congress](/wiki/Confederation_Congress \"Confederation Congress\") (1781–1789 under [Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union](/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation \"Articles of Confederation\")) had first announced a desire for a sculpture in his honor in 1783 after the end of the War and of [General Washington's resigning of his commission](/wiki/George_Washington%27s_resignation_as_commander-in-chief \"George Washington's resignation as commander-in-chief\") and after his death, revived the idea of a memorial. However, these expressions of honor in the national capital floundered and would not be realized for decades. A monument honoring Washington in [Baltimore](/wiki/History_of_Baltimore \"History of Baltimore\"), then an up\\-and\\-coming rising town, the third largest in North America, was first proposed as early as 1807, and in 1809 a Board of Managers of private citizens formed to commission and fund the monument intended to be erected in the old former colonial\\-era Courthouse Square on North Calvert Street, between East Lexington and East Fayette Streets (today's location of the [Battle Monument Square](/wiki/Battle_Monument_Square \"Battle Monument Square\"), constructed simultaneously 1815–1822\\). In 1810, the first lottery authorized by the [General Assembly of Maryland](/wiki/Maryland_General_Assembly \"Maryland General Assembly\"), was held. In 1813, an architectural competition was announced with a $500 prize to design and build the Monument at a cost of $100,000\\. Mills's design was chosen in 1814, the architect having taken pains to demonstrate to the Board of Managers that he was the first native born American with architectural training. The cornerstone was laid with great ceremony on [Independence Day](/wiki/Independence_Day_%28United_States%29 \"Independence Day (United States)\"), July 4, 1815\\.Mount Vernon Place Conservancy, \"Historical Timeline: Washington Monument and Mount Vernon Place\" [http://mvpconservancy.org/digital\\-exhibits/](http://mvpconservancy.org/digital-exhibits/)",
"Mills's competition\\-winning designs included rich ornamentation, six iron galleries (balconies) dividing the exterior shaft into seven sections with text and images on each level highlighting important moments in Washington's life. An interior spiral staircase led to the top, where surmounting the column Washington was depicted in a [quadriga](/wiki/Quadriga \"Quadriga\"). Concerns over the expense of this design, as well as its projected height caused later changes in not only its design, but location. Residents of old Courthouse Square feared the tall column would fall on their houses in the event of some natural disaster, so a new location was found in Howard's Woods, north of the city, on the \"Belvidere\" estate and with a 200 square feet of surrounding land for future public squares/parks, which was donated by noted leading citizen, [American Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War \"American Revolutionary War\") hero, Col. [John Eager Howard](/wiki/John_Eager_Howard \"John Eager Howard\"), (1752–1827\\) of the famed \"[Maryland Line](/wiki/Maryland_Line \"Maryland Line\")\" regiment of the [Continental Army](/wiki/Continental_Army \"Continental Army\").",
"By the time the Monument's cornerstone was laid in Howard's Woods in 1815, Mills had significantly simplified the original elaborate design as depicted in an account of the Fourth of July ceremony. The design of the completed column is very similar to the [Colonne Vendôme](/wiki/Place_Vend%C3%B4me \"Place Vendôme\") in [Paris](/wiki/Paris%2C_France \"Paris, France\"), which ultimately derived from [Trajan's Column](/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column \"Trajan's Column\") in [Rome](/wiki/Rome%2C_Italy \"Rome, Italy\") and was adopted in this time of the increasing popularity of [Neoclassicism](/wiki/Neoclassicism \"Neoclassicism\") in [American architecture](/wiki/American_architecture \"American architecture\").",
"The dignified cornerstone ceremony was overseen by the Monument's Board of Managers. Board President and noted citizen, James Buchanan observed that the city of Baltimore had not only \"the glory of being the first to erect a monument of gratitude to the father and benefactor of our country,\" but that it had a \"peculiar propriety\" in erecting \"this first expression of national gratitude,\" because of its successful defense against the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army \"British Army\") and [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") during the [Battle of Baltimore](/wiki/Battle_of_Baltimore \"Battle of Baltimore\") the previous fall.See the full 1815 account <https://archive.org/details/authenticaccount00prat>",
"At the ceremony it was declared that the Monument was to stand as \"memorial of the blessings and advantages that our country derived from the character of and conduct of that personage whose name it is to bear, and whose virtues it is to perpetuate.\" Following speeches, the cornerstone was laid by [Levin Winder](/wiki/Levin_Winder \"Levin Winder\"), then [Governor of Maryland](/wiki/Governor_of_Maryland \"Governor of Maryland\") and head of the Maryland [Freemasons](/wiki/Freemasons \"Freemasons\"), in a dignified masonic ceremony. The entire proceedings were printed in the local newspaper, picked up by newspapers in other major cities, and published in a souvenir booklet with illustrations.",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Baltimore's Washington Monument, 1890 (looking north)](/wiki/File:Washington_Monument%2C_1890_1a.jpg \"Washington Monument, 1890 1a.jpg\")",
"Almost from the moment the cornerstone was laid, and particularly as the structure began to rise out of the ground (the first marble was laid in 1816\\), the Monument was a destination and an active memorial. In June 1817, during fifth President [James Monroe](/wiki/James_Monroe \"James Monroe\")'s visit to the city, his itinerary included a visit to the Monument. Construction sites in the early nineteenth century were not what they are today, and during the building period it is clear the Monument was visited inside and out. As early as 1819 guests were leaving evidence of their visit in the Monument's subterranean vaults. By shortly after 1820 with the column proper largely complete with its integral interior staircase, visitors were already climbing to the top. [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") newspaper editor Nathaniel H. Carter visited in February 1823 and climbed to the top, escorted by a boy with a candle, to take in the views of the city.\"Arrival of the President,\" June 2, 1817, Baltimore Patriot. During the 2014–2015 restoration graffiti dating as early as 1819 was found in the Monument's basement. See [https://web.archive.org/web/20140508182933/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2014\\-02\\-07/news/bs\\-md\\-ci\\-monument\\-discovery\\-20140207\\_1\\_lance\\-humphries\\-mount\\-vernon\\-place\\-conservancy\\-washington\\-monument](https://web.archive.org/web/20140508182933/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2014-02-07/news/bs-md-ci-monument-discovery-20140207_1_lance-humphries-mount-vernon-place-conservancy-washington-monument). See \"Baltimore,\" which prints Carter's account of his visit, Feb. 19, 1823, Baltimore Patriot.",
"The monument, constructed of marble from three quarries further north in [Baltimore County, Maryland](/wiki/Baltimore_County%2C_Maryland \"Baltimore County, Maryland\"), rises 178 feet 8 inches and consists of three main elements: a low, square base containing a gallery; a plain, unfluted column; and, atop the column, a standing figure of Washington. The marble was sourced from three quarries: the base from General [Charles Carnan Ridgely](/wiki/Charles_Carnan_Ridgely \"Charles Carnan Ridgely\")'s (1760–1829\\), quarry, (near his [Baltimore County](/wiki/Baltimore_County \"Baltimore County\") estate of [Hampton Mansion](/wiki/Hampton_Mansion \"Hampton Mansion\") near [Towsontown](/wiki/Towson%2C_Maryland \"Towson, Maryland\")), the column and other details from Scott's quarry, and the statue from the quarry of Mrs. Frances D. T. Taylor.[http://mvpconservancy.org/digital\\-exhibits/](http://mvpconservancy.org/digital-exhibits/) Mount Vernon Place Conservancy, \"Washington Monument, Monument Facts\"",
"[thumb\\|Statue by Causici of [George Washington's resignation as commander\\-in\\-chief](/wiki/George_Washington%27s_resignation_as_commander-in-chief \"George Washington's resignation as commander-in-chief\")](/wiki/File:Washington_Monument_Baltimore_06_2017.jpg \"Washington Monument Baltimore 06 2017.jpg\")\nWashington is depicted on the top of the Monument resigning his commission as Commander\\-in\\-Chief of the [Continental Army](/wiki/Continental_Army \"Continental Army\"), an act which took place in the Old Senate chamber in the [Maryland State House](/wiki/Maryland_State_House \"Maryland State House\") in the state capital of [Annapolis, Maryland](/wiki/Annapolis%2C_Maryland \"Annapolis, Maryland\") on December 23, 1783\\. The [Confederation Congress](/wiki/Confederation_Congress \"Confederation Congress\") was meeting in the Maryland capitol which served for a few months as the temporary national capital. While there, the Congress also ratified the [Treaty of Paris of 1783](/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_%281783%29 \"Treaty of Paris (1783)\"), ending the [American Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War \"American Revolutionary War\") and recognizing the independence of the United States by [Great Britain](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain \"Kingdom of Great Britain\").",
"The statue was carved by Italian\\-born sculptor {{ill\\|Enrico Causici\\|fr}}, who previous to his work on the Monument had been employed carving reliefs for the [United States Capitol](/wiki/United_States_Capitol \"United States Capitol\"). William Rusk, in his book *Art in Baltimore: Monuments and Memorials*, tells the following story about the raising of Causici's marble statue of Washington in 1829\\. \"Tradition recalls a prodigy occurring when the statue was raised to the summit of the monument – a shooting star dashed across the sky and an eagle lit on the head of the settling general.\"\n[left\\|thumb\\|View from the top of the monument](/wiki/File:Call_me_Ishmael.jpg \"Call me Ishmael.jpg\")\nDetails added to the monument in the 1830s include the bronze inscriptions on all facades documenting eight principal events in George Washington's life, including his military and presidential career. Former president [John Quincy Adams](/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams \"John Quincy Adams\") assisted the monument's board of managers in determining the wording of these events. The interior of the monument was stuccoed at this time and exterior wood doors installed, painted to imitate ancient Roman bronze doors. The cast\\-iron fence around the base was also designed by Mills and added in 1838\\. It contains symbolic references to the Maryland and the strength achieved through the union of the original thirteen colonies.",
"[thumb\\|1850 Tallis Map of the United States ( Texas at fullest extent) – Geographicus – United States\\-tallis\\-1850](/wiki/File:1850_Tallis_Map_of_the_United_States_%28_Texas_at_fullest_extent%29_-_Geographicus_-_UnitedStates-tallis-1850.jpg \"1850 Tallis Map of the United States ( Texas at fullest extent) - Geographicus - UnitedStates-tallis-1850.jpg\")",
"Other memorials to Washington were erected in Maryland and in the nearby national capital, including the one now in [Washington Monument State Park](/wiki/Washington_Monument_State_Park \"Washington Monument State Park\") (near\n[Boonsboro](/wiki/Boonsboro \"Boonsboro\"), Maryland and the [Appalachian Trail](/wiki/Appalachian_Trail \"Appalachian Trail\")), which was first constructed in 1827\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Washington Monument State Park\\|url\\=http://www.dnr.state.md.us/publiclands/western/washington.asp\\|publisher\\=State of Maryland Department of Natural Resources\\|access\\-date\\=November 25, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121117063822/http://www.dnr.state.md.us/publiclands/western/washington.asp\\|archive\\-date\\=November 17, 2012}} The Boonsboro monument as it now stands reflects at least two rebuildings after the structure had fallen into ruin. In 1848 Mills's [Washington Monument](/wiki/Washington_Monument \"Washington Monument\") in the national capital was begun, but it would not be completed and dedicated until 1885\\. Because of this, for decades the Baltimore Washington Monument served as a leading symbol of American pride and gratitude towards George Washington, as a founding father and the first president of the nation. Mid 19th century maps, for instance, pair the Baltimore column with the Capitol building because the Washington, DC monument had only just begun.",
"The monument is now open for tourists.",
"[right\\|thumb\\|Baltimore's Washington Monument, 1900 (looking west)](/wiki/File:Washington_Monument%2C_1900_1a.jpg \"Washington Monument, 1900 1a.jpg\")",
""
] |
Background
----------
During the [Pacific campaign](/wiki/South_West_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_II "South West Pacific theatre of World War II") of World War II, on 7 August 1942, U.S. forces landed on Guadalcanal, [Tulagi](/wiki/Tulagi "Tulagi"), and [Florida Islands](/wiki/Florida_Islands "Florida Islands") in the [Solomon Islands](/wiki/Solomon_Islands "Solomon Islands"). The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases for threatening the [supply](/wiki/Materiel "Materiel") routes between the U.S. and Australia, and to secure the islands as starting points for a [campaign](/wiki/Military_campaign "Military campaign") with the eventual goal of isolating the major Japanese base at [Rabaul](/wiki/Rabaul "Rabaul") while also supporting the Allied [New Guinea campaign](/wiki/New_Guinea_campaign "New Guinea campaign"). The landings initiated the six\-month\-long [Guadalcanal campaign](/wiki/Guadalcanal_campaign "Guadalcanal campaign").Hogue, *Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal*, pp. 235–236\.
Taking the Japanese by surprise, the Allied landing forces accomplished their initial objectives of [securing Tulagi](/wiki/Battle_of_Tulagi_and_Gavutu-Tanambogo "Battle of Tulagi and Gavutu-Tanambogo") and nearby small islands, as well as an airfield then under construction at [Lunga Point](/wiki/Lunga_Point "Lunga Point") on Guadalcanal, by nightfall on 8 August.Morison, *Struggle for Guadalcanal*, pp. 14–15\. That night, as the transports unloaded, the Allied warships screening the transports were surprised and defeated by an Imperial fleet of seven [cruisers](/wiki/Cruiser "Cruiser") and one [destroyer](/wiki/Destroyer "Destroyer"), commanded by Japanese Vice Admiral [Gunichi Mikawa](/wiki/Gunichi_Mikawa "Gunichi Mikawa"). One Australian and three U.S. cruisers were sunk and one other U.S. cruiser and two destroyers were damaged in the [Battle of Savo Island](/wiki/Battle_of_Savo_Island "Battle of Savo Island"). Rear Admiral [Richmond K. Turner](/wiki/Richmond_K._Turner "Richmond K. Turner") withdrew all remaining Allied naval forces by the evening of 9 August without unloading all the heavy equipment, provisions, and troops from the transports, although most of the divisional artillery was landed, comprising thirty\-two [75 mm](/wiki/75_mm_Gun_%28US%29 "75 mm Gun (US)") and [105 mm](/wiki/M101_howitzer "M101 howitzer") howitzers. Only five days' rations were landed.Zimmerman, *The Guadalcanal Campaign*, pp. 49–56\.Smith, *Bloody Ridge*, pp. 11, 16\.
The Marines ashore on Guadalcanal initially concentrated on forming a defense perimeter around the airfield, moving the landed supplies within the perimeter, and completing construction of the airfield. [Major General](/wiki/Major_general_%28United_States%29 "Major general (United States)") [Alexander Vandegrift](/wiki/Alexander_Vandegrift "Alexander Vandegrift") placed his 11,000 troops on Guadalcanal in a loose perimeter around the Lunga Point area. In four days of intense effort, the supplies were moved from the landing beach into dispersed dumps within the perimeter. Work began on completing the airfield immediately, mainly using captured Japanese gear. On 12 August, the airfield was named [Henderson Field](/wiki/Honiara_International_Airport "Honiara International Airport") after Major [Lofton Henderson](/wiki/Lofton_Henderson "Lofton Henderson"), a Marine aviator who had been killed at the [Battle of Midway](/wiki/Battle_of_Midway "Battle of Midway"). Captured Japanese stock increased the total supply of food to 14 days' worth. To conserve the limited food supplies, the Allied troops were limited to two meals per day.Shaw, *First Offensive*, p. 13\.Smith, *Bloody Ridge*, pp. 16–17\.
[thumb\|left\|Japanese Colonel Kiyonao Ichiki, commander of the 28th Infantry Regiment](/wiki/File:JapaneseColIchiki.gif "JapaneseColIchiki.gif")
In response to the Allied landings on Guadalcanal, the Japanese [Imperial General Headquarters](/wiki/Imperial_General_Headquarters "Imperial General Headquarters") assigned the Imperial Japanese Army's [17th Army](/wiki/Seventeenth_Army_%28Japan%29 "Seventeenth Army (Japan)"), a [corps](/wiki/Corps "Corps")\-sized command based at Rabaul and under the command of Lieutenant\-General [Harukichi Hyakutake](/wiki/Harukichi_Hyakutake "Harukichi Hyakutake"), with the task of retaking Guadalcanal from Allied forces. The 17th Army, then heavily involved with the Japanese campaign in New Guinea, had only a few units available to send to the southern Solomons area. Of these units, the 35th Infantry Brigade under Major General [Kiyotake Kawaguchi](/wiki/Kiyotake_Kawaguchi "Kiyotake Kawaguchi") was at [Palau](/wiki/Palau "Palau"), the 4th (Aoba) Infantry Regiment under Major General [Yumio Nasu](/wiki/Yumio_Nasu "Yumio Nasu") was in the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines"), and the 28th (Ichiki) Infantry Regiment, under the command of [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel "Colonel") [Kiyonao Ichiki](/wiki/Kiyonao_Ichiki "Kiyonao Ichiki"), was at sea en route to Japan from [Guam](/wiki/Guam "Guam").Miller, *The First Offensive*, p. 96 The different units began to move towards Guadalcanal immediately, but Ichiki's regiment, being the closest, arrived first.Smith, *Bloody Ridge*, p. 88; Evans, *Japanese Navy*, p. 158; Frank, *Guadalcanal*, pp. 141–143\. The Ichiki regiment was named after its commanding officer and was part of the [7th Division](/wiki/7th_Division_%28Imperial_Japanese_Army%29 "7th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)") from [Hokkaido](/wiki/Hokkaido "Hokkaido"). The Aoba regiment, from the [2nd Division](/wiki/2nd_Division_%28Imperial_Japanese_Army%29 "2nd Division (Imperial Japanese Army)"), took its name from Aoba Castle in [Sendai](/wiki/Sendai "Sendai"), because most of the soldiers in the regiment were from [Miyagi prefecture](/wiki/Miyagi_prefecture "Miyagi prefecture") (Rottman, *Japanese Army*, p. 52\). Ichiki's regiment had been assigned to invade and occupy [Midway Atoll](/wiki/Midway_Atoll "Midway Atoll"), but were on their way back to Japan after the invasion was canceled following the Japanese defeat in the [Battle of Midway](/wiki/Battle_of_Midway "Battle of Midway"). Although some histories state that Ichiki's regiment was at Truk, [Raizo Tanaka](/wiki/Raizo_Tanaka "Raizo Tanaka"), in Evans' book, states that he dropped off Ichiki's regiment at Guam after the Battle of Midway. Ichiki's regiment was subsequently loaded on ships for transport elsewhere but were rerouted to Truk after the Allied landings on Guadalcanal.
An aerial [reconnaissance](/wiki/Reconnaissance "Reconnaissance") of the U.S. Marine positions on Guadalcanal on 12 August by one of the senior Japanese staff officers from Rabaul sighted few U.S. troops in the open and no large ships in the waters nearby, convincing Imperial Headquarters that the Allies had withdrawn the majority of their troops. In fact, none of the Allied troops had been withdrawn.Frank, *Guadalcanal*, pp. 143–144\. Hyakutake issued orders for an advance unit of 900 troops from Ichiki's regiment to be landed on Guadalcanal by fast warship to immediately attack the Allied position and reoccupy the airfield area at Lunga Point. The remaining personnel in Ichiki's regiment would be delivered to Guadalcanal by slower transport later. At the major Japanese naval base at [Truk](/wiki/Chuuk_State "Chuuk State"), which was the staging point for delivery of Ichiki's regiment to Guadalcanal, Colonel Ichiki was briefed that 2,000–10,000 U.S. troops were holding the Guadalcanal [beachhead](/wiki/Beachhead "Beachhead") and that he should, "avoid frontal attacks".Evans, *Japanese Navy*, p. 161; Griffith, *Battle for Guadalcanal*, pp. 98–99; Smith, *Bloody Ridge*, p. 31\.
Ichiki, together with 916 of his regiment's 2,300 troops, designated the "First Element" and carrying seven days' supply of food, were delivered to Taivu Point, about {{convert\|35\|km\|mi\|sp\=us}} east of Lunga Point, by six destroyers at 01:00 on 19 August.Evans, *Japanese Navy*, p. 161; Frank, *Guadalcanal*, p. 145; Jersey, *Hell's Islands*, pp. 204, 212; Morison, *Struggle for Guadalcanal*, p. 70; Smith, *Bloody Ridge*, p. 43\. The First Element troops were mainly from the 28th's 1st Battalion under a Major Kuramoto and were mostly from [Asahikawa, Hokkaidō](/wiki/Asahikawa%2C_Hokkaid%C5%8D "Asahikawa, Hokkaidō"). At Taivu Point was an Imperial outpost with about 200 naval personnel who assisted with the unloading of Ichiki's forces from the destroyers. Ichiki was ordered to scout the American positions and wait for the remainder of his force to arrive. Known as the {{transliteration\|ja\|Ichiki Butai}} (Ichiki Detachment), they were an elite and battle\-seasoned force but as was about to be discovered, they were heavily stricken with "[victory disease](/wiki/Victory_disease "Victory disease")" – overconfidence due to previous success. Ichiki was so confident in the superiority of his men that he decided to destroy the American defenders before the remaining majority of his force arrived, even writing in his journal "18 August, landing; 20 August, march by night and battle; 21 August, enjoyment of the fruit of victory".Spector, *Eagle Against the Sun*, p. 496 He concocted a brazenly simple plan: march straight down the beach and through the American defenses.Gilbert, *Marine Tank Battles in The Pacific*, p. 41 Leaving about 100 personnel behind as a [rear guard](/wiki/Rear_guard "Rear guard"), Ichiki marched west with the remaining 800 men of his unit and made camp before dawn about {{convert\|14\|km\|mi\|sp\=us}} east of the Lunga perimeter. The U.S. Marines at Lunga Point received [intelligence](/wiki/Military_intelligence "Military intelligence") that a Japanese landing had occurred and took steps to find out exactly what was happening.Griffith, *Battle for Guadalcanal*, pp. 99–100; Smith, *Bloody Ridge*, pp. 29, 43–44\.
|
[
"Background\n----------",
"During the [Pacific campaign](/wiki/South_West_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_II \"South West Pacific theatre of World War II\") of World War II, on 7 August 1942, U.S. forces landed on Guadalcanal, [Tulagi](/wiki/Tulagi \"Tulagi\"), and [Florida Islands](/wiki/Florida_Islands \"Florida Islands\") in the [Solomon Islands](/wiki/Solomon_Islands \"Solomon Islands\"). The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases for threatening the [supply](/wiki/Materiel \"Materiel\") routes between the U.S. and Australia, and to secure the islands as starting points for a [campaign](/wiki/Military_campaign \"Military campaign\") with the eventual goal of isolating the major Japanese base at [Rabaul](/wiki/Rabaul \"Rabaul\") while also supporting the Allied [New Guinea campaign](/wiki/New_Guinea_campaign \"New Guinea campaign\"). The landings initiated the six\\-month\\-long [Guadalcanal campaign](/wiki/Guadalcanal_campaign \"Guadalcanal campaign\").Hogue, *Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal*, pp. 235–236\\.",
"Taking the Japanese by surprise, the Allied landing forces accomplished their initial objectives of [securing Tulagi](/wiki/Battle_of_Tulagi_and_Gavutu-Tanambogo \"Battle of Tulagi and Gavutu-Tanambogo\") and nearby small islands, as well as an airfield then under construction at [Lunga Point](/wiki/Lunga_Point \"Lunga Point\") on Guadalcanal, by nightfall on 8 August.Morison, *Struggle for Guadalcanal*, pp. 14–15\\. That night, as the transports unloaded, the Allied warships screening the transports were surprised and defeated by an Imperial fleet of seven [cruisers](/wiki/Cruiser \"Cruiser\") and one [destroyer](/wiki/Destroyer \"Destroyer\"), commanded by Japanese Vice Admiral [Gunichi Mikawa](/wiki/Gunichi_Mikawa \"Gunichi Mikawa\"). One Australian and three U.S. cruisers were sunk and one other U.S. cruiser and two destroyers were damaged in the [Battle of Savo Island](/wiki/Battle_of_Savo_Island \"Battle of Savo Island\"). Rear Admiral [Richmond K. Turner](/wiki/Richmond_K._Turner \"Richmond K. Turner\") withdrew all remaining Allied naval forces by the evening of 9 August without unloading all the heavy equipment, provisions, and troops from the transports, although most of the divisional artillery was landed, comprising thirty\\-two [75 mm](/wiki/75_mm_Gun_%28US%29 \"75 mm Gun (US)\") and [105 mm](/wiki/M101_howitzer \"M101 howitzer\") howitzers. Only five days' rations were landed.Zimmerman, *The Guadalcanal Campaign*, pp. 49–56\\.Smith, *Bloody Ridge*, pp. 11, 16\\.",
"The Marines ashore on Guadalcanal initially concentrated on forming a defense perimeter around the airfield, moving the landed supplies within the perimeter, and completing construction of the airfield. [Major General](/wiki/Major_general_%28United_States%29 \"Major general (United States)\") [Alexander Vandegrift](/wiki/Alexander_Vandegrift \"Alexander Vandegrift\") placed his 11,000 troops on Guadalcanal in a loose perimeter around the Lunga Point area. In four days of intense effort, the supplies were moved from the landing beach into dispersed dumps within the perimeter. Work began on completing the airfield immediately, mainly using captured Japanese gear. On 12 August, the airfield was named [Henderson Field](/wiki/Honiara_International_Airport \"Honiara International Airport\") after Major [Lofton Henderson](/wiki/Lofton_Henderson \"Lofton Henderson\"), a Marine aviator who had been killed at the [Battle of Midway](/wiki/Battle_of_Midway \"Battle of Midway\"). Captured Japanese stock increased the total supply of food to 14 days' worth. To conserve the limited food supplies, the Allied troops were limited to two meals per day.Shaw, *First Offensive*, p. 13\\.Smith, *Bloody Ridge*, pp. 16–17\\.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Japanese Colonel Kiyonao Ichiki, commander of the 28th Infantry Regiment](/wiki/File:JapaneseColIchiki.gif \"JapaneseColIchiki.gif\")",
"In response to the Allied landings on Guadalcanal, the Japanese [Imperial General Headquarters](/wiki/Imperial_General_Headquarters \"Imperial General Headquarters\") assigned the Imperial Japanese Army's [17th Army](/wiki/Seventeenth_Army_%28Japan%29 \"Seventeenth Army (Japan)\"), a [corps](/wiki/Corps \"Corps\")\\-sized command based at Rabaul and under the command of Lieutenant\\-General [Harukichi Hyakutake](/wiki/Harukichi_Hyakutake \"Harukichi Hyakutake\"), with the task of retaking Guadalcanal from Allied forces. The 17th Army, then heavily involved with the Japanese campaign in New Guinea, had only a few units available to send to the southern Solomons area. Of these units, the 35th Infantry Brigade under Major General [Kiyotake Kawaguchi](/wiki/Kiyotake_Kawaguchi \"Kiyotake Kawaguchi\") was at [Palau](/wiki/Palau \"Palau\"), the 4th (Aoba) Infantry Regiment under Major General [Yumio Nasu](/wiki/Yumio_Nasu \"Yumio Nasu\") was in the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\"), and the 28th (Ichiki) Infantry Regiment, under the command of [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel \"Colonel\") [Kiyonao Ichiki](/wiki/Kiyonao_Ichiki \"Kiyonao Ichiki\"), was at sea en route to Japan from [Guam](/wiki/Guam \"Guam\").Miller, *The First Offensive*, p. 96 The different units began to move towards Guadalcanal immediately, but Ichiki's regiment, being the closest, arrived first.Smith, *Bloody Ridge*, p. 88; Evans, *Japanese Navy*, p. 158; Frank, *Guadalcanal*, pp. 141–143\\. The Ichiki regiment was named after its commanding officer and was part of the [7th Division](/wiki/7th_Division_%28Imperial_Japanese_Army%29 \"7th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)\") from [Hokkaido](/wiki/Hokkaido \"Hokkaido\"). The Aoba regiment, from the [2nd Division](/wiki/2nd_Division_%28Imperial_Japanese_Army%29 \"2nd Division (Imperial Japanese Army)\"), took its name from Aoba Castle in [Sendai](/wiki/Sendai \"Sendai\"), because most of the soldiers in the regiment were from [Miyagi prefecture](/wiki/Miyagi_prefecture \"Miyagi prefecture\") (Rottman, *Japanese Army*, p. 52\\). Ichiki's regiment had been assigned to invade and occupy [Midway Atoll](/wiki/Midway_Atoll \"Midway Atoll\"), but were on their way back to Japan after the invasion was canceled following the Japanese defeat in the [Battle of Midway](/wiki/Battle_of_Midway \"Battle of Midway\"). Although some histories state that Ichiki's regiment was at Truk, [Raizo Tanaka](/wiki/Raizo_Tanaka \"Raizo Tanaka\"), in Evans' book, states that he dropped off Ichiki's regiment at Guam after the Battle of Midway. Ichiki's regiment was subsequently loaded on ships for transport elsewhere but were rerouted to Truk after the Allied landings on Guadalcanal.",
"An aerial [reconnaissance](/wiki/Reconnaissance \"Reconnaissance\") of the U.S. Marine positions on Guadalcanal on 12 August by one of the senior Japanese staff officers from Rabaul sighted few U.S. troops in the open and no large ships in the waters nearby, convincing Imperial Headquarters that the Allies had withdrawn the majority of their troops. In fact, none of the Allied troops had been withdrawn.Frank, *Guadalcanal*, pp. 143–144\\. Hyakutake issued orders for an advance unit of 900 troops from Ichiki's regiment to be landed on Guadalcanal by fast warship to immediately attack the Allied position and reoccupy the airfield area at Lunga Point. The remaining personnel in Ichiki's regiment would be delivered to Guadalcanal by slower transport later. At the major Japanese naval base at [Truk](/wiki/Chuuk_State \"Chuuk State\"), which was the staging point for delivery of Ichiki's regiment to Guadalcanal, Colonel Ichiki was briefed that 2,000–10,000 U.S. troops were holding the Guadalcanal [beachhead](/wiki/Beachhead \"Beachhead\") and that he should, \"avoid frontal attacks\".Evans, *Japanese Navy*, p. 161; Griffith, *Battle for Guadalcanal*, pp. 98–99; Smith, *Bloody Ridge*, p. 31\\.",
"Ichiki, together with 916 of his regiment's 2,300 troops, designated the \"First Element\" and carrying seven days' supply of food, were delivered to Taivu Point, about {{convert\\|35\\|km\\|mi\\|sp\\=us}} east of Lunga Point, by six destroyers at 01:00 on 19 August.Evans, *Japanese Navy*, p. 161; Frank, *Guadalcanal*, p. 145; Jersey, *Hell's Islands*, pp. 204, 212; Morison, *Struggle for Guadalcanal*, p. 70; Smith, *Bloody Ridge*, p. 43\\. The First Element troops were mainly from the 28th's 1st Battalion under a Major Kuramoto and were mostly from [Asahikawa, Hokkaidō](/wiki/Asahikawa%2C_Hokkaid%C5%8D \"Asahikawa, Hokkaidō\"). At Taivu Point was an Imperial outpost with about 200 naval personnel who assisted with the unloading of Ichiki's forces from the destroyers. Ichiki was ordered to scout the American positions and wait for the remainder of his force to arrive. Known as the {{transliteration\\|ja\\|Ichiki Butai}} (Ichiki Detachment), they were an elite and battle\\-seasoned force but as was about to be discovered, they were heavily stricken with \"[victory disease](/wiki/Victory_disease \"Victory disease\")\" – overconfidence due to previous success. Ichiki was so confident in the superiority of his men that he decided to destroy the American defenders before the remaining majority of his force arrived, even writing in his journal \"18 August, landing; 20 August, march by night and battle; 21 August, enjoyment of the fruit of victory\".Spector, *Eagle Against the Sun*, p. 496 He concocted a brazenly simple plan: march straight down the beach and through the American defenses.Gilbert, *Marine Tank Battles in The Pacific*, p. 41 Leaving about 100 personnel behind as a [rear guard](/wiki/Rear_guard \"Rear guard\"), Ichiki marched west with the remaining 800 men of his unit and made camp before dawn about {{convert\\|14\\|km\\|mi\\|sp\\=us}} east of the Lunga perimeter. The U.S. Marines at Lunga Point received [intelligence](/wiki/Military_intelligence \"Military intelligence\") that a Japanese landing had occurred and took steps to find out exactly what was happening.Griffith, *Battle for Guadalcanal*, pp. 99–100; Smith, *Bloody Ridge*, pp. 29, 43–44\\.",
""
] |
Prelude
-------
[thumb\|right\|British Solomon Islands Protectorate district officer and coastwatcher Martin Clemens (center standing) with members of the [British Solomon Islands Protectorate Defence Force](/wiki/British_Solomon_Islands_Protectorate_Defence_Force "British Solomon Islands Protectorate Defence Force"), who served as scouts and guides for Allied forces throughout the Guadalcanal campaign.](/wiki/File:GuadCoastwatcher.gif "GuadCoastwatcher.gif")
[thumb\|[Sir Jacob Vouza](/wiki/Jacob_C._Vouza "Jacob C. Vouza") was tortured and left for dead by his Japanese captors only to escape and then warn the Marines of the imminent surprise attack minutes before the Japanese assault.{{cite book\|author\= Toland, John\|author\-link\= John Toland (author)\|title\= \[\[The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936\-1945]]\|publisher\= Random House \|location\= New York \|year\= 1970 \|page\= 366}}](/wiki/File:Vousa.gif "Vousa.gif")
Reports from patrols of Solomon Islanders, including retired Sergeant Major [Jacob C. Vouza](/wiki/Jacob_C._Vouza "Jacob C. Vouza") of the [British Solomon Islands Protectorate Constabulary](/wiki/British_Solomon_Islands_Protectorate_Constabulary "British Solomon Islands Protectorate Constabulary"), under the direction of [Martin Clemens](/wiki/Martin_Clemens "Martin Clemens"), a [coastwatcher](/wiki/Coastwatchers "Coastwatchers") and officer in the [British Solomon Islands Protectorate Defence Force](/wiki/British_Solomon_Islands_Protectorate_Defence_Force "British Solomon Islands Protectorate Defence Force") (BSIPDF), along with Allied intelligence from other sources, indicated that Japanese troops were present east of Lunga Point. To investigate further, on 19 August, a Marine patrol of 60 men and four native scouts, commanded by U.S. Marine [Captain](/wiki/Captain_%28United_States%29 "Captain (United States)") Charles H. Brush, marched east from the Lunga perimeter.Frank, *Guadalcanal*, p. 148; Jersey, *Hell's Islands*, p. 205\.Zimmerman, *The Guadalcanal Campaign*, p. 62\.
At the same time, Ichiki sent forward his own patrol of 38 men, led by his communications officer, to reconnoiter Allied troop dispositions and establish a forward communications base. Around 12:00 on 19 August at [Koli Point](/wiki/Koli_Point "Koli Point"), Brush's patrol sighted and ambushed the Japanese patrol, killing all but five of its members, who escaped back to Taivu. The Marines suffered three dead and three wounded.Griffith, *Battle for Guadalcanal*, p. 100; Jersey, *Hell's Islands*, p. 205; Smith, *Bloody Ridge*, p. 47\. The U.S. and Japanese soldiers killed in this engagement are included in the total casualty figures for the Tenaru battle. Captain Yoshimi Shibuya was the leader of the Japanese patrol. One of the five Japanese survivors later died of his wounds at Taivu Point.
Papers discovered on the bodies of some of the Japanese officers in the patrol revealed that they belonged to a much larger unit and showed detailed intelligence of U.S. Marine positions around Lunga Point.Zimmerman, *The Guadalcanal Campaign*, p. 62 The papers did not detail exactly how large the Japanese force was or whether an attack was imminent.Frank, *Guadalcanal*, p. 149\.
Now anticipating an attack from the east, the U.S. Marine forces, under the direction of Vandegrift, prepared their defenses on the east side of the Lunga perimeter. Several official U.S. military histories identify the location of the eastern defenses of the Lunga perimeter as emplaced on the [Tenaru River](/wiki/Tenaru_River "Tenaru River"). The Tenaru River, however, was located further to the east. The river forming the eastern boundary of the Lunga perimeter was the Ilu River, nicknamed Alligator Creek by the Marines, a double misnomer: there are [crocodiles](/wiki/Saltwater_crocodile "Saltwater crocodile") not [alligators](/wiki/Alligator "Alligator") in the Solomons, and Alligator "Creek" was a tidal [lagoon](/wiki/Lagoon "Lagoon") separated from the ocean by a [sandbar](/wiki/Bar_%28landform%29 "Bar (landform)") about {{convert\|7\|to\|15\|m\|ft\|sp\=us}} wide and {{convert\|30\|m\|ft\|sp\=us}} long.Frank, *Guadalcanal*, p. 150\.
Along the west side of Alligator Creek, Colonel [Clifton B. Cates](/wiki/Clifton_B._Cates "Clifton B. Cates"), commander of the [1st Marine Regiment](/wiki/U.S._1st_Marine_Regiment "U.S. 1st Marine Regiment"), deployed his 1st (Lieutenant Colonel [Leonard B. Cresswell](/wiki/Leonard_B._Cresswell "Leonard B. Cresswell")) and 2nd Battalions (Lieutenant Colonel [Edwin A. Pollock](/wiki/Edwin_A._Pollock "Edwin A. Pollock")).Hammel, *Carrier Clash*, p. 135\.Zimmerman, *The Guadalcanal Campaign*, p. 67\. To help further defend the Alligator Creek sandbar, Cates deployed 100 men from the 1st Special Weapons Battalion with two [37{{nbsp}}mm](/wiki/M3_37_mm_gun "M3 37 mm gun") anti\-tank guns equipped with [canister shot](/wiki/Canister_shot "Canister shot").Frank, *Guadalcanal*, p. 151 Marine divisional artillery, consisting of both 75{{nbsp}}mm and 105{{nbsp}}mm guns, pre\-targeted locations on the east side and sandbar areas of Alligator Creek, and forward artillery observers emplaced themselves in the forward Marine positions.Griffith, *Battle for Guadalcanal*, p. 102\. The Marines worked all day on 20 August to prepare their defenses as much as possible before nightfall.
Learning of the annihilation of his patrol, Ichiki quickly sent forward a [company](/wiki/Company_%28military_unit%29 "Company (military unit)") to bury the bodies and followed with the rest of his troops, marching throughout the night of 19 August and finally halting at 04:30 on 20 August within a few miles of the U.S. Marine positions on the east side of Lunga Point. At this location, he prepared his troops to attack the Allied positions that night.Frank, *Guadalcanal*, pp. 149, 151; Smith, *Bloody Ridge*, p. 48\.
|
[
"Prelude\n-------",
"[thumb\\|right\\|British Solomon Islands Protectorate district officer and coastwatcher Martin Clemens (center standing) with members of the [British Solomon Islands Protectorate Defence Force](/wiki/British_Solomon_Islands_Protectorate_Defence_Force \"British Solomon Islands Protectorate Defence Force\"), who served as scouts and guides for Allied forces throughout the Guadalcanal campaign.](/wiki/File:GuadCoastwatcher.gif \"GuadCoastwatcher.gif\")\n[thumb\\|[Sir Jacob Vouza](/wiki/Jacob_C._Vouza \"Jacob C. Vouza\") was tortured and left for dead by his Japanese captors only to escape and then warn the Marines of the imminent surprise attack minutes before the Japanese assault.{{cite book\\|author\\= Toland, John\\|author\\-link\\= John Toland (author)\\|title\\= \\[\\[The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936\\-1945]]\\|publisher\\= Random House \\|location\\= New York \\|year\\= 1970 \\|page\\= 366}}](/wiki/File:Vousa.gif \"Vousa.gif\")\nReports from patrols of Solomon Islanders, including retired Sergeant Major [Jacob C. Vouza](/wiki/Jacob_C._Vouza \"Jacob C. Vouza\") of the [British Solomon Islands Protectorate Constabulary](/wiki/British_Solomon_Islands_Protectorate_Constabulary \"British Solomon Islands Protectorate Constabulary\"), under the direction of [Martin Clemens](/wiki/Martin_Clemens \"Martin Clemens\"), a [coastwatcher](/wiki/Coastwatchers \"Coastwatchers\") and officer in the [British Solomon Islands Protectorate Defence Force](/wiki/British_Solomon_Islands_Protectorate_Defence_Force \"British Solomon Islands Protectorate Defence Force\") (BSIPDF), along with Allied intelligence from other sources, indicated that Japanese troops were present east of Lunga Point. To investigate further, on 19 August, a Marine patrol of 60 men and four native scouts, commanded by U.S. Marine [Captain](/wiki/Captain_%28United_States%29 \"Captain (United States)\") Charles H. Brush, marched east from the Lunga perimeter.Frank, *Guadalcanal*, p. 148; Jersey, *Hell's Islands*, p. 205\\.Zimmerman, *The Guadalcanal Campaign*, p. 62\\.",
"At the same time, Ichiki sent forward his own patrol of 38 men, led by his communications officer, to reconnoiter Allied troop dispositions and establish a forward communications base. Around 12:00 on 19 August at [Koli Point](/wiki/Koli_Point \"Koli Point\"), Brush's patrol sighted and ambushed the Japanese patrol, killing all but five of its members, who escaped back to Taivu. The Marines suffered three dead and three wounded.Griffith, *Battle for Guadalcanal*, p. 100; Jersey, *Hell's Islands*, p. 205; Smith, *Bloody Ridge*, p. 47\\. The U.S. and Japanese soldiers killed in this engagement are included in the total casualty figures for the Tenaru battle. Captain Yoshimi Shibuya was the leader of the Japanese patrol. One of the five Japanese survivors later died of his wounds at Taivu Point.",
"Papers discovered on the bodies of some of the Japanese officers in the patrol revealed that they belonged to a much larger unit and showed detailed intelligence of U.S. Marine positions around Lunga Point.Zimmerman, *The Guadalcanal Campaign*, p. 62 The papers did not detail exactly how large the Japanese force was or whether an attack was imminent.Frank, *Guadalcanal*, p. 149\\.",
"Now anticipating an attack from the east, the U.S. Marine forces, under the direction of Vandegrift, prepared their defenses on the east side of the Lunga perimeter. Several official U.S. military histories identify the location of the eastern defenses of the Lunga perimeter as emplaced on the [Tenaru River](/wiki/Tenaru_River \"Tenaru River\"). The Tenaru River, however, was located further to the east. The river forming the eastern boundary of the Lunga perimeter was the Ilu River, nicknamed Alligator Creek by the Marines, a double misnomer: there are [crocodiles](/wiki/Saltwater_crocodile \"Saltwater crocodile\") not [alligators](/wiki/Alligator \"Alligator\") in the Solomons, and Alligator \"Creek\" was a tidal [lagoon](/wiki/Lagoon \"Lagoon\") separated from the ocean by a [sandbar](/wiki/Bar_%28landform%29 \"Bar (landform)\") about {{convert\\|7\\|to\\|15\\|m\\|ft\\|sp\\=us}} wide and {{convert\\|30\\|m\\|ft\\|sp\\=us}} long.Frank, *Guadalcanal*, p. 150\\.",
"Along the west side of Alligator Creek, Colonel [Clifton B. Cates](/wiki/Clifton_B._Cates \"Clifton B. Cates\"), commander of the [1st Marine Regiment](/wiki/U.S._1st_Marine_Regiment \"U.S. 1st Marine Regiment\"), deployed his 1st (Lieutenant Colonel [Leonard B. Cresswell](/wiki/Leonard_B._Cresswell \"Leonard B. Cresswell\")) and 2nd Battalions (Lieutenant Colonel [Edwin A. Pollock](/wiki/Edwin_A._Pollock \"Edwin A. Pollock\")).Hammel, *Carrier Clash*, p. 135\\.Zimmerman, *The Guadalcanal Campaign*, p. 67\\. To help further defend the Alligator Creek sandbar, Cates deployed 100 men from the 1st Special Weapons Battalion with two [37{{nbsp}}mm](/wiki/M3_37_mm_gun \"M3 37 mm gun\") anti\\-tank guns equipped with [canister shot](/wiki/Canister_shot \"Canister shot\").Frank, *Guadalcanal*, p. 151 Marine divisional artillery, consisting of both 75{{nbsp}}mm and 105{{nbsp}}mm guns, pre\\-targeted locations on the east side and sandbar areas of Alligator Creek, and forward artillery observers emplaced themselves in the forward Marine positions.Griffith, *Battle for Guadalcanal*, p. 102\\. The Marines worked all day on 20 August to prepare their defenses as much as possible before nightfall.",
"Learning of the annihilation of his patrol, Ichiki quickly sent forward a [company](/wiki/Company_%28military_unit%29 \"Company (military unit)\") to bury the bodies and followed with the rest of his troops, marching throughout the night of 19 August and finally halting at 04:30 on 20 August within a few miles of the U.S. Marine positions on the east side of Lunga Point. At this location, he prepared his troops to attack the Allied positions that night.Frank, *Guadalcanal*, pp. 149, 151; Smith, *Bloody Ridge*, p. 48\\.",
""
] |
Plot
----
Cameron Vale is a vagrant suffering from voices manifesting in his head. After involuntarily causing a woman to have a [seizure](/wiki/Seizure "Seizure") with his telepathy, Vale is captured by the [private military company](/wiki/Private_military_company "Private military company") ConSec and brought to Dr. Paul Ruth.
Ruth explains that Vale is one of 237 super\-powered individuals known as "scanners" capable of [telepathy](/wiki/Telepathy "Telepathy"), empathy, [biokinesis](/wiki/wiktionary:Biokinesis "Biokinesis"), [technopathy](/wiki/wiktionary:Technopathy "Technopathy") and [psychokinesis](/wiki/Psychokinesis "Psychokinesis"). Ruth injects Vale with a drug called "ephemerol," which restores his sanity by temporarily inhibiting his scanning abilities, and teaches him to control them. ConSec is recruiting scanners to stop a malevolent underground ring of scanners led by Darryl Revok, a former mental patient who was driven mad from hearing uncontrollable streams of thoughts.
Revok, on his quest to kill opposing scanners, infiltrates a ConSec marketing event and explodes the head of a ConSec scanner. ConSec security head Braedon Keller advocates shutting down their scanner research program but Ruth disagrees, believing the scanners are the next stage of human evolution, and argues that the assassination demonstrates Revok's danger. Ruth brings in Vale and asks him to help infiltrate Revok's group.
Unknown to Ruth, Keller is working for Revok and informs him of Ruth's infiltration plan. Revok dispatches assassins to follow Vale as he visits an unaffiliated scanner named Benjamin Pierce, a successful yet reclusive sculptor who copes with his abilities through his art. Revok's assassins murder Pierce, but Vale reads Pierce's dying brain and learns of a group of scanners, led by Kim Obrist, who oppose Revok's group. Vale tracks down Obrist and attends a meeting, but Revok's assassins strike again; only Vale and Obrist survive.
Vale learns of a pharmaceutical company, Biocarbon Amalgamate, which he soon discovers Revok is using to distribute large quantities of ephemerol under a ConSec computer program called "Ripe." Vale and Obrist return to ConSec to investigate, and Ruth admits that he founded Biocarbon Amalgamate and suggests Vale cyberpathically scan the computer system to learn more. Keller attacks Obrist and kills Ruth while Vale and Obrist flee the ConSec building. Vale cyberpathically hacks into the computer network through a [telephone booth](/wiki/Telephone_booth "Telephone booth") and downloads ephemerol shipment information directly into his mind. Keller is killed when the computer explodes during his attempt to intercept Vale. Vale and Obrist visit a doctor on the list of ephemerol recipients and discover that it is prescribed to pregnant women, turning their children into scanners. Revok's group captures Vale and Obrist and take them to the Biocarbon Amalgamate plant.
Revok reveals to Vale that they are both children of Ruth, who developed ephemerol as a sedative for pregnant women. Ruth learned about the drug's side\-effect during his wife's pregnancies, and he made them the most powerful scanners in the world by administering a prototype dosage prior to abandoning them. Revok plans to create and lead a new generation of scanners to take over the world, but Vale refuses to join him. Vale accuses Revok of acting like his father, enraging him. The brothers engage in a telepathic duel, which incinerates Vale's body. However, when Obrist encounters Revok, she discovers that Vale somehow has managed to take over Revok's body during the duel.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Cameron Vale is a vagrant suffering from voices manifesting in his head. After involuntarily causing a woman to have a [seizure](/wiki/Seizure \"Seizure\") with his telepathy, Vale is captured by the [private military company](/wiki/Private_military_company \"Private military company\") ConSec and brought to Dr. Paul Ruth.",
"Ruth explains that Vale is one of 237 super\\-powered individuals known as \"scanners\" capable of [telepathy](/wiki/Telepathy \"Telepathy\"), empathy, [biokinesis](/wiki/wiktionary:Biokinesis \"Biokinesis\"), [technopathy](/wiki/wiktionary:Technopathy \"Technopathy\") and [psychokinesis](/wiki/Psychokinesis \"Psychokinesis\"). Ruth injects Vale with a drug called \"ephemerol,\" which restores his sanity by temporarily inhibiting his scanning abilities, and teaches him to control them. ConSec is recruiting scanners to stop a malevolent underground ring of scanners led by Darryl Revok, a former mental patient who was driven mad from hearing uncontrollable streams of thoughts.",
"Revok, on his quest to kill opposing scanners, infiltrates a ConSec marketing event and explodes the head of a ConSec scanner. ConSec security head Braedon Keller advocates shutting down their scanner research program but Ruth disagrees, believing the scanners are the next stage of human evolution, and argues that the assassination demonstrates Revok's danger. Ruth brings in Vale and asks him to help infiltrate Revok's group.",
"Unknown to Ruth, Keller is working for Revok and informs him of Ruth's infiltration plan. Revok dispatches assassins to follow Vale as he visits an unaffiliated scanner named Benjamin Pierce, a successful yet reclusive sculptor who copes with his abilities through his art. Revok's assassins murder Pierce, but Vale reads Pierce's dying brain and learns of a group of scanners, led by Kim Obrist, who oppose Revok's group. Vale tracks down Obrist and attends a meeting, but Revok's assassins strike again; only Vale and Obrist survive.",
"Vale learns of a pharmaceutical company, Biocarbon Amalgamate, which he soon discovers Revok is using to distribute large quantities of ephemerol under a ConSec computer program called \"Ripe.\" Vale and Obrist return to ConSec to investigate, and Ruth admits that he founded Biocarbon Amalgamate and suggests Vale cyberpathically scan the computer system to learn more. Keller attacks Obrist and kills Ruth while Vale and Obrist flee the ConSec building. Vale cyberpathically hacks into the computer network through a [telephone booth](/wiki/Telephone_booth \"Telephone booth\") and downloads ephemerol shipment information directly into his mind. Keller is killed when the computer explodes during his attempt to intercept Vale. Vale and Obrist visit a doctor on the list of ephemerol recipients and discover that it is prescribed to pregnant women, turning their children into scanners. Revok's group captures Vale and Obrist and take them to the Biocarbon Amalgamate plant.",
"Revok reveals to Vale that they are both children of Ruth, who developed ephemerol as a sedative for pregnant women. Ruth learned about the drug's side\\-effect during his wife's pregnancies, and he made them the most powerful scanners in the world by administering a prototype dosage prior to abandoning them. Revok plans to create and lead a new generation of scanners to take over the world, but Vale refuses to join him. Vale accuses Revok of acting like his father, enraging him. The brothers engage in a telepathic duel, which incinerates Vale's body. However, when Obrist encounters Revok, she discovers that Vale somehow has managed to take over Revok's body during the duel.",
""
] |
Industrial Welfare Commission
-----------------------------
Katherine believed that “she was born to be a politician”.Casement, Diane. Katherine Philips Edson and California's Industrial Welfare Commission. Kansas: Kansas State University, 1987\. 1–170\. Her household was filled with politically minded individuals who influenced her early participation in different social activist groups. Her father was a member of the Constitutional Convention of 1873 and supported women suffrage movements; some of which Katherine later fought for. Katherine considered her father to be the reason why she began advocating for women worker rights at an early age. Edson strived to make the nation just and fair for the “whole community engaged in the common enterprise of taking care of its own life.”Hundley, Norris. Katherine Philips Edson and the Fight for the California Minimum Wage, 1912–1923\. 3rd ed. Vol. 29\. University California Press, 1960\. 271–85\. Edson was prepared to accept partial solutions to the problems she aimed to resolve.
In 1912, Edson was elected into the Council of the National Municipal League, where she worked alongside [Meyer Lissner](/wiki/Meyer_Lissner "Meyer Lissner").Cherny, Robert. "We Are Not Keen About the Minimum Wage." In California Women and Politics: From the Gold Rush to the Great Depression, 265\. Nebraska: University of Nebraska, 2011\. Lissner served as Edson's political mentor and appointed her to the Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1912\.Casement, Diane. Katherine Philips Edson and California's Industrial Welfare Commission. Kansas: Kansas State University, 1987\. 1–170\. Despite having to focus on the issue of public education, Edson decided to spend more of her time focusing on women's health and working conditions. She helped draft the Federation's first legislative platform and then in the year 1913 she joined the Women's Legislative Council of California.Casement, Diane. Katherine Philips Edson and California's Industrial Welfare Commission. Kansas: Kansas State University, 1987\. 1–170\. Edson and about a dozen other women urged legislators and federated clubs to discuss and support measures such as the minimum wage for women.Hundley, Norris. Katherine Philips Edson and the Fight for the California Minimum Wage, 1912–1923\. 3rd ed. Vol. 29\. University California Press, 1960\. 271–85\.
In 1913, she asked the president of each club in the California Federation of Women's Club to appoint a committee that would survey the community's industrial wage hours and working conditions. The survey was meant to inform other women's groups of the dire working conditions and the need for legislature to resolve these issues. While the commissioners and clubs investigated the working conditions, Katherine was busy pushing the 1913 Assembly Bill 1251, which was the minimum wage bill. Edson argued that “our potential motherhood” must be paid living wages.”Casement, Diane. Katherine Philips Edson and California's Industrial Welfare Commission. Kansas: Kansas State University, 1987\. 1–170\. The supporters of Bill 1251 included Women’s Clubs, churches, and early prohibitionists. This became the most powerful political coalition of the time and displaced racetrack owners.Casement, Diane. Katherine Philips Edson and California's Industrial Welfare Commission. Kansas: Kansas State University, 1987\. 1–170\. Bill 1251, however, was not supported by the labor unions. Organized labor did not want its own advocacy to be threatened by the proponents of this bill. Many of the unions were concentrated within the San Francisco area and were heavily influenced by the Catholics who at the time supported patriarchy. Labor leaders refrained from having any women workers because they feared that by creating better working conditions, the labor unions would no longer be required. The opposing views and legislatures lack of action left this Bill without action. Governor Johnson pushed the Bill five days before deferment. This bill was passed by forty\-six to twelve votes. Edson’s strong activism had proven to be successful in the passing of the 1251 Bill.
One of California’s most significant events came after the second decade of the twentieth century, when the progressive Republican’s rose to power. [Hiram Johnson](/wiki/Hiram_Johnson "Hiram Johnson"), the leading American progressive during the time, vowed to “kick the Southern Pacific Railroad out of the Republican Party” and to return state control to the voters to enact legislation for the greater good of society.Hundley, Norris. Katherine Philips Edson and the Fight for the California Minimum Wage, 1912–1923\. 3rd ed. Vol. 29\. University California Press, 1960\. 271–85 To achieve these progressive goals, commissions were set up in order to investigate working conditions amongst other industrial accidents. By 1913 the legislature created the first [Industrial Welfare Commission](/wiki/Industrial_Welfare_Commission "Industrial Welfare Commission") (IWC), whose task was to investigate the working conditions and wages of both women and children. This legislation was greatly supported by Katherine Philips Edson who was the most influential member during the time. Katherine Edson was the first woman to be appointed to the IWC as an executive committee officer, serving for nearly eighteen years (1916–1931\). A lot of the accomplishments of the IWC, during the first couple of years were due to Edson's social activism. Edson drafted bills and lobbied legislature, gaining the support of many different women's groups. Additionally, under Edson's leadership a lot of the employers came to agreements with the employees during the advisory wage boards that she usually chaired.
[thumb\|Katherine Philips Edson, 1921](/wiki/File:Katherine_Philips_Edson_1921.png "Katherine Philips Edson 1921.png")
With the IWC women in the United States benefited from the highest minimum wage. Working conditions were dramatically improved and the eight\-hour working days were enforced. The IWC brought order where order was needed within the labor markets.
Although successful, the IWC also had failures, which was most noticeable from 1921–1922\. During this year, the lowering of the minimum wage had to be reversed multiple times. The Industrial Welfare Commission also failed to maintain compliance of the Southern California canners. Although the southern canners only accounted for about 15% of production, some of their northern counterparts stopped complying as well.Casement, Diane. Katherine Philips Edson and California's Industrial Welfare Commission. Kansas: Kansas State University, 1987\. 1–170\.
In 1931, as a result of the depression, the IWC's leadership was questioned. The agricultural industries were the ones with most women employment but they were also the hardest to regulate. The agricultural industries gained exclusion from the eight\-hour law because of their “volatility typical of agricultural commodities and seasonal labor.” Casement, Diane. Katherine Philips Edson and California's Industrial Welfare Commission. Kansas: Kansas State University, 1987\. 1–170\. The IWC attempted to use various methods in attempting to regulate the agricultural industries. One method enforced by the IWC was the canning audit, which allowed businesses some freedom while protecting their worker's interests and keeping regulatory costs to a bare minimum.
During the last months of the year 1915, Edson published a thirty\-seven\-page study of [The Cost of Living](/wiki/Cost_of_living "Cost of living"). The Industrial Welfare Commission (IWC) interviewed about one thousand workingwomen. During these interviews, women were asked to assess their weekly salaries compared to the prices of clothing, food, and other necessities. From the gathered reports, Edson calculated that the cost of living was roughly $9\.63 per week. The Bureau of Labor Statistics proved that half of the working women earned less than nine dollars a week.
Soon after World War I, the cost of living according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics continued to increase. In 1920, another study was done, which resulted in the adoption of the sixteen\-dollar minimum and an amendment of wage orders. By 1921, businesses slowed down in production and employers complained that the sixteen\-dollar minimum was too high. The California Manufacturers’ Association petitioned for a hearing and forced the minimum wage of sixteen\-dollars to be reevaluated. Other employers also joined the California Manufacturers’ Association and petitioned for a lower wage. A general wage board was established and it was supposed to recommend a minimum wage for all industries. Instead, the employers and employees caused an impasse. The commission called upon the wage board once again to see if agreement might be reached. Edson went against the pressures of business owners to reduce minimum wage but she agreed to a compromise. She reevaluated the costs of living and her calculations now led her to a fifteen\-dollar minimum. The IWC accepted her newly proposed minimum wage but not without resentment from the labor.
Leaders of the California State Federation of Labor criticized Edson's fifteen\-dollar minimum for women workers, when she earned eighty\-four dollars a week. The California State Federation filed a lawsuit to recover the money she had earned while in the six years she held an executive position. The masses demanded Edson's replacement. Katherine Edson conducted another study once more in order to keep up with the fluctuating costs of living. In September 1922 businessmen agreed to pass the sixteen\-dollar wage and in December, the commission reestablished the sixteen\-dollar minimum wage. The economic effect of this was better for employers than a lower minimum wage.
|
[
"Industrial Welfare Commission\n-----------------------------",
"Katherine believed that “she was born to be a politician”.Casement, Diane. Katherine Philips Edson and California's Industrial Welfare Commission. Kansas: Kansas State University, 1987\\. 1–170\\. Her household was filled with politically minded individuals who influenced her early participation in different social activist groups. Her father was a member of the Constitutional Convention of 1873 and supported women suffrage movements; some of which Katherine later fought for. Katherine considered her father to be the reason why she began advocating for women worker rights at an early age. Edson strived to make the nation just and fair for the “whole community engaged in the common enterprise of taking care of its own life.”Hundley, Norris. Katherine Philips Edson and the Fight for the California Minimum Wage, 1912–1923\\. 3rd ed. Vol. 29\\. University California Press, 1960\\. 271–85\\. Edson was prepared to accept partial solutions to the problems she aimed to resolve.",
"In 1912, Edson was elected into the Council of the National Municipal League, where she worked alongside [Meyer Lissner](/wiki/Meyer_Lissner \"Meyer Lissner\").Cherny, Robert. \"We Are Not Keen About the Minimum Wage.\" In California Women and Politics: From the Gold Rush to the Great Depression, 265\\. Nebraska: University of Nebraska, 2011\\. Lissner served as Edson's political mentor and appointed her to the Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1912\\.Casement, Diane. Katherine Philips Edson and California's Industrial Welfare Commission. Kansas: Kansas State University, 1987\\. 1–170\\. Despite having to focus on the issue of public education, Edson decided to spend more of her time focusing on women's health and working conditions. She helped draft the Federation's first legislative platform and then in the year 1913 she joined the Women's Legislative Council of California.Casement, Diane. Katherine Philips Edson and California's Industrial Welfare Commission. Kansas: Kansas State University, 1987\\. 1–170\\. Edson and about a dozen other women urged legislators and federated clubs to discuss and support measures such as the minimum wage for women.Hundley, Norris. Katherine Philips Edson and the Fight for the California Minimum Wage, 1912–1923\\. 3rd ed. Vol. 29\\. University California Press, 1960\\. 271–85\\.",
"In 1913, she asked the president of each club in the California Federation of Women's Club to appoint a committee that would survey the community's industrial wage hours and working conditions. The survey was meant to inform other women's groups of the dire working conditions and the need for legislature to resolve these issues. While the commissioners and clubs investigated the working conditions, Katherine was busy pushing the 1913 Assembly Bill 1251, which was the minimum wage bill. Edson argued that “our potential motherhood” must be paid living wages.”Casement, Diane. Katherine Philips Edson and California's Industrial Welfare Commission. Kansas: Kansas State University, 1987\\. 1–170\\. The supporters of Bill 1251 included Women’s Clubs, churches, and early prohibitionists. This became the most powerful political coalition of the time and displaced racetrack owners.Casement, Diane. Katherine Philips Edson and California's Industrial Welfare Commission. Kansas: Kansas State University, 1987\\. 1–170\\. Bill 1251, however, was not supported by the labor unions. Organized labor did not want its own advocacy to be threatened by the proponents of this bill. Many of the unions were concentrated within the San Francisco area and were heavily influenced by the Catholics who at the time supported patriarchy. Labor leaders refrained from having any women workers because they feared that by creating better working conditions, the labor unions would no longer be required. The opposing views and legislatures lack of action left this Bill without action. Governor Johnson pushed the Bill five days before deferment. This bill was passed by forty\\-six to twelve votes. Edson’s strong activism had proven to be successful in the passing of the 1251 Bill.",
"One of California’s most significant events came after the second decade of the twentieth century, when the progressive Republican’s rose to power. [Hiram Johnson](/wiki/Hiram_Johnson \"Hiram Johnson\"), the leading American progressive during the time, vowed to “kick the Southern Pacific Railroad out of the Republican Party” and to return state control to the voters to enact legislation for the greater good of society.Hundley, Norris. Katherine Philips Edson and the Fight for the California Minimum Wage, 1912–1923\\. 3rd ed. Vol. 29\\. University California Press, 1960\\. 271–85 To achieve these progressive goals, commissions were set up in order to investigate working conditions amongst other industrial accidents. By 1913 the legislature created the first [Industrial Welfare Commission](/wiki/Industrial_Welfare_Commission \"Industrial Welfare Commission\") (IWC), whose task was to investigate the working conditions and wages of both women and children. This legislation was greatly supported by Katherine Philips Edson who was the most influential member during the time. Katherine Edson was the first woman to be appointed to the IWC as an executive committee officer, serving for nearly eighteen years (1916–1931\\). A lot of the accomplishments of the IWC, during the first couple of years were due to Edson's social activism. Edson drafted bills and lobbied legislature, gaining the support of many different women's groups. Additionally, under Edson's leadership a lot of the employers came to agreements with the employees during the advisory wage boards that she usually chaired.\n[thumb\\|Katherine Philips Edson, 1921](/wiki/File:Katherine_Philips_Edson_1921.png \"Katherine Philips Edson 1921.png\")\nWith the IWC women in the United States benefited from the highest minimum wage. Working conditions were dramatically improved and the eight\\-hour working days were enforced. The IWC brought order where order was needed within the labor markets.\nAlthough successful, the IWC also had failures, which was most noticeable from 1921–1922\\. During this year, the lowering of the minimum wage had to be reversed multiple times. The Industrial Welfare Commission also failed to maintain compliance of the Southern California canners. Although the southern canners only accounted for about 15% of production, some of their northern counterparts stopped complying as well.Casement, Diane. Katherine Philips Edson and California's Industrial Welfare Commission. Kansas: Kansas State University, 1987\\. 1–170\\.",
"In 1931, as a result of the depression, the IWC's leadership was questioned. The agricultural industries were the ones with most women employment but they were also the hardest to regulate. The agricultural industries gained exclusion from the eight\\-hour law because of their “volatility typical of agricultural commodities and seasonal labor.” Casement, Diane. Katherine Philips Edson and California's Industrial Welfare Commission. Kansas: Kansas State University, 1987\\. 1–170\\. The IWC attempted to use various methods in attempting to regulate the agricultural industries. One method enforced by the IWC was the canning audit, which allowed businesses some freedom while protecting their worker's interests and keeping regulatory costs to a bare minimum.",
"During the last months of the year 1915, Edson published a thirty\\-seven\\-page study of [The Cost of Living](/wiki/Cost_of_living \"Cost of living\"). The Industrial Welfare Commission (IWC) interviewed about one thousand workingwomen. During these interviews, women were asked to assess their weekly salaries compared to the prices of clothing, food, and other necessities. From the gathered reports, Edson calculated that the cost of living was roughly $9\\.63 per week. The Bureau of Labor Statistics proved that half of the working women earned less than nine dollars a week.",
"Soon after World War I, the cost of living according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics continued to increase. In 1920, another study was done, which resulted in the adoption of the sixteen\\-dollar minimum and an amendment of wage orders. By 1921, businesses slowed down in production and employers complained that the sixteen\\-dollar minimum was too high. The California Manufacturers’ Association petitioned for a hearing and forced the minimum wage of sixteen\\-dollars to be reevaluated. Other employers also joined the California Manufacturers’ Association and petitioned for a lower wage. A general wage board was established and it was supposed to recommend a minimum wage for all industries. Instead, the employers and employees caused an impasse. The commission called upon the wage board once again to see if agreement might be reached. Edson went against the pressures of business owners to reduce minimum wage but she agreed to a compromise. She reevaluated the costs of living and her calculations now led her to a fifteen\\-dollar minimum. The IWC accepted her newly proposed minimum wage but not without resentment from the labor.",
"Leaders of the California State Federation of Labor criticized Edson's fifteen\\-dollar minimum for women workers, when she earned eighty\\-four dollars a week. The California State Federation filed a lawsuit to recover the money she had earned while in the six years she held an executive position. The masses demanded Edson's replacement. Katherine Edson conducted another study once more in order to keep up with the fluctuating costs of living. In September 1922 businessmen agreed to pass the sixteen\\-dollar wage and in December, the commission reestablished the sixteen\\-dollar minimum wage. The economic effect of this was better for employers than a lower minimum wage.",
""
] |
Plot
----
Three years after the events of the [original film](/wiki/District_13 "District 13"), the authorities are attempting to return [law and order](/wiki/Law_and_order_%28politics%29 "Law and order (politics)") to ravaged District 13\. However, their efforts so far have failed to do so. The death of gang overlord Taha Ben Mahmoud has left a [power vacuum](/wiki/Power_vacuum "Power vacuum"), and total control of the area is now being fought over by five rival territorial gang lords who want to step into Taha's position. Leïto tries demolishing the walls surrounding the district on a daily basis, but is told to stop by African gang lord Molko, who sees the walls as protection from outside the district.
After single\-handedly eliminating a major drug dealer, Damien is framed for drug dealing and arrested, but manages to make a brief call to Leïto to come rescue him.
Meanwhile, corrupt government agents from the Department of Internal State Security (DISS), led by Walter Gassman are bent on destroying the five tower blocks at the heart of District 13 with tactical precision bombing, and building luxury flats after the area is cleared. In order to spark conflict with the district's gangs, the DISS shoot two policemen, dump their car in District 13, and prompt several gang members into gunning down the vehicle, making it look like the gang members killed the policemen. The footage of the incident convinces the [French President](/wiki/President_of_France "President of France") to carry out the strike. However, the DISS were witnessed killing the policemen and filmed by a teenager named Samir and his friends. The DISS agents soon come after the teen to arrest him, but Samir manages to give his memory card to Leïto before being arrested.
Leïto gets himself arrested in order to get into the prison. He then escapes the police and rescues Damien. After freeing Damien from his cell, they discuss the events (deducing that Damien was framed by DISS to keep him from finding out their plans during the crisis) and further plans, resolving to gather enough proof to expose the DISS agents. While Damien distracts the guards, Leïto breaks into Gassman's office to steal his hard\-drive for the evidence that they need. Once they escape and return to District 13, Damien and Leïto convince the five gang lords Tao, Molko, Little Montana, Karl the skinhead, and Ali\-K to band together and prevent the destruction of the district. While the President struggles with the decision to destroy District 13, even with the area evacuated, a large number of gang members storm the [Élysée Palace](/wiki/%C3%89lys%C3%A9e_Palace "Élysée Palace"). They eventually reach the President and show him the information that they acquired, proving Gassman is a corrupt DISS agent. Gassman then takes the President hostage and tries to force him to approve the mass demolition. Leïto, Damien, and the gang lords succeed in freeing the President and incapacitating Gassman, earning the President's thanks and a promise to fund District 13's restoration.
With the conflict over and District 13 completely evacuated, the gang lords then decide that it would be better to rebuild District 13 anew rather than try to patch up its remnants. The movie ends with the President authorizing the strike, the District 13 buildings exploding and the president breathing a sigh of relief, stating that he needs a drink.
In a [post\-credits scene](/wiki/Post-credits_scene "Post-credits scene"), a short clip shows the President, the gang lords, Damien and Leïto all joking around and smoking cigars together.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Three years after the events of the [original film](/wiki/District_13 \"District 13\"), the authorities are attempting to return [law and order](/wiki/Law_and_order_%28politics%29 \"Law and order (politics)\") to ravaged District 13\\. However, their efforts so far have failed to do so. The death of gang overlord Taha Ben Mahmoud has left a [power vacuum](/wiki/Power_vacuum \"Power vacuum\"), and total control of the area is now being fought over by five rival territorial gang lords who want to step into Taha's position. Leïto tries demolishing the walls surrounding the district on a daily basis, but is told to stop by African gang lord Molko, who sees the walls as protection from outside the district.",
"After single\\-handedly eliminating a major drug dealer, Damien is framed for drug dealing and arrested, but manages to make a brief call to Leïto to come rescue him.",
"Meanwhile, corrupt government agents from the Department of Internal State Security (DISS), led by Walter Gassman are bent on destroying the five tower blocks at the heart of District 13 with tactical precision bombing, and building luxury flats after the area is cleared. In order to spark conflict with the district's gangs, the DISS shoot two policemen, dump their car in District 13, and prompt several gang members into gunning down the vehicle, making it look like the gang members killed the policemen. The footage of the incident convinces the [French President](/wiki/President_of_France \"President of France\") to carry out the strike. However, the DISS were witnessed killing the policemen and filmed by a teenager named Samir and his friends. The DISS agents soon come after the teen to arrest him, but Samir manages to give his memory card to Leïto before being arrested.",
"Leïto gets himself arrested in order to get into the prison. He then escapes the police and rescues Damien. After freeing Damien from his cell, they discuss the events (deducing that Damien was framed by DISS to keep him from finding out their plans during the crisis) and further plans, resolving to gather enough proof to expose the DISS agents. While Damien distracts the guards, Leïto breaks into Gassman's office to steal his hard\\-drive for the evidence that they need. Once they escape and return to District 13, Damien and Leïto convince the five gang lords Tao, Molko, Little Montana, Karl the skinhead, and Ali\\-K to band together and prevent the destruction of the district. While the President struggles with the decision to destroy District 13, even with the area evacuated, a large number of gang members storm the [Élysée Palace](/wiki/%C3%89lys%C3%A9e_Palace \"Élysée Palace\"). They eventually reach the President and show him the information that they acquired, proving Gassman is a corrupt DISS agent. Gassman then takes the President hostage and tries to force him to approve the mass demolition. Leïto, Damien, and the gang lords succeed in freeing the President and incapacitating Gassman, earning the President's thanks and a promise to fund District 13's restoration.",
"With the conflict over and District 13 completely evacuated, the gang lords then decide that it would be better to rebuild District 13 anew rather than try to patch up its remnants. The movie ends with the President authorizing the strike, the District 13 buildings exploding and the president breathing a sigh of relief, stating that he needs a drink.",
"In a [post\\-credits scene](/wiki/Post-credits_scene \"Post-credits scene\"), a short clip shows the President, the gang lords, Damien and Leïto all joking around and smoking cigars together.",
""
] |
Plot
----
The assembled student body of South Park Elementary is informed that they have scored the lowest in the entire country on the [Presidential Fitness Test](/wiki/The_President%27s_Challenge "The President's Challenge") due to [Eric Cartman](/wiki/Eric_Cartman "Eric Cartman")’s extremely poor health, which single\-handedly ruined what would have been the school's otherwise acceptable average; as punishment, the students are forced to alternate [physical education](/wiki/Physical_education "Physical education") in place of recess for four weeks. When they rebuke Cartman for this, he accuses them of being "the 99%" that is "ganging up" on him, the 1%, but when [Craig Tucker](/wiki/Craig_Tucker "Craig Tucker") dismissively tells him to go home and cry to his stuffed animals as usual, Cartman does just that. As he commiserates with his five stuffed animals, he carries on an imaginary conversation with them. When the toys "tell" him that the Fitness Test is [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama")'s fault, Cartman concludes that he is being blamed because it is [politically incorrect](/wiki/Political_correctness "Political correctness") to blame a black president, even accusing the student\-filled cafeteria of being a "99% rally" being held against him.
This inspires [Butters Stotch](/wiki/Butters_Stotch "Butters Stotch") and [Jimmy Valmer](/wiki/Jimmy_Valmer "Jimmy Valmer") to form a [99% club](/wiki/We_are_the_99%25 "We are the 99%") to protest their being punished for Cartman's poor health. An angry group of fifth graders agrees, saying that it is time to make Cartman suffer. When the head of the Colorado Division of the [President's Council on Fitness, Sports, and Nutrition](/wiki/President%27s_Council_on_Fitness%2C_Sports%2C_and_Nutrition "President's Council on Fitness, Sports, and Nutrition") refuses to drop Cartman's test scores from the school's average, Butters and Jimmy stage a two\-man protest outside his office that despite its size, attracts the attention of the police, who create a two square mile perimeter around them, and the news media, who mistakenly report that they are occupying the [Red Robin](/wiki/Red_Robin "Red Robin") two doors down from the Council office.
[300px\|left\|thumb\|The Clyde Frog toy in South Park is based on the [marionette](/wiki/Marionette "Marionette") character Clyde Frog, who first appeared in *[About Safety](/wiki/About_Safety "About Safety")* in 1972,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mpbonline.org/educators\-guides/2006\-2007/Guide.pdf\|title\=Health and Safety: About Safety\|publisher\=Mississippi Public Broadcasting\|language\=en\-US\|url\-status\=dead\|date\=2006\|archivedate\=September 26, 2007\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926225121/http://www.mpbonline.org/educators\-guides/2006\-2007/Guide.pdf}} and was later spun off into the eponymous *[The Clyde Frog Show](/wiki/The_Clyde_Frog_Show "The Clyde Frog Show")*.{{cite web\|url\=https://southpark.cc.com/wiki/Cartman's\_Tea\_Party\|title\=Cartman's Tea Party\|publisher\=South Park Studios\|language\=en\-US\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=January 6, 2023\|archivedate\=January 7, 2023\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230107015803/https://southpark.cc.com/wiki/Cartman%27s\_Tea\_Party}}](/wiki/File:About_Safety_starring_Clyde_Frog.png "About Safety starring Clyde Frog.png")
Meanwhile, Cartman discovers his beloved stuffed animals being mutilated and destroyed one by one, beginning with his long\-beloved [Clyde Frog](/wiki/Clyde_Frog_Show "Clyde Frog Show"), nailed to a tree with his stuffing ripped out, and the word "VENGEANCE" written beneath him. Cartman regards these attacks as acts of murder, and even holds a funeral service for Clyde Frog. When [Stan Marsh](/wiki/Stan_Marsh "Stan Marsh"), [Kyle Broflovski](/wiki/Kyle_Broflovski "Kyle Broflovski"), and [Kenny McCormick](/wiki/Kenny_McCormick "Kenny McCormick") ask the fifth\-graders whether they are behind the mutilations, they do not give a straightforward answer, but state that Cartman has had a comeuppance coming his way for a long time, and that because Stan and the other fourth\-graders have failed to rein in Cartman's problematic behavior, the fifth\-graders have something big planned to remedy the problem, in which they warn Stan and his friends not to interfere. When Peter Panda, another of Cartman's toys, is destroyed by a fire set in Cartman's bedroom one night, he seeks refuge with his three surviving stuffed animals at [Token Black](/wiki/Token_Black "Token Black")'s house, because, according to Cartman, black people are not subject to criticism or harassment.
Meanwhile, the fifth\-graders stage an "83%" protest right next to Butters and Jimmy's 99% protest, proclaiming that as the 83%, they are tired of being punished for the fourth grade class. This begins an argument between the two groups that degenerates into a physical altercation that media characterize as ["class warfare"](/wiki/Class_struggle "Class struggle").
Despite being at Token's mansion, Cartman discovers Muscle Man Marc melted in a boiling pot of water and Rumper Tumpskin chained to a wall with explosives, which Cartman triggers with a tripwire. He finds the remaining toy, a doll named Polly Prissypants, sitting in an armchair with a revolver, claiming responsibility for all the toy "murders". Polly "explains" that she did this because his friends were right when they said that he needed to grow up. Unbeknownst to him, Cartman's stunned friends watch the bizarre scene unfold from a balcony, as do [Cartman's mother](/wiki/Liane_Cartman "Liane Cartman") and [Token's parents](/wiki/List_of_South_Park_families%23The_Blacks "List of South Park families#The Blacks") from outside a window. Cartman is incredulous that Polly murdered her friends, but Polly explains they were holding her and Cartman back, and that now, with the latter deaths occurring at Token's house, the blame will fall on him, while she and Cartman can grow up together. When Cartman points out that black people cannot be blamed for anything any more, Polly realizes her catastrophic error, and convinces Cartman to shoot her to death in order to escape blame himself, which Cartman tearfully does. Shocked at what they have just witnessed, Stan asks "what the hell?" Kyle, knowing how psychologically disturbed Cartman is, explains, "We told him to grow up so he got rid of his stuffed animals".
The protests eventually fall apart, as the 99% and 83% are replaced by various smaller percentages, according to a reporter, who then rushes away when he is informed that protestors are now "occupying" a [Macaroni Grill](/wiki/Romano%27s_Macaroni_Grill "Romano's Macaroni Grill").
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"The assembled student body of South Park Elementary is informed that they have scored the lowest in the entire country on the [Presidential Fitness Test](/wiki/The_President%27s_Challenge \"The President's Challenge\") due to [Eric Cartman](/wiki/Eric_Cartman \"Eric Cartman\")’s extremely poor health, which single\\-handedly ruined what would have been the school's otherwise acceptable average; as punishment, the students are forced to alternate [physical education](/wiki/Physical_education \"Physical education\") in place of recess for four weeks. When they rebuke Cartman for this, he accuses them of being \"the 99%\" that is \"ganging up\" on him, the 1%, but when [Craig Tucker](/wiki/Craig_Tucker \"Craig Tucker\") dismissively tells him to go home and cry to his stuffed animals as usual, Cartman does just that. As he commiserates with his five stuffed animals, he carries on an imaginary conversation with them. When the toys \"tell\" him that the Fitness Test is [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\")'s fault, Cartman concludes that he is being blamed because it is [politically incorrect](/wiki/Political_correctness \"Political correctness\") to blame a black president, even accusing the student\\-filled cafeteria of being a \"99% rally\" being held against him.",
"This inspires [Butters Stotch](/wiki/Butters_Stotch \"Butters Stotch\") and [Jimmy Valmer](/wiki/Jimmy_Valmer \"Jimmy Valmer\") to form a [99% club](/wiki/We_are_the_99%25 \"We are the 99%\") to protest their being punished for Cartman's poor health. An angry group of fifth graders agrees, saying that it is time to make Cartman suffer. When the head of the Colorado Division of the [President's Council on Fitness, Sports, and Nutrition](/wiki/President%27s_Council_on_Fitness%2C_Sports%2C_and_Nutrition \"President's Council on Fitness, Sports, and Nutrition\") refuses to drop Cartman's test scores from the school's average, Butters and Jimmy stage a two\\-man protest outside his office that despite its size, attracts the attention of the police, who create a two square mile perimeter around them, and the news media, who mistakenly report that they are occupying the [Red Robin](/wiki/Red_Robin \"Red Robin\") two doors down from the Council office.",
"[300px\\|left\\|thumb\\|The Clyde Frog toy in South Park is based on the [marionette](/wiki/Marionette \"Marionette\") character Clyde Frog, who first appeared in *[About Safety](/wiki/About_Safety \"About Safety\")* in 1972,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mpbonline.org/educators\\-guides/2006\\-2007/Guide.pdf\\|title\\=Health and Safety: About Safety\\|publisher\\=Mississippi Public Broadcasting\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|date\\=2006\\|archivedate\\=September 26, 2007\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926225121/http://www.mpbonline.org/educators\\-guides/2006\\-2007/Guide.pdf}} and was later spun off into the eponymous *[The Clyde Frog Show](/wiki/The_Clyde_Frog_Show \"The Clyde Frog Show\")*.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://southpark.cc.com/wiki/Cartman's\\_Tea\\_Party\\|title\\=Cartman's Tea Party\\|publisher\\=South Park Studios\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=January 6, 2023\\|archivedate\\=January 7, 2023\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230107015803/https://southpark.cc.com/wiki/Cartman%27s\\_Tea\\_Party}}](/wiki/File:About_Safety_starring_Clyde_Frog.png \"About Safety starring Clyde Frog.png\")\nMeanwhile, Cartman discovers his beloved stuffed animals being mutilated and destroyed one by one, beginning with his long\\-beloved [Clyde Frog](/wiki/Clyde_Frog_Show \"Clyde Frog Show\"), nailed to a tree with his stuffing ripped out, and the word \"VENGEANCE\" written beneath him. Cartman regards these attacks as acts of murder, and even holds a funeral service for Clyde Frog. When [Stan Marsh](/wiki/Stan_Marsh \"Stan Marsh\"), [Kyle Broflovski](/wiki/Kyle_Broflovski \"Kyle Broflovski\"), and [Kenny McCormick](/wiki/Kenny_McCormick \"Kenny McCormick\") ask the fifth\\-graders whether they are behind the mutilations, they do not give a straightforward answer, but state that Cartman has had a comeuppance coming his way for a long time, and that because Stan and the other fourth\\-graders have failed to rein in Cartman's problematic behavior, the fifth\\-graders have something big planned to remedy the problem, in which they warn Stan and his friends not to interfere. When Peter Panda, another of Cartman's toys, is destroyed by a fire set in Cartman's bedroom one night, he seeks refuge with his three surviving stuffed animals at [Token Black](/wiki/Token_Black \"Token Black\")'s house, because, according to Cartman, black people are not subject to criticism or harassment.",
"Meanwhile, the fifth\\-graders stage an \"83%\" protest right next to Butters and Jimmy's 99% protest, proclaiming that as the 83%, they are tired of being punished for the fourth grade class. This begins an argument between the two groups that degenerates into a physical altercation that media characterize as [\"class warfare\"](/wiki/Class_struggle \"Class struggle\").",
"Despite being at Token's mansion, Cartman discovers Muscle Man Marc melted in a boiling pot of water and Rumper Tumpskin chained to a wall with explosives, which Cartman triggers with a tripwire. He finds the remaining toy, a doll named Polly Prissypants, sitting in an armchair with a revolver, claiming responsibility for all the toy \"murders\". Polly \"explains\" that she did this because his friends were right when they said that he needed to grow up. Unbeknownst to him, Cartman's stunned friends watch the bizarre scene unfold from a balcony, as do [Cartman's mother](/wiki/Liane_Cartman \"Liane Cartman\") and [Token's parents](/wiki/List_of_South_Park_families%23The_Blacks \"List of South Park families#The Blacks\") from outside a window. Cartman is incredulous that Polly murdered her friends, but Polly explains they were holding her and Cartman back, and that now, with the latter deaths occurring at Token's house, the blame will fall on him, while she and Cartman can grow up together. When Cartman points out that black people cannot be blamed for anything any more, Polly realizes her catastrophic error, and convinces Cartman to shoot her to death in order to escape blame himself, which Cartman tearfully does. Shocked at what they have just witnessed, Stan asks \"what the hell?\" Kyle, knowing how psychologically disturbed Cartman is, explains, \"We told him to grow up so he got rid of his stuffed animals\".",
"The protests eventually fall apart, as the 99% and 83% are replaced by various smaller percentages, according to a reporter, who then rushes away when he is informed that protestors are now \"occupying\" a [Macaroni Grill](/wiki/Romano%27s_Macaroni_Grill \"Romano's Macaroni Grill\").",
""
] |
Legacy
------
For 15 years Peterswald steadily guided the police through ever\-increasing responsibilities despite often having a constrained budget.
As a particular challenge, the police under his leadership established law and order between both European settlers/pastoralists and indigenous communities as the frontier of modernity expanded throughout the vast distances of Central Australia and the [Northern Territory](/wiki/Northern_Territory "Northern Territory"). In the latter case, the change was so rapid that in 1884 Peterswald established a branch of [native police](/wiki/Australian_native_police "Australian native police") there.
The difficult conditions necessitated more modern equipment. In the early 1880s Peterswald was responsible for initiating the re\-arming of the Police Force. In early 1881 the Police were issued with 200 of the new [Martini\-Henry](/wiki/Martini%E2%80%93Henry "Martini–Henry") rifles in .455/.577 calibre and long\-pattern bayonets, as used by the Volunteer Militia Forces. Peterswald also recommended that the Mounted Police be issued with the large [New Model No. 3 Smith \& Wesson](/wiki/Smith_%26_Wesson_Model_3 "Smith & Wesson Model 3") revolver in .44 calibre.
Public economic distress and unemployment during the 1880s and early 1890s presented the police with their first experiences of serious industrial unrest, all of which Peterswald handled with firm impartiality. To improve police esprit de corps he introduced revised uniform patterns and in 1884 encouraged the formation of a police band.Clyne, Robert \| *Colonial Blue : A History of the South Australian Police Force, 1836–1916*. (Wakefield Press, 1987\), p. 206\.
He also introduced uniformity in the colour of police horses, exclusively selecting the impressive [greys](/wiki/Gray_%28horse%29 "Gray (horse)") for metropolitan duty. This strain or breed, despite being somewhat unsuitable for the outback, was later extended to many rural police horses. The "police greys" remain a proud tradition of the [South Australian Police Force](/wiki/South_Australian_Police_Force "South Australian Police Force").
For years Peterswald suffered from [diabetes](/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus "Diabetes mellitus"), which was the principal cause of his death.{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article87190723 \|title\=Death of Commissioner Peteswald. \|newspaper\=\[\[The Chronicle (Adelaide)\|The Chronicle]] \|volume\=39 \|issue\=1,985 \|location\=South Australia \|date\=5 September 1896 \|accessdate\=17 April 2016 \|page\=20 \|via\=National Library of Australia}} He was accorded with a state funeral, the procession being watched by large crowds of onlookers.{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article87190721 \|title\=The Funeral. \|newspaper\=\[\[The Chronicle (Adelaide)\|The Chronicle]] \|volume\=39 \|issue\=1,985 \|location\=South Australia \|date\=5 September 1896 \|accessdate\=17 April 2016 \|page\=21 \|via\=National Library of Australia}} His headstone is marked 'This monument was erected by the members of the South Australian Police Force as a mark of esteem and respect for their beloved departed officer' .{{cite web
\|url\=http://www.anglicancemeteries.com/police\-commissioners \| title\=Police Commissioners \|website\=Most Visited Graves \- North Road Cemetery \|publisher\=North Road Cemetery, Anglican Diocese of Adelaide
\|access\-date\=24 April 2022 \|quote\=}}
In later years Peterswald lived at "St. Heliers", on the corner of Ward and Jeffcott streets, [North Adelaide](/wiki/North_Adelaide%2C_South_Australia "North Adelaide, South Australia"). His wife, Emily Mary Peterswald, who was a daughter of Charles de Ste. Croix, [Greffier](/wiki/Greffier "Greffier") of the Island of [Jersey](/wiki/Jersey "Jersey"), died 19 April 1916 at her residence on Buxton Street, North Adelaide, also named "St Heliers".{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article59630029 \|title\=Concerning People \|newspaper\=\[\[The Register (Adelaide)]] \|volume\=LXXXI \|issue\=21,668 \|location\=South Australia \|date\=20 April 1916 \|accessdate\=7 August 2018 \|page\=4 \|via\=National Library of Australia}}
|
[
"Legacy\n------",
"For 15 years Peterswald steadily guided the police through ever\\-increasing responsibilities despite often having a constrained budget.",
"As a particular challenge, the police under his leadership established law and order between both European settlers/pastoralists and indigenous communities as the frontier of modernity expanded throughout the vast distances of Central Australia and the [Northern Territory](/wiki/Northern_Territory \"Northern Territory\"). In the latter case, the change was so rapid that in 1884 Peterswald established a branch of [native police](/wiki/Australian_native_police \"Australian native police\") there.",
"The difficult conditions necessitated more modern equipment. In the early 1880s Peterswald was responsible for initiating the re\\-arming of the Police Force. In early 1881 the Police were issued with 200 of the new [Martini\\-Henry](/wiki/Martini%E2%80%93Henry \"Martini–Henry\") rifles in .455/.577 calibre and long\\-pattern bayonets, as used by the Volunteer Militia Forces. Peterswald also recommended that the Mounted Police be issued with the large [New Model No. 3 Smith \\& Wesson](/wiki/Smith_%26_Wesson_Model_3 \"Smith & Wesson Model 3\") revolver in .44 calibre.",
"Public economic distress and unemployment during the 1880s and early 1890s presented the police with their first experiences of serious industrial unrest, all of which Peterswald handled with firm impartiality. To improve police esprit de corps he introduced revised uniform patterns and in 1884 encouraged the formation of a police band.Clyne, Robert \\| *Colonial Blue : A History of the South Australian Police Force, 1836–1916*. (Wakefield Press, 1987\\), p. 206\\.",
"He also introduced uniformity in the colour of police horses, exclusively selecting the impressive [greys](/wiki/Gray_%28horse%29 \"Gray (horse)\") for metropolitan duty. This strain or breed, despite being somewhat unsuitable for the outback, was later extended to many rural police horses. The \"police greys\" remain a proud tradition of the [South Australian Police Force](/wiki/South_Australian_Police_Force \"South Australian Police Force\").",
"For years Peterswald suffered from [diabetes](/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus \"Diabetes mellitus\"), which was the principal cause of his death.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article87190723 \\|title\\=Death of Commissioner Peteswald. \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Chronicle (Adelaide)\\|The Chronicle]] \\|volume\\=39 \\|issue\\=1,985 \\|location\\=South Australia \\|date\\=5 September 1896 \\|accessdate\\=17 April 2016 \\|page\\=20 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}} He was accorded with a state funeral, the procession being watched by large crowds of onlookers.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article87190721 \\|title\\=The Funeral. \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Chronicle (Adelaide)\\|The Chronicle]] \\|volume\\=39 \\|issue\\=1,985 \\|location\\=South Australia \\|date\\=5 September 1896 \\|accessdate\\=17 April 2016 \\|page\\=21 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}} His headstone is marked 'This monument was erected by the members of the South Australian Police Force as a mark of esteem and respect for their beloved departed officer' .{{cite web\n \\|url\\=http://www.anglicancemeteries.com/police\\-commissioners \\| title\\=Police Commissioners \\|website\\=Most Visited Graves \\- North Road Cemetery \\|publisher\\=North Road Cemetery, Anglican Diocese of Adelaide\n \\|access\\-date\\=24 April 2022 \\|quote\\=}}\nIn later years Peterswald lived at \"St. Heliers\", on the corner of Ward and Jeffcott streets, [North Adelaide](/wiki/North_Adelaide%2C_South_Australia \"North Adelaide, South Australia\"). His wife, Emily Mary Peterswald, who was a daughter of Charles de Ste. Croix, [Greffier](/wiki/Greffier \"Greffier\") of the Island of [Jersey](/wiki/Jersey \"Jersey\"), died 19 April 1916 at her residence on Buxton Street, North Adelaide, also named \"St Heliers\".{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article59630029 \\|title\\=Concerning People \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Register (Adelaide)]] \\|volume\\=LXXXI \\|issue\\=21,668 \\|location\\=South Australia \\|date\\=20 April 1916 \\|accessdate\\=7 August 2018 \\|page\\=4 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}}",
""
] |
Career
------
Not long after her marriage, Nash began to study the law in her husband's office (a normal form of legal apprenticeship at the time). In 1871, she became a justice of the peace, and in October 1872, she was admitted to the bar of the [Supreme Judicial Court of Maine](/wiki/Supreme_Judicial_Court_of_Maine "Supreme Judicial Court of Maine"), thereby becoming the first woman admitted to the bar in New England as well as one of the earliest women lawyers anywhere in the United States. Her achievement was widely reported in newspapers throughout the country.
Nash formed a partnership with her husband, and they practiced together in Maine. In 1873, she appeared in court for the first time and made the opening remarks in a jury trial. That same year, she led a petition drive in favor of women's suffrage.
Nash and her husband later moved back to Massachusetts, where Nash could no longer practice law because Massachusetts did not yet admit women to the bar. Instead, she served as the first librarian of the Citizens’ Library in West Acton and continued to be very active in the temperance movement. She served as president of the local affiliate of the [Woman's Christian Temperance Union](/wiki/Woman%27s_Christian_Temperance_Union "Woman's Christian Temperance Union") for over two decades.
Nash also wrote poetry, especially poems about family and occasional verse for birthdays and anniversaries. In 1909, she published a volume of poetry with Cambridge University Press entitled *Verses*. One of her poems, "Mother", was set to the music of [Elmer Samuel Hosmer](/wiki/Elmer_Samuel_Hosmer "Elmer Samuel Hosmer").
Around 1915, Nash and her husband moved from Acton to Newton. Frederick died in February 1921 and Clara followed him in March. They are buried together in Mount Hope Cemetery.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Not long after her marriage, Nash began to study the law in her husband's office (a normal form of legal apprenticeship at the time). In 1871, she became a justice of the peace, and in October 1872, she was admitted to the bar of the [Supreme Judicial Court of Maine](/wiki/Supreme_Judicial_Court_of_Maine \"Supreme Judicial Court of Maine\"), thereby becoming the first woman admitted to the bar in New England as well as one of the earliest women lawyers anywhere in the United States. Her achievement was widely reported in newspapers throughout the country.",
"Nash formed a partnership with her husband, and they practiced together in Maine. In 1873, she appeared in court for the first time and made the opening remarks in a jury trial. That same year, she led a petition drive in favor of women's suffrage.",
"Nash and her husband later moved back to Massachusetts, where Nash could no longer practice law because Massachusetts did not yet admit women to the bar. Instead, she served as the first librarian of the Citizens’ Library in West Acton and continued to be very active in the temperance movement. She served as president of the local affiliate of the [Woman's Christian Temperance Union](/wiki/Woman%27s_Christian_Temperance_Union \"Woman's Christian Temperance Union\") for over two decades.",
"Nash also wrote poetry, especially poems about family and occasional verse for birthdays and anniversaries. In 1909, she published a volume of poetry with Cambridge University Press entitled *Verses*. One of her poems, \"Mother\", was set to the music of [Elmer Samuel Hosmer](/wiki/Elmer_Samuel_Hosmer \"Elmer Samuel Hosmer\").",
"Around 1915, Nash and her husband moved from Acton to Newton. Frederick died in February 1921 and Clara followed him in March. They are buried together in Mount Hope Cemetery.",
""
] |
Primes
------
What makes Carver Arts and Technology unusual among [Baltimore County](/wiki/Baltimore_County "Baltimore County") [public schools](/wiki/Public_school_%28government_funded%29 "Public school (government funded)") is its strong magnet system. Carver Center's magnet programs feature eleven specialty areas, or "Primes": [literary arts](/wiki/Literary_arts "Literary arts"), [culinary arts](/wiki/Culinary_arts "Culinary arts"), [information technology](/wiki/Information_technology "Information technology")/[interactive media production](/wiki/Interactive_media "Interactive media"), [carpentry](/wiki/Carpentry "Carpentry"), [cosmetology](/wiki/Cosmetology "Cosmetology"), [dance](/wiki/Dance "Dance"), [design and production](/wiki/Stagecraft "Stagecraft"), [acting](/wiki/Acting "Acting"), [vocal music](/wiki/Vocal_music "Vocal music"), [digital instrumental music](/wiki/Record_producer "Record producer"), and [visual arts](/wiki/Visual_arts "Visual arts") (art such as painting, sculpture etc.). The visual arts prime is further divided into concentrations, including [drawing](/wiki/Drawing "Drawing") and [painting](/wiki/Painting "Painting"), [multimedia](/wiki/Computer_art "Computer art"), [photography](/wiki/Photography "Photography"), [sculpture](/wiki/Sculpture "Sculpture"), and [telemedia](/wiki/Film "Film").
The Digital Instrumental Music prime was added for the 2016–2017 school year. According to Carver's webpage, "the Digital Instrumental Music program prepares students for a broad range of professional activities in the music world."[Digital Instrumental Music](http://carverhs.bcps.org/prospective_students/primes/digital_instrumental_music/), Carver Center for Arts and Technology (accessed September 3, 2017\)
The Information Technology/Interactive Media Production prime is currently evolving from the recently removed "business" and "business \- information technology/programming" primes to include classes in the Adobe Creative Suite and a greater understanding of computer science and video game design in addition to developing programming skills.
The Culinary Arts Prime allows students to gain full access to food service experience. Through this program, students can are able to receive ServSafe certification and work in a student\-run restaurant called "Carver Café." According to Carver Center's website, "The senior management project is an integral element of the instructional process allowing for the application of competencies through the operation of the Carver Café which is a licensed Baltimore County food service establishment that is maintained by the students and inspected by the local health department."
As of the 2007–2008 school year General Fine Arts/Multimedia/Digital Filmmaking (formerly known as Telemedia) will hold separate auditions under the Visual Arts prime. This provides for an opportunity for students interested in the areas of [filmmaking](/wiki/Filmmaking "Filmmaking") and [graphic design](/wiki/Graphic_design "Graphic design") to come to Carver Center for these areas and use these mediums to create art. All Visual Arts students will still be encouraged to take classes in drawing, painting, sculpting, photography, etc.
As of the 2001–2002 school year "Theatre" and "Technical Theatre" were advanced to become the theatre primes of "Acting" and "Design \& Production." This provided an opportunity for students interested in performance, design, theatre management and administration, technique, etc. to study these fields without the common stereotypes or restrictions of "actors" or "techies." During the 2005–2006 school year, "Vocal Music" was considered to be renamed "Singing" (but remains listed in the curriculum as "Vocal Music").
The Literary Arts Prime educates students on the many forms of writing. Literary students take mandatory courses that include the history of writing and the professional world of writing. Students also have the option to take electives in poetry, media writing, the yearbook, and fiction. During their senior year, students work on their “senior thesis,” which is a book students publish in the spring of their senior year. The prime is distinguished in their writing awards, especially in Scholastics Art \& Writing, where they have claimed over half of the regional awards. Literary arts controls the production of Catalyst (the school paper), Synergy (the school literary magazine), and the school yearbook.
|
[
"Primes\n------",
"What makes Carver Arts and Technology unusual among [Baltimore County](/wiki/Baltimore_County \"Baltimore County\") [public schools](/wiki/Public_school_%28government_funded%29 \"Public school (government funded)\") is its strong magnet system. Carver Center's magnet programs feature eleven specialty areas, or \"Primes\": [literary arts](/wiki/Literary_arts \"Literary arts\"), [culinary arts](/wiki/Culinary_arts \"Culinary arts\"), [information technology](/wiki/Information_technology \"Information technology\")/[interactive media production](/wiki/Interactive_media \"Interactive media\"), [carpentry](/wiki/Carpentry \"Carpentry\"), [cosmetology](/wiki/Cosmetology \"Cosmetology\"), [dance](/wiki/Dance \"Dance\"), [design and production](/wiki/Stagecraft \"Stagecraft\"), [acting](/wiki/Acting \"Acting\"), [vocal music](/wiki/Vocal_music \"Vocal music\"), [digital instrumental music](/wiki/Record_producer \"Record producer\"), and [visual arts](/wiki/Visual_arts \"Visual arts\") (art such as painting, sculpture etc.). The visual arts prime is further divided into concentrations, including [drawing](/wiki/Drawing \"Drawing\") and [painting](/wiki/Painting \"Painting\"), [multimedia](/wiki/Computer_art \"Computer art\"), [photography](/wiki/Photography \"Photography\"), [sculpture](/wiki/Sculpture \"Sculpture\"), and [telemedia](/wiki/Film \"Film\").",
"The Digital Instrumental Music prime was added for the 2016–2017 school year. According to Carver's webpage, \"the Digital Instrumental Music program prepares students for a broad range of professional activities in the music world.\"[Digital Instrumental Music](http://carverhs.bcps.org/prospective_students/primes/digital_instrumental_music/), Carver Center for Arts and Technology (accessed September 3, 2017\\)",
"The Information Technology/Interactive Media Production prime is currently evolving from the recently removed \"business\" and \"business \\- information technology/programming\" primes to include classes in the Adobe Creative Suite and a greater understanding of computer science and video game design in addition to developing programming skills.",
"The Culinary Arts Prime allows students to gain full access to food service experience. Through this program, students can are able to receive ServSafe certification and work in a student\\-run restaurant called \"Carver Café.\" According to Carver Center's website, \"The senior management project is an integral element of the instructional process allowing for the application of competencies through the operation of the Carver Café which is a licensed Baltimore County food service establishment that is maintained by the students and inspected by the local health department.\"",
"As of the 2007–2008 school year General Fine Arts/Multimedia/Digital Filmmaking (formerly known as Telemedia) will hold separate auditions under the Visual Arts prime. This provides for an opportunity for students interested in the areas of [filmmaking](/wiki/Filmmaking \"Filmmaking\") and [graphic design](/wiki/Graphic_design \"Graphic design\") to come to Carver Center for these areas and use these mediums to create art. All Visual Arts students will still be encouraged to take classes in drawing, painting, sculpting, photography, etc.",
"As of the 2001–2002 school year \"Theatre\" and \"Technical Theatre\" were advanced to become the theatre primes of \"Acting\" and \"Design \\& Production.\" This provided an opportunity for students interested in performance, design, theatre management and administration, technique, etc. to study these fields without the common stereotypes or restrictions of \"actors\" or \"techies.\" During the 2005–2006 school year, \"Vocal Music\" was considered to be renamed \"Singing\" (but remains listed in the curriculum as \"Vocal Music\").",
"The Literary Arts Prime educates students on the many forms of writing. Literary students take mandatory courses that include the history of writing and the professional world of writing. Students also have the option to take electives in poetry, media writing, the yearbook, and fiction. During their senior year, students work on their “senior thesis,” which is a book students publish in the spring of their senior year. The prime is distinguished in their writing awards, especially in Scholastics Art \\& Writing, where they have claimed over half of the regional awards. Literary arts controls the production of Catalyst (the school paper), Synergy (the school literary magazine), and the school yearbook.",
""
] |
Athletics
---------
The following [sports](/wiki/Sports "Sports") are available at Carver:
{{div col\|colwidth\=20em}}
* [Basketball](/wiki/Basketball "Basketball")
* [Golf](/wiki/Golf "Golf")
* [Volleyball](/wiki/Volleyball "Volleyball")
* [Tennis](/wiki/Tennis "Tennis")
* [Baseball](/wiki/Baseball "Baseball")
* [Softball](/wiki/Softball "Softball")
* [Soccer](/wiki/Soccer "Soccer")
* [Lacrosse](/wiki/Lacrosse "Lacrosse")
* [Field hockey](/wiki/Field_hockey "Field hockey")
* [Cross country](/wiki/Cross_country_running "Cross country running")
* [Wrestling](/wiki/Scholastic_wrestling "Scholastic wrestling")
* [Indoor track](/wiki/Indoor_track "Indoor track")
* [Track and field](/wiki/Track_and_field "Track and field")
* [Cheerleading](/wiki/Cheerleading "Cheerleading")
* [Badminton](/wiki/Badminton "Badminton")
{{div col end}}
The school's [mascot](/wiki/Mascot "Mascot") is the Wildcat; girls' teams are referred to as Lady Wildcats.
**Girls softball**
On May 9, 2023, the girls' varsity softball team won the 2023 Baltimore County softball championship, with a 6\-5 win against the Eastern Tech Mavericks.{{Cite web \|last\=Dixon \|first\=Taleah \|date\=2023\-05\-10 \|title\=Carver A\&T breaks through, holds off Eastern Tech for Baltimore County softball title \|url\=https://www.thebaltimorebanner.com/sports/high\-school/carver\-at\-breaks\-through\-holds\-off\-eastern\-tech\-for\-baltimore\-county\-softball\-title\-QQTBFJNMMJCSVKSJA2FI7VFRCQ/ \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-10 \|website\=The Baltimore Banner \|language\=en}}
**Girls soccer**
The girls' varsity soccer team has been division champions for the past three years and came in second on the regional level.
**Girls lacrosse**
The girls' varsity lacrosse team has also been division champs the past three years.
**Boys soccer**
The boys' varsity soccer team had posted a 6–6 record{{Cite web\|url\=http://2602\.digitalsports.com/pages/standing/?aggTeamId\=32587\|title \= Fall Boys Varsity Soccer loses to Pikesville 0 – 6}} in the fall of 2012, avoiding a losing record for the first time in decades.
**Golf**
The varsity golf team won an award for having the highest GPA of any of the fall sports teams in Baltimore County.
**Cross country**
Both boys' and girls' cross country teams won the Region 1A championships in 2023\. They also were honored with the Al Smith Sportsmanship Award at the state meet the same year.<https://www.athletic.net/CrossCountry/meet/232296/info> {{Bare URL inline\|date\=August 2024}}
**Track and field**
Carver has an indoor track team, which competes during the winter season, and a spring track and field team. The track and field team boasts a number of competitive athletes who have gone on to compete at the collegiate level in the NCAA.[https://www.athletic.net/team/19106/track\-and\-field\-indoor/2024/team\-records](https://www.athletic.net/team/19106/track-and-field-indoor/2024/team-records) {{Bare URL inline\|date\=August 2024}} [https://www.athletic.net/team/19106/track\-and\-field\-outdoor/2024/team\-records](https://www.athletic.net/team/19106/track-and-field-outdoor/2024/team-records) {{Bare URL inline\|date\=August 2024}}
Carver's [football](/wiki/American_football "American football") team was disbanded in 1998, after a few unsuccessful years, partly due to low interest and partly because the old football field was one yard too short. When the new school building was opened in 2012, new fields were created, including a full\-sized football field on athletic turf. Although Carver does not have a football team, it does hold an annual [homecoming](/wiki/Homecoming "Homecoming") dance. The dance is run by the Student Government Association and is usually a fundraiser for the SGA.
### State championships
The George Washington Carver Center for the Arts and Technology is the only high school in the Baltimore County Public Schools system that has never won a team State Championship in any sport.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.mpssaa.org/assets/1/6/Fall\_record\_book\_Record\_Book.pdf\|title\=2019 MPSSAA Fall Record Book}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.mpssaa.org/assets/1/6/Winter\_record\_book\_Record\_Book.pdf\|title\=2019\-20 MPSSAA Winter Record Book}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.mpssaa.org/assets/1/6/Spring\_record\_book\_Record\_Book.pdf\|title\=2020 MPSSAA Spring Record Book}}
|
[
"Athletics\n---------",
"The following [sports](/wiki/Sports \"Sports\") are available at Carver:\n{{div col\\|colwidth\\=20em}}\n* [Basketball](/wiki/Basketball \"Basketball\")\n* [Golf](/wiki/Golf \"Golf\")\n* [Volleyball](/wiki/Volleyball \"Volleyball\")\n* [Tennis](/wiki/Tennis \"Tennis\")\n* [Baseball](/wiki/Baseball \"Baseball\")\n* [Softball](/wiki/Softball \"Softball\")\n* [Soccer](/wiki/Soccer \"Soccer\")\n* [Lacrosse](/wiki/Lacrosse \"Lacrosse\")\n* [Field hockey](/wiki/Field_hockey \"Field hockey\")\n* [Cross country](/wiki/Cross_country_running \"Cross country running\")\n* [Wrestling](/wiki/Scholastic_wrestling \"Scholastic wrestling\")\n* [Indoor track](/wiki/Indoor_track \"Indoor track\")\n* [Track and field](/wiki/Track_and_field \"Track and field\")\n* [Cheerleading](/wiki/Cheerleading \"Cheerleading\")\n* [Badminton](/wiki/Badminton \"Badminton\")\n{{div col end}}",
"The school's [mascot](/wiki/Mascot \"Mascot\") is the Wildcat; girls' teams are referred to as Lady Wildcats.",
"**Girls softball**",
"On May 9, 2023, the girls' varsity softball team won the 2023 Baltimore County softball championship, with a 6\\-5 win against the Eastern Tech Mavericks.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Dixon \\|first\\=Taleah \\|date\\=2023\\-05\\-10 \\|title\\=Carver A\\&T breaks through, holds off Eastern Tech for Baltimore County softball title \\|url\\=https://www.thebaltimorebanner.com/sports/high\\-school/carver\\-at\\-breaks\\-through\\-holds\\-off\\-eastern\\-tech\\-for\\-baltimore\\-county\\-softball\\-title\\-QQTBFJNMMJCSVKSJA2FI7VFRCQ/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-10 \\|website\\=The Baltimore Banner \\|language\\=en}}",
"**Girls soccer**",
"The girls' varsity soccer team has been division champions for the past three years and came in second on the regional level.",
"**Girls lacrosse**",
"The girls' varsity lacrosse team has also been division champs the past three years.",
"**Boys soccer**",
"The boys' varsity soccer team had posted a 6–6 record{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://2602\\.digitalsports.com/pages/standing/?aggTeamId\\=32587\\|title \\= Fall Boys Varsity Soccer loses to Pikesville 0 – 6}} in the fall of 2012, avoiding a losing record for the first time in decades.",
"**Golf**",
"The varsity golf team won an award for having the highest GPA of any of the fall sports teams in Baltimore County.",
"**Cross country**",
"Both boys' and girls' cross country teams won the Region 1A championships in 2023\\. They also were honored with the Al Smith Sportsmanship Award at the state meet the same year.<https://www.athletic.net/CrossCountry/meet/232296/info> {{Bare URL inline\\|date\\=August 2024}}",
"**Track and field**",
"Carver has an indoor track team, which competes during the winter season, and a spring track and field team. The track and field team boasts a number of competitive athletes who have gone on to compete at the collegiate level in the NCAA.[https://www.athletic.net/team/19106/track\\-and\\-field\\-indoor/2024/team\\-records](https://www.athletic.net/team/19106/track-and-field-indoor/2024/team-records) {{Bare URL inline\\|date\\=August 2024}} [https://www.athletic.net/team/19106/track\\-and\\-field\\-outdoor/2024/team\\-records](https://www.athletic.net/team/19106/track-and-field-outdoor/2024/team-records) {{Bare URL inline\\|date\\=August 2024}}",
"Carver's [football](/wiki/American_football \"American football\") team was disbanded in 1998, after a few unsuccessful years, partly due to low interest and partly because the old football field was one yard too short. When the new school building was opened in 2012, new fields were created, including a full\\-sized football field on athletic turf. Although Carver does not have a football team, it does hold an annual [homecoming](/wiki/Homecoming \"Homecoming\") dance. The dance is run by the Student Government Association and is usually a fundraiser for the SGA.",
"### State championships",
"The George Washington Carver Center for the Arts and Technology is the only high school in the Baltimore County Public Schools system that has never won a team State Championship in any sport.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.mpssaa.org/assets/1/6/Fall\\_record\\_book\\_Record\\_Book.pdf\\|title\\=2019 MPSSAA Fall Record Book}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.mpssaa.org/assets/1/6/Winter\\_record\\_book\\_Record\\_Book.pdf\\|title\\=2019\\-20 MPSSAA Winter Record Book}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.mpssaa.org/assets/1/6/Spring\\_record\\_book\\_Record\\_Book.pdf\\|title\\=2020 MPSSAA Spring Record Book}}",
""
] |
History and archeology
----------------------
[Sherds](/wiki/Sherd "Sherd") from [Iron Age I](/wiki/Ancient_Near_East%23Iron_Age "Ancient Near East#Iron Age"), [Hellenistic](/wiki/Hellenistic_period "Hellenistic period"), [Roman](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire"), [Byzantine](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire "Byzantine Empire"), [Crusader](/wiki/Crusader_states "Crusader states")/[Ayyubid](/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty "Ayyubid dynasty") and [Mamluk](/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_%28Cairo%29 "Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)") eras have been found.Finkelstein et al, 1997, p. 538
[Mosaics](/wiki/Mosaic "Mosaic") and ancient [cisterns](/wiki/Cistern "Cistern") have been found.Dauphin, 1998, p. 835
[Van der Velde](/wiki/Charles_William_Meredith_van_de_Velde "Charles William Meredith van de Velde") (in 1854\) assumed that Rammun was the place mentioned in the [Bible](/wiki/Bible "Bible") as *[Rimmon](/wiki/Rimmon "Rimmon")*, Sela Rimmon. The *Rock of Rimmon* was where the [Benjamites](/wiki/Tribe_of_Benjamin "Tribe of Benjamin") fled ([Judges](/wiki/Book_of_Judges "Book of Judges") 20:45, 47; 21:13\), and where they maintained themselves for four months after the [battle at Gibeah](/wiki/Battle_at_Gibeah "Battle at Gibeah").van der Velde, 1854, p. [284](https://archive.org/stream/narrativeajourn01veldgoog#page/n302/mode/1up)
It also is suggested to be the town of *Remmon* ({{lang\-grc\-gre\|Ρεμμων}}, *Remmōn*) mentioned in the [Onomasticon](/wiki/Onomasticon_%28Eusebius%29 "Onomasticon (Eusebius)") and in the [Map of Madaba](/wiki/Map_of_Madaba "Map of Madaba"), located fifteen miles north of [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem"), between [Bethel](/wiki/Bethel "Bethel") and [Jericho](/wiki/Jericho "Jericho").
There are [Byzantine](/wiki/Byzantine "Byzantine"), [Crusader](/wiki/Crusades "Crusades"), [Ayyubid](/wiki/Ayyubid "Ayyubid"), [Mamluk](/wiki/Mamluk "Mamluk") and Ottoman remains in the town including a mosaic in the town's [mosque](/wiki/Mosque "Mosque"), an ancient burial cave and sanitary pit. The burial cave dates back to Byzantine times and contained pottery lamps, sandals and cross\-shaped medallions. Beside the village is a cave named "The Christian's Cave".{{Citation \|title\=Spatial distribution of Christian and Muslim settlements in Samaria \|date\=1998 \|work\=Frankish Rural Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem \|pages\=241 \|editor\-last\=Ellenblum \|editor\-first\=Ronnie \|url\=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/frankish\-rural\-settlement\-in\-the\-latin\-kingdom\-of\-jerusalem/spatial\-distribution\-of\-christian\-and\-muslim\-settlements\-in\-samaria/5A2E3F29EACB979A56DDEF47BE966B06 \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-09 \|place\=Cambridge \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|doi\=10\.1017/cbo9780511585340\.020 \|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-55401\-5}}
### Ottoman era
In 1596, Rammun appeared in [Ottoman](/wiki/Ottoman_empire "Ottoman empire") [tax registers](/wiki/Defter "Defter") as being in the *[Nahiya](/wiki/Nahiya "Nahiya")* of the *[Liwa](/wiki/Liwa_%28Arabic%29 "Liwa (Arabic)")* of [Quds](/wiki/Al-Quds "Al-Quds"), with a population of 39 [Muslim](/wiki/Muslim "Muslim") households. The villagers paid a fixed tax rate of 33\.3% on various agricultural products, including wheat, barley, olives, and vines or fruit trees; a total of 5,700 [akçe](/wiki/Ak%C3%A7e "Akçe").Hütteroth and Abdulfattah, 1977, p. 116 [Sherds](/wiki/Sherd "Sherd") from the early Ottoman era have been also found.
In 1838, [Edward Robinson](/wiki/Edward_Robinson_%28scholar%29 "Edward Robinson (scholar)") noted *Rummon* as a Muslim village in the District of *Beni Salim,* east of Jerusalem,Robinson and Smith, 1841, vol 3, Appendix 2, p. [125](https://archive.org/stream/biblicalresearch03robiuoft#page/125/mode/1up) located "on a naked conical point of the ridge, rising steeply on the N\[orth] side of the valley, the houses being apparently built in terraces around the hill from the top downwards."Robinson and Smith, 1841, vol 2, pp. [113](https://archive.org/details/biblicalresearc00smitgoog/page/n135),[120](https://archive.org/details/biblicalresearc00smitgoog/page/n142)
The French explorer [Victor Guérin](/wiki/Victor_Gu%C3%A9rin "Victor Guérin") first visited the village in 1863, and described it as a village with five hundred inhabitants. He further noted that in the limestone mountain around it were drilled numerous caves, many of which were still used by shepherds and their flocks. Ancient [cisterns](/wiki/Cistern "Cistern") dug into the rock were also found. The houses were partly built with antique materials, including some large blocks cut [ashlars](/wiki/Ashlar "Ashlar").Guérin, 1869, pp. [51](https://archive.org/stream/descriptiongogr06gugoog#page/n64/mode/1up)\-53, partly translated in Conder and Kitchener, 1882, p. [367](https://archive.org/stream/surveyofwesternp02conduoft#page/367/mode/1up)Guérin, 1874, p. [215](https://archive.org/stream/descriptionsam01gu#page/215/mode/1up)
An Ottoman village list of about 1870 showed that Rammun had 81 houses and a population of 334, though the population count included men only. The village was described as being in the *Beni Salim* area.Socin, 1879, p. [158](https://archive.org/stream/zeitschriftdesde01deut#page/158/mode/1up)Hartmann, 1883, p. [115](https://archive.org/stream/bub_gb_BZobAQAAIAAJ#page/n923/mode/1up) also noted 81 houses
In the 1882, the [PEF](/wiki/Palestine_Exploration_Fund "Palestine Exploration Fund")'s *[Survey of Western Palestine](/wiki/PEF_Survey_of_Palestine "PEF Survey of Palestine")* described Rammun as "A village of moderate size, with cisterns and caves, evidently an ancient site. On the north\-east is a deep rockcut tank, and south of it a rock\-cut tomb. The houses stand on a barren conical point of rock north of a rough valley, and are built in terraces. The site is peculiar, being at the end of a plateau of arable soil extending southwards from Taiyibeh. The view is extensive towards the south\-east, but bounded by the Taiyibeh range on the north. There are numerous caves in the rocky sides of the hill called Ashkaf Jiljal, as well as further west (Ashkaf Daud)."Conder and Kitchener, 1882, SWP II, p. [292](https://archive.org/stream/surveyofwesternp02conduoft#page/292/mode/1up)
[thumb\|upright\|Rammun, ca 1900 to 1920](/wiki/File:Rimmon1.jpg "Rimmon1.jpg")
In 1896 the population of Rammun was estimated to be about 705 persons.Schick, 1896, p. [122](https://archive.org/stream/zeitschriftdesde19deut#page/n229/mode/1up)
### British Mandate era
In the [1922 census of Palestine](/wiki/1922_census_of_Palestine "1922 census of Palestine") conducted by the [British Mandate authorities](/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine "Mandatory Palestine"), Rammun had a population of 703, all [Muslims](/wiki/Muslim "Muslim"),Barron, 1923, Table VII, Sub\-district of Ramallah, p. [17](https://archive.org/stream/PalestineCensus1922/Palestine%20Census%20%281922%29#page/n19/mode/1up) while in the [1931 census](/wiki/1931_census_of_Palestine "1931 census of Palestine"), the village had 153 occupied houses and a population of 744, still all Muslims.Mills, 1932, p. [50](https://archive.org/details/CensusOfPalestine1931.PopulationOfVillagesTownsAndAdministrativeAreas).
In the [1945 statistics](/wiki/Village_Statistics%2C_1945 "Village Statistics, 1945") the population was 970 Muslims,Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics, 1945, p. [26](http://cs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/yabber/census/VSpages/VS1945_p26.jpg) while the total land area was 30,043 [dunams](/wiki/Dunam "Dunam"), according to an official land and population survey.Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. *Village Statistics, April, 1945\.* Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. [65](http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20I/Ramallah/Page-065.jpg) Of this, 2,338 were allocated for plantations and irrigable land, 7,181 for cereals,Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. *Village Statistics, April, 1945\.* Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. [112](http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20II/Ramallah/Page-112.jpg) while 61 dunams were classified as built\-up areas.Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. *Village Statistics, April, 1945\.* Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. [162](http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20III/Ramallah/Page-162.jpg)
### Jordanian era
In the wake of the [1948 Arab–Israeli War](/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War "1948 Arab–Israeli War"), and after the [1949 Armistice Agreements](/wiki/1949_Armistice_Agreements "1949 Armistice Agreements"), Rammun came under [Jordanian rule](/wiki/Jordanian_annexation_of_the_West_Bank "Jordanian annexation of the West Bank").
In 1961, the population of Rammun was 1,186 persons.Government of Jordan, Department of Statistics, 1964, p. [24](http://users.cecs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/yabber/census/JordanCensusPages/JordanCensus1961-p24.pdf)
### Post\-1967
During the [Six\-Day War](/wiki/Six-Day_War "Six-Day War") in 1967, Rammun came under [Israeli occupation](/wiki/Israeli_occupation_of_the_West_Bank "Israeli occupation of the West Bank").
After the [1995 accords](/wiki/Oslo_II_Accord "Oslo II Accord"), 1\.6% of Rammun’s land was classified as [Area A](/wiki/Palestinian_enclaves "Palestinian enclaves"), 27% was classified as [Area B](/wiki/Palestinian_enclaves "Palestinian enclaves"), while the remaining 71\.4% is classified as [Area C](/wiki/Area_C_%28West_Bank%29 "Area C (West Bank)"). [Rammun Village Profile](http://vprofile.arij.org/ramallah/pdfs/vprofile/Rammun_Vp_en.pdf), ARIJ, 2012, p. 18
In 2017, there were 2,405 villagers in Rammun. There are about 7,000 former residents and their descendants living in the diaspora, mainly in the United States. Many in the diaspora have summer homes in the village, though these homes have been frequently broken into.
### 2012 shootings
In March 2012, a [Duvdevan Unit](/wiki/Duvdevan_Unit "Duvdevan Unit") in civilian clothing entered Rammun, reportedly on a night\-time training exercise were mistaken for burglars by three brothers of the Shawakhah family.{{cite news\|title\=In a Palestinian village plagued by crime, a thin line runs between burglars and IDF soldiers \|url\=http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/week\-s\-end/in\-a\-palestinian\-village\-plagued\-by\-crime\-a\-thin\-line\-runs\-between\-burglars\-and\-idf\-soldiers\-1\.428233 \|newspaper\=Haaretz\|date\=4 May 2012\|author1\=Gideon Levy\|author1\-link\=Gideon Levy\|author2\=Alex Levac\|author2\-link\=Alex Levac}}{{cite web\|title\=Soldiers in civilian clothing shot at Palestinians who, thinking they were being robbed, sought to defend their property; one Palestinian killed\|url\=http://www.btselem.org/firearms/20120424\_ramun\_incident\|publisher\=B'Tselem\|date\=24 April 2012}}{{cite web\|title\=Stories Differ After Israeli Soldiers Kill Palestinian \|url\=https://www.npr.org/2012/06/13/154959091/stories\-differ\-after\-israeli\-soldiers\-kill\-palestinian \|publisher\=NPR\|date\=13 June 2012}} All three brothers were shot multiple times in the confrontation that followed that also involved uniformed [IDF](/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces "Israel Defense Forces") soldiers, and Rashad Shawakhah died of his wounds several days later in hospital. Israeli Army Radio initially reported that terrorists had attacked an IDF soldier during a military operation. An IDF soldier who kicked one of the wounded handcuffed men after the shooting was reportedly dismissed shortly after the incident.{{cite news\|title\=Soldier dismissed after kicking bound Palestinian \|url\=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L\-4217835,00\.html \|newspaper\=Ynet\|date\=18 April 2012\|author\=Yoav Zitun}}{{cite web \|url\=http://972mag.com/undercover\-idf\-soldier\-kills\-palestinian\-in\-drill\-goes\-unpunished/42493/ \|title\=IDF Soldiers Enter Village, Kill Palestinian in Drill Gone Awry \|first\=Yossi \|last\=Gurvitz\|work\=\[\[\+972 Magazine]] \|publisher\=Noam Sheizaf \|date\=2012\-04\-18 \|access\-date\=2012\-04\-18}} [B'Tselem](/wiki/B%27Tselem "B'Tselem"), who have stated that the undercover unit's operational method and rules of engagement violate international law, requested the army's Criminal Investigations Division to examine the incident. The military advocate general opened an investigation in May 2012\.
|
[
"History and archeology\n----------------------",
"[Sherds](/wiki/Sherd \"Sherd\") from [Iron Age I](/wiki/Ancient_Near_East%23Iron_Age \"Ancient Near East#Iron Age\"), [Hellenistic](/wiki/Hellenistic_period \"Hellenistic period\"), [Roman](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\"), [Byzantine](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire \"Byzantine Empire\"), [Crusader](/wiki/Crusader_states \"Crusader states\")/[Ayyubid](/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty \"Ayyubid dynasty\") and [Mamluk](/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_%28Cairo%29 \"Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)\") eras have been found.Finkelstein et al, 1997, p. 538",
"[Mosaics](/wiki/Mosaic \"Mosaic\") and ancient [cisterns](/wiki/Cistern \"Cistern\") have been found.Dauphin, 1998, p. 835",
"[Van der Velde](/wiki/Charles_William_Meredith_van_de_Velde \"Charles William Meredith van de Velde\") (in 1854\\) assumed that Rammun was the place mentioned in the [Bible](/wiki/Bible \"Bible\") as *[Rimmon](/wiki/Rimmon \"Rimmon\")*, Sela Rimmon. The *Rock of Rimmon* was where the [Benjamites](/wiki/Tribe_of_Benjamin \"Tribe of Benjamin\") fled ([Judges](/wiki/Book_of_Judges \"Book of Judges\") 20:45, 47; 21:13\\), and where they maintained themselves for four months after the [battle at Gibeah](/wiki/Battle_at_Gibeah \"Battle at Gibeah\").van der Velde, 1854, p. [284](https://archive.org/stream/narrativeajourn01veldgoog#page/n302/mode/1up)",
"It also is suggested to be the town of *Remmon* ({{lang\\-grc\\-gre\\|Ρεμμων}}, *Remmōn*) mentioned in the [Onomasticon](/wiki/Onomasticon_%28Eusebius%29 \"Onomasticon (Eusebius)\") and in the [Map of Madaba](/wiki/Map_of_Madaba \"Map of Madaba\"), located fifteen miles north of [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem \"Jerusalem\"), between [Bethel](/wiki/Bethel \"Bethel\") and [Jericho](/wiki/Jericho \"Jericho\").",
"There are [Byzantine](/wiki/Byzantine \"Byzantine\"), [Crusader](/wiki/Crusades \"Crusades\"), [Ayyubid](/wiki/Ayyubid \"Ayyubid\"), [Mamluk](/wiki/Mamluk \"Mamluk\") and Ottoman remains in the town including a mosaic in the town's [mosque](/wiki/Mosque \"Mosque\"), an ancient burial cave and sanitary pit. The burial cave dates back to Byzantine times and contained pottery lamps, sandals and cross\\-shaped medallions. Beside the village is a cave named \"The Christian's Cave\".{{Citation \\|title\\=Spatial distribution of Christian and Muslim settlements in Samaria \\|date\\=1998 \\|work\\=Frankish Rural Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem \\|pages\\=241 \\|editor\\-last\\=Ellenblum \\|editor\\-first\\=Ronnie \\|url\\=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/frankish\\-rural\\-settlement\\-in\\-the\\-latin\\-kingdom\\-of\\-jerusalem/spatial\\-distribution\\-of\\-christian\\-and\\-muslim\\-settlements\\-in\\-samaria/5A2E3F29EACB979A56DDEF47BE966B06 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-09 \\|place\\=Cambridge \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|doi\\=10\\.1017/cbo9780511585340\\.020 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-55401\\-5}}",
"### Ottoman era",
"In 1596, Rammun appeared in [Ottoman](/wiki/Ottoman_empire \"Ottoman empire\") [tax registers](/wiki/Defter \"Defter\") as being in the *[Nahiya](/wiki/Nahiya \"Nahiya\")* of the *[Liwa](/wiki/Liwa_%28Arabic%29 \"Liwa (Arabic)\")* of [Quds](/wiki/Al-Quds \"Al-Quds\"), with a population of 39 [Muslim](/wiki/Muslim \"Muslim\") households. The villagers paid a fixed tax rate of 33\\.3% on various agricultural products, including wheat, barley, olives, and vines or fruit trees; a total of 5,700 [akçe](/wiki/Ak%C3%A7e \"Akçe\").Hütteroth and Abdulfattah, 1977, p. 116 [Sherds](/wiki/Sherd \"Sherd\") from the early Ottoman era have been also found.",
"In 1838, [Edward Robinson](/wiki/Edward_Robinson_%28scholar%29 \"Edward Robinson (scholar)\") noted *Rummon* as a Muslim village in the District of *Beni Salim,* east of Jerusalem,Robinson and Smith, 1841, vol 3, Appendix 2, p. [125](https://archive.org/stream/biblicalresearch03robiuoft#page/125/mode/1up) located \"on a naked conical point of the ridge, rising steeply on the N\\[orth] side of the valley, the houses being apparently built in terraces around the hill from the top downwards.\"Robinson and Smith, 1841, vol 2, pp. [113](https://archive.org/details/biblicalresearc00smitgoog/page/n135),[120](https://archive.org/details/biblicalresearc00smitgoog/page/n142)",
"The French explorer [Victor Guérin](/wiki/Victor_Gu%C3%A9rin \"Victor Guérin\") first visited the village in 1863, and described it as a village with five hundred inhabitants. He further noted that in the limestone mountain around it were drilled numerous caves, many of which were still used by shepherds and their flocks. Ancient [cisterns](/wiki/Cistern \"Cistern\") dug into the rock were also found. The houses were partly built with antique materials, including some large blocks cut [ashlars](/wiki/Ashlar \"Ashlar\").Guérin, 1869, pp. [51](https://archive.org/stream/descriptiongogr06gugoog#page/n64/mode/1up)\\-53, partly translated in Conder and Kitchener, 1882, p. [367](https://archive.org/stream/surveyofwesternp02conduoft#page/367/mode/1up)Guérin, 1874, p. [215](https://archive.org/stream/descriptionsam01gu#page/215/mode/1up)",
"An Ottoman village list of about 1870 showed that Rammun had 81 houses and a population of 334, though the population count included men only. The village was described as being in the *Beni Salim* area.Socin, 1879, p. [158](https://archive.org/stream/zeitschriftdesde01deut#page/158/mode/1up)Hartmann, 1883, p. [115](https://archive.org/stream/bub_gb_BZobAQAAIAAJ#page/n923/mode/1up) also noted 81 houses",
"In the 1882, the [PEF](/wiki/Palestine_Exploration_Fund \"Palestine Exploration Fund\")'s *[Survey of Western Palestine](/wiki/PEF_Survey_of_Palestine \"PEF Survey of Palestine\")* described Rammun as \"A village of moderate size, with cisterns and caves, evidently an ancient site. On the north\\-east is a deep rockcut tank, and south of it a rock\\-cut tomb. The houses stand on a barren conical point of rock north of a rough valley, and are built in terraces. The site is peculiar, being at the end of a plateau of arable soil extending southwards from Taiyibeh. The view is extensive towards the south\\-east, but bounded by the Taiyibeh range on the north. There are numerous caves in the rocky sides of the hill called Ashkaf Jiljal, as well as further west (Ashkaf Daud).\"Conder and Kitchener, 1882, SWP II, p. [292](https://archive.org/stream/surveyofwesternp02conduoft#page/292/mode/1up)",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Rammun, ca 1900 to 1920](/wiki/File:Rimmon1.jpg \"Rimmon1.jpg\")\nIn 1896 the population of Rammun was estimated to be about 705 persons.Schick, 1896, p. [122](https://archive.org/stream/zeitschriftdesde19deut#page/n229/mode/1up)",
"### British Mandate era",
"In the [1922 census of Palestine](/wiki/1922_census_of_Palestine \"1922 census of Palestine\") conducted by the [British Mandate authorities](/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine \"Mandatory Palestine\"), Rammun had a population of 703, all [Muslims](/wiki/Muslim \"Muslim\"),Barron, 1923, Table VII, Sub\\-district of Ramallah, p. [17](https://archive.org/stream/PalestineCensus1922/Palestine%20Census%20%281922%29#page/n19/mode/1up) while in the [1931 census](/wiki/1931_census_of_Palestine \"1931 census of Palestine\"), the village had 153 occupied houses and a population of 744, still all Muslims.Mills, 1932, p. [50](https://archive.org/details/CensusOfPalestine1931.PopulationOfVillagesTownsAndAdministrativeAreas).",
"In the [1945 statistics](/wiki/Village_Statistics%2C_1945 \"Village Statistics, 1945\") the population was 970 Muslims,Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics, 1945, p. [26](http://cs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/yabber/census/VSpages/VS1945_p26.jpg) while the total land area was 30,043 [dunams](/wiki/Dunam \"Dunam\"), according to an official land and population survey.Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. *Village Statistics, April, 1945\\.* Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. [65](http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20I/Ramallah/Page-065.jpg) Of this, 2,338 were allocated for plantations and irrigable land, 7,181 for cereals,Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. *Village Statistics, April, 1945\\.* Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. [112](http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20II/Ramallah/Page-112.jpg) while 61 dunams were classified as built\\-up areas.Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. *Village Statistics, April, 1945\\.* Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. [162](http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20III/Ramallah/Page-162.jpg)",
"### Jordanian era",
"In the wake of the [1948 Arab–Israeli War](/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War \"1948 Arab–Israeli War\"), and after the [1949 Armistice Agreements](/wiki/1949_Armistice_Agreements \"1949 Armistice Agreements\"), Rammun came under [Jordanian rule](/wiki/Jordanian_annexation_of_the_West_Bank \"Jordanian annexation of the West Bank\").",
"In 1961, the population of Rammun was 1,186 persons.Government of Jordan, Department of Statistics, 1964, p. [24](http://users.cecs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/yabber/census/JordanCensusPages/JordanCensus1961-p24.pdf)",
"### Post\\-1967",
"During the [Six\\-Day War](/wiki/Six-Day_War \"Six-Day War\") in 1967, Rammun came under [Israeli occupation](/wiki/Israeli_occupation_of_the_West_Bank \"Israeli occupation of the West Bank\").",
"After the [1995 accords](/wiki/Oslo_II_Accord \"Oslo II Accord\"), 1\\.6% of Rammun’s land was classified as [Area A](/wiki/Palestinian_enclaves \"Palestinian enclaves\"), 27% was classified as [Area B](/wiki/Palestinian_enclaves \"Palestinian enclaves\"), while the remaining 71\\.4% is classified as [Area C](/wiki/Area_C_%28West_Bank%29 \"Area C (West Bank)\"). [Rammun Village Profile](http://vprofile.arij.org/ramallah/pdfs/vprofile/Rammun_Vp_en.pdf), ARIJ, 2012, p. 18",
"In 2017, there were 2,405 villagers in Rammun. There are about 7,000 former residents and their descendants living in the diaspora, mainly in the United States. Many in the diaspora have summer homes in the village, though these homes have been frequently broken into.",
"### 2012 shootings",
"In March 2012, a [Duvdevan Unit](/wiki/Duvdevan_Unit \"Duvdevan Unit\") in civilian clothing entered Rammun, reportedly on a night\\-time training exercise were mistaken for burglars by three brothers of the Shawakhah family.{{cite news\\|title\\=In a Palestinian village plagued by crime, a thin line runs between burglars and IDF soldiers \\|url\\=http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/week\\-s\\-end/in\\-a\\-palestinian\\-village\\-plagued\\-by\\-crime\\-a\\-thin\\-line\\-runs\\-between\\-burglars\\-and\\-idf\\-soldiers\\-1\\.428233 \\|newspaper\\=Haaretz\\|date\\=4 May 2012\\|author1\\=Gideon Levy\\|author1\\-link\\=Gideon Levy\\|author2\\=Alex Levac\\|author2\\-link\\=Alex Levac}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Soldiers in civilian clothing shot at Palestinians who, thinking they were being robbed, sought to defend their property; one Palestinian killed\\|url\\=http://www.btselem.org/firearms/20120424\\_ramun\\_incident\\|publisher\\=B'Tselem\\|date\\=24 April 2012}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Stories Differ After Israeli Soldiers Kill Palestinian \\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/2012/06/13/154959091/stories\\-differ\\-after\\-israeli\\-soldiers\\-kill\\-palestinian \\|publisher\\=NPR\\|date\\=13 June 2012}} All three brothers were shot multiple times in the confrontation that followed that also involved uniformed [IDF](/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces \"Israel Defense Forces\") soldiers, and Rashad Shawakhah died of his wounds several days later in hospital. Israeli Army Radio initially reported that terrorists had attacked an IDF soldier during a military operation. An IDF soldier who kicked one of the wounded handcuffed men after the shooting was reportedly dismissed shortly after the incident.{{cite news\\|title\\=Soldier dismissed after kicking bound Palestinian \\|url\\=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L\\-4217835,00\\.html \\|newspaper\\=Ynet\\|date\\=18 April 2012\\|author\\=Yoav Zitun}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://972mag.com/undercover\\-idf\\-soldier\\-kills\\-palestinian\\-in\\-drill\\-goes\\-unpunished/42493/ \\|title\\=IDF Soldiers Enter Village, Kill Palestinian in Drill Gone Awry \\|first\\=Yossi \\|last\\=Gurvitz\\|work\\=\\[\\[\\+972 Magazine]] \\|publisher\\=Noam Sheizaf \\|date\\=2012\\-04\\-18 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-18}} [B'Tselem](/wiki/B%27Tselem \"B'Tselem\"), who have stated that the undercover unit's operational method and rules of engagement violate international law, requested the army's Criminal Investigations Division to examine the incident. The military advocate general opened an investigation in May 2012\\.",
""
] |
Early years
-----------
Singh emigrated from [Punjab](/wiki/Punjab_%28India%29 "Punjab (India)"), India, to [Queens](/wiki/Queens "Queens"), [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 "New York (state)") when he was twelve years old. He quickly entered the local music scene, debuting his tracks at an open mic night in [Greenwich Village](/wiki/Greenwich_Village "Greenwich Village"). Singh began exploring the boundaries between Punjabi folk lyricism and Asian Underground electronica, and he teamed up with New York's DJ Navdeep to record the underground hit "Aa Gayee". Singh performed with [Panjabi MC](/wiki/Panjabi_MC "Panjabi MC") at Summerjam 2003, when he sang "[Beware of the Boys](/wiki/Mundian_To_Bach_Ke "Mundian To Bach Ke")" for a crowd of over 20,000\. Since then, Singh has toured all over [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe"), the United States, and the United Kingdom.
The 2004 mix\-tape *Exclusives*[Review of *Exclusives*](http://ethnotechno.com/bikram_exclusives.php) included a collaboration with [Global Soul](/wiki/Global_Soul "Global Soul") recording artist Shakti to produce "Do the Thang Thang," which played on New York radio stations [Hot 97](/wiki/WQHT "WQHT") and [Power 105](/wiki/Power_105 "Power 105"). Also on the album were the Tigerstyle\-produced hits "Taakre" and "Nachna".
Singh's latest album, *American Jugni*, has spent several weeks on the top of the BBC Asian Bhangra charts. Singh brought in two major Bhangra producers, [Tigerstyle](/wiki/Tigerstyle "Tigerstyle") and [Ravi Bal](/wiki/Ravi_Bal "Ravi Bal"), to work on the album. In 2005, *American Jugni* was the best\-selling album in the UK and the track "Kawan", which featured vocal talents of Gunjan (a well established female Hindi/Punjabi singer) was named by BBC radio as the track of the year.
In 2007, Singh linked up with producer and hip hop extraordinaire Wyclef to create a track on DJ Rekha's (Basement Bhangra) upcoming Koch Records release. Rekha had actually asked Bikram a while back to do a track for the album and the vocals sat there over the years and nothing materialized for a while. But with the album release finalized, Rekha rekindled the record this year and asked him to re\-do the vocals on the track in collaboration with Wyclef, and the ‘Basement Bhangra Anthem’ was born.
In 2011, Singh performed on [Das Racist](/wiki/Das_Racist "Das Racist")'s "Punjabi Song" from their album *[Relax](/wiki/Relax_%28Das_Racist_album%29 "Relax (Das Racist album)")*. He sings the hook, entirely in Punjabi.
|
[
"Early years\n-----------",
"Singh emigrated from [Punjab](/wiki/Punjab_%28India%29 \"Punjab (India)\"), India, to [Queens](/wiki/Queens \"Queens\"), [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 \"New York (state)\") when he was twelve years old. He quickly entered the local music scene, debuting his tracks at an open mic night in [Greenwich Village](/wiki/Greenwich_Village \"Greenwich Village\"). Singh began exploring the boundaries between Punjabi folk lyricism and Asian Underground electronica, and he teamed up with New York's DJ Navdeep to record the underground hit \"Aa Gayee\". Singh performed with [Panjabi MC](/wiki/Panjabi_MC \"Panjabi MC\") at Summerjam 2003, when he sang \"[Beware of the Boys](/wiki/Mundian_To_Bach_Ke \"Mundian To Bach Ke\")\" for a crowd of over 20,000\\. Since then, Singh has toured all over [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\"), the United States, and the United Kingdom.",
"The 2004 mix\\-tape *Exclusives*[Review of *Exclusives*](http://ethnotechno.com/bikram_exclusives.php) included a collaboration with [Global Soul](/wiki/Global_Soul \"Global Soul\") recording artist Shakti to produce \"Do the Thang Thang,\" which played on New York radio stations [Hot 97](/wiki/WQHT \"WQHT\") and [Power 105](/wiki/Power_105 \"Power 105\"). Also on the album were the Tigerstyle\\-produced hits \"Taakre\" and \"Nachna\".",
"Singh's latest album, *American Jugni*, has spent several weeks on the top of the BBC Asian Bhangra charts. Singh brought in two major Bhangra producers, [Tigerstyle](/wiki/Tigerstyle \"Tigerstyle\") and [Ravi Bal](/wiki/Ravi_Bal \"Ravi Bal\"), to work on the album. In 2005, *American Jugni* was the best\\-selling album in the UK and the track \"Kawan\", which featured vocal talents of Gunjan (a well established female Hindi/Punjabi singer) was named by BBC radio as the track of the year.",
"In 2007, Singh linked up with producer and hip hop extraordinaire Wyclef to create a track on DJ Rekha's (Basement Bhangra) upcoming Koch Records release. Rekha had actually asked Bikram a while back to do a track for the album and the vocals sat there over the years and nothing materialized for a while. But with the album release finalized, Rekha rekindled the record this year and asked him to re\\-do the vocals on the track in collaboration with Wyclef, and the ‘Basement Bhangra Anthem’ was born.",
"In 2011, Singh performed on [Das Racist](/wiki/Das_Racist \"Das Racist\")'s \"Punjabi Song\" from their album *[Relax](/wiki/Relax_%28Das_Racist_album%29 \"Relax (Das Racist album)\")*. He sings the hook, entirely in Punjabi.",
""
] |
International career
--------------------
She began playing hockey at the age of 5 in PWCC following Daniela, her older sister's steps.
She made her full international debut in 2006, but missed out on a place in the Chilean squad for the [2007 Panamerican Games](/wiki/2007_Pan_American_Games "2007 Pan American Games") in Rio de Janeiro. After this, she was selected for every tournament in the Chilean squad.
2008 she participated of the [Junior Panam Cup](/wiki/Campeonato_Panamericano_Junior_de_Hockey_Sobre_C%C3%A9sped "Campeonato Panamericano Junior de Hockey Sobre Césped") in Ciudad de Mexico, where they made history beating Argentina on the semi finals for the first time, and obtaining a silver medal.
She obtained the first bronze medal for Chile in the [2009 Pan American Cup](/wiki/Women%27s_Pan_American_Cup "Women's Pan American Cup") and in 2011 the first bronze medal in the [Pan American Games](/wiki/Field_hockey_at_the_Pan_American_Games "Field hockey at the Pan American Games") in Guadalajara.
Her first appearance as captain of the National Team, was in 2013 playing the [Pan American Cup in Mendoza](/wiki/2013_Women%27s_Pan_American_Cup "2013 Women's Pan American Cup"), but then assumed the rol fully from 2015\.
In 2017 she obtained historical silver medal in the [Pan American Cup in Lancaster](/wiki/2017_Women%27s_Pan_American_Cup "2017 Women's Pan American Cup"), USA. This same year she was elected as Captain of [Team Chile](https://teamchile.cl/home-paris/), the Chilean squad of all sports.
In 2022 she obtained silver medal in the [Pan American Cup in Santiago](/wiki/2022_Women%27s_Pan_American_Cup "2022 Women's Pan American Cup"), which gave the team the first historical qualification to the [World Cup in Netherlands and Spain](/wiki/2022_Women%27s_FIH_Hockey_World_Cup "2022 Women's FIH Hockey World Cup") ending up in 13th place. This same year, she participated in the [South American Games](/wiki/2022_South_American_Games "2022 South American Games"), winning in shootouts over Argentina in the final, obtaining a gold medal and making history once again as the first time Chile beat Argentina.
The [2023 Pan American Games](/wiki/2023_Pan_American_Games "2023 Pan American Games") were held in Santiago, Chile where she obtained the 2nd bronze medal for the country in the history of Pan American Games.
Her final tournament was the [2024 Nation's Cup](/wiki/Women%27s_FIH_Hockey_Nations_Cup "Women's FIH Hockey Nations Cup") in Terrassa, Spain finishing in third place which was a great way to end her hockey career.
In her retirement of international hockey, she will prioritize her family and her [Foundation](https://www.fundacionimpulsate.cl){{Cite web \|last\=Madariaga \|first\=Carlos \|date\=2024\-05\-20 \|title\=Camila Caram anuncia su retiro tras 18 años como parte de las “Diablas” \|url\=https://www.adnradio.cl/2024/05/20/camila\-caram\-anuncia\-su\-retiro\-tras\-18\-anos\-como\-parte\-de\-las\-diablas/ \|access\-date\=2024\-08\-22 \|website\=ADN Radio \|language\=es}} called Impúlsate, which is dedicated to teach socio\-emotional skills to underprivileged children through hockey.
She has been participating in the Athletes Committee of the [FIH](https://www.fih.hockey/about-fih/committee-panel/athletes-committee)since she was elected in 2020, and this year the committee voted for her to be the president, and represent de athletes in the board of the FIH until 2028\.
|
[
"International career\n--------------------",
"She began playing hockey at the age of 5 in PWCC following Daniela, her older sister's steps. \nShe made her full international debut in 2006, but missed out on a place in the Chilean squad for the [2007 Panamerican Games](/wiki/2007_Pan_American_Games \"2007 Pan American Games\") in Rio de Janeiro. After this, she was selected for every tournament in the Chilean squad.",
"2008 she participated of the [Junior Panam Cup](/wiki/Campeonato_Panamericano_Junior_de_Hockey_Sobre_C%C3%A9sped \"Campeonato Panamericano Junior de Hockey Sobre Césped\") in Ciudad de Mexico, where they made history beating Argentina on the semi finals for the first time, and obtaining a silver medal.",
"She obtained the first bronze medal for Chile in the [2009 Pan American Cup](/wiki/Women%27s_Pan_American_Cup \"Women's Pan American Cup\") and in 2011 the first bronze medal in the [Pan American Games](/wiki/Field_hockey_at_the_Pan_American_Games \"Field hockey at the Pan American Games\") in Guadalajara.",
"Her first appearance as captain of the National Team, was in 2013 playing the [Pan American Cup in Mendoza](/wiki/2013_Women%27s_Pan_American_Cup \"2013 Women's Pan American Cup\"), but then assumed the rol fully from 2015\\.",
"In 2017 she obtained historical silver medal in the [Pan American Cup in Lancaster](/wiki/2017_Women%27s_Pan_American_Cup \"2017 Women's Pan American Cup\"), USA. This same year she was elected as Captain of [Team Chile](https://teamchile.cl/home-paris/), the Chilean squad of all sports.",
"In 2022 she obtained silver medal in the [Pan American Cup in Santiago](/wiki/2022_Women%27s_Pan_American_Cup \"2022 Women's Pan American Cup\"), which gave the team the first historical qualification to the [World Cup in Netherlands and Spain](/wiki/2022_Women%27s_FIH_Hockey_World_Cup \"2022 Women's FIH Hockey World Cup\") ending up in 13th place. This same year, she participated in the [South American Games](/wiki/2022_South_American_Games \"2022 South American Games\"), winning in shootouts over Argentina in the final, obtaining a gold medal and making history once again as the first time Chile beat Argentina.",
"The [2023 Pan American Games](/wiki/2023_Pan_American_Games \"2023 Pan American Games\") were held in Santiago, Chile where she obtained the 2nd bronze medal for the country in the history of Pan American Games.",
"Her final tournament was the [2024 Nation's Cup](/wiki/Women%27s_FIH_Hockey_Nations_Cup \"Women's FIH Hockey Nations Cup\") in Terrassa, Spain finishing in third place which was a great way to end her hockey career.",
"In her retirement of international hockey, she will prioritize her family and her [Foundation](https://www.fundacionimpulsate.cl){{Cite web \\|last\\=Madariaga \\|first\\=Carlos \\|date\\=2024\\-05\\-20 \\|title\\=Camila Caram anuncia su retiro tras 18 años como parte de las “Diablas” \\|url\\=https://www.adnradio.cl/2024/05/20/camila\\-caram\\-anuncia\\-su\\-retiro\\-tras\\-18\\-anos\\-como\\-parte\\-de\\-las\\-diablas/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-08\\-22 \\|website\\=ADN Radio \\|language\\=es}} called Impúlsate, which is dedicated to teach socio\\-emotional skills to underprivileged children through hockey.",
"She has been participating in the Athletes Committee of the [FIH](https://www.fih.hockey/about-fih/committee-panel/athletes-committee)since she was elected in 2020, and this year the committee voted for her to be the president, and represent de athletes in the board of the FIH until 2028\\.",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{stack\|{{US Census population
\|1860\= 305
\|1870\= 272
\|1880\= 301
\|1890\= 261
\|1900\= 279
\|1910\= 273
\|1920\= 236
\|1930\= 226
\|1940\= 296
\|1950\= 325
\|1960\= 358
\|1970\= 426
\|1980\= 739
\|1990\= 974
\|2000\= 1146
\|2010\= 1077
\|2020\= 1177
\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|accessdate\=June 4, 2015}}
}}}}
### 2010 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=January 25, 2013}} of 2010, there were 1,077 people, 434 households, and 299 families residing in the town. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|387\.4\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 491 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|176\.6\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the town was 65\.3% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 28\.1% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.6% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 1\.3% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 2\.4% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 2\.2% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 6\.3% of the population.
There were 434 households, of which 32\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48\.4% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 14\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 6\.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 31\.1% were non\-families. 23\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.48 and the average family size was 2\.91\.
The median age in the town was 39\.5 years. 22\.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 9\.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25\.5% were from 25 to 44; 30% were from 45 to 64; and 12\.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 48\.0% male and 52\.0% female.
### 2000 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=January 31, 2008\|title\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 1,146 people, 425 households, and 328 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\|1,387\.9\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 450 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|545\.0\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 72\.34% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 23\.39% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.44% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.70% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 1\.05% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 2\.09% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 2\.62% of the population.
There were 425 households, out of which 41\.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 15\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22\.6% were non\-families. 16\.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.70 and the average family size was 2\.95\.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 28\.8% under the age of 18, 6\.7% from 18 to 24, 32\.5% from 25 to 44, 22\.0% from 45 to 64, and 10\.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The [median](/wiki/Median "Median") age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 92\.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84\.2 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $40,625, and the median income for a family was $42,188\. Males had a median income of $30,398 versus $26,302 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the town was $17,451\. About 9\.6% of families and 9\.7% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 10\.9% of those under age 18 and 7\.9% of those age 65 or over.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{stack\\|{{US Census population\n\\|1860\\= 305\n\\|1870\\= 272\n\\|1880\\= 301\n\\|1890\\= 261\n\\|1900\\= 279\n\\|1910\\= 273\n\\|1920\\= 236\n\\|1930\\= 226\n\\|1940\\= 296\n\\|1950\\= 325\n\\|1960\\= 358\n\\|1970\\= 426\n\\|1980\\= 739\n\\|1990\\= 974\n\\|2000\\= 1146\n\\|2010\\= 1077\n\\|2020\\= 1177\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|accessdate\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}}}",
"### 2010 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=January 25, 2013}} of 2010, there were 1,077 people, 434 households, and 299 families residing in the town. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|387\\.4\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 491 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|176\\.6\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the town was 65\\.3% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 28\\.1% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.6% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.3% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 2\\.4% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 2\\.2% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 6\\.3% of the population.",
"There were 434 households, of which 32\\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48\\.4% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 14\\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 6\\.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 31\\.1% were non\\-families. 23\\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8\\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.48 and the average family size was 2\\.91\\.",
"The median age in the town was 39\\.5 years. 22\\.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 9\\.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25\\.5% were from 25 to 44; 30% were from 45 to 64; and 12\\.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 48\\.0% male and 52\\.0% female.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=January 31, 2008\\|title\\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 1,146 people, 425 households, and 328 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\\|1,387\\.9\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 450 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|545\\.0\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 72\\.34% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 23\\.39% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.44% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.70% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.05% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 2\\.09% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 2\\.62% of the population.",
"There were 425 households, out of which 41\\.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57\\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 15\\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22\\.6% were non\\-families. 16\\.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7\\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.70 and the average family size was 2\\.95\\.",
"In the town, the population was spread out, with 28\\.8% under the age of 18, 6\\.7% from 18 to 24, 32\\.5% from 25 to 44, 22\\.0% from 45 to 64, and 10\\.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The [median](/wiki/Median \"Median\") age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 92\\.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84\\.2 males.",
"The median income for a household in the town was $40,625, and the median income for a family was $42,188\\. Males had a median income of $30,398 versus $26,302 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the town was $17,451\\. About 9\\.6% of families and 9\\.7% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 10\\.9% of those under age 18 and 7\\.9% of those age 65 or over.",
""
] |
History
-------
Settlers were attracted to the area by the farmland, and creeks for water mills. The lands which would later become Bowmanville were first purchased by John Burk, who began to clear the forest.{{cite web \|last1\=Van Dyke \|first1\=Myno \|title\=The First Settlers in Clarington \- History in the Making \|url\=https://claringtonpromoter.ca/publication/2017/september \|publisher\=Clarington Promoter \|access\-date\=24 November 2018 \|date\=September 2017}}
Mills were built first on Barber's Creek (now called [Bowmanville Creek](/wiki/Bowmanville_Creek "Bowmanville Creek")), including one still standing, now called Vanstone's Mill, at the present\-day intersection of King Street and Scugog St. More mills were built on nearby Soper Creek, including another mill still standing as the municipality's [Visual Arts Centre](/wiki/Cream_of_Barley_Mill "Cream of Barley Mill") which has been designated as an architecturally protected historical building.By\-law 79\-033 \- Municipality of Clarington.
[thumb\|left\|Charles Bowman, the namesake of Bowmanville in the only known painting, with his family.](/wiki/File:Charles_Bowman_and_Family_Painting.jpg "Charles Bowman and Family Painting.jpg")
Burke later sold his land to Lewis Lewis. Lewis opened the first store in what was then called Darlington Mills. The store was purchased in about 1824 by Charles Bowman (for whom the town was eventually named) who then established the first post office.{{cite news\|last\=Thickson\|first\=J.\|title\=History of West Durham Region\|newspaper\=Bowmanville Statesman\|date\=March 3, 1832}} Its first postmaster was Robert Fairbairn, who ran the post office from 1828 to 1857\. Bowmanville incorporated as a town in 1858\.{{Cite book\|last\=Hamilton\|first\=William\|title\=The Macmillan Book of Canadian Place Names\|publisher\=Macmillan\|year\=1978\|isbn\=0\-7715\-9754\-1\|location\=Toronto\|pages\=137}}
By 1866, Bowmanville was a town with a population of about 3,500 in the township of Darlington, County Durham. It was a station of the [Grand Trunk Railway](/wiki/Grand_Trunk_Railway "Grand Trunk Railway"). It was established on the north shore of Lake Ontario. It possessed a good harbour and there was extensive water power in the vicinity. The surrounding country was fertile.The province of Ontario gazetteer and directory. H. McEvoy Editor and Compiler, Toronto: Robertson \& Cook, Publishers, 1869
The success of the Vanstone Mill, fueled by the machinery of the Crown's land grant program, led to the rapid expansion of the Bowmanville settlement in the early years of the 19th century. Under the generous yet discriminate eyes of wealthy local merchants such as John Simpson and Charles Bowman, small properties would often be sold to promote settlement and small business. The town soon developed a balanced economy; all the while gradually establishing itself as a moderate player in shipping, rail transport, metal works and common minor business (including tanneries, liveries, stables and everyday mercantile commodity exchange).
By the time of [Confederation](/wiki/Confederation_of_Canada "Confederation of Canada"), Bowmanville was a vital, prosperous and growing town, home to a largely [Scots](/wiki/Scottish_people "Scottish people")\-[Presbyterian](/wiki/Presbyterian "Presbyterian") community with all manner of farmers, working, and professional class making the town their home. With local economic stability and accessible, abundant land available for the construction of housing, the town soon sported several new churches, each designated to house both [Free and Auld Kirk](/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_in_Canada "Presbyterian Church in Canada"), [Anglican](/wiki/Anglican "Anglican") and [Nonconformist](/wiki/Nonconformist_%28Protestantism%29 "Nonconformist (Protestantism)") congregations, including the [Bible Christian Church](/wiki/Bible_Christian_Church "Bible Christian Church"), later to be a major stream of Canadian [Methodism](/wiki/Methodism "Methodism").
At present, St. John's Anglican Church. St. Andrew's Presbyterian Church, St. Paul's [United Church](/wiki/United_Church_of_Canada "United Church of Canada") and the impressively ornate Trinity United Church (site of an old Auld Kirk church) still serve the community. All of these edifices, appropriately, lie on or are in close proximity to present\-day Church Street.
[thumb\|Postcard of the former Post Office, circa 1920s. The Town Hall building is visible to the right.](/wiki/File:Bowmanville_Post_Office_1920s.jpg "Bowmanville Post Office 1920s.jpg")
In the 19th century, in 1857, the Ontario Bank was founded in Bowmanville, with local resident John Simpson as its first president. The bank, while appearing to be a local enterprise, was primarily controlled by 16 Montreal businessmen. The Ontario bank eventually opened local branches including locations in Whitby, Oshawa, and Port Hope. In 1874, it was moved to Toronto, and would later become insolvent as a result of investing in speculative stocks in 1906\.Humber, William."A Small Town On The Edge". Natural Heritage/Natural History Inc.,1997, p19\-21 The historic Ontario Bank building at the intersection of King and Temperance was demolished in 1971 Humber, William."A Small Town On The Edge".Natural Heritage/Natural History Inc.,1997, p121
| Census | Population |
| --- | --- |
| Town of Bowmanville | |
| 1841 | 500 |
| 1871 | 3,034 |
| 1881 | 3,504 |
| 1891 | 3,377 |
| 1901 | 2,731 |
| 1911 | 2,814 |
| 1921 | 3,233 |
| 1931 | 4,080 |
| 1941 | 4,113 |
| 1951 | 5,430 |
| 1961 | 7,397 |
| 1971 | 8,947 |
| Town of Newcastle | |
| 1981 | 32,229 |
| 1991 | 49,479 |
| Bowmanville \- Newcastle | |
| 2001 | 32,777 |
| 2006 | 38,966 |
| 2011 | 43,555 |
| Bowmanville | |
| 2011 | 35,168{{Cite web\|url\=https://www12\.statcan.gc.ca/census\-recensement/2016/dp\-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang\=E \=1\&Geo1\=POPC\&Code1\=0087\&Geo2\=PR\&Code2\=46\&Data\=Count\&SearchText\=Bowmanville\&SearchType\=Begins\&SearchPR\=01\&B1\=All\&TABID\=1\&wbdisable\=false\|title\=Census Profile, 2016 Census \- Bowmanville \[Population centre], Ontario and Manitoba \[Province]\|last\=Canada\|first\=Government of Canada, Statistics\|website\=www12\.statcan.gc.ca\|date\=8 February 2017 \|language\=en\|access\-date\=2017\-03\-11}} |
| 2016 | 39,371{{Cite web\|url\=https://www12\.statcan.gc.ca/census\-recensement/2016/dp\-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang\=E \=1\&Geo1\=POPC\&Code1\=0087\&Geo2\=PR\&Code2\=46\&Data\=Count\&SearchText\=Bowmanville\&SearchType\=Begins\&SearchPR\=01\&B1\=All\&TABID\=1\&wbdisable\=false\|title\=Census Profile, 2016 Census \- Bowmanville \[Population centre], Ontario and Manitoba \[Province]\|last\=Canada\|first\=Government of Canada, Statistics\|website\=www12\.statcan.gc.ca\|date\=8 February 2017 \|language\=en\|access\-date\=2017\-03\-11}} |
In 1884, Scottish immigrant John McKay opened the [Cream of Barley Mill](/wiki/Cream_of_Barley_Mill "Cream of Barley Mill") next to Soper Creek to manufacture a cereal of his own creation. "Cream of Barley" was shipped throughout the British Empire.Taws, Charles. ["When Barley was King!"](http://www.claringtonpromoter.ca/downloads/feature/feature-2012-12.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202183323/http://www.claringtonpromoter.ca/downloads/feature/feature\-2012\-12\.pdf\# \|date\=2014\-02\-02 }} *ClaringtonPromoter*, December 2012\.Taws, Charles, "From Cereal to Elephants, the History of the Bowmanville Zoo", *Clarington Promoter*, December 2013\.
[thumb\|Aerial photo taken in 1919\. Vanstone Mill and pond can be seen, along with the Vanstone [CPR](/wiki/Canadian_Pacific_Railway "Canadian Pacific Railway") bridge.](/wiki/File:Bownmanville_Ontario_from_the_Air_%28HS85-10-35917%29.jpg "Bownmanville Ontario from the Air (HS85-10-35917).jpg")
Local business organized and modernized in the 20th century, with the Dominion Organ and Piano factory, Specialty Paper Company, the [Bowmanville Foundry](/wiki/Bowmanville_Foundry "Bowmanville Foundry"), and the [Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company](/wiki/Goodyear_Tire_and_Rubber_Company "Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company") (1910\) all providing steady work for Bowmanville's ever\-growing working populations. Goodyear even went so far as to provide affordable housing for its employees, and present day Carlisle Ave. (built by Goodyear president W.C. Carlisle) in the 1910s still stands as one of Ontario's best preserved examples of industrial housing. The land on which the Bowmanville Hospital was built was donated by J.W. Alexander, the owner of the then\-prospering Dominion Organ and Piano factory.
Formal education evolved in\-step with Ryersonian philosophies of the day, and the advent of the Central Public School (1889\) and the Bowmanville High School (1890\), (both designed by Whitby architect A.A. Post) were the finishing touches to the town that was a model of then\-Ontario Premier [Oliver Mowat](/wiki/Oliver_Mowat "Oliver Mowat")'s philosophy of education, expansion and innovation for the citizens of the province.
The 20th century saw a steady rise in the construction of area schools, with Vincent Massey P.S. (1955\); St. Joseph Catholic Elementary (1962, 2000 at present site); Waverly P.S. (1978\); Dr. Ross Tilley P.S. (1993\); St. Elizabeth Catholic Elementary (1998\); John M. James P.S. (1999\); Harold Longworth P.S. (2003\); and Holy Family Catholic Elementary School (2007\), all accommodating gradual population increases and building developments in specific demographic areas of the town. The local school board was amalgamated with neighboring jurisdictions to form the [Kawartha Pine Ridge District School Board](/wiki/Kawartha_Pine_Ridge_District_School_Board "Kawartha Pine Ridge District School Board") in 1997\. The Catholic schools are part of the [Peterborough Victoria Northumberland and Clarington Catholic District School Board](/wiki/Peterborough_Victoria_Northumberland_and_Clarington_Catholic_District_School_Board "Peterborough Victoria Northumberland and Clarington Catholic District School Board") which had already merged four counties in 1969 (at that time it was named the Peterborough, Victoria, Northumberland and Durham Separate School Board).
As the town grew and prospered, so arrived Bowmanville's grand era of architectural building and refinement. Many excellently maintained specimens of Italianate, Gothic Revival, Colonial Brick and Queen Anne architecture remain in Bowmanville's older central neighborhoods. Much of Bowmanville's residential and commercial architectural heritage was either lost or threatened by demolition and modern development from 1950 to 1980, but a 25\-year renaissance in appreciation and awareness (led largely by local historians and LACAC members) helped to preserve the precious remnants of days gone by.
Bowmanville was incorporated as a village in 1852 and as a town in 1858\. In 1974, the town was amalgamated with neighbouring [Clarke Township](/wiki/Clarke_Township%2C_Ontario "Clarke Township, Ontario") and [Darlington Township](/wiki/Darlington_Township%2C_Ontario "Darlington Township, Ontario") to form the **Town of Newcastle** which in turn was renamed the **Municipality of Clarington** in 1994\.
Subdivided housing developments first arrived in the 1950s, with a significant increase in housing development through the 1980s and 1990s. The population rose to about 10,000 in the 1970s, about 20,000 in the 1980s, about 25,000 in the 1990s and today is about 35,000\. Transportation improvements in the 1980s included a widening of Highway 401 (first built through Bowmanville in 1952\) to six lanes and of Highway 2 to 4/5 lanes. Many have referred to this as the "Lane Era" of Bowmanville.
### Prisoner of war camp
{{Unreferenced section\|date\=August 2017}}
[Camp 30](/wiki/Bowmanville_POW_camp "Bowmanville POW camp"), the Lake Ontario Officers' Camp\-Bowmanville, held captive German army officers from the Afrika Korps, Luftwaffe aircrew and naval officers from the Kriegsmarine. Farms surrounded the camp that had been a delinquent boys' school prior to the war. In several accounts by former prisoners of war (POWs), the prison was represented as very humane, in that the prisoners were well treated and well fed.
Among the German officers transferred from England to Bowmanville was Korvettenkapitän [Otto Kretschmer](/wiki/Otto_Kretschmer "Otto Kretschmer"), who was the top U\-boat ace of World War II. Kretschmer assumed the duties of the senior naval officer, sharing the command with the senior Luftwaffe officer Oberstleutnant Hans Hefele and the senior army officer General Leutnant Hans von Ravenstein.
[thumb\|Camp 30, circa 1930\.](/wiki/File:Bowmanville_POW_camp_-_Cafeteria_and_site_of_%22Battle_of_Bowmanville%22_-_Bowmanville%2C_Ontario%2C_Canada.jpg "Bowmanville POW camp - Cafeteria and site of ")
The Bowmanville boys' school had been quickly turned into a POW camp by surrounding the existing school buildings with a barbed wire fence. The facility, which had been designed to house 300 boys, was cramped and undersized for grown men. Two {{convert\|12\|ft\|m\|adj\=mid\|\-high}} fences with electric lights every twelve feet and nine guard towers surrounded the {{convert\|14\|acre\|m2\|adj\=on}} site. The fence had sixty miles of barbed wire looped around the small perimeter. Lieutenant Colonel R.O. Bull M.C. had a support staff plus the Veterans Guard of Canada, consisting of nine officers and 239 other ranks under his command to guard the prisoners.
When the naval prisoners arrived at Bowmanville, there were no recreational facilities. The naval officers quickly transformed the camp. Flower and vegetable gardens were planted, sports fields, tennis courts and a swimming pool were built. The quarters were expanded, giving the prisoners better living conditions. The prisoners received money from home or earned extra money by manufacturing wooden furniture. They were able to purchase beer, cigarettes and dry goods from [Eaton's](/wiki/Eaton%27s "Eaton's") mail order catalogue. It was an ideal life except that there were no women and no freedom. For some there was the urge to get back to the war and defend their country, and for others a desire to remain POWs for the duration of the war.
A daily routine of exercise, sporting events and work assignments was established. As well as English being taught, professors from the nearby University of Toronto gave lectures for university credit classes. A school was also formed, which taught midshipmen seamanship and navigation courses.
Current movies were shown each week. National and religious holidays were observed, and music concerts were given regularly. Elaborate stage plays were produced. Extraordinary puppets were designed and fabricated for puppet shows. Although the conditions were good in the Canadian POW camps, there was very little to do, and the routine was always the same.
### Battle of Bowmanville
In October 1942, in a prisoner of war uprising known as the [Battle of Bowmanville](/wiki/Battle_of_Bowmanville "Battle of Bowmanville"), between 150 and 400 mostly German prisoners revolted against the guards at Camp 30 after they were shackled as retribution as part of the escalation of Germany's new Commando Order.{{cite news \|last1\=Durflinger \|first1\=Serge \|title\=To war once more \|url\=https://legionmagazine.com/to\-war\-once\-more/ \|access\-date\=15 March 2024 \|publisher\=Legion Magazine \|date\=27 October 2023}}
Lt.Col. James Taylor had asked German senior officer Georg Friemel to supply 100 prisoners to volunteer to be shackled as part of the ongoing international dispute. When he refused, Otto Kretschmer and Hans Hefele were also asked to provide volunteers, but refused.
Taylor ordered the guards to find 100 officers to be shackled by force, and Horst Elfe, Kretschmer and others barricaded themselves in the mess hall, arming themselves with sticks, iron bars and other makeshift weapons. Approximately 100 Canadian soldiers requisitioned from another base arrived, and together stormed the mess hall using only baseball bats, so the two sides remained evenly matched. After several hours of brawling, the Canadians brought high pressure water hoses and soaked the cabin thoroughly until the prisoners agreed to come out peacefully.
During later incidents in the battle which spanned several days, Volkmar König was wounded by gunfire and another bayoneted, and a [Canadian](/wiki/Canadians "Canadians") soldier suffered a skull fracture from a thrown jar of jam. After calm had returned, 126 of the prisoners were transferred to other camps.{{Citation needed\|date\=December 2021}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Settlers were attracted to the area by the farmland, and creeks for water mills. The lands which would later become Bowmanville were first purchased by John Burk, who began to clear the forest.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Van Dyke \\|first1\\=Myno \\|title\\=The First Settlers in Clarington \\- History in the Making \\|url\\=https://claringtonpromoter.ca/publication/2017/september \\|publisher\\=Clarington Promoter \\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2018 \\|date\\=September 2017}}",
"Mills were built first on Barber's Creek (now called [Bowmanville Creek](/wiki/Bowmanville_Creek \"Bowmanville Creek\")), including one still standing, now called Vanstone's Mill, at the present\\-day intersection of King Street and Scugog St. More mills were built on nearby Soper Creek, including another mill still standing as the municipality's [Visual Arts Centre](/wiki/Cream_of_Barley_Mill \"Cream of Barley Mill\") which has been designated as an architecturally protected historical building.By\\-law 79\\-033 \\- Municipality of Clarington.\n[thumb\\|left\\|Charles Bowman, the namesake of Bowmanville in the only known painting, with his family.](/wiki/File:Charles_Bowman_and_Family_Painting.jpg \"Charles Bowman and Family Painting.jpg\")\nBurke later sold his land to Lewis Lewis. Lewis opened the first store in what was then called Darlington Mills. The store was purchased in about 1824 by Charles Bowman (for whom the town was eventually named) who then established the first post office.{{cite news\\|last\\=Thickson\\|first\\=J.\\|title\\=History of West Durham Region\\|newspaper\\=Bowmanville Statesman\\|date\\=March 3, 1832}} Its first postmaster was Robert Fairbairn, who ran the post office from 1828 to 1857\\. Bowmanville incorporated as a town in 1858\\.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Hamilton\\|first\\=William\\|title\\=The Macmillan Book of Canadian Place Names\\|publisher\\=Macmillan\\|year\\=1978\\|isbn\\=0\\-7715\\-9754\\-1\\|location\\=Toronto\\|pages\\=137}}",
"By 1866, Bowmanville was a town with a population of about 3,500 in the township of Darlington, County Durham. It was a station of the [Grand Trunk Railway](/wiki/Grand_Trunk_Railway \"Grand Trunk Railway\"). It was established on the north shore of Lake Ontario. It possessed a good harbour and there was extensive water power in the vicinity. The surrounding country was fertile.The province of Ontario gazetteer and directory. H. McEvoy Editor and Compiler, Toronto: Robertson \\& Cook, Publishers, 1869",
"The success of the Vanstone Mill, fueled by the machinery of the Crown's land grant program, led to the rapid expansion of the Bowmanville settlement in the early years of the 19th century. Under the generous yet discriminate eyes of wealthy local merchants such as John Simpson and Charles Bowman, small properties would often be sold to promote settlement and small business. The town soon developed a balanced economy; all the while gradually establishing itself as a moderate player in shipping, rail transport, metal works and common minor business (including tanneries, liveries, stables and everyday mercantile commodity exchange).",
"By the time of [Confederation](/wiki/Confederation_of_Canada \"Confederation of Canada\"), Bowmanville was a vital, prosperous and growing town, home to a largely [Scots](/wiki/Scottish_people \"Scottish people\")\\-[Presbyterian](/wiki/Presbyterian \"Presbyterian\") community with all manner of farmers, working, and professional class making the town their home. With local economic stability and accessible, abundant land available for the construction of housing, the town soon sported several new churches, each designated to house both [Free and Auld Kirk](/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_in_Canada \"Presbyterian Church in Canada\"), [Anglican](/wiki/Anglican \"Anglican\") and [Nonconformist](/wiki/Nonconformist_%28Protestantism%29 \"Nonconformist (Protestantism)\") congregations, including the [Bible Christian Church](/wiki/Bible_Christian_Church \"Bible Christian Church\"), later to be a major stream of Canadian [Methodism](/wiki/Methodism \"Methodism\").",
"At present, St. John's Anglican Church. St. Andrew's Presbyterian Church, St. Paul's [United Church](/wiki/United_Church_of_Canada \"United Church of Canada\") and the impressively ornate Trinity United Church (site of an old Auld Kirk church) still serve the community. All of these edifices, appropriately, lie on or are in close proximity to present\\-day Church Street.\n[thumb\\|Postcard of the former Post Office, circa 1920s. The Town Hall building is visible to the right.](/wiki/File:Bowmanville_Post_Office_1920s.jpg \"Bowmanville Post Office 1920s.jpg\") \nIn the 19th century, in 1857, the Ontario Bank was founded in Bowmanville, with local resident John Simpson as its first president. The bank, while appearing to be a local enterprise, was primarily controlled by 16 Montreal businessmen. The Ontario bank eventually opened local branches including locations in Whitby, Oshawa, and Port Hope. In 1874, it was moved to Toronto, and would later become insolvent as a result of investing in speculative stocks in 1906\\.Humber, William.\"A Small Town On The Edge\". Natural Heritage/Natural History Inc.,1997, p19\\-21 The historic Ontario Bank building at the intersection of King and Temperance was demolished in 1971 Humber, William.\"A Small Town On The Edge\".Natural Heritage/Natural History Inc.,1997, p121",
"",
"| Census | Population |\n| --- | --- |\n| Town of Bowmanville | |\n| 1841 | 500 |\n| 1871 | 3,034 |\n| 1881 | 3,504 |\n| 1891 | 3,377 |\n| 1901 | 2,731 |\n| 1911 | 2,814 |\n| 1921 | 3,233 |\n| 1931 | 4,080 |\n| 1941 | 4,113 |\n| 1951 | 5,430 |\n| 1961 | 7,397 |\n| 1971 | 8,947 |\n| Town of Newcastle | |\n| 1981 | 32,229 |\n| 1991 | 49,479 |\n| Bowmanville \\- Newcastle | |\n| 2001 | 32,777 |\n| 2006 | 38,966 |\n| 2011 | 43,555 |\n| Bowmanville | |\n| 2011 | 35,168{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www12\\.statcan.gc.ca/census\\-recensement/2016/dp\\-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang\\=E \\=1\\&Geo1\\=POPC\\&Code1\\=0087\\&Geo2\\=PR\\&Code2\\=46\\&Data\\=Count\\&SearchText\\=Bowmanville\\&SearchType\\=Begins\\&SearchPR\\=01\\&B1\\=All\\&TABID\\=1\\&wbdisable\\=false\\|title\\=Census Profile, 2016 Census \\- Bowmanville \\[Population centre], Ontario and Manitoba \\[Province]\\|last\\=Canada\\|first\\=Government of Canada, Statistics\\|website\\=www12\\.statcan.gc.ca\\|date\\=8 February 2017 \\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-11}} |\n| 2016 | 39,371{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www12\\.statcan.gc.ca/census\\-recensement/2016/dp\\-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang\\=E \\=1\\&Geo1\\=POPC\\&Code1\\=0087\\&Geo2\\=PR\\&Code2\\=46\\&Data\\=Count\\&SearchText\\=Bowmanville\\&SearchType\\=Begins\\&SearchPR\\=01\\&B1\\=All\\&TABID\\=1\\&wbdisable\\=false\\|title\\=Census Profile, 2016 Census \\- Bowmanville \\[Population centre], Ontario and Manitoba \\[Province]\\|last\\=Canada\\|first\\=Government of Canada, Statistics\\|website\\=www12\\.statcan.gc.ca\\|date\\=8 February 2017 \\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-11}} |",
"In 1884, Scottish immigrant John McKay opened the [Cream of Barley Mill](/wiki/Cream_of_Barley_Mill \"Cream of Barley Mill\") next to Soper Creek to manufacture a cereal of his own creation. \"Cream of Barley\" was shipped throughout the British Empire.Taws, Charles. [\"When Barley was King!\"](http://www.claringtonpromoter.ca/downloads/feature/feature-2012-12.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202183323/http://www.claringtonpromoter.ca/downloads/feature/feature\\-2012\\-12\\.pdf\\# \\|date\\=2014\\-02\\-02 }} *ClaringtonPromoter*, December 2012\\.Taws, Charles, \"From Cereal to Elephants, the History of the Bowmanville Zoo\", *Clarington Promoter*, December 2013\\.\n[thumb\\|Aerial photo taken in 1919\\. Vanstone Mill and pond can be seen, along with the Vanstone [CPR](/wiki/Canadian_Pacific_Railway \"Canadian Pacific Railway\") bridge.](/wiki/File:Bownmanville_Ontario_from_the_Air_%28HS85-10-35917%29.jpg \"Bownmanville Ontario from the Air (HS85-10-35917).jpg\")\nLocal business organized and modernized in the 20th century, with the Dominion Organ and Piano factory, Specialty Paper Company, the [Bowmanville Foundry](/wiki/Bowmanville_Foundry \"Bowmanville Foundry\"), and the [Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company](/wiki/Goodyear_Tire_and_Rubber_Company \"Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company\") (1910\\) all providing steady work for Bowmanville's ever\\-growing working populations. Goodyear even went so far as to provide affordable housing for its employees, and present day Carlisle Ave. (built by Goodyear president W.C. Carlisle) in the 1910s still stands as one of Ontario's best preserved examples of industrial housing. The land on which the Bowmanville Hospital was built was donated by J.W. Alexander, the owner of the then\\-prospering Dominion Organ and Piano factory.",
"Formal education evolved in\\-step with Ryersonian philosophies of the day, and the advent of the Central Public School (1889\\) and the Bowmanville High School (1890\\), (both designed by Whitby architect A.A. Post) were the finishing touches to the town that was a model of then\\-Ontario Premier [Oliver Mowat](/wiki/Oliver_Mowat \"Oliver Mowat\")'s philosophy of education, expansion and innovation for the citizens of the province.",
"The 20th century saw a steady rise in the construction of area schools, with Vincent Massey P.S. (1955\\); St. Joseph Catholic Elementary (1962, 2000 at present site); Waverly P.S. (1978\\); Dr. Ross Tilley P.S. (1993\\); St. Elizabeth Catholic Elementary (1998\\); John M. James P.S. (1999\\); Harold Longworth P.S. (2003\\); and Holy Family Catholic Elementary School (2007\\), all accommodating gradual population increases and building developments in specific demographic areas of the town. The local school board was amalgamated with neighboring jurisdictions to form the [Kawartha Pine Ridge District School Board](/wiki/Kawartha_Pine_Ridge_District_School_Board \"Kawartha Pine Ridge District School Board\") in 1997\\. The Catholic schools are part of the [Peterborough Victoria Northumberland and Clarington Catholic District School Board](/wiki/Peterborough_Victoria_Northumberland_and_Clarington_Catholic_District_School_Board \"Peterborough Victoria Northumberland and Clarington Catholic District School Board\") which had already merged four counties in 1969 (at that time it was named the Peterborough, Victoria, Northumberland and Durham Separate School Board).",
"As the town grew and prospered, so arrived Bowmanville's grand era of architectural building and refinement. Many excellently maintained specimens of Italianate, Gothic Revival, Colonial Brick and Queen Anne architecture remain in Bowmanville's older central neighborhoods. Much of Bowmanville's residential and commercial architectural heritage was either lost or threatened by demolition and modern development from 1950 to 1980, but a 25\\-year renaissance in appreciation and awareness (led largely by local historians and LACAC members) helped to preserve the precious remnants of days gone by.",
"Bowmanville was incorporated as a village in 1852 and as a town in 1858\\. In 1974, the town was amalgamated with neighbouring [Clarke Township](/wiki/Clarke_Township%2C_Ontario \"Clarke Township, Ontario\") and [Darlington Township](/wiki/Darlington_Township%2C_Ontario \"Darlington Township, Ontario\") to form the **Town of Newcastle** which in turn was renamed the **Municipality of Clarington** in 1994\\.",
"Subdivided housing developments first arrived in the 1950s, with a significant increase in housing development through the 1980s and 1990s. The population rose to about 10,000 in the 1970s, about 20,000 in the 1980s, about 25,000 in the 1990s and today is about 35,000\\. Transportation improvements in the 1980s included a widening of Highway 401 (first built through Bowmanville in 1952\\) to six lanes and of Highway 2 to 4/5 lanes. Many have referred to this as the \"Lane Era\" of Bowmanville.",
"### Prisoner of war camp",
"{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=August 2017}}\n[Camp 30](/wiki/Bowmanville_POW_camp \"Bowmanville POW camp\"), the Lake Ontario Officers' Camp\\-Bowmanville, held captive German army officers from the Afrika Korps, Luftwaffe aircrew and naval officers from the Kriegsmarine. Farms surrounded the camp that had been a delinquent boys' school prior to the war. In several accounts by former prisoners of war (POWs), the prison was represented as very humane, in that the prisoners were well treated and well fed.",
"Among the German officers transferred from England to Bowmanville was Korvettenkapitän [Otto Kretschmer](/wiki/Otto_Kretschmer \"Otto Kretschmer\"), who was the top U\\-boat ace of World War II. Kretschmer assumed the duties of the senior naval officer, sharing the command with the senior Luftwaffe officer Oberstleutnant Hans Hefele and the senior army officer General Leutnant Hans von Ravenstein.\n[thumb\\|Camp 30, circa 1930\\.](/wiki/File:Bowmanville_POW_camp_-_Cafeteria_and_site_of_%22Battle_of_Bowmanville%22_-_Bowmanville%2C_Ontario%2C_Canada.jpg \"Bowmanville POW camp - Cafeteria and site of \")\nThe Bowmanville boys' school had been quickly turned into a POW camp by surrounding the existing school buildings with a barbed wire fence. The facility, which had been designed to house 300 boys, was cramped and undersized for grown men. Two {{convert\\|12\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=mid\\|\\-high}} fences with electric lights every twelve feet and nine guard towers surrounded the {{convert\\|14\\|acre\\|m2\\|adj\\=on}} site. The fence had sixty miles of barbed wire looped around the small perimeter. Lieutenant Colonel R.O. Bull M.C. had a support staff plus the Veterans Guard of Canada, consisting of nine officers and 239 other ranks under his command to guard the prisoners.",
"When the naval prisoners arrived at Bowmanville, there were no recreational facilities. The naval officers quickly transformed the camp. Flower and vegetable gardens were planted, sports fields, tennis courts and a swimming pool were built. The quarters were expanded, giving the prisoners better living conditions. The prisoners received money from home or earned extra money by manufacturing wooden furniture. They were able to purchase beer, cigarettes and dry goods from [Eaton's](/wiki/Eaton%27s \"Eaton's\") mail order catalogue. It was an ideal life except that there were no women and no freedom. For some there was the urge to get back to the war and defend their country, and for others a desire to remain POWs for the duration of the war.",
"A daily routine of exercise, sporting events and work assignments was established. As well as English being taught, professors from the nearby University of Toronto gave lectures for university credit classes. A school was also formed, which taught midshipmen seamanship and navigation courses.",
"Current movies were shown each week. National and religious holidays were observed, and music concerts were given regularly. Elaborate stage plays were produced. Extraordinary puppets were designed and fabricated for puppet shows. Although the conditions were good in the Canadian POW camps, there was very little to do, and the routine was always the same.",
"### Battle of Bowmanville",
"In October 1942, in a prisoner of war uprising known as the [Battle of Bowmanville](/wiki/Battle_of_Bowmanville \"Battle of Bowmanville\"), between 150 and 400 mostly German prisoners revolted against the guards at Camp 30 after they were shackled as retribution as part of the escalation of Germany's new Commando Order.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Durflinger \\|first1\\=Serge \\|title\\=To war once more \\|url\\=https://legionmagazine.com/to\\-war\\-once\\-more/ \\|access\\-date\\=15 March 2024 \\|publisher\\=Legion Magazine \\|date\\=27 October 2023}}",
"Lt.Col. James Taylor had asked German senior officer Georg Friemel to supply 100 prisoners to volunteer to be shackled as part of the ongoing international dispute. When he refused, Otto Kretschmer and Hans Hefele were also asked to provide volunteers, but refused.",
"Taylor ordered the guards to find 100 officers to be shackled by force, and Horst Elfe, Kretschmer and others barricaded themselves in the mess hall, arming themselves with sticks, iron bars and other makeshift weapons. Approximately 100 Canadian soldiers requisitioned from another base arrived, and together stormed the mess hall using only baseball bats, so the two sides remained evenly matched. After several hours of brawling, the Canadians brought high pressure water hoses and soaked the cabin thoroughly until the prisoners agreed to come out peacefully.",
"During later incidents in the battle which spanned several days, Volkmar König was wounded by gunfire and another bayoneted, and a [Canadian](/wiki/Canadians \"Canadians\") soldier suffered a skull fracture from a thrown jar of jam. After calm had returned, 126 of the prisoners were transferred to other camps.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=December 2021}}",
""
] |
Sports
------
[thumb\|Ice rink at the Garnet B. Rickard Recreation Complex.](/wiki/File:Garnet_B._Rickard_Recreation_Complex_-_Bowmanville%2C_ON.jpg "Garnet B. Rickard Recreation Complex - Bowmanville, ON.jpg")
In the 1960s the [Oshawa Generals](/wiki/Oshawa_Generals "Oshawa Generals") and [Bobby Orr](/wiki/Bobby_Orr "Bobby Orr") played hockey in the old Bowmanville Arena on Queen Street while awaiting the [Oshawa Civic Auditorium](/wiki/Oshawa_Civic_Auditorium "Oshawa Civic Auditorium")'s completion.
The [Bowmanville Eagles](/wiki/Bowmanville_Eagles "Bowmanville Eagles") were the most recent local hockey team to play in Bowmanville, but were merged with the nearby Cobourg Cougars in early 2010 by the CCHL and OJHL.
The Bowmanville Eagles were reborn in 2011\. The hockey team was admitted as a Junior C Hockey Club playing in the Central Ontario Junior C League. The Eagles were a Junior C team in the 1970s, 1980s and early 1990s. The Eagles applied and were accepted to the Junior A level in 1995\. The Eagles were a powerhouse team in the 1980s winning the Charles Schmalz Cup (Provincial Jr C Championship) in 1982\. They won the Central Ontario Championships in 1981, 82, 84, 85, 92, 93 and 94\.
In their final season as a Jr. C team before moving to Jr. A, the Eagles went to the Schmalz Cup Final. The Eagles did not have success at the Jr A level until approximately 2004\. They had moderate success from there until 2010\. The Jr. A league decided it needed to contract some clubs and unfortunately the Eagles were one of the clubs on the contraction list.
In their inaugural season back as a Junior C club, the Eagles won the Central Ontario League Championship. The Eagles won playoff rounds over Uxbridge, Little Britain and Lakefield. In the Provincial round of the playoffs the Eagles went up against the Campbellford Rebels of the Empire Jr C league where they lost out in seven games.
Bowmanville is the home of the Clarington Tigercats \- Durham Knights Football Club which was founded in 1999\.
In 1997 the Oshawa Green Gaels lacrosse franchise moved to Clarington. They play out of the [Garnet B Rickard](/wiki/Garnet_Rickard "Garnet Rickard") complex. Since relocating to Clarington in 97 the Gaels have been one of the most dominant lacrosse franchises in the Jr B loop. They have never had a losing season to date and have won 4 Founders Cup championships as the best Canadian Jr B lacrosse team in the Country.
|
[
"Sports\n------",
"[thumb\\|Ice rink at the Garnet B. Rickard Recreation Complex.](/wiki/File:Garnet_B._Rickard_Recreation_Complex_-_Bowmanville%2C_ON.jpg \"Garnet B. Rickard Recreation Complex - Bowmanville, ON.jpg\")\nIn the 1960s the [Oshawa Generals](/wiki/Oshawa_Generals \"Oshawa Generals\") and [Bobby Orr](/wiki/Bobby_Orr \"Bobby Orr\") played hockey in the old Bowmanville Arena on Queen Street while awaiting the [Oshawa Civic Auditorium](/wiki/Oshawa_Civic_Auditorium \"Oshawa Civic Auditorium\")'s completion.",
"The [Bowmanville Eagles](/wiki/Bowmanville_Eagles \"Bowmanville Eagles\") were the most recent local hockey team to play in Bowmanville, but were merged with the nearby Cobourg Cougars in early 2010 by the CCHL and OJHL.",
"The Bowmanville Eagles were reborn in 2011\\. The hockey team was admitted as a Junior C Hockey Club playing in the Central Ontario Junior C League. The Eagles were a Junior C team in the 1970s, 1980s and early 1990s. The Eagles applied and were accepted to the Junior A level in 1995\\. The Eagles were a powerhouse team in the 1980s winning the Charles Schmalz Cup (Provincial Jr C Championship) in 1982\\. They won the Central Ontario Championships in 1981, 82, 84, 85, 92, 93 and 94\\.",
"In their final season as a Jr. C team before moving to Jr. A, the Eagles went to the Schmalz Cup Final. The Eagles did not have success at the Jr A level until approximately 2004\\. They had moderate success from there until 2010\\. The Jr. A league decided it needed to contract some clubs and unfortunately the Eagles were one of the clubs on the contraction list.",
"In their inaugural season back as a Junior C club, the Eagles won the Central Ontario League Championship. The Eagles won playoff rounds over Uxbridge, Little Britain and Lakefield. In the Provincial round of the playoffs the Eagles went up against the Campbellford Rebels of the Empire Jr C league where they lost out in seven games.",
"Bowmanville is the home of the Clarington Tigercats \\- Durham Knights Football Club which was founded in 1999\\.",
"In 1997 the Oshawa Green Gaels lacrosse franchise moved to Clarington. They play out of the [Garnet B Rickard](/wiki/Garnet_Rickard \"Garnet Rickard\") complex. Since relocating to Clarington in 97 the Gaels have been one of the most dominant lacrosse franchises in the Jr B loop. They have never had a losing season to date and have won 4 Founders Cup championships as the best Canadian Jr B lacrosse team in the Country.",
""
] |
Australia
---------
The Australian leg of the tour took place in the midst of the [1988 NSWRFL season](/wiki/1988_NSWRFL_season "1988 NSWRFL season") as well as the [1988 State of Origin series](/wiki/1988_State_of_Origin_series "1988 State of Origin series"). In 1988 Australia was also celebrating its national bicentenary.{{cite book\|title\=Annual Report\|year\=1988\|publisher\=\[\[Australian Rugby Football League]]\|location\=Australia\|page\=8\|url\=https://secure.ausport.gov.au/\_\_data/assets/pdf\_file/0011/96878/Australian\_Rugby\_Football\_League\_Annual\_Report\_1988\.pdf}} The tour's itinerary, which involved short periods between matches, making it tough for the visitors, was designed by the [Australian Rugby League](/wiki/Australian_Rugby_League "Australian Rugby League") but agreed to by the British.{{cite news\|last\=Clarkson\|first\=Alan\|title\=Reilly's Agony\|url\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\=news880625\_0069\_3766\|accessdate\=17 February 2014\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sun\-Herald]]\|date\=25 June 1988}}
The Ashes series attracted just 67,554 to the three tests, with the [dead rubber](/wiki/Dead_rubber "Dead rubber") third game attracting just 15,944 to the [Sydney Football Stadium](/wiki/Sydney_Football_Stadium_%281988%29 "Sydney Football Stadium (1988)"). The second Ashes test against Australia at [Lang Park](/wiki/Lang_Park "Lang Park") in [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane "Brisbane") drew the tours highest attendance of 27,130 while the game against [reigning](/wiki/1987_NSWRL_season "1987 NSWRL season") Sydney premiers [Manly\-Warringah](/wiki/Manly_Sea_Eagles "Manly Sea Eagles") attracted the highest non\-test attendance of the tour with 21,131\. The total Ashes series attendance was 7,926 less than had attended the 1984 series played in Australia and was 34,006 less than the record breaking series played in England during the [1986 Kangaroo Tour](/wiki/1986_Kangaroo_Tour "1986 Kangaroo Tour"). It was also easily the lowest ever attended Ashes series played in Australia since [1910](/wiki/1910_Great_Britain_Lions_tour_of_Australia_and_New_Zealand "1910 Great Britain Lions tour of Australia and New Zealand") which attracted 60,000 fans.
### Test Venues
The three Ashes series tests took place at the following venues. Two games were played in Sydney at the new Sydney Football Stadium which had replaced the [Sydney Cricket Ground](/wiki/Sydney_Cricket_Ground "Sydney Cricket Ground") as the main rugby league venue in Sydney.
| [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney "Sydney") | [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane "Brisbane") |
| --- | --- |
| [Sydney Football Stadium](/wiki/Sydney_Football_Stadium_%281988%29 "Sydney Football Stadium (1988)") | [Lang Park](/wiki/Lang_Park "Lang Park") |
| Capacity: **40,000** | Capacity: **32,500** |
| [200px](/wiki/File:Sydney_Football_Stadium.jpg "Sydney Football Stadium.jpg") | [200px](/wiki/File:Suncorp-Stadium-Milton-Queensland.jpg "Suncorp-Stadium-Milton-Queensland.jpg") |
---
{{rugbyleaguebox
\| date \= Friday, 27 May
\| time \=
\| team1 \= \[\[Cairns District Rugby League\|North Queensland]] {{leagueicon\|Cairns\|16}}
\| score \= 16 – 66
\| report \= \[http://wigan.rlfans.com/fusion\_pages/index.php?page\_id\=1201]
\| team2 \= {{leagueicon\|Great Britain\|16}} \[\[Great Britain Lions\|Great Britain]]
\| points1 \= '''Tries''':
Filosi (2\), House
'''Goals''':
Worth (1\)
Conlan (1\)
\| points2 \= '''Tries''':
\[\[Martin Offiah]] (4\), \[\[Mike Ford (rugby)\|Mike Ford]] (3\), \[\[Phil Ford (rugby)\|Phil Ford]] (2\), \[\[Paul Medley]] (2\), \[\[Paul Dixon (rugby league)\|Paul Dixon]]
'''Goals''':
\[\[David Stephenson (rugby league, born 1958\)\|David Stephenson]] (8\)
\[\[Phil Ford (rugby)\|Phil Ford]] (1\)
\| stadium \= \[\[Cairns Showgrounds]], \[\[Cairns]]
\| attendance\= 5,500
\| referee \= \[\[Barry Gomersall]]
\| manofmatch \=
}}
**North Queensland**: Namok, Gagai, Taylor, Turia, Curry, Worth, Filosi, Colwell, Bax, McAskill, House, Dalley, Greenwood. Res \- Ernest, Conlan
**Great Britain**: [Phil Ford](/wiki/Phil_Ford_%28rugby%29 "Phil Ford (rugby)"), [Paul Medley](/wiki/Paul_Medley "Paul Medley"), [Carl Gibson](/wiki/Carl_Gibson "Carl Gibson"), [David Stephenson](/wiki/David_Stephenson_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1958%29 "David Stephenson (rugby league, born 1958)"), [Martin Offiah](/wiki/Martin_Offiah "Martin Offiah"), [David Hulme](/wiki/David_Hulme_%28rugby_league%29 "David Hulme (rugby league)"), [Mike Ford](/wiki/Mike_Ford_%28rugby%29 "Mike Ford (rugby)"), [Brian Case](/wiki/Brian_Case "Brian Case"), [Paul Groves](/wiki/Paul_Groves_%28rugby_league%29 "Paul Groves (rugby league)"), [Roy Powell](/wiki/Roy_Powell_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1965%29 "Roy Powell (rugby league, born 1965)"), [Karl Fairbank](/wiki/Karl_Fairbank "Karl Fairbank"), [Paul Dixon](/wiki/Paul_Dixon_%28rugby_league%29 "Paul Dixon (rugby league)"), [Andy Platt](/wiki/Andy_Platt "Andy Platt") (c). Res \- [Roy Haggerty](/wiki/Roy_Haggerty "Roy Haggerty")
---
{{rugbyleaguebox
\| date \= Wednesday, 1 June
\| time \= 15:00
\| team1 \= \[\[Newcastle Knights]] {{leagueicon\|Newcastle\|16}}
\| score \= 12 – 28
\| report \= \[http://wigan.rlfans.com/fusion\_pages/index.php?page\_id\=1202]
\| team2 \= {{leagueicon\|Great Britain\|16}} \[\[Great Britain Lions\|Great Britain]]
\| points1 \= '''Tries''':
\[\[Brett Shore]], \[\[Tony Kemp (rugby league)\|Tony Kemp]], \[\[Glenn Miller (rugby league)\|Glenn Miller]]
'''Goals''':
\| points2 \= '''Tries''':
\[\[Martin Offiah]] (2\), \[\[Ellery Hanley]] (2\), \[\[Kevin Ward (rugby league)\|Kevin Ward]]
'''Goals''':
\[\[Paul Loughlin]] (4\)
\| stadium \= \[\[Newcastle International Sports Centre]], \[\[Newcastle, New South Wales\|Newcastle]]
\| attendance\= 8,970{{cite news\|last\=MacDonald\|first\=John\|title\=Tourists fail to exhibit Defence and Discipline\|url\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\=news880601\_0305\_0176\|accessdate\=14 February 2014\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\|date\=1 June 1988}}
\| referee \= Greg McCallum
\| manofmatch\=
}}
| {{Football kit \|pattern\_la \= \_redborder \|pattern\_b \= \_Knights1988 \|pattern\_ra \= \_redborder \|pattern\_sh \= \|pattern\_so \= \_2 red stripes \|leftarm \= 0000FF \|body \= 0000FF \|rightarm \= 0000FF \|shorts \= 0000FF \|socks \= 0000FF \|title \= Newcastle Knights }} | {{Football kit \|pattern\_la \= \|pattern\_b \= \_GBR1985 \|pattern\_ra \= \|pattern\_sh \= \|pattern\_so \= \_band\_red \|leftarm \= FFFFFF \|body \= FFFFFF \|rightarm \= FFFFFF \|shorts \= 0000FF \|socks \= 0000FF \|title \= Great Britain }} |
| --- | --- |
|
|
| |
| FB | **1** | [Glenn Frendo](/wiki/Glenn_Frendo "Glenn Frendo") |
| LW | **2** | [Troy Clarke](/wiki/Troy_Clarke_%28rugby_league%29 "Troy Clarke (rugby league)") |
| CE | **3** | [Jeff Doyle](/wiki/Jeff_Doyle_%28rugby_league%29 "Jeff Doyle (rugby league)") |
| CE | **4** | [Tony Kemp](/wiki/Tony_Kemp_%28rugby_league%29 "Tony Kemp (rugby league)") |
| RW | **5** | [Glenn Miller](/wiki/Glenn_Miller_%28rugby_league%29 "Glenn Miller (rugby league)") |
| FE | **6** | [Robbie McCormack](/wiki/Robbie_McCormack "Robbie McCormack") |
| HB | **7** | [Steve Fulmer](/wiki/Steve_Fulmer "Steve Fulmer") |
| LK | **8** | [Mark Glanville](/wiki/Mark_Glanville "Mark Glanville") |
| SR | **9** | [Sam Stewart](/wiki/Sam_Stewart_%28rugby_league%29 "Sam Stewart (rugby league)") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 "Captain (sports)")) |
| SR | **10** | [Michael McKiernan](/wiki/Michael_McKiernan "Michael McKiernan") |
| PR | **11** | [David Thorne](/wiki/David_Thorne_%28rugby_league%29 "David Thorne (rugby league)") |
| HK | **12** | [Tony Townsend](/wiki/Tony_Townsend "Tony Townsend") |
| PR | **13** | [Brett Shore](/wiki/Brett_Shore "Brett Shore") |
|**Substitutions:**
| IC | **14** | [Steve Walters](/wiki/Steve_Walters_%28rugby_league_played_1988%29 "Steve Walters (rugby league played 1988)") |
| IC | **15** | [Scott Carter](/wiki/Scott_Carter_%28Australia_rugby_league%29 "Scott Carter (Australia rugby league)") |
|**Coach:**
|{{flagicon\|AUS}} [Allan McMahon](/wiki/Allan_McMahon "Allan McMahon")
|
| |
| FB | **1** | {{leagueicon\|St Helens\|12}} [Paul Loughlin](/wiki/Paul_Loughlin "Paul Loughlin") |
| RW | **2** | {{leagueicon\|Wigan\|12}} [Henderson Gill](/wiki/Henderson_Gill "Henderson Gill") |
| CE | **3** | {{leagueicon\|Leeds\|12}} [Carl Gibson](/wiki/Carl_Gibson "Carl Gibson") |
| CE | **4** | {{leagueicon\|Widnes\|12}} [Darren Wright](/wiki/Darren_Wright_%28rugby_league%29 "Darren Wright (rugby league)") |
| LW | **5** | {{leagueicon\|Widnes\|12}} [Martin Offiah](/wiki/Martin_Offiah "Martin Offiah") |
| SO | **6** | {{leagueicon\|Wigan\|12}} [Ellery Hanley](/wiki/Ellery_Hanley "Ellery Hanley") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 "Captain (sports)")) |
| SH | **7** | {{leagueicon\|Wigan\|12}} [Andy Gregory](/wiki/Andy_Gregory "Andy Gregory") |
| PR | **8** | {{leagueicon\|Castleford\|12}} [Kevin Ward](/wiki/Kevin_Ward_%28rugby_league%29 "Kevin Ward (rugby league)") |
| HK | **9** | {{leagueicon\|Castleford\|12}} [Kevin Beardmore](/wiki/Kevin_Beardmore "Kevin Beardmore") |
| PR | **10** | {{leagueicon\|Oldham\|12}} [Hugh Waddell](/wiki/Hugh_Waddell_%28rugby_league%29 "Hugh Waddell (rugby league)") |
| SR | **11** | {{leagueicon\|Warrington\|12}} [Mike Gregory](/wiki/Mike_Gregory "Mike Gregory") |
| SR | **12** | {{leagueicon\|Leeds\|12}} [Paul Dixon](/wiki/Paul_Dixon_%28rugby_league%29 "Paul Dixon (rugby league)") |
| LF | **13** | {{leagueicon\|St Helens\|12}} [Andy Platt](/wiki/Andy_Platt "Andy Platt") |
|**Substitutions:**
| IC | **14** | |
| IC | **15** | |
|**Coach:**
|{{flagicon\|ENG}} [Mal Reilly](/wiki/Mal_Reilly "Mal Reilly")
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
The Newcastle Knights, a new team in the [NSWRL](/wiki/NSWRL "NSWRL") Premiership in [1988](/wiki/1988_NSWRL_season "1988 NSWRL season"), was rewarded for large early season attendances with a game against the touring Lions.
---
{{rugbyleaguebox
\| date \= Sunday, 5 June
\| time \=
\| team1 \= Northern Division {{leagueicon\|Balmain\|16}}
\| score \= 36 – 12
\| report \= \[http://wigan.rlfans.com/fusion\_pages/index.php?page\_id\=1204]
\| team2 \= {{leagueicon\|Great Britain\|16}} \[\[Great Britain Lions\|Great Britain]]
\| points1 \='''Tries''':
\[\[Ewan McGrady]] (2\), \[\[Chris Cumming]], B. Plater, M. Manes
'''Goals''':
M. Spinks (8\)
\| points2 \='''Tries''':
\[\[Henderson Gill]], \[\[Garry Schofield]]
'''Goals''':
\[\[Paul Loughlin]] (2\)
\| stadium \= \[\[Scully Park]], \[\[Tamworth, New South Wales\|Tamworth]]
\| attendance\= 4,000{{cite news\|last\=Hadfield\|first\=Dave\|title\=Reilly still confident for Tests\|url\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\=news880605\_0304\_8524\|accessdate\=14 February 2014\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\|date\=5 June 1988}}
\| referee \= Barry Priest
\| manofmatch \= \[\[Ewan McGrady]] {{leagueicon\|Balmain\|16}}
}}
| {{Football kit \|pattern\_la \= \_thin\_blackhoops \|pattern\_b \= \_blackhoops \|pattern\_ra \= \_thin\_blackhoops \|pattern\_sh \= \|pattern\_so \= \_hoops\_black \|leftarm \= FF8000 \|body \= FF8000 \|rightarm \= FF8000 \|shorts \= 000000 \|socks \= FF8000 \|title \= Northern Division }} | {{Football kit \|pattern\_la \= \|pattern\_b \= \_GBR1985 \|pattern\_ra \= \|pattern\_sh \= \|pattern\_so \= \_band\_red \|leftarm \= FFFFFF \|body \= FFFFFF \|rightarm \= FFFFFF \|shorts \= 0000FF \|socks \= 0000FF \|title \= Great Britain }} |
| --- | --- |
|
|
| |
| FB | **1** | Spinks |
| LW | **2** | Plater |
| CE | **3** | Gardner |
| CE | **4** | [Matthew Ryan](/wiki/Matthew_Ryan_%28rugby_league%29 "Matthew Ryan (rugby league)") |
| RW | **5** | French |
| FE | **6** | [Rocky Laurie](/wiki/Robert_Laurie_%28rugby_league%29 "Robert Laurie (rugby league)") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 "Captain (sports)")) |
| HB | **7** | [Ewan McGrady](/wiki/Ewan_McGrady "Ewan McGrady") |
| LK | **8** | Maynes |
| SR | **9** | Lavender |
| SR | **10** | Cumming |
| PR | **11** | Cotter |
| HK | **12** | Masters |
| PR | **13** | McCann |
|**Substitutions:**
| IC | **14** | McCormack |
| IC | **15** | Briggs |
|**Coach:**
|
|
| |
| FB | **1** | {{leagueicon\|St Helens\|12}} [Paul Loughlin](/wiki/Paul_Loughlin "Paul Loughlin") |
| RW | **2** | {{leagueicon\|Bradford\|12}} [Phil Ford](/wiki/Phil_Ford_%28rugby%29 "Phil Ford (rugby)") |
| CE | **3** | {{leagueicon\|Leeds\|12}} [Garry Schofield](/wiki/Garry_Schofield "Garry Schofield") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 "Captain (sports)")) |
| CE | **4** | {{leagueicon\|Leeds\|12}} [David Stephenson](/wiki/David_Stephenson_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1958%29 "David Stephenson (rugby league, born 1958)") |
| LW | **5** | {{leagueicon\|Wigan\|12}} [Henderson Gill](/wiki/Henderson_Gill "Henderson Gill") |
| SO | **6** | {{leagueicon\|Widnes\|12}} [David Hulme](/wiki/David_Hulme_%28rugby_league%29 "David Hulme (rugby league)") |
| SH | **7** | {{leagueicon\|Oldham\|12}} [Mike Ford](/wiki/Mike_Ford_%28rugby%29 "Mike Ford (rugby)") |
| PR | **8** | {{leagueicon\|Wigan\|12}} [Brian Case](/wiki/Brian_Case "Brian Case") |
| HK | **9** | {{leagueicon\|St Helens\|12}} [Paul Groves](/wiki/Paul_Groves_%28rugby_league%29 "Paul Groves (rugby league)") |
| PR | **10** | {{leagueicon\|Hull\|12}} [Lee Crooks](/wiki/Lee_Crooks_%28rugby_league%29 "Lee Crooks (rugby league)") |
| SR | **11** | {{leagueicon\|Leeds\|12}} [Roy Powell](/wiki/Roy_Powell_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1965%29 "Roy Powell (rugby league, born 1965)") |
| SR | **12** | {{leagueicon\|Leeds\|12}} [Paul Medley](/wiki/Paul_Medley "Paul Medley") |
| LF | **13** | {{leagueicon\|St Helens\|12}} [Roy Haggerty](/wiki/Roy_Haggerty "Roy Haggerty") |
|**Substitutions:**
| IC | **14** | |
| IC | **15** | {{leagueicon\|Bradford\|12}} [Karl Fairbank](/wiki/Karl_Fairbank "Karl Fairbank") |
|**Coach:**
|{{flagicon\|ENG}} [Mal Reilly](/wiki/Mal_Reilly "Mal Reilly")
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
The Northern Division side, captained by former [NSW](/wiki/New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team "New South Wales rugby league team"), [South Sydney](/wiki/South_Sydney_Rabbitohs "South Sydney Rabbitohs") and [Eastern Suburbs](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters "Sydney Roosters") [five\-eighth](/wiki/Five-eighth "Five-eighth") Rocky Laurie, gave the tourists their first defeat, and a heavy defeat at that. Also playing for Northern Division was future NSWRL [Rothmans Medal](/wiki/Rothmans_Medal "Rothmans Medal") winner with [Canterbury\-Bankstown](/wiki/Canterbury_Bulldogs "Canterbury Bulldogs"), Moree Boomerangs {{rlp\|HB}} Ewan McGrady who crossed for two tries and future Canterbury premiership winning centre [Matthew Ryan](/wiki/Matthew_Ryan_%28rugby_league%29 "Matthew Ryan (rugby league)"). The game became known as "Black Sunday" for the Lions who went down 36\-12\. According to media reports, after the game Mal Reilly locked his team in the dressing room and upbraided them for 20 minutes before the media were allowed in.{{cite book\|last1\=McGregor\|first1\=Adrian\|title\=Simply The Best: The 1990 Kangaroos\|date\=1991\|publisher\=University of Queensland Press\|location\=Qld\|isbn\=0\-7022\-2370\-0\|page\=55 The Fall and Rise of England}}
---
{{rugbyleaguebox
\| date \=Tuesday, 7 June
\| time \=
\| team1 \= \[\[Manly Warringah Sea Eagles\|Manly\-Warringah]] {{leagueicon\|Manly\|16}}
\| score \= 30 – 0
\| report \= \[http://wigan.rlfans.com/fusion\_pages/index.php?page\_id\=1205]
\| team2 \= {{leagueicon\|Great Britain\|16}} \[\[Great Britain Lions\|Great Britain]]
\| points1 \= '''Tries''':
\[\[Ian Gately]], \[\[Mark Pocock]], \[\[Geoff Toovey]], \[\[Charlie Haggett]], \[\[Cliff Lyons]]
'''Goals''':
\[\[Tim Dwyer (rugby league)\|Tim Dwyer]] (5/5\)
\| points2 \= '''Tries''':
'''Goals''':
\| stadium \= \[\[Brookvale Oval]], \[\[Sydney]]
\| attendance \= 21,131{{cite news\|last\=MacDonald\|first\=John\|title\=Manly maul the Tourists\|url\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\=news880607\_0188\_8185\|accessdate\=16 February 2014\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\|date\=7 June 1988}}
\| referee \= \[\[Francis Desplas]] {{flagicon\|FRA}}
\| manofmatch \= \[\[Geoff Toovey]] {{leagueicon\|Manly\|16}}
}}
| {{Football kit \|pattern\_la \= \|pattern\_b \= \_manly \|pattern\_ra \= \|pattern\_sh \= \|pattern\_so \= \_2whitestripes \|leftarm \= 800000 \|body \= 800000 \|rightarm \= 800000 \|shorts \= FFFFFF \|socks \= 800000 \|title \= Manly\-Warringah }} | {{Football kit \|pattern\_la \= \|pattern\_b \= \_GBR1985 \|pattern\_ra \= \|pattern\_sh \= \|pattern\_so \= \_band\_red \|leftarm \= FFFFFF \|body \= FFFFFF \|rightarm \= FFFFFF \|shorts \= 0000FF \|socks \= 0000FF \|title \= Great Britain }} |
| --- | --- |
|
|
| |
| FB | **1** | [Tim Dwyer](/wiki/Tim_Dwyer_%28rugby_league%29 "Tim Dwyer (rugby league)") |
| LW | **2** | [Stuart Davis](/wiki/Stuart_Davis_%28rugby_league%29 "Stuart Davis (rugby league)") |
| CE | **3** | [Joe Ropati](/wiki/Joe_Ropati "Joe Ropati") |
| CE | **4** | [Darrell Williams](/wiki/Darrell_Williams_%28rugby_league%29 "Darrell Williams (rugby league)") |
| RW | **5** | [Greg Austin](/wiki/Greg_Austin_%28rugby%29 "Greg Austin (rugby)") |
| FE | **6** | [Cliff Lyons](/wiki/Cliff_Lyons "Cliff Lyons") |
| HB | **7** | [Geoff Toovey](/wiki/Geoff_Toovey "Geoff Toovey") |
| LK | **8** | [Des Hasler](/wiki/Des_Hasler "Des Hasler") |
| SR | **9** | [Noel Cleal](/wiki/Noel_Cleal "Noel Cleal") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 "Captain (sports)")) |
| SR | **10** | [Mark Pocock](/wiki/Mark_Pocock "Mark Pocock") |
| PR | **11** | [Mark Brokenshire](/wiki/Mark_Brokenshire "Mark Brokenshire") |
| HK | **12** | [Charlie Haggett](/wiki/Charlie_Haggett "Charlie Haggett") |
| PR | **13** | [Ian Gately](/wiki/Ian_Gately "Ian Gately") |
|**Substitutions:**
| IC | **14** | [Paul Shaw](/wiki/Paul_Shaw_%28rugby_league%29 "Paul Shaw (rugby league)") |
| IC | **15** | [Glenn Ryan](/wiki/Glenn_Ryan_%28rugby_league%29 "Glenn Ryan (rugby league)") |
|**Coach:**
|{{flagicon\|AUS}} [Bob Fulton](/wiki/Bob_Fulton "Bob Fulton")
|
| |
| FB | **1** | {{leagueicon\|Bradford\|12}} [Phil Ford](/wiki/Phil_Ford_%28rugby%29 "Phil Ford (rugby)") |
| RW | **2** | {{leagueicon\|Leeds\|12}} [Carl Gibson](/wiki/Carl_Gibson "Carl Gibson") |
| CE | **3** | {{leagueicon\|Leeds\|12}} [Ian Wilkinson](/wiki/Ian_Wilkinson_%28rugby_league%29 "Ian Wilkinson (rugby league)") |
| CE | **4** | {{leagueicon\|Widnes\|12}} [Darren Wright](/wiki/Darren_Wright_%28rugby_league%29 "Darren Wright (rugby league)") |
| LW | **5** | {{leagueicon\|Widnes\|12}} [Martin Offiah](/wiki/Martin_Offiah "Martin Offiah") |
| SO | **6** | {{leagueicon\|Leeds\|12}} [David Stephenson](/wiki/David_Stephenson_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1958%29 "David Stephenson (rugby league, born 1958)") |
| SH | **7** | {{leagueicon\|Widnes\|12}} [David Hulme](/wiki/David_Hulme_%28rugby_league%29 "David Hulme (rugby league)") |
| PR | **8** | {{leagueicon\|Oldham\|12}} [Hugh Waddell](/wiki/Hugh_Waddell_%28rugby_league%29 "Hugh Waddell (rugby league)") |
| HK | **9** | {{leagueicon\|St Helens\|12}} [Paul Groves](/wiki/Paul_Groves_%28rugby_league%29 "Paul Groves (rugby league)") |
| PR | **10** | {{leagueicon\|Leeds\|12}} [Roy Powell](/wiki/Roy_Powell_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1965%29 "Roy Powell (rugby league, born 1965)") |
| SR | **11** | {{leagueicon\|Bradford\|12}} [Karl Fairbank](/wiki/Karl_Fairbank "Karl Fairbank") |
| SR | **12** | {{leagueicon\|Leeds\|12}} [Paul Medley](/wiki/Paul_Medley "Paul Medley") |
| LF | **13** | {{leagueicon\|St Helens\|12}} [Andy Platt](/wiki/Andy_Platt "Andy Platt") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 "Captain (sports)")) |
|**Substitutions:**
| IC | **14** | {{leagueicon\|St Helens\|12}} [Roy Haggerty](/wiki/Roy_Haggerty "Roy Haggerty") |
| IC | **15** | {{leagueicon\|Hull\|12}} [Lee Crooks](/wiki/Lee_Crooks_%28rugby_league%29 "Lee Crooks (rugby league)") |
|**Coach:**
|{{flagicon\|ENG}} [Mal Reilly](/wiki/Mal_Reilly "Mal Reilly")
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
Although facing the Lions mid\-week side which still included test players Andy Platt, Martin Offiah, Phil Ford, Carl Gibson, David Hulme and Roy Powell, Manly went into the game missing regular first grade players in lock forward [Paul Vautin](/wiki/Paul_Vautin "Paul Vautin"), centre [Michael O'Connor](/wiki/Michael_O%27Connor_%28rugby%29 "Michael O'Connor (rugby)") and prop forward [Phil Daley](/wiki/Phil_Daley "Phil Daley") (Australian test players rested before the first test four days later), while fullback [Dale Shearer](/wiki/Dale_Shearer "Dale Shearer"), winger [David Ronson](/wiki/David_Ronson "David Ronson") and hooker [Mal Cochrane](/wiki/Mal_Cochrane "Mal Cochrane") were all unavailable due to injury. In the absence of usual team captain Vautin, the defending [Winfield Cup](/wiki/Winfield_Cup "Winfield Cup") premiers were captained by [1986 Kangaroo Tourist](/wiki/1986_Kangaroo_Tour "1986 Kangaroo Tour") and 10 test veteran [Noel Cleal](/wiki/Noel_Cleal "Noel Cleal") who had a point to prove after being a shock omission from the Australian and [NSW](/wiki/New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team "New South Wales rugby league team") sides (the Lions camp and the English media following the team was reportedly dumbfounded at Cleal's non\-selection). In front of a vocal [Brookvale Oval](/wiki/Brookvale_Oval "Brookvale Oval") crowd of 21,131, the largest non\-test attendance of the tour and the 3rd highest tour attendance outside only the first and second Ashes tests, the makeshift Sea Eagles side put the tourists to the sword, running out five tries to nil winners. Manly's teenage halfback [Geoff Toovey](/wiki/Geoff_Toovey "Geoff Toovey"), playing only his third game of top grade football, capped a man\-of\-the\-match performance scoring one of his sides tries. The match saw the first time that former test rivals and teammates in Manly's [1972](/wiki/1972_NSWRFL_season "1972 NSWRFL season") and [1973](/wiki/1973_NSWRFL_season "1973 NSWRFL season") premiership wins Bob Fulton (Manly) and [Mal Reilly](/wiki/Mal_Reilly "Mal Reilly") (Great Britain) would coach against each other.
For the Lions, their captain on the night Andy Platt was far and away their best player with the rest showing little form heading into the first test just 4 days later. After [Cliff Lyons](/wiki/Cliff_Lyons "Cliff Lyons") crossed for Manly's 5th try in just 60th minute, the game descended into a scrappy contest as fatigue and high frustrations for the Lions resulted in Mark Brokenshire (Manly) and Roy Haggerty (GB) each getting 10 minutes in the sin\-bin for foul play. For Manly, Toovey, Lyons, Cleal and [Des Hasler](/wiki/Des_Hasler "Des Hasler") (playing at lock) led the way for the 30–0 win while fullback Tim Dwyer capped a fine night kicking 5 goals from 5 attempts.[Manly\-Warringah vs Great Britain 1988](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TJqaBmWLl3o)
The game was refereed by Frenchman Francis Desplas who would be the referee for all three tests of the Ashes series. Although not playing the game, Mal Reilly allowed Lions prop forward [Kevin Ward](/wiki/Kevin_Ward_%28rugby_league%29 "Kevin Ward (rugby league)") who had played in Manly's 1987 Grand Final winning team (and would again link with Manly once the tour ended), to take the toss of the coin in front of his 'home' fans despite Andy Platt captaining the side. The scheduling of the game against the reigning Sydney premiers only four days out from the first test drew criticism from Lions management and the British press who were covering the tour.
### 1st Ashes Test
[The Ashes](/wiki/The_Ashes_%28rugby_league%29 "The Ashes (rugby league)") series was styled the 'Winfield Test series' due to sponsorship from [Winfield cigarettes](/wiki/Winfield_%28cigarette%29 "Winfield (cigarette)"). The first game was the 100th rugby league test between the two sides. [Andrew Ettingshausen](/wiki/Andrew_Ettingshausen "Andrew Ettingshausen"), [Peter Jackson](/wiki/Peter_Jackson_%28rugby_league%29 "Peter Jackson (rugby league)"), [Tony Currie](/wiki/Tony_Currie_%28rugby_league%29 "Tony Currie (rugby league)"), [Sam Backo](/wiki/Sam_Backo "Sam Backo"), [Phil Daley](/wiki/Phil_Daley "Phil Daley") and [Gary Belcher](/wiki/Gary_Belcher "Gary Belcher") were selected to make their Test match debuts for Australia. Largely thanks to their 3\-0 domination of the State of Origin series, [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland_Maroons "Queensland Maroons") players dominated in the Australian forward pack with Manly's Phil Daley the only NSW player in the starting six. Both Blues skipper [Wayne Pearce](/wiki/Wayne_Pearce "Wayne Pearce") and [Noel Cleal](/wiki/Noel_Cleal "Noel Cleal") were shock omissions while Wally Fullerton\-Smith (second row) and Greg Conescu (hooker) were recalled for their first tests since 1984 and 1985 respectively.{{cite news\|last\=MacDonald\|first\=John\|title\=Changes to Test Team unlikely \- Hammerton\|url\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\=news880615\_0306\_6752\|accessdate\=17 February 2014\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\|date\=15 June 1988}} The absence through injury of several of Great Britain's Test stars meant that several members of their team were playing out of position.{{cite news\|last\=Hadfield\|first\=Dave\|title\=Toast to Team they left behind\|url\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\=news880610\_0150\_8071\|accessdate\=16 February 2014\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\|date\=10 June 1988}}
Following heavy losses to Northern Division and Manly\-Warringah in their two games immediately prior to the first test, one unnamed ARL official allegedly remarked that trying to promote a test series with the Great Britain side (who had not won a test against Australia since the second test of the [1978 Kangaroo Tour](/wiki/1978_Kangaroo_tour_of_Great_Britain_and_France "1978 Kangaroo tour of Great Britain and France")) was like trying to flog a dead horse. Indeed, this was reflected when only 24,480 attended the first test at the [Sydney Football Stadium](/wiki/Sydney_Football_Stadium_%281988%29 "Sydney Football Stadium (1988)"), with the dead rubber third test at the venue only attracting 15,944 fans, the lowest ever test attendance between the two teams in Sydney.
{{rugbyleaguebox
\| bg \= \#eeeeee
\| date \= Saturday, 11 June
\| time \=
\| team1 \= {{rl\-rt\|AUS}}
\| team2 \= {{rl\|GBR}}
\| score \= 17 – 6
\| report \= \[http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/matches/ashes\-series\-1988/game\-1/australia\-vs\-great\-britain/summary.html 1st Ashes Test]
\| points1 \= '''Tries''':
\[\[Peter Jackson (rugby league)\|Peter Jackson]] (2\)
\[\[Sam Backo]]
'''Goals''':
\[\[Michael O'Connor (rugby)\|Michael O'Connor]] (2/5\)
'''Field goal''':
\[\[Wally Lewis]]
\| points2 \= '''Try''':
\[\[Ellery Hanley]]
'''Goals''':
\[\[Paul Loughlin]] (1/5\)
\| stadium \= \[\[Sydney Football Stadium (1988\)\|Sydney Football Stadium]], \[\[Sydney]]
\| attendance \= 24,480
\| referee \= \[\[Francois Desplas]] {{flagicon\|FRA}}
\| manofmatch \= \[\[Kevin Ward (rugby league)\|Kevin Ward]] {{leagueicon\|Great Britain\|16}}
}}
| {{Football kit \|pattern\_la \= \_kangaroos \|pattern\_b \= \_kangaroos1992 \|pattern\_ra \= \_kangaroos \|pattern\_sh \= \_thingoldsides \|pattern\_so \= \_hoops\_gold \|leftarm \= 023E00 \|body \= 023E00 \|rightarm \= 023E00 \|shorts \= 023E00 \|socks \= 023E00 \|title \= Australia }} | {{Football kit \|pattern\_la \= \_GBRL \|pattern\_b \= \_GBR1985 \|pattern\_ra \= \_blue\_stripes2 \|pattern\_sh \= \_red\_stripes2 \|pattern\_so \= \_britishlions12 \|leftarm \= FFFFFF \|body \= FFFFFF \|rightarm \= FFFFFF \|shorts \= 0000FF \|socks \= 0000FF \|title \= Great Britain }} |
| --- | --- |
|
|
| |
| FB | **1** | {{leagueicon\|Balmain\|12}} [Garry Jack](/wiki/Garry_Jack "Garry Jack") |
| RW | **2** | {{leagueicon\|Cronulla\|12}} [Andrew Ettingshausen](/wiki/Andrew_Ettingshausen "Andrew Ettingshausen") |
| CE | **3** | {{leagueicon\|Manly\|12}} [Michael O'Connor](/wiki/Michael_O%27Connor_%28rugby%29 "Michael O'Connor (rugby)") |
| CE | **4** | {{leagueicon\|Canberra\|12}} [Peter Jackson](/wiki/Peter_Jackson_%28rugby_league%29 "Peter Jackson (rugby league)") |
| LW | **5** | {{leagueicon\|Bulldogs\|12}} [Tony Currie](/wiki/Tony_Currie_%28rugby_league%29 "Tony Currie (rugby league)") |
| FE | **6** | {{leagueicon\|Brisbane\|12}} [Wally Lewis](/wiki/Wally_Lewis "Wally Lewis") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 "Captain (sports)")) |
| HB | **7** | {{leagueicon\|Parramatta\|12}} [Peter Sterling](/wiki/Peter_Sterling_%28rugby_league_commentator%29 "Peter Sterling (rugby league commentator)") |
| PR | **8** | {{leagueicon\|Manly\|12}} [Phil Daley](/wiki/Phil_Daley "Phil Daley") |
| HK | **9** | {{leagueicon\|Brisbane\|12}} [Greg Conescu](/wiki/Greg_Conescu "Greg Conescu") |
| PR | **10** | {{leagueicon\|Canberra\|12}} [Sam Backo](/wiki/Sam_Backo "Sam Backo") |
| SR | **11** | {{leagueicon\|St George\|12}} [Wally Fullerton\-Smith](/wiki/Wally_Fullerton-Smith "Wally Fullerton-Smith") |
| SR | **12** | {{leagueicon\|Manly\|12}} [Paul Vautin](/wiki/Paul_Vautin "Paul Vautin") |
| Lk | **13** | {{leagueicon\|Parramatta\|12}} [Bob Lindner](/wiki/Bob_Lindner "Bob Lindner") |
|**Substitutions:**
| IC | **14** | {{leagueicon\|Canberra\|12}} [Gary Belcher](/wiki/Gary_Belcher "Gary Belcher") |
| IC | **15** | {{leagueicon\|Bulldogs\|12}} [Steve Folkes](/wiki/Steve_Folkes "Steve Folkes") |
|**Coach:**
|{{flagicon\|AUS}} [Don Furner](/wiki/Don_Furner "Don Furner")
|
| |
| FB | **1** | {{leagueicon\|St Helens\|12}} [Paul Loughlin](/wiki/Paul_Loughlin "Paul Loughlin") |
| RW | **2** | {{leagueicon\|Bradford\|12}} [Phil Ford](/wiki/Phil_Ford_%28rugby%29 "Phil Ford (rugby)") |
| CE | **3** | {{leagueicon\|Leeds\|12}} [Garry Schofield](/wiki/Garry_Schofield "Garry Schofield") |
| CE | **4** | {{leagueicon\|Leeds\|12}} [David Stephenson](/wiki/David_Stephenson_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1958%29 "David Stephenson (rugby league, born 1958)") |
| LW | **5** | {{leagueicon\|Widnes\|12}} [Martin Offiah](/wiki/Martin_Offiah "Martin Offiah") |
| SO | **6** | {{leagueicon\|Widnes\|12}} [David Hulme](/wiki/David_Hulme_%28rugby_league%29 "David Hulme (rugby league)") |
| SH | **7** | {{leagueicon\|Wigan\|12}} [Andy Gregory](/wiki/Andy_Gregory "Andy Gregory") |
| PR | **8** | {{leagueicon\|St Helens\|12}} [Andy Platt](/wiki/Andy_Platt "Andy Platt") |
| HK | **9** | {{leagueicon\|Castleford\|12}} [Kevin Beardmore](/wiki/Kevin_Beardmore "Kevin Beardmore") |
| PR | **10** | {{leagueicon\|Castleford\|12}} [Kevin Ward](/wiki/Kevin_Ward_%28rugby_league%29 "Kevin Ward (rugby league)") |
| SR | **11** | {{leagueicon\|Halifax\|12}} [Paul Dixon](/wiki/Paul_Dixon_%28rugby_league%29 "Paul Dixon (rugby league)") |
| SR | **12** | {{leagueicon\|Warrington\|12}} [Mike Gregory](/wiki/Mike_Gregory "Mike Gregory") |
| LF | **13** | {{leagueicon\|Wigan\|12}} [Ellery Hanley](/wiki/Ellery_Hanley "Ellery Hanley") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 "Captain (sports)")) |
|**Substitutions:**
| IC | **14** | {{leagueicon\|Wigan\|12}} [Henderson Gill](/wiki/Henderson_Gill "Henderson Gill") |
| IC | **15** | {{leagueicon\|Leeds\|12}} [Roy Powell](/wiki/Roy_Powell_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1965%29 "Roy Powell (rugby league, born 1965)") |
|**Coach:**
|{{flagicon\|ENG}} [Mal Reilly](/wiki/Mal_Reilly "Mal Reilly")
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
Following a high tackle on British hooker Kevin Beardmore by Australian front rower Phil Daley, Great Britain put the first points on the board with Paul Loughlin's penalty kick from 40 metres out.{{cite news\|last\=Thomas\|first\=Brett\|title\=By the Clock\|url\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\=news880611\_0199\_4283\|accessdate\=13 February 2014\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sun\-Herald]]\|date\=11 June 1988}} The first try also went to the visitors with Ellery Hanley beating several defenders to score in the corner. Great Britain looked the better team in the first half and were leading 6–0 at the break.{{cite news\|last\=Clarkson\|first\=Alan\|title\=Pombarded\|url\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\=news880611\_0076\_8611\|accessdate\=13 February 2014\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sun\-Herald]]\|date\=11 June 1988}}
After six minutes of the second\-half Sam Backo ran on to a Peter Sterling pass to score Australia's first try, although there was doubt around the ball's grounding.{{cite news\|last\=Megahey\|first\=Tony\|title\=Sideline Eye\|url\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\=news880611\_0077\_4052\|accessdate\=17 February 2014\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sun\-Herald]]\|date\=11 June 1988}} Peter Jackson scored two tries over 11 minutes to give Australia victory. In between these two tries Wally Lewis kicked a field goal.
John MacDonald of *[The Sydney Morning Herald](/wiki/The_Sydney_Morning_Herald "The Sydney Morning Herald")* reported that the tourists were not only competitive, but a little unlucky, and that the 17–6 score did not reflect how close they came to winning. He also leveled heavy criticism at the refereeing performance of Francois Desplas, who could not speak English.{{cite news\|last\=MacDonald\|first\=John\|title\=Great Britain serves up a surprise\|url\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\=news880612\_0159\_4591\|accessdate\=13 February 2014\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\|date\=12 June 1988}} As man\-of\-the\-match, British forward Kevin Ward received $1,000\.
Great Britain's second\-row forward Andy Platt received an injury to his left arm that was expected to see him sidelined for the next two weeks.{{cite news\|last\=Clarkson\|first\=Alan\|title\=Front row beckons for enforcer Crooks\|url\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\=news880612\_0144\_5525\|accessdate\=13 February 2014\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\|date\=12 June 1988}}
{{Clear}}
---
{{rugbyleaguebox
\| date \= Wednesday, 15 June
\| time \=
\| team1 \= \[\[Brisbane rugby league team\|Combined Brisbane]] {{leagueicon\|St Helens\|16}}
\| score \= 14 – 28
\| report \= \[http://wigan.rlfans.com/fusion\_pages/index.php?page\_id\=1207]
\| team2 \= {{leagueicon\|Great Britain\|16}} \[\[Great Britain Lions\|Great Britain]]
\| points1 \= '''Tries''':
Brett McCarthy, Kelly Egan, Gordon Barwick
'''Goals''':
\[\[Peter Coyne (rugby league)\|Peter Coyne]] (1\)
\| points2 \= '''Tries''':
\[\[Martin Offiah]] (2\), \[\[Garry Schofield]], \[\[Karl Fairbank]], \[\[Mike Ford (rugby)\|Mike Ford]]
'''Goals''':
\[\[David Stephenson (rugby league, born 1958\)\|David Stephenson]] (4\)
\| stadium \= \[\[Lang Park]], \[\[Brisbane]]
\| attendance\= 1,810
\| referee \=
\| manofmatch \=
}}
**Combined Brisbane**: [Steve Hegarty](/wiki/Steve_Hegarty "Steve Hegarty"), [Kelly Egan](/wiki/Kelly_Egan "Kelly Egan"), [Brett McCarthy](/wiki/Brett_McCarthy "Brett McCarthy"), Cherry, [Gordon Barwick](/wiki/Gordon_Barwick "Gordon Barwick"), [Peter Coyne](/wiki/Peter_Coyne_%28rugby_league%29 "Peter Coyne (rugby league)"), Daunt, McIntyre, Holmes, Ponting, [Glen Haggath](/wiki/Glen_Haggath "Glen Haggath"), [Ian Stains](/wiki/Ian_Stains "Ian Stains"), [Darren Smith](/wiki/Darren_Smith_%28rugby_league%29 "Darren Smith (rugby league)"). Res \- [Kevin Langer](/wiki/Kevin_Langer "Kevin Langer"), White
**Great Britain**: [Phil Ford](/wiki/Phil_Ford_%28rugby%29 "Phil Ford (rugby)"), [Henderson Gill](/wiki/Henderson_Gill "Henderson Gill"), [Garry Schofield](/wiki/Garry_Schofield "Garry Schofield"), [Carl Gibson](/wiki/Carl_Gibson "Carl Gibson"), [Ellery Hanley](/wiki/Ellery_Hanley "Ellery Hanley") (c), [Mike Ford](/wiki/Mike_Ford_%28rugby%29 "Mike Ford (rugby)"), [Brian Case](/wiki/Brian_Case "Brian Case"), [Paul Groves](/wiki/Paul_Groves_%28rugby_league%29 "Paul Groves (rugby league)"), [Lee Crooks](/wiki/Lee_Crooks_%28rugby_league%29 "Lee Crooks (rugby league)"), [Roy Powell](/wiki/Roy_Powell_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1965%29 "Roy Powell (rugby league, born 1965)"), [Karl Fairbank](/wiki/Karl_Fairbank "Karl Fairbank"), [Paul Dixon](/wiki/Paul_Dixon_%28rugby_league%29 "Paul Dixon (rugby league)"). Res \- [Martin Offiah](/wiki/Martin_Offiah "Martin Offiah"), [Hugh Waddell](/wiki/Hugh_Waddell_%28rugby_league%29 "Hugh Waddell (rugby league)")
In the 20th minute of the match British centre [Garry Schofield](/wiki/Garry_Schofield "Garry Schofield") was assisted from the field with a fractured jaw bone.{{cite news\|last\=Hadfield\|first\=Dave\|title\=Schofield fractures his Jaw\|url\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\=news880615\_0311\_7339\|accessdate\=16 February 2014\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\|date\=15 June 1988}}
---
{{rugbyleaguebox
\| date \= Friday, 17 June
\| time \=
\| team1 \= \[\[Central Queensland Capras\|Central Queensland]] {{leagueicon\|Central Comets\|16}}
\| score \= 8 – 64
\| report \= \[http://wigan.rlfans.com/fusion\_pages/index.php?page\_id\=1208]
\| team2 \= {{leagueicon\|Great Britain\|16}} \[\[Great Britain Lions\|Great Britain]]
\| points1 \= '''Tries''':
Marshall Leisha
'''Goals''':
D Weinert (2\)
\| points2 \= '''Tries''':
\[\[Karl Fairbank]] (3\), \[\[Martin Offiah]] (3\), \[\[Ellery Hanley]] (2\), \[\[Carl Gibson]] (2\), \[\[Roy Powell (rugby league, born 1965\)\|Roy Powell]]
'''Goals''':
\[\[Paul Loughlin]] (10\)
\| stadium \= \[\[Browne Park]], \[\[Rockhampton]]
\| attendance \= 4,418
\| referee \= L. Crane
\| manofmatch \=
}}
**Central Queensland**: Crow, Miller, Peter White, Paul White, Hinricks, Iles, Upkett, Olsson, Emmert, Weinert, Leisha, Duff, Brazier.
**Great Britain**: [Paul Loughlin](/wiki/Paul_Loughlin "Paul Loughlin"), [Carl Gibson](/wiki/Carl_Gibson "Carl Gibson"), [Ian Wilkinson](/wiki/Ian_Wilkinson_%28rugby_league%29 "Ian Wilkinson (rugby league)"), [Darren Wright](/wiki/Darren_Wright_%28rugby_league%29 "Darren Wright (rugby league)"), [Martin Offiah](/wiki/Martin_Offiah "Martin Offiah"), [Ellery Hanley](/wiki/Ellery_Hanley "Ellery Hanley") (c), [David Hulme](/wiki/David_Hulme_%28rugby_league%29 "David Hulme (rugby league)"), [Kevin Ward](/wiki/Kevin_Ward_%28rugby_league%29 "Kevin Ward (rugby league)"), [Kevin Beardmore](/wiki/Kevin_Beardmore "Kevin Beardmore"), [Hugh Waddell](/wiki/Hugh_Waddell_%28rugby_league%29 "Hugh Waddell (rugby league)"), [Roy Powell](/wiki/Roy_Powell_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1965%29 "Roy Powell (rugby league, born 1965)"), [Karl Fairbank](/wiki/Karl_Fairbank "Karl Fairbank"), [Roy Haggerty](/wiki/Roy_Haggerty "Roy Haggerty"). Res \- [Lee Crooks](/wiki/Lee_Crooks_%28rugby_league%29 "Lee Crooks (rugby league)"), [Henderson Gill](/wiki/Henderson_Gill "Henderson Gill")
British prop Lee Crooks injured his shoulder in this match putting him in doubt for the remainder of the Ashes series. Winning the scrums 11\-2, Great Britain had a wealth of possession and exploited it ruthlessly. The Capras' only try came from Black Water Devils second\-rower Marshall Leisha during the last ten minutes.{{cite news\|last\=Hadfield\|first\=Dave\|title\=Injured Crooks in doubt for 2nd Test\|url\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\=news880617\_0168\_5953\|accessdate\=14 February 2014\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\|date\=17 June 1988}}
---
{{rugbyleaguebox
\| date \= Wednesday, 22 June
\| time \=
\| team1 \= \[\[Toowoomba Clydesdales\|Toowoomba]] / S\-E Queensland {{leagueicon\|Toowoomba\|16}}
\| score \= 12 – 28
\| report \= \[http://wigan.rlfans.com/fusion\_pages/index.php?page\_id\=1209]
\| team2 \= {{leagueicon\|Great Britain\|16}} \[\[Great Britain Lions\|Great Britain]]
\| points1 \= '''Tries''':
Claney, Johnson
'''Goals''':
Dwyer (2\)
\| points2 \= '''Tries''':
\[\[Ellery Hanley]] (2\), \[\[Mike Gregory]] (2\), \[\[Phil Ford (rugby)\|Phil Ford]]
'''Goals''':
\[\[Paul Loughlin]] (4\)
\| stadium \= \[\[Clive Berghofer Stadium\|Athletic Oval]], \[\[Toowoomba]]
\| attendance \= 3,874
\| referee \= Tim Bliss
\| manofmatch \=
}}
**Toowoomba / S\-E Queensland**: Weribone, Clevin, Blake, Pratt, Stower, Clancy, Smith, Dwyer, M. Cook, Sutoon, Buckle, Johnson, Sullivan. Res \- [Terry Cook](/wiki/Terry_Cook_%28rugby_league%29 "Terry Cook (rugby league)"), Neale
**Great Britain**: [Paul Loughlin](/wiki/Paul_Loughlin "Paul Loughlin"), [Henderson Gill](/wiki/Henderson_Gill "Henderson Gill"), [David Stephenson](/wiki/David_Stephenson_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1958%29 "David Stephenson (rugby league, born 1958)"), [Phil Ford](/wiki/Phil_Ford_%28rugby%29 "Phil Ford (rugby)"), [Martin Offiah](/wiki/Martin_Offiah "Martin Offiah"), [Ellery Hanley](/wiki/Ellery_Hanley "Ellery Hanley") (c), [David Hulme](/wiki/David_Hulme_%28rugby_league%29 "David Hulme (rugby league)"), [Kevin Ward](/wiki/Kevin_Ward_%28rugby_league%29 "Kevin Ward (rugby league)"), [Kevin Beardmore](/wiki/Kevin_Beardmore "Kevin Beardmore"), [Paul Dixon](/wiki/Paul_Dixon_%28rugby_league%29 "Paul Dixon (rugby league)"), [Karl Fairbank](/wiki/Karl_Fairbank "Karl Fairbank"), [Roy Powell](/wiki/Roy_Powell_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1965%29 "Roy Powell (rugby league, born 1965)"), [Mike Gregory](/wiki/Mike_Gregory "Mike Gregory").
---
{{rugbyleaguebox
\| date \= Saturday, 25 June
\| time \=
\| team1 \= \[\[Queensland Rugby League\#Wide Bay Bulls\|Wide Bay]] {{leagueicon\|St George\|16}}
\| score \= 0 – 14
\| report \= \[http://wigan.rlfans.com/fusion\_pages/index.php?page\_id\=1210]
\| team2 \= {{leagueicon\|Great Britain\|16}} \[\[Great Britain Lions\|Great Britain]]
\| points1 \= '''Tries''':
'''Goals''':
\| points2 \= '''Tries''':
\[\[Andy Currier]], \[\[Martin Offiah]], \[\[Mike Ford (rugby)\|Mike Ford]]
'''Goals''':
\[\[Paul Loughlin]] (1\)
\| stadium \= Albert Park, \[\[Gympie]]
\| attendance \= 2,310
\| referee \= Russell Leis
\| manofmatch \=
}}
**Wide Bay**: Ovens, Templeman, Kirby, Lalli, Kinsela, Jones, Ward, Reddacliff, Gerrard, McGrath, Sempf, Schulte, March. Res \- Graving, Ryan
**Great Britain**: [Ian Wilkinson](/wiki/Ian_Wilkinson_%28rugby_league%29 "Ian Wilkinson (rugby league)"), [Carl Gibson](/wiki/Carl_Gibson "Carl Gibson"), [Andy Currier](/wiki/Andy_Currier "Andy Currier"), [Darren Wright](/wiki/Darren_Wright_%28rugby_league%29 "Darren Wright (rugby league)"), [Henderson Gill](/wiki/Henderson_Gill "Henderson Gill"), [Mike Ford](/wiki/Mike_Ford_%28rugby%29 "Mike Ford (rugby)"), [Paul Hulme](/wiki/Paul_Hulme "Paul Hulme"), [Brian Case](/wiki/Brian_Case "Brian Case"), [Paul Groves](/wiki/Paul_Groves_%28rugby_league%29 "Paul Groves (rugby league)"), [Hugh Waddell](/wiki/Hugh_Waddell_%28rugby_league%29 "Hugh Waddell (rugby league)"), [Roy Powell](/wiki/Roy_Powell_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1965%29 "Roy Powell (rugby league, born 1965)"), [Karl Fairbank](/wiki/Karl_Fairbank "Karl Fairbank"), [Roy Haggerty](/wiki/Roy_Haggerty "Roy Haggerty"). Res \- [Paul Loughlin](/wiki/Paul_Loughlin "Paul Loughlin"), [Martin Offiah](/wiki/Martin_Offiah "Martin Offiah")
### 2nd Ashes Test
The Australians made two changes to the side that won the first test in Sydney. Wayne Pearce earned a recall at lock with Bob Lindner moving to the bench in place of [Steve Folkes](/wiki/Steve_Folkes "Steve Folkes"). Injuries again forced Mal Reilly into changing his side for the second test. [Garry Schofield](/wiki/Garry_Schofield "Garry Schofield")'s broken jaw saw Phil Ford moved to the centres with Henderson Gill recalled onto the wing. Captain Ellery Hanley moved from lock to the centres in place of David Stephenson with Mike Gregory coming in at lock forward. Andy Platt dropped from the front row to the back row with Roy Powell coming into prop. Darren Wright and Paul Hulme were the new players on the bench.
Match commentary was provided by [Darrell Eastlake](/wiki/Darrell_Eastlake "Darrell Eastlake") and supercoach [Jack Gibson](/wiki/Jack_Gibson_%28rugby_league%29 "Jack Gibson (rugby league)").
{{rugbyleaguebox
\| bg \= \#eeeeee
\| date \= Tuesday, 28 June
\| time \=
\| team1 \= {{rl\-rt\|AUS}}
\| team2 \= {{rl\|GBR}}
\| score \= 34 – 14
\| report \= \[http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/matches/ashes\-series\-1988/game\-2/australia\-vs\-great\-britain/summary.html 2nd Ashes Test]
\| points1 \= '''Tries''':
\[\[Sam Backo]]
\[\[Andrew Ettingshausen]]
\[\[Peter Jackson (rugby league)\|Peter Jackson]]
\[\[Wally Lewis]]
\[\[Michael O'Connor (rugby)\|Michael O'Connor]]
\[\[Wayne Pearce]]
'''Goals''':
Michael O'Connor (5\)
\| points2 \= '''Tries''':
\[\[Phil Ford (rugby)\|Phil Ford]]
\[\[Martin Offiah]]
'''Goals''':
\[\[Paul Loughlin]] (3\)
\| stadium \= \[\[Lang Park]], \[\[Brisbane]]
\| attendance \= 27,130
\| referee \= \[\[Francois Desplas]] {{flagicon\|FRA}}
\| manofmatch \= \[\[Wally Lewis]] {{leagueicon\|Australia\|16}}
}}
| {{Football kit \|pattern\_la \= \_kangaroos \|pattern\_b \= \_kangaroos1992 \|pattern\_ra \= \_kangaroos \|pattern\_sh \= \_thingoldsides \|pattern\_so \= \_hoops\_gold \|leftarm \= 023E00 \|body \= 023E00 \|rightarm \= 023E00 \|shorts \= 023E00 \|socks \= 023E00 \|title \= Australia }} | {{Football kit \|pattern\_la \= \_GBRL \|pattern\_b \= \_GBR1985 \|pattern\_ra \= \_blue\_stripes2 \|pattern\_sh \= \_red\_stripes2 \|pattern\_so \= \_britishlions12 \|leftarm \= FFFFFF \|body \= FFFFFF \|rightarm \= FFFFFF \|shorts \= 0000FF \|socks \= 0000FF \|title \= Great Britain }} |
| --- | --- |
|
|
| |
| FB | **1** | {{leagueicon\|Balmain\|12}} [Garry Jack](/wiki/Garry_Jack "Garry Jack") |
| LW | **2** | {{leagueicon\|Bulldogs\|12}} [Tony Currie](/wiki/Tony_Currie_%28rugby_league%29 "Tony Currie (rugby league)") |
| CE | **3** | {{leagueicon\|Manly\|12}} [Michael O'Connor](/wiki/Michael_O%27Connor_%28rugby%29 "Michael O'Connor (rugby)") |
| CE | **4** | {{leagueicon\|Canberra\|12}} [Peter Jackson](/wiki/Peter_Jackson_%28rugby_league%29 "Peter Jackson (rugby league)") |
| RW | **5** | {{leagueicon\|Cronulla\|12}} [Andrew Ettingshausen](/wiki/Andrew_Ettingshausen "Andrew Ettingshausen") |
| FE | **6** | {{leagueicon\|Brisbane\|12}} [Wally Lewis](/wiki/Wally_Lewis "Wally Lewis") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 "Captain (sports)")) |
| HB | **7** | {{leagueicon\|Parramatta\|12}} [Peter Sterling](/wiki/Peter_Sterling_%28rugby_league_commentator%29 "Peter Sterling (rugby league commentator)") |
| PR | **8** | {{leagueicon\|Manly\|12}} [Phil Daley](/wiki/Phil_Daley "Phil Daley") |
| HK | **9** | {{leagueicon\|Brisbane\|12}} [Greg Conescu](/wiki/Greg_Conescu "Greg Conescu") |
| PR | **10** | {{leagueicon\|Canberra\|12}} [Sam Backo](/wiki/Sam_Backo "Sam Backo") |
| SR | **11** | {{leagueicon\|St George\|12}} [Wally Fullerton\-Smith](/wiki/Wally_Fullerton-Smith "Wally Fullerton-Smith") |
| SR | **12** | {{leagueicon\|Manly\|12}} [Paul Vautin](/wiki/Paul_Vautin "Paul Vautin") |
| LK | **13** | {{leagueicon\|Balmain\|12}} [Wayne Pearce](/wiki/Wayne_Pearce "Wayne Pearce") |
|**Substitutions:**
| IC | **14** | {{leagueicon\|Canberra\|12}} [Gary Belcher](/wiki/Gary_Belcher "Gary Belcher") |
| IC | **15** | {{leagueicon\|Parramatta\|12}} [Bob Lindner](/wiki/Bob_Lindner "Bob Lindner") |
|**Coach:**
|{{flagicon\|AUS}} [Don Furner](/wiki/Don_Furner "Don Furner")
|
| |
| FB | **1** | {{leagueicon\|St Helens\|12}} [Paul Loughlin](/wiki/Paul_Loughlin "Paul Loughlin") |
| RW | **2** | {{leagueicon\|Wigan\|12}} [Henderson Gill](/wiki/Henderson_Gill "Henderson Gill") |
| CE | **3** | {{leagueicon\|Bradford\|12}} [Phil Ford](/wiki/Phil_Ford_%28rugby%29 "Phil Ford (rugby)") |
| CE | **4** | {{leagueicon\|Wigan\|12}} [Ellery Hanley](/wiki/Ellery_Hanley "Ellery Hanley") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 "Captain (sports)")) |
| LW | **5** | {{leagueicon\|Widnes\|12}} [Martin Offiah](/wiki/Martin_Offiah "Martin Offiah") |
| SO | **6** | {{leagueicon\|Widnes\|12}} [David Hulme](/wiki/David_Hulme_%28rugby_league%29 "David Hulme (rugby league)") |
| SH | **7** | {{leagueicon\|Wigan\|12}} [Andy Gregory](/wiki/Andy_Gregory "Andy Gregory") |
| PR | **8** | {{leagueicon\|Castleford\|12}} [Kevin Ward](/wiki/Kevin_Ward_%28rugby_league%29 "Kevin Ward (rugby league)") |
| HK | **9** | {{leagueicon\|Castleford\|12}} [Kevin Beardmore](/wiki/Kevin_Beardmore "Kevin Beardmore") |
| PR | **10** | {{leagueicon\|Leeds\|12}} [Roy Powell](/wiki/Roy_Powell_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1965%29 "Roy Powell (rugby league, born 1965)") |
| SR | **11** | {{leagueicon\|Halifax\|12}} [Paul Dixon](/wiki/Paul_Dixon_%28rugby_league%29 "Paul Dixon (rugby league)") |
| SR | **12** | {{leagueicon\|St Helens\|12}} [Andy Platt](/wiki/Andy_Platt "Andy Platt") |
| LF | **13** | {{leagueicon\|Warrington\|12}} [Mike Gregory](/wiki/Mike_Gregory "Mike Gregory") |
|**Substitutions:**
| IC | **14** | {{leagueicon\|Widnes\|12}} [Darren Wright](/wiki/Darren_Wright_%28rugby_league%29 "Darren Wright (rugby league)") |
| IC | **15** | {{leagueicon\|Widnes\|12}} [Paul Hulme](/wiki/Paul_Hulme "Paul Hulme") |
|**Coach:**
|{{flagicon\|ENG}} [Mal Reilly](/wiki/Mal_Reilly "Mal Reilly")
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
On Lang Park's electronic scoreboard the message "Bullfrog \- shame our favourite No 7 isn't here" was displayed in a reference to [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland_rugby_league_team "Queensland rugby league team") halfback [Allan Langer](/wiki/Allan_Langer "Allan Langer") being overlooked for selection by Kangaroos team manager [Peter Moore](/wiki/Peter_%22Bullfrog%22_Moore "Peter ") in favour of Peter Sterling.{{cite news\|last\=John MacDonald and Brad Forrest\|title\=Victorious Lewis slams 'Headhunters'\|url\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\=news880628\_0268\_4573\|accessdate\=16 February 2014\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\|date\=28 June 1988}}
The tourists got first points with a penalty kick. After playing the ball three quarters of the way towards Great Britain's line Australians moved the ball through the hands out to left centre Michael O'Connor who broke through the defence and scored the first try. Australia's next try came in the twentieth minute when Wally Lewis chip kicked the ball ahead for himself, re\-gathered it and passed it Peter Jackson who crossed untouched and scored behind the uprights.{{cite news\|last\=Masters\|first\=Roy\|title\=Iron Mike inspires Wally's knock\-out Blow\|url\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\=news880628\_0269\_1014\|accessdate\=16 February 2014\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\|date\=28 June 1988}} O'Connor successfully converted his try taking the score to 14–4 in favour of the hosts. After playing the ball around mid field the Australians kept the ball alive with a total of nine passes, the last of which was to Andrew Ettingshausen on the right wing who beat Martin Offiah to dive over in the corner. O'Connor's conversion attempt hit the upright so the half time score remained at 18–4\.
After the break Great Britain were playing the ball within their own half of the field when Ellery Hanley got it at first receiver and ran himself, splitting the defence and racing into Australia's half where he passed to Ford who ran the remaining forty metres to score beneath the uprights. Sam Backo then scored a close range try, running from dummy\-half and forcing his way over the line. Again playing the ball close to Great Britain's line Australia scored from dummy half once more when Wayne Pearce dived over. Playing the ball just inside Great Britain's half the Australians continued up\-field, evading tacklers and passing to support players, the last of whom was Wally Lewis who ran the remaining metres to score untouched. Five minutes from full\-time Andy Gregory was sent to the sin\-bin for 10 minutes—effectively for the remainder of the game—after another high tackle on Ettingshausen.
By winning this match Australia successfully defended their Ashes title. The Poms' excessive aggression was seen as costing them the match. Criticism of French referee Desplas also continued.{{cite news\|last\=Heads\|first\=Ian\|title\=Test is too big for one Man \- The Ref\|url\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\=news880629\_0298\_4442\|accessdate\=16 February 2014\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\|date\=29 June 1988}}
{{Clear}}
---
{{rugbyleaguebox
\| date \=Sunday, 3 July
\| time \=
\| team1 \= Western Division {{leagueicon\|Canberra\|16}}
\| score \= 26 – 28
\| report \= \[http://wigan.rlfans.com/fusion\_pages/index.php?page\_id\=1213]
\| team2 \= {{leagueicon\|Great Britain\|16}} \[\[Great Britain Lions\|Great Britain]]
\| points1 \= '''Tries''':
Moy, Michael Peachy, \[\[Mark Smith (rugby league)\|Mark Smith]], Wilfred Williams
'''Goals''':
Robert Clark (5\)
\| points2 \= '''Tries''':
\[\[Martin Offiah]] (2\), \[\[Paul Groves (rugby league)\|Paul Groves]], \[\[Ellery Hanley]], \[\[Andy Currier]]
'''Goals''':
\[\[Andy Currier]] (4\)
\| stadium \= \[\[Wade Park]], \[\[Orange, New South Wales\|Orange]]
\| attendance \= 3,520
\| referee \= Phil Robinson
\| manofmatch \=
}}
**Western Division**: Frail, [Wilfred Williams](/wiki/Wilfred_Williams "Wilfred Williams"), Casey, [Mark Smith](/wiki/Mark_Smith_%28rugby_league%29 "Mark Smith (rugby league)"), Newman, Clark, Douglas, Gibson, Luke, McAnally, Fitzgerald, [Michael Peachy](/wiki/Michael_Peachy "Michael Peachy"), Moy. Res \- Stammers, Batty
**Great Britain**: [Ian Wilkinson](/wiki/Ian_Wilkinson_%28rugby_league%29 "Ian Wilkinson (rugby league)"), [Carl Gibson](/wiki/Carl_Gibson "Carl Gibson"), [Andy Currier](/wiki/Andy_Currier "Andy Currier"), [Darren Wright](/wiki/Darren_Wright_%28rugby_league%29 "Darren Wright (rugby league)"), [Martin Offiah](/wiki/Martin_Offiah "Martin Offiah"), [Ellery Hanley](/wiki/Ellery_Hanley "Ellery Hanley") (c), [Mike Ford](/wiki/Mike_Ford_%28rugby%29 "Mike Ford (rugby)"), [Brian Case](/wiki/Brian_Case "Brian Case"), [Paul Groves](/wiki/Paul_Groves_%28rugby_league%29 "Paul Groves (rugby league)"), [Hugh Waddell](/wiki/Hugh_Waddell_%28rugby_league%29 "Hugh Waddell (rugby league)"), [Karl Fairbank](/wiki/Karl_Fairbank "Karl Fairbank"), [Paul Hulme](/wiki/Paul_Hulme "Paul Hulme"), [Mike Gregory](/wiki/Mike_Gregory "Mike Gregory").
With Great Britain leading 26–10 with 20 minutes to go, the local forwards rallied strongly to give the Lions a fright.{{cite news\|last\=Hadfield\|first\=Dave\|title\=Selectors stick with Test Team\|url\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\=news880703\_0270\_9290\|accessdate\=17 February 2014\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\|date\=3 July 1988}}
---
{{rugbyleaguebox
\| date \=Tuesday, 5 July
\| time \=
\| team1 \= \[\[Prime Minister's XIII\|President's XIII]] {{leagueicon\|Australia\|16}}
\| score \= 24 – 16
\| report \= \[http://wigan.rlfans.com/fusion\_pages/index.php?page\_id\=1214]
\| team2 \= {{leagueicon\|Great Britain\|16}} \[\[Great Britain Lions\|Great Britain]]
\| points1 \= '''Tries''':
\[\[Steve O'Brien (rugby league)\|Steve O'Brien]], \[\[Glenn Lazarus]], \[\[Greg Alexander]], \[\[Mal Meninga]], \[\[Graeme Bradley]]
'''Goals''':
Mal Meninga (2/6\)
\| points2 \= '''Tries''':
\[\[Phil Ford (rugby)\|Phil Ford]] (2\), \[\[Mike Gregory]]
'''Goals''':
\[\[Paul Loughlin]] (2/3\)
\| stadium \= \[\[Seiffert Oval]], \[\[Queanbeyan]]
\| attendance \= 6,037
\| referee \= Eddie Ward {{flagicon\|AUS}}
\| manofmatch \= \[\[David Trewhella]] {{leagueicon\|Australia\|16}}
}}
| {{Football kit \|pattern\_la \= \|pattern\_b \= \_PresidentsXIII1988 \|pattern\_ra \= \|pattern\_sh \= \_thingoldsides \|pattern\_so \= \_hoops\_gold \|leftarm \= FFD700 \|body \= FFD700 \|rightarm \= FFD700 \|shorts \= 023E00 \|socks \= 023E00 \|title \= President's XIII }} | {{Football kit \|pattern\_la \= \|pattern\_b \= \_GBR1985 \|pattern\_ra \= \|pattern\_sh \= \|pattern\_so \= \_band\_red \|leftarm \= FFFFFF \|body \= FFFFFF \|rightarm \= FFFFFF \|shorts \= 0000FF \|socks \= 0000FF \|title \= Great Britain }} |
| --- | --- |
|
|
| |
| FB | **1** | {{leagueicon\|Souths\|12}} [Phil Blake](/wiki/Phil_Blake "Phil Blake") |
| LW | **2** | {{leagueicon\|Bulldogs\|12}} [Steve O'Brien](/wiki/Steve_O%27Brien_%28rugby_league%29 "Steve O'Brien (rugby league)") |
| CE | **3** | {{leagueicon\|Canberra\|12}} [Mal Meninga](/wiki/Mal_Meninga "Mal Meninga") |
| CE | **4** | {{leagueicon\|Old Penrith\|12}} [Graeme Bradley](/wiki/Graeme_Bradley "Graeme Bradley") |
| RW | **5** | {{leagueicon\|Souths\|12}} [Adam O'Neill](/wiki/Adam_O%27Neill "Adam O'Neill") |
| FE | **6** | {{leagueicon\|Norths\|12}} [Greg Florimo](/wiki/Greg_Florimo "Greg Florimo") |
| HB | **7** | {{leagueicon\|Old Penrith\|12}} [Greg Alexander](/wiki/Greg_Alexander "Greg Alexander") |
| LK | **8** | {{leagueicon\|Easts\|12}} [David Trewhella](/wiki/David_Trewhella "David Trewhella") |
| SR | **9** | {{leagueicon\|Old Penrith\|12}} [Mark Geyer](/wiki/Mark_Geyer "Mark Geyer") |
| SR | **10** | {{leagueicon\|Cronulla\|12}} [Gavin Miller](/wiki/Gavin_Miller "Gavin Miller") |
| PR | **11** | {{leagueicon\|Bulldogs\|12}} [David Gillespie](/wiki/David_Gillespie "David Gillespie") |
| HK | **12** | {{leagueicon\|Souths\|12}} [Mario Fenech](/wiki/Mario_Fenech "Mario Fenech") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 "Captain (sports)")) |
| PR | **13** | {{leagueicon\|Canberra\|12}} [Glenn Lazarus](/wiki/Glenn_Lazarus "Glenn Lazarus") |
|**Substitutions:**
| IC | **14** | {{leagueicon\|St George\|12}} [Steve Robinson](/wiki/Steve_Robinson_%28rugby_league%29 "Steve Robinson (rugby league)") |
| IC | **15** | {{leagueicon\|Manly\|12}} [Ian Gately](/wiki/Ian_Gately "Ian Gately") |
|**Coach:**
|{{flagicon\|AUS}} [Don Furner](/wiki/Don_Furner "Don Furner")
|
| |
| FB | **1** | {{leagueicon\|Bradford\|12}} [Phil Ford](/wiki/Phil_Ford_%28rugby%29 "Phil Ford (rugby)") |
| RW | **2** | {{leagueicon\|Leeds\|12}} [Carl Gibson](/wiki/Carl_Gibson "Carl Gibson") |
| CE | **3** | {{leagueicon\|St Helens\|12}} [Paul Loughlin](/wiki/Paul_Loughlin "Paul Loughlin") |
| CE | **4** | {{leagueicon\|Widnes\|12}} [Darren Wright](/wiki/Darren_Wright_%28rugby_league%29 "Darren Wright (rugby league)") |
| LW | **5** | {{leagueicon\|Widnes\|12}} [Andy Currier](/wiki/Andy_Currier "Andy Currier") |
| SO | **6** | {{leagueicon\|Widnes\|12}} [David Hulme](/wiki/David_Hulme_%28rugby_league%29 "David Hulme (rugby league)") |
| SH | **7** | {{leagueicon\|Wigan\|12}} [Andy Gregory](/wiki/Andy_Gregory "Andy Gregory") |
| LF | **8** | {{leagueicon\|Castleford\|12}} [John Joyner](/wiki/John_Joyner "John Joyner") |
| SR | **9** | {{leagueicon\|Leeds\|12}} [Richard Eyres](/wiki/Richard_Eyres "Richard Eyres") |
| SR | **10** | {{leagueicon\|Warrington\|12}} [Mike Gregory](/wiki/Mike_Gregory "Mike Gregory") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 "Captain (sports)")) |
| PR | **11** | {{leagueicon\|Leeds\|12}} [Roy Powell](/wiki/Roy_Powell_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1965%29 "Roy Powell (rugby league, born 1965)") |
| HK | **12** | {{leagueicon\|Castleford\|12}} [Kevin Beardmore](/wiki/Kevin_Beardmore "Kevin Beardmore") |
| PR | **13** | {{leagueicon\|Castleford\|12}} [Kevin Ward](/wiki/Kevin_Ward_%28rugby_league%29 "Kevin Ward (rugby league)") |
|**Substitutions:**
| IC | **14** | {{leagueicon\|Widnes\|12}} [Paul Hulme](/wiki/Paul_Hulme "Paul Hulme") |
| IC | **15** | {{leagueicon\|Oldham\|12}} [Hugh Waddell](/wiki/Hugh_Waddell_%28rugby_league%29 "Hugh Waddell (rugby league)") |
|**Coach:**
|{{flagicon\|ENG}} [Mal Reilly](/wiki/Mal_Reilly "Mal Reilly")
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
After playing the entire tour using the international numbers for the forwards (i.e. props with 8 and 10, loose forward with 13\), Great Britain used the old standard still used in Australia until the end of the year with the props in 11 and 13, loose forward with 8\.[President's XIII vs Great Britain highlights](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6QyiY7P_i6A)
The Don Furner coached President's XIII led 14–2 after 22 minutes thanks to tries by [Steve O'Brien](/wiki/Steve_O%27Brien_%28rugby_league%29 "Steve O'Brien (rugby league)"), [Glenn Lazarus](/wiki/Glenn_Lazarus "Glenn Lazarus") and [1986 Kangaroo tourist](/wiki/1986_Kangaroo_tour "1986 Kangaroo tour") [Greg Alexander](/wiki/Greg_Alexander "Greg Alexander"). But after a second half try to [Mal Meninga](/wiki/Mal_Meninga "Mal Meninga") (who had an off day with the boot, kicking only 2 of his 6 attempts at goal), the Lions brought it back to 18–16 thanks to 2 tries from Welsh fullback [Phil Ford](/wiki/Phil_Ford_%28rugby%29 "Phil Ford (rugby)") and one to captain [Mike Gregory](/wiki/Mike_Gregory "Mike Gregory") plus the more accurate goal kicking of [St Helens](/wiki/St_Helens_R.F.C. "St Helens R.F.C.") centre [Paul Loughlin](/wiki/Paul_Loughlin "Paul Loughlin") in the increasingly muddy conditions at the [Seiffert Oval](/wiki/Seiffert_Oval "Seiffert Oval"), the home ground of the [Canberra Raiders](/wiki/Canberra_Raiders "Canberra Raiders"). However, a late try to [Penrith](/wiki/Penrith_Panthers "Penrith Panthers") centre [Graeme Bradley](/wiki/Graeme_Bradley "Graeme Bradley") put the game beyond the reach of the tourists.{{cite news\|last\=MacDonald\|first\=John\|title\=President's Clean\-up halted by the Mud\|url\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\=news880705\_0250\_3035\|accessdate\=13 February 2014\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\|date\=5 July 1988}} [South Sydney](/wiki/South_Sydney_Rabbitohs "South Sydney Rabbitohs")'s [Mario Fenech](/wiki/Mario_Fenech "Mario Fenech"), playing at hooker, was given the honour of captaining the President's XIII.
---
### 3rd Ashes Test
This match also counted toward the result of the [1985–1988 World Cup](/wiki/1985%E2%80%931988_Rugby_League_World_Cup "1985–1988 Rugby League World Cup") tournament. Australia were considered favourites, having won the past fifteen consecutive test matches. Great Britain's chances were also lessened by the squad missing the likes of [Shaun Edwards](/wiki/Shaun_Edwards "Shaun Edwards"), [Kevin Beardmore](/wiki/Kevin_Beardmore "Kevin Beardmore"), [Steve Hampson](/wiki/Steve_Hampson "Steve Hampson"), [Andy Platt](/wiki/Andy_Platt "Andy Platt"), [Garry Schofield](/wiki/Garry_Schofield "Garry Schofield"), [Joe Lydon](/wiki/Joe_Lydon_%28rugby%29 "Joe Lydon (rugby)"), [Lee Crooks](/wiki/Lee_Crooks "Lee Crooks") and [Andy Goodway](/wiki/Andy_Goodway "Andy Goodway") for one reason or another, and some players taking to the field not fully fit. It was the debut of Paul Hulme and Hugh Waddell in the front row.{{cite news\|last\=de la Rivière\|first\=Richard\|title\=Brits Bounce Back\|url\=http://richarddelariviere.co.uk/?p\=653\|accessdate\=1 May 2011\|newspaper\=Thirteen\|year\=2005\|archive\-date\=26 August 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826044925/http://richarddelariviere.co.uk/?p\=653\|url\-status\=dead}}
The match was broadcast by the Nine network with commentary from [Darrell Eastlake](/wiki/Darrell_Eastlake "Darrell Eastlake") and [Jack Gibson](/wiki/Jack_Gibson_%28rugby_league%29 "Jack Gibson (rugby league)").
{{rugbyleaguebox
\| bg \= \#eeeeee
\| date \= Saturday, 9 July
\| time \=
\| team1 \= {{rl\-rt\|AUS}}
\| team2 \= {{rl\|GBR}}
\| score \= 12 – 26
\| report \= \[http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/matches/ashes\-series\-1988/game\-3/australia\-vs\-great\-britain/summary.html 3rd Ashes Test]
\| points1 \= '''Tries:'''
\[\[Wally Lewis]]
\[\[Sam Backo]]
'''Goals:'''
\[\[Michael O'Connor (rugby league)\|Michael O'Connor]] (2/2\)
\| points2 \= '''Tries:'''
\[\[Henderson Gill]] (2\)
\[\[Martin Offiah]]
\[\[Phil Ford (rugby)\|Phil Ford]]
\[\[Mike Gregory]]
'''Goals:'''
\[\[Paul Loughlin]] (3/5\)
\| stadium \= \[\[Sydney Football Stadium (1988\)\|Sydney Football Stadium]], \[\[Sydney]]
\| attendance \= 15,944
\| referee \= \[\[Francis Desplas]] {{flagicon\|FRA}}
\| manofmatch \= \[\[Andy Gregory]] {{leagueicon\|Great Britain\|16}}
}}
| {{Football kit \|pattern\_la \= \_kangaroos \|pattern\_b \= \_kangaroos1992 \|pattern\_ra \= \_kangaroos \|pattern\_sh \= \_thingoldsides \|pattern\_so \= \_hoops\_gold \|leftarm \= 023E00 \|body \= 023E00 \|rightarm \= 023E00 \|shorts \= 023E00 \|socks \= 023E00 \|title \= Australia }} | {{Football kit \|pattern\_la \= \_GBRL \|pattern\_b \= \_GBR1985 \|pattern\_ra \= \_blue\_stripes2 \|pattern\_sh \= \_red\_stripes2 \|pattern\_so \= \_britishlions12 \|leftarm \= FFFFFF \|body \= FFFFFF \|rightarm \= FFFFFF \|shorts \= 0000FF \|socks \= 0000FF \|title \= Great Britain }} |
| --- | --- |
|
|
| |
| FB | **1** | {{leagueicon\|Balmain\|12}} [Garry Jack](/wiki/Garry_Jack "Garry Jack") |
| RW | **2** | {{leagueicon\|Cronulla\|12}} [Andrew Ettingshausen](/wiki/Andrew_Ettingshausen "Andrew Ettingshausen") |
| CE | **3** | {{leagueicon\|Manly\|12}} [Michael O'Connor](/wiki/Michael_O%27Connor_%28rugby%29 "Michael O'Connor (rugby)") |
| CE | **4** | {{leagueicon\|Canberra\|12}} [Peter Jackson](/wiki/Peter_Jackson_%28rugby_league%29 "Peter Jackson (rugby league)") |
| LW | **5** | {{leagueicon\|Bulldogs\|12}} [Tony Currie](/wiki/Tony_Currie_%28rugby_league%29 "Tony Currie (rugby league)") |
| FE | **6** | {{leagueicon\|Brisbane\|12}} [Wally Lewis](/wiki/Wally_Lewis "Wally Lewis") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 "Captain (sports)")) |
| HB | **7** | {{leagueicon\|Parramatta\|12}} [Peter Sterling](/wiki/Peter_Sterling_%28rugby_league_commentator%29 "Peter Sterling (rugby league commentator)") |
| PR | **8** | {{leagueicon\|Norths\|12}} [Martin Bella](/wiki/Martin_Bella "Martin Bella") |
| HK | **9** | {{leagueicon\|Brisbane\|12}} [Greg Conescu](/wiki/Greg_Conescu "Greg Conescu") |
| PR | **10** | {{leagueicon\|Canberra\|12}} [Sam Backo](/wiki/Sam_Backo "Sam Backo") |
| SR | **11** | {{leagueicon\|St George\|12}} [Wally Fullerton\-Smith](/wiki/Wally_Fullerton-Smith "Wally Fullerton-Smith") |
| SR | **12** | {{leagueicon\|Manly\|12}} [Paul Vautin](/wiki/Paul_Vautin "Paul Vautin") |
| LK | **13** | {{leagueicon\|Balmain\|12}} [Wayne Pearce](/wiki/Wayne_Pearce "Wayne Pearce") |
|**Substitutions:**
| IC | **14** | {{leagueicon\|Canberra\|12}} [Gary Belcher](/wiki/Gary_Belcher "Gary Belcher") |
| IC | **15** | {{leagueicon\|Parramatta\|12}} [Bob Lindner](/wiki/Bob_Lindner "Bob Lindner") |
|**Coach:**
|{{flagicon\|AUS}} [Don Furner](/wiki/Don_Furner "Don Furner")
|
| |
| FB | **1** | {{leagueicon\|Bradford\|12}} [Phil Ford](/wiki/Phil_Ford_%28rugby%29 "Phil Ford (rugby)") |
| RW | **2** | {{leagueicon\|Wigan\|12}} [Henderson Gill](/wiki/Henderson_Gill "Henderson Gill") |
| CE | **3** | {{leagueicon\|Leeds\|12}} [David Stephenson](/wiki/David_Stephenson_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1958%29 "David Stephenson (rugby league, born 1958)") |
| CE | **4** | {{leagueicon\|St Helens\|12}} [Paul Loughlin](/wiki/Paul_Loughlin "Paul Loughlin") |
| LW | **5** | {{leagueicon\|Widnes\|12}} [Martin Offiah](/wiki/Martin_Offiah "Martin Offiah") |
| SO | **6** | {{leagueicon\|Widnes\|12}} [David Hulme](/wiki/David_Hulme_%28rugby_league%29 "David Hulme (rugby league)") |
| SH | **7** | {{leagueicon\|Wigan\|12}} [Andy Gregory](/wiki/Andy_Gregory "Andy Gregory") |
| PR | **8** | {{leagueicon\|Castleford\|12}} [Kevin Ward](/wiki/Kevin_Ward_%28rugby_league%29 "Kevin Ward (rugby league)") |
| HK | **9** | {{leagueicon\|Widnes\|12}} [Paul Hulme](/wiki/Paul_Hulme "Paul Hulme") |
| PR | **10** | {{leagueicon\|Oldham\|12}} [Hugh Waddell](/wiki/Hugh_Waddell_%28rugby_league%29 "Hugh Waddell (rugby league)") |
| SR | **11** | {{leagueicon\|Warrington\|12}} [Mike Gregory](/wiki/Mike_Gregory "Mike Gregory") |
| SR | **12** | {{leagueicon\|Leeds\|12}} [Roy Powell](/wiki/Roy_Powell_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1965%29 "Roy Powell (rugby league, born 1965)") |
| LF | **13** | {{leagueicon\|Wigan\|12}} [Ellery Hanley](/wiki/Ellery_Hanley "Ellery Hanley") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 "Captain (sports)")) |
|**Substitutions:**
| IC | **14** | {{leagueicon\|Wigan\|12}} [Brian Case](/wiki/Brian_Case "Brian Case") |
| IC | **15** | {{leagueicon\|Widnes\|12}} [Darren Wright](/wiki/Darren_Wright_%28rugby_league%29 "Darren Wright (rugby league)") |
|**Coach:**
|{{flagicon\|ENG}} [Mal Reilly](/wiki/Mal_Reilly "Mal Reilly")
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
Early in the match Great Britain were disallowed a try when Henderson Gill dived onto an Andy Gregory [bomb](/wiki/Bomb_kick "Bomb kick") which was not secured by the Australian [fullback](/wiki/Fullback_%28rugby_league%29 "Fullback (rugby league)").{{cite news\|last\=Skinner\|first\=Steve\|title\=How they did it\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=USpWAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=2139,8688000\|accessdate\=1 May 2011\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sun\-Herald]]\|date\=10 July 1988}} The Kangaroos then had chances to score at the other end of the field, but the British defence held strong. The first try of the match would go to the visitors when, playing the ball inside Australia's twenty\-two, they strung some passes together, getting the ball out to Martin Offiah who dove over the line on the right wing. The conversion attempt was missed so the score was 0–4 with over three quarters of the match still to be played. A few minutes later Great Britain were again on the attack in Australia's territory and keeping the ball alive, their scrum half back Andy Gregory darting about elusively before passing it to Ford who stepped and weaved his way amongst the defenders to dash through and score near the uprights. The conversion was successful, giving Great Britain a 0–10 lead. Shortly before half\-time Australia suffered a major setback when their halfback Peter Sterling was forced off with a dislocated shoulder after being driven into the turf in a tackle by Roy Powell.{{cite web\|last\=Clarkson\|first\=Alan\|title\='Patched up' Pom Heroes\|url\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\=news880709\_0085\_0920\|work\=\[\[The Sun\-Herald]]\|publisher\=Fairfax\|accessdate\=13 February 2014}} No more points were scored in the first half, so this was the score at the break.
Australia scored first in the second half after winning a [scrum](/wiki/Scrum_%28rugby%29 "Scrum (rugby)") against the feed within Great Britain's twenty\-two. Working the ball up close to the uprights, their captain Wally Lewis got it at first receiver and ran it into the defence, wrestling his way through to the tryline where he reached out and put it down beneath the black dot. The try was successfully converted, so the score was 6–10 in favour of the Lions. Great Britain then extended their lead after working the ball up into an attacking position where Andy Gregory chipped it ahead. In the rush of chasers from both sides trying to reach the ball it was knocked ahead into the in\-goal area where Henderson Gill dived on it. The kick was successful so the British were leading 6–16\.{{cite book\|last\=\[\[Geoffrey Moorhouse]]\|title\=At the George: And Other Essays on Rugby League\|year\=2013\|publisher\=Faber \& Faber\|location\=UK\|isbn\=9780571300082\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ISbwAAAAQBAJ}} Again the Britons' failure to win a scrum in their own territory afforded Australia another opportunity, with forward Sam Backo crashing over the line shortly after from close range. The successful kick brought the Kangaroos back to within an unconverted try at 12–16\. The Lions struck again from deep within their own half where centre Paul Loughlin got the ball at first receiver, ran through the defensive line and crossed half\-way before passing to Henderson Gill in support on his outside to dive over on the right wing. The conversion attempt was missed, so the British lead was 12–20\. Then they scored another long range try while working the ball away from their own line, Andy Gregory making a dart from dummy half, catching the markers napping and getting into open space. He then found Mike Gregory in support who ran about seventy metres to dive over under the posts.{{cite news\|last\=Skinner\|first\=Steve\|title\=How they did it\|url\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\=news880709\_0148\_3873\|accessdate\=13 February 2014\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sun\-Herald]]\|date\=9 July 1988}} The easy kick meant a 26–12 lead for Great Britain and this is where the scoreboard remained at full\-time.
Australian front row forward Sam Backo scored a try in all three tests. This saw him join legendary winger [Ken Irvine](/wiki/Ken_Irvine "Ken Irvine") ([1963](/wiki/1963-64_Kangaroo_tour_of_Great_Britain_and_France "1963-64 Kangaroo tour of Great Britain and France")) as the only Australians to score a try in each test of an Ashes series.
This was the end of a 15\-match winning streak for the Australians,{{cite news
\| last \=Baker
\| first \=Andrew
\| title \=100 years of rugby league: From the great divide to the Super era
\| newspaper \= \[\[The Independent\|Independent, The]]
\| publisher \=independent.co.uk
\| date \=1995\-08\-20
\| url \=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/100\-years\-of\-rugby\-league\-from\-the\-great\-divide\-to\-the\-super\-era\-1597130\.html
\| accessdate \=2009\-09\-25 }} and Great Britain's first Test victory over the Kangaroos since their 18–14 win at [Odsal Stadium](/wiki/Odsal_Stadium "Odsal Stadium") during the [1978 Kangaroo tour](/wiki/1978_Kangaroo_tour "1978 Kangaroo tour"), as well as their first win in Australia for 18 years. It also put Great Britain on top of the World Cup points table.{{cite news\|title\=Best of British shocks Aussies\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=qxQ\-AAAAIBAJ\&pg\=5137,2151956\|accessdate\=1 May 2011\|newspaper\=\[\[Evening Times]]\|date\=9 July 1988}}
After the match there was a gala dinner at the Regent Hotel.{{cite news\|last\=Hadfield\|first\=Dave\|title\=The Stuff that Dreams and made of\|url\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\=news880710\_0242\_3400\|accessdate\=13 February 2014\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\|date\=10 July 1988}}
|
[
"Australia\n---------",
"The Australian leg of the tour took place in the midst of the [1988 NSWRFL season](/wiki/1988_NSWRFL_season \"1988 NSWRFL season\") as well as the [1988 State of Origin series](/wiki/1988_State_of_Origin_series \"1988 State of Origin series\"). In 1988 Australia was also celebrating its national bicentenary.{{cite book\\|title\\=Annual Report\\|year\\=1988\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Australian Rugby Football League]]\\|location\\=Australia\\|page\\=8\\|url\\=https://secure.ausport.gov.au/\\_\\_data/assets/pdf\\_file/0011/96878/Australian\\_Rugby\\_Football\\_League\\_Annual\\_Report\\_1988\\.pdf}} The tour's itinerary, which involved short periods between matches, making it tough for the visitors, was designed by the [Australian Rugby League](/wiki/Australian_Rugby_League \"Australian Rugby League\") but agreed to by the British.{{cite news\\|last\\=Clarkson\\|first\\=Alan\\|title\\=Reilly's Agony\\|url\\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\\=news880625\\_0069\\_3766\\|accessdate\\=17 February 2014\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sun\\-Herald]]\\|date\\=25 June 1988}}",
"The Ashes series attracted just 67,554 to the three tests, with the [dead rubber](/wiki/Dead_rubber \"Dead rubber\") third game attracting just 15,944 to the [Sydney Football Stadium](/wiki/Sydney_Football_Stadium_%281988%29 \"Sydney Football Stadium (1988)\"). The second Ashes test against Australia at [Lang Park](/wiki/Lang_Park \"Lang Park\") in [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane \"Brisbane\") drew the tours highest attendance of 27,130 while the game against [reigning](/wiki/1987_NSWRL_season \"1987 NSWRL season\") Sydney premiers [Manly\\-Warringah](/wiki/Manly_Sea_Eagles \"Manly Sea Eagles\") attracted the highest non\\-test attendance of the tour with 21,131\\. The total Ashes series attendance was 7,926 less than had attended the 1984 series played in Australia and was 34,006 less than the record breaking series played in England during the [1986 Kangaroo Tour](/wiki/1986_Kangaroo_Tour \"1986 Kangaroo Tour\"). It was also easily the lowest ever attended Ashes series played in Australia since [1910](/wiki/1910_Great_Britain_Lions_tour_of_Australia_and_New_Zealand \"1910 Great Britain Lions tour of Australia and New Zealand\") which attracted 60,000 fans.",
"### Test Venues",
"The three Ashes series tests took place at the following venues. Two games were played in Sydney at the new Sydney Football Stadium which had replaced the [Sydney Cricket Ground](/wiki/Sydney_Cricket_Ground \"Sydney Cricket Ground\") as the main rugby league venue in Sydney.",
"",
"",
"| [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\") | [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane \"Brisbane\") |\n| --- | --- |\n| [Sydney Football Stadium](/wiki/Sydney_Football_Stadium_%281988%29 \"Sydney Football Stadium (1988)\") | [Lang Park](/wiki/Lang_Park \"Lang Park\") |\n| Capacity: **40,000** | Capacity: **32,500** |\n| [200px](/wiki/File:Sydney_Football_Stadium.jpg \"Sydney Football Stadium.jpg\") | [200px](/wiki/File:Suncorp-Stadium-Milton-Queensland.jpg \"Suncorp-Stadium-Milton-Queensland.jpg\") |",
"",
"---",
"{{rugbyleaguebox\n\\| date \\= Friday, 27 May\n\\| time \\= \n\\| team1 \\= \\[\\[Cairns District Rugby League\\|North Queensland]] {{leagueicon\\|Cairns\\|16}}\n\\| score \\= 16 – 66\n\\| report \\= \\[http://wigan.rlfans.com/fusion\\_pages/index.php?page\\_id\\=1201]\n\\| team2 \\= {{leagueicon\\|Great Britain\\|16}} \\[\\[Great Britain Lions\\|Great Britain]]\n\\| points1 \\= '''Tries''': \n Filosi (2\\), House \n '''Goals''': \n Worth (1\\) \n Conlan (1\\)\n\\| points2 \\= '''Tries''': \n \\[\\[Martin Offiah]] (4\\), \\[\\[Mike Ford (rugby)\\|Mike Ford]] (3\\), \\[\\[Phil Ford (rugby)\\|Phil Ford]] (2\\), \\[\\[Paul Medley]] (2\\), \\[\\[Paul Dixon (rugby league)\\|Paul Dixon]] \n '''Goals''': \n \\[\\[David Stephenson (rugby league, born 1958\\)\\|David Stephenson]] (8\\) \n \\[\\[Phil Ford (rugby)\\|Phil Ford]] (1\\)\n\\| stadium \\= \\[\\[Cairns Showgrounds]], \\[\\[Cairns]]\n\\| attendance\\= 5,500\n\\| referee \\= \\[\\[Barry Gomersall]]\n\\| manofmatch \\= \n}}\n**North Queensland**: Namok, Gagai, Taylor, Turia, Curry, Worth, Filosi, Colwell, Bax, McAskill, House, Dalley, Greenwood. Res \\- Ernest, Conlan",
"**Great Britain**: [Phil Ford](/wiki/Phil_Ford_%28rugby%29 \"Phil Ford (rugby)\"), [Paul Medley](/wiki/Paul_Medley \"Paul Medley\"), [Carl Gibson](/wiki/Carl_Gibson \"Carl Gibson\"), [David Stephenson](/wiki/David_Stephenson_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1958%29 \"David Stephenson (rugby league, born 1958)\"), [Martin Offiah](/wiki/Martin_Offiah \"Martin Offiah\"), [David Hulme](/wiki/David_Hulme_%28rugby_league%29 \"David Hulme (rugby league)\"), [Mike Ford](/wiki/Mike_Ford_%28rugby%29 \"Mike Ford (rugby)\"), [Brian Case](/wiki/Brian_Case \"Brian Case\"), [Paul Groves](/wiki/Paul_Groves_%28rugby_league%29 \"Paul Groves (rugby league)\"), [Roy Powell](/wiki/Roy_Powell_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1965%29 \"Roy Powell (rugby league, born 1965)\"), [Karl Fairbank](/wiki/Karl_Fairbank \"Karl Fairbank\"), [Paul Dixon](/wiki/Paul_Dixon_%28rugby_league%29 \"Paul Dixon (rugby league)\"), [Andy Platt](/wiki/Andy_Platt \"Andy Platt\") (c). Res \\- [Roy Haggerty](/wiki/Roy_Haggerty \"Roy Haggerty\")",
"---",
"",
"{{rugbyleaguebox\n\\| date \\= Wednesday, 1 June\n\\| time \\= 15:00\n\\| team1 \\= \\[\\[Newcastle Knights]] {{leagueicon\\|Newcastle\\|16}}\n\\| score \\= 12 – 28\n\\| report \\= \\[http://wigan.rlfans.com/fusion\\_pages/index.php?page\\_id\\=1202]\n\\| team2 \\= {{leagueicon\\|Great Britain\\|16}} \\[\\[Great Britain Lions\\|Great Britain]]\n\\| points1 \\= '''Tries''': \n \\[\\[Brett Shore]], \\[\\[Tony Kemp (rugby league)\\|Tony Kemp]], \\[\\[Glenn Miller (rugby league)\\|Glenn Miller]] \n '''Goals''':\n\\| points2 \\= '''Tries''': \n \\[\\[Martin Offiah]] (2\\), \\[\\[Ellery Hanley]] (2\\), \\[\\[Kevin Ward (rugby league)\\|Kevin Ward]] \n '''Goals''': \n \\[\\[Paul Loughlin]] (4\\)\n\\| stadium \\= \\[\\[Newcastle International Sports Centre]], \\[\\[Newcastle, New South Wales\\|Newcastle]]\n\\| attendance\\= 8,970{{cite news\\|last\\=MacDonald\\|first\\=John\\|title\\=Tourists fail to exhibit Defence and Discipline\\|url\\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\\=news880601\\_0305\\_0176\\|accessdate\\=14 February 2014\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\\|date\\=1 June 1988}} \n\\| referee \\= Greg McCallum\n\\| manofmatch\\= \n}}",
"| {{Football kit \\|pattern\\_la \\= \\_redborder \\|pattern\\_b \\= \\_Knights1988 \\|pattern\\_ra \\= \\_redborder \\|pattern\\_sh \\= \\|pattern\\_so \\= \\_2 red stripes \\|leftarm \\= 0000FF \\|body \\= 0000FF \\|rightarm \\= 0000FF \\|shorts \\= 0000FF \\|socks \\= 0000FF \\|title \\= Newcastle Knights }} | {{Football kit \\|pattern\\_la \\= \\|pattern\\_b \\= \\_GBR1985 \\|pattern\\_ra \\= \\|pattern\\_sh \\= \\|pattern\\_so \\= \\_band\\_red \\|leftarm \\= FFFFFF \\|body \\= FFFFFF \\|rightarm \\= FFFFFF \\|shorts \\= 0000FF \\|socks \\= 0000FF \\|title \\= Great Britain }} |\n| --- | --- |",
"",
"|",
"|",
"| |\n| FB | **1** | [Glenn Frendo](/wiki/Glenn_Frendo \"Glenn Frendo\") |\n| LW | **2** | [Troy Clarke](/wiki/Troy_Clarke_%28rugby_league%29 \"Troy Clarke (rugby league)\") |\n| CE | **3** | [Jeff Doyle](/wiki/Jeff_Doyle_%28rugby_league%29 \"Jeff Doyle (rugby league)\") |\n| CE | **4** | [Tony Kemp](/wiki/Tony_Kemp_%28rugby_league%29 \"Tony Kemp (rugby league)\") |\n| RW | **5** | [Glenn Miller](/wiki/Glenn_Miller_%28rugby_league%29 \"Glenn Miller (rugby league)\") |\n| FE | **6** | [Robbie McCormack](/wiki/Robbie_McCormack \"Robbie McCormack\") |\n| HB | **7** | [Steve Fulmer](/wiki/Steve_Fulmer \"Steve Fulmer\") |\n| LK | **8** | [Mark Glanville](/wiki/Mark_Glanville \"Mark Glanville\") |\n| SR | **9** | [Sam Stewart](/wiki/Sam_Stewart_%28rugby_league%29 \"Sam Stewart (rugby league)\") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 \"Captain (sports)\")) |\n| SR | **10** | [Michael McKiernan](/wiki/Michael_McKiernan \"Michael McKiernan\") |\n| PR | **11** | [David Thorne](/wiki/David_Thorne_%28rugby_league%29 \"David Thorne (rugby league)\") |\n| HK | **12** | [Tony Townsend](/wiki/Tony_Townsend \"Tony Townsend\") |\n| PR | **13** | [Brett Shore](/wiki/Brett_Shore \"Brett Shore\") |\n|**Substitutions:**",
"| IC | **14** | [Steve Walters](/wiki/Steve_Walters_%28rugby_league_played_1988%29 \"Steve Walters (rugby league played 1988)\") |\n| IC | **15** | [Scott Carter](/wiki/Scott_Carter_%28Australia_rugby_league%29 \"Scott Carter (Australia rugby league)\") |\n|**Coach:**",
"|{{flagicon\\|AUS}} [Allan McMahon](/wiki/Allan_McMahon \"Allan McMahon\")",
"",
"",
"",
"|",
"| |\n| FB | **1** | {{leagueicon\\|St Helens\\|12}} [Paul Loughlin](/wiki/Paul_Loughlin \"Paul Loughlin\") |\n| RW | **2** | {{leagueicon\\|Wigan\\|12}} [Henderson Gill](/wiki/Henderson_Gill \"Henderson Gill\") |\n| CE | **3** | {{leagueicon\\|Leeds\\|12}} [Carl Gibson](/wiki/Carl_Gibson \"Carl Gibson\") |\n| CE | **4** | {{leagueicon\\|Widnes\\|12}} [Darren Wright](/wiki/Darren_Wright_%28rugby_league%29 \"Darren Wright (rugby league)\") |\n| LW | **5** | {{leagueicon\\|Widnes\\|12}} [Martin Offiah](/wiki/Martin_Offiah \"Martin Offiah\") |\n| SO | **6** | {{leagueicon\\|Wigan\\|12}} [Ellery Hanley](/wiki/Ellery_Hanley \"Ellery Hanley\") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 \"Captain (sports)\")) |\n| SH | **7** | {{leagueicon\\|Wigan\\|12}} [Andy Gregory](/wiki/Andy_Gregory \"Andy Gregory\") |\n| PR | **8** | {{leagueicon\\|Castleford\\|12}} [Kevin Ward](/wiki/Kevin_Ward_%28rugby_league%29 \"Kevin Ward (rugby league)\") |\n| HK | **9** | {{leagueicon\\|Castleford\\|12}} [Kevin Beardmore](/wiki/Kevin_Beardmore \"Kevin Beardmore\") |\n| PR | **10** | {{leagueicon\\|Oldham\\|12}} [Hugh Waddell](/wiki/Hugh_Waddell_%28rugby_league%29 \"Hugh Waddell (rugby league)\") |\n| SR | **11** | {{leagueicon\\|Warrington\\|12}} [Mike Gregory](/wiki/Mike_Gregory \"Mike Gregory\") |\n| SR | **12** | {{leagueicon\\|Leeds\\|12}} [Paul Dixon](/wiki/Paul_Dixon_%28rugby_league%29 \"Paul Dixon (rugby league)\") |\n| LF | **13** | {{leagueicon\\|St Helens\\|12}} [Andy Platt](/wiki/Andy_Platt \"Andy Platt\") |\n|**Substitutions:**",
"| IC | **14** | |\n| IC | **15** | |\n|**Coach:**",
"|{{flagicon\\|ENG}} [Mal Reilly](/wiki/Mal_Reilly \"Mal Reilly\")",
"",
"| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |",
"",
"The Newcastle Knights, a new team in the [NSWRL](/wiki/NSWRL \"NSWRL\") Premiership in [1988](/wiki/1988_NSWRL_season \"1988 NSWRL season\"), was rewarded for large early season attendances with a game against the touring Lions.",
"---",
"",
"{{rugbyleaguebox\n\\| date \\= Sunday, 5 June\n\\| time \\= \n\\| team1 \\= Northern Division {{leagueicon\\|Balmain\\|16}}\n\\| score \\= 36 – 12\n\\| report \\= \\[http://wigan.rlfans.com/fusion\\_pages/index.php?page\\_id\\=1204]\n\\| team2 \\= {{leagueicon\\|Great Britain\\|16}} \\[\\[Great Britain Lions\\|Great Britain]]\n\\| points1 \\='''Tries''': \n \\[\\[Ewan McGrady]] (2\\), \\[\\[Chris Cumming]], B. Plater, M. Manes \n '''Goals''': \n M. Spinks (8\\)\n\\| points2 \\='''Tries''': \n \\[\\[Henderson Gill]], \\[\\[Garry Schofield]] \n '''Goals''': \n \\[\\[Paul Loughlin]] (2\\)\n\\| stadium \\= \\[\\[Scully Park]], \\[\\[Tamworth, New South Wales\\|Tamworth]]\n\\| attendance\\= 4,000{{cite news\\|last\\=Hadfield\\|first\\=Dave\\|title\\=Reilly still confident for Tests\\|url\\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\\=news880605\\_0304\\_8524\\|accessdate\\=14 February 2014\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\\|date\\=5 June 1988}}\n\\| referee \\= Barry Priest\n\\| manofmatch \\= \\[\\[Ewan McGrady]] {{leagueicon\\|Balmain\\|16}}\n}}",
"| {{Football kit \\|pattern\\_la \\= \\_thin\\_blackhoops \\|pattern\\_b \\= \\_blackhoops \\|pattern\\_ra \\= \\_thin\\_blackhoops \\|pattern\\_sh \\= \\|pattern\\_so \\= \\_hoops\\_black \\|leftarm \\= FF8000 \\|body \\= FF8000 \\|rightarm \\= FF8000 \\|shorts \\= 000000 \\|socks \\= FF8000 \\|title \\= Northern Division }} | {{Football kit \\|pattern\\_la \\= \\|pattern\\_b \\= \\_GBR1985 \\|pattern\\_ra \\= \\|pattern\\_sh \\= \\|pattern\\_so \\= \\_band\\_red \\|leftarm \\= FFFFFF \\|body \\= FFFFFF \\|rightarm \\= FFFFFF \\|shorts \\= 0000FF \\|socks \\= 0000FF \\|title \\= Great Britain }} |\n| --- | --- |",
"",
"|",
"|",
"| |\n| FB | **1** | Spinks |\n| LW | **2** | Plater |\n| CE | **3** | Gardner |\n| CE | **4** | [Matthew Ryan](/wiki/Matthew_Ryan_%28rugby_league%29 \"Matthew Ryan (rugby league)\") |\n| RW | **5** | French |\n| FE | **6** | [Rocky Laurie](/wiki/Robert_Laurie_%28rugby_league%29 \"Robert Laurie (rugby league)\") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 \"Captain (sports)\")) |\n| HB | **7** | [Ewan McGrady](/wiki/Ewan_McGrady \"Ewan McGrady\") |\n| LK | **8** | Maynes |\n| SR | **9** | Lavender |\n| SR | **10** | Cumming |\n| PR | **11** | Cotter |\n| HK | **12** | Masters |\n| PR | **13** | McCann |\n|**Substitutions:**",
"| IC | **14** | McCormack |\n| IC | **15** | Briggs |\n|**Coach:**",
"|",
"",
"",
"",
"|",
"| |\n| FB | **1** | {{leagueicon\\|St Helens\\|12}} [Paul Loughlin](/wiki/Paul_Loughlin \"Paul Loughlin\") |\n| RW | **2** | {{leagueicon\\|Bradford\\|12}} [Phil Ford](/wiki/Phil_Ford_%28rugby%29 \"Phil Ford (rugby)\") |\n| CE | **3** | {{leagueicon\\|Leeds\\|12}} [Garry Schofield](/wiki/Garry_Schofield \"Garry Schofield\") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 \"Captain (sports)\")) |\n| CE | **4** | {{leagueicon\\|Leeds\\|12}} [David Stephenson](/wiki/David_Stephenson_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1958%29 \"David Stephenson (rugby league, born 1958)\") |\n| LW | **5** | {{leagueicon\\|Wigan\\|12}} [Henderson Gill](/wiki/Henderson_Gill \"Henderson Gill\") |\n| SO | **6** | {{leagueicon\\|Widnes\\|12}} [David Hulme](/wiki/David_Hulme_%28rugby_league%29 \"David Hulme (rugby league)\") |\n| SH | **7** | {{leagueicon\\|Oldham\\|12}} [Mike Ford](/wiki/Mike_Ford_%28rugby%29 \"Mike Ford (rugby)\") |\n| PR | **8** | {{leagueicon\\|Wigan\\|12}} [Brian Case](/wiki/Brian_Case \"Brian Case\") |\n| HK | **9** | {{leagueicon\\|St Helens\\|12}} [Paul Groves](/wiki/Paul_Groves_%28rugby_league%29 \"Paul Groves (rugby league)\") |\n| PR | **10** | {{leagueicon\\|Hull\\|12}} [Lee Crooks](/wiki/Lee_Crooks_%28rugby_league%29 \"Lee Crooks (rugby league)\") |\n| SR | **11** | {{leagueicon\\|Leeds\\|12}} [Roy Powell](/wiki/Roy_Powell_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1965%29 \"Roy Powell (rugby league, born 1965)\") |\n| SR | **12** | {{leagueicon\\|Leeds\\|12}} [Paul Medley](/wiki/Paul_Medley \"Paul Medley\") |\n| LF | **13** | {{leagueicon\\|St Helens\\|12}} [Roy Haggerty](/wiki/Roy_Haggerty \"Roy Haggerty\") |\n|**Substitutions:**",
"| IC | **14** | |\n| IC | **15** | {{leagueicon\\|Bradford\\|12}} [Karl Fairbank](/wiki/Karl_Fairbank \"Karl Fairbank\") |\n|**Coach:**",
"|{{flagicon\\|ENG}} [Mal Reilly](/wiki/Mal_Reilly \"Mal Reilly\")",
"",
"| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |",
"",
"The Northern Division side, captained by former [NSW](/wiki/New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team \"New South Wales rugby league team\"), [South Sydney](/wiki/South_Sydney_Rabbitohs \"South Sydney Rabbitohs\") and [Eastern Suburbs](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters \"Sydney Roosters\") [five\\-eighth](/wiki/Five-eighth \"Five-eighth\") Rocky Laurie, gave the tourists their first defeat, and a heavy defeat at that. Also playing for Northern Division was future NSWRL [Rothmans Medal](/wiki/Rothmans_Medal \"Rothmans Medal\") winner with [Canterbury\\-Bankstown](/wiki/Canterbury_Bulldogs \"Canterbury Bulldogs\"), Moree Boomerangs {{rlp\\|HB}} Ewan McGrady who crossed for two tries and future Canterbury premiership winning centre [Matthew Ryan](/wiki/Matthew_Ryan_%28rugby_league%29 \"Matthew Ryan (rugby league)\"). The game became known as \"Black Sunday\" for the Lions who went down 36\\-12\\. According to media reports, after the game Mal Reilly locked his team in the dressing room and upbraided them for 20 minutes before the media were allowed in.{{cite book\\|last1\\=McGregor\\|first1\\=Adrian\\|title\\=Simply The Best: The 1990 Kangaroos\\|date\\=1991\\|publisher\\=University of Queensland Press\\|location\\=Qld\\|isbn\\=0\\-7022\\-2370\\-0\\|page\\=55 The Fall and Rise of England}}",
"---",
"",
"{{rugbyleaguebox\n\\| date \\=Tuesday, 7 June\n\\| time \\= \n\\| team1 \\= \\[\\[Manly Warringah Sea Eagles\\|Manly\\-Warringah]] {{leagueicon\\|Manly\\|16}}\n\\| score \\= 30 – 0\n\\| report \\= \\[http://wigan.rlfans.com/fusion\\_pages/index.php?page\\_id\\=1205]\n\\| team2 \\= {{leagueicon\\|Great Britain\\|16}} \\[\\[Great Britain Lions\\|Great Britain]]\n\\| points1 \\= '''Tries''': \n \\[\\[Ian Gately]], \\[\\[Mark Pocock]], \\[\\[Geoff Toovey]], \\[\\[Charlie Haggett]], \\[\\[Cliff Lyons]] \n '''Goals''': \n \\[\\[Tim Dwyer (rugby league)\\|Tim Dwyer]] (5/5\\)\n\\| points2 \\= '''Tries''': \n '''Goals''': \n\\| stadium \\= \\[\\[Brookvale Oval]], \\[\\[Sydney]]\n\\| attendance \\= 21,131{{cite news\\|last\\=MacDonald\\|first\\=John\\|title\\=Manly maul the Tourists\\|url\\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\\=news880607\\_0188\\_8185\\|accessdate\\=16 February 2014\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\\|date\\=7 June 1988}}\n\\| referee \\= \\[\\[Francis Desplas]] {{flagicon\\|FRA}}\n\\| manofmatch \\= \\[\\[Geoff Toovey]] {{leagueicon\\|Manly\\|16}}\n}}",
"| {{Football kit \\|pattern\\_la \\= \\|pattern\\_b \\= \\_manly \\|pattern\\_ra \\= \\|pattern\\_sh \\= \\|pattern\\_so \\= \\_2whitestripes \\|leftarm \\= 800000 \\|body \\= 800000 \\|rightarm \\= 800000 \\|shorts \\= FFFFFF \\|socks \\= 800000 \\|title \\= Manly\\-Warringah }} | {{Football kit \\|pattern\\_la \\= \\|pattern\\_b \\= \\_GBR1985 \\|pattern\\_ra \\= \\|pattern\\_sh \\= \\|pattern\\_so \\= \\_band\\_red \\|leftarm \\= FFFFFF \\|body \\= FFFFFF \\|rightarm \\= FFFFFF \\|shorts \\= 0000FF \\|socks \\= 0000FF \\|title \\= Great Britain }} |\n| --- | --- |",
"",
"|",
"|",
"| |\n| FB | **1** | [Tim Dwyer](/wiki/Tim_Dwyer_%28rugby_league%29 \"Tim Dwyer (rugby league)\") |\n| LW | **2** | [Stuart Davis](/wiki/Stuart_Davis_%28rugby_league%29 \"Stuart Davis (rugby league)\") |\n| CE | **3** | [Joe Ropati](/wiki/Joe_Ropati \"Joe Ropati\") |\n| CE | **4** | [Darrell Williams](/wiki/Darrell_Williams_%28rugby_league%29 \"Darrell Williams (rugby league)\") |\n| RW | **5** | [Greg Austin](/wiki/Greg_Austin_%28rugby%29 \"Greg Austin (rugby)\") |\n| FE | **6** | [Cliff Lyons](/wiki/Cliff_Lyons \"Cliff Lyons\") |\n| HB | **7** | [Geoff Toovey](/wiki/Geoff_Toovey \"Geoff Toovey\") |\n| LK | **8** | [Des Hasler](/wiki/Des_Hasler \"Des Hasler\") |\n| SR | **9** | [Noel Cleal](/wiki/Noel_Cleal \"Noel Cleal\") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 \"Captain (sports)\")) |\n| SR | **10** | [Mark Pocock](/wiki/Mark_Pocock \"Mark Pocock\") |\n| PR | **11** | [Mark Brokenshire](/wiki/Mark_Brokenshire \"Mark Brokenshire\") |\n| HK | **12** | [Charlie Haggett](/wiki/Charlie_Haggett \"Charlie Haggett\") |\n| PR | **13** | [Ian Gately](/wiki/Ian_Gately \"Ian Gately\") |\n|**Substitutions:**",
"| IC | **14** | [Paul Shaw](/wiki/Paul_Shaw_%28rugby_league%29 \"Paul Shaw (rugby league)\") |\n| IC | **15** | [Glenn Ryan](/wiki/Glenn_Ryan_%28rugby_league%29 \"Glenn Ryan (rugby league)\") |\n|**Coach:**",
"|{{flagicon\\|AUS}} [Bob Fulton](/wiki/Bob_Fulton \"Bob Fulton\")",
"",
"",
"",
"|",
"| |\n| FB | **1** | {{leagueicon\\|Bradford\\|12}} [Phil Ford](/wiki/Phil_Ford_%28rugby%29 \"Phil Ford (rugby)\") |\n| RW | **2** | {{leagueicon\\|Leeds\\|12}} [Carl Gibson](/wiki/Carl_Gibson \"Carl Gibson\") |\n| CE | **3** | {{leagueicon\\|Leeds\\|12}} [Ian Wilkinson](/wiki/Ian_Wilkinson_%28rugby_league%29 \"Ian Wilkinson (rugby league)\") |\n| CE | **4** | {{leagueicon\\|Widnes\\|12}} [Darren Wright](/wiki/Darren_Wright_%28rugby_league%29 \"Darren Wright (rugby league)\") |\n| LW | **5** | {{leagueicon\\|Widnes\\|12}} [Martin Offiah](/wiki/Martin_Offiah \"Martin Offiah\") |\n| SO | **6** | {{leagueicon\\|Leeds\\|12}} [David Stephenson](/wiki/David_Stephenson_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1958%29 \"David Stephenson (rugby league, born 1958)\") |\n| SH | **7** | {{leagueicon\\|Widnes\\|12}} [David Hulme](/wiki/David_Hulme_%28rugby_league%29 \"David Hulme (rugby league)\") |\n| PR | **8** | {{leagueicon\\|Oldham\\|12}} [Hugh Waddell](/wiki/Hugh_Waddell_%28rugby_league%29 \"Hugh Waddell (rugby league)\") |\n| HK | **9** | {{leagueicon\\|St Helens\\|12}} [Paul Groves](/wiki/Paul_Groves_%28rugby_league%29 \"Paul Groves (rugby league)\") |\n| PR | **10** | {{leagueicon\\|Leeds\\|12}} [Roy Powell](/wiki/Roy_Powell_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1965%29 \"Roy Powell (rugby league, born 1965)\") |\n| SR | **11** | {{leagueicon\\|Bradford\\|12}} [Karl Fairbank](/wiki/Karl_Fairbank \"Karl Fairbank\") |\n| SR | **12** | {{leagueicon\\|Leeds\\|12}} [Paul Medley](/wiki/Paul_Medley \"Paul Medley\") |\n| LF | **13** | {{leagueicon\\|St Helens\\|12}} [Andy Platt](/wiki/Andy_Platt \"Andy Platt\") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 \"Captain (sports)\")) |\n|**Substitutions:**",
"| IC | **14** | {{leagueicon\\|St Helens\\|12}} [Roy Haggerty](/wiki/Roy_Haggerty \"Roy Haggerty\") |\n| IC | **15** | {{leagueicon\\|Hull\\|12}} [Lee Crooks](/wiki/Lee_Crooks_%28rugby_league%29 \"Lee Crooks (rugby league)\") |\n|**Coach:**",
"|{{flagicon\\|ENG}} [Mal Reilly](/wiki/Mal_Reilly \"Mal Reilly\")",
"",
"| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |",
"",
"Although facing the Lions mid\\-week side which still included test players Andy Platt, Martin Offiah, Phil Ford, Carl Gibson, David Hulme and Roy Powell, Manly went into the game missing regular first grade players in lock forward [Paul Vautin](/wiki/Paul_Vautin \"Paul Vautin\"), centre [Michael O'Connor](/wiki/Michael_O%27Connor_%28rugby%29 \"Michael O'Connor (rugby)\") and prop forward [Phil Daley](/wiki/Phil_Daley \"Phil Daley\") (Australian test players rested before the first test four days later), while fullback [Dale Shearer](/wiki/Dale_Shearer \"Dale Shearer\"), winger [David Ronson](/wiki/David_Ronson \"David Ronson\") and hooker [Mal Cochrane](/wiki/Mal_Cochrane \"Mal Cochrane\") were all unavailable due to injury. In the absence of usual team captain Vautin, the defending [Winfield Cup](/wiki/Winfield_Cup \"Winfield Cup\") premiers were captained by [1986 Kangaroo Tourist](/wiki/1986_Kangaroo_Tour \"1986 Kangaroo Tour\") and 10 test veteran [Noel Cleal](/wiki/Noel_Cleal \"Noel Cleal\") who had a point to prove after being a shock omission from the Australian and [NSW](/wiki/New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team \"New South Wales rugby league team\") sides (the Lions camp and the English media following the team was reportedly dumbfounded at Cleal's non\\-selection). In front of a vocal [Brookvale Oval](/wiki/Brookvale_Oval \"Brookvale Oval\") crowd of 21,131, the largest non\\-test attendance of the tour and the 3rd highest tour attendance outside only the first and second Ashes tests, the makeshift Sea Eagles side put the tourists to the sword, running out five tries to nil winners. Manly's teenage halfback [Geoff Toovey](/wiki/Geoff_Toovey \"Geoff Toovey\"), playing only his third game of top grade football, capped a man\\-of\\-the\\-match performance scoring one of his sides tries. The match saw the first time that former test rivals and teammates in Manly's [1972](/wiki/1972_NSWRFL_season \"1972 NSWRFL season\") and [1973](/wiki/1973_NSWRFL_season \"1973 NSWRFL season\") premiership wins Bob Fulton (Manly) and [Mal Reilly](/wiki/Mal_Reilly \"Mal Reilly\") (Great Britain) would coach against each other.",
"For the Lions, their captain on the night Andy Platt was far and away their best player with the rest showing little form heading into the first test just 4 days later. After [Cliff Lyons](/wiki/Cliff_Lyons \"Cliff Lyons\") crossed for Manly's 5th try in just 60th minute, the game descended into a scrappy contest as fatigue and high frustrations for the Lions resulted in Mark Brokenshire (Manly) and Roy Haggerty (GB) each getting 10 minutes in the sin\\-bin for foul play. For Manly, Toovey, Lyons, Cleal and [Des Hasler](/wiki/Des_Hasler \"Des Hasler\") (playing at lock) led the way for the 30–0 win while fullback Tim Dwyer capped a fine night kicking 5 goals from 5 attempts.[Manly\\-Warringah vs Great Britain 1988](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TJqaBmWLl3o)",
"The game was refereed by Frenchman Francis Desplas who would be the referee for all three tests of the Ashes series. Although not playing the game, Mal Reilly allowed Lions prop forward [Kevin Ward](/wiki/Kevin_Ward_%28rugby_league%29 \"Kevin Ward (rugby league)\") who had played in Manly's 1987 Grand Final winning team (and would again link with Manly once the tour ended), to take the toss of the coin in front of his 'home' fans despite Andy Platt captaining the side. The scheduling of the game against the reigning Sydney premiers only four days out from the first test drew criticism from Lions management and the British press who were covering the tour.",
"### 1st Ashes Test",
"[The Ashes](/wiki/The_Ashes_%28rugby_league%29 \"The Ashes (rugby league)\") series was styled the 'Winfield Test series' due to sponsorship from [Winfield cigarettes](/wiki/Winfield_%28cigarette%29 \"Winfield (cigarette)\"). The first game was the 100th rugby league test between the two sides. [Andrew Ettingshausen](/wiki/Andrew_Ettingshausen \"Andrew Ettingshausen\"), [Peter Jackson](/wiki/Peter_Jackson_%28rugby_league%29 \"Peter Jackson (rugby league)\"), [Tony Currie](/wiki/Tony_Currie_%28rugby_league%29 \"Tony Currie (rugby league)\"), [Sam Backo](/wiki/Sam_Backo \"Sam Backo\"), [Phil Daley](/wiki/Phil_Daley \"Phil Daley\") and [Gary Belcher](/wiki/Gary_Belcher \"Gary Belcher\") were selected to make their Test match debuts for Australia. Largely thanks to their 3\\-0 domination of the State of Origin series, [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland_Maroons \"Queensland Maroons\") players dominated in the Australian forward pack with Manly's Phil Daley the only NSW player in the starting six. Both Blues skipper [Wayne Pearce](/wiki/Wayne_Pearce \"Wayne Pearce\") and [Noel Cleal](/wiki/Noel_Cleal \"Noel Cleal\") were shock omissions while Wally Fullerton\\-Smith (second row) and Greg Conescu (hooker) were recalled for their first tests since 1984 and 1985 respectively.{{cite news\\|last\\=MacDonald\\|first\\=John\\|title\\=Changes to Test Team unlikely \\- Hammerton\\|url\\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\\=news880615\\_0306\\_6752\\|accessdate\\=17 February 2014\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\\|date\\=15 June 1988}} The absence through injury of several of Great Britain's Test stars meant that several members of their team were playing out of position.{{cite news\\|last\\=Hadfield\\|first\\=Dave\\|title\\=Toast to Team they left behind\\|url\\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\\=news880610\\_0150\\_8071\\|accessdate\\=16 February 2014\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\\|date\\=10 June 1988}}",
"Following heavy losses to Northern Division and Manly\\-Warringah in their two games immediately prior to the first test, one unnamed ARL official allegedly remarked that trying to promote a test series with the Great Britain side (who had not won a test against Australia since the second test of the [1978 Kangaroo Tour](/wiki/1978_Kangaroo_tour_of_Great_Britain_and_France \"1978 Kangaroo tour of Great Britain and France\")) was like trying to flog a dead horse. Indeed, this was reflected when only 24,480 attended the first test at the [Sydney Football Stadium](/wiki/Sydney_Football_Stadium_%281988%29 \"Sydney Football Stadium (1988)\"), with the dead rubber third test at the venue only attracting 15,944 fans, the lowest ever test attendance between the two teams in Sydney.\n{{rugbyleaguebox\n\\| bg \\= \\#eeeeee \n\\| date \\= Saturday, 11 June\n\\| time \\= \n\\| team1 \\= {{rl\\-rt\\|AUS}}\n\\| team2 \\= {{rl\\|GBR}}\n\\| score \\= 17 – 6\n\\| report \\= \\[http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/matches/ashes\\-series\\-1988/game\\-1/australia\\-vs\\-great\\-britain/summary.html 1st Ashes Test]\n\\| points1 \\= '''Tries''': \n \\[\\[Peter Jackson (rugby league)\\|Peter Jackson]] (2\\) \n \\[\\[Sam Backo]] \n '''Goals''': \n \\[\\[Michael O'Connor (rugby)\\|Michael O'Connor]] (2/5\\) \n '''Field goal''': \n \\[\\[Wally Lewis]]\n\\| points2 \\= '''Try''': \n \\[\\[Ellery Hanley]] \n \n'''Goals''': \n \\[\\[Paul Loughlin]] (1/5\\)\n\\| stadium \\= \\[\\[Sydney Football Stadium (1988\\)\\|Sydney Football Stadium]], \\[\\[Sydney]]\n\\| attendance \\= 24,480\n\\| referee \\= \\[\\[Francois Desplas]] {{flagicon\\|FRA}}\n\\| manofmatch \\= \\[\\[Kevin Ward (rugby league)\\|Kevin Ward]] {{leagueicon\\|Great Britain\\|16}}\n}}",
"| {{Football kit \\|pattern\\_la \\= \\_kangaroos \\|pattern\\_b \\= \\_kangaroos1992 \\|pattern\\_ra \\= \\_kangaroos \\|pattern\\_sh \\= \\_thingoldsides \\|pattern\\_so \\= \\_hoops\\_gold \\|leftarm \\= 023E00 \\|body \\= 023E00 \\|rightarm \\= 023E00 \\|shorts \\= 023E00 \\|socks \\= 023E00 \\|title \\= Australia }} | {{Football kit \\|pattern\\_la \\= \\_GBRL \\|pattern\\_b \\= \\_GBR1985 \\|pattern\\_ra \\= \\_blue\\_stripes2 \\|pattern\\_sh \\= \\_red\\_stripes2 \\|pattern\\_so \\= \\_britishlions12 \\|leftarm \\= FFFFFF \\|body \\= FFFFFF \\|rightarm \\= FFFFFF \\|shorts \\= 0000FF \\|socks \\= 0000FF \\|title \\= Great Britain }} |\n| --- | --- |",
"",
"|",
"|",
"| |\n| FB | **1** | {{leagueicon\\|Balmain\\|12}} [Garry Jack](/wiki/Garry_Jack \"Garry Jack\") |\n| RW | **2** | {{leagueicon\\|Cronulla\\|12}} [Andrew Ettingshausen](/wiki/Andrew_Ettingshausen \"Andrew Ettingshausen\") |\n| CE | **3** | {{leagueicon\\|Manly\\|12}} [Michael O'Connor](/wiki/Michael_O%27Connor_%28rugby%29 \"Michael O'Connor (rugby)\") |\n| CE | **4** | {{leagueicon\\|Canberra\\|12}} [Peter Jackson](/wiki/Peter_Jackson_%28rugby_league%29 \"Peter Jackson (rugby league)\") |\n| LW | **5** | {{leagueicon\\|Bulldogs\\|12}} [Tony Currie](/wiki/Tony_Currie_%28rugby_league%29 \"Tony Currie (rugby league)\") |\n| FE | **6** | {{leagueicon\\|Brisbane\\|12}} [Wally Lewis](/wiki/Wally_Lewis \"Wally Lewis\") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 \"Captain (sports)\")) |\n| HB | **7** | {{leagueicon\\|Parramatta\\|12}} [Peter Sterling](/wiki/Peter_Sterling_%28rugby_league_commentator%29 \"Peter Sterling (rugby league commentator)\") |\n| PR | **8** | {{leagueicon\\|Manly\\|12}} [Phil Daley](/wiki/Phil_Daley \"Phil Daley\") |\n| HK | **9** | {{leagueicon\\|Brisbane\\|12}} [Greg Conescu](/wiki/Greg_Conescu \"Greg Conescu\") |\n| PR | **10** | {{leagueicon\\|Canberra\\|12}} [Sam Backo](/wiki/Sam_Backo \"Sam Backo\") |\n| SR | **11** | {{leagueicon\\|St George\\|12}} [Wally Fullerton\\-Smith](/wiki/Wally_Fullerton-Smith \"Wally Fullerton-Smith\") |\n| SR | **12** | {{leagueicon\\|Manly\\|12}} [Paul Vautin](/wiki/Paul_Vautin \"Paul Vautin\") |\n| Lk | **13** | {{leagueicon\\|Parramatta\\|12}} [Bob Lindner](/wiki/Bob_Lindner \"Bob Lindner\") |\n|**Substitutions:**",
"| IC | **14** | {{leagueicon\\|Canberra\\|12}} [Gary Belcher](/wiki/Gary_Belcher \"Gary Belcher\") |\n| IC | **15** | {{leagueicon\\|Bulldogs\\|12}} [Steve Folkes](/wiki/Steve_Folkes \"Steve Folkes\") |\n|**Coach:**",
"|{{flagicon\\|AUS}} [Don Furner](/wiki/Don_Furner \"Don Furner\")",
"",
"",
"",
"|",
"| |\n| FB | **1** | {{leagueicon\\|St Helens\\|12}} [Paul Loughlin](/wiki/Paul_Loughlin \"Paul Loughlin\") |\n| RW | **2** | {{leagueicon\\|Bradford\\|12}} [Phil Ford](/wiki/Phil_Ford_%28rugby%29 \"Phil Ford (rugby)\") |\n| CE | **3** | {{leagueicon\\|Leeds\\|12}} [Garry Schofield](/wiki/Garry_Schofield \"Garry Schofield\") |\n| CE | **4** | {{leagueicon\\|Leeds\\|12}} [David Stephenson](/wiki/David_Stephenson_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1958%29 \"David Stephenson (rugby league, born 1958)\") |\n| LW | **5** | {{leagueicon\\|Widnes\\|12}} [Martin Offiah](/wiki/Martin_Offiah \"Martin Offiah\") |\n| SO | **6** | {{leagueicon\\|Widnes\\|12}} [David Hulme](/wiki/David_Hulme_%28rugby_league%29 \"David Hulme (rugby league)\") |\n| SH | **7** | {{leagueicon\\|Wigan\\|12}} [Andy Gregory](/wiki/Andy_Gregory \"Andy Gregory\") |\n| PR | **8** | {{leagueicon\\|St Helens\\|12}} [Andy Platt](/wiki/Andy_Platt \"Andy Platt\") |\n| HK | **9** | {{leagueicon\\|Castleford\\|12}} [Kevin Beardmore](/wiki/Kevin_Beardmore \"Kevin Beardmore\") |\n| PR | **10** | {{leagueicon\\|Castleford\\|12}} [Kevin Ward](/wiki/Kevin_Ward_%28rugby_league%29 \"Kevin Ward (rugby league)\") |\n| SR | **11** | {{leagueicon\\|Halifax\\|12}} [Paul Dixon](/wiki/Paul_Dixon_%28rugby_league%29 \"Paul Dixon (rugby league)\") |\n| SR | **12** | {{leagueicon\\|Warrington\\|12}} [Mike Gregory](/wiki/Mike_Gregory \"Mike Gregory\") |\n| LF | **13** | {{leagueicon\\|Wigan\\|12}} [Ellery Hanley](/wiki/Ellery_Hanley \"Ellery Hanley\") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 \"Captain (sports)\")) |\n|**Substitutions:**",
"| IC | **14** | {{leagueicon\\|Wigan\\|12}} [Henderson Gill](/wiki/Henderson_Gill \"Henderson Gill\") |\n| IC | **15** | {{leagueicon\\|Leeds\\|12}} [Roy Powell](/wiki/Roy_Powell_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1965%29 \"Roy Powell (rugby league, born 1965)\") |\n|**Coach:**",
"|{{flagicon\\|ENG}} [Mal Reilly](/wiki/Mal_Reilly \"Mal Reilly\")",
"",
"| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |",
"",
"Following a high tackle on British hooker Kevin Beardmore by Australian front rower Phil Daley, Great Britain put the first points on the board with Paul Loughlin's penalty kick from 40 metres out.{{cite news\\|last\\=Thomas\\|first\\=Brett\\|title\\=By the Clock\\|url\\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\\=news880611\\_0199\\_4283\\|accessdate\\=13 February 2014\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sun\\-Herald]]\\|date\\=11 June 1988}} The first try also went to the visitors with Ellery Hanley beating several defenders to score in the corner. Great Britain looked the better team in the first half and were leading 6–0 at the break.{{cite news\\|last\\=Clarkson\\|first\\=Alan\\|title\\=Pombarded\\|url\\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\\=news880611\\_0076\\_8611\\|accessdate\\=13 February 2014\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sun\\-Herald]]\\|date\\=11 June 1988}}",
"After six minutes of the second\\-half Sam Backo ran on to a Peter Sterling pass to score Australia's first try, although there was doubt around the ball's grounding.{{cite news\\|last\\=Megahey\\|first\\=Tony\\|title\\=Sideline Eye\\|url\\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\\=news880611\\_0077\\_4052\\|accessdate\\=17 February 2014\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sun\\-Herald]]\\|date\\=11 June 1988}} Peter Jackson scored two tries over 11 minutes to give Australia victory. In between these two tries Wally Lewis kicked a field goal.",
"John MacDonald of *[The Sydney Morning Herald](/wiki/The_Sydney_Morning_Herald \"The Sydney Morning Herald\")* reported that the tourists were not only competitive, but a little unlucky, and that the 17–6 score did not reflect how close they came to winning. He also leveled heavy criticism at the refereeing performance of Francois Desplas, who could not speak English.{{cite news\\|last\\=MacDonald\\|first\\=John\\|title\\=Great Britain serves up a surprise\\|url\\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\\=news880612\\_0159\\_4591\\|accessdate\\=13 February 2014\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\\|date\\=12 June 1988}} As man\\-of\\-the\\-match, British forward Kevin Ward received $1,000\\.",
"Great Britain's second\\-row forward Andy Platt received an injury to his left arm that was expected to see him sidelined for the next two weeks.{{cite news\\|last\\=Clarkson\\|first\\=Alan\\|title\\=Front row beckons for enforcer Crooks\\|url\\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\\=news880612\\_0144\\_5525\\|accessdate\\=13 February 2014\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\\|date\\=12 June 1988}}\n{{Clear}}",
"---",
"",
"{{rugbyleaguebox\n\\| date \\= Wednesday, 15 June\n\\| time \\= \n\\| team1 \\= \\[\\[Brisbane rugby league team\\|Combined Brisbane]] {{leagueicon\\|St Helens\\|16}}\n\\| score \\= 14 – 28\n\\| report \\= \\[http://wigan.rlfans.com/fusion\\_pages/index.php?page\\_id\\=1207]\n\\| team2 \\= {{leagueicon\\|Great Britain\\|16}} \\[\\[Great Britain Lions\\|Great Britain]]\n\\| points1 \\= '''Tries''': \n Brett McCarthy, Kelly Egan, Gordon Barwick \n '''Goals''': \n \\[\\[Peter Coyne (rugby league)\\|Peter Coyne]] (1\\)\n\\| points2 \\= '''Tries''': \n \\[\\[Martin Offiah]] (2\\), \\[\\[Garry Schofield]], \\[\\[Karl Fairbank]], \\[\\[Mike Ford (rugby)\\|Mike Ford]] \n '''Goals''': \n \\[\\[David Stephenson (rugby league, born 1958\\)\\|David Stephenson]] (4\\)\n\\| stadium \\= \\[\\[Lang Park]], \\[\\[Brisbane]]\n\\| attendance\\= 1,810\n\\| referee \\= \n\\| manofmatch \\= \n}}\n**Combined Brisbane**: [Steve Hegarty](/wiki/Steve_Hegarty \"Steve Hegarty\"), [Kelly Egan](/wiki/Kelly_Egan \"Kelly Egan\"), [Brett McCarthy](/wiki/Brett_McCarthy \"Brett McCarthy\"), Cherry, [Gordon Barwick](/wiki/Gordon_Barwick \"Gordon Barwick\"), [Peter Coyne](/wiki/Peter_Coyne_%28rugby_league%29 \"Peter Coyne (rugby league)\"), Daunt, McIntyre, Holmes, Ponting, [Glen Haggath](/wiki/Glen_Haggath \"Glen Haggath\"), [Ian Stains](/wiki/Ian_Stains \"Ian Stains\"), [Darren Smith](/wiki/Darren_Smith_%28rugby_league%29 \"Darren Smith (rugby league)\"). Res \\- [Kevin Langer](/wiki/Kevin_Langer \"Kevin Langer\"), White",
"**Great Britain**: [Phil Ford](/wiki/Phil_Ford_%28rugby%29 \"Phil Ford (rugby)\"), [Henderson Gill](/wiki/Henderson_Gill \"Henderson Gill\"), [Garry Schofield](/wiki/Garry_Schofield \"Garry Schofield\"), [Carl Gibson](/wiki/Carl_Gibson \"Carl Gibson\"), [Ellery Hanley](/wiki/Ellery_Hanley \"Ellery Hanley\") (c), [Mike Ford](/wiki/Mike_Ford_%28rugby%29 \"Mike Ford (rugby)\"), [Brian Case](/wiki/Brian_Case \"Brian Case\"), [Paul Groves](/wiki/Paul_Groves_%28rugby_league%29 \"Paul Groves (rugby league)\"), [Lee Crooks](/wiki/Lee_Crooks_%28rugby_league%29 \"Lee Crooks (rugby league)\"), [Roy Powell](/wiki/Roy_Powell_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1965%29 \"Roy Powell (rugby league, born 1965)\"), [Karl Fairbank](/wiki/Karl_Fairbank \"Karl Fairbank\"), [Paul Dixon](/wiki/Paul_Dixon_%28rugby_league%29 \"Paul Dixon (rugby league)\"). Res \\- [Martin Offiah](/wiki/Martin_Offiah \"Martin Offiah\"), [Hugh Waddell](/wiki/Hugh_Waddell_%28rugby_league%29 \"Hugh Waddell (rugby league)\")",
"In the 20th minute of the match British centre [Garry Schofield](/wiki/Garry_Schofield \"Garry Schofield\") was assisted from the field with a fractured jaw bone.{{cite news\\|last\\=Hadfield\\|first\\=Dave\\|title\\=Schofield fractures his Jaw\\|url\\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\\=news880615\\_0311\\_7339\\|accessdate\\=16 February 2014\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\\|date\\=15 June 1988}}",
"---",
"",
"{{rugbyleaguebox\n\\| date \\= Friday, 17 June\n\\| time \\= \n\\| team1 \\= \\[\\[Central Queensland Capras\\|Central Queensland]] {{leagueicon\\|Central Comets\\|16}}\n\\| score \\= 8 – 64\n\\| report \\= \\[http://wigan.rlfans.com/fusion\\_pages/index.php?page\\_id\\=1208]\n\\| team2 \\= {{leagueicon\\|Great Britain\\|16}} \\[\\[Great Britain Lions\\|Great Britain]]\n\\| points1 \\= '''Tries''': \n Marshall Leisha \n '''Goals''': \n D Weinert (2\\)\n\\| points2 \\= '''Tries''': \n \\[\\[Karl Fairbank]] (3\\), \\[\\[Martin Offiah]] (3\\), \\[\\[Ellery Hanley]] (2\\), \\[\\[Carl Gibson]] (2\\), \\[\\[Roy Powell (rugby league, born 1965\\)\\|Roy Powell]] \n '''Goals''': \n \\[\\[Paul Loughlin]] (10\\)\n\\| stadium \\= \\[\\[Browne Park]], \\[\\[Rockhampton]]\n\\| attendance \\= 4,418\n\\| referee \\= L. Crane\n\\| manofmatch \\= \n}}\n**Central Queensland**: Crow, Miller, Peter White, Paul White, Hinricks, Iles, Upkett, Olsson, Emmert, Weinert, Leisha, Duff, Brazier.",
"**Great Britain**: [Paul Loughlin](/wiki/Paul_Loughlin \"Paul Loughlin\"), [Carl Gibson](/wiki/Carl_Gibson \"Carl Gibson\"), [Ian Wilkinson](/wiki/Ian_Wilkinson_%28rugby_league%29 \"Ian Wilkinson (rugby league)\"), [Darren Wright](/wiki/Darren_Wright_%28rugby_league%29 \"Darren Wright (rugby league)\"), [Martin Offiah](/wiki/Martin_Offiah \"Martin Offiah\"), [Ellery Hanley](/wiki/Ellery_Hanley \"Ellery Hanley\") (c), [David Hulme](/wiki/David_Hulme_%28rugby_league%29 \"David Hulme (rugby league)\"), [Kevin Ward](/wiki/Kevin_Ward_%28rugby_league%29 \"Kevin Ward (rugby league)\"), [Kevin Beardmore](/wiki/Kevin_Beardmore \"Kevin Beardmore\"), [Hugh Waddell](/wiki/Hugh_Waddell_%28rugby_league%29 \"Hugh Waddell (rugby league)\"), [Roy Powell](/wiki/Roy_Powell_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1965%29 \"Roy Powell (rugby league, born 1965)\"), [Karl Fairbank](/wiki/Karl_Fairbank \"Karl Fairbank\"), [Roy Haggerty](/wiki/Roy_Haggerty \"Roy Haggerty\"). Res \\- [Lee Crooks](/wiki/Lee_Crooks_%28rugby_league%29 \"Lee Crooks (rugby league)\"), [Henderson Gill](/wiki/Henderson_Gill \"Henderson Gill\")",
"British prop Lee Crooks injured his shoulder in this match putting him in doubt for the remainder of the Ashes series. Winning the scrums 11\\-2, Great Britain had a wealth of possession and exploited it ruthlessly. The Capras' only try came from Black Water Devils second\\-rower Marshall Leisha during the last ten minutes.{{cite news\\|last\\=Hadfield\\|first\\=Dave\\|title\\=Injured Crooks in doubt for 2nd Test\\|url\\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\\=news880617\\_0168\\_5953\\|accessdate\\=14 February 2014\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\\|date\\=17 June 1988}}",
"---",
"",
"{{rugbyleaguebox\n\\| date \\= Wednesday, 22 June\n\\| time \\= \n\\| team1 \\= \\[\\[Toowoomba Clydesdales\\|Toowoomba]] / S\\-E Queensland {{leagueicon\\|Toowoomba\\|16}}\n\\| score \\= 12 – 28\n\\| report \\= \\[http://wigan.rlfans.com/fusion\\_pages/index.php?page\\_id\\=1209]\n\\| team2 \\= {{leagueicon\\|Great Britain\\|16}} \\[\\[Great Britain Lions\\|Great Britain]]\n\\| points1 \\= '''Tries''': \n Claney, Johnson \n '''Goals''': \n Dwyer (2\\)\n\\| points2 \\= '''Tries''': \n \\[\\[Ellery Hanley]] (2\\), \\[\\[Mike Gregory]] (2\\), \\[\\[Phil Ford (rugby)\\|Phil Ford]] \n '''Goals''': \n \\[\\[Paul Loughlin]] (4\\)\n\\| stadium \\= \\[\\[Clive Berghofer Stadium\\|Athletic Oval]], \\[\\[Toowoomba]]\n\\| attendance \\= 3,874\n\\| referee \\= Tim Bliss\n\\| manofmatch \\= \n}}",
"**Toowoomba / S\\-E Queensland**: Weribone, Clevin, Blake, Pratt, Stower, Clancy, Smith, Dwyer, M. Cook, Sutoon, Buckle, Johnson, Sullivan. Res \\- [Terry Cook](/wiki/Terry_Cook_%28rugby_league%29 \"Terry Cook (rugby league)\"), Neale",
"**Great Britain**: [Paul Loughlin](/wiki/Paul_Loughlin \"Paul Loughlin\"), [Henderson Gill](/wiki/Henderson_Gill \"Henderson Gill\"), [David Stephenson](/wiki/David_Stephenson_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1958%29 \"David Stephenson (rugby league, born 1958)\"), [Phil Ford](/wiki/Phil_Ford_%28rugby%29 \"Phil Ford (rugby)\"), [Martin Offiah](/wiki/Martin_Offiah \"Martin Offiah\"), [Ellery Hanley](/wiki/Ellery_Hanley \"Ellery Hanley\") (c), [David Hulme](/wiki/David_Hulme_%28rugby_league%29 \"David Hulme (rugby league)\"), [Kevin Ward](/wiki/Kevin_Ward_%28rugby_league%29 \"Kevin Ward (rugby league)\"), [Kevin Beardmore](/wiki/Kevin_Beardmore \"Kevin Beardmore\"), [Paul Dixon](/wiki/Paul_Dixon_%28rugby_league%29 \"Paul Dixon (rugby league)\"), [Karl Fairbank](/wiki/Karl_Fairbank \"Karl Fairbank\"), [Roy Powell](/wiki/Roy_Powell_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1965%29 \"Roy Powell (rugby league, born 1965)\"), [Mike Gregory](/wiki/Mike_Gregory \"Mike Gregory\").",
"---",
"",
"{{rugbyleaguebox\n\\| date \\= Saturday, 25 June\n\\| time \\= \n\\| team1 \\= \\[\\[Queensland Rugby League\\#Wide Bay Bulls\\|Wide Bay]] {{leagueicon\\|St George\\|16}}\n\\| score \\= 0 – 14\n\\| report \\= \\[http://wigan.rlfans.com/fusion\\_pages/index.php?page\\_id\\=1210]\n\\| team2 \\= {{leagueicon\\|Great Britain\\|16}} \\[\\[Great Britain Lions\\|Great Britain]]\n\\| points1 \\= '''Tries''': \n '''Goals''':\n\\| points2 \\= '''Tries''': \n \\[\\[Andy Currier]], \\[\\[Martin Offiah]], \\[\\[Mike Ford (rugby)\\|Mike Ford]] \n '''Goals''': \n \\[\\[Paul Loughlin]] (1\\)\n\\| stadium \\= Albert Park, \\[\\[Gympie]]\n\\| attendance \\= 2,310\n\\| referee \\= Russell Leis\n\\| manofmatch \\= \n}}\n**Wide Bay**: Ovens, Templeman, Kirby, Lalli, Kinsela, Jones, Ward, Reddacliff, Gerrard, McGrath, Sempf, Schulte, March. Res \\- Graving, Ryan",
"**Great Britain**: [Ian Wilkinson](/wiki/Ian_Wilkinson_%28rugby_league%29 \"Ian Wilkinson (rugby league)\"), [Carl Gibson](/wiki/Carl_Gibson \"Carl Gibson\"), [Andy Currier](/wiki/Andy_Currier \"Andy Currier\"), [Darren Wright](/wiki/Darren_Wright_%28rugby_league%29 \"Darren Wright (rugby league)\"), [Henderson Gill](/wiki/Henderson_Gill \"Henderson Gill\"), [Mike Ford](/wiki/Mike_Ford_%28rugby%29 \"Mike Ford (rugby)\"), [Paul Hulme](/wiki/Paul_Hulme \"Paul Hulme\"), [Brian Case](/wiki/Brian_Case \"Brian Case\"), [Paul Groves](/wiki/Paul_Groves_%28rugby_league%29 \"Paul Groves (rugby league)\"), [Hugh Waddell](/wiki/Hugh_Waddell_%28rugby_league%29 \"Hugh Waddell (rugby league)\"), [Roy Powell](/wiki/Roy_Powell_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1965%29 \"Roy Powell (rugby league, born 1965)\"), [Karl Fairbank](/wiki/Karl_Fairbank \"Karl Fairbank\"), [Roy Haggerty](/wiki/Roy_Haggerty \"Roy Haggerty\"). Res \\- [Paul Loughlin](/wiki/Paul_Loughlin \"Paul Loughlin\"), [Martin Offiah](/wiki/Martin_Offiah \"Martin Offiah\")",
"### 2nd Ashes Test",
"The Australians made two changes to the side that won the first test in Sydney. Wayne Pearce earned a recall at lock with Bob Lindner moving to the bench in place of [Steve Folkes](/wiki/Steve_Folkes \"Steve Folkes\"). Injuries again forced Mal Reilly into changing his side for the second test. [Garry Schofield](/wiki/Garry_Schofield \"Garry Schofield\")'s broken jaw saw Phil Ford moved to the centres with Henderson Gill recalled onto the wing. Captain Ellery Hanley moved from lock to the centres in place of David Stephenson with Mike Gregory coming in at lock forward. Andy Platt dropped from the front row to the back row with Roy Powell coming into prop. Darren Wright and Paul Hulme were the new players on the bench.",
"Match commentary was provided by [Darrell Eastlake](/wiki/Darrell_Eastlake \"Darrell Eastlake\") and supercoach [Jack Gibson](/wiki/Jack_Gibson_%28rugby_league%29 \"Jack Gibson (rugby league)\").\n{{rugbyleaguebox\n\\| bg \\= \\#eeeeee \n\\| date \\= Tuesday, 28 June\n\\| time \\= \n\\| team1 \\= {{rl\\-rt\\|AUS}}\n\\| team2 \\= {{rl\\|GBR}}\n\\| score \\= 34 – 14\n\\| report \\= \\[http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/matches/ashes\\-series\\-1988/game\\-2/australia\\-vs\\-great\\-britain/summary.html 2nd Ashes Test]\n\\| points1 \\= '''Tries''': \n \\[\\[Sam Backo]] \n \\[\\[Andrew Ettingshausen]] \n \\[\\[Peter Jackson (rugby league)\\|Peter Jackson]] \n \\[\\[Wally Lewis]] \n \\[\\[Michael O'Connor (rugby)\\|Michael O'Connor]] \n \\[\\[Wayne Pearce]] \n '''Goals''': \n Michael O'Connor (5\\)\n\\| points2 \\= '''Tries''': \n \\[\\[Phil Ford (rugby)\\|Phil Ford]] \n \\[\\[Martin Offiah]] \n \n \n \n \n '''Goals''': \n \\[\\[Paul Loughlin]] (3\\)\n\\| stadium \\= \\[\\[Lang Park]], \\[\\[Brisbane]]\n\\| attendance \\= 27,130\n\\| referee \\= \\[\\[Francois Desplas]] {{flagicon\\|FRA}}\n\\| manofmatch \\= \\[\\[Wally Lewis]] {{leagueicon\\|Australia\\|16}}\n}}",
"| {{Football kit \\|pattern\\_la \\= \\_kangaroos \\|pattern\\_b \\= \\_kangaroos1992 \\|pattern\\_ra \\= \\_kangaroos \\|pattern\\_sh \\= \\_thingoldsides \\|pattern\\_so \\= \\_hoops\\_gold \\|leftarm \\= 023E00 \\|body \\= 023E00 \\|rightarm \\= 023E00 \\|shorts \\= 023E00 \\|socks \\= 023E00 \\|title \\= Australia }} | {{Football kit \\|pattern\\_la \\= \\_GBRL \\|pattern\\_b \\= \\_GBR1985 \\|pattern\\_ra \\= \\_blue\\_stripes2 \\|pattern\\_sh \\= \\_red\\_stripes2 \\|pattern\\_so \\= \\_britishlions12 \\|leftarm \\= FFFFFF \\|body \\= FFFFFF \\|rightarm \\= FFFFFF \\|shorts \\= 0000FF \\|socks \\= 0000FF \\|title \\= Great Britain }} |\n| --- | --- |",
"",
"|",
"|",
"| |\n| FB | **1** | {{leagueicon\\|Balmain\\|12}} [Garry Jack](/wiki/Garry_Jack \"Garry Jack\") |\n| LW | **2** | {{leagueicon\\|Bulldogs\\|12}} [Tony Currie](/wiki/Tony_Currie_%28rugby_league%29 \"Tony Currie (rugby league)\") |\n| CE | **3** | {{leagueicon\\|Manly\\|12}} [Michael O'Connor](/wiki/Michael_O%27Connor_%28rugby%29 \"Michael O'Connor (rugby)\") |\n| CE | **4** | {{leagueicon\\|Canberra\\|12}} [Peter Jackson](/wiki/Peter_Jackson_%28rugby_league%29 \"Peter Jackson (rugby league)\") |\n| RW | **5** | {{leagueicon\\|Cronulla\\|12}} [Andrew Ettingshausen](/wiki/Andrew_Ettingshausen \"Andrew Ettingshausen\") |\n| FE | **6** | {{leagueicon\\|Brisbane\\|12}} [Wally Lewis](/wiki/Wally_Lewis \"Wally Lewis\") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 \"Captain (sports)\")) |\n| HB | **7** | {{leagueicon\\|Parramatta\\|12}} [Peter Sterling](/wiki/Peter_Sterling_%28rugby_league_commentator%29 \"Peter Sterling (rugby league commentator)\") |\n| PR | **8** | {{leagueicon\\|Manly\\|12}} [Phil Daley](/wiki/Phil_Daley \"Phil Daley\") |\n| HK | **9** | {{leagueicon\\|Brisbane\\|12}} [Greg Conescu](/wiki/Greg_Conescu \"Greg Conescu\") |\n| PR | **10** | {{leagueicon\\|Canberra\\|12}} [Sam Backo](/wiki/Sam_Backo \"Sam Backo\") |\n| SR | **11** | {{leagueicon\\|St George\\|12}} [Wally Fullerton\\-Smith](/wiki/Wally_Fullerton-Smith \"Wally Fullerton-Smith\") |\n| SR | **12** | {{leagueicon\\|Manly\\|12}} [Paul Vautin](/wiki/Paul_Vautin \"Paul Vautin\") |\n| LK | **13** | {{leagueicon\\|Balmain\\|12}} [Wayne Pearce](/wiki/Wayne_Pearce \"Wayne Pearce\") |\n|**Substitutions:**",
"| IC | **14** | {{leagueicon\\|Canberra\\|12}} [Gary Belcher](/wiki/Gary_Belcher \"Gary Belcher\") |\n| IC | **15** | {{leagueicon\\|Parramatta\\|12}} [Bob Lindner](/wiki/Bob_Lindner \"Bob Lindner\") |\n|**Coach:**",
"|{{flagicon\\|AUS}} [Don Furner](/wiki/Don_Furner \"Don Furner\")",
"",
"",
"",
"|",
"| |\n| FB | **1** | {{leagueicon\\|St Helens\\|12}} [Paul Loughlin](/wiki/Paul_Loughlin \"Paul Loughlin\") |\n| RW | **2** | {{leagueicon\\|Wigan\\|12}} [Henderson Gill](/wiki/Henderson_Gill \"Henderson Gill\") |\n| CE | **3** | {{leagueicon\\|Bradford\\|12}} [Phil Ford](/wiki/Phil_Ford_%28rugby%29 \"Phil Ford (rugby)\") |\n| CE | **4** | {{leagueicon\\|Wigan\\|12}} [Ellery Hanley](/wiki/Ellery_Hanley \"Ellery Hanley\") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 \"Captain (sports)\")) |\n| LW | **5** | {{leagueicon\\|Widnes\\|12}} [Martin Offiah](/wiki/Martin_Offiah \"Martin Offiah\") |\n| SO | **6** | {{leagueicon\\|Widnes\\|12}} [David Hulme](/wiki/David_Hulme_%28rugby_league%29 \"David Hulme (rugby league)\") |\n| SH | **7** | {{leagueicon\\|Wigan\\|12}} [Andy Gregory](/wiki/Andy_Gregory \"Andy Gregory\") |\n| PR | **8** | {{leagueicon\\|Castleford\\|12}} [Kevin Ward](/wiki/Kevin_Ward_%28rugby_league%29 \"Kevin Ward (rugby league)\") |\n| HK | **9** | {{leagueicon\\|Castleford\\|12}} [Kevin Beardmore](/wiki/Kevin_Beardmore \"Kevin Beardmore\") |\n| PR | **10** | {{leagueicon\\|Leeds\\|12}} [Roy Powell](/wiki/Roy_Powell_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1965%29 \"Roy Powell (rugby league, born 1965)\") |\n| SR | **11** | {{leagueicon\\|Halifax\\|12}} [Paul Dixon](/wiki/Paul_Dixon_%28rugby_league%29 \"Paul Dixon (rugby league)\") |\n| SR | **12** | {{leagueicon\\|St Helens\\|12}} [Andy Platt](/wiki/Andy_Platt \"Andy Platt\") |\n| LF | **13** | {{leagueicon\\|Warrington\\|12}} [Mike Gregory](/wiki/Mike_Gregory \"Mike Gregory\") |\n|**Substitutions:**",
"| IC | **14** | {{leagueicon\\|Widnes\\|12}} [Darren Wright](/wiki/Darren_Wright_%28rugby_league%29 \"Darren Wright (rugby league)\") |\n| IC | **15** | {{leagueicon\\|Widnes\\|12}} [Paul Hulme](/wiki/Paul_Hulme \"Paul Hulme\") |\n|**Coach:**",
"|{{flagicon\\|ENG}} [Mal Reilly](/wiki/Mal_Reilly \"Mal Reilly\")",
"",
"| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |",
"",
"On Lang Park's electronic scoreboard the message \"Bullfrog \\- shame our favourite No 7 isn't here\" was displayed in a reference to [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland_rugby_league_team \"Queensland rugby league team\") halfback [Allan Langer](/wiki/Allan_Langer \"Allan Langer\") being overlooked for selection by Kangaroos team manager [Peter Moore](/wiki/Peter_%22Bullfrog%22_Moore \"Peter \") in favour of Peter Sterling.{{cite news\\|last\\=John MacDonald and Brad Forrest\\|title\\=Victorious Lewis slams 'Headhunters'\\|url\\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\\=news880628\\_0268\\_4573\\|accessdate\\=16 February 2014\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\\|date\\=28 June 1988}}",
"The tourists got first points with a penalty kick. After playing the ball three quarters of the way towards Great Britain's line Australians moved the ball through the hands out to left centre Michael O'Connor who broke through the defence and scored the first try. Australia's next try came in the twentieth minute when Wally Lewis chip kicked the ball ahead for himself, re\\-gathered it and passed it Peter Jackson who crossed untouched and scored behind the uprights.{{cite news\\|last\\=Masters\\|first\\=Roy\\|title\\=Iron Mike inspires Wally's knock\\-out Blow\\|url\\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\\=news880628\\_0269\\_1014\\|accessdate\\=16 February 2014\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\\|date\\=28 June 1988}} O'Connor successfully converted his try taking the score to 14–4 in favour of the hosts. After playing the ball around mid field the Australians kept the ball alive with a total of nine passes, the last of which was to Andrew Ettingshausen on the right wing who beat Martin Offiah to dive over in the corner. O'Connor's conversion attempt hit the upright so the half time score remained at 18–4\\.",
"After the break Great Britain were playing the ball within their own half of the field when Ellery Hanley got it at first receiver and ran himself, splitting the defence and racing into Australia's half where he passed to Ford who ran the remaining forty metres to score beneath the uprights. Sam Backo then scored a close range try, running from dummy\\-half and forcing his way over the line. Again playing the ball close to Great Britain's line Australia scored from dummy half once more when Wayne Pearce dived over. Playing the ball just inside Great Britain's half the Australians continued up\\-field, evading tacklers and passing to support players, the last of whom was Wally Lewis who ran the remaining metres to score untouched. Five minutes from full\\-time Andy Gregory was sent to the sin\\-bin for 10 minutes—effectively for the remainder of the game—after another high tackle on Ettingshausen.",
"By winning this match Australia successfully defended their Ashes title. The Poms' excessive aggression was seen as costing them the match. Criticism of French referee Desplas also continued.{{cite news\\|last\\=Heads\\|first\\=Ian\\|title\\=Test is too big for one Man \\- The Ref\\|url\\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\\=news880629\\_0298\\_4442\\|accessdate\\=16 February 2014\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\\|date\\=29 June 1988}}\n{{Clear}}",
"---",
"",
"{{rugbyleaguebox\n\\| date \\=Sunday, 3 July\n\\| time \\= \n\\| team1 \\= Western Division {{leagueicon\\|Canberra\\|16}} \n\\| score \\= 26 – 28\n\\| report \\= \\[http://wigan.rlfans.com/fusion\\_pages/index.php?page\\_id\\=1213]\n\\| team2 \\= {{leagueicon\\|Great Britain\\|16}} \\[\\[Great Britain Lions\\|Great Britain]]\n\\| points1 \\= '''Tries''': \n Moy, Michael Peachy, \\[\\[Mark Smith (rugby league)\\|Mark Smith]], Wilfred Williams \n '''Goals''': \n Robert Clark (5\\)\n\\| points2 \\= '''Tries''': \n \\[\\[Martin Offiah]] (2\\), \\[\\[Paul Groves (rugby league)\\|Paul Groves]], \\[\\[Ellery Hanley]], \\[\\[Andy Currier]] \n '''Goals''': \n \\[\\[Andy Currier]] (4\\)\n\\| stadium \\= \\[\\[Wade Park]], \\[\\[Orange, New South Wales\\|Orange]]\n\\| attendance \\= 3,520\n\\| referee \\= Phil Robinson\n\\| manofmatch \\= \n}}\n**Western Division**: Frail, [Wilfred Williams](/wiki/Wilfred_Williams \"Wilfred Williams\"), Casey, [Mark Smith](/wiki/Mark_Smith_%28rugby_league%29 \"Mark Smith (rugby league)\"), Newman, Clark, Douglas, Gibson, Luke, McAnally, Fitzgerald, [Michael Peachy](/wiki/Michael_Peachy \"Michael Peachy\"), Moy. Res \\- Stammers, Batty",
"**Great Britain**: [Ian Wilkinson](/wiki/Ian_Wilkinson_%28rugby_league%29 \"Ian Wilkinson (rugby league)\"), [Carl Gibson](/wiki/Carl_Gibson \"Carl Gibson\"), [Andy Currier](/wiki/Andy_Currier \"Andy Currier\"), [Darren Wright](/wiki/Darren_Wright_%28rugby_league%29 \"Darren Wright (rugby league)\"), [Martin Offiah](/wiki/Martin_Offiah \"Martin Offiah\"), [Ellery Hanley](/wiki/Ellery_Hanley \"Ellery Hanley\") (c), [Mike Ford](/wiki/Mike_Ford_%28rugby%29 \"Mike Ford (rugby)\"), [Brian Case](/wiki/Brian_Case \"Brian Case\"), [Paul Groves](/wiki/Paul_Groves_%28rugby_league%29 \"Paul Groves (rugby league)\"), [Hugh Waddell](/wiki/Hugh_Waddell_%28rugby_league%29 \"Hugh Waddell (rugby league)\"), [Karl Fairbank](/wiki/Karl_Fairbank \"Karl Fairbank\"), [Paul Hulme](/wiki/Paul_Hulme \"Paul Hulme\"), [Mike Gregory](/wiki/Mike_Gregory \"Mike Gregory\").",
"With Great Britain leading 26–10 with 20 minutes to go, the local forwards rallied strongly to give the Lions a fright.{{cite news\\|last\\=Hadfield\\|first\\=Dave\\|title\\=Selectors stick with Test Team\\|url\\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\\=news880703\\_0270\\_9290\\|accessdate\\=17 February 2014\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\\|date\\=3 July 1988}}",
"---",
"",
"{{rugbyleaguebox\n\\| date \\=Tuesday, 5 July\n\\| time \\= \n\\| team1 \\= \\[\\[Prime Minister's XIII\\|President's XIII]] {{leagueicon\\|Australia\\|16}}\n\\| score \\= 24 – 16\n\\| report \\= \\[http://wigan.rlfans.com/fusion\\_pages/index.php?page\\_id\\=1214]\n\\| team2 \\= {{leagueicon\\|Great Britain\\|16}} \\[\\[Great Britain Lions\\|Great Britain]]\n\\| points1 \\= '''Tries''': \n \\[\\[Steve O'Brien (rugby league)\\|Steve O'Brien]], \\[\\[Glenn Lazarus]], \\[\\[Greg Alexander]], \\[\\[Mal Meninga]], \\[\\[Graeme Bradley]] \n '''Goals''': \n Mal Meninga (2/6\\)\n\\| points2 \\= '''Tries''': \n \\[\\[Phil Ford (rugby)\\|Phil Ford]] (2\\), \\[\\[Mike Gregory]] \n '''Goals''': \n \\[\\[Paul Loughlin]] (2/3\\)\n\\| stadium \\= \\[\\[Seiffert Oval]], \\[\\[Queanbeyan]]\n\\| attendance \\= 6,037\n\\| referee \\= Eddie Ward {{flagicon\\|AUS}}\n\\| manofmatch \\= \\[\\[David Trewhella]] {{leagueicon\\|Australia\\|16}}\n}}",
"| {{Football kit \\|pattern\\_la \\= \\|pattern\\_b \\= \\_PresidentsXIII1988 \\|pattern\\_ra \\= \\|pattern\\_sh \\= \\_thingoldsides \\|pattern\\_so \\= \\_hoops\\_gold \\|leftarm \\= FFD700 \\|body \\= FFD700 \\|rightarm \\= FFD700 \\|shorts \\= 023E00 \\|socks \\= 023E00 \\|title \\= President's XIII }} | {{Football kit \\|pattern\\_la \\= \\|pattern\\_b \\= \\_GBR1985 \\|pattern\\_ra \\= \\|pattern\\_sh \\= \\|pattern\\_so \\= \\_band\\_red \\|leftarm \\= FFFFFF \\|body \\= FFFFFF \\|rightarm \\= FFFFFF \\|shorts \\= 0000FF \\|socks \\= 0000FF \\|title \\= Great Britain }} |\n| --- | --- |",
"",
"|",
"|",
"| |\n| FB | **1** | {{leagueicon\\|Souths\\|12}} [Phil Blake](/wiki/Phil_Blake \"Phil Blake\") |\n| LW | **2** | {{leagueicon\\|Bulldogs\\|12}} [Steve O'Brien](/wiki/Steve_O%27Brien_%28rugby_league%29 \"Steve O'Brien (rugby league)\") |\n| CE | **3** | {{leagueicon\\|Canberra\\|12}} [Mal Meninga](/wiki/Mal_Meninga \"Mal Meninga\") |\n| CE | **4** | {{leagueicon\\|Old Penrith\\|12}} [Graeme Bradley](/wiki/Graeme_Bradley \"Graeme Bradley\") |\n| RW | **5** | {{leagueicon\\|Souths\\|12}} [Adam O'Neill](/wiki/Adam_O%27Neill \"Adam O'Neill\") |\n| FE | **6** | {{leagueicon\\|Norths\\|12}} [Greg Florimo](/wiki/Greg_Florimo \"Greg Florimo\") |\n| HB | **7** | {{leagueicon\\|Old Penrith\\|12}} [Greg Alexander](/wiki/Greg_Alexander \"Greg Alexander\") |\n| LK | **8** | {{leagueicon\\|Easts\\|12}} [David Trewhella](/wiki/David_Trewhella \"David Trewhella\") |\n| SR | **9** | {{leagueicon\\|Old Penrith\\|12}} [Mark Geyer](/wiki/Mark_Geyer \"Mark Geyer\") |\n| SR | **10** | {{leagueicon\\|Cronulla\\|12}} [Gavin Miller](/wiki/Gavin_Miller \"Gavin Miller\") |\n| PR | **11** | {{leagueicon\\|Bulldogs\\|12}} [David Gillespie](/wiki/David_Gillespie \"David Gillespie\") |\n| HK | **12** | {{leagueicon\\|Souths\\|12}} [Mario Fenech](/wiki/Mario_Fenech \"Mario Fenech\") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 \"Captain (sports)\")) |\n| PR | **13** | {{leagueicon\\|Canberra\\|12}} [Glenn Lazarus](/wiki/Glenn_Lazarus \"Glenn Lazarus\") |\n|**Substitutions:**",
"| IC | **14** | {{leagueicon\\|St George\\|12}} [Steve Robinson](/wiki/Steve_Robinson_%28rugby_league%29 \"Steve Robinson (rugby league)\") |\n| IC | **15** | {{leagueicon\\|Manly\\|12}} [Ian Gately](/wiki/Ian_Gately \"Ian Gately\") |\n|**Coach:**",
"|{{flagicon\\|AUS}} [Don Furner](/wiki/Don_Furner \"Don Furner\")",
"",
"",
"",
"|",
"| |\n| FB | **1** | {{leagueicon\\|Bradford\\|12}} [Phil Ford](/wiki/Phil_Ford_%28rugby%29 \"Phil Ford (rugby)\") |\n| RW | **2** | {{leagueicon\\|Leeds\\|12}} [Carl Gibson](/wiki/Carl_Gibson \"Carl Gibson\") |\n| CE | **3** | {{leagueicon\\|St Helens\\|12}} [Paul Loughlin](/wiki/Paul_Loughlin \"Paul Loughlin\") |\n| CE | **4** | {{leagueicon\\|Widnes\\|12}} [Darren Wright](/wiki/Darren_Wright_%28rugby_league%29 \"Darren Wright (rugby league)\") |\n| LW | **5** | {{leagueicon\\|Widnes\\|12}} [Andy Currier](/wiki/Andy_Currier \"Andy Currier\") |\n| SO | **6** | {{leagueicon\\|Widnes\\|12}} [David Hulme](/wiki/David_Hulme_%28rugby_league%29 \"David Hulme (rugby league)\") |\n| SH | **7** | {{leagueicon\\|Wigan\\|12}} [Andy Gregory](/wiki/Andy_Gregory \"Andy Gregory\") |\n| LF | **8** | {{leagueicon\\|Castleford\\|12}} [John Joyner](/wiki/John_Joyner \"John Joyner\") |\n| SR | **9** | {{leagueicon\\|Leeds\\|12}} [Richard Eyres](/wiki/Richard_Eyres \"Richard Eyres\") |\n| SR | **10** | {{leagueicon\\|Warrington\\|12}} [Mike Gregory](/wiki/Mike_Gregory \"Mike Gregory\") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 \"Captain (sports)\")) |\n| PR | **11** | {{leagueicon\\|Leeds\\|12}} [Roy Powell](/wiki/Roy_Powell_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1965%29 \"Roy Powell (rugby league, born 1965)\") |\n| HK | **12** | {{leagueicon\\|Castleford\\|12}} [Kevin Beardmore](/wiki/Kevin_Beardmore \"Kevin Beardmore\") |\n| PR | **13** | {{leagueicon\\|Castleford\\|12}} [Kevin Ward](/wiki/Kevin_Ward_%28rugby_league%29 \"Kevin Ward (rugby league)\") |\n|**Substitutions:**",
"| IC | **14** | {{leagueicon\\|Widnes\\|12}} [Paul Hulme](/wiki/Paul_Hulme \"Paul Hulme\") |\n| IC | **15** | {{leagueicon\\|Oldham\\|12}} [Hugh Waddell](/wiki/Hugh_Waddell_%28rugby_league%29 \"Hugh Waddell (rugby league)\") |\n|**Coach:**",
"|{{flagicon\\|ENG}} [Mal Reilly](/wiki/Mal_Reilly \"Mal Reilly\")",
"",
"| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |",
"",
"After playing the entire tour using the international numbers for the forwards (i.e. props with 8 and 10, loose forward with 13\\), Great Britain used the old standard still used in Australia until the end of the year with the props in 11 and 13, loose forward with 8\\.[President's XIII vs Great Britain highlights](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6QyiY7P_i6A)",
"The Don Furner coached President's XIII led 14–2 after 22 minutes thanks to tries by [Steve O'Brien](/wiki/Steve_O%27Brien_%28rugby_league%29 \"Steve O'Brien (rugby league)\"), [Glenn Lazarus](/wiki/Glenn_Lazarus \"Glenn Lazarus\") and [1986 Kangaroo tourist](/wiki/1986_Kangaroo_tour \"1986 Kangaroo tour\") [Greg Alexander](/wiki/Greg_Alexander \"Greg Alexander\"). But after a second half try to [Mal Meninga](/wiki/Mal_Meninga \"Mal Meninga\") (who had an off day with the boot, kicking only 2 of his 6 attempts at goal), the Lions brought it back to 18–16 thanks to 2 tries from Welsh fullback [Phil Ford](/wiki/Phil_Ford_%28rugby%29 \"Phil Ford (rugby)\") and one to captain [Mike Gregory](/wiki/Mike_Gregory \"Mike Gregory\") plus the more accurate goal kicking of [St Helens](/wiki/St_Helens_R.F.C. \"St Helens R.F.C.\") centre [Paul Loughlin](/wiki/Paul_Loughlin \"Paul Loughlin\") in the increasingly muddy conditions at the [Seiffert Oval](/wiki/Seiffert_Oval \"Seiffert Oval\"), the home ground of the [Canberra Raiders](/wiki/Canberra_Raiders \"Canberra Raiders\"). However, a late try to [Penrith](/wiki/Penrith_Panthers \"Penrith Panthers\") centre [Graeme Bradley](/wiki/Graeme_Bradley \"Graeme Bradley\") put the game beyond the reach of the tourists.{{cite news\\|last\\=MacDonald\\|first\\=John\\|title\\=President's Clean\\-up halted by the Mud\\|url\\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\\=news880705\\_0250\\_3035\\|accessdate\\=13 February 2014\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\\|date\\=5 July 1988}} [South Sydney](/wiki/South_Sydney_Rabbitohs \"South Sydney Rabbitohs\")'s [Mario Fenech](/wiki/Mario_Fenech \"Mario Fenech\"), playing at hooker, was given the honour of captaining the President's XIII.",
"---",
"",
"### 3rd Ashes Test",
"This match also counted toward the result of the [1985–1988 World Cup](/wiki/1985%E2%80%931988_Rugby_League_World_Cup \"1985–1988 Rugby League World Cup\") tournament. Australia were considered favourites, having won the past fifteen consecutive test matches. Great Britain's chances were also lessened by the squad missing the likes of [Shaun Edwards](/wiki/Shaun_Edwards \"Shaun Edwards\"), [Kevin Beardmore](/wiki/Kevin_Beardmore \"Kevin Beardmore\"), [Steve Hampson](/wiki/Steve_Hampson \"Steve Hampson\"), [Andy Platt](/wiki/Andy_Platt \"Andy Platt\"), [Garry Schofield](/wiki/Garry_Schofield \"Garry Schofield\"), [Joe Lydon](/wiki/Joe_Lydon_%28rugby%29 \"Joe Lydon (rugby)\"), [Lee Crooks](/wiki/Lee_Crooks \"Lee Crooks\") and [Andy Goodway](/wiki/Andy_Goodway \"Andy Goodway\") for one reason or another, and some players taking to the field not fully fit. It was the debut of Paul Hulme and Hugh Waddell in the front row.{{cite news\\|last\\=de la Rivière\\|first\\=Richard\\|title\\=Brits Bounce Back\\|url\\=http://richarddelariviere.co.uk/?p\\=653\\|accessdate\\=1 May 2011\\|newspaper\\=Thirteen\\|year\\=2005\\|archive\\-date\\=26 August 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826044925/http://richarddelariviere.co.uk/?p\\=653\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}\nThe match was broadcast by the Nine network with commentary from [Darrell Eastlake](/wiki/Darrell_Eastlake \"Darrell Eastlake\") and [Jack Gibson](/wiki/Jack_Gibson_%28rugby_league%29 \"Jack Gibson (rugby league)\").\n{{rugbyleaguebox\n\\| bg \\= \\#eeeeee \n\\| date \\= Saturday, 9 July\n\\| time \\= \n\\| team1 \\= {{rl\\-rt\\|AUS}}\n\\| team2 \\= {{rl\\|GBR}}\n\\| score \\= 12 – 26\n\\| report \\= \\[http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/matches/ashes\\-series\\-1988/game\\-3/australia\\-vs\\-great\\-britain/summary.html 3rd Ashes Test]\n\\| points1 \\= '''Tries:''' \n \\[\\[Wally Lewis]] \n \\[\\[Sam Backo]] \n \n \n '''Goals:''' \n \\[\\[Michael O'Connor (rugby league)\\|Michael O'Connor]] (2/2\\)\n\\| points2 \\= '''Tries:''' \n \\[\\[Henderson Gill]] (2\\) \n \\[\\[Martin Offiah]] \n \\[\\[Phil Ford (rugby)\\|Phil Ford]] \n \\[\\[Mike Gregory]] \n '''Goals:''' \n \\[\\[Paul Loughlin]] (3/5\\)\n\\| stadium \\= \\[\\[Sydney Football Stadium (1988\\)\\|Sydney Football Stadium]], \\[\\[Sydney]]\n\\| attendance \\= 15,944\n\\| referee \\= \\[\\[Francis Desplas]] {{flagicon\\|FRA}}\n\\| manofmatch \\= \\[\\[Andy Gregory]] {{leagueicon\\|Great Britain\\|16}}\n}}",
"| {{Football kit \\|pattern\\_la \\= \\_kangaroos \\|pattern\\_b \\= \\_kangaroos1992 \\|pattern\\_ra \\= \\_kangaroos \\|pattern\\_sh \\= \\_thingoldsides \\|pattern\\_so \\= \\_hoops\\_gold \\|leftarm \\= 023E00 \\|body \\= 023E00 \\|rightarm \\= 023E00 \\|shorts \\= 023E00 \\|socks \\= 023E00 \\|title \\= Australia }} | {{Football kit \\|pattern\\_la \\= \\_GBRL \\|pattern\\_b \\= \\_GBR1985 \\|pattern\\_ra \\= \\_blue\\_stripes2 \\|pattern\\_sh \\= \\_red\\_stripes2 \\|pattern\\_so \\= \\_britishlions12 \\|leftarm \\= FFFFFF \\|body \\= FFFFFF \\|rightarm \\= FFFFFF \\|shorts \\= 0000FF \\|socks \\= 0000FF \\|title \\= Great Britain }} |\n| --- | --- |",
"",
"|",
"|",
"| |\n| FB | **1** | {{leagueicon\\|Balmain\\|12}} [Garry Jack](/wiki/Garry_Jack \"Garry Jack\") |\n| RW | **2** | {{leagueicon\\|Cronulla\\|12}} [Andrew Ettingshausen](/wiki/Andrew_Ettingshausen \"Andrew Ettingshausen\") |\n| CE | **3** | {{leagueicon\\|Manly\\|12}} [Michael O'Connor](/wiki/Michael_O%27Connor_%28rugby%29 \"Michael O'Connor (rugby)\") |\n| CE | **4** | {{leagueicon\\|Canberra\\|12}} [Peter Jackson](/wiki/Peter_Jackson_%28rugby_league%29 \"Peter Jackson (rugby league)\") |\n| LW | **5** | {{leagueicon\\|Bulldogs\\|12}} [Tony Currie](/wiki/Tony_Currie_%28rugby_league%29 \"Tony Currie (rugby league)\") |\n| FE | **6** | {{leagueicon\\|Brisbane\\|12}} [Wally Lewis](/wiki/Wally_Lewis \"Wally Lewis\") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 \"Captain (sports)\")) |\n| HB | **7** | {{leagueicon\\|Parramatta\\|12}} [Peter Sterling](/wiki/Peter_Sterling_%28rugby_league_commentator%29 \"Peter Sterling (rugby league commentator)\") |\n| PR | **8** | {{leagueicon\\|Norths\\|12}} [Martin Bella](/wiki/Martin_Bella \"Martin Bella\") |\n| HK | **9** | {{leagueicon\\|Brisbane\\|12}} [Greg Conescu](/wiki/Greg_Conescu \"Greg Conescu\") |\n| PR | **10** | {{leagueicon\\|Canberra\\|12}} [Sam Backo](/wiki/Sam_Backo \"Sam Backo\") |\n| SR | **11** | {{leagueicon\\|St George\\|12}} [Wally Fullerton\\-Smith](/wiki/Wally_Fullerton-Smith \"Wally Fullerton-Smith\") |\n| SR | **12** | {{leagueicon\\|Manly\\|12}} [Paul Vautin](/wiki/Paul_Vautin \"Paul Vautin\") |\n| LK | **13** | {{leagueicon\\|Balmain\\|12}} [Wayne Pearce](/wiki/Wayne_Pearce \"Wayne Pearce\") |\n|**Substitutions:**",
"| IC | **14** | {{leagueicon\\|Canberra\\|12}} [Gary Belcher](/wiki/Gary_Belcher \"Gary Belcher\") |\n| IC | **15** | {{leagueicon\\|Parramatta\\|12}} [Bob Lindner](/wiki/Bob_Lindner \"Bob Lindner\") |\n|**Coach:**",
"|{{flagicon\\|AUS}} [Don Furner](/wiki/Don_Furner \"Don Furner\")",
"",
"",
"",
"|",
"| |\n| FB | **1** | {{leagueicon\\|Bradford\\|12}} [Phil Ford](/wiki/Phil_Ford_%28rugby%29 \"Phil Ford (rugby)\") |\n| RW | **2** | {{leagueicon\\|Wigan\\|12}} [Henderson Gill](/wiki/Henderson_Gill \"Henderson Gill\") |\n| CE | **3** | {{leagueicon\\|Leeds\\|12}} [David Stephenson](/wiki/David_Stephenson_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1958%29 \"David Stephenson (rugby league, born 1958)\") |\n| CE | **4** | {{leagueicon\\|St Helens\\|12}} [Paul Loughlin](/wiki/Paul_Loughlin \"Paul Loughlin\") |\n| LW | **5** | {{leagueicon\\|Widnes\\|12}} [Martin Offiah](/wiki/Martin_Offiah \"Martin Offiah\") |\n| SO | **6** | {{leagueicon\\|Widnes\\|12}} [David Hulme](/wiki/David_Hulme_%28rugby_league%29 \"David Hulme (rugby league)\") |\n| SH | **7** | {{leagueicon\\|Wigan\\|12}} [Andy Gregory](/wiki/Andy_Gregory \"Andy Gregory\") |\n| PR | **8** | {{leagueicon\\|Castleford\\|12}} [Kevin Ward](/wiki/Kevin_Ward_%28rugby_league%29 \"Kevin Ward (rugby league)\") |\n| HK | **9** | {{leagueicon\\|Widnes\\|12}} [Paul Hulme](/wiki/Paul_Hulme \"Paul Hulme\") |\n| PR | **10** | {{leagueicon\\|Oldham\\|12}} [Hugh Waddell](/wiki/Hugh_Waddell_%28rugby_league%29 \"Hugh Waddell (rugby league)\") |\n| SR | **11** | {{leagueicon\\|Warrington\\|12}} [Mike Gregory](/wiki/Mike_Gregory \"Mike Gregory\") |\n| SR | **12** | {{leagueicon\\|Leeds\\|12}} [Roy Powell](/wiki/Roy_Powell_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1965%29 \"Roy Powell (rugby league, born 1965)\") |\n| LF | **13** | {{leagueicon\\|Wigan\\|12}} [Ellery Hanley](/wiki/Ellery_Hanley \"Ellery Hanley\") ([c](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 \"Captain (sports)\")) |\n|**Substitutions:**",
"| IC | **14** | {{leagueicon\\|Wigan\\|12}} [Brian Case](/wiki/Brian_Case \"Brian Case\") |\n| IC | **15** | {{leagueicon\\|Widnes\\|12}} [Darren Wright](/wiki/Darren_Wright_%28rugby_league%29 \"Darren Wright (rugby league)\") |\n|**Coach:**",
"|{{flagicon\\|ENG}} [Mal Reilly](/wiki/Mal_Reilly \"Mal Reilly\")",
"",
"| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |",
"",
"Early in the match Great Britain were disallowed a try when Henderson Gill dived onto an Andy Gregory [bomb](/wiki/Bomb_kick \"Bomb kick\") which was not secured by the Australian [fullback](/wiki/Fullback_%28rugby_league%29 \"Fullback (rugby league)\").{{cite news\\|last\\=Skinner\\|first\\=Steve\\|title\\=How they did it\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=USpWAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=2139,8688000\\|accessdate\\=1 May 2011\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sun\\-Herald]]\\|date\\=10 July 1988}} The Kangaroos then had chances to score at the other end of the field, but the British defence held strong. The first try of the match would go to the visitors when, playing the ball inside Australia's twenty\\-two, they strung some passes together, getting the ball out to Martin Offiah who dove over the line on the right wing. The conversion attempt was missed so the score was 0–4 with over three quarters of the match still to be played. A few minutes later Great Britain were again on the attack in Australia's territory and keeping the ball alive, their scrum half back Andy Gregory darting about elusively before passing it to Ford who stepped and weaved his way amongst the defenders to dash through and score near the uprights. The conversion was successful, giving Great Britain a 0–10 lead. Shortly before half\\-time Australia suffered a major setback when their halfback Peter Sterling was forced off with a dislocated shoulder after being driven into the turf in a tackle by Roy Powell.{{cite web\\|last\\=Clarkson\\|first\\=Alan\\|title\\='Patched up' Pom Heroes\\|url\\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\\=news880709\\_0085\\_0920\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Sun\\-Herald]]\\|publisher\\=Fairfax\\|accessdate\\=13 February 2014}} No more points were scored in the first half, so this was the score at the break.",
"Australia scored first in the second half after winning a [scrum](/wiki/Scrum_%28rugby%29 \"Scrum (rugby)\") against the feed within Great Britain's twenty\\-two. Working the ball up close to the uprights, their captain Wally Lewis got it at first receiver and ran it into the defence, wrestling his way through to the tryline where he reached out and put it down beneath the black dot. The try was successfully converted, so the score was 6–10 in favour of the Lions. Great Britain then extended their lead after working the ball up into an attacking position where Andy Gregory chipped it ahead. In the rush of chasers from both sides trying to reach the ball it was knocked ahead into the in\\-goal area where Henderson Gill dived on it. The kick was successful so the British were leading 6–16\\.{{cite book\\|last\\=\\[\\[Geoffrey Moorhouse]]\\|title\\=At the George: And Other Essays on Rugby League\\|year\\=2013\\|publisher\\=Faber \\& Faber\\|location\\=UK\\|isbn\\=9780571300082\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ISbwAAAAQBAJ}} Again the Britons' failure to win a scrum in their own territory afforded Australia another opportunity, with forward Sam Backo crashing over the line shortly after from close range. The successful kick brought the Kangaroos back to within an unconverted try at 12–16\\. The Lions struck again from deep within their own half where centre Paul Loughlin got the ball at first receiver, ran through the defensive line and crossed half\\-way before passing to Henderson Gill in support on his outside to dive over on the right wing. The conversion attempt was missed, so the British lead was 12–20\\. Then they scored another long range try while working the ball away from their own line, Andy Gregory making a dart from dummy half, catching the markers napping and getting into open space. He then found Mike Gregory in support who ran about seventy metres to dive over under the posts.{{cite news\\|last\\=Skinner\\|first\\=Steve\\|title\\=How they did it\\|url\\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\\=news880709\\_0148\\_3873\\|accessdate\\=13 February 2014\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sun\\-Herald]]\\|date\\=9 July 1988}} The easy kick meant a 26–12 lead for Great Britain and this is where the scoreboard remained at full\\-time.",
"Australian front row forward Sam Backo scored a try in all three tests. This saw him join legendary winger [Ken Irvine](/wiki/Ken_Irvine \"Ken Irvine\") ([1963](/wiki/1963-64_Kangaroo_tour_of_Great_Britain_and_France \"1963-64 Kangaroo tour of Great Britain and France\")) as the only Australians to score a try in each test of an Ashes series.",
"This was the end of a 15\\-match winning streak for the Australians,{{cite news\n \\| last \\=Baker\n \\| first \\=Andrew \n \\| title \\=100 years of rugby league: From the great divide to the Super era \n\\| newspaper \\= \\[\\[The Independent\\|Independent, The]]\n \\| publisher \\=independent.co.uk\n \\| date \\=1995\\-08\\-20 \n\\| url \\=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/100\\-years\\-of\\-rugby\\-league\\-from\\-the\\-great\\-divide\\-to\\-the\\-super\\-era\\-1597130\\.html\n \\| accessdate \\=2009\\-09\\-25 }} and Great Britain's first Test victory over the Kangaroos since their 18–14 win at [Odsal Stadium](/wiki/Odsal_Stadium \"Odsal Stadium\") during the [1978 Kangaroo tour](/wiki/1978_Kangaroo_tour \"1978 Kangaroo tour\"), as well as their first win in Australia for 18 years. It also put Great Britain on top of the World Cup points table.{{cite news\\|title\\=Best of British shocks Aussies\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=qxQ\\-AAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=5137,2151956\\|accessdate\\=1 May 2011\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Evening Times]]\\|date\\=9 July 1988}}",
"After the match there was a gala dinner at the Regent Hotel.{{cite news\\|last\\=Hadfield\\|first\\=Dave\\|title\\=The Stuff that Dreams and made of\\|url\\=http://newsstore.fairfax.com.au/apps/viewDocument.ac?docID\\=news880710\\_0242\\_3400\\|accessdate\\=13 February 2014\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\\|date\\=10 July 1988}}",
""
] |
Career
------
### Early career
Bernhardt began his career as a lawyer in Colorado. In the 1990s, he worked for [U.S. Representative](/wiki/U.S._Representative "U.S. Representative") [Scott McInnis](/wiki/Scott_McInnis "Scott McInnis"), a [Grand Junction](/wiki/Grand_Junction%2C_Colorado "Grand Junction, Colorado") [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "Republican Party (United States)").{{Cite web\|url\=https://politi.co/2FuGacn\|title\=Recording Reveals Oil Industry Execs Laughing at Trump Access\|last\=Williams \|first\=Lance \|website\=Politico Magazine\|date\=March 23, 2019 \|language\=en\|access\-date\=March 23, 2019}} In 1998 he became an associate with [Brownstein Hyatt and Farber](/wiki/Brownstein_Hyatt_and_Farber "Brownstein Hyatt and Farber"), a [Denver](/wiki/Denver%2C_Colorado "Denver, Colorado") law and [lobbying](/wiki/Lobbying "Lobbying") firm.
### George W. Bush administration
Bernhardt worked for the Department of the Interior during [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush "George W. Bush")'s presidency. Early in his career with the DOI, he was deputy [chief of staff](/wiki/Chief_of_staff "Chief of staff") and counselor to then\-[secretary of the interior](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Interior "United States Secretary of the Interior") [Gale Norton](/wiki/Gale_Norton "Gale Norton"). He also served early on at the DOI as director of congressional and legislative affairs. Later he was confirmed and served as the solicitor at the DOI. He was also the United States commissioner to the [International Boundary Commission](/wiki/International_Boundary_Commission "International Boundary Commission"), U.S. and [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada").
President [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush "George W. Bush") nominated Bernhardt to serve as Solicitor of the Department of the Interior in November 2005, subject to Senate confirmation.[Pres. Nom. 1,089](https://www.congress.gov/nomination/109th-congress/1089), 109th Cong. (2005\). He was the DOI deputy solicitor at the time. Bernhardt was sworn into office in November 2006, after being unanimously confirmed by the U.S. Senate. He served as Solicitor from 2006 to January, 2009\.[Pres. Nom. 1,916](https://www.congress.gov/nomination/109th-congress/1916), 109th Cong. (2006\).
### Legal work and lobbying work
In 2009, he rejoined the Colorado\-based law firm [Brownstein Hyatt Farber Schreck](/wiki/Brownstein_Hyatt_Farber_Schreck "Brownstein Hyatt Farber Schreck"). He became a shareholder in the firm and chairman of the firm's natural resources law practice.{{cite web \|last\=Paul\|first\=Jesse \|title\=Colorado native David Bernhardt tapped by Trump for deputy interior secretary\|newspaper\=\[\[Denver Post]]\|date\=April 29, 2017 \|url\=http://www.denverpost.com/2017/04/29/david\-bernhardt\-deputy\-interior\-secretary\-trump\-administration/\|access\-date\=May 14, 2017}} Bernhardt's clients included Westlands Water District, [Halliburton](/wiki/Halliburton "Halliburton"), [Cobalt International Energy](/wiki/Cobalt_International_Energy "Cobalt International Energy"), Samson Resources, and the [Independent Petroleum Association of America](/wiki/Independent_Petroleum_Association_of_America "Independent Petroleum Association of America").{{cite news\|last1\=Davenport\|first1\=Coral \|last2\=Fandos\|first2\=Nicholas\|title\=As Interior Secretary Swaggers Through Parks, His Staff Rolls Back Regulations \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/25/us/politics/interior\-secretary\-zinke\-staff\-conservation\-regulations.html\|access\-date\=July 26, 2017\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|date\=July 26, 2017\|page\=A11}}
Through Brownstein Hyatt Farber Schreck, Berhardt represented entities such as the proposed [Rosemont Copper](/wiki/Rosemont_Copper "Rosemont Copper") [open pit mine](/wiki/Open_pit_mine "Open pit mine") in [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona "Arizona").
In 2011, Bernhardt filed a lawsuit for the Westlands Water District that "sought to force the feds to make good on a commitment to build a multibillion\-dollar system to dispose of the poisoned water" resulting from toxic irrigation in the Westlands district.
He was previously a member of the [Virginia Board of Game and Inland Fisheries](/wiki/Virginia_Department_of_Game_and_Inland_Fisheries "Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries"), and chairman of its Finance, Audit, \& Compliance Committee.{{cite web \|title\=Agenda, August 18 2016 \|url\=https://dwr.virginia.gov/wp\-content/uploads/081816\_Board\_of\_Game\_and\_Inland\_Fisheries\_Meeting\_Materials.pdf\|publisher\=Board of Game and Inland Fisheries \|access\-date\=6 March 2020}} He resigned prior to January 2017\.{{cite web \|title\=Board of Game and Inland Fisheries\|publisher\=Virginia\-dot\-gov\|date\=January 13, 2017\|website\=Virginia Department of Game \& Inland Fisheries\|url\=http://www.dgif.virginia.gov/about/board/\|access\-date\=June 1, 2017\|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113002748/http://www.dgif.virginia.gov/about/board/\|archive\-date\=January 13, 2017}}
### Trump administration
#### DOI transition team
Until the end of 2016, Bernhardt remained an attorney and lobbyist for the Westlands Water District.{{cite news\|last\=Brekke\|first\=Dan\|title\=Trump Appoints Valley Water District's Lobbyist to Interior Department Post\|newspaper\=\[\[KQED Inc.\|KQED]]\|date\=April 28, 2016\|url\=https://ww2\.kqed.org/news/2017/04/28/trump\-appoints\-valley\-water\-districts\-lobbyist\-to\-interior\-department\-post/\|access\-date\=May 14, 2017}} In November 2016, he de\-listed himself as a lobbyist in order to comply with the new president's ban on lobbyists joining his administration. After withdrawing his formal registration as a lobbyist, Bernhardt became a consultant to the Westlands Water District for a $20,000 per month retainer.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.eenews.net/stories/1060057527 \|title\=INTERIOR: Deputy nominee still advising Calif. water district \- Tuesday, July 18, 2017 \|publisher\=www.eenews.net \|date\=July 18, 2017 \|access\-date\=March 8, 2018}} While remaining a lawyer at Brownstein Hyatt Farber and Schreck, after November 2016 Bernhardt was briefly in charge of the Interior Department transition team for President [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump "Donald Trump"). In that role, he was in charge of overseeing staffing in the Department of the Interior along with [Devin Nunes](/wiki/Devin_Nunes "Devin Nunes").
Until resigning by early 2017, he was on the board of the Center for Environmental Science Accuracy and Reliability.{{cite web\|last\=Boxall\|first\=Bettina\|title\=Trump's pick for a top Interior post has sued the agency on behalf of powerful California water interests\|newspaper\=\[\[Los Angeles Times]]\|date\=May 17, 2017 \|url\=http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la\-me\-trump\-bernhardt\-20170517\-story.html\|access\-date\=June 1, 2017}}
#### Deputy Secretary of the Interior
[upright\|thumb\|Deputy Secretary Bernhardt](/wiki/File:David_Bernhardt_official_photo_%28cropped%29.jpg "David Bernhardt official photo (cropped).jpg")
On April 28, 2017, Trump nominated Bernhardt to be the deputy secretary of the interior.{{cite web\|title\=President Donald J. Trump Announces Key Additions to his Administration\|publisher\=The White House\|date\=April 28, 2017\|url\=https://www.whitehouse.gov/the\-press\-office/2017/04/28/president\-donald\-j\-trump\-announces\-key\-additions\-his\-administration\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428163857/https://www.whitehouse.gov/the\-press\-office/2017/04/28/president\-donald\-j\-trump\-announces\-key\-additions\-his\-administration\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=April 28, 2017\|access\-date\=May 14, 2017}}{{cite web\|last\=James\|first\=Ian\|title\=Conservationists alarmed by Trump Interior nominee\|newspaper\=\[\[USA Today]] \|date\=April 28, 2017\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2017/04/29/conservationists\-alarmed\-trump\-interior\-nominee/307859001/ \|access\-date\=May 14, 2017}}[Pres. Nom. 365](https://www.congress.gov/nomination/115th-congress/365), 115th Cong. (2017\). The role made Bernhardt the "top deputy to Interior Secretary [Ryan Zinke](/wiki/Ryan_Zinke "Ryan Zinke") and [COO](/wiki/Chief_operating_officer "Chief operating officer") of the federal lands and energy agency".{{cite web\|title\=Lawyer\-lobbyist for Colorado firm is Trump's pick for No. 2 Interior Department official\|newspaper\=\[\[Denver Business Journal]]\|date\=May 1, 2017\|url\=http://www.9news.com/news/local/politics/lawyer\-lobbyist\-for\-colorado\-firm\-is\-trumps\-pick\-for\-no\-2\-interior\-department\-official/435747484\|access\-date\=May 15, 2017}}{{Dead link\|date\=April 2021 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} The appointment was praised by Zinke, Republican members of Congress,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.gjsentinel.com/news/articles/rifle\-man\-tapped\-for\-no\-2\-spot\-at\-interior\|title\=Rifle man tapped for No. 2 spot at Interior\|last\=Harmon\|first\=Gary\|date\=May 5, 2017\|publisher\=\[\[Grand Junction Daily Sentinel\|The Daily Sentinel]]\|access\-date\=May 14, 2017\|archive\-date\=May 6, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170506095532/http://www.gjsentinel.com/news/articles/rifle\-man\-tapped\-for\-no\-2\-spot\-at\-interior/\|url\-status\=dead}} and former\-interior secretary [Dirk Kempthorne](/wiki/Dirk_Kempthorne "Dirk Kempthorne"), as well as Outdoor Recreation Industry Roundtable, [Ducks Unlimited](/wiki/Ducks_Unlimited "Ducks Unlimited"), and the [Boone and Crocket Club](/wiki/Boone_and_Crocket_Club "Boone and Crocket Club"). His nomination was strongly opposed by [conservationists](/wiki/Conservation_movement "Conservation movement"),{{cite web \|last\=Lochhead\|first\=Carolyn\|title\=Ex\-water district lobbyist nominated for Interior Department post\|newspaper\=\[\[SFGate]]\|date\=May 1, 2017\|url\=https://www.sfgate.com/nation/article/Ex\-water\-district\-lobbyist\-nominated\-for\-Interior\-11108326\.php\|access\-date\=May 14, 2017}} [fishing](/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_the_United_States "Fishing industry in the United States") groups, and California Democrats, who cited his history of representing and lobbying on behalf of oil companies and agricultural interests as well as [conflict\-of\-interest](/wiki/Conflict-of-interest "Conflict-of-interest") concerns arising from his firm's work on regulation issues with the DOI.
At his confirmation hearing before the [Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee](/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_Energy_and_Natural_Resources "United States Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources") in mid\-May 2017, Bernhardt testified that he would "apply the law and be honest with the science" at the Interior Department but also said the president's views, rather than the recommendations of climate scientists, would guide the Interior Department's policies whenever possible.{{cite web\|last\=Whieldon\|first\=Esther\|title\=US Interior Department nominee: Trump 'perspective' should outweigh climate science whenever possible\|newspaper\=\[\[Politico]]\|date\=May 18, 2017\|url\=http://www.politico.eu/article/us\-interior\-department\-nominee\-trump\-perspective\-should\-outweigh\-climate\-science\-whenever\-possible/\|access\-date\=June 1, 2017}} Ethics issues were raised by Senators such as [Maria Cantwell](/wiki/Maria_Cantwell "Maria Cantwell"), with Bernhardt replying he took ethics very seriously. He said that unless he received authorization to do so, he would not involve himself substantially in any particular matter involving his former clients.{{cite web\|last\=Lunney\|first\=Kellie\|title\=Senators press interior nominee on science and climate\|newspaper\=\[\[Science Magazine]]\|date\=May 18, 2017\|url\=https://www.science.org/content/article/senators\-press\-interior\-nominee\-science\-and\-climate \|access\-date\=June 1, 2017}}
On July 24, 2017, the Senate confirmed Bernhardt's nomination by a vote of 53–43\.{{cite news\|last1\=Master\|first1\=Cyra \|title\=Senate confirms Trump's nominee for No. 2 Interior post\|url\=https://thehill.com/policy/energy\-environment/343497\-senate\-confirms\-trumps\-nominee\-for\-no\-2\-interior\-post/\|access\-date\=July 26, 2017\|work\=\[\[The Hill (newspaper)\|The Hill]]\|date\=July 24, 2017}} He was then sworn into office on August 1, 2017\.
During Bernhardt's tenure as deputy secretary and acting secretary the Department of the Interior substantially increased fossil fuel sales on public land and embarked on a program of deregulation.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.npr.org/2019/01/02/677390503/the\-new\-acting\-interior\-secretary\-is\-an\-agency\-insider\-and\-ex\-oil\-lobbyist \|publisher\=NPR \|title\=The New Acting Interior Secretary Is An Agency Insider And Ex\-Oil Lobbyist \|date\=January 2, 2019 \|access\-date\=January 8, 2019}}
In 2019, *Politico* reported that heads of the oil industry lobbying group Independent Petroleum Association of America (IPAA) celebrated their ties to Bernhardt, who had IPAA as a client during his legal career.
In August 2020, the Interior Department's inspector general released a report concluding that the agency had withheld sensitive public documents related to Bernhardt prior to his Senate confirmation and that this action did not violate any legal or ethical standards.{{cite news \|last1\=Knickmeyer \|first1\=Ellen \|title\=Probe: Interior held back Bernhardt records sought by court \|url\=https://www.columbian.com/news/2020/aug/11/probe\-interior\-held\-back\-bernhardt\-records\-sought\-by\-court/ \|access\-date\=12 November 2021 \|work\=The Columbian \|agency\=Associated Press \|date\=August 11, 2020}}
#### Secretary of the Interior
[thumb\|Bernhardt as secretary of the interior and President Trump in Bakersfield, California in February 2020](/wiki/File:Bernhardt_Trump_19Feb2020.png "Bernhardt Trump 19Feb2020.png")
On January 2, 2019, Bernhardt became acting secretary of the interior, replacing [Ryan Zinke](/wiki/Ryan_Zinke "Ryan Zinke"). On February 4, 2019, Trump nominated Bernhardt to be Secretary of the Interior. He was confirmed by the Senate on April 11, 2019, by a vote of 56 to 41\.{{Cite web\|title\=U.S. Senate: U.S. Senate Roll Call Votes 116th Congress \- 1st Session\|url\=https://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll\_call\_lists/roll\_call\_vote\_cfm.cfm?congress\=116\&session\=1\&vote\=00077\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-28\|website\=www.senate.gov}}
In May 2019, the [House Oversight Committee](/wiki/House_Oversight_Committee "House Oversight Committee") investigated whether Bernhardt was complying with record\-keeping laws.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.politico.com/story/2019/05/07/interior\-department\-salaries\-threat\-1414201 \|title\=House Oversight Committee threatens salaries of Interior staff who block interviews\|last\=Lefebvre \|first\=Ben \|date\=May 7, 2019 \|newspaper\=Politico \|access\-date\=May 8, 2019}}
In September 2019, the [Government Accountability Office](/wiki/Government_Accountability_Office "Government Accountability Office") (GAO) released a report finding that Bernhardt, then acting secretary, had twice violated federal lawKurt Repanshek, [GAO Rules Interior Violated Law By Shifting Funds To Keep Parks Open During Shutdown](https://www.nationalparkstraveler.org/2019/09/gao-rules-interior-violated-law-shifting-funds-keep-parks-open-during-shutdown), *National Parks Traveler* (September 8, 2019\). when in January 2019 he directed the [National Park Service](/wiki/National_Park_Service "National Park Service") to use park entrance fees for maintenance in keeping parks open during the [government shutdown](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_United_States_federal_government_shutdown "2018–19 United States federal government shutdown").{{Cite news\|last\=Adragna \|first\=Anthony \|date\=5 September 2019 \|title\= GAO: Trump administration violated law to keep parks open during shutdown \|newspaper\=Politico \|url\=https://www.politico.com/story/2019/09/05/gao\-trump\-parks\-shutdown\-3795674}}{{Cite news\|author1\=Ellen Knickmeyer \|author2\=Carole Feldman \|url\=https://apnews.com/bd9d9f2f6a224265a4ceabfca1cd1e62\|work\=Associated Press\|title\=GAO: Interior broke law in reopening parks during shutdown\|date\=September 9, 2020}} The GAO report concluded that the [Interior Department](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Interior "United States Department of the Interior") moved funds between accounts without authorization from Congress in violation of the [Antideficiency Act](/wiki/Antideficiency_Act "Antideficiency Act") and federal appropriations law. The Interior Department rejected the GAO's conclusion that any laws were violated, and maintained that the directive was an "appropriate and lawful use of Federal Lands Recreation Enhancement Act funds."
Bernhardt was chosen as the [designated survivor](/wiki/Designated_survivor "Designated survivor") during Trump's [2020 State of the Union Address](/wiki/2020_State_of_the_Union_Address "2020 State of the Union Address").{{Cite web\|url\= https://www.al.com/news/2020/02/state\-of\-the\-union\-2020\-who\-is\-president\-trumps\-designated\-survivor.html\|title\= State of the Union 2020: President Trump's designated survivor is Interior Secretary David Bernhardt\|last\=Gore\|first\=Leada\|date\=2020\-02\-04\|website\=AL.com}}
In May 2020, two activist groups sued over Bernhardt's ongoing interim appointments of [William Perry Pendley](/wiki/William_Perry_Pendley "William Perry Pendley") to run the [Bureau of Land Management](/wiki/Bureau_of_Land_Management "Bureau of Land Management") and [David Vela](/wiki/David_Vela "David Vela") to lead the [National Park Service](/wiki/National_Park_Service "National Park Service"), appointments that bypassed a Senate confirmation process.{{Cite web\|author\=Dennis Webb\|title\=Pendley stays on as Bureau of Land Management head\|url\=https://www.gjsentinel.com/news/western\_colorado/pendley\-stays\-on\-as\-bureau\-of\-land\-management\-head/article\_4580933a\-a742\-11ea\-a722\-3b37707472f7\.html\|access\-date\=2020\-06\-10\|website\=The Grand Junction Daily Sentinel\|date\=June 8, 2020 \|language\=en}}
On August 4, 2020, the [Great American Outdoors Act](/wiki/Great_American_Outdoors_Act "Great American Outdoors Act") was signed into law by President Donald Trump. Bernhardt announced that August 4 would be designated "Great American Outdoors Day" and that each year on that day entrance to national parks would be free.{{Cite news\|last\=Rhone\|first\=Nedra\|date\=August 5, 2020\|title\=Great American Outdoors Act Signed Into Law\|work\=The Atlanta Journal\-Constitution\|url\=https://www.ajc.com/news/landmark\-legislation\-to\-help\-repair\-expand\-historic\-sites\-parks/2SRT3KLN6RDSTOUNYJKBSRFPBI/\|access\-date\=July 1, 2020}}
Bernhardt relocated the headquarters of the Bureau of Land Management from Washington, D.C., to [Grand Junction](/wiki/Grand_Junction%2C_Colorado "Grand Junction, Colorado"), [Colorado](/wiki/Colorado "Colorado"), on August 11, 2020\.{{Cite web\|date\=2020\-08\-14\|title\=BLM officially establishes Grand Junction as headquarters\|url\=https://moabtimes.com/2020/08/13/blm\-officially\-establishes\-grand\-junction\-as\-headquarters/\|access\-date\=2020\-08\-15\|website\=The Times\-Independent\|language\=en\-US\|archive\-date\=April 4, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210404151551/https://www.moabtimes.com/\|url\-status\=dead}}
Bernhardt on August 17, 2020, announced plans for an oil and gas leasing program in the [Arctic National Wildlife Refuge](/wiki/Arctic_National_Wildlife_Refuge "Arctic National Wildlife Refuge"), clearing the way for drilling in the remote Alaskan area.{{Cite web\|date\=2020\-08\-17\|title\=Trump administration announces plans to drill in Arctic National Wildlife Refuge\|url\=https://www.cnn.com/2020/08/17/politics/trump\-arctic\-wildlife\-drilling/\|access\-date\=2020\-08\-17\|website\=Cable News Network\|language\=en\-US}}
On August 20, 2020, Bernhardt designated the site of the [1908 Springfield Race Riot](/wiki/Springfield_race_riot_of_1908 "Springfield race riot of 1908") for inclusion in the National Park Service's African American Civil Rights Network. It is the 30th site to achieve such a designation, which includes sites associated with the [civil rights movement](/wiki/Civil_rights_movement "Civil rights movement") in the United States, such as the Selma to Montgomery National Historic Trail in Alabama and the Pullman National Monument in Chicago.{{Cite news\|last\=Moore\|first\=Brendon\|date\=August 20, 2020\|title\=Race Riot Site Added to African American Civil Rights Network\|work\=State Journal Register\|url\=https://www.sj\-r.com/news/20200820/race\-riot\-site\-added\-to\-african\-american\-civil\-rights\-network\|access\-date\=August 29, 2020}}
On September 11, 2020, Bernhardt introduced Trump at the [Flight 93 Memorial](/wiki/Flight_93_National_Memorial "Flight 93 National Memorial").{{Cite news\|last\=Minemyer\|first\=Chip\|date\=September 11, 2020\|title\=Flight 93 Remembered "They saved our capitol": Trump Salutes heroes of Flight 93 on 9/11 anniversary\|work\=The Tribune\-Democrat\|url\=https://www.tribdem.com/news/flight\-93\-remembered\-they\-saved\-our\-capital\-trump\-salutes\-heroes\-of\-flight\-93\-on\-9/article\_6e8360fe\-f441\-11ea\-a0a4\-dba9913b2633\.html\|access\-date\=September 13, 2020}}
### Post\-government career
After leaving the Department of the Interior, Bernhardt rejoined his former law firm Brownstein Hyatt Farber Shreck as a senior counsel. He also joined the advisory board of Advancing American Freedom, a political advocacy group founded by [Mike Pence](/wiki/Mike_Pence "Mike Pence").{{Cite web\|last\=Frazin\|first\=Rachel\|date\=May 3, 2021\|title\=Ex\-Trump Interior, EPA leaders find new posts\|url\=https://thehill.com/policy/energy\-environment/551554\-trump\-era\-interior\-leader\-rejoins\-lobbying\-firm\-epa\-leader\-joins/\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=May 15, 2021\|website\=msn.com\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210503203721/https://thehill.com/policy/energy\-environment/551554\-trump\-era\-interior\-leader\-rejoins\-lobbying\-firm\-epa\-leader\-joins \|archive\-date\=May 3, 2021 }} Bernhardt is the chairman of the [America First Policy Institute](/wiki/America_First_Policy_Institute "America First Policy Institute")'s Center for American Freedom.{{cite news \|last1\=Cama \|first1\=Robin Bravender, Timothy \|title\=Trump's Cabinet\-in\-exile preps 2024 energy playbook \|url\=https://www.eenews.net/articles/trumps\-cabinet\-in\-exile\-preps\-2024\-energy\-playbook/ \|access\-date\=15 October 2022 \|work\=E\&E News \|date\=7 September 2022}}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Early career",
"Bernhardt began his career as a lawyer in Colorado. In the 1990s, he worked for [U.S. Representative](/wiki/U.S._Representative \"U.S. Representative\") [Scott McInnis](/wiki/Scott_McInnis \"Scott McInnis\"), a [Grand Junction](/wiki/Grand_Junction%2C_Colorado \"Grand Junction, Colorado\") [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://politi.co/2FuGacn\\|title\\=Recording Reveals Oil Industry Execs Laughing at Trump Access\\|last\\=Williams \\|first\\=Lance \\|website\\=Politico Magazine\\|date\\=March 23, 2019 \\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=March 23, 2019}} In 1998 he became an associate with [Brownstein Hyatt and Farber](/wiki/Brownstein_Hyatt_and_Farber \"Brownstein Hyatt and Farber\"), a [Denver](/wiki/Denver%2C_Colorado \"Denver, Colorado\") law and [lobbying](/wiki/Lobbying \"Lobbying\") firm.",
"### George W. Bush administration",
"Bernhardt worked for the Department of the Interior during [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush \"George W. Bush\")'s presidency. Early in his career with the DOI, he was deputy [chief of staff](/wiki/Chief_of_staff \"Chief of staff\") and counselor to then\\-[secretary of the interior](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Interior \"United States Secretary of the Interior\") [Gale Norton](/wiki/Gale_Norton \"Gale Norton\"). He also served early on at the DOI as director of congressional and legislative affairs. Later he was confirmed and served as the solicitor at the DOI. He was also the United States commissioner to the [International Boundary Commission](/wiki/International_Boundary_Commission \"International Boundary Commission\"), U.S. and [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\").",
"President [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush \"George W. Bush\") nominated Bernhardt to serve as Solicitor of the Department of the Interior in November 2005, subject to Senate confirmation.[Pres. Nom. 1,089](https://www.congress.gov/nomination/109th-congress/1089), 109th Cong. (2005\\). He was the DOI deputy solicitor at the time. Bernhardt was sworn into office in November 2006, after being unanimously confirmed by the U.S. Senate. He served as Solicitor from 2006 to January, 2009\\.[Pres. Nom. 1,916](https://www.congress.gov/nomination/109th-congress/1916), 109th Cong. (2006\\).",
"### Legal work and lobbying work",
"In 2009, he rejoined the Colorado\\-based law firm [Brownstein Hyatt Farber Schreck](/wiki/Brownstein_Hyatt_Farber_Schreck \"Brownstein Hyatt Farber Schreck\"). He became a shareholder in the firm and chairman of the firm's natural resources law practice.{{cite web \\|last\\=Paul\\|first\\=Jesse \\|title\\=Colorado native David Bernhardt tapped by Trump for deputy interior secretary\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Denver Post]]\\|date\\=April 29, 2017 \\|url\\=http://www.denverpost.com/2017/04/29/david\\-bernhardt\\-deputy\\-interior\\-secretary\\-trump\\-administration/\\|access\\-date\\=May 14, 2017}} Bernhardt's clients included Westlands Water District, [Halliburton](/wiki/Halliburton \"Halliburton\"), [Cobalt International Energy](/wiki/Cobalt_International_Energy \"Cobalt International Energy\"), Samson Resources, and the [Independent Petroleum Association of America](/wiki/Independent_Petroleum_Association_of_America \"Independent Petroleum Association of America\").{{cite news\\|last1\\=Davenport\\|first1\\=Coral \\|last2\\=Fandos\\|first2\\=Nicholas\\|title\\=As Interior Secretary Swaggers Through Parks, His Staff Rolls Back Regulations \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/25/us/politics/interior\\-secretary\\-zinke\\-staff\\-conservation\\-regulations.html\\|access\\-date\\=July 26, 2017\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|date\\=July 26, 2017\\|page\\=A11}}",
"Through Brownstein Hyatt Farber Schreck, Berhardt represented entities such as the proposed [Rosemont Copper](/wiki/Rosemont_Copper \"Rosemont Copper\") [open pit mine](/wiki/Open_pit_mine \"Open pit mine\") in [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona \"Arizona\").",
"In 2011, Bernhardt filed a lawsuit for the Westlands Water District that \"sought to force the feds to make good on a commitment to build a multibillion\\-dollar system to dispose of the poisoned water\" resulting from toxic irrigation in the Westlands district.",
"He was previously a member of the [Virginia Board of Game and Inland Fisheries](/wiki/Virginia_Department_of_Game_and_Inland_Fisheries \"Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries\"), and chairman of its Finance, Audit, \\& Compliance Committee.{{cite web \\|title\\=Agenda, August 18 2016 \\|url\\=https://dwr.virginia.gov/wp\\-content/uploads/081816\\_Board\\_of\\_Game\\_and\\_Inland\\_Fisheries\\_Meeting\\_Materials.pdf\\|publisher\\=Board of Game and Inland Fisheries \\|access\\-date\\=6 March 2020}} He resigned prior to January 2017\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Board of Game and Inland Fisheries\\|publisher\\=Virginia\\-dot\\-gov\\|date\\=January 13, 2017\\|website\\=Virginia Department of Game \\& Inland Fisheries\\|url\\=http://www.dgif.virginia.gov/about/board/\\|access\\-date\\=June 1, 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113002748/http://www.dgif.virginia.gov/about/board/\\|archive\\-date\\=January 13, 2017}}",
"### Trump administration",
"#### DOI transition team",
"Until the end of 2016, Bernhardt remained an attorney and lobbyist for the Westlands Water District.{{cite news\\|last\\=Brekke\\|first\\=Dan\\|title\\=Trump Appoints Valley Water District's Lobbyist to Interior Department Post\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[KQED Inc.\\|KQED]]\\|date\\=April 28, 2016\\|url\\=https://ww2\\.kqed.org/news/2017/04/28/trump\\-appoints\\-valley\\-water\\-districts\\-lobbyist\\-to\\-interior\\-department\\-post/\\|access\\-date\\=May 14, 2017}} In November 2016, he de\\-listed himself as a lobbyist in order to comply with the new president's ban on lobbyists joining his administration. After withdrawing his formal registration as a lobbyist, Bernhardt became a consultant to the Westlands Water District for a $20,000 per month retainer.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.eenews.net/stories/1060057527 \\|title\\=INTERIOR: Deputy nominee still advising Calif. water district \\- Tuesday, July 18, 2017 \\|publisher\\=www.eenews.net \\|date\\=July 18, 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=March 8, 2018}} While remaining a lawyer at Brownstein Hyatt Farber and Schreck, after November 2016 Bernhardt was briefly in charge of the Interior Department transition team for President [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump \"Donald Trump\"). In that role, he was in charge of overseeing staffing in the Department of the Interior along with [Devin Nunes](/wiki/Devin_Nunes \"Devin Nunes\").",
"Until resigning by early 2017, he was on the board of the Center for Environmental Science Accuracy and Reliability.{{cite web\\|last\\=Boxall\\|first\\=Bettina\\|title\\=Trump's pick for a top Interior post has sued the agency on behalf of powerful California water interests\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles Times]]\\|date\\=May 17, 2017 \\|url\\=http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la\\-me\\-trump\\-bernhardt\\-20170517\\-story.html\\|access\\-date\\=June 1, 2017}}",
"#### Deputy Secretary of the Interior",
"[upright\\|thumb\\|Deputy Secretary Bernhardt](/wiki/File:David_Bernhardt_official_photo_%28cropped%29.jpg \"David Bernhardt official photo (cropped).jpg\")",
"On April 28, 2017, Trump nominated Bernhardt to be the deputy secretary of the interior.{{cite web\\|title\\=President Donald J. Trump Announces Key Additions to his Administration\\|publisher\\=The White House\\|date\\=April 28, 2017\\|url\\=https://www.whitehouse.gov/the\\-press\\-office/2017/04/28/president\\-donald\\-j\\-trump\\-announces\\-key\\-additions\\-his\\-administration\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428163857/https://www.whitehouse.gov/the\\-press\\-office/2017/04/28/president\\-donald\\-j\\-trump\\-announces\\-key\\-additions\\-his\\-administration\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=April 28, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=May 14, 2017}}{{cite web\\|last\\=James\\|first\\=Ian\\|title\\=Conservationists alarmed by Trump Interior nominee\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[USA Today]] \\|date\\=April 28, 2017\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2017/04/29/conservationists\\-alarmed\\-trump\\-interior\\-nominee/307859001/ \\|access\\-date\\=May 14, 2017}}[Pres. Nom. 365](https://www.congress.gov/nomination/115th-congress/365), 115th Cong. (2017\\). The role made Bernhardt the \"top deputy to Interior Secretary [Ryan Zinke](/wiki/Ryan_Zinke \"Ryan Zinke\") and [COO](/wiki/Chief_operating_officer \"Chief operating officer\") of the federal lands and energy agency\".{{cite web\\|title\\=Lawyer\\-lobbyist for Colorado firm is Trump's pick for No. 2 Interior Department official\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Denver Business Journal]]\\|date\\=May 1, 2017\\|url\\=http://www.9news.com/news/local/politics/lawyer\\-lobbyist\\-for\\-colorado\\-firm\\-is\\-trumps\\-pick\\-for\\-no\\-2\\-interior\\-department\\-official/435747484\\|access\\-date\\=May 15, 2017}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=April 2021 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} The appointment was praised by Zinke, Republican members of Congress,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.gjsentinel.com/news/articles/rifle\\-man\\-tapped\\-for\\-no\\-2\\-spot\\-at\\-interior\\|title\\=Rifle man tapped for No. 2 spot at Interior\\|last\\=Harmon\\|first\\=Gary\\|date\\=May 5, 2017\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Grand Junction Daily Sentinel\\|The Daily Sentinel]]\\|access\\-date\\=May 14, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=May 6, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170506095532/http://www.gjsentinel.com/news/articles/rifle\\-man\\-tapped\\-for\\-no\\-2\\-spot\\-at\\-interior/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and former\\-interior secretary [Dirk Kempthorne](/wiki/Dirk_Kempthorne \"Dirk Kempthorne\"), as well as Outdoor Recreation Industry Roundtable, [Ducks Unlimited](/wiki/Ducks_Unlimited \"Ducks Unlimited\"), and the [Boone and Crocket Club](/wiki/Boone_and_Crocket_Club \"Boone and Crocket Club\"). His nomination was strongly opposed by [conservationists](/wiki/Conservation_movement \"Conservation movement\"),{{cite web \\|last\\=Lochhead\\|first\\=Carolyn\\|title\\=Ex\\-water district lobbyist nominated for Interior Department post\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[SFGate]]\\|date\\=May 1, 2017\\|url\\=https://www.sfgate.com/nation/article/Ex\\-water\\-district\\-lobbyist\\-nominated\\-for\\-Interior\\-11108326\\.php\\|access\\-date\\=May 14, 2017}} [fishing](/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_the_United_States \"Fishing industry in the United States\") groups, and California Democrats, who cited his history of representing and lobbying on behalf of oil companies and agricultural interests as well as [conflict\\-of\\-interest](/wiki/Conflict-of-interest \"Conflict-of-interest\") concerns arising from his firm's work on regulation issues with the DOI.",
"At his confirmation hearing before the [Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee](/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_Energy_and_Natural_Resources \"United States Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources\") in mid\\-May 2017, Bernhardt testified that he would \"apply the law and be honest with the science\" at the Interior Department but also said the president's views, rather than the recommendations of climate scientists, would guide the Interior Department's policies whenever possible.{{cite web\\|last\\=Whieldon\\|first\\=Esther\\|title\\=US Interior Department nominee: Trump 'perspective' should outweigh climate science whenever possible\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Politico]]\\|date\\=May 18, 2017\\|url\\=http://www.politico.eu/article/us\\-interior\\-department\\-nominee\\-trump\\-perspective\\-should\\-outweigh\\-climate\\-science\\-whenever\\-possible/\\|access\\-date\\=June 1, 2017}} Ethics issues were raised by Senators such as [Maria Cantwell](/wiki/Maria_Cantwell \"Maria Cantwell\"), with Bernhardt replying he took ethics very seriously. He said that unless he received authorization to do so, he would not involve himself substantially in any particular matter involving his former clients.{{cite web\\|last\\=Lunney\\|first\\=Kellie\\|title\\=Senators press interior nominee on science and climate\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Science Magazine]]\\|date\\=May 18, 2017\\|url\\=https://www.science.org/content/article/senators\\-press\\-interior\\-nominee\\-science\\-and\\-climate \\|access\\-date\\=June 1, 2017}}",
"On July 24, 2017, the Senate confirmed Bernhardt's nomination by a vote of 53–43\\.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Master\\|first1\\=Cyra \\|title\\=Senate confirms Trump's nominee for No. 2 Interior post\\|url\\=https://thehill.com/policy/energy\\-environment/343497\\-senate\\-confirms\\-trumps\\-nominee\\-for\\-no\\-2\\-interior\\-post/\\|access\\-date\\=July 26, 2017\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Hill (newspaper)\\|The Hill]]\\|date\\=July 24, 2017}} He was then sworn into office on August 1, 2017\\.",
"During Bernhardt's tenure as deputy secretary and acting secretary the Department of the Interior substantially increased fossil fuel sales on public land and embarked on a program of deregulation.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/2019/01/02/677390503/the\\-new\\-acting\\-interior\\-secretary\\-is\\-an\\-agency\\-insider\\-and\\-ex\\-oil\\-lobbyist \\|publisher\\=NPR \\|title\\=The New Acting Interior Secretary Is An Agency Insider And Ex\\-Oil Lobbyist \\|date\\=January 2, 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=January 8, 2019}}",
"In 2019, *Politico* reported that heads of the oil industry lobbying group Independent Petroleum Association of America (IPAA) celebrated their ties to Bernhardt, who had IPAA as a client during his legal career.",
"In August 2020, the Interior Department's inspector general released a report concluding that the agency had withheld sensitive public documents related to Bernhardt prior to his Senate confirmation and that this action did not violate any legal or ethical standards.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Knickmeyer \\|first1\\=Ellen \\|title\\=Probe: Interior held back Bernhardt records sought by court \\|url\\=https://www.columbian.com/news/2020/aug/11/probe\\-interior\\-held\\-back\\-bernhardt\\-records\\-sought\\-by\\-court/ \\|access\\-date\\=12 November 2021 \\|work\\=The Columbian \\|agency\\=Associated Press \\|date\\=August 11, 2020}}",
"#### Secretary of the Interior",
"[thumb\\|Bernhardt as secretary of the interior and President Trump in Bakersfield, California in February 2020](/wiki/File:Bernhardt_Trump_19Feb2020.png \"Bernhardt Trump 19Feb2020.png\")\nOn January 2, 2019, Bernhardt became acting secretary of the interior, replacing [Ryan Zinke](/wiki/Ryan_Zinke \"Ryan Zinke\"). On February 4, 2019, Trump nominated Bernhardt to be Secretary of the Interior. He was confirmed by the Senate on April 11, 2019, by a vote of 56 to 41\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Senate: U.S. Senate Roll Call Votes 116th Congress \\- 1st Session\\|url\\=https://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll\\_call\\_lists/roll\\_call\\_vote\\_cfm.cfm?congress\\=116\\&session\\=1\\&vote\\=00077\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-28\\|website\\=www.senate.gov}}",
"In May 2019, the [House Oversight Committee](/wiki/House_Oversight_Committee \"House Oversight Committee\") investigated whether Bernhardt was complying with record\\-keeping laws.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.politico.com/story/2019/05/07/interior\\-department\\-salaries\\-threat\\-1414201 \\|title\\=House Oversight Committee threatens salaries of Interior staff who block interviews\\|last\\=Lefebvre \\|first\\=Ben \\|date\\=May 7, 2019 \\|newspaper\\=Politico \\|access\\-date\\=May 8, 2019}}",
"In September 2019, the [Government Accountability Office](/wiki/Government_Accountability_Office \"Government Accountability Office\") (GAO) released a report finding that Bernhardt, then acting secretary, had twice violated federal lawKurt Repanshek, [GAO Rules Interior Violated Law By Shifting Funds To Keep Parks Open During Shutdown](https://www.nationalparkstraveler.org/2019/09/gao-rules-interior-violated-law-shifting-funds-keep-parks-open-during-shutdown), *National Parks Traveler* (September 8, 2019\\). when in January 2019 he directed the [National Park Service](/wiki/National_Park_Service \"National Park Service\") to use park entrance fees for maintenance in keeping parks open during the [government shutdown](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_United_States_federal_government_shutdown \"2018–19 United States federal government shutdown\").{{Cite news\\|last\\=Adragna \\|first\\=Anthony \\|date\\=5 September 2019 \\|title\\= GAO: Trump administration violated law to keep parks open during shutdown \\|newspaper\\=Politico \\|url\\=https://www.politico.com/story/2019/09/05/gao\\-trump\\-parks\\-shutdown\\-3795674}}{{Cite news\\|author1\\=Ellen Knickmeyer \\|author2\\=Carole Feldman \\|url\\=https://apnews.com/bd9d9f2f6a224265a4ceabfca1cd1e62\\|work\\=Associated Press\\|title\\=GAO: Interior broke law in reopening parks during shutdown\\|date\\=September 9, 2020}} The GAO report concluded that the [Interior Department](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Interior \"United States Department of the Interior\") moved funds between accounts without authorization from Congress in violation of the [Antideficiency Act](/wiki/Antideficiency_Act \"Antideficiency Act\") and federal appropriations law. The Interior Department rejected the GAO's conclusion that any laws were violated, and maintained that the directive was an \"appropriate and lawful use of Federal Lands Recreation Enhancement Act funds.\"",
"Bernhardt was chosen as the [designated survivor](/wiki/Designated_survivor \"Designated survivor\") during Trump's [2020 State of the Union Address](/wiki/2020_State_of_the_Union_Address \"2020 State of the Union Address\").{{Cite web\\|url\\= https://www.al.com/news/2020/02/state\\-of\\-the\\-union\\-2020\\-who\\-is\\-president\\-trumps\\-designated\\-survivor.html\\|title\\= State of the Union 2020: President Trump's designated survivor is Interior Secretary David Bernhardt\\|last\\=Gore\\|first\\=Leada\\|date\\=2020\\-02\\-04\\|website\\=AL.com}}",
"In May 2020, two activist groups sued over Bernhardt's ongoing interim appointments of [William Perry Pendley](/wiki/William_Perry_Pendley \"William Perry Pendley\") to run the [Bureau of Land Management](/wiki/Bureau_of_Land_Management \"Bureau of Land Management\") and [David Vela](/wiki/David_Vela \"David Vela\") to lead the [National Park Service](/wiki/National_Park_Service \"National Park Service\"), appointments that bypassed a Senate confirmation process.{{Cite web\\|author\\=Dennis Webb\\|title\\=Pendley stays on as Bureau of Land Management head\\|url\\=https://www.gjsentinel.com/news/western\\_colorado/pendley\\-stays\\-on\\-as\\-bureau\\-of\\-land\\-management\\-head/article\\_4580933a\\-a742\\-11ea\\-a722\\-3b37707472f7\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-06\\-10\\|website\\=The Grand Junction Daily Sentinel\\|date\\=June 8, 2020 \\|language\\=en}}",
"On August 4, 2020, the [Great American Outdoors Act](/wiki/Great_American_Outdoors_Act \"Great American Outdoors Act\") was signed into law by President Donald Trump. Bernhardt announced that August 4 would be designated \"Great American Outdoors Day\" and that each year on that day entrance to national parks would be free.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Rhone\\|first\\=Nedra\\|date\\=August 5, 2020\\|title\\=Great American Outdoors Act Signed Into Law\\|work\\=The Atlanta Journal\\-Constitution\\|url\\=https://www.ajc.com/news/landmark\\-legislation\\-to\\-help\\-repair\\-expand\\-historic\\-sites\\-parks/2SRT3KLN6RDSTOUNYJKBSRFPBI/\\|access\\-date\\=July 1, 2020}}",
"Bernhardt relocated the headquarters of the Bureau of Land Management from Washington, D.C., to [Grand Junction](/wiki/Grand_Junction%2C_Colorado \"Grand Junction, Colorado\"), [Colorado](/wiki/Colorado \"Colorado\"), on August 11, 2020\\.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2020\\-08\\-14\\|title\\=BLM officially establishes Grand Junction as headquarters\\|url\\=https://moabtimes.com/2020/08/13/blm\\-officially\\-establishes\\-grand\\-junction\\-as\\-headquarters/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-15\\|website\\=The Times\\-Independent\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|archive\\-date\\=April 4, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210404151551/https://www.moabtimes.com/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"Bernhardt on August 17, 2020, announced plans for an oil and gas leasing program in the [Arctic National Wildlife Refuge](/wiki/Arctic_National_Wildlife_Refuge \"Arctic National Wildlife Refuge\"), clearing the way for drilling in the remote Alaskan area.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2020\\-08\\-17\\|title\\=Trump administration announces plans to drill in Arctic National Wildlife Refuge\\|url\\=https://www.cnn.com/2020/08/17/politics/trump\\-arctic\\-wildlife\\-drilling/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-17\\|website\\=Cable News Network\\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"On August 20, 2020, Bernhardt designated the site of the [1908 Springfield Race Riot](/wiki/Springfield_race_riot_of_1908 \"Springfield race riot of 1908\") for inclusion in the National Park Service's African American Civil Rights Network. It is the 30th site to achieve such a designation, which includes sites associated with the [civil rights movement](/wiki/Civil_rights_movement \"Civil rights movement\") in the United States, such as the Selma to Montgomery National Historic Trail in Alabama and the Pullman National Monument in Chicago.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Moore\\|first\\=Brendon\\|date\\=August 20, 2020\\|title\\=Race Riot Site Added to African American Civil Rights Network\\|work\\=State Journal Register\\|url\\=https://www.sj\\-r.com/news/20200820/race\\-riot\\-site\\-added\\-to\\-african\\-american\\-civil\\-rights\\-network\\|access\\-date\\=August 29, 2020}}",
"On September 11, 2020, Bernhardt introduced Trump at the [Flight 93 Memorial](/wiki/Flight_93_National_Memorial \"Flight 93 National Memorial\").{{Cite news\\|last\\=Minemyer\\|first\\=Chip\\|date\\=September 11, 2020\\|title\\=Flight 93 Remembered \"They saved our capitol\": Trump Salutes heroes of Flight 93 on 9/11 anniversary\\|work\\=The Tribune\\-Democrat\\|url\\=https://www.tribdem.com/news/flight\\-93\\-remembered\\-they\\-saved\\-our\\-capital\\-trump\\-salutes\\-heroes\\-of\\-flight\\-93\\-on\\-9/article\\_6e8360fe\\-f441\\-11ea\\-a0a4\\-dba9913b2633\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2020}}",
"### Post\\-government career",
"After leaving the Department of the Interior, Bernhardt rejoined his former law firm Brownstein Hyatt Farber Shreck as a senior counsel. He also joined the advisory board of Advancing American Freedom, a political advocacy group founded by [Mike Pence](/wiki/Mike_Pence \"Mike Pence\").{{Cite web\\|last\\=Frazin\\|first\\=Rachel\\|date\\=May 3, 2021\\|title\\=Ex\\-Trump Interior, EPA leaders find new posts\\|url\\=https://thehill.com/policy/energy\\-environment/551554\\-trump\\-era\\-interior\\-leader\\-rejoins\\-lobbying\\-firm\\-epa\\-leader\\-joins/\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=May 15, 2021\\|website\\=msn.com\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210503203721/https://thehill.com/policy/energy\\-environment/551554\\-trump\\-era\\-interior\\-leader\\-rejoins\\-lobbying\\-firm\\-epa\\-leader\\-joins \\|archive\\-date\\=May 3, 2021 }} Bernhardt is the chairman of the [America First Policy Institute](/wiki/America_First_Policy_Institute \"America First Policy Institute\")'s Center for American Freedom.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Cama \\|first1\\=Robin Bravender, Timothy \\|title\\=Trump's Cabinet\\-in\\-exile preps 2024 energy playbook \\|url\\=https://www.eenews.net/articles/trumps\\-cabinet\\-in\\-exile\\-preps\\-2024\\-energy\\-playbook/ \\|access\\-date\\=15 October 2022 \\|work\\=E\\&E News \\|date\\=7 September 2022}}",
""
] |
Club career
-----------
### Early career
Ogu began playing football at the youth departments of [Akwa Starlets](/wiki/Akwa_Starlets_FC "Akwa Starlets FC"), [Akwa United](/wiki/Akwa_United_F.C. "Akwa United F.C.") and the Flying Sports Academy. On 23 September 2006, he began his senior career in Slovenia when he signed with [Drava Ptuj](/wiki/NK_Drava_Ptuj "NK Drava Ptuj") from the [Slovenian PrvaLiga](/wiki/Slovenian_PrvaLiga "Slovenian PrvaLiga"). In his four\-year stint, Ogu scored eight goals in 97 appearances.
### In Portugal
In the summer of 2010, Ogu moved to [Atlético Clube de Portugal](/wiki/Atl%C3%A9tico_Clube_de_Portugal "Atlético Clube de Portugal"), which then played in the [Terceira Divisão](/wiki/Terceira_Divis%C3%A3o "Terceira Divisão") in Portugal. After six months, he moved to neighboring Spain and signed for [Almería](/wiki/UD_Almer%C3%ADa "UD Almería"), but played only in [Almería B](/wiki/UD_Almer%C3%ADa_B "UD Almería B") of the [third division](/wiki/Segunda_Divisi%C3%B3n_B "Segunda División B"). In November 2011 Ogu returned to Portugal and joined [Leiria](/wiki/U.D._Leiria "U.D. Leiria"), but at the end of the season the team dropped to the [second division](/wiki/LigaPro "LigaPro").
In July 2012, Ogu moved to [Académica](/wiki/Associa%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Acad%C3%A9mica_de_Coimbra_%E2%80%93_O.A.F. "Associação Académica de Coimbra – O.A.F.") from [Primeira Liga](/wiki/Primeira_Liga "Primeira Liga"). Ogu scored his first goal in the third round of the [Portuguese Cup](/wiki/Ta%C3%A7a_de_Portugal "Taça de Portugal") against [Ponte da Barca](/wiki/AD_Ponte_da_Barca "AD Ponte da Barca"). He scored his first league goal against [Vitória de Setúbal](/wiki/Vit%C3%B3ria_F.C. "Vitória F.C.") in a decisive win that ensured the team remain in the [top division](/wiki/Primeira_Liga "Primeira Liga").{{cite web\|title\=V. Setúbal 0–1 Académica\|url\=http://www.zerozero.pt/jogo.php?id\=2256748\|website\=ZeroZero.pt\|access\-date\=8 July 2015}} All in all, Ogu played two years at Académica and scored one goal in 27 league appearances.
### Hapoel Be'er Sheva
In the [2014–15](/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_Israeli_Premier_League "2014–15 Israeli Premier League") season, Ogu arrived in Israel and on 2 September 2014 made his debut in [Hapoel Be'er Sheva](/wiki/Hapoel_Be%27er_Sheva_F.C. "Hapoel Be'er Sheva F.C.") in a 0–0 draw against [Maccabi Petah Tikva](/wiki/Maccabi_Petah_Tikva_F.C. "Maccabi Petah Tikva F.C.") in the [Toto Cup](/wiki/Toto_Cup "Toto Cup"). On 7 September, he signed a four\-year contract with Hapoel Be'er Sheva.{{cite web\|title\=Ogu signed contract for Hapoel Be'er Sheva\|url\=http://www.soccerladuma.co.za/news/articles/categories/nigeria\-players\-abroad/exclusive\-john\-ogu\-negotiating\-one\-year\-contract\-with\-hapoel\-be\-er\-sheva/175541\|website\=SoccerLaduma\|access\-date\=8 July 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612162500/https://www.soccerladuma.co.za/news/articles/categories/nigeria\-players\-abroad/exclusive\-john\-ogu\-negotiating\-one\-year\-contract\-with\-hapoel\-be\-er\-sheva/175541\|archive\-date\=12 June 2018\|url\-status\=dead}} Five days later, he made his debut in the [Israeli Premier League](/wiki/Israeli_Premier_League "Israeli Premier League") when he opened the team against [Beitar Jerusalem](/wiki/Beitar_Jerusalem_F.C. "Beitar Jerusalem F.C.") at [Vasermil Stadium](/wiki/Vasermil_Stadium "Vasermil Stadium") and on 29 November scored his first goal in Hapoel Be'er Sheva in a 4–0 home win over [Maccabi Netanya](/wiki/Maccabi_Netanya_F.C. "Maccabi Netanya F.C."). In the first season of the team, and at the end of the season reached the finals of the [Israel State Cup](/wiki/Israel_State_Cup "Israel State Cup"), losing to [Maccabi Tel Aviv](/wiki/Maccabi_Tel_Aviv_F.C. "Maccabi Tel Aviv F.C.").
In the [2015–16](/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_Israeli_Premier_League "2015–16 Israeli Premier League") season he competed with Hapoel Be'er Sheva in the [UEFA Europa League](/wiki/UEFA_Europa_League "UEFA Europa League") qualifying and even scored a goal against [FC Thun](/wiki/FC_Thun "FC Thun") from the [Swiss Super League](/wiki/Swiss_Super_League "Swiss Super League"), but the team was eliminated in both games. Later in the season he scored four goals and assisted five, was part of the team's winning the [State Championship](/wiki/List_of_Israeli_football_champions "List of Israeli football champions") and was among the candidates for the title of footballer of the season.
Entering the [2016–17](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_Israeli_Premier_League "2016–17 Israeli Premier League") season, Ogu was ranked on [Walla](/wiki/Walla%21 "Walla!") Sports web site as the number 1 footballer in Israel by 60 sports journalists and professionals. On 11 August 2016, Ogu won the [Israel Super Cup](/wiki/Israel_Super_Cup "Israel Super Cup") with Hapoel Be'er Sheva after winning 4–2 against [Maccabi Haifa](/wiki/Maccabi_Haifa_F.C. "Maccabi Haifa F.C."). Later on, he faced the [UEFA Champions League](/wiki/UEFA_Champions_League "UEFA Champions League") qualifying team and reached the playoff stage in which he was eliminated against [Celtic](/wiki/Celtic_F.C. "Celtic F.C."), and as a result fell to the UEFA Europa League stage. On 28 December, Ogu and Hapoel Be'er Sheva won the Toto Cup after a 4–1 win over [Ironi Kiryat Shmona](/wiki/Hapoel_Ironi_Kiryat_Shmona_F.C. "Hapoel Ironi Kiryat Shmona F.C.") in the final game. On 29 April 2017, Ogu scored the winning goal in the championship game against Maccabi Tel Aviv helping Hapoel Be'er Sheva to win the league championship for the second time in a row.
### Al\-Adalah
In January 2020, Ogu signed for [Al\-Adalah](/wiki/Al-Adalah_FC "Al-Adalah FC") on a six\-month contract. He left the club having made seven appearances.{{cite web \|last1\=Adewoye \|first1\=Gbenga \|title\=Ogu: Nigeria midfielder's emotional farewell message as Covid\-19 ends Al\-Adalah career \|url\=https://www.goal.com/en\-cm/news/ogu\-nigeria\-midfielders\-emotional\-farewell\-message\-as\-covid/16lp5c9gfxqdfznris6uppqgm \|website\=goal.com \|access\-date\=31 March 2021 \|date\=10 September 2020}}
### Hapoel Nof HaGalil F.C.
On 2 February 2022, Ogu returned to Israel to join newly promoted club [H. Nof HaGalil](/wiki/Hapoel_Nof_HaGalil_F.C. "Hapoel Nof HaGalil F.C.") until the end of the season.{{Cite web\|last\=Iyanda\|first\=Niyi\|date\=23 January 2022\|title\=Nigerian midfielder John Ogu returns to Israel, joins Hapoel Nof Hagalil\|url\=https://www.pulse.ng/sports/football/super\-eagles/john\-ogu\-joins\-israeli\-side\-hapoel\-nof\-hagalil/w8yrgb1\|access\-date\=3 February 2022\|website\=Pulse Nigeria\|language\=en}}
### Maccabi Jaffa
On 30 May 2022, signed for [Maccabi Jaffa](/wiki/Maccabi_Kabilio_Jaffa_F.C. "Maccabi Kabilio Jaffa F.C.").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.sport5\.co.il/articles.aspx?FolderID\=127\&docID\=403429\|title\=פרסום ראשון: ג'ון אוגו חתם במכבי יפו\|first\=Igal\|last\=Goldstein\|date\=30 May 2022\|accessdate\=30 May 2022\|language\=Hebrew\|website\=The Sport Channel}}
|
[
"Club career\n-----------",
"### Early career",
"Ogu began playing football at the youth departments of [Akwa Starlets](/wiki/Akwa_Starlets_FC \"Akwa Starlets FC\"), [Akwa United](/wiki/Akwa_United_F.C. \"Akwa United F.C.\") and the Flying Sports Academy. On 23 September 2006, he began his senior career in Slovenia when he signed with [Drava Ptuj](/wiki/NK_Drava_Ptuj \"NK Drava Ptuj\") from the [Slovenian PrvaLiga](/wiki/Slovenian_PrvaLiga \"Slovenian PrvaLiga\"). In his four\\-year stint, Ogu scored eight goals in 97 appearances.",
"### In Portugal",
"In the summer of 2010, Ogu moved to [Atlético Clube de Portugal](/wiki/Atl%C3%A9tico_Clube_de_Portugal \"Atlético Clube de Portugal\"), which then played in the [Terceira Divisão](/wiki/Terceira_Divis%C3%A3o \"Terceira Divisão\") in Portugal. After six months, he moved to neighboring Spain and signed for [Almería](/wiki/UD_Almer%C3%ADa \"UD Almería\"), but played only in [Almería B](/wiki/UD_Almer%C3%ADa_B \"UD Almería B\") of the [third division](/wiki/Segunda_Divisi%C3%B3n_B \"Segunda División B\"). In November 2011 Ogu returned to Portugal and joined [Leiria](/wiki/U.D._Leiria \"U.D. Leiria\"), but at the end of the season the team dropped to the [second division](/wiki/LigaPro \"LigaPro\").",
"In July 2012, Ogu moved to [Académica](/wiki/Associa%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Acad%C3%A9mica_de_Coimbra_%E2%80%93_O.A.F. \"Associação Académica de Coimbra – O.A.F.\") from [Primeira Liga](/wiki/Primeira_Liga \"Primeira Liga\"). Ogu scored his first goal in the third round of the [Portuguese Cup](/wiki/Ta%C3%A7a_de_Portugal \"Taça de Portugal\") against [Ponte da Barca](/wiki/AD_Ponte_da_Barca \"AD Ponte da Barca\"). He scored his first league goal against [Vitória de Setúbal](/wiki/Vit%C3%B3ria_F.C. \"Vitória F.C.\") in a decisive win that ensured the team remain in the [top division](/wiki/Primeira_Liga \"Primeira Liga\").{{cite web\\|title\\=V. Setúbal 0–1 Académica\\|url\\=http://www.zerozero.pt/jogo.php?id\\=2256748\\|website\\=ZeroZero.pt\\|access\\-date\\=8 July 2015}} All in all, Ogu played two years at Académica and scored one goal in 27 league appearances.",
"### Hapoel Be'er Sheva",
"In the [2014–15](/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_Israeli_Premier_League \"2014–15 Israeli Premier League\") season, Ogu arrived in Israel and on 2 September 2014 made his debut in [Hapoel Be'er Sheva](/wiki/Hapoel_Be%27er_Sheva_F.C. \"Hapoel Be'er Sheva F.C.\") in a 0–0 draw against [Maccabi Petah Tikva](/wiki/Maccabi_Petah_Tikva_F.C. \"Maccabi Petah Tikva F.C.\") in the [Toto Cup](/wiki/Toto_Cup \"Toto Cup\"). On 7 September, he signed a four\\-year contract with Hapoel Be'er Sheva.{{cite web\\|title\\=Ogu signed contract for Hapoel Be'er Sheva\\|url\\=http://www.soccerladuma.co.za/news/articles/categories/nigeria\\-players\\-abroad/exclusive\\-john\\-ogu\\-negotiating\\-one\\-year\\-contract\\-with\\-hapoel\\-be\\-er\\-sheva/175541\\|website\\=SoccerLaduma\\|access\\-date\\=8 July 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612162500/https://www.soccerladuma.co.za/news/articles/categories/nigeria\\-players\\-abroad/exclusive\\-john\\-ogu\\-negotiating\\-one\\-year\\-contract\\-with\\-hapoel\\-be\\-er\\-sheva/175541\\|archive\\-date\\=12 June 2018\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Five days later, he made his debut in the [Israeli Premier League](/wiki/Israeli_Premier_League \"Israeli Premier League\") when he opened the team against [Beitar Jerusalem](/wiki/Beitar_Jerusalem_F.C. \"Beitar Jerusalem F.C.\") at [Vasermil Stadium](/wiki/Vasermil_Stadium \"Vasermil Stadium\") and on 29 November scored his first goal in Hapoel Be'er Sheva in a 4–0 home win over [Maccabi Netanya](/wiki/Maccabi_Netanya_F.C. \"Maccabi Netanya F.C.\"). In the first season of the team, and at the end of the season reached the finals of the [Israel State Cup](/wiki/Israel_State_Cup \"Israel State Cup\"), losing to [Maccabi Tel Aviv](/wiki/Maccabi_Tel_Aviv_F.C. \"Maccabi Tel Aviv F.C.\").",
"In the [2015–16](/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_Israeli_Premier_League \"2015–16 Israeli Premier League\") season he competed with Hapoel Be'er Sheva in the [UEFA Europa League](/wiki/UEFA_Europa_League \"UEFA Europa League\") qualifying and even scored a goal against [FC Thun](/wiki/FC_Thun \"FC Thun\") from the [Swiss Super League](/wiki/Swiss_Super_League \"Swiss Super League\"), but the team was eliminated in both games. Later in the season he scored four goals and assisted five, was part of the team's winning the [State Championship](/wiki/List_of_Israeli_football_champions \"List of Israeli football champions\") and was among the candidates for the title of footballer of the season.",
"Entering the [2016–17](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_Israeli_Premier_League \"2016–17 Israeli Premier League\") season, Ogu was ranked on [Walla](/wiki/Walla%21 \"Walla!\") Sports web site as the number 1 footballer in Israel by 60 sports journalists and professionals. On 11 August 2016, Ogu won the [Israel Super Cup](/wiki/Israel_Super_Cup \"Israel Super Cup\") with Hapoel Be'er Sheva after winning 4–2 against [Maccabi Haifa](/wiki/Maccabi_Haifa_F.C. \"Maccabi Haifa F.C.\"). Later on, he faced the [UEFA Champions League](/wiki/UEFA_Champions_League \"UEFA Champions League\") qualifying team and reached the playoff stage in which he was eliminated against [Celtic](/wiki/Celtic_F.C. \"Celtic F.C.\"), and as a result fell to the UEFA Europa League stage. On 28 December, Ogu and Hapoel Be'er Sheva won the Toto Cup after a 4–1 win over [Ironi Kiryat Shmona](/wiki/Hapoel_Ironi_Kiryat_Shmona_F.C. \"Hapoel Ironi Kiryat Shmona F.C.\") in the final game. On 29 April 2017, Ogu scored the winning goal in the championship game against Maccabi Tel Aviv helping Hapoel Be'er Sheva to win the league championship for the second time in a row.",
"### Al\\-Adalah",
"In January 2020, Ogu signed for [Al\\-Adalah](/wiki/Al-Adalah_FC \"Al-Adalah FC\") on a six\\-month contract. He left the club having made seven appearances.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Adewoye \\|first1\\=Gbenga \\|title\\=Ogu: Nigeria midfielder's emotional farewell message as Covid\\-19 ends Al\\-Adalah career \\|url\\=https://www.goal.com/en\\-cm/news/ogu\\-nigeria\\-midfielders\\-emotional\\-farewell\\-message\\-as\\-covid/16lp5c9gfxqdfznris6uppqgm \\|website\\=goal.com \\|access\\-date\\=31 March 2021 \\|date\\=10 September 2020}}",
"### Hapoel Nof HaGalil F.C.",
"On 2 February 2022, Ogu returned to Israel to join newly promoted club [H. Nof HaGalil](/wiki/Hapoel_Nof_HaGalil_F.C. \"Hapoel Nof HaGalil F.C.\") until the end of the season.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Iyanda\\|first\\=Niyi\\|date\\=23 January 2022\\|title\\=Nigerian midfielder John Ogu returns to Israel, joins Hapoel Nof Hagalil\\|url\\=https://www.pulse.ng/sports/football/super\\-eagles/john\\-ogu\\-joins\\-israeli\\-side\\-hapoel\\-nof\\-hagalil/w8yrgb1\\|access\\-date\\=3 February 2022\\|website\\=Pulse Nigeria\\|language\\=en}}",
"### Maccabi Jaffa",
"On 30 May 2022, signed for [Maccabi Jaffa](/wiki/Maccabi_Kabilio_Jaffa_F.C. \"Maccabi Kabilio Jaffa F.C.\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.sport5\\.co.il/articles.aspx?FolderID\\=127\\&docID\\=403429\\|title\\=פרסום ראשון: ג'ון אוגו חתם במכבי יפו\\|first\\=Igal\\|last\\=Goldstein\\|date\\=30 May 2022\\|accessdate\\=30 May 2022\\|language\\=Hebrew\\|website\\=The Sport Channel}}",
""
] |
Life
----
Shtjefën Kurti was born on 24 December 1898 in [Ferizaj](/wiki/Ferizaj "Ferizaj") as the sixth child of Jak and Katrine Kurti.
Kurti studied in [Graz](/wiki/Graz "Graz") and [Feldkirch](/wiki/Feldkirch%2C_Vorarlberg "Feldkirch, Vorarlberg") as well as in [Innsbruck](/wiki/Innsbruck "Innsbruck") and at [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome"); the [Jesuits](/wiki/Jesuits "Jesuits") oversaw his education at one stage. He further studied at [Propaganda Fide](/wiki/Propaganda_Fide "Propaganda Fide") in Rome since 10 January 1919\. Kurti was [ordained](/wiki/Ordination "Ordination") as a priest in Rome on 13 May 1924\. He then acted as a parish priest in [Skopje](/wiki/Skopje "Skopje") and Novoselo near [Gjakova](/wiki/Gjakova "Gjakova") from 1921 until 1929 but the murder of fellow Albanian priest [Shtjefën Gjeçovi](/wiki/Shtjef%C3%ABn_Gje%C3%A7ovi "Shtjefën Gjeçovi") prompted Kurti to flee for [Romania](/wiki/Romania "Romania"). It was there that he wrote a memorandum to the [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations "League of Nations") regarding the persecution of Catholic Albanian citizens in [Kosovo](/wiki/Kosovo "Kosovo") which was dated on 5 May 1930\. Father Kurti would soon move on to serve as a priest in Shna Prendja (now [Krujë](/wiki/Kruj%C3%AB "Krujë")) as well as in Gurës and [Tirana](/wiki/Tirana "Tirana").
On 16 September 1946 he sent a letter to [Pope Pius XII](/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII "Pope Pius XII") informing him of the persecution and violence that was being perpetrated against the Church. Kurti was arrested for the first time in Tirana on 28 October 1946 and was imprisoned at first in Tirana and then later in [Burrel](/wiki/Burrel "Burrel"). He was sentenced to death but his sentence was changed to two decades of imprisonment; he was set free on 2 May 1963 before his full sentence was concluded. His arrest was in part due to accusations that he was colluding with spies. Twice during the 1960s he suffered [psychological torture](/wiki/Psychological_torture "Psychological torture") which included simulated executions during the second of which he was forced to dig a grave he was made to believe would be his own. It was upon his release that he continued his duties in Tirana and this extended to Juba and Gurës. In 1967, after he prevented thugs from desecrating his church, he was arrested once again and was sentenced to forced labor with a sentence that would have ended in 1983\. However, Kurti would die well before this.
In 1970 – though it was forbidden to administer the [sacraments](/wiki/Sacraments "Sacraments") – a mother asked Kurti to [baptize](/wiki/Baptize "Baptize") her son. He accepted and baptized the child in secret. This led to him being re\-arrested and he was sentenced to death on 31 July 1971\. The judge presiding over the trial asked whether it was true that Kurti baptized a child, to which the priest confessed he did since it was part of his role as a priest. Father Kurti was executed ([firing squad](/wiki/Firing_squad "Firing squad")) on 20 October 1971 (according to another source: February 1972\) though Vatican officials did not become aware of this until 1973 because it had been kept secret from the local authorities.{{citation\|title\=Human rights in the People's Socialist Republic of Albania: a report of the Minnesota Lawyers International Human Rights Committee, 1990\|publisher\=MLIHRC\|year\=1990\|author\=Minnesota Lawyers International Human Rights Committee\|isbn\=9780929293059\|accessdate\=9 October 2013\|page\=90\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=EAYwAQAAIAAJ\&q\=\+Shtjef%C3%ABn\+Kurti}} The news had instead been leaked.
Kurti's death was kept hidden until news leaked and reached Rome of his death. RAI television announced this news while Vatican Radio confirmed it in March 1973\. *[L'Osservatore Romano](/wiki/L%27Osservatore_Romano "L'Osservatore Romano")* published an article on 26 April 1973 condemning the persecution of the Church in Albania with the article being published in part due to Kurti's murder.
|
[
"Life\n----",
"Shtjefën Kurti was born on 24 December 1898 in [Ferizaj](/wiki/Ferizaj \"Ferizaj\") as the sixth child of Jak and Katrine Kurti.",
"Kurti studied in [Graz](/wiki/Graz \"Graz\") and [Feldkirch](/wiki/Feldkirch%2C_Vorarlberg \"Feldkirch, Vorarlberg\") as well as in [Innsbruck](/wiki/Innsbruck \"Innsbruck\") and at [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\"); the [Jesuits](/wiki/Jesuits \"Jesuits\") oversaw his education at one stage. He further studied at [Propaganda Fide](/wiki/Propaganda_Fide \"Propaganda Fide\") in Rome since 10 January 1919\\. Kurti was [ordained](/wiki/Ordination \"Ordination\") as a priest in Rome on 13 May 1924\\. He then acted as a parish priest in [Skopje](/wiki/Skopje \"Skopje\") and Novoselo near [Gjakova](/wiki/Gjakova \"Gjakova\") from 1921 until 1929 but the murder of fellow Albanian priest [Shtjefën Gjeçovi](/wiki/Shtjef%C3%ABn_Gje%C3%A7ovi \"Shtjefën Gjeçovi\") prompted Kurti to flee for [Romania](/wiki/Romania \"Romania\"). It was there that he wrote a memorandum to the [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations \"League of Nations\") regarding the persecution of Catholic Albanian citizens in [Kosovo](/wiki/Kosovo \"Kosovo\") which was dated on 5 May 1930\\. Father Kurti would soon move on to serve as a priest in Shna Prendja (now [Krujë](/wiki/Kruj%C3%AB \"Krujë\")) as well as in Gurës and [Tirana](/wiki/Tirana \"Tirana\").",
"On 16 September 1946 he sent a letter to [Pope Pius XII](/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII \"Pope Pius XII\") informing him of the persecution and violence that was being perpetrated against the Church. Kurti was arrested for the first time in Tirana on 28 October 1946 and was imprisoned at first in Tirana and then later in [Burrel](/wiki/Burrel \"Burrel\"). He was sentenced to death but his sentence was changed to two decades of imprisonment; he was set free on 2 May 1963 before his full sentence was concluded. His arrest was in part due to accusations that he was colluding with spies. Twice during the 1960s he suffered [psychological torture](/wiki/Psychological_torture \"Psychological torture\") which included simulated executions during the second of which he was forced to dig a grave he was made to believe would be his own. It was upon his release that he continued his duties in Tirana and this extended to Juba and Gurës. In 1967, after he prevented thugs from desecrating his church, he was arrested once again and was sentenced to forced labor with a sentence that would have ended in 1983\\. However, Kurti would die well before this.",
"In 1970 – though it was forbidden to administer the [sacraments](/wiki/Sacraments \"Sacraments\") – a mother asked Kurti to [baptize](/wiki/Baptize \"Baptize\") her son. He accepted and baptized the child in secret. This led to him being re\\-arrested and he was sentenced to death on 31 July 1971\\. The judge presiding over the trial asked whether it was true that Kurti baptized a child, to which the priest confessed he did since it was part of his role as a priest. Father Kurti was executed ([firing squad](/wiki/Firing_squad \"Firing squad\")) on 20 October 1971 (according to another source: February 1972\\) though Vatican officials did not become aware of this until 1973 because it had been kept secret from the local authorities.{{citation\\|title\\=Human rights in the People's Socialist Republic of Albania: a report of the Minnesota Lawyers International Human Rights Committee, 1990\\|publisher\\=MLIHRC\\|year\\=1990\\|author\\=Minnesota Lawyers International Human Rights Committee\\|isbn\\=9780929293059\\|accessdate\\=9 October 2013\\|page\\=90\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=EAYwAQAAIAAJ\\&q\\=\\+Shtjef%C3%ABn\\+Kurti}} The news had instead been leaked.",
"Kurti's death was kept hidden until news leaked and reached Rome of his death. RAI television announced this news while Vatican Radio confirmed it in March 1973\\. *[L'Osservatore Romano](/wiki/L%27Osservatore_Romano \"L'Osservatore Romano\")* published an article on 26 April 1973 condemning the persecution of the Church in Albania with the article being published in part due to Kurti's murder.",
""
] |
Music directors
---------------
Philip Potts was the first conductor of the ensemble and served for one year from 1928 to 1929\. A year later, the ensemble solicited help from Warren Ketcham, a student at the University of Michigan's School of Music, to become their first conductor. After doubling in size, the musicians adopted the name "Ann Arbor Community Orchestra." Frederick Ernst, another music student at the University of Michigan, became the group's second director in 1931\. He led the musicians in their first major performance, which included [Franz von Suppé](/wiki/Franz_von_Supp%C3%A9 "Franz von Suppé")'s *Poet and Peasant Overture*. Ernst conducted 18 performances in Ann Arbor, [Petersberg](/wiki/Petersburg%2C_Michigan "Petersburg, Michigan"), [Saline](/wiki/Saline%2C_Michigan "Saline, Michigan"), and [Hartland](/wiki/Hartland_Township%2C_Michigan "Hartland Township, Michigan"). William Champion became the third conductor of the ensemble in 1933 and led a group of 30 musicians. In 1941, Champion was called into military service with the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy"). He was succeeded by the A2SO's fourth music director, [Joseph E. Maddy](/wiki/Joseph_E._Maddy "Joseph E. Maddy"), who had founded the National Music Camp at Interlochen and served as both supervisor of music in public schools in Ann Arbor and the Music Department head for the [University of Michigan](/wiki/University_of_Michigan "University of Michigan"). Maddy led the group for ten years and grew the orchestra to 75 musicians. Orien Dalley succeeded Maddy in 1951 and conducted the orchestra for four years until 1955 when Emil Raab became the sixth music director. Raab conducted for two years until he was succeeded by George C. Wilson, Vice President of the National Music Camp at Interlochen, now known as [Interlochen Center for the Arts](/wiki/Interlochen_Center_for_the_Arts "Interlochen Center for the Arts").
During Wilson's time as conductor, the orchestra gave its first official youth concert to 1,500 children. Jack Elzay,{{Cite web\|url\=https://aadl.org/N071\_0629\_001\|title\=Jack Elzay, Ann Arbor Superintendent of Schools, December 1959 {{!}} Ann Arbor District Library\|website\=aadl.org\|access\-date\=2019\-01\-09}} the superintendent of [Ann Arbor Public Schools](/wiki/Ann_Arbor_Public_Schools "Ann Arbor Public Schools"), wrote a letter to conductor George Wilson following the concert recognizing the importance of music in children's lives. These educational concerts continue to be an integral part of the mission of the present day Ann Arbor Symphony Orchestra.
William Fitch became the orchestra's eighth conductor in 1961 and led the ensemble in its first radio broadcast on WUOM, now known as [Michigan Radio](/wiki/Michigan_Radio "Michigan Radio"). In 1963, Emil A. Holz, doctoral advisor and chairman of the music education department at the University of Michigan,{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=7nQJAQAAMAAJ\&q\=emil\+holz\+ann\+arbor\&pg\=RA1\-PA4\|title\=Music at Michigan\|date\=1973\|publisher\=UM Libraries\|language\=en}} became the ninth music director of the orchestra. He led until 1972 when he was succeeded by Edward Szabo. [Carl St.Clair](/wiki/Carl_St._Clair "Carl St. Clair") became the orchestra's eleventh conductor in 1985\. With this change in leadership, the orchestra began to charge admission for the first time in its 57\-year history. St.Clair led the orchestra for seven years and was succeeded in 1992 by [Samuel Wong](/wiki/Samuel_Wong "Samuel Wong"). During Wong's time as conductor, the orchestra began its annual tradition of celebrating the birthday of [Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart](/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart") with an all\-Mozart program held every January, a tradition that continues to this day.
Arie Lipsky was hired as the A2SO's thirteenth conductor in 2000\. Lipsky led the orchestra in its first performance of an opera with [Georges Bizet](/wiki/Georges_Bizet "Georges Bizet")'s [Carmen](/wiki/Carmen "Carmen") in 2002\. Lipsky resigned from his position as Music Director in June 2019\.{{Cite web\|last\=Channel\|first\=The Violin\|date\=2019\-06\-20\|title\=Conductor Arie Lipsky to Step Down from Ann Arbor Symphony\|url\=https://theviolinchannel.com/conductor\-arie\-lipsky\-to\-step\-down\-from\-ann\-arbor\-symphony\-orchestra/\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-12\|website\=The World's Leading Classical Music News Source. Est 2009\.\|language\=en\-US}} In August 2019, the organization launched a music director search to name Lipsky's replacement, receiving over 225 applications from around the world.{{Cite web\|last\=Parlette\|first\=Sarah M.\|date\=2019\-08\-09\|title\=Ann Arbor Symphony Orchestra begins search for new music director and conductor\|url\=https://www.clickondetroit.com/all\-about\-ann\-arbor/2019/08/09/ann\-arbor\-symphony\-orchestra\-begins\-search\-for\-new\-music\-director\-and\-conductor/\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-13\|website\=WDIV\|language\=en}} Across the 2021\-22 season, the orchestra auditioned six Music Director finalists, each of whom conducted a classical main stage performance with selected repertoire.
On June 9, 2022, the A2SO announced the appointment of [Earl Lee](/wiki/Earl_Lee "Earl Lee") as the orchestra's fourteenth Music Director.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-06\-09 \|title\=The Ann Arbor Symphony Orchestra appoints Earl Lee as its new Music Director \|url\=https://a2so.com/2022/06/09/new\-music\-director/ \|access\-date\=2022\-10\-03 \|website\=Ann Arbor Symphony Orchestra \|language\=en\-US}} Lee made his official debut in director capacity at the orchestra's 2022\-23 season opener at Hill Auditorium, leading a program of [Carlos Simon](/wiki/Carlos_Simon_%28composer%29 "Carlos Simon (composer)"), [Sergei Rachmaninoff](/wiki/Sergei_Rachmaninoff "Sergei Rachmaninoff"), and [Ludwig van Beethoven](/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven "Ludwig van Beethoven") on September 9, 2022\.
|
[
"Music directors\n---------------",
"Philip Potts was the first conductor of the ensemble and served for one year from 1928 to 1929\\. A year later, the ensemble solicited help from Warren Ketcham, a student at the University of Michigan's School of Music, to become their first conductor. After doubling in size, the musicians adopted the name \"Ann Arbor Community Orchestra.\" Frederick Ernst, another music student at the University of Michigan, became the group's second director in 1931\\. He led the musicians in their first major performance, which included [Franz von Suppé](/wiki/Franz_von_Supp%C3%A9 \"Franz von Suppé\")'s *Poet and Peasant Overture*. Ernst conducted 18 performances in Ann Arbor, [Petersberg](/wiki/Petersburg%2C_Michigan \"Petersburg, Michigan\"), [Saline](/wiki/Saline%2C_Michigan \"Saline, Michigan\"), and [Hartland](/wiki/Hartland_Township%2C_Michigan \"Hartland Township, Michigan\"). William Champion became the third conductor of the ensemble in 1933 and led a group of 30 musicians. In 1941, Champion was called into military service with the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\"). He was succeeded by the A2SO's fourth music director, [Joseph E. Maddy](/wiki/Joseph_E._Maddy \"Joseph E. Maddy\"), who had founded the National Music Camp at Interlochen and served as both supervisor of music in public schools in Ann Arbor and the Music Department head for the [University of Michigan](/wiki/University_of_Michigan \"University of Michigan\"). Maddy led the group for ten years and grew the orchestra to 75 musicians. Orien Dalley succeeded Maddy in 1951 and conducted the orchestra for four years until 1955 when Emil Raab became the sixth music director. Raab conducted for two years until he was succeeded by George C. Wilson, Vice President of the National Music Camp at Interlochen, now known as [Interlochen Center for the Arts](/wiki/Interlochen_Center_for_the_Arts \"Interlochen Center for the Arts\").",
"During Wilson's time as conductor, the orchestra gave its first official youth concert to 1,500 children. Jack Elzay,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://aadl.org/N071\\_0629\\_001\\|title\\=Jack Elzay, Ann Arbor Superintendent of Schools, December 1959 {{!}} Ann Arbor District Library\\|website\\=aadl.org\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-01\\-09}} the superintendent of [Ann Arbor Public Schools](/wiki/Ann_Arbor_Public_Schools \"Ann Arbor Public Schools\"), wrote a letter to conductor George Wilson following the concert recognizing the importance of music in children's lives. These educational concerts continue to be an integral part of the mission of the present day Ann Arbor Symphony Orchestra.",
"William Fitch became the orchestra's eighth conductor in 1961 and led the ensemble in its first radio broadcast on WUOM, now known as [Michigan Radio](/wiki/Michigan_Radio \"Michigan Radio\"). In 1963, Emil A. Holz, doctoral advisor and chairman of the music education department at the University of Michigan,{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=7nQJAQAAMAAJ\\&q\\=emil\\+holz\\+ann\\+arbor\\&pg\\=RA1\\-PA4\\|title\\=Music at Michigan\\|date\\=1973\\|publisher\\=UM Libraries\\|language\\=en}} became the ninth music director of the orchestra. He led until 1972 when he was succeeded by Edward Szabo. [Carl St.Clair](/wiki/Carl_St._Clair \"Carl St. Clair\") became the orchestra's eleventh conductor in 1985\\. With this change in leadership, the orchestra began to charge admission for the first time in its 57\\-year history. St.Clair led the orchestra for seven years and was succeeded in 1992 by [Samuel Wong](/wiki/Samuel_Wong \"Samuel Wong\"). During Wong's time as conductor, the orchestra began its annual tradition of celebrating the birthday of [Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart](/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart \"Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart\") with an all\\-Mozart program held every January, a tradition that continues to this day.",
"Arie Lipsky was hired as the A2SO's thirteenth conductor in 2000\\. Lipsky led the orchestra in its first performance of an opera with [Georges Bizet](/wiki/Georges_Bizet \"Georges Bizet\")'s [Carmen](/wiki/Carmen \"Carmen\") in 2002\\. Lipsky resigned from his position as Music Director in June 2019\\.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Channel\\|first\\=The Violin\\|date\\=2019\\-06\\-20\\|title\\=Conductor Arie Lipsky to Step Down from Ann Arbor Symphony\\|url\\=https://theviolinchannel.com/conductor\\-arie\\-lipsky\\-to\\-step\\-down\\-from\\-ann\\-arbor\\-symphony\\-orchestra/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-12\\|website\\=The World's Leading Classical Music News Source. Est 2009\\.\\|language\\=en\\-US}} In August 2019, the organization launched a music director search to name Lipsky's replacement, receiving over 225 applications from around the world.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Parlette\\|first\\=Sarah M.\\|date\\=2019\\-08\\-09\\|title\\=Ann Arbor Symphony Orchestra begins search for new music director and conductor\\|url\\=https://www.clickondetroit.com/all\\-about\\-ann\\-arbor/2019/08/09/ann\\-arbor\\-symphony\\-orchestra\\-begins\\-search\\-for\\-new\\-music\\-director\\-and\\-conductor/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-13\\|website\\=WDIV\\|language\\=en}} Across the 2021\\-22 season, the orchestra auditioned six Music Director finalists, each of whom conducted a classical main stage performance with selected repertoire.",
"On June 9, 2022, the A2SO announced the appointment of [Earl Lee](/wiki/Earl_Lee \"Earl Lee\") as the orchestra's fourteenth Music Director.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-06\\-09 \\|title\\=The Ann Arbor Symphony Orchestra appoints Earl Lee as its new Music Director \\|url\\=https://a2so.com/2022/06/09/new\\-music\\-director/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-03 \\|website\\=Ann Arbor Symphony Orchestra \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Lee made his official debut in director capacity at the orchestra's 2022\\-23 season opener at Hill Auditorium, leading a program of [Carlos Simon](/wiki/Carlos_Simon_%28composer%29 \"Carlos Simon (composer)\"), [Sergei Rachmaninoff](/wiki/Sergei_Rachmaninoff \"Sergei Rachmaninoff\"), and [Ludwig van Beethoven](/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven \"Ludwig van Beethoven\") on September 9, 2022\\.",
""
] |
HP TouchSmart All\-in\-One
--------------------------
### Consumer version
#### HP TouchSmart Crossfire
{{Infobox information appliance
\| name \= HP TouchSmart Crossfire
\| image \= HP TouchSmart trade.jpg
\| caption \= HP TouchSmart IQ770
\| manufacturer \= \[\[Hewlett\-Packard]]
\| type \= All\-in\-one
\| releasedate \= {{Start date and age\|2007\|01\|07}}
\| connectivity \= FM and ATSC \[\[HDTV]] tuners; \[\[Bluetooth]], \[\[IEEE 802\.11\|802\.11a/b/g]] wireless, and \[\[gigabit Ethernet]] connectivity
\| os \= \[\[Windows Vista Home Premium]]
\| camera \= Yes
\| cpu \= \[\[AMD Turion 64 X2]] TL\-52 processor
\| storage \= 320 GB \[\[hard disk drive\|HDD]]
\| memory \= 2 \[\[gigabyte\|GB]] \[\[SDRAM]]
\| display \= 19" \[\[Touchscreen]]
\| successor \= HP TouchSmart IQ500
}}
The HP TouchSmart was first introduced by [Bill Gates](/wiki/Bill_Gates "Bill Gates") on January 7, 2007,{{cite web \|url\=https://www.engadget.com/2007/01/07/microsoft\-announces\-the\-hp\-touchsmart\-pc/\|title\=Microsoft announces the HP TouchSmart PC \|access\-date\=2009\-01\-28 \|last\= Dybwad\|first\= Barb\|date\= January 7, 2007\|publisher\=engadget}} becoming the first mass market touchscreen desktop PC.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.engadget.com/2006/11/30/hp\-iq770\-crossfire\-19\-inch\-touchscreen\-media\-pc\-revealed//\|title\=HP IQ770 "Crossfire" 19\-inch touchscreen Vista PC revealed! \|access\-date\=2009\-01\-28 \|last\= Block\|first\= Ryan\|date\= November 30, 2006\|publisher\=engadget}}
Also known as the "Crossfire", the HP TouchSmart IQ770 featured a 19\-inch touchscreen, an [AMD Turion 64 X2](/wiki/AMD_Turion%23Turion_64_X2 "AMD Turion#Turion 64 X2") TL\-52 processor, [NVIDIA GeForce](/wiki/NVIDIA_GeForce "NVIDIA GeForce") Go 7600\. It had a wide array of ports, including [Ethernet](/wiki/Ethernet "Ethernet"), two FireWire, six [USB 2\.0](/wiki/USB_2.0 "USB 2.0") ports, one with HP printer power Y\-cable connector, 5\.1 \+ digital audio out, [IR](/wiki/Infrared_Data_Association "Infrared Data Association") out, [mini\-VGA](/wiki/Mini-VGA "Mini-VGA"), FM coax, TV [coax](/wiki/Coax "Coax"), [ATSC](/wiki/ATSC_standards "ATSC standards"), and two [S\-Video](/wiki/S-Video "S-Video"); however, the IQ770 did not have [HDMI](/wiki/HDMI "HDMI") ports. *[PC World](/wiki/PC_World "PC World")* gave the machine a "very good" rating of 81/100, but noted that the use of mobile components slowed the computer.Perensen, Melissa J. PC World. Jan 7 2007\. Accessdate \= 10 August 2009 <http://www.pcworld.com/reviews/product/29673/review/touchsmart_iq770_pc.html> {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090713094605/http://www.pcworld.com/reviews/product/29673/review/touchsmart\_iq770\_pc.html \|date\=2009\-07\-13 }}
#### HP TouchSmart 2
On June 10, 2008, HP unveiled their new HP TouchSmart IQ500 series. The series featured a 22\-inch widescreen touchscreen display, an [Intel Core 2 Duo](/wiki/Intel_Core%23Core_2_Duo "Intel Core#Core 2 Duo") processor, a 500GB disk, 256MB NVIDIA GeForce 9300 M HS HD graphics, and 802\.11n WiFi, along with an [Energy Star](/wiki/Energy_Star "Energy Star") qualification.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2008/080610xb.html?mtxs\=rss\-corp\-news\|title\= HP Redefines Home Computing, Putting the Digital Lifestyle at People's Fingertips with New TouchSmart PCs\|access\-date\=2009\-01\-28 \|author\= Hewlett Packard Development Company, LP\|date\= June 10, 2008}} The new TouchSmart featured a 2\-inch profile in a piano\-black finish.{{cite web \|url\= https://www.engadget.com/2008/06/10/hp\-slips\-into\-thin\-with\-touchsmart\-2\-all\-in\-ones/\|title\= HP slips into thin with TouchSmart 2 all\-in\-ones\|access\-date\=2009\-01\-28 \|last\= Ricker\|first\= Thomas\|date\= June 10, 2008\|publisher\=engadget}}
The IQ500 series was followed by the IQ800 series, featuring a larger 25\.5 inch touchscreen. Other features included a [TV tuner](/wiki/TV_tuner "TV tuner") with remote, integrated webcam, [Bluetooth](/wiki/Bluetooth "Bluetooth"), HP Pocket Media drive bay and an ambient light to illuminate the keyboard. It featured a Core 2 Duo T6600, 4GB of RAM, a DVD drive, a 1[TB](/wiki/Terabyte "Terabyte") HDD and no dedicated graphics chip as it used the Intel 4 series chipset. The more expensive IQ816 featured a 2\.10 GHz T8100 Core 2 Duo on an 800 MHz bus with a 3MB cache, Blu\-ray drive / dual\-layer burner, and a GeForce 9600M GS chip.{{cite web \|url\= https://www.engadget.com/2008/09/16/hp\-announces\-the\-touchsmart\-iq800\-series/\|title\= HP announces the TouchSmart IQ800 series\|access\-date\=January 28, 2009 \|last\= Patel\|first\= Nilay\|date\= 16 September 2008\|publisher\=engadget}} There is a choice of 640GB or 1TB hard drives.
#### TouchSmart 300
The TouchSmart 300 was released on October 13, 2009\.HP <http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2009/091013xc.html> The all\-in\-one features an [AMD](/wiki/AMD "AMD") [Athlon II](/wiki/Athlon_II "Athlon II") X2 235e (Energy Efficient) Processor Dual core @2\.7 GHz. The platform is Regor and can be updated up to a Propus Quad Core AMD Athlon II X4 605e. Several models were released in different countries, but have similar features:
* 4GB RAM [DDR3](/wiki/DDR3_SDRAM "DDR3 SDRAM") PC\-10600
* 500 GB HDD
* 20" Touchscreen (1440 x 900\)
* [Windows 7 Home Premium](/wiki/Windows_7_Home_Premium "Windows 7 Home Premium")
* Wifi and Ethernet port
* ATSC TV Tuner
Touchsmart 300 with AMD Processors uses an integrated ATI HD 3200 graphics card with shared memory that can allocate 256MB to 1917MB of RAM dynamically (up to 3GB with the latest [AMD Catalyst](/wiki/AMD_Catalyst "AMD Catalyst") [drivers](/wiki/Device_driver "Device driver") 13\.9 released in October 2013\), it also has an [MXM](/wiki/Mobile_PCI_Express_Module "Mobile PCI Express Module") 3\.0 Type\-A slot for an external graphics card (integrated graphics card is disabled when MXM slot is populated), an \[MXM] nVidia GeForce G210 card (with 512MB of DDR3 dedicated memory) can be installed using the proper thermal module.
Initially only rev. C2 quad core processors were supported, latest [BIOS](/wiki/BIOS "BIOS") allows user to upgrade with rev. C3 processors (Athlon II X3 405e and Athlon II X4 605e). HP states in its support website that Touchsmart 300 RAM is upgradeable to 8GB RAM using 2 x 4gb modules but it's been proved it supports up to 16GB DDR3 PC\-12800 (2 x 8GB) even if those are not recognized in the BIOS.
### TouchSmart 500
The TouchSmart 500 was a series of touchscreen PCs that featured the [Windows Vista Home Premium](/wiki/Windows_Vista_Home_Premium "Windows Vista Home Premium") and/or Windows 7 Home Premium Operating System. The computer featured a new tilt design that allowed it to be tilted up to 30 degrees backwards or forwards. The computer also featured an Intel Core 2 Duo T5850 (2\.16 GHz), 4GB or RAM, 23" Glossed Sensitive Touchscreen with a 358MB Intel GMA Mobile 965 GPU (Before Late 2009\) or a nVidia 9600M GS (After Late 2009\). The HP Touchsmart 520 featured in the series was one of the more powerful units, with an [Intel i3](/wiki/Intel_i3 "Intel i3") Processor, 4GB of RAM \& a 1TB Hard Drive. It also had a "23" Glossy Touchscreen.
#### TouchSmart 600
{{Infobox information appliance
\| name \= HP TouchSmart 600
\| manufacturer \= Hewlett Packard
\| type \= All\-in\-one
\| releasedate \= {{Start date\|2009\|10\|13}}
\| price \= Starting at $1049
\| connectivity \=
\| os \= \[\[Windows 7]] or
\[\[Windows Vista]]
\| camera \= Yes
\| power \= \[\[Energy Star]]
\| cpu \= Intel Core 2 Duo T5850 (2\.16 GHz)/ T7450 (2\.13 GHz)
\| storage \= 500 GB/750 GB
\| memory \= 4GB DDR3
\| display \= 23"
\| predecessor \= HP TouchSmart IQ500/800
}}
The TouchSmart 600 was released on October 13, 2009\.
### Business version
#### HP TouchSmart 9100
The TouchSmart 9100 is a business oriented all\-in\-one PC that bears a strong Recording Assistant to its consumer counterpart, the TouchSmart 600\.
|
[
"HP TouchSmart All\\-in\\-One\n--------------------------",
"### Consumer version",
"#### HP TouchSmart Crossfire",
"{{Infobox information appliance\n\\| name \\= HP TouchSmart Crossfire\n\\| image \\= HP TouchSmart trade.jpg\n\\| caption \\= HP TouchSmart IQ770\n\\| manufacturer \\= \\[\\[Hewlett\\-Packard]]\n\\| type \\= All\\-in\\-one\n\\| releasedate \\= {{Start date and age\\|2007\\|01\\|07}}\n\\| connectivity \\= FM and ATSC \\[\\[HDTV]] tuners; \\[\\[Bluetooth]], \\[\\[IEEE 802\\.11\\|802\\.11a/b/g]] wireless, and \\[\\[gigabit Ethernet]] connectivity\n\\| os \\= \\[\\[Windows Vista Home Premium]]\n\\| camera \\= Yes\n\\| cpu \\= \\[\\[AMD Turion 64 X2]] TL\\-52 processor\n\\| storage \\= 320 GB \\[\\[hard disk drive\\|HDD]]\n\\| memory \\= 2 \\[\\[gigabyte\\|GB]] \\[\\[SDRAM]]\n\\| display \\= 19\" \\[\\[Touchscreen]]\n\\| successor \\= HP TouchSmart IQ500\n}}",
"The HP TouchSmart was first introduced by [Bill Gates](/wiki/Bill_Gates \"Bill Gates\") on January 7, 2007,{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.engadget.com/2007/01/07/microsoft\\-announces\\-the\\-hp\\-touchsmart\\-pc/\\|title\\=Microsoft announces the HP TouchSmart PC \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-01\\-28 \\|last\\= Dybwad\\|first\\= Barb\\|date\\= January 7, 2007\\|publisher\\=engadget}} becoming the first mass market touchscreen desktop PC.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.engadget.com/2006/11/30/hp\\-iq770\\-crossfire\\-19\\-inch\\-touchscreen\\-media\\-pc\\-revealed//\\|title\\=HP IQ770 \"Crossfire\" 19\\-inch touchscreen Vista PC revealed! \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-01\\-28 \\|last\\= Block\\|first\\= Ryan\\|date\\= November 30, 2006\\|publisher\\=engadget}}",
"Also known as the \"Crossfire\", the HP TouchSmart IQ770 featured a 19\\-inch touchscreen, an [AMD Turion 64 X2](/wiki/AMD_Turion%23Turion_64_X2 \"AMD Turion#Turion 64 X2\") TL\\-52 processor, [NVIDIA GeForce](/wiki/NVIDIA_GeForce \"NVIDIA GeForce\") Go 7600\\. It had a wide array of ports, including [Ethernet](/wiki/Ethernet \"Ethernet\"), two FireWire, six [USB 2\\.0](/wiki/USB_2.0 \"USB 2.0\") ports, one with HP printer power Y\\-cable connector, 5\\.1 \\+ digital audio out, [IR](/wiki/Infrared_Data_Association \"Infrared Data Association\") out, [mini\\-VGA](/wiki/Mini-VGA \"Mini-VGA\"), FM coax, TV [coax](/wiki/Coax \"Coax\"), [ATSC](/wiki/ATSC_standards \"ATSC standards\"), and two [S\\-Video](/wiki/S-Video \"S-Video\"); however, the IQ770 did not have [HDMI](/wiki/HDMI \"HDMI\") ports. *[PC World](/wiki/PC_World \"PC World\")* gave the machine a \"very good\" rating of 81/100, but noted that the use of mobile components slowed the computer.Perensen, Melissa J. PC World. Jan 7 2007\\. Accessdate \\= 10 August 2009 <http://www.pcworld.com/reviews/product/29673/review/touchsmart_iq770_pc.html> {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090713094605/http://www.pcworld.com/reviews/product/29673/review/touchsmart\\_iq770\\_pc.html \\|date\\=2009\\-07\\-13 }}",
"#### HP TouchSmart 2",
"On June 10, 2008, HP unveiled their new HP TouchSmart IQ500 series. The series featured a 22\\-inch widescreen touchscreen display, an [Intel Core 2 Duo](/wiki/Intel_Core%23Core_2_Duo \"Intel Core#Core 2 Duo\") processor, a 500GB disk, 256MB NVIDIA GeForce 9300 M HS HD graphics, and 802\\.11n WiFi, along with an [Energy Star](/wiki/Energy_Star \"Energy Star\") qualification.{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2008/080610xb.html?mtxs\\=rss\\-corp\\-news\\|title\\= HP Redefines Home Computing, Putting the Digital Lifestyle at People's Fingertips with New TouchSmart PCs\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-01\\-28 \\|author\\= Hewlett Packard Development Company, LP\\|date\\= June 10, 2008}} The new TouchSmart featured a 2\\-inch profile in a piano\\-black finish.{{cite web \\|url\\= https://www.engadget.com/2008/06/10/hp\\-slips\\-into\\-thin\\-with\\-touchsmart\\-2\\-all\\-in\\-ones/\\|title\\= HP slips into thin with TouchSmart 2 all\\-in\\-ones\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-01\\-28 \\|last\\= Ricker\\|first\\= Thomas\\|date\\= June 10, 2008\\|publisher\\=engadget}}",
"The IQ500 series was followed by the IQ800 series, featuring a larger 25\\.5 inch touchscreen. Other features included a [TV tuner](/wiki/TV_tuner \"TV tuner\") with remote, integrated webcam, [Bluetooth](/wiki/Bluetooth \"Bluetooth\"), HP Pocket Media drive bay and an ambient light to illuminate the keyboard. It featured a Core 2 Duo T6600, 4GB of RAM, a DVD drive, a 1[TB](/wiki/Terabyte \"Terabyte\") HDD and no dedicated graphics chip as it used the Intel 4 series chipset. The more expensive IQ816 featured a 2\\.10 GHz T8100 Core 2 Duo on an 800 MHz bus with a 3MB cache, Blu\\-ray drive / dual\\-layer burner, and a GeForce 9600M GS chip.{{cite web \\|url\\= https://www.engadget.com/2008/09/16/hp\\-announces\\-the\\-touchsmart\\-iq800\\-series/\\|title\\= HP announces the TouchSmart IQ800 series\\|access\\-date\\=January 28, 2009 \\|last\\= Patel\\|first\\= Nilay\\|date\\= 16 September 2008\\|publisher\\=engadget}} There is a choice of 640GB or 1TB hard drives.",
"#### TouchSmart 300",
"The TouchSmart 300 was released on October 13, 2009\\.HP <http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2009/091013xc.html> The all\\-in\\-one features an [AMD](/wiki/AMD \"AMD\") [Athlon II](/wiki/Athlon_II \"Athlon II\") X2 235e (Energy Efficient) Processor Dual core @2\\.7 GHz. The platform is Regor and can be updated up to a Propus Quad Core AMD Athlon II X4 605e. Several models were released in different countries, but have similar features:",
"* 4GB RAM [DDR3](/wiki/DDR3_SDRAM \"DDR3 SDRAM\") PC\\-10600\n* 500 GB HDD\n* 20\" Touchscreen (1440 x 900\\)\n* [Windows 7 Home Premium](/wiki/Windows_7_Home_Premium \"Windows 7 Home Premium\")\n* Wifi and Ethernet port\n* ATSC TV Tuner",
"Touchsmart 300 with AMD Processors uses an integrated ATI HD 3200 graphics card with shared memory that can allocate 256MB to 1917MB of RAM dynamically (up to 3GB with the latest [AMD Catalyst](/wiki/AMD_Catalyst \"AMD Catalyst\") [drivers](/wiki/Device_driver \"Device driver\") 13\\.9 released in October 2013\\), it also has an [MXM](/wiki/Mobile_PCI_Express_Module \"Mobile PCI Express Module\") 3\\.0 Type\\-A slot for an external graphics card (integrated graphics card is disabled when MXM slot is populated), an \\[MXM] nVidia GeForce G210 card (with 512MB of DDR3 dedicated memory) can be installed using the proper thermal module.",
"Initially only rev. C2 quad core processors were supported, latest [BIOS](/wiki/BIOS \"BIOS\") allows user to upgrade with rev. C3 processors (Athlon II X3 405e and Athlon II X4 605e). HP states in its support website that Touchsmart 300 RAM is upgradeable to 8GB RAM using 2 x 4gb modules but it's been proved it supports up to 16GB DDR3 PC\\-12800 (2 x 8GB) even if those are not recognized in the BIOS.",
"### TouchSmart 500",
"The TouchSmart 500 was a series of touchscreen PCs that featured the [Windows Vista Home Premium](/wiki/Windows_Vista_Home_Premium \"Windows Vista Home Premium\") and/or Windows 7 Home Premium Operating System. The computer featured a new tilt design that allowed it to be tilted up to 30 degrees backwards or forwards. The computer also featured an Intel Core 2 Duo T5850 (2\\.16 GHz), 4GB or RAM, 23\" Glossed Sensitive Touchscreen with a 358MB Intel GMA Mobile 965 GPU (Before Late 2009\\) or a nVidia 9600M GS (After Late 2009\\). The HP Touchsmart 520 featured in the series was one of the more powerful units, with an [Intel i3](/wiki/Intel_i3 \"Intel i3\") Processor, 4GB of RAM \\& a 1TB Hard Drive. It also had a \"23\" Glossy Touchscreen.",
"#### TouchSmart 600",
"{{Infobox information appliance\n\\| name \\= HP TouchSmart 600\n\\| manufacturer \\= Hewlett Packard\n\\| type \\= All\\-in\\-one\n\\| releasedate \\= {{Start date\\|2009\\|10\\|13}}\n\\| price \\= Starting at $1049\n\\| connectivity \\= \n\\| os \\= \\[\\[Windows 7]] or \n\\[\\[Windows Vista]]\n\\| camera \\= Yes\n\\| power \\= \\[\\[Energy Star]]\n\\| cpu \\= Intel Core 2 Duo T5850 (2\\.16 GHz)/ T7450 (2\\.13 GHz)\n\\| storage \\= 500 GB/750 GB\n\\| memory \\= 4GB DDR3\n\\| display \\= 23\"\n\\| predecessor \\= HP TouchSmart IQ500/800\n}}\nThe TouchSmart 600 was released on October 13, 2009\\.",
"### Business version",
"#### HP TouchSmart 9100",
"The TouchSmart 9100 is a business oriented all\\-in\\-one PC that bears a strong Recording Assistant to its consumer counterpart, the TouchSmart 600\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
### World War II, Korea \& Vietnam
Formed as Marine Utility Squadron 352 (VMJ\-352\) at [MCAS Cherry Point](/wiki/MCAS_Cherry_Point "MCAS Cherry Point") on 1 April 1943\. The squadron was originally assigned the [Douglas R4D Skytrain aircraft](/wiki/C-47_Skytrain "C-47 Skytrain"), which it retained until its designation as Marine Transport Squadron 352 (VMR\-352\) in June 1944\. In February 1945, part of the squadron moved to [MCAS Ewa](/wiki/MCAS_Ewa "MCAS Ewa"), [Oahu](/wiki/Oahu "Oahu"), Hawaii and re\-equipped with [Curtiss R5C\-1s](/wiki/Curtiss_C-46_Commando "Curtiss C-46 Commando") (the US Navy designation for the Curtiss C\-46 Commando), with the rest of the squadron following with its R4Ds. From July that year, [Douglas R5D Skymaster](/wiki/C-54_Skymaster "C-54 Skymaster") began to replace the squadrons R4Ds.{{harvnb\|Mormillo\|1983\|p\=114}} It remained at Ewa until 1949\. Film legend [Tyrone Power](/wiki/Tyrone_Power "Tyrone Power") was a member of the squadron for several months during 1944\.
[left\|thumb\|150px\|Official squadron logo during WWII when they were VMJ/VMR\-352](/wiki/File:VMR-352_WWII_Logo.jpg "VMR-352 WWII Logo.jpg")
[left\|thumb\|150px\|Squadron logo designed by [Disney](/wiki/Disney "Disney") during WWII when they were VMJ/VMR\-352](/wiki/File:VMR-352.jpg "VMR-352.jpg")
Based in Hawaii, the squadron conducted training and provided operational support in the [Pacific Theater](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean_theater_of_World_War_II "Pacific Ocean theater of World War II"), and was assigned the Commander of Military Transport Service in support of the [Berlin Airlift](/wiki/Berlin_Airlift "Berlin Airlift") in 1948\-1949\.
After moving to [Marine Corps Air Station El Toro](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Air_Station_El_Toro "Marine Corps Air Station El Toro"), California in December 1949 the squadron was called upon to support air operations associated with the Korean War. The squadron's mission was extended with its re\-designation as Marine Aerial Refueler Transport Squadron 352 (VMGR\-352\) in March 1961 with the arrival of the [KC\-130 Hercules](/wiki/C-130_Hercules "C-130 Hercules"). The squadron conducted its first TransPac operations in January 1962, moving 18 [F8U's](/wiki/F-8_Crusader "F-8 Crusader") of [VMF\-451](/wiki/VMF-451 "VMF-451") from [MCAS El Toro](/wiki/MCAS_El_Toro "MCAS El Toro") to [MCAS Iwakuni](/wiki/MCAS_Iwakuni "MCAS Iwakuni"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan"). The "Raiders" rapid response capability and versatile aircraft were called upon during the [Cuban Missile Crisis](/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis "Cuban Missile Crisis") in 1962 and again in the [Dominican Republic](/wiki/Operation_Power_Pack "Operation Power Pack") in 1965\. In April 1962 the squadron began supporting operations in Vietnam with missions to haul materials used to build up Soc Trang (located Southeast of Saigon) as a base for helicopter combat operations. The squadron continued deploying elements in support of combat operations in the [Republic of Vietnam](/wiki/Republic_of_Vietnam "Republic of Vietnam") until October 1972\.
### Gulf War and the 1990s
From August 1990 to March 1991, a seven plane detachment from the squadron flew in support of [Operation Desert Shield](/wiki/Gulf_War%23Operation_Desert_Shield "Gulf War#Operation Desert Shield") and [Operation Desert Storm](/wiki/Operation_Desert_Storm "Operation Desert Storm"). During the seven\-month period, 352 Forward amassed over 2500 combat flight hours and 1144 sorties.
Beginning in 1992, VMGR\-352 had several deployments to [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya "Kenya") supporting [Operation Restore Hope](/wiki/Operation_Restore_Hope "Operation Restore Hope") in next\-door [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia "Somalia"). The Raider's original mission was to fly food and supplies to war\-torn Somalia. This later turned into a combat support mission supporting the [11th Marine Expeditionary Unit](/wiki/11th_Marine_Expeditionary_Unit "11th Marine Expeditionary Unit") (11th MEU) and ended with the evacuation of the US Embassy.
In February 1998, the "Raiders" were tasked to be a part of the United Nation's Relief Effort, [Operation Noble Response](/wiki/Operation_Noble_Response "Operation Noble Response") in [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya "Kenya"), [Africa](/wiki/Africa "Africa"). Later, in June 1998, they executed a [non\-combatant evacuation operation](/wiki/Non-combatant_evacuation_operation "Non-combatant evacuation operation"), [Operation Safe Departure](/wiki/Operation_Safe_Departure "Operation Safe Departure") in [Eritrea](/wiki/Eritrea "Eritrea"), Africa.
In early January 1999, the Raiders deployed a four\-plane detachment to [Mombassa, Kenya](/wiki/Mombassa%2C_Kenya "Mombassa, Kenya") to extract American citizens and foreign nationals from Eritrea and [Ethiopia](/wiki/Ethiopia "Ethiopia"), Africa in support of the [13th Marine Expeditionary Unit](/wiki/13th_Marine_Expeditionary_Unit "13th Marine Expeditionary Unit") (13th MEU) AND Operation Safe Departure. Though the crisis did not escalate to the point where Marines were required to conduct a NEO, the Raiders provided the 13th MEU with support during operations "Eager Mace" in Kenya and "Native Fury" in Kuwait. On 15 April 1999, VMGR\-352 moved their squadron from [Marine Corps Air Station El Toro](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Air_Station_El_Toro "Marine Corps Air Station El Toro"), California to MCAS Miramar as part of the [Base Realignment and Closure](/wiki/Base_Realignment_and_Closure "Base Realignment and Closure") (BRAC) commission mandates.
On 28 June 1999, the Raiders were tasked with supporting [Operation Northern Watch](/wiki/Operation_Northern_Watch "Operation Northern Watch") by providing helicopter aerial refueling (HAR) for the 66th Expeditionary Rescue Squadron (ARQS) in [Incirlik Air Base](/wiki/Incirlik_Air_Base "Incirlik Air Base"), [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey"). After the tragic earthquakes in Turkey, the Raider detachment became an integral part of the humanitarian relief effort that provided care and basic life necessities to the thousands of victims of those earthquakes. During the humanitarian relief missions to northern Turkey, VMGR\-352 continued their Operation Northern Watch support, and still flew over fifty missions. In August, the Raiders were called upon to provide support to Joint Task Force Dora. Due to [Hurricane Dora](/wiki/Hurricane_Dora_%281999%29 "Hurricane Dora (1999)")'s impending assault on the [Johnston Atoll](/wiki/Johnston_Atoll "Johnston Atoll"), a hurricane evacuation mission from [Johnston Island](/wiki/Johnston_Island "Johnston Island") to [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii "Hawaii") was initiated. Less than two days after notification, the Raiders had returned all military and DoD employees to Johnston Island.
During February 2000, VMGR\-352 launched a two\-plane detachment to [Ahmad al\-Jaber Air Base](/wiki/Ahmad_al-Jaber_Air_Base "Ahmad al-Jaber Air Base") in [Kuwait](/wiki/Kuwait "Kuwait") to support [Operation Southern Watch](/wiki/Operation_Southern_Watch "Operation Southern Watch"). While in\-theater, they provided fixed\-wing [aerial refueling](/wiki/Aerial_refueling "Aerial refueling") (FWAR) support to [VMFA(AW)\-121](/wiki/VMFA%28AW%29-121 "VMFA(AW)-121") in defense of the Southern [Iraq No\-Fly Zone](/wiki/Iraqi_no-fly_zones "Iraqi no-fly zones"), as well as FWAR support for [Combat Search and Rescue](/wiki/Combat_Search_and_Rescue "Combat Search and Rescue") (CSAR) missions, should it be needed.
### Global War on Terror
[200px\|thumb\|right\|VMGR\-352 fly two KC\-130Js in a training exercise, February 2007\.](/wiki/File:KC-130J-VMGR-352-20070205.jpg "KC-130J-VMGR-352-20070205.jpg")
In November 2001, VMGR\-352 deployed to [Afghanistan](/wiki/Afghanistan "Afghanistan") in support of [Operation Enduring Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Enduring_Freedom "Operation Enduring Freedom"). The "Raiders" provided fixed wing [aerial refueling](/wiki/Aerial_refueling "Aerial refueling") and logistical support to forces fighting the [War on Terrorism](/wiki/War_on_Terrorism "War on Terrorism"). On 9 January 2002 aircraft 160021 Callsign "RAIDR 04" from VMGR\-352, crashed into a mountainside in [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan") killing all seven crewmembers. One of the Marines killed was Sergeant Jeannette L. Winters. She was the first female service member to die in the war on terror.
The squadron once again deployed to [Bahrain](/wiki/Bahrain "Bahrain") to participate in [Operation Iraqi Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Iraqi_Freedom "Operation Iraqi Freedom"), providing aerial refueling and [assault support](/wiki/Assault_support "Assault support") to coalition forces. During this operation, VMGR\-352 was augmented by [VMGR\-234](/wiki/VMGR-234 "VMGR-234") and [VMGR\-452](/wiki/VMGR-452 "VMGR-452") to form the largest assemblage of KC\-130s in history.
VMGR\-352 began its transition to the [KC\-130J](/wiki/KC-130J "KC-130J") in August 2004\. The newest model of the [C\-130](/wiki/C-130 "C-130") features an all\-glass cockpit, digital flight\-management system, and reduced crew requirements. As of late 2007, VMGR\-352 only flies the [KC\-130J](/wiki/KC-130J "KC-130J"), with all older models having left the unit.
On September 29, 2020, [KC\-130J](/wiki/KC-130J "KC-130J") BUNO 166765, Callsign RAIDR Five Zero (50\) collided with an F\-35, Callsign VOLT Nine Three (93\), while conducting aerial refueling in support of Weapons and Tactics Instruction Course at MCAS Yuma, AZ. The F\-35 slammed into the right side of the aircraft, taking out both engines and propellors and heavily damaging the landing gear. The pilot of the F\-35 successfully ejected and the jet slammed into the ground near the [Salton Sea](/wiki/Salton_Sea "Salton Sea").{{cite web \| url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=Fasu\-aWBqsA \| title\=Military Plane Comes Crashing Down in Desert \|\| ViralHog \| website\=\[\[YouTube]] \| date\=30 September 2020 }} The crew of the KC\-130 were able to control the aircraft and make a crash landing in a cauliflower field just short of the runway at [Thermal, CA](/wiki/Thermal%2C_CA "Thermal, CA"). The crew walked away from the crash.{{Cite web\|url\=https://news.usni.org/2022/06/21/were\-leaking\-fuel\-and\-we\-might\-be\-on\-fire\-how\-a\-pair\-of\-kc\-130j\-pilots\-crew\-saved\-their\-plane\-after\-a\-collision\-with\-an\-f\-35\|title\=‘We're leaking fuel and we might be on fire’ How a Pair of KC\-130J Pilots, Crew Saved Their Plane After a Collision with an F\-35 \- USNI News}}
The Raiders deployed once again in February 2006 in support of [Operation Iraqi Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Iraqi_Freedom "Operation Iraqi Freedom") in cooperation with sister squadron [VMGR\-252](/wiki/VMGR-252 "VMGR-252"), based at [MCAS Cherry Point](/wiki/MCAS_Cherry_Point "MCAS Cherry Point"), [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina "North Carolina").
The Raiders have been constantly deployed in support of the Global War on Terror. Marine Corps KC\-130 squadrons are unique in that they do not deploy as an entire squadron, but send detachments (Dets) in support of operations. Every 6–7 months, det personnel were rotated keeping a constant presence in both Iraq and Afghanistan as well as deploying in support of various [Marine Expeditionary Units](/wiki/Marine_Expeditionary_Units "Marine Expeditionary Units").
Raiders can be seen worldwide conducting operations as directed by higher headquarters \- from supporting other units in movements across both the Pacific and Atlantic to supporting Marines deployed in Iraq and Afghanistan.
### Harvest HAWK
{{main\|Harvest HAWK}}
VMGR\-352 was the first squadron to employ the [Harvest HAWK](/wiki/Harvest_HAWK "Harvest HAWK"), the Marine Corps version of an armed KC\-130\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/news/2010/05/marine\_tankers\_050810w/\|title\=Armed tankers about ready to deploy\|last\=McCullough\|first\=Amy\|date\=8 May 2010\|publisher\=\[\[Marine Corps Times]]\|access\-date\=10 May 2010}} With the addition of the [ISR](/wiki/Intelligence%2C_surveillance_and_reconnaissance "Intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance") / Weapon Mission Kit, the KC\-130J is able to serve as an overwatch aircraft and delivers close air support in the form of [Hellfire missiles](/wiki/AGM-114_Hellfire "AGM-114 Hellfire") and [precision\-guided bombs](/wiki/Precision-guided_munition "Precision-guided munition"). This capability, designated as "Harvest HAWK" (Hercules Airborne Weapons Kit), can be used in scenarios where precision is not a requisite, such as [area denial](/wiki/Area_denial_weapons "Area denial weapons").McCullough, Amy (1 June 2009\). "Refuel and Fire" (in English). Marine Corps Times.
The Harvest Hawk weapons system for USMC KC\-130J aircraft began its first deployment during October 2010 in Afghanistan with VMGR\-352\. Its first weapons engagement was on 4 November supporting the 3rd Battalion, 5th Marine Regiment, in Sangin. One Hellfire missile was fired and five enemy insurgents were killed. The battle damage assessment stated there were no civilian casualties or property damage during the fire fight.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dvidshub.net/news/60315/kc\-130j\-harvest\-hawk\-takes\-new\-role\-afghanistan \|title\=KC\-130J Harvest Hawk takes on new role in Afghanistan\|date\=2010\-11\-16\|first\=Sgt. Deanne
\|location\=Forward Operating Base Dwyer, Afghanistan\|last\=Hurla \|publisher\=U.S. Department of Defense, Defense Visual Information Distribution Service}} Since this date hundreds of engagements have taken place using the Harvest HAWK.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### World War II, Korea \\& Vietnam",
"Formed as Marine Utility Squadron 352 (VMJ\\-352\\) at [MCAS Cherry Point](/wiki/MCAS_Cherry_Point \"MCAS Cherry Point\") on 1 April 1943\\. The squadron was originally assigned the [Douglas R4D Skytrain aircraft](/wiki/C-47_Skytrain \"C-47 Skytrain\"), which it retained until its designation as Marine Transport Squadron 352 (VMR\\-352\\) in June 1944\\. In February 1945, part of the squadron moved to [MCAS Ewa](/wiki/MCAS_Ewa \"MCAS Ewa\"), [Oahu](/wiki/Oahu \"Oahu\"), Hawaii and re\\-equipped with [Curtiss R5C\\-1s](/wiki/Curtiss_C-46_Commando \"Curtiss C-46 Commando\") (the US Navy designation for the Curtiss C\\-46 Commando), with the rest of the squadron following with its R4Ds. From July that year, [Douglas R5D Skymaster](/wiki/C-54_Skymaster \"C-54 Skymaster\") began to replace the squadrons R4Ds.{{harvnb\\|Mormillo\\|1983\\|p\\=114}} It remained at Ewa until 1949\\. Film legend [Tyrone Power](/wiki/Tyrone_Power \"Tyrone Power\") was a member of the squadron for several months during 1944\\.",
"[left\\|thumb\\|150px\\|Official squadron logo during WWII when they were VMJ/VMR\\-352](/wiki/File:VMR-352_WWII_Logo.jpg \"VMR-352 WWII Logo.jpg\")\n[left\\|thumb\\|150px\\|Squadron logo designed by [Disney](/wiki/Disney \"Disney\") during WWII when they were VMJ/VMR\\-352](/wiki/File:VMR-352.jpg \"VMR-352.jpg\")",
"Based in Hawaii, the squadron conducted training and provided operational support in the [Pacific Theater](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean_theater_of_World_War_II \"Pacific Ocean theater of World War II\"), and was assigned the Commander of Military Transport Service in support of the [Berlin Airlift](/wiki/Berlin_Airlift \"Berlin Airlift\") in 1948\\-1949\\.",
"After moving to [Marine Corps Air Station El Toro](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Air_Station_El_Toro \"Marine Corps Air Station El Toro\"), California in December 1949 the squadron was called upon to support air operations associated with the Korean War. The squadron's mission was extended with its re\\-designation as Marine Aerial Refueler Transport Squadron 352 (VMGR\\-352\\) in March 1961 with the arrival of the [KC\\-130 Hercules](/wiki/C-130_Hercules \"C-130 Hercules\"). The squadron conducted its first TransPac operations in January 1962, moving 18 [F8U's](/wiki/F-8_Crusader \"F-8 Crusader\") of [VMF\\-451](/wiki/VMF-451 \"VMF-451\") from [MCAS El Toro](/wiki/MCAS_El_Toro \"MCAS El Toro\") to [MCAS Iwakuni](/wiki/MCAS_Iwakuni \"MCAS Iwakuni\"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\"). The \"Raiders\" rapid response capability and versatile aircraft were called upon during the [Cuban Missile Crisis](/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis \"Cuban Missile Crisis\") in 1962 and again in the [Dominican Republic](/wiki/Operation_Power_Pack \"Operation Power Pack\") in 1965\\. In April 1962 the squadron began supporting operations in Vietnam with missions to haul materials used to build up Soc Trang (located Southeast of Saigon) as a base for helicopter combat operations. The squadron continued deploying elements in support of combat operations in the [Republic of Vietnam](/wiki/Republic_of_Vietnam \"Republic of Vietnam\") until October 1972\\.",
"### Gulf War and the 1990s",
"From August 1990 to March 1991, a seven plane detachment from the squadron flew in support of [Operation Desert Shield](/wiki/Gulf_War%23Operation_Desert_Shield \"Gulf War#Operation Desert Shield\") and [Operation Desert Storm](/wiki/Operation_Desert_Storm \"Operation Desert Storm\"). During the seven\\-month period, 352 Forward amassed over 2500 combat flight hours and 1144 sorties.",
"Beginning in 1992, VMGR\\-352 had several deployments to [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya \"Kenya\") supporting [Operation Restore Hope](/wiki/Operation_Restore_Hope \"Operation Restore Hope\") in next\\-door [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia \"Somalia\"). The Raider's original mission was to fly food and supplies to war\\-torn Somalia. This later turned into a combat support mission supporting the [11th Marine Expeditionary Unit](/wiki/11th_Marine_Expeditionary_Unit \"11th Marine Expeditionary Unit\") (11th MEU) and ended with the evacuation of the US Embassy.",
"In February 1998, the \"Raiders\" were tasked to be a part of the United Nation's Relief Effort, [Operation Noble Response](/wiki/Operation_Noble_Response \"Operation Noble Response\") in [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya \"Kenya\"), [Africa](/wiki/Africa \"Africa\"). Later, in June 1998, they executed a [non\\-combatant evacuation operation](/wiki/Non-combatant_evacuation_operation \"Non-combatant evacuation operation\"), [Operation Safe Departure](/wiki/Operation_Safe_Departure \"Operation Safe Departure\") in [Eritrea](/wiki/Eritrea \"Eritrea\"), Africa.",
"In early January 1999, the Raiders deployed a four\\-plane detachment to [Mombassa, Kenya](/wiki/Mombassa%2C_Kenya \"Mombassa, Kenya\") to extract American citizens and foreign nationals from Eritrea and [Ethiopia](/wiki/Ethiopia \"Ethiopia\"), Africa in support of the [13th Marine Expeditionary Unit](/wiki/13th_Marine_Expeditionary_Unit \"13th Marine Expeditionary Unit\") (13th MEU) AND Operation Safe Departure. Though the crisis did not escalate to the point where Marines were required to conduct a NEO, the Raiders provided the 13th MEU with support during operations \"Eager Mace\" in Kenya and \"Native Fury\" in Kuwait. On 15 April 1999, VMGR\\-352 moved their squadron from [Marine Corps Air Station El Toro](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Air_Station_El_Toro \"Marine Corps Air Station El Toro\"), California to MCAS Miramar as part of the [Base Realignment and Closure](/wiki/Base_Realignment_and_Closure \"Base Realignment and Closure\") (BRAC) commission mandates.",
"On 28 June 1999, the Raiders were tasked with supporting [Operation Northern Watch](/wiki/Operation_Northern_Watch \"Operation Northern Watch\") by providing helicopter aerial refueling (HAR) for the 66th Expeditionary Rescue Squadron (ARQS) in [Incirlik Air Base](/wiki/Incirlik_Air_Base \"Incirlik Air Base\"), [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\"). After the tragic earthquakes in Turkey, the Raider detachment became an integral part of the humanitarian relief effort that provided care and basic life necessities to the thousands of victims of those earthquakes. During the humanitarian relief missions to northern Turkey, VMGR\\-352 continued their Operation Northern Watch support, and still flew over fifty missions. In August, the Raiders were called upon to provide support to Joint Task Force Dora. Due to [Hurricane Dora](/wiki/Hurricane_Dora_%281999%29 \"Hurricane Dora (1999)\")'s impending assault on the [Johnston Atoll](/wiki/Johnston_Atoll \"Johnston Atoll\"), a hurricane evacuation mission from [Johnston Island](/wiki/Johnston_Island \"Johnston Island\") to [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii \"Hawaii\") was initiated. Less than two days after notification, the Raiders had returned all military and DoD employees to Johnston Island.",
"During February 2000, VMGR\\-352 launched a two\\-plane detachment to [Ahmad al\\-Jaber Air Base](/wiki/Ahmad_al-Jaber_Air_Base \"Ahmad al-Jaber Air Base\") in [Kuwait](/wiki/Kuwait \"Kuwait\") to support [Operation Southern Watch](/wiki/Operation_Southern_Watch \"Operation Southern Watch\"). While in\\-theater, they provided fixed\\-wing [aerial refueling](/wiki/Aerial_refueling \"Aerial refueling\") (FWAR) support to [VMFA(AW)\\-121](/wiki/VMFA%28AW%29-121 \"VMFA(AW)-121\") in defense of the Southern [Iraq No\\-Fly Zone](/wiki/Iraqi_no-fly_zones \"Iraqi no-fly zones\"), as well as FWAR support for [Combat Search and Rescue](/wiki/Combat_Search_and_Rescue \"Combat Search and Rescue\") (CSAR) missions, should it be needed.",
"### Global War on Terror",
"[200px\\|thumb\\|right\\|VMGR\\-352 fly two KC\\-130Js in a training exercise, February 2007\\.](/wiki/File:KC-130J-VMGR-352-20070205.jpg \"KC-130J-VMGR-352-20070205.jpg\")\nIn November 2001, VMGR\\-352 deployed to [Afghanistan](/wiki/Afghanistan \"Afghanistan\") in support of [Operation Enduring Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Enduring_Freedom \"Operation Enduring Freedom\"). The \"Raiders\" provided fixed wing [aerial refueling](/wiki/Aerial_refueling \"Aerial refueling\") and logistical support to forces fighting the [War on Terrorism](/wiki/War_on_Terrorism \"War on Terrorism\"). On 9 January 2002 aircraft 160021 Callsign \"RAIDR 04\" from VMGR\\-352, crashed into a mountainside in [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\") killing all seven crewmembers. One of the Marines killed was Sergeant Jeannette L. Winters. She was the first female service member to die in the war on terror.",
"The squadron once again deployed to [Bahrain](/wiki/Bahrain \"Bahrain\") to participate in [Operation Iraqi Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Iraqi_Freedom \"Operation Iraqi Freedom\"), providing aerial refueling and [assault support](/wiki/Assault_support \"Assault support\") to coalition forces. During this operation, VMGR\\-352 was augmented by [VMGR\\-234](/wiki/VMGR-234 \"VMGR-234\") and [VMGR\\-452](/wiki/VMGR-452 \"VMGR-452\") to form the largest assemblage of KC\\-130s in history.",
"VMGR\\-352 began its transition to the [KC\\-130J](/wiki/KC-130J \"KC-130J\") in August 2004\\. The newest model of the [C\\-130](/wiki/C-130 \"C-130\") features an all\\-glass cockpit, digital flight\\-management system, and reduced crew requirements. As of late 2007, VMGR\\-352 only flies the [KC\\-130J](/wiki/KC-130J \"KC-130J\"), with all older models having left the unit.",
"On September 29, 2020, [KC\\-130J](/wiki/KC-130J \"KC-130J\") BUNO 166765, Callsign RAIDR Five Zero (50\\) collided with an F\\-35, Callsign VOLT Nine Three (93\\), while conducting aerial refueling in support of Weapons and Tactics Instruction Course at MCAS Yuma, AZ. The F\\-35 slammed into the right side of the aircraft, taking out both engines and propellors and heavily damaging the landing gear. The pilot of the F\\-35 successfully ejected and the jet slammed into the ground near the [Salton Sea](/wiki/Salton_Sea \"Salton Sea\").{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=Fasu\\-aWBqsA \\| title\\=Military Plane Comes Crashing Down in Desert \\|\\| ViralHog \\| website\\=\\[\\[YouTube]] \\| date\\=30 September 2020 }} The crew of the KC\\-130 were able to control the aircraft and make a crash landing in a cauliflower field just short of the runway at [Thermal, CA](/wiki/Thermal%2C_CA \"Thermal, CA\"). The crew walked away from the crash.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://news.usni.org/2022/06/21/were\\-leaking\\-fuel\\-and\\-we\\-might\\-be\\-on\\-fire\\-how\\-a\\-pair\\-of\\-kc\\-130j\\-pilots\\-crew\\-saved\\-their\\-plane\\-after\\-a\\-collision\\-with\\-an\\-f\\-35\\|title\\=‘We're leaking fuel and we might be on fire’ How a Pair of KC\\-130J Pilots, Crew Saved Their Plane After a Collision with an F\\-35 \\- USNI News}}",
"The Raiders deployed once again in February 2006 in support of [Operation Iraqi Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Iraqi_Freedom \"Operation Iraqi Freedom\") in cooperation with sister squadron [VMGR\\-252](/wiki/VMGR-252 \"VMGR-252\"), based at [MCAS Cherry Point](/wiki/MCAS_Cherry_Point \"MCAS Cherry Point\"), [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina \"North Carolina\").",
"The Raiders have been constantly deployed in support of the Global War on Terror. Marine Corps KC\\-130 squadrons are unique in that they do not deploy as an entire squadron, but send detachments (Dets) in support of operations. Every 6–7 months, det personnel were rotated keeping a constant presence in both Iraq and Afghanistan as well as deploying in support of various [Marine Expeditionary Units](/wiki/Marine_Expeditionary_Units \"Marine Expeditionary Units\").",
"Raiders can be seen worldwide conducting operations as directed by higher headquarters \\- from supporting other units in movements across both the Pacific and Atlantic to supporting Marines deployed in Iraq and Afghanistan.",
"### Harvest HAWK",
"{{main\\|Harvest HAWK}}\nVMGR\\-352 was the first squadron to employ the [Harvest HAWK](/wiki/Harvest_HAWK \"Harvest HAWK\"), the Marine Corps version of an armed KC\\-130\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/news/2010/05/marine\\_tankers\\_050810w/\\|title\\=Armed tankers about ready to deploy\\|last\\=McCullough\\|first\\=Amy\\|date\\=8 May 2010\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Marine Corps Times]]\\|access\\-date\\=10 May 2010}} With the addition of the [ISR](/wiki/Intelligence%2C_surveillance_and_reconnaissance \"Intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance\") / Weapon Mission Kit, the KC\\-130J is able to serve as an overwatch aircraft and delivers close air support in the form of [Hellfire missiles](/wiki/AGM-114_Hellfire \"AGM-114 Hellfire\") and [precision\\-guided bombs](/wiki/Precision-guided_munition \"Precision-guided munition\"). This capability, designated as \"Harvest HAWK\" (Hercules Airborne Weapons Kit), can be used in scenarios where precision is not a requisite, such as [area denial](/wiki/Area_denial_weapons \"Area denial weapons\").McCullough, Amy (1 June 2009\\). \"Refuel and Fire\" (in English). Marine Corps Times.",
"The Harvest Hawk weapons system for USMC KC\\-130J aircraft began its first deployment during October 2010 in Afghanistan with VMGR\\-352\\. Its first weapons engagement was on 4 November supporting the 3rd Battalion, 5th Marine Regiment, in Sangin. One Hellfire missile was fired and five enemy insurgents were killed. The battle damage assessment stated there were no civilian casualties or property damage during the fire fight.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dvidshub.net/news/60315/kc\\-130j\\-harvest\\-hawk\\-takes\\-new\\-role\\-afghanistan \\|title\\=KC\\-130J Harvest Hawk takes on new role in Afghanistan\\|date\\=2010\\-11\\-16\\|first\\=Sgt. Deanne \n\\|location\\=Forward Operating Base Dwyer, Afghanistan\\|last\\=Hurla \\|publisher\\=U.S. Department of Defense, Defense Visual Information Distribution Service}} Since this date hundreds of engagements have taken place using the Harvest HAWK.",
""
] |
### Gulf War and the 1990s
From August 1990 to March 1991, a seven plane detachment from the squadron flew in support of [Operation Desert Shield](/wiki/Gulf_War%23Operation_Desert_Shield "Gulf War#Operation Desert Shield") and [Operation Desert Storm](/wiki/Operation_Desert_Storm "Operation Desert Storm"). During the seven\-month period, 352 Forward amassed over 2500 combat flight hours and 1144 sorties.
Beginning in 1992, VMGR\-352 had several deployments to [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya "Kenya") supporting [Operation Restore Hope](/wiki/Operation_Restore_Hope "Operation Restore Hope") in next\-door [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia "Somalia"). The Raider's original mission was to fly food and supplies to war\-torn Somalia. This later turned into a combat support mission supporting the [11th Marine Expeditionary Unit](/wiki/11th_Marine_Expeditionary_Unit "11th Marine Expeditionary Unit") (11th MEU) and ended with the evacuation of the US Embassy.
In February 1998, the "Raiders" were tasked to be a part of the United Nation's Relief Effort, [Operation Noble Response](/wiki/Operation_Noble_Response "Operation Noble Response") in [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya "Kenya"), [Africa](/wiki/Africa "Africa"). Later, in June 1998, they executed a [non\-combatant evacuation operation](/wiki/Non-combatant_evacuation_operation "Non-combatant evacuation operation"), [Operation Safe Departure](/wiki/Operation_Safe_Departure "Operation Safe Departure") in [Eritrea](/wiki/Eritrea "Eritrea"), Africa.
In early January 1999, the Raiders deployed a four\-plane detachment to [Mombassa, Kenya](/wiki/Mombassa%2C_Kenya "Mombassa, Kenya") to extract American citizens and foreign nationals from Eritrea and [Ethiopia](/wiki/Ethiopia "Ethiopia"), Africa in support of the [13th Marine Expeditionary Unit](/wiki/13th_Marine_Expeditionary_Unit "13th Marine Expeditionary Unit") (13th MEU) AND Operation Safe Departure. Though the crisis did not escalate to the point where Marines were required to conduct a NEO, the Raiders provided the 13th MEU with support during operations "Eager Mace" in Kenya and "Native Fury" in Kuwait. On 15 April 1999, VMGR\-352 moved their squadron from [Marine Corps Air Station El Toro](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Air_Station_El_Toro "Marine Corps Air Station El Toro"), California to MCAS Miramar as part of the [Base Realignment and Closure](/wiki/Base_Realignment_and_Closure "Base Realignment and Closure") (BRAC) commission mandates.
On 28 June 1999, the Raiders were tasked with supporting [Operation Northern Watch](/wiki/Operation_Northern_Watch "Operation Northern Watch") by providing helicopter aerial refueling (HAR) for the 66th Expeditionary Rescue Squadron (ARQS) in [Incirlik Air Base](/wiki/Incirlik_Air_Base "Incirlik Air Base"), [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey"). After the tragic earthquakes in Turkey, the Raider detachment became an integral part of the humanitarian relief effort that provided care and basic life necessities to the thousands of victims of those earthquakes. During the humanitarian relief missions to northern Turkey, VMGR\-352 continued their Operation Northern Watch support, and still flew over fifty missions. In August, the Raiders were called upon to provide support to Joint Task Force Dora. Due to [Hurricane Dora](/wiki/Hurricane_Dora_%281999%29 "Hurricane Dora (1999)")'s impending assault on the [Johnston Atoll](/wiki/Johnston_Atoll "Johnston Atoll"), a hurricane evacuation mission from [Johnston Island](/wiki/Johnston_Island "Johnston Island") to [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii "Hawaii") was initiated. Less than two days after notification, the Raiders had returned all military and DoD employees to Johnston Island.
During February 2000, VMGR\-352 launched a two\-plane detachment to [Ahmad al\-Jaber Air Base](/wiki/Ahmad_al-Jaber_Air_Base "Ahmad al-Jaber Air Base") in [Kuwait](/wiki/Kuwait "Kuwait") to support [Operation Southern Watch](/wiki/Operation_Southern_Watch "Operation Southern Watch"). While in\-theater, they provided fixed\-wing [aerial refueling](/wiki/Aerial_refueling "Aerial refueling") (FWAR) support to [VMFA(AW)\-121](/wiki/VMFA%28AW%29-121 "VMFA(AW)-121") in defense of the Southern [Iraq No\-Fly Zone](/wiki/Iraqi_no-fly_zones "Iraqi no-fly zones"), as well as FWAR support for [Combat Search and Rescue](/wiki/Combat_Search_and_Rescue "Combat Search and Rescue") (CSAR) missions, should it be needed.
|
[
"### Gulf War and the 1990s",
"From August 1990 to March 1991, a seven plane detachment from the squadron flew in support of [Operation Desert Shield](/wiki/Gulf_War%23Operation_Desert_Shield \"Gulf War#Operation Desert Shield\") and [Operation Desert Storm](/wiki/Operation_Desert_Storm \"Operation Desert Storm\"). During the seven\\-month period, 352 Forward amassed over 2500 combat flight hours and 1144 sorties.",
"Beginning in 1992, VMGR\\-352 had several deployments to [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya \"Kenya\") supporting [Operation Restore Hope](/wiki/Operation_Restore_Hope \"Operation Restore Hope\") in next\\-door [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia \"Somalia\"). The Raider's original mission was to fly food and supplies to war\\-torn Somalia. This later turned into a combat support mission supporting the [11th Marine Expeditionary Unit](/wiki/11th_Marine_Expeditionary_Unit \"11th Marine Expeditionary Unit\") (11th MEU) and ended with the evacuation of the US Embassy.",
"In February 1998, the \"Raiders\" were tasked to be a part of the United Nation's Relief Effort, [Operation Noble Response](/wiki/Operation_Noble_Response \"Operation Noble Response\") in [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya \"Kenya\"), [Africa](/wiki/Africa \"Africa\"). Later, in June 1998, they executed a [non\\-combatant evacuation operation](/wiki/Non-combatant_evacuation_operation \"Non-combatant evacuation operation\"), [Operation Safe Departure](/wiki/Operation_Safe_Departure \"Operation Safe Departure\") in [Eritrea](/wiki/Eritrea \"Eritrea\"), Africa.",
"In early January 1999, the Raiders deployed a four\\-plane detachment to [Mombassa, Kenya](/wiki/Mombassa%2C_Kenya \"Mombassa, Kenya\") to extract American citizens and foreign nationals from Eritrea and [Ethiopia](/wiki/Ethiopia \"Ethiopia\"), Africa in support of the [13th Marine Expeditionary Unit](/wiki/13th_Marine_Expeditionary_Unit \"13th Marine Expeditionary Unit\") (13th MEU) AND Operation Safe Departure. Though the crisis did not escalate to the point where Marines were required to conduct a NEO, the Raiders provided the 13th MEU with support during operations \"Eager Mace\" in Kenya and \"Native Fury\" in Kuwait. On 15 April 1999, VMGR\\-352 moved their squadron from [Marine Corps Air Station El Toro](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Air_Station_El_Toro \"Marine Corps Air Station El Toro\"), California to MCAS Miramar as part of the [Base Realignment and Closure](/wiki/Base_Realignment_and_Closure \"Base Realignment and Closure\") (BRAC) commission mandates.",
"On 28 June 1999, the Raiders were tasked with supporting [Operation Northern Watch](/wiki/Operation_Northern_Watch \"Operation Northern Watch\") by providing helicopter aerial refueling (HAR) for the 66th Expeditionary Rescue Squadron (ARQS) in [Incirlik Air Base](/wiki/Incirlik_Air_Base \"Incirlik Air Base\"), [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\"). After the tragic earthquakes in Turkey, the Raider detachment became an integral part of the humanitarian relief effort that provided care and basic life necessities to the thousands of victims of those earthquakes. During the humanitarian relief missions to northern Turkey, VMGR\\-352 continued their Operation Northern Watch support, and still flew over fifty missions. In August, the Raiders were called upon to provide support to Joint Task Force Dora. Due to [Hurricane Dora](/wiki/Hurricane_Dora_%281999%29 \"Hurricane Dora (1999)\")'s impending assault on the [Johnston Atoll](/wiki/Johnston_Atoll \"Johnston Atoll\"), a hurricane evacuation mission from [Johnston Island](/wiki/Johnston_Island \"Johnston Island\") to [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii \"Hawaii\") was initiated. Less than two days after notification, the Raiders had returned all military and DoD employees to Johnston Island.",
"During February 2000, VMGR\\-352 launched a two\\-plane detachment to [Ahmad al\\-Jaber Air Base](/wiki/Ahmad_al-Jaber_Air_Base \"Ahmad al-Jaber Air Base\") in [Kuwait](/wiki/Kuwait \"Kuwait\") to support [Operation Southern Watch](/wiki/Operation_Southern_Watch \"Operation Southern Watch\"). While in\\-theater, they provided fixed\\-wing [aerial refueling](/wiki/Aerial_refueling \"Aerial refueling\") (FWAR) support to [VMFA(AW)\\-121](/wiki/VMFA%28AW%29-121 \"VMFA(AW)-121\") in defense of the Southern [Iraq No\\-Fly Zone](/wiki/Iraqi_no-fly_zones \"Iraqi no-fly zones\"), as well as FWAR support for [Combat Search and Rescue](/wiki/Combat_Search_and_Rescue \"Combat Search and Rescue\") (CSAR) missions, should it be needed.",
""
] |
### Global War on Terror
[200px\|thumb\|right\|VMGR\-352 fly two KC\-130Js in a training exercise, February 2007\.](/wiki/File:KC-130J-VMGR-352-20070205.jpg "KC-130J-VMGR-352-20070205.jpg")
In November 2001, VMGR\-352 deployed to [Afghanistan](/wiki/Afghanistan "Afghanistan") in support of [Operation Enduring Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Enduring_Freedom "Operation Enduring Freedom"). The "Raiders" provided fixed wing [aerial refueling](/wiki/Aerial_refueling "Aerial refueling") and logistical support to forces fighting the [War on Terrorism](/wiki/War_on_Terrorism "War on Terrorism"). On 9 January 2002 aircraft 160021 Callsign "RAIDR 04" from VMGR\-352, crashed into a mountainside in [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan") killing all seven crewmembers. One of the Marines killed was Sergeant Jeannette L. Winters. She was the first female service member to die in the war on terror.
The squadron once again deployed to [Bahrain](/wiki/Bahrain "Bahrain") to participate in [Operation Iraqi Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Iraqi_Freedom "Operation Iraqi Freedom"), providing aerial refueling and [assault support](/wiki/Assault_support "Assault support") to coalition forces. During this operation, VMGR\-352 was augmented by [VMGR\-234](/wiki/VMGR-234 "VMGR-234") and [VMGR\-452](/wiki/VMGR-452 "VMGR-452") to form the largest assemblage of KC\-130s in history.
VMGR\-352 began its transition to the [KC\-130J](/wiki/KC-130J "KC-130J") in August 2004\. The newest model of the [C\-130](/wiki/C-130 "C-130") features an all\-glass cockpit, digital flight\-management system, and reduced crew requirements. As of late 2007, VMGR\-352 only flies the [KC\-130J](/wiki/KC-130J "KC-130J"), with all older models having left the unit.
On September 29, 2020, [KC\-130J](/wiki/KC-130J "KC-130J") BUNO 166765, Callsign RAIDR Five Zero (50\) collided with an F\-35, Callsign VOLT Nine Three (93\), while conducting aerial refueling in support of Weapons and Tactics Instruction Course at MCAS Yuma, AZ. The F\-35 slammed into the right side of the aircraft, taking out both engines and propellors and heavily damaging the landing gear. The pilot of the F\-35 successfully ejected and the jet slammed into the ground near the [Salton Sea](/wiki/Salton_Sea "Salton Sea").{{cite web \| url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=Fasu\-aWBqsA \| title\=Military Plane Comes Crashing Down in Desert \|\| ViralHog \| website\=\[\[YouTube]] \| date\=30 September 2020 }} The crew of the KC\-130 were able to control the aircraft and make a crash landing in a cauliflower field just short of the runway at [Thermal, CA](/wiki/Thermal%2C_CA "Thermal, CA"). The crew walked away from the crash.{{Cite web\|url\=https://news.usni.org/2022/06/21/were\-leaking\-fuel\-and\-we\-might\-be\-on\-fire\-how\-a\-pair\-of\-kc\-130j\-pilots\-crew\-saved\-their\-plane\-after\-a\-collision\-with\-an\-f\-35\|title\=‘We're leaking fuel and we might be on fire’ How a Pair of KC\-130J Pilots, Crew Saved Their Plane After a Collision with an F\-35 \- USNI News}}
The Raiders deployed once again in February 2006 in support of [Operation Iraqi Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Iraqi_Freedom "Operation Iraqi Freedom") in cooperation with sister squadron [VMGR\-252](/wiki/VMGR-252 "VMGR-252"), based at [MCAS Cherry Point](/wiki/MCAS_Cherry_Point "MCAS Cherry Point"), [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina "North Carolina").
The Raiders have been constantly deployed in support of the Global War on Terror. Marine Corps KC\-130 squadrons are unique in that they do not deploy as an entire squadron, but send detachments (Dets) in support of operations. Every 6–7 months, det personnel were rotated keeping a constant presence in both Iraq and Afghanistan as well as deploying in support of various [Marine Expeditionary Units](/wiki/Marine_Expeditionary_Units "Marine Expeditionary Units").
Raiders can be seen worldwide conducting operations as directed by higher headquarters \- from supporting other units in movements across both the Pacific and Atlantic to supporting Marines deployed in Iraq and Afghanistan.
|
[
"### Global War on Terror",
"[200px\\|thumb\\|right\\|VMGR\\-352 fly two KC\\-130Js in a training exercise, February 2007\\.](/wiki/File:KC-130J-VMGR-352-20070205.jpg \"KC-130J-VMGR-352-20070205.jpg\")\nIn November 2001, VMGR\\-352 deployed to [Afghanistan](/wiki/Afghanistan \"Afghanistan\") in support of [Operation Enduring Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Enduring_Freedom \"Operation Enduring Freedom\"). The \"Raiders\" provided fixed wing [aerial refueling](/wiki/Aerial_refueling \"Aerial refueling\") and logistical support to forces fighting the [War on Terrorism](/wiki/War_on_Terrorism \"War on Terrorism\"). On 9 January 2002 aircraft 160021 Callsign \"RAIDR 04\" from VMGR\\-352, crashed into a mountainside in [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\") killing all seven crewmembers. One of the Marines killed was Sergeant Jeannette L. Winters. She was the first female service member to die in the war on terror.",
"The squadron once again deployed to [Bahrain](/wiki/Bahrain \"Bahrain\") to participate in [Operation Iraqi Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Iraqi_Freedom \"Operation Iraqi Freedom\"), providing aerial refueling and [assault support](/wiki/Assault_support \"Assault support\") to coalition forces. During this operation, VMGR\\-352 was augmented by [VMGR\\-234](/wiki/VMGR-234 \"VMGR-234\") and [VMGR\\-452](/wiki/VMGR-452 \"VMGR-452\") to form the largest assemblage of KC\\-130s in history.",
"VMGR\\-352 began its transition to the [KC\\-130J](/wiki/KC-130J \"KC-130J\") in August 2004\\. The newest model of the [C\\-130](/wiki/C-130 \"C-130\") features an all\\-glass cockpit, digital flight\\-management system, and reduced crew requirements. As of late 2007, VMGR\\-352 only flies the [KC\\-130J](/wiki/KC-130J \"KC-130J\"), with all older models having left the unit.",
"On September 29, 2020, [KC\\-130J](/wiki/KC-130J \"KC-130J\") BUNO 166765, Callsign RAIDR Five Zero (50\\) collided with an F\\-35, Callsign VOLT Nine Three (93\\), while conducting aerial refueling in support of Weapons and Tactics Instruction Course at MCAS Yuma, AZ. The F\\-35 slammed into the right side of the aircraft, taking out both engines and propellors and heavily damaging the landing gear. The pilot of the F\\-35 successfully ejected and the jet slammed into the ground near the [Salton Sea](/wiki/Salton_Sea \"Salton Sea\").{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=Fasu\\-aWBqsA \\| title\\=Military Plane Comes Crashing Down in Desert \\|\\| ViralHog \\| website\\=\\[\\[YouTube]] \\| date\\=30 September 2020 }} The crew of the KC\\-130 were able to control the aircraft and make a crash landing in a cauliflower field just short of the runway at [Thermal, CA](/wiki/Thermal%2C_CA \"Thermal, CA\"). The crew walked away from the crash.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://news.usni.org/2022/06/21/were\\-leaking\\-fuel\\-and\\-we\\-might\\-be\\-on\\-fire\\-how\\-a\\-pair\\-of\\-kc\\-130j\\-pilots\\-crew\\-saved\\-their\\-plane\\-after\\-a\\-collision\\-with\\-an\\-f\\-35\\|title\\=‘We're leaking fuel and we might be on fire’ How a Pair of KC\\-130J Pilots, Crew Saved Their Plane After a Collision with an F\\-35 \\- USNI News}}",
"The Raiders deployed once again in February 2006 in support of [Operation Iraqi Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Iraqi_Freedom \"Operation Iraqi Freedom\") in cooperation with sister squadron [VMGR\\-252](/wiki/VMGR-252 \"VMGR-252\"), based at [MCAS Cherry Point](/wiki/MCAS_Cherry_Point \"MCAS Cherry Point\"), [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina \"North Carolina\").",
"The Raiders have been constantly deployed in support of the Global War on Terror. Marine Corps KC\\-130 squadrons are unique in that they do not deploy as an entire squadron, but send detachments (Dets) in support of operations. Every 6–7 months, det personnel were rotated keeping a constant presence in both Iraq and Afghanistan as well as deploying in support of various [Marine Expeditionary Units](/wiki/Marine_Expeditionary_Units \"Marine Expeditionary Units\").",
"Raiders can be seen worldwide conducting operations as directed by higher headquarters \\- from supporting other units in movements across both the Pacific and Atlantic to supporting Marines deployed in Iraq and Afghanistan.",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\| 1960 \= 348
\| 1970 \= 352
\| 1980 \= 475
\| 1990 \= 512
\| 2000 \= 680
\| 2010 \= 573
\| 2020 \= 538
\| footnote \= U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|accessdate\=June 4, 2015}}
}}
### 2020 census
| \+**San Perlita racial composition**{{Cite web \|title\=Explore Census Data \|url\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\=1600000US4865636\&tid\=DECENNIALPL2020\.P2 \|access\-date\=2022\-05\-20 \|website\=data.census.gov}} (NH \= Non\-Hispanic){{efn\|Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race.https://www.census.gov/ {{nonspecific\|date\=August 2022}}{{cite web \|title\=About the Hispanic Population and its Origin \|url\=https://www.census.gov/topics/population/hispanic\-origin/about.html \|website\=www.census.gov \|access\-date\=18 May 2022}}}} | Race | Number | Percentage |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [White](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_or_Latino_whites "Non-Hispanic or Latino whites") (NH) | 21 | 3\.9% |
| [Mixed/Multi\-Racial](/wiki/Multiracial_Americans "Multiracial Americans") (NH) | 3 | 0\.56% |
| [Hispanic or Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans "Hispanic and Latino Americans") | 514 | 95\.54% |
| **Total** | **538** | |
As of the [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census "2020 United States census"), there were 538 people, 161 households, and 126 families residing in the city.
### 2000 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 680 people, 169 households, and 148 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert\|1,339\.0\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 188 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|370\.2\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 76\.91% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 2\.21% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.59% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 17\.79% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 2\.50% from two or more races.
There were 169 households, out of which 46\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 68\.6% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 14\.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 12\.4% were non\-families. 10\.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 4\.02 and the average family size was 4\.32\.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 36\.6% under the age of 18, 12\.9% from 18 to 24, 25\.1% from 25 to 44, 17\.8% from 45 to 64, and 7\.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 25 years. For every 100 females, there were 94\.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91\.6 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $22,500, and the median income for a family was $23,542\. Males had a median income of $19,236 versus $14,531 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $6,761\. About 31\.3% of families and 39\.5% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 53\.4% of those under age 18 and 32\.7% of those age 65 or over.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\| 1960 \\= 348\n\\| 1970 \\= 352\n\\| 1980 \\= 475\n\\| 1990 \\= 512\n\\| 2000 \\= 680\n\\| 2010 \\= 573\n\\| 2020 \\= 538\n\\| footnote \\= U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|accessdate\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}",
"### 2020 census",
"",
"| \\+**San Perlita racial composition**{{Cite web \\|title\\=Explore Census Data \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\\=1600000US4865636\\&tid\\=DECENNIALPL2020\\.P2 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-05\\-20 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}} (NH \\= Non\\-Hispanic){{efn\\|Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race.https://www.census.gov/ {{nonspecific\\|date\\=August 2022}}{{cite web \\|title\\=About the Hispanic Population and its Origin \\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/topics/population/hispanic\\-origin/about.html \\|website\\=www.census.gov \\|access\\-date\\=18 May 2022}}}} | Race | Number | Percentage |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [White](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_or_Latino_whites \"Non-Hispanic or Latino whites\") (NH) | 21 | 3\\.9% |\n| [Mixed/Multi\\-Racial](/wiki/Multiracial_Americans \"Multiracial Americans\") (NH) | 3 | 0\\.56% |\n| [Hispanic or Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans \"Hispanic and Latino Americans\") | 514 | 95\\.54% |\n| **Total** | **538** | |",
"As of the [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census \"2020 United States census\"), there were 538 people, 161 households, and 126 families residing in the city.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 680 people, 169 households, and 148 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|1,339\\.0\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 188 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|370\\.2\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 76\\.91% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 2\\.21% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.59% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 17\\.79% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 2\\.50% from two or more races.",
"There were 169 households, out of which 46\\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 68\\.6% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 14\\.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 12\\.4% were non\\-families. 10\\.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7\\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 4\\.02 and the average family size was 4\\.32\\.",
"In the city, the population was spread out, with 36\\.6% under the age of 18, 12\\.9% from 18 to 24, 25\\.1% from 25 to 44, 17\\.8% from 45 to 64, and 7\\.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 25 years. For every 100 females, there were 94\\.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91\\.6 males.",
"The median income for a household in the city was $22,500, and the median income for a family was $23,542\\. Males had a median income of $19,236 versus $14,531 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $6,761\\. About 31\\.3% of families and 39\\.5% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 53\\.4% of those under age 18 and 32\\.7% of those age 65 or over.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Ignaz Graf zu Hardegg came from the ancient Lower Austrian noble [Hardegg family](/wiki/Burg_Hardegg "Burg Hardegg"). His two younger brothers Johann Anton (1773\-1825\) and Johann Heinrich (1778\-1854\) also reached high positions in the Austrian military.
He had his first war experiences at the age of 16, under [Laudon](/wiki/Ernst_Gideon_von_Laudon "Ernst Gideon von Laudon") in the [Austro\-Turkish War (1788–1791\)](/wiki/Austro-Turkish_War_%281788%E2%80%931791%29 "Austro-Turkish War (1788–1791)"). Promoted to [Rittmeister](/wiki/Rittmeister "Rittmeister") in 1792, he took part in the [Battle of Jemappes](/wiki/Battle_of_Jemappes "Battle of Jemappes") during the First Coalition War in the same year. In 1795 he fought with distinction in the Battle of Handschuchsheim and received the [Military Order of Maria Theresa](/wiki/Military_Order_of_Maria_Theresa "Military Order of Maria Theresa") for his services.
In 1796 he served in Germany and in 1800 was able to repulse an attack from [Breisach](/wiki/Breisach "Breisach"). For this act he was commended by [Archduke Karl](/wiki/Archduke_Charles%2C_Duke_of_Teschen "Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen") in the general staff and promoted to major. Hardegg, who had now been promoted to colonel and commander of the Schwarzenberg regiment, was unable to participate in the [Campaign of 1805](/wiki/War_of_the_Third_Coalition "War of the Third Coalition") due to illness.
During the [War of the Fifth Coalition](/wiki/War_of_the_Fifth_Coalition "War of the Fifth Coalition") in 1809 as major general, he again excelled in the [Battle of Aspern\-Essling](/wiki/Battle_of_Aspern-Essling "Battle of Aspern-Essling"). In the following [Battle of Wagram](/wiki/Battle_of_Wagram "Battle of Wagram") he defended his position near [Baumersdorf](/wiki/Parbasdorf "Parbasdorf") with great perseverance and received the Grand Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa for his bravery. In 1813 he took part in the campaign in Bohemia and the [Battle of Dresden](/wiki/Battle_of_Dresden "Battle of Dresden") and was promoted to Lieutenant Field Marshal in the same year. In the [Battle of Leipzig](/wiki/Battle_of_Leipzig "Battle of Leipzig") he led the vanguard of the left wing, but received a serious head injury at Dölitz. Recovered, he was able to take part in the fighting in France in 1814\. He stormed the city of [Moret\-sur\-Loing](/wiki/Moret-sur-Loing "Moret-sur-Loing"), stubbornly defended by General Montbrun, and later fought with the southern army against [Marshal Augereau](/wiki/Marshal_Augereau "Marshal Augereau").
### After the War
Hardegg took part in the [Congress of Vienna](/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna "Congress of Vienna") in 1815, where he was added to the Russian [Tsar Alexander I](/wiki/Tsar_Alexander_I "Tsar Alexander I"), a position that he later retained at the congresses in [Troppau](/wiki/Congress_of_Troppau "Congress of Troppau"), [Verona](/wiki/Congress_of_Verona "Congress of Verona") and [Laibach](/wiki/Congress_of_Laibach "Congress of Laibach").
In 1829 Hardegg was appointed military commander of Linz and a year later he was appointed commander of Transylvania. In 1831, as General of the Cavalry, he became President of the [Hofkriegsrat](/wiki/Hofkriegsrat "Hofkriegsrat"), an office that he held until his death.
On 28 October 1841 he was awarded the [Order of the Black Eagle](/wiki/Order_of_the_Black_Eagle "Order of the Black Eagle"), the highest distinction of the Kingdom of Prussia.
In 1836 he was accepted into the Austrian [Order of the Golden Fleece](/wiki/Order_of_the_Golden_Fleece "Order of the Golden Fleece").
Ignaz Graf zu Hardegg died on 17 February 1848, at the age of 75 in Vienna.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Ignaz Graf zu Hardegg came from the ancient Lower Austrian noble [Hardegg family](/wiki/Burg_Hardegg \"Burg Hardegg\"). His two younger brothers Johann Anton (1773\\-1825\\) and Johann Heinrich (1778\\-1854\\) also reached high positions in the Austrian military.",
"He had his first war experiences at the age of 16, under [Laudon](/wiki/Ernst_Gideon_von_Laudon \"Ernst Gideon von Laudon\") in the [Austro\\-Turkish War (1788–1791\\)](/wiki/Austro-Turkish_War_%281788%E2%80%931791%29 \"Austro-Turkish War (1788–1791)\"). Promoted to [Rittmeister](/wiki/Rittmeister \"Rittmeister\") in 1792, he took part in the [Battle of Jemappes](/wiki/Battle_of_Jemappes \"Battle of Jemappes\") during the First Coalition War in the same year. In 1795 he fought with distinction in the Battle of Handschuchsheim and received the [Military Order of Maria Theresa](/wiki/Military_Order_of_Maria_Theresa \"Military Order of Maria Theresa\") for his services.",
"In 1796 he served in Germany and in 1800 was able to repulse an attack from [Breisach](/wiki/Breisach \"Breisach\"). For this act he was commended by [Archduke Karl](/wiki/Archduke_Charles%2C_Duke_of_Teschen \"Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen\") in the general staff and promoted to major. Hardegg, who had now been promoted to colonel and commander of the Schwarzenberg regiment, was unable to participate in the [Campaign of 1805](/wiki/War_of_the_Third_Coalition \"War of the Third Coalition\") due to illness.",
"During the [War of the Fifth Coalition](/wiki/War_of_the_Fifth_Coalition \"War of the Fifth Coalition\") in 1809 as major general, he again excelled in the [Battle of Aspern\\-Essling](/wiki/Battle_of_Aspern-Essling \"Battle of Aspern-Essling\"). In the following [Battle of Wagram](/wiki/Battle_of_Wagram \"Battle of Wagram\") he defended his position near [Baumersdorf](/wiki/Parbasdorf \"Parbasdorf\") with great perseverance and received the Grand Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa for his bravery. In 1813 he took part in the campaign in Bohemia and the [Battle of Dresden](/wiki/Battle_of_Dresden \"Battle of Dresden\") and was promoted to Lieutenant Field Marshal in the same year. In the [Battle of Leipzig](/wiki/Battle_of_Leipzig \"Battle of Leipzig\") he led the vanguard of the left wing, but received a serious head injury at Dölitz. Recovered, he was able to take part in the fighting in France in 1814\\. He stormed the city of [Moret\\-sur\\-Loing](/wiki/Moret-sur-Loing \"Moret-sur-Loing\"), stubbornly defended by General Montbrun, and later fought with the southern army against [Marshal Augereau](/wiki/Marshal_Augereau \"Marshal Augereau\").",
"### After the War",
"Hardegg took part in the [Congress of Vienna](/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna \"Congress of Vienna\") in 1815, where he was added to the Russian [Tsar Alexander I](/wiki/Tsar_Alexander_I \"Tsar Alexander I\"), a position that he later retained at the congresses in [Troppau](/wiki/Congress_of_Troppau \"Congress of Troppau\"), [Verona](/wiki/Congress_of_Verona \"Congress of Verona\") and [Laibach](/wiki/Congress_of_Laibach \"Congress of Laibach\").",
"In 1829 Hardegg was appointed military commander of Linz and a year later he was appointed commander of Transylvania. In 1831, as General of the Cavalry, he became President of the [Hofkriegsrat](/wiki/Hofkriegsrat \"Hofkriegsrat\"), an office that he held until his death.",
"On 28 October 1841 he was awarded the [Order of the Black Eagle](/wiki/Order_of_the_Black_Eagle \"Order of the Black Eagle\"), the highest distinction of the Kingdom of Prussia.",
"In 1836 he was accepted into the Austrian [Order of the Golden Fleece](/wiki/Order_of_the_Golden_Fleece \"Order of the Golden Fleece\").",
"Ignaz Graf zu Hardegg died on 17 February 1848, at the age of 75 in Vienna.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early life and education
Frank Davey was born in [Vancouver](/wiki/Vancouver "Vancouver"), British Columbia, but raised in the nearby [Fraser Valley](/wiki/Fraser_Valley "Fraser Valley") village of [Abbotsford](/wiki/Abbotsford%2C_British_Columbia "Abbotsford, British Columbia") (1941 population 562\), close to the Canada\-US border. He was the son Wilmot Elmer Davey, a hydro company laborer and truck driver, and Doris Brown, who had emigrated with her family from Britain at age 4\.Davey, *When TISH Happens*, 5–8\. Much of his childhood in Abbotsford is pseudonymously recounted in his 2005 poetry volume *Back to the War*Ventura, Heliane. 'An Interview with Frank Davey,' **Sources** 17 (automne 2004\), 72–77\. and in the first person in his 2011 memoir *When TISH Happens*. Together the two books also provide the only mid\-century literary portrait of the surprisingly diverse Abbotsford community and the surrounding Fraser Valley farmland. Davey enrolled at the University of British Columbia in 1957 where he met the influential poetry theorist [Warren Tallman](/wiki/Warren_Tallman "Warren Tallman") and student writers [George Bowering](/wiki/George_Bowering "George Bowering"), [Daphne Marlatt](/wiki/Daphne_Marlatt "Daphne Marlatt"), [Lionel Kearns](/wiki/Lionel_Kearns "Lionel Kearns"), [Carol Bolt](/wiki/Carol_Bolt "Carol Bolt"), [Jamie Reid](/wiki/Jamie_Reid "Jamie Reid"), and [Fred Wah](/wiki/Fred_Wah "Fred Wah"), and in 1960 the charismatic San Francisco poet [Robert Duncan](/wiki/Robert_Duncan_%28poet%29 "Robert Duncan (poet)").
[http://www.bookrags.com/biography/frankland\-wilmot\-davey\-dlb/](http://www.bookrags.com/biography/frankland-wilmot-davey-dlb/) Dictionary of Literary Biography on Frank(land) (Wilmot) Davey. With Bowering, Reid, and Wah, and the advice of Tallman and Duncan, he founded the poetry newsletter *TISH* in 1961\.Davey, *Writing a Life, Contemporary Authors Autobiographical Series*, Vol. 27, Detroit: Gale, pp. 83–114\.
### Academic and Writing career
The success of *TISH*, which the editors mailed free of charge for nineteen successive months to poets, editors, and critics across Canada and much of the US, brought Davey to the attention of the senior Canadian writers [George Woodcock](/wiki/George_Woodcock "George Woodcock") and [Louis Dudek](/wiki/Louis_Dudek "Louis Dudek"). Woodcock, editor of the journal *[Canadian Literature](/wiki/Canadian_Literature_%28journal%29 "Canadian Literature (journal)")*, commissioned in 1962 the first of several essays from him, and Dudek invited him to guest\-edit a Vancouver issue of his important poetry magazine *Delta*. Woodcock's intervention may have been the more significant, encouraging the young poet to take up literary criticism as well, and from the 1970s to the 90s write a body of work that would be called 'the most individual and influential ever written in Canada.'Scobie, Stephen. 'Frank Davey,' *The Oxford Companion to Canadian Literature*, 1997\. 277\.
Davey published his first poetry collection, *D\-Day and After*, in 1962, with an introduction by Tallman that emphasized how this was poetry as the act of the moment rather than poetry as the commonplace attempt 'to express ... feelings.''Frank Davey, Intro to D\-Day and After' <http://vancouverartinthesixties.com/archive/87>. It was the first of more than a hundred volumes to be published by the *TISH* editors. Receiving an MA from UBC in 1963, Davey taught for the Canadian armed forces at [Royal Roads Military College](/wiki/Royal_Roads_Military_College "Royal Roads Military College") in Victoria, BC until 1969, while also working on a doctorate in poetics at the University of Southern California in the summers of 1965 and 1966, and a 1966–67 leave of absence. He witnessed the 1965 [Watts riots](/wiki/Watts_riots "Watts riots") from an apartment within the curfew zone, feeling more endangered, he indicates in 'Writing a Life' (99–100\) and *When TISH Happens* (224\), by the US National Guard than by the mostly black protesters. It seems very possible that this experience contributed to his later insistence in his political and cultural writings that the Canadian nation\-state should be a collaboration open to the meaningful participation of all its citizens. In the fall of 1965 his third and fourth volumes of poetry were published. He also launched his poetry and criticism journal *[Open Letter](/wiki/Open_Letter "Open Letter")* that fall of 1965, designing it initially as an open editorial dialogue with former *Tish* editors Bowering and David Dawson. In the spring of 1968 he received his PhD, having presented a thesis on the poetics of the [Black Mountain poets](/wiki/Black_Mountain_poets "Black Mountain poets").
In the spring of 1969 he was appointed Writer\-in\-Residence for 1969–70 at Sir George Williams (now Concordia) University in Montreal. The following year he joined the faculty of York University in Toronto to teach Canadian Literature and, amid teaching and research collaborations with [Clara Thomas](/wiki/Clara_Thomas "Clara Thomas") and [Barbara Godard](/wiki/Barbara_Godard "Barbara Godard"),*When TISH Happens* 285\-6, 288\. quickly assumed a nationally influential role. He published two poetry collections in each of 1970, 1971, and 1972, and a selected poems in 1972\. He published a monograph on [Earle Birney](/wiki/Earle_Birney "Earle Birney") in 1971, and the widely praised *From There to Here: A Guide to English\-Canadian Literature Since 1960*, the first book to theorize Canadian postmodernism, in 1974\. But his most important contribution in these years was his withering critique, 'Surviving the Paraphrase,' of the thematic criticism of [Northrop Frye](/wiki/Northrop_Frye "Northrop Frye"), [D. G. Jones](/wiki/D._G._Jones "D. G. Jones") and [Margaret Atwood](/wiki/Margaret_Atwood "Margaret Atwood") which he delivered at the founding conference of the Association for Canadian and Quebec Literatures in the spring of 1974\. That paper, in [Stephen Scobie](/wiki/Stephen_Scobie "Stephen Scobie")'s words 'a vastly influential essay','Frank Davey' 276\. almost immediately discredited thematic criticism in Canada and, forty years later, reverberates as well within Canadian postcolonial studies.See Laura Moss, 'Between Fractals and Rainbows: Critiquing Canadian Criticism,' *Tropes and Territories*, ed. [Marta Dvorak](/wiki/Marta_Dvorak "Marta Dvorak") and [W.H. New](/wiki/W.H._New "W.H. New"). Montreal: McGill\-Queen's UP, 2007\. 22\.
In 1976 he was appointed Coordinator of the York University creative writing program, and also joined, along with [bpNichol](/wiki/BpNichol "BpNichol") and [Michael Ondaatje](/wiki/Michael_Ondaatje "Michael Ondaatje"), the new editorial board of The Coach House Press. With the assistance of Nichol and [Barbara Godard](/wiki/Barbara_Godard "Barbara Godard"), he was also expanding the pages and range of *Open Letter* to give attention to Québécois poets, women writers, and poststructuralist poetics, developing it into what [Gregory Betts](/wiki/Gregory_Betts "Gregory Betts") in *The Canadian Encyclopedia* would call 'Canada's most important forum for discussion and examination of innovative and experimental ideas and texts.'[Davey](https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/frank-davey) In 1982 he helped conduct a month\-long workshop in [Dharwar](/wiki/Dharwar "Dharwar"), India, for young academics many of whom became major contributors to Canadian Studies in that country. Here he wrote one of his most important long poems, the "brilliant poetic commentary on postcolonialism"Scobie, 'Frank Davey,' 276\. *The Abbotsford Guide to India*, published in 1986—one of six poetry books he published in the 1980s.'Writing a Life' 110\-11 That year he was also elected chair of the York University Department of English.'Writing a Life' 97\-8\. Two years earlier he had published the first study of [Margaret Atwood](/wiki/Margaret_Atwood "Margaret Atwood")'s feminism: *Margaret Atwood: A Feminist Poetics.* As Chair of English he supported Joseph Pivato, the Elia Chair at York for 1987\-88, to teach the first course on Italian\-Canadian literature.
In 1990 he was named the first Carl F. Klinck Professor of Canadian Literature at the University of Western Ontario (now Western University), in London, Ontario, and began a new writing phase in which he adapted discourse analysis to Canadian cultural studies, and examined various Canadian cultural scenes—from those of literary criticism to those of politics, celebrity, and popular crime writing. His new books included *Post\-National Arguments: The Politics of the Anglo\-Canadian Novel since 1967* (1993\), *Reading 'KIM' Right* (1993\), an analysis of the public persona of [Kim Campbell](/wiki/Kim_Campbell "Kim Campbell"), Canada's first woman prime minister, *Canadian Literary Power* (1994\), a study of how Canadian literary reputations are constructed and defended, *Karla's Web: A Cultural Examination of the Mahaffy\-French Murders* (1994\), an examination of how newspaper crime writing distorts both victims and criminal justice issues, *Cultural Mischief: A Practical Guide to Multiculturalism* (1996\), a poetry collection that mocked both the sentimentalities of multiculturalism's proponents and the narcissism of its critics, and *Mr \& Mrs G\-G* (2002\) an examination of Canadian Governor\-General [Adrienne Clarkson](/wiki/Adrienne_Clarkson "Adrienne Clarkson") and her husband, writer [John Ralston Saul](/wiki/John_Ralston_Saul "John Ralston Saul"), that accused both of a pretentiousness that misrepresented and stifled actual Canadian realities. As Betts observes with some understatement, this was 'a critical stance that has occasionally put him into conflict with the Canadian literary establishment.' Its consequences are likely reflected in Davey's description in *When TISH Happens* of Canadian literary and academic prizes as institutional rewards for 'banality and careerism' (304\). Meanwhile, in May 1994 he had been elected president of the Association of Canadian College and University Teachers of English (ACCUTE). That November he had led the Association in issuing a controversial and widely publicized 'caution' against the postsecondary education policies of the British Columbia government and the resulting working conditions and quality of education at its recently established University Colleges.*ACCUTE Newsletter*, December 1994: 20\.
Davey continued his creativity at the expense of currently established critical pieties in the poetry collections *Dog* (2002\) and *Risky Propositions* (2005\), both partly directed at identity politics, the 'flarf' books *Lack On!* (2009\), a mock\-Lacanian tribute to [Fred Wah](/wiki/Fred_Wah "Fred Wah"), and *Bardy Google* (2010\), part of which was a Dunciad\-like send\-up of recent Canadian criticism, and the limited edition visual poetry book, *Canonical Canadian Literature* (2011\). Meanwhile, the final years of provincial mandatory retirement legislation ended his Western Ontario teaching years in 2005\. He was elected to the Royal Society of Canada in 2014\.
### Family life
Davey married education student Helen Simmons, also from Abbotsford, in 1962, during the final year of his MA studies. She later taught school in Victoria and accompanied him to the University of Southern California where she earned a master's degree in special education. They divorced in 1969\.*When TISH Happens* 171, 216, 218, 257\. Shortly after, he married Linda Jane McCartney, with whom he had two children, Michael Gareth, b. 1970, and Sara Geneve, b. 1971\.*The Canadian Who's Who*. Linda Davey graduated from [Osgoode Hall Law School](/wiki/Osgoode_Hall_Law_School "Osgoode Hall Law School") in 1978 and practiced law in Toronto until 1994\.'Writing a Life' 109\. She also served with Davey on the editorial board of the [Coach House Press](/wiki/Coach_House_Press "Coach House Press") from 1976 to 1988\. She died of a brain tumor in 2000\. His memoir, *How Linda Died*, which contains many details of their life together and their relations with their children, is, according to *BC Bookworld* editor Alan Twigg, 'Davey's most accessible and memorable book ... his most atypically direct and personal.'[http://www.abcbookworld.com/view\_author.php?id\=785](http://www.abcbookworld.com/view_author.php?id=785). {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120226174530/http://www.abcbookworld.com/view\_author.php?id\=785 \|date\=February 26, 2012 }}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early life and education",
"Frank Davey was born in [Vancouver](/wiki/Vancouver \"Vancouver\"), British Columbia, but raised in the nearby [Fraser Valley](/wiki/Fraser_Valley \"Fraser Valley\") village of [Abbotsford](/wiki/Abbotsford%2C_British_Columbia \"Abbotsford, British Columbia\") (1941 population 562\\), close to the Canada\\-US border. He was the son Wilmot Elmer Davey, a hydro company laborer and truck driver, and Doris Brown, who had emigrated with her family from Britain at age 4\\.Davey, *When TISH Happens*, 5–8\\. Much of his childhood in Abbotsford is pseudonymously recounted in his 2005 poetry volume *Back to the War*Ventura, Heliane. 'An Interview with Frank Davey,' **Sources** 17 (automne 2004\\), 72–77\\. and in the first person in his 2011 memoir *When TISH Happens*. Together the two books also provide the only mid\\-century literary portrait of the surprisingly diverse Abbotsford community and the surrounding Fraser Valley farmland. Davey enrolled at the University of British Columbia in 1957 where he met the influential poetry theorist [Warren Tallman](/wiki/Warren_Tallman \"Warren Tallman\") and student writers [George Bowering](/wiki/George_Bowering \"George Bowering\"), [Daphne Marlatt](/wiki/Daphne_Marlatt \"Daphne Marlatt\"), [Lionel Kearns](/wiki/Lionel_Kearns \"Lionel Kearns\"), [Carol Bolt](/wiki/Carol_Bolt \"Carol Bolt\"), [Jamie Reid](/wiki/Jamie_Reid \"Jamie Reid\"), and [Fred Wah](/wiki/Fred_Wah \"Fred Wah\"), and in 1960 the charismatic San Francisco poet [Robert Duncan](/wiki/Robert_Duncan_%28poet%29 \"Robert Duncan (poet)\").\n[http://www.bookrags.com/biography/frankland\\-wilmot\\-davey\\-dlb/](http://www.bookrags.com/biography/frankland-wilmot-davey-dlb/) Dictionary of Literary Biography on Frank(land) (Wilmot) Davey. With Bowering, Reid, and Wah, and the advice of Tallman and Duncan, he founded the poetry newsletter *TISH* in 1961\\.Davey, *Writing a Life, Contemporary Authors Autobiographical Series*, Vol. 27, Detroit: Gale, pp. 83–114\\.",
"### Academic and Writing career",
"The success of *TISH*, which the editors mailed free of charge for nineteen successive months to poets, editors, and critics across Canada and much of the US, brought Davey to the attention of the senior Canadian writers [George Woodcock](/wiki/George_Woodcock \"George Woodcock\") and [Louis Dudek](/wiki/Louis_Dudek \"Louis Dudek\"). Woodcock, editor of the journal *[Canadian Literature](/wiki/Canadian_Literature_%28journal%29 \"Canadian Literature (journal)\")*, commissioned in 1962 the first of several essays from him, and Dudek invited him to guest\\-edit a Vancouver issue of his important poetry magazine *Delta*. Woodcock's intervention may have been the more significant, encouraging the young poet to take up literary criticism as well, and from the 1970s to the 90s write a body of work that would be called 'the most individual and influential ever written in Canada.'Scobie, Stephen. 'Frank Davey,' *The Oxford Companion to Canadian Literature*, 1997\\. 277\\.",
"Davey published his first poetry collection, *D\\-Day and After*, in 1962, with an introduction by Tallman that emphasized how this was poetry as the act of the moment rather than poetry as the commonplace attempt 'to express ... feelings.''Frank Davey, Intro to D\\-Day and After' <http://vancouverartinthesixties.com/archive/87>. It was the first of more than a hundred volumes to be published by the *TISH* editors. Receiving an MA from UBC in 1963, Davey taught for the Canadian armed forces at [Royal Roads Military College](/wiki/Royal_Roads_Military_College \"Royal Roads Military College\") in Victoria, BC until 1969, while also working on a doctorate in poetics at the University of Southern California in the summers of 1965 and 1966, and a 1966–67 leave of absence. He witnessed the 1965 [Watts riots](/wiki/Watts_riots \"Watts riots\") from an apartment within the curfew zone, feeling more endangered, he indicates in 'Writing a Life' (99–100\\) and *When TISH Happens* (224\\), by the US National Guard than by the mostly black protesters. It seems very possible that this experience contributed to his later insistence in his political and cultural writings that the Canadian nation\\-state should be a collaboration open to the meaningful participation of all its citizens. In the fall of 1965 his third and fourth volumes of poetry were published. He also launched his poetry and criticism journal *[Open Letter](/wiki/Open_Letter \"Open Letter\")* that fall of 1965, designing it initially as an open editorial dialogue with former *Tish* editors Bowering and David Dawson. In the spring of 1968 he received his PhD, having presented a thesis on the poetics of the [Black Mountain poets](/wiki/Black_Mountain_poets \"Black Mountain poets\").",
"In the spring of 1969 he was appointed Writer\\-in\\-Residence for 1969–70 at Sir George Williams (now Concordia) University in Montreal. The following year he joined the faculty of York University in Toronto to teach Canadian Literature and, amid teaching and research collaborations with [Clara Thomas](/wiki/Clara_Thomas \"Clara Thomas\") and [Barbara Godard](/wiki/Barbara_Godard \"Barbara Godard\"),*When TISH Happens* 285\\-6, 288\\. quickly assumed a nationally influential role. He published two poetry collections in each of 1970, 1971, and 1972, and a selected poems in 1972\\. He published a monograph on [Earle Birney](/wiki/Earle_Birney \"Earle Birney\") in 1971, and the widely praised *From There to Here: A Guide to English\\-Canadian Literature Since 1960*, the first book to theorize Canadian postmodernism, in 1974\\. But his most important contribution in these years was his withering critique, 'Surviving the Paraphrase,' of the thematic criticism of [Northrop Frye](/wiki/Northrop_Frye \"Northrop Frye\"), [D. G. Jones](/wiki/D._G._Jones \"D. G. Jones\") and [Margaret Atwood](/wiki/Margaret_Atwood \"Margaret Atwood\") which he delivered at the founding conference of the Association for Canadian and Quebec Literatures in the spring of 1974\\. That paper, in [Stephen Scobie](/wiki/Stephen_Scobie \"Stephen Scobie\")'s words 'a vastly influential essay','Frank Davey' 276\\. almost immediately discredited thematic criticism in Canada and, forty years later, reverberates as well within Canadian postcolonial studies.See Laura Moss, 'Between Fractals and Rainbows: Critiquing Canadian Criticism,' *Tropes and Territories*, ed. [Marta Dvorak](/wiki/Marta_Dvorak \"Marta Dvorak\") and [W.H. New](/wiki/W.H._New \"W.H. New\"). Montreal: McGill\\-Queen's UP, 2007\\. 22\\.",
"In 1976 he was appointed Coordinator of the York University creative writing program, and also joined, along with [bpNichol](/wiki/BpNichol \"BpNichol\") and [Michael Ondaatje](/wiki/Michael_Ondaatje \"Michael Ondaatje\"), the new editorial board of The Coach House Press. With the assistance of Nichol and [Barbara Godard](/wiki/Barbara_Godard \"Barbara Godard\"), he was also expanding the pages and range of *Open Letter* to give attention to Québécois poets, women writers, and poststructuralist poetics, developing it into what [Gregory Betts](/wiki/Gregory_Betts \"Gregory Betts\") in *The Canadian Encyclopedia* would call 'Canada's most important forum for discussion and examination of innovative and experimental ideas and texts.'[Davey](https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/frank-davey) In 1982 he helped conduct a month\\-long workshop in [Dharwar](/wiki/Dharwar \"Dharwar\"), India, for young academics many of whom became major contributors to Canadian Studies in that country. Here he wrote one of his most important long poems, the \"brilliant poetic commentary on postcolonialism\"Scobie, 'Frank Davey,' 276\\. *The Abbotsford Guide to India*, published in 1986—one of six poetry books he published in the 1980s.'Writing a Life' 110\\-11 That year he was also elected chair of the York University Department of English.'Writing a Life' 97\\-8\\. Two years earlier he had published the first study of [Margaret Atwood](/wiki/Margaret_Atwood \"Margaret Atwood\")'s feminism: *Margaret Atwood: A Feminist Poetics.* As Chair of English he supported Joseph Pivato, the Elia Chair at York for 1987\\-88, to teach the first course on Italian\\-Canadian literature.",
"In 1990 he was named the first Carl F. Klinck Professor of Canadian Literature at the University of Western Ontario (now Western University), in London, Ontario, and began a new writing phase in which he adapted discourse analysis to Canadian cultural studies, and examined various Canadian cultural scenes—from those of literary criticism to those of politics, celebrity, and popular crime writing. His new books included *Post\\-National Arguments: The Politics of the Anglo\\-Canadian Novel since 1967* (1993\\), *Reading 'KIM' Right* (1993\\), an analysis of the public persona of [Kim Campbell](/wiki/Kim_Campbell \"Kim Campbell\"), Canada's first woman prime minister, *Canadian Literary Power* (1994\\), a study of how Canadian literary reputations are constructed and defended, *Karla's Web: A Cultural Examination of the Mahaffy\\-French Murders* (1994\\), an examination of how newspaper crime writing distorts both victims and criminal justice issues, *Cultural Mischief: A Practical Guide to Multiculturalism* (1996\\), a poetry collection that mocked both the sentimentalities of multiculturalism's proponents and the narcissism of its critics, and *Mr \\& Mrs G\\-G* (2002\\) an examination of Canadian Governor\\-General [Adrienne Clarkson](/wiki/Adrienne_Clarkson \"Adrienne Clarkson\") and her husband, writer [John Ralston Saul](/wiki/John_Ralston_Saul \"John Ralston Saul\"), that accused both of a pretentiousness that misrepresented and stifled actual Canadian realities. As Betts observes with some understatement, this was 'a critical stance that has occasionally put him into conflict with the Canadian literary establishment.' Its consequences are likely reflected in Davey's description in *When TISH Happens* of Canadian literary and academic prizes as institutional rewards for 'banality and careerism' (304\\). Meanwhile, in May 1994 he had been elected president of the Association of Canadian College and University Teachers of English (ACCUTE). That November he had led the Association in issuing a controversial and widely publicized 'caution' against the postsecondary education policies of the British Columbia government and the resulting working conditions and quality of education at its recently established University Colleges.*ACCUTE Newsletter*, December 1994: 20\\.",
"Davey continued his creativity at the expense of currently established critical pieties in the poetry collections *Dog* (2002\\) and *Risky Propositions* (2005\\), both partly directed at identity politics, the 'flarf' books *Lack On!* (2009\\), a mock\\-Lacanian tribute to [Fred Wah](/wiki/Fred_Wah \"Fred Wah\"), and *Bardy Google* (2010\\), part of which was a Dunciad\\-like send\\-up of recent Canadian criticism, and the limited edition visual poetry book, *Canonical Canadian Literature* (2011\\). Meanwhile, the final years of provincial mandatory retirement legislation ended his Western Ontario teaching years in 2005\\. He was elected to the Royal Society of Canada in 2014\\.",
"### Family life",
"Davey married education student Helen Simmons, also from Abbotsford, in 1962, during the final year of his MA studies. She later taught school in Victoria and accompanied him to the University of Southern California where she earned a master's degree in special education. They divorced in 1969\\.*When TISH Happens* 171, 216, 218, 257\\. Shortly after, he married Linda Jane McCartney, with whom he had two children, Michael Gareth, b. 1970, and Sara Geneve, b. 1971\\.*The Canadian Who's Who*. Linda Davey graduated from [Osgoode Hall Law School](/wiki/Osgoode_Hall_Law_School \"Osgoode Hall Law School\") in 1978 and practiced law in Toronto until 1994\\.'Writing a Life' 109\\. She also served with Davey on the editorial board of the [Coach House Press](/wiki/Coach_House_Press \"Coach House Press\") from 1976 to 1988\\. She died of a brain tumor in 2000\\. His memoir, *How Linda Died*, which contains many details of their life together and their relations with their children, is, according to *BC Bookworld* editor Alan Twigg, 'Davey's most accessible and memorable book ... his most atypically direct and personal.'[http://www.abcbookworld.com/view\\_author.php?id\\=785](http://www.abcbookworld.com/view_author.php?id=785). {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120226174530/http://www.abcbookworld.com/view\\_author.php?id\\=785 \\|date\\=February 26, 2012 }}",
""
] |
### Academic and Writing career
The success of *TISH*, which the editors mailed free of charge for nineteen successive months to poets, editors, and critics across Canada and much of the US, brought Davey to the attention of the senior Canadian writers [George Woodcock](/wiki/George_Woodcock "George Woodcock") and [Louis Dudek](/wiki/Louis_Dudek "Louis Dudek"). Woodcock, editor of the journal *[Canadian Literature](/wiki/Canadian_Literature_%28journal%29 "Canadian Literature (journal)")*, commissioned in 1962 the first of several essays from him, and Dudek invited him to guest\-edit a Vancouver issue of his important poetry magazine *Delta*. Woodcock's intervention may have been the more significant, encouraging the young poet to take up literary criticism as well, and from the 1970s to the 90s write a body of work that would be called 'the most individual and influential ever written in Canada.'Scobie, Stephen. 'Frank Davey,' *The Oxford Companion to Canadian Literature*, 1997\. 277\.
Davey published his first poetry collection, *D\-Day and After*, in 1962, with an introduction by Tallman that emphasized how this was poetry as the act of the moment rather than poetry as the commonplace attempt 'to express ... feelings.''Frank Davey, Intro to D\-Day and After' <http://vancouverartinthesixties.com/archive/87>. It was the first of more than a hundred volumes to be published by the *TISH* editors. Receiving an MA from UBC in 1963, Davey taught for the Canadian armed forces at [Royal Roads Military College](/wiki/Royal_Roads_Military_College "Royal Roads Military College") in Victoria, BC until 1969, while also working on a doctorate in poetics at the University of Southern California in the summers of 1965 and 1966, and a 1966–67 leave of absence. He witnessed the 1965 [Watts riots](/wiki/Watts_riots "Watts riots") from an apartment within the curfew zone, feeling more endangered, he indicates in 'Writing a Life' (99–100\) and *When TISH Happens* (224\), by the US National Guard than by the mostly black protesters. It seems very possible that this experience contributed to his later insistence in his political and cultural writings that the Canadian nation\-state should be a collaboration open to the meaningful participation of all its citizens. In the fall of 1965 his third and fourth volumes of poetry were published. He also launched his poetry and criticism journal *[Open Letter](/wiki/Open_Letter "Open Letter")* that fall of 1965, designing it initially as an open editorial dialogue with former *Tish* editors Bowering and David Dawson. In the spring of 1968 he received his PhD, having presented a thesis on the poetics of the [Black Mountain poets](/wiki/Black_Mountain_poets "Black Mountain poets").
In the spring of 1969 he was appointed Writer\-in\-Residence for 1969–70 at Sir George Williams (now Concordia) University in Montreal. The following year he joined the faculty of York University in Toronto to teach Canadian Literature and, amid teaching and research collaborations with [Clara Thomas](/wiki/Clara_Thomas "Clara Thomas") and [Barbara Godard](/wiki/Barbara_Godard "Barbara Godard"),*When TISH Happens* 285\-6, 288\. quickly assumed a nationally influential role. He published two poetry collections in each of 1970, 1971, and 1972, and a selected poems in 1972\. He published a monograph on [Earle Birney](/wiki/Earle_Birney "Earle Birney") in 1971, and the widely praised *From There to Here: A Guide to English\-Canadian Literature Since 1960*, the first book to theorize Canadian postmodernism, in 1974\. But his most important contribution in these years was his withering critique, 'Surviving the Paraphrase,' of the thematic criticism of [Northrop Frye](/wiki/Northrop_Frye "Northrop Frye"), [D. G. Jones](/wiki/D._G._Jones "D. G. Jones") and [Margaret Atwood](/wiki/Margaret_Atwood "Margaret Atwood") which he delivered at the founding conference of the Association for Canadian and Quebec Literatures in the spring of 1974\. That paper, in [Stephen Scobie](/wiki/Stephen_Scobie "Stephen Scobie")'s words 'a vastly influential essay','Frank Davey' 276\. almost immediately discredited thematic criticism in Canada and, forty years later, reverberates as well within Canadian postcolonial studies.See Laura Moss, 'Between Fractals and Rainbows: Critiquing Canadian Criticism,' *Tropes and Territories*, ed. [Marta Dvorak](/wiki/Marta_Dvorak "Marta Dvorak") and [W.H. New](/wiki/W.H._New "W.H. New"). Montreal: McGill\-Queen's UP, 2007\. 22\.
In 1976 he was appointed Coordinator of the York University creative writing program, and also joined, along with [bpNichol](/wiki/BpNichol "BpNichol") and [Michael Ondaatje](/wiki/Michael_Ondaatje "Michael Ondaatje"), the new editorial board of The Coach House Press. With the assistance of Nichol and [Barbara Godard](/wiki/Barbara_Godard "Barbara Godard"), he was also expanding the pages and range of *Open Letter* to give attention to Québécois poets, women writers, and poststructuralist poetics, developing it into what [Gregory Betts](/wiki/Gregory_Betts "Gregory Betts") in *The Canadian Encyclopedia* would call 'Canada's most important forum for discussion and examination of innovative and experimental ideas and texts.'[Davey](https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/frank-davey) In 1982 he helped conduct a month\-long workshop in [Dharwar](/wiki/Dharwar "Dharwar"), India, for young academics many of whom became major contributors to Canadian Studies in that country. Here he wrote one of his most important long poems, the "brilliant poetic commentary on postcolonialism"Scobie, 'Frank Davey,' 276\. *The Abbotsford Guide to India*, published in 1986—one of six poetry books he published in the 1980s.'Writing a Life' 110\-11 That year he was also elected chair of the York University Department of English.'Writing a Life' 97\-8\. Two years earlier he had published the first study of [Margaret Atwood](/wiki/Margaret_Atwood "Margaret Atwood")'s feminism: *Margaret Atwood: A Feminist Poetics.* As Chair of English he supported Joseph Pivato, the Elia Chair at York for 1987\-88, to teach the first course on Italian\-Canadian literature.
In 1990 he was named the first Carl F. Klinck Professor of Canadian Literature at the University of Western Ontario (now Western University), in London, Ontario, and began a new writing phase in which he adapted discourse analysis to Canadian cultural studies, and examined various Canadian cultural scenes—from those of literary criticism to those of politics, celebrity, and popular crime writing. His new books included *Post\-National Arguments: The Politics of the Anglo\-Canadian Novel since 1967* (1993\), *Reading 'KIM' Right* (1993\), an analysis of the public persona of [Kim Campbell](/wiki/Kim_Campbell "Kim Campbell"), Canada's first woman prime minister, *Canadian Literary Power* (1994\), a study of how Canadian literary reputations are constructed and defended, *Karla's Web: A Cultural Examination of the Mahaffy\-French Murders* (1994\), an examination of how newspaper crime writing distorts both victims and criminal justice issues, *Cultural Mischief: A Practical Guide to Multiculturalism* (1996\), a poetry collection that mocked both the sentimentalities of multiculturalism's proponents and the narcissism of its critics, and *Mr \& Mrs G\-G* (2002\) an examination of Canadian Governor\-General [Adrienne Clarkson](/wiki/Adrienne_Clarkson "Adrienne Clarkson") and her husband, writer [John Ralston Saul](/wiki/John_Ralston_Saul "John Ralston Saul"), that accused both of a pretentiousness that misrepresented and stifled actual Canadian realities. As Betts observes with some understatement, this was 'a critical stance that has occasionally put him into conflict with the Canadian literary establishment.' Its consequences are likely reflected in Davey's description in *When TISH Happens* of Canadian literary and academic prizes as institutional rewards for 'banality and careerism' (304\). Meanwhile, in May 1994 he had been elected president of the Association of Canadian College and University Teachers of English (ACCUTE). That November he had led the Association in issuing a controversial and widely publicized 'caution' against the postsecondary education policies of the British Columbia government and the resulting working conditions and quality of education at its recently established University Colleges.*ACCUTE Newsletter*, December 1994: 20\.
Davey continued his creativity at the expense of currently established critical pieties in the poetry collections *Dog* (2002\) and *Risky Propositions* (2005\), both partly directed at identity politics, the 'flarf' books *Lack On!* (2009\), a mock\-Lacanian tribute to [Fred Wah](/wiki/Fred_Wah "Fred Wah"), and *Bardy Google* (2010\), part of which was a Dunciad\-like send\-up of recent Canadian criticism, and the limited edition visual poetry book, *Canonical Canadian Literature* (2011\). Meanwhile, the final years of provincial mandatory retirement legislation ended his Western Ontario teaching years in 2005\. He was elected to the Royal Society of Canada in 2014\.
|
[
"### Academic and Writing career",
"The success of *TISH*, which the editors mailed free of charge for nineteen successive months to poets, editors, and critics across Canada and much of the US, brought Davey to the attention of the senior Canadian writers [George Woodcock](/wiki/George_Woodcock \"George Woodcock\") and [Louis Dudek](/wiki/Louis_Dudek \"Louis Dudek\"). Woodcock, editor of the journal *[Canadian Literature](/wiki/Canadian_Literature_%28journal%29 \"Canadian Literature (journal)\")*, commissioned in 1962 the first of several essays from him, and Dudek invited him to guest\\-edit a Vancouver issue of his important poetry magazine *Delta*. Woodcock's intervention may have been the more significant, encouraging the young poet to take up literary criticism as well, and from the 1970s to the 90s write a body of work that would be called 'the most individual and influential ever written in Canada.'Scobie, Stephen. 'Frank Davey,' *The Oxford Companion to Canadian Literature*, 1997\\. 277\\.",
"Davey published his first poetry collection, *D\\-Day and After*, in 1962, with an introduction by Tallman that emphasized how this was poetry as the act of the moment rather than poetry as the commonplace attempt 'to express ... feelings.''Frank Davey, Intro to D\\-Day and After' <http://vancouverartinthesixties.com/archive/87>. It was the first of more than a hundred volumes to be published by the *TISH* editors. Receiving an MA from UBC in 1963, Davey taught for the Canadian armed forces at [Royal Roads Military College](/wiki/Royal_Roads_Military_College \"Royal Roads Military College\") in Victoria, BC until 1969, while also working on a doctorate in poetics at the University of Southern California in the summers of 1965 and 1966, and a 1966–67 leave of absence. He witnessed the 1965 [Watts riots](/wiki/Watts_riots \"Watts riots\") from an apartment within the curfew zone, feeling more endangered, he indicates in 'Writing a Life' (99–100\\) and *When TISH Happens* (224\\), by the US National Guard than by the mostly black protesters. It seems very possible that this experience contributed to his later insistence in his political and cultural writings that the Canadian nation\\-state should be a collaboration open to the meaningful participation of all its citizens. In the fall of 1965 his third and fourth volumes of poetry were published. He also launched his poetry and criticism journal *[Open Letter](/wiki/Open_Letter \"Open Letter\")* that fall of 1965, designing it initially as an open editorial dialogue with former *Tish* editors Bowering and David Dawson. In the spring of 1968 he received his PhD, having presented a thesis on the poetics of the [Black Mountain poets](/wiki/Black_Mountain_poets \"Black Mountain poets\").",
"In the spring of 1969 he was appointed Writer\\-in\\-Residence for 1969–70 at Sir George Williams (now Concordia) University in Montreal. The following year he joined the faculty of York University in Toronto to teach Canadian Literature and, amid teaching and research collaborations with [Clara Thomas](/wiki/Clara_Thomas \"Clara Thomas\") and [Barbara Godard](/wiki/Barbara_Godard \"Barbara Godard\"),*When TISH Happens* 285\\-6, 288\\. quickly assumed a nationally influential role. He published two poetry collections in each of 1970, 1971, and 1972, and a selected poems in 1972\\. He published a monograph on [Earle Birney](/wiki/Earle_Birney \"Earle Birney\") in 1971, and the widely praised *From There to Here: A Guide to English\\-Canadian Literature Since 1960*, the first book to theorize Canadian postmodernism, in 1974\\. But his most important contribution in these years was his withering critique, 'Surviving the Paraphrase,' of the thematic criticism of [Northrop Frye](/wiki/Northrop_Frye \"Northrop Frye\"), [D. G. Jones](/wiki/D._G._Jones \"D. G. Jones\") and [Margaret Atwood](/wiki/Margaret_Atwood \"Margaret Atwood\") which he delivered at the founding conference of the Association for Canadian and Quebec Literatures in the spring of 1974\\. That paper, in [Stephen Scobie](/wiki/Stephen_Scobie \"Stephen Scobie\")'s words 'a vastly influential essay','Frank Davey' 276\\. almost immediately discredited thematic criticism in Canada and, forty years later, reverberates as well within Canadian postcolonial studies.See Laura Moss, 'Between Fractals and Rainbows: Critiquing Canadian Criticism,' *Tropes and Territories*, ed. [Marta Dvorak](/wiki/Marta_Dvorak \"Marta Dvorak\") and [W.H. New](/wiki/W.H._New \"W.H. New\"). Montreal: McGill\\-Queen's UP, 2007\\. 22\\.",
"In 1976 he was appointed Coordinator of the York University creative writing program, and also joined, along with [bpNichol](/wiki/BpNichol \"BpNichol\") and [Michael Ondaatje](/wiki/Michael_Ondaatje \"Michael Ondaatje\"), the new editorial board of The Coach House Press. With the assistance of Nichol and [Barbara Godard](/wiki/Barbara_Godard \"Barbara Godard\"), he was also expanding the pages and range of *Open Letter* to give attention to Québécois poets, women writers, and poststructuralist poetics, developing it into what [Gregory Betts](/wiki/Gregory_Betts \"Gregory Betts\") in *The Canadian Encyclopedia* would call 'Canada's most important forum for discussion and examination of innovative and experimental ideas and texts.'[Davey](https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/frank-davey) In 1982 he helped conduct a month\\-long workshop in [Dharwar](/wiki/Dharwar \"Dharwar\"), India, for young academics many of whom became major contributors to Canadian Studies in that country. Here he wrote one of his most important long poems, the \"brilliant poetic commentary on postcolonialism\"Scobie, 'Frank Davey,' 276\\. *The Abbotsford Guide to India*, published in 1986—one of six poetry books he published in the 1980s.'Writing a Life' 110\\-11 That year he was also elected chair of the York University Department of English.'Writing a Life' 97\\-8\\. Two years earlier he had published the first study of [Margaret Atwood](/wiki/Margaret_Atwood \"Margaret Atwood\")'s feminism: *Margaret Atwood: A Feminist Poetics.* As Chair of English he supported Joseph Pivato, the Elia Chair at York for 1987\\-88, to teach the first course on Italian\\-Canadian literature.",
"In 1990 he was named the first Carl F. Klinck Professor of Canadian Literature at the University of Western Ontario (now Western University), in London, Ontario, and began a new writing phase in which he adapted discourse analysis to Canadian cultural studies, and examined various Canadian cultural scenes—from those of literary criticism to those of politics, celebrity, and popular crime writing. His new books included *Post\\-National Arguments: The Politics of the Anglo\\-Canadian Novel since 1967* (1993\\), *Reading 'KIM' Right* (1993\\), an analysis of the public persona of [Kim Campbell](/wiki/Kim_Campbell \"Kim Campbell\"), Canada's first woman prime minister, *Canadian Literary Power* (1994\\), a study of how Canadian literary reputations are constructed and defended, *Karla's Web: A Cultural Examination of the Mahaffy\\-French Murders* (1994\\), an examination of how newspaper crime writing distorts both victims and criminal justice issues, *Cultural Mischief: A Practical Guide to Multiculturalism* (1996\\), a poetry collection that mocked both the sentimentalities of multiculturalism's proponents and the narcissism of its critics, and *Mr \\& Mrs G\\-G* (2002\\) an examination of Canadian Governor\\-General [Adrienne Clarkson](/wiki/Adrienne_Clarkson \"Adrienne Clarkson\") and her husband, writer [John Ralston Saul](/wiki/John_Ralston_Saul \"John Ralston Saul\"), that accused both of a pretentiousness that misrepresented and stifled actual Canadian realities. As Betts observes with some understatement, this was 'a critical stance that has occasionally put him into conflict with the Canadian literary establishment.' Its consequences are likely reflected in Davey's description in *When TISH Happens* of Canadian literary and academic prizes as institutional rewards for 'banality and careerism' (304\\). Meanwhile, in May 1994 he had been elected president of the Association of Canadian College and University Teachers of English (ACCUTE). That November he had led the Association in issuing a controversial and widely publicized 'caution' against the postsecondary education policies of the British Columbia government and the resulting working conditions and quality of education at its recently established University Colleges.*ACCUTE Newsletter*, December 1994: 20\\.",
"Davey continued his creativity at the expense of currently established critical pieties in the poetry collections *Dog* (2002\\) and *Risky Propositions* (2005\\), both partly directed at identity politics, the 'flarf' books *Lack On!* (2009\\), a mock\\-Lacanian tribute to [Fred Wah](/wiki/Fred_Wah \"Fred Wah\"), and *Bardy Google* (2010\\), part of which was a Dunciad\\-like send\\-up of recent Canadian criticism, and the limited edition visual poetry book, *Canonical Canadian Literature* (2011\\). Meanwhile, the final years of provincial mandatory retirement legislation ended his Western Ontario teaching years in 2005\\. He was elected to the Royal Society of Canada in 2014\\.",
""
] |
Contributions to Poetry and Literary Criticism
----------------------------------------------
### Influence
Davey has usually been viewed as a major influence on both Canadian poetry and Canadian literary criticism. Twigg has quoted George Fetherling as having called *TISH* Canada’s 'most influential literary magazine.' Ken Norris, in his study of Canadian little magazines, calls Davey's *Open Letter* 'the most important avant\-garde periodical in Canada.'*The Little Magazine in Canada 1925–1980*, McGill\-Queen's UP, 1984\. Betts writes that '{{Not a typo\|\[T]hrough}} his books of poetry, his literary and cultural criticism and his rich range of essays on diverse topics, Davey has been a major figure involved in introducing the idea and practice of postmodernism to writers in Canada.' Scobie adds that he has 'often been seen as a 'poet's poet' ' (276\).
### *TISH*
Betts writes that 'the TISH community has been described as the first post\-colonial literary movement in English Canada because they wrote after and neither about nor because of colonialism.' Alexander Varty, reviewing *When TISH Happens* for *The [Georgia Straight](/wiki/Georgia_Straight "Georgia Straight")*, writes that it is possible 'that TISH's emphasis 'on the self as a consciousness in process rather than a stable persona' has become the norm in Canadian poetry and indeed in much Canadian fiction – a significant contribution, and one that's worth celebrating.'August 9, 2011 [https://www.straight.com/article\-419577/vancouver/when\-tish\-happens\-exercise\-inference\-and\-deduction](https://www.straight.com/article-419577/vancouver/when-tish-happens-exercise-inference-and-deduction).
### 'Surviving the Paraphrase'
[Diana Brydon](/wiki/Diana_Brydon "Diana Brydon") begins her introduction to the Frank Davey 'festschrift issue' of *Studies in Canadian Literature*: 'In 1974, Frank Davey's conference paper 'Surviving the Paraphrase' took the small world of Canadian literary criticism by storm. The tenor of discussion changed as writers and critics became more self\-conscious about their place in the world and how they engaged it in their work.''Introduction Surviving the Paraphrase: Poetics and Public Culture in Canada,' *Studies in Canadian Literature,* 32:2 (2007\) <http://journals.hil.unb.ca/index.php/scl/article/view/10563/11140>. In her essay in this issue, [Smaro Kamboureli](/wiki/Smaro_Kamboureli "Smaro Kamboureli") writes ' 'Surviving the Paraphrase,' originally presented in 1974 at the founding meeting of the association of Canadian and Quebec Literatures, and subsequently published in *Canadian Literature* in 1976, inaugurates a pivotal moment ... in the development of Canadian criticism, for it presents one of the earliest, albeit brief, critiques of thematic criticism in Canada.' She adds 'If I were to identify a single major contribution Davey has made to Canadian critical discourse, this would be the instrumental role he has played in showing the importance of methodology, that methodology is inextricably related to how we understand the canon, textuality, the critical act, and nation\-formation. The fact that he drew attention to method at a time when Canadian literary discourse was by and large oblivious to it makes his contribution all the more important. Method – directly thematized or appearing in different guises – figures in his work with remarkable consistency and with interesting results.'' 'Frank Davey' and the Method of Cool,' *Studies in Canadian Literature* 32:2 (2007\) <http://journals.hil.unb.ca/index.php/scl/article/view/10575/11164>.
### Poetry
The poems of Davey’s first poetry collection, *D\-Day and After*, described in Tallman’s introduction as 'a weathervane pointing which way the verse winds may be blowing,' for the most part adapted the early projectivist poetics and typewriter spacing of [Charles Olson](/wiki/Charles_Olson "Charles Olson") to the lyric poem. It was mockingly reviewed by Ontario poet and playwright [James Reaney](/wiki/James_Reaney "James Reaney") – 'I’m not too sure that instead of projecting himself through his typewriter, his typewriter isn't projecting itself through him.'*Alphabet* 4, June 1962, p. 74\. Two of the poems, however, 'To the Lions Gate Bridge' and 'The Guitar Girls,' are among the most successful processual poems produced by the Tish poets, with the former declared by [Robert Duncan](/wiki/Robert_Duncan_%28poet%29 "Robert Duncan (poet)") to be 'a poem without lapse'*Tish* 13, September 1962, p. 5\. In Davey's next three books, *Bridge Force* (1965\), *City of the Gulls and Sea* (1964\), and *The Scarred Hull* (1966\), Olson's influence is evident mostly in the research\-based focus on place, especially in the latter. All three rather undistinguished books only slightly declined the prevailing lyric conventions of Canadian poetry. But they also differed significantly from each other.
Davey's emerging tendency to modify or enlarge his poetics with each new book or cluster of books became more apparent in his first four poetry books of the 1970s and their differing approaches to a phenomenological prosody. *Weeds* (1970\) is a sequence of one\-paragraph prose poems with frequent disjunctions between the sentences. *The Clallam* (1973\) is a narrative of a 1907 British Columbia shipwreck constructed in brief exclamatory sections that recall the abrasive mock narratives of [Jack Spicer](/wiki/Jack_Spicer "Jack Spicer"). *King of Swords* (1972\) retells much of the Arthurian story in contemporary diction to suggest the continuing persistence of that story's self\-destructive masculinism. *Arcana* (1973\) uses longer lines, postmodern indeterminacy and the imagery of the Rider\-Waite Tarot deck in purportedly unfinished 'manuscript poems,' each dated and printed within quotation marks. All these books were outside, or alongside, usual Canadian poetry practices. The most visible Black Mountain influence in the latter two books was the medievalism of Robert Duncan, but much differently framed.
Davey published two strikingly unusual books in the 1980s. The first was *Capitalistic Affection!* (1982\), in which a young boy absorbs sexual stereotypes in the weekly comic strips of the North American 1940s. The book uses comic strip idioms, mixed with occasional metafictional commentary, to analyze further the Arthurian inheritance and its imbrication with commodity culture, while also creating numerous disturbingly poignant moments. He followed this in 1986 with another anomalous work, *The Abbotsford Guide to India*, a book of poetry constructed as a tourist guide. Critic [Katie Trumpener](/wiki/Katie_Trumpener "Katie Trumpener") comments that 'Davey's *Guide* is a manifesto from Abbotsford about the connected perspectives and cultural cross\-pollination of different peripheries,' one that 'bypasses ... the empire's nominal centre'*Bardic Nationalism: The Romantic Novel and the British Empire*, Princeton UP, Princeton NJ, pp. 244–5\. and adds that the poems 'point to the obvious vestiges of colonial consciousness in a still emphatically *British* Columbia (especially in the survival of colonial attitudes toward its own 'Indians'), but they also identify more mysterious residues of colonial self\-doubt and self\-hatred.'*Bardic Nationalism: The Romantic Novel and the British Empire*, Princeton UP, Princeton NJ, p. 246\. Again these books had little relationship to the ongoing lyric norms of Canadian poetry or, in their sharp movements away from each of Davey’s preceding books, to the more consistent modes of poetic dissent being created by other Canadian poets such as [bill bissett](/wiki/Bill_bissett "Bill bissett"), [Daphne Marlatt](/wiki/Daphne_Marlatt "Daphne Marlatt"), and [bpNichol](/wiki/BpNichol "BpNichol"). He also published in the 1980s the bitterly humorous *Edward \& Patricia* (1984\) and the collection of poetic reorientations of Canadian history *The [Louis Riel](/wiki/Louis_Riel "Louis Riel") Organ and Piano Company* (1985\). The latter contains Davey's most frequently taught longer poem, 'Riel,' a Spicerian deconstruction of the various narratives that have claimed to represent the Canadian Métis martyr.
In all these books there had been evident a strong interest in cultural criticism and semiotics, an interest which became central to his literary criticism in the early 1990s with the publication of his *Post\-National Arguments* and *Canadian Literary Power*. Davey's first poetry collection of the 1990s was the ironically titled *Popular Narratives* (1994\), with its cover image of the Ljubljana statue of the Slovenian national poet [France Prešeren](/wiki/France_Pre%C5%A1eren "France Prešeren") being blessed by a beautiful muse but both covered in bird droppings. Among the book's 'popular' narratives were Davey's story of the murder of [Agnes Bernauer](/wiki/Agnes_Bernauer "Agnes Bernauer") in fifteenth\-century Bavaria and his prose\-poem elegy for bpNichol into which he incorporates the stories of both [Eloise](/wiki/H%C3%A9lo%C3%AFse_d%27Argenteuil "Héloïse d'Argenteuil") and [Abelard](/wiki/Abelard "Abelard") and [Camille Claudel](/wiki/Camille_Claudel "Camille Claudel") and [Auguste Rodin](/wiki/Auguste_Rodin "Auguste Rodin") as ones of teacher\-student exploitation. As he had written in 1972 in *King of Swords*, 'the myth of Arthur continues.' In 1996 he published the collection *Cultural Mischief*, with one of its poems a very different elegy to the painter [Greg Curnoe](/wiki/Greg_Curnoe "Greg Curnoe"), constructed of 32 short staccato stanzas that echo the disjunctive structure of Curnoe's best\-known paintings. It's a poem that Lynette Hunter writes 'not only erases the heroic elegiac voice but also textures the body of the dead.'*Disunified Aesthetics: Situated Textuality, Performativity, Collaboration*, McGill\-Queen’s UP, Montreal, p. 160\.
During the next few years and the illness and death of his wife, and his writing of *How Linda Died* (2002\), Davey appears to have worked on the completing of a manuscript first published as the on\-demand digital chapbook *War Poems* in 1979 and published as a much longer book, *Back to the War*, in 2005\. The 75 poems narrate a childhood story of being on the 'backside' of World War II but in a family that replicates much of that war’s tensions and gender metaphors, into which the child becomes an unknowing but inevitable conscript. On the cover is a photo of the battlecruisers *[HMS Hood](/wiki/HMS_Hood "HMS Hood")* and *[HMS Repulse](/wiki/HMS_Repulse "HMS Repulse")* in Vancouver harbour on which has been superimposed an amateur snapshot of a young boy in a British sailor suit. Like most of Davey's books, including *The Scarred Hull, Weeds, The Clallam, King of Swords, Capitalistic Affection!, Edward \& Patricia*, and *The Abbotsford Guide to India*, the collection functions as both a long poem and a unified sequence of separable parts.
Davey takes up flarf techniques in his 2010 *Bardy Google*, manipulating internet algorithms to produce a variety of texts that portray the limitations and variety of internet culture. For many readers the most surprising of these has been 'Sydney's Wreck,' in which Davey's algorithms produce a collage\-narrative of the World War II disappearance and later location of the Australian light cruiser {{HMAS\|Sydney\|D48\|6}} – a narrative in which the ideological investments of a wide range of Australians becomes evident. As usual, flarf throws a luminous spotlight on language usage. Here Davey uses it to extend the semiotics underpinnings of his *Popular Narratives* and *Cultural Mischief*. Davey's 2014 collection *Poems Suitable to Current Material Conditions* is almost entirely (and mischievously) about language, from poems that riff on cliché phrases such as 'I’m good,' 'just sayin',' and 'going forward,' to a flarf poem that puns on [Jacques Lacan](/wiki/Jacques_Lacan "Jacques Lacan")’s name and theories to illuminate the feelings of lack and entitlement that societies both wealthy and poor repeatedly declare.
In a note written on *Tish* in 1991 Tallman writes that Davey's magazine *Open Letter* can be viewed as standing for all the ventures of the *Tish* poets 'as evidence of some active secret of the imagination original *Tish* let loose upon the world,' and that Davey can be viewed 'as a type of all the other *Tish* poets who were in on the secret' – 'that he exemplifies in himself how much imagination when possessed can manage.''A Brief Retro\-Introduction to Tish,' Barbour, ed., *Beyond Tish*, NeWest, Edmonton AB, p. 117\. Davey's own imagination appears to have been strongly influenced by the events of the Second World War, from the title of his first collection through the comic strip images of the war in *Capitalistic Affection!*, his 'multiple choice' Hiroshima poem of *Cultural Mischief*, the coloring book warfare and plastic war machines of *Back to the War*, to the colliding ideologies of HMAS 'Sydney's Wreck' in *Bardy Google*.
|
[
"Contributions to Poetry and Literary Criticism\n----------------------------------------------",
"### Influence",
"Davey has usually been viewed as a major influence on both Canadian poetry and Canadian literary criticism. Twigg has quoted George Fetherling as having called *TISH* Canada’s 'most influential literary magazine.' Ken Norris, in his study of Canadian little magazines, calls Davey's *Open Letter* 'the most important avant\\-garde periodical in Canada.'*The Little Magazine in Canada 1925–1980*, McGill\\-Queen's UP, 1984\\. Betts writes that '{{Not a typo\\|\\[T]hrough}} his books of poetry, his literary and cultural criticism and his rich range of essays on diverse topics, Davey has been a major figure involved in introducing the idea and practice of postmodernism to writers in Canada.' Scobie adds that he has 'often been seen as a 'poet's poet' ' (276\\).",
"### *TISH*",
"Betts writes that 'the TISH community has been described as the first post\\-colonial literary movement in English Canada because they wrote after and neither about nor because of colonialism.' Alexander Varty, reviewing *When TISH Happens* for *The [Georgia Straight](/wiki/Georgia_Straight \"Georgia Straight\")*, writes that it is possible 'that TISH's emphasis 'on the self as a consciousness in process rather than a stable persona' has become the norm in Canadian poetry and indeed in much Canadian fiction – a significant contribution, and one that's worth celebrating.'August 9, 2011 [https://www.straight.com/article\\-419577/vancouver/when\\-tish\\-happens\\-exercise\\-inference\\-and\\-deduction](https://www.straight.com/article-419577/vancouver/when-tish-happens-exercise-inference-and-deduction).",
"### 'Surviving the Paraphrase'",
"[Diana Brydon](/wiki/Diana_Brydon \"Diana Brydon\") begins her introduction to the Frank Davey 'festschrift issue' of *Studies in Canadian Literature*: 'In 1974, Frank Davey's conference paper 'Surviving the Paraphrase' took the small world of Canadian literary criticism by storm. The tenor of discussion changed as writers and critics became more self\\-conscious about their place in the world and how they engaged it in their work.''Introduction Surviving the Paraphrase: Poetics and Public Culture in Canada,' *Studies in Canadian Literature,* 32:2 (2007\\) <http://journals.hil.unb.ca/index.php/scl/article/view/10563/11140>. In her essay in this issue, [Smaro Kamboureli](/wiki/Smaro_Kamboureli \"Smaro Kamboureli\") writes ' 'Surviving the Paraphrase,' originally presented in 1974 at the founding meeting of the association of Canadian and Quebec Literatures, and subsequently published in *Canadian Literature* in 1976, inaugurates a pivotal moment ... in the development of Canadian criticism, for it presents one of the earliest, albeit brief, critiques of thematic criticism in Canada.' She adds 'If I were to identify a single major contribution Davey has made to Canadian critical discourse, this would be the instrumental role he has played in showing the importance of methodology, that methodology is inextricably related to how we understand the canon, textuality, the critical act, and nation\\-formation. The fact that he drew attention to method at a time when Canadian literary discourse was by and large oblivious to it makes his contribution all the more important. Method – directly thematized or appearing in different guises – figures in his work with remarkable consistency and with interesting results.'' 'Frank Davey' and the Method of Cool,' *Studies in Canadian Literature* 32:2 (2007\\) <http://journals.hil.unb.ca/index.php/scl/article/view/10575/11164>.",
"### Poetry",
"The poems of Davey’s first poetry collection, *D\\-Day and After*, described in Tallman’s introduction as 'a weathervane pointing which way the verse winds may be blowing,' for the most part adapted the early projectivist poetics and typewriter spacing of [Charles Olson](/wiki/Charles_Olson \"Charles Olson\") to the lyric poem. It was mockingly reviewed by Ontario poet and playwright [James Reaney](/wiki/James_Reaney \"James Reaney\") – 'I’m not too sure that instead of projecting himself through his typewriter, his typewriter isn't projecting itself through him.'*Alphabet* 4, June 1962, p. 74\\. Two of the poems, however, 'To the Lions Gate Bridge' and 'The Guitar Girls,' are among the most successful processual poems produced by the Tish poets, with the former declared by [Robert Duncan](/wiki/Robert_Duncan_%28poet%29 \"Robert Duncan (poet)\") to be 'a poem without lapse'*Tish* 13, September 1962, p. 5\\. In Davey's next three books, *Bridge Force* (1965\\), *City of the Gulls and Sea* (1964\\), and *The Scarred Hull* (1966\\), Olson's influence is evident mostly in the research\\-based focus on place, especially in the latter. All three rather undistinguished books only slightly declined the prevailing lyric conventions of Canadian poetry. But they also differed significantly from each other.",
"Davey's emerging tendency to modify or enlarge his poetics with each new book or cluster of books became more apparent in his first four poetry books of the 1970s and their differing approaches to a phenomenological prosody. *Weeds* (1970\\) is a sequence of one\\-paragraph prose poems with frequent disjunctions between the sentences. *The Clallam* (1973\\) is a narrative of a 1907 British Columbia shipwreck constructed in brief exclamatory sections that recall the abrasive mock narratives of [Jack Spicer](/wiki/Jack_Spicer \"Jack Spicer\"). *King of Swords* (1972\\) retells much of the Arthurian story in contemporary diction to suggest the continuing persistence of that story's self\\-destructive masculinism. *Arcana* (1973\\) uses longer lines, postmodern indeterminacy and the imagery of the Rider\\-Waite Tarot deck in purportedly unfinished 'manuscript poems,' each dated and printed within quotation marks. All these books were outside, or alongside, usual Canadian poetry practices. The most visible Black Mountain influence in the latter two books was the medievalism of Robert Duncan, but much differently framed.",
"Davey published two strikingly unusual books in the 1980s. The first was *Capitalistic Affection!* (1982\\), in which a young boy absorbs sexual stereotypes in the weekly comic strips of the North American 1940s. The book uses comic strip idioms, mixed with occasional metafictional commentary, to analyze further the Arthurian inheritance and its imbrication with commodity culture, while also creating numerous disturbingly poignant moments. He followed this in 1986 with another anomalous work, *The Abbotsford Guide to India*, a book of poetry constructed as a tourist guide. Critic [Katie Trumpener](/wiki/Katie_Trumpener \"Katie Trumpener\") comments that 'Davey's *Guide* is a manifesto from Abbotsford about the connected perspectives and cultural cross\\-pollination of different peripheries,' one that 'bypasses ... the empire's nominal centre'*Bardic Nationalism: The Romantic Novel and the British Empire*, Princeton UP, Princeton NJ, pp. 244–5\\. and adds that the poems 'point to the obvious vestiges of colonial consciousness in a still emphatically *British* Columbia (especially in the survival of colonial attitudes toward its own 'Indians'), but they also identify more mysterious residues of colonial self\\-doubt and self\\-hatred.'*Bardic Nationalism: The Romantic Novel and the British Empire*, Princeton UP, Princeton NJ, p. 246\\. Again these books had little relationship to the ongoing lyric norms of Canadian poetry or, in their sharp movements away from each of Davey’s preceding books, to the more consistent modes of poetic dissent being created by other Canadian poets such as [bill bissett](/wiki/Bill_bissett \"Bill bissett\"), [Daphne Marlatt](/wiki/Daphne_Marlatt \"Daphne Marlatt\"), and [bpNichol](/wiki/BpNichol \"BpNichol\"). He also published in the 1980s the bitterly humorous *Edward \\& Patricia* (1984\\) and the collection of poetic reorientations of Canadian history *The [Louis Riel](/wiki/Louis_Riel \"Louis Riel\") Organ and Piano Company* (1985\\). The latter contains Davey's most frequently taught longer poem, 'Riel,' a Spicerian deconstruction of the various narratives that have claimed to represent the Canadian Métis martyr.",
"In all these books there had been evident a strong interest in cultural criticism and semiotics, an interest which became central to his literary criticism in the early 1990s with the publication of his *Post\\-National Arguments* and *Canadian Literary Power*. Davey's first poetry collection of the 1990s was the ironically titled *Popular Narratives* (1994\\), with its cover image of the Ljubljana statue of the Slovenian national poet [France Prešeren](/wiki/France_Pre%C5%A1eren \"France Prešeren\") being blessed by a beautiful muse but both covered in bird droppings. Among the book's 'popular' narratives were Davey's story of the murder of [Agnes Bernauer](/wiki/Agnes_Bernauer \"Agnes Bernauer\") in fifteenth\\-century Bavaria and his prose\\-poem elegy for bpNichol into which he incorporates the stories of both [Eloise](/wiki/H%C3%A9lo%C3%AFse_d%27Argenteuil \"Héloïse d'Argenteuil\") and [Abelard](/wiki/Abelard \"Abelard\") and [Camille Claudel](/wiki/Camille_Claudel \"Camille Claudel\") and [Auguste Rodin](/wiki/Auguste_Rodin \"Auguste Rodin\") as ones of teacher\\-student exploitation. As he had written in 1972 in *King of Swords*, 'the myth of Arthur continues.' In 1996 he published the collection *Cultural Mischief*, with one of its poems a very different elegy to the painter [Greg Curnoe](/wiki/Greg_Curnoe \"Greg Curnoe\"), constructed of 32 short staccato stanzas that echo the disjunctive structure of Curnoe's best\\-known paintings. It's a poem that Lynette Hunter writes 'not only erases the heroic elegiac voice but also textures the body of the dead.'*Disunified Aesthetics: Situated Textuality, Performativity, Collaboration*, McGill\\-Queen’s UP, Montreal, p. 160\\.",
"During the next few years and the illness and death of his wife, and his writing of *How Linda Died* (2002\\), Davey appears to have worked on the completing of a manuscript first published as the on\\-demand digital chapbook *War Poems* in 1979 and published as a much longer book, *Back to the War*, in 2005\\. The 75 poems narrate a childhood story of being on the 'backside' of World War II but in a family that replicates much of that war’s tensions and gender metaphors, into which the child becomes an unknowing but inevitable conscript. On the cover is a photo of the battlecruisers *[HMS Hood](/wiki/HMS_Hood \"HMS Hood\")* and *[HMS Repulse](/wiki/HMS_Repulse \"HMS Repulse\")* in Vancouver harbour on which has been superimposed an amateur snapshot of a young boy in a British sailor suit. Like most of Davey's books, including *The Scarred Hull, Weeds, The Clallam, King of Swords, Capitalistic Affection!, Edward \\& Patricia*, and *The Abbotsford Guide to India*, the collection functions as both a long poem and a unified sequence of separable parts.",
"Davey takes up flarf techniques in his 2010 *Bardy Google*, manipulating internet algorithms to produce a variety of texts that portray the limitations and variety of internet culture. For many readers the most surprising of these has been 'Sydney's Wreck,' in which Davey's algorithms produce a collage\\-narrative of the World War II disappearance and later location of the Australian light cruiser {{HMAS\\|Sydney\\|D48\\|6}} – a narrative in which the ideological investments of a wide range of Australians becomes evident. As usual, flarf throws a luminous spotlight on language usage. Here Davey uses it to extend the semiotics underpinnings of his *Popular Narratives* and *Cultural Mischief*. Davey's 2014 collection *Poems Suitable to Current Material Conditions* is almost entirely (and mischievously) about language, from poems that riff on cliché phrases such as 'I’m good,' 'just sayin',' and 'going forward,' to a flarf poem that puns on [Jacques Lacan](/wiki/Jacques_Lacan \"Jacques Lacan\")’s name and theories to illuminate the feelings of lack and entitlement that societies both wealthy and poor repeatedly declare.",
"In a note written on *Tish* in 1991 Tallman writes that Davey's magazine *Open Letter* can be viewed as standing for all the ventures of the *Tish* poets 'as evidence of some active secret of the imagination original *Tish* let loose upon the world,' and that Davey can be viewed 'as a type of all the other *Tish* poets who were in on the secret' – 'that he exemplifies in himself how much imagination when possessed can manage.''A Brief Retro\\-Introduction to Tish,' Barbour, ed., *Beyond Tish*, NeWest, Edmonton AB, p. 117\\. Davey's own imagination appears to have been strongly influenced by the events of the Second World War, from the title of his first collection through the comic strip images of the war in *Capitalistic Affection!*, his 'multiple choice' Hiroshima poem of *Cultural Mischief*, the coloring book warfare and plastic war machines of *Back to the War*, to the colliding ideologies of HMAS 'Sydney's Wreck' in *Bardy Google*.",
""
] |
### Poetry
The poems of Davey’s first poetry collection, *D\-Day and After*, described in Tallman’s introduction as 'a weathervane pointing which way the verse winds may be blowing,' for the most part adapted the early projectivist poetics and typewriter spacing of [Charles Olson](/wiki/Charles_Olson "Charles Olson") to the lyric poem. It was mockingly reviewed by Ontario poet and playwright [James Reaney](/wiki/James_Reaney "James Reaney") – 'I’m not too sure that instead of projecting himself through his typewriter, his typewriter isn't projecting itself through him.'*Alphabet* 4, June 1962, p. 74\. Two of the poems, however, 'To the Lions Gate Bridge' and 'The Guitar Girls,' are among the most successful processual poems produced by the Tish poets, with the former declared by [Robert Duncan](/wiki/Robert_Duncan_%28poet%29 "Robert Duncan (poet)") to be 'a poem without lapse'*Tish* 13, September 1962, p. 5\. In Davey's next three books, *Bridge Force* (1965\), *City of the Gulls and Sea* (1964\), and *The Scarred Hull* (1966\), Olson's influence is evident mostly in the research\-based focus on place, especially in the latter. All three rather undistinguished books only slightly declined the prevailing lyric conventions of Canadian poetry. But they also differed significantly from each other.
Davey's emerging tendency to modify or enlarge his poetics with each new book or cluster of books became more apparent in his first four poetry books of the 1970s and their differing approaches to a phenomenological prosody. *Weeds* (1970\) is a sequence of one\-paragraph prose poems with frequent disjunctions between the sentences. *The Clallam* (1973\) is a narrative of a 1907 British Columbia shipwreck constructed in brief exclamatory sections that recall the abrasive mock narratives of [Jack Spicer](/wiki/Jack_Spicer "Jack Spicer"). *King of Swords* (1972\) retells much of the Arthurian story in contemporary diction to suggest the continuing persistence of that story's self\-destructive masculinism. *Arcana* (1973\) uses longer lines, postmodern indeterminacy and the imagery of the Rider\-Waite Tarot deck in purportedly unfinished 'manuscript poems,' each dated and printed within quotation marks. All these books were outside, or alongside, usual Canadian poetry practices. The most visible Black Mountain influence in the latter two books was the medievalism of Robert Duncan, but much differently framed.
Davey published two strikingly unusual books in the 1980s. The first was *Capitalistic Affection!* (1982\), in which a young boy absorbs sexual stereotypes in the weekly comic strips of the North American 1940s. The book uses comic strip idioms, mixed with occasional metafictional commentary, to analyze further the Arthurian inheritance and its imbrication with commodity culture, while also creating numerous disturbingly poignant moments. He followed this in 1986 with another anomalous work, *The Abbotsford Guide to India*, a book of poetry constructed as a tourist guide. Critic [Katie Trumpener](/wiki/Katie_Trumpener "Katie Trumpener") comments that 'Davey's *Guide* is a manifesto from Abbotsford about the connected perspectives and cultural cross\-pollination of different peripheries,' one that 'bypasses ... the empire's nominal centre'*Bardic Nationalism: The Romantic Novel and the British Empire*, Princeton UP, Princeton NJ, pp. 244–5\. and adds that the poems 'point to the obvious vestiges of colonial consciousness in a still emphatically *British* Columbia (especially in the survival of colonial attitudes toward its own 'Indians'), but they also identify more mysterious residues of colonial self\-doubt and self\-hatred.'*Bardic Nationalism: The Romantic Novel and the British Empire*, Princeton UP, Princeton NJ, p. 246\. Again these books had little relationship to the ongoing lyric norms of Canadian poetry or, in their sharp movements away from each of Davey’s preceding books, to the more consistent modes of poetic dissent being created by other Canadian poets such as [bill bissett](/wiki/Bill_bissett "Bill bissett"), [Daphne Marlatt](/wiki/Daphne_Marlatt "Daphne Marlatt"), and [bpNichol](/wiki/BpNichol "BpNichol"). He also published in the 1980s the bitterly humorous *Edward \& Patricia* (1984\) and the collection of poetic reorientations of Canadian history *The [Louis Riel](/wiki/Louis_Riel "Louis Riel") Organ and Piano Company* (1985\). The latter contains Davey's most frequently taught longer poem, 'Riel,' a Spicerian deconstruction of the various narratives that have claimed to represent the Canadian Métis martyr.
In all these books there had been evident a strong interest in cultural criticism and semiotics, an interest which became central to his literary criticism in the early 1990s with the publication of his *Post\-National Arguments* and *Canadian Literary Power*. Davey's first poetry collection of the 1990s was the ironically titled *Popular Narratives* (1994\), with its cover image of the Ljubljana statue of the Slovenian national poet [France Prešeren](/wiki/France_Pre%C5%A1eren "France Prešeren") being blessed by a beautiful muse but both covered in bird droppings. Among the book's 'popular' narratives were Davey's story of the murder of [Agnes Bernauer](/wiki/Agnes_Bernauer "Agnes Bernauer") in fifteenth\-century Bavaria and his prose\-poem elegy for bpNichol into which he incorporates the stories of both [Eloise](/wiki/H%C3%A9lo%C3%AFse_d%27Argenteuil "Héloïse d'Argenteuil") and [Abelard](/wiki/Abelard "Abelard") and [Camille Claudel](/wiki/Camille_Claudel "Camille Claudel") and [Auguste Rodin](/wiki/Auguste_Rodin "Auguste Rodin") as ones of teacher\-student exploitation. As he had written in 1972 in *King of Swords*, 'the myth of Arthur continues.' In 1996 he published the collection *Cultural Mischief*, with one of its poems a very different elegy to the painter [Greg Curnoe](/wiki/Greg_Curnoe "Greg Curnoe"), constructed of 32 short staccato stanzas that echo the disjunctive structure of Curnoe's best\-known paintings. It's a poem that Lynette Hunter writes 'not only erases the heroic elegiac voice but also textures the body of the dead.'*Disunified Aesthetics: Situated Textuality, Performativity, Collaboration*, McGill\-Queen’s UP, Montreal, p. 160\.
During the next few years and the illness and death of his wife, and his writing of *How Linda Died* (2002\), Davey appears to have worked on the completing of a manuscript first published as the on\-demand digital chapbook *War Poems* in 1979 and published as a much longer book, *Back to the War*, in 2005\. The 75 poems narrate a childhood story of being on the 'backside' of World War II but in a family that replicates much of that war’s tensions and gender metaphors, into which the child becomes an unknowing but inevitable conscript. On the cover is a photo of the battlecruisers *[HMS Hood](/wiki/HMS_Hood "HMS Hood")* and *[HMS Repulse](/wiki/HMS_Repulse "HMS Repulse")* in Vancouver harbour on which has been superimposed an amateur snapshot of a young boy in a British sailor suit. Like most of Davey's books, including *The Scarred Hull, Weeds, The Clallam, King of Swords, Capitalistic Affection!, Edward \& Patricia*, and *The Abbotsford Guide to India*, the collection functions as both a long poem and a unified sequence of separable parts.
Davey takes up flarf techniques in his 2010 *Bardy Google*, manipulating internet algorithms to produce a variety of texts that portray the limitations and variety of internet culture. For many readers the most surprising of these has been 'Sydney's Wreck,' in which Davey's algorithms produce a collage\-narrative of the World War II disappearance and later location of the Australian light cruiser {{HMAS\|Sydney\|D48\|6}} – a narrative in which the ideological investments of a wide range of Australians becomes evident. As usual, flarf throws a luminous spotlight on language usage. Here Davey uses it to extend the semiotics underpinnings of his *Popular Narratives* and *Cultural Mischief*. Davey's 2014 collection *Poems Suitable to Current Material Conditions* is almost entirely (and mischievously) about language, from poems that riff on cliché phrases such as 'I’m good,' 'just sayin',' and 'going forward,' to a flarf poem that puns on [Jacques Lacan](/wiki/Jacques_Lacan "Jacques Lacan")’s name and theories to illuminate the feelings of lack and entitlement that societies both wealthy and poor repeatedly declare.
In a note written on *Tish* in 1991 Tallman writes that Davey's magazine *Open Letter* can be viewed as standing for all the ventures of the *Tish* poets 'as evidence of some active secret of the imagination original *Tish* let loose upon the world,' and that Davey can be viewed 'as a type of all the other *Tish* poets who were in on the secret' – 'that he exemplifies in himself how much imagination when possessed can manage.''A Brief Retro\-Introduction to Tish,' Barbour, ed., *Beyond Tish*, NeWest, Edmonton AB, p. 117\. Davey's own imagination appears to have been strongly influenced by the events of the Second World War, from the title of his first collection through the comic strip images of the war in *Capitalistic Affection!*, his 'multiple choice' Hiroshima poem of *Cultural Mischief*, the coloring book warfare and plastic war machines of *Back to the War*, to the colliding ideologies of HMAS 'Sydney's Wreck' in *Bardy Google*.
|
[
"### Poetry",
"The poems of Davey’s first poetry collection, *D\\-Day and After*, described in Tallman’s introduction as 'a weathervane pointing which way the verse winds may be blowing,' for the most part adapted the early projectivist poetics and typewriter spacing of [Charles Olson](/wiki/Charles_Olson \"Charles Olson\") to the lyric poem. It was mockingly reviewed by Ontario poet and playwright [James Reaney](/wiki/James_Reaney \"James Reaney\") – 'I’m not too sure that instead of projecting himself through his typewriter, his typewriter isn't projecting itself through him.'*Alphabet* 4, June 1962, p. 74\\. Two of the poems, however, 'To the Lions Gate Bridge' and 'The Guitar Girls,' are among the most successful processual poems produced by the Tish poets, with the former declared by [Robert Duncan](/wiki/Robert_Duncan_%28poet%29 \"Robert Duncan (poet)\") to be 'a poem without lapse'*Tish* 13, September 1962, p. 5\\. In Davey's next three books, *Bridge Force* (1965\\), *City of the Gulls and Sea* (1964\\), and *The Scarred Hull* (1966\\), Olson's influence is evident mostly in the research\\-based focus on place, especially in the latter. All three rather undistinguished books only slightly declined the prevailing lyric conventions of Canadian poetry. But they also differed significantly from each other.",
"Davey's emerging tendency to modify or enlarge his poetics with each new book or cluster of books became more apparent in his first four poetry books of the 1970s and their differing approaches to a phenomenological prosody. *Weeds* (1970\\) is a sequence of one\\-paragraph prose poems with frequent disjunctions between the sentences. *The Clallam* (1973\\) is a narrative of a 1907 British Columbia shipwreck constructed in brief exclamatory sections that recall the abrasive mock narratives of [Jack Spicer](/wiki/Jack_Spicer \"Jack Spicer\"). *King of Swords* (1972\\) retells much of the Arthurian story in contemporary diction to suggest the continuing persistence of that story's self\\-destructive masculinism. *Arcana* (1973\\) uses longer lines, postmodern indeterminacy and the imagery of the Rider\\-Waite Tarot deck in purportedly unfinished 'manuscript poems,' each dated and printed within quotation marks. All these books were outside, or alongside, usual Canadian poetry practices. The most visible Black Mountain influence in the latter two books was the medievalism of Robert Duncan, but much differently framed.",
"Davey published two strikingly unusual books in the 1980s. The first was *Capitalistic Affection!* (1982\\), in which a young boy absorbs sexual stereotypes in the weekly comic strips of the North American 1940s. The book uses comic strip idioms, mixed with occasional metafictional commentary, to analyze further the Arthurian inheritance and its imbrication with commodity culture, while also creating numerous disturbingly poignant moments. He followed this in 1986 with another anomalous work, *The Abbotsford Guide to India*, a book of poetry constructed as a tourist guide. Critic [Katie Trumpener](/wiki/Katie_Trumpener \"Katie Trumpener\") comments that 'Davey's *Guide* is a manifesto from Abbotsford about the connected perspectives and cultural cross\\-pollination of different peripheries,' one that 'bypasses ... the empire's nominal centre'*Bardic Nationalism: The Romantic Novel and the British Empire*, Princeton UP, Princeton NJ, pp. 244–5\\. and adds that the poems 'point to the obvious vestiges of colonial consciousness in a still emphatically *British* Columbia (especially in the survival of colonial attitudes toward its own 'Indians'), but they also identify more mysterious residues of colonial self\\-doubt and self\\-hatred.'*Bardic Nationalism: The Romantic Novel and the British Empire*, Princeton UP, Princeton NJ, p. 246\\. Again these books had little relationship to the ongoing lyric norms of Canadian poetry or, in their sharp movements away from each of Davey’s preceding books, to the more consistent modes of poetic dissent being created by other Canadian poets such as [bill bissett](/wiki/Bill_bissett \"Bill bissett\"), [Daphne Marlatt](/wiki/Daphne_Marlatt \"Daphne Marlatt\"), and [bpNichol](/wiki/BpNichol \"BpNichol\"). He also published in the 1980s the bitterly humorous *Edward \\& Patricia* (1984\\) and the collection of poetic reorientations of Canadian history *The [Louis Riel](/wiki/Louis_Riel \"Louis Riel\") Organ and Piano Company* (1985\\). The latter contains Davey's most frequently taught longer poem, 'Riel,' a Spicerian deconstruction of the various narratives that have claimed to represent the Canadian Métis martyr.",
"In all these books there had been evident a strong interest in cultural criticism and semiotics, an interest which became central to his literary criticism in the early 1990s with the publication of his *Post\\-National Arguments* and *Canadian Literary Power*. Davey's first poetry collection of the 1990s was the ironically titled *Popular Narratives* (1994\\), with its cover image of the Ljubljana statue of the Slovenian national poet [France Prešeren](/wiki/France_Pre%C5%A1eren \"France Prešeren\") being blessed by a beautiful muse but both covered in bird droppings. Among the book's 'popular' narratives were Davey's story of the murder of [Agnes Bernauer](/wiki/Agnes_Bernauer \"Agnes Bernauer\") in fifteenth\\-century Bavaria and his prose\\-poem elegy for bpNichol into which he incorporates the stories of both [Eloise](/wiki/H%C3%A9lo%C3%AFse_d%27Argenteuil \"Héloïse d'Argenteuil\") and [Abelard](/wiki/Abelard \"Abelard\") and [Camille Claudel](/wiki/Camille_Claudel \"Camille Claudel\") and [Auguste Rodin](/wiki/Auguste_Rodin \"Auguste Rodin\") as ones of teacher\\-student exploitation. As he had written in 1972 in *King of Swords*, 'the myth of Arthur continues.' In 1996 he published the collection *Cultural Mischief*, with one of its poems a very different elegy to the painter [Greg Curnoe](/wiki/Greg_Curnoe \"Greg Curnoe\"), constructed of 32 short staccato stanzas that echo the disjunctive structure of Curnoe's best\\-known paintings. It's a poem that Lynette Hunter writes 'not only erases the heroic elegiac voice but also textures the body of the dead.'*Disunified Aesthetics: Situated Textuality, Performativity, Collaboration*, McGill\\-Queen’s UP, Montreal, p. 160\\.",
"During the next few years and the illness and death of his wife, and his writing of *How Linda Died* (2002\\), Davey appears to have worked on the completing of a manuscript first published as the on\\-demand digital chapbook *War Poems* in 1979 and published as a much longer book, *Back to the War*, in 2005\\. The 75 poems narrate a childhood story of being on the 'backside' of World War II but in a family that replicates much of that war’s tensions and gender metaphors, into which the child becomes an unknowing but inevitable conscript. On the cover is a photo of the battlecruisers *[HMS Hood](/wiki/HMS_Hood \"HMS Hood\")* and *[HMS Repulse](/wiki/HMS_Repulse \"HMS Repulse\")* in Vancouver harbour on which has been superimposed an amateur snapshot of a young boy in a British sailor suit. Like most of Davey's books, including *The Scarred Hull, Weeds, The Clallam, King of Swords, Capitalistic Affection!, Edward \\& Patricia*, and *The Abbotsford Guide to India*, the collection functions as both a long poem and a unified sequence of separable parts.",
"Davey takes up flarf techniques in his 2010 *Bardy Google*, manipulating internet algorithms to produce a variety of texts that portray the limitations and variety of internet culture. For many readers the most surprising of these has been 'Sydney's Wreck,' in which Davey's algorithms produce a collage\\-narrative of the World War II disappearance and later location of the Australian light cruiser {{HMAS\\|Sydney\\|D48\\|6}} – a narrative in which the ideological investments of a wide range of Australians becomes evident. As usual, flarf throws a luminous spotlight on language usage. Here Davey uses it to extend the semiotics underpinnings of his *Popular Narratives* and *Cultural Mischief*. Davey's 2014 collection *Poems Suitable to Current Material Conditions* is almost entirely (and mischievously) about language, from poems that riff on cliché phrases such as 'I’m good,' 'just sayin',' and 'going forward,' to a flarf poem that puns on [Jacques Lacan](/wiki/Jacques_Lacan \"Jacques Lacan\")’s name and theories to illuminate the feelings of lack and entitlement that societies both wealthy and poor repeatedly declare.",
"In a note written on *Tish* in 1991 Tallman writes that Davey's magazine *Open Letter* can be viewed as standing for all the ventures of the *Tish* poets 'as evidence of some active secret of the imagination original *Tish* let loose upon the world,' and that Davey can be viewed 'as a type of all the other *Tish* poets who were in on the secret' – 'that he exemplifies in himself how much imagination when possessed can manage.''A Brief Retro\\-Introduction to Tish,' Barbour, ed., *Beyond Tish*, NeWest, Edmonton AB, p. 117\\. Davey's own imagination appears to have been strongly influenced by the events of the Second World War, from the title of his first collection through the comic strip images of the war in *Capitalistic Affection!*, his 'multiple choice' Hiroshima poem of *Cultural Mischief*, the coloring book warfare and plastic war machines of *Back to the War*, to the colliding ideologies of HMAS 'Sydney's Wreck' in *Bardy Google*.",
""
] |
History
-------
During [pioneer](/wiki/American_pioneer "American pioneer") times, the area was settled by the [Methodists](/wiki/Methodist "Methodist") for the [Bethel Church](/wiki/Bethel_Church_%28Hymera%2C_Indiana%29 "Bethel Church (Hymera, Indiana)"). A log building once stood within the limits of the present town, where the early settlers assembled for religious worship. On [Busseron Creek](/wiki/Busseron_Creek "Busseron Creek") was a [grist mill](/wiki/Grist_mill "Grist mill") erected about 1829\. On the westside was one of the first [coal mines](/wiki/Coal_mine "Coal mine") of the county; it was owned by H. K. and Harvey Wilson. The coal was used chiefly by local [blacksmiths](/wiki/Blacksmith "Blacksmith").{{cite book \|editor\= Thomas J. Wolfe\|title\= A History of Sullivan County, Indiana.\|url\= https://archive.org/details/historyofsulliva02wolf\_0\|year\= 1909\|publisher\= The Lewis Publishing Company\|pages\= \[https://archive.org/details/historyofsulliva02wolf\_0/page/208 208–211]}}
Hymera was [platted](/wiki/Plat "Plat") as a [townsite](/wiki/Townsite "Townsite") *circa* 1870 by Nathan Hinkle.extension://bocbaocobfecmglnmeaeppambideimao/pdf/viewer.html?file\=https%3A%2F%2Fia600306\.us.archive.org%2F22%2Fitems%2Fhistoryofsulliva01wolf%2Fhistoryofsulliva01wolf.pdf
Robert Linn had a [general store](/wiki/General_store "General store") on the site now occupied by the [Odd Fellows](/wiki/Odd_Fellows "Odd Fellows") block. For some years the store and [post office](/wiki/Post_office "Post office"), and two or three shops, comprised the business of the place.
When the post office was established the name Pittsburg was selected by the local community, in honor of William Pitt who owned the land on which Hymera was founded. However, the name was not accepted by the postal department. The post office was then established under the name Hymera, and has been in operation since 1855\.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.postalhistory.com/postoffices.asp?task\=display\&state\=IN\&county\=Sullivan\&searchtext\=\&pagenum\=2 \| title\=Sullivan County \| publisher\=Jim Forte Postal History \| access\-date\=August 29, 2016}}
The origin of the name Hymera is credited to [John Badders](/wiki/John_Badders "John Badders"), who was postmaster. He had an adopted daughter, Mary.
The change of name for the village was accomplished in 1890\.{{cite gnis\|436673\|Hymera, Indiana\|2016\-08\-29}} In April of that year, a petition from nearly all the voters of Pittsburg was laid before the county commissioners asking that the name of the town as recorded on the plat be changed to Hymera. A short time previously, on the opening of the new mine at [Alum Cave](/wiki/Alum_Cave "Alum Cave"), the new town laid out there was called New Pittsburg, while the Hymera community in distinction was referred to as Old Pittsburg. The resulting confusion brought about the change in name. About this time a branch line of [railroad](/wiki/Railroad "Railroad") reached up to the coal mines in the vicinity, which led to tremendous growth. In 1902 Hymera was incorporated into a town. That July, the first election for town officers was held.
One of the memorable days in the history of Hymera was the celebration in October 1904, known as [Mitchell Day](/wiki/Mitchell_Day "Mitchell Day"), in honor of [John Mitchell](/wiki/John_Mitchell_%28United_Mine_Workers%29 "John Mitchell (United Mine Workers)"), the president of the [United Mine Workers of America](/wiki/United_Mine_Workers_of_America "United Mine Workers of America"). The crowd in town was estimated at over seven\-thousand. A delegation met Mitchell at [Terre Haute](/wiki/Terre_Haute%2C_Indiana "Terre Haute, Indiana"), and the local procession was made up of the K. of P. Band, labor organizations, and school children. The ceremonies of the day centered about the unveiling of a monument to [Nathan Hinkle](/wiki/Nathan_Hinkle_%28Revolutionary_Soldier%29 "Nathan Hinkle (Revolutionary Soldier)"), the [Revolutionary soldier](/wiki/American_Revolution "American Revolution") who was buried in the Hymera Cemetery. Hon. James S. Barcus, a great\-grandson of Hinkle, delivered an address, and Miss Mamie Asbury, a great\-granddaughter, assisted in the unveiling. The monument is fifteen feet high, representing a Revolutionary soldier at parade rest. The other events of the day were held in the Zink Grove, where speeches were made by Rev. A. P. Asbury and Robert W. Miers and John C. Chaney, and the principal address of the afternoon was delivered by Mitchell himself.
In the fall of 1905, Mitchell was reported to have said that Hymera was the neatest mining town in the United States, with more and better sidewalks according to its size than any town in the county, and many improvements indicating a progressive spirit among the citizens.
At the time, there were five church organization, the [Methodist](/wiki/Methodist "Methodist"), [Baptist](/wiki/Baptist "Baptist"), [Presbyterian](/wiki/Presbyterian "Presbyterian"), [United Brethren](/wiki/Church_of_the_United_Brethren_in_Christ "Church of the United Brethren in Christ") and [Christian](/wiki/Christianity "Christianity"), the first two having good buildings, while the Presbyterians and U. B. were preparing to build. A five\-room school building had proved inadequate, and a four\-room addition was added in the summer of 1905\. The [Hymera State Bank](/wiki/Hymera_State_Bank "Hymera State Bank"), which had been organized in December 1903, as the Bank of Hymera, by S. M. Patton and R. I. Ladd, was reorganized as a state bank in January 1906, with Mr. Ladd as President and Mr. Patton, Cashier.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"During [pioneer](/wiki/American_pioneer \"American pioneer\") times, the area was settled by the [Methodists](/wiki/Methodist \"Methodist\") for the [Bethel Church](/wiki/Bethel_Church_%28Hymera%2C_Indiana%29 \"Bethel Church (Hymera, Indiana)\"). A log building once stood within the limits of the present town, where the early settlers assembled for religious worship. On [Busseron Creek](/wiki/Busseron_Creek \"Busseron Creek\") was a [grist mill](/wiki/Grist_mill \"Grist mill\") erected about 1829\\. On the westside was one of the first [coal mines](/wiki/Coal_mine \"Coal mine\") of the county; it was owned by H. K. and Harvey Wilson. The coal was used chiefly by local [blacksmiths](/wiki/Blacksmith \"Blacksmith\").{{cite book \\|editor\\= Thomas J. Wolfe\\|title\\= A History of Sullivan County, Indiana.\\|url\\= https://archive.org/details/historyofsulliva02wolf\\_0\\|year\\= 1909\\|publisher\\= The Lewis Publishing Company\\|pages\\= \\[https://archive.org/details/historyofsulliva02wolf\\_0/page/208 208–211]}}",
"Hymera was [platted](/wiki/Plat \"Plat\") as a [townsite](/wiki/Townsite \"Townsite\") *circa* 1870 by Nathan Hinkle.extension://bocbaocobfecmglnmeaeppambideimao/pdf/viewer.html?file\\=https%3A%2F%2Fia600306\\.us.archive.org%2F22%2Fitems%2Fhistoryofsulliva01wolf%2Fhistoryofsulliva01wolf.pdf",
"Robert Linn had a [general store](/wiki/General_store \"General store\") on the site now occupied by the [Odd Fellows](/wiki/Odd_Fellows \"Odd Fellows\") block. For some years the store and [post office](/wiki/Post_office \"Post office\"), and two or three shops, comprised the business of the place.",
"When the post office was established the name Pittsburg was selected by the local community, in honor of William Pitt who owned the land on which Hymera was founded. However, the name was not accepted by the postal department. The post office was then established under the name Hymera, and has been in operation since 1855\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.postalhistory.com/postoffices.asp?task\\=display\\&state\\=IN\\&county\\=Sullivan\\&searchtext\\=\\&pagenum\\=2 \\| title\\=Sullivan County \\| publisher\\=Jim Forte Postal History \\| access\\-date\\=August 29, 2016}}",
"The origin of the name Hymera is credited to [John Badders](/wiki/John_Badders \"John Badders\"), who was postmaster. He had an adopted daughter, Mary.",
"The change of name for the village was accomplished in 1890\\.{{cite gnis\\|436673\\|Hymera, Indiana\\|2016\\-08\\-29}} In April of that year, a petition from nearly all the voters of Pittsburg was laid before the county commissioners asking that the name of the town as recorded on the plat be changed to Hymera. A short time previously, on the opening of the new mine at [Alum Cave](/wiki/Alum_Cave \"Alum Cave\"), the new town laid out there was called New Pittsburg, while the Hymera community in distinction was referred to as Old Pittsburg. The resulting confusion brought about the change in name. About this time a branch line of [railroad](/wiki/Railroad \"Railroad\") reached up to the coal mines in the vicinity, which led to tremendous growth. In 1902 Hymera was incorporated into a town. That July, the first election for town officers was held.",
"One of the memorable days in the history of Hymera was the celebration in October 1904, known as [Mitchell Day](/wiki/Mitchell_Day \"Mitchell Day\"), in honor of [John Mitchell](/wiki/John_Mitchell_%28United_Mine_Workers%29 \"John Mitchell (United Mine Workers)\"), the president of the [United Mine Workers of America](/wiki/United_Mine_Workers_of_America \"United Mine Workers of America\"). The crowd in town was estimated at over seven\\-thousand. A delegation met Mitchell at [Terre Haute](/wiki/Terre_Haute%2C_Indiana \"Terre Haute, Indiana\"), and the local procession was made up of the K. of P. Band, labor organizations, and school children. The ceremonies of the day centered about the unveiling of a monument to [Nathan Hinkle](/wiki/Nathan_Hinkle_%28Revolutionary_Soldier%29 \"Nathan Hinkle (Revolutionary Soldier)\"), the [Revolutionary soldier](/wiki/American_Revolution \"American Revolution\") who was buried in the Hymera Cemetery. Hon. James S. Barcus, a great\\-grandson of Hinkle, delivered an address, and Miss Mamie Asbury, a great\\-granddaughter, assisted in the unveiling. The monument is fifteen feet high, representing a Revolutionary soldier at parade rest. The other events of the day were held in the Zink Grove, where speeches were made by Rev. A. P. Asbury and Robert W. Miers and John C. Chaney, and the principal address of the afternoon was delivered by Mitchell himself.",
"In the fall of 1905, Mitchell was reported to have said that Hymera was the neatest mining town in the United States, with more and better sidewalks according to its size than any town in the county, and many improvements indicating a progressive spirit among the citizens.",
"At the time, there were five church organization, the [Methodist](/wiki/Methodist \"Methodist\"), [Baptist](/wiki/Baptist \"Baptist\"), [Presbyterian](/wiki/Presbyterian \"Presbyterian\"), [United Brethren](/wiki/Church_of_the_United_Brethren_in_Christ \"Church of the United Brethren in Christ\") and [Christian](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\"), the first two having good buildings, while the Presbyterians and U. B. were preparing to build. A five\\-room school building had proved inadequate, and a four\\-room addition was added in the summer of 1905\\. The [Hymera State Bank](/wiki/Hymera_State_Bank \"Hymera State Bank\"), which had been organized in December 1903, as the Bank of Hymera, by S. M. Patton and R. I. Ladd, was reorganized as a state bank in January 1906, with Mr. Ladd as President and Mr. Patton, Cashier.",
""
] |
Morphology and physiology
-------------------------
[thumb\|right\|A [bullfrog](/wiki/American_bullfrog "American bullfrog") skeleton, showing elongated limb bones and extra joints. Red marks indicate bones which have been substantially elongated in frogs and joints which have become mobile. Blue indicates joints and bones which have not been modified or only somewhat elongated.](/wiki/File:Frog_limbs.jpg "Frog limbs.jpg")
Frogs have no tail, except as larvae, and most have long hind legs, elongated ankle bones, webbed toes, no claws, large eyes, and a smooth or warty skin. They have short vertebral columns, with no more than 10 free vertebrae and fused tailbones (urostyle or coccyx).{{cite web \|author\=Flam, F. \|year\=1995 \|title\=Finding earliest true frog will help paleontologists understand how frog evolved its jumping ability \|url\=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1\-17454183\.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513111921/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1\-17454183\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=May 13, 2013 \|publisher\=Knight Ridder/Tribune News Service \|access\-date\=June 10, 2012}} Frogs range in size from *[Paedophryne amauensis](/wiki/Paedophryne_amauensis "Paedophryne amauensis")* of [Papua New Guinea](/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea "Papua New Guinea") that is {{cvt\|7\.7\|mm}} in [snout–vent length](/wiki/Snout%E2%80%93vent_length "Snout–vent length"){{cite news \|title\=Tiny frog claimed as world's smallest vertebrate \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/jan/12/world\-smallest\-frog \|newspaper\=The Guardian \|date\=January 12, 2012 \|access\-date\=September 28, 2012}} to the up to about {{cvt\|35\|cm}} and {{cvt\|3\.3\|kg}} [goliath frog](/wiki/Goliath_frog "Goliath frog") (*Conraua goliath*) of central Africa.{{cite book \| last\=Colgan \| first\=P.V \| year\=1982 \|title\=The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats \| url\=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofan00wood/ \| edition\=3 \| publisher\=Guinness Superlatives \| pages\=118–119 \| isbn\=978\-0851122359 }} There are prehistoric, extinct species that reached even larger sizes.{{cite journal \|author1\=Otero, R.A. \|author2\=P. Jimenez\-Huidobro \|author3\=S. Soto\-Acuña \|author4\=R.E.Yury\-Yáñez \|year\=2014 \|title\=Evidence of a giant helmeted frog (Australobatrachia, Calyptocephalellidae) from Eocene levels of the Magallanes Basin, southernmost Chile \|journal\=Journal of South American Earth Sciences \|volume\=55 \|pages\=133–140 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.jsames.2014\.06\.010 \|bibcode\=2014JSAES..55\..133O }}
### Feet and legs
The structure of the feet and legs varies greatly among frog species, depending in part on whether they live primarily on the ground, in water, in trees, or in burrows. Adult anurans have four fingers on the hands and five toes on the feet,[Morphological Variation in Anuran Limbs: Constraints and Novelties](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28597591/) but the smallest species often have hands and feet where some of the digits are vestigial.[Morphological and ecological convergence at the lower size limit for vertebrates highlighted by five new miniaturised microhylid frog species from three different Madagascan genera](https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0213314) Frogs must be able to move quickly through their environment to catch prey and escape predators, and numerous adaptations help them to do so. Most frogs are either proficient at jumping or are descended from ancestors that were, with much of the [musculoskeletal](/wiki/Musculoskeletal "Musculoskeletal") [morphology](/wiki/Morphology_%28biology%29 "Morphology (biology)") modified for this purpose. The tibia, fibula, and [tarsals](/wiki/Tarsus_%28skeleton%29 "Tarsus (skeleton)") have been fused into a single strong [bone](/wiki/Bone "Bone"), as have the radius and ulna in the fore limbs (which must absorb the impact on landing). The [metatarsals](/wiki/Metatarsals "Metatarsals") have become elongated to add to the leg length and allow frogs to push against the ground for a longer period on take\-off. The [ilium](/wiki/Ilium_%28bone%29 "Ilium (bone)") has elongated and formed a mobile joint with the [sacrum](/wiki/Sacrum "Sacrum") which, in specialist jumpers such as ranids and hylids, functions as an additional limb joint to further power the leaps. The tail vertebrae have fused into a urostyle which is retracted inside the pelvis. This enables the force to be transferred from the legs to the body during a leap.
[thumb\|alt\=Webbed foot\|Webbed hind foot of [common frog](/wiki/Common_frog "Common frog")
(*Rana temporaria*)](/wiki/File:Rana_temporaria_04_by-dpc.jpg "Rana temporaria 04 by-dpc.jpg")
[thumb\|[Tyler's tree frog](/wiki/Tyler%27s_tree_frog "Tyler's tree frog") (*Litoria tyleri*) has large toe pads and webbed feet.](/wiki/File:Litoria_tyleri.jpg "Litoria tyleri.jpg")
The muscular system has been similarly modified. The hind limbs of ancestral frogs presumably contained pairs of muscles which would act in opposition (one muscle to flex the knee, a different muscle to extend it), as is seen in most other limbed animals. However, in modern frogs, almost all muscles have been modified to contribute to the action of jumping, with only a few small muscles remaining to bring the limb back to the starting position and maintain posture. The muscles have also been greatly enlarged, with the main leg muscles accounting for over 17% of the total mass of frogs.
Many frogs have webbed feet and the degree of webbing is directly proportional to the amount of time the species spends in the water.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.exploratorium.edu/frogs/mainstory/ \|title\=The amazing adaptable frog \|author\=Tesler, P. \|year\=1999 \|publisher\=Exploratorium:: The museum of science, art and human perception \|access\-date\=June 4, 2012}} The completely aquatic [African dwarf frog](/wiki/African_dwarf_frog "African dwarf frog") (*Hymenochirus* sp.) has fully webbed toes, whereas those of [White's tree frog](/wiki/White%27s_tree_frog "White's tree frog") (*Litoria caerulea*), an arboreal species, are only a quarter or half webbed.{{cite web \|author\=Vincent, L. \|year\=2001 \|publisher\=James Cook University \|title\=''Litoria caerulea'' \|url\=http://www.jcu.edu.au/school/tbiol/zoology/herp/Litoriacaerulea.PDF \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040422212337/http://www.jcu.edu.au/school/tbiol/zoology/herp/Litoriacaerulea.PDF \|archive\-date\=April 22, 2004 \|access\-date\=August 3, 2012 }} Exceptions include [flying frogs](/wiki/Flying_frog "Flying frog") in the [Hylidae](/wiki/Hylidae "Hylidae") and [Rhacophoridae](/wiki/Rhacophoridae "Rhacophoridae"), which also have fully webbed toes used in gliding.
[Arboreal frogs](/wiki/Tree_frog "Tree frog") have pads located on the ends of their toes to help grip vertical surfaces. These are not suction pads, the surface consisting instead of columnar cells with flat tops with small gaps between them lubricated by mucous glands. When the frog applies pressure, the cells adhere to irregularities on the surface and the grip is maintained through [surface tension](/wiki/Capillarity "Capillarity"). This allows the frog to climb on smooth surfaces, but the system does not function efficiently when the pads are excessively wet.{{cite journal \|last\=Emerson \|first\=S. B. \|author2\=Diehl, D. \|year\=1980\| title\=Toe pad morphology and mechanisms of sticking in frogs \|journal\=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society \|volume\=13 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=199–216 \|doi\=10\.1111/j.1095\-8312\.1980\.tb00082\.x}}
In many arboreal frogs, a small "intercalary structure" on each toe increases the surface area touching the [substrate](/wiki/Substrate_%28biology%29 "Substrate (biology)"). Furthermore, many arboreal frogs have hip joints that allow both hopping and walking. Some frogs that live high in trees even possess an elaborate degree of webbing between their toes. This allows the frogs to "parachute" or make a controlled glide from one position in the canopy to another.{{cite journal \|last\=Harvey \|first\=M. B. \|author2\= Pemberton, A. J. \|author3\=Smith, E. N. \|year\=2002 \|title\=New and poorly known parachuting frogs (Rhacophoridae : ''Rhacophorus'') from Sumatra and Java \|journal\=Herpetological Monographs \|volume\=16 \|pages\=46–92 \|doi\=10\.1655/0733\-1347(2002\)016\[0046:NAPKPF]2\.0\.CO;2 \|s2cid\=86616385 }}
Ground\-dwelling frogs generally lack the adaptations of aquatic and arboreal frogs. Most have smaller toe pads, if any, and little webbing. Some burrowing frogs such as [Couch's spadefoot](/wiki/Couch%27s_Spadefoot_Toad "Couch's Spadefoot Toad") (*Scaphiopus couchii*) have a flap\-like toe extension on the hind feet, a [keratinised](/wiki/Keratin "Keratin") [tubercle](/wiki/Tubercle "Tubercle") often referred to as a spade, that helps them to burrow.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.desertmuseum.org/books/nhsd\_spadefoot.php \|title\=Couch's spadefoot (''Scaphiopus couchi'') \|publisher\=Arizona\-Sonora Desert Museum \|access\-date\=August 3, 2012}}
Sometimes during the tadpole stage, one of the developing rear legs is eaten by a predator such as a [dragonfly nymph](/wiki/Dragonfly_nymph "Dragonfly nymph"). In some cases, the full leg still grows, but in others it does not, although the frog may still live out its normal lifespan with only three limbs. Occasionally, a parasitic [flatworm](/wiki/Flatworm "Flatworm") (*[Ribeiroia ondatrae](/wiki/Ribeiroia_ondatrae "Ribeiroia ondatrae")*) digs into the rear of a tadpole, causing a rearrangement of the limb bud cells and the frog develops one or more extra legs.{{cite news \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth\_news/newsid\_8116000/8116692\.stm \|title\=Legless frogs mystery solved \|work\=BBC News \|date\=June 25, 2009 \|first\=M. \|last\=Walker}}
[thumb\|left\|[Northern leopard frog](/wiki/Northern_leopard_frog "Northern leopard frog") (*Rana pipiens*) moulting and eating its skin](/wiki/File:Ranapipiensmoulting.jpg "Ranapipiensmoulting.jpg")
### Skin
A frog's skin is protective, has a respiratory function, can absorb water, and helps control body temperature. It has many glands, particularly on the head and back, which often exude distasteful and toxic substances ([granular glands](/wiki/Skin "Skin")). The secretion is often sticky and helps keep the skin moist, protects against the entry of moulds and bacteria, and makes the animal slippery and more able to escape from predators.{{cite book \|title\=A Natural History of Amphibians \|last\=Stebbins \|first\=Robert C. \|author\-link1\=Robert C. Stebbins \|author2\=Cohen, Nathan W. \|year\=1995 \|publisher\=Princeton University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-691\-03281\-8 \|pages\=10–14 }} The skin is shed every few weeks. It usually splits down the middle of the back and across the belly, and the frog pulls its arms and legs free. The sloughed skin is then worked towards the head where it is quickly eaten.{{cite journal \|jstor\=2456779 \|pages\=530–540 \|last1\=Frost \|first1\=S. W. \|title\=Notes on feeding and molting in frogs \|volume\=66 \|issue\=707 \|journal\=The American Naturalist \|year\=1932 \|doi\=10\.1086/280458 \|s2cid\=84796411 }}
Being cold\-blooded, frogs have to adopt suitable behaviour patterns to regulate their temperature. To warm up, they can move into the sun or onto a warm surface; if they overheat, they can move into the shade or adopt a stance that exposes the minimum area of skin to the air. This posture is also used to prevent water loss and involves the frog squatting close to the substrate with its hands and feet tucked under its chin and body.{{cite book \|title\=Frogs \|last\=Badger \|first\=D. \|author2\=Netherton, J. \|year\=1995 \|publisher\=Airlife Publishing \|isbn\=978\-1\-85310\-740\-5 \|page\=27 }} The colour of a frog's skin is used for thermoregulation. In cool damp conditions, the colour will be darker than on a hot dry day. The [grey foam\-nest tree frog](/wiki/Grey_Foam-nest_Treefrog "Grey Foam-nest Treefrog") (*Chiromantis xerampelina*) is even able to turn white to minimise the chance of overheating.{{cite book \|title\=Amphibians and Their Ways \|last\=Smyth \|first\=H. R. \|year\=1962 \|publisher\=Macmillan \|isbn\=978\-0\-02\-612190\-3 }}
Many frogs are able to absorb water and oxygen directly through the skin, especially around the pelvic area, but the permeability of a frog's skin can also result in water loss. Glands located all over the body exude mucus which helps keep the skin moist and reduces evaporation. Some glands on the hands and chest of males are specialised to produce sticky secretions to aid in [amplexus](/wiki/Amplexus "Amplexus"). Similar glands in tree frogs produce a glue\-like substance on the adhesive discs of the feet. Some arboreal frogs reduce water loss by having a waterproof layer of skin, and several South American species coat their skin with a waxy secretion. Other frogs have adopted behaviours to conserve water, including becoming [nocturnal](/wiki/Nocturnal "Nocturnal") and resting in a water\-conserving position. Some frogs may also rest in large groups with each frog pressed against its neighbours. This reduces the amount of skin exposed to the air or a dry surface, and thus reduces water loss. [Woodhouse's toad](/wiki/Woodhouse%27s_toad "Woodhouse's toad") (*Bufo woodhousii*), if given access to water after confinement in a dry location, sits in the shallows to rehydrate.{{cite book \|title\=The Frog Book: North American Frogs and Toads \|last\=Dickerson \|first\=M. C. \|year\=1969 \|publisher\=Dover Publications \|isbn\=978\-0\-486\-21973\-8 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/frogbooknorthame00dick\_0 }} The male [hairy frog](/wiki/Hairy_frog "Hairy frog") (*Trichobatrachus robustus*) has [dermal papillae](/wiki/Dermal_papillae "Dermal papillae") projecting from its lower back and thighs, giving it a bristly appearance. These contain blood vessels and are thought to increase the area of the skin available for respiration.{{cite web \|url\=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi\-bin/amphib\_query?where\-genus\=Trichobatrachus \|title\=''Trichobatrachus robustus'' \|author\=Blackburn, D. C. \|date\=November 14, 2002 \|publisher\=AmphibiaWeb \|access\-date\=August 18, 2012}}
[thumb\|alt\=Frog barely recognisable against brown decaying leaf litter.\|[Pouched frog](/wiki/Pouched_frog "Pouched frog") (*Assa darlingtoni*) camouflaged against leaf litter](/wiki/File:Hip-pocket_Frog_-_Assa_darlingtoni.jpg "Hip-pocket Frog - Assa darlingtoni.jpg")
[thumb\|[Wood frog](/wiki/Wood_frog "Wood frog") (*Lithobates sylvaticus*) uses [disruptive coloration](/wiki/Disruptive_coloration "Disruptive coloration").](/wiki/File:WoodFrog_DarienLakesStatePark_2020-06-16_%2802%29.jpg "WoodFrog DarienLakesStatePark 2020-06-16 (02).jpg")
Some species have [bony plates](/wiki/Osteoderm "Osteoderm") embedded in the skin, a trait that appears to have evolved independently several times.{{cite journal \|author1\=Ruibal, Rodolfo \|author2\=Shoemaker, Vaughan \|year\=1985 \|title\=Osteoderms in Anurans \|journal\=Journal of Herpetology \|volume\=18 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=313–328 \|jstor\=1564085 \|doi\=10\.2307/1564085}} In certain other species, the skin at the top of the head is compacted and the connective tissue of the dermis is co\-ossified with the bones of the skull ([exostosis](/wiki/Exostosis "Exostosis")).{{cite book \|title\=Herpetology: An Introductory Biology of Amphibians and Reptiles \|last1\=Vitt \|first1\=Laurie J. \|last2\=Caldwell \|first2\=Janalee P. \|year\=2013 \|publisher\=Academic Press \|isbn\=9780123869203 \|page\=50 \|url\={{Google books\|Gay9N\_ry79kC\|page\=50\|plainurl\=yes}} }}{{cite journal \|author1\=Jared, C. \|author2\=Antoniazzi, M. M. \|author3\=Navas, C. A. \|author4\=Katchburian, E. \|author5\=Freymüller, E. \|author6\=Tambourgi, D. V. \|author7\=Rodrigues, M. T. \|year\=2005 \|title\=Head co\-ossification, phragmosis and defence in the casque\-headed tree frog ''Corythomantis greeningi'' \|journal\=Journal of Zoology \|volume\=265 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=1–8 \|doi\=10\.1017/S0952836904005953 \|s2cid\=59449901 }}
[Camouflage](/wiki/Camouflage "Camouflage") is a common defensive mechanism in frogs. Features such as warts and [skin folds](/wiki/Skin_fold "Skin fold") are usually on ground\-dwelling frogs, for whom smooth skin would not provide such effective camouflage. Certain frogs change colour between night and day, as light and moisture stimulate the pigment cells and cause them to expand or contract.{{cite book \|title\=The Observer's Book of British Wild Animals \|last\=Burton \|first\=Maurice \|year\=1972 \|publisher\=Frederick Warne \& Co \|isbn\=978\-0\-7232\-1503\-5 \|pages\=204–209 }} Some are even able to control their skin texture.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Guayasamin\|first1\=Juan M.\|last2\=Krynak\|first2\=Tim\|last3\=Krynak\|first3\=Katherine\|last4\=Culebras\|first4\=Jaime\|last5\=Hutter\|first5\=Carl R.\|date\=2015\|title\=Phenotypic plasticity raises questions for taxonomically important traits: a remarkable new Andean rainfrog ( Pristimantis ) with the ability to change skin texture: Phenotypic plasticity in Andean rainfrog\|journal\=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society\|language\=en\|volume\=173\|issue\=4\|pages\=913–928\|doi\=10\.1111/zoj.12222\|doi\-access\=free}} The [Pacific tree frog](/wiki/Pacific_tree_frog "Pacific tree frog") (*Pseudacris regilla*) has green and brown morphs, plain or spotted, and changes colour depending on the time of year and general background colour.{{cite journal \|author1\=Wente, W. H. \|author2\=Phillips, J. B. \|year\=2003 \|title\=Fixed green and brown color morphs and a novel color\-changing morph of the Pacific tree frog ''Hyla regilla'' \|journal\=The American Naturalist \|volume\=162 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=461–473 \| jstor\=10\.1086/378253 \|doi\=10\.1086/378253 \|pmid\=14582008 \|s2cid\=25692966 }} The [Wood frog](/wiki/Wood_frog "Wood frog") (*Lithobates sylvaticus*) uses [disruptive coloration](/wiki/Disruptive_coloration "Disruptive coloration") including black eye markings similar to voids between leaves, bands of the dorsal skin (dorsolateral dermal plica) similar to a leaf [midrib](/wiki/Midrib "Midrib") as well as stains, spots and leg stripes similar to fallen leaf features.
### Respiration and circulation
Like other amphibians, [oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen "Oxygen") can pass through their highly permeable skins. This unique feature allows them to remain in places without access to the air, respiring through their skins. Ribs are generally absent, so the lungs are filled by [buccal pumping](/wiki/Buccal_pumping "Buccal pumping") and a frog deprived of its lungs can maintain its body functions without them. The fully aquatic [Bornean flat\-headed frog](/wiki/Bornean_flat-headed_frog "Bornean flat-headed frog") (*Barbourula kalimantanensis*) is the first frog known to lack lungs entirely.{{cite web \|url\=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi\-bin/amphib\_query?where\-genus\=Barbourula\&where\-species\=kalimantanensis \|title\=''Barbourula kalimantanensis'' \|author\=Boisvert, Adam \|date\=October 23, 2007 \|work\=AmphibiaWeb \|publisher\=University of California, Berkeley \|access\-date\=July 9, 2012}}
Frogs have three\-chambered [hearts](/wiki/Heart "Heart"), a feature they share with [lizards](/wiki/Lizard "Lizard"). Oxygenated blood from the lungs and de\-oxygenated blood from the [respiring](/wiki/Respiration_%28physiology%29 "Respiration (physiology)") tissues enter the heart through separate [atria](/wiki/Atrium_%28anatomy%29 "Atrium (anatomy)"). When these chambers contract, the two blood streams pass into a common [ventricle](/wiki/Ventricle_%28heart%29 "Ventricle (heart)") before being pumped via a spiral valve to the appropriate vessel, the [aorta](/wiki/Aorta "Aorta") for oxygenated blood and [pulmonary artery](/wiki/Pulmonary_artery "Pulmonary artery") for deoxygenated blood.{{cite web \|url\=http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/AnimalHearts.html \|title\=Animal Circulatory Systems: Three Chambers: The Frog and Lizard \|author\=Kimball, John \|year\=2010 \|work\=Kimball's Biology Pages \|access\-date\=July 9, 2012 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160511032359/http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/AnimalHearts.html \|archive\-date\= May 11, 2016}}
Some species of frog have adaptations that allow them to survive in oxygen deficient water. The [Titicaca water frog](/wiki/Titicaca_water_frog "Titicaca water frog") (*Telmatobius culeus*) is one such species and has wrinkly skin that increases its surface area to enhance gas exchange. It normally makes no use of its rudimentary lungs but will sometimes raise and lower its body rhythmically while on the lake bed to increase the flow of water around it.{{cite web \|url\=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi\-bin/amphib\_query?where\-genus\=Telmatobius\&where\-species\=culeus \|title\=''Telmatobius culeus'' \|author\=Lee, Deborah \|date\=April 23, 2010 \|work\=AmphibiaWeb \|publisher\=University of California, Berkeley \|access\-date\=July 9, 2012}}
[thumb\|right\|alt\=Dissected frog\|Anatomical model of a dissected frog: 1 Right atrium, 2 Lungs, 3 Aorta, 4 Egg mass, 5 Colon, 6 Left atrium, 7 Ventricle, 8 Stomach, 9 Liver, 10 Gallbladder, 11 Small intestine, 12 Cloaca](/wiki/File:Frog_anatomy_tags.PNG "Frog anatomy tags.PNG")
### Digestion and excretion
Frogs have maxillary teeth along their upper jaw which are used to hold food before it is swallowed. These teeth are very weak, and cannot be used to chew or catch and harm agile prey. Instead, the frog uses its sticky, cleft tongue to catch insects and other small moving prey. The tongue normally lies coiled in the mouth, free at the back and attached to the mandible at the front. It can be shot out and retracted at great speed. In amphibians there are salvary glands on the tongue, which in frogs produce what is called a two\-phase viscoelastic fluid. When exposed to pressure, like when the tongue is wrapping around a prey, it becomes runny and covers the prey's body. As the pressure drops, it returns to a thick and elastic state, which gives the tongue an extra grip.[The Secret to the Stickiness of Frog Spit \| STAO](https://stao.ca/the-secret-to-the-stickiness-of-frog-spit/) Some frogs have no tongue and just stuff food into their mouths with their hands. The African bullfrog (*[Pyxicephalus](/wiki/Pyxicephalus "Pyxicephalus")*), which preys on relatively large animals such as mice and other frogs, has cone shaped bony projections called odontoid processes at the front of the lower jaw which function like teeth. The eyes assist in the swallowing of food as they can be retracted through holes in the skull and help push food down the throat.{{cite journal \|last1\=Levine \|first1\=R. P. \|last2\=Monroy \|first2\=J. A. \|last3\=Brainerd\|first3\=E. L. \|title\=Contribution of eye retraction to swallowing performance in the northern leopard frog, ''Rana pipiens'' \|doi\=10\.1242/jeb.00885\|pmid\=15010487 \|date\=March 15, 2004\|pages\=1361–1368 \|issue\=Pt 8\|volume\=207 \|journal\=Journal of Experimental Biology \|doi\-access\=free }}
The food then moves through the oesophagus into the stomach where digestive enzymes are added and it is churned up. It then proceeds to the small intestine (duodenum and ileum) where most digestion occurs. Pancreatic juice from the pancreas, and bile, produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder, are secreted into the small intestine, where the fluids digest the food and the nutrients are absorbed. The food residue passes into the large intestine where excess water is removed and the wastes are passed out through the [cloaca](/wiki/Cloaca "Cloaca").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.tutorvista.com/biology/frog\-digestive\-system\-diagram \|title\=Frog Digestive System \|year\=2010 \|publisher\=TutorVista.com \|access\-date\=August 4, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100603080405/http://www.tutorvista.com/biology/frog\-digestive\-system\-diagram\|archive\-date\=June 3, 2010\|url\-status\=dead}}
Although adapted to terrestrial life, frogs resemble freshwater fish in their inability to conserve body water effectively. When they are on land, much water is lost by evaporation from the skin. The excretory system is similar to that of mammals and there are two [kidneys](/wiki/Kidney "Kidney") that remove nitrogenous products from the blood. Frogs produce large quantities of dilute urine in order to flush out toxic products from the kidney tubules.{{cite book \|title\=Zoology \|url\=https://archive.org/details/zoology0000dori \|url\-access\=registration \|last\=Dorit \|first\=R. L. \|author2\=Walker, W. F.\|author3\=Barnes, R. D. \|year\=1991 \|publisher\=Saunders College Publishing \|isbn\=978\-0\-03\-030504\-7 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/zoology0000dori/page/849 849] }} The nitrogen is excreted as [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia "Ammonia") by tadpoles and aquatic frogs but mainly as [urea](/wiki/Urea "Urea"), a less toxic product, by most terrestrial adults. A few species of tree frog with little access to water excrete the even less toxic [uric acid](/wiki/Uric_acid "Uric acid"). The urine passes along paired [ureters](/wiki/Ureter "Ureter") to the [urinary bladder](/wiki/Urinary_bladder "Urinary bladder") from which it is vented periodically into the cloaca. All bodily wastes exit the body through the cloaca which terminates in a cloacal vent.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology\-iii/animal\-morphology/respiratory\-excretory\-nervous\-reproductive\-system\-frog.php \|title\=Frog's internal systems \|year\=2010 \|publisher\=TutorVista.com \|access\-date\=June 4, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080121101351/http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology\-iii/animal\-morphology/respiratory\-excretory\-nervous\-reproductive\-system\-frog.php \|archive\-date\=January 21, 2008}}
### Reproductive system
{{See also\|Sexual selection in amphibians}}
In the male frog, the two [testes](/wiki/Testis "Testis") are attached to the kidneys and [semen](/wiki/Semen "Semen") passes into the kidneys through fine tubes called [efferent ducts](/wiki/Efferent_ducts "Efferent ducts"). It then travels on through the ureters, which are consequently known as urinogenital ducts. There is no penis, and sperm is ejected from the cloaca directly onto the eggs as the female lays them. The ovaries of the female frog are beside the kidneys and the eggs pass down a pair of oviducts and through the cloaca to the exterior.
When frogs mate, the male climbs on the back of the female and wraps his fore limbs round her body, either behind the front legs or just in front of the hind legs. This position is called [amplexus](/wiki/Amplexus "Amplexus") and may be held for several days.{{cite book \| author \= Duellman, W. E. and L. Trueb \| date \= 1986 \| title \= Biology of Amphibians \| location \= New York \| publisher \= McGraw\-Hill Publishing Company }} The male frog has certain hormone\-dependent [secondary sexual characteristics](/wiki/Secondary_sexual_characteristic "Secondary sexual characteristic"). These include the development of special pads on his thumbs in the breeding season, to give him a firm hold.{{cite web \|url\=http://www2\.southeastern.edu/Academics/Faculty/dsever/SeverandStaub.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www2\.southeastern.edu/Academics/Faculty/dsever/SeverandStaub.pdf \|archive\-date\=October 9, 2022 \|url\-status\=live \|title\=Hormones, sex accessory structures, and secondary sexual characteristics in amphibians \|author1\=Sever, David M. \|author2\=Staub, Nancy L. \|pages\=83–98 \|work\=Hormones and Reproduction of Vertebrates – Vol 2: Amphibians \|access\-date\=August 4, 2012}} The grip of the male frog during amplexus stimulates the female to release eggs, usually wrapped in jelly, as spawn. In many species the male is smaller and slimmer than the female. Males have vocal cords and make a range of croaks, particularly in the breeding season, and in some species they also have [vocal sacs](/wiki/Vocal_sac "Vocal sac") to amplify the sound.
### Nervous system
Frogs have a highly developed nervous system that consists of a brain, spinal cord and nerves. Many parts of frog brains correspond with those of humans. It consists of two olfactory lobes, two cerebral hemispheres, a pineal body, two optic lobes, a cerebellum and a medulla oblongata. Muscular coordination and posture are controlled by the [cerebellum](/wiki/Cerebellum "Cerebellum"), and the [medulla oblongata](/wiki/Medulla_oblongata "Medulla oblongata") regulates respiration, digestion and other automatic functions. The relative size of the [cerebrum](/wiki/Cerebrum "Cerebrum") in frogs is much smaller than it is in humans. Frogs have ten pairs of [cranial nerves](/wiki/Cranial_nerves "Cranial nerves") which pass information from the outside directly to the brain, and ten pairs of [spinal nerves](/wiki/Spinal_nerves "Spinal nerves") which pass information from the extremities to the brain through the spinal cord. By contrast, all [amniotes](/wiki/Amniotes "Amniotes") (mammals, birds and reptiles) have twelve pairs of cranial nerves.{{cite web \|url\=http://tolweb.org/Amniota \|title\=Amniota \|author1\=Laurin, Michel \|author2\=Gauthier, Jacques A. \|year\=2012 \|publisher\=Tree of Life Web Project \|access\-date\=August 4, 2012}}
[thumb\|left\|Close\-up of frog's head showing eye, nostril, mouth, and tympanum](/wiki/File:Groene_kikker_achter_Bekaert-draad-detail_oog.jpg "Groene kikker achter Bekaert-draad-detail oog.jpg")
### Sight
The eyes of most frogs are located on either side of the head near the top and project outwards as hemispherical bulges. They provide [binocular vision](/wiki/Binocular_vision "Binocular vision") over a field of 100° to the front and a total visual field of almost 360°.{{cite book \|last1\=Howard \|first1\=Ian P. \|url\={{Google books\|I8vqITdETe0C\|page\=651\|plainurl\=yes}} \|title\=Binocular Vision and Stereopsis \|last2\=Rogers \|first2\=Brian J. \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|year\=1995 \|isbn\=978\-0195084764 \|page\=651}} They may be the only part of an otherwise submerged frog to protrude from the water. Each eye has closable upper and lower lids and a [nictitating membrane](/wiki/Nictitating_membrane "Nictitating membrane") which provides further protection, especially when the frog is swimming.{{cite book \|title\=Frogs \|last\=Badger \|first\=David \|author2\=Netherton, John \|year\=1995 \|publisher\=Airlife Publishing Ltd \|isbn\=978\-1\-85310\-740\-5 \|pages\=31–35 }} Members of the aquatic family [Pipidae](/wiki/Pipidae "Pipidae") have the eyes located at the top of the head, a position better suited for detecting prey in the water above. The [irises](/wiki/Iris_%28anatomy%29 "Iris (anatomy)") come in a range of colours and the pupils in a range of shapes. The [common toad](/wiki/Common_toad "Common toad") (*Bufo bufo*) has golden irises and horizontal slit\-like pupils, the [red\-eyed tree frog](/wiki/Agalychnis_callidryas "Agalychnis callidryas") (*Agalychnis callidryas*) has vertical slit pupils, the [poison dart frog](/wiki/Poison_dart_frog "Poison dart frog") has dark irises, the [fire\-bellied toad](/wiki/Fire-bellied_toad "Fire-bellied toad") (*Bombina spp.*) has triangular pupils and the [tomato frog](/wiki/Dyscophus_antongilii "Dyscophus antongilii") (*Dyscophus spp.*) has circular ones. The irises of the [southern toad](/wiki/Southern_toad "Southern toad") (*Anaxyrus terrestris*) are patterned so as to blend in with the surrounding camouflaged skin.
The distant vision of a frog is better than its near vision. Calling frogs will quickly become silent when they see an intruder or even a moving shadow but the closer an object is, the less well it is seen. When a frog shoots out its tongue to catch an insect it is reacting to a small moving object that it cannot see well and must line it up precisely beforehand because it shuts its eyes as the tongue is extended. Although it was formerly debated,{{cite journal\|title\=Vision in frogs\|last\=Muntz\|first\=W. R. A.\|author2\=Scientific American Offprints\|journal\=Scientific American\|publisher\=W. H. Freeman\|year\=1964\|volume\=210\|issue\=3\|pages\=110–9\|doi\=10\.1038/scientificamerican0364\-110\|pmid\=14133069\|bibcode\=1964SciAm.210c.110M\|asin\=B0006RENBO\|oclc\=15304238}} more recent research has shown that frogs can see in colour, even in very low light.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Kelber\|first1\=Almut\|last2\=Yovanovich\|first2\=Carola\|last3\=Olsson\|first3\=Peter\|date\=April 5, 2017\|title\=Thresholds and noise limitations of colour vision in dim light\|journal\=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences\|language\=en\|volume\=372\|issue\=1717\|pages\=20160065\|doi\=10\.1098/rstb.2016\.0065\|issn\=0962\-8436\|pmc\=5312015\|pmid\=28193810}}
{{Clear}}
### Hearing
[thumb\|Surface rendering of the head of the frog *[Atelopus franciscus](/wiki/Atelopus_franciscus "Atelopus franciscus")*, with ear parts highlighted](/wiki/File:Synchrotron_microtomography_of_Atelopus_franciscus_head_-_pone.0022080.s003.ogv "Synchrotron microtomography of Atelopus franciscus head - pone.0022080.s003.ogv")
Frogs can hear both in the air and below water. They do not have [external ears](/wiki/Pinna_%28anatomy%29 "Pinna (anatomy)"); the eardrums ([tympanic membranes](/wiki/Tympanum_%28anatomy%29 "Tympanum (anatomy)")) are directly exposed or may be covered by a layer of skin and are visible as a circular area just behind the eye. The size and distance apart of the eardrums is related to the frequency and wavelength at which the frog calls. In some species such as the bullfrog, the size of the tympanum indicates the sex of the frog; males have tympani that are larger than their eyes while in females, the eyes and tympani are much the same size.{{cite book \|title\=Frogs \|last\=Badger \|first\=David \|author2\=Netherton, John \|year\=1995 \|publisher\=Airlife Publishing \|isbn\=978\-1\-85310\-740\-5 \|page\=38 }} A noise causes the tympanum to vibrate and the sound is transmitted to the middle and inner ear. The middle ear contains semicircular canals which help control balance and orientation. In the inner ear, the auditory hair cells are arranged in two areas of the cochlea, the basilar papilla and the amphibian papilla. The former detects high frequencies and the latter low frequencies.{{cite book \|title\=A Natural History of Amphibians \|last1\=Stebbins \|first1\=Robert C.\|author\-link1\=Robert C. Stebbins\| last2\=Cohen\|first2\= Nathan W. \|year\=1995 \|publisher\=Princeton University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-691\-03281\-8 \|pages\=67–69 }} Because the cochlea is short, frogs use [electrical tuning](/wiki/Electrical_tuning "Electrical tuning") to extend their range of audible frequencies and help discriminate different sounds.{{cite journal \|author1\=Armstrong, Cecilia E. \|author2\=Roberts, William M. \|year\=1998 \|title\=Electrical properties of frog saccular hair cells: distortion by enzymatic dissociation \|journal\=Journal of Neuroscience \|volume\=18 \|issue\=8 \|pages\= 2962–2973 \|pmid\=9526013 \|doi\=10\.1523/JNEUROSCI.18\-08\-02962\.1998 \|pmc\=6792591 \|doi\-access\=free }} This arrangement enables detection of the territorial and breeding calls of their [conspecifics](/wiki/Conspecificity "Conspecificity"). In some species that inhabit arid regions, the sound of thunder or heavy rain may arouse them from a dormant state. A frog may be startled by an unexpected noise but it will not usually take any action until it has located the source of the sound by sight.
### Call
{{See also\|Sexual selection in frogs}}
[thumb\|A male *[Dendropsophus microcephalus](/wiki/Dendropsophus_microcephalus "Dendropsophus microcephalus")* displaying its vocal sac during its call](/wiki/File:Dendropsophus_microcephalus_-_calling_male_%28Cope%2C_1886%29.jpg "Dendropsophus microcephalus - calling male (Cope, 1886).jpg")
[thumb\|Advertisement call of male *[Atelopus franciscus](/wiki/Atelopus_franciscus "Atelopus franciscus")*](/wiki/File:Atelopus_franciscus_male_territorial_call_-_pone.0022080.s002.oga "Atelopus franciscus male territorial call - pone.0022080.s002.oga")
The call or croak of a frog is unique to its species. Frogs create this sound by passing air through the [larynx](/wiki/Larynx "Larynx") in the throat. In most calling frogs, the sound is amplified by one or more vocal sacs, membranes of skin under the throat or on the corner of the mouth, that distend during the amplification of the call. Some frog calls are so loud that they can be heard up to a mile (1\.6{{nbsp}}km) away.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/Home/species\_a\_to\_z/SpeciesGuideIndex/bullfrog/tabid/6576/Default.aspx \|title\=Bullfrog \|publisher\=Ohio Department of Natural Resources \|access\-date\=June 19, 2012 \|archive\-date\=August 18, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120818105255/http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/Home/species\_a\_to\_z/SpeciesGuideIndex/bullfrog/tabid/6576/Default.aspx \|url\-status\=dead }} Additionally, some species have been found to use man\-made structures such as drain pipes for artificial amplification of their call.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Tan\|first1\=W.\-H.\|last2\=Tsai\|first2\=C.\-G.\|last3\=Lin\|first3\=C.\|last4\=Lin\|first4\=Y. K.\|date\=June 5, 2014\|title\=Urban canyon effect: storm drains enhance call characteristics of the Mientien tree frog\|journal\=Journal of Zoology\|language\=en\|volume\=294\|issue\=2\|pages\=77–84\|doi\=10\.1111/jzo.12154\|issn\=0952\-8369\|url\=http://ntur.lib.ntu.edu.tw//handle/246246/260607}} The [coastal tailed frog](/wiki/Ascaphus_truei "Ascaphus truei") (*Ascaphus truei*) lives in mountain streams in North America and does not vocalise.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.californiaherps.com/frogs/pages/a.truei.html \|title\=''Ascaphus truei'': Coastal Tailed Frog \|author\=Nafis, Gary \|year\=2012 \|publisher\=California Herps \|access\-date\=June 19, 2012}}
The main function of calling is for male frogs to attract mates. Males may call individually or there may be a chorus of sound where numerous males have converged on breeding sites. In many frog species, such as the [common tree frog](/wiki/Common_Tree_Frog "Common Tree Frog") (*Polypedates leucomystax*), females reply to males' calls, which acts to reinforce reproductive activity in a breeding colony.{{cite journal\| last\=Roy\| first\=Debjani\| year\=1997\| title\=Communication signals and sexual selection in amphibians\| journal\=Current Science\| volume\=72\| pages\=923–927\| url\=http://www.ias.ac.in/jarch/currsci/72/00000944\.pdf\| url\-status\=dead\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120923071112/http://www.ias.ac.in/jarch/currsci/72/00000944\.pdf\| archive\-date\=September 23, 2012}} Female frogs prefer males that produce sounds of greater intensity and lower frequency, attributes that stand out in a crowd. The rationale for this is thought to be that by demonstrating his prowess, the male shows his fitness to produce superior offspring.{{cite journal \|author\=Gerhardt, H. C. \|year\=1994 \|title\=The evolution of vocalization in frogs and toads \|journal\=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics \|volume\=25 \|pages\=293–324 \|doi\=10\.1146/annurev.es.25\.110194\.001453 }}
A different call is emitted by a male frog or unreceptive female when mounted by another male. This is a distinct chirruping sound and is accompanied by a vibration of the body.{{cite book \|title\=Frogs \|last\=Badger \|first\=David \|author2\=Netherton, John \|year\=1995 \|publisher\=Airlife Publishing Ltd \|isbn\=978\-1\-85310\-740\-5 \|pages\=39–44 }} Tree frogs and some non\-aquatic species have a rain call that they make on the basis of humidity cues prior to a shower. Many species also have a territorial call that is used to drive away other males. All of these calls are emitted with the mouth of the frog closed. A distress call, emitted by some frogs when they are in danger, is produced with the mouth open resulting in a higher\-pitched call. It is typically used when the frog has been grabbed by a predator and may serve to distract or disorient the attacker so that it releases the frog.
[left\|thumb\|Distinctive low "jug\-o\-rum" sound of [banded bullfrog](/wiki/Banded_bullfrog "Banded bullfrog")](/wiki/file:Banded_Bull_Frog_Call.ogg "Banded Bull Frog Call.ogg")
Many species of frog have deep calls. The croak of the [American bullfrog](/wiki/American_bullfrog "American bullfrog") (*Rana catesbiana*) is sometimes written as "jug o' rum".{{cite book\|last\=Hilton\|first\=Bill Jr.\|chapter\=9\. 'Jug\-o\-Rum': Call of the Amorous Bullfrog \|title\=The Piedmont Naturalist, Volume 1 \|publisher\=Hilton Pond Center for Piedmont Natural History \|location\=York, SC \|year\=1986 \|isbn\=978\-0\-9832151\-0\-3}} The [Pacific tree frog](/wiki/Pacific_Tree_Frog "Pacific Tree Frog") (*Pseudacris regilla*) produces the [onomatopoeic](/wiki/Onomatopoeia "Onomatopoeia") "ribbit" often heard in films.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.beachwatchers.wsu.edu/island/essays/TreeFrogs.htm \|title\=The RRRRRRRRiveting Life of Tree Frogs \|last\=Nash \|first\=Pat \|date\=February 2005 \|access\-date\=August 4, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309105032/http://www.beachwatchers.wsu.edu/island/essays/TreeFrogs.htm \|archive\-date\=March 9, 2012 }} Other renderings of frog calls into speech include "brekekekex koax koax", the call of the marsh frog (*[Pelophylax ridibundus](/wiki/Pelophylax_ridibundus "Pelophylax ridibundus")*) in *The Frogs*, an Ancient Greek comic drama by [Aristophanes](/wiki/Aristophanes "Aristophanes").{{cite web \|url\=http://records.viu.ca/\~johnstoi/aristophanes/frogs.htm \|title\=The Frogs \|author\=Aristophanes \|access\-date\=June 19, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513143510/http://records.viu.ca/\~johnstoi/aristophanes/frogs.htm \|archive\-date\=May 13, 2012 }} The calls of the [Concave\-eared torrent frog](/wiki/Concave-eared_torrent_frog "Concave-eared torrent frog") (*Amolops tormotus*) are unusual in many aspects. The males are notable for their varieties of calls where upward and downward frequency modulations take place. When they communicate, they produce calls that fall in the [ultrasound](/wiki/Ultrasound "Ultrasound") frequency range. The last aspect that makes this species of frog's calls unusual is that nonlinear acoustic phenomena are important components in their acoustic signals.{{cite journal\|author1\=Suthers, R.A.\|author2\=Narins, P.M.\|author3\=Lin, W\|author4\=Schnitzler, H\|author5\=Denzinger, A\|author6\=Xu, C\|author7\=Feng, A.S.\|year\=2006\|title\= Voices of the dead: complex nonlinear vocal signals from the larynx of an ultrasonic frog\|journal\=Journal of Experimental Biology\|volume\=209\|issue\=24\|pages\=4984–4993\| doi\= 10\.1242/jeb.02594\|pmid\=17142687\|doi\-access\=free}}
### Torpor
During extreme conditions, some frogs enter a state of [torpor](/wiki/Torpor "Torpor") and remain inactive for months. In colder regions, many species of frog [hibernate](/wiki/Hibernation "Hibernation") in winter. Those that live on land such as the [American toad](/wiki/American_toad "American toad") (*Bufo americanus*) dig a burrow and make a [hibernaculum](/wiki/Hibernaculum_%28zoology%29 "Hibernaculum (zoology)") in which to lie [dormant](/wiki/Dormancy "Dormancy"). Others, less proficient at digging, find a crevice or bury themselves in dead leaves. Aquatic species such as the [American bullfrog](/wiki/American_bullfrog "American bullfrog") (*Rana catesbeiana*) normally sink to the bottom of the pond where they lie, semi\-immersed in mud but still able to access the oxygen dissolved in the water. Their metabolism slows down and they live on their energy reserves. Some frogs such as the [wood frog](/wiki/Wood_frog "Wood frog"), [moor frog](/wiki/Moor_frog "Moor frog"), or [spring peeper](/wiki/Spring_peeper "Spring peeper") can even survive being frozen. Ice crystals form under the skin and in the body cavity but the essential organs are protected from freezing by a high concentration of glucose. An apparently lifeless, frozen frog can resume respiration and its heartbeat can restart when conditions warm up.{{cite magazine \|url\=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id\=how\-do\-frogs\-survive\-wint \|title\=How do frogs survive winter? Why don't they freeze to death? \|author\=Emmer, Rick \|date\=November 24, 1997 \|magazine\=Scientific American \|access\-date\=June 15, 2012}}
At the other extreme, the [striped burrowing frog](/wiki/Striped_burrowing_frog "Striped burrowing frog") (*Cyclorana alboguttata*) regularly [aestivates](/wiki/Aestivation "Aestivation") during the hot, dry season in Australia, surviving in a dormant state without access to food and water for nine or ten months of the year. It burrows underground and curls up inside a protective [cocoon](/wiki/Cocoon_%28silk%29 "Cocoon (silk)") formed by its shed skin. Researchers at the [University of Queensland](/wiki/University_of_Queensland "University of Queensland") have found that during aestivation, the [metabolism](/wiki/Metabolism "Metabolism") of the frog is altered and the operational efficiency of the [mitochondria](/wiki/Mitochondria "Mitochondria") is increased. This means that the limited amount of energy available to the comatose frog is used in a more efficient manner. This survival mechanism is only useful to animals that remain completely unconscious for an extended period of time and whose energy requirements are low because they are cold\-blooded and have no need to generate heat.{{cite journal \|author1\=Kayes, Sara M. \|author2\=Cramp, Rebecca L. \|author3\=Franklin, Craig E. \|year\=2009 \|title\=Metabolic depression during aestivation in ''Cyclorana alboguttata'' \|journal\=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology – Part A: Molecular \& Integrative Physiology \|volume\=154 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=557–563 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.cbpa.2009\.09\.001 \|pmid\=19737622 }} Other research showed that, to provide these energy requirements, muscles atrophy, but hind limb muscles are preferentially unaffected.{{cite journal \|author1\=Hudson, N. J. \|author2\=Lehnert, S. A. \|author3\=Ingham, A. B. \|author4\=Symonds, B. \|author5\=Franklin, C. E. \|author6\=Harper, G. S. \|year\=2005 \|title\=Lessons from an estivating frog: sparing muscle protein despite starvation and disuse \|journal\=\[\[American Journal of Physiology\|AJP: Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology]] \|volume\=290 \|issue\=3 \|pages \= R836–R843 \| doi \= 10\.1152/ajpregu.00380\.2005 \| pmid \= 16239372 \|s2cid\=8395980 }} Frogs have been found to have upper critical temperatures of around 41 degrees Celsius.{{Cite book\|title\=Environmental Physiology of Animals\|last\=Wilmer\|first\=Pat\|publisher\=Wiley\|year\=2009\|isbn\=9781405107242\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/environmentalphy00will/page/188 188]\|url\=https://archive.org/details/environmentalphy00will/page/188}}
|
[
"Morphology and physiology\n-------------------------",
"[thumb\\|right\\|A [bullfrog](/wiki/American_bullfrog \"American bullfrog\") skeleton, showing elongated limb bones and extra joints. Red marks indicate bones which have been substantially elongated in frogs and joints which have become mobile. Blue indicates joints and bones which have not been modified or only somewhat elongated.](/wiki/File:Frog_limbs.jpg \"Frog limbs.jpg\")",
"Frogs have no tail, except as larvae, and most have long hind legs, elongated ankle bones, webbed toes, no claws, large eyes, and a smooth or warty skin. They have short vertebral columns, with no more than 10 free vertebrae and fused tailbones (urostyle or coccyx).{{cite web \\|author\\=Flam, F. \\|year\\=1995 \\|title\\=Finding earliest true frog will help paleontologists understand how frog evolved its jumping ability \\|url\\=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1\\-17454183\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513111921/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1\\-17454183\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=May 13, 2013 \\|publisher\\=Knight Ridder/Tribune News Service \\|access\\-date\\=June 10, 2012}} Frogs range in size from *[Paedophryne amauensis](/wiki/Paedophryne_amauensis \"Paedophryne amauensis\")* of [Papua New Guinea](/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea \"Papua New Guinea\") that is {{cvt\\|7\\.7\\|mm}} in [snout–vent length](/wiki/Snout%E2%80%93vent_length \"Snout–vent length\"){{cite news \\|title\\=Tiny frog claimed as world's smallest vertebrate \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/jan/12/world\\-smallest\\-frog \\|newspaper\\=The Guardian \\|date\\=January 12, 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=September 28, 2012}} to the up to about {{cvt\\|35\\|cm}} and {{cvt\\|3\\.3\\|kg}} [goliath frog](/wiki/Goliath_frog \"Goliath frog\") (*Conraua goliath*) of central Africa.{{cite book \\| last\\=Colgan \\| first\\=P.V \\| year\\=1982 \\|title\\=The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats \\| url\\=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofan00wood/ \\| edition\\=3 \\| publisher\\=Guinness Superlatives \\| pages\\=118–119 \\| isbn\\=978\\-0851122359 }} There are prehistoric, extinct species that reached even larger sizes.{{cite journal \\|author1\\=Otero, R.A. \\|author2\\=P. Jimenez\\-Huidobro \\|author3\\=S. Soto\\-Acuña \\|author4\\=R.E.Yury\\-Yáñez \\|year\\=2014 \\|title\\=Evidence of a giant helmeted frog (Australobatrachia, Calyptocephalellidae) from Eocene levels of the Magallanes Basin, southernmost Chile \\|journal\\=Journal of South American Earth Sciences \\|volume\\=55 \\|pages\\=133–140 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.jsames.2014\\.06\\.010 \\|bibcode\\=2014JSAES..55\\..133O }}",
"### Feet and legs",
"The structure of the feet and legs varies greatly among frog species, depending in part on whether they live primarily on the ground, in water, in trees, or in burrows. Adult anurans have four fingers on the hands and five toes on the feet,[Morphological Variation in Anuran Limbs: Constraints and Novelties](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28597591/) but the smallest species often have hands and feet where some of the digits are vestigial.[Morphological and ecological convergence at the lower size limit for vertebrates highlighted by five new miniaturised microhylid frog species from three different Madagascan genera](https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0213314) Frogs must be able to move quickly through their environment to catch prey and escape predators, and numerous adaptations help them to do so. Most frogs are either proficient at jumping or are descended from ancestors that were, with much of the [musculoskeletal](/wiki/Musculoskeletal \"Musculoskeletal\") [morphology](/wiki/Morphology_%28biology%29 \"Morphology (biology)\") modified for this purpose. The tibia, fibula, and [tarsals](/wiki/Tarsus_%28skeleton%29 \"Tarsus (skeleton)\") have been fused into a single strong [bone](/wiki/Bone \"Bone\"), as have the radius and ulna in the fore limbs (which must absorb the impact on landing). The [metatarsals](/wiki/Metatarsals \"Metatarsals\") have become elongated to add to the leg length and allow frogs to push against the ground for a longer period on take\\-off. The [ilium](/wiki/Ilium_%28bone%29 \"Ilium (bone)\") has elongated and formed a mobile joint with the [sacrum](/wiki/Sacrum \"Sacrum\") which, in specialist jumpers such as ranids and hylids, functions as an additional limb joint to further power the leaps. The tail vertebrae have fused into a urostyle which is retracted inside the pelvis. This enables the force to be transferred from the legs to the body during a leap.",
"[thumb\\|alt\\=Webbed foot\\|Webbed hind foot of [common frog](/wiki/Common_frog \"Common frog\") \n (*Rana temporaria*)](/wiki/File:Rana_temporaria_04_by-dpc.jpg \"Rana temporaria 04 by-dpc.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Tyler's tree frog](/wiki/Tyler%27s_tree_frog \"Tyler's tree frog\") (*Litoria tyleri*) has large toe pads and webbed feet.](/wiki/File:Litoria_tyleri.jpg \"Litoria tyleri.jpg\")",
"The muscular system has been similarly modified. The hind limbs of ancestral frogs presumably contained pairs of muscles which would act in opposition (one muscle to flex the knee, a different muscle to extend it), as is seen in most other limbed animals. However, in modern frogs, almost all muscles have been modified to contribute to the action of jumping, with only a few small muscles remaining to bring the limb back to the starting position and maintain posture. The muscles have also been greatly enlarged, with the main leg muscles accounting for over 17% of the total mass of frogs.",
"Many frogs have webbed feet and the degree of webbing is directly proportional to the amount of time the species spends in the water.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.exploratorium.edu/frogs/mainstory/ \\|title\\=The amazing adaptable frog \\|author\\=Tesler, P. \\|year\\=1999 \\|publisher\\=Exploratorium:: The museum of science, art and human perception \\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2012}} The completely aquatic [African dwarf frog](/wiki/African_dwarf_frog \"African dwarf frog\") (*Hymenochirus* sp.) has fully webbed toes, whereas those of [White's tree frog](/wiki/White%27s_tree_frog \"White's tree frog\") (*Litoria caerulea*), an arboreal species, are only a quarter or half webbed.{{cite web \\|author\\=Vincent, L. \\|year\\=2001 \\|publisher\\=James Cook University \\|title\\=''Litoria caerulea'' \\|url\\=http://www.jcu.edu.au/school/tbiol/zoology/herp/Litoriacaerulea.PDF \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040422212337/http://www.jcu.edu.au/school/tbiol/zoology/herp/Litoriacaerulea.PDF \\|archive\\-date\\=April 22, 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=August 3, 2012 }} Exceptions include [flying frogs](/wiki/Flying_frog \"Flying frog\") in the [Hylidae](/wiki/Hylidae \"Hylidae\") and [Rhacophoridae](/wiki/Rhacophoridae \"Rhacophoridae\"), which also have fully webbed toes used in gliding.",
"[Arboreal frogs](/wiki/Tree_frog \"Tree frog\") have pads located on the ends of their toes to help grip vertical surfaces. These are not suction pads, the surface consisting instead of columnar cells with flat tops with small gaps between them lubricated by mucous glands. When the frog applies pressure, the cells adhere to irregularities on the surface and the grip is maintained through [surface tension](/wiki/Capillarity \"Capillarity\"). This allows the frog to climb on smooth surfaces, but the system does not function efficiently when the pads are excessively wet.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Emerson \\|first\\=S. B. \\|author2\\=Diehl, D. \\|year\\=1980\\| title\\=Toe pad morphology and mechanisms of sticking in frogs \\|journal\\=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society \\|volume\\=13 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=199–216 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1095\\-8312\\.1980\\.tb00082\\.x}}",
"In many arboreal frogs, a small \"intercalary structure\" on each toe increases the surface area touching the [substrate](/wiki/Substrate_%28biology%29 \"Substrate (biology)\"). Furthermore, many arboreal frogs have hip joints that allow both hopping and walking. Some frogs that live high in trees even possess an elaborate degree of webbing between their toes. This allows the frogs to \"parachute\" or make a controlled glide from one position in the canopy to another.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Harvey \\|first\\=M. B. \\|author2\\= Pemberton, A. J. \\|author3\\=Smith, E. N. \\|year\\=2002 \\|title\\=New and poorly known parachuting frogs (Rhacophoridae : ''Rhacophorus'') from Sumatra and Java \\|journal\\=Herpetological Monographs \\|volume\\=16 \\|pages\\=46–92 \\|doi\\=10\\.1655/0733\\-1347(2002\\)016\\[0046:NAPKPF]2\\.0\\.CO;2 \\|s2cid\\=86616385 }}",
"Ground\\-dwelling frogs generally lack the adaptations of aquatic and arboreal frogs. Most have smaller toe pads, if any, and little webbing. Some burrowing frogs such as [Couch's spadefoot](/wiki/Couch%27s_Spadefoot_Toad \"Couch's Spadefoot Toad\") (*Scaphiopus couchii*) have a flap\\-like toe extension on the hind feet, a [keratinised](/wiki/Keratin \"Keratin\") [tubercle](/wiki/Tubercle \"Tubercle\") often referred to as a spade, that helps them to burrow.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.desertmuseum.org/books/nhsd\\_spadefoot.php \\|title\\=Couch's spadefoot (''Scaphiopus couchi'') \\|publisher\\=Arizona\\-Sonora Desert Museum \\|access\\-date\\=August 3, 2012}}",
"Sometimes during the tadpole stage, one of the developing rear legs is eaten by a predator such as a [dragonfly nymph](/wiki/Dragonfly_nymph \"Dragonfly nymph\"). In some cases, the full leg still grows, but in others it does not, although the frog may still live out its normal lifespan with only three limbs. Occasionally, a parasitic [flatworm](/wiki/Flatworm \"Flatworm\") (*[Ribeiroia ondatrae](/wiki/Ribeiroia_ondatrae \"Ribeiroia ondatrae\")*) digs into the rear of a tadpole, causing a rearrangement of the limb bud cells and the frog develops one or more extra legs.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth\\_news/newsid\\_8116000/8116692\\.stm \\|title\\=Legless frogs mystery solved \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=June 25, 2009 \\|first\\=M. \\|last\\=Walker}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|[Northern leopard frog](/wiki/Northern_leopard_frog \"Northern leopard frog\") (*Rana pipiens*) moulting and eating its skin](/wiki/File:Ranapipiensmoulting.jpg \"Ranapipiensmoulting.jpg\")",
"### Skin",
"A frog's skin is protective, has a respiratory function, can absorb water, and helps control body temperature. It has many glands, particularly on the head and back, which often exude distasteful and toxic substances ([granular glands](/wiki/Skin \"Skin\")). The secretion is often sticky and helps keep the skin moist, protects against the entry of moulds and bacteria, and makes the animal slippery and more able to escape from predators.{{cite book \\|title\\=A Natural History of Amphibians \\|last\\=Stebbins \\|first\\=Robert C. \\|author\\-link1\\=Robert C. Stebbins \\|author2\\=Cohen, Nathan W. \\|year\\=1995 \\|publisher\\=Princeton University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-691\\-03281\\-8 \\|pages\\=10–14 }} The skin is shed every few weeks. It usually splits down the middle of the back and across the belly, and the frog pulls its arms and legs free. The sloughed skin is then worked towards the head where it is quickly eaten.{{cite journal \\|jstor\\=2456779 \\|pages\\=530–540 \\|last1\\=Frost \\|first1\\=S. W. \\|title\\=Notes on feeding and molting in frogs \\|volume\\=66 \\|issue\\=707 \\|journal\\=The American Naturalist \\|year\\=1932 \\|doi\\=10\\.1086/280458 \\|s2cid\\=84796411 }}",
"Being cold\\-blooded, frogs have to adopt suitable behaviour patterns to regulate their temperature. To warm up, they can move into the sun or onto a warm surface; if they overheat, they can move into the shade or adopt a stance that exposes the minimum area of skin to the air. This posture is also used to prevent water loss and involves the frog squatting close to the substrate with its hands and feet tucked under its chin and body.{{cite book \\|title\\=Frogs \\|last\\=Badger \\|first\\=D. \\|author2\\=Netherton, J. \\|year\\=1995 \\|publisher\\=Airlife Publishing \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-85310\\-740\\-5 \\|page\\=27 }} The colour of a frog's skin is used for thermoregulation. In cool damp conditions, the colour will be darker than on a hot dry day. The [grey foam\\-nest tree frog](/wiki/Grey_Foam-nest_Treefrog \"Grey Foam-nest Treefrog\") (*Chiromantis xerampelina*) is even able to turn white to minimise the chance of overheating.{{cite book \\|title\\=Amphibians and Their Ways \\|last\\=Smyth \\|first\\=H. R. \\|year\\=1962 \\|publisher\\=Macmillan \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-02\\-612190\\-3 }}",
"Many frogs are able to absorb water and oxygen directly through the skin, especially around the pelvic area, but the permeability of a frog's skin can also result in water loss. Glands located all over the body exude mucus which helps keep the skin moist and reduces evaporation. Some glands on the hands and chest of males are specialised to produce sticky secretions to aid in [amplexus](/wiki/Amplexus \"Amplexus\"). Similar glands in tree frogs produce a glue\\-like substance on the adhesive discs of the feet. Some arboreal frogs reduce water loss by having a waterproof layer of skin, and several South American species coat their skin with a waxy secretion. Other frogs have adopted behaviours to conserve water, including becoming [nocturnal](/wiki/Nocturnal \"Nocturnal\") and resting in a water\\-conserving position. Some frogs may also rest in large groups with each frog pressed against its neighbours. This reduces the amount of skin exposed to the air or a dry surface, and thus reduces water loss. [Woodhouse's toad](/wiki/Woodhouse%27s_toad \"Woodhouse's toad\") (*Bufo woodhousii*), if given access to water after confinement in a dry location, sits in the shallows to rehydrate.{{cite book \\|title\\=The Frog Book: North American Frogs and Toads \\|last\\=Dickerson \\|first\\=M. C. \\|year\\=1969 \\|publisher\\=Dover Publications \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-486\\-21973\\-8 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/frogbooknorthame00dick\\_0 }} The male [hairy frog](/wiki/Hairy_frog \"Hairy frog\") (*Trichobatrachus robustus*) has [dermal papillae](/wiki/Dermal_papillae \"Dermal papillae\") projecting from its lower back and thighs, giving it a bristly appearance. These contain blood vessels and are thought to increase the area of the skin available for respiration.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi\\-bin/amphib\\_query?where\\-genus\\=Trichobatrachus \\|title\\=''Trichobatrachus robustus'' \\|author\\=Blackburn, D. C. \\|date\\=November 14, 2002 \\|publisher\\=AmphibiaWeb \\|access\\-date\\=August 18, 2012}}\n[thumb\\|alt\\=Frog barely recognisable against brown decaying leaf litter.\\|[Pouched frog](/wiki/Pouched_frog \"Pouched frog\") (*Assa darlingtoni*) camouflaged against leaf litter](/wiki/File:Hip-pocket_Frog_-_Assa_darlingtoni.jpg \"Hip-pocket Frog - Assa darlingtoni.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Wood frog](/wiki/Wood_frog \"Wood frog\") (*Lithobates sylvaticus*) uses [disruptive coloration](/wiki/Disruptive_coloration \"Disruptive coloration\").](/wiki/File:WoodFrog_DarienLakesStatePark_2020-06-16_%2802%29.jpg \"WoodFrog DarienLakesStatePark 2020-06-16 (02).jpg\")",
"Some species have [bony plates](/wiki/Osteoderm \"Osteoderm\") embedded in the skin, a trait that appears to have evolved independently several times.{{cite journal \\|author1\\=Ruibal, Rodolfo \\|author2\\=Shoemaker, Vaughan \\|year\\=1985 \\|title\\=Osteoderms in Anurans \\|journal\\=Journal of Herpetology \\|volume\\=18 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=313–328 \\|jstor\\=1564085 \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/1564085}} In certain other species, the skin at the top of the head is compacted and the connective tissue of the dermis is co\\-ossified with the bones of the skull ([exostosis](/wiki/Exostosis \"Exostosis\")).{{cite book \\|title\\=Herpetology: An Introductory Biology of Amphibians and Reptiles \\|last1\\=Vitt \\|first1\\=Laurie J. \\|last2\\=Caldwell \\|first2\\=Janalee P. \\|year\\=2013 \\|publisher\\=Academic Press \\|isbn\\=9780123869203 \\|page\\=50 \\|url\\={{Google books\\|Gay9N\\_ry79kC\\|page\\=50\\|plainurl\\=yes}} }}{{cite journal \\|author1\\=Jared, C. \\|author2\\=Antoniazzi, M. M. \\|author3\\=Navas, C. A. \\|author4\\=Katchburian, E. \\|author5\\=Freymüller, E. \\|author6\\=Tambourgi, D. V. \\|author7\\=Rodrigues, M. T. \\|year\\=2005 \\|title\\=Head co\\-ossification, phragmosis and defence in the casque\\-headed tree frog ''Corythomantis greeningi'' \\|journal\\=Journal of Zoology \\|volume\\=265 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=1–8 \\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S0952836904005953 \\|s2cid\\=59449901 }}",
"[Camouflage](/wiki/Camouflage \"Camouflage\") is a common defensive mechanism in frogs. Features such as warts and [skin folds](/wiki/Skin_fold \"Skin fold\") are usually on ground\\-dwelling frogs, for whom smooth skin would not provide such effective camouflage. Certain frogs change colour between night and day, as light and moisture stimulate the pigment cells and cause them to expand or contract.{{cite book \\|title\\=The Observer's Book of British Wild Animals \\|last\\=Burton \\|first\\=Maurice \\|year\\=1972 \\|publisher\\=Frederick Warne \\& Co \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7232\\-1503\\-5 \\|pages\\=204–209 }} Some are even able to control their skin texture.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Guayasamin\\|first1\\=Juan M.\\|last2\\=Krynak\\|first2\\=Tim\\|last3\\=Krynak\\|first3\\=Katherine\\|last4\\=Culebras\\|first4\\=Jaime\\|last5\\=Hutter\\|first5\\=Carl R.\\|date\\=2015\\|title\\=Phenotypic plasticity raises questions for taxonomically important traits: a remarkable new Andean rainfrog ( Pristimantis ) with the ability to change skin texture: Phenotypic plasticity in Andean rainfrog\\|journal\\=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=173\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=913–928\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/zoj.12222\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} The [Pacific tree frog](/wiki/Pacific_tree_frog \"Pacific tree frog\") (*Pseudacris regilla*) has green and brown morphs, plain or spotted, and changes colour depending on the time of year and general background colour.{{cite journal \\|author1\\=Wente, W. H. \\|author2\\=Phillips, J. B. \\|year\\=2003 \\|title\\=Fixed green and brown color morphs and a novel color\\-changing morph of the Pacific tree frog ''Hyla regilla'' \\|journal\\=The American Naturalist \\|volume\\=162 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=461–473 \\| jstor\\=10\\.1086/378253 \\|doi\\=10\\.1086/378253 \\|pmid\\=14582008 \\|s2cid\\=25692966 }} The [Wood frog](/wiki/Wood_frog \"Wood frog\") (*Lithobates sylvaticus*) uses [disruptive coloration](/wiki/Disruptive_coloration \"Disruptive coloration\") including black eye markings similar to voids between leaves, bands of the dorsal skin (dorsolateral dermal plica) similar to a leaf [midrib](/wiki/Midrib \"Midrib\") as well as stains, spots and leg stripes similar to fallen leaf features.",
"### Respiration and circulation",
"Like other amphibians, [oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen \"Oxygen\") can pass through their highly permeable skins. This unique feature allows them to remain in places without access to the air, respiring through their skins. Ribs are generally absent, so the lungs are filled by [buccal pumping](/wiki/Buccal_pumping \"Buccal pumping\") and a frog deprived of its lungs can maintain its body functions without them. The fully aquatic [Bornean flat\\-headed frog](/wiki/Bornean_flat-headed_frog \"Bornean flat-headed frog\") (*Barbourula kalimantanensis*) is the first frog known to lack lungs entirely.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi\\-bin/amphib\\_query?where\\-genus\\=Barbourula\\&where\\-species\\=kalimantanensis \\|title\\=''Barbourula kalimantanensis'' \\|author\\=Boisvert, Adam \\|date\\=October 23, 2007 \\|work\\=AmphibiaWeb \\|publisher\\=University of California, Berkeley \\|access\\-date\\=July 9, 2012}}",
"Frogs have three\\-chambered [hearts](/wiki/Heart \"Heart\"), a feature they share with [lizards](/wiki/Lizard \"Lizard\"). Oxygenated blood from the lungs and de\\-oxygenated blood from the [respiring](/wiki/Respiration_%28physiology%29 \"Respiration (physiology)\") tissues enter the heart through separate [atria](/wiki/Atrium_%28anatomy%29 \"Atrium (anatomy)\"). When these chambers contract, the two blood streams pass into a common [ventricle](/wiki/Ventricle_%28heart%29 \"Ventricle (heart)\") before being pumped via a spiral valve to the appropriate vessel, the [aorta](/wiki/Aorta \"Aorta\") for oxygenated blood and [pulmonary artery](/wiki/Pulmonary_artery \"Pulmonary artery\") for deoxygenated blood.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/AnimalHearts.html \\|title\\=Animal Circulatory Systems: Three Chambers: The Frog and Lizard \\|author\\=Kimball, John \\|year\\=2010 \\|work\\=Kimball's Biology Pages \\|access\\-date\\=July 9, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160511032359/http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/AnimalHearts.html \\|archive\\-date\\= May 11, 2016}}",
"Some species of frog have adaptations that allow them to survive in oxygen deficient water. The [Titicaca water frog](/wiki/Titicaca_water_frog \"Titicaca water frog\") (*Telmatobius culeus*) is one such species and has wrinkly skin that increases its surface area to enhance gas exchange. It normally makes no use of its rudimentary lungs but will sometimes raise and lower its body rhythmically while on the lake bed to increase the flow of water around it.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi\\-bin/amphib\\_query?where\\-genus\\=Telmatobius\\&where\\-species\\=culeus \\|title\\=''Telmatobius culeus'' \\|author\\=Lee, Deborah \\|date\\=April 23, 2010 \\|work\\=AmphibiaWeb \\|publisher\\=University of California, Berkeley \\|access\\-date\\=July 9, 2012}}",
"[thumb\\|right\\|alt\\=Dissected frog\\|Anatomical model of a dissected frog: 1 Right atrium, 2 Lungs, 3 Aorta, 4 Egg mass, 5 Colon, 6 Left atrium, 7 Ventricle, 8 Stomach, 9 Liver, 10 Gallbladder, 11 Small intestine, 12 Cloaca](/wiki/File:Frog_anatomy_tags.PNG \"Frog anatomy tags.PNG\")",
"### Digestion and excretion",
"Frogs have maxillary teeth along their upper jaw which are used to hold food before it is swallowed. These teeth are very weak, and cannot be used to chew or catch and harm agile prey. Instead, the frog uses its sticky, cleft tongue to catch insects and other small moving prey. The tongue normally lies coiled in the mouth, free at the back and attached to the mandible at the front. It can be shot out and retracted at great speed. In amphibians there are salvary glands on the tongue, which in frogs produce what is called a two\\-phase viscoelastic fluid. When exposed to pressure, like when the tongue is wrapping around a prey, it becomes runny and covers the prey's body. As the pressure drops, it returns to a thick and elastic state, which gives the tongue an extra grip.[The Secret to the Stickiness of Frog Spit \\| STAO](https://stao.ca/the-secret-to-the-stickiness-of-frog-spit/) Some frogs have no tongue and just stuff food into their mouths with their hands. The African bullfrog (*[Pyxicephalus](/wiki/Pyxicephalus \"Pyxicephalus\")*), which preys on relatively large animals such as mice and other frogs, has cone shaped bony projections called odontoid processes at the front of the lower jaw which function like teeth. The eyes assist in the swallowing of food as they can be retracted through holes in the skull and help push food down the throat.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Levine \\|first1\\=R. P. \\|last2\\=Monroy \\|first2\\=J. A. \\|last3\\=Brainerd\\|first3\\=E. L. \\|title\\=Contribution of eye retraction to swallowing performance in the northern leopard frog, ''Rana pipiens'' \\|doi\\=10\\.1242/jeb.00885\\|pmid\\=15010487 \\|date\\=March 15, 2004\\|pages\\=1361–1368 \\|issue\\=Pt 8\\|volume\\=207 \\|journal\\=Journal of Experimental Biology \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"The food then moves through the oesophagus into the stomach where digestive enzymes are added and it is churned up. It then proceeds to the small intestine (duodenum and ileum) where most digestion occurs. Pancreatic juice from the pancreas, and bile, produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder, are secreted into the small intestine, where the fluids digest the food and the nutrients are absorbed. The food residue passes into the large intestine where excess water is removed and the wastes are passed out through the [cloaca](/wiki/Cloaca \"Cloaca\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.tutorvista.com/biology/frog\\-digestive\\-system\\-diagram \\|title\\=Frog Digestive System \\|year\\=2010 \\|publisher\\=TutorVista.com \\|access\\-date\\=August 4, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100603080405/http://www.tutorvista.com/biology/frog\\-digestive\\-system\\-diagram\\|archive\\-date\\=June 3, 2010\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"Although adapted to terrestrial life, frogs resemble freshwater fish in their inability to conserve body water effectively. When they are on land, much water is lost by evaporation from the skin. The excretory system is similar to that of mammals and there are two [kidneys](/wiki/Kidney \"Kidney\") that remove nitrogenous products from the blood. Frogs produce large quantities of dilute urine in order to flush out toxic products from the kidney tubules.{{cite book \\|title\\=Zoology \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/zoology0000dori \\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|last\\=Dorit \\|first\\=R. L. \\|author2\\=Walker, W. F.\\|author3\\=Barnes, R. D. \\|year\\=1991 \\|publisher\\=Saunders College Publishing \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-03\\-030504\\-7 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/zoology0000dori/page/849 849] }} The nitrogen is excreted as [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia \"Ammonia\") by tadpoles and aquatic frogs but mainly as [urea](/wiki/Urea \"Urea\"), a less toxic product, by most terrestrial adults. A few species of tree frog with little access to water excrete the even less toxic [uric acid](/wiki/Uric_acid \"Uric acid\"). The urine passes along paired [ureters](/wiki/Ureter \"Ureter\") to the [urinary bladder](/wiki/Urinary_bladder \"Urinary bladder\") from which it is vented periodically into the cloaca. All bodily wastes exit the body through the cloaca which terminates in a cloacal vent.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology\\-iii/animal\\-morphology/respiratory\\-excretory\\-nervous\\-reproductive\\-system\\-frog.php \\|title\\=Frog's internal systems \\|year\\=2010 \\|publisher\\=TutorVista.com \\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080121101351/http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology\\-iii/animal\\-morphology/respiratory\\-excretory\\-nervous\\-reproductive\\-system\\-frog.php \\|archive\\-date\\=January 21, 2008}}",
"### Reproductive system",
"{{See also\\|Sexual selection in amphibians}}\nIn the male frog, the two [testes](/wiki/Testis \"Testis\") are attached to the kidneys and [semen](/wiki/Semen \"Semen\") passes into the kidneys through fine tubes called [efferent ducts](/wiki/Efferent_ducts \"Efferent ducts\"). It then travels on through the ureters, which are consequently known as urinogenital ducts. There is no penis, and sperm is ejected from the cloaca directly onto the eggs as the female lays them. The ovaries of the female frog are beside the kidneys and the eggs pass down a pair of oviducts and through the cloaca to the exterior.",
"When frogs mate, the male climbs on the back of the female and wraps his fore limbs round her body, either behind the front legs or just in front of the hind legs. This position is called [amplexus](/wiki/Amplexus \"Amplexus\") and may be held for several days.{{cite book \\| author \\= Duellman, W. E. and L. Trueb \\| date \\= 1986 \\| title \\= Biology of Amphibians \\| location \\= New York \\| publisher \\= McGraw\\-Hill Publishing Company }} The male frog has certain hormone\\-dependent [secondary sexual characteristics](/wiki/Secondary_sexual_characteristic \"Secondary sexual characteristic\"). These include the development of special pads on his thumbs in the breeding season, to give him a firm hold.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www2\\.southeastern.edu/Academics/Faculty/dsever/SeverandStaub.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www2\\.southeastern.edu/Academics/Faculty/dsever/SeverandStaub.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=October 9, 2022 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|title\\=Hormones, sex accessory structures, and secondary sexual characteristics in amphibians \\|author1\\=Sever, David M. \\|author2\\=Staub, Nancy L. \\|pages\\=83–98 \\|work\\=Hormones and Reproduction of Vertebrates – Vol 2: Amphibians \\|access\\-date\\=August 4, 2012}} The grip of the male frog during amplexus stimulates the female to release eggs, usually wrapped in jelly, as spawn. In many species the male is smaller and slimmer than the female. Males have vocal cords and make a range of croaks, particularly in the breeding season, and in some species they also have [vocal sacs](/wiki/Vocal_sac \"Vocal sac\") to amplify the sound.",
"### Nervous system",
"Frogs have a highly developed nervous system that consists of a brain, spinal cord and nerves. Many parts of frog brains correspond with those of humans. It consists of two olfactory lobes, two cerebral hemispheres, a pineal body, two optic lobes, a cerebellum and a medulla oblongata. Muscular coordination and posture are controlled by the [cerebellum](/wiki/Cerebellum \"Cerebellum\"), and the [medulla oblongata](/wiki/Medulla_oblongata \"Medulla oblongata\") regulates respiration, digestion and other automatic functions. The relative size of the [cerebrum](/wiki/Cerebrum \"Cerebrum\") in frogs is much smaller than it is in humans. Frogs have ten pairs of [cranial nerves](/wiki/Cranial_nerves \"Cranial nerves\") which pass information from the outside directly to the brain, and ten pairs of [spinal nerves](/wiki/Spinal_nerves \"Spinal nerves\") which pass information from the extremities to the brain through the spinal cord. By contrast, all [amniotes](/wiki/Amniotes \"Amniotes\") (mammals, birds and reptiles) have twelve pairs of cranial nerves.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://tolweb.org/Amniota \\|title\\=Amniota \\|author1\\=Laurin, Michel \\|author2\\=Gauthier, Jacques A. \\|year\\=2012 \\|publisher\\=Tree of Life Web Project \\|access\\-date\\=August 4, 2012}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Close\\-up of frog's head showing eye, nostril, mouth, and tympanum](/wiki/File:Groene_kikker_achter_Bekaert-draad-detail_oog.jpg \"Groene kikker achter Bekaert-draad-detail oog.jpg\")",
"### Sight",
"The eyes of most frogs are located on either side of the head near the top and project outwards as hemispherical bulges. They provide [binocular vision](/wiki/Binocular_vision \"Binocular vision\") over a field of 100° to the front and a total visual field of almost 360°.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Howard \\|first1\\=Ian P. \\|url\\={{Google books\\|I8vqITdETe0C\\|page\\=651\\|plainurl\\=yes}} \\|title\\=Binocular Vision and Stereopsis \\|last2\\=Rogers \\|first2\\=Brian J. \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|year\\=1995 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0195084764 \\|page\\=651}} They may be the only part of an otherwise submerged frog to protrude from the water. Each eye has closable upper and lower lids and a [nictitating membrane](/wiki/Nictitating_membrane \"Nictitating membrane\") which provides further protection, especially when the frog is swimming.{{cite book \\|title\\=Frogs \\|last\\=Badger \\|first\\=David \\|author2\\=Netherton, John \\|year\\=1995 \\|publisher\\=Airlife Publishing Ltd \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-85310\\-740\\-5 \\|pages\\=31–35 }} Members of the aquatic family [Pipidae](/wiki/Pipidae \"Pipidae\") have the eyes located at the top of the head, a position better suited for detecting prey in the water above. The [irises](/wiki/Iris_%28anatomy%29 \"Iris (anatomy)\") come in a range of colours and the pupils in a range of shapes. The [common toad](/wiki/Common_toad \"Common toad\") (*Bufo bufo*) has golden irises and horizontal slit\\-like pupils, the [red\\-eyed tree frog](/wiki/Agalychnis_callidryas \"Agalychnis callidryas\") (*Agalychnis callidryas*) has vertical slit pupils, the [poison dart frog](/wiki/Poison_dart_frog \"Poison dart frog\") has dark irises, the [fire\\-bellied toad](/wiki/Fire-bellied_toad \"Fire-bellied toad\") (*Bombina spp.*) has triangular pupils and the [tomato frog](/wiki/Dyscophus_antongilii \"Dyscophus antongilii\") (*Dyscophus spp.*) has circular ones. The irises of the [southern toad](/wiki/Southern_toad \"Southern toad\") (*Anaxyrus terrestris*) are patterned so as to blend in with the surrounding camouflaged skin.",
"The distant vision of a frog is better than its near vision. Calling frogs will quickly become silent when they see an intruder or even a moving shadow but the closer an object is, the less well it is seen. When a frog shoots out its tongue to catch an insect it is reacting to a small moving object that it cannot see well and must line it up precisely beforehand because it shuts its eyes as the tongue is extended. Although it was formerly debated,{{cite journal\\|title\\=Vision in frogs\\|last\\=Muntz\\|first\\=W. R. A.\\|author2\\=Scientific American Offprints\\|journal\\=Scientific American\\|publisher\\=W. H. Freeman\\|year\\=1964\\|volume\\=210\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=110–9\\|doi\\=10\\.1038/scientificamerican0364\\-110\\|pmid\\=14133069\\|bibcode\\=1964SciAm.210c.110M\\|asin\\=B0006RENBO\\|oclc\\=15304238}} more recent research has shown that frogs can see in colour, even in very low light.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Kelber\\|first1\\=Almut\\|last2\\=Yovanovich\\|first2\\=Carola\\|last3\\=Olsson\\|first3\\=Peter\\|date\\=April 5, 2017\\|title\\=Thresholds and noise limitations of colour vision in dim light\\|journal\\=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=372\\|issue\\=1717\\|pages\\=20160065\\|doi\\=10\\.1098/rstb.2016\\.0065\\|issn\\=0962\\-8436\\|pmc\\=5312015\\|pmid\\=28193810}}\n{{Clear}}",
"### Hearing",
"[thumb\\|Surface rendering of the head of the frog *[Atelopus franciscus](/wiki/Atelopus_franciscus \"Atelopus franciscus\")*, with ear parts highlighted](/wiki/File:Synchrotron_microtomography_of_Atelopus_franciscus_head_-_pone.0022080.s003.ogv \"Synchrotron microtomography of Atelopus franciscus head - pone.0022080.s003.ogv\")",
"Frogs can hear both in the air and below water. They do not have [external ears](/wiki/Pinna_%28anatomy%29 \"Pinna (anatomy)\"); the eardrums ([tympanic membranes](/wiki/Tympanum_%28anatomy%29 \"Tympanum (anatomy)\")) are directly exposed or may be covered by a layer of skin and are visible as a circular area just behind the eye. The size and distance apart of the eardrums is related to the frequency and wavelength at which the frog calls. In some species such as the bullfrog, the size of the tympanum indicates the sex of the frog; males have tympani that are larger than their eyes while in females, the eyes and tympani are much the same size.{{cite book \\|title\\=Frogs \\|last\\=Badger \\|first\\=David \\|author2\\=Netherton, John \\|year\\=1995 \\|publisher\\=Airlife Publishing \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-85310\\-740\\-5 \\|page\\=38 }} A noise causes the tympanum to vibrate and the sound is transmitted to the middle and inner ear. The middle ear contains semicircular canals which help control balance and orientation. In the inner ear, the auditory hair cells are arranged in two areas of the cochlea, the basilar papilla and the amphibian papilla. The former detects high frequencies and the latter low frequencies.{{cite book \\|title\\=A Natural History of Amphibians \\|last1\\=Stebbins \\|first1\\=Robert C.\\|author\\-link1\\=Robert C. Stebbins\\| last2\\=Cohen\\|first2\\= Nathan W. \\|year\\=1995 \\|publisher\\=Princeton University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-691\\-03281\\-8 \\|pages\\=67–69 }} Because the cochlea is short, frogs use [electrical tuning](/wiki/Electrical_tuning \"Electrical tuning\") to extend their range of audible frequencies and help discriminate different sounds.{{cite journal \\|author1\\=Armstrong, Cecilia E. \\|author2\\=Roberts, William M. \\|year\\=1998 \\|title\\=Electrical properties of frog saccular hair cells: distortion by enzymatic dissociation \\|journal\\=Journal of Neuroscience \\|volume\\=18 \\|issue\\=8 \\|pages\\= 2962–2973 \\|pmid\\=9526013 \\|doi\\=10\\.1523/JNEUROSCI.18\\-08\\-02962\\.1998 \\|pmc\\=6792591 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} This arrangement enables detection of the territorial and breeding calls of their [conspecifics](/wiki/Conspecificity \"Conspecificity\"). In some species that inhabit arid regions, the sound of thunder or heavy rain may arouse them from a dormant state. A frog may be startled by an unexpected noise but it will not usually take any action until it has located the source of the sound by sight.",
"### Call",
"{{See also\\|Sexual selection in frogs}}\n[thumb\\|A male *[Dendropsophus microcephalus](/wiki/Dendropsophus_microcephalus \"Dendropsophus microcephalus\")* displaying its vocal sac during its call](/wiki/File:Dendropsophus_microcephalus_-_calling_male_%28Cope%2C_1886%29.jpg \"Dendropsophus microcephalus - calling male (Cope, 1886).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Advertisement call of male *[Atelopus franciscus](/wiki/Atelopus_franciscus \"Atelopus franciscus\")*](/wiki/File:Atelopus_franciscus_male_territorial_call_-_pone.0022080.s002.oga \"Atelopus franciscus male territorial call - pone.0022080.s002.oga\")",
"The call or croak of a frog is unique to its species. Frogs create this sound by passing air through the [larynx](/wiki/Larynx \"Larynx\") in the throat. In most calling frogs, the sound is amplified by one or more vocal sacs, membranes of skin under the throat or on the corner of the mouth, that distend during the amplification of the call. Some frog calls are so loud that they can be heard up to a mile (1\\.6{{nbsp}}km) away.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/Home/species\\_a\\_to\\_z/SpeciesGuideIndex/bullfrog/tabid/6576/Default.aspx \\|title\\=Bullfrog \\|publisher\\=Ohio Department of Natural Resources \\|access\\-date\\=June 19, 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=August 18, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120818105255/http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/Home/species\\_a\\_to\\_z/SpeciesGuideIndex/bullfrog/tabid/6576/Default.aspx \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Additionally, some species have been found to use man\\-made structures such as drain pipes for artificial amplification of their call.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Tan\\|first1\\=W.\\-H.\\|last2\\=Tsai\\|first2\\=C.\\-G.\\|last3\\=Lin\\|first3\\=C.\\|last4\\=Lin\\|first4\\=Y. K.\\|date\\=June 5, 2014\\|title\\=Urban canyon effect: storm drains enhance call characteristics of the Mientien tree frog\\|journal\\=Journal of Zoology\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=294\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=77–84\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/jzo.12154\\|issn\\=0952\\-8369\\|url\\=http://ntur.lib.ntu.edu.tw//handle/246246/260607}} The [coastal tailed frog](/wiki/Ascaphus_truei \"Ascaphus truei\") (*Ascaphus truei*) lives in mountain streams in North America and does not vocalise.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.californiaherps.com/frogs/pages/a.truei.html \\|title\\=''Ascaphus truei'': Coastal Tailed Frog \\|author\\=Nafis, Gary \\|year\\=2012 \\|publisher\\=California Herps \\|access\\-date\\=June 19, 2012}}",
"The main function of calling is for male frogs to attract mates. Males may call individually or there may be a chorus of sound where numerous males have converged on breeding sites. In many frog species, such as the [common tree frog](/wiki/Common_Tree_Frog \"Common Tree Frog\") (*Polypedates leucomystax*), females reply to males' calls, which acts to reinforce reproductive activity in a breeding colony.{{cite journal\\| last\\=Roy\\| first\\=Debjani\\| year\\=1997\\| title\\=Communication signals and sexual selection in amphibians\\| journal\\=Current Science\\| volume\\=72\\| pages\\=923–927\\| url\\=http://www.ias.ac.in/jarch/currsci/72/00000944\\.pdf\\| url\\-status\\=dead\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120923071112/http://www.ias.ac.in/jarch/currsci/72/00000944\\.pdf\\| archive\\-date\\=September 23, 2012}} Female frogs prefer males that produce sounds of greater intensity and lower frequency, attributes that stand out in a crowd. The rationale for this is thought to be that by demonstrating his prowess, the male shows his fitness to produce superior offspring.{{cite journal \\|author\\=Gerhardt, H. C. \\|year\\=1994 \\|title\\=The evolution of vocalization in frogs and toads \\|journal\\=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics \\|volume\\=25 \\|pages\\=293–324 \\|doi\\=10\\.1146/annurev.es.25\\.110194\\.001453 }}",
"A different call is emitted by a male frog or unreceptive female when mounted by another male. This is a distinct chirruping sound and is accompanied by a vibration of the body.{{cite book \\|title\\=Frogs \\|last\\=Badger \\|first\\=David \\|author2\\=Netherton, John \\|year\\=1995 \\|publisher\\=Airlife Publishing Ltd \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-85310\\-740\\-5 \\|pages\\=39–44 }} Tree frogs and some non\\-aquatic species have a rain call that they make on the basis of humidity cues prior to a shower. Many species also have a territorial call that is used to drive away other males. All of these calls are emitted with the mouth of the frog closed. A distress call, emitted by some frogs when they are in danger, is produced with the mouth open resulting in a higher\\-pitched call. It is typically used when the frog has been grabbed by a predator and may serve to distract or disorient the attacker so that it releases the frog.",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Distinctive low \"jug\\-o\\-rum\" sound of [banded bullfrog](/wiki/Banded_bullfrog \"Banded bullfrog\")](/wiki/file:Banded_Bull_Frog_Call.ogg \"Banded Bull Frog Call.ogg\")",
"Many species of frog have deep calls. The croak of the [American bullfrog](/wiki/American_bullfrog \"American bullfrog\") (*Rana catesbiana*) is sometimes written as \"jug o' rum\".{{cite book\\|last\\=Hilton\\|first\\=Bill Jr.\\|chapter\\=9\\. 'Jug\\-o\\-Rum': Call of the Amorous Bullfrog \\|title\\=The Piedmont Naturalist, Volume 1 \\|publisher\\=Hilton Pond Center for Piedmont Natural History \\|location\\=York, SC \\|year\\=1986 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-9832151\\-0\\-3}} The [Pacific tree frog](/wiki/Pacific_Tree_Frog \"Pacific Tree Frog\") (*Pseudacris regilla*) produces the [onomatopoeic](/wiki/Onomatopoeia \"Onomatopoeia\") \"ribbit\" often heard in films.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.beachwatchers.wsu.edu/island/essays/TreeFrogs.htm \\|title\\=The RRRRRRRRiveting Life of Tree Frogs \\|last\\=Nash \\|first\\=Pat \\|date\\=February 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=August 4, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309105032/http://www.beachwatchers.wsu.edu/island/essays/TreeFrogs.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=March 9, 2012 }} Other renderings of frog calls into speech include \"brekekekex koax koax\", the call of the marsh frog (*[Pelophylax ridibundus](/wiki/Pelophylax_ridibundus \"Pelophylax ridibundus\")*) in *The Frogs*, an Ancient Greek comic drama by [Aristophanes](/wiki/Aristophanes \"Aristophanes\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://records.viu.ca/\\~johnstoi/aristophanes/frogs.htm \\|title\\=The Frogs \\|author\\=Aristophanes \\|access\\-date\\=June 19, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513143510/http://records.viu.ca/\\~johnstoi/aristophanes/frogs.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=May 13, 2012 }} The calls of the [Concave\\-eared torrent frog](/wiki/Concave-eared_torrent_frog \"Concave-eared torrent frog\") (*Amolops tormotus*) are unusual in many aspects. The males are notable for their varieties of calls where upward and downward frequency modulations take place. When they communicate, they produce calls that fall in the [ultrasound](/wiki/Ultrasound \"Ultrasound\") frequency range. The last aspect that makes this species of frog's calls unusual is that nonlinear acoustic phenomena are important components in their acoustic signals.{{cite journal\\|author1\\=Suthers, R.A.\\|author2\\=Narins, P.M.\\|author3\\=Lin, W\\|author4\\=Schnitzler, H\\|author5\\=Denzinger, A\\|author6\\=Xu, C\\|author7\\=Feng, A.S.\\|year\\=2006\\|title\\= Voices of the dead: complex nonlinear vocal signals from the larynx of an ultrasonic frog\\|journal\\=Journal of Experimental Biology\\|volume\\=209\\|issue\\=24\\|pages\\=4984–4993\\| doi\\= 10\\.1242/jeb.02594\\|pmid\\=17142687\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}",
"### Torpor",
"During extreme conditions, some frogs enter a state of [torpor](/wiki/Torpor \"Torpor\") and remain inactive for months. In colder regions, many species of frog [hibernate](/wiki/Hibernation \"Hibernation\") in winter. Those that live on land such as the [American toad](/wiki/American_toad \"American toad\") (*Bufo americanus*) dig a burrow and make a [hibernaculum](/wiki/Hibernaculum_%28zoology%29 \"Hibernaculum (zoology)\") in which to lie [dormant](/wiki/Dormancy \"Dormancy\"). Others, less proficient at digging, find a crevice or bury themselves in dead leaves. Aquatic species such as the [American bullfrog](/wiki/American_bullfrog \"American bullfrog\") (*Rana catesbeiana*) normally sink to the bottom of the pond where they lie, semi\\-immersed in mud but still able to access the oxygen dissolved in the water. Their metabolism slows down and they live on their energy reserves. Some frogs such as the [wood frog](/wiki/Wood_frog \"Wood frog\"), [moor frog](/wiki/Moor_frog \"Moor frog\"), or [spring peeper](/wiki/Spring_peeper \"Spring peeper\") can even survive being frozen. Ice crystals form under the skin and in the body cavity but the essential organs are protected from freezing by a high concentration of glucose. An apparently lifeless, frozen frog can resume respiration and its heartbeat can restart when conditions warm up.{{cite magazine \\|url\\=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id\\=how\\-do\\-frogs\\-survive\\-wint \\|title\\=How do frogs survive winter? Why don't they freeze to death? \\|author\\=Emmer, Rick \\|date\\=November 24, 1997 \\|magazine\\=Scientific American \\|access\\-date\\=June 15, 2012}}",
"At the other extreme, the [striped burrowing frog](/wiki/Striped_burrowing_frog \"Striped burrowing frog\") (*Cyclorana alboguttata*) regularly [aestivates](/wiki/Aestivation \"Aestivation\") during the hot, dry season in Australia, surviving in a dormant state without access to food and water for nine or ten months of the year. It burrows underground and curls up inside a protective [cocoon](/wiki/Cocoon_%28silk%29 \"Cocoon (silk)\") formed by its shed skin. Researchers at the [University of Queensland](/wiki/University_of_Queensland \"University of Queensland\") have found that during aestivation, the [metabolism](/wiki/Metabolism \"Metabolism\") of the frog is altered and the operational efficiency of the [mitochondria](/wiki/Mitochondria \"Mitochondria\") is increased. This means that the limited amount of energy available to the comatose frog is used in a more efficient manner. This survival mechanism is only useful to animals that remain completely unconscious for an extended period of time and whose energy requirements are low because they are cold\\-blooded and have no need to generate heat.{{cite journal \\|author1\\=Kayes, Sara M. \\|author2\\=Cramp, Rebecca L. \\|author3\\=Franklin, Craig E. \\|year\\=2009 \\|title\\=Metabolic depression during aestivation in ''Cyclorana alboguttata'' \\|journal\\=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology – Part A: Molecular \\& Integrative Physiology \\|volume\\=154 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=557–563 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.cbpa.2009\\.09\\.001 \\|pmid\\=19737622 }} Other research showed that, to provide these energy requirements, muscles atrophy, but hind limb muscles are preferentially unaffected.{{cite journal \\|author1\\=Hudson, N. J. \\|author2\\=Lehnert, S. A. \\|author3\\=Ingham, A. B. \\|author4\\=Symonds, B. \\|author5\\=Franklin, C. E. \\|author6\\=Harper, G. S. \\|year\\=2005 \\|title\\=Lessons from an estivating frog: sparing muscle protein despite starvation and disuse \\|journal\\=\\[\\[American Journal of Physiology\\|AJP: Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology]] \\|volume\\=290 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages \\= R836–R843 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1152/ajpregu.00380\\.2005 \\| pmid \\= 16239372 \\|s2cid\\=8395980 }} Frogs have been found to have upper critical temperatures of around 41 degrees Celsius.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Environmental Physiology of Animals\\|last\\=Wilmer\\|first\\=Pat\\|publisher\\=Wiley\\|year\\=2009\\|isbn\\=9781405107242\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/environmentalphy00will/page/188 188]\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/environmentalphy00will/page/188}}",
""
] |
Civil War
---------
Early in 1642, Dorset joined the king at York, and pledged himself to support a troop of sixty horse. He attested to the king's declaration on 15 June 1642, that he abhorred the idea of war. In July he attended the queen in [Holland](/wiki/Holland "Holland"), but returned before the king's standard was raised at Nottingham. On 25 August he was sent, with Lord Southampton and [Sir John Colepeper](/wiki/John_Colepeper%2C_1st_Baron_Colepeper "John Colepeper, 1st Baron Colepeper"), to treat with the parliamentary leaders. On the same date, parliamentary soldiers plundered [Knole House](/wiki/Knole_House "Knole House"). He was present at the [Battle of Edgehill](/wiki/Battle_of_Edgehill "Battle of Edgehill"). He may have been in charge of the young princes as [James II](/wiki/James_II_of_England "James II of England") wrote in 1679 that "the old Earl of Dorset at Edgehill, being commanded by the king, my father, to go and carry the prince and myself up the hill out of the battle, refused to do it, and said he would not be thought a coward for ever a king's son in Christendom". He went to Oxford with the king, and more than once protested against the continuation of the war. He made a speech at the council table against one by the Earl of Bristol and this was circulated as a tract on 18 January 1643\. He was made a commissioner of the king's treasury on 7 March 1643, and was [Lord Chamberlain](/wiki/Lord_Chamberlain "Lord Chamberlain") of the household from 21 January 1644 to 27 April 1646\. Early in 1644, he was also entrusted with the privy seal and the presidency of the council. He made sensible speeches, which were printed in Oxford and London as "shewing his good affection to the Parliament and the whole state of this Kingdom". He signed the letter asking Essex to promote peace, in January 1644\. He was one of the committee charged with the defence of Oxford; and was nominated by Charles in December 1645 one of those to whom he would entrust the militia. He was one of the signatories to the capitulation of Oxford on 24 June 1646\.
In June 1644 Dorset was assessed by the committee for the advance of money at £5,000 and his eldest son was assessed at £1,500\. In 1645 he resigned an estate of £6,000, the committee undertaking to pay his debts. In September 1646 he petitioned to compound for his delinquency on the [Oxford](/wiki/University_of_Oxford "University of Oxford") articles, and his fine of one\-tenth was fixed at £4,360l. It was reduced to £2,415 on 25 March 1647, and he was discharged on 4 June 1650\.
Dorset was said to be one of the six peers who intended to go to Charles at [Hampton Court](/wiki/Hampton_Court "Hampton Court") in October 1647 and stay with him as a council, but parliament did not permit this.
After the execution of the king in 1649, Dorset is said never to have left his house in Salisbury Court, [Fleet Street](/wiki/Fleet_Street "Fleet Street"). He died there on 17 July 1652, and was buried in the family vault at Wytham. His monument was destroyed by fire on 16 June 1663\. An elegy on him was printed, with heavy black edges, by James Howell, in a rare pamphlet entitled "Ah\-Ha, Tumulus Thalamus".
Clarendon described Dorset as "beautiful, graceful, and vigorous: his wit pleasant, sparkling, and sublime .... The vices he had were of the age, which he was not stubborn enough to contemn or resist". He was an able speaker, and on the whole, a moderate politician, combining a strong respect for the royal prerogative with an attachment to the Protestant cause and the liberties of parliament. He was evidently an excellent man of business.
|
[
"Civil War\n---------",
"Early in 1642, Dorset joined the king at York, and pledged himself to support a troop of sixty horse. He attested to the king's declaration on 15 June 1642, that he abhorred the idea of war. In July he attended the queen in [Holland](/wiki/Holland \"Holland\"), but returned before the king's standard was raised at Nottingham. On 25 August he was sent, with Lord Southampton and [Sir John Colepeper](/wiki/John_Colepeper%2C_1st_Baron_Colepeper \"John Colepeper, 1st Baron Colepeper\"), to treat with the parliamentary leaders. On the same date, parliamentary soldiers plundered [Knole House](/wiki/Knole_House \"Knole House\"). He was present at the [Battle of Edgehill](/wiki/Battle_of_Edgehill \"Battle of Edgehill\"). He may have been in charge of the young princes as [James II](/wiki/James_II_of_England \"James II of England\") wrote in 1679 that \"the old Earl of Dorset at Edgehill, being commanded by the king, my father, to go and carry the prince and myself up the hill out of the battle, refused to do it, and said he would not be thought a coward for ever a king's son in Christendom\". He went to Oxford with the king, and more than once protested against the continuation of the war. He made a speech at the council table against one by the Earl of Bristol and this was circulated as a tract on 18 January 1643\\. He was made a commissioner of the king's treasury on 7 March 1643, and was [Lord Chamberlain](/wiki/Lord_Chamberlain \"Lord Chamberlain\") of the household from 21 January 1644 to 27 April 1646\\. Early in 1644, he was also entrusted with the privy seal and the presidency of the council. He made sensible speeches, which were printed in Oxford and London as \"shewing his good affection to the Parliament and the whole state of this Kingdom\". He signed the letter asking Essex to promote peace, in January 1644\\. He was one of the committee charged with the defence of Oxford; and was nominated by Charles in December 1645 one of those to whom he would entrust the militia. He was one of the signatories to the capitulation of Oxford on 24 June 1646\\.",
"In June 1644 Dorset was assessed by the committee for the advance of money at £5,000 and his eldest son was assessed at £1,500\\. In 1645 he resigned an estate of £6,000, the committee undertaking to pay his debts. In September 1646 he petitioned to compound for his delinquency on the [Oxford](/wiki/University_of_Oxford \"University of Oxford\") articles, and his fine of one\\-tenth was fixed at £4,360l. It was reduced to £2,415 on 25 March 1647, and he was discharged on 4 June 1650\\.",
"Dorset was said to be one of the six peers who intended to go to Charles at [Hampton Court](/wiki/Hampton_Court \"Hampton Court\") in October 1647 and stay with him as a council, but parliament did not permit this.",
"After the execution of the king in 1649, Dorset is said never to have left his house in Salisbury Court, [Fleet Street](/wiki/Fleet_Street \"Fleet Street\"). He died there on 17 July 1652, and was buried in the family vault at Wytham. His monument was destroyed by fire on 16 June 1663\\. An elegy on him was printed, with heavy black edges, by James Howell, in a rare pamphlet entitled \"Ah\\-Ha, Tumulus Thalamus\".",
"Clarendon described Dorset as \"beautiful, graceful, and vigorous: his wit pleasant, sparkling, and sublime .... The vices he had were of the age, which he was not stubborn enough to contemn or resist\". He was an able speaker, and on the whole, a moderate politician, combining a strong respect for the royal prerogative with an attachment to the Protestant cause and the liberties of parliament. He was evidently an excellent man of business.",
""
] |
Life
----
### Life before politics
Oud came from a middle class family. His father traded in tobacco, wine, and later stocks, and served as [alderman](/wiki/Wethouder "Wethouder") in Purmerend. Oud attended [HBS](/wiki/Hogere_Burgerschool "Hogere Burgerschool") in Amsterdam, graduating in 1904\. He continued to study to become [notary](/wiki/Civil_law_notary "Civil law notary") between 1904 and 1907\. During this time he had become member of the board of the League of Freethinking Propaganda Associations, the freethinking liberal youth organisation. He took a private courses in registration in [Gorinchem](/wiki/Gorinchem "Gorinchem") between 1907 and 1909\. Between 1909 and 1911 he was civil servant within the ministry of Finance responsible for registration and government possessions. In 1911 he became a tax collector on [Texel](/wiki/Texel "Texel"). In 1912 he took his [matriculation](/wiki/Matriculation "Matriculation") to study law at the [University of Amsterdam](/wiki/University_of_Amsterdam "University of Amsterdam"). He combined his work as tax collector with his study of law. In the same year he married Johanna Cornelia Fischer, from this marriage they got one son. In 1914 he became tax collector in [Ommen](/wiki/Ommen "Ommen"). Meanwhile, he was mobilised as Sergeant of the seventh regiment infantry, which was stationed near Amsterdam between 1914 and 1916\. Between 1915 and 1919 he was member of the national board of the VDB. He graduated in 1917 on basis of a [disputation](/wiki/Disputation "Disputation").
### Political life
#### For the VDB
Oud was elected in [1917 election](/wiki/1917_Dutch_general_election "1917 Dutch general election") for the VDB, the last election with [runoff voting](/wiki/Two-round_system "Two-round system"). He defeated Staalman of the left\-wing [Christian Democratic Party](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_%28Netherlands%29 "Christian Democratic Union (Netherlands)") in the second round in the district of [Den Helder](/wiki/Den_Helder_%28electoral_district%29 "Den Helder (electoral district)"). He retained his legal position as tax collector, but was given a leave for undetermined time. He was even promoted to inspector of finances in 1921, while on leave. In the [1918 election](/wiki/1918_Dutch_general_election "1918 Dutch general election") Oud stood for elections again, and was elected with 5,000 preference votes, mainly from the former district of Den Helder. While MP, Oud also served as secretary of the VDB national board and editor of the *De Vrijzinnige Democraat*, the party's magazine. In parliament Oud took a particular interest in military matters and education, and served as the party's finance spokesperson. As MP he served as member of the Committee on the Navy between 1923 and 1933 and the Committee on the Army since 1925\. He was chairman of the association for the promotion of public education "People's Education" for many years.
After the [1933 election](/wiki/1933_Dutch_general_election "1933 Dutch general election"), Oud was appointed Minister of Finance in the second cabinet led by [Hendrik Colijn](/wiki/Hendrik_Colijn "Hendrik Colijn"). As minister, he was responsible for a large scale operation of budget cuts, during a time of economic crisis. In 1935 he proposed the *Bezuigingswet 1935* ("Budget Cut Act 1935"), which involved many budget cuts and financial reorganisations: salaries of civil servants were cut, the old age pensions were financed in a different way and for budgetary reasons, soldiers were to become civil servants after a certain period. Although his proposals lead to a political crisis, they were nonetheless carried by parliament. In the same year, after [Henri Marchant](/wiki/Henri_Marchant "Henri Marchant") left the VDB following a scandal, Oud succeeded him as political leader of the VDB. Oud [led](/wiki/Lead_candidate "Lead candidate") the VDB in the [1937 election](/wiki/1937_Dutch_general_election "1937 Dutch general election") and returned to the [House of Representatives](/wiki/House_of_Representatives_%28Netherlands%29 "House of Representatives (Netherlands)") as [chair of the parliamentary party](/wiki/Parliamentary_leader "Parliamentary leader"). He also served as chair for the committee on government expenditure.
#### In Rotterdam
He left the House of Representatives in 1938 to become [Mayor of Rotterdam](/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Rotterdam "List of mayors of Rotterdam"). As mayor he also served in the College of Curators of the University of Rotterdam and as chair of the [Association of Netherlands Municipalities](/wiki/Association_of_Netherlands_Municipalities "Association of Netherlands Municipalities"). After he stepped down in 1952 he became honorary chairman of that association. In 1939 he was elected to the [Provincial Council of South Holland](/wiki/Provincial_Council_of_South_Holland "Provincial Council of South Holland"). In August 1939 he was offered the position of Minister of Finance in the cabinet of [Dirk Jan de Geer](/wiki/Dirk_Jan_de_Geer "Dirk Jan de Geer"), but declined.
Controversially, Oud did not resign after the [German invasion](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Netherlands "Battle of the Netherlands") of 1940, although he was not a member of the [National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands](/wiki/National_Socialist_Movement_in_the_Netherlands "National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands") (NSB). During his period as mayor, he was involved in the reconstruction of the centre of Rotterdam which was destroyed by the German bombings. He was heavily criticised by Dutch politicians for cooperating too much with the NSB, while the NSB criticised him for being uncooperative. In the spring of 1941 he was brutally harassed by members of the NSB, twelve party\-members invaded the City Hall, gagged Oud, adorned him with [Freemason](/wiki/Freemasonry "Freemasonry")\-like symbols and made pictures of him. In the autumn of 1941 he resigned as mayor and he stood down as member of the States Provincial. He was succeeded by [Frederik Ernst Müller](/wiki/Frederik_Ernst_M%C3%BCller "Frederik Ernst Müller"). In the summer of 1942 he was briefly held in [Kamp Sint\-Michielsgestel](/wiki/Kamp_Sint-Michielsgestel "Kamp Sint-Michielsgestel"), where many prominent Dutch politicians were held captive. During the war Oud kept far from the [resistance movement](/wiki/Dutch_resistance "Dutch resistance") and instead committed himself to writing several books on parliamentary history. Meanwhile, he kept close contact with important people from the business and the political world of Rotterdam.
In 1945, after the [liberation of the Netherlands](/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe "End of World War II in Europe"), he returned to Rotterdam as mayor, although he was also asked to become [Mayor of Amsterdam](/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Amsterdam "List of mayors of Amsterdam"), and he was officially re\-appointed in 1946\. In the same year the VDB merged with the social democratic [SDAP](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Workers%27_Party_%28Netherlands%29 "Social Democratic Workers' Party (Netherlands)") and the left\-wing Christian [CDU](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_%28Netherlands%29 "Christian Democratic Union (Netherlands)") to form the [Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28Netherlands%29 "Labour Party (Netherlands)"). Oud was one of the co\-founders of this party and served on the party's board between 1946 and 1947\. Meanwhile, he served on many government, business, international and civil society committees, he chaired the government committee for municipal finances between 1946 and 1954, he was member of the [board of trustees](/wiki/Board_of_trustees "Board of trustees") of the banker Staal, he was member of the pension council of the [Dutch Reformed](/wiki/Dutch_Reformed_Church "Dutch Reformed Church") Church since 1946 and he served as chair of the [International Union of Municipalities and Local Governments](/wiki/International_Union_of_Municipalities_and_Local_Governments "International Union of Municipalities and Local Governments") between 1948 and 1954\.
[thumb\|left\|220px\|[Supreme Allied Commander Europe](/wiki/Supreme_Allied_Commander_Europe "Supreme Allied Commander Europe") General of the Army [Dwight D. Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower "Dwight D. Eisenhower") and Mayor of Rotterdam Pieter Oud during a meeting at the [Rotterdam City Hall](/wiki/Government_of_Rotterdam "Government of Rotterdam") on 21 November 1951\.](/wiki/File:Eisenhower_arriveert_te_Rotterdam_om_het_commando_over_Canadese_troepen_die_met_%2C_Bestanddeelnr_904-8591.jpg "Eisenhower arriveert te Rotterdam om het commando over Canadese troepen die met , Bestanddeelnr 904-8591.jpg")
[thumb\|left\|220px\| Leader of the Catholic People's Party [Carl Romme](/wiki/Carl_Romme "Carl Romme"), Leader of the Anti\-Revolutionary Party [Jelle Zijlstra](/wiki/Jelle_Zijlstra "Jelle Zijlstra"), Prime Minister and Leader of the Labour Party [Willem Drees](/wiki/Willem_Drees "Willem Drees"), Leader of the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy Pieter Oud, Deputy Leader of the Labour Party [Jaap Burger](/wiki/Jaap_Burger "Jaap Burger") and Leader of the Christian Historical Union [Hendrik Tilanus](/wiki/Hendrik_Tilanus "Hendrik Tilanus") during a meeting at the [Ministry of General Affairs](/wiki/Ministry_of_General_Affairs "Ministry of General Affairs") on 20 June 1956\.](/wiki/File:Minister-president_Dr._Drees_ontvangt_de_fractievoorzitters_van_de_vijf_grootste%2C_Bestanddeelnr_079-0655.jpg "Minister-president Dr. Drees ontvangt de fractievoorzitters van de vijf grootste, Bestanddeelnr 079-0655.jpg")
#### For the VVD
On 3 October 1947, Oud sent a letter to the board of the PvdA announcing his resignation as a member. The reason he gave for the split was that the PvdA was moving too much into socialist waters, instead of being committed to progressive politics. The fact that he was refused a position on the party list for the [Senate](/wiki/Senate_%28Netherlands%29 "Senate (Netherlands)") is generally seen as the political reason for Oud's split. Oud never felt at home in the new social democratic party.
He immediately founded the Committee of Preparation of the Foundation of a Democratic People's Party, which prepared the foundation of the VVD. He negotiated the merger of the remnants of the old VDB with the newly founded [Freedom Party](/wiki/Freedom_Party_%28Netherlands%29 "Freedom Party (Netherlands)"). On 24 January 1948 he became one of the founding members of the liberal [People's Party for Freedom and Democracy](/wiki/People%27s_Party_for_Freedom_and_Democracy "People's Party for Freedom and Democracy"), together with [Dirk Stikker](/wiki/Dirk_Stikker "Dirk Stikker") and [Henk Korthals](/wiki/Henk_Korthals "Henk Korthals"), and served in its first national board as vice\-chair. In [1948](/wiki/1948_Dutch_general_election "1948 Dutch general election") he was elected to the House of Representatives for the VVD, and became chair of its parliamentary party, combining this position with the position of chair of the party's organisation.
In parliament he mainly spoke on issues of administrative and constitutional law. He was a very influential member of parliament. When the law concerning the decolonisation of [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia"), a very controversial issue, was voted on, the two\-thirds majority was only reached because an amendment proposed by Oud ensured the support of the VVD. In 1950–51 Oud came into conflict with the VVD's Minister of Foreign Affairs, Stikker, over the policy concerning [Netherlands New Guinea](/wiki/Netherlands_New_Guinea "Netherlands New Guinea"). Between 1950 and 1953 he was a member of the Government Committee Van Schaik, which prepared a constitutional change. In 1952 he did not seek to be reappointed as Rotterdam's mayor, and instead became extraordinary professor of [Constitutional](/wiki/Constitutional_law "Constitutional law") [Administrative law](/wiki/Administrative_law "Administrative law") at the [University of Rotterdam](/wiki/Erasmus_University "Erasmus University"), which he remained until 1957\. Between 1953 and 1963 he was chair of the Justice Committee of the House of Representatives. As such, he was heavily involved in the preparation of many laws, and served as chair on the committees preparing the laws on the provinces, the police, archives, patents and many more. In 1959 he came into conflict with [Harm van Riel](/wiki/Harm_van_Riel "Harm van Riel"), the chair of the VVD's parliamentary party in the Senate, because Van Riel wanted to become minister, but Oud denied him this.
In the last years of his period in the House of Representatives, Oud was the eldest member of the House and on many times functioned as Speaker, such as when a new Speaker was elected. Before the [1963 election](/wiki/1963_Dutch_general_election "1963 Dutch general election") Oud announced that he would not continue as MP; he was succeeded by the Minister of the Interior [Edzo Toxopeus](/wiki/Edzo_Toxopeus "Edzo Toxopeus"). In the same year, he was appointed as [Minister of State](/wiki/Minister_of_State_%28Netherlands%29 "Minister of State (Netherlands)"), an honorary title.
### Life after politics
After 1963, Oud retired from Dutch political life. He was only asked upon at times of great crisis. In 1966 he was member of the committee that advised the government on the ministerial responsibility towards members of the [royal house](/wiki/Dutch_royal_house "Dutch royal house"), together with [Willem Drees](/wiki/Willem_Drees "Willem Drees"). In the same year, he co\-authored a book on a new constitution.
When Oud died in 1968, his family wanted to announce his death after the burial. His general practitioner did not know this, and told a patient that evening that Oud had died that afternoon. The father of this patient happened to be a journalist for the socialist paper *[Het Vrije Volk](/wiki/Het_Vrije_Volk "Het Vrije Volk")*, which published a large *In Memoriam* the next morning.
|
[
"Life\n----",
"### Life before politics",
"Oud came from a middle class family. His father traded in tobacco, wine, and later stocks, and served as [alderman](/wiki/Wethouder \"Wethouder\") in Purmerend. Oud attended [HBS](/wiki/Hogere_Burgerschool \"Hogere Burgerschool\") in Amsterdam, graduating in 1904\\. He continued to study to become [notary](/wiki/Civil_law_notary \"Civil law notary\") between 1904 and 1907\\. During this time he had become member of the board of the League of Freethinking Propaganda Associations, the freethinking liberal youth organisation. He took a private courses in registration in [Gorinchem](/wiki/Gorinchem \"Gorinchem\") between 1907 and 1909\\. Between 1909 and 1911 he was civil servant within the ministry of Finance responsible for registration and government possessions. In 1911 he became a tax collector on [Texel](/wiki/Texel \"Texel\"). In 1912 he took his [matriculation](/wiki/Matriculation \"Matriculation\") to study law at the [University of Amsterdam](/wiki/University_of_Amsterdam \"University of Amsterdam\"). He combined his work as tax collector with his study of law. In the same year he married Johanna Cornelia Fischer, from this marriage they got one son. In 1914 he became tax collector in [Ommen](/wiki/Ommen \"Ommen\"). Meanwhile, he was mobilised as Sergeant of the seventh regiment infantry, which was stationed near Amsterdam between 1914 and 1916\\. Between 1915 and 1919 he was member of the national board of the VDB. He graduated in 1917 on basis of a [disputation](/wiki/Disputation \"Disputation\").",
"### Political life",
"#### For the VDB",
"Oud was elected in [1917 election](/wiki/1917_Dutch_general_election \"1917 Dutch general election\") for the VDB, the last election with [runoff voting](/wiki/Two-round_system \"Two-round system\"). He defeated Staalman of the left\\-wing [Christian Democratic Party](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_%28Netherlands%29 \"Christian Democratic Union (Netherlands)\") in the second round in the district of [Den Helder](/wiki/Den_Helder_%28electoral_district%29 \"Den Helder (electoral district)\"). He retained his legal position as tax collector, but was given a leave for undetermined time. He was even promoted to inspector of finances in 1921, while on leave. In the [1918 election](/wiki/1918_Dutch_general_election \"1918 Dutch general election\") Oud stood for elections again, and was elected with 5,000 preference votes, mainly from the former district of Den Helder. While MP, Oud also served as secretary of the VDB national board and editor of the *De Vrijzinnige Democraat*, the party's magazine. In parliament Oud took a particular interest in military matters and education, and served as the party's finance spokesperson. As MP he served as member of the Committee on the Navy between 1923 and 1933 and the Committee on the Army since 1925\\. He was chairman of the association for the promotion of public education \"People's Education\" for many years.",
"After the [1933 election](/wiki/1933_Dutch_general_election \"1933 Dutch general election\"), Oud was appointed Minister of Finance in the second cabinet led by [Hendrik Colijn](/wiki/Hendrik_Colijn \"Hendrik Colijn\"). As minister, he was responsible for a large scale operation of budget cuts, during a time of economic crisis. In 1935 he proposed the *Bezuigingswet 1935* (\"Budget Cut Act 1935\"), which involved many budget cuts and financial reorganisations: salaries of civil servants were cut, the old age pensions were financed in a different way and for budgetary reasons, soldiers were to become civil servants after a certain period. Although his proposals lead to a political crisis, they were nonetheless carried by parliament. In the same year, after [Henri Marchant](/wiki/Henri_Marchant \"Henri Marchant\") left the VDB following a scandal, Oud succeeded him as political leader of the VDB. Oud [led](/wiki/Lead_candidate \"Lead candidate\") the VDB in the [1937 election](/wiki/1937_Dutch_general_election \"1937 Dutch general election\") and returned to the [House of Representatives](/wiki/House_of_Representatives_%28Netherlands%29 \"House of Representatives (Netherlands)\") as [chair of the parliamentary party](/wiki/Parliamentary_leader \"Parliamentary leader\"). He also served as chair for the committee on government expenditure.",
"#### In Rotterdam",
"He left the House of Representatives in 1938 to become [Mayor of Rotterdam](/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Rotterdam \"List of mayors of Rotterdam\"). As mayor he also served in the College of Curators of the University of Rotterdam and as chair of the [Association of Netherlands Municipalities](/wiki/Association_of_Netherlands_Municipalities \"Association of Netherlands Municipalities\"). After he stepped down in 1952 he became honorary chairman of that association. In 1939 he was elected to the [Provincial Council of South Holland](/wiki/Provincial_Council_of_South_Holland \"Provincial Council of South Holland\"). In August 1939 he was offered the position of Minister of Finance in the cabinet of [Dirk Jan de Geer](/wiki/Dirk_Jan_de_Geer \"Dirk Jan de Geer\"), but declined.",
"Controversially, Oud did not resign after the [German invasion](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Netherlands \"Battle of the Netherlands\") of 1940, although he was not a member of the [National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands](/wiki/National_Socialist_Movement_in_the_Netherlands \"National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands\") (NSB). During his period as mayor, he was involved in the reconstruction of the centre of Rotterdam which was destroyed by the German bombings. He was heavily criticised by Dutch politicians for cooperating too much with the NSB, while the NSB criticised him for being uncooperative. In the spring of 1941 he was brutally harassed by members of the NSB, twelve party\\-members invaded the City Hall, gagged Oud, adorned him with [Freemason](/wiki/Freemasonry \"Freemasonry\")\\-like symbols and made pictures of him. In the autumn of 1941 he resigned as mayor and he stood down as member of the States Provincial. He was succeeded by [Frederik Ernst Müller](/wiki/Frederik_Ernst_M%C3%BCller \"Frederik Ernst Müller\"). In the summer of 1942 he was briefly held in [Kamp Sint\\-Michielsgestel](/wiki/Kamp_Sint-Michielsgestel \"Kamp Sint-Michielsgestel\"), where many prominent Dutch politicians were held captive. During the war Oud kept far from the [resistance movement](/wiki/Dutch_resistance \"Dutch resistance\") and instead committed himself to writing several books on parliamentary history. Meanwhile, he kept close contact with important people from the business and the political world of Rotterdam.",
"In 1945, after the [liberation of the Netherlands](/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe \"End of World War II in Europe\"), he returned to Rotterdam as mayor, although he was also asked to become [Mayor of Amsterdam](/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Amsterdam \"List of mayors of Amsterdam\"), and he was officially re\\-appointed in 1946\\. In the same year the VDB merged with the social democratic [SDAP](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Workers%27_Party_%28Netherlands%29 \"Social Democratic Workers' Party (Netherlands)\") and the left\\-wing Christian [CDU](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_%28Netherlands%29 \"Christian Democratic Union (Netherlands)\") to form the [Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28Netherlands%29 \"Labour Party (Netherlands)\"). Oud was one of the co\\-founders of this party and served on the party's board between 1946 and 1947\\. Meanwhile, he served on many government, business, international and civil society committees, he chaired the government committee for municipal finances between 1946 and 1954, he was member of the [board of trustees](/wiki/Board_of_trustees \"Board of trustees\") of the banker Staal, he was member of the pension council of the [Dutch Reformed](/wiki/Dutch_Reformed_Church \"Dutch Reformed Church\") Church since 1946 and he served as chair of the [International Union of Municipalities and Local Governments](/wiki/International_Union_of_Municipalities_and_Local_Governments \"International Union of Municipalities and Local Governments\") between 1948 and 1954\\.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|220px\\|[Supreme Allied Commander Europe](/wiki/Supreme_Allied_Commander_Europe \"Supreme Allied Commander Europe\") General of the Army [Dwight D. Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\") and Mayor of Rotterdam Pieter Oud during a meeting at the [Rotterdam City Hall](/wiki/Government_of_Rotterdam \"Government of Rotterdam\") on 21 November 1951\\.](/wiki/File:Eisenhower_arriveert_te_Rotterdam_om_het_commando_over_Canadese_troepen_die_met_%2C_Bestanddeelnr_904-8591.jpg \"Eisenhower arriveert te Rotterdam om het commando over Canadese troepen die met , Bestanddeelnr 904-8591.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|220px\\| Leader of the Catholic People's Party [Carl Romme](/wiki/Carl_Romme \"Carl Romme\"), Leader of the Anti\\-Revolutionary Party [Jelle Zijlstra](/wiki/Jelle_Zijlstra \"Jelle Zijlstra\"), Prime Minister and Leader of the Labour Party [Willem Drees](/wiki/Willem_Drees \"Willem Drees\"), Leader of the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy Pieter Oud, Deputy Leader of the Labour Party [Jaap Burger](/wiki/Jaap_Burger \"Jaap Burger\") and Leader of the Christian Historical Union [Hendrik Tilanus](/wiki/Hendrik_Tilanus \"Hendrik Tilanus\") during a meeting at the [Ministry of General Affairs](/wiki/Ministry_of_General_Affairs \"Ministry of General Affairs\") on 20 June 1956\\.](/wiki/File:Minister-president_Dr._Drees_ontvangt_de_fractievoorzitters_van_de_vijf_grootste%2C_Bestanddeelnr_079-0655.jpg \"Minister-president Dr. Drees ontvangt de fractievoorzitters van de vijf grootste, Bestanddeelnr 079-0655.jpg\")",
"#### For the VVD",
"On 3 October 1947, Oud sent a letter to the board of the PvdA announcing his resignation as a member. The reason he gave for the split was that the PvdA was moving too much into socialist waters, instead of being committed to progressive politics. The fact that he was refused a position on the party list for the [Senate](/wiki/Senate_%28Netherlands%29 \"Senate (Netherlands)\") is generally seen as the political reason for Oud's split. Oud never felt at home in the new social democratic party.",
"He immediately founded the Committee of Preparation of the Foundation of a Democratic People's Party, which prepared the foundation of the VVD. He negotiated the merger of the remnants of the old VDB with the newly founded [Freedom Party](/wiki/Freedom_Party_%28Netherlands%29 \"Freedom Party (Netherlands)\"). On 24 January 1948 he became one of the founding members of the liberal [People's Party for Freedom and Democracy](/wiki/People%27s_Party_for_Freedom_and_Democracy \"People's Party for Freedom and Democracy\"), together with [Dirk Stikker](/wiki/Dirk_Stikker \"Dirk Stikker\") and [Henk Korthals](/wiki/Henk_Korthals \"Henk Korthals\"), and served in its first national board as vice\\-chair. In [1948](/wiki/1948_Dutch_general_election \"1948 Dutch general election\") he was elected to the House of Representatives for the VVD, and became chair of its parliamentary party, combining this position with the position of chair of the party's organisation.",
"In parliament he mainly spoke on issues of administrative and constitutional law. He was a very influential member of parliament. When the law concerning the decolonisation of [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia \"Indonesia\"), a very controversial issue, was voted on, the two\\-thirds majority was only reached because an amendment proposed by Oud ensured the support of the VVD. In 1950–51 Oud came into conflict with the VVD's Minister of Foreign Affairs, Stikker, over the policy concerning [Netherlands New Guinea](/wiki/Netherlands_New_Guinea \"Netherlands New Guinea\"). Between 1950 and 1953 he was a member of the Government Committee Van Schaik, which prepared a constitutional change. In 1952 he did not seek to be reappointed as Rotterdam's mayor, and instead became extraordinary professor of [Constitutional](/wiki/Constitutional_law \"Constitutional law\") [Administrative law](/wiki/Administrative_law \"Administrative law\") at the [University of Rotterdam](/wiki/Erasmus_University \"Erasmus University\"), which he remained until 1957\\. Between 1953 and 1963 he was chair of the Justice Committee of the House of Representatives. As such, he was heavily involved in the preparation of many laws, and served as chair on the committees preparing the laws on the provinces, the police, archives, patents and many more. In 1959 he came into conflict with [Harm van Riel](/wiki/Harm_van_Riel \"Harm van Riel\"), the chair of the VVD's parliamentary party in the Senate, because Van Riel wanted to become minister, but Oud denied him this.",
"In the last years of his period in the House of Representatives, Oud was the eldest member of the House and on many times functioned as Speaker, such as when a new Speaker was elected. Before the [1963 election](/wiki/1963_Dutch_general_election \"1963 Dutch general election\") Oud announced that he would not continue as MP; he was succeeded by the Minister of the Interior [Edzo Toxopeus](/wiki/Edzo_Toxopeus \"Edzo Toxopeus\"). In the same year, he was appointed as [Minister of State](/wiki/Minister_of_State_%28Netherlands%29 \"Minister of State (Netherlands)\"), an honorary title.",
"### Life after politics",
"After 1963, Oud retired from Dutch political life. He was only asked upon at times of great crisis. In 1966 he was member of the committee that advised the government on the ministerial responsibility towards members of the [royal house](/wiki/Dutch_royal_house \"Dutch royal house\"), together with [Willem Drees](/wiki/Willem_Drees \"Willem Drees\"). In the same year, he co\\-authored a book on a new constitution.",
"When Oud died in 1968, his family wanted to announce his death after the burial. His general practitioner did not know this, and told a patient that evening that Oud had died that afternoon. The father of this patient happened to be a journalist for the socialist paper *[Het Vrije Volk](/wiki/Het_Vrije_Volk \"Het Vrije Volk\")*, which published a large *In Memoriam* the next morning.",
""
] |
### Political life
#### For the VDB
Oud was elected in [1917 election](/wiki/1917_Dutch_general_election "1917 Dutch general election") for the VDB, the last election with [runoff voting](/wiki/Two-round_system "Two-round system"). He defeated Staalman of the left\-wing [Christian Democratic Party](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_%28Netherlands%29 "Christian Democratic Union (Netherlands)") in the second round in the district of [Den Helder](/wiki/Den_Helder_%28electoral_district%29 "Den Helder (electoral district)"). He retained his legal position as tax collector, but was given a leave for undetermined time. He was even promoted to inspector of finances in 1921, while on leave. In the [1918 election](/wiki/1918_Dutch_general_election "1918 Dutch general election") Oud stood for elections again, and was elected with 5,000 preference votes, mainly from the former district of Den Helder. While MP, Oud also served as secretary of the VDB national board and editor of the *De Vrijzinnige Democraat*, the party's magazine. In parliament Oud took a particular interest in military matters and education, and served as the party's finance spokesperson. As MP he served as member of the Committee on the Navy between 1923 and 1933 and the Committee on the Army since 1925\. He was chairman of the association for the promotion of public education "People's Education" for many years.
After the [1933 election](/wiki/1933_Dutch_general_election "1933 Dutch general election"), Oud was appointed Minister of Finance in the second cabinet led by [Hendrik Colijn](/wiki/Hendrik_Colijn "Hendrik Colijn"). As minister, he was responsible for a large scale operation of budget cuts, during a time of economic crisis. In 1935 he proposed the *Bezuigingswet 1935* ("Budget Cut Act 1935"), which involved many budget cuts and financial reorganisations: salaries of civil servants were cut, the old age pensions were financed in a different way and for budgetary reasons, soldiers were to become civil servants after a certain period. Although his proposals lead to a political crisis, they were nonetheless carried by parliament. In the same year, after [Henri Marchant](/wiki/Henri_Marchant "Henri Marchant") left the VDB following a scandal, Oud succeeded him as political leader of the VDB. Oud [led](/wiki/Lead_candidate "Lead candidate") the VDB in the [1937 election](/wiki/1937_Dutch_general_election "1937 Dutch general election") and returned to the [House of Representatives](/wiki/House_of_Representatives_%28Netherlands%29 "House of Representatives (Netherlands)") as [chair of the parliamentary party](/wiki/Parliamentary_leader "Parliamentary leader"). He also served as chair for the committee on government expenditure.
#### In Rotterdam
He left the House of Representatives in 1938 to become [Mayor of Rotterdam](/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Rotterdam "List of mayors of Rotterdam"). As mayor he also served in the College of Curators of the University of Rotterdam and as chair of the [Association of Netherlands Municipalities](/wiki/Association_of_Netherlands_Municipalities "Association of Netherlands Municipalities"). After he stepped down in 1952 he became honorary chairman of that association. In 1939 he was elected to the [Provincial Council of South Holland](/wiki/Provincial_Council_of_South_Holland "Provincial Council of South Holland"). In August 1939 he was offered the position of Minister of Finance in the cabinet of [Dirk Jan de Geer](/wiki/Dirk_Jan_de_Geer "Dirk Jan de Geer"), but declined.
Controversially, Oud did not resign after the [German invasion](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Netherlands "Battle of the Netherlands") of 1940, although he was not a member of the [National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands](/wiki/National_Socialist_Movement_in_the_Netherlands "National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands") (NSB). During his period as mayor, he was involved in the reconstruction of the centre of Rotterdam which was destroyed by the German bombings. He was heavily criticised by Dutch politicians for cooperating too much with the NSB, while the NSB criticised him for being uncooperative. In the spring of 1941 he was brutally harassed by members of the NSB, twelve party\-members invaded the City Hall, gagged Oud, adorned him with [Freemason](/wiki/Freemasonry "Freemasonry")\-like symbols and made pictures of him. In the autumn of 1941 he resigned as mayor and he stood down as member of the States Provincial. He was succeeded by [Frederik Ernst Müller](/wiki/Frederik_Ernst_M%C3%BCller "Frederik Ernst Müller"). In the summer of 1942 he was briefly held in [Kamp Sint\-Michielsgestel](/wiki/Kamp_Sint-Michielsgestel "Kamp Sint-Michielsgestel"), where many prominent Dutch politicians were held captive. During the war Oud kept far from the [resistance movement](/wiki/Dutch_resistance "Dutch resistance") and instead committed himself to writing several books on parliamentary history. Meanwhile, he kept close contact with important people from the business and the political world of Rotterdam.
In 1945, after the [liberation of the Netherlands](/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe "End of World War II in Europe"), he returned to Rotterdam as mayor, although he was also asked to become [Mayor of Amsterdam](/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Amsterdam "List of mayors of Amsterdam"), and he was officially re\-appointed in 1946\. In the same year the VDB merged with the social democratic [SDAP](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Workers%27_Party_%28Netherlands%29 "Social Democratic Workers' Party (Netherlands)") and the left\-wing Christian [CDU](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_%28Netherlands%29 "Christian Democratic Union (Netherlands)") to form the [Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28Netherlands%29 "Labour Party (Netherlands)"). Oud was one of the co\-founders of this party and served on the party's board between 1946 and 1947\. Meanwhile, he served on many government, business, international and civil society committees, he chaired the government committee for municipal finances between 1946 and 1954, he was member of the [board of trustees](/wiki/Board_of_trustees "Board of trustees") of the banker Staal, he was member of the pension council of the [Dutch Reformed](/wiki/Dutch_Reformed_Church "Dutch Reformed Church") Church since 1946 and he served as chair of the [International Union of Municipalities and Local Governments](/wiki/International_Union_of_Municipalities_and_Local_Governments "International Union of Municipalities and Local Governments") between 1948 and 1954\.
[thumb\|left\|220px\|[Supreme Allied Commander Europe](/wiki/Supreme_Allied_Commander_Europe "Supreme Allied Commander Europe") General of the Army [Dwight D. Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower "Dwight D. Eisenhower") and Mayor of Rotterdam Pieter Oud during a meeting at the [Rotterdam City Hall](/wiki/Government_of_Rotterdam "Government of Rotterdam") on 21 November 1951\.](/wiki/File:Eisenhower_arriveert_te_Rotterdam_om_het_commando_over_Canadese_troepen_die_met_%2C_Bestanddeelnr_904-8591.jpg "Eisenhower arriveert te Rotterdam om het commando over Canadese troepen die met , Bestanddeelnr 904-8591.jpg")
[thumb\|left\|220px\| Leader of the Catholic People's Party [Carl Romme](/wiki/Carl_Romme "Carl Romme"), Leader of the Anti\-Revolutionary Party [Jelle Zijlstra](/wiki/Jelle_Zijlstra "Jelle Zijlstra"), Prime Minister and Leader of the Labour Party [Willem Drees](/wiki/Willem_Drees "Willem Drees"), Leader of the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy Pieter Oud, Deputy Leader of the Labour Party [Jaap Burger](/wiki/Jaap_Burger "Jaap Burger") and Leader of the Christian Historical Union [Hendrik Tilanus](/wiki/Hendrik_Tilanus "Hendrik Tilanus") during a meeting at the [Ministry of General Affairs](/wiki/Ministry_of_General_Affairs "Ministry of General Affairs") on 20 June 1956\.](/wiki/File:Minister-president_Dr._Drees_ontvangt_de_fractievoorzitters_van_de_vijf_grootste%2C_Bestanddeelnr_079-0655.jpg "Minister-president Dr. Drees ontvangt de fractievoorzitters van de vijf grootste, Bestanddeelnr 079-0655.jpg")
#### For the VVD
On 3 October 1947, Oud sent a letter to the board of the PvdA announcing his resignation as a member. The reason he gave for the split was that the PvdA was moving too much into socialist waters, instead of being committed to progressive politics. The fact that he was refused a position on the party list for the [Senate](/wiki/Senate_%28Netherlands%29 "Senate (Netherlands)") is generally seen as the political reason for Oud's split. Oud never felt at home in the new social democratic party.
He immediately founded the Committee of Preparation of the Foundation of a Democratic People's Party, which prepared the foundation of the VVD. He negotiated the merger of the remnants of the old VDB with the newly founded [Freedom Party](/wiki/Freedom_Party_%28Netherlands%29 "Freedom Party (Netherlands)"). On 24 January 1948 he became one of the founding members of the liberal [People's Party for Freedom and Democracy](/wiki/People%27s_Party_for_Freedom_and_Democracy "People's Party for Freedom and Democracy"), together with [Dirk Stikker](/wiki/Dirk_Stikker "Dirk Stikker") and [Henk Korthals](/wiki/Henk_Korthals "Henk Korthals"), and served in its first national board as vice\-chair. In [1948](/wiki/1948_Dutch_general_election "1948 Dutch general election") he was elected to the House of Representatives for the VVD, and became chair of its parliamentary party, combining this position with the position of chair of the party's organisation.
In parliament he mainly spoke on issues of administrative and constitutional law. He was a very influential member of parliament. When the law concerning the decolonisation of [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia"), a very controversial issue, was voted on, the two\-thirds majority was only reached because an amendment proposed by Oud ensured the support of the VVD. In 1950–51 Oud came into conflict with the VVD's Minister of Foreign Affairs, Stikker, over the policy concerning [Netherlands New Guinea](/wiki/Netherlands_New_Guinea "Netherlands New Guinea"). Between 1950 and 1953 he was a member of the Government Committee Van Schaik, which prepared a constitutional change. In 1952 he did not seek to be reappointed as Rotterdam's mayor, and instead became extraordinary professor of [Constitutional](/wiki/Constitutional_law "Constitutional law") [Administrative law](/wiki/Administrative_law "Administrative law") at the [University of Rotterdam](/wiki/Erasmus_University "Erasmus University"), which he remained until 1957\. Between 1953 and 1963 he was chair of the Justice Committee of the House of Representatives. As such, he was heavily involved in the preparation of many laws, and served as chair on the committees preparing the laws on the provinces, the police, archives, patents and many more. In 1959 he came into conflict with [Harm van Riel](/wiki/Harm_van_Riel "Harm van Riel"), the chair of the VVD's parliamentary party in the Senate, because Van Riel wanted to become minister, but Oud denied him this.
In the last years of his period in the House of Representatives, Oud was the eldest member of the House and on many times functioned as Speaker, such as when a new Speaker was elected. Before the [1963 election](/wiki/1963_Dutch_general_election "1963 Dutch general election") Oud announced that he would not continue as MP; he was succeeded by the Minister of the Interior [Edzo Toxopeus](/wiki/Edzo_Toxopeus "Edzo Toxopeus"). In the same year, he was appointed as [Minister of State](/wiki/Minister_of_State_%28Netherlands%29 "Minister of State (Netherlands)"), an honorary title.
|
[
"### Political life",
"#### For the VDB",
"Oud was elected in [1917 election](/wiki/1917_Dutch_general_election \"1917 Dutch general election\") for the VDB, the last election with [runoff voting](/wiki/Two-round_system \"Two-round system\"). He defeated Staalman of the left\\-wing [Christian Democratic Party](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_%28Netherlands%29 \"Christian Democratic Union (Netherlands)\") in the second round in the district of [Den Helder](/wiki/Den_Helder_%28electoral_district%29 \"Den Helder (electoral district)\"). He retained his legal position as tax collector, but was given a leave for undetermined time. He was even promoted to inspector of finances in 1921, while on leave. In the [1918 election](/wiki/1918_Dutch_general_election \"1918 Dutch general election\") Oud stood for elections again, and was elected with 5,000 preference votes, mainly from the former district of Den Helder. While MP, Oud also served as secretary of the VDB national board and editor of the *De Vrijzinnige Democraat*, the party's magazine. In parliament Oud took a particular interest in military matters and education, and served as the party's finance spokesperson. As MP he served as member of the Committee on the Navy between 1923 and 1933 and the Committee on the Army since 1925\\. He was chairman of the association for the promotion of public education \"People's Education\" for many years.",
"After the [1933 election](/wiki/1933_Dutch_general_election \"1933 Dutch general election\"), Oud was appointed Minister of Finance in the second cabinet led by [Hendrik Colijn](/wiki/Hendrik_Colijn \"Hendrik Colijn\"). As minister, he was responsible for a large scale operation of budget cuts, during a time of economic crisis. In 1935 he proposed the *Bezuigingswet 1935* (\"Budget Cut Act 1935\"), which involved many budget cuts and financial reorganisations: salaries of civil servants were cut, the old age pensions were financed in a different way and for budgetary reasons, soldiers were to become civil servants after a certain period. Although his proposals lead to a political crisis, they were nonetheless carried by parliament. In the same year, after [Henri Marchant](/wiki/Henri_Marchant \"Henri Marchant\") left the VDB following a scandal, Oud succeeded him as political leader of the VDB. Oud [led](/wiki/Lead_candidate \"Lead candidate\") the VDB in the [1937 election](/wiki/1937_Dutch_general_election \"1937 Dutch general election\") and returned to the [House of Representatives](/wiki/House_of_Representatives_%28Netherlands%29 \"House of Representatives (Netherlands)\") as [chair of the parliamentary party](/wiki/Parliamentary_leader \"Parliamentary leader\"). He also served as chair for the committee on government expenditure.",
"#### In Rotterdam",
"He left the House of Representatives in 1938 to become [Mayor of Rotterdam](/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Rotterdam \"List of mayors of Rotterdam\"). As mayor he also served in the College of Curators of the University of Rotterdam and as chair of the [Association of Netherlands Municipalities](/wiki/Association_of_Netherlands_Municipalities \"Association of Netherlands Municipalities\"). After he stepped down in 1952 he became honorary chairman of that association. In 1939 he was elected to the [Provincial Council of South Holland](/wiki/Provincial_Council_of_South_Holland \"Provincial Council of South Holland\"). In August 1939 he was offered the position of Minister of Finance in the cabinet of [Dirk Jan de Geer](/wiki/Dirk_Jan_de_Geer \"Dirk Jan de Geer\"), but declined.",
"Controversially, Oud did not resign after the [German invasion](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Netherlands \"Battle of the Netherlands\") of 1940, although he was not a member of the [National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands](/wiki/National_Socialist_Movement_in_the_Netherlands \"National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands\") (NSB). During his period as mayor, he was involved in the reconstruction of the centre of Rotterdam which was destroyed by the German bombings. He was heavily criticised by Dutch politicians for cooperating too much with the NSB, while the NSB criticised him for being uncooperative. In the spring of 1941 he was brutally harassed by members of the NSB, twelve party\\-members invaded the City Hall, gagged Oud, adorned him with [Freemason](/wiki/Freemasonry \"Freemasonry\")\\-like symbols and made pictures of him. In the autumn of 1941 he resigned as mayor and he stood down as member of the States Provincial. He was succeeded by [Frederik Ernst Müller](/wiki/Frederik_Ernst_M%C3%BCller \"Frederik Ernst Müller\"). In the summer of 1942 he was briefly held in [Kamp Sint\\-Michielsgestel](/wiki/Kamp_Sint-Michielsgestel \"Kamp Sint-Michielsgestel\"), where many prominent Dutch politicians were held captive. During the war Oud kept far from the [resistance movement](/wiki/Dutch_resistance \"Dutch resistance\") and instead committed himself to writing several books on parliamentary history. Meanwhile, he kept close contact with important people from the business and the political world of Rotterdam.",
"In 1945, after the [liberation of the Netherlands](/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe \"End of World War II in Europe\"), he returned to Rotterdam as mayor, although he was also asked to become [Mayor of Amsterdam](/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Amsterdam \"List of mayors of Amsterdam\"), and he was officially re\\-appointed in 1946\\. In the same year the VDB merged with the social democratic [SDAP](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Workers%27_Party_%28Netherlands%29 \"Social Democratic Workers' Party (Netherlands)\") and the left\\-wing Christian [CDU](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_%28Netherlands%29 \"Christian Democratic Union (Netherlands)\") to form the [Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28Netherlands%29 \"Labour Party (Netherlands)\"). Oud was one of the co\\-founders of this party and served on the party's board between 1946 and 1947\\. Meanwhile, he served on many government, business, international and civil society committees, he chaired the government committee for municipal finances between 1946 and 1954, he was member of the [board of trustees](/wiki/Board_of_trustees \"Board of trustees\") of the banker Staal, he was member of the pension council of the [Dutch Reformed](/wiki/Dutch_Reformed_Church \"Dutch Reformed Church\") Church since 1946 and he served as chair of the [International Union of Municipalities and Local Governments](/wiki/International_Union_of_Municipalities_and_Local_Governments \"International Union of Municipalities and Local Governments\") between 1948 and 1954\\.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|220px\\|[Supreme Allied Commander Europe](/wiki/Supreme_Allied_Commander_Europe \"Supreme Allied Commander Europe\") General of the Army [Dwight D. Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\") and Mayor of Rotterdam Pieter Oud during a meeting at the [Rotterdam City Hall](/wiki/Government_of_Rotterdam \"Government of Rotterdam\") on 21 November 1951\\.](/wiki/File:Eisenhower_arriveert_te_Rotterdam_om_het_commando_over_Canadese_troepen_die_met_%2C_Bestanddeelnr_904-8591.jpg \"Eisenhower arriveert te Rotterdam om het commando over Canadese troepen die met , Bestanddeelnr 904-8591.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|220px\\| Leader of the Catholic People's Party [Carl Romme](/wiki/Carl_Romme \"Carl Romme\"), Leader of the Anti\\-Revolutionary Party [Jelle Zijlstra](/wiki/Jelle_Zijlstra \"Jelle Zijlstra\"), Prime Minister and Leader of the Labour Party [Willem Drees](/wiki/Willem_Drees \"Willem Drees\"), Leader of the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy Pieter Oud, Deputy Leader of the Labour Party [Jaap Burger](/wiki/Jaap_Burger \"Jaap Burger\") and Leader of the Christian Historical Union [Hendrik Tilanus](/wiki/Hendrik_Tilanus \"Hendrik Tilanus\") during a meeting at the [Ministry of General Affairs](/wiki/Ministry_of_General_Affairs \"Ministry of General Affairs\") on 20 June 1956\\.](/wiki/File:Minister-president_Dr._Drees_ontvangt_de_fractievoorzitters_van_de_vijf_grootste%2C_Bestanddeelnr_079-0655.jpg \"Minister-president Dr. Drees ontvangt de fractievoorzitters van de vijf grootste, Bestanddeelnr 079-0655.jpg\")",
"#### For the VVD",
"On 3 October 1947, Oud sent a letter to the board of the PvdA announcing his resignation as a member. The reason he gave for the split was that the PvdA was moving too much into socialist waters, instead of being committed to progressive politics. The fact that he was refused a position on the party list for the [Senate](/wiki/Senate_%28Netherlands%29 \"Senate (Netherlands)\") is generally seen as the political reason for Oud's split. Oud never felt at home in the new social democratic party.",
"He immediately founded the Committee of Preparation of the Foundation of a Democratic People's Party, which prepared the foundation of the VVD. He negotiated the merger of the remnants of the old VDB with the newly founded [Freedom Party](/wiki/Freedom_Party_%28Netherlands%29 \"Freedom Party (Netherlands)\"). On 24 January 1948 he became one of the founding members of the liberal [People's Party for Freedom and Democracy](/wiki/People%27s_Party_for_Freedom_and_Democracy \"People's Party for Freedom and Democracy\"), together with [Dirk Stikker](/wiki/Dirk_Stikker \"Dirk Stikker\") and [Henk Korthals](/wiki/Henk_Korthals \"Henk Korthals\"), and served in its first national board as vice\\-chair. In [1948](/wiki/1948_Dutch_general_election \"1948 Dutch general election\") he was elected to the House of Representatives for the VVD, and became chair of its parliamentary party, combining this position with the position of chair of the party's organisation.",
"In parliament he mainly spoke on issues of administrative and constitutional law. He was a very influential member of parliament. When the law concerning the decolonisation of [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia \"Indonesia\"), a very controversial issue, was voted on, the two\\-thirds majority was only reached because an amendment proposed by Oud ensured the support of the VVD. In 1950–51 Oud came into conflict with the VVD's Minister of Foreign Affairs, Stikker, over the policy concerning [Netherlands New Guinea](/wiki/Netherlands_New_Guinea \"Netherlands New Guinea\"). Between 1950 and 1953 he was a member of the Government Committee Van Schaik, which prepared a constitutional change. In 1952 he did not seek to be reappointed as Rotterdam's mayor, and instead became extraordinary professor of [Constitutional](/wiki/Constitutional_law \"Constitutional law\") [Administrative law](/wiki/Administrative_law \"Administrative law\") at the [University of Rotterdam](/wiki/Erasmus_University \"Erasmus University\"), which he remained until 1957\\. Between 1953 and 1963 he was chair of the Justice Committee of the House of Representatives. As such, he was heavily involved in the preparation of many laws, and served as chair on the committees preparing the laws on the provinces, the police, archives, patents and many more. In 1959 he came into conflict with [Harm van Riel](/wiki/Harm_van_Riel \"Harm van Riel\"), the chair of the VVD's parliamentary party in the Senate, because Van Riel wanted to become minister, but Oud denied him this.",
"In the last years of his period in the House of Representatives, Oud was the eldest member of the House and on many times functioned as Speaker, such as when a new Speaker was elected. Before the [1963 election](/wiki/1963_Dutch_general_election \"1963 Dutch general election\") Oud announced that he would not continue as MP; he was succeeded by the Minister of the Interior [Edzo Toxopeus](/wiki/Edzo_Toxopeus \"Edzo Toxopeus\"). In the same year, he was appointed as [Minister of State](/wiki/Minister_of_State_%28Netherlands%29 \"Minister of State (Netherlands)\"), an honorary title.",
""
] |
Decline, receivership and reorganization (1929–1948\)
-----------------------------------------------------
Shortly after the transaction, the [stock market](/wiki/Stock_market "Stock market") crashed, and on December 30, 1929, the company was put into [receivership](/wiki/Receivership "Receivership"). Increased competition from private automobile ownership and the construction of better highways forced the closure of the electric interurban railways. An application was made to abandon the Rochester and Eastern Rapid Railway in November 1929, but the court process was delayed until the following summer when an order was approved to end all service to [Geneva](/wiki/Geneva%2C_New_York "Geneva, New York") on July 31, 1930\.
New York State Railways emerged from receivership in 1934, and gradually the remaining core city lines were sold as separate operations. The Rochester Lines were reorganized as the [Rochester Transit Corporation](/wiki/Rochester_Transit_Corporation "Rochester Transit Corporation") on August 2, 1938\. The [Syracuse Transit Corporation](/wiki/Syracuse_Transit_Corporation "Syracuse Transit Corporation") took over the former Syracuse Lines on November 22, 1939\. The last streetcars operated on the Utica Lines on May 12, 1941, but it wasn't until May 1, 1948 that the transit system was reorganized as the [Utica Transit Corporation](/wiki/Utica_Transit_Corporation "Utica Transit Corporation").{{sfn\|King\|1975\|page\=6}}
### Rochester Lines
The **Rochester Lines** were made up of the city and suburban lines operated by [Rochester Railway Company](/wiki/Rochester_Railway_Company "Rochester Railway Company"), the Canandaigua local service (the former [Canandaigua Street Railroad](/wiki/Canandaigua_Street_Railroad "Canandaigua Street Railroad")), the [Rochester and Eastern Rapid Railway](/wiki/Rochester_and_Eastern_Rapid_Railway "Rochester and Eastern Rapid Railway"), and the [Rochester and Sodus Bay Railway](/wiki/Rochester_and_Sodus_Bay_Railway "Rochester and Sodus Bay Railway") that were consolidated into New York State Railways in 1909\. In 1927, the city\-owned [Rochester Subway](/wiki/Rochester_Subway "Rochester Subway") was placed under the operation of New York State Railways on a contract basis with the city of Rochester. Trackless trolleys were briefly operated in Rochester between 1923 and 1932\. The first streetcar lines were closed in 1929, including the Exchange, Plymouth, Emerson, and Driving Park routes. Service on the Rochester and Sodus Bay interurban to Sodus Bay was also abandoned the same year, local service to Glen Haven ended in 1933\. The Rochester and Eastern Rapid Railway shut down its interurban line to Geneva in 1930, the same day local service ended in Canandaigua. The largest streetcar line conversion came in August 1936, when eleven routes (Durand\-Eastman Park, Allen, Jefferson, South Clinton, Webster, Clifford, Central Park, Goodman North, Sea Breeze, Hudson, and Joseph) were closed. The following year the Park, West, and University lines were closed.{{sfn\|King\|1975\|page\=23}} The Rochester Lines were reorganized as [Rochester Transit Corporation](/wiki/Rochester_Transit_Corporation "Rochester Transit Corporation") on August 2, 1938, to operate the remaining bus and streetcar transit lines. Streetcar operation ended in 1941, and the [Rochester Subway](/wiki/Rochester_Subway "Rochester Subway") shut down in 1956\. All transit franchises succeeded by [Rochester Transit Corporation](/wiki/Rochester_Transit_Corporation "Rochester Transit Corporation") in 1938 were later transferred to [Rochester\-Genesee Regional Transportation Authority](/wiki/Rochester-Genesee_Regional_Transportation_Authority "Rochester-Genesee Regional Transportation Authority") in 1969\.
{{main\|Rochester Railway Company}}
### Syracuse Lines
[thumb\|250px\|right\|New York State Railways \- A cool ride in June 1923](/wiki/Image:New-york-state-railways_1923-0628.jpg "New-york-state-railways 1923-0628.jpg")
The **Syracuse Lines** consisted mainly of the city and suburban operations serving [Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse%2C_New_York "Syracuse, New York"). Several smaller streetcar and interurban lines serving the city and suburbs of Syracuse were consolidated into the **Syracuse Rapid Transit Railway** on May 21, 1896\. Additional lines were acquired and extended throughout the 1890s. The Syracuse Rapid Transit Railway was merged with New York State Railways in 1912\. At its peak, the Syracuse Lines operated more than 200 cars on 100 miles of track over 27 routes. The first streetcar line closure was the Green Street route in September 1927, with no replacement bus service. On May 31, 1930, the Valley via Elmwood and Valley via Salina routes were closed and not replaced with buses. The Burnet line was converted to bus operation On January 22, 1933\. The West Genesee and West Solvay lines were closed on June 30, 1933\. Additional closures followed on October 31 when the Dudley, Oak, and Park lines were shut down. The Liverpool line succumbed on the last day of 1933\. The Oakwood and Summit lines were closed on May 27, 1935, and the Solvay line was the only closure in 1936\. The Elmwood, East Syracuse, and Midler lines were shut down on September 15, 1937, with the Minoa route following on October 11\. The Court and Midland lines closed on July 31, 1938\. The final route closure under New York State Railways would be the University Line on September 30, 1939\. The former Syracuse Lines were reorganized as the privately owned [Syracuse Transit Corporation](/wiki/Syracuse_Transit_Corporation "Syracuse Transit Corporation") on November 22, 1939\. All remaining streetcar lines were converted to bus by 1941\. In 1972, all transit franchises were succeeded by the [Central New York Regional Transportation Authority](/wiki/Central_New_York_Regional_Transportation_Authority "Central New York Regional Transportation Authority").
{{main\|Syracuse Rapid Transit Railway}}
### Oneida Lines
The **Oneida Lines** consisted of the city streetcar lines, the [Oneida Railway](/wiki/Oneida_Railway "Oneida Railway") interurban line between Syracuse and Utica (known as the "Third Rail Line"), and the Sherrill\-Kenwood shuttle. The earliest portion of the Oneida Lines was incorporated in 1885 as the **Oneida Railway Company of Oneida, New York** (later simplified to Onedia Railway Company in 1903\). Opened on July 4, 1885, as a horsecar transit operation, the line stretched 1\.5 miles along Main Street from the New York Central Railroad station to the [West Shore Railroad](/wiki/West_Shore_Railroad "West Shore Railroad") station at [Oneida Castle](/wiki/Oneida_Castle%2C_New_York "Oneida Castle, New York"). The horsecar operation ended on July 30, 1902, and the railway was shut down while the system was electrified and expanded. When it reopened on December 14, the operation was now 4\.4 miles and included an extension to [Wampsville](/wiki/Wampsville%2C_New_York "Wampsville, New York").
In 1905, the **Oneida Railway** leased a section of the West Shore Railroad from the New York Central Railroad for the purpose of electrifying the line for interurban service between Syracuse and Utica. A connection with the Utica street railways was made at Genesee Street, and with the Syracuse street railways near Burnet Avenue. Service began on June 16, 1907\. Cars were powered by a third rail, except when running on the street railways of Syracuse, Oneida, or Utica, where the overhead trolley wire was used instead.
A 1\.5 mile spur was constructed from the Oneida Railway station at **Sherrill to Kenwood** in 1909, and operated as a single\-car shuttle meeting all interurban trains. In 1911, an extension of the city streetcar was built to serve the [New York, Ontario and Western Railway](/wiki/New_York%2C_Ontario_and_Western_Railway "New York, Ontario and Western Railway") station at Oneida. In 1912, the Oneida operations were acquired by New York State Railways.
Declining ridership through the 1920s forced the Sherrill\-Kenwood shuttle to suspend operations on August 29, 1927\. The shuttle was formally abandoned nearly a year later on July 31, 1928\. Ridership on the Oneida Railway declined through the 1920s and the company entered receivership. The last day of service was December 31, 1930\. The electrification was removed and control of the line reverted to the West Shore Railroad. Local service on the Oneida street railway ended the same day. There was no immediate successor to the transit franchises of the Oneida Lines once all streetcar and interurban railway operations ceased at the end of 1930\. The [Central New York Regional Transportation Authority](/wiki/Central_New_York_Regional_Transportation_Authority "Central New York Regional Transportation Authority") is now responsible for bus transportation in the region formerly served by the Oneida Lines.
{{See also\|Oneida Railway}}
### Utica Lines
The **Utica Lines** of New York State Railways was composed mainly of the city and suburban lines serving both [Utica](/wiki/Utica%2C_New_York "Utica, New York") and [Rome](/wiki/Rome%2C_New_York "Rome, New York"). The various streetcar lines serving Utica were consolidated into the [Utica and Mohawk Valley Railway](/wiki/Utica_and_Mohawk_Valley_Railway "Utica and Mohawk Valley Railway") in 1901\. The **Mohawk Valley Line** was an interurban connecting Rome, Utica, and Little Falls, constructed between 1902 and 1903\. This became the busiest route, with half\-hourly service on its double\-track main line. The **Rome City Street Railroad** was merged into the Utica and Mohawk Valley Railway in 1907\. The U\&MV was merged into **New York State Railways** in 1912\. The first lines to be closed were the Auburn Avenue and Oneida Street routes in 1925\. That same year an amusement park was built near the main carban and shops called Forest Park, which was an immediate success, yet first to feel the effects of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"), which forced it to close in 1929\. The South Woods shuttle also ended service in 1929\. The Mohawk Valley Line began to show significant losses starting in 1926, and shut down on June 30, 1933\. The steel interurban cars that served on the Mohawk Valley Line were purchased new in 1916, and were the newest equipment on the entire New York State Railways system. The cars were transferred to Rochester Lines in 1936 to upgrade the [Rochester Subway](/wiki/Rochester_Subway "Rochester Subway"), and entered service in 1938 under new operator [Rochester Transit Corporation](/wiki/Rochester_Transit_Corporation "Rochester Transit Corporation").
The Rome city lines were never successful, and the first service suspensions came to the James Street line in 1927 and the Madison Street line in 1928\. All streetcar service came in Rome to an end on December 7, 1930\. In 1931, the North Utica line was closed, and the Eagle Street (6\) line followed in 1932\. The Lenox (15\), Lincoln (10\), and Blandina (9\) routes closed in 1933, with South Street and Mohawk street following the year after. In 1934 the South Street and Mohawk Street lines were closed, the same year New York State Railways emerged from receivership. The James Street and Clinton lines were shut down in 1936, while the Whitesboro (11\) and New York Mills (12\) lines were closed in the summer of 1938\. The Capron (5\) line hung on until April 8, 1941\. The last day for streetcar operation in Utica was May 12, 1941, when the New Hartford and Forest Park (16\) lines closed. The mayor of Utica was at the controls of Car 310, the last car to roll into the Forest Park carbarn.
The transit franchises formerly operated by the streetcars were continued by the Copper City Bus Line and the Rome City Bus Line. It wasn't until 1948 that many parts of the former Utica Lines were reorganized as the **[Utica Transit Corporation](/wiki/Utica_Transit_Corporation "Utica Transit Corporation")**. The city\-owned **Utica Transit Commission** took over operations in 1965, which was succeeded by the **Utica Transit Authority** in 1974\. In 2005, the transit operations transferred to the [Central New York Regional Transportation Authority](/wiki/Central_New_York_Regional_Transportation_Authority "Central New York Regional Transportation Authority") and its subsidiaries **Centro Rome** and **Centro Utica**.
{{See also\|Utica and Mohawk Valley Railway}}
|
[
"Decline, receivership and reorganization (1929–1948\\)\n-----------------------------------------------------",
"Shortly after the transaction, the [stock market](/wiki/Stock_market \"Stock market\") crashed, and on December 30, 1929, the company was put into [receivership](/wiki/Receivership \"Receivership\"). Increased competition from private automobile ownership and the construction of better highways forced the closure of the electric interurban railways. An application was made to abandon the Rochester and Eastern Rapid Railway in November 1929, but the court process was delayed until the following summer when an order was approved to end all service to [Geneva](/wiki/Geneva%2C_New_York \"Geneva, New York\") on July 31, 1930\\.",
"New York State Railways emerged from receivership in 1934, and gradually the remaining core city lines were sold as separate operations. The Rochester Lines were reorganized as the [Rochester Transit Corporation](/wiki/Rochester_Transit_Corporation \"Rochester Transit Corporation\") on August 2, 1938\\. The [Syracuse Transit Corporation](/wiki/Syracuse_Transit_Corporation \"Syracuse Transit Corporation\") took over the former Syracuse Lines on November 22, 1939\\. The last streetcars operated on the Utica Lines on May 12, 1941, but it wasn't until May 1, 1948 that the transit system was reorganized as the [Utica Transit Corporation](/wiki/Utica_Transit_Corporation \"Utica Transit Corporation\").{{sfn\\|King\\|1975\\|page\\=6}}",
"### Rochester Lines",
"The **Rochester Lines** were made up of the city and suburban lines operated by [Rochester Railway Company](/wiki/Rochester_Railway_Company \"Rochester Railway Company\"), the Canandaigua local service (the former [Canandaigua Street Railroad](/wiki/Canandaigua_Street_Railroad \"Canandaigua Street Railroad\")), the [Rochester and Eastern Rapid Railway](/wiki/Rochester_and_Eastern_Rapid_Railway \"Rochester and Eastern Rapid Railway\"), and the [Rochester and Sodus Bay Railway](/wiki/Rochester_and_Sodus_Bay_Railway \"Rochester and Sodus Bay Railway\") that were consolidated into New York State Railways in 1909\\. In 1927, the city\\-owned [Rochester Subway](/wiki/Rochester_Subway \"Rochester Subway\") was placed under the operation of New York State Railways on a contract basis with the city of Rochester. Trackless trolleys were briefly operated in Rochester between 1923 and 1932\\. The first streetcar lines were closed in 1929, including the Exchange, Plymouth, Emerson, and Driving Park routes. Service on the Rochester and Sodus Bay interurban to Sodus Bay was also abandoned the same year, local service to Glen Haven ended in 1933\\. The Rochester and Eastern Rapid Railway shut down its interurban line to Geneva in 1930, the same day local service ended in Canandaigua. The largest streetcar line conversion came in August 1936, when eleven routes (Durand\\-Eastman Park, Allen, Jefferson, South Clinton, Webster, Clifford, Central Park, Goodman North, Sea Breeze, Hudson, and Joseph) were closed. The following year the Park, West, and University lines were closed.{{sfn\\|King\\|1975\\|page\\=23}} The Rochester Lines were reorganized as [Rochester Transit Corporation](/wiki/Rochester_Transit_Corporation \"Rochester Transit Corporation\") on August 2, 1938, to operate the remaining bus and streetcar transit lines. Streetcar operation ended in 1941, and the [Rochester Subway](/wiki/Rochester_Subway \"Rochester Subway\") shut down in 1956\\. All transit franchises succeeded by [Rochester Transit Corporation](/wiki/Rochester_Transit_Corporation \"Rochester Transit Corporation\") in 1938 were later transferred to [Rochester\\-Genesee Regional Transportation Authority](/wiki/Rochester-Genesee_Regional_Transportation_Authority \"Rochester-Genesee Regional Transportation Authority\") in 1969\\.\n{{main\\|Rochester Railway Company}}",
"### Syracuse Lines",
"[thumb\\|250px\\|right\\|New York State Railways \\- A cool ride in June 1923](/wiki/Image:New-york-state-railways_1923-0628.jpg \"New-york-state-railways 1923-0628.jpg\")\nThe **Syracuse Lines** consisted mainly of the city and suburban operations serving [Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse%2C_New_York \"Syracuse, New York\"). Several smaller streetcar and interurban lines serving the city and suburbs of Syracuse were consolidated into the **Syracuse Rapid Transit Railway** on May 21, 1896\\. Additional lines were acquired and extended throughout the 1890s. The Syracuse Rapid Transit Railway was merged with New York State Railways in 1912\\. At its peak, the Syracuse Lines operated more than 200 cars on 100 miles of track over 27 routes. The first streetcar line closure was the Green Street route in September 1927, with no replacement bus service. On May 31, 1930, the Valley via Elmwood and Valley via Salina routes were closed and not replaced with buses. The Burnet line was converted to bus operation On January 22, 1933\\. The West Genesee and West Solvay lines were closed on June 30, 1933\\. Additional closures followed on October 31 when the Dudley, Oak, and Park lines were shut down. The Liverpool line succumbed on the last day of 1933\\. The Oakwood and Summit lines were closed on May 27, 1935, and the Solvay line was the only closure in 1936\\. The Elmwood, East Syracuse, and Midler lines were shut down on September 15, 1937, with the Minoa route following on October 11\\. The Court and Midland lines closed on July 31, 1938\\. The final route closure under New York State Railways would be the University Line on September 30, 1939\\. The former Syracuse Lines were reorganized as the privately owned [Syracuse Transit Corporation](/wiki/Syracuse_Transit_Corporation \"Syracuse Transit Corporation\") on November 22, 1939\\. All remaining streetcar lines were converted to bus by 1941\\. In 1972, all transit franchises were succeeded by the [Central New York Regional Transportation Authority](/wiki/Central_New_York_Regional_Transportation_Authority \"Central New York Regional Transportation Authority\").\n{{main\\|Syracuse Rapid Transit Railway}}",
"### Oneida Lines",
"The **Oneida Lines** consisted of the city streetcar lines, the [Oneida Railway](/wiki/Oneida_Railway \"Oneida Railway\") interurban line between Syracuse and Utica (known as the \"Third Rail Line\"), and the Sherrill\\-Kenwood shuttle. The earliest portion of the Oneida Lines was incorporated in 1885 as the **Oneida Railway Company of Oneida, New York** (later simplified to Onedia Railway Company in 1903\\). Opened on July 4, 1885, as a horsecar transit operation, the line stretched 1\\.5 miles along Main Street from the New York Central Railroad station to the [West Shore Railroad](/wiki/West_Shore_Railroad \"West Shore Railroad\") station at [Oneida Castle](/wiki/Oneida_Castle%2C_New_York \"Oneida Castle, New York\"). The horsecar operation ended on July 30, 1902, and the railway was shut down while the system was electrified and expanded. When it reopened on December 14, the operation was now 4\\.4 miles and included an extension to [Wampsville](/wiki/Wampsville%2C_New_York \"Wampsville, New York\").",
"In 1905, the **Oneida Railway** leased a section of the West Shore Railroad from the New York Central Railroad for the purpose of electrifying the line for interurban service between Syracuse and Utica. A connection with the Utica street railways was made at Genesee Street, and with the Syracuse street railways near Burnet Avenue. Service began on June 16, 1907\\. Cars were powered by a third rail, except when running on the street railways of Syracuse, Oneida, or Utica, where the overhead trolley wire was used instead.",
"A 1\\.5 mile spur was constructed from the Oneida Railway station at **Sherrill to Kenwood** in 1909, and operated as a single\\-car shuttle meeting all interurban trains. In 1911, an extension of the city streetcar was built to serve the [New York, Ontario and Western Railway](/wiki/New_York%2C_Ontario_and_Western_Railway \"New York, Ontario and Western Railway\") station at Oneida. In 1912, the Oneida operations were acquired by New York State Railways.",
"Declining ridership through the 1920s forced the Sherrill\\-Kenwood shuttle to suspend operations on August 29, 1927\\. The shuttle was formally abandoned nearly a year later on July 31, 1928\\. Ridership on the Oneida Railway declined through the 1920s and the company entered receivership. The last day of service was December 31, 1930\\. The electrification was removed and control of the line reverted to the West Shore Railroad. Local service on the Oneida street railway ended the same day. There was no immediate successor to the transit franchises of the Oneida Lines once all streetcar and interurban railway operations ceased at the end of 1930\\. The [Central New York Regional Transportation Authority](/wiki/Central_New_York_Regional_Transportation_Authority \"Central New York Regional Transportation Authority\") is now responsible for bus transportation in the region formerly served by the Oneida Lines.",
"{{See also\\|Oneida Railway}}",
"### Utica Lines",
"The **Utica Lines** of New York State Railways was composed mainly of the city and suburban lines serving both [Utica](/wiki/Utica%2C_New_York \"Utica, New York\") and [Rome](/wiki/Rome%2C_New_York \"Rome, New York\"). The various streetcar lines serving Utica were consolidated into the [Utica and Mohawk Valley Railway](/wiki/Utica_and_Mohawk_Valley_Railway \"Utica and Mohawk Valley Railway\") in 1901\\. The **Mohawk Valley Line** was an interurban connecting Rome, Utica, and Little Falls, constructed between 1902 and 1903\\. This became the busiest route, with half\\-hourly service on its double\\-track main line. The **Rome City Street Railroad** was merged into the Utica and Mohawk Valley Railway in 1907\\. The U\\&MV was merged into **New York State Railways** in 1912\\. The first lines to be closed were the Auburn Avenue and Oneida Street routes in 1925\\. That same year an amusement park was built near the main carban and shops called Forest Park, which was an immediate success, yet first to feel the effects of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"), which forced it to close in 1929\\. The South Woods shuttle also ended service in 1929\\. The Mohawk Valley Line began to show significant losses starting in 1926, and shut down on June 30, 1933\\. The steel interurban cars that served on the Mohawk Valley Line were purchased new in 1916, and were the newest equipment on the entire New York State Railways system. The cars were transferred to Rochester Lines in 1936 to upgrade the [Rochester Subway](/wiki/Rochester_Subway \"Rochester Subway\"), and entered service in 1938 under new operator [Rochester Transit Corporation](/wiki/Rochester_Transit_Corporation \"Rochester Transit Corporation\").",
"The Rome city lines were never successful, and the first service suspensions came to the James Street line in 1927 and the Madison Street line in 1928\\. All streetcar service came in Rome to an end on December 7, 1930\\. In 1931, the North Utica line was closed, and the Eagle Street (6\\) line followed in 1932\\. The Lenox (15\\), Lincoln (10\\), and Blandina (9\\) routes closed in 1933, with South Street and Mohawk street following the year after. In 1934 the South Street and Mohawk Street lines were closed, the same year New York State Railways emerged from receivership. The James Street and Clinton lines were shut down in 1936, while the Whitesboro (11\\) and New York Mills (12\\) lines were closed in the summer of 1938\\. The Capron (5\\) line hung on until April 8, 1941\\. The last day for streetcar operation in Utica was May 12, 1941, when the New Hartford and Forest Park (16\\) lines closed. The mayor of Utica was at the controls of Car 310, the last car to roll into the Forest Park carbarn.",
"The transit franchises formerly operated by the streetcars were continued by the Copper City Bus Line and the Rome City Bus Line. It wasn't until 1948 that many parts of the former Utica Lines were reorganized as the **[Utica Transit Corporation](/wiki/Utica_Transit_Corporation \"Utica Transit Corporation\")**. The city\\-owned **Utica Transit Commission** took over operations in 1965, which was succeeded by the **Utica Transit Authority** in 1974\\. In 2005, the transit operations transferred to the [Central New York Regional Transportation Authority](/wiki/Central_New_York_Regional_Transportation_Authority \"Central New York Regional Transportation Authority\") and its subsidiaries **Centro Rome** and **Centro Utica**.",
"{{See also\\|Utica and Mohawk Valley Railway}}",
""
] |
Plot
----
Mr. and Mrs. Wiggs, prior to their marriage, worked as a coachman and housekeeper to Colonel Vanderhurst, who removed his son, Jack, from his will for marrying a woman connected to the circus. Years later, Jack and his wife both pass away, leaving Lovey Mary with Jack's wife's sister and her sister's husband, a temperamental circus proprietor. Along with Lovey Mary goes Jack's marriage certificate, Lovey Mary's birth certificate, and a locket with a portrait of Jack and his wife.
Now, Mr. and Mrs. Wiggs are married with five children, suffering greatly, especially due to strikes at Mr. Wiggs’ work. This place is controlled by wealthy politician Murphy, whose stepson Bob pities the strikers, specifically Mr. Wiggs and his family. Bob becomes an attorney and Mr. Wiggs leaves the town in search of other work, meeting Lovey Mary's uncle, the circus proprietor. With Mr. Wiggs absent, Mrs. Wiggs struggles greatly with poverty as she tries to take care of her family alone.
Years pass, and Mrs. Wiggs continues struggling. Colonel Vanderhurst decides to make a will in Lovey Mary's favor after regretting his harshness with his son. He releases advertisements to find Lovey Mary, which Mary's uncle finds and plans to turn in Lovey Mary as his own daughter to receive the inheritance.
Mr. Wiggs falls in love with a circus performer and has a child named Tommy with her, who Lovey Mary becomes fond of. When her uncle tells her the plan, she runs away with Tommy. Her uncle chases after her but she is rescued by Bob. She has another close call with her uncle, but escapes by train with Tommy, and stops near the Cabbage Patch. Noticed by one of the Wiggs children, she is taken to Mrs. Wiggs house. Soon, she is kidnapped by her uncle with Tommy still at the house.
Her uncle takes her to claim the inheritance, but Bob's firm represents the Colonel's estate and Bob becomes suspicious. He visits the circus, which is currently in the Cabbage Patch, and goes to Mrs. Wiggs, discovering the truth.
Bob follows Lovey Mary's uncle under disguise and saves her as she is about to be murdered. The two later run into Mr. Wiggs and convince him to return to Mrs. Wiggs, who forgives him for abandoning her and their family, and Bob and Lovey Mary announce their decision to get married.{{Citation\|title\=Mrs. Wiggs of the Cabbage Patch (1914\) \- IMDb\|url\=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0004365/plotsummary\|access\-date\=2019\-09\-27}}
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Mr. and Mrs. Wiggs, prior to their marriage, worked as a coachman and housekeeper to Colonel Vanderhurst, who removed his son, Jack, from his will for marrying a woman connected to the circus. Years later, Jack and his wife both pass away, leaving Lovey Mary with Jack's wife's sister and her sister's husband, a temperamental circus proprietor. Along with Lovey Mary goes Jack's marriage certificate, Lovey Mary's birth certificate, and a locket with a portrait of Jack and his wife.",
"Now, Mr. and Mrs. Wiggs are married with five children, suffering greatly, especially due to strikes at Mr. Wiggs’ work. This place is controlled by wealthy politician Murphy, whose stepson Bob pities the strikers, specifically Mr. Wiggs and his family. Bob becomes an attorney and Mr. Wiggs leaves the town in search of other work, meeting Lovey Mary's uncle, the circus proprietor. With Mr. Wiggs absent, Mrs. Wiggs struggles greatly with poverty as she tries to take care of her family alone.",
"Years pass, and Mrs. Wiggs continues struggling. Colonel Vanderhurst decides to make a will in Lovey Mary's favor after regretting his harshness with his son. He releases advertisements to find Lovey Mary, which Mary's uncle finds and plans to turn in Lovey Mary as his own daughter to receive the inheritance.",
"Mr. Wiggs falls in love with a circus performer and has a child named Tommy with her, who Lovey Mary becomes fond of. When her uncle tells her the plan, she runs away with Tommy. Her uncle chases after her but she is rescued by Bob. She has another close call with her uncle, but escapes by train with Tommy, and stops near the Cabbage Patch. Noticed by one of the Wiggs children, she is taken to Mrs. Wiggs house. Soon, she is kidnapped by her uncle with Tommy still at the house.",
"Her uncle takes her to claim the inheritance, but Bob's firm represents the Colonel's estate and Bob becomes suspicious. He visits the circus, which is currently in the Cabbage Patch, and goes to Mrs. Wiggs, discovering the truth.",
"Bob follows Lovey Mary's uncle under disguise and saves her as she is about to be murdered. The two later run into Mr. Wiggs and convince him to return to Mrs. Wiggs, who forgives him for abandoning her and their family, and Bob and Lovey Mary announce their decision to get married.{{Citation\\|title\\=Mrs. Wiggs of the Cabbage Patch (1914\\) \\- IMDb\\|url\\=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0004365/plotsummary\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-09\\-27}}",
""
] |
Professional wrestling career
-----------------------------
### Universal Wrestling Federation and New Japan Pro\-Wrestling (1985–1988\)
A former practitioner of [judo](/wiki/Judo "Judo"), [sumo](/wiki/Sumo "Sumo") and [muay thai](/wiki/Muay_thai "Muay thai"), Anjo tried [professional wrestling](/wiki/Professional_wrestling "Professional wrestling") after meeting [Nobuhiko Takada](/wiki/Nobuhiko_Takada "Nobuhiko Takada"). He passed the original [Universal Wrestling Federation](/wiki/Universal_Wrestling_Federation_%28Japan%29 "Universal Wrestling Federation (Japan)")'s entrance tests and had his debut on July 6, 1985, against Osamu Hoshina. He only wrestled a handful of matches for the company, as it collapsed later in the year and its roster moved back to [New Japan Pro\-Wrestling](/wiki/New_Japan_Pro-Wrestling "New Japan Pro-Wrestling"), where Anjo debuted as a low\-ranking member of the UWF "invading" army. Often teaming with fellow shooter Tatsuo Nakano, he feuded with names like [Akira Nogami](/wiki/Akira_Nogami "Akira Nogami"), [Osamu Matsuda](/wiki/Osamu_Matsuda "Osamu Matsuda") and [Masakatsu Funaki](/wiki/Masakatsu_Funaki "Masakatsu Funaki") as part of the NJPW [junior heavyweight](/wiki/Cruiserweight_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Cruiserweight (professional wrestling)") division. He eventually left the company in 1988 following Takada, Akira Maeda and the rest of his crew to form the second incarnation of UWF.
### UWF Newborn (1988–1990\)
In 1988, already in [UWF Newborn](/wiki/Universal_Wrestling_Federation_%28Japan%29 "Universal Wrestling Federation (Japan)"), Anjo climbed up the card and adopted a more eccentric image for himself, wearing zebra tights and [bondage](/wiki/Bondage_%28BDSM%29 "Bondage (BDSM)") gear and using [heelish](/wiki/Heel_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Heel (professional wrestling)") sneaky tactics in the ring. He participated in a different style fight at the U\-COSMOS event against [Changpuek Kiatsongrit](/wiki/Changpuek_Kiatsongrit "Changpuek Kiatsongrit"), and also wrestled Holland exponent [Dick Vrij](/wiki/Dick_Vrij "Dick Vrij"). Just before the promotion disgregated in several companies, Anjo got a high level victory against [Minoru Suzuki](/wiki/Minoru_Suzuki "Minoru Suzuki").
### Union of Wrestling Forces International (1991–1996\)
In 1991 he joined [UWF International](/wiki/UWF_International "UWF International"), following his mentor Takada, and had success as the top native heel. He feuded with Takada and [Kazuo Yamazaki](/wiki/Kazuo_Yamazaki "Kazuo Yamazaki"), and had also an humbling match with [The Iron Sheik](/wiki/The_Iron_Sheik "The Iron Sheik").
In December 1994, Anjo was involved in a famous incident with [Brazilian jiu\-jitsu](/wiki/Brazilian_jiu-jitsu "Brazilian jiu-jitsu") master [Rickson Gracie](/wiki/Rickson_Gracie "Rickson Gracie"). After Gracie declined to work with UWF International, Yoji travelled to California along with executive Shinji Sasazaki and a huge Japanese press contingent to perform a [dojo challenge](/wiki/Dojoyaburi "Dojoyaburi") on Rickson. However, he lost the subsequent fight, with Rickson dominating him with brutal [ground and pound](/wiki/Ground_and_pound "Ground and pound") and choking him out after the Japanese refused to give up.
With the UWFi's formerly fearsome reputation in tatters, the bookers had the idea of co\-promoting events with NJPW in 1995, and Yoji earned a victory over [Masahiro Chono](/wiki/Masahiro_Chono "Masahiro Chono") in an interpromotional match. He and young wrestlers [Yoshihiro Takayama](/wiki/Yoshihiro_Takayama "Yoshihiro Takayama") and [Kenichi Yamamoto](/wiki/Kenichi_Yamamoto_%28mixed_martial_artist%29 "Kenichi Yamamoto (mixed martial artist)") formed a stable called the "Golden Cups" (a reference to [pop rock](/wiki/Pop_rock "Pop rock") band [The Golden Cups](/wiki/The_Golden_Cups "The Golden Cups")) to feud in [tag team](/wiki/Tag_team "Tag team") and six\-man matches against [Super Strong Machine](/wiki/Junji_Hirata "Junji Hirata") as the masked "200% Machines". They also forayed into [WAR](/wiki/WAR_%28wrestling_promotion%29 "WAR (wrestling promotion)") to feud with [Genichiro Tenryu](/wiki/Genichiro_Tenryu "Genichiro Tenryu") and others.
On August 17, 1996, Takada defeated Yoji Anjo at Tokyo's [Meiji\-Jingu Stadium](/wiki/Meiji-Jingu_Stadium "Meiji-Jingu Stadium").
Despite the effort, UWF's attendance numbers swiftly decreased, with the federation closing its doors once and for all in December 1996\. In their final show it was [Kazushi Sakuraba](/wiki/Kazushi_Sakuraba "Kazushi Sakuraba") who at long last headlined, defeating Anjo by submission. Following UWFI's collapse he joined [Kingdom](/wiki/Kingdom_Professional_Wrestling "Kingdom Professional Wrestling") but then wandered into independent promotions and also began competing in MMA matches.
### All Japan Pro Wrestling (2000–2003\)
[thumb\|180px\|Anjo kicking [Nagao Ginga](/wiki/Hiroshi_Nagao "Hiroshi Nagao").](/wiki/File:Anjo_kick.jpg "Anjo kick.jpg")
In 2000 Anjo returned to professional wrestling to help out [All Japan Pro Wrestling](/wiki/All_Japan_Pro_Wrestling "All Japan Pro Wrestling")'s rebuilding. He appeared as a partner to old foe [Genichiro Tenryu](/wiki/Genichiro_Tenryu "Genichiro Tenryu"), winning the [World Tag Team Championship](/wiki/World_Tag_Team_Championship_%28AJPW%29 "World Tag Team Championship (AJPW)") from Johnny Smith and [Taiyo Kea](/wiki/Taiyo_Kea "Taiyo Kea"). They retained the titles for a long times, including a double title match with [AJPW All Asia Tag Team Champions](/wiki/AJPW_All_Asia_Tag_Team_Championship "AJPW All Asia Tag Team Championship") [Arashi](/wiki/Isao_Takagi "Isao Takagi") and [Koki Kitahara](/wiki/Koki_Kitahara "Koki Kitahara"), against the teams of [George Hines](/wiki/George_Hines "George Hines") and Johnny Smith and [Toshiaki Kawada](/wiki/Toshiaki_Kawada "Toshiaki Kawada") and Nobutaka Araya, coming victorious after Anjo pinned Araya with a knee strike. After some weeks, Tenryu and Anjo finally lost the title to [Keiji Mutoh](/wiki/Keiji_Mutoh "Keiji Mutoh") and Taiyo Kea, dissolving the team.
After some single ventures and a failed team with [Mitsuya Nagai](/wiki/Mitsuya_Nagai "Mitsuya Nagai"), he quit All Japan and wandered again, joining [Fighting World of Japan Pro Wrestling](/wiki/Fighting_World_of_Japan_Pro_Wrestling "Fighting World of Japan Pro Wrestling"). He fought again alongside Tenryu, feuding with Takao Omori, and also teamed up with Ichiro Yaguchi to take part in the WMG Tag Team Championship tournament, but they were eliminated by [Jinsei Shinzaki](/wiki/Jinsei_Shinzaki "Jinsei Shinzaki") and Shiro Koshinaka.
### Hustle (2004–2009\)
After many months of inactivity, Anjo resurfaced in the sports entertainment promotion [Hustle](/wiki/Hustle_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Hustle (professional wrestling)") run by old comrade Takada. He debuted as **Commander An Jo**, [Generalissimo Takada](/wiki/Nobuhiko_Takada "Nobuhiko Takada")'s right hand, wearing military uniforms and ornated eye masks.
On March 19, 2015, Anjo retired from professional wrestling, putting on a small interpromotional card called *Y.A. is Dead* (a reference to his entrance song [James Brown Is Dead](/wiki/James_Brown_Is_Dead "James Brown Is Dead") by LA Style) where he reformed his "Golden Cups" stable with Takayama and Yamamoto, to take on former UWF and New Japan foes [Masakatsu Funaki](/wiki/Masakatsu_Funaki "Masakatsu Funaki"), [Minoru Suzuki](/wiki/Minoru_Suzuki "Minoru Suzuki") and [Sanae Kikuta](/wiki/Sanae_Kikuta "Sanae Kikuta") in a best\-of\-three\-falls six\-man match. Anjo was forced to submit by Funaki in two straight falls, but Anjo demanded the match go to a third fall and was pinned by Suzuki.
|
[
"Professional wrestling career\n-----------------------------",
"### Universal Wrestling Federation and New Japan Pro\\-Wrestling (1985–1988\\)",
"A former practitioner of [judo](/wiki/Judo \"Judo\"), [sumo](/wiki/Sumo \"Sumo\") and [muay thai](/wiki/Muay_thai \"Muay thai\"), Anjo tried [professional wrestling](/wiki/Professional_wrestling \"Professional wrestling\") after meeting [Nobuhiko Takada](/wiki/Nobuhiko_Takada \"Nobuhiko Takada\"). He passed the original [Universal Wrestling Federation](/wiki/Universal_Wrestling_Federation_%28Japan%29 \"Universal Wrestling Federation (Japan)\")'s entrance tests and had his debut on July 6, 1985, against Osamu Hoshina. He only wrestled a handful of matches for the company, as it collapsed later in the year and its roster moved back to [New Japan Pro\\-Wrestling](/wiki/New_Japan_Pro-Wrestling \"New Japan Pro-Wrestling\"), where Anjo debuted as a low\\-ranking member of the UWF \"invading\" army. Often teaming with fellow shooter Tatsuo Nakano, he feuded with names like [Akira Nogami](/wiki/Akira_Nogami \"Akira Nogami\"), [Osamu Matsuda](/wiki/Osamu_Matsuda \"Osamu Matsuda\") and [Masakatsu Funaki](/wiki/Masakatsu_Funaki \"Masakatsu Funaki\") as part of the NJPW [junior heavyweight](/wiki/Cruiserweight_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Cruiserweight (professional wrestling)\") division. He eventually left the company in 1988 following Takada, Akira Maeda and the rest of his crew to form the second incarnation of UWF.",
"### UWF Newborn (1988–1990\\)",
"In 1988, already in [UWF Newborn](/wiki/Universal_Wrestling_Federation_%28Japan%29 \"Universal Wrestling Federation (Japan)\"), Anjo climbed up the card and adopted a more eccentric image for himself, wearing zebra tights and [bondage](/wiki/Bondage_%28BDSM%29 \"Bondage (BDSM)\") gear and using [heelish](/wiki/Heel_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Heel (professional wrestling)\") sneaky tactics in the ring. He participated in a different style fight at the U\\-COSMOS event against [Changpuek Kiatsongrit](/wiki/Changpuek_Kiatsongrit \"Changpuek Kiatsongrit\"), and also wrestled Holland exponent [Dick Vrij](/wiki/Dick_Vrij \"Dick Vrij\"). Just before the promotion disgregated in several companies, Anjo got a high level victory against [Minoru Suzuki](/wiki/Minoru_Suzuki \"Minoru Suzuki\").",
"### Union of Wrestling Forces International (1991–1996\\)",
"In 1991 he joined [UWF International](/wiki/UWF_International \"UWF International\"), following his mentor Takada, and had success as the top native heel. He feuded with Takada and [Kazuo Yamazaki](/wiki/Kazuo_Yamazaki \"Kazuo Yamazaki\"), and had also an humbling match with [The Iron Sheik](/wiki/The_Iron_Sheik \"The Iron Sheik\").",
"In December 1994, Anjo was involved in a famous incident with [Brazilian jiu\\-jitsu](/wiki/Brazilian_jiu-jitsu \"Brazilian jiu-jitsu\") master [Rickson Gracie](/wiki/Rickson_Gracie \"Rickson Gracie\"). After Gracie declined to work with UWF International, Yoji travelled to California along with executive Shinji Sasazaki and a huge Japanese press contingent to perform a [dojo challenge](/wiki/Dojoyaburi \"Dojoyaburi\") on Rickson. However, he lost the subsequent fight, with Rickson dominating him with brutal [ground and pound](/wiki/Ground_and_pound \"Ground and pound\") and choking him out after the Japanese refused to give up.",
"With the UWFi's formerly fearsome reputation in tatters, the bookers had the idea of co\\-promoting events with NJPW in 1995, and Yoji earned a victory over [Masahiro Chono](/wiki/Masahiro_Chono \"Masahiro Chono\") in an interpromotional match. He and young wrestlers [Yoshihiro Takayama](/wiki/Yoshihiro_Takayama \"Yoshihiro Takayama\") and [Kenichi Yamamoto](/wiki/Kenichi_Yamamoto_%28mixed_martial_artist%29 \"Kenichi Yamamoto (mixed martial artist)\") formed a stable called the \"Golden Cups\" (a reference to [pop rock](/wiki/Pop_rock \"Pop rock\") band [The Golden Cups](/wiki/The_Golden_Cups \"The Golden Cups\")) to feud in [tag team](/wiki/Tag_team \"Tag team\") and six\\-man matches against [Super Strong Machine](/wiki/Junji_Hirata \"Junji Hirata\") as the masked \"200% Machines\". They also forayed into [WAR](/wiki/WAR_%28wrestling_promotion%29 \"WAR (wrestling promotion)\") to feud with [Genichiro Tenryu](/wiki/Genichiro_Tenryu \"Genichiro Tenryu\") and others.",
"On August 17, 1996, Takada defeated Yoji Anjo at Tokyo's [Meiji\\-Jingu Stadium](/wiki/Meiji-Jingu_Stadium \"Meiji-Jingu Stadium\").\nDespite the effort, UWF's attendance numbers swiftly decreased, with the federation closing its doors once and for all in December 1996\\. In their final show it was [Kazushi Sakuraba](/wiki/Kazushi_Sakuraba \"Kazushi Sakuraba\") who at long last headlined, defeating Anjo by submission. Following UWFI's collapse he joined [Kingdom](/wiki/Kingdom_Professional_Wrestling \"Kingdom Professional Wrestling\") but then wandered into independent promotions and also began competing in MMA matches.",
"### All Japan Pro Wrestling (2000–2003\\)",
"[thumb\\|180px\\|Anjo kicking [Nagao Ginga](/wiki/Hiroshi_Nagao \"Hiroshi Nagao\").](/wiki/File:Anjo_kick.jpg \"Anjo kick.jpg\")\nIn 2000 Anjo returned to professional wrestling to help out [All Japan Pro Wrestling](/wiki/All_Japan_Pro_Wrestling \"All Japan Pro Wrestling\")'s rebuilding. He appeared as a partner to old foe [Genichiro Tenryu](/wiki/Genichiro_Tenryu \"Genichiro Tenryu\"), winning the [World Tag Team Championship](/wiki/World_Tag_Team_Championship_%28AJPW%29 \"World Tag Team Championship (AJPW)\") from Johnny Smith and [Taiyo Kea](/wiki/Taiyo_Kea \"Taiyo Kea\"). They retained the titles for a long times, including a double title match with [AJPW All Asia Tag Team Champions](/wiki/AJPW_All_Asia_Tag_Team_Championship \"AJPW All Asia Tag Team Championship\") [Arashi](/wiki/Isao_Takagi \"Isao Takagi\") and [Koki Kitahara](/wiki/Koki_Kitahara \"Koki Kitahara\"), against the teams of [George Hines](/wiki/George_Hines \"George Hines\") and Johnny Smith and [Toshiaki Kawada](/wiki/Toshiaki_Kawada \"Toshiaki Kawada\") and Nobutaka Araya, coming victorious after Anjo pinned Araya with a knee strike. After some weeks, Tenryu and Anjo finally lost the title to [Keiji Mutoh](/wiki/Keiji_Mutoh \"Keiji Mutoh\") and Taiyo Kea, dissolving the team.",
"After some single ventures and a failed team with [Mitsuya Nagai](/wiki/Mitsuya_Nagai \"Mitsuya Nagai\"), he quit All Japan and wandered again, joining [Fighting World of Japan Pro Wrestling](/wiki/Fighting_World_of_Japan_Pro_Wrestling \"Fighting World of Japan Pro Wrestling\"). He fought again alongside Tenryu, feuding with Takao Omori, and also teamed up with Ichiro Yaguchi to take part in the WMG Tag Team Championship tournament, but they were eliminated by [Jinsei Shinzaki](/wiki/Jinsei_Shinzaki \"Jinsei Shinzaki\") and Shiro Koshinaka.",
"### Hustle (2004–2009\\)",
"After many months of inactivity, Anjo resurfaced in the sports entertainment promotion [Hustle](/wiki/Hustle_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Hustle (professional wrestling)\") run by old comrade Takada. He debuted as **Commander An Jo**, [Generalissimo Takada](/wiki/Nobuhiko_Takada \"Nobuhiko Takada\")'s right hand, wearing military uniforms and ornated eye masks.",
"On March 19, 2015, Anjo retired from professional wrestling, putting on a small interpromotional card called *Y.A. is Dead* (a reference to his entrance song [James Brown Is Dead](/wiki/James_Brown_Is_Dead \"James Brown Is Dead\") by LA Style) where he reformed his \"Golden Cups\" stable with Takayama and Yamamoto, to take on former UWF and New Japan foes [Masakatsu Funaki](/wiki/Masakatsu_Funaki \"Masakatsu Funaki\"), [Minoru Suzuki](/wiki/Minoru_Suzuki \"Minoru Suzuki\") and [Sanae Kikuta](/wiki/Sanae_Kikuta \"Sanae Kikuta\") in a best\\-of\\-three\\-falls six\\-man match. Anjo was forced to submit by Funaki in two straight falls, but Anjo demanded the match go to a third fall and was pinned by Suzuki.",
""
] |
Mixed martial arts career
-------------------------
Yoji's first shootfight was in [UWF Newborn](/wiki/UWF_%28Japan%29 "UWF (Japan)"), after offering himself to fight [muay thai](/wiki/Muay_thai "Muay thai") champion [Changpuek Kiatsongrit](/wiki/Changpuek_Kiatsongrit "Changpuek Kiatsongrit") in the 1989 event U\-Cosmos. Under mixed rules, Changpuek chose to wear gloves while Anjo did not. Started the fight, Yoji immediately clinched Changpuek to avoid his striking and repeatedly tried to take him down, but the Thai fighter kept holding the ring ropes in order to avoid it. After rounds, they traded kicks and Yoji cornered him in the turnbuckle several times, with Kiatsongrit never releasing the ropes. The Japanese wrestler managed to threaten him with submissions at the final round, but he couldn't lock them due to the rope escape rule, so the fight ended in a draw.
He had his official MMA debut at U\-Japan, facing famed grappler [Sean Alvarez](/wiki/Sean_Alvarez "Sean Alvarez") in a half\-hour losing effort.
### Ultimate Fighting Championship
In 1997, he took part in [Ultimate Fighting Championship](/wiki/Ultimate_Fighting_Championship "Ultimate Fighting Championship")'s [UFC Japan](/wiki/UFC_Japan "UFC Japan") tournament representing Kingdom along with [Kazushi Sakuraba](/wiki/Kazushi_Sakuraba "Kazushi Sakuraba"), and was pitted against the much bigger and experienced [David "Tank" Abbott](/wiki/Tank_Abbott "Tank Abbott"). The American took advantage of his own wrestling superiority to take Anjo down repeatedly and use [ground and pound](/wiki/Ground_and_pound "Ground and pound"), while Yoji answered with multiple submission attempts and [leg kicks](/wiki/Leg_kick "Leg kick") whenever he could. At the end of the fight, judges gave the decision to Abbot for keeping control during the fight. However, he had got a hand injury and had to retire from the tournament. Anjo's partner Sakuraba ended winning the tournament instead.
At the second UFC event in Japan, [UFC 25](/wiki/UFC_25 "UFC 25"), Anjo fought an even more dangerous grappler, [Murilo Bustamante](/wiki/Murilo_Bustamante "Murilo Bustamante"), considered one of the best in the world. The Japanese wrestler was immediately taken down and mounted, but he managed to perform a rolling reversal off the cage and fend off an [armbar](/wiki/Armbar "Armbar") attempt, and for a time seemed to have secured a [guillotine choke](/wiki/Guillotine_choke "Guillotine choke"), but only briefly. At the second round, Anjo was taken down and submitted with an [arm triangle choke](/wiki/Arm_triangle_choke "Arm triangle choke"). Anjo kept facing high level opponents in the form of Olympic wrestler [Matt Lindland](/wiki/Matt_Lindland "Matt Lindland"), in [UFC 29](/wiki/UFC_29 "UFC 29"). This time was Anjo the first in initiating the takedown, but Lindland used the fence to avoid it and maneuver to mount, from where he executed intense ground and pound until the referee stopped the fight.
### PRIDE
Three years after getting a draw with [Seikendo](/wiki/Seikendo "Seikendo") fighter Gia Chirragishvili in [Deep](/wiki/Deep_%28mixed_martial_arts%29 "Deep (mixed martial arts)"), Anjo was invited to [Pride Fighting Championships](/wiki/Pride_Fighting_Championships "Pride Fighting Championships") to fight [Ryan Gracie](/wiki/Ryan_Gracie "Ryan Gracie"), in remembrance of Anjo's past challenge to Rickson. The young Brazilian took Anjo down, but couldn't get the choke, and even shoved the referee away after the restart, earning a yellow card. Again Ryan got a takedown and gained half guard, taking Anjo's back, but Yoji defended it and they struggled for position until he fell in an armbar and had to tap out. This was Anjo's last MMA fight, although he still helped to train fighters like [Daiju Takase](/wiki/Daiju_Takase "Daiju Takase") and [Kenichi Yamamoto](/wiki/Kenichi_Yamamoto_%28mixed_martial_artist%29 "Kenichi Yamamoto (mixed martial artist)").
|
[
"Mixed martial arts career\n-------------------------",
"Yoji's first shootfight was in [UWF Newborn](/wiki/UWF_%28Japan%29 \"UWF (Japan)\"), after offering himself to fight [muay thai](/wiki/Muay_thai \"Muay thai\") champion [Changpuek Kiatsongrit](/wiki/Changpuek_Kiatsongrit \"Changpuek Kiatsongrit\") in the 1989 event U\\-Cosmos. Under mixed rules, Changpuek chose to wear gloves while Anjo did not. Started the fight, Yoji immediately clinched Changpuek to avoid his striking and repeatedly tried to take him down, but the Thai fighter kept holding the ring ropes in order to avoid it. After rounds, they traded kicks and Yoji cornered him in the turnbuckle several times, with Kiatsongrit never releasing the ropes. The Japanese wrestler managed to threaten him with submissions at the final round, but he couldn't lock them due to the rope escape rule, so the fight ended in a draw.",
"He had his official MMA debut at U\\-Japan, facing famed grappler [Sean Alvarez](/wiki/Sean_Alvarez \"Sean Alvarez\") in a half\\-hour losing effort.",
"### Ultimate Fighting Championship",
"In 1997, he took part in [Ultimate Fighting Championship](/wiki/Ultimate_Fighting_Championship \"Ultimate Fighting Championship\")'s [UFC Japan](/wiki/UFC_Japan \"UFC Japan\") tournament representing Kingdom along with [Kazushi Sakuraba](/wiki/Kazushi_Sakuraba \"Kazushi Sakuraba\"), and was pitted against the much bigger and experienced [David \"Tank\" Abbott](/wiki/Tank_Abbott \"Tank Abbott\"). The American took advantage of his own wrestling superiority to take Anjo down repeatedly and use [ground and pound](/wiki/Ground_and_pound \"Ground and pound\"), while Yoji answered with multiple submission attempts and [leg kicks](/wiki/Leg_kick \"Leg kick\") whenever he could. At the end of the fight, judges gave the decision to Abbot for keeping control during the fight. However, he had got a hand injury and had to retire from the tournament. Anjo's partner Sakuraba ended winning the tournament instead.",
"At the second UFC event in Japan, [UFC 25](/wiki/UFC_25 \"UFC 25\"), Anjo fought an even more dangerous grappler, [Murilo Bustamante](/wiki/Murilo_Bustamante \"Murilo Bustamante\"), considered one of the best in the world. The Japanese wrestler was immediately taken down and mounted, but he managed to perform a rolling reversal off the cage and fend off an [armbar](/wiki/Armbar \"Armbar\") attempt, and for a time seemed to have secured a [guillotine choke](/wiki/Guillotine_choke \"Guillotine choke\"), but only briefly. At the second round, Anjo was taken down and submitted with an [arm triangle choke](/wiki/Arm_triangle_choke \"Arm triangle choke\"). Anjo kept facing high level opponents in the form of Olympic wrestler [Matt Lindland](/wiki/Matt_Lindland \"Matt Lindland\"), in [UFC 29](/wiki/UFC_29 \"UFC 29\"). This time was Anjo the first in initiating the takedown, but Lindland used the fence to avoid it and maneuver to mount, from where he executed intense ground and pound until the referee stopped the fight.",
"### PRIDE",
"Three years after getting a draw with [Seikendo](/wiki/Seikendo \"Seikendo\") fighter Gia Chirragishvili in [Deep](/wiki/Deep_%28mixed_martial_arts%29 \"Deep (mixed martial arts)\"), Anjo was invited to [Pride Fighting Championships](/wiki/Pride_Fighting_Championships \"Pride Fighting Championships\") to fight [Ryan Gracie](/wiki/Ryan_Gracie \"Ryan Gracie\"), in remembrance of Anjo's past challenge to Rickson. The young Brazilian took Anjo down, but couldn't get the choke, and even shoved the referee away after the restart, earning a yellow card. Again Ryan got a takedown and gained half guard, taking Anjo's back, but Yoji defended it and they struggled for position until he fell in an armbar and had to tap out. This was Anjo's last MMA fight, although he still helped to train fighters like [Daiju Takase](/wiki/Daiju_Takase \"Daiju Takase\") and [Kenichi Yamamoto](/wiki/Kenichi_Yamamoto_%28mixed_martial_artist%29 \"Kenichi Yamamoto (mixed martial artist)\").",
""
] |
Later life
----------
By 1972, "The Group" faced growing scrutiny from churches and concerned parents over allegations of brainwashing and cult\-like behavior. This led DeGraff to relocate the group to Florida, and eventually, Bixby became disillusioned with the movement. Bixby left the organization in 1974\.
Bixby moved to northern New Mexico, where he lived in the mountains. In the late 1970s, he moved to Arizona and began performing as a musician in various venues, writing radio jingles, and creating music for local studios. By 1980, Bixby had relocated to Seattle, Washington, where he worked for a major television station.
In 1983, Bixby became a sailor and lived aboard a sailboat named *Free Spirit*. He explored the Puget Sound and the San Juan Islands, participating in historical reenactments and living a semi\-nomadic lifestyle. However, a shipwreck in 1990 off the coast of California caused him to lose most of his possessions.
In the early 1990s, Bixby returned to Arizona, where he worked as a State Park Ranger along the Colorado River. He continued to perform music, including teaming up with Gary Peaslee to form the duo "The Coconuts," which played 1960s rock and Jimmy Buffet\-style songs.
In 2007, collectors of rare private press records resurrected Bixby's early music, leading to the reissues of both *Ode to Quetzalcoatl* and *Second Coming* by Guerssen Records. This revival led to Bixby performing internationally.
|
[
"Later life\n----------",
"By 1972, \"The Group\" faced growing scrutiny from churches and concerned parents over allegations of brainwashing and cult\\-like behavior. This led DeGraff to relocate the group to Florida, and eventually, Bixby became disillusioned with the movement. Bixby left the organization in 1974\\.",
"Bixby moved to northern New Mexico, where he lived in the mountains. In the late 1970s, he moved to Arizona and began performing as a musician in various venues, writing radio jingles, and creating music for local studios. By 1980, Bixby had relocated to Seattle, Washington, where he worked for a major television station.",
"In 1983, Bixby became a sailor and lived aboard a sailboat named *Free Spirit*. He explored the Puget Sound and the San Juan Islands, participating in historical reenactments and living a semi\\-nomadic lifestyle. However, a shipwreck in 1990 off the coast of California caused him to lose most of his possessions.",
"In the early 1990s, Bixby returned to Arizona, where he worked as a State Park Ranger along the Colorado River. He continued to perform music, including teaming up with Gary Peaslee to form the duo \"The Coconuts,\" which played 1960s rock and Jimmy Buffet\\-style songs.",
"In 2007, collectors of rare private press records resurrected Bixby's early music, leading to the reissues of both *Ode to Quetzalcoatl* and *Second Coming* by Guerssen Records. This revival led to Bixby performing internationally.",
""
] |
Email features
--------------
### Message management
Thunderbird manages multiple email, newsgroup, and news feed accounts and supports multiple identities within accounts. Features such as quick search, saved search folders ("virtual folders"), advanced message [filtering](/wiki/Filter_%28software%29 "Filter (software)"), message grouping, and tags help manage and find messages. On [Linux](/wiki/Linux "Linux")\-based systems, system mail ([movemail](/wiki/Movemail "Movemail")) accounts were supported until version 91\.0\.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.thunderbird.net/en\-US/thunderbird/91\.0/releasenotes/\#note\-48 \|title\=Thunderbird 91\.0 Release Notes \|website\=www.thunderbird.net \|access\-date\=October 14, 2021}} Thunderbird provides basic support for system\-specific new email notifications and can be extended with advanced notification support using an add\-on.{{cite web \|url\=https://addons.mozilla.org/en\-US/thunderbird/addon/gnotifier/ \|title\=GNotifier \|website\=addons.mozilla.org \|access\-date\=July 21, 2017}}
### Junk filtering
Thunderbird incorporates a [Bayesian](/wiki/Naive_Bayes_spam_filtering "Naive Bayes spam filtering") [spam](/wiki/Email_spam "Email spam") filter, a [whitelist](/wiki/Whitelist "Whitelist") based on the included address book, and can also understand classifications by server\-based filters such as [SpamAssassin](/wiki/SpamAssassin "SpamAssassin").{{cite web \|url\=http://forums.mozillazine.org/viewtopic.php?t\=367638\&highlight\=spamassassin \|title\=Mozillazine Forums \|publisher\=Forums.mozillazine.org \|access\-date\=June 18, 2009}}
### Standards support
Thunderbird follows industry standards for email:
* [POP](/wiki/Post_Office_Protocol "Post Office Protocol"). Basic email retrieval protocol.
* [IMAP](/wiki/Internet_Message_Access_Protocol "Internet Message Access Protocol"). Thunderbird has implemented many of the capabilities in IMAP, in addition to adding their own extensions and the de facto standards by Google and Apple.{{cite web \|url\=https://wiki.mozilla.org/MailNews:Supported\_IMAP\_extensions \|title\=MailNews:Supported IMAP extensions \|website\=mozilla.org}}
* [LDAP](/wiki/Lightweight_Directory_Access_Protocol "Lightweight Directory Access Protocol") address auto\-completion.
* [S/MIME](/wiki/S/MIME "S/MIME"): Inbuilt support for email encryption and signing using X.509 keys provided by a centralized certificate authority.
* [OpenPGP](/wiki/OpenPGP "OpenPGP"): Inbuilt support for email encryption and signing since version 78\.2\.1,{{cite web\|title\=Thunderbird — Release Notes (78\.2\.1\)\|url\=https://www.thunderbird.net/en\-US/thunderbird/78\.2\.1/releasenotes/\#note\-0\|access\-date\=2020\-10\-11\|website\=Thunderbird\|language\=en}}{{cite web\|title\=OpenPGP in Thunderbird 78\|url\=https://blog.thunderbird.net/2020/09/openpgp\-in\-thunderbird\-78/\|access\-date\=2020\-10\-11\|website\=The Thunderbird Blog\|date\=September 7, 2020 \|language\=en\-US}} while older versions used extensions such as [Enigmail](/wiki/Enigmail "Enigmail").
### Authentication support
Email providers have increasing been introducing [OAuth](/wiki/OAuth "OAuth") authentication in addition, or instead of, more traditional authentication methods, most notably by [Gmail](/wiki/Gmail "Gmail") and [Outlook](/wiki/Outlook.com "Outlook.com"). Thunderbird has full support for OAuth authentication and provides instructions for Outlook users transitioning from Outlook's now\-deprecated "basic authentication".{{Cite web \|title\=Microsoft OAuth Authentication and Thunderbird in 2024 \|url\=https://support.mozilla.org/en\-US/kb/microsoft\-oauth\-authentication\-and\-thunderbird\-202}}
### File formats supported
Thunderbird provides mailbox format support using [plugins](/wiki/Plug-in_%28computing%29 "Plug-in (computing)"), but this feature is not yet enabled due to related work in progress.{{cite web \|url\=https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/show\_bug.cgi?id\=402392 \|title\=402392 – Support other message storage formats. (prelude to pluggable mail stores) \|website\=mozilla.org \|access\-date\=March 1, 2015}} The mailbox formats supported {{as of\|2014\|07\|lc\=y}} are:
* [mbox](/wiki/Mbox "Mbox") – Unix mailbox format (one file holding many emails)
* [maildir](/wiki/Maildir "Maildir") – known as maildir\-lite (one file per email). {{as of\|2019\|08}} "there are still many bugs", so this is disabled by default.{{cite web \|url\=https://support.mozilla.org/en\-US/kb/maildir\-thunderbird \|title\=Maildir in Thunderbird \|website\=Thunderbird Help \|publisher\=Mozilla \|access\-date\=August 30, 2019}}
Thunderbird also uses [Mork](/wiki/Mork_%28file_format%29 "Mork (file format)") and (since version 3\) MozStorage (which is based on [SQLite](/wiki/SQLite "SQLite")) for its internal database. Mork was due to be replaced with MozStorage in Thunderbird 3\.0,{{cite web \|url\=https://wiki.mozilla.org/Thunderbird:Thunderbird3 \|title\=Thunderbird 3 Planning \|date\=August 10, 2009 \|publisher\=Wiki.mozilla.org \|access\-date\=August 19, 2009}} but the 8\.0 release still uses the Mork file format.
### Big file linking
Since version 38, Thunderbird has integrated support for automatic linking of large files instead of attaching them directly to the mail message.
### HTML formatting and code insertion
Thunderbird provides a [wysiwyg](/wiki/Wysiwyg "Wysiwyg") editor for composing messages formatted with HTML (default). The delivery format auto\-detect feature will send unformatted messages as plain text (controlled by a user preference). Certain special formatting like [subscript, superscript](/wiki/Subscript_and_superscript "Subscript and superscript") and [strikethrough](/wiki/Strikethrough "Strikethrough") is available from the Format menu. The Insert \> [HTML](/wiki/HTML "HTML") menu provides the ability to edit the [HTML](/wiki/HTML "HTML") source code of the message. There is basic support for HTML template messages, which are stored in a dedicated templates folder for each account.
[thumb\|The Lightning calendar in an older version of Thunderbird](/wiki/File:Capture6.png "Capture6.png")
[Markdown](/wiki/Markdown "Markdown") support is provided through the Markdown here Revival add\-on.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-11\-18 \|title\=Markdown Here Revival \|url\=https://addons.thunderbird.net/en\-US/thunderbird/addon/markdown\-here\-revival/ \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-24 \|website\=addons.thunderbird.net \|language\=en\-US}}
### Security
Thunderbird provides security features such as [TLS/SSL](/wiki/Transport_Layer_Security "Transport Layer Security") connections to [IMAP](/wiki/IMAP "IMAP") and [SMTP](/wiki/Simple_Mail_Transfer_Protocol "Simple Mail Transfer Protocol") servers. It also offers inbuilt support for secure email with [digital signing](/wiki/Digital_signature "Digital signature") and message [encryption](/wiki/Encryption "Encryption") through [OpenPGP](/wiki/OpenPGP "OpenPGP") (using public and private [keys](/wiki/Encryption_key "Encryption key")) or [S/MIME](/wiki/S/MIME "S/MIME") (using [certificates](/wiki/Public_key_certificate "Public key certificate")). Any of these security features can take advantage of [smartcards](/wiki/Smart_cards "Smart cards") with the installation of additional extensions.
Other security features may be added through extensions. Up to version 68, the [Enigmail](/wiki/Enigmail "Enigmail") extension was required for [OpenPGP](/wiki/OpenPGP "OpenPGP") support (now inbuilt).
Optional security protections also include disabling loading of remote images within messages, enabling only specific media types (sanitizer), and disabling [JavaScript](/wiki/JavaScript "JavaScript").
The [French military](/wiki/French_military "French military") uses Thunderbird and contributes to its security features, which are claimed to match the requirements for [NATO](/wiki/NATO "NATO")'s closed messaging system.{{cite news \|last\=Marcel Michelson \|date\=December 10, 2009 \|title\=French Military Donated Code to Mozilla Thunderbird \|agency\=\[\[Reuters]] \|url\=https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2356958,00\.asp \|access\-date\=April 24, 2011}}
### Limitations and known issues
As with any software, there may be limitations to the number and sizes of files and objects represented. For example, [POP3](/wiki/POP3 "POP3") folders are subject to [filesystem design limitations](/wiki/File_system%23Design_limitations "File system#Design limitations"), such as maximum file sizes on filesystems that do not have [large\-file support](/wiki/Large-file_support "Large-file support"), as well as possible limitations of [long filenames](/wiki/Long_filename "Long filename"), and other issues.{{cite web \|title\=Limits – Thunderbird \|url\=http://kb.mozillazine.org/Limits\_\-\_Thunderbird\#Folders\_and\_messages \|access\-date\=March 8, 2015 \|website\=mozillazine.org}}
|
[
"Email features\n--------------",
"### Message management",
"Thunderbird manages multiple email, newsgroup, and news feed accounts and supports multiple identities within accounts. Features such as quick search, saved search folders (\"virtual folders\"), advanced message [filtering](/wiki/Filter_%28software%29 \"Filter (software)\"), message grouping, and tags help manage and find messages. On [Linux](/wiki/Linux \"Linux\")\\-based systems, system mail ([movemail](/wiki/Movemail \"Movemail\")) accounts were supported until version 91\\.0\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.thunderbird.net/en\\-US/thunderbird/91\\.0/releasenotes/\\#note\\-48 \\|title\\=Thunderbird 91\\.0 Release Notes \\|website\\=www.thunderbird.net \\|access\\-date\\=October 14, 2021}} Thunderbird provides basic support for system\\-specific new email notifications and can be extended with advanced notification support using an add\\-on.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://addons.mozilla.org/en\\-US/thunderbird/addon/gnotifier/ \\|title\\=GNotifier \\|website\\=addons.mozilla.org \\|access\\-date\\=July 21, 2017}}",
"### Junk filtering",
"Thunderbird incorporates a [Bayesian](/wiki/Naive_Bayes_spam_filtering \"Naive Bayes spam filtering\") [spam](/wiki/Email_spam \"Email spam\") filter, a [whitelist](/wiki/Whitelist \"Whitelist\") based on the included address book, and can also understand classifications by server\\-based filters such as [SpamAssassin](/wiki/SpamAssassin \"SpamAssassin\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://forums.mozillazine.org/viewtopic.php?t\\=367638\\&highlight\\=spamassassin \\|title\\=Mozillazine Forums \\|publisher\\=Forums.mozillazine.org \\|access\\-date\\=June 18, 2009}}",
"### Standards support",
"Thunderbird follows industry standards for email:\n* [POP](/wiki/Post_Office_Protocol \"Post Office Protocol\"). Basic email retrieval protocol.\n* [IMAP](/wiki/Internet_Message_Access_Protocol \"Internet Message Access Protocol\"). Thunderbird has implemented many of the capabilities in IMAP, in addition to adding their own extensions and the de facto standards by Google and Apple.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://wiki.mozilla.org/MailNews:Supported\\_IMAP\\_extensions \\|title\\=MailNews:Supported IMAP extensions \\|website\\=mozilla.org}}\n* [LDAP](/wiki/Lightweight_Directory_Access_Protocol \"Lightweight Directory Access Protocol\") address auto\\-completion.\n* [S/MIME](/wiki/S/MIME \"S/MIME\"): Inbuilt support for email encryption and signing using X.509 keys provided by a centralized certificate authority.\n* [OpenPGP](/wiki/OpenPGP \"OpenPGP\"): Inbuilt support for email encryption and signing since version 78\\.2\\.1,{{cite web\\|title\\=Thunderbird — Release Notes (78\\.2\\.1\\)\\|url\\=https://www.thunderbird.net/en\\-US/thunderbird/78\\.2\\.1/releasenotes/\\#note\\-0\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-11\\|website\\=Thunderbird\\|language\\=en}}{{cite web\\|title\\=OpenPGP in Thunderbird 78\\|url\\=https://blog.thunderbird.net/2020/09/openpgp\\-in\\-thunderbird\\-78/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-11\\|website\\=The Thunderbird Blog\\|date\\=September 7, 2020 \\|language\\=en\\-US}} while older versions used extensions such as [Enigmail](/wiki/Enigmail \"Enigmail\").",
"### Authentication support",
"Email providers have increasing been introducing [OAuth](/wiki/OAuth \"OAuth\") authentication in addition, or instead of, more traditional authentication methods, most notably by [Gmail](/wiki/Gmail \"Gmail\") and [Outlook](/wiki/Outlook.com \"Outlook.com\"). Thunderbird has full support for OAuth authentication and provides instructions for Outlook users transitioning from Outlook's now\\-deprecated \"basic authentication\".{{Cite web \\|title\\=Microsoft OAuth Authentication and Thunderbird in 2024 \\|url\\=https://support.mozilla.org/en\\-US/kb/microsoft\\-oauth\\-authentication\\-and\\-thunderbird\\-202}}",
"### File formats supported",
"Thunderbird provides mailbox format support using [plugins](/wiki/Plug-in_%28computing%29 \"Plug-in (computing)\"), but this feature is not yet enabled due to related work in progress.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/show\\_bug.cgi?id\\=402392 \\|title\\=402392 – Support other message storage formats. (prelude to pluggable mail stores) \\|website\\=mozilla.org \\|access\\-date\\=March 1, 2015}} The mailbox formats supported {{as of\\|2014\\|07\\|lc\\=y}} are:\n* [mbox](/wiki/Mbox \"Mbox\") – Unix mailbox format (one file holding many emails)\n* [maildir](/wiki/Maildir \"Maildir\") – known as maildir\\-lite (one file per email). {{as of\\|2019\\|08}} \"there are still many bugs\", so this is disabled by default.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://support.mozilla.org/en\\-US/kb/maildir\\-thunderbird \\|title\\=Maildir in Thunderbird \\|website\\=Thunderbird Help \\|publisher\\=Mozilla \\|access\\-date\\=August 30, 2019}}",
"Thunderbird also uses [Mork](/wiki/Mork_%28file_format%29 \"Mork (file format)\") and (since version 3\\) MozStorage (which is based on [SQLite](/wiki/SQLite \"SQLite\")) for its internal database. Mork was due to be replaced with MozStorage in Thunderbird 3\\.0,{{cite web \\|url\\=https://wiki.mozilla.org/Thunderbird:Thunderbird3 \\|title\\=Thunderbird 3 Planning \\|date\\=August 10, 2009 \\|publisher\\=Wiki.mozilla.org \\|access\\-date\\=August 19, 2009}} but the 8\\.0 release still uses the Mork file format.",
"### Big file linking",
"Since version 38, Thunderbird has integrated support for automatic linking of large files instead of attaching them directly to the mail message.",
"### HTML formatting and code insertion",
"Thunderbird provides a [wysiwyg](/wiki/Wysiwyg \"Wysiwyg\") editor for composing messages formatted with HTML (default). The delivery format auto\\-detect feature will send unformatted messages as plain text (controlled by a user preference). Certain special formatting like [subscript, superscript](/wiki/Subscript_and_superscript \"Subscript and superscript\") and [strikethrough](/wiki/Strikethrough \"Strikethrough\") is available from the Format menu. The Insert \\> [HTML](/wiki/HTML \"HTML\") menu provides the ability to edit the [HTML](/wiki/HTML \"HTML\") source code of the message. There is basic support for HTML template messages, which are stored in a dedicated templates folder for each account.\n[thumb\\|The Lightning calendar in an older version of Thunderbird](/wiki/File:Capture6.png \"Capture6.png\")\n[Markdown](/wiki/Markdown \"Markdown\") support is provided through the Markdown here Revival add\\-on.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-11\\-18 \\|title\\=Markdown Here Revival \\|url\\=https://addons.thunderbird.net/en\\-US/thunderbird/addon/markdown\\-here\\-revival/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-24 \\|website\\=addons.thunderbird.net \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"### Security",
"Thunderbird provides security features such as [TLS/SSL](/wiki/Transport_Layer_Security \"Transport Layer Security\") connections to [IMAP](/wiki/IMAP \"IMAP\") and [SMTP](/wiki/Simple_Mail_Transfer_Protocol \"Simple Mail Transfer Protocol\") servers. It also offers inbuilt support for secure email with [digital signing](/wiki/Digital_signature \"Digital signature\") and message [encryption](/wiki/Encryption \"Encryption\") through [OpenPGP](/wiki/OpenPGP \"OpenPGP\") (using public and private [keys](/wiki/Encryption_key \"Encryption key\")) or [S/MIME](/wiki/S/MIME \"S/MIME\") (using [certificates](/wiki/Public_key_certificate \"Public key certificate\")). Any of these security features can take advantage of [smartcards](/wiki/Smart_cards \"Smart cards\") with the installation of additional extensions.",
"Other security features may be added through extensions. Up to version 68, the [Enigmail](/wiki/Enigmail \"Enigmail\") extension was required for [OpenPGP](/wiki/OpenPGP \"OpenPGP\") support (now inbuilt).",
"Optional security protections also include disabling loading of remote images within messages, enabling only specific media types (sanitizer), and disabling [JavaScript](/wiki/JavaScript \"JavaScript\").",
"The [French military](/wiki/French_military \"French military\") uses Thunderbird and contributes to its security features, which are claimed to match the requirements for [NATO](/wiki/NATO \"NATO\")'s closed messaging system.{{cite news \\|last\\=Marcel Michelson \\|date\\=December 10, 2009 \\|title\\=French Military Donated Code to Mozilla Thunderbird \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\|url\\=https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2356958,00\\.asp \\|access\\-date\\=April 24, 2011}}",
"### Limitations and known issues",
"As with any software, there may be limitations to the number and sizes of files and objects represented. For example, [POP3](/wiki/POP3 \"POP3\") folders are subject to [filesystem design limitations](/wiki/File_system%23Design_limitations \"File system#Design limitations\"), such as maximum file sizes on filesystems that do not have [large\\-file support](/wiki/Large-file_support \"Large-file support\"), as well as possible limitations of [long filenames](/wiki/Long_filename \"Long filename\"), and other issues.{{cite web \\|title\\=Limits – Thunderbird \\|url\\=http://kb.mozillazine.org/Limits\\_\\-\\_Thunderbird\\#Folders\\_and\\_messages \\|access\\-date\\=March 8, 2015 \\|website\\=mozillazine.org}}",
""
] |
History and development
-----------------------
{{Main\|History of Mozilla Thunderbird}}
### 2003—2010
[thumb\|upright\=0\.5\|Logo of Thunderbird 2004–2009](/wiki/File:Mozilla_Thunderbird_old_logo.png "Mozilla Thunderbird old logo.png")
[thumb\|upright\=0\.5\|Logo of Thunderbird 2009–2018](/wiki/File:Mozilla_Thunderbird_logo.png "Mozilla Thunderbird logo.png")
Originally launched as *Minotaur* shortly after *[Phoenix](/wiki/History_of_Mozilla_Firefox%23Naming "History of Mozilla Firefox#Naming")* (the original name for Mozilla Firefox), the project failed to gain momentum. With the success of Firefox, however, demand increased for a mail client to go with it, and the work on Minotaur was revived under the new name of Thunderbird, and migrated to the new toolkit developed by the Firefox team.
[left\|thumb\|A pre\-release version of Thunderbird](/wiki/File:Photo_%C3%A9cran_mozilla_thunderbird_grand.jpg "Photo écran mozilla thunderbird grand.jpg")
On December 7, 2004, version 1\.0 was released, and received more than 500,000 downloads in its first three days of release, and 1,000,000 in ten days.{{cite web \|date\=December 10, 2004 \|title\=thunderbird breaks half a million downloads in three days \|url\=http://weblogs.mozillazine.org/asa/archives/007074\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211125215/http://weblogs.mozillazine.org/asa/archives/007074\.html \|archive\-date\=February 11, 2012 \|access\-date\=February 9, 2013 \|publisher\=Asa Dotzler's Blog}}{{cite web \|date\=December 18, 2004 \|title\=thunderbird 1\.0 reaches 1,000,000 downloads in just 10 days! \|url\=http://weblogs.mozillazine.org/asa/archives/007119\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130708020638/http://weblogs.mozillazine.org/asa/archives/007119\.html \|archive\-date\=July 8, 2013 \|access\-date\=February 9, 2013 \|publisher\=Asa Dotzler's Blog}}
Significant work on Thunderbird restarted with the announcement that from version 1\.5 onward the main Mozilla suite would be designed around separate applications using this new toolkit. This contrasts with the previous all\-in\-one approach, allowing users to mix and match the Mozilla applications with alternatives. The original Mozilla Suite continues to be developed as [SeaMonkey](/wiki/SeaMonkey "SeaMonkey").
On December 23, 2004, [Project Lightning](/wiki/Lightning_%28software%29 "Lightning (software)") was announced which tightly integrated [calendar](/wiki/Calendar "Calendar") functionality (scheduling, tasks, etc.) into Thunderbird. Lightning supports the full range of calendar mechanisms and protocols supported by the Mozilla Calendar infrastructure, just as with modern (post\-0\.2\) Sunbird.
On October 11, 2006, [Qualcomm](/wiki/Qualcomm "Qualcomm") and the Mozilla Foundation announced that "future versions of [Eudora](/wiki/Eudora_%28email_client%29 "Eudora (email client)") will be based upon the same technology platform as the open source Mozilla Thunderbird email program."{{Cite press release \|title\=QUALCOMM Launches Project in Collaboration with Mozilla Foundation to Develop Open Source Version of Eudora Email Program \|date\=October 11, 2006 \|publisher\=Eudora.com \|url\=http://www.eudora.com/press/2006/eudora\-mozilla\_final\_10\.11\.06\.html \|access\-date\=November 13, 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131001115204/http://www.eudora.com/press/2006/eudora\-mozilla\_final\_10\.11\.06\.html \|archive\-date\=October 1, 2013 \|url\-status\=dead}} The project was code\-named [Penelope](/wiki/Eudora_OSE "Eudora OSE").
In late 2006, [Debian](/wiki/Debian "Debian") rebranded Thunderbird as [Icedove](/wiki/IceDove "IceDove") due to trademark and copyright reasons. This was the second product to be rebranded.{{cite web \|url\=https://bugs.debian.org/cgi\-bin/bugreport.cgi?bug\=354622 \|title\=Uses Mozilla Firefox trademark without permission – Debian Bug Tracker \|website\=\[\[Debian]] \|access\-date\=September 18, 2010}}
On July 26, 2007, the Mozilla Foundation announced that Thunderbird would be developed by an independent organization, because the [Mozilla Corporation](/wiki/Mozilla_Corporation "Mozilla Corporation") (a subsidiary of the foundation) was focusing on Mozilla Firefox development.{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.informationweek.com/story/showArticle.jhtml?articleID\=201201609 \|title\=Mozilla Gives Thunderbird E\-Mail The Boot \|last\=Claburn \|first\=Thomas \|date\=July 27, 2007 \|work\=Internet section \|access\-date\=July 31, 2007 \|archive\-date\=December 9, 2007 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071209003521/http://informationweek.com/story/showArticle.jhtml?articleID\=201201609 \|url\-status\=dead }}
On September 17, 2007, the Mozilla Foundation announced the funding of a new internet communications initiative with David Ascher of [ActiveState](/wiki/ActiveState "ActiveState"). The purpose of this initiative was "to develop Internet communications software based on the Thunderbird product, code, and brand".{{Cite press release \|title\=Mozilla Launches Internet Mail and Communications Initiative \|date\=September 17, 2007 \|publisher\=Mozilla.com \|url\=https://www.mozilla.com/en\-US/press/mozilla\-2007\-09\-17\.html \|access\-date\=June 18, 2009}}
On February 19, 2008, [Mozilla Messaging](/wiki/Mozilla_Messaging "Mozilla Messaging") started operations as a subsidiary of the Mozilla Foundation responsible for the development of email and similar communications. Its initial focus was on the then upcoming version of Thunderbird 3\. Alpha Preview releases of Thunderbird 3 were codenamed "Shredder".
### 2011—2016
[thumb\|Thunderbird 5\.0, the first version under the software's rapid release cycle](/wiki/File:Mozilla_Thunderbird_5.0_Windows_7.png "Mozilla Thunderbird 5.0 Windows 7.png")
On April 4, 2011, Mozilla Messaging was merged into the Mozilla Labs group of the Mozilla Foundation.{{cite web \|url\=https://arstechnica.com/open\-source/news/2011/04/thunderbird\-returns\-to\-nest\-as\-mozilla\-messaging\-rejoins\-mozilla.ars \|title\=Thunderbird returns to nest as Mozilla Messaging rejoins Mozilla \|last\=Paul \|first\=Ryan \|date\=April 5, 2011 \|publisher\=Ars Technica \|access\-date\=April 5, 2011}}
Following in the footsteps of Firefox, Thunderbird switched to a rapid release cycle in 2011\.{{Cite web \|title\= Thunderbird Joins the Rapid Release Process, Introduces Shredder, Miramar and Earlybird \- gHacks Tech News\|date\=June 17, 2011 \|url\=https://www.ghacks.net/2011/06/17/thunderbird\-joins\-the\-rapid\-release\-process\-introduces\-shredder\-miramar\-and\-earlybird/}} Version 4\.0 was skipped so as to re\-align Thunderbird with Firefox's version 5\.0, both released in June 2011\.{{Cite web \|title\=Thunderbird 5\.0 \- New Features and Changes \- MozillaZine Knowledge Base \|url\=https://kb.mozillazine.org/Thunderbird\_5\.0\_\-\_New\_Features\_and\_Changes \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-21 \|website\=kb.mozillazine.org}} By the end of the year it had reached version 9\.0\.{{Cite web \|title\=Thunderbird Release Notes \|url\=https://website\-archive.mozilla.org/www.mozilla.org/thunderbird\_releasenotes/en\-us/thunderbird/9\.0/releasenotes/?uri\=/thunderbird/releasenotes/\&locale\=en\-US\&platform\=linux\-x86\_64\&version\=9\.0 \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-21 \|website\=website\-archive.mozilla.org}}
On July 6, 2012, a confidential memo from Jb Piacentino, the Thunderbird Managing Director at Mozilla, was leaked and published to [TechCrunch](/wiki/TechCrunch "TechCrunch").{{cite web \|url\=https://techcrunch.com/2012/07/06/so\-thats\-it\-for\-thunderbird/ \|title\=So, That's It For Thunderbird \|last\=Sarah Perez \|date\=July 6, 2012 \|publisher\=TechCrunch \|access\-date\=August 18, 2012}} The memo indicated that Mozilla would be moving some of the team off the project and further development of new features would be left up to the community. The memo was slated for release on July 9, 2012\. A subsequent article by the Executive Chair of Mozilla, [Mitchell Baker](/wiki/Mitchell_Baker "Mitchell Baker"), stated Mozilla's decision to make a transition of Thunderbird to a new release and governance model.{{cite web \|date\=July 6, 2012 \|title\=Thunderbird: Stability and Community Innovation \|url\=https://blog.lizardwrangler.com/2012/07/06/thunderbird\-stability\-and\-community\-innovation/ \|access\-date\=August 18, 2012 \|publisher\=Mitchell's Blog}}{{cite web \|title\=Thunderbird/New Release and Governance Model \|url\=https://wiki.mozilla.org/Thunderbird/New\_Release\_and\_Governance\_Model \|access\-date\=February 14, 2015 \|publisher\=MozillaWiki}} On July 6, 2012, Mozilla announced the company was dropping the priority of Thunderbird development because the continuous effort to extend Thunderbird's feature set was mostly fruitless. The new development model shifted to Mozilla offering only "Extended Support Releases", which deliver security and maintenance updates, while allowing the community to take over the development of new features.
On November 25, 2014, Kent James of the volunteer\-led Thunderbird Council announced on the Thunderbird blog that active contributors to Thunderbird gathered at the Mozilla office in Toronto and discussed the future of the application. They decided that more staff were required working full\-time on Thunderbird so that the Thunderbird Team could release a stable and reliable product and make progress on features that had been frequently requested by the community.{{cite web \|url\=https://blog.mozilla.org/thunderbird/2014/11/thunderbird\-reorganizes\-at\-2014\-toronto\-summit/ \|title\=Thunderbird Reorganizes at 2014 Toronto Summit \|date\=November 25, 2014 \|publisher\=The Mozilla Thunderbird Blog \|access\-date\=February 1, 2015}}
On December 1, 2015, Mozilla Executive Chair [Mitchell Baker](/wiki/Mitchell_Baker "Mitchell Baker") announced in a company\-wide memo that Thunderbird development needed to be uncoupled from Firefox.{{cite web \|last\=Baker \|first\=Mitchell \|title\=Mozilla Governance: Thunderbird, the future, mozilla\-central and comm\-central \|url\=https://groups.google.com/forum/\#!msg/mozilla.governance/kAyVlhfEcXg/Eqyx1X62BQAJ/ \|access\-date\=January 2, 2016 \|website\=Google Groups, Mozilla Governance}} She referred to Thunderbird developers spending large efforts responding to changes to Mozilla technologies, while Firefox was paying a tax to support Thunderbird development. She also said that she does not believe Thunderbird has the potential for "industry\-wide impact" that Firefox does.{{cite web \|last\=Lunden \|first\=Ingrid \|title\=Mozilla Wants To Split Off Its Thunderbird Email/Chat Client, Says Mitchell Baker Memo \|url\=https://techcrunch.com/2015/11/30/thunderbird\-flies\-away\-from\-mozilla/ \|access\-date\=December 4, 2015 \|website\=TechCrunch\|date\=November 30, 2015 }} Mozilla remained interested in having a role in Thunderbird, but sought more assistance to help with development.{{cite web \|url\=https://blog.lizardwrangler.com/2015/12/03/thunderbird\-update/ \|title\=Thunderbird Update {{!}} Mitchell's Blog \|website\=blog.lizardwrangler.com \|access\-date\=October 13, 2016}} Therefore, at the same time, it was announced that Mozilla Foundation would provide at least a temporary legal and financial home for the Thunderbird project.{{cite web \|last\=Kent \|first\=James \|title\=Thunderbird Active Daily Inquiries Surpass 10 Million! \|url\=https://blog.mozilla.org/thunderbird/2015/12/thunderbird\-active\-daily\-inquiries\-surpass\-10\-million/ \|access\-date\=January 2, 2016 \|website\=The Mozilla Thunderbird Blog\|date\=December 8, 2015 }}
### 2017—present
[thumb\|upright\=0\.5\|Logo of Thunderbird 2018–2023](/wiki/File:Thunderbird_Logo%2C_2018.svg "Thunderbird Logo, 2018.svg")
[thumb\|upright\=0\.5\|Logo of Thunderbird {{as of\|2023\|lc\=y\|since\=y}}](/wiki/File:Thunderbird_2023_icon.png "Thunderbird 2023 icon.png")
On May 9, 2017, Philipp Kewisch announced that the Mozilla Foundation would continue to serve as the legal and fiscal home for the Thunderbird project, but that Thunderbird would migrate off Mozilla Corporation infrastructure, separating the operational aspects of the project.{{cite web \|url\=https://blog.mozilla.org/thunderbird/2017/05/thunderbirds\-future\-home/ \|title\=Thunderbird's Future Home \|last\=Kewisch \|first\=Philipp \|website\=The Mozilla Thunderbird Blog \|date\=May 9, 2017 \|publisher\=Mozilla \|access\-date\=May 11, 2017}} Mozilla brought Thunderbird back in\-house in an announcement on May 9, 2017, and continued to support its development.{{cite web \|last\=Kewisch \|first\=Philipp \|title\=Thunderbird's Future Home \|url\=https://blog.mozilla.org/thunderbird/2017/05/thunderbirds\-future\-home/ \|access\-date\=May 29, 2019 \|website\=The Mozilla Thunderbird Blog \|date\=May 9, 2017 \|publisher\=Mozilla}}{{cite web \|last\=Lardinois \|first\=Frederic \|title\=Mozilla promises a faster, prettier Thunderbird with better Gmail support \|url\=https://techcrunch.com/2019/01/02/mozilla\-promises\-a\-faster\-prettier\-thunderbird\-with\-better\-gmail\-support/ \|access\-date\=May 29, 2019 \|website\=TechCrunch\|date\=January 2, 2019 }} The Thunderbird development team expanded by adding several new members and overhauled security and the user interface.{{cite web \|last\=Sipes \|first\=Ryan \|title\=Thunderbird in 2019 \|url\=https://blog.mozilla.org/thunderbird/2019/01/thunderbird\-in\-2019/ \|access\-date\=May 29, 2019 \|website\=The Mozilla Thunderbird Blog \|date\=January 2, 2019 \|publisher\=Mozilla}}
The interim/beta versions Thunderbird 57 and 58, released in late 2017, began to make changes influenced by [Firefox Quantum](/wiki/Firefox_Quantum "Firefox Quantum"), including a new "Photon" user interface.{{Cite news \|url\=https://thenextweb.com/apps/2017/12/20/mozillas\-thunderbird\-email\-client\-isnt\-dead\-yet/ \|title\=Mozilla's Thunderbird email client isn't dead yet \|last\=Ghoshal \|first\=Abhimanyu \|date\=December 20, 2017 \|work\=The Next Web \|access\-date\=December 26, 2017}}{{cite web \|url\=https://blog.mozilla.org/thunderbird/2017/12/new\-thunderbird\-releases\-and\-new\-thunderbird\-staff/ \|title\=New Thunderbird Releases and New Thunderbird Staff \|website\=The Mozilla Thunderbird Blog \|date\=December 19, 2017 \|access\-date\=December 26, 2017}} Despite the removal in Firefox Quantum of support for [XUL](/wiki/XUL "XUL")\-based [legacy add\-ons](/wiki/Add-on_%28Mozilla%29 "Add-on (Mozilla)") in favor of [WebExtensions](/wiki/WebExtensions "WebExtensions"), the stable/ESR release of Thunderbird 60 in mid\-2018 continued to support them, although most would require updates, and it did not support WebExtensions except for Themes.{{cite web \|url\=https://wiki.mozilla.org/Thunderbird/Add\-ons\_Guide\_57 \|title\=Thunderbird/Add\-ons Guide 57 \- MozillaWiki \|website\=wiki.mozilla.org \|access\-date\=September 24, 2018}}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.thunderbird.net/en\-US/thunderbird/60\.0/releasenotes/ \|title\=Thunderbird — Release Notes (60\.0\) \|website\=Thunderbird \|access\-date\=September 24, 2018}} In 2018, work was underway for planned support in Thunderbird 63 of WebExtensions and to continue to "somewhat" support legacy addons, according to Mozilla.{{cite web \|url\=https://wiki.mozilla.org/Thunderbird/Add\-ons\_Guide\_63 \|title\=Thunderbird/Add\-ons Guide 63 \- MozillaWiki \|website\=wiki.mozilla.org \|access\-date\=September 24, 2018}}
With the release of Thunderbird 68 in August 2019 it now only supports WebExtension addons.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.thunderbird.net/en\-US/thunderbird/68\.0/releasenotes/ \|title\=Thunderbird — Release Notes (68\.0\) \|website\=Thunderbird \|access\-date\=December 8, 2019}} Legacy Addons can still be used if a special "legacy mode" is enabled, but even for this, the legacy Addon has to be converted.{{cite web \|url\=https://developer.thunderbird.net/add\-ons/tb68 \|title\=Updating Legacy Extensions for Thunderbird 68 \|website\=developer.thunderbird.net \|access\-date\=December 8, 2019}} Alongside the transition, [OpenPGP](/wiki/OpenPGP "OpenPGP") support was integrated directly into Thunderbird as a standard feature, seeking to supplant the [Enigmail](/wiki/Enigmail "Enigmail") extension.{{cite web\|url\=https://sequoia\-pgp.org/blog/2021/04/08/202103\-a\-new\-backend\-for\-thunderbird/\|title \= Sequoia: Super Powering End\-to\-End Email Encryption in Mozilla Thunderbird}} Mainly for licensing reasons, this is no longer based on GnuPG, but on the [RNP library](/wiki/RNP_library "RNP library"), which has more liberal licensing terms.{{cite web \|url\=https://mail.mozilla.org/pipermail/tb\-planning/2019\-December/007287\.html \|title\=Thunderbird and OpenPGP \- Why not GnuPG by default? \|publisher\=Mail.mozilla.org \|date\= \|accessdate\=2022\-04\-29 \|archive\-date\=January 18, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118014845/https://mail.mozilla.org/pipermail/tb\-planning/2019\-December/007287\.html \|url\-status\=dead }}
On January 28, 2020, the Mozilla Foundation announced that the project would henceforth be operating from a new wholly owned subsidiary, MZLA Technologies Corporation, in order to explore offering products and services that were not previously possible and to collect revenue through partnerships and non\-charitable donations.{{cite web \|last\=Cimpanu \|first\=Catalin \|date\=January 29, 2020 \|title\=Mozilla moves to monetize Thunderbird, transfers project to new subsidiary \|url\=https://www.zdnet.com/article/mozilla\-moves\-to\-monetize\-thunderbird\-transfers\-project\-to\-new\-subsidiary/ \|access\-date\=2022\-02\-27 \|website\=\[\[ZDNet]] \|language\=en}}{{cite web \|title\=Thunderbird's New Home \|url\=https://blog.thunderbird.net/2020/01/thunderbirds\-new\-home/ \|access\-date\=January 28, 2020 \|website\=The Mozilla Thunderbird Blog\|date\=January 28, 2020 }}
As of version 78\.7\.1, Thunderbird will no longer allow installation of addons that use Legacy WebExtensions. Only MailExtensions are now compatible with Thunderbird.{{cite web\|accessdate\=2021\-02\-10\|title\=Update for Thunderbird 78\|url\=https://developer.thunderbird.net/add\-ons/updating/tb78\|website\=developer.thunderbird.net}}{{cite web\|accessdate\=2021\-02\-10\|title\=Thunderbird 78\.7\.1 released with CardDAV improvements \|url\=https://www.ghacks.net/2021/02/07/thunderbird\-78\-7\-1\-released\-with\-carddav\-improvements/\|website\=gHacks Tech News\|date\=February 7, 2021}} MailExtensions are WebExtensions but with "some added features specific to Thunderbird".{{cite web\|accessdate\=2021\-02\-10\|title\=Thunderbird add\-on developer launches Kickstarter campaign to ensure continued compatibility \|url\=https://www.ghacks.net/2020/01/27/thunderbird\-add\-on\-developer\-launches\-kickstarter\-campaign\-to\-ensure\-continued\-compatibility/\|website\=gHacks Tech News\|date\=January 27, 2020}}
Thunderbird 91 features various UI improvements (including a new account setup workflow), [Apple silicon](/wiki/Apple_silicon "Apple silicon") support, [CardDAV](/wiki/CardDAV "CardDAV") address book support, built\-in import and export tools for Thunderbird profiles, the [PDF.js](/wiki/PDF.js "PDF.js") [PDF](/wiki/PDF "PDF") viewer, and the ability to encrypt emails to BCC recipients.{{cite web\|last\=Brinkmann\|first\=Martin\|date\=2021\-08\-13\|title\=Thunderbird 91 is available as a manual upgrade \- gHacks Tech News\|url\=https://www.ghacks.net/2021/08/13/thunderbird\-91\-is\-available\-as\-a\-manual\-upgrade/\|access\-date\=2021\-12\-19\|website\=gHacks Technology News\|language\=en\-US}}{{cite web\|last\=Brinkmann\|first\=Martin\|date\=2021\-12\-08\|title\=Thunderbird 91\.4\.0 Email Client has been released \- gHacks Tech News\|url\=https://www.ghacks.net/2021/12/08/thunderbird\-91\-4\-0\-email\-client\-has\-been\-released/\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20211219102023/https://www.ghacks.net/2021/12/08/thunderbird\-91\-4\-0\-email\-client\-has\-been\-released/\|archive\-date\=December 19, 2021\|access\-date\=2021\-12\-19\|website\=gHacks Technology News\|language\=en\-US}}{{cite web\|last\=Nestor\|first\=Marius\|date\=2021\-08\-11\|title\=Mozilla Thunderbird 91 Released as a Massive Update with Numerous New Features and Improvements\|url\=https://9to5linux.com/mozilla\-thunderbird\-91\-released\-as\-a\-massive\-update\-with\-numerous\-new\-features\-and\-improvements\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20211219093202/https://9to5linux.com/mozilla\-thunderbird\-91\-released\-as\-a\-massive\-update\-with\-numerous\-new\-features\-and\-improvements\|archive\-date\=December 19, 2021\|access\-date\=2021\-12\-19\|website\=9to5Linux\|language\=en\-US}}{{cite web\|last\=Crume\|first\=Jacob\|date\=2021\-08\-12\|title\=Thunderbird 91 is a Major Upgrade That Could Help Reclaim its Position as the Default Linux Mail Client\|url\=https://news.itsfoss.com/thunderbird\-91\-release/\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20211219094047/https://news.itsfoss.com/thunderbird\-91\-release/\|archive\-date\=December 19, 2021\|access\-date\=2021\-12\-19\|website\=It's FOSS News\|language\=en\-US}}
On June 13, 2022, it was announced that the Mozilla Thunderbird team would take over development of the [Android](/wiki/Android_%28operating_system%29 "Android (operating system)") email client app [K\-9 Mail](/wiki/K-9_Mail "K-9 Mail"), with plans for it to eventually become a mobile version of Thunderbird with synchronisation support.{{Cite web \|last\=Axon \|first\=Samuel \|date\=2022\-06\-13 \|title\=Email client K\-9 Mail will become Thunderbird for Android \|url\=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2022/06/email\-client\-k\-9\-mail\-will\-become\-thunderbird\-for\-android/ \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-14 \|website\=Ars Technica \|language\=en\-us}}
### Releases
Thunderbird development releases occur in three stages, called Beta, Earlybird, and Daily, which correspond to Firefox's Beta, Aurora, and Nightly stages. The release dates and [Gecko](/wiki/Gecko_%28software%29 "Gecko (software)") versions are exactly the same as Firefox; for example, Firefox 7 and Thunderbird 7 were both released on September 27, 2011, and were both based on Gecko 7\.0\.
{{Timeline Mozilla Thunderbird}}
|
[
"History and development\n-----------------------",
"{{Main\\|History of Mozilla Thunderbird}}",
"### 2003—2010",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.5\\|Logo of Thunderbird 2004–2009](/wiki/File:Mozilla_Thunderbird_old_logo.png \"Mozilla Thunderbird old logo.png\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.5\\|Logo of Thunderbird 2009–2018](/wiki/File:Mozilla_Thunderbird_logo.png \"Mozilla Thunderbird logo.png\")\nOriginally launched as *Minotaur* shortly after *[Phoenix](/wiki/History_of_Mozilla_Firefox%23Naming \"History of Mozilla Firefox#Naming\")* (the original name for Mozilla Firefox), the project failed to gain momentum. With the success of Firefox, however, demand increased for a mail client to go with it, and the work on Minotaur was revived under the new name of Thunderbird, and migrated to the new toolkit developed by the Firefox team.\n[left\\|thumb\\|A pre\\-release version of Thunderbird](/wiki/File:Photo_%C3%A9cran_mozilla_thunderbird_grand.jpg \"Photo écran mozilla thunderbird grand.jpg\")\nOn December 7, 2004, version 1\\.0 was released, and received more than 500,000 downloads in its first three days of release, and 1,000,000 in ten days.{{cite web \\|date\\=December 10, 2004 \\|title\\=thunderbird breaks half a million downloads in three days \\|url\\=http://weblogs.mozillazine.org/asa/archives/007074\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211125215/http://weblogs.mozillazine.org/asa/archives/007074\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=February 11, 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=February 9, 2013 \\|publisher\\=Asa Dotzler's Blog}}{{cite web \\|date\\=December 18, 2004 \\|title\\=thunderbird 1\\.0 reaches 1,000,000 downloads in just 10 days! \\|url\\=http://weblogs.mozillazine.org/asa/archives/007119\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130708020638/http://weblogs.mozillazine.org/asa/archives/007119\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=July 8, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=February 9, 2013 \\|publisher\\=Asa Dotzler's Blog}}",
"Significant work on Thunderbird restarted with the announcement that from version 1\\.5 onward the main Mozilla suite would be designed around separate applications using this new toolkit. This contrasts with the previous all\\-in\\-one approach, allowing users to mix and match the Mozilla applications with alternatives. The original Mozilla Suite continues to be developed as [SeaMonkey](/wiki/SeaMonkey \"SeaMonkey\").",
"On December 23, 2004, [Project Lightning](/wiki/Lightning_%28software%29 \"Lightning (software)\") was announced which tightly integrated [calendar](/wiki/Calendar \"Calendar\") functionality (scheduling, tasks, etc.) into Thunderbird. Lightning supports the full range of calendar mechanisms and protocols supported by the Mozilla Calendar infrastructure, just as with modern (post\\-0\\.2\\) Sunbird.",
"On October 11, 2006, [Qualcomm](/wiki/Qualcomm \"Qualcomm\") and the Mozilla Foundation announced that \"future versions of [Eudora](/wiki/Eudora_%28email_client%29 \"Eudora (email client)\") will be based upon the same technology platform as the open source Mozilla Thunderbird email program.\"{{Cite press release \\|title\\=QUALCOMM Launches Project in Collaboration with Mozilla Foundation to Develop Open Source Version of Eudora Email Program \\|date\\=October 11, 2006 \\|publisher\\=Eudora.com \\|url\\=http://www.eudora.com/press/2006/eudora\\-mozilla\\_final\\_10\\.11\\.06\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=November 13, 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131001115204/http://www.eudora.com/press/2006/eudora\\-mozilla\\_final\\_10\\.11\\.06\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=October 1, 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The project was code\\-named [Penelope](/wiki/Eudora_OSE \"Eudora OSE\").",
"In late 2006, [Debian](/wiki/Debian \"Debian\") rebranded Thunderbird as [Icedove](/wiki/IceDove \"IceDove\") due to trademark and copyright reasons. This was the second product to be rebranded.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://bugs.debian.org/cgi\\-bin/bugreport.cgi?bug\\=354622 \\|title\\=Uses Mozilla Firefox trademark without permission – Debian Bug Tracker \\|website\\=\\[\\[Debian]] \\|access\\-date\\=September 18, 2010}}",
"On July 26, 2007, the Mozilla Foundation announced that Thunderbird would be developed by an independent organization, because the [Mozilla Corporation](/wiki/Mozilla_Corporation \"Mozilla Corporation\") (a subsidiary of the foundation) was focusing on Mozilla Firefox development.{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.informationweek.com/story/showArticle.jhtml?articleID\\=201201609 \\|title\\=Mozilla Gives Thunderbird E\\-Mail The Boot \\|last\\=Claburn \\|first\\=Thomas \\|date\\=July 27, 2007 \\|work\\=Internet section \\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2007 \\|archive\\-date\\=December 9, 2007 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071209003521/http://informationweek.com/story/showArticle.jhtml?articleID\\=201201609 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"On September 17, 2007, the Mozilla Foundation announced the funding of a new internet communications initiative with David Ascher of [ActiveState](/wiki/ActiveState \"ActiveState\"). The purpose of this initiative was \"to develop Internet communications software based on the Thunderbird product, code, and brand\".{{Cite press release \\|title\\=Mozilla Launches Internet Mail and Communications Initiative \\|date\\=September 17, 2007 \\|publisher\\=Mozilla.com \\|url\\=https://www.mozilla.com/en\\-US/press/mozilla\\-2007\\-09\\-17\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=June 18, 2009}}",
"On February 19, 2008, [Mozilla Messaging](/wiki/Mozilla_Messaging \"Mozilla Messaging\") started operations as a subsidiary of the Mozilla Foundation responsible for the development of email and similar communications. Its initial focus was on the then upcoming version of Thunderbird 3\\. Alpha Preview releases of Thunderbird 3 were codenamed \"Shredder\".",
"### 2011—2016",
"[thumb\\|Thunderbird 5\\.0, the first version under the software's rapid release cycle](/wiki/File:Mozilla_Thunderbird_5.0_Windows_7.png \"Mozilla Thunderbird 5.0 Windows 7.png\")\nOn April 4, 2011, Mozilla Messaging was merged into the Mozilla Labs group of the Mozilla Foundation.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://arstechnica.com/open\\-source/news/2011/04/thunderbird\\-returns\\-to\\-nest\\-as\\-mozilla\\-messaging\\-rejoins\\-mozilla.ars \\|title\\=Thunderbird returns to nest as Mozilla Messaging rejoins Mozilla \\|last\\=Paul \\|first\\=Ryan \\|date\\=April 5, 2011 \\|publisher\\=Ars Technica \\|access\\-date\\=April 5, 2011}}",
"Following in the footsteps of Firefox, Thunderbird switched to a rapid release cycle in 2011\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\= Thunderbird Joins the Rapid Release Process, Introduces Shredder, Miramar and Earlybird \\- gHacks Tech News\\|date\\=June 17, 2011 \\|url\\=https://www.ghacks.net/2011/06/17/thunderbird\\-joins\\-the\\-rapid\\-release\\-process\\-introduces\\-shredder\\-miramar\\-and\\-earlybird/}} Version 4\\.0 was skipped so as to re\\-align Thunderbird with Firefox's version 5\\.0, both released in June 2011\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Thunderbird 5\\.0 \\- New Features and Changes \\- MozillaZine Knowledge Base \\|url\\=https://kb.mozillazine.org/Thunderbird\\_5\\.0\\_\\-\\_New\\_Features\\_and\\_Changes \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-21 \\|website\\=kb.mozillazine.org}} By the end of the year it had reached version 9\\.0\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Thunderbird Release Notes \\|url\\=https://website\\-archive.mozilla.org/www.mozilla.org/thunderbird\\_releasenotes/en\\-us/thunderbird/9\\.0/releasenotes/?uri\\=/thunderbird/releasenotes/\\&locale\\=en\\-US\\&platform\\=linux\\-x86\\_64\\&version\\=9\\.0 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-21 \\|website\\=website\\-archive.mozilla.org}}",
"On July 6, 2012, a confidential memo from Jb Piacentino, the Thunderbird Managing Director at Mozilla, was leaked and published to [TechCrunch](/wiki/TechCrunch \"TechCrunch\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://techcrunch.com/2012/07/06/so\\-thats\\-it\\-for\\-thunderbird/ \\|title\\=So, That's It For Thunderbird \\|last\\=Sarah Perez \\|date\\=July 6, 2012 \\|publisher\\=TechCrunch \\|access\\-date\\=August 18, 2012}} The memo indicated that Mozilla would be moving some of the team off the project and further development of new features would be left up to the community. The memo was slated for release on July 9, 2012\\. A subsequent article by the Executive Chair of Mozilla, [Mitchell Baker](/wiki/Mitchell_Baker \"Mitchell Baker\"), stated Mozilla's decision to make a transition of Thunderbird to a new release and governance model.{{cite web \\|date\\=July 6, 2012 \\|title\\=Thunderbird: Stability and Community Innovation \\|url\\=https://blog.lizardwrangler.com/2012/07/06/thunderbird\\-stability\\-and\\-community\\-innovation/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 18, 2012 \\|publisher\\=Mitchell's Blog}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Thunderbird/New Release and Governance Model \\|url\\=https://wiki.mozilla.org/Thunderbird/New\\_Release\\_and\\_Governance\\_Model \\|access\\-date\\=February 14, 2015 \\|publisher\\=MozillaWiki}} On July 6, 2012, Mozilla announced the company was dropping the priority of Thunderbird development because the continuous effort to extend Thunderbird's feature set was mostly fruitless. The new development model shifted to Mozilla offering only \"Extended Support Releases\", which deliver security and maintenance updates, while allowing the community to take over the development of new features.",
"On November 25, 2014, Kent James of the volunteer\\-led Thunderbird Council announced on the Thunderbird blog that active contributors to Thunderbird gathered at the Mozilla office in Toronto and discussed the future of the application. They decided that more staff were required working full\\-time on Thunderbird so that the Thunderbird Team could release a stable and reliable product and make progress on features that had been frequently requested by the community.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://blog.mozilla.org/thunderbird/2014/11/thunderbird\\-reorganizes\\-at\\-2014\\-toronto\\-summit/ \\|title\\=Thunderbird Reorganizes at 2014 Toronto Summit \\|date\\=November 25, 2014 \\|publisher\\=The Mozilla Thunderbird Blog \\|access\\-date\\=February 1, 2015}}",
"On December 1, 2015, Mozilla Executive Chair [Mitchell Baker](/wiki/Mitchell_Baker \"Mitchell Baker\") announced in a company\\-wide memo that Thunderbird development needed to be uncoupled from Firefox.{{cite web \\|last\\=Baker \\|first\\=Mitchell \\|title\\=Mozilla Governance: Thunderbird, the future, mozilla\\-central and comm\\-central \\|url\\=https://groups.google.com/forum/\\#!msg/mozilla.governance/kAyVlhfEcXg/Eqyx1X62BQAJ/ \\|access\\-date\\=January 2, 2016 \\|website\\=Google Groups, Mozilla Governance}} She referred to Thunderbird developers spending large efforts responding to changes to Mozilla technologies, while Firefox was paying a tax to support Thunderbird development. She also said that she does not believe Thunderbird has the potential for \"industry\\-wide impact\" that Firefox does.{{cite web \\|last\\=Lunden \\|first\\=Ingrid \\|title\\=Mozilla Wants To Split Off Its Thunderbird Email/Chat Client, Says Mitchell Baker Memo \\|url\\=https://techcrunch.com/2015/11/30/thunderbird\\-flies\\-away\\-from\\-mozilla/ \\|access\\-date\\=December 4, 2015 \\|website\\=TechCrunch\\|date\\=November 30, 2015 }} Mozilla remained interested in having a role in Thunderbird, but sought more assistance to help with development.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://blog.lizardwrangler.com/2015/12/03/thunderbird\\-update/ \\|title\\=Thunderbird Update {{!}} Mitchell's Blog \\|website\\=blog.lizardwrangler.com \\|access\\-date\\=October 13, 2016}} Therefore, at the same time, it was announced that Mozilla Foundation would provide at least a temporary legal and financial home for the Thunderbird project.{{cite web \\|last\\=Kent \\|first\\=James \\|title\\=Thunderbird Active Daily Inquiries Surpass 10 Million! \\|url\\=https://blog.mozilla.org/thunderbird/2015/12/thunderbird\\-active\\-daily\\-inquiries\\-surpass\\-10\\-million/ \\|access\\-date\\=January 2, 2016 \\|website\\=The Mozilla Thunderbird Blog\\|date\\=December 8, 2015 }}",
"### 2017—present",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.5\\|Logo of Thunderbird 2018–2023](/wiki/File:Thunderbird_Logo%2C_2018.svg \"Thunderbird Logo, 2018.svg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.5\\|Logo of Thunderbird {{as of\\|2023\\|lc\\=y\\|since\\=y}}](/wiki/File:Thunderbird_2023_icon.png \"Thunderbird 2023 icon.png\")\nOn May 9, 2017, Philipp Kewisch announced that the Mozilla Foundation would continue to serve as the legal and fiscal home for the Thunderbird project, but that Thunderbird would migrate off Mozilla Corporation infrastructure, separating the operational aspects of the project.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://blog.mozilla.org/thunderbird/2017/05/thunderbirds\\-future\\-home/ \\|title\\=Thunderbird's Future Home \\|last\\=Kewisch \\|first\\=Philipp \\|website\\=The Mozilla Thunderbird Blog \\|date\\=May 9, 2017 \\|publisher\\=Mozilla \\|access\\-date\\=May 11, 2017}} Mozilla brought Thunderbird back in\\-house in an announcement on May 9, 2017, and continued to support its development.{{cite web \\|last\\=Kewisch \\|first\\=Philipp \\|title\\=Thunderbird's Future Home \\|url\\=https://blog.mozilla.org/thunderbird/2017/05/thunderbirds\\-future\\-home/ \\|access\\-date\\=May 29, 2019 \\|website\\=The Mozilla Thunderbird Blog \\|date\\=May 9, 2017 \\|publisher\\=Mozilla}}{{cite web \\|last\\=Lardinois \\|first\\=Frederic \\|title\\=Mozilla promises a faster, prettier Thunderbird with better Gmail support \\|url\\=https://techcrunch.com/2019/01/02/mozilla\\-promises\\-a\\-faster\\-prettier\\-thunderbird\\-with\\-better\\-gmail\\-support/ \\|access\\-date\\=May 29, 2019 \\|website\\=TechCrunch\\|date\\=January 2, 2019 }} The Thunderbird development team expanded by adding several new members and overhauled security and the user interface.{{cite web \\|last\\=Sipes \\|first\\=Ryan \\|title\\=Thunderbird in 2019 \\|url\\=https://blog.mozilla.org/thunderbird/2019/01/thunderbird\\-in\\-2019/ \\|access\\-date\\=May 29, 2019 \\|website\\=The Mozilla Thunderbird Blog \\|date\\=January 2, 2019 \\|publisher\\=Mozilla}}",
"The interim/beta versions Thunderbird 57 and 58, released in late 2017, began to make changes influenced by [Firefox Quantum](/wiki/Firefox_Quantum \"Firefox Quantum\"), including a new \"Photon\" user interface.{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://thenextweb.com/apps/2017/12/20/mozillas\\-thunderbird\\-email\\-client\\-isnt\\-dead\\-yet/ \\|title\\=Mozilla's Thunderbird email client isn't dead yet \\|last\\=Ghoshal \\|first\\=Abhimanyu \\|date\\=December 20, 2017 \\|work\\=The Next Web \\|access\\-date\\=December 26, 2017}}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://blog.mozilla.org/thunderbird/2017/12/new\\-thunderbird\\-releases\\-and\\-new\\-thunderbird\\-staff/ \\|title\\=New Thunderbird Releases and New Thunderbird Staff \\|website\\=The Mozilla Thunderbird Blog \\|date\\=December 19, 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=December 26, 2017}} Despite the removal in Firefox Quantum of support for [XUL](/wiki/XUL \"XUL\")\\-based [legacy add\\-ons](/wiki/Add-on_%28Mozilla%29 \"Add-on (Mozilla)\") in favor of [WebExtensions](/wiki/WebExtensions \"WebExtensions\"), the stable/ESR release of Thunderbird 60 in mid\\-2018 continued to support them, although most would require updates, and it did not support WebExtensions except for Themes.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://wiki.mozilla.org/Thunderbird/Add\\-ons\\_Guide\\_57 \\|title\\=Thunderbird/Add\\-ons Guide 57 \\- MozillaWiki \\|website\\=wiki.mozilla.org \\|access\\-date\\=September 24, 2018}}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.thunderbird.net/en\\-US/thunderbird/60\\.0/releasenotes/ \\|title\\=Thunderbird — Release Notes (60\\.0\\) \\|website\\=Thunderbird \\|access\\-date\\=September 24, 2018}} In 2018, work was underway for planned support in Thunderbird 63 of WebExtensions and to continue to \"somewhat\" support legacy addons, according to Mozilla.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://wiki.mozilla.org/Thunderbird/Add\\-ons\\_Guide\\_63 \\|title\\=Thunderbird/Add\\-ons Guide 63 \\- MozillaWiki \\|website\\=wiki.mozilla.org \\|access\\-date\\=September 24, 2018}}",
"With the release of Thunderbird 68 in August 2019 it now only supports WebExtension addons.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.thunderbird.net/en\\-US/thunderbird/68\\.0/releasenotes/ \\|title\\=Thunderbird — Release Notes (68\\.0\\) \\|website\\=Thunderbird \\|access\\-date\\=December 8, 2019}} Legacy Addons can still be used if a special \"legacy mode\" is enabled, but even for this, the legacy Addon has to be converted.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://developer.thunderbird.net/add\\-ons/tb68 \\|title\\=Updating Legacy Extensions for Thunderbird 68 \\|website\\=developer.thunderbird.net \\|access\\-date\\=December 8, 2019}} Alongside the transition, [OpenPGP](/wiki/OpenPGP \"OpenPGP\") support was integrated directly into Thunderbird as a standard feature, seeking to supplant the [Enigmail](/wiki/Enigmail \"Enigmail\") extension.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://sequoia\\-pgp.org/blog/2021/04/08/202103\\-a\\-new\\-backend\\-for\\-thunderbird/\\|title \\= Sequoia: Super Powering End\\-to\\-End Email Encryption in Mozilla Thunderbird}} Mainly for licensing reasons, this is no longer based on GnuPG, but on the [RNP library](/wiki/RNP_library \"RNP library\"), which has more liberal licensing terms.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://mail.mozilla.org/pipermail/tb\\-planning/2019\\-December/007287\\.html \\|title\\=Thunderbird and OpenPGP \\- Why not GnuPG by default? \\|publisher\\=Mail.mozilla.org \\|date\\= \\|accessdate\\=2022\\-04\\-29 \\|archive\\-date\\=January 18, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118014845/https://mail.mozilla.org/pipermail/tb\\-planning/2019\\-December/007287\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"On January 28, 2020, the Mozilla Foundation announced that the project would henceforth be operating from a new wholly owned subsidiary, MZLA Technologies Corporation, in order to explore offering products and services that were not previously possible and to collect revenue through partnerships and non\\-charitable donations.{{cite web \\|last\\=Cimpanu \\|first\\=Catalin \\|date\\=January 29, 2020 \\|title\\=Mozilla moves to monetize Thunderbird, transfers project to new subsidiary \\|url\\=https://www.zdnet.com/article/mozilla\\-moves\\-to\\-monetize\\-thunderbird\\-transfers\\-project\\-to\\-new\\-subsidiary/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-27 \\|website\\=\\[\\[ZDNet]] \\|language\\=en}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Thunderbird's New Home \\|url\\=https://blog.thunderbird.net/2020/01/thunderbirds\\-new\\-home/ \\|access\\-date\\=January 28, 2020 \\|website\\=The Mozilla Thunderbird Blog\\|date\\=January 28, 2020 }}",
"As of version 78\\.7\\.1, Thunderbird will no longer allow installation of addons that use Legacy WebExtensions. Only MailExtensions are now compatible with Thunderbird.{{cite web\\|accessdate\\=2021\\-02\\-10\\|title\\=Update for Thunderbird 78\\|url\\=https://developer.thunderbird.net/add\\-ons/updating/tb78\\|website\\=developer.thunderbird.net}}{{cite web\\|accessdate\\=2021\\-02\\-10\\|title\\=Thunderbird 78\\.7\\.1 released with CardDAV improvements \\|url\\=https://www.ghacks.net/2021/02/07/thunderbird\\-78\\-7\\-1\\-released\\-with\\-carddav\\-improvements/\\|website\\=gHacks Tech News\\|date\\=February 7, 2021}} MailExtensions are WebExtensions but with \"some added features specific to Thunderbird\".{{cite web\\|accessdate\\=2021\\-02\\-10\\|title\\=Thunderbird add\\-on developer launches Kickstarter campaign to ensure continued compatibility \\|url\\=https://www.ghacks.net/2020/01/27/thunderbird\\-add\\-on\\-developer\\-launches\\-kickstarter\\-campaign\\-to\\-ensure\\-continued\\-compatibility/\\|website\\=gHacks Tech News\\|date\\=January 27, 2020}}",
"Thunderbird 91 features various UI improvements (including a new account setup workflow), [Apple silicon](/wiki/Apple_silicon \"Apple silicon\") support, [CardDAV](/wiki/CardDAV \"CardDAV\") address book support, built\\-in import and export tools for Thunderbird profiles, the [PDF.js](/wiki/PDF.js \"PDF.js\") [PDF](/wiki/PDF \"PDF\") viewer, and the ability to encrypt emails to BCC recipients.{{cite web\\|last\\=Brinkmann\\|first\\=Martin\\|date\\=2021\\-08\\-13\\|title\\=Thunderbird 91 is available as a manual upgrade \\- gHacks Tech News\\|url\\=https://www.ghacks.net/2021/08/13/thunderbird\\-91\\-is\\-available\\-as\\-a\\-manual\\-upgrade/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-19\\|website\\=gHacks Technology News\\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{cite web\\|last\\=Brinkmann\\|first\\=Martin\\|date\\=2021\\-12\\-08\\|title\\=Thunderbird 91\\.4\\.0 Email Client has been released \\- gHacks Tech News\\|url\\=https://www.ghacks.net/2021/12/08/thunderbird\\-91\\-4\\-0\\-email\\-client\\-has\\-been\\-released/\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20211219102023/https://www.ghacks.net/2021/12/08/thunderbird\\-91\\-4\\-0\\-email\\-client\\-has\\-been\\-released/\\|archive\\-date\\=December 19, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-19\\|website\\=gHacks Technology News\\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{cite web\\|last\\=Nestor\\|first\\=Marius\\|date\\=2021\\-08\\-11\\|title\\=Mozilla Thunderbird 91 Released as a Massive Update with Numerous New Features and Improvements\\|url\\=https://9to5linux.com/mozilla\\-thunderbird\\-91\\-released\\-as\\-a\\-massive\\-update\\-with\\-numerous\\-new\\-features\\-and\\-improvements\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20211219093202/https://9to5linux.com/mozilla\\-thunderbird\\-91\\-released\\-as\\-a\\-massive\\-update\\-with\\-numerous\\-new\\-features\\-and\\-improvements\\|archive\\-date\\=December 19, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-19\\|website\\=9to5Linux\\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{cite web\\|last\\=Crume\\|first\\=Jacob\\|date\\=2021\\-08\\-12\\|title\\=Thunderbird 91 is a Major Upgrade That Could Help Reclaim its Position as the Default Linux Mail Client\\|url\\=https://news.itsfoss.com/thunderbird\\-91\\-release/\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20211219094047/https://news.itsfoss.com/thunderbird\\-91\\-release/\\|archive\\-date\\=December 19, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-19\\|website\\=It's FOSS News\\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"On June 13, 2022, it was announced that the Mozilla Thunderbird team would take over development of the [Android](/wiki/Android_%28operating_system%29 \"Android (operating system)\") email client app [K\\-9 Mail](/wiki/K-9_Mail \"K-9 Mail\"), with plans for it to eventually become a mobile version of Thunderbird with synchronisation support.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Axon \\|first\\=Samuel \\|date\\=2022\\-06\\-13 \\|title\\=Email client K\\-9 Mail will become Thunderbird for Android \\|url\\=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2022/06/email\\-client\\-k\\-9\\-mail\\-will\\-become\\-thunderbird\\-for\\-android/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-14 \\|website\\=Ars Technica \\|language\\=en\\-us}}",
"### Releases",
"Thunderbird development releases occur in three stages, called Beta, Earlybird, and Daily, which correspond to Firefox's Beta, Aurora, and Nightly stages. The release dates and [Gecko](/wiki/Gecko_%28software%29 \"Gecko (software)\") versions are exactly the same as Firefox; for example, Firefox 7 and Thunderbird 7 were both released on September 27, 2011, and were both based on Gecko 7\\.0\\.",
"{{Timeline Mozilla Thunderbird}}",
""
] |
Career
------
### Early career (1984–1990\)
From 1986 to 1988, Mercury was the lead singer for the band Cheiro de Amor.[Daniela Mercury on MPB Dictionary](http://www.dicionariompb.com.br/daniela-mercury/dados-artisticos) Mercury continued to pursue a career in music and, by 1988, was a [backup singer](/wiki/Backup_singer "Backup singer") for [Gilberto Gil](/wiki/Gilberto_Gil "Gilberto Gil"). In 1989, recorded her first two albums as the lead singer of pop band Companhia Clic. Their songs "Pega que Oh!" and "Ilha das Bananas" became minor hits in Bahia radio stations. As the 1990s began, Mercury decided to pursue a solo career.
### Rise to fame (1991–1993\)
Mercury's self\-titled debut album was released in 1991 through independent record company Eldorado. The lead single of the album, "[Swing da Cor](/wiki/Swing_da_Cor "Swing da Cor")", which features [Olodum](/wiki/Olodum "Olodum"), became a number\-one hit in Brazil, and the album was soon known as *[Swing da Cor](/wiki/Daniela_Mercury_%28album%29 "Daniela Mercury (album)")*. Another song from the album, "Menino do Pelô", which also features Olodum, became Mercury's second top\-ten hit in Brazil, charting at number four. On the following year, Mercury shut off from the record company and, ever since, produces her own albums to negotiate the distribution of them later with the labels that are interested.
In 1992, she presented the project "Som do Meio\-Dia" (Midday Sound) at the Art Museum of São Paulo ([MASP](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_Museum_of_Art "São Paulo Museum of Art")). The show brought together over thirty thousand spectators, which eventually leave the traffic jam in the vicinity of the Paulista Avenue. After forty\-minutes concert, Daniela was removed from the stage by representatives of the São Paulo tourist office, that concerned with the museum structure, obtained an order from the military police to remove it from the local.
Soon after the show, Daniela was hired by [Sony Music](/wiki/Sony_Music "Sony Music") label and through this, released her second solo album, *[O Canto da Cidade](/wiki/O_Canto_da_Cidade "O Canto da Cidade")*. The album was considered by journalist [André Domingues](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Domingues "André Domingues") one of the best [MPB](/wiki/M%C3%BAsica_popular_brasileira "Música popular brasileira") albums ever. *O Canto da Cidade* is Mercury's album with most number\-one songs (four in total; "[O Canto da Cidade](/wiki/O_Canto_da_Cidade_%28song%29 "O Canto da Cidade (song)")", "[O Mais Belo dos Belos](/wiki/O_Mais_Belo_dos_Belos_%28song%29 "O Mais Belo dos Belos (song)")", "[Batuque](/wiki/Batuque_%28song%29 "Batuque (song)")" and "[Você Não Entende Nada/Cotidiano](/wiki/Voc%C3%AA_N%C3%A3o_Entende_Nada/Cotidiano_%28song%29 "Você Não Entende Nada/Cotidiano (song)")"). *O Canto da Cidade* is recognized as the album responsible for taking [Axé Music](/wiki/Ax%C3%A9_Music "Axé Music") to mainstream audiences in Brazil.
The album also yielded Mercury, a year\-end special on [Rede Globo](/wiki/Rede_Globo "Rede Globo") channel, which were mixed with live performances in the square of Apotheosis in [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro "Rio de Janeiro"), and video clips with [Caetano Veloso](/wiki/Caetano_Veloso "Caetano Veloso"), [Herbert Vianna](/wiki/Herbert_Vianna "Herbert Vianna") and [Tom Jobim](/wiki/Tom_Jobim "Tom Jobim"). Years later, the special, previously unreleased in video was released on DVD to celebrate the 15th anniversary of the release of the album. In July 1993, Mercury was one of Brazil's attractions at the prestigious [Montreux Jazz Festival](/wiki/Montreux_Jazz_Festival "Montreux Jazz Festival") in Switzerland.
Some consider *O Canto da Cidade* was the forerunner of the [samba\-reggae](/wiki/Samba-reggae "Samba-reggae") movement, then called [Axé Music](/wiki/Ax%C3%A9_Music "Axé Music"), gaining strength in all regions of the country and allowing other genre artists, were featured in the Brazilian music scene. It is believed that after this album, the Carnival of Bahia gained a massive media coverage. Mercury experienced during this period, a peak of popularity rarely seen in the history of Brazilian music industry, being dubbed "the hurricane of Bahia" and "Queen of the Axé".
### Artistic development (1994–2000\)
In 1994, *[Música de Rua](/wiki/M%C3%BAsica_de_Rua "Música de Rua")* was released through Sony. The album was received with lukewarm reviews, with some critics complaining about the similarities between this album and its predecessor. Nevertheless, the album was very well received by the public, producing the hits "[Música de Rua](/wiki/M%C3%BAsica_de_Rua_%28song%29 "Música de Rua (song)")", "O Reggae e o Mar" (both number\-one hits), "Por Amor ao Ilê" (a top\-ten hit) and "A Rosa" (top\-twenty). This was Mercury's first album to produce singles which have failed to chart.
In 1996, *[Feijão com Arroz](/wiki/Feij%C3%A3o_com_Arroz "Feijão com Arroz")* was released through [Sony](/wiki/Sony "Sony"). This album was much better received by the critics than its predecessor. It is Mercury's most well rated album at [Allmusic](/wiki/Allmusic "Allmusic"), with four and a half stars. As of today, *Feijão com Arroz* is Mercury's second best selling album, behind only *O Canto da Cidade*. It produced the hits "[À Primeira Vista](/wiki/%C3%80_Primeira_Vista_%28song%29 "À Primeira Vista (song)")", "[Nobre Vagabundo](/wiki/Nobre_Vagabundo "Nobre Vagabundo")", "[Rapunzel](/wiki/Rapunzel_%28Daniela_Mercury_song%29 "Rapunzel (Daniela Mercury song)")" (all number\-one hits), "[Minas com Bahia](/wiki/Minas_com_Bahia_%28song%29 "Minas com Bahia (song)")" (which features [Samuel Rosa](/wiki/Samuel_Rosa "Samuel Rosa") from [Skank](/wiki/Skank_%28band%29 "Skank (band)") and was a top\-twenty hit) and "Feijão de Corda" (a top\-ten hit).
In 1998, Mercury's first live album, *[Elétrica](/wiki/El%C3%A9trica "Elétrica")* was released through Sony. It produced the top\-ten hit "Trio Metal", which charted at number eight.
### Experimentation with electronica (2000–2004\)
[thumb\|upright\|right\|Mercury performing in the concert *Solidariedade Brasil\-Noruega* on October 7, 2003, in Teatro Nacional, [Brasília](/wiki/Bras%C3%ADlia "Brasília")](/wiki/Image:Daniela_Mercury.jpg "Daniela Mercury.jpg")
In 2000, Mercury released her fifth studio album, *Sol da Liberdade*, through [BMG](/wiki/Bertelsmann_Music_Group "Bertelsmann Music Group"). It produced two number\-one singles ("[Ilê Pérola Negra](/wiki/Il%C3%AA_P%C3%A9rola_Negra_%28song%29 "Ilê Pérola Negra (song)")" and a cover of Antonio Marcus' "Como Vai Você"). The album, which was produced by Suba, was innovative in Mercury's career for its fusion with [electronic music](/wiki/Electronic_music "Electronic music") sounds.
The following year, Mercury released *Sou de Qualquer Lugar* through [BMG](/wiki/Bertelsmann_Music_Group "Bertelsmann Music Group"). The album sold half of its predecessor, but was able to produce the number\-one single "[Mutante](/wiki/Mutante_%28song%29 "Mutante (song)")", a cover of [Rita Lee](/wiki/Rita_Lee "Rita Lee"). In this album, Mercury also experimented with electronic sounds.
In April 2003, Mercuy's second live album, *MTV ao Vivo – Eletrodoméstico*, was released through [BMG](/wiki/Bertelsmann_Music_Group "Bertelsmann Music Group"). It was recorded on January 23 and 24 of that same year at the Castro Alves Theater in Salvador for [MTV Brasil](/wiki/MTV_Brasil "MTV Brasil"). It was also released in the DVD format, Mercury's first. Among the artists who performed with the singer were [Dulce Pontes](/wiki/Dulce_Pontes "Dulce Pontes"), [Rosario Flores](/wiki/Rosario_Flores "Rosario Flores"), [Jovanotti](/wiki/Jovanotti "Jovanotti"), [Carlinhos Brown](/wiki/Carlinhos_Brown "Carlinhos Brown") and [Olodum](/wiki/Olodum "Olodum"). The sales were very inferior to Mercury's previous and it only produced one top twenty hit ("Meu Plano").
In 2004, *Carnaval Eletrônico* was released through [BMG](/wiki/Bertelsmann_Music_Group "Bertelsmann Music Group"). For the recording of this album, Mercury invited DJs and producers of electronic music in [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil "Brazil"), as well as [Gilberto Gil](/wiki/Gilberto_Gil "Gilberto Gil"), [Carlinhos Brown](/wiki/Carlinhos_Brown "Carlinhos Brown"), and Lenine. It is a commemorative disc celebrating the five years of her having formed *TrioTechno*, the first trio elétrico of electronic music in [Bahian Carnaval](/wiki/Bahian_Carnaval "Bahian Carnaval"). The disc received a Latin Grammy nomination for best pop album of the year and Mercury was nominated for a TIM Award for best female pop/rock vocalist. Internet users voted *Carnaval Eletrônico* the best pop album of the year online in one of Brazil's most important weekly magazines *Revista Isto É*.
### Back to basics (2005–2007\)
In 2005, *Clássica* was released through [Som Livre](/wiki/Som_Livre "Som Livre") on both CD and DVD. Recorded from a concert Mercury gave the year before at [São Paulo](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo "São Paulo")'s Casa de Espetáculo, the album is a sampler of [bossa nova](/wiki/Bossa_nova "Bossa nova"), [jazz](/wiki/Jazz "Jazz"), and some of her biggest MPB hits. The record signaled a new phase for Mercury, who chose independence from record companies to gain full control of her work. Mercury was in London, during the [July 7 bombings](/wiki/7_July_2005_London_bombings "7 July 2005 London bombings").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www1\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/ilustrada/ult90u51823\.shtml\|title\=Folha Online \- Ilustrada \- Em Londres, Daniela Mercury relata horror das explosões \- 07/07/2005\|website\=www1\.folha.uol.com.br}}
That same year, Mercury's eighth studio album, *[Balé Mulato](/wiki/Bal%C3%A9_Mulato "Balé Mulato")*, was released, but through [EMI](/wiki/EMI "EMI"). The album was very well received by the critics, with some even saying it was Mercury's best album since *[Feijão com Arroz](/wiki/Feij%C3%A3o_com_Arroz "Feijão com Arroz")* (1996\). It was not, however, very well received by the public, with none of the singles being able to chart on the top\-ten; a large part due to lack of record company support. The next year, the [Latin Grammy Award](/wiki/Latin_Grammy_Award "Latin Grammy Award")\-winning [live version](/wiki/Bal%C3%A9_Mulato_-_Ao_Vivo "Balé Mulato - Ao Vivo") of *Balé Mulato*, was released. Daniela Mercury has completed her newest release, *[Canibália](/wiki/Canib%C3%A1lia "Canibália")*. Canibalia was launched in October 2009\.
### Reinventing popular culture with Canibália and working with Cabeça de Nós Todos (2007–2013\)
[thumb\|Mercury in 2010\.](/wiki/File:Brazilian_singer%2C_Daniela_Mercury.jpg "Brazilian singer, Daniela Mercury.jpg")
On November 19, 2007, the singer released "[Preta](/wiki/Preta "Preta")", which features [Seu Jorge](/wiki/Seu_Jorge "Seu Jorge"). The song, which is strongly influenced by [samba](/wiki/Samba "Samba"), was one of the most played in the country during the carnival. For the 2009's Carnival, Mercury recorded the song "[Oyá Por Nós](/wiki/Oy%C3%A1_Por_N%C3%B3s "Oyá Por Nós")", who wrote with Alfredo Moura and [Margareth Menezes](/wiki/Margareth_Menezes "Margareth Menezes"). The theme, based on the song "Ketu de Iansã" was first used by Moura in the doctoral ceremony honoris\-cause of [Gilberto Gil](/wiki/Gilberto_Gil "Gilberto Gil") at the University of Aveiro in Portugal. After that, Moura used the theme in a play in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna"), [Austria](/wiki/Austria "Austria"), at the University of Musicology. A year later, he showed the theme for Daniela, who did not know and she immediately wanted to record it to launch in the Carnival. In 2009, [Rolling Stone Brasil](/wiki/Rolling_Stone_Brasil "Rolling Stone Brasil") magazine named Daniela as one of the 100 greatest artists of Brazilian music of all time. The names chosen by the expert jury, only 16 were women.
Finally in November 2009, Daniela released the album entitled *[Canibália](/wiki/Canib%C3%A1lia "Canibália")*. The album marks her return to the studio after five years. The recording sessions for the album takes almost three years to be done, *Canibália* hit stores with five different covers – a Gringo Cardia project. And five different track lists for the album, according to the singer, is an extensive project that combines music, dance, video and plastic arts – various expressions of art covered by it.
Daniela Mercury has said that "Canibália is an embrace, a swallow of Tropicália, the Clube da Esquina and everything that has since been created in the arts in Brazil since the – ‘Semana de 22’ \[‘Semana de Arte Moderna de 1922 ’\-The Week of Modern Art] – I yearn for the liberty that comes from this anthropophagic movement, of the Cannibalist Manifesto by Oswald de Andrade and its practice by Mario \[de Andrade), who spoke that these mixtures reinforce our \[Brazilian] identity".
[José Oswald de Andrade Souza](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Oswald_de_Andrade_Souza "José Oswald de Andrade Souza") (1890 – October 1954\) was a Brazilian poet and a controversial thinker. Born in São Paulo, Andrade was one of the founders of the Brazilian Modernist movement and a member of the Group of Five, including Mário de Andrade, Anita Malfatti, Tarsila do Amaral Oswald de Andrade]. Andrade is recognized by his nationalist, *[Manifesto Antropófago](/wiki/Manifesto_Antrop%C3%B3fago "Manifesto Antropófago")* (Cannibalist Manifesto), published in 1928\.
The manifesto argues that based on the premise that the history of Brazil has, as its greatest strength, the power to cannibalize others and simultaneously plays with the idea of cannibalism as a modern primitivism; like a presumed tribal rite.
Cannibalism then, becomes a way for Brazil to reaffirm itself against the cultural domination of Post Colonial Europe.
The iconic phrase of the manifesto "Tupi or not Tupi" is as much a celebration of the Tupinamba, a documented tribe of cannibals, as it is an act of genius cannibalizing Shakespeare's, "To be or not to be".
In 2009, her tour named by the album title started in [São Paulo](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo "São Paulo"), and traveled to several Brazilian cities and abroad. The work pays tribute to [Carmen Miranda](/wiki/Carmen_Miranda "Carmen Miranda"), at her centenary, with songs like "[Tico\-Tico no Fubá](/wiki/Tico-Tico_no_Fub%C3%A1 "Tico-Tico no Fubá")" and "[O Que É Que A Baiana Tem?](/wiki/O_Que_%C3%89_Que_A_Baiana_Tem%3F "O Que É Que A Baiana Tem?")".
For 2010's Carnival, Daniela Mercury recorded "[Andarilho Encantado](/wiki/Andarilho_Encantado "Andarilho Encantado")", song released officially in the special project of the singer called *Pôr do Som* (Sunset Sound), the show that brings Mercury as headliner each year on the first day of the year at the [Farol da Barra](/wiki/Farol_da_Barra "Farol da Barra"), in [Salvador](/wiki/Salvador%2C_Bahia "Salvador, Bahia"), Bahia. The song was written by Mercury and Marcelo Quintanilha. Also in 2010, the year that the Electric Trio celebrates 60 years and Axé Music 25 years, the singer reaches 20 years of solo career – with significant\-selling records. To commemorate the date, the media raised the possibility it make a documentary film about this invention of Bahian carnival, the axé music, praising percussionists.
In February 2013, the singer was invited to be interviewed in the *[Leading Women](/wiki/Leading_Women "Leading Women")* program of [CNN International](/wiki/CNN_International "CNN International"), and was announced by the issuer as the "Brazilian Madonna". The attraction highlights the most influential women in the world in their fields. Already in 2012, the Bahian singer had attracted the attention of American writer and feminist Camille Paglia, who declared to the British newspaper [The Independent](/wiki/The_Independent "The Independent"), that had a "crush" by the Bahian star. Since she had been in the country, for a conference in Bahia, Paglia has written enthusiastic articles about Mercury, saying that Daniela Mercury is the artist who Madonna wanted to be. Paglia said, a Canadian television station, which is "in love with a Brazilian superstar. I'm watching her work. She is Daniela Mercury. In fact, this has been very important. This is the point where I am in my life" . In an interview with the Brazilian magazine [Veja](/wiki/Veja_%28magazine%29 "Veja (magazine)"), intellectual revealed her plans to write two books about the Bahian singer.
At the end of 2013, released the album *[Daniela Mercury \& Cabeça de Nós Todos](/wiki/Daniela_Mercury_%26_Cabe%C3%A7a_de_N%C3%B3s_Todos "Daniela Mercury & Cabeça de Nós Todos")*, a partnership with the Brazilian group [Cabeça de Nós Todos](/wiki/Cabe%C3%A7a_de_N%C3%B3s_Todos "Cabeça de Nós Todos"), with songs like "[Couché](/wiki/Couch%C3%A9 "Couché")", "[Alma Feminina](/wiki/Alma_Feminina "Alma Feminina")", "Paula e Bebeto", "Aquele Abraço" and "Cheia de Graça" are some of the tracks are presented in this work. It is an urban and pop\-rock album, which does not show Daniela's rhythmic signature; it was launched with a book called "Daniela and Malu, A Love Story", a partnership with her wife Malu Verçosa. The book tells the story of their relationship, from the moment of friendship to marriage.
### The Voice Kids and Vinil Virtual (2014–present)
In 2014, she was mentor on [The Voice Kids](/wiki/The_Voice_Kids_%28Portuguese_TV_series%29 "The Voice Kids (Portuguese TV series)") (the version for children of the traditional show [The Voice](/wiki/The_Voice_Portugal "The Voice Portugal")) of Portugal, because of her popularity in Portuguese lands. In the same year she released the single "[A Rainha do Axé (Rainha Má)](/wiki/A_Rainha_do_Ax%C3%A9_%28Rainha_M%C3%A1%29 "A Rainha do Axé (Rainha Má)")", an electronic ijexá that speaks about the strength of women, love and faith which was sung by revelers during the 2015's Carnival of Salvador. The single is the first single to the fifteenth studio album by the singer titled *[Vinil Virtual](/wiki/Vinil_Virtual "Vinil Virtual")*, released November 27, 2015 by the label [Biscoito Fino](/wiki/Biscoito_Fino "Biscoito Fino").
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Early career (1984–1990\\)",
"From 1986 to 1988, Mercury was the lead singer for the band Cheiro de Amor.[Daniela Mercury on MPB Dictionary](http://www.dicionariompb.com.br/daniela-mercury/dados-artisticos) Mercury continued to pursue a career in music and, by 1988, was a [backup singer](/wiki/Backup_singer \"Backup singer\") for [Gilberto Gil](/wiki/Gilberto_Gil \"Gilberto Gil\"). In 1989, recorded her first two albums as the lead singer of pop band Companhia Clic. Their songs \"Pega que Oh!\" and \"Ilha das Bananas\" became minor hits in Bahia radio stations. As the 1990s began, Mercury decided to pursue a solo career.",
"### Rise to fame (1991–1993\\)",
"Mercury's self\\-titled debut album was released in 1991 through independent record company Eldorado. The lead single of the album, \"[Swing da Cor](/wiki/Swing_da_Cor \"Swing da Cor\")\", which features [Olodum](/wiki/Olodum \"Olodum\"), became a number\\-one hit in Brazil, and the album was soon known as *[Swing da Cor](/wiki/Daniela_Mercury_%28album%29 \"Daniela Mercury (album)\")*. Another song from the album, \"Menino do Pelô\", which also features Olodum, became Mercury's second top\\-ten hit in Brazil, charting at number four. On the following year, Mercury shut off from the record company and, ever since, produces her own albums to negotiate the distribution of them later with the labels that are interested.",
"In 1992, she presented the project \"Som do Meio\\-Dia\" (Midday Sound) at the Art Museum of São Paulo ([MASP](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_Museum_of_Art \"São Paulo Museum of Art\")). The show brought together over thirty thousand spectators, which eventually leave the traffic jam in the vicinity of the Paulista Avenue. After forty\\-minutes concert, Daniela was removed from the stage by representatives of the São Paulo tourist office, that concerned with the museum structure, obtained an order from the military police to remove it from the local.",
"Soon after the show, Daniela was hired by [Sony Music](/wiki/Sony_Music \"Sony Music\") label and through this, released her second solo album, *[O Canto da Cidade](/wiki/O_Canto_da_Cidade \"O Canto da Cidade\")*. The album was considered by journalist [André Domingues](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Domingues \"André Domingues\") one of the best [MPB](/wiki/M%C3%BAsica_popular_brasileira \"Música popular brasileira\") albums ever. *O Canto da Cidade* is Mercury's album with most number\\-one songs (four in total; \"[O Canto da Cidade](/wiki/O_Canto_da_Cidade_%28song%29 \"O Canto da Cidade (song)\")\", \"[O Mais Belo dos Belos](/wiki/O_Mais_Belo_dos_Belos_%28song%29 \"O Mais Belo dos Belos (song)\")\", \"[Batuque](/wiki/Batuque_%28song%29 \"Batuque (song)\")\" and \"[Você Não Entende Nada/Cotidiano](/wiki/Voc%C3%AA_N%C3%A3o_Entende_Nada/Cotidiano_%28song%29 \"Você Não Entende Nada/Cotidiano (song)\")\"). *O Canto da Cidade* is recognized as the album responsible for taking [Axé Music](/wiki/Ax%C3%A9_Music \"Axé Music\") to mainstream audiences in Brazil.",
"The album also yielded Mercury, a year\\-end special on [Rede Globo](/wiki/Rede_Globo \"Rede Globo\") channel, which were mixed with live performances in the square of Apotheosis in [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro \"Rio de Janeiro\"), and video clips with [Caetano Veloso](/wiki/Caetano_Veloso \"Caetano Veloso\"), [Herbert Vianna](/wiki/Herbert_Vianna \"Herbert Vianna\") and [Tom Jobim](/wiki/Tom_Jobim \"Tom Jobim\"). Years later, the special, previously unreleased in video was released on DVD to celebrate the 15th anniversary of the release of the album. In July 1993, Mercury was one of Brazil's attractions at the prestigious [Montreux Jazz Festival](/wiki/Montreux_Jazz_Festival \"Montreux Jazz Festival\") in Switzerland.",
"Some consider *O Canto da Cidade* was the forerunner of the [samba\\-reggae](/wiki/Samba-reggae \"Samba-reggae\") movement, then called [Axé Music](/wiki/Ax%C3%A9_Music \"Axé Music\"), gaining strength in all regions of the country and allowing other genre artists, were featured in the Brazilian music scene. It is believed that after this album, the Carnival of Bahia gained a massive media coverage. Mercury experienced during this period, a peak of popularity rarely seen in the history of Brazilian music industry, being dubbed \"the hurricane of Bahia\" and \"Queen of the Axé\".",
"### Artistic development (1994–2000\\)",
"In 1994, *[Música de Rua](/wiki/M%C3%BAsica_de_Rua \"Música de Rua\")* was released through Sony. The album was received with lukewarm reviews, with some critics complaining about the similarities between this album and its predecessor. Nevertheless, the album was very well received by the public, producing the hits \"[Música de Rua](/wiki/M%C3%BAsica_de_Rua_%28song%29 \"Música de Rua (song)\")\", \"O Reggae e o Mar\" (both number\\-one hits), \"Por Amor ao Ilê\" (a top\\-ten hit) and \"A Rosa\" (top\\-twenty). This was Mercury's first album to produce singles which have failed to chart.",
"In 1996, *[Feijão com Arroz](/wiki/Feij%C3%A3o_com_Arroz \"Feijão com Arroz\")* was released through [Sony](/wiki/Sony \"Sony\"). This album was much better received by the critics than its predecessor. It is Mercury's most well rated album at [Allmusic](/wiki/Allmusic \"Allmusic\"), with four and a half stars. As of today, *Feijão com Arroz* is Mercury's second best selling album, behind only *O Canto da Cidade*. It produced the hits \"[À Primeira Vista](/wiki/%C3%80_Primeira_Vista_%28song%29 \"À Primeira Vista (song)\")\", \"[Nobre Vagabundo](/wiki/Nobre_Vagabundo \"Nobre Vagabundo\")\", \"[Rapunzel](/wiki/Rapunzel_%28Daniela_Mercury_song%29 \"Rapunzel (Daniela Mercury song)\")\" (all number\\-one hits), \"[Minas com Bahia](/wiki/Minas_com_Bahia_%28song%29 \"Minas com Bahia (song)\")\" (which features [Samuel Rosa](/wiki/Samuel_Rosa \"Samuel Rosa\") from [Skank](/wiki/Skank_%28band%29 \"Skank (band)\") and was a top\\-twenty hit) and \"Feijão de Corda\" (a top\\-ten hit).",
"In 1998, Mercury's first live album, *[Elétrica](/wiki/El%C3%A9trica \"Elétrica\")* was released through Sony. It produced the top\\-ten hit \"Trio Metal\", which charted at number eight.",
"### Experimentation with electronica (2000–2004\\)",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|right\\|Mercury performing in the concert *Solidariedade Brasil\\-Noruega* on October 7, 2003, in Teatro Nacional, [Brasília](/wiki/Bras%C3%ADlia \"Brasília\")](/wiki/Image:Daniela_Mercury.jpg \"Daniela Mercury.jpg\")\nIn 2000, Mercury released her fifth studio album, *Sol da Liberdade*, through [BMG](/wiki/Bertelsmann_Music_Group \"Bertelsmann Music Group\"). It produced two number\\-one singles (\"[Ilê Pérola Negra](/wiki/Il%C3%AA_P%C3%A9rola_Negra_%28song%29 \"Ilê Pérola Negra (song)\")\" and a cover of Antonio Marcus' \"Como Vai Você\"). The album, which was produced by Suba, was innovative in Mercury's career for its fusion with [electronic music](/wiki/Electronic_music \"Electronic music\") sounds.",
"The following year, Mercury released *Sou de Qualquer Lugar* through [BMG](/wiki/Bertelsmann_Music_Group \"Bertelsmann Music Group\"). The album sold half of its predecessor, but was able to produce the number\\-one single \"[Mutante](/wiki/Mutante_%28song%29 \"Mutante (song)\")\", a cover of [Rita Lee](/wiki/Rita_Lee \"Rita Lee\"). In this album, Mercury also experimented with electronic sounds.",
"In April 2003, Mercuy's second live album, *MTV ao Vivo – Eletrodoméstico*, was released through [BMG](/wiki/Bertelsmann_Music_Group \"Bertelsmann Music Group\"). It was recorded on January 23 and 24 of that same year at the Castro Alves Theater in Salvador for [MTV Brasil](/wiki/MTV_Brasil \"MTV Brasil\"). It was also released in the DVD format, Mercury's first. Among the artists who performed with the singer were [Dulce Pontes](/wiki/Dulce_Pontes \"Dulce Pontes\"), [Rosario Flores](/wiki/Rosario_Flores \"Rosario Flores\"), [Jovanotti](/wiki/Jovanotti \"Jovanotti\"), [Carlinhos Brown](/wiki/Carlinhos_Brown \"Carlinhos Brown\") and [Olodum](/wiki/Olodum \"Olodum\"). The sales were very inferior to Mercury's previous and it only produced one top twenty hit (\"Meu Plano\").",
"In 2004, *Carnaval Eletrônico* was released through [BMG](/wiki/Bertelsmann_Music_Group \"Bertelsmann Music Group\"). For the recording of this album, Mercury invited DJs and producers of electronic music in [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil \"Brazil\"), as well as [Gilberto Gil](/wiki/Gilberto_Gil \"Gilberto Gil\"), [Carlinhos Brown](/wiki/Carlinhos_Brown \"Carlinhos Brown\"), and Lenine. It is a commemorative disc celebrating the five years of her having formed *TrioTechno*, the first trio elétrico of electronic music in [Bahian Carnaval](/wiki/Bahian_Carnaval \"Bahian Carnaval\"). The disc received a Latin Grammy nomination for best pop album of the year and Mercury was nominated for a TIM Award for best female pop/rock vocalist. Internet users voted *Carnaval Eletrônico* the best pop album of the year online in one of Brazil's most important weekly magazines *Revista Isto É*.",
"### Back to basics (2005–2007\\)",
"In 2005, *Clássica* was released through [Som Livre](/wiki/Som_Livre \"Som Livre\") on both CD and DVD. Recorded from a concert Mercury gave the year before at [São Paulo](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo \"São Paulo\")'s Casa de Espetáculo, the album is a sampler of [bossa nova](/wiki/Bossa_nova \"Bossa nova\"), [jazz](/wiki/Jazz \"Jazz\"), and some of her biggest MPB hits. The record signaled a new phase for Mercury, who chose independence from record companies to gain full control of her work. Mercury was in London, during the [July 7 bombings](/wiki/7_July_2005_London_bombings \"7 July 2005 London bombings\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www1\\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/ilustrada/ult90u51823\\.shtml\\|title\\=Folha Online \\- Ilustrada \\- Em Londres, Daniela Mercury relata horror das explosões \\- 07/07/2005\\|website\\=www1\\.folha.uol.com.br}}",
"That same year, Mercury's eighth studio album, *[Balé Mulato](/wiki/Bal%C3%A9_Mulato \"Balé Mulato\")*, was released, but through [EMI](/wiki/EMI \"EMI\"). The album was very well received by the critics, with some even saying it was Mercury's best album since *[Feijão com Arroz](/wiki/Feij%C3%A3o_com_Arroz \"Feijão com Arroz\")* (1996\\). It was not, however, very well received by the public, with none of the singles being able to chart on the top\\-ten; a large part due to lack of record company support. The next year, the [Latin Grammy Award](/wiki/Latin_Grammy_Award \"Latin Grammy Award\")\\-winning [live version](/wiki/Bal%C3%A9_Mulato_-_Ao_Vivo \"Balé Mulato - Ao Vivo\") of *Balé Mulato*, was released. Daniela Mercury has completed her newest release, *[Canibália](/wiki/Canib%C3%A1lia \"Canibália\")*. Canibalia was launched in October 2009\\.",
"### Reinventing popular culture with Canibália and working with Cabeça de Nós Todos (2007–2013\\)",
"[thumb\\|Mercury in 2010\\.](/wiki/File:Brazilian_singer%2C_Daniela_Mercury.jpg \"Brazilian singer, Daniela Mercury.jpg\")",
"On November 19, 2007, the singer released \"[Preta](/wiki/Preta \"Preta\")\", which features [Seu Jorge](/wiki/Seu_Jorge \"Seu Jorge\"). The song, which is strongly influenced by [samba](/wiki/Samba \"Samba\"), was one of the most played in the country during the carnival. For the 2009's Carnival, Mercury recorded the song \"[Oyá Por Nós](/wiki/Oy%C3%A1_Por_N%C3%B3s \"Oyá Por Nós\")\", who wrote with Alfredo Moura and [Margareth Menezes](/wiki/Margareth_Menezes \"Margareth Menezes\"). The theme, based on the song \"Ketu de Iansã\" was first used by Moura in the doctoral ceremony honoris\\-cause of [Gilberto Gil](/wiki/Gilberto_Gil \"Gilberto Gil\") at the University of Aveiro in Portugal. After that, Moura used the theme in a play in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\"), [Austria](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\"), at the University of Musicology. A year later, he showed the theme for Daniela, who did not know and she immediately wanted to record it to launch in the Carnival. In 2009, [Rolling Stone Brasil](/wiki/Rolling_Stone_Brasil \"Rolling Stone Brasil\") magazine named Daniela as one of the 100 greatest artists of Brazilian music of all time. The names chosen by the expert jury, only 16 were women.",
"Finally in November 2009, Daniela released the album entitled *[Canibália](/wiki/Canib%C3%A1lia \"Canibália\")*. The album marks her return to the studio after five years. The recording sessions for the album takes almost three years to be done, *Canibália* hit stores with five different covers – a Gringo Cardia project. And five different track lists for the album, according to the singer, is an extensive project that combines music, dance, video and plastic arts – various expressions of art covered by it.",
"Daniela Mercury has said that \"Canibália is an embrace, a swallow of Tropicália, the Clube da Esquina and everything that has since been created in the arts in Brazil since the – ‘Semana de 22’ \\[‘Semana de Arte Moderna de 1922 ’\\-The Week of Modern Art] – I yearn for the liberty that comes from this anthropophagic movement, of the Cannibalist Manifesto by Oswald de Andrade and its practice by Mario \\[de Andrade), who spoke that these mixtures reinforce our \\[Brazilian] identity\".",
"[José Oswald de Andrade Souza](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Oswald_de_Andrade_Souza \"José Oswald de Andrade Souza\") (1890 – October 1954\\) was a Brazilian poet and a controversial thinker. Born in São Paulo, Andrade was one of the founders of the Brazilian Modernist movement and a member of the Group of Five, including Mário de Andrade, Anita Malfatti, Tarsila do Amaral Oswald de Andrade]. Andrade is recognized by his nationalist, *[Manifesto Antropófago](/wiki/Manifesto_Antrop%C3%B3fago \"Manifesto Antropófago\")* (Cannibalist Manifesto), published in 1928\\.\nThe manifesto argues that based on the premise that the history of Brazil has, as its greatest strength, the power to cannibalize others and simultaneously plays with the idea of cannibalism as a modern primitivism; like a presumed tribal rite.\nCannibalism then, becomes a way for Brazil to reaffirm itself against the cultural domination of Post Colonial Europe.\nThe iconic phrase of the manifesto \"Tupi or not Tupi\" is as much a celebration of the Tupinamba, a documented tribe of cannibals, as it is an act of genius cannibalizing Shakespeare's, \"To be or not to be\".",
"In 2009, her tour named by the album title started in [São Paulo](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo \"São Paulo\"), and traveled to several Brazilian cities and abroad. The work pays tribute to [Carmen Miranda](/wiki/Carmen_Miranda \"Carmen Miranda\"), at her centenary, with songs like \"[Tico\\-Tico no Fubá](/wiki/Tico-Tico_no_Fub%C3%A1 \"Tico-Tico no Fubá\")\" and \"[O Que É Que A Baiana Tem?](/wiki/O_Que_%C3%89_Que_A_Baiana_Tem%3F \"O Que É Que A Baiana Tem?\")\".",
"For 2010's Carnival, Daniela Mercury recorded \"[Andarilho Encantado](/wiki/Andarilho_Encantado \"Andarilho Encantado\")\", song released officially in the special project of the singer called *Pôr do Som* (Sunset Sound), the show that brings Mercury as headliner each year on the first day of the year at the [Farol da Barra](/wiki/Farol_da_Barra \"Farol da Barra\"), in [Salvador](/wiki/Salvador%2C_Bahia \"Salvador, Bahia\"), Bahia. The song was written by Mercury and Marcelo Quintanilha. Also in 2010, the year that the Electric Trio celebrates 60 years and Axé Music 25 years, the singer reaches 20 years of solo career – with significant\\-selling records. To commemorate the date, the media raised the possibility it make a documentary film about this invention of Bahian carnival, the axé music, praising percussionists.",
"In February 2013, the singer was invited to be interviewed in the *[Leading Women](/wiki/Leading_Women \"Leading Women\")* program of [CNN International](/wiki/CNN_International \"CNN International\"), and was announced by the issuer as the \"Brazilian Madonna\". The attraction highlights the most influential women in the world in their fields. Already in 2012, the Bahian singer had attracted the attention of American writer and feminist Camille Paglia, who declared to the British newspaper [The Independent](/wiki/The_Independent \"The Independent\"), that had a \"crush\" by the Bahian star. Since she had been in the country, for a conference in Bahia, Paglia has written enthusiastic articles about Mercury, saying that Daniela Mercury is the artist who Madonna wanted to be. Paglia said, a Canadian television station, which is \"in love with a Brazilian superstar. I'm watching her work. She is Daniela Mercury. In fact, this has been very important. This is the point where I am in my life\" . In an interview with the Brazilian magazine [Veja](/wiki/Veja_%28magazine%29 \"Veja (magazine)\"), intellectual revealed her plans to write two books about the Bahian singer.",
"At the end of 2013, released the album *[Daniela Mercury \\& Cabeça de Nós Todos](/wiki/Daniela_Mercury_%26_Cabe%C3%A7a_de_N%C3%B3s_Todos \"Daniela Mercury & Cabeça de Nós Todos\")*, a partnership with the Brazilian group [Cabeça de Nós Todos](/wiki/Cabe%C3%A7a_de_N%C3%B3s_Todos \"Cabeça de Nós Todos\"), with songs like \"[Couché](/wiki/Couch%C3%A9 \"Couché\")\", \"[Alma Feminina](/wiki/Alma_Feminina \"Alma Feminina\")\", \"Paula e Bebeto\", \"Aquele Abraço\" and \"Cheia de Graça\" are some of the tracks are presented in this work. It is an urban and pop\\-rock album, which does not show Daniela's rhythmic signature; it was launched with a book called \"Daniela and Malu, A Love Story\", a partnership with her wife Malu Verçosa. The book tells the story of their relationship, from the moment of friendship to marriage.",
"### The Voice Kids and Vinil Virtual (2014–present)",
"In 2014, she was mentor on [The Voice Kids](/wiki/The_Voice_Kids_%28Portuguese_TV_series%29 \"The Voice Kids (Portuguese TV series)\") (the version for children of the traditional show [The Voice](/wiki/The_Voice_Portugal \"The Voice Portugal\")) of Portugal, because of her popularity in Portuguese lands. In the same year she released the single \"[A Rainha do Axé (Rainha Má)](/wiki/A_Rainha_do_Ax%C3%A9_%28Rainha_M%C3%A1%29 \"A Rainha do Axé (Rainha Má)\")\", an electronic ijexá that speaks about the strength of women, love and faith which was sung by revelers during the 2015's Carnival of Salvador. The single is the first single to the fifteenth studio album by the singer titled *[Vinil Virtual](/wiki/Vinil_Virtual \"Vinil Virtual\")*, released November 27, 2015 by the label [Biscoito Fino](/wiki/Biscoito_Fino \"Biscoito Fino\").",
""
] |
### Rise to fame (1991–1993\)
Mercury's self\-titled debut album was released in 1991 through independent record company Eldorado. The lead single of the album, "[Swing da Cor](/wiki/Swing_da_Cor "Swing da Cor")", which features [Olodum](/wiki/Olodum "Olodum"), became a number\-one hit in Brazil, and the album was soon known as *[Swing da Cor](/wiki/Daniela_Mercury_%28album%29 "Daniela Mercury (album)")*. Another song from the album, "Menino do Pelô", which also features Olodum, became Mercury's second top\-ten hit in Brazil, charting at number four. On the following year, Mercury shut off from the record company and, ever since, produces her own albums to negotiate the distribution of them later with the labels that are interested.
In 1992, she presented the project "Som do Meio\-Dia" (Midday Sound) at the Art Museum of São Paulo ([MASP](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_Museum_of_Art "São Paulo Museum of Art")). The show brought together over thirty thousand spectators, which eventually leave the traffic jam in the vicinity of the Paulista Avenue. After forty\-minutes concert, Daniela was removed from the stage by representatives of the São Paulo tourist office, that concerned with the museum structure, obtained an order from the military police to remove it from the local.
Soon after the show, Daniela was hired by [Sony Music](/wiki/Sony_Music "Sony Music") label and through this, released her second solo album, *[O Canto da Cidade](/wiki/O_Canto_da_Cidade "O Canto da Cidade")*. The album was considered by journalist [André Domingues](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Domingues "André Domingues") one of the best [MPB](/wiki/M%C3%BAsica_popular_brasileira "Música popular brasileira") albums ever. *O Canto da Cidade* is Mercury's album with most number\-one songs (four in total; "[O Canto da Cidade](/wiki/O_Canto_da_Cidade_%28song%29 "O Canto da Cidade (song)")", "[O Mais Belo dos Belos](/wiki/O_Mais_Belo_dos_Belos_%28song%29 "O Mais Belo dos Belos (song)")", "[Batuque](/wiki/Batuque_%28song%29 "Batuque (song)")" and "[Você Não Entende Nada/Cotidiano](/wiki/Voc%C3%AA_N%C3%A3o_Entende_Nada/Cotidiano_%28song%29 "Você Não Entende Nada/Cotidiano (song)")"). *O Canto da Cidade* is recognized as the album responsible for taking [Axé Music](/wiki/Ax%C3%A9_Music "Axé Music") to mainstream audiences in Brazil.
The album also yielded Mercury, a year\-end special on [Rede Globo](/wiki/Rede_Globo "Rede Globo") channel, which were mixed with live performances in the square of Apotheosis in [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro "Rio de Janeiro"), and video clips with [Caetano Veloso](/wiki/Caetano_Veloso "Caetano Veloso"), [Herbert Vianna](/wiki/Herbert_Vianna "Herbert Vianna") and [Tom Jobim](/wiki/Tom_Jobim "Tom Jobim"). Years later, the special, previously unreleased in video was released on DVD to celebrate the 15th anniversary of the release of the album. In July 1993, Mercury was one of Brazil's attractions at the prestigious [Montreux Jazz Festival](/wiki/Montreux_Jazz_Festival "Montreux Jazz Festival") in Switzerland.
Some consider *O Canto da Cidade* was the forerunner of the [samba\-reggae](/wiki/Samba-reggae "Samba-reggae") movement, then called [Axé Music](/wiki/Ax%C3%A9_Music "Axé Music"), gaining strength in all regions of the country and allowing other genre artists, were featured in the Brazilian music scene. It is believed that after this album, the Carnival of Bahia gained a massive media coverage. Mercury experienced during this period, a peak of popularity rarely seen in the history of Brazilian music industry, being dubbed "the hurricane of Bahia" and "Queen of the Axé".
|
[
"### Rise to fame (1991–1993\\)",
"Mercury's self\\-titled debut album was released in 1991 through independent record company Eldorado. The lead single of the album, \"[Swing da Cor](/wiki/Swing_da_Cor \"Swing da Cor\")\", which features [Olodum](/wiki/Olodum \"Olodum\"), became a number\\-one hit in Brazil, and the album was soon known as *[Swing da Cor](/wiki/Daniela_Mercury_%28album%29 \"Daniela Mercury (album)\")*. Another song from the album, \"Menino do Pelô\", which also features Olodum, became Mercury's second top\\-ten hit in Brazil, charting at number four. On the following year, Mercury shut off from the record company and, ever since, produces her own albums to negotiate the distribution of them later with the labels that are interested.",
"In 1992, she presented the project \"Som do Meio\\-Dia\" (Midday Sound) at the Art Museum of São Paulo ([MASP](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_Museum_of_Art \"São Paulo Museum of Art\")). The show brought together over thirty thousand spectators, which eventually leave the traffic jam in the vicinity of the Paulista Avenue. After forty\\-minutes concert, Daniela was removed from the stage by representatives of the São Paulo tourist office, that concerned with the museum structure, obtained an order from the military police to remove it from the local.",
"Soon after the show, Daniela was hired by [Sony Music](/wiki/Sony_Music \"Sony Music\") label and through this, released her second solo album, *[O Canto da Cidade](/wiki/O_Canto_da_Cidade \"O Canto da Cidade\")*. The album was considered by journalist [André Domingues](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Domingues \"André Domingues\") one of the best [MPB](/wiki/M%C3%BAsica_popular_brasileira \"Música popular brasileira\") albums ever. *O Canto da Cidade* is Mercury's album with most number\\-one songs (four in total; \"[O Canto da Cidade](/wiki/O_Canto_da_Cidade_%28song%29 \"O Canto da Cidade (song)\")\", \"[O Mais Belo dos Belos](/wiki/O_Mais_Belo_dos_Belos_%28song%29 \"O Mais Belo dos Belos (song)\")\", \"[Batuque](/wiki/Batuque_%28song%29 \"Batuque (song)\")\" and \"[Você Não Entende Nada/Cotidiano](/wiki/Voc%C3%AA_N%C3%A3o_Entende_Nada/Cotidiano_%28song%29 \"Você Não Entende Nada/Cotidiano (song)\")\"). *O Canto da Cidade* is recognized as the album responsible for taking [Axé Music](/wiki/Ax%C3%A9_Music \"Axé Music\") to mainstream audiences in Brazil.",
"The album also yielded Mercury, a year\\-end special on [Rede Globo](/wiki/Rede_Globo \"Rede Globo\") channel, which were mixed with live performances in the square of Apotheosis in [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro \"Rio de Janeiro\"), and video clips with [Caetano Veloso](/wiki/Caetano_Veloso \"Caetano Veloso\"), [Herbert Vianna](/wiki/Herbert_Vianna \"Herbert Vianna\") and [Tom Jobim](/wiki/Tom_Jobim \"Tom Jobim\"). Years later, the special, previously unreleased in video was released on DVD to celebrate the 15th anniversary of the release of the album. In July 1993, Mercury was one of Brazil's attractions at the prestigious [Montreux Jazz Festival](/wiki/Montreux_Jazz_Festival \"Montreux Jazz Festival\") in Switzerland.",
"Some consider *O Canto da Cidade* was the forerunner of the [samba\\-reggae](/wiki/Samba-reggae \"Samba-reggae\") movement, then called [Axé Music](/wiki/Ax%C3%A9_Music \"Axé Music\"), gaining strength in all regions of the country and allowing other genre artists, were featured in the Brazilian music scene. It is believed that after this album, the Carnival of Bahia gained a massive media coverage. Mercury experienced during this period, a peak of popularity rarely seen in the history of Brazilian music industry, being dubbed \"the hurricane of Bahia\" and \"Queen of the Axé\".",
""
] |
### Reinventing popular culture with Canibália and working with Cabeça de Nós Todos (2007–2013\)
[thumb\|Mercury in 2010\.](/wiki/File:Brazilian_singer%2C_Daniela_Mercury.jpg "Brazilian singer, Daniela Mercury.jpg")
On November 19, 2007, the singer released "[Preta](/wiki/Preta "Preta")", which features [Seu Jorge](/wiki/Seu_Jorge "Seu Jorge"). The song, which is strongly influenced by [samba](/wiki/Samba "Samba"), was one of the most played in the country during the carnival. For the 2009's Carnival, Mercury recorded the song "[Oyá Por Nós](/wiki/Oy%C3%A1_Por_N%C3%B3s "Oyá Por Nós")", who wrote with Alfredo Moura and [Margareth Menezes](/wiki/Margareth_Menezes "Margareth Menezes"). The theme, based on the song "Ketu de Iansã" was first used by Moura in the doctoral ceremony honoris\-cause of [Gilberto Gil](/wiki/Gilberto_Gil "Gilberto Gil") at the University of Aveiro in Portugal. After that, Moura used the theme in a play in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna"), [Austria](/wiki/Austria "Austria"), at the University of Musicology. A year later, he showed the theme for Daniela, who did not know and she immediately wanted to record it to launch in the Carnival. In 2009, [Rolling Stone Brasil](/wiki/Rolling_Stone_Brasil "Rolling Stone Brasil") magazine named Daniela as one of the 100 greatest artists of Brazilian music of all time. The names chosen by the expert jury, only 16 were women.
Finally in November 2009, Daniela released the album entitled *[Canibália](/wiki/Canib%C3%A1lia "Canibália")*. The album marks her return to the studio after five years. The recording sessions for the album takes almost three years to be done, *Canibália* hit stores with five different covers – a Gringo Cardia project. And five different track lists for the album, according to the singer, is an extensive project that combines music, dance, video and plastic arts – various expressions of art covered by it.
Daniela Mercury has said that "Canibália is an embrace, a swallow of Tropicália, the Clube da Esquina and everything that has since been created in the arts in Brazil since the – ‘Semana de 22’ \[‘Semana de Arte Moderna de 1922 ’\-The Week of Modern Art] – I yearn for the liberty that comes from this anthropophagic movement, of the Cannibalist Manifesto by Oswald de Andrade and its practice by Mario \[de Andrade), who spoke that these mixtures reinforce our \[Brazilian] identity".
[José Oswald de Andrade Souza](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Oswald_de_Andrade_Souza "José Oswald de Andrade Souza") (1890 – October 1954\) was a Brazilian poet and a controversial thinker. Born in São Paulo, Andrade was one of the founders of the Brazilian Modernist movement and a member of the Group of Five, including Mário de Andrade, Anita Malfatti, Tarsila do Amaral Oswald de Andrade]. Andrade is recognized by his nationalist, *[Manifesto Antropófago](/wiki/Manifesto_Antrop%C3%B3fago "Manifesto Antropófago")* (Cannibalist Manifesto), published in 1928\.
The manifesto argues that based on the premise that the history of Brazil has, as its greatest strength, the power to cannibalize others and simultaneously plays with the idea of cannibalism as a modern primitivism; like a presumed tribal rite.
Cannibalism then, becomes a way for Brazil to reaffirm itself against the cultural domination of Post Colonial Europe.
The iconic phrase of the manifesto "Tupi or not Tupi" is as much a celebration of the Tupinamba, a documented tribe of cannibals, as it is an act of genius cannibalizing Shakespeare's, "To be or not to be".
In 2009, her tour named by the album title started in [São Paulo](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo "São Paulo"), and traveled to several Brazilian cities and abroad. The work pays tribute to [Carmen Miranda](/wiki/Carmen_Miranda "Carmen Miranda"), at her centenary, with songs like "[Tico\-Tico no Fubá](/wiki/Tico-Tico_no_Fub%C3%A1 "Tico-Tico no Fubá")" and "[O Que É Que A Baiana Tem?](/wiki/O_Que_%C3%89_Que_A_Baiana_Tem%3F "O Que É Que A Baiana Tem?")".
For 2010's Carnival, Daniela Mercury recorded "[Andarilho Encantado](/wiki/Andarilho_Encantado "Andarilho Encantado")", song released officially in the special project of the singer called *Pôr do Som* (Sunset Sound), the show that brings Mercury as headliner each year on the first day of the year at the [Farol da Barra](/wiki/Farol_da_Barra "Farol da Barra"), in [Salvador](/wiki/Salvador%2C_Bahia "Salvador, Bahia"), Bahia. The song was written by Mercury and Marcelo Quintanilha. Also in 2010, the year that the Electric Trio celebrates 60 years and Axé Music 25 years, the singer reaches 20 years of solo career – with significant\-selling records. To commemorate the date, the media raised the possibility it make a documentary film about this invention of Bahian carnival, the axé music, praising percussionists.
In February 2013, the singer was invited to be interviewed in the *[Leading Women](/wiki/Leading_Women "Leading Women")* program of [CNN International](/wiki/CNN_International "CNN International"), and was announced by the issuer as the "Brazilian Madonna". The attraction highlights the most influential women in the world in their fields. Already in 2012, the Bahian singer had attracted the attention of American writer and feminist Camille Paglia, who declared to the British newspaper [The Independent](/wiki/The_Independent "The Independent"), that had a "crush" by the Bahian star. Since she had been in the country, for a conference in Bahia, Paglia has written enthusiastic articles about Mercury, saying that Daniela Mercury is the artist who Madonna wanted to be. Paglia said, a Canadian television station, which is "in love with a Brazilian superstar. I'm watching her work. She is Daniela Mercury. In fact, this has been very important. This is the point where I am in my life" . In an interview with the Brazilian magazine [Veja](/wiki/Veja_%28magazine%29 "Veja (magazine)"), intellectual revealed her plans to write two books about the Bahian singer.
At the end of 2013, released the album *[Daniela Mercury \& Cabeça de Nós Todos](/wiki/Daniela_Mercury_%26_Cabe%C3%A7a_de_N%C3%B3s_Todos "Daniela Mercury & Cabeça de Nós Todos")*, a partnership with the Brazilian group [Cabeça de Nós Todos](/wiki/Cabe%C3%A7a_de_N%C3%B3s_Todos "Cabeça de Nós Todos"), with songs like "[Couché](/wiki/Couch%C3%A9 "Couché")", "[Alma Feminina](/wiki/Alma_Feminina "Alma Feminina")", "Paula e Bebeto", "Aquele Abraço" and "Cheia de Graça" are some of the tracks are presented in this work. It is an urban and pop\-rock album, which does not show Daniela's rhythmic signature; it was launched with a book called "Daniela and Malu, A Love Story", a partnership with her wife Malu Verçosa. The book tells the story of their relationship, from the moment of friendship to marriage.
|
[
"### Reinventing popular culture with Canibália and working with Cabeça de Nós Todos (2007–2013\\)",
"[thumb\\|Mercury in 2010\\.](/wiki/File:Brazilian_singer%2C_Daniela_Mercury.jpg \"Brazilian singer, Daniela Mercury.jpg\")",
"On November 19, 2007, the singer released \"[Preta](/wiki/Preta \"Preta\")\", which features [Seu Jorge](/wiki/Seu_Jorge \"Seu Jorge\"). The song, which is strongly influenced by [samba](/wiki/Samba \"Samba\"), was one of the most played in the country during the carnival. For the 2009's Carnival, Mercury recorded the song \"[Oyá Por Nós](/wiki/Oy%C3%A1_Por_N%C3%B3s \"Oyá Por Nós\")\", who wrote with Alfredo Moura and [Margareth Menezes](/wiki/Margareth_Menezes \"Margareth Menezes\"). The theme, based on the song \"Ketu de Iansã\" was first used by Moura in the doctoral ceremony honoris\\-cause of [Gilberto Gil](/wiki/Gilberto_Gil \"Gilberto Gil\") at the University of Aveiro in Portugal. After that, Moura used the theme in a play in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\"), [Austria](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\"), at the University of Musicology. A year later, he showed the theme for Daniela, who did not know and she immediately wanted to record it to launch in the Carnival. In 2009, [Rolling Stone Brasil](/wiki/Rolling_Stone_Brasil \"Rolling Stone Brasil\") magazine named Daniela as one of the 100 greatest artists of Brazilian music of all time. The names chosen by the expert jury, only 16 were women.",
"Finally in November 2009, Daniela released the album entitled *[Canibália](/wiki/Canib%C3%A1lia \"Canibália\")*. The album marks her return to the studio after five years. The recording sessions for the album takes almost three years to be done, *Canibália* hit stores with five different covers – a Gringo Cardia project. And five different track lists for the album, according to the singer, is an extensive project that combines music, dance, video and plastic arts – various expressions of art covered by it.",
"Daniela Mercury has said that \"Canibália is an embrace, a swallow of Tropicália, the Clube da Esquina and everything that has since been created in the arts in Brazil since the – ‘Semana de 22’ \\[‘Semana de Arte Moderna de 1922 ’\\-The Week of Modern Art] – I yearn for the liberty that comes from this anthropophagic movement, of the Cannibalist Manifesto by Oswald de Andrade and its practice by Mario \\[de Andrade), who spoke that these mixtures reinforce our \\[Brazilian] identity\".",
"[José Oswald de Andrade Souza](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Oswald_de_Andrade_Souza \"José Oswald de Andrade Souza\") (1890 – October 1954\\) was a Brazilian poet and a controversial thinker. Born in São Paulo, Andrade was one of the founders of the Brazilian Modernist movement and a member of the Group of Five, including Mário de Andrade, Anita Malfatti, Tarsila do Amaral Oswald de Andrade]. Andrade is recognized by his nationalist, *[Manifesto Antropófago](/wiki/Manifesto_Antrop%C3%B3fago \"Manifesto Antropófago\")* (Cannibalist Manifesto), published in 1928\\.\nThe manifesto argues that based on the premise that the history of Brazil has, as its greatest strength, the power to cannibalize others and simultaneously plays with the idea of cannibalism as a modern primitivism; like a presumed tribal rite.\nCannibalism then, becomes a way for Brazil to reaffirm itself against the cultural domination of Post Colonial Europe.\nThe iconic phrase of the manifesto \"Tupi or not Tupi\" is as much a celebration of the Tupinamba, a documented tribe of cannibals, as it is an act of genius cannibalizing Shakespeare's, \"To be or not to be\".",
"In 2009, her tour named by the album title started in [São Paulo](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo \"São Paulo\"), and traveled to several Brazilian cities and abroad. The work pays tribute to [Carmen Miranda](/wiki/Carmen_Miranda \"Carmen Miranda\"), at her centenary, with songs like \"[Tico\\-Tico no Fubá](/wiki/Tico-Tico_no_Fub%C3%A1 \"Tico-Tico no Fubá\")\" and \"[O Que É Que A Baiana Tem?](/wiki/O_Que_%C3%89_Que_A_Baiana_Tem%3F \"O Que É Que A Baiana Tem?\")\".",
"For 2010's Carnival, Daniela Mercury recorded \"[Andarilho Encantado](/wiki/Andarilho_Encantado \"Andarilho Encantado\")\", song released officially in the special project of the singer called *Pôr do Som* (Sunset Sound), the show that brings Mercury as headliner each year on the first day of the year at the [Farol da Barra](/wiki/Farol_da_Barra \"Farol da Barra\"), in [Salvador](/wiki/Salvador%2C_Bahia \"Salvador, Bahia\"), Bahia. The song was written by Mercury and Marcelo Quintanilha. Also in 2010, the year that the Electric Trio celebrates 60 years and Axé Music 25 years, the singer reaches 20 years of solo career – with significant\\-selling records. To commemorate the date, the media raised the possibility it make a documentary film about this invention of Bahian carnival, the axé music, praising percussionists.",
"In February 2013, the singer was invited to be interviewed in the *[Leading Women](/wiki/Leading_Women \"Leading Women\")* program of [CNN International](/wiki/CNN_International \"CNN International\"), and was announced by the issuer as the \"Brazilian Madonna\". The attraction highlights the most influential women in the world in their fields. Already in 2012, the Bahian singer had attracted the attention of American writer and feminist Camille Paglia, who declared to the British newspaper [The Independent](/wiki/The_Independent \"The Independent\"), that had a \"crush\" by the Bahian star. Since she had been in the country, for a conference in Bahia, Paglia has written enthusiastic articles about Mercury, saying that Daniela Mercury is the artist who Madonna wanted to be. Paglia said, a Canadian television station, which is \"in love with a Brazilian superstar. I'm watching her work. She is Daniela Mercury. In fact, this has been very important. This is the point where I am in my life\" . In an interview with the Brazilian magazine [Veja](/wiki/Veja_%28magazine%29 \"Veja (magazine)\"), intellectual revealed her plans to write two books about the Bahian singer.",
"At the end of 2013, released the album *[Daniela Mercury \\& Cabeça de Nós Todos](/wiki/Daniela_Mercury_%26_Cabe%C3%A7a_de_N%C3%B3s_Todos \"Daniela Mercury & Cabeça de Nós Todos\")*, a partnership with the Brazilian group [Cabeça de Nós Todos](/wiki/Cabe%C3%A7a_de_N%C3%B3s_Todos \"Cabeça de Nós Todos\"), with songs like \"[Couché](/wiki/Couch%C3%A9 \"Couché\")\", \"[Alma Feminina](/wiki/Alma_Feminina \"Alma Feminina\")\", \"Paula e Bebeto\", \"Aquele Abraço\" and \"Cheia de Graça\" are some of the tracks are presented in this work. It is an urban and pop\\-rock album, which does not show Daniela's rhythmic signature; it was launched with a book called \"Daniela and Malu, A Love Story\", a partnership with her wife Malu Verçosa. The book tells the story of their relationship, from the moment of friendship to marriage.",
""
] |
Stratification
--------------
[thumb\|Earth's atmosphere. Lower four layers of the atmosphere in three dimensions as seen diagonally from above the exobase. Layers drawn to scale, objects within the layers are not to scale. Aurorae shown at the bottom of the thermosphere can form at any altitude within this layer.](/wiki/File:Earth%27s_atmosphere.svg "Earth's atmosphere.svg")
In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere. However, temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions (see the [temperature](/wiki/%23Temperature "#Temperature") section). Because the general pattern of the temperature/altitude profile, or [lapse rate](/wiki/Lapse_rate "Lapse rate"), is constant and measurable by means of instrumented [balloon soundings](/wiki/Weather_balloon "Weather balloon"), the temperature behavior provides a useful metric to distinguish atmospheric layers. This *atmospheric stratification* divides the Earth's atmosphere into five main layers:{{Cite news \|url\=http://www.nasa.gov/mission\_pages/sunearth/science/mos\-upper\-atmosphere.html\#.VHg5AzHF8vY \|title\=Earth's Upper Atmosphere \|last\=Zell \|first\=Holly \|date\=2015\-03\-02 \|newspaper\=NASA\|access\-date\=2017\-02\-20 \|language\=en}}
* Exosphere: {{convert \|700 \|\- \|10000 \|km \|abbr\=on \|0}}{{cite web\|title\=Exosphere \- overview\|url\=http://scied.ucar.edu/shortcontent/exosphere\-overview\|date\=2011\|publisher\=UCAR\|access\-date\=April 19, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517071138/https://scied.ucar.edu/shortcontent/exosphere\-overview\|archive\-date\=17 May 2017\|url\-status\=dead}}
* Thermosphere: {{convert \|80 \|\- \|700 \|km \|abbr\=on \|0}}{{cite web \|author\=Randy Russell \|title\=The Thermosphere \|year\=2008 \|url\=http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Atmosphere/thermosphere.html \|access\-date\=2013\-10\-18}}
* Mesosphere: {{convert \|50 \|\- \|80 \|km \|abbr\=on \|0}}
* Stratosphere: {{convert \|12 \|\- \|50 \|km \|abbr\=on \|0}}
* Troposphere: {{convert \|0 \|\- \|12 \|km \|abbr\=on \|0}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www\-das.uwyo.edu/\~geerts/cwx/notes/chap01/tropo.html \|title\=The height of the tropopause \|publisher\=Das.uwyo.edu \|access\-date\=2012\-04\-18}}{{dead link\|date\=October 2024}}
### Exosphere
{{main\|Exosphere}}
The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere (though it is so tenuous that some scientists consider it to be part of interplanetary space rather than part of the atmosphere). It extends from the [thermopause](/wiki/Thermopause "Thermopause") (also known as the "exobase") at the top of the [thermosphere](/wiki/Thermosphere "Thermosphere") to a poorly defined boundary with the [solar wind](/wiki/Solar_wind "Solar wind") and [interplanetary medium](/wiki/Interplanetary_medium "Interplanetary medium"). The altitude of the exobase varies from about {{convert\|500\|km\|mi ft}} to about {{convert\|1000\|km}} in times of higher incoming solar radiation.{{cite web \|title\=Exosphere \- overview \|url\=http://scied.ucar.edu/shortcontent/exosphere\-overview \|date\=2011 \|publisher\=UCAR \|access\-date\=April 19, 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517071138/https://scied.ucar.edu/shortcontent/exosphere\-overview \|archive\-date\=17 May 2017 \|url\-status\=live }}
The upper limit varies depending on the definition. Various authorities consider it to end at about {{convert\|10000\|km}}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.nasa.gov/mission\_pages/sunearth/science/atmosphere\-layers2\.html \|date\=January 22, 2013 \|title\=Earth's Atmospheric Layers}} or about {{convert\|190000\|km\|mi}}—about halfway to the moon, where the influence of Earth's gravity is about the same as [radiation pressure](/wiki/Radiation_pressure "Radiation pressure") from sunlight. The [geocorona](/wiki/Geocorona "Geocorona") visible in the far ultraviolet (caused by neutral hydrogen) extends to at least {{convert\|100000\|km}}.
This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide closer to the exobase. The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometres without colliding with one another. Thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly [escape into space](/wiki/Atmospheric_escape "Atmospheric escape"). These free\-moving particles follow [ballistic](/wiki/Ballistics "Ballistics") [trajectories](/wiki/Trajectory "Trajectory") and may migrate in and out of the [magnetosphere](/wiki/Magnetosphere "Magnetosphere") or the solar wind. Every second, the Earth loses about 3 kg of hydrogen, 50 g of helium, and much smaller amounts of other constituents.David C. Catling and Kevin J. Zahnle, [The Planetary Air Leak](http://faculty.washington.edu/dcatling/Catling2009_SciAm.pdf), *Scientific American,* May 2009, p. 26 (accessed 25 July 2012\)
The exosphere is too far above Earth for [meteorological](/wiki/Meteorology "Meteorology") phenomena to be possible. However, Earth's [auroras](/wiki/Aurora "Aurora")—the aurora borealis (northern lights) and aurora australis (southern lights)—sometimes occur in the lower part of the exosphere, where they overlap into the thermosphere. The exosphere contains many of the [artificial satellites](/wiki/Satellite "Satellite") that [orbit](/wiki/Orbit "Orbit") Earth.
### Thermosphere
{{main\|Thermosphere}}
The thermosphere is the second\-highest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from the mesopause (which separates it from the mesosphere) at an altitude of about {{convert\|80\|km\|mi ft\|abbr\=on\|sigfig\=2}} up to the [thermopause](/wiki/Thermopause "Thermopause") at an altitude range of {{convert\|500\|\-\|1,000\|km\|mi ft\|abbr\=on\|sigfig\=2\|comma\=5}}. The height of the thermopause varies considerably due to changes in solar activity. Because the thermopause lies at the lower boundary of the exosphere, it is also referred to as the [exobase](/wiki/Exobase "Exobase"). The lower part of the thermosphere, from {{convert\|80\|to\|550\|km}} above Earth's surface, contains the [ionosphere](/wiki/Ionosphere "Ionosphere").
The temperature of the thermosphere gradually increases with height and can rise as high as {{convert\|1,500\|C\|abbr\=on\|sigfig\=2\|comma\=5}}, though the gas molecules are so far apart that its [temperature in the usual sense](/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gases "Kinetic theory of gases") is not very meaningful. The air is so rarefied that an individual molecule (of [oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen "Oxygen"), for example) travels an average of {{convert\|1\|km\|mi ft\|comma\=5}} between collisions with other molecules.Ahrens, C. Donald. *Essentials of Meteorology*. Published by Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2005\. Although the thermosphere has a high proportion of molecules with high energy, it would not feel hot to a human in direct contact, because its density is too low to conduct a significant amount of energy to or from the skin.
This layer is completely cloudless and free of water vapor. However, non\-hydrometeorological phenomena such as the [aurora borealis](/wiki/Aurora_borealis "Aurora borealis") and [aurora australis](/wiki/Aurora_australis "Aurora australis") are occasionally seen in the thermosphere. The [International Space Station](/wiki/International_Space_Station "International Space Station") orbits in this layer, between {{convert\|350\|and\|420\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on\|sigfig\=2}}. It is this layer where many of the satellites orbiting the Earth are present.
### Mesosphere
{{main\|Mesosphere}}
[thumb\|upright\=1\.25\|[Afterglow](/wiki/Afterglow "Afterglow") of the [troposphere](/wiki/Troposphere "Troposphere") (orange), the [stratosphere](/wiki/Stratosphere "Stratosphere") (blue) and the mesosphere (dark) at which [atmospheric entry](/wiki/Atmospheric_entry "Atmospheric entry") begins, leaving smoke trails, such as in this case of a [spacecraft](/wiki/Spacecraft "Spacecraft") reentry](/wiki/File:ISS-46_Soyuz_TMA-17M_reentry.jpg "ISS-46 Soyuz TMA-17M reentry.jpg")
The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earth's atmosphere, occupying the region above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. It extends from the stratopause at an altitude of about {{convert\|50\|km\|mi ft\|abbr\=on\|sigfig\=2}} to the mesopause at {{convert\|80\|\-\|85\|km\|mi ft\|abbr\=on\|sigfig\=2}} above sea level.
Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to the [mesopause](/wiki/Mesopause "Mesopause") that marks the top of this middle layer of the atmosphere. It is the coldest place on Earth and has an average temperature around {{convert\|\-85\|C\|F K\|abbr\=on\|lk\=on\|sigfig\=2}}.{{Cite journal \|last1\=States \|first1\=Robert J. \|last2\=Gardner \|first2\=Chester S. \|title\=Thermal Structure of the Mesopause Region (80–105 km) at 40°N Latitude. Part I: Seasonal Variations \|journal\=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences \|volume\=57 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=66–77 \|date\=January 2000 \|doi\=10\.1175/1520\-0469(2000\)057\<0066:TSOTMR\>2\.0\.CO;2 \|bibcode\=2000JAtS...57\...66S\|doi\-access\=free }}
{{cite web \|author\=Joe Buchdahl \|url\=http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/Atmosphere/Older/Mesosphere.html \|title\=Atmosphere, Climate \& Environment Information Programme \|publisher\=Ace.mmu.ac.uk \|access\-date\=2012\-04\-18 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100701030705/http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/atmosphere/older/mesosphere.html \|archive\-date\=2010\-07\-01 }}
Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapor at this altitude can condense into polar\-mesospheric [noctilucent clouds](/wiki/Noctilucent_cloud "Noctilucent cloud") of ice particles. These are the highest clouds in the atmosphere and may be visible to the naked eye if sunlight reflects off them about an hour or two after sunset or similarly before sunrise. They are most readily visible when the Sun is around 4 to 16 degrees below the horizon. Lightning\-induced discharges known as [transient luminous events](/wiki/Transient_luminous_event "Transient luminous event") (TLEs) occasionally form in the mesosphere above tropospheric [thunderclouds](/wiki/Thunderclouds "Thunderclouds"). The mesosphere is also the layer where most [meteors](/wiki/Meteor "Meteor") burn up upon atmospheric entrance. It is too high above Earth to be accessible to jet\-powered aircraft and balloons, and too low to permit orbital spacecraft. The mesosphere is mainly accessed by [sounding rockets](/wiki/Sounding_rocket "Sounding rocket") and [rocket\-powered aircraft](/wiki/Rocket-powered_aircraft "Rocket-powered aircraft").
### Stratosphere
{{main\|Stratosphere}}
The stratosphere is the second\-lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It lies above the troposphere and is separated from it by the [tropopause](/wiki/Tropopause "Tropopause"). This layer extends from the top of the troposphere at roughly {{convert\|12\|km\|mi ft\|abbr\=on}} above Earth's surface to the [stratopause](/wiki/Stratopause "Stratopause") at an altitude of about {{convert\|50\|to\|55\|km\|mi ft\|abbr\=on}}.
The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere is roughly 1/1000 the [pressure at sea level](/wiki/Pressure_at_sea_level "Pressure at sea level"). It contains the [ozone layer](/wiki/Ozone_layer "Ozone layer"), which is the part of Earth's atmosphere that contains relatively high concentrations of that gas. The stratosphere defines a layer in which temperatures rise with increasing altitude. This rise in temperature is caused by the absorption of [ultraviolet radiation](/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiation "Ultraviolet radiation") (UV) from the Sun by the ozone layer, which restricts turbulence and mixing. Although the temperature may be {{convert\|\-60\|C\|F K\|abbr\=on\|sigfig\=2}} at the tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near 0 °C.{{cite web \|author\=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences \|title\=stratopause \|year\=1993 \|url\=http://www.webref.org/chemistry/s/stratopause.htm \|access\-date\=2013\-10\-18 \|archive\-date\=2013\-10\-19 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019124644/http://www.webref.org/chemistry/s/stratopause.htm \|url\-status\=dead }}
The stratospheric temperature profile creates very stable atmospheric conditions, so the stratosphere lacks the weather\-producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in the troposphere. Consequently, the stratosphere is almost completely free of clouds and other forms of weather. However, polar stratospheric or [nacreous clouds](/wiki/Nacreous_cloud "Nacreous cloud") are occasionally seen in the lower part of this layer of the atmosphere where the air is coldest. The stratosphere is the highest layer that can be accessed by [jet\-powered aircraft](/wiki/Jet-powered_aircraft "Jet-powered aircraft").
### Troposphere
{{main\|Troposphere}}
[thumb\|upright\=1\.25\|A picture of Earth's troposphere, with different [cloud types](/wiki/Cloud_types "Cloud types") at low and [high altitudes](/wiki/High_altitude "High altitude") casting shadows. Sunlight, filtered into a reddish hue by passing through much of the troposphere at sunset, is reflected off the ocean. The above\-lying [stratosphere](/wiki/Stratosphere "Stratosphere") can be seen at the [horizon](/wiki/Horizon "Horizon") as a band of its characteristic glow of [blue scattered](/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering "Rayleigh scattering") sunlight.](/wiki/File:ISS-47_Islands_In_The_Sky%2C_Indonesia.jpg "ISS-47 Islands In The Sky, Indonesia.jpg")
The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from Earth's surface to an average height of about {{cvt\|12\|km\|mi ft}}, although this [altitude](/wiki/Altitude "Altitude") varies from about {{cvt\|9\|km\|mi ft}} at the [geographic poles](/wiki/Geographic_pole "Geographic pole") to {{cvt\|17\|km\|mi ft}} at the [Equator](/wiki/Equator "Equator"), with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is bounded above by the [tropopause](/wiki/Tropopause "Tropopause"), a boundary marked in most places by a [temperature inversion](/wiki/Temperature_inversion "Temperature inversion") (i.e. a layer of relatively warm air above a colder one), and in others by a zone that is [isothermal](/wiki/Isotherm_%28contour_line%29 "Isotherm (contour line)") with height.{{cite book \|last1\=Barry \|first1\=R.G. \|last2\=Chorley \|first2\=R.J. \|year\=1971 \|title\=Atmosphere, Weather and Climate \|url\=https://archive.org/details/atmosphereweathe0000barr\_m3n2 \|url\-access\=registration \|location\=London \|publisher\=Menthuen \& Co Ltd. \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/atmosphereweathe0000barr\_m3n2/page/65 65]\|isbn\=9780416079401 }}{{cite book \|last1\=Tyson \|first1\=P.D. \|last2\=Preston\-Whyte \|first2\=R.A. \|year\=2013 \|title\=The Weather and Climate of Southern Africa \|edition\=2nd \|location\=Oxford \|publisher\=\[\[Oxford University Press]] \|page\=4}}
Although variations do occur, the temperature usually declines with increasing altitude in the troposphere because the troposphere is mostly heated through energy transfer from the surface. Thus, the lowest part of the troposphere (i.e. Earth's surface) is typically the warmest section of the troposphere. This promotes vertical mixing (hence, the origin of its name in the Greek word τρόπος, *tropos*, meaning "turn"). The troposphere contains roughly 80% of the [mass](/wiki/Mass "Mass") of Earth's atmosphere.{{cite book \|publisher\=\[\[McGraw\-Hill]] \|title\=Concise Encyclopedia of Science \& Technology \|year\=1984 \|section\=Troposphere \|quote\=It contains about four\-fifths of the mass of the whole atmosphere.}} The troposphere is denser than all its overlying layers because a larger atmospheric weight sits on top of the troposphere and causes it to be most severely compressed. Fifty percent of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the lower {{cvt\|5\.6\|km\|mi ft}} of the troposphere.
Nearly all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found in the troposphere, so it is the layer where most of Earth's weather takes place. It has basically all the weather\-associated cloud genus types generated by active wind circulation, although very tall cumulonimbus thunder clouds can penetrate the tropopause from below and rise into the lower part of the stratosphere. Most conventional [aviation](/wiki/Aviation "Aviation") activity takes place in the troposphere, and it is the only layer accessible by [propeller\-driven aircraft](/wiki/Propeller_%28aeronautics%29 "Propeller (aeronautics)").
### Other layers
Within the five principal layers above, which are largely determined by temperature, several secondary layers may be distinguished by other properties:
* The [ozone layer](/wiki/Ozone_layer "Ozone layer") is contained within the stratosphere. In this layer [ozone](/wiki/Ozone "Ozone") concentrations are about 2 to 8 parts per million, which is much higher than in the lower atmosphere but still very small compared to the main components of the atmosphere. It is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from about {{convert\|15\|\-\|35\|km\|mi ft\|abbr\=on}}, though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically. About 90% of the ozone in Earth's atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere.
* The [ionosphere](/wiki/Ionosphere "Ionosphere") is a region of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation. It is responsible for [auroras](/wiki/Aurora_%28astronomy%29 "Aurora (astronomy)"). During daytime hours, it stretches from {{convert\|50\|to\|1000\|km\|mi ft\|abbr\=on}} and includes the mesosphere, thermosphere, and parts of the exosphere. However, ionization in the mesosphere largely ceases during the night, so auroras are normally seen only in the thermosphere and lower exosphere. The ionosphere forms the inner edge of the [magnetosphere](/wiki/Magnetosphere "Magnetosphere"). It has practical importance because it influences, for example, radio propagation on Earth.
* The [homosphere](/wiki/Homosphere "Homosphere") and [heterosphere](/wiki/Heterosphere "Heterosphere") are defined by whether the atmospheric gases are well mixed. The surface\-based homosphere includes the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and the lowest part of the thermosphere, where the chemical composition of the atmosphere does not depend on molecular weight because the gases are mixed by turbulence.{{cite web \|url\=http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id\=homosphere1 \|title\=''homosphere'' – AMS Glossary \|publisher\=Amsglossary.allenpress.com \|access\-date\=2010\-10\-16 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100914045832/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id\=homosphere1 \|archive\-date\=14 September 2010 \|url\-status\=live}} This relatively homogeneous layer ends at the *[turbopause](/wiki/Turbopause "Turbopause")* found at about {{convert\|100\|km\|mi ft\|abbr\=on}}, the very [edge of space](/wiki/K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n_line "Kármán line") itself as accepted by the [FAI](/wiki/Federation_Aeronautique_Internationale "Federation Aeronautique Internationale"), which places it about {{convert\|20\|km\|mi ft\|abbr\=on}} above the mesopause.
Above this altitude lies the heterosphere, which includes the exosphere and most of the thermosphere. Here, the chemical composition varies with altitude. This is because the [distance that particles can move without colliding with one another](/wiki/Mean_free_path "Mean free path") is large compared with the size of motions that cause mixing. This allows the gases to stratify by molecular weight, with the heavier ones, such as oxygen and nitrogen, present only near the bottom of the heterosphere. The upper part of the heterosphere is composed almost completely of hydrogen, the lightest element.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.thoughtco.com/most\-abundant\-gases\-in\-earths\-atmosphere\-607594 \|title\=The 4 Most Abundant Gases in Earth's Atmosphere \|author\=Anne Marie Helmenstine, PhD \|date\=June 16, 2018}}
* The [planetary boundary layer](/wiki/Planetary_boundary_layer "Planetary boundary layer") is the part of the troposphere that is closest to Earth's surface and is directly affected by it, mainly through [turbulent diffusion](/wiki/Turbulence "Turbulence"). During the day the planetary boundary layer usually is well\-mixed, whereas at night it becomes stably stratified with weak or intermittent mixing. The depth of the planetary boundary layer ranges from as little as about {{convert\|100\|m\|ft}} on clear, calm nights to {{convert \|3000\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}} or more during the afternoon in dry regions.
The average temperature of the atmosphere at Earth's surface is {{convert\|14\|C\|F K\|abbr\=on}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bambooweb.com/articles/e/a/Earth's\_atmosphere.html \|title\=Earth's Atmosphere \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090614054213/http://www.bambooweb.com/articles/e/a/Earth%27s\_atmosphere.html \|archive\-date\=2009\-06\-14 }} or {{convert\|15\|C\|F K\|abbr\=on}},{{cite web \|url\=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/earthfact.html \|title\=NASA – Earth Fact Sheet \|publisher\=Nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov \|access\-date\=2010\-10\-16 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101030234253/http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/earthfact.html \|archive\-date\=30 October 2010 \|url\-status\=live}} depending on the reference.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/research/anomalies/index.php \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303233131/http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/research/anomalies/index.php \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=2009\-03\-03 \|title\=Global Surface Temperature Anomalies }}{{cite web \|url\=http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/resources/oceanography\-book/radiationbalance.htm \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050303202001/http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/resources/oceanography\-book/radiationbalance.htm \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=2005\-03\-03 \|title\=Earth's Radiation Balance and Oceanic Heat Fluxes }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www\-pcmdi.llnl.gov/projects/cmip/overview\_ms/control\_tseries.pdf \|title\=Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Control Run \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528143343/http://www\-pcmdi.llnl.gov/projects/cmip/overview\_ms/control\_tseries.pdf \|archive\-date\=2008\-05\-28 }}
|
[
"Stratification\n--------------",
"[thumb\\|Earth's atmosphere. Lower four layers of the atmosphere in three dimensions as seen diagonally from above the exobase. Layers drawn to scale, objects within the layers are not to scale. Aurorae shown at the bottom of the thermosphere can form at any altitude within this layer.](/wiki/File:Earth%27s_atmosphere.svg \"Earth's atmosphere.svg\")",
"In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere. However, temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions (see the [temperature](/wiki/%23Temperature \"#Temperature\") section). Because the general pattern of the temperature/altitude profile, or [lapse rate](/wiki/Lapse_rate \"Lapse rate\"), is constant and measurable by means of instrumented [balloon soundings](/wiki/Weather_balloon \"Weather balloon\"), the temperature behavior provides a useful metric to distinguish atmospheric layers. This *atmospheric stratification* divides the Earth's atmosphere into five main layers:{{Cite news \\|url\\=http://www.nasa.gov/mission\\_pages/sunearth/science/mos\\-upper\\-atmosphere.html\\#.VHg5AzHF8vY \\|title\\=Earth's Upper Atmosphere \\|last\\=Zell \\|first\\=Holly \\|date\\=2015\\-03\\-02 \\|newspaper\\=NASA\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-02\\-20 \\|language\\=en}}\n* Exosphere: {{convert \\|700 \\|\\- \\|10000 \\|km \\|abbr\\=on \\|0}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Exosphere \\- overview\\|url\\=http://scied.ucar.edu/shortcontent/exosphere\\-overview\\|date\\=2011\\|publisher\\=UCAR\\|access\\-date\\=April 19, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517071138/https://scied.ucar.edu/shortcontent/exosphere\\-overview\\|archive\\-date\\=17 May 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}\n* Thermosphere: {{convert \\|80 \\|\\- \\|700 \\|km \\|abbr\\=on \\|0}}{{cite web \\|author\\=Randy Russell \\|title\\=The Thermosphere \\|year\\=2008 \\|url\\=http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Atmosphere/thermosphere.html \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-18}}\n* Mesosphere: {{convert \\|50 \\|\\- \\|80 \\|km \\|abbr\\=on \\|0}}\n* Stratosphere: {{convert \\|12 \\|\\- \\|50 \\|km \\|abbr\\=on \\|0}}\n* Troposphere: {{convert \\|0 \\|\\- \\|12 \\|km \\|abbr\\=on \\|0}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www\\-das.uwyo.edu/\\~geerts/cwx/notes/chap01/tropo.html \\|title\\=The height of the tropopause \\|publisher\\=Das.uwyo.edu \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-18}}{{dead link\\|date\\=October 2024}}",
"### Exosphere",
"{{main\\|Exosphere}}\nThe exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere (though it is so tenuous that some scientists consider it to be part of interplanetary space rather than part of the atmosphere). It extends from the [thermopause](/wiki/Thermopause \"Thermopause\") (also known as the \"exobase\") at the top of the [thermosphere](/wiki/Thermosphere \"Thermosphere\") to a poorly defined boundary with the [solar wind](/wiki/Solar_wind \"Solar wind\") and [interplanetary medium](/wiki/Interplanetary_medium \"Interplanetary medium\"). The altitude of the exobase varies from about {{convert\\|500\\|km\\|mi ft}} to about {{convert\\|1000\\|km}} in times of higher incoming solar radiation.{{cite web \\|title\\=Exosphere \\- overview \\|url\\=http://scied.ucar.edu/shortcontent/exosphere\\-overview \\|date\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=UCAR \\|access\\-date\\=April 19, 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517071138/https://scied.ucar.edu/shortcontent/exosphere\\-overview \\|archive\\-date\\=17 May 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"The upper limit varies depending on the definition. Various authorities consider it to end at about {{convert\\|10000\\|km}}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nasa.gov/mission\\_pages/sunearth/science/atmosphere\\-layers2\\.html \\|date\\=January 22, 2013 \\|title\\=Earth's Atmospheric Layers}} or about {{convert\\|190000\\|km\\|mi}}—about halfway to the moon, where the influence of Earth's gravity is about the same as [radiation pressure](/wiki/Radiation_pressure \"Radiation pressure\") from sunlight. The [geocorona](/wiki/Geocorona \"Geocorona\") visible in the far ultraviolet (caused by neutral hydrogen) extends to at least {{convert\\|100000\\|km}}.",
"This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide closer to the exobase. The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometres without colliding with one another. Thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly [escape into space](/wiki/Atmospheric_escape \"Atmospheric escape\"). These free\\-moving particles follow [ballistic](/wiki/Ballistics \"Ballistics\") [trajectories](/wiki/Trajectory \"Trajectory\") and may migrate in and out of the [magnetosphere](/wiki/Magnetosphere \"Magnetosphere\") or the solar wind. Every second, the Earth loses about 3 kg of hydrogen, 50 g of helium, and much smaller amounts of other constituents.David C. Catling and Kevin J. Zahnle, [The Planetary Air Leak](http://faculty.washington.edu/dcatling/Catling2009_SciAm.pdf), *Scientific American,* May 2009, p. 26 (accessed 25 July 2012\\)",
"The exosphere is too far above Earth for [meteorological](/wiki/Meteorology \"Meteorology\") phenomena to be possible. However, Earth's [auroras](/wiki/Aurora \"Aurora\")—the aurora borealis (northern lights) and aurora australis (southern lights)—sometimes occur in the lower part of the exosphere, where they overlap into the thermosphere. The exosphere contains many of the [artificial satellites](/wiki/Satellite \"Satellite\") that [orbit](/wiki/Orbit \"Orbit\") Earth.",
"### Thermosphere",
"{{main\\|Thermosphere}}\nThe thermosphere is the second\\-highest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from the mesopause (which separates it from the mesosphere) at an altitude of about {{convert\\|80\\|km\\|mi ft\\|abbr\\=on\\|sigfig\\=2}} up to the [thermopause](/wiki/Thermopause \"Thermopause\") at an altitude range of {{convert\\|500\\|\\-\\|1,000\\|km\\|mi ft\\|abbr\\=on\\|sigfig\\=2\\|comma\\=5}}. The height of the thermopause varies considerably due to changes in solar activity. Because the thermopause lies at the lower boundary of the exosphere, it is also referred to as the [exobase](/wiki/Exobase \"Exobase\"). The lower part of the thermosphere, from {{convert\\|80\\|to\\|550\\|km}} above Earth's surface, contains the [ionosphere](/wiki/Ionosphere \"Ionosphere\").",
"The temperature of the thermosphere gradually increases with height and can rise as high as {{convert\\|1,500\\|C\\|abbr\\=on\\|sigfig\\=2\\|comma\\=5}}, though the gas molecules are so far apart that its [temperature in the usual sense](/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gases \"Kinetic theory of gases\") is not very meaningful. The air is so rarefied that an individual molecule (of [oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen \"Oxygen\"), for example) travels an average of {{convert\\|1\\|km\\|mi ft\\|comma\\=5}} between collisions with other molecules.Ahrens, C. Donald. *Essentials of Meteorology*. Published by Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2005\\. Although the thermosphere has a high proportion of molecules with high energy, it would not feel hot to a human in direct contact, because its density is too low to conduct a significant amount of energy to or from the skin.",
"This layer is completely cloudless and free of water vapor. However, non\\-hydrometeorological phenomena such as the [aurora borealis](/wiki/Aurora_borealis \"Aurora borealis\") and [aurora australis](/wiki/Aurora_australis \"Aurora australis\") are occasionally seen in the thermosphere. The [International Space Station](/wiki/International_Space_Station \"International Space Station\") orbits in this layer, between {{convert\\|350\\|and\\|420\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on\\|sigfig\\=2}}. It is this layer where many of the satellites orbiting the Earth are present.",
"### Mesosphere",
"{{main\\|Mesosphere}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.25\\|[Afterglow](/wiki/Afterglow \"Afterglow\") of the [troposphere](/wiki/Troposphere \"Troposphere\") (orange), the [stratosphere](/wiki/Stratosphere \"Stratosphere\") (blue) and the mesosphere (dark) at which [atmospheric entry](/wiki/Atmospheric_entry \"Atmospheric entry\") begins, leaving smoke trails, such as in this case of a [spacecraft](/wiki/Spacecraft \"Spacecraft\") reentry](/wiki/File:ISS-46_Soyuz_TMA-17M_reentry.jpg \"ISS-46 Soyuz TMA-17M reentry.jpg\")\nThe mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earth's atmosphere, occupying the region above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. It extends from the stratopause at an altitude of about {{convert\\|50\\|km\\|mi ft\\|abbr\\=on\\|sigfig\\=2}} to the mesopause at {{convert\\|80\\|\\-\\|85\\|km\\|mi ft\\|abbr\\=on\\|sigfig\\=2}} above sea level.",
"Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to the [mesopause](/wiki/Mesopause \"Mesopause\") that marks the top of this middle layer of the atmosphere. It is the coldest place on Earth and has an average temperature around {{convert\\|\\-85\\|C\\|F K\\|abbr\\=on\\|lk\\=on\\|sigfig\\=2}}.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=States \\|first1\\=Robert J. \\|last2\\=Gardner \\|first2\\=Chester S. \\|title\\=Thermal Structure of the Mesopause Region (80–105 km) at 40°N Latitude. Part I: Seasonal Variations \\|journal\\=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences \\|volume\\=57 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=66–77 \\|date\\=January 2000 \\|doi\\=10\\.1175/1520\\-0469(2000\\)057\\<0066:TSOTMR\\>2\\.0\\.CO;2 \\|bibcode\\=2000JAtS...57\\...66S\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}\n{{cite web \\|author\\=Joe Buchdahl \\|url\\=http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/Atmosphere/Older/Mesosphere.html \\|title\\=Atmosphere, Climate \\& Environment Information Programme \\|publisher\\=Ace.mmu.ac.uk \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-18 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100701030705/http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/atmosphere/older/mesosphere.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-07\\-01 }}",
"Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapor at this altitude can condense into polar\\-mesospheric [noctilucent clouds](/wiki/Noctilucent_cloud \"Noctilucent cloud\") of ice particles. These are the highest clouds in the atmosphere and may be visible to the naked eye if sunlight reflects off them about an hour or two after sunset or similarly before sunrise. They are most readily visible when the Sun is around 4 to 16 degrees below the horizon. Lightning\\-induced discharges known as [transient luminous events](/wiki/Transient_luminous_event \"Transient luminous event\") (TLEs) occasionally form in the mesosphere above tropospheric [thunderclouds](/wiki/Thunderclouds \"Thunderclouds\"). The mesosphere is also the layer where most [meteors](/wiki/Meteor \"Meteor\") burn up upon atmospheric entrance. It is too high above Earth to be accessible to jet\\-powered aircraft and balloons, and too low to permit orbital spacecraft. The mesosphere is mainly accessed by [sounding rockets](/wiki/Sounding_rocket \"Sounding rocket\") and [rocket\\-powered aircraft](/wiki/Rocket-powered_aircraft \"Rocket-powered aircraft\").",
"### Stratosphere",
"{{main\\|Stratosphere}}",
"The stratosphere is the second\\-lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It lies above the troposphere and is separated from it by the [tropopause](/wiki/Tropopause \"Tropopause\"). This layer extends from the top of the troposphere at roughly {{convert\\|12\\|km\\|mi ft\\|abbr\\=on}} above Earth's surface to the [stratopause](/wiki/Stratopause \"Stratopause\") at an altitude of about {{convert\\|50\\|to\\|55\\|km\\|mi ft\\|abbr\\=on}}.",
"The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere is roughly 1/1000 the [pressure at sea level](/wiki/Pressure_at_sea_level \"Pressure at sea level\"). It contains the [ozone layer](/wiki/Ozone_layer \"Ozone layer\"), which is the part of Earth's atmosphere that contains relatively high concentrations of that gas. The stratosphere defines a layer in which temperatures rise with increasing altitude. This rise in temperature is caused by the absorption of [ultraviolet radiation](/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiation \"Ultraviolet radiation\") (UV) from the Sun by the ozone layer, which restricts turbulence and mixing. Although the temperature may be {{convert\\|\\-60\\|C\\|F K\\|abbr\\=on\\|sigfig\\=2}} at the tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near 0 °C.{{cite web \\|author\\=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences \\|title\\=stratopause \\|year\\=1993 \\|url\\=http://www.webref.org/chemistry/s/stratopause.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-18 \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-19 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019124644/http://www.webref.org/chemistry/s/stratopause.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"The stratospheric temperature profile creates very stable atmospheric conditions, so the stratosphere lacks the weather\\-producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in the troposphere. Consequently, the stratosphere is almost completely free of clouds and other forms of weather. However, polar stratospheric or [nacreous clouds](/wiki/Nacreous_cloud \"Nacreous cloud\") are occasionally seen in the lower part of this layer of the atmosphere where the air is coldest. The stratosphere is the highest layer that can be accessed by [jet\\-powered aircraft](/wiki/Jet-powered_aircraft \"Jet-powered aircraft\").",
"### Troposphere",
"{{main\\|Troposphere}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.25\\|A picture of Earth's troposphere, with different [cloud types](/wiki/Cloud_types \"Cloud types\") at low and [high altitudes](/wiki/High_altitude \"High altitude\") casting shadows. Sunlight, filtered into a reddish hue by passing through much of the troposphere at sunset, is reflected off the ocean. The above\\-lying [stratosphere](/wiki/Stratosphere \"Stratosphere\") can be seen at the [horizon](/wiki/Horizon \"Horizon\") as a band of its characteristic glow of [blue scattered](/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering \"Rayleigh scattering\") sunlight.](/wiki/File:ISS-47_Islands_In_The_Sky%2C_Indonesia.jpg \"ISS-47 Islands In The Sky, Indonesia.jpg\")\nThe troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from Earth's surface to an average height of about {{cvt\\|12\\|km\\|mi ft}}, although this [altitude](/wiki/Altitude \"Altitude\") varies from about {{cvt\\|9\\|km\\|mi ft}} at the [geographic poles](/wiki/Geographic_pole \"Geographic pole\") to {{cvt\\|17\\|km\\|mi ft}} at the [Equator](/wiki/Equator \"Equator\"), with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is bounded above by the [tropopause](/wiki/Tropopause \"Tropopause\"), a boundary marked in most places by a [temperature inversion](/wiki/Temperature_inversion \"Temperature inversion\") (i.e. a layer of relatively warm air above a colder one), and in others by a zone that is [isothermal](/wiki/Isotherm_%28contour_line%29 \"Isotherm (contour line)\") with height.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Barry \\|first1\\=R.G. \\|last2\\=Chorley \\|first2\\=R.J. \\|year\\=1971 \\|title\\=Atmosphere, Weather and Climate \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/atmosphereweathe0000barr\\_m3n2 \\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|location\\=London \\|publisher\\=Menthuen \\& Co Ltd. \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/atmosphereweathe0000barr\\_m3n2/page/65 65]\\|isbn\\=9780416079401 }}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Tyson \\|first1\\=P.D. \\|last2\\=Preston\\-Whyte \\|first2\\=R.A. \\|year\\=2013 \\|title\\=The Weather and Climate of Southern Africa \\|edition\\=2nd \\|location\\=Oxford \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Oxford University Press]] \\|page\\=4}}",
"Although variations do occur, the temperature usually declines with increasing altitude in the troposphere because the troposphere is mostly heated through energy transfer from the surface. Thus, the lowest part of the troposphere (i.e. Earth's surface) is typically the warmest section of the troposphere. This promotes vertical mixing (hence, the origin of its name in the Greek word τρόπος, *tropos*, meaning \"turn\"). The troposphere contains roughly 80% of the [mass](/wiki/Mass \"Mass\") of Earth's atmosphere.{{cite book \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[McGraw\\-Hill]] \\|title\\=Concise Encyclopedia of Science \\& Technology \\|year\\=1984 \\|section\\=Troposphere \\|quote\\=It contains about four\\-fifths of the mass of the whole atmosphere.}} The troposphere is denser than all its overlying layers because a larger atmospheric weight sits on top of the troposphere and causes it to be most severely compressed. Fifty percent of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the lower {{cvt\\|5\\.6\\|km\\|mi ft}} of the troposphere.",
"Nearly all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found in the troposphere, so it is the layer where most of Earth's weather takes place. It has basically all the weather\\-associated cloud genus types generated by active wind circulation, although very tall cumulonimbus thunder clouds can penetrate the tropopause from below and rise into the lower part of the stratosphere. Most conventional [aviation](/wiki/Aviation \"Aviation\") activity takes place in the troposphere, and it is the only layer accessible by [propeller\\-driven aircraft](/wiki/Propeller_%28aeronautics%29 \"Propeller (aeronautics)\").",
"### Other layers",
"Within the five principal layers above, which are largely determined by temperature, several secondary layers may be distinguished by other properties:\n* The [ozone layer](/wiki/Ozone_layer \"Ozone layer\") is contained within the stratosphere. In this layer [ozone](/wiki/Ozone \"Ozone\") concentrations are about 2 to 8 parts per million, which is much higher than in the lower atmosphere but still very small compared to the main components of the atmosphere. It is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from about {{convert\\|15\\|\\-\\|35\\|km\\|mi ft\\|abbr\\=on}}, though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically. About 90% of the ozone in Earth's atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere.\n* The [ionosphere](/wiki/Ionosphere \"Ionosphere\") is a region of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation. It is responsible for [auroras](/wiki/Aurora_%28astronomy%29 \"Aurora (astronomy)\"). During daytime hours, it stretches from {{convert\\|50\\|to\\|1000\\|km\\|mi ft\\|abbr\\=on}} and includes the mesosphere, thermosphere, and parts of the exosphere. However, ionization in the mesosphere largely ceases during the night, so auroras are normally seen only in the thermosphere and lower exosphere. The ionosphere forms the inner edge of the [magnetosphere](/wiki/Magnetosphere \"Magnetosphere\"). It has practical importance because it influences, for example, radio propagation on Earth.\n* The [homosphere](/wiki/Homosphere \"Homosphere\") and [heterosphere](/wiki/Heterosphere \"Heterosphere\") are defined by whether the atmospheric gases are well mixed. The surface\\-based homosphere includes the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and the lowest part of the thermosphere, where the chemical composition of the atmosphere does not depend on molecular weight because the gases are mixed by turbulence.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id\\=homosphere1 \\|title\\=''homosphere'' – AMS Glossary \\|publisher\\=Amsglossary.allenpress.com \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-10\\-16 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100914045832/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id\\=homosphere1 \\|archive\\-date\\=14 September 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} This relatively homogeneous layer ends at the *[turbopause](/wiki/Turbopause \"Turbopause\")* found at about {{convert\\|100\\|km\\|mi ft\\|abbr\\=on}}, the very [edge of space](/wiki/K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n_line \"Kármán line\") itself as accepted by the [FAI](/wiki/Federation_Aeronautique_Internationale \"Federation Aeronautique Internationale\"), which places it about {{convert\\|20\\|km\\|mi ft\\|abbr\\=on}} above the mesopause.",
"Above this altitude lies the heterosphere, which includes the exosphere and most of the thermosphere. Here, the chemical composition varies with altitude. This is because the [distance that particles can move without colliding with one another](/wiki/Mean_free_path \"Mean free path\") is large compared with the size of motions that cause mixing. This allows the gases to stratify by molecular weight, with the heavier ones, such as oxygen and nitrogen, present only near the bottom of the heterosphere. The upper part of the heterosphere is composed almost completely of hydrogen, the lightest element.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.thoughtco.com/most\\-abundant\\-gases\\-in\\-earths\\-atmosphere\\-607594 \\|title\\=The 4 Most Abundant Gases in Earth's Atmosphere \\|author\\=Anne Marie Helmenstine, PhD \\|date\\=June 16, 2018}}\n* The [planetary boundary layer](/wiki/Planetary_boundary_layer \"Planetary boundary layer\") is the part of the troposphere that is closest to Earth's surface and is directly affected by it, mainly through [turbulent diffusion](/wiki/Turbulence \"Turbulence\"). During the day the planetary boundary layer usually is well\\-mixed, whereas at night it becomes stably stratified with weak or intermittent mixing. The depth of the planetary boundary layer ranges from as little as about {{convert\\|100\\|m\\|ft}} on clear, calm nights to {{convert \\|3000\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} or more during the afternoon in dry regions.",
"The average temperature of the atmosphere at Earth's surface is {{convert\\|14\\|C\\|F K\\|abbr\\=on}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bambooweb.com/articles/e/a/Earth's\\_atmosphere.html \\|title\\=Earth's Atmosphere \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090614054213/http://www.bambooweb.com/articles/e/a/Earth%27s\\_atmosphere.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-06\\-14 }} or {{convert\\|15\\|C\\|F K\\|abbr\\=on}},{{cite web \\|url\\=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/earthfact.html \\|title\\=NASA – Earth Fact Sheet \\|publisher\\=Nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-10\\-16 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101030234253/http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/earthfact.html \\|archive\\-date\\=30 October 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} depending on the reference.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/research/anomalies/index.php \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303233131/http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/research/anomalies/index.php \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-03 \\|title\\=Global Surface Temperature Anomalies }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/resources/oceanography\\-book/radiationbalance.htm \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050303202001/http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/resources/oceanography\\-book/radiationbalance.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=2005\\-03\\-03 \\|title\\=Earth's Radiation Balance and Oceanic Heat Fluxes }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www\\-pcmdi.llnl.gov/projects/cmip/overview\\_ms/control\\_tseries.pdf \\|title\\=Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Control Run \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528143343/http://www\\-pcmdi.llnl.gov/projects/cmip/overview\\_ms/control\\_tseries.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-05\\-28 }}",
""
] |
Physical properties
-------------------
{{Comparison US standard atmosphere 1962\.svg}}
### Pressure and thickness
{{Main\|Atmospheric pressure}}
The average atmospheric pressure at sea level is defined by the [International Standard Atmosphere](/wiki/International_Standard_Atmosphere "International Standard Atmosphere") as {{convert\|101325\|Pa\|Torr psi mmHg\|lk\=on\|comma\=off}}. This is sometimes referred to as a unit of [standard atmospheres (atm)](/wiki/Atmosphere_%28unit%29 "Atmosphere (unit)"). Total atmospheric mass is 5\.1480×1018 kg (1\.135×1019 lb),{{Cite journal \|title\=The Mass of the Atmosphere: A Constraint on Global Analyses \|journal\=Journal of Climate \|volume\=18 \|issue\=6 \|pages\=864 \|date\=1970\-01\-01 \|doi\=10\.1175/JCLI\-3299\.1 \|bibcode \= 2005JCli...18\..864T\|last1 \= Trenberth\|first1 \= Kevin E.\|last2\=Smith \|first2\=Lesley \|s2cid\=16754900 \|citeseerx\=10\.1\.1\.727\.6573 }} about 2\.5% less than would be inferred from the average sea level pressure and Earth's area of 51007\.2 megahectares, this portion being displaced by Earth's mountainous terrain. Atmospheric pressure is the total weight of the air above unit area at the point where the pressure is measured. Thus air pressure varies with location and [weather](/wiki/Low-pressure_area "Low-pressure area").
If the entire mass of the atmosphere had a uniform density equal to sea level density (about 1\.2 kg per m3) from sea level upwards, it would terminate abruptly at an altitude of {{convert\|8\.50\|km\|ft\|abbr\=on}}.
Air pressure actually decreases exponentially with altitude, dropping by half every {{convert\|5\.6\|km\|ft\|abbr\=on}} or by a factor of 1/[e](/wiki/E_%28mathematical_constant%29 "E (mathematical constant)") (0\.368\) every {{convert\|7\.64\|km\|ft\|abbr\=on}}, (this is called the [scale height](/wiki/Scale_height "Scale height")) \-\- for altitudes out to around {{convert\|70\|km\|mi ft\|abbr\=on}}. However, the atmosphere is more accurately modeled with a customized equation for each layer that takes gradients of temperature, molecular composition, solar radiation and gravity into account. At heights over 100 km, an atmosphere may no longer be well mixed. Then each chemical species has its own scale height.
In summary, the mass of Earth's atmosphere is distributed approximately as follows:Lutgens, Frederick K. and Edward J. Tarbuck (1995\) *The Atmosphere*, Prentice Hall, 6th ed., pp. 14–17, {{ISBN\|0\-13\-350612\-6}}
* 50% is below {{convert\|5\.6\|km\|ft\|abbr\=on}}.
* 90% is below {{convert\|16\|km\|ft\|abbr\=on}}.
* 99\.99997% is below {{convert\|100\|km\|mi ft\|abbr\=on}}, the [Kármán line](/wiki/K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n_line "Kármán line"). By international convention, this marks the beginning of space where human travelers are considered [astronauts](/wiki/Astronaut "Astronaut").
By comparison, the summit of [Mount Everest](/wiki/Mount_Everest "Mount Everest") is at {{convert\|8848\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}}; commercial [airliners](/wiki/Airliners "Airliners") typically cruise between {{convert\|10\|and\|13\|km\|ft\|abbr\=on}} where the lower density and temperature of the air improve fuel economy; [weather balloons](/wiki/Weather_balloons "Weather balloons") reach {{convert\|30\.4\|km\|ft\|abbr\=on}} and above; and the highest [X\-15](/wiki/North_American_X-15 "North American X-15") flight in 1963 reached {{convert\|108\.0\|km\|ft\|abbr\=on}}.
Even above the Kármán line, significant atmospheric effects such as [auroras](/wiki/Aurora_%28astronomy%29 "Aurora (astronomy)") still occur. [Meteors](/wiki/Meteors "Meteors") begin to glow in this region, though the larger ones may not burn up until they penetrate more deeply. The various layers of Earth's [ionosphere](/wiki/Ionosphere "Ionosphere"), important to [HF radio](/wiki/HF_radio "HF radio") propagation, begin below 100 km and extend beyond 500 km. By comparison, the [International Space Station](/wiki/International_Space_Station "International Space Station") and [Space Shuttle](/wiki/Space_Shuttle "Space Shuttle") typically orbit at 350–400 km, within the [F\-layer](/wiki/F-layer "F-layer") of the ionosphere where they encounter enough [atmospheric drag](/wiki/Atmospheric_drag "Atmospheric drag") to require reboosts every few months, otherwise, [orbital decay](/wiki/Orbital_decay "Orbital decay") will occur resulting in a return to Earth. Depending on solar activity, satellites can experience noticeable atmospheric drag at altitudes as high as 700–800 km.
### Temperature
{{Main\|Atmospheric temperature}}
[thumb\|Temperature trends in two thick layers of the atmosphere as measured between January 1979 and December 2005 by [microwave sounding units](/wiki/Microwave_sounding_unit "Microwave sounding unit") and [advanced microwave sounding units](/wiki/Advanced_microwave_sounding_unit "Advanced microwave sounding unit") on [NOAA](/wiki/NOAA "NOAA") weather satellites. The instruments record microwaves emitted from oxygen molecules in the atmosphere. Source:{{cite web \|url\=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id\=7839 \|title\=Atmospheric Temperature Trends, 1979–2005 : Image of the Day \|publisher\=Earthobservatory.nasa.gov \|date\=2000\-01\-01 \|access\-date\=2014\-06\-10}}](/wiki/File:Atmospheric_Temperature_Trend.jpg "Atmospheric Temperature Trend.jpg")
The division of the atmosphere into layers mostly by reference to temperature is discussed above. Temperature decreases with altitude starting at sea level, but variations in this trend begin above 11 km, where the temperature stabilizes over a large vertical distance through the rest of the troposphere. In the [stratosphere](/wiki/Stratosphere "Stratosphere"), starting above about 20 km, the temperature increases with height, due to heating within the ozone layer caused by the capture of significant [ultraviolet](/wiki/Ultraviolet "Ultraviolet") radiation from the [Sun](/wiki/Sun "Sun") by the dioxygen and ozone gas in this region. Still another region of increasing temperature with altitude occurs at very high altitudes, in the aptly\-named [thermosphere](/wiki/Thermosphere "Thermosphere") above 90 km.
#### Speed of sound
{{Main\|Speed of sound}}
Because in an [ideal gas](/wiki/Ideal_gas "Ideal gas") of constant composition the [speed of sound](/wiki/Speed_of_sound "Speed of sound") depends only on temperature and not on pressure or density, the speed of sound in the atmosphere with altitude takes on the form of the complicated temperature profile (see illustration to the right), and does not mirror altitudinal changes in density or pressure.
### Density and mass
[thumb\|Temperature and mass density against altitude from the [NRLMSISE\-00](/wiki/NRLMSISE-00 "NRLMSISE-00") [standard atmosphere](/wiki/International_Standard_Atmosphere "International Standard Atmosphere") model (the eight dotted lines in each "decade" are at the eight cubes 8, 27, 64, ..., 729\)](/wiki/File:Atmosphere_model.png "Atmosphere model.png")
{{Main\|Density of air}}
The density of air at sea level is about 1\.2 kg/m3 (1\.2 g/L, 0\.0012 g/cm3). Density is not measured directly but is calculated from measurements of temperature, pressure and humidity using the equation of state for air (a form of the [ideal gas law](/wiki/Ideal_gas_law "Ideal gas law")). Atmospheric density decreases as the altitude increases. This variation can be approximately modeled using the [barometric formula](/wiki/Barometric_formula "Barometric formula"). More sophisticated models are used to predict the orbital decay of satellites.
The average mass of the atmosphere is about 5 quadrillion (5{{e\|15}}) [tonnes](/wiki/Tonne "Tonne") or 1/1,200,000 the mass of Earth. According to the American [National Center for Atmospheric Research](/wiki/National_Center_for_Atmospheric_Research "National Center for Atmospheric Research"), "The total mean mass of the atmosphere is 5\.1480{{E\|18}} kg with an annual range due to water vapor of 1\.2 or 1\.5{{E\|15}} kg, depending on whether surface pressure or water vapor data are used; somewhat smaller than the previous estimate. The mean mass of water vapor is estimated as 1\.27{{E\|16}} kg and the dry air mass as 5\.1352 ±0\.0003{{E\|18}} kg."
### Tabulated properties
| \+Physical and thermal properties of air at atmospheric pressure{{Cite book \|last\=Holman \|first\=Jack P. \|url\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/46959719 \|title\=Heat transfer \|publisher\=McGraw\-Hill Companies, Inc. \|year\=2002 \|isbn\=9780072406559 \|edition\=9th \|location\=New York, NY \|pages\=602 \|language\=English \|oclc\=46959719}}{{rp\|602}}{{Cite book \|first1\=Theodore L. \|last1\=Bergman \|first2\=Adrienne S. \|last2\=Lavine \|first3\=Frank P. \|last3\=Incropera \|first4\=David P. \|last4\=DeWitt \|url\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62532755 \|title\=Fundamentals of heat and mass transfer. \|publisher\=John Wiley and Sons, Inc. \|year\=2007 \|isbn\=9780471457282 \|edition\=6th \|location\=Hoboken, NJ \|pages\=941–950 \|language\=English \|oclc\=62532755}} | Temperature\[{{val\|u\=K}}] | Density\[{{val\|u\=kg/m3}}] | Specificheat\[{{val\|u\=J/(kg⋅°C)}}] | Dynamicviscosity\[{{val\|u\=kg/(m⋅s)}}] | Kinematicviscosity\[{{val\|u\=m2/s}}] | Thermalconductivity\[{{val\|u\=W/(m⋅°C)}}] | Thermaldiffusivity\[{{val\|u\=m2/s}}] | Prandtlnumber\[1] | Bulkmodulus\[{{val\|u\=K−1}}] |
| {{val\|100}} | {{val\|3\.601}} | {{val\|1026\.6}} | {{val\|6\.92E\-6}} | {{val\|1\.92E\-6}} | {{val\|0\.000925}} | {{val\|2\.50E\-6}} | {{val\|0\.77}} | {{val\|0\.01}} |
| {{val\|150}} | {{val\|2\.3675}} | {{val\|1009\.9}} | {{val\|1\.03E\-5}} | {{val\|4\.34E\-6}} | {{val\|0\.013735}} | {{val\|5\.75E\-6}} | {{val\|0\.753}} | {{val\|0\.006667}} |
| {{val\|200}} | {{val\|1\.7684}} | {{val\|1006\.1}} | {{val\|1\.33E\-5}} | {{val\|7\.49E\-6}} | {{val\|0\.01809}} | {{val\|1\.02E\-5}} | {{val\|0\.738}} | {{val\|0\.005}} |
| {{val\|250}} | {{val\|1\.4128}} | {{val\|1005\.3}} | {{val\|1\.60E\-5}} | {{val\|1\.13E\-5}} | {{val\|0\.02227}} | {{val\|1\.57E\-5}} | {{val\|0\.722}} | {{val\|0\.004}} |
| {{val\|300}} | {{val\|1\.1774}} | {{val\|1005\.7}} | {{val\|1\.85E\-5}} | {{val\|1\.57E\-5}} | {{val\|0\.02624}} | {{val\|2\.22E\-5}} | {{val\|0\.708}} | {{val\|0\.003333}} |
| {{val\|350}} | {{val\|0\.998}} | {{val\|1009}} | {{val\|2\.08E\-5}} | {{val\|2\.08E\-5}} | {{val\|0\.03003}} | {{val\|2\.98E\-5}} | {{val\|0\.697}} | {{val\|0\.002857}} |
| {{val\|400}} | {{val\|0\.8826}} | {{val\|1014}} | {{val\|2\.29E\-5}} | {{val\|2\.59E\-5}} | {{val\|0\.03365}} | {{val\|3\.76E\-5}} | {{val\|0\.689}} | {{val\|0\.0025}} |
| {{val\|450}} | {{val\|0\.7833}} | {{val\|1020\.7}} | {{val\|2\.48E\-5}} | {{val\|3\.17E\-5}} | {{val\|0\.03707}} | {{val\|4\.22E\-5}} | {{val\|0\.683}} | {{val\|0\.002222}} |
| {{val\|500}} | {{val\|0\.7048}} | {{val\|1029\.5}} | {{val\|2\.67E\-5}} | {{val\|3\.79E\-5}} | {{val\|0\.04038}} | {{val\|5\.56E\-5}} | {{val\|0\.68}} | {{val\|0\.002}} |
| {{val\|550}} | {{val\|0\.6423}} | {{val\|1039\.2}} | {{val\|2\.85E\-5}} | {{val\|4\.43E\-5}} | {{val\|0\.0436}} | {{val\|6\.53E\-5}} | {{val\|0\.68}} | {{val\|0\.001818}} |
| {{val\|600}} | {{val\|0\.5879}} | {{val\|1055\.1}} | {{val\|3\.02E\-5}} | {{val\|5\.13E\-5}} | {{val\|0\.04659}} | {{val\|7\.51E\-5}} | {{val\|0\.68}} | {{val\|0\.001667}} |
| {{val\|650}} | {{val\|0\.543}} | {{val\|1063\.5}} | {{val\|3\.18E\-5}} | {{val\|5\.85E\-5}} | {{val\|0\.04953}} | {{val\|8\.58E\-5}} | {{val\|0\.682}} | {{val\|0\.001538}} |
| {{val\|700}} | {{val\|0\.503}} | {{val\|1075\.2}} | {{val\|3\.33E\-5}} | {{val\|6\.63E\-5}} | {{val\|0\.0523}} | {{val\|9\.67E\-5}} | {{val\|0\.684}} | {{val\|0\.001429}} |
| {{val\|750}} | {{val\|0\.4709}} | {{val\|1085\.6}} | {{val\|3\.48E\-5}} | {{val\|7\.39E\-5}} | {{val\|0\.05509}} | {{val\|1\.08E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.686}} | {{val\|0\.001333}} |
| {{val\|800}} | {{val\|0\.4405}} | {{val\|1097\.8}} | {{val\|3\.63E\-5}} | {{val\|8\.23E\-5}} | {{val\|0\.05779}} | {{val\|1\.20E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.689}} | {{val\|0\.00125}} |
| {{val\|850}} | {{val\|0\.4149}} | {{val\|1109\.5}} | {{val\|3\.77E\-5}} | {{val\|9\.08E\-5}} | {{val\|0\.06028}} | {{val\|1\.31E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.692}} | {{val\|0\.001176}} |
| {{val\|900}} | {{val\|0\.3925}} | {{val\|1121\.2}} | {{val\|3\.90E\-5}} | {{val\|9\.93E\-5}} | {{val\|0\.06279}} | {{val\|1\.43E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.696}} | {{val\|0\.001111}} |
| {{val\|950}} | {{val\|0\.3716}} | {{val\|1132\.1}} | {{val\|4\.02E\-5}} | {{val\|1\.08E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.06525}} | {{val\|1\.55E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.699}} | {{val\|0\.001053}} |
| {{val\|1000}} | {{val\|0\.3524}} | {{val\|1141\.7}} | {{val\|4\.15E\-5}} | {{val\|1\.18E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.06753}} | {{val\|1\.68E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.702}} | {{val\|0\.001}} |
| {{val\|1100}} | {{val\|0\.3204}} | {{val\|1160}} | {{val\|4\.44E\-5}} | {{val\|1\.39E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.0732}} | {{val\|1\.97E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.704}} | {{val\|0\.000909}} |
| {{val\|1200}} | {{val\|0\.2947}} | {{val\|1179}} | {{val\|4\.69E\-5}} | {{val\|1\.59E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.0782}} | {{val\|2\.25E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.707}} | {{val\|0\.000833}} |
| {{val\|1300}} | {{val\|0\.2707}} | {{val\|1197}} | {{val\|4\.93E\-5}} | {{val\|1\.82E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.0837}} | {{val\|2\.58E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.705}} | {{val\|0\.000769}} |
| {{val\|1400}} | {{val\|0\.2515}} | {{val\|1214}} | {{val\|5\.17E\-5}} | {{val\|2\.06E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.0891}} | {{val\|2\.92E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.705}} | {{val\|0\.000714}} |
| {{val\|1500}} | {{val\|0\.2355}} | {{val\|1230}} | {{val\|5\.40e\-5}} | {{val\|2\.29E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.0946}} | {{val\|3\.26E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.705}} | {{val\|0\.000667}} |
| {{val\|1600}} | {{val\|0\.2211}} | {{val\|1248}} | {{val\|5\.63E\-5}} | {{val\|2\.55E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.1}} | {{val\|3\.61E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.705}} | {{val\|0\.000625}} |
| {{val\|1700}} | {{val\|0\.2082}} | {{val\|1267}} | {{val\|5\.85E\-5}} | {{val\|2\.81E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.105}} | {{val\|3\.98E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.705}} | {{val\|0\.000588}} |
| {{val\|1800}} | {{val\|0\.197}} | {{val\|1287}} | {{val\|6\.07E\-5}} | {{val\|3\.08E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.111}} | {{val\|4\.38E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.704}} | {{val\|0\.000556}} |
| {{val\|1900}} | {{val\|0\.1858}} | {{val\|1309}} | {{val\|6\.29E\-5}} | {{val\|3\.39E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.117}} | {{val\|4\.81E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.704}} | {{val\|0\.000526}} |
| {{val\|2000}} | {{val\|0\.1762}} | {{val\|1338}} | {{val\|6\.50e\-5}} | {{val\|3\.69E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.124}} | {{val\|5\.26E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.702}} | {{val\|0\.0005}} |
| {{val\|2100}} | {{val\|0\.1682}} | {{val\|1372}} | {{val\|6\.72E\-5}} | {{val\|4\.00E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.131}} | {{val\|5\.72E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.7}} | {{val\|0\.000476}} |
| {{val\|2200}} | {{val\|0\.1602}} | {{val\|1419}} | {{val\|6\.93E\-5}} | {{val\|4\.33E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.139}} | {{val\|6\.12E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.707}} | {{val\|0\.000455}} |
| {{val\|2300}} | {{val\|0\.1538}} | {{val\|1482}} | {{val\|7\.14E\-5}} | {{val\|4\.64E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.149}} | {{val\|6\.54E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.71}} | {{val\|0\.000435}} |
| {{val\|2400}} | {{val\|0\.1458}} | {{val\|1574}} | {{val\|7\.35E\-5}} | {{val\|5\.04E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.161}} | {{val\|7\.02E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.718}} | {{val\|0\.000417}} |
| {{val\|2500}} | {{val\|0\.1394}} | {{val\|1688}} | {{val\|7\.57E\-5}} | {{val\|5\.44E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.175}} | {{val\|7\.44E\-4}} | {{val\|0\.73}} | {{val\|0\.0004}} |
|
[
"Physical properties\n-------------------",
"{{Comparison US standard atmosphere 1962\\.svg}}",
"### Pressure and thickness",
"{{Main\\|Atmospheric pressure}}",
"The average atmospheric pressure at sea level is defined by the [International Standard Atmosphere](/wiki/International_Standard_Atmosphere \"International Standard Atmosphere\") as {{convert\\|101325\\|Pa\\|Torr psi mmHg\\|lk\\=on\\|comma\\=off}}. This is sometimes referred to as a unit of [standard atmospheres (atm)](/wiki/Atmosphere_%28unit%29 \"Atmosphere (unit)\"). Total atmospheric mass is 5\\.1480×1018 kg (1\\.135×1019 lb),{{Cite journal \\|title\\=The Mass of the Atmosphere: A Constraint on Global Analyses \\|journal\\=Journal of Climate \\|volume\\=18 \\|issue\\=6 \\|pages\\=864 \\|date\\=1970\\-01\\-01 \\|doi\\=10\\.1175/JCLI\\-3299\\.1 \\|bibcode \\= 2005JCli...18\\..864T\\|last1 \\= Trenberth\\|first1 \\= Kevin E.\\|last2\\=Smith \\|first2\\=Lesley \\|s2cid\\=16754900 \\|citeseerx\\=10\\.1\\.1\\.727\\.6573 }} about 2\\.5% less than would be inferred from the average sea level pressure and Earth's area of 51007\\.2 megahectares, this portion being displaced by Earth's mountainous terrain. Atmospheric pressure is the total weight of the air above unit area at the point where the pressure is measured. Thus air pressure varies with location and [weather](/wiki/Low-pressure_area \"Low-pressure area\").",
"If the entire mass of the atmosphere had a uniform density equal to sea level density (about 1\\.2 kg per m3) from sea level upwards, it would terminate abruptly at an altitude of {{convert\\|8\\.50\\|km\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}}.",
"Air pressure actually decreases exponentially with altitude, dropping by half every {{convert\\|5\\.6\\|km\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} or by a factor of 1/[e](/wiki/E_%28mathematical_constant%29 \"E (mathematical constant)\") (0\\.368\\) every {{convert\\|7\\.64\\|km\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}}, (this is called the [scale height](/wiki/Scale_height \"Scale height\")) \\-\\- for altitudes out to around {{convert\\|70\\|km\\|mi ft\\|abbr\\=on}}. However, the atmosphere is more accurately modeled with a customized equation for each layer that takes gradients of temperature, molecular composition, solar radiation and gravity into account. At heights over 100 km, an atmosphere may no longer be well mixed. Then each chemical species has its own scale height.",
"In summary, the mass of Earth's atmosphere is distributed approximately as follows:Lutgens, Frederick K. and Edward J. Tarbuck (1995\\) *The Atmosphere*, Prentice Hall, 6th ed., pp. 14–17, {{ISBN\\|0\\-13\\-350612\\-6}}\n* 50% is below {{convert\\|5\\.6\\|km\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}}.\n* 90% is below {{convert\\|16\\|km\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}}.\n* 99\\.99997% is below {{convert\\|100\\|km\\|mi ft\\|abbr\\=on}}, the [Kármán line](/wiki/K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n_line \"Kármán line\"). By international convention, this marks the beginning of space where human travelers are considered [astronauts](/wiki/Astronaut \"Astronaut\").",
"By comparison, the summit of [Mount Everest](/wiki/Mount_Everest \"Mount Everest\") is at {{convert\\|8848\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}}; commercial [airliners](/wiki/Airliners \"Airliners\") typically cruise between {{convert\\|10\\|and\\|13\\|km\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} where the lower density and temperature of the air improve fuel economy; [weather balloons](/wiki/Weather_balloons \"Weather balloons\") reach {{convert\\|30\\.4\\|km\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} and above; and the highest [X\\-15](/wiki/North_American_X-15 \"North American X-15\") flight in 1963 reached {{convert\\|108\\.0\\|km\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}}.",
"Even above the Kármán line, significant atmospheric effects such as [auroras](/wiki/Aurora_%28astronomy%29 \"Aurora (astronomy)\") still occur. [Meteors](/wiki/Meteors \"Meteors\") begin to glow in this region, though the larger ones may not burn up until they penetrate more deeply. The various layers of Earth's [ionosphere](/wiki/Ionosphere \"Ionosphere\"), important to [HF radio](/wiki/HF_radio \"HF radio\") propagation, begin below 100 km and extend beyond 500 km. By comparison, the [International Space Station](/wiki/International_Space_Station \"International Space Station\") and [Space Shuttle](/wiki/Space_Shuttle \"Space Shuttle\") typically orbit at 350–400 km, within the [F\\-layer](/wiki/F-layer \"F-layer\") of the ionosphere where they encounter enough [atmospheric drag](/wiki/Atmospheric_drag \"Atmospheric drag\") to require reboosts every few months, otherwise, [orbital decay](/wiki/Orbital_decay \"Orbital decay\") will occur resulting in a return to Earth. Depending on solar activity, satellites can experience noticeable atmospheric drag at altitudes as high as 700–800 km.",
"### Temperature",
"{{Main\\|Atmospheric temperature}}\n[thumb\\|Temperature trends in two thick layers of the atmosphere as measured between January 1979 and December 2005 by [microwave sounding units](/wiki/Microwave_sounding_unit \"Microwave sounding unit\") and [advanced microwave sounding units](/wiki/Advanced_microwave_sounding_unit \"Advanced microwave sounding unit\") on [NOAA](/wiki/NOAA \"NOAA\") weather satellites. The instruments record microwaves emitted from oxygen molecules in the atmosphere. Source:{{cite web \\|url\\=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id\\=7839 \\|title\\=Atmospheric Temperature Trends, 1979–2005 : Image of the Day \\|publisher\\=Earthobservatory.nasa.gov \\|date\\=2000\\-01\\-01 \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-06\\-10}}](/wiki/File:Atmospheric_Temperature_Trend.jpg \"Atmospheric Temperature Trend.jpg\")",
"The division of the atmosphere into layers mostly by reference to temperature is discussed above. Temperature decreases with altitude starting at sea level, but variations in this trend begin above 11 km, where the temperature stabilizes over a large vertical distance through the rest of the troposphere. In the [stratosphere](/wiki/Stratosphere \"Stratosphere\"), starting above about 20 km, the temperature increases with height, due to heating within the ozone layer caused by the capture of significant [ultraviolet](/wiki/Ultraviolet \"Ultraviolet\") radiation from the [Sun](/wiki/Sun \"Sun\") by the dioxygen and ozone gas in this region. Still another region of increasing temperature with altitude occurs at very high altitudes, in the aptly\\-named [thermosphere](/wiki/Thermosphere \"Thermosphere\") above 90 km.",
"#### Speed of sound",
"{{Main\\|Speed of sound}}\nBecause in an [ideal gas](/wiki/Ideal_gas \"Ideal gas\") of constant composition the [speed of sound](/wiki/Speed_of_sound \"Speed of sound\") depends only on temperature and not on pressure or density, the speed of sound in the atmosphere with altitude takes on the form of the complicated temperature profile (see illustration to the right), and does not mirror altitudinal changes in density or pressure.",
"### Density and mass",
"[thumb\\|Temperature and mass density against altitude from the [NRLMSISE\\-00](/wiki/NRLMSISE-00 \"NRLMSISE-00\") [standard atmosphere](/wiki/International_Standard_Atmosphere \"International Standard Atmosphere\") model (the eight dotted lines in each \"decade\" are at the eight cubes 8, 27, 64, ..., 729\\)](/wiki/File:Atmosphere_model.png \"Atmosphere model.png\")",
"{{Main\\|Density of air}}",
"The density of air at sea level is about 1\\.2 kg/m3 (1\\.2 g/L, 0\\.0012 g/cm3). Density is not measured directly but is calculated from measurements of temperature, pressure and humidity using the equation of state for air (a form of the [ideal gas law](/wiki/Ideal_gas_law \"Ideal gas law\")). Atmospheric density decreases as the altitude increases. This variation can be approximately modeled using the [barometric formula](/wiki/Barometric_formula \"Barometric formula\"). More sophisticated models are used to predict the orbital decay of satellites.",
"The average mass of the atmosphere is about 5 quadrillion (5{{e\\|15}}) [tonnes](/wiki/Tonne \"Tonne\") or 1/1,200,000 the mass of Earth. According to the American [National Center for Atmospheric Research](/wiki/National_Center_for_Atmospheric_Research \"National Center for Atmospheric Research\"), \"The total mean mass of the atmosphere is 5\\.1480{{E\\|18}} kg with an annual range due to water vapor of 1\\.2 or 1\\.5{{E\\|15}} kg, depending on whether surface pressure or water vapor data are used; somewhat smaller than the previous estimate. The mean mass of water vapor is estimated as 1\\.27{{E\\|16}} kg and the dry air mass as 5\\.1352 ±0\\.0003{{E\\|18}} kg.\"",
"### Tabulated properties",
"",
"| \\+Physical and thermal properties of air at atmospheric pressure{{Cite book \\|last\\=Holman \\|first\\=Jack P. \\|url\\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/46959719 \\|title\\=Heat transfer \\|publisher\\=McGraw\\-Hill Companies, Inc. \\|year\\=2002 \\|isbn\\=9780072406559 \\|edition\\=9th \\|location\\=New York, NY \\|pages\\=602 \\|language\\=English \\|oclc\\=46959719}}{{rp\\|602}}{{Cite book \\|first1\\=Theodore L. \\|last1\\=Bergman \\|first2\\=Adrienne S. \\|last2\\=Lavine \\|first3\\=Frank P. \\|last3\\=Incropera \\|first4\\=David P. \\|last4\\=DeWitt \\|url\\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62532755 \\|title\\=Fundamentals of heat and mass transfer. \\|publisher\\=John Wiley and Sons, Inc. \\|year\\=2007 \\|isbn\\=9780471457282 \\|edition\\=6th \\|location\\=Hoboken, NJ \\|pages\\=941–950 \\|language\\=English \\|oclc\\=62532755}} | Temperature\\[{{val\\|u\\=K}}] | Density\\[{{val\\|u\\=kg/m3}}] | Specificheat\\[{{val\\|u\\=J/(kg⋅°C)}}] | Dynamicviscosity\\[{{val\\|u\\=kg/(m⋅s)}}] | Kinematicviscosity\\[{{val\\|u\\=m2/s}}] | Thermalconductivity\\[{{val\\|u\\=W/(m⋅°C)}}] | Thermaldiffusivity\\[{{val\\|u\\=m2/s}}] | Prandtlnumber\\[1] | Bulkmodulus\\[{{val\\|u\\=K−1}}] |",
"| {{val\\|100}} | {{val\\|3\\.601}} | {{val\\|1026\\.6}} | {{val\\|6\\.92E\\-6}} | {{val\\|1\\.92E\\-6}} | {{val\\|0\\.000925}} | {{val\\|2\\.50E\\-6}} | {{val\\|0\\.77}} | {{val\\|0\\.01}} |\n| {{val\\|150}} | {{val\\|2\\.3675}} | {{val\\|1009\\.9}} | {{val\\|1\\.03E\\-5}} | {{val\\|4\\.34E\\-6}} | {{val\\|0\\.013735}} | {{val\\|5\\.75E\\-6}} | {{val\\|0\\.753}} | {{val\\|0\\.006667}} |\n| {{val\\|200}} | {{val\\|1\\.7684}} | {{val\\|1006\\.1}} | {{val\\|1\\.33E\\-5}} | {{val\\|7\\.49E\\-6}} | {{val\\|0\\.01809}} | {{val\\|1\\.02E\\-5}} | {{val\\|0\\.738}} | {{val\\|0\\.005}} |\n| {{val\\|250}} | {{val\\|1\\.4128}} | {{val\\|1005\\.3}} | {{val\\|1\\.60E\\-5}} | {{val\\|1\\.13E\\-5}} | {{val\\|0\\.02227}} | {{val\\|1\\.57E\\-5}} | {{val\\|0\\.722}} | {{val\\|0\\.004}} |\n| {{val\\|300}} | {{val\\|1\\.1774}} | {{val\\|1005\\.7}} | {{val\\|1\\.85E\\-5}} | {{val\\|1\\.57E\\-5}} | {{val\\|0\\.02624}} | {{val\\|2\\.22E\\-5}} | {{val\\|0\\.708}} | {{val\\|0\\.003333}} |\n| {{val\\|350}} | {{val\\|0\\.998}} | {{val\\|1009}} | {{val\\|2\\.08E\\-5}} | {{val\\|2\\.08E\\-5}} | {{val\\|0\\.03003}} | {{val\\|2\\.98E\\-5}} | {{val\\|0\\.697}} | {{val\\|0\\.002857}} |\n| {{val\\|400}} | {{val\\|0\\.8826}} | {{val\\|1014}} | {{val\\|2\\.29E\\-5}} | {{val\\|2\\.59E\\-5}} | {{val\\|0\\.03365}} | {{val\\|3\\.76E\\-5}} | {{val\\|0\\.689}} | {{val\\|0\\.0025}} |\n| {{val\\|450}} | {{val\\|0\\.7833}} | {{val\\|1020\\.7}} | {{val\\|2\\.48E\\-5}} | {{val\\|3\\.17E\\-5}} | {{val\\|0\\.03707}} | {{val\\|4\\.22E\\-5}} | {{val\\|0\\.683}} | {{val\\|0\\.002222}} |\n| {{val\\|500}} | {{val\\|0\\.7048}} | {{val\\|1029\\.5}} | {{val\\|2\\.67E\\-5}} | {{val\\|3\\.79E\\-5}} | {{val\\|0\\.04038}} | {{val\\|5\\.56E\\-5}} | {{val\\|0\\.68}} | {{val\\|0\\.002}} |\n| {{val\\|550}} | {{val\\|0\\.6423}} | {{val\\|1039\\.2}} | {{val\\|2\\.85E\\-5}} | {{val\\|4\\.43E\\-5}} | {{val\\|0\\.0436}} | {{val\\|6\\.53E\\-5}} | {{val\\|0\\.68}} | {{val\\|0\\.001818}} |\n| {{val\\|600}} | {{val\\|0\\.5879}} | {{val\\|1055\\.1}} | {{val\\|3\\.02E\\-5}} | {{val\\|5\\.13E\\-5}} | {{val\\|0\\.04659}} | {{val\\|7\\.51E\\-5}} | {{val\\|0\\.68}} | {{val\\|0\\.001667}} |\n| {{val\\|650}} | {{val\\|0\\.543}} | {{val\\|1063\\.5}} | {{val\\|3\\.18E\\-5}} | {{val\\|5\\.85E\\-5}} | {{val\\|0\\.04953}} | {{val\\|8\\.58E\\-5}} | {{val\\|0\\.682}} | {{val\\|0\\.001538}} |\n| {{val\\|700}} | {{val\\|0\\.503}} | {{val\\|1075\\.2}} | {{val\\|3\\.33E\\-5}} | {{val\\|6\\.63E\\-5}} | {{val\\|0\\.0523}} | {{val\\|9\\.67E\\-5}} | {{val\\|0\\.684}} | {{val\\|0\\.001429}} |\n| {{val\\|750}} | {{val\\|0\\.4709}} | {{val\\|1085\\.6}} | {{val\\|3\\.48E\\-5}} | {{val\\|7\\.39E\\-5}} | {{val\\|0\\.05509}} | {{val\\|1\\.08E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.686}} | {{val\\|0\\.001333}} |\n| {{val\\|800}} | {{val\\|0\\.4405}} | {{val\\|1097\\.8}} | {{val\\|3\\.63E\\-5}} | {{val\\|8\\.23E\\-5}} | {{val\\|0\\.05779}} | {{val\\|1\\.20E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.689}} | {{val\\|0\\.00125}} |\n| {{val\\|850}} | {{val\\|0\\.4149}} | {{val\\|1109\\.5}} | {{val\\|3\\.77E\\-5}} | {{val\\|9\\.08E\\-5}} | {{val\\|0\\.06028}} | {{val\\|1\\.31E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.692}} | {{val\\|0\\.001176}} |\n| {{val\\|900}} | {{val\\|0\\.3925}} | {{val\\|1121\\.2}} | {{val\\|3\\.90E\\-5}} | {{val\\|9\\.93E\\-5}} | {{val\\|0\\.06279}} | {{val\\|1\\.43E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.696}} | {{val\\|0\\.001111}} |\n| {{val\\|950}} | {{val\\|0\\.3716}} | {{val\\|1132\\.1}} | {{val\\|4\\.02E\\-5}} | {{val\\|1\\.08E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.06525}} | {{val\\|1\\.55E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.699}} | {{val\\|0\\.001053}} |\n| {{val\\|1000}} | {{val\\|0\\.3524}} | {{val\\|1141\\.7}} | {{val\\|4\\.15E\\-5}} | {{val\\|1\\.18E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.06753}} | {{val\\|1\\.68E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.702}} | {{val\\|0\\.001}} |\n| {{val\\|1100}} | {{val\\|0\\.3204}} | {{val\\|1160}} | {{val\\|4\\.44E\\-5}} | {{val\\|1\\.39E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.0732}} | {{val\\|1\\.97E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.704}} | {{val\\|0\\.000909}} |\n| {{val\\|1200}} | {{val\\|0\\.2947}} | {{val\\|1179}} | {{val\\|4\\.69E\\-5}} | {{val\\|1\\.59E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.0782}} | {{val\\|2\\.25E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.707}} | {{val\\|0\\.000833}} |\n| {{val\\|1300}} | {{val\\|0\\.2707}} | {{val\\|1197}} | {{val\\|4\\.93E\\-5}} | {{val\\|1\\.82E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.0837}} | {{val\\|2\\.58E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.705}} | {{val\\|0\\.000769}} |\n| {{val\\|1400}} | {{val\\|0\\.2515}} | {{val\\|1214}} | {{val\\|5\\.17E\\-5}} | {{val\\|2\\.06E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.0891}} | {{val\\|2\\.92E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.705}} | {{val\\|0\\.000714}} |\n| {{val\\|1500}} | {{val\\|0\\.2355}} | {{val\\|1230}} | {{val\\|5\\.40e\\-5}} | {{val\\|2\\.29E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.0946}} | {{val\\|3\\.26E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.705}} | {{val\\|0\\.000667}} |\n| {{val\\|1600}} | {{val\\|0\\.2211}} | {{val\\|1248}} | {{val\\|5\\.63E\\-5}} | {{val\\|2\\.55E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.1}} | {{val\\|3\\.61E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.705}} | {{val\\|0\\.000625}} |\n| {{val\\|1700}} | {{val\\|0\\.2082}} | {{val\\|1267}} | {{val\\|5\\.85E\\-5}} | {{val\\|2\\.81E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.105}} | {{val\\|3\\.98E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.705}} | {{val\\|0\\.000588}} |\n| {{val\\|1800}} | {{val\\|0\\.197}} | {{val\\|1287}} | {{val\\|6\\.07E\\-5}} | {{val\\|3\\.08E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.111}} | {{val\\|4\\.38E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.704}} | {{val\\|0\\.000556}} |\n| {{val\\|1900}} | {{val\\|0\\.1858}} | {{val\\|1309}} | {{val\\|6\\.29E\\-5}} | {{val\\|3\\.39E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.117}} | {{val\\|4\\.81E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.704}} | {{val\\|0\\.000526}} |\n| {{val\\|2000}} | {{val\\|0\\.1762}} | {{val\\|1338}} | {{val\\|6\\.50e\\-5}} | {{val\\|3\\.69E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.124}} | {{val\\|5\\.26E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.702}} | {{val\\|0\\.0005}} |\n| {{val\\|2100}} | {{val\\|0\\.1682}} | {{val\\|1372}} | {{val\\|6\\.72E\\-5}} | {{val\\|4\\.00E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.131}} | {{val\\|5\\.72E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.7}} | {{val\\|0\\.000476}} |\n| {{val\\|2200}} | {{val\\|0\\.1602}} | {{val\\|1419}} | {{val\\|6\\.93E\\-5}} | {{val\\|4\\.33E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.139}} | {{val\\|6\\.12E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.707}} | {{val\\|0\\.000455}} |\n| {{val\\|2300}} | {{val\\|0\\.1538}} | {{val\\|1482}} | {{val\\|7\\.14E\\-5}} | {{val\\|4\\.64E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.149}} | {{val\\|6\\.54E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.71}} | {{val\\|0\\.000435}} |\n| {{val\\|2400}} | {{val\\|0\\.1458}} | {{val\\|1574}} | {{val\\|7\\.35E\\-5}} | {{val\\|5\\.04E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.161}} | {{val\\|7\\.02E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.718}} | {{val\\|0\\.000417}} |\n| {{val\\|2500}} | {{val\\|0\\.1394}} | {{val\\|1688}} | {{val\\|7\\.57E\\-5}} | {{val\\|5\\.44E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.175}} | {{val\\|7\\.44E\\-4}} | {{val\\|0\\.73}} | {{val\\|0\\.0004}} |"
] |
### Pressure and thickness
{{Main\|Atmospheric pressure}}
The average atmospheric pressure at sea level is defined by the [International Standard Atmosphere](/wiki/International_Standard_Atmosphere "International Standard Atmosphere") as {{convert\|101325\|Pa\|Torr psi mmHg\|lk\=on\|comma\=off}}. This is sometimes referred to as a unit of [standard atmospheres (atm)](/wiki/Atmosphere_%28unit%29 "Atmosphere (unit)"). Total atmospheric mass is 5\.1480×1018 kg (1\.135×1019 lb),{{Cite journal \|title\=The Mass of the Atmosphere: A Constraint on Global Analyses \|journal\=Journal of Climate \|volume\=18 \|issue\=6 \|pages\=864 \|date\=1970\-01\-01 \|doi\=10\.1175/JCLI\-3299\.1 \|bibcode \= 2005JCli...18\..864T\|last1 \= Trenberth\|first1 \= Kevin E.\|last2\=Smith \|first2\=Lesley \|s2cid\=16754900 \|citeseerx\=10\.1\.1\.727\.6573 }} about 2\.5% less than would be inferred from the average sea level pressure and Earth's area of 51007\.2 megahectares, this portion being displaced by Earth's mountainous terrain. Atmospheric pressure is the total weight of the air above unit area at the point where the pressure is measured. Thus air pressure varies with location and [weather](/wiki/Low-pressure_area "Low-pressure area").
If the entire mass of the atmosphere had a uniform density equal to sea level density (about 1\.2 kg per m3) from sea level upwards, it would terminate abruptly at an altitude of {{convert\|8\.50\|km\|ft\|abbr\=on}}.
Air pressure actually decreases exponentially with altitude, dropping by half every {{convert\|5\.6\|km\|ft\|abbr\=on}} or by a factor of 1/[e](/wiki/E_%28mathematical_constant%29 "E (mathematical constant)") (0\.368\) every {{convert\|7\.64\|km\|ft\|abbr\=on}}, (this is called the [scale height](/wiki/Scale_height "Scale height")) \-\- for altitudes out to around {{convert\|70\|km\|mi ft\|abbr\=on}}. However, the atmosphere is more accurately modeled with a customized equation for each layer that takes gradients of temperature, molecular composition, solar radiation and gravity into account. At heights over 100 km, an atmosphere may no longer be well mixed. Then each chemical species has its own scale height.
In summary, the mass of Earth's atmosphere is distributed approximately as follows:Lutgens, Frederick K. and Edward J. Tarbuck (1995\) *The Atmosphere*, Prentice Hall, 6th ed., pp. 14–17, {{ISBN\|0\-13\-350612\-6}}
* 50% is below {{convert\|5\.6\|km\|ft\|abbr\=on}}.
* 90% is below {{convert\|16\|km\|ft\|abbr\=on}}.
* 99\.99997% is below {{convert\|100\|km\|mi ft\|abbr\=on}}, the [Kármán line](/wiki/K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n_line "Kármán line"). By international convention, this marks the beginning of space where human travelers are considered [astronauts](/wiki/Astronaut "Astronaut").
By comparison, the summit of [Mount Everest](/wiki/Mount_Everest "Mount Everest") is at {{convert\|8848\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}}; commercial [airliners](/wiki/Airliners "Airliners") typically cruise between {{convert\|10\|and\|13\|km\|ft\|abbr\=on}} where the lower density and temperature of the air improve fuel economy; [weather balloons](/wiki/Weather_balloons "Weather balloons") reach {{convert\|30\.4\|km\|ft\|abbr\=on}} and above; and the highest [X\-15](/wiki/North_American_X-15 "North American X-15") flight in 1963 reached {{convert\|108\.0\|km\|ft\|abbr\=on}}.
Even above the Kármán line, significant atmospheric effects such as [auroras](/wiki/Aurora_%28astronomy%29 "Aurora (astronomy)") still occur. [Meteors](/wiki/Meteors "Meteors") begin to glow in this region, though the larger ones may not burn up until they penetrate more deeply. The various layers of Earth's [ionosphere](/wiki/Ionosphere "Ionosphere"), important to [HF radio](/wiki/HF_radio "HF radio") propagation, begin below 100 km and extend beyond 500 km. By comparison, the [International Space Station](/wiki/International_Space_Station "International Space Station") and [Space Shuttle](/wiki/Space_Shuttle "Space Shuttle") typically orbit at 350–400 km, within the [F\-layer](/wiki/F-layer "F-layer") of the ionosphere where they encounter enough [atmospheric drag](/wiki/Atmospheric_drag "Atmospheric drag") to require reboosts every few months, otherwise, [orbital decay](/wiki/Orbital_decay "Orbital decay") will occur resulting in a return to Earth. Depending on solar activity, satellites can experience noticeable atmospheric drag at altitudes as high as 700–800 km.
|
[
"### Pressure and thickness",
"{{Main\\|Atmospheric pressure}}",
"The average atmospheric pressure at sea level is defined by the [International Standard Atmosphere](/wiki/International_Standard_Atmosphere \"International Standard Atmosphere\") as {{convert\\|101325\\|Pa\\|Torr psi mmHg\\|lk\\=on\\|comma\\=off}}. This is sometimes referred to as a unit of [standard atmospheres (atm)](/wiki/Atmosphere_%28unit%29 \"Atmosphere (unit)\"). Total atmospheric mass is 5\\.1480×1018 kg (1\\.135×1019 lb),{{Cite journal \\|title\\=The Mass of the Atmosphere: A Constraint on Global Analyses \\|journal\\=Journal of Climate \\|volume\\=18 \\|issue\\=6 \\|pages\\=864 \\|date\\=1970\\-01\\-01 \\|doi\\=10\\.1175/JCLI\\-3299\\.1 \\|bibcode \\= 2005JCli...18\\..864T\\|last1 \\= Trenberth\\|first1 \\= Kevin E.\\|last2\\=Smith \\|first2\\=Lesley \\|s2cid\\=16754900 \\|citeseerx\\=10\\.1\\.1\\.727\\.6573 }} about 2\\.5% less than would be inferred from the average sea level pressure and Earth's area of 51007\\.2 megahectares, this portion being displaced by Earth's mountainous terrain. Atmospheric pressure is the total weight of the air above unit area at the point where the pressure is measured. Thus air pressure varies with location and [weather](/wiki/Low-pressure_area \"Low-pressure area\").",
"If the entire mass of the atmosphere had a uniform density equal to sea level density (about 1\\.2 kg per m3) from sea level upwards, it would terminate abruptly at an altitude of {{convert\\|8\\.50\\|km\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}}.",
"Air pressure actually decreases exponentially with altitude, dropping by half every {{convert\\|5\\.6\\|km\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} or by a factor of 1/[e](/wiki/E_%28mathematical_constant%29 \"E (mathematical constant)\") (0\\.368\\) every {{convert\\|7\\.64\\|km\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}}, (this is called the [scale height](/wiki/Scale_height \"Scale height\")) \\-\\- for altitudes out to around {{convert\\|70\\|km\\|mi ft\\|abbr\\=on}}. However, the atmosphere is more accurately modeled with a customized equation for each layer that takes gradients of temperature, molecular composition, solar radiation and gravity into account. At heights over 100 km, an atmosphere may no longer be well mixed. Then each chemical species has its own scale height.",
"In summary, the mass of Earth's atmosphere is distributed approximately as follows:Lutgens, Frederick K. and Edward J. Tarbuck (1995\\) *The Atmosphere*, Prentice Hall, 6th ed., pp. 14–17, {{ISBN\\|0\\-13\\-350612\\-6}}\n* 50% is below {{convert\\|5\\.6\\|km\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}}.\n* 90% is below {{convert\\|16\\|km\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}}.\n* 99\\.99997% is below {{convert\\|100\\|km\\|mi ft\\|abbr\\=on}}, the [Kármán line](/wiki/K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n_line \"Kármán line\"). By international convention, this marks the beginning of space where human travelers are considered [astronauts](/wiki/Astronaut \"Astronaut\").",
"By comparison, the summit of [Mount Everest](/wiki/Mount_Everest \"Mount Everest\") is at {{convert\\|8848\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}}; commercial [airliners](/wiki/Airliners \"Airliners\") typically cruise between {{convert\\|10\\|and\\|13\\|km\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} where the lower density and temperature of the air improve fuel economy; [weather balloons](/wiki/Weather_balloons \"Weather balloons\") reach {{convert\\|30\\.4\\|km\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} and above; and the highest [X\\-15](/wiki/North_American_X-15 \"North American X-15\") flight in 1963 reached {{convert\\|108\\.0\\|km\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}}.",
"Even above the Kármán line, significant atmospheric effects such as [auroras](/wiki/Aurora_%28astronomy%29 \"Aurora (astronomy)\") still occur. [Meteors](/wiki/Meteors \"Meteors\") begin to glow in this region, though the larger ones may not burn up until they penetrate more deeply. The various layers of Earth's [ionosphere](/wiki/Ionosphere \"Ionosphere\"), important to [HF radio](/wiki/HF_radio \"HF radio\") propagation, begin below 100 km and extend beyond 500 km. By comparison, the [International Space Station](/wiki/International_Space_Station \"International Space Station\") and [Space Shuttle](/wiki/Space_Shuttle \"Space Shuttle\") typically orbit at 350–400 km, within the [F\\-layer](/wiki/F-layer \"F-layer\") of the ionosphere where they encounter enough [atmospheric drag](/wiki/Atmospheric_drag \"Atmospheric drag\") to require reboosts every few months, otherwise, [orbital decay](/wiki/Orbital_decay \"Orbital decay\") will occur resulting in a return to Earth. Depending on solar activity, satellites can experience noticeable atmospheric drag at altitudes as high as 700–800 km.",
""
] |
Optical properties
------------------
{{See also\|Sunlight}}
Solar [radiation](/wiki/Radiation "Radiation") (or sunlight) is the energy Earth receives from the [Sun](/wiki/Sun "Sun"). Earth also emits radiation back into space, but at longer wavelengths that humans cannot see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere.{{Cite web \|title\=Absorption / reflection of sunlight \|url\=https://ugc.berkeley.edu/background\-content/reflection\-absorption\-sunlight/ \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-13 \|website\=Understanding Global Change}}{{Cite web \|title\=The Atmospheric Window \|url\=https://www.noaa.gov/jetstream/satellites/absorb \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-13 \|website\=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}} In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be [reflected light](/wiki/Reflection_%28physics%29 "Reflection (physics)") from [ice crystals](/wiki/Ice_crystals "Ice crystals") in the atmosphere.{{cite news \|last\=St. Fleur \|first\=Nicholas \|title\=Spotting Mysterious Twinkles on Earth From a Million Miles Away \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/19/science/dscovr\-satellite\-ice\-glints\-earth\-atmosphere.html \|date\=19 May 2017 \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|access\-date\=20 May 2017}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Marshak \|first1\=Alexander \|last2\=Várnai \|first2\=Tamás \|last3\=Kostinski \|first3\=Alexander \|title\=Terrestrial glint seen from deep space: oriented ice crystals detected from the Lagrangian point \|date\=15 May 2017 \|journal\=\[\[Geophysical Research Letters]] \|volume\=44 \|issue\=10 \|page\=5197 \|doi\=10\.1002/2017GL073248 \|bibcode\=2017GeoRL..44\.5197M\|s2cid\=109930589 \|url\=https://zenodo.org/record/1229066 \|hdl\=11603/13118 \|hdl\-access\=free }}
### Scattering
{{Main\|Atmospheric scattering}}
When light passes through Earth's atmosphere, [photons](/wiki/Photon "Photon") interact with it through *scattering*. If the light does not interact with the atmosphere, it is called *direct radiation* and is what you see if you were to look directly at the Sun. *Indirect radiation* is light that has been scattered in the atmosphere. For example, on an [overcast](/wiki/Overcast "Overcast") day when you cannot see your shadow, there is no direct radiation reaching you, it has all been scattered. As another example, due to a phenomenon called [Rayleigh scattering](/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering "Rayleigh scattering"), shorter (blue) wavelengths scatter more easily than longer (red) wavelengths. This is why the sky looks blue; you are seeing scattered blue light. This is also why sunsets are red. Because the Sun is close to the horizon, the Sun's rays pass through more atmosphere than normal before reaching your eye. Much of the blue light has been scattered out, leaving the red light in a sunset.
### Absorption
{{Main\|Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)}}
[thumb\|Rough plot of Earth's atmospheric [transmittance](/wiki/Transmittance "Transmittance") (or opacity) to various wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, including [visible light](/wiki/Visible_light "Visible light")](/wiki/File:Openstax_Astronomy_EM_spectrum_and_atmosphere.jpg "Openstax Astronomy EM spectrum and atmosphere.jpg")
Different molecules absorb different wavelengths of radiation. For example, O2 and O3 absorb almost all radiation with wavelengths shorter than 300 [nanometres](/wiki/Nanometer "Nanometer"). Water (H2O) absorbs at many wavelengths above 700 nm. When a molecule absorbs a photon, it increases the energy of the molecule. This heats the atmosphere, but the atmosphere also cools by emitting radiation, as discussed below.
The combined [absorption spectra](/wiki/Absorption_spectra "Absorption spectra") of the gases in the atmosphere leave "windows" of low [opacity](/wiki/Opacity_%28optics%29 "Opacity (optics)"), allowing the transmission of only certain bands of light. The [optical window](/wiki/Optical_window "Optical window") runs from around 300 nm ([ultraviolet](/wiki/Ultraviolet "Ultraviolet")\-C) up into the range humans can see, the [visible spectrum](/wiki/Visible_spectrum "Visible spectrum") (commonly called light), at roughly 400–700 nm and continues to the [infrared](/wiki/Infrared "Infrared") to around 1100 nm. There are also [infrared](/wiki/Infrared_window "Infrared window") and [radio windows](/wiki/Radio_window "Radio window") that transmit some infrared and [radio waves](/wiki/Radio_waves "Radio waves") at longer wavelengths. For example, the radio window runs from about one centimetre to about eleven\-metre waves.
### Emission
{{Further\|Emission spectrum}}
*Emission* is the opposite of absorption, it is when an object emits radiation. Objects tend to emit amounts and wavelengths of radiation depending on their "[black body](/wiki/Black_body "Black body")" emission curves, therefore hotter objects tend to emit more radiation, with shorter wavelengths. Colder objects emit less radiation, with longer wavelengths. For example, the Sun is approximately {{convert\|6000\|K\|lk\=on}}, its radiation peaks near 500 nm, and is visible to the human eye. Earth is approximately {{convert\|290\|K\|abbr\=on}}, so its radiation peaks near 10,000 nm, and is much too long to be visible to humans.
Because of its temperature, the atmosphere emits infrared radiation. For example, on clear nights Earth's surface cools down faster than on cloudy nights. This is because clouds (H2O) are strong absorbers and emitters of infrared radiation. This is also why it becomes colder at night at higher elevations.
The [greenhouse effect](/wiki/Greenhouse_effect "Greenhouse effect") is directly related to this absorption and emission effect. Some gases in the atmosphere absorb and emit infrared radiation, but do not interact with sunlight in the visible spectrum. Common examples of these are {{CO2}} and H2O.
### Refractive index
[thumb\|right\|Distortive effect of [atmospheric refraction](/wiki/Atmospheric_refraction "Atmospheric refraction") upon the shape of the sun at the horizon](/wiki/Image:SB_DouglasPreserve_SunAtmosphericEffects_2017_3_cropped.jpg "SB DouglasPreserve SunAtmosphericEffects 2017 3 cropped.jpg")
{{main\|Atmospheric refraction}}
{{See also\|Scintillation (astronomy)}}
The [refractive index](/wiki/Refractive_index "Refractive index") of air is close to, but just greater than, 1\. Systematic variations in the refractive index can lead to the bending of light rays over long optical paths. One example is that, under some circumstances, observers on board ships can see other vessels just over the [horizon](/wiki/Horizon "Horizon") because light is refracted in the same direction as the [curvature](/wiki/Curvature "Curvature") of Earth's surface.
The refractive index of air depends on temperature,{{cite journal \|first\=Bengt \|last\=Edlén \|date\=1966 \|journal\=Metrologia \|volume\=2 \|issue\=2 \|title\=The refractive index of air \|pages\=71–80 \|doi\=10\.1088/0026\-1394/2/2/002 \|bibcode\=1966Metro...2\...71E }} giving rise to refraction effects when the temperature gradient is large. An example of such effects is the [mirage](/wiki/Mirage "Mirage").
|
[
"Optical properties\n------------------",
"{{See also\\|Sunlight}}\nSolar [radiation](/wiki/Radiation \"Radiation\") (or sunlight) is the energy Earth receives from the [Sun](/wiki/Sun \"Sun\"). Earth also emits radiation back into space, but at longer wavelengths that humans cannot see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Absorption / reflection of sunlight \\|url\\=https://ugc.berkeley.edu/background\\-content/reflection\\-absorption\\-sunlight/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-13 \\|website\\=Understanding Global Change}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=The Atmospheric Window \\|url\\=https://www.noaa.gov/jetstream/satellites/absorb \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-13 \\|website\\=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}} In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be [reflected light](/wiki/Reflection_%28physics%29 \"Reflection (physics)\") from [ice crystals](/wiki/Ice_crystals \"Ice crystals\") in the atmosphere.{{cite news \\|last\\=St. Fleur \\|first\\=Nicholas \\|title\\=Spotting Mysterious Twinkles on Earth From a Million Miles Away \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/19/science/dscovr\\-satellite\\-ice\\-glints\\-earth\\-atmosphere.html \\|date\\=19 May 2017 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|access\\-date\\=20 May 2017}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Marshak \\|first1\\=Alexander \\|last2\\=Várnai \\|first2\\=Tamás \\|last3\\=Kostinski \\|first3\\=Alexander \\|title\\=Terrestrial glint seen from deep space: oriented ice crystals detected from the Lagrangian point \\|date\\=15 May 2017 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Geophysical Research Letters]] \\|volume\\=44 \\|issue\\=10 \\|page\\=5197 \\|doi\\=10\\.1002/2017GL073248 \\|bibcode\\=2017GeoRL..44\\.5197M\\|s2cid\\=109930589 \\|url\\=https://zenodo.org/record/1229066 \\|hdl\\=11603/13118 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free }}",
"### Scattering",
"{{Main\\|Atmospheric scattering}}\nWhen light passes through Earth's atmosphere, [photons](/wiki/Photon \"Photon\") interact with it through *scattering*. If the light does not interact with the atmosphere, it is called *direct radiation* and is what you see if you were to look directly at the Sun. *Indirect radiation* is light that has been scattered in the atmosphere. For example, on an [overcast](/wiki/Overcast \"Overcast\") day when you cannot see your shadow, there is no direct radiation reaching you, it has all been scattered. As another example, due to a phenomenon called [Rayleigh scattering](/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering \"Rayleigh scattering\"), shorter (blue) wavelengths scatter more easily than longer (red) wavelengths. This is why the sky looks blue; you are seeing scattered blue light. This is also why sunsets are red. Because the Sun is close to the horizon, the Sun's rays pass through more atmosphere than normal before reaching your eye. Much of the blue light has been scattered out, leaving the red light in a sunset.",
"### Absorption",
"{{Main\\|Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)}}\n[thumb\\|Rough plot of Earth's atmospheric [transmittance](/wiki/Transmittance \"Transmittance\") (or opacity) to various wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, including [visible light](/wiki/Visible_light \"Visible light\")](/wiki/File:Openstax_Astronomy_EM_spectrum_and_atmosphere.jpg \"Openstax Astronomy EM spectrum and atmosphere.jpg\")",
"Different molecules absorb different wavelengths of radiation. For example, O2 and O3 absorb almost all radiation with wavelengths shorter than 300 [nanometres](/wiki/Nanometer \"Nanometer\"). Water (H2O) absorbs at many wavelengths above 700 nm. When a molecule absorbs a photon, it increases the energy of the molecule. This heats the atmosphere, but the atmosphere also cools by emitting radiation, as discussed below.",
"The combined [absorption spectra](/wiki/Absorption_spectra \"Absorption spectra\") of the gases in the atmosphere leave \"windows\" of low [opacity](/wiki/Opacity_%28optics%29 \"Opacity (optics)\"), allowing the transmission of only certain bands of light. The [optical window](/wiki/Optical_window \"Optical window\") runs from around 300 nm ([ultraviolet](/wiki/Ultraviolet \"Ultraviolet\")\\-C) up into the range humans can see, the [visible spectrum](/wiki/Visible_spectrum \"Visible spectrum\") (commonly called light), at roughly 400–700 nm and continues to the [infrared](/wiki/Infrared \"Infrared\") to around 1100 nm. There are also [infrared](/wiki/Infrared_window \"Infrared window\") and [radio windows](/wiki/Radio_window \"Radio window\") that transmit some infrared and [radio waves](/wiki/Radio_waves \"Radio waves\") at longer wavelengths. For example, the radio window runs from about one centimetre to about eleven\\-metre waves.",
"### Emission",
"{{Further\\|Emission spectrum}}",
"*Emission* is the opposite of absorption, it is when an object emits radiation. Objects tend to emit amounts and wavelengths of radiation depending on their \"[black body](/wiki/Black_body \"Black body\")\" emission curves, therefore hotter objects tend to emit more radiation, with shorter wavelengths. Colder objects emit less radiation, with longer wavelengths. For example, the Sun is approximately {{convert\\|6000\\|K\\|lk\\=on}}, its radiation peaks near 500 nm, and is visible to the human eye. Earth is approximately {{convert\\|290\\|K\\|abbr\\=on}}, so its radiation peaks near 10,000 nm, and is much too long to be visible to humans.",
"Because of its temperature, the atmosphere emits infrared radiation. For example, on clear nights Earth's surface cools down faster than on cloudy nights. This is because clouds (H2O) are strong absorbers and emitters of infrared radiation. This is also why it becomes colder at night at higher elevations.",
"The [greenhouse effect](/wiki/Greenhouse_effect \"Greenhouse effect\") is directly related to this absorption and emission effect. Some gases in the atmosphere absorb and emit infrared radiation, but do not interact with sunlight in the visible spectrum. Common examples of these are {{CO2}} and H2O.",
"### Refractive index",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Distortive effect of [atmospheric refraction](/wiki/Atmospheric_refraction \"Atmospheric refraction\") upon the shape of the sun at the horizon](/wiki/Image:SB_DouglasPreserve_SunAtmosphericEffects_2017_3_cropped.jpg \"SB DouglasPreserve SunAtmosphericEffects 2017 3 cropped.jpg\")\n{{main\\|Atmospheric refraction}}\n{{See also\\|Scintillation (astronomy)}}",
"The [refractive index](/wiki/Refractive_index \"Refractive index\") of air is close to, but just greater than, 1\\. Systematic variations in the refractive index can lead to the bending of light rays over long optical paths. One example is that, under some circumstances, observers on board ships can see other vessels just over the [horizon](/wiki/Horizon \"Horizon\") because light is refracted in the same direction as the [curvature](/wiki/Curvature \"Curvature\") of Earth's surface.",
"The refractive index of air depends on temperature,{{cite journal \\|first\\=Bengt \\|last\\=Edlén \\|date\\=1966 \\|journal\\=Metrologia \\|volume\\=2 \\|issue\\=2 \\|title\\=The refractive index of air \\|pages\\=71–80 \\|doi\\=10\\.1088/0026\\-1394/2/2/002 \\|bibcode\\=1966Metro...2\\...71E }} giving rise to refraction effects when the temperature gradient is large. An example of such effects is the [mirage](/wiki/Mirage \"Mirage\").",
""
] |
Newspaperman
------------
He was the son of the editor [August Sohlman](/wiki/August_Sohlman "August Sohlman") and [Hulda Sandeberg](/wiki/Hulda_Sandeberg "Hulda Sandeberg"). Sohlman attended the school [Bekowska skolan](/wiki/Bekowska_skolan "Bekowska skolan") and graduated in 1877 in Stockholm after his matriculation exam and began his studies in [Uppsala](/wiki/Uppsala "Uppsala"). In 1886, he got his [Bachelor of Law](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Law "Bachelor of Law") degree at [Uppsala university](/wiki/Uppsala_university "Uppsala university"). There, he became known as a liberal, for example by being one of the founders of the student fraternity [Verdandi](/wiki/Verdandi_%28Uppsala%29 "Verdandi (Uppsala)"). In 1886 he was acting notary at [Stockholm City Court](/wiki/Stockholm_City_Court "Stockholm City Court") and in 1889 at [Svea Court of Appeal](/wiki/Svea_Court_of_Appeal "Svea Court of Appeal"). Between 1889 and 1890, he gave lectures on law at Stockholm workers' association.
In 1886, Sohlman started working at *[Aftonbladet](/wiki/Aftonbladet "Aftonbladet")*. He had two family ties to the paper: first, he was the son of the previous editor, secondly, he was first cousin once removed from the head of the board for *Aftonbladet*, [J.W. Smitt](/wiki/J.W._Smitt "J.W. Smitt"). When he began working as editor in chief, the paper's circulation was 13,000\. He was the paper's editor in chief between 1890 and 1921 as well as director of publication; between 1896 and 1912 he was also the editor in chief for *[Dagen (1896\-1920\)](/wiki/Dagen_%281896-1920%29 "Dagen (1896-1920)")*. In 1907, the ownership of *Aftonbladet* transitioned from the married couple [Gustaf Retzius](/wiki/Gustaf_Retzius "Gustaf Retzius") and [Anna Hierta\-Retzius](/wiki/Anna_Hierta-Retzius "Anna Hierta-Retzius") to the brothers Harald and [Arvid Sohlman](/wiki/Arvid_Sohlman "Arvid Sohlman"). Harald promised Retzius that he would work for the good of the motherland and against socialism.*[Svenskt biografiskt lexikon](/wiki/Svenskt_biografiskt_lexikon "Svenskt biografiskt lexikon")*, 32\. Stockholm 2003–2006, s. 625 From 1907, he was chairman of the Swedish telegraph agency; he was also chairman of the Publicists' club (Swedish: *Publicistklubben*) for many years.
He turned *Aftonbladet* into one of the biggest liberal papers during the tail end of the 19th century and the start of the 20th century. Between 1892 and 1905, he was the chairman of the Association against food tariffs. (During the tariff disputes, he was a fierce opponent to the protectionists.) *Aftonbladet* was seen as a political outlet for [Karl Staaff](/wiki/Karl_Staaff "Karl Staaff")'s government during its first term (1905 to 1906\). Because of his passionate interest in the issue of defense, and his dislike of socialism, he eventually drifted to the right on the political spectrum. Because of his hostile attitude towards [Norway's ambitions for independence](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_union_between_Norway_and_Sweden "Dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden"), he was never invited to join the Left\-wing press association. In particular, the leadership of *Dagens Nyheter* and *Aftonbladet* exchanged strong words. On the other hand, social democratic editors were not invited either.*Den svenska pressens historia, III. Det moderna Sveriges spegel (1897–1945\).* Red: Karl Erik Gustafsson \& Per Rydén. Ekerlids förlag: Stockholm 2001, 50f After the 1905 crisis in the union with Norway, the paper became increasingly nationalistic with Sohlman as editor in chief. He was a proponent of a [proportional electoral system](/wiki/Proportional_electoral_system "Proportional electoral system"), while [majority voting in single mandate constituencies](/wiki/Single-member_district "Single-member district") was the official party line for the liberal party leadership. After the return of Staaff in 1911, and under the influence by the [Courtyard Crisis](/wiki/Courtyard_Crisis "Courtyard Crisis") in the spring of 1914, he left the National liberal association and supported the political right from then on.
Sohlman was the chairman of the Stockholm shooting federation between 1907 and 1916 and vice chairman of Stockholm's militia federation between 1912 and 1926\. In 1912, he initiated the Nordic capital cities' shooting competitions.*[Svenskt biografiskt lexikon](/wiki/Svenskt_biografiskt_lexikon "Svenskt biografiskt lexikon")*, 32\. Stockholm 2003–2006, s. 627
In 1915, during the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War "First World War"), he and his brother Arvid Sohlman sold the paper to the Germans in order to allow them to spread German propaganda in Sweden. The Sohlman brothers pledged their stocks in exchange for a large sum of money. The deal was long kept secret. [K. A. Wallenberg](/wiki/K._A._Wallenberg "K. A. Wallenberg") and Torvald Höjer, head of the foreign ministry's press agency, contacted Sohlman among others with criticism that blamed [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia") and the tsar for starting the war.*Den svenska pressens historia, III. Det moderna Sveriges spegel (1897–1945\).* Red: Karl Erik Gustafsson \& Per Rydén. Ekerlids förlag: Stockholm 2001, 124 During Sohlman's time at the paper, it was also a body for pro\-Finnish forces starting with the period of [Russification of Finland](/wiki/Russification_of_Finland "Russification of Finland"). He was awarded the [Order of the Cross of Liberty](/wiki/Order_of_the_Cross_of_Liberty "Order of the Cross of Liberty"), 2nd class, in 1918\.*[Aftonbladet](/wiki/Aftonbladet "Aftonbladet")* 28/9 1918 In 1921, *Aftonbladet* and *Dagen* returned to Swedish ownership.*[Svenskt biografiskt lexikon](/wiki/Svenskt_biografiskt_lexikon "Svenskt biografiskt lexikon")*, 32\. Stockholm 2003–2006, s. 626
As of 1917, he was married to [Magda Leidesdorff](/wiki/Magda_Leidesdorff "Magda Leidesdorff"), in her second marriage.
Ironically, he died on May 1 after falling down from his fourth\-floor balcony,*[Svenska Dagbladets](/wiki/Svenska_Dagbladet "Svenska Dagbladet") årsbok : 1927*, red. Erik Rudberg \& Edvin Hellblom, Stockholm 1928, s. 14 on [International Workers' Day](/wiki/International_Workers%27_Day "International Workers' Day"). His grave can be found in Huddinge graveyard southwest of Stockholm.
[Erik Palmstierna](/wiki/Erik_Palmstierna "Erik Palmstierna") describes him:
”Sohlman appeared to have been forgotten since the 60s. A true patriot and guild brother, lover of shooting, and everything that the worker meant with the term 'Philistine', but a great and harmless man of honor.”
–Palmstierna, 1950
|
[
"Newspaperman\n------------",
"He was the son of the editor [August Sohlman](/wiki/August_Sohlman \"August Sohlman\") and [Hulda Sandeberg](/wiki/Hulda_Sandeberg \"Hulda Sandeberg\"). Sohlman attended the school [Bekowska skolan](/wiki/Bekowska_skolan \"Bekowska skolan\") and graduated in 1877 in Stockholm after his matriculation exam and began his studies in [Uppsala](/wiki/Uppsala \"Uppsala\"). In 1886, he got his [Bachelor of Law](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Law \"Bachelor of Law\") degree at [Uppsala university](/wiki/Uppsala_university \"Uppsala university\"). There, he became known as a liberal, for example by being one of the founders of the student fraternity [Verdandi](/wiki/Verdandi_%28Uppsala%29 \"Verdandi (Uppsala)\"). In 1886 he was acting notary at [Stockholm City Court](/wiki/Stockholm_City_Court \"Stockholm City Court\") and in 1889 at [Svea Court of Appeal](/wiki/Svea_Court_of_Appeal \"Svea Court of Appeal\"). Between 1889 and 1890, he gave lectures on law at Stockholm workers' association.",
"In 1886, Sohlman started working at *[Aftonbladet](/wiki/Aftonbladet \"Aftonbladet\")*. He had two family ties to the paper: first, he was the son of the previous editor, secondly, he was first cousin once removed from the head of the board for *Aftonbladet*, [J.W. Smitt](/wiki/J.W._Smitt \"J.W. Smitt\"). When he began working as editor in chief, the paper's circulation was 13,000\\. He was the paper's editor in chief between 1890 and 1921 as well as director of publication; between 1896 and 1912 he was also the editor in chief for *[Dagen (1896\\-1920\\)](/wiki/Dagen_%281896-1920%29 \"Dagen (1896-1920)\")*. In 1907, the ownership of *Aftonbladet* transitioned from the married couple [Gustaf Retzius](/wiki/Gustaf_Retzius \"Gustaf Retzius\") and [Anna Hierta\\-Retzius](/wiki/Anna_Hierta-Retzius \"Anna Hierta-Retzius\") to the brothers Harald and [Arvid Sohlman](/wiki/Arvid_Sohlman \"Arvid Sohlman\"). Harald promised Retzius that he would work for the good of the motherland and against socialism.*[Svenskt biografiskt lexikon](/wiki/Svenskt_biografiskt_lexikon \"Svenskt biografiskt lexikon\")*, 32\\. Stockholm 2003–2006, s. 625 From 1907, he was chairman of the Swedish telegraph agency; he was also chairman of the Publicists' club (Swedish: *Publicistklubben*) for many years.",
"He turned *Aftonbladet* into one of the biggest liberal papers during the tail end of the 19th century and the start of the 20th century. Between 1892 and 1905, he was the chairman of the Association against food tariffs. (During the tariff disputes, he was a fierce opponent to the protectionists.) *Aftonbladet* was seen as a political outlet for [Karl Staaff](/wiki/Karl_Staaff \"Karl Staaff\")'s government during its first term (1905 to 1906\\). Because of his passionate interest in the issue of defense, and his dislike of socialism, he eventually drifted to the right on the political spectrum. Because of his hostile attitude towards [Norway's ambitions for independence](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_union_between_Norway_and_Sweden \"Dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden\"), he was never invited to join the Left\\-wing press association. In particular, the leadership of *Dagens Nyheter* and *Aftonbladet* exchanged strong words. On the other hand, social democratic editors were not invited either.*Den svenska pressens historia, III. Det moderna Sveriges spegel (1897–1945\\).* Red: Karl Erik Gustafsson \\& Per Rydén. Ekerlids förlag: Stockholm 2001, 50f After the 1905 crisis in the union with Norway, the paper became increasingly nationalistic with Sohlman as editor in chief. He was a proponent of a [proportional electoral system](/wiki/Proportional_electoral_system \"Proportional electoral system\"), while [majority voting in single mandate constituencies](/wiki/Single-member_district \"Single-member district\") was the official party line for the liberal party leadership. After the return of Staaff in 1911, and under the influence by the [Courtyard Crisis](/wiki/Courtyard_Crisis \"Courtyard Crisis\") in the spring of 1914, he left the National liberal association and supported the political right from then on.",
"Sohlman was the chairman of the Stockholm shooting federation between 1907 and 1916 and vice chairman of Stockholm's militia federation between 1912 and 1926\\. In 1912, he initiated the Nordic capital cities' shooting competitions.*[Svenskt biografiskt lexikon](/wiki/Svenskt_biografiskt_lexikon \"Svenskt biografiskt lexikon\")*, 32\\. Stockholm 2003–2006, s. 627",
"In 1915, during the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War \"First World War\"), he and his brother Arvid Sohlman sold the paper to the Germans in order to allow them to spread German propaganda in Sweden. The Sohlman brothers pledged their stocks in exchange for a large sum of money. The deal was long kept secret. [K. A. Wallenberg](/wiki/K._A._Wallenberg \"K. A. Wallenberg\") and Torvald Höjer, head of the foreign ministry's press agency, contacted Sohlman among others with criticism that blamed [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\") and the tsar for starting the war.*Den svenska pressens historia, III. Det moderna Sveriges spegel (1897–1945\\).* Red: Karl Erik Gustafsson \\& Per Rydén. Ekerlids förlag: Stockholm 2001, 124 During Sohlman's time at the paper, it was also a body for pro\\-Finnish forces starting with the period of [Russification of Finland](/wiki/Russification_of_Finland \"Russification of Finland\"). He was awarded the [Order of the Cross of Liberty](/wiki/Order_of_the_Cross_of_Liberty \"Order of the Cross of Liberty\"), 2nd class, in 1918\\.*[Aftonbladet](/wiki/Aftonbladet \"Aftonbladet\")* 28/9 1918 In 1921, *Aftonbladet* and *Dagen* returned to Swedish ownership.*[Svenskt biografiskt lexikon](/wiki/Svenskt_biografiskt_lexikon \"Svenskt biografiskt lexikon\")*, 32\\. Stockholm 2003–2006, s. 626",
"As of 1917, he was married to [Magda Leidesdorff](/wiki/Magda_Leidesdorff \"Magda Leidesdorff\"), in her second marriage.",
"Ironically, he died on May 1 after falling down from his fourth\\-floor balcony,*[Svenska Dagbladets](/wiki/Svenska_Dagbladet \"Svenska Dagbladet\") årsbok : 1927*, red. Erik Rudberg \\& Edvin Hellblom, Stockholm 1928, s. 14 on [International Workers' Day](/wiki/International_Workers%27_Day \"International Workers' Day\"). His grave can be found in Huddinge graveyard southwest of Stockholm.",
"[Erik Palmstierna](/wiki/Erik_Palmstierna \"Erik Palmstierna\") describes him:\n”Sohlman appeared to have been forgotten since the 60s. A true patriot and guild brother, lover of shooting, and everything that the worker meant with the term 'Philistine', but a great and harmless man of honor.”\n–Palmstierna, 1950",
""
] |
Effects
-------
Gusts as high as {{convert\|75\|mph}}, hurricane\-force, were reported, and scattered power outages were expected. The storm brought much\-needed rain to places in the desert like [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas%2C_Nevada "Las Vegas, Nevada") and [Phoenix](/wiki/Phoenix%2C_Arizona "Phoenix, Arizona")—with the risk of flash floods.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.accuweather.com/en/weather\-news/storm\-to\-heighten\-flooding\-mudslide\-risk\-in\-fire\-scarred\-southern\-california/70003769\|title\=Storm to heighten flooding, mudslide risk in fire\-scarred Southern California\|last1\=Duff\|first1\=Renee\|date\=9 January 2018\|website\=accuweather.com\|publisher\=AccuWeather\|language\=English\|accessdate\=14 January 2018\|quote\=Sporadic power outages are possible. Gusts between 50 and 75 mph have occurred over the Coast Ranges.
Into Tuesday night, soaking rain, along with gusty winds, will spread into the Desert Southwest, including in Las Vegas and Phoenix. Localized flash flooding is possible in the arid landscape.
"While there will be plenty of negatives with this storm, it will also prove to be beneficial as it will provide some much\-needed rain," Root said.
All of Southern California is abnormally dry or experiencing a moderate drought, according to the United States Drought Monitor. Conditions have been even drier across the Four Corners region, where severe drought is occurring.
The rainfall will put a dent in precipitation deficits, as well as put an end to the wildfire season.
}} Also, mountain snow was expected throughout [the area](/wiki/Western_United_States "Western United States"), even into Canada,{{cite web \|url\=https://accuweather.brightspotcdn.com/dims4/default/152598b/2147483647/resize/590x/quality/90/?url\=http%3A%2F%2Faccuweather\-bsp.s3\.amazonaws.com%2Ff3%2F52%2F644ff43746a3a07558c5d264a991%2Fstatic\-rockies\-snow\-through\-wednesday.jpg \|title\=AccuWeather: Mountain snow through Wednesday \|website\=accuweather.com \|publisher\=AccuWeather \|accessdate\=14 January 2018\|language\=English\|format\=Image}} providing much\-needed replenishment to snowpacks.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.accuweather.com/en/weather\-news/storm\-to\-heighten\-flooding\-mudslide\-risk\-in\-fire\-scarred\-southern\-california/70003769\|title\=Storm to heighten flooding, mudslide risk in fire\-scarred Southern California\|last1\=Duff\|first1\=Renee\|date\=9 January 2018\|website\=accuweather.com\|publisher\=AccuWeather\|language\=English\|accessdate\=14 January 2018\|quote\=This past week, measurements by California’s Department of Water Resources revealed that the Sierra Nevada snowpack is around 3 percent of normal for this point in the winter season, according to the Associated Press.
As the storm pushes inland, locally heavy snow will spread across the various ranges of the Intermountain West into Wednesday.
}}
### California
{{convert\|18\|in\|spell\=In}} of snow was reported on [Mammoth Mountain](/wiki/Mammoth_Mountain "Mammoth Mountain").{{cite web\|title\=Storm Dumps 18 Inches of Snow, Heavy Rain in Sierra Nevada\|url\=https://www.usnews.com/news/best\-states/california/articles/2018\-01\-09/storm\-dumps\-18\-inches\-of\-snow\-heavy\-rain\-in\-sierra\-nevada\|website\=usnews.com\|publisher\=U.S.News\|accessdate\=13 January 2018\|language\=English\|date\=9 January 2018\|quote\=The National Weather Service in Reno reported Tuesday that 18 inches (46 centimeters) of snow fell on the top of Mammoth Mountain south of Yosemite National Park.}}
{{main\|2018 Southern California mudflows}}
The heavy rains caused flooding and mudflows in regions burned by [recent wildfires](/wiki/December_2017_Southern_California_wildfires "December 2017 Southern California wildfires"), killing at least 23 people.
### Nevada
Cities like Las Vegas experienced heavy flooding. Roads and highways underwater lead to road closures.{{cite web\|title\=Storm Dumps 18 Inches of Snow, Heavy Rain in Sierra Nevada\|url\=https://www.usnews.com/news/best\-states/california/articles/2018\-01\-09/storm\-dumps\-18\-inches\-of\-snow\-heavy\-rain\-in\-sierra\-nevada\|website\=usnews.com\|publisher\=U.S.News\|accessdate\=13 January 2018\|language\=English\|date\=9 January 2018}} At least two people had to be rescued from a flooded highway in Las Vegas. {{convert\|6\|\-\|12\|in\|spell\=In}} of snow were expected in the mountain of southern Nevada, causing winter warnings to be issued.{{cite web\|author1\=News 3 Staff\|title\=\#WeatherAuthority: Heavy rain, flood waters sweep the Las Vegas valley\|url\=http://news3lv.com/news/local/heavy\-rains\-sweep\-the\-valley\-on\-tuesday\|website\=news3lv.com\|publisher\=3 NEWS Las Vegas\|language\=English\|quote\=Winter storm warnings have also been issued for the Sheep and Spring Mountains with an expected 6\-12 inches of snow above 7,000 feet.}}
### Oregon and Washington
The Portland area experienced heavy flooding, which interfered with transportation.{{cite web\|title\=Heavy Rain Snarls Traffic, Floods Streets in Portland\|url\=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/weather/video/heavy\-rain\-snarls\-traffic\-floods\-streets\-in\-portland\-556649539815\|website\=nbcnews.com\|publisher\=NBC News\|accessdate\=13 January 2018\|format\=Video}} In addition, the Northwest Avalanche Center issued a high danger warning for much of the mountainous areas of Oregon and Washington, excluding ski areas, as {{convert\|4\|\-\|8\|in}} of snow were expected. {{convert\|2\|in\|spell\=In}} of rain, as well as tropical storm\-force wind gusts as high as {{convert\|60\|mph}}, were expected on the Oregon coast.{{cite web\|title\=Portland metro Thursday weather: Brisk winds and heavy rain; avalanche danger on Mount Hood\|url\=http://www.oregonlive.com/weather/index.ssf/2018/01/portland\_metro\_thursday\_weathe\_83\.html\|website\=oregonlive.com\|publisher\=The Oregonian\|accessdate\=13 January 2018\|language\=English\|date\=11 January 2018\|quote\=The Oregon coast will be windy today with gust up to 60 mph and heavy rains totaling up to 2 inches in some areas. Winds in the valleys will gust up to 40 mph according to the National Weather Service. Screen Shot 2018\-01\-11 at 5\.32\.59 AM.png NOAA The Weather Service has issued a winter weather advisory beginning 4 p.m. Thursday for dropping snow levels and snow amounts on the Cascade passes from 4\-8 inches.}}
|
[
"Effects\n-------",
"Gusts as high as {{convert\\|75\\|mph}}, hurricane\\-force, were reported, and scattered power outages were expected. The storm brought much\\-needed rain to places in the desert like [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas%2C_Nevada \"Las Vegas, Nevada\") and [Phoenix](/wiki/Phoenix%2C_Arizona \"Phoenix, Arizona\")—with the risk of flash floods.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.accuweather.com/en/weather\\-news/storm\\-to\\-heighten\\-flooding\\-mudslide\\-risk\\-in\\-fire\\-scarred\\-southern\\-california/70003769\\|title\\=Storm to heighten flooding, mudslide risk in fire\\-scarred Southern California\\|last1\\=Duff\\|first1\\=Renee\\|date\\=9 January 2018\\|website\\=accuweather.com\\|publisher\\=AccuWeather\\|language\\=English\\|accessdate\\=14 January 2018\\|quote\\=Sporadic power outages are possible. Gusts between 50 and 75 mph have occurred over the Coast Ranges.",
"Into Tuesday night, soaking rain, along with gusty winds, will spread into the Desert Southwest, including in Las Vegas and Phoenix. Localized flash flooding is possible in the arid landscape.",
"\"While there will be plenty of negatives with this storm, it will also prove to be beneficial as it will provide some much\\-needed rain,\" Root said.",
"All of Southern California is abnormally dry or experiencing a moderate drought, according to the United States Drought Monitor. Conditions have been even drier across the Four Corners region, where severe drought is occurring.",
"The rainfall will put a dent in precipitation deficits, as well as put an end to the wildfire season.",
"}} Also, mountain snow was expected throughout [the area](/wiki/Western_United_States \"Western United States\"), even into Canada,{{cite web \\|url\\=https://accuweather.brightspotcdn.com/dims4/default/152598b/2147483647/resize/590x/quality/90/?url\\=http%3A%2F%2Faccuweather\\-bsp.s3\\.amazonaws.com%2Ff3%2F52%2F644ff43746a3a07558c5d264a991%2Fstatic\\-rockies\\-snow\\-through\\-wednesday.jpg \\|title\\=AccuWeather: Mountain snow through Wednesday \\|website\\=accuweather.com \\|publisher\\=AccuWeather \\|accessdate\\=14 January 2018\\|language\\=English\\|format\\=Image}} providing much\\-needed replenishment to snowpacks.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.accuweather.com/en/weather\\-news/storm\\-to\\-heighten\\-flooding\\-mudslide\\-risk\\-in\\-fire\\-scarred\\-southern\\-california/70003769\\|title\\=Storm to heighten flooding, mudslide risk in fire\\-scarred Southern California\\|last1\\=Duff\\|first1\\=Renee\\|date\\=9 January 2018\\|website\\=accuweather.com\\|publisher\\=AccuWeather\\|language\\=English\\|accessdate\\=14 January 2018\\|quote\\=This past week, measurements by California’s Department of Water Resources revealed that the Sierra Nevada snowpack is around 3 percent of normal for this point in the winter season, according to the Associated Press.",
"As the storm pushes inland, locally heavy snow will spread across the various ranges of the Intermountain West into Wednesday.",
"}}",
"### California",
"{{convert\\|18\\|in\\|spell\\=In}} of snow was reported on [Mammoth Mountain](/wiki/Mammoth_Mountain \"Mammoth Mountain\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Storm Dumps 18 Inches of Snow, Heavy Rain in Sierra Nevada\\|url\\=https://www.usnews.com/news/best\\-states/california/articles/2018\\-01\\-09/storm\\-dumps\\-18\\-inches\\-of\\-snow\\-heavy\\-rain\\-in\\-sierra\\-nevada\\|website\\=usnews.com\\|publisher\\=U.S.News\\|accessdate\\=13 January 2018\\|language\\=English\\|date\\=9 January 2018\\|quote\\=The National Weather Service in Reno reported Tuesday that 18 inches (46 centimeters) of snow fell on the top of Mammoth Mountain south of Yosemite National Park.}}\n{{main\\|2018 Southern California mudflows}}\nThe heavy rains caused flooding and mudflows in regions burned by [recent wildfires](/wiki/December_2017_Southern_California_wildfires \"December 2017 Southern California wildfires\"), killing at least 23 people.",
"### Nevada",
"Cities like Las Vegas experienced heavy flooding. Roads and highways underwater lead to road closures.{{cite web\\|title\\=Storm Dumps 18 Inches of Snow, Heavy Rain in Sierra Nevada\\|url\\=https://www.usnews.com/news/best\\-states/california/articles/2018\\-01\\-09/storm\\-dumps\\-18\\-inches\\-of\\-snow\\-heavy\\-rain\\-in\\-sierra\\-nevada\\|website\\=usnews.com\\|publisher\\=U.S.News\\|accessdate\\=13 January 2018\\|language\\=English\\|date\\=9 January 2018}} At least two people had to be rescued from a flooded highway in Las Vegas. {{convert\\|6\\|\\-\\|12\\|in\\|spell\\=In}} of snow were expected in the mountain of southern Nevada, causing winter warnings to be issued.{{cite web\\|author1\\=News 3 Staff\\|title\\=\\#WeatherAuthority: Heavy rain, flood waters sweep the Las Vegas valley\\|url\\=http://news3lv.com/news/local/heavy\\-rains\\-sweep\\-the\\-valley\\-on\\-tuesday\\|website\\=news3lv.com\\|publisher\\=3 NEWS Las Vegas\\|language\\=English\\|quote\\=Winter storm warnings have also been issued for the Sheep and Spring Mountains with an expected 6\\-12 inches of snow above 7,000 feet.}}",
"### Oregon and Washington",
"The Portland area experienced heavy flooding, which interfered with transportation.{{cite web\\|title\\=Heavy Rain Snarls Traffic, Floods Streets in Portland\\|url\\=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/weather/video/heavy\\-rain\\-snarls\\-traffic\\-floods\\-streets\\-in\\-portland\\-556649539815\\|website\\=nbcnews.com\\|publisher\\=NBC News\\|accessdate\\=13 January 2018\\|format\\=Video}} In addition, the Northwest Avalanche Center issued a high danger warning for much of the mountainous areas of Oregon and Washington, excluding ski areas, as {{convert\\|4\\|\\-\\|8\\|in}} of snow were expected. {{convert\\|2\\|in\\|spell\\=In}} of rain, as well as tropical storm\\-force wind gusts as high as {{convert\\|60\\|mph}}, were expected on the Oregon coast.{{cite web\\|title\\=Portland metro Thursday weather: Brisk winds and heavy rain; avalanche danger on Mount Hood\\|url\\=http://www.oregonlive.com/weather/index.ssf/2018/01/portland\\_metro\\_thursday\\_weathe\\_83\\.html\\|website\\=oregonlive.com\\|publisher\\=The Oregonian\\|accessdate\\=13 January 2018\\|language\\=English\\|date\\=11 January 2018\\|quote\\=The Oregon coast will be windy today with gust up to 60 mph and heavy rains totaling up to 2 inches in some areas. Winds in the valleys will gust up to 40 mph according to the National Weather Service. Screen Shot 2018\\-01\\-11 at 5\\.32\\.59 AM.png NOAA The Weather Service has issued a winter weather advisory beginning 4 p.m. Thursday for dropping snow levels and snow amounts on the Cascade passes from 4\\-8 inches.}}",
""
] |
Concert film
------------
[thumb\|upright\|Mannequin dressed in one of Waters' costumes from the tour; displayed at the [Pink Floyd: Their Mortal Remains](/wiki/Pink_Floyd:Their_Mortal_Remains "Their Mortal Remains") exhibition](/wiki/File:Pink_Floyd_Their_Mortal_Remains_-_2017-10-13_-_Andy_Mabbett_-_62.jpg "Pink Floyd Their Mortal Remains - 2017-10-13 - Andy Mabbett - 62.jpg")
The idea to include live concert footage of any significant length for [*The Wall* film](/wiki/Pink_Floyd_%E2%80%93_The_Wall "Pink Floyd – The Wall") was dropped shortly before the final shows took place. There are conflicting statements regarding the professionally filmed footage. It had been widely believed that 'the wrong type of film' had been used and the results were dark and murky. [Mark Fisher](/wiki/Mark_Fisher_%28architect%29 "Mark Fisher (architect)"), partly responsible for designing the show said the footage was: 'very dark and horrible and boring and should be burned'.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.pinkfloyd\-co.com/band/interviews/other/otherfisher.html\|title\=Interview with Mark Fisher\|work\=pinkfloyd\-co.com\|access\-date\=11 March 2012}} Alan Parker himself said: '\[the filming of the shows were] five blown opportunities'.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.pinkfloydonline.com/faq/question50/\|title\=The Wall tours\|work\=pinkfloydonline.com\|access\-date\=11 March 2012}} These rumours were partially scotched when the [Channel 4](/wiki/Channel_4 "Channel 4") documentary 'Behind the Wall' (2000\) used perfectly clear master [videotape](/wiki/Videotape "Videotape") footage from the Earls Court 1980 concerts, as well as pristine film footage from the Earls Court 1981 concerts. 27 February, 6\-7\-8\-9 August 1980 concerts were shot on videotape, while 13\-14\-15\-16\-17 June 1981 were shot on Eastman 125T film stock, using Panavision (anamorphic) Panaflex Gold cameras. These cameras can be seen in various photographs from the June 1981 leg. Attempts to brighten up the show for the film were successful, however the ISO for the filming was too low, thus Parker deeming the footage "a waste". David Gilmour has stated in an interview that only three tracks were captured on film:[Record Collector, March 2000](http://www.pink-floyd.org/artint/rc032000.htm)
{{blockquote\|"About 20 minutes were shot – for example, "Hey You", where the camera was behind the wall focusing on us, then it went up and over the wall onto the audience. That's a great bit of footage. But only three tracks were filmed."}}
However, this is referring to the studio productions for the 1982 movie; shortly before the June 1981 leg ended, the band had come to the realization that they would need close\-ups of the musicians on\-stage. To solve this, they recreated the Earls Court concert stage at Pinewood Studios for the sole purpose of shooting close\-ups. They did several takes of "The Happiest Days of Our Lives"; "Another Brick in The Wall pt. 2"; "Mother"; and "Hey You". The reason that they chose to do the close\-ups in a studio as opposed to the live shows is due to the fact that they didn't want the cameras on the stage to distract the audience. The close\-ups presented in official teasers from 1981 are from the studio session.
In an interview with Chris Salewicz during the Radio KAOS tour in 1987, Waters claims that attempts to put it out were shut down, as it doesn't do the original concerts justice.
{{blockquote\|"There was an attempt made to put it on to video, and I have consistently stamped on any moves to get that video out because it does not do justice to what was a very theatrical event. Maybe in twenty years time, as sort of archive material, I might be prepared to release it. But I quite like the fact that the people who went to the shows copped it for what it meant to be, where it was meant to be, and nobody has been allowed to sell a third\-rate, tacky version on video."}}
Roger Waters said on an episode of *[In the Studio with Redbeard](/wiki/In_the_Studio_with_Redbeard "In the Studio with Redbeard")* which devoted two parts to the making of The Wall that "the London shows in 1980/81 were filmed and he had all of the footage and was thinking of putting it together to be released. However felt extremely reluctant to release the concerts on the [video cassette](/wiki/Video_cassette "Video cassette") format". He also would have to refer to the shows as a document of what went on.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2012}}
In the December 2009 issue of *Mojo*, Roger Waters revealed that he had 'discovered a whole load of new footage of The Wall shows' and was busy 'editing it'. He explained that he assumed the cameramen decided to shoot more than they were asked to as they had the cameras and "nobody \[seemed] bothered". Waters has stated that the film was shot on [70mm](/wiki/70_mm_film "70 mm film"),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=fta\_l77Q87s\&t\=2m3s\|title\=Roger Waters interview 1999\|website\=\[\[YouTube]] }} however this is false; it was shot on 35mm film and the negatives were printed as 70mm.
In *Rolling Stone* magazine, Waters expresses that the footage would "undoubtedly" be released to the public.
During [Waters' tour of The Wall in 2010](/wiki/The_Wall_Live_%282010%E2%80%932013%29 "The Wall Live (2010–2013)") footage of Waters performing his vocal parts in "[Mother](/wiki/Mother_%28Pink_Floyd_song%29 "Mother (Pink Floyd song)")", labelled as being filmed in Earls Court in 1980, was projected onto the incomplete wall. The first verse comes from the studio session in 1981, and the second verse comes from 7 August 1980\.
DVD of *The Wall Immersion Box Set* includes the professionally shot 35mm footage of "The Happiest Days of Our Lives" at Earls Court, 1981, with mixed footage from 13 to 17 June. The footage seen on the bootleg *Divided We Fall* by Harvested DVD is from 6–9 August 1980, while the audio is soundboard from 8 August in the first set, and 9 August in the second set.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.brain\-damage.co.uk/albums/pink\-floyd\-the\-wall\-2012\-immersion\-box\-set.html\|title\=Pink Floyd – The Wall 2012 Immersion box set\|work\=brain\-damage.co.uk\|date\=20 January 2012\|access\-date\=11 March 2012}}
|
[
"Concert film\n------------",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Mannequin dressed in one of Waters' costumes from the tour; displayed at the [Pink Floyd: Their Mortal Remains](/wiki/Pink_Floyd:Their_Mortal_Remains \"Their Mortal Remains\") exhibition](/wiki/File:Pink_Floyd_Their_Mortal_Remains_-_2017-10-13_-_Andy_Mabbett_-_62.jpg \"Pink Floyd Their Mortal Remains - 2017-10-13 - Andy Mabbett - 62.jpg\")",
"The idea to include live concert footage of any significant length for [*The Wall* film](/wiki/Pink_Floyd_%E2%80%93_The_Wall \"Pink Floyd – The Wall\") was dropped shortly before the final shows took place. There are conflicting statements regarding the professionally filmed footage. It had been widely believed that 'the wrong type of film' had been used and the results were dark and murky. [Mark Fisher](/wiki/Mark_Fisher_%28architect%29 \"Mark Fisher (architect)\"), partly responsible for designing the show said the footage was: 'very dark and horrible and boring and should be burned'.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.pinkfloyd\\-co.com/band/interviews/other/otherfisher.html\\|title\\=Interview with Mark Fisher\\|work\\=pinkfloyd\\-co.com\\|access\\-date\\=11 March 2012}} Alan Parker himself said: '\\[the filming of the shows were] five blown opportunities'.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.pinkfloydonline.com/faq/question50/\\|title\\=The Wall tours\\|work\\=pinkfloydonline.com\\|access\\-date\\=11 March 2012}} These rumours were partially scotched when the [Channel 4](/wiki/Channel_4 \"Channel 4\") documentary 'Behind the Wall' (2000\\) used perfectly clear master [videotape](/wiki/Videotape \"Videotape\") footage from the Earls Court 1980 concerts, as well as pristine film footage from the Earls Court 1981 concerts. 27 February, 6\\-7\\-8\\-9 August 1980 concerts were shot on videotape, while 13\\-14\\-15\\-16\\-17 June 1981 were shot on Eastman 125T film stock, using Panavision (anamorphic) Panaflex Gold cameras. These cameras can be seen in various photographs from the June 1981 leg. Attempts to brighten up the show for the film were successful, however the ISO for the filming was too low, thus Parker deeming the footage \"a waste\". David Gilmour has stated in an interview that only three tracks were captured on film:[Record Collector, March 2000](http://www.pink-floyd.org/artint/rc032000.htm)",
"{{blockquote\\|\"About 20 minutes were shot – for example, \"Hey You\", where the camera was behind the wall focusing on us, then it went up and over the wall onto the audience. That's a great bit of footage. But only three tracks were filmed.\"}}",
"However, this is referring to the studio productions for the 1982 movie; shortly before the June 1981 leg ended, the band had come to the realization that they would need close\\-ups of the musicians on\\-stage. To solve this, they recreated the Earls Court concert stage at Pinewood Studios for the sole purpose of shooting close\\-ups. They did several takes of \"The Happiest Days of Our Lives\"; \"Another Brick in The Wall pt. 2\"; \"Mother\"; and \"Hey You\". The reason that they chose to do the close\\-ups in a studio as opposed to the live shows is due to the fact that they didn't want the cameras on the stage to distract the audience. The close\\-ups presented in official teasers from 1981 are from the studio session.",
"In an interview with Chris Salewicz during the Radio KAOS tour in 1987, Waters claims that attempts to put it out were shut down, as it doesn't do the original concerts justice.",
"{{blockquote\\|\"There was an attempt made to put it on to video, and I have consistently stamped on any moves to get that video out because it does not do justice to what was a very theatrical event. Maybe in twenty years time, as sort of archive material, I might be prepared to release it. But I quite like the fact that the people who went to the shows copped it for what it meant to be, where it was meant to be, and nobody has been allowed to sell a third\\-rate, tacky version on video.\"}}",
"Roger Waters said on an episode of *[In the Studio with Redbeard](/wiki/In_the_Studio_with_Redbeard \"In the Studio with Redbeard\")* which devoted two parts to the making of The Wall that \"the London shows in 1980/81 were filmed and he had all of the footage and was thinking of putting it together to be released. However felt extremely reluctant to release the concerts on the [video cassette](/wiki/Video_cassette \"Video cassette\") format\". He also would have to refer to the shows as a document of what went on.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2012}}",
"In the December 2009 issue of *Mojo*, Roger Waters revealed that he had 'discovered a whole load of new footage of The Wall shows' and was busy 'editing it'. He explained that he assumed the cameramen decided to shoot more than they were asked to as they had the cameras and \"nobody \\[seemed] bothered\". Waters has stated that the film was shot on [70mm](/wiki/70_mm_film \"70 mm film\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=fta\\_l77Q87s\\&t\\=2m3s\\|title\\=Roger Waters interview 1999\\|website\\=\\[\\[YouTube]] }} however this is false; it was shot on 35mm film and the negatives were printed as 70mm.",
"In *Rolling Stone* magazine, Waters expresses that the footage would \"undoubtedly\" be released to the public.",
"During [Waters' tour of The Wall in 2010](/wiki/The_Wall_Live_%282010%E2%80%932013%29 \"The Wall Live (2010–2013)\") footage of Waters performing his vocal parts in \"[Mother](/wiki/Mother_%28Pink_Floyd_song%29 \"Mother (Pink Floyd song)\")\", labelled as being filmed in Earls Court in 1980, was projected onto the incomplete wall. The first verse comes from the studio session in 1981, and the second verse comes from 7 August 1980\\.",
"DVD of *The Wall Immersion Box Set* includes the professionally shot 35mm footage of \"The Happiest Days of Our Lives\" at Earls Court, 1981, with mixed footage from 13 to 17 June. The footage seen on the bootleg *Divided We Fall* by Harvested DVD is from 6–9 August 1980, while the audio is soundboard from 8 August in the first set, and 9 August in the second set.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.brain\\-damage.co.uk/albums/pink\\-floyd\\-the\\-wall\\-2012\\-immersion\\-box\\-set.html\\|title\\=Pink Floyd – The Wall 2012 Immersion box set\\|work\\=brain\\-damage.co.uk\\|date\\=20 January 2012\\|access\\-date\\=11 March 2012}}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Burke was born at Ballydugan, near [Loughrea](/wiki/Loughrea "Loughrea"), [County Galway](/wiki/County_Galway "County Galway"), the third son of William Malachy Burke (1784–1853\), a Barrister\-at\-law, High Sheriff of Co. Galway 1822, and Anna Maria, only daughter of John Blake of Windfield.Burke's Landed Gentry of Ireland \- 1958, p. 124 Both the Blakes and the Burkes were old Galway families, the Burkes descending from [Richard Mór de Burgh, 1st Baron of Connaught](/wiki/Richard_M%C3%B3r_de_Burgh%2C_1st_Baron_of_Connaught "Richard Mór de Burgh, 1st Baron of Connaught") (died 1242\) and the Blakes being one of the [Tribes of Galway](/wiki/Tribes_of_Galway "Tribes of Galway").
After receiving his medical education at [St George's Hospital](/wiki/St_George%27s_Hospital "St George's Hospital"), London, in 1842, Burke passed [MRCS](/wiki/Membership_of_the_Royal_Colleges_of_Surgeons_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland "Membership of the Royal Colleges of Surgeons of Great Britain and Ireland") at the [London College of Surgeons](/wiki/London_College_of_Surgeons "London College of Surgeons"). He became a [Licenciate](/wiki/Licenciate "Licenciate") (LKQCP) in Ireland in June 1847, and on 19 October 1863, a Fellow of the [King's and Queen's College of Physicians](/wiki/King%27s_and_Queen%27s_College_of_Physicians "King's and Queen's College of Physicians") in Ireland. He served as a physician at [Steevens' Hospital](/wiki/Steevens%27_Hospital "Steevens' Hospital"), [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin "Dublin"), and he was also Physician in Ordinary to the [Lord Lieutenant of Ireland](/wiki/Lord_Lieutenant_of_Ireland "Lord Lieutenant of Ireland"), for the years 1866–68 and 1874–76\.
Burke was a member of the Pathology Society and the Geological Society, Dublin; of the [British Medical Association](/wiki/British_Medical_Association "British Medical Association"); a Fellow of the [British Meteorological Society](/wiki/British_Meteorological_Society "British Meteorological Society"); and was a Visiting Physician to Steevens' Hospital, Dublin. He also served as a Consultant Physician at the National Eye and Ear Infirmary, St Stephen's Green.
After serving as Medical Superintendent in the General Register Office from 1864 to 1876, he succeeded Mr Donnelly as Registrar General for Ireland, serving from 1876 to 1879, during which period he effected important improvements in the system of registration in Ireland.
He married in 1852 Harriet Isabella, only surviving daughter of the Rev. Hugh Hamilton, of Churchhill, Benmore, [County Fermanagh](/wiki/County_Fermanagh "County Fermanagh"). They had three children; William Henry Marsh, Capt. (b. 9 April 1859, d. 1892\), John Albert (b. 1862\), Edmund (b. 1865\).Burke's Landed Gentry of Ireland \- 1958, p. 124 He died on 13 August 1879 from [pleuro\-pneumonia](/wiki/Pleuro-pneumonia "Pleuro-pneumonia"), at his residence at 88 St Stephen's Green. He was interred in [Mount Jerome Cemetery](/wiki/Mount_Jerome_Cemetery "Mount Jerome Cemetery"). Burke was considered to be "a very amiable man and was much liked in the large social circle in which he moved".
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Burke was born at Ballydugan, near [Loughrea](/wiki/Loughrea \"Loughrea\"), [County Galway](/wiki/County_Galway \"County Galway\"), the third son of William Malachy Burke (1784–1853\\), a Barrister\\-at\\-law, High Sheriff of Co. Galway 1822, and Anna Maria, only daughter of John Blake of Windfield.Burke's Landed Gentry of Ireland \\- 1958, p. 124 Both the Blakes and the Burkes were old Galway families, the Burkes descending from [Richard Mór de Burgh, 1st Baron of Connaught](/wiki/Richard_M%C3%B3r_de_Burgh%2C_1st_Baron_of_Connaught \"Richard Mór de Burgh, 1st Baron of Connaught\") (died 1242\\) and the Blakes being one of the [Tribes of Galway](/wiki/Tribes_of_Galway \"Tribes of Galway\").",
"After receiving his medical education at [St George's Hospital](/wiki/St_George%27s_Hospital \"St George's Hospital\"), London, in 1842, Burke passed [MRCS](/wiki/Membership_of_the_Royal_Colleges_of_Surgeons_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland \"Membership of the Royal Colleges of Surgeons of Great Britain and Ireland\") at the [London College of Surgeons](/wiki/London_College_of_Surgeons \"London College of Surgeons\"). He became a [Licenciate](/wiki/Licenciate \"Licenciate\") (LKQCP) in Ireland in June 1847, and on 19 October 1863, a Fellow of the [King's and Queen's College of Physicians](/wiki/King%27s_and_Queen%27s_College_of_Physicians \"King's and Queen's College of Physicians\") in Ireland. He served as a physician at [Steevens' Hospital](/wiki/Steevens%27_Hospital \"Steevens' Hospital\"), [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin \"Dublin\"), and he was also Physician in Ordinary to the [Lord Lieutenant of Ireland](/wiki/Lord_Lieutenant_of_Ireland \"Lord Lieutenant of Ireland\"), for the years 1866–68 and 1874–76\\.",
"Burke was a member of the Pathology Society and the Geological Society, Dublin; of the [British Medical Association](/wiki/British_Medical_Association \"British Medical Association\"); a Fellow of the [British Meteorological Society](/wiki/British_Meteorological_Society \"British Meteorological Society\"); and was a Visiting Physician to Steevens' Hospital, Dublin. He also served as a Consultant Physician at the National Eye and Ear Infirmary, St Stephen's Green.",
"After serving as Medical Superintendent in the General Register Office from 1864 to 1876, he succeeded Mr Donnelly as Registrar General for Ireland, serving from 1876 to 1879, during which period he effected important improvements in the system of registration in Ireland.",
"He married in 1852 Harriet Isabella, only surviving daughter of the Rev. Hugh Hamilton, of Churchhill, Benmore, [County Fermanagh](/wiki/County_Fermanagh \"County Fermanagh\"). They had three children; William Henry Marsh, Capt. (b. 9 April 1859, d. 1892\\), John Albert (b. 1862\\), Edmund (b. 1865\\).Burke's Landed Gentry of Ireland \\- 1958, p. 124 He died on 13 August 1879 from [pleuro\\-pneumonia](/wiki/Pleuro-pneumonia \"Pleuro-pneumonia\"), at his residence at 88 St Stephen's Green. He was interred in [Mount Jerome Cemetery](/wiki/Mount_Jerome_Cemetery \"Mount Jerome Cemetery\"). Burke was considered to be \"a very amiable man and was much liked in the large social circle in which he moved\".",
""
] |
Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 3 honours
------------------------------------
### Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 3 (1987–1990\)
The original Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 3 was a tier 9 league. Promotion was to [Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 2](/wiki/Notts%2C_Lincs_%26_Derbyshire_2 "Notts, Lincs & Derbyshire 2") and relegation was to either [Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 4 East](/wiki/Notts%2C_Lincs_%26_Derbyshire_4 "Notts, Lincs & Derbyshire 4") or [Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 4 West](/wiki/Notts%2C_Lincs_%26_Derbyshire_4 "Notts, Lincs & Derbyshire 4").
|
| | **Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 3** | |
| --- | --- | --- |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Season | No of teams | Champions | Runners–up | Relegated teams | Reference |
| 1987–88 | 11 | **[All Spartans](/wiki/Ashfield_RUFC "Ashfield RUFC")** | [Long Eaton](/wiki/Long_Eaton_RFC "Long Eaton RFC") | [Bingham](/wiki/Bingham_RUFC "Bingham RUFC"), [Bakewell Mannerians](/wiki/Bakewell_Mannerians_RUFC "Bakewell Mannerians RUFC") | {{cite book\|last1\=Jones\|first1\=Stephen\|last2\=Griffiths\|first2\=John\|title\=Rothmans Rugby Union Yearbook 1988\-89\|date\=1988\|publisher\=Queen Anne Press\|isbn\=0\-356\-15884\-5\|pages\=130–134}} |
| 1988–89 | 11 | **[Dronfield](/wiki/Dronfield_Rugby_Club "Dronfield Rugby Club")** | [Nottinghamshire Constabulary](/wiki/Nottinghamshire_Constabulary_RFC "Nottinghamshire Constabulary RFC") | [Gainsborough](/wiki/Gainsborough_RUFC "Gainsborough RUFC") | {{cite book\|last1\=Jones\|first1\=Stephen\|last2\=Griffiths\|first2\=John\|title\=Rothmans Rugby Union Yearbook 1989\-90\|date\=1989\|publisher\=Queen Anne Press\|isbn\=0\-356\-17862\-5\|pages\=136–139}} |
| 1989–90 | 11 | **[Belper](/wiki/Belper_Rugby_Club "Belper Rugby Club")** | [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne_RFC "Melbourne RFC") | [Skegness](/wiki/Skegness_RUFC "Skegness RUFC") | {{cite book\|last1\=Jones\|first1\=Stephen\|last2\=Griffiths\|first2\=John\|title\=Rothmans Rugby Union Yearbook 1990\-91\|date\=1990\|publisher\=Queen Anne Press\|isbn\=0\-356\-19162\-1\|pages\=140–143}} |
| Green backgrounds are promotion places. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
### Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 3 (1990–1992\)
Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 3 continued as a tier 9 league with promotion to [Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 2](/wiki/Notts%2C_Lincs_%26_Derbyshire_2 "Notts, Lincs & Derbyshire 2"). However, restructuring due to the introduction of [Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 5](/wiki/Notts%2C_Lincs_%26_Derbyshire_5 "Notts, Lincs & Derbyshire 5") meant that relegation was now to a single [Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 4](/wiki/Notts%2C_Lincs_%26_Derbyshire_4 "Notts, Lincs & Derbyshire 4") division.
|
| | **Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 3** | |
| --- | --- | --- |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Season | No of teams | Champions | Runners–up | Relegated teams | Reference |
| 1990–91 | 11 | **[Ashbourne](/wiki/Ashbourne_RUFC "Ashbourne RUFC")** | [Ilkeston](/wiki/Ilkeston_Rugby_Club "Ilkeston Rugby Club") | [Boston](/wiki/Boston_RFC_%28England%29 "Boston RFC (England)"), [Barton \& District](/wiki/Barton_%26_District_RUFC "Barton & District RUFC") | {{cite book\|last1\=Jones\|first1\=Stephen\|last2\=Griffiths\|first2\=John\|title\=Rothmans Rugby Union Yearbook 1991\-92\|date\=1991\|publisher\=Queen Anne Press\|isbn\=0\-356\-20249\-6\|pages\=161–164}} |
| 1991–92 | 11 | **[Bakewell Mannerians](/wiki/Bakewell_Mannerians_RUFC "Bakewell Mannerians RUFC")**{{efn\|Restructuring saw champions \[\[Bakewell Mannerians RUFC\|Bakewell Mannerians]] promoted two levels up into \[\[Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 1]].}} | [Grimsby](/wiki/Grimsby_RUFC "Grimsby RUFC"){{efn\|Restructuring saw runners up \[\[Grimsby RUFC\|Grimsby]] also promoted two levels up into \[\[Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 1]]. The rest of the clubs in the division were promoted into \[\[Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 2]].}} | No relegation{{efn\|As restructuring meant that all clubs in the division were promoted there was no relegation.}} | {{cite book\|last1\=Jones\|first1\=Stephen\|last2\=Griffiths\|first2\=John\|title\=Rothmans Rugby Union Yearbook 1992\-93\|date\=1992\|publisher\=Headline\|isbn\=0\-7472\-7907\-1\|pages\=183–185}} |
| Green backgrounds are promotion places. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
### Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 3 (1992–1993\)
Restructuring of the Midlands leagues saw Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 3 drop two levels to become a tier 11 league. Promotion continued to [Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 2](/wiki/Notts%2C_Lincs_%26_Derbyshire_2 "Notts, Lincs & Derbyshire 2") and relegation to [Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 4](/wiki/Notts%2C_Lincs_%26_Derbyshire_4 "Notts, Lincs & Derbyshire 4").
|
| | **Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 3** | |
| --- | --- | --- |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Season | No of teams | Champions | Runners–up | Relegated teams | Reference |
| 1992–93 | 12 | **[Bingham](/wiki/Bingham_RUFC "Bingham RUFC")** | [Stamford College](/wiki/Stamford_College_Old_Boys_RFC "Stamford College Old Boys RFC") | [Rainworth](/wiki/Rainworth_RFC "Rainworth RFC"), [Bolsover](/wiki/North_Derbyshire_RUFC "North Derbyshire RUFC"), [Yarborough Bees](/wiki/Yarborough_Bees_RFC "Yarborough Bees RFC") | {{cite book\|last1\=Jones\|first1\=Stephen\|last2\=Griffiths\|first2\=John\|title\=Rothmans Rugby Union Yearbook 1993\-94\|date\=1993\|publisher\=Headline\|isbn\=0\-7472\-7891\-1\|pages\=164–167}} |
| Green backgrounds are the promotion places. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
### Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 3 (1993–1996\)
The top six teams from Midlands 1 and the top six from [North 1](/wiki/North_Premier "North Premier") were combined to create [National 5 North](/wiki/Courage_League_Division_5 "Courage League Division 5"), meaning that Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 3 dropped another level to become a tier 12 league. Promotion continued to [Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 2](/wiki/Notts%2C_Lincs_%26_Derbyshire_2 "Notts, Lincs & Derbyshire 2") and relegation to [Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 4](/wiki/Notts%2C_Lincs_%26_Derbyshire_4 "Notts, Lincs & Derbyshire 4").
|
| | **Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 3** | |
| --- | --- | --- |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Season | No of teams | Champions | Runners–up | Relegated teams | Reference |
|
| 1993–94 | 13 | **[North Kesteven](/wiki/North_Hykeham_RUFC "North Hykeham RUFC")** | [Barton \& District](/wiki/Barton_%26_District_RUFC "Barton & District RUFC") | [Hope Valley](/wiki/Hope_Valley_RFC "Hope Valley RFC"), [Cleethorpes](/wiki/Cleethorpes_RUFC "Cleethorpes RUFC"), [Bourne](/wiki/Bourne_RUFC "Bourne RUFC") | {{cite book\|last1\=Jones\|first1\=Stephen\|last2\=Griffiths\|first2\=John\|title\=Rothmans Rugby Union Yearbook 1994\-95\|date\=1994\|publisher\=Headline\|isbn\=0\-7472\-7891\-1\|pages\=164–167}} |
| 1994–95 | 13 | **[Castle Donington](/wiki/Castle_Donington_RUFC "Castle Donington RUFC")** | [Boots Athletic](/wiki/Nottingham_Corsairs_RFC "Nottingham Corsairs RFC") | [Gainsborough](/wiki/Gainsborough_RUFC "Gainsborough RUFC"), [Bolsover](/wiki/North_Derbyshire_RUFC "North Derbyshire RUFC"), [Skegness](/wiki/Skegness_RUFC "Skegness RUFC") | {{cite book\|last1\=Jones\|first1\=Stephen\|last2\=Griffiths\|first2\=John\|title\=Rothmans Rugby Union Yearbook 1995\-96\|date\=1995\|publisher\=Headline\|isbn\=0\-7472\-7850\-4\|pages\=176–179}} |
| 1995–96 | 12 | **[Stamford College](/wiki/Stamford_College_Old_Boys_RFC "Stamford College Old Boys RFC")** | [Cotgrave](/wiki/Cotgrave_RFC "Cotgrave RFC"){{efn\|Due to the cancellation of \[\[Courage League Division 5\|National 5 North]] subsequent restructuring meant that ten clubs were promoted to \[\[Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 2]] including \[\[Nottinghamians]], \[\[Belper Rugby Club\|Belper]], \[\[Meden Vale RFC\|Meden Vale]], \[\[Barton \& District RUFC\|Barton \& District]], \[\[Cleethorpes RUFC\|Cleethorpes]], \[\[University of Derby]], \[\[Ollerton RFC\|Ollerton]] and \[\[Yarborough Bees RFC\|Yarborough Bees]].}} | No relegation | {{cite book\|last1\=Cleary\|first1\=Mick\|last2\=Griffiths\|first2\=John\|title\=Rothmans Rugby Union Yearbook 1996\-97\|date\=1996\|publisher\=Headline\|isbn\=0\-7472\-7816\-4\|pages\=192–195}} |
| Green backgrounds are the promotion places. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
### Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 3 (1996–2000\)
At the end of the 1995–96 season [National 5 North](/wiki/Courage_League_Division_5 "Courage League Division 5") was discontinued and Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 3 returned to being a tier 11 league. Promotion continued to [Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 2](/wiki/Notts%2C_Lincs_%26_Derbyshire_2 "Notts, Lincs & Derbyshire 2") while the cancellation of [Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 4](/wiki/Notts%2C_Lincs_%26_Derbyshire_4 "Notts, Lincs & Derbyshire 4") meant that there was no relegation. At the end of the 1999–00 season Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 3 was cancelled due to Midlands league restructuring and teams transferred into the new Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire/Leicestershire leagues.
|
| | **Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 3** | |
| --- | --- | --- |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Season | No of teams | Champions | Runners–up | Relegated teams | Reference |
|
| 1996–97 | 7 | **[Hope Valley](/wiki/Hope_Valley_RFC "Hope Valley RFC")** | [Gainsborough](/wiki/Gainsborough_RUFC "Gainsborough RUFC") | No relegation | {{cite book\|last1\=Cleary\|first1\=Mick\|last2\=Griffiths\|first2\=John\|title\=Rothmans Rugby Union Yearbook 1997\-98\|date\=1997\|publisher\=Headline\|isbn\=0\-7472\-7771\-0\|pages\=156–159}} |
| 1997–98 | 7 | **[Cleethorpes](/wiki/Cleethorpes_RUFC "Cleethorpes RUFC")** | [Skegness](/wiki/Skegness_RUFC "Skegness RUFC") | No relegation | {{cite book\|last1\=Cleary\|first1\=Mick\|last2\=Griffiths\|first2\=John\|title\=Rothmans Rugby Union Yearbook 1998\-99\|date\=1998\|publisher\=Headline\|isbn\=0\-7472\-7653\-6\|pages\=90–93}} |
| 1998–99 | 10 | **[Bolsover](/wiki/North_Derbyshire_RUFC "North Derbyshire RUFC")** | [Tupton](/wiki/Tupton_RUFC "Tupton RUFC") | No relegation | {{cite web\|url\=https://www.englandrugby.com/fixtures\-and\-results/search\-results?competition\=1597\&division\=230\&season\=1998\-1999\#table\|title\=1998\-1999 Midlands Division\|publisher\=England Rugby\|accessdate\=12 December 2020}}{{efn\|1998–99 Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 2 mistakenly referred to as NLD/Leics 2 East on RFU website.}} |
| 1999–00 | 10 | **[University of Derby](/wiki/University_of_Derby "University of Derby")**{{efn\|Restructuring would see champions \[\[University of Derby]] transferred to \[\[Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire/Leicestershire 2 East]].}} | [Ollerton](/wiki/Ollerton_RFC "Ollerton RFC"){{efn\|The merging of Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire and \[\[Leicestershire Rugby Union\|Leicestershire leagues]] would see all teams transferred into the equivalent new divisions. \[\[Ollerton RFC\|Ollerton]] would join \[\[Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire/Leicestershire 2 East]] while the rest of the clubs in the division would join \[\[Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire/Leicestershire 2 West]].}} | No relegation | {{cite web\|url\=https://www.englandrugby.com/fixtures\-and\-results/search\-results?competition\=1597\&division\=542\&season\=1999\-2000\#table\|title\=1999\-2000 Midlands Division\|publisher\=England Rugby\|accessdate\=12 December 2020}}{{efn\|1999–00 Notts, Lincs \& Derbyshire 2 mistakenly referred to as NLD/Leics 1 West on RFU website.}} |
| Green backgrounds are the promotion places. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
|
[
"Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 3 honours\n------------------------------------",
"### Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 3 (1987–1990\\)",
"The original Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 3 was a tier 9 league. Promotion was to [Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 2](/wiki/Notts%2C_Lincs_%26_Derbyshire_2 \"Notts, Lincs & Derbyshire 2\") and relegation was to either [Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 4 East](/wiki/Notts%2C_Lincs_%26_Derbyshire_4 \"Notts, Lincs & Derbyshire 4\") or [Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 4 West](/wiki/Notts%2C_Lincs_%26_Derbyshire_4 \"Notts, Lincs & Derbyshire 4\").",
"",
"|",
"| | **Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 3** | |\n| --- | --- | --- |",
"",
"| --- | --- | --- |\n| Season | No of teams | Champions | Runners–up | Relegated teams | Reference |\n| 1987–88 | 11 | **[All Spartans](/wiki/Ashfield_RUFC \"Ashfield RUFC\")** | [Long Eaton](/wiki/Long_Eaton_RFC \"Long Eaton RFC\") | [Bingham](/wiki/Bingham_RUFC \"Bingham RUFC\"), [Bakewell Mannerians](/wiki/Bakewell_Mannerians_RUFC \"Bakewell Mannerians RUFC\") | {{cite book\\|last1\\=Jones\\|first1\\=Stephen\\|last2\\=Griffiths\\|first2\\=John\\|title\\=Rothmans Rugby Union Yearbook 1988\\-89\\|date\\=1988\\|publisher\\=Queen Anne Press\\|isbn\\=0\\-356\\-15884\\-5\\|pages\\=130–134}} |\n| 1988–89 | 11 | **[Dronfield](/wiki/Dronfield_Rugby_Club \"Dronfield Rugby Club\")** | [Nottinghamshire Constabulary](/wiki/Nottinghamshire_Constabulary_RFC \"Nottinghamshire Constabulary RFC\") | [Gainsborough](/wiki/Gainsborough_RUFC \"Gainsborough RUFC\") | {{cite book\\|last1\\=Jones\\|first1\\=Stephen\\|last2\\=Griffiths\\|first2\\=John\\|title\\=Rothmans Rugby Union Yearbook 1989\\-90\\|date\\=1989\\|publisher\\=Queen Anne Press\\|isbn\\=0\\-356\\-17862\\-5\\|pages\\=136–139}} |\n| 1989–90 | 11 | **[Belper](/wiki/Belper_Rugby_Club \"Belper Rugby Club\")** | [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne_RFC \"Melbourne RFC\") | [Skegness](/wiki/Skegness_RUFC \"Skegness RUFC\") | {{cite book\\|last1\\=Jones\\|first1\\=Stephen\\|last2\\=Griffiths\\|first2\\=John\\|title\\=Rothmans Rugby Union Yearbook 1990\\-91\\|date\\=1990\\|publisher\\=Queen Anne Press\\|isbn\\=0\\-356\\-19162\\-1\\|pages\\=140–143}} |\n| Green backgrounds are promotion places. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |",
"### Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 3 (1990–1992\\)",
"Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 3 continued as a tier 9 league with promotion to [Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 2](/wiki/Notts%2C_Lincs_%26_Derbyshire_2 \"Notts, Lincs & Derbyshire 2\"). However, restructuring due to the introduction of [Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 5](/wiki/Notts%2C_Lincs_%26_Derbyshire_5 \"Notts, Lincs & Derbyshire 5\") meant that relegation was now to a single [Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 4](/wiki/Notts%2C_Lincs_%26_Derbyshire_4 \"Notts, Lincs & Derbyshire 4\") division.",
"",
"|",
"| | **Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 3** | |\n| --- | --- | --- |",
"",
"| --- | --- | --- |\n| Season | No of teams | Champions | Runners–up | Relegated teams | Reference |\n| 1990–91 | 11 | **[Ashbourne](/wiki/Ashbourne_RUFC \"Ashbourne RUFC\")** | [Ilkeston](/wiki/Ilkeston_Rugby_Club \"Ilkeston Rugby Club\") | [Boston](/wiki/Boston_RFC_%28England%29 \"Boston RFC (England)\"), [Barton \\& District](/wiki/Barton_%26_District_RUFC \"Barton & District RUFC\") | {{cite book\\|last1\\=Jones\\|first1\\=Stephen\\|last2\\=Griffiths\\|first2\\=John\\|title\\=Rothmans Rugby Union Yearbook 1991\\-92\\|date\\=1991\\|publisher\\=Queen Anne Press\\|isbn\\=0\\-356\\-20249\\-6\\|pages\\=161–164}} |\n| 1991–92 | 11 | **[Bakewell Mannerians](/wiki/Bakewell_Mannerians_RUFC \"Bakewell Mannerians RUFC\")**{{efn\\|Restructuring saw champions \\[\\[Bakewell Mannerians RUFC\\|Bakewell Mannerians]] promoted two levels up into \\[\\[Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 1]].}} | [Grimsby](/wiki/Grimsby_RUFC \"Grimsby RUFC\"){{efn\\|Restructuring saw runners up \\[\\[Grimsby RUFC\\|Grimsby]] also promoted two levels up into \\[\\[Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 1]]. The rest of the clubs in the division were promoted into \\[\\[Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 2]].}} | No relegation{{efn\\|As restructuring meant that all clubs in the division were promoted there was no relegation.}} | {{cite book\\|last1\\=Jones\\|first1\\=Stephen\\|last2\\=Griffiths\\|first2\\=John\\|title\\=Rothmans Rugby Union Yearbook 1992\\-93\\|date\\=1992\\|publisher\\=Headline\\|isbn\\=0\\-7472\\-7907\\-1\\|pages\\=183–185}} |\n| Green backgrounds are promotion places. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |",
"### Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 3 (1992–1993\\)",
"Restructuring of the Midlands leagues saw Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 3 drop two levels to become a tier 11 league. Promotion continued to [Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 2](/wiki/Notts%2C_Lincs_%26_Derbyshire_2 \"Notts, Lincs & Derbyshire 2\") and relegation to [Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 4](/wiki/Notts%2C_Lincs_%26_Derbyshire_4 \"Notts, Lincs & Derbyshire 4\").",
"",
"|",
"| | **Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 3** | |\n| --- | --- | --- |",
"",
"| --- | --- | --- |\n| Season | No of teams | Champions | Runners–up | Relegated teams | Reference |\n| 1992–93 | 12 | **[Bingham](/wiki/Bingham_RUFC \"Bingham RUFC\")** | [Stamford College](/wiki/Stamford_College_Old_Boys_RFC \"Stamford College Old Boys RFC\") | [Rainworth](/wiki/Rainworth_RFC \"Rainworth RFC\"), [Bolsover](/wiki/North_Derbyshire_RUFC \"North Derbyshire RUFC\"), [Yarborough Bees](/wiki/Yarborough_Bees_RFC \"Yarborough Bees RFC\") | {{cite book\\|last1\\=Jones\\|first1\\=Stephen\\|last2\\=Griffiths\\|first2\\=John\\|title\\=Rothmans Rugby Union Yearbook 1993\\-94\\|date\\=1993\\|publisher\\=Headline\\|isbn\\=0\\-7472\\-7891\\-1\\|pages\\=164–167}} |\n| Green backgrounds are the promotion places. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |",
"### Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 3 (1993–1996\\)",
"The top six teams from Midlands 1 and the top six from [North 1](/wiki/North_Premier \"North Premier\") were combined to create [National 5 North](/wiki/Courage_League_Division_5 \"Courage League Division 5\"), meaning that Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 3 dropped another level to become a tier 12 league. Promotion continued to [Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 2](/wiki/Notts%2C_Lincs_%26_Derbyshire_2 \"Notts, Lincs & Derbyshire 2\") and relegation to [Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 4](/wiki/Notts%2C_Lincs_%26_Derbyshire_4 \"Notts, Lincs & Derbyshire 4\").",
"",
"|",
"| | **Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 3** | |\n| --- | --- | --- |",
"",
"| --- | --- | --- |\n| Season | No of teams | Champions | Runners–up | Relegated teams | Reference |\n|\n| 1993–94 | 13 | **[North Kesteven](/wiki/North_Hykeham_RUFC \"North Hykeham RUFC\")** | [Barton \\& District](/wiki/Barton_%26_District_RUFC \"Barton & District RUFC\") | [Hope Valley](/wiki/Hope_Valley_RFC \"Hope Valley RFC\"), [Cleethorpes](/wiki/Cleethorpes_RUFC \"Cleethorpes RUFC\"), [Bourne](/wiki/Bourne_RUFC \"Bourne RUFC\") | {{cite book\\|last1\\=Jones\\|first1\\=Stephen\\|last2\\=Griffiths\\|first2\\=John\\|title\\=Rothmans Rugby Union Yearbook 1994\\-95\\|date\\=1994\\|publisher\\=Headline\\|isbn\\=0\\-7472\\-7891\\-1\\|pages\\=164–167}} |\n| 1994–95 | 13 | **[Castle Donington](/wiki/Castle_Donington_RUFC \"Castle Donington RUFC\")** | [Boots Athletic](/wiki/Nottingham_Corsairs_RFC \"Nottingham Corsairs RFC\") | [Gainsborough](/wiki/Gainsborough_RUFC \"Gainsborough RUFC\"), [Bolsover](/wiki/North_Derbyshire_RUFC \"North Derbyshire RUFC\"), [Skegness](/wiki/Skegness_RUFC \"Skegness RUFC\") | {{cite book\\|last1\\=Jones\\|first1\\=Stephen\\|last2\\=Griffiths\\|first2\\=John\\|title\\=Rothmans Rugby Union Yearbook 1995\\-96\\|date\\=1995\\|publisher\\=Headline\\|isbn\\=0\\-7472\\-7850\\-4\\|pages\\=176–179}} |\n| 1995–96 | 12 | **[Stamford College](/wiki/Stamford_College_Old_Boys_RFC \"Stamford College Old Boys RFC\")** | [Cotgrave](/wiki/Cotgrave_RFC \"Cotgrave RFC\"){{efn\\|Due to the cancellation of \\[\\[Courage League Division 5\\|National 5 North]] subsequent restructuring meant that ten clubs were promoted to \\[\\[Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 2]] including \\[\\[Nottinghamians]], \\[\\[Belper Rugby Club\\|Belper]], \\[\\[Meden Vale RFC\\|Meden Vale]], \\[\\[Barton \\& District RUFC\\|Barton \\& District]], \\[\\[Cleethorpes RUFC\\|Cleethorpes]], \\[\\[University of Derby]], \\[\\[Ollerton RFC\\|Ollerton]] and \\[\\[Yarborough Bees RFC\\|Yarborough Bees]].}} | No relegation | {{cite book\\|last1\\=Cleary\\|first1\\=Mick\\|last2\\=Griffiths\\|first2\\=John\\|title\\=Rothmans Rugby Union Yearbook 1996\\-97\\|date\\=1996\\|publisher\\=Headline\\|isbn\\=0\\-7472\\-7816\\-4\\|pages\\=192–195}} |\n| Green backgrounds are the promotion places. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |",
"### Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 3 (1996–2000\\)",
"At the end of the 1995–96 season [National 5 North](/wiki/Courage_League_Division_5 \"Courage League Division 5\") was discontinued and Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 3 returned to being a tier 11 league. Promotion continued to [Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 2](/wiki/Notts%2C_Lincs_%26_Derbyshire_2 \"Notts, Lincs & Derbyshire 2\") while the cancellation of [Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 4](/wiki/Notts%2C_Lincs_%26_Derbyshire_4 \"Notts, Lincs & Derbyshire 4\") meant that there was no relegation. At the end of the 1999–00 season Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 3 was cancelled due to Midlands league restructuring and teams transferred into the new Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire/Leicestershire leagues.",
"",
"|",
"| | **Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 3** | |\n| --- | --- | --- |",
"",
"| --- | --- | --- |\n| Season | No of teams | Champions | Runners–up | Relegated teams | Reference |\n|\n| 1996–97 | 7 | **[Hope Valley](/wiki/Hope_Valley_RFC \"Hope Valley RFC\")** | [Gainsborough](/wiki/Gainsborough_RUFC \"Gainsborough RUFC\") | No relegation | {{cite book\\|last1\\=Cleary\\|first1\\=Mick\\|last2\\=Griffiths\\|first2\\=John\\|title\\=Rothmans Rugby Union Yearbook 1997\\-98\\|date\\=1997\\|publisher\\=Headline\\|isbn\\=0\\-7472\\-7771\\-0\\|pages\\=156–159}} |\n| 1997–98 | 7 | **[Cleethorpes](/wiki/Cleethorpes_RUFC \"Cleethorpes RUFC\")** | [Skegness](/wiki/Skegness_RUFC \"Skegness RUFC\") | No relegation | {{cite book\\|last1\\=Cleary\\|first1\\=Mick\\|last2\\=Griffiths\\|first2\\=John\\|title\\=Rothmans Rugby Union Yearbook 1998\\-99\\|date\\=1998\\|publisher\\=Headline\\|isbn\\=0\\-7472\\-7653\\-6\\|pages\\=90–93}} |\n| 1998–99 | 10 | **[Bolsover](/wiki/North_Derbyshire_RUFC \"North Derbyshire RUFC\")** | [Tupton](/wiki/Tupton_RUFC \"Tupton RUFC\") | No relegation | {{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.englandrugby.com/fixtures\\-and\\-results/search\\-results?competition\\=1597\\&division\\=230\\&season\\=1998\\-1999\\#table\\|title\\=1998\\-1999 Midlands Division\\|publisher\\=England Rugby\\|accessdate\\=12 December 2020}}{{efn\\|1998–99 Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 2 mistakenly referred to as NLD/Leics 2 East on RFU website.}} |\n| 1999–00 | 10 | **[University of Derby](/wiki/University_of_Derby \"University of Derby\")**{{efn\\|Restructuring would see champions \\[\\[University of Derby]] transferred to \\[\\[Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire/Leicestershire 2 East]].}} | [Ollerton](/wiki/Ollerton_RFC \"Ollerton RFC\"){{efn\\|The merging of Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire and \\[\\[Leicestershire Rugby Union\\|Leicestershire leagues]] would see all teams transferred into the equivalent new divisions. \\[\\[Ollerton RFC\\|Ollerton]] would join \\[\\[Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire/Leicestershire 2 East]] while the rest of the clubs in the division would join \\[\\[Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire/Leicestershire 2 West]].}} | No relegation | {{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.englandrugby.com/fixtures\\-and\\-results/search\\-results?competition\\=1597\\&division\\=542\\&season\\=1999\\-2000\\#table\\|title\\=1999\\-2000 Midlands Division\\|publisher\\=England Rugby\\|accessdate\\=12 December 2020}}{{efn\\|1999–00 Notts, Lincs \\& Derbyshire 2 mistakenly referred to as NLD/Leics 1 West on RFU website.}} |\n| Green backgrounds are the promotion places. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |",
""
] |
Fictional background
--------------------
A Terminator is an infiltration\-based assassin, described in the films as a cybernetic organism. They are built in the future by [Skynet](/wiki/Skynet_%28Terminator%29 "Skynet (Terminator)"), an artificial intelligence engaged in a war against humans. Often known as a T\-800, the Terminator is preceded by an earlier model known as the [T\-600](/wiki/T-600 "T-600"), which used rubber skin and was easily spotted by members of the human resistance.
T\-800s are all identical in appearance: a muscular, male human exterior made up of living tissue, covering a metal [endoskeleton](/wiki/Endoskeleton "Endoskeleton") actuated by a powerful network of [hydraulic](/wiki/Hydraulic_machinery "Hydraulic machinery") [servomechanisms](/wiki/Servomechanism "Servomechanism"), which provide [superhuman strength](/wiki/Superhuman_strength "Superhuman strength"). In the *Terminator* sequels, armies of skinless T\-800 endoskeletons are shown to be used by Skynet during future war sequences, serving as soldiers rather than infiltrators. With the exterior appearance applied, they are the first Terminator model capable of blending in with humans; as a result, the resistance began using dogs to detect them.
In [the first film](/wiki/The_Terminator "The Terminator"), a Terminator time travels from 2029 to 1984 to alter the past by killing [Sarah Connor](/wiki/Sarah_Connor_%28Terminator%29 "Sarah Connor (Terminator)"), ensuring victory for Skynet. [Kyle Reese](/wiki/Kyle_Reese "Kyle Reese"), a future soldier sent back to stop the Terminator, describes the latter as such:
"The Terminator is an infiltration unit, part man – part machine. Underneath it's a hyperalloy combat chassis, microprocessor\-controlled, fully armored, very tough. But outside it's living human tissue. Flesh, skin, hair, blood, grown for the cyborgs."
The skin is prone to aging and injury related deterioration,{{cite news \|last\=Reimann \|first\=Tom \|title\=Here's the Reason Arnold Schwarzenegger's T\-800 Ages in 'Terminator: Dark Fate' \|url\=https://collider.com/terminator\-dark\-fate\-why\-terminator\-ages/ \|access\-date\=May 10, 2024 \|work\=Collider \|date\=October 22, 2019}} but can heal itself with enough time.According to the Terminator, when asked by Sarah Connor in *[Terminator 2: Judgment Day](/wiki/Terminator_2:Judgment_Day "Judgment Day")*. Also stated in *[Terminator Genisys](/wiki/Terminator_Genisys "Terminator Genisys")*. According to early drafts for the original film, a Terminator must consume small amounts of food to maintain the human skin, a detail that is absent in the finished film.{{cite web \|last\=Gunning \|first\=Cathal \|title\=Terminator Cutting Its Oddest Scene Created A Franchise Plot Hole \|url\=https://screenrant.com/do\-terminators\-eat\-original\-movie\-deleted\-scene/ \|website\=ScreenRant \|access\-date\=May 5, 2024 \|date\=November 29, 2022}}
A Terminator can withstand normal 20th century [firearms](/wiki/Firearm "Firearm"), crash through walls with little to no damage, and survive [explosions](/wiki/Explosion "Explosion") to some degree. Repeated shotgun blasts have enough force to knock down and temporarily disable the cyborg, while heavy amounts of automatic fire are able to compromise the organic disguise layer. Terminators can continue functioning even after losing one or more limbs. Reese describes the Terminator's relentlessness to Sarah in the first film:
"It can't be bargained with. It can't be reasoned with. It doesn't feel pity, or remorse, or fear! And it absolutely will not stop, ever, until you are dead!
The Terminator's [CPU](/wiki/Central_processing_unit "Central processing unit") is an [artificial neural network](/wiki/Artificial_neural_network "Artificial neural network") with [the ability to learn and adapt](/wiki/Machine_learning "Machine learning"). For instance, in the original film, he learns how to swear from a group of punks it encounters. In *[Terminator 2: Judgment Day](/wiki/Terminator_2:Judgment_Day "Judgment Day")*, the character states, "The more contact I have with humans, the more I learn." A deleted scene from the second film, restored in the Special Edition, provides more backstory on the Terminator's learning ability; the character says that Terminators are set to [read\-only](/wiki/File-system_permissions "File-system permissions"), a measure taken by Skynet to prevent them from "thinking too much". Sarah and John then activate his learning ability, after which he becomes more curious and begins trying to understand and imitate human behavior. He ultimately learns "the value of human life" as mused by Sarah in the closing narration of the theatrical cut.{{Cite web\|first\=Oktay Ege \|last\=Kozak \| url\=https://www.pastemagazine.com/movies/terminator\-2/battle\-of\-the\-cuts\-terminator\-2\-theatrical\-vs\-sp/ \|title\=Battle Of The Cuts: ''Terminator 2''—Theatrical Vs. Special Edition\|website\=\[\[Paste (magazine)\|Paste]]\|date\=April 11, 2018 \|access\-date\=February 14, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220205074814/https://www.pastemagazine.com/movies/terminator\-2/battle\-of\-the\-cuts\-terminator\-2\-theatrical\-vs\-sp/ \|archive\-date\=February 5, 2022 \|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite magazine\|first\=Andy\|last\=Greene\| url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/movies/movie\-news/terminator\-2\-judgment\-day\-deleted\-scene\-840915/\|title\=Flashback: The Terminator Gets Rebooted In A ''T2: Judgment Day'' Deleted Scene\|magazine\=\[\[Rolling Stone]]\|date\=May 28, 2019\|access\-date\=February 14, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603072820/https://www.rollingstone.com/movies/movie\-news/terminator\-2\-judgment\-day\-deleted\-scene\-840915/ \|archive\-date\=June 3, 2019 \|url\-access\=limited \|url\-status\=live}} Later films in the series further humanize the character.
[thumb\|left\|A Terminator figure at [Madame Tussauds London](/wiki/Madame_Tussauds_London "Madame Tussauds London"), demonstrating the metallic interior and red eyes](/wiki/File:Terminator_in_Madame_Tussaud_London_%2833465711484%29.jpg "Terminator in Madame Tussaud London (33465711484).jpg")
Throughout the series, the Terminator is typically depicted wearing sunglasses and a leather jacket.{{cite news \|last\=Alexander \|first\=Bryan \|title\='Terminator' turns 35: Arnold Schwarzenegger's sunglasses completed the perfect killer \|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/movies/2019/10/27/terminator\-35th\-anniversary\-arnold\-schwarzenegger\-donned\-killer\-gargoyle\-sunglasses/2480133001/ \|access\-date\=May 10, 2024 \|work\=USA Today \|date\=October 29, 2019}}{{cite web \|last\=Chichizola \|first\=Corey \|title\=Arnold Schwarzenegger Shot Down A Key Terminator Callback In Dark Fate \|url\=https://www.cinemablend.com/news/2483727/arnold\-schwarzenegger\-shot\-down\-a\-key\-terminator\-callback\-in\-dark\-fate \|website\=CinemaBlend \|access\-date\=May 10, 2024 \|date\=November 4, 2019}} Another trait persistent throughout the series is the faint red glow of the "eyes" when the cyborg is online; the lack of the glow has been used to show when one is out of action. The Terminator has an Austrian accent but can also [copy the voice of others](/wiki/Audio_deepfake "Audio deepfake").{{cite web \|last\=Sofge \|first\=Erik \|title\=The Toughest, Smartest, Best Terminators of All Time (T\-800\) \|url\=http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/robotics/4245140\.html?page\=2 \|website\=Popular Mechanics \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228113355/http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/robotics/4245140\.html?page\=2 \|archive\-date\=February 28, 2009 \|date\=January 18, 2008}}{{cite web \|last\=Berlatsky \|first\=Noah \|title\=WTF Moments: Terminator 2's phone booth scene still makes us choke on our milk \|url\=https://www.syfy.com/syfy\-wire/wtf\-moments\-terminator\-2s\-phone\-booth\-scene\-still\-makes\-us\-choke\-on\-our\-milk \|website\=Syfy \|access\-date\=November 26, 2023 \|date\=May 27, 2019}}
In the second film, the Terminator states that he can operate for 120 years on his power cell. The Terminator in the third film is slightly modified, operating on two hydrogen [fuel cells](/wiki/Fuel_cell "Fuel cell"); when damaged, these explode with enough force to produce a small [mushroom cloud](/wiki/Mushroom_cloud "Mushroom cloud"). This iteration of the character also has an understanding of basic psychology.
### Nomenclature
Commonly known as the Terminator, the character is also given more specific designations, which help distinguish from other mass\-produced [Terminators](/wiki/Terminator_%28character_concept%29 "Terminator (character concept)") seen in each of the sequels.{{cite web \|last1\=Collura \|first1\=Scott \|last2\=Linder \|first2\=Brian \|title\=The Many Looks of the Terminator: Part One \|url\=https://www.ign.com/articles/2009/05/15/the\-many\-looks\-of\-the\-terminator\-part\-one \|website\=IGN \|access\-date\=May 11, 2024 \|date\=May 15, 2009}}
In the first two films and *[Terminator: Dark Fate](/wiki/Terminator:Dark_Fate "Dark Fate")*, the character is referred to as a "Cyberdyne Systems Model 101", referencing the Cyberdyne Systems company which created Skynet. In *[Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines](/wiki/Terminator_3:Rise_of_the_Machines "Rise of the Machines")* (*T3*), he is referred to as a "T\-101". This name also occurs throughout the [*T2* novels](/wiki/T2_%28novel_series%29 "T2 (novel series)"). A slight variation, "T101", was used as early as 1991, in the [Amstrad CPC](/wiki/Amstrad_CPC "Amstrad CPC") and [ZX Spectrum](/wiki/ZX_Spectrum "ZX Spectrum") versions of the [*Terminator 2* computer game](/wiki/Terminator_2_%28computer_game%29 "Terminator 2 (computer game)").{{cite video game \|title\=Terminator 2: Judgment Day \|developer\=Dementia \|publisher\=\[\[Ocean Software]] \|date\=1991 \|platform\=Amstrad CPC}}{{cite magazine \|last\=Roberts \|first\=Nick \|date\=December 1991 \|title\=Terminator 2: Judgment Day \|magazine\=\[\[Crash (magazine)\|Crash]] \|location\=United Kingdom \|pages\=54–55}}
The name "T\-800" had been used off\-screen in news articles and reviews for *Terminator 2*, differentiating from the film's other Terminator character, the [T\-1000](/wiki/T-1000 "T-1000").{{cite news \|title\=Arnie's $100 Million Judgment Day \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/120211979/ \|work\=Sydney Morning Herald \|date\=June 8, 1991 \|access\-date\=May 11, 2024 \|via\=Newspapers.com \|url\-access\=subscription}}{{cite news \|title\=Thriller with a conscience \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/734046284/ \|work\=Brantford Expositor \|date\=June 29, 1991 \|access\-date\=May 11, 2024 \|via\=Newspapers.com \|url\-access\=subscription}}{{cite news \|title\=Big\-budget 'Terminator 2' is upping the cyborg ante \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/439481669/ \|work\=The Boston Globe \|date\=June 30, 1991 \|access\-date\=May 11, 2024 \|via\=Newspapers.com \|url\-access\=subscription}} The T\-800's [heads\-up display](/wiki/Heads-up_display "Heads-up display") in the film specifically identifies him as a "Cyberdyne Systems Series 800 Model 101 Version 2\.4".{{cite web \|last\=Kelly \|first\=Kevin \|title\=Behind the Cybernetics with the Next Terminator Generation \|url\=https://gizmodo.com/behind\-the\-cybernetics\-with\-the\-next\-terminator\-generat\-352773 \|website\=Gizmodo \|access\-date\=May 11, 2024 \|date\=February 5, 2008}} The novelization of the third film refers to the character by a different designation: a T\-850 rather than a T\-101, described as a newer, upgraded version of the T\-800\.{{cite book \|last\=Hagberg \|first\=David \|title\=Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines \|date\=2003 \|publisher\=Macmillan \|isbn\=9780765347411 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=DU\-hnoszGTMC \|access\-date\=October 10, 2019 \|pages\=146–148}} Both T\-800 and T\-850 were used in merchandising for the film series.{{cite web \|last\=Linder \|first\=Brian \|title\=Toying with the Terminator: Have a look at McFarlane Toys' T3 figures \|url\=http://movies.ign.com/articles/386/386687p1\.html \|work\=IGN \|date\=February 19, 2003 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303113857/http://movies.ign.com/articles/386/386687p1\.html \|archive\-date\=March 3, 2012}} *Terminator Salvation* has the first on\-screen usage of the term T\-800, which is also used in *[Terminator Genisys](/wiki/Terminator_Genisys "Terminator Genisys")*.Guardian: "As a T\-800, I lack the mimetic skills to appear as anyone else." *Terminator Genisys*.
Because the Terminator is portrayed by [Arnold Schwarzenegger](/wiki/Arnold_Schwarzenegger "Arnold Schwarzenegger"), the character is sometimes referred to as the Arnold Terminator, distinguishing from other Terminators played by different actors.{{cite web \|last\=Kaye \|first\=Don \|title\=How James Cameron Came Back for Terminator: Dark Fate \|url\=https://www.denofgeek.com/movies/how\-james\-cameron\-came\-back\-for\-terminator\-dark\-fate/ \|website\=Den of Geek \|access\-date\=May 12, 2024 \|date\=October 22, 2019}} Some of the Terminators portrayed by Schwarzenegger are also given on\-screen nicknames. In *Terminator 2*, [John Connor](/wiki/John_Connor_%28Terminator%29 "John Connor (Terminator)") introduces the Model 101 to his mother's friends as his "Uncle Bob". In *Terminator Genisys*, Sarah Connor refers to the T\-800 as "Pops", while the [end credits](/wiki/End_credits "End credits") list him as "Guardian". In *Terminator: Dark Fate*, the character goes by the name "Carl".
In the *Terminator 2* DVD commentary, director and franchise creator [James Cameron](/wiki/James_Cameron "James Cameron") states that all Model 101s look like Schwarzenegger, with a 102 resembling someone else, leading to fan speculation that the 101 refers to the physical appearance while the 800 refers to the endoskeleton common to many models.
### Character origin
The origin of the Terminator's physical and vocal templates is provided in the 2001 novel *T2: Infiltrator*, in the form of former counter\-terrorist Dieter von Rossbach, who meets and joins forces with the Connors in the present. The novel reveals that he was never questioned about the Terminators' actions, as his superiors always knew that he was somewhere else during the rampages. The reason stated for copying Dieter was that Skynet was looking in the old military files for someone whose body could effectively conceal the Terminator's massive endoskeleton. The voice was provided through Kurt Viemeister, the scientist that taught Skynet its sentience.
A different origin is provided in a humorous deleted scene for *Terminator 3*, removed by director [Jonathan Mostow](/wiki/Jonathan_Mostow "Jonathan Mostow") who found it too comedic. In the scene, the Terminator's human appearance is said to be based on that of [Chief Master Sergeant](/wiki/Chief_Master_Sergeant "Chief Master Sergeant") William Candy, also portrayed by Schwarzenegger but with a dubbed\-over [Southern accent](/wiki/Southern_American_English "Southern American English"), which would be replaced in\-universe by the more menacing Austrian\-accented voice of one of the developers.{{cite web \|last\=Sciretta \|first\=Peter \|title\=LOL: Terminator 3 Deleted Scene Explains Why The Terminators Look Like Arnold \|url\=https://www.slashfilm.com/lol\-terminator\-3\-deleted\-scene\-explains\-why\-the\-terminators\-look\-like\-arnold/ \|website\=/Film \|accessdate\=October 17, 2019 \|date\=June 29, 2009}}{{cite web \|last\=Horn \|first\=Shawn Van \|title\=This Awful Terminator Deleted Scene Explains Why the Robots Look Like Arnold Schwarzenegger \|url\=https://collider.com/terminator\-3\-rise\-of\-the\-machines\-deleted\-scene/ \|website\=Collider \|access\-date\=May 11, 2024 \|date\=March 8, 2024}}
When asked in 2017 why all T\-800s look the same, Cameron suggested that Skynet had harvested the DNA from a human who had the same appearance, stating "it has flashed through my mind that there has to have been a prototype. \[...] Now, the question is, did that person have some sort of meaning to Skynet on *why* they chose that one? Or was it like a whole rack of Terminators and the one that happened to be the Arnold model just happened to be closest to the door going out to the time displacement center and all the others looked different? I've asked myself these questions but it's never been resolved".{{cite web \|last\=Leston \|first\=Ryan \|title\=Terminator 6 may explain why all T\-800s look like Arnold Schwarzenegger \|url\=https://uk.movies.yahoo.com/movies/terminator\-6\-may\-explain\-terminators\-look\-like\-arnold\-schwarzenegger\-150352893\.html \|website\=Yahoo \|access\-date\=May 11, 2024 \|date\=August 11, 2017}}
|
[
"Fictional background\n--------------------",
"A Terminator is an infiltration\\-based assassin, described in the films as a cybernetic organism. They are built in the future by [Skynet](/wiki/Skynet_%28Terminator%29 \"Skynet (Terminator)\"), an artificial intelligence engaged in a war against humans. Often known as a T\\-800, the Terminator is preceded by an earlier model known as the [T\\-600](/wiki/T-600 \"T-600\"), which used rubber skin and was easily spotted by members of the human resistance.",
"T\\-800s are all identical in appearance: a muscular, male human exterior made up of living tissue, covering a metal [endoskeleton](/wiki/Endoskeleton \"Endoskeleton\") actuated by a powerful network of [hydraulic](/wiki/Hydraulic_machinery \"Hydraulic machinery\") [servomechanisms](/wiki/Servomechanism \"Servomechanism\"), which provide [superhuman strength](/wiki/Superhuman_strength \"Superhuman strength\"). In the *Terminator* sequels, armies of skinless T\\-800 endoskeletons are shown to be used by Skynet during future war sequences, serving as soldiers rather than infiltrators. With the exterior appearance applied, they are the first Terminator model capable of blending in with humans; as a result, the resistance began using dogs to detect them.",
"In [the first film](/wiki/The_Terminator \"The Terminator\"), a Terminator time travels from 2029 to 1984 to alter the past by killing [Sarah Connor](/wiki/Sarah_Connor_%28Terminator%29 \"Sarah Connor (Terminator)\"), ensuring victory for Skynet. [Kyle Reese](/wiki/Kyle_Reese \"Kyle Reese\"), a future soldier sent back to stop the Terminator, describes the latter as such:",
"\"The Terminator is an infiltration unit, part man – part machine. Underneath it's a hyperalloy combat chassis, microprocessor\\-controlled, fully armored, very tough. But outside it's living human tissue. Flesh, skin, hair, blood, grown for the cyborgs.\"\nThe skin is prone to aging and injury related deterioration,{{cite news \\|last\\=Reimann \\|first\\=Tom \\|title\\=Here's the Reason Arnold Schwarzenegger's T\\-800 Ages in 'Terminator: Dark Fate' \\|url\\=https://collider.com/terminator\\-dark\\-fate\\-why\\-terminator\\-ages/ \\|access\\-date\\=May 10, 2024 \\|work\\=Collider \\|date\\=October 22, 2019}} but can heal itself with enough time.According to the Terminator, when asked by Sarah Connor in *[Terminator 2: Judgment Day](/wiki/Terminator_2:Judgment_Day \"Judgment Day\")*. Also stated in *[Terminator Genisys](/wiki/Terminator_Genisys \"Terminator Genisys\")*. According to early drafts for the original film, a Terminator must consume small amounts of food to maintain the human skin, a detail that is absent in the finished film.{{cite web \\|last\\=Gunning \\|first\\=Cathal \\|title\\=Terminator Cutting Its Oddest Scene Created A Franchise Plot Hole \\|url\\=https://screenrant.com/do\\-terminators\\-eat\\-original\\-movie\\-deleted\\-scene/ \\|website\\=ScreenRant \\|access\\-date\\=May 5, 2024 \\|date\\=November 29, 2022}}",
"A Terminator can withstand normal 20th century [firearms](/wiki/Firearm \"Firearm\"), crash through walls with little to no damage, and survive [explosions](/wiki/Explosion \"Explosion\") to some degree. Repeated shotgun blasts have enough force to knock down and temporarily disable the cyborg, while heavy amounts of automatic fire are able to compromise the organic disguise layer. Terminators can continue functioning even after losing one or more limbs. Reese describes the Terminator's relentlessness to Sarah in the first film:",
"\"It can't be bargained with. It can't be reasoned with. It doesn't feel pity, or remorse, or fear! And it absolutely will not stop, ever, until you are dead!\nThe Terminator's [CPU](/wiki/Central_processing_unit \"Central processing unit\") is an [artificial neural network](/wiki/Artificial_neural_network \"Artificial neural network\") with [the ability to learn and adapt](/wiki/Machine_learning \"Machine learning\"). For instance, in the original film, he learns how to swear from a group of punks it encounters. In *[Terminator 2: Judgment Day](/wiki/Terminator_2:Judgment_Day \"Judgment Day\")*, the character states, \"The more contact I have with humans, the more I learn.\" A deleted scene from the second film, restored in the Special Edition, provides more backstory on the Terminator's learning ability; the character says that Terminators are set to [read\\-only](/wiki/File-system_permissions \"File-system permissions\"), a measure taken by Skynet to prevent them from \"thinking too much\". Sarah and John then activate his learning ability, after which he becomes more curious and begins trying to understand and imitate human behavior. He ultimately learns \"the value of human life\" as mused by Sarah in the closing narration of the theatrical cut.{{Cite web\\|first\\=Oktay Ege \\|last\\=Kozak \\| url\\=https://www.pastemagazine.com/movies/terminator\\-2/battle\\-of\\-the\\-cuts\\-terminator\\-2\\-theatrical\\-vs\\-sp/ \\|title\\=Battle Of The Cuts: ''Terminator 2''—Theatrical Vs. Special Edition\\|website\\=\\[\\[Paste (magazine)\\|Paste]]\\|date\\=April 11, 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=February 14, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220205074814/https://www.pastemagazine.com/movies/terminator\\-2/battle\\-of\\-the\\-cuts\\-terminator\\-2\\-theatrical\\-vs\\-sp/ \\|archive\\-date\\=February 5, 2022 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite magazine\\|first\\=Andy\\|last\\=Greene\\| url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/movies/movie\\-news/terminator\\-2\\-judgment\\-day\\-deleted\\-scene\\-840915/\\|title\\=Flashback: The Terminator Gets Rebooted In A ''T2: Judgment Day'' Deleted Scene\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Rolling Stone]]\\|date\\=May 28, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=February 14, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603072820/https://www.rollingstone.com/movies/movie\\-news/terminator\\-2\\-judgment\\-day\\-deleted\\-scene\\-840915/ \\|archive\\-date\\=June 3, 2019 \\|url\\-access\\=limited \\|url\\-status\\=live}} Later films in the series further humanize the character.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|A Terminator figure at [Madame Tussauds London](/wiki/Madame_Tussauds_London \"Madame Tussauds London\"), demonstrating the metallic interior and red eyes](/wiki/File:Terminator_in_Madame_Tussaud_London_%2833465711484%29.jpg \"Terminator in Madame Tussaud London (33465711484).jpg\")\nThroughout the series, the Terminator is typically depicted wearing sunglasses and a leather jacket.{{cite news \\|last\\=Alexander \\|first\\=Bryan \\|title\\='Terminator' turns 35: Arnold Schwarzenegger's sunglasses completed the perfect killer \\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/movies/2019/10/27/terminator\\-35th\\-anniversary\\-arnold\\-schwarzenegger\\-donned\\-killer\\-gargoyle\\-sunglasses/2480133001/ \\|access\\-date\\=May 10, 2024 \\|work\\=USA Today \\|date\\=October 29, 2019}}{{cite web \\|last\\=Chichizola \\|first\\=Corey \\|title\\=Arnold Schwarzenegger Shot Down A Key Terminator Callback In Dark Fate \\|url\\=https://www.cinemablend.com/news/2483727/arnold\\-schwarzenegger\\-shot\\-down\\-a\\-key\\-terminator\\-callback\\-in\\-dark\\-fate \\|website\\=CinemaBlend \\|access\\-date\\=May 10, 2024 \\|date\\=November 4, 2019}} Another trait persistent throughout the series is the faint red glow of the \"eyes\" when the cyborg is online; the lack of the glow has been used to show when one is out of action. The Terminator has an Austrian accent but can also [copy the voice of others](/wiki/Audio_deepfake \"Audio deepfake\").{{cite web \\|last\\=Sofge \\|first\\=Erik \\|title\\=The Toughest, Smartest, Best Terminators of All Time (T\\-800\\) \\|url\\=http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/robotics/4245140\\.html?page\\=2 \\|website\\=Popular Mechanics \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228113355/http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/robotics/4245140\\.html?page\\=2 \\|archive\\-date\\=February 28, 2009 \\|date\\=January 18, 2008}}{{cite web \\|last\\=Berlatsky \\|first\\=Noah \\|title\\=WTF Moments: Terminator 2's phone booth scene still makes us choke on our milk \\|url\\=https://www.syfy.com/syfy\\-wire/wtf\\-moments\\-terminator\\-2s\\-phone\\-booth\\-scene\\-still\\-makes\\-us\\-choke\\-on\\-our\\-milk \\|website\\=Syfy \\|access\\-date\\=November 26, 2023 \\|date\\=May 27, 2019}}",
"In the second film, the Terminator states that he can operate for 120 years on his power cell. The Terminator in the third film is slightly modified, operating on two hydrogen [fuel cells](/wiki/Fuel_cell \"Fuel cell\"); when damaged, these explode with enough force to produce a small [mushroom cloud](/wiki/Mushroom_cloud \"Mushroom cloud\"). This iteration of the character also has an understanding of basic psychology.",
"### Nomenclature",
"Commonly known as the Terminator, the character is also given more specific designations, which help distinguish from other mass\\-produced [Terminators](/wiki/Terminator_%28character_concept%29 \"Terminator (character concept)\") seen in each of the sequels.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Collura \\|first1\\=Scott \\|last2\\=Linder \\|first2\\=Brian \\|title\\=The Many Looks of the Terminator: Part One \\|url\\=https://www.ign.com/articles/2009/05/15/the\\-many\\-looks\\-of\\-the\\-terminator\\-part\\-one \\|website\\=IGN \\|access\\-date\\=May 11, 2024 \\|date\\=May 15, 2009}}",
"In the first two films and *[Terminator: Dark Fate](/wiki/Terminator:Dark_Fate \"Dark Fate\")*, the character is referred to as a \"Cyberdyne Systems Model 101\", referencing the Cyberdyne Systems company which created Skynet. In *[Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines](/wiki/Terminator_3:Rise_of_the_Machines \"Rise of the Machines\")* (*T3*), he is referred to as a \"T\\-101\". This name also occurs throughout the [*T2* novels](/wiki/T2_%28novel_series%29 \"T2 (novel series)\"). A slight variation, \"T101\", was used as early as 1991, in the [Amstrad CPC](/wiki/Amstrad_CPC \"Amstrad CPC\") and [ZX Spectrum](/wiki/ZX_Spectrum \"ZX Spectrum\") versions of the [*Terminator 2* computer game](/wiki/Terminator_2_%28computer_game%29 \"Terminator 2 (computer game)\").{{cite video game \\|title\\=Terminator 2: Judgment Day \\|developer\\=Dementia \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Ocean Software]] \\|date\\=1991 \\|platform\\=Amstrad CPC}}{{cite magazine \\|last\\=Roberts \\|first\\=Nick \\|date\\=December 1991 \\|title\\=Terminator 2: Judgment Day \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Crash (magazine)\\|Crash]] \\|location\\=United Kingdom \\|pages\\=54–55}}",
"The name \"T\\-800\" had been used off\\-screen in news articles and reviews for *Terminator 2*, differentiating from the film's other Terminator character, the [T\\-1000](/wiki/T-1000 \"T-1000\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Arnie's $100 Million Judgment Day \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/120211979/ \\|work\\=Sydney Morning Herald \\|date\\=June 8, 1991 \\|access\\-date\\=May 11, 2024 \\|via\\=Newspapers.com \\|url\\-access\\=subscription}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Thriller with a conscience \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/734046284/ \\|work\\=Brantford Expositor \\|date\\=June 29, 1991 \\|access\\-date\\=May 11, 2024 \\|via\\=Newspapers.com \\|url\\-access\\=subscription}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Big\\-budget 'Terminator 2' is upping the cyborg ante \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/439481669/ \\|work\\=The Boston Globe \\|date\\=June 30, 1991 \\|access\\-date\\=May 11, 2024 \\|via\\=Newspapers.com \\|url\\-access\\=subscription}} The T\\-800's [heads\\-up display](/wiki/Heads-up_display \"Heads-up display\") in the film specifically identifies him as a \"Cyberdyne Systems Series 800 Model 101 Version 2\\.4\".{{cite web \\|last\\=Kelly \\|first\\=Kevin \\|title\\=Behind the Cybernetics with the Next Terminator Generation \\|url\\=https://gizmodo.com/behind\\-the\\-cybernetics\\-with\\-the\\-next\\-terminator\\-generat\\-352773 \\|website\\=Gizmodo \\|access\\-date\\=May 11, 2024 \\|date\\=February 5, 2008}} The novelization of the third film refers to the character by a different designation: a T\\-850 rather than a T\\-101, described as a newer, upgraded version of the T\\-800\\.{{cite book \\|last\\=Hagberg \\|first\\=David \\|title\\=Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines \\|date\\=2003 \\|publisher\\=Macmillan \\|isbn\\=9780765347411 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=DU\\-hnoszGTMC \\|access\\-date\\=October 10, 2019 \\|pages\\=146–148}} Both T\\-800 and T\\-850 were used in merchandising for the film series.{{cite web \\|last\\=Linder \\|first\\=Brian \\|title\\=Toying with the Terminator: Have a look at McFarlane Toys' T3 figures \\|url\\=http://movies.ign.com/articles/386/386687p1\\.html \\|work\\=IGN \\|date\\=February 19, 2003 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303113857/http://movies.ign.com/articles/386/386687p1\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=March 3, 2012}} *Terminator Salvation* has the first on\\-screen usage of the term T\\-800, which is also used in *[Terminator Genisys](/wiki/Terminator_Genisys \"Terminator Genisys\")*.Guardian: \"As a T\\-800, I lack the mimetic skills to appear as anyone else.\" *Terminator Genisys*.",
"Because the Terminator is portrayed by [Arnold Schwarzenegger](/wiki/Arnold_Schwarzenegger \"Arnold Schwarzenegger\"), the character is sometimes referred to as the Arnold Terminator, distinguishing from other Terminators played by different actors.{{cite web \\|last\\=Kaye \\|first\\=Don \\|title\\=How James Cameron Came Back for Terminator: Dark Fate \\|url\\=https://www.denofgeek.com/movies/how\\-james\\-cameron\\-came\\-back\\-for\\-terminator\\-dark\\-fate/ \\|website\\=Den of Geek \\|access\\-date\\=May 12, 2024 \\|date\\=October 22, 2019}} Some of the Terminators portrayed by Schwarzenegger are also given on\\-screen nicknames. In *Terminator 2*, [John Connor](/wiki/John_Connor_%28Terminator%29 \"John Connor (Terminator)\") introduces the Model 101 to his mother's friends as his \"Uncle Bob\". In *Terminator Genisys*, Sarah Connor refers to the T\\-800 as \"Pops\", while the [end credits](/wiki/End_credits \"End credits\") list him as \"Guardian\". In *Terminator: Dark Fate*, the character goes by the name \"Carl\".",
"In the *Terminator 2* DVD commentary, director and franchise creator [James Cameron](/wiki/James_Cameron \"James Cameron\") states that all Model 101s look like Schwarzenegger, with a 102 resembling someone else, leading to fan speculation that the 101 refers to the physical appearance while the 800 refers to the endoskeleton common to many models.",
"### Character origin",
"The origin of the Terminator's physical and vocal templates is provided in the 2001 novel *T2: Infiltrator*, in the form of former counter\\-terrorist Dieter von Rossbach, who meets and joins forces with the Connors in the present. The novel reveals that he was never questioned about the Terminators' actions, as his superiors always knew that he was somewhere else during the rampages. The reason stated for copying Dieter was that Skynet was looking in the old military files for someone whose body could effectively conceal the Terminator's massive endoskeleton. The voice was provided through Kurt Viemeister, the scientist that taught Skynet its sentience.",
"A different origin is provided in a humorous deleted scene for *Terminator 3*, removed by director [Jonathan Mostow](/wiki/Jonathan_Mostow \"Jonathan Mostow\") who found it too comedic. In the scene, the Terminator's human appearance is said to be based on that of [Chief Master Sergeant](/wiki/Chief_Master_Sergeant \"Chief Master Sergeant\") William Candy, also portrayed by Schwarzenegger but with a dubbed\\-over [Southern accent](/wiki/Southern_American_English \"Southern American English\"), which would be replaced in\\-universe by the more menacing Austrian\\-accented voice of one of the developers.{{cite web \\|last\\=Sciretta \\|first\\=Peter \\|title\\=LOL: Terminator 3 Deleted Scene Explains Why The Terminators Look Like Arnold \\|url\\=https://www.slashfilm.com/lol\\-terminator\\-3\\-deleted\\-scene\\-explains\\-why\\-the\\-terminators\\-look\\-like\\-arnold/ \\|website\\=/Film \\|accessdate\\=October 17, 2019 \\|date\\=June 29, 2009}}{{cite web \\|last\\=Horn \\|first\\=Shawn Van \\|title\\=This Awful Terminator Deleted Scene Explains Why the Robots Look Like Arnold Schwarzenegger \\|url\\=https://collider.com/terminator\\-3\\-rise\\-of\\-the\\-machines\\-deleted\\-scene/ \\|website\\=Collider \\|access\\-date\\=May 11, 2024 \\|date\\=March 8, 2024}}",
"When asked in 2017 why all T\\-800s look the same, Cameron suggested that Skynet had harvested the DNA from a human who had the same appearance, stating \"it has flashed through my mind that there has to have been a prototype. \\[...] Now, the question is, did that person have some sort of meaning to Skynet on *why* they chose that one? Or was it like a whole rack of Terminators and the one that happened to be the Arnold model just happened to be closest to the door going out to the time displacement center and all the others looked different? I've asked myself these questions but it's never been resolved\".{{cite web \\|last\\=Leston \\|first\\=Ryan \\|title\\=Terminator 6 may explain why all T\\-800s look like Arnold Schwarzenegger \\|url\\=https://uk.movies.yahoo.com/movies/terminator\\-6\\-may\\-explain\\-terminators\\-look\\-like\\-arnold\\-schwarzenegger\\-150352893\\.html \\|website\\=Yahoo \\|access\\-date\\=May 11, 2024 \\|date\\=August 11, 2017}}",
""
] |
Appearances
-----------
The Terminator appears in all six films of the franchise, each one featuring a different individual with the same likeness. The Terminator is an antagonist in the original film, and generally portrayed as a protagonist in the sequels. Every iteration of the character is destroyed at the end of each film, with the exception of *Terminator Genisys*.
### *The Terminator* (1984\)
{{see also\|The Terminator}}
The Model 101 is sent back in time from 2029 to 1984 to terminate [Sarah Connor](/wiki/Sarah_Connor_%28Terminator%29 "Sarah Connor (Terminator)") ([Linda Hamilton](/wiki/Linda_Hamilton "Linda Hamilton")), thereby preventing the birth of her son, [John Connor](/wiki/John_Connor "John Connor"), the future leader of the Human Resistance. Lack of surviving records in the future meant that he was limited to only knowing Sarah's name and that she lived in Los Angeles at the time, with the result that he killed two other Sarah Connors in the city before finding his target. This allows [Kyle Reese](/wiki/Kyle_Reese "Kyle Reese") ([Michael Biehn](/wiki/Michael_Biehn "Michael Biehn")), a soldier sent from 2029 to protect Sarah, to find her before the Terminator does.
During several skirmishes, the Terminator withstands contemporary gunfire with only superficial damage to his exterior tissue. He is later caught in a fuel tanker explosion, burning away his flesh covering to expose his mechanical nature and causing minor damage to one of his legs, slowing him down. Kyle sacrifices himself to damage the Terminator with a pipe bomb that destroys his legs, and Sarah crushes the remaining endoskeleton in a [hydraulic press](/wiki/Hydraulic_press "Hydraulic press") to shut him down permanently.
### *Terminator 2: Judgment Day* (1991\)
{{see also\|Terminator 2: Judgment Day}}
A Model 101 is reprogrammed by the future John Connor ([Michael Edwards](/wiki/Michael_Edwards_%28actor%29 "Michael Edwards (actor)")), and sent back to 1995 to protect young John ([Edward Furlong](/wiki/Edward_Furlong "Edward Furlong")) from a [T\-1000](/wiki/T-1000 "T-1000") ([Robert Patrick](/wiki/Robert_Patrick "Robert Patrick")), an advanced [shapeshifting](/wiki/Shapeshifting "Shapeshifting") Terminator made of liquid metal that has been dispatched to kill him. The Model 101 is programmed to follow John's orders and works with the Connors to prevent [Judgment Day](/wiki/Terminator_%28franchise%29%23Judgment_Day "Terminator (franchise)#Judgment Day"); John also prohibits him from killing innocent humans who stand in their way, so the cyborg instead uses non\-lethal force. During his time with the Connors, this Model 101 is taught how to speak in [slang](/wiki/Slang "Slang")\-like terms, such as "[Hasta la vista, baby](/wiki/Hasta_la_vista%2C_baby "Hasta la vista, baby")", and encouraged to act more human, to the point that he develops into an almost fatherly role for John. Sarah reflects that the Model 101 is the first male figure John has ever had in his life who can be guaranteed to always be there for him.
The T\-1000 chases the trio into a steel mill and overpowers the Model 101 in hand\-to\-hand combat, impaling him through the chest and destroying his main power supply. However, the Model 101 activates a backup power source, frees himself, and blasts the T\-1000 into a vat of molten steel with a [grenade launcher](/wiki/Grenade_launcher "Grenade launcher") to destroy him.
Prior to the film's events, Cyberdyne Systems had recovered a forearm and the damaged CPU chip from the Terminator in 1984 and used those components to radically advance its research and technology, which will eventually lead to the creation of Skynet in 1997\. In *Terminator 2*, John steals the items from Cyberdyne's research lab and later throws them into the vat to destroy them. Because he cannot self\-terminate, the Model 101 has Sarah lower him into the steel in order to destroy his CPU as well and thus prevent the technology from being used to create Skynet.
### *Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines* (2003\)
{{see also\|Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines}}
Despite the events of the second film, Judgment Day was merely delayed. A T\-101 Terminator is eventually reprogrammed by the human resistance and sent to the 2000s, this time to protect John Connor ([Nick Stahl](/wiki/Nick_Stahl "Nick Stahl")) and his future wife Kate Brewster ([Claire Danes](/wiki/Claire_Danes "Claire Danes")) from Skynet's [T\-X](/wiki/T-X "T-X") ([Kristanna Loken](/wiki/Kristanna_Loken "Kristanna Loken")), which is also designed to destroy other Terminators. The T\-101 is powered by two hydrogen fuel cells, one of which he discards after being damaged by the T\-X.
Eventually, the T\-X uses her nanites to take control of the T\-101's autonomous functions, sending him to kill John and Kate. Since the T\-101's core consciousness is still intact and he just lacks physical control of his body, John is able to incite him to shut down by noting the conflict between his current actions and his programmed mission. The T\-101 later reboots himself free from the T\-X's control. As John and Kate retreat to a bunker to wait out the now\-inevitable nuclear war, the T\-101 battles the T\-X, using his remaining fuel cell to destroy them both in a massive detonation.
This T\-101 is revealed to have killed John in 2032, having been chosen due to John's emotional attachment to the prior, identical\-looking model in *Terminator 2*. After being captured by the resistance, the T\-101 was reprogrammed to follow Kate's orders, as she was the second\-in\-command prior to John's death.
### *Terminator Salvation* (2009\)
{{see also\|Terminator Salvation}}
The T\-800 ([Roland Kickinger](/wiki/Roland_Kickinger "Roland Kickinger")) has a small role, though once again as an antagonist. Near the end of the film, the T\-800 engages John Connor ([Christian Bale](/wiki/Christian_Bale "Christian Bale")) in battle during John's attempt to rescue Kyle Reese ([Anton Yelchin](/wiki/Anton_Yelchin "Anton Yelchin")) from the Skynet base in San Francisco. John holds his own with his advanced weaponry, but is unable to stop the Terminator until the latter is drenched in molten metal and then liquid nitrogen, freezing him temporarily. As John begins planting hydrogen fuel cells, [cyborg](/wiki/Cyborg "Cyborg") prototype Marcus Wright ([Sam Worthington](/wiki/Sam_Worthington "Sam Worthington")) arrives to stall the T\-800\. The Terminator is able to incapacitate Marcus long enough to stab John through the abdomen. Marcus awakens and soon destroys the T\-800\. The fuel cells are set off as John and Marcus escape, destroying the base and a number of unfinished T\-800s.
### *Terminator Genisys* (2015\)
{{see also\|Terminator Genisys}}
*Terminator Genisys* follows the early events of the first film before diverging into an alternate timeline, ignoring all previous sequels. In the film, a T\-800 was reprogrammed by an unknown party some time in the future and sent to 1973, to protect nine\-year\-old Sarah Connor ([Emilia Clarke](/wiki/Emilia_Clarke "Emilia Clarke")) from a T\-1000\. After her parents are killed, the T\-800 becomes her surrogate father and raises her to prepare for her future destiny, similar to the relationship between the Terminator and the young John Connor in *Terminator 2*. The T\-800, which Sarah refers to as "Pops", has experienced an unprecedented level of emotional development, to the extent that he keeps her childhood drawings and photographs.
In the film, it is speculated that the knowledge of who sent Pops back was deliberately erased from his memory so that Skynet ([Matt Smith](/wiki/Matt_Smith_%28actor%29 "Matt Smith (actor)")) could not track them down later. Pops integrates into human society, and at one point obtains a job as a construction worker to build the headquarters for Cyberdyne Systems. Throughout the film, he struggles with physical limitations due to increasing age, but states several times that he is, "Old, not obsolete." Like the Terminator in the second film, Pops has been prohibited from killing humans.
After Kyle Reese's ([Jai Courtney](/wiki/Jai_Courtney "Jai Courtney")) arrival in 1984, the trio defeat the T\-1000 ([Lee Byung\-hun](/wiki/Lee_Byung-hun "Lee Byung-hun")). Later, in 2017, they battle John Connor ([Jason Clarke](/wiki/Jason_Clarke "Jason Clarke")), who has been transformed into a [T\-3000](/wiki/T-3000 "T-3000") tasked to ensure Skynet's rise. After multiple confrontations, Pops attempts to sacrifice himself to destroy the T\-3000, telling Kyle Reese, "Protect my Sarah". During the battle, Pops is thrown into a vat of liquid metal before the T\-3000's defeat, and as a result gains shapeshifting abilities like the T\-1000\. Pops then gives his approval of Sarah and Kyle's relationship.
A youthful T\-800 (Brett Azar), looking like the one in the first film, is also intercepted by the aging T\-800 and Sarah after arriving in the alternate 1984\. Before the T\-1000 is destroyed, he reactivates and reprograms the younger cyborg to pursue Kyle, who blows its head off. The young T\-800's endoskeleton is dissolved in [hydrochloric acid](/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid "Hydrochloric acid"), and its CPU is used to operate Sarah and the older Terminator's time machine. The CPU is destroyed after the machine's usage, and with the older Terminator's existence concealed, Cyberdyne's plan for an A.I. (eventually named Genisys) is delayed until 2017\.
### *Terminator: Dark Fate* (2019\)
{{see also\|Terminator: Dark Fate}}
In *Terminator: Dark Fate*, a direct sequel to *Judgment Day*, Schwarzenegger plays a T\-800 called "Carl".{{Cite web\|url\=https://comicbook.com/movies/2019/07/19/terminator\-dark\-fate\-arnold\-schwarzengger\-t800\-name\-carl\-comic\-con/\|title\=Arnold Schwarzenegger's T\-800 in Terminator: Dark Fate Is Named Carl\|website\=Movies\|date\=19 July 2019 \|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-19}} Originally one of a series of Terminators sent back by Skynet to kill John Connor prior to its erasure, the Terminator that would become Carl successfully tracked down and killed John in [Livingston, Guatemala](/wiki/Livingston%2C_Guatemala "Livingston, Guatemala") in 1998\. With his sole mission complete and with Skynet no longer existing, the T\-800 is left purposeless. In time, he became self\-aware, realized he is free from Skynet, assumed the name Carl, and began exhibiting behavior much like humans.
Months after killing John, Carl experienced compassion towards an abused woman, Alicia, and made a choice of rescuing her and her child, Mateo, from her uncaring husband. Carl becomes a father figure to Mateo, although his relationship with Alicia is non\-sexual. Carl's role as a family man gave him some idea of what had taken from Sarah when he murdered her son, and the memory of John's death torments Carl to the point of being repentant. At some point, Carl established a drapery business in [Laredo, Texas](/wiki/Laredo%2C_Texas "Laredo, Texas"), where the family lives in a cabin. Over twenty years, Carl has aged significantly and his human social skills have improved.
Since John's death, Carl used his awareness of "chrono displacements" and sent Sarah text messages with the GPS coordinates of where and when other time\-traveling Terminators would arrive. Carl's intention was to give Sarah a purpose by allowing her the chance to destroy the other Terminators, which Carl felt would give John's death some form of meaning. He keeps track of Sarah's whereabouts to make sure she survives her hunts. In 2020, Sarah decides to help Dani Ramos escape the [Rev\-9](/wiki/Rev-9 "Rev-9"), a new class of Terminator sent from 2042 by a Skynet\-analogous A.I. called Legion. The women also meet Grace, a cybernetically augmented future soldier who was sent to protect Dani, who will later lead the human resistance against Legion.
They later meet Carl and learn he had been sending Sarah the coordinates. Although Sarah hates Carl for the murder of her son, Dani convinces her that they need his help to destroy the Rev\-9\. Sarah concedes, but vows to destroy Carl after they stop the Rev\-9, and Carl says he understands her intention. They confront the Rev\-9 in a hydro\-electric dam, where Grace and Carl sacrifice themselves to stop him. Carl's last words are "For John", a message he always included in his text messages to Sarah.
### Other appearances
[thumb\|The Terminator as a playable character in *[Mortal Kombat 11](/wiki/Mortal_Kombat_11 "Mortal Kombat 11")*](/wiki/File:Mortal_Kombat_11_-_Terminator_T-800_Official_Gameplay_Trailer.webm "Mortal Kombat 11 - Terminator T-800 Official Gameplay Trailer.webm")
Schwarzenegger reprised the role in the music video for "[You Could Be Mine](/wiki/You_Could_Be_Mine "You Could Be Mine")", a 1991 song by [Guns N' Roses](/wiki/Guns_N%27_Roses "Guns N' Roses") that is featured in *Terminator 2*.{{cite web\|first\=Joseph \|last\=Baxter \|title\=''Terminator 2'' At 30: How Guns N' Roses Created The Perfect Hype\|url\=https://www.denofgeek.com/movies/terminator\-2\-at\-30\-guns\-n\-roses\-song/ \|website\=\[\[Den of Geek]] \|date\=June 30, 2021 \|access\-date\=March 2, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220203233705/https://www.denofgeek.com/movies/terminator\-2\-at\-30\-guns\-n\-roses\-song/ \|archive\-date\=February 3, 2022 \|url\-status\=live}} He also reprised the role for a theme park attraction known as *[T2\-3D: Battle Across Time](/wiki/T2-3D:Battle_Across_Time "Battle Across Time")*, which opened in 1996\.{{cite news \|last\=Hicks \|first\=Chris \|title\='Terminator' Series Wasn't Terminal After All \|url\=https://www.deseret.com/1996/6/2/19246013/terminator\-series\-wasn\-t\-terminal\-after\-all \|work\=Deseret News \|date\=June 2, 1996 \|access\-date\=May 11, 2024}}
The character has also made appearances in numerous video games outside of the *Terminator* franchise. He is parodied in the side\-scrolling shooter game *[Broforce](/wiki/Broforce "Broforce")* (2015\) as a playable character called the Brominator, with his appearance referencing Schwarzenegger.{{cite web \|last\=Fenlon \|first\=Wes \|title\=Broforce review (Early Access) \|url\=https://www.pcgamer.com/broforce\-review\-early\-access/ \|website\=PC Gamer \|access\-date\=May 5, 2024 \|date\=June 20, 2014}}
The T\-800 is also a guest playable character in the 2019 fighting game *[Mortal Kombat 11](/wiki/Mortal_Kombat_11 "Mortal Kombat 11")*, available through the game's Kombat Pack bundle of [downloadable content](/wiki/Downloadable_content "Downloadable content").{{Cite web \|url\= https://www.gamerevolution.com/guides/538907\-mortal\-kombat\-11\-kombat\-pack\-1\-release\-date\-characters\-mk11\-spawn \|title\=''Mortal Kombat 11'' Kombat Pack: Release date and characters \|date\=August 21, 2019 \|work\=GameRevolution \|access\-date\=September 29, 2019}} Schwarzenegger's likeness is used for the character, but his voice is not.{{Cite web \|url\= https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/arnold\-schwarzenegger\-not\-voicing\-mortal\-kombat\-11\-terminator\-role\-1234209 \|title\=Arnold Schwarzenegger Not Voicing ''Mortal Kombat 11'' Terminator Role \|work\=The Hollywood Reporter \|date\=23 August 2019 \|access\-date\=September 29, 2019}} He is instead voiced by [Chris Cox](/wiki/Chris_Cox_%28voice_actor%29 "Chris Cox (voice actor)") at the suggestion of Schwarzenegger.{{cite web \|url\=https://twitter.com/\_DaanishSyed/status/1177398310233153536 \|title\=Daanish Syed on Twitter: "We've already revealed that Arnold was not able to do it, but he did choose the actor that is doing his voice" \|access\-date\=2019\-10\-04 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190927024804/https://twitter.com/\_DaanishSyed/status/1177398310233153536 \|archive\-date\=2019\-09\-27 \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite web\|author\=Dominic Cianciolo \|url\=https://twitter.com/domcianciolo/status/1179103018425442306 \|title\=Dominic Cianciolo on Twitter: "@Terminator vs. \#CassieQuinn. Ready to play! \#mk11 @ericalindbeck @ChrisCoxVox " \|publisher\=Twitter.com \|date\=2019\-10\-01 \|access\-date\=2019\-10\-05}} According to its biography, the Terminator in this game hails from the *Dark Fate* timeline.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.mortalkombat.com/roster/terminator\|title\=Mortal Kombat 11 Roster: Terminator\|publisher\=MortalKombat.com\|date\=2020\-10\-08\|access\-date\=2020\-10\-08\|archive\-date\=2020\-11\-15\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115221204/https://www.mortalkombat.com/roster/terminator\|url\-status\=dead}}
In 2021, the T\-800 became a character outfit in the online game *[Fortnite](/wiki/Fortnite "Fortnite")*.{{cite web \|last\=Knoop \|first\=Joseph \|title\=The Terminator and Sarah Connor are in Fortnite now \|url\=https://www.pcgamer.com/fortnite\-terminator\-skin/ \|website\=PC Gamer \|access\-date\=January 22, 2021 \|date\=January 21, 2021}} In 2023, a second T\-800 skin was released, this time featuring Schwarzenegger's likeness.{{cite web \|last\=Barnhardt \|first\=Adam \|title\=Fortnite Reveals New Terminator Skin \|url\=https://comicbook.com/gaming/news/fortnite\-terminator\-new\-skin\-revealed/ \|website\=ComicBook.com \|access\-date\=May 5, 2024 \|date\=July 30, 2023}}
The T\-800 and [T\-1000](/wiki/T-1000 "T-1000") are featured in *[Call of Duty: Vanguard](/wiki/Call_of_Duty:Vanguard "Vanguard")* (2021\) and the initial version of *[Call of Duty: Warzone](/wiki/Call_of_Duty:Warzone "Warzone")* (2020\) as playable operators.{{cite web \|last\=Duwe \|first\=Scott \|title\=How to get the Terminator skins in Call of Duty: Vanguard and Warzone \|url\=https://dotesports.com/call\-of\-duty/news/how\-to\-get\-the\-terminator\-skins\-in\-call\-of\-duty\-vanguard\-and\-warzone \|website\=Dot Esports \|access\-date\=May 5, 2024 \|date\=August 3, 2022}} Both characters also make a parody appearance in the 2015 comedy film *[Hollywood Adventures](/wiki/Hollywood_Adventures "Hollywood Adventures")*.{{cite web \|last\=Tsui \|first\=Clarence \|title\='Hollywood Adventures' ('Heng Chong Zhi Zhuang Hao Lai Wu'): Film Review \|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie\-reviews/hollywood\-adventures\-heng\-chong\-zhi\-805305/ \|website\=The Hollywood Reporter \|access\-date\=May 5, 2024 \|date\=June 26, 2015}}
|
[
"Appearances\n-----------",
"The Terminator appears in all six films of the franchise, each one featuring a different individual with the same likeness. The Terminator is an antagonist in the original film, and generally portrayed as a protagonist in the sequels. Every iteration of the character is destroyed at the end of each film, with the exception of *Terminator Genisys*.",
"### *The Terminator* (1984\\)",
"{{see also\\|The Terminator}}\nThe Model 101 is sent back in time from 2029 to 1984 to terminate [Sarah Connor](/wiki/Sarah_Connor_%28Terminator%29 \"Sarah Connor (Terminator)\") ([Linda Hamilton](/wiki/Linda_Hamilton \"Linda Hamilton\")), thereby preventing the birth of her son, [John Connor](/wiki/John_Connor \"John Connor\"), the future leader of the Human Resistance. Lack of surviving records in the future meant that he was limited to only knowing Sarah's name and that she lived in Los Angeles at the time, with the result that he killed two other Sarah Connors in the city before finding his target. This allows [Kyle Reese](/wiki/Kyle_Reese \"Kyle Reese\") ([Michael Biehn](/wiki/Michael_Biehn \"Michael Biehn\")), a soldier sent from 2029 to protect Sarah, to find her before the Terminator does.",
"During several skirmishes, the Terminator withstands contemporary gunfire with only superficial damage to his exterior tissue. He is later caught in a fuel tanker explosion, burning away his flesh covering to expose his mechanical nature and causing minor damage to one of his legs, slowing him down. Kyle sacrifices himself to damage the Terminator with a pipe bomb that destroys his legs, and Sarah crushes the remaining endoskeleton in a [hydraulic press](/wiki/Hydraulic_press \"Hydraulic press\") to shut him down permanently.",
"### *Terminator 2: Judgment Day* (1991\\)",
"{{see also\\|Terminator 2: Judgment Day}}\nA Model 101 is reprogrammed by the future John Connor ([Michael Edwards](/wiki/Michael_Edwards_%28actor%29 \"Michael Edwards (actor)\")), and sent back to 1995 to protect young John ([Edward Furlong](/wiki/Edward_Furlong \"Edward Furlong\")) from a [T\\-1000](/wiki/T-1000 \"T-1000\") ([Robert Patrick](/wiki/Robert_Patrick \"Robert Patrick\")), an advanced [shapeshifting](/wiki/Shapeshifting \"Shapeshifting\") Terminator made of liquid metal that has been dispatched to kill him. The Model 101 is programmed to follow John's orders and works with the Connors to prevent [Judgment Day](/wiki/Terminator_%28franchise%29%23Judgment_Day \"Terminator (franchise)#Judgment Day\"); John also prohibits him from killing innocent humans who stand in their way, so the cyborg instead uses non\\-lethal force. During his time with the Connors, this Model 101 is taught how to speak in [slang](/wiki/Slang \"Slang\")\\-like terms, such as \"[Hasta la vista, baby](/wiki/Hasta_la_vista%2C_baby \"Hasta la vista, baby\")\", and encouraged to act more human, to the point that he develops into an almost fatherly role for John. Sarah reflects that the Model 101 is the first male figure John has ever had in his life who can be guaranteed to always be there for him.",
"The T\\-1000 chases the trio into a steel mill and overpowers the Model 101 in hand\\-to\\-hand combat, impaling him through the chest and destroying his main power supply. However, the Model 101 activates a backup power source, frees himself, and blasts the T\\-1000 into a vat of molten steel with a [grenade launcher](/wiki/Grenade_launcher \"Grenade launcher\") to destroy him.",
"Prior to the film's events, Cyberdyne Systems had recovered a forearm and the damaged CPU chip from the Terminator in 1984 and used those components to radically advance its research and technology, which will eventually lead to the creation of Skynet in 1997\\. In *Terminator 2*, John steals the items from Cyberdyne's research lab and later throws them into the vat to destroy them. Because he cannot self\\-terminate, the Model 101 has Sarah lower him into the steel in order to destroy his CPU as well and thus prevent the technology from being used to create Skynet.",
"### *Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines* (2003\\)",
"{{see also\\|Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines}}\nDespite the events of the second film, Judgment Day was merely delayed. A T\\-101 Terminator is eventually reprogrammed by the human resistance and sent to the 2000s, this time to protect John Connor ([Nick Stahl](/wiki/Nick_Stahl \"Nick Stahl\")) and his future wife Kate Brewster ([Claire Danes](/wiki/Claire_Danes \"Claire Danes\")) from Skynet's [T\\-X](/wiki/T-X \"T-X\") ([Kristanna Loken](/wiki/Kristanna_Loken \"Kristanna Loken\")), which is also designed to destroy other Terminators. The T\\-101 is powered by two hydrogen fuel cells, one of which he discards after being damaged by the T\\-X.",
"Eventually, the T\\-X uses her nanites to take control of the T\\-101's autonomous functions, sending him to kill John and Kate. Since the T\\-101's core consciousness is still intact and he just lacks physical control of his body, John is able to incite him to shut down by noting the conflict between his current actions and his programmed mission. The T\\-101 later reboots himself free from the T\\-X's control. As John and Kate retreat to a bunker to wait out the now\\-inevitable nuclear war, the T\\-101 battles the T\\-X, using his remaining fuel cell to destroy them both in a massive detonation.",
"This T\\-101 is revealed to have killed John in 2032, having been chosen due to John's emotional attachment to the prior, identical\\-looking model in *Terminator 2*. After being captured by the resistance, the T\\-101 was reprogrammed to follow Kate's orders, as she was the second\\-in\\-command prior to John's death.",
"### *Terminator Salvation* (2009\\)",
"{{see also\\|Terminator Salvation}}\nThe T\\-800 ([Roland Kickinger](/wiki/Roland_Kickinger \"Roland Kickinger\")) has a small role, though once again as an antagonist. Near the end of the film, the T\\-800 engages John Connor ([Christian Bale](/wiki/Christian_Bale \"Christian Bale\")) in battle during John's attempt to rescue Kyle Reese ([Anton Yelchin](/wiki/Anton_Yelchin \"Anton Yelchin\")) from the Skynet base in San Francisco. John holds his own with his advanced weaponry, but is unable to stop the Terminator until the latter is drenched in molten metal and then liquid nitrogen, freezing him temporarily. As John begins planting hydrogen fuel cells, [cyborg](/wiki/Cyborg \"Cyborg\") prototype Marcus Wright ([Sam Worthington](/wiki/Sam_Worthington \"Sam Worthington\")) arrives to stall the T\\-800\\. The Terminator is able to incapacitate Marcus long enough to stab John through the abdomen. Marcus awakens and soon destroys the T\\-800\\. The fuel cells are set off as John and Marcus escape, destroying the base and a number of unfinished T\\-800s.",
"### *Terminator Genisys* (2015\\)",
"{{see also\\|Terminator Genisys}}\n*Terminator Genisys* follows the early events of the first film before diverging into an alternate timeline, ignoring all previous sequels. In the film, a T\\-800 was reprogrammed by an unknown party some time in the future and sent to 1973, to protect nine\\-year\\-old Sarah Connor ([Emilia Clarke](/wiki/Emilia_Clarke \"Emilia Clarke\")) from a T\\-1000\\. After her parents are killed, the T\\-800 becomes her surrogate father and raises her to prepare for her future destiny, similar to the relationship between the Terminator and the young John Connor in *Terminator 2*. The T\\-800, which Sarah refers to as \"Pops\", has experienced an unprecedented level of emotional development, to the extent that he keeps her childhood drawings and photographs.",
"In the film, it is speculated that the knowledge of who sent Pops back was deliberately erased from his memory so that Skynet ([Matt Smith](/wiki/Matt_Smith_%28actor%29 \"Matt Smith (actor)\")) could not track them down later. Pops integrates into human society, and at one point obtains a job as a construction worker to build the headquarters for Cyberdyne Systems. Throughout the film, he struggles with physical limitations due to increasing age, but states several times that he is, \"Old, not obsolete.\" Like the Terminator in the second film, Pops has been prohibited from killing humans.",
"After Kyle Reese's ([Jai Courtney](/wiki/Jai_Courtney \"Jai Courtney\")) arrival in 1984, the trio defeat the T\\-1000 ([Lee Byung\\-hun](/wiki/Lee_Byung-hun \"Lee Byung-hun\")). Later, in 2017, they battle John Connor ([Jason Clarke](/wiki/Jason_Clarke \"Jason Clarke\")), who has been transformed into a [T\\-3000](/wiki/T-3000 \"T-3000\") tasked to ensure Skynet's rise. After multiple confrontations, Pops attempts to sacrifice himself to destroy the T\\-3000, telling Kyle Reese, \"Protect my Sarah\". During the battle, Pops is thrown into a vat of liquid metal before the T\\-3000's defeat, and as a result gains shapeshifting abilities like the T\\-1000\\. Pops then gives his approval of Sarah and Kyle's relationship.",
"A youthful T\\-800 (Brett Azar), looking like the one in the first film, is also intercepted by the aging T\\-800 and Sarah after arriving in the alternate 1984\\. Before the T\\-1000 is destroyed, he reactivates and reprograms the younger cyborg to pursue Kyle, who blows its head off. The young T\\-800's endoskeleton is dissolved in [hydrochloric acid](/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid \"Hydrochloric acid\"), and its CPU is used to operate Sarah and the older Terminator's time machine. The CPU is destroyed after the machine's usage, and with the older Terminator's existence concealed, Cyberdyne's plan for an A.I. (eventually named Genisys) is delayed until 2017\\.",
"### *Terminator: Dark Fate* (2019\\)",
"{{see also\\|Terminator: Dark Fate}}\nIn *Terminator: Dark Fate*, a direct sequel to *Judgment Day*, Schwarzenegger plays a T\\-800 called \"Carl\".{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://comicbook.com/movies/2019/07/19/terminator\\-dark\\-fate\\-arnold\\-schwarzengger\\-t800\\-name\\-carl\\-comic\\-con/\\|title\\=Arnold Schwarzenegger's T\\-800 in Terminator: Dark Fate Is Named Carl\\|website\\=Movies\\|date\\=19 July 2019 \\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-19}} Originally one of a series of Terminators sent back by Skynet to kill John Connor prior to its erasure, the Terminator that would become Carl successfully tracked down and killed John in [Livingston, Guatemala](/wiki/Livingston%2C_Guatemala \"Livingston, Guatemala\") in 1998\\. With his sole mission complete and with Skynet no longer existing, the T\\-800 is left purposeless. In time, he became self\\-aware, realized he is free from Skynet, assumed the name Carl, and began exhibiting behavior much like humans.",
"Months after killing John, Carl experienced compassion towards an abused woman, Alicia, and made a choice of rescuing her and her child, Mateo, from her uncaring husband. Carl becomes a father figure to Mateo, although his relationship with Alicia is non\\-sexual. Carl's role as a family man gave him some idea of what had taken from Sarah when he murdered her son, and the memory of John's death torments Carl to the point of being repentant. At some point, Carl established a drapery business in [Laredo, Texas](/wiki/Laredo%2C_Texas \"Laredo, Texas\"), where the family lives in a cabin. Over twenty years, Carl has aged significantly and his human social skills have improved.",
"Since John's death, Carl used his awareness of \"chrono displacements\" and sent Sarah text messages with the GPS coordinates of where and when other time\\-traveling Terminators would arrive. Carl's intention was to give Sarah a purpose by allowing her the chance to destroy the other Terminators, which Carl felt would give John's death some form of meaning. He keeps track of Sarah's whereabouts to make sure she survives her hunts. In 2020, Sarah decides to help Dani Ramos escape the [Rev\\-9](/wiki/Rev-9 \"Rev-9\"), a new class of Terminator sent from 2042 by a Skynet\\-analogous A.I. called Legion. The women also meet Grace, a cybernetically augmented future soldier who was sent to protect Dani, who will later lead the human resistance against Legion.",
"They later meet Carl and learn he had been sending Sarah the coordinates. Although Sarah hates Carl for the murder of her son, Dani convinces her that they need his help to destroy the Rev\\-9\\. Sarah concedes, but vows to destroy Carl after they stop the Rev\\-9, and Carl says he understands her intention. They confront the Rev\\-9 in a hydro\\-electric dam, where Grace and Carl sacrifice themselves to stop him. Carl's last words are \"For John\", a message he always included in his text messages to Sarah.",
"### Other appearances",
"[thumb\\|The Terminator as a playable character in *[Mortal Kombat 11](/wiki/Mortal_Kombat_11 \"Mortal Kombat 11\")*](/wiki/File:Mortal_Kombat_11_-_Terminator_T-800_Official_Gameplay_Trailer.webm \"Mortal Kombat 11 - Terminator T-800 Official Gameplay Trailer.webm\")\nSchwarzenegger reprised the role in the music video for \"[You Could Be Mine](/wiki/You_Could_Be_Mine \"You Could Be Mine\")\", a 1991 song by [Guns N' Roses](/wiki/Guns_N%27_Roses \"Guns N' Roses\") that is featured in *Terminator 2*.{{cite web\\|first\\=Joseph \\|last\\=Baxter \\|title\\=''Terminator 2'' At 30: How Guns N' Roses Created The Perfect Hype\\|url\\=https://www.denofgeek.com/movies/terminator\\-2\\-at\\-30\\-guns\\-n\\-roses\\-song/ \\|website\\=\\[\\[Den of Geek]] \\|date\\=June 30, 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=March 2, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220203233705/https://www.denofgeek.com/movies/terminator\\-2\\-at\\-30\\-guns\\-n\\-roses\\-song/ \\|archive\\-date\\=February 3, 2022 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} He also reprised the role for a theme park attraction known as *[T2\\-3D: Battle Across Time](/wiki/T2-3D:Battle_Across_Time \"Battle Across Time\")*, which opened in 1996\\.{{cite news \\|last\\=Hicks \\|first\\=Chris \\|title\\='Terminator' Series Wasn't Terminal After All \\|url\\=https://www.deseret.com/1996/6/2/19246013/terminator\\-series\\-wasn\\-t\\-terminal\\-after\\-all \\|work\\=Deseret News \\|date\\=June 2, 1996 \\|access\\-date\\=May 11, 2024}}",
"The character has also made appearances in numerous video games outside of the *Terminator* franchise. He is parodied in the side\\-scrolling shooter game *[Broforce](/wiki/Broforce \"Broforce\")* (2015\\) as a playable character called the Brominator, with his appearance referencing Schwarzenegger.{{cite web \\|last\\=Fenlon \\|first\\=Wes \\|title\\=Broforce review (Early Access) \\|url\\=https://www.pcgamer.com/broforce\\-review\\-early\\-access/ \\|website\\=PC Gamer \\|access\\-date\\=May 5, 2024 \\|date\\=June 20, 2014}}",
"The T\\-800 is also a guest playable character in the 2019 fighting game *[Mortal Kombat 11](/wiki/Mortal_Kombat_11 \"Mortal Kombat 11\")*, available through the game's Kombat Pack bundle of [downloadable content](/wiki/Downloadable_content \"Downloadable content\").{{Cite web \\|url\\= https://www.gamerevolution.com/guides/538907\\-mortal\\-kombat\\-11\\-kombat\\-pack\\-1\\-release\\-date\\-characters\\-mk11\\-spawn \\|title\\=''Mortal Kombat 11'' Kombat Pack: Release date and characters \\|date\\=August 21, 2019 \\|work\\=GameRevolution \\|access\\-date\\=September 29, 2019}} Schwarzenegger's likeness is used for the character, but his voice is not.{{Cite web \\|url\\= https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/arnold\\-schwarzenegger\\-not\\-voicing\\-mortal\\-kombat\\-11\\-terminator\\-role\\-1234209 \\|title\\=Arnold Schwarzenegger Not Voicing ''Mortal Kombat 11'' Terminator Role \\|work\\=The Hollywood Reporter \\|date\\=23 August 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=September 29, 2019}} He is instead voiced by [Chris Cox](/wiki/Chris_Cox_%28voice_actor%29 \"Chris Cox (voice actor)\") at the suggestion of Schwarzenegger.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://twitter.com/\\_DaanishSyed/status/1177398310233153536 \\|title\\=Daanish Syed on Twitter: \"We've already revealed that Arnold was not able to do it, but he did choose the actor that is doing his voice\" \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-04 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190927024804/https://twitter.com/\\_DaanishSyed/status/1177398310233153536 \\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-09\\-27 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite web\\|author\\=Dominic Cianciolo \\|url\\=https://twitter.com/domcianciolo/status/1179103018425442306 \\|title\\=Dominic Cianciolo on Twitter: \"@Terminator vs. \\#CassieQuinn. Ready to play! \\#mk11 @ericalindbeck @ChrisCoxVox \" \\|publisher\\=Twitter.com \\|date\\=2019\\-10\\-01 \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-05}} According to its biography, the Terminator in this game hails from the *Dark Fate* timeline.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.mortalkombat.com/roster/terminator\\|title\\=Mortal Kombat 11 Roster: Terminator\\|publisher\\=MortalKombat.com\\|date\\=2020\\-10\\-08\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-08\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-15\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115221204/https://www.mortalkombat.com/roster/terminator\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"In 2021, the T\\-800 became a character outfit in the online game *[Fortnite](/wiki/Fortnite \"Fortnite\")*.{{cite web \\|last\\=Knoop \\|first\\=Joseph \\|title\\=The Terminator and Sarah Connor are in Fortnite now \\|url\\=https://www.pcgamer.com/fortnite\\-terminator\\-skin/ \\|website\\=PC Gamer \\|access\\-date\\=January 22, 2021 \\|date\\=January 21, 2021}} In 2023, a second T\\-800 skin was released, this time featuring Schwarzenegger's likeness.{{cite web \\|last\\=Barnhardt \\|first\\=Adam \\|title\\=Fortnite Reveals New Terminator Skin \\|url\\=https://comicbook.com/gaming/news/fortnite\\-terminator\\-new\\-skin\\-revealed/ \\|website\\=ComicBook.com \\|access\\-date\\=May 5, 2024 \\|date\\=July 30, 2023}}",
"The T\\-800 and [T\\-1000](/wiki/T-1000 \"T-1000\") are featured in *[Call of Duty: Vanguard](/wiki/Call_of_Duty:Vanguard \"Vanguard\")* (2021\\) and the initial version of *[Call of Duty: Warzone](/wiki/Call_of_Duty:Warzone \"Warzone\")* (2020\\) as playable operators.{{cite web \\|last\\=Duwe \\|first\\=Scott \\|title\\=How to get the Terminator skins in Call of Duty: Vanguard and Warzone \\|url\\=https://dotesports.com/call\\-of\\-duty/news/how\\-to\\-get\\-the\\-terminator\\-skins\\-in\\-call\\-of\\-duty\\-vanguard\\-and\\-warzone \\|website\\=Dot Esports \\|access\\-date\\=May 5, 2024 \\|date\\=August 3, 2022}} Both characters also make a parody appearance in the 2015 comedy film *[Hollywood Adventures](/wiki/Hollywood_Adventures \"Hollywood Adventures\")*.{{cite web \\|last\\=Tsui \\|first\\=Clarence \\|title\\='Hollywood Adventures' ('Heng Chong Zhi Zhuang Hao Lai Wu'): Film Review \\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie\\-reviews/hollywood\\-adventures\\-heng\\-chong\\-zhi\\-805305/ \\|website\\=The Hollywood Reporter \\|access\\-date\\=May 5, 2024 \\|date\\=June 26, 2015}}",
""
] |
Sights and architecture
-----------------------
[thumb\|190px\|left\|Reconstruction of the Medieval [Gothic](/wiki/Brick_Gothic "Brick Gothic") *Georgenkirche* (St. George's Church) was completed in 2010\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.georgenkirche.de/geschichte.html\|title\=Website des Förderkreises St. Georgen zu Wismar e.V.\|website\=georgenkirche.de\|access\-date\=22 March 2018}}](/wiki/File:11_Wismar_St_Georgen_003.jpg "11 Wismar St Georgen 003.jpg")
The historical old town, centered on the huge marketplace (one of the largest in northern Germany at {{convert\|10000\|m2\|sqft\|abbr\=on\|disp\=or}}), is characterized by town houses, manufacture and trading structures of the Hanseatic League, built in [Brick Gothic](/wiki/Brick_Gothic "Brick Gothic") style during the 13th to 15th centuries, 19th\-century [Romanesque Revival architecture](/wiki/Romanesque_Revival_architecture "Romanesque Revival architecture") and [Art Nouveau](/wiki/Art_Nouveau "Art Nouveau") houses. Distinctive buildings and military works, built during the period of Swedish control during the 17th and the 18th centuries provide another layer of cultural influence.
The market square's focal point is the *Wasserkunst*, an elaborate wrought\-iron fountain imported from Holland in 1602\. The northern side of the square is occupied by the Town Hall, built in [Neoclassical](/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture "Neoclassical architecture") style from 1817 to 1819\. Another notable building on the square is a [Brick Gothic](/wiki/Brick_Gothic "Brick Gothic") patrician's home (*Bürgerhaus*) called *Alter Schwede* (Old Swede), erected around 1380\.
St. George's Church, the third so\-named edifice on the site, dates from 1404\. It had escaped major damage during most of World War II, but on 14 April 1945, three weeks before the end of the war it was badly damaged by "[Blockbuster bombs](/wiki/Blockbuster_bomb "Blockbuster bomb")" dropped by the British Royal Air Force. Reconstruction after German reunification, costing some 40 million Euros, was completed in 2010\.
The {{convert\|80\|m\|ft\|adj\=mid\|\-high}} tower church of St. Mary's Church (*Marienkirche*) is the only remainder of the original [Brick Gothic](/wiki/Brick_Gothic "Brick Gothic") edifice, built during the first half of the 13th century. It suffered heavy damage in World War II, and was partially razed in 1960 during the [East German](/wiki/East_Germany "East Germany") era.
St. Mary's Church and the church of [St. Nicholas](/wiki/St._Nicholas_Church%2C_Wismar "St. Nicholas Church, Wismar") (*Nikolaikirche*) with its very lofty vaulting, built from 1381 to 1460, serve as prime examples of [Lübeck](/wiki/L%C3%BCbeck "Lübeck")'s [St. Mary's Churches](/wiki/St._Mary%27s_Church%2C_L%C3%BCbeck "St. Mary's Church, Lübeck") architectural influence on the entire region.
The *Fürstenhof*, a richly decorated specimen of early Italian [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance "Renaissance") style was once a [ducal](/wiki/Duke "Duke") residence and served later as the seat of the [municipal](/wiki/Municipality "Municipality") authorities. Built from 1552 to 1565, it was restored from 1877 to 1879\. The *Old School*, dating from about 1300, has not been restored yet. The town hall, rebuilt in 1829, houses a gallery of paintings. The Fine Arts Municipal Gallery *Baumhaus* is located in the old harbour area.
|
[
"Sights and architecture\n-----------------------",
"[thumb\\|190px\\|left\\|Reconstruction of the Medieval [Gothic](/wiki/Brick_Gothic \"Brick Gothic\") *Georgenkirche* (St. George's Church) was completed in 2010\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.georgenkirche.de/geschichte.html\\|title\\=Website des Förderkreises St. Georgen zu Wismar e.V.\\|website\\=georgenkirche.de\\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2018}}](/wiki/File:11_Wismar_St_Georgen_003.jpg \"11 Wismar St Georgen 003.jpg\")",
"The historical old town, centered on the huge marketplace (one of the largest in northern Germany at {{convert\\|10000\\|m2\\|sqft\\|abbr\\=on\\|disp\\=or}}), is characterized by town houses, manufacture and trading structures of the Hanseatic League, built in [Brick Gothic](/wiki/Brick_Gothic \"Brick Gothic\") style during the 13th to 15th centuries, 19th\\-century [Romanesque Revival architecture](/wiki/Romanesque_Revival_architecture \"Romanesque Revival architecture\") and [Art Nouveau](/wiki/Art_Nouveau \"Art Nouveau\") houses. Distinctive buildings and military works, built during the period of Swedish control during the 17th and the 18th centuries provide another layer of cultural influence.",
"The market square's focal point is the *Wasserkunst*, an elaborate wrought\\-iron fountain imported from Holland in 1602\\. The northern side of the square is occupied by the Town Hall, built in [Neoclassical](/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture \"Neoclassical architecture\") style from 1817 to 1819\\. Another notable building on the square is a [Brick Gothic](/wiki/Brick_Gothic \"Brick Gothic\") patrician's home (*Bürgerhaus*) called *Alter Schwede* (Old Swede), erected around 1380\\.",
"St. George's Church, the third so\\-named edifice on the site, dates from 1404\\. It had escaped major damage during most of World War II, but on 14 April 1945, three weeks before the end of the war it was badly damaged by \"[Blockbuster bombs](/wiki/Blockbuster_bomb \"Blockbuster bomb\")\" dropped by the British Royal Air Force. Reconstruction after German reunification, costing some 40 million Euros, was completed in 2010\\.",
"The {{convert\\|80\\|m\\|ft\\|adj\\=mid\\|\\-high}} tower church of St. Mary's Church (*Marienkirche*) is the only remainder of the original [Brick Gothic](/wiki/Brick_Gothic \"Brick Gothic\") edifice, built during the first half of the 13th century. It suffered heavy damage in World War II, and was partially razed in 1960 during the [East German](/wiki/East_Germany \"East Germany\") era.",
"St. Mary's Church and the church of [St. Nicholas](/wiki/St._Nicholas_Church%2C_Wismar \"St. Nicholas Church, Wismar\") (*Nikolaikirche*) with its very lofty vaulting, built from 1381 to 1460, serve as prime examples of [Lübeck](/wiki/L%C3%BCbeck \"Lübeck\")'s [St. Mary's Churches](/wiki/St._Mary%27s_Church%2C_L%C3%BCbeck \"St. Mary's Church, Lübeck\") architectural influence on the entire region.",
"The *Fürstenhof*, a richly decorated specimen of early Italian [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\") style was once a [ducal](/wiki/Duke \"Duke\") residence and served later as the seat of the [municipal](/wiki/Municipality \"Municipality\") authorities. Built from 1552 to 1565, it was restored from 1877 to 1879\\. The *Old School*, dating from about 1300, has not been restored yet. The town hall, rebuilt in 1829, houses a gallery of paintings. The Fine Arts Municipal Gallery *Baumhaus* is located in the old harbour area.",
""
] |
African National Congress in exile
----------------------------------
Because MK and ANC had been banned by the apartheid government, Loots joined them in exile, initially in Tanzania. Between 1964 and 1973, he received several bouts of military training in the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union"), in [Odessa](/wiki/Odesa "Odesa"), [Kishinev](/wiki/Kishinev "Kishinev"), and [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow"). During this period, as an MK cadre, he participated in the [Wankie Campaign](/wiki/Operation_Nickel "Operation Nickel") of 1967, a joint operation with the [Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army](/wiki/Zimbabwe_People%27s_Revolutionary_Army "Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army") and MK's first major military engagement. His *[nom de guerre](/wiki/Nom-de-guerre "Nom-de-guerre")* was James Stuart.
Over the next two decades, Loots held several posts in the ANC and MK. The ANC later described him as "an all\-rounder" and as "a link between the older and younger generations" in the ANC. He spent time as secretary in the office of ANC President [Oliver Tambo](/wiki/Oliver_Tambo "Oliver Tambo") and as head of political education in [Lusaka, Zambia](/wiki/Lusaka%2C_Zambia "Lusaka, Zambia"); in the latter capacity he was involved in training MK recruits and also oversaw the ANC's library and archives.
From 1979 to 1983, Loots was the ANC's chief representative in Madagascar. He returned to Lusaka headquarters in 1983 shortly after a restructuring of the ANC's internal hierarchy, and he was appointed as secretary of the External Coordinating Committee, newly established by the ANC's [National Executive Committee](/wiki/National_Executive_Committee_of_the_African_National_Congress "National Executive Committee of the African National Congress") (NEC) to coordinate between political and military aspects of ANC actions outside South Africa. The committee was chaired by [Alfred Nzo](/wiki/Alfred_Nzo "Alfred Nzo") and also included [Thabo Mbeki](/wiki/Thabo_Mbeki "Thabo Mbeki") and [Johnny Makhathini](/wiki/Johnny_Makhathini "Johnny Makhathini").{{Cite book \|last\=African National Congress \|url\=https://www.justice.gov.za/trc/hrvtrans/submit/anc2\.htm\#Appendix%201 \|title\=Further submissions and responses by the African National Congress to questions raised by the Commission for Truth and Reconciliation \|publisher\=Department of Justice \|year\=1997 \|location\=Pretoria \|chapter\=Appendix: ANC structures and personnel}}
### Stuart Commission of Inquiry: 1984
In December 1983, a [mutiny](/wiki/Mutiny "Mutiny"), known as *[Mkatashinga](/wiki/History_of_the_African_National_Congress "History of the African National Congress")*, broke out MK's camp at [Viana, Angola](/wiki/Viana%2C_Luanda "Viana, Luanda"). Protesting rank\-and\-file objected primarily to the conduct of *Mbokodo*, the famously brutal internal security wing of the ANC's [Department of National Security and Intelligence](/wiki/Department_of_National_Intelligence_and_Security_%28South_Africa%29 "Department of National Intelligence and Security (South Africa)") (NAT). They also objected to their deployment in the [Angolan Civil War](/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War "Angolan Civil War") and demanded to be sent to South Africa to fight the apartheid state.{{Cite journal \|last\=Zantsi \|first\=Luvuyo \|date\=2019 \|title\=Mkatashinga: Narratives of the Mutiny in ANC Camps in Angola (1983/84\) \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10\.13169/jglobfaul.6\.1\.0090 \|url\-status\=live \|journal\=Journal of Global Faultlines \|volume\=6 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=90–101 \|doi\=10\.13169/jglobfaul.6\.1\.0090 \|issn\=2397\-7825 \|jstor\=10\.13169/jglobfaul.6\.1\.0090 \|s2cid\=211652443 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211227161356/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10\.13169/jglobfaul.6\.1\.0090 \|archive\-date\=27 December 2021 \|access\-date\=27 December 2021}} ANC President Tambo appointed Loots to chair an internal commission of inquiry to investigate the grievances of MK recruits and the cause of the mutinies. Other members of the commission were [Aziz Pahad](/wiki/Aziz_Pahad "Aziz Pahad"), [Sizakele Sigxashe](/wiki/Sizakele_Sigxashe "Sizakele Sigxashe"), and Mtu Jwili.
Named the Commission of Inquiry into Recent Developments in the People's Republic of Angola and commonly known as the Stuart Commission (after Loots's *nom de guerre*), the commission presented its report to the NEC in March 1984\. The so\-called Stuart Report deviated from the position of the incumbent MK leadership, dismissing NAT's contention that the mutinies had been "an organised act of conspiracy" by "enemy agents". Instead, the report highlighted poor conditions in MK camps, particularly due to overzealous disciplinarians in NAT and encouraged by a lack of clarity in the ANC's internal hierarchy and policies.
The Stuart Report was not made public until 1993,{{Cite journal \|last\=Ellis \|first\=Stephen \|date\=1994 \|title\=Mbokodo: Security in ANC Camps, 1961\-1990 \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/723845 \|url\-status\=live \|journal\=African Affairs \|volume\=93 \|issue\=371 \|pages\=279–298 \|doi\=10\.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098712 \|issn\=0001\-9909 \|jstor\=723845 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211227162526/https://www.jstor.org/stable/723845 \|archive\-date\=27 December 2021 \|access\-date\=27 December 2021 \|hdl\-access\=free \|hdl\=1887/9075}}{{Citation \|last\=MacMillan \|first\=Hugh \|title\=Shishita: A Crisis in the ANC in Exile in Zambia, 1980–81 \|date\=2012 \|url\=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/one\-hundred\-years\-of\-the\-anc/shishita\-a\-crisis\-in\-the\-anc\-in\-exile\-in\-zambia\-1980811/4E380C5A3F48CEDA7312E7D6FB1E5C7A \|work\=One Hundred Years of the ANC: Debating Liberation Histories Today \|pages\=233–254 \|access\-date\=27 December 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231044514/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/one\-hundred\-years\-of\-the\-anc/shishita\-a\-crisis\-in\-the\-anc\-in\-exile\-in\-zambia\-1980811/4E380C5A3F48CEDA7312E7D6FB1E5C7A \|url\-status\=live \|publisher\=Wits University Press \|isbn\=978\-1\-86814\-600\-0 \|archive\-date\=31 December 2021}}. but it won Stuart a reputation as "probably the most important defender of democratic accountability in the leadership of the ANC in exile". Some observers believed that the report saved the lives of mutineers who were awaiting [military tribunals](/wiki/Military_tribunals "Military tribunals") and may otherwise have faced summary execution.
### Kabwe Conference and aftermath: 1985–1990
The recommendations of the Stuart Commission were discussed by the party in 1985 at a consultative conference in [Kabwe, Zambia](/wiki/Kabwe "Kabwe"), the party's first broad meeting since the 1969 [Morogoro Conference](/wiki/Morogoro_Conference "Morogoro Conference"). Several recommendations were adopted, included an overhaul of NAT, and the ANC leadership admitted a certain degree of fault.
Attendees at the Kabwe conference elected Loots to the 28\-member NEC of the ANC, where he served until 1990\. In addition, soon after the conference, Loots was appointed to a three\-year term as chairperson of the ANC's newly established National People's Tribunal. In line with the Stuart Commission's recommendations, the tribunal was an independent quasi\-judicial body that was tasked with recommending sentences in disciplinary cases investigated by NAT. He also continued as secretary of the External Coordinating Committee until it was disbanded in 1990, and in September 1985,{{Cite news \|date\=1985\-09\-14 \|title\=South Africans and top rebels meet in Zambia \|language\=en\-US \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/09/14/world/south\-africans\-and\-top\-rebels\-meet\-in\-zambia.html \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-17 \|issn\=0362\-4331}} he was a member of the ANC's delegation to an early meeting with eminent [white South Africans](/wiki/White_South_Africans "White South Africans") in preparation for [negotiations to end apartheid](/wiki/Negotiations_to_end_apartheid_in_South_Africa "Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa").
|
[
"African National Congress in exile\n----------------------------------",
"Because MK and ANC had been banned by the apartheid government, Loots joined them in exile, initially in Tanzania. Between 1964 and 1973, he received several bouts of military training in the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\"), in [Odessa](/wiki/Odesa \"Odesa\"), [Kishinev](/wiki/Kishinev \"Kishinev\"), and [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\"). During this period, as an MK cadre, he participated in the [Wankie Campaign](/wiki/Operation_Nickel \"Operation Nickel\") of 1967, a joint operation with the [Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army](/wiki/Zimbabwe_People%27s_Revolutionary_Army \"Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army\") and MK's first major military engagement. His *[nom de guerre](/wiki/Nom-de-guerre \"Nom-de-guerre\")* was James Stuart.",
"Over the next two decades, Loots held several posts in the ANC and MK. The ANC later described him as \"an all\\-rounder\" and as \"a link between the older and younger generations\" in the ANC. He spent time as secretary in the office of ANC President [Oliver Tambo](/wiki/Oliver_Tambo \"Oliver Tambo\") and as head of political education in [Lusaka, Zambia](/wiki/Lusaka%2C_Zambia \"Lusaka, Zambia\"); in the latter capacity he was involved in training MK recruits and also oversaw the ANC's library and archives.",
"From 1979 to 1983, Loots was the ANC's chief representative in Madagascar. He returned to Lusaka headquarters in 1983 shortly after a restructuring of the ANC's internal hierarchy, and he was appointed as secretary of the External Coordinating Committee, newly established by the ANC's [National Executive Committee](/wiki/National_Executive_Committee_of_the_African_National_Congress \"National Executive Committee of the African National Congress\") (NEC) to coordinate between political and military aspects of ANC actions outside South Africa. The committee was chaired by [Alfred Nzo](/wiki/Alfred_Nzo \"Alfred Nzo\") and also included [Thabo Mbeki](/wiki/Thabo_Mbeki \"Thabo Mbeki\") and [Johnny Makhathini](/wiki/Johnny_Makhathini \"Johnny Makhathini\").{{Cite book \\|last\\=African National Congress \\|url\\=https://www.justice.gov.za/trc/hrvtrans/submit/anc2\\.htm\\#Appendix%201 \\|title\\=Further submissions and responses by the African National Congress to questions raised by the Commission for Truth and Reconciliation \\|publisher\\=Department of Justice \\|year\\=1997 \\|location\\=Pretoria \\|chapter\\=Appendix: ANC structures and personnel}}",
"### Stuart Commission of Inquiry: 1984",
"In December 1983, a [mutiny](/wiki/Mutiny \"Mutiny\"), known as *[Mkatashinga](/wiki/History_of_the_African_National_Congress \"History of the African National Congress\")*, broke out MK's camp at [Viana, Angola](/wiki/Viana%2C_Luanda \"Viana, Luanda\"). Protesting rank\\-and\\-file objected primarily to the conduct of *Mbokodo*, the famously brutal internal security wing of the ANC's [Department of National Security and Intelligence](/wiki/Department_of_National_Intelligence_and_Security_%28South_Africa%29 \"Department of National Intelligence and Security (South Africa)\") (NAT). They also objected to their deployment in the [Angolan Civil War](/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War \"Angolan Civil War\") and demanded to be sent to South Africa to fight the apartheid state.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Zantsi \\|first\\=Luvuyo \\|date\\=2019 \\|title\\=Mkatashinga: Narratives of the Mutiny in ANC Camps in Angola (1983/84\\) \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10\\.13169/jglobfaul.6\\.1\\.0090 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|journal\\=Journal of Global Faultlines \\|volume\\=6 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=90–101 \\|doi\\=10\\.13169/jglobfaul.6\\.1\\.0090 \\|issn\\=2397\\-7825 \\|jstor\\=10\\.13169/jglobfaul.6\\.1\\.0090 \\|s2cid\\=211652443 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211227161356/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10\\.13169/jglobfaul.6\\.1\\.0090 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 December 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=27 December 2021}} ANC President Tambo appointed Loots to chair an internal commission of inquiry to investigate the grievances of MK recruits and the cause of the mutinies. Other members of the commission were [Aziz Pahad](/wiki/Aziz_Pahad \"Aziz Pahad\"), [Sizakele Sigxashe](/wiki/Sizakele_Sigxashe \"Sizakele Sigxashe\"), and Mtu Jwili.",
"Named the Commission of Inquiry into Recent Developments in the People's Republic of Angola and commonly known as the Stuart Commission (after Loots's *nom de guerre*), the commission presented its report to the NEC in March 1984\\. The so\\-called Stuart Report deviated from the position of the incumbent MK leadership, dismissing NAT's contention that the mutinies had been \"an organised act of conspiracy\" by \"enemy agents\". Instead, the report highlighted poor conditions in MK camps, particularly due to overzealous disciplinarians in NAT and encouraged by a lack of clarity in the ANC's internal hierarchy and policies.",
"The Stuart Report was not made public until 1993,{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Ellis \\|first\\=Stephen \\|date\\=1994 \\|title\\=Mbokodo: Security in ANC Camps, 1961\\-1990 \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/723845 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|journal\\=African Affairs \\|volume\\=93 \\|issue\\=371 \\|pages\\=279–298 \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098712 \\|issn\\=0001\\-9909 \\|jstor\\=723845 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211227162526/https://www.jstor.org/stable/723845 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 December 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=27 December 2021 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free \\|hdl\\=1887/9075}}{{Citation \\|last\\=MacMillan \\|first\\=Hugh \\|title\\=Shishita: A Crisis in the ANC in Exile in Zambia, 1980–81 \\|date\\=2012 \\|url\\=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/one\\-hundred\\-years\\-of\\-the\\-anc/shishita\\-a\\-crisis\\-in\\-the\\-anc\\-in\\-exile\\-in\\-zambia\\-1980811/4E380C5A3F48CEDA7312E7D6FB1E5C7A \\|work\\=One Hundred Years of the ANC: Debating Liberation Histories Today \\|pages\\=233–254 \\|access\\-date\\=27 December 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231044514/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/one\\-hundred\\-years\\-of\\-the\\-anc/shishita\\-a\\-crisis\\-in\\-the\\-anc\\-in\\-exile\\-in\\-zambia\\-1980811/4E380C5A3F48CEDA7312E7D6FB1E5C7A \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|publisher\\=Wits University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-86814\\-600\\-0 \\|archive\\-date\\=31 December 2021}}. but it won Stuart a reputation as \"probably the most important defender of democratic accountability in the leadership of the ANC in exile\". Some observers believed that the report saved the lives of mutineers who were awaiting [military tribunals](/wiki/Military_tribunals \"Military tribunals\") and may otherwise have faced summary execution.",
"### Kabwe Conference and aftermath: 1985–1990",
"The recommendations of the Stuart Commission were discussed by the party in 1985 at a consultative conference in [Kabwe, Zambia](/wiki/Kabwe \"Kabwe\"), the party's first broad meeting since the 1969 [Morogoro Conference](/wiki/Morogoro_Conference \"Morogoro Conference\"). Several recommendations were adopted, included an overhaul of NAT, and the ANC leadership admitted a certain degree of fault.",
"Attendees at the Kabwe conference elected Loots to the 28\\-member NEC of the ANC, where he served until 1990\\. In addition, soon after the conference, Loots was appointed to a three\\-year term as chairperson of the ANC's newly established National People's Tribunal. In line with the Stuart Commission's recommendations, the tribunal was an independent quasi\\-judicial body that was tasked with recommending sentences in disciplinary cases investigated by NAT. He also continued as secretary of the External Coordinating Committee until it was disbanded in 1990, and in September 1985,{{Cite news \\|date\\=1985\\-09\\-14 \\|title\\=South Africans and top rebels meet in Zambia \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/09/14/world/south\\-africans\\-and\\-top\\-rebels\\-meet\\-in\\-zambia.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-17 \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}} he was a member of the ANC's delegation to an early meeting with eminent [white South Africans](/wiki/White_South_Africans \"White South Africans\") in preparation for [negotiations to end apartheid](/wiki/Negotiations_to_end_apartheid_in_South_Africa \"Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa\").",
""
] |
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